Archaeological Excavations at the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground in Uxbridge, Massachusetts 9780860547129, 9781407348612
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English Pages [396] Year 1991
Front Cover
Copyright
Contents
Abstract
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
Chapter One: The Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground Project
Chapter Two: Archaeological Context
Chapter Three: The Uxbridge Poor Farm in the Documentary Record
Chapter Four: Catalog of Graves
Chapter Five: Osteological Analysis
Chapter Six: The Osteology of the Uxbridge Paupers
Chapter Seven: Artifacts From the Almshouse Burial Ground
Chapter Eight: Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendix One
Appendix Two
Appendix Three
Appendix Four
Index
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Archaeological Excavations at the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground in Uxbridge Massachusetts Edited by
Ricardo J. Elia and Al B. Wesolowsky
BAR International Series 564 1991
Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 564 Archaeological Excavations at the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground in Uxbridge, Massachusetts © The Trustees of Boston University 1991 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547129 paperback ISBN 9781407348612 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547129 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1991. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.
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Contents iv
Abstract List of Figures List of Tables Preface Chapter 1
V
xi xiii
The Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground Project
1
Ricardo J. Elia Chapter 2
Archaeological Context
12
Ricardo J. Elia Chapter 3
The Uxbridge Poor Farm in the Documentary
Record
40
Lauren J. Cook Chapter 4
Catalog of Graves
82
Ricardo J. Elia and Al B. Wesolowsky Chapter 5
Osteological Analysis
148
Al B. Wesolowsky Chapter 6
The Osteology of the Uxbridge Paupers
230
Al B. Wesolowsky Chapter 7
Artifacts From the Almshouse Burial Ground Edward L. Bell
254
Chapter 8
Conclusions
284
and Recommendations
Ricardo J. Elia
299
References Appendix 1 Suspected Graves 1-3
320
Ricardo J. Elia Appendix 2 Prosopography
of Possible Poor Farm Interments
331
Lauren J. Cook Appendix 3 Osteometric Tables
345
Al B. Wesolowsky Appendix 4 Analysis of Coffin Wood
370
Julie Hansen Index
376
iii
Abstract During May and June 1985, the Office of Public Archaeology at Boston University conducted archaeolo~cal testing and excavations at a 19th-century burial ground and three suspected Indian grave sites in Uxbridge, Massachusetts. The project was undertaken for the Massachusetts Department of Public Works, and was conducted under special archaeological permit no. 675 from the Massachusetts State Archaeologist. The cemetery and three suspected Indian burial sites were located within land acquired by the state for the proposed Route 146 highway project. Archaeological testing at the three suspected Indian burial sites revealed no evidence of human burial or of any significant archaeological resources. The 19th-century cemetery, which deed research indicated was the burial ground of the Uxbridge Almshouse (1831-1872), was completely excavated. A total of 32 individuals in 31 graves was removed from the site. Subsequent stripping of the site with a gradall produced no evidence of additional graves. Analysis of the burials from the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground included historical and documentary research, detailed osteological examination of the human remains, analysis of the artifacts recovered from the graves, and identification of coffin wood samples for each grave.
iv
List of Figures 1
U.S.G.S. topographical map showing location of site
2
2
Plan of Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground and three suspected grave sites in Uxbridge, Massachusetts
3
View of Almshouse Burial Ground, showing gravestones in Row 1 before excavation, looking southwest
6
Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground: topographical plan showing gravestones visible before excavation
13
View of gravestones in Row 1, before excavation, looking west
15
View of top of grave pit of Grave 27, with the headstone in place
16
7
Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground: plan of grave pits
17
8
Grave 2: headstone
20
9
Grave 7: headstone
21
10a
Uxbridge gravestones (Graves 1, 2, 3)
22
1(1> Uxbridge gravestones (Graves 4, 5, 6)
23
10c
Uxbridge gravestones (Graves 7, 8, 9, 10)
24
10d
Uxbridge gravestones (Graves 13, 15, 18)
25
3
4
5
6
lOe Uxbridge gravestones (Graves 22, 23, 24, 27)
26
11
Grave 3: headstone
28
12
Grave 8: headstone
29
13
Grave 14: top of coffin exposed
31
14
Grave 30: coffin lid exposed
32
15
Grave 16: skeleton exposed
33
16
Grave 11: skeleton exposed
34
17
Nipmuck chief Wise Owl observes as gradall strips almshouse burial ground site
36
Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground: plan of graves
37
18
V
19
Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground: plan of coffins
38
20
Location town farms/almshouses in Worcester County,
51
21
Detail of 1830 map showing project area
53
22
Detail of 1849 map showing location of almshouse
54
23
Detail of 1870 Beers atlas map showing town farm and location of almshouse burial ground
56
Average number of paupers supported in Uxbridge almshouse during year, 1837-1863
68
25
Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground: plan of graves
83
26
Grave 1
85
27
Grave 2
87
28
Grave 3
89
29
Grave 4
91
30
Grave 5
93
31
Grave 6
95
32
Grave 7
97
33
Grave 8
101
34
Grave 9
103
35
Grave 10
105
36
Grave 11
107
37
Grave 12
109
38
Grave 13
111
39
Grave 14
113
40
Grave 15
115
41
Grave 16
117
42
Grave 17
119
43
Grave 18
121
24
vi
44
Grave 19
123
45
Grave 20
125
46
Grave 21
127
47
Grave 22
129
48
Grave 23
131
49
Grave 24
133
50
Grave 25
135
51
Grave 26
137
52
Grave 27
139
53
Grave 28
141
54
Grave 29
143
55
Grave 30
145
56
Grave 31
147
57
Grave 1: cranium, anterior view
150
58
Grave 1: cranium, left lateral view
150
59
Grave 1: mandible occlusal view
151
60
Grave 1: mandible, right lateral view of right ascending ramus
151
61
Grave 4: cranium, anterior view
155
62
Grave 4: cranium, left lateral view
155
63
Grave 4: sacrum, anterior view
156
64
Grave 7: right humerus, distal end, posterior view
161
65
Grave 8: proximal femora, posterior view
164
66
Grave 8: acetabulae of the innominata, inferior view
164
67
Grave 9: right upper 1st (permanent) molar
166
68
Grave 10: cranium less calvaria, anterior view
167
69
Grave 10: calvaria, right lateral view
168
vii
70
Grave 10: cranium less calvaria, right lateral view
169
71
Grave 10: vertical view of cranium less
170
72
Grave 10: sacrum, posterior view
172
73
Grave 10: medial ends of the clavicles
172
74
Grave 12: cranium, anterior view
176
75
Grave 12: cranium, left lateral view
176
76
Grave 12: maxillary dentition, occlusal view
177
77
Grave 13: cranium, anterior view
179
78
Grave 13: cranium, left lateral view
179
79
Grave 14: cranium , left lateral view
183
80
Grave 14: cranium, anterior view
183
81
Grave 14: maxillary dentition, lingual view
185
82
Grave 15: cranium, anterior view
186
83
Grave 15: cranium, right lateral view
186
84
Grave 16: cranium, anterior view
189
85
Grave 16: cranium, right lateral view
189
86
Grave 16: 12th thoracic, 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae, anterior view
191
87
Grave 16: distal left forearm, anterior view
191
88
Grave 17: cranium, anterior view
194
89
Grave 17: cranium, left lateral view
194
90
Grave 17: right innominate, lateral view
196
91
Grave 17: left innominate, lateral view
196
92
Grave 17: proximal humeri, anterior view
198
93
Grave 18: left knee, posterior view
201
94
Grave 20: cranium, anterior view
204
95
Grave 20: cranium, left lateral view
204
viii
96
Grave 22: the remain, cancellous (interior) side
207
97
Grave 23: cranium, anterior view
209
98
Grave 23: cranium, left lateral view
209
99
Grave 23: mandibular dentition, left front quarter, buccal view
211
100
Grave 24: cranium, anterior view
212
101
Grave 24: cranium, left lateral view
212
102
Grave 25: cranium, anterior view
214
103
Grave 25: cranium, left lateral view
214
104
Grave 26: cranium, anterior view
217
105
Grave 26: cranium, left lateral view
217
106
Grave 27A: cranium, anterior view
221
107
Grave 27A: cranium, left lateral view
221
108
Grave 29: cranium, anterior view
224
109
Grave 29: cranium, left lateral view
224
110
Grave 30: cranium, anterior view
227
111
Grave 30: cranium, left lateral view
227
112
Grave 31: cranium, anterior view
229
113
Grave 31: cranium, right lateral view
229
114
Discriminant function plots for Uxbridge crania; females in top plot, males in bottom
242
115
Reconstruction of Uxbridge coffin lid types
266
116
Coffin hinge types from Uxbridge
267
117
Coffin hinges illustrated in 19th-century hardware catalogs
269
118
Cut nail, wood screws and coffin screws from Uxbridge
270
119
Coffin screws illustrated in 19th-century hardware catalogs
272
120
Coffin tack types from Uxbridge
273
ix
121
Coffin tacks illustrated in 19th-century hardware catalogs
274
122
Silver-plated studs and trunk rivets illustrated in 19th-century trade catalogs
276
Hook-and-eye fastener and possible lining tacks from Uxbridge
278
Lining tacks illustrated in the Sargent and Company (1865: 154) catalog
278
125
Buckle and buttons from Uxbridge
282
126
View of Suspected Grave 1, looking southwest
322
127
Suspected Grave 1: location of test units
323
128
Suspected Grave 1: plan (a) and profile (b)
324
129
View of Suspected Grave 2, looking southwest
325
130
Suspected Grave 2: plans (a, b) and profile (c)
326
131
View of Suspected Grave 3, looking northeasterly
329
132
Suspected Grave 3: plan (a) and profile (b)
330
133
Wood adhering to coffin hinges
371
134
Scanning electron microscope photograph of wood sample (Pinussp.) from coffin of Grave 27 at 80x
372
Scanning electron microscope photograph of wood sample (Liriodendron tulipifera) from Grave 4 at 50x
372
Scanning electron microscope photograph of wood sample (Liriodendron tulipifera) from Grave 4 at 800x
373
123
124
135
136
X
List of Tables 1
Summary of grave markers
19
2
Elevations of Uxbridge Almshouse graves
39
3
Documentary coverage by year
42
4
Uxbridge committees relating to poor relief, 1830-1872
62
5
Distribution of committee assignments relating to poor relief
62
6
Family status in Uxbridge outdoor relief cases , 1859- 1872
67
7
Family status of almshouse paupers abstracted from census schedules
67
8
Uxbridge Almshouse paupers, by gender and age
69
9
Food available for consumption at the Uxbridge Almshouse, 1838- 1839 fiscal year
75
Nutritional value of food available for consumption at the Uxbridge Almshouse, 1838-1839 fiscal year
76
Estimated average daily nutritional intake, at the Uxbridge Almshouse, 1838- 1839 fiscal year
77
12
Causes of death for selected Uxbridge paupers, 1831- 1872
79
13
Distribution of sex and age in the Uxbridge series
232
14
Comparisons of mortality profiles of Uxbridge with other series from historical cemeteries
232
Demographic comparisons of adults at Uxbridge, Highland Park, and Cedar Grove
235
16
Stature statistics for the Uxbridge series
239
17
Comparisons of mean adult stature for Uxbridge and other, largely 19th century, series
240
18
Brachial and crural indices for Uxbridge and other series
241
19
Comparison of osteological and historical data for Uxbridge children
288
Comparison of osteological and historical data for Uxbridge adult males
289
10
11
15
20
xi
21
Comparison of osteological and historical data for Uxbridge adult females
290
22
Catalog of artifacts from the suspected grave sites
327
23
Summary of documented Uxbridge paupers
331
24
Cranial osteometry
346
25
Postcranial osteometry
353
26
Observations on adult dentition
365
27
Identification of coffin wood
374
xii
Preface The excavation and analysis of the Uxbridge Almhsouse Burial Ground involved the expertise, assistance, and goodwill of many people. Few issues in American archaeology today are as emotionally (and politically) charged as the excavation of human burials, especially when that excavation is occasioned not by an archaeological research design but by the threat of imminent highway construction. Making matters even more sensitive, in the Uxbridge case, was the fact that the highway project was opposed by some individuals, and there was a belief among the local Native Americans that the cemetery in question might, in fact, be an Indian burial ground. Despite the atmosphere of controversy and suspicion that seemed to surround the project at its beginning, however, the excavation proved to be a successful interaction of divergent world views and attitudes. Much of the success of the excavation was the result of the friendliness and cooperation displayed by the Nipmuck Indians who were our constant observers at the site, and, ultimately, became our friends. Chief Wise Owl, White Bear, and Star were at the site each day; although they began as observers, and, keeping mind that they feared that the graves contained the remains of their ancestors, doubtless harboring some suspicions about the "scientists" who were coming to exhume the graves, they soon became our friends and allies in the project. In fact, they regularly helped with site security, and Star, in particular, participated in the sifting of soil excavated from the grave pits. Once the burial ground was positively identified as the town almshouse cemetery, instead of an Indian burial ground, and the public controvery died down, visitors to the site became fewer, but the Indians never failed to be present, and two-Chief Wise Owl and White Bear-spent all day, every day, with the archaeological team during the fieldwork. The Indians, of course were aware that, because the burial ground contained the town's paupers, it was possible that there were destitute Indians among those who were buried at the site. In fact, the osteological analysis concluded that one elderly adult male, from Grave 16, was likely of Indian extraction, and it is recommended that the remains of that individual be returned to the Indians for reburial. Another pauper described as an Indian-a 28 year-old man named John Wilber-is known from the historical records. Staff members of the Massachusetts Department of Public Works (MDPW), which sponsored the project, were also very helpful throughout the excavations. James Elliott and John Rempelakis, in particular, made every effort to provide logistical support to the project team, including expediting the contractual details and having a chain-link fence set up around the burial ground site. Many members of the press visited the site during the excavation, including Ginger Howe of The Call (Woonsocket, R.I.), who reported on our work almost daily. Her coverage, in particular, was well balanced and informative, and her friendliness and sensitivity to our archaeological concerns and to the feelings of the Nipmuck Indians, was noted and appreciated by all. I also wish to thank Brona Simon, the state archaeologist, whose thoughtful initial review of the project under the provisions of the Massachusetts Unmarked Burial Law made an archaeological investigation of the site possible. She also reviewed a draft version of this report and offered several useful comments. Special thanks go to the OP A project team, which worked long hours each day in order to complete the excavation under a tight scedule. Al B. Wesolowsky was the project's osteologist; he conducted the osteological field protocol and removed the skeletal materials from their graves. More than that, however, he shared his archaeological expertise with the principal investigator, and his presence on the site was a benefit to all-archaeologists and Indians alike.
xiii
Frederick Hemans prepared the topographical survey of the site, made measured drawings of many of the graves, and did much of the photography. Donald Jones also made measured drawings of the graves, and Daniel Finamore served as photographer after Hemans left the site. The excavation team consisted of Deborah Adams, Keith Adams, William Barnett, Lauren Cook, Daniel Finamore, Douglas George, Donald Jones, Gerald Macomber, Brendan McDermott, and Alan Strauss. Lauren Cook conducted extensive historical and documentary research for the project. The osteological analysis was conducted by Al B. Wesolowsky; Nicole Missio assisted that effort. Edward Bell conducted the analysis of the artifacts recovered from the graves. Dr. Julie Hansen identified the coffin wood. Daniel Finamore identified the type of stone of each grave marker. Graphics for the report were prepared by Gerald Macomber and Brendan McDermott; Daniel Finamore who drew the grave markers; and Eliza McClenan, who prepared photostats of some of the figures. Richard Kanaski photographed all the osteological and artifactual samples. Administrative support for the project was provided by Lillian Zabarsky, Alice Cordella, Barbara Nachtigall, Mary Dieter , and David Besozzi. Brendan McDermott and Jack P. Dessel proofread the manuscript. Thanks is also due to Professor William Burnett Harvey, the University's general counsel, who helped us negotiate the complex maze of legal issues that confronted the project from its beginning; and to Dolores Markey, of the University 's Office of Sponsored Research, who managed the administration of the contract. Special thanks are owed to Sara Mascia, David Besozzi, and Teresa Mariaca, who worked long and hard producing the final version of the report. David Besozzi, in addition to wordprocessing, prepared the captions for the graphics. The efforts of Sara Mascia, in particular, are gratefully acknowledged; she word-processed the entire first draft of the report, and worked diligently until it reached its final form. Finally, I would like to express my appreciation to my three colleagues from Boston University-Wesolowsky, Bell, and Cook-the "Uxbridge Associates" who shared with me the challenging task of studying the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground. Their dedication, perseverance, and friendship is gratefully acknowledged. Ricardo J. Elia Principal Investigator
xiv
Chapter
One
The Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground Project by Ricardo J.Elia Introduction This report presents the results of the excavation and analysis of the Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground, a 19th-century poor farm cemetery in Uxbridge, Massachusetts. The cemetery was in use as early as 1831, the year the town acquired the property on which the burial ground is located, and was abandoned sometime after 1872, when the poor farm property was sold. The town apparently then let the cemetery fall derelict and it lay forgotten until 1981 or 1982 when it was learned that the site lay in the middle of the right-of-way for a state highway that was by then in the advanced stages of design planning. Some local residents and members of the local Indian tribe then expressed concern that the site contained Indian burials. After consultation among the Massachusetts Department of Public Works, the State Archaeologist, and the Commission on Indian Affairs, the site was excavated under the provisions of the Massachusetts Unmarked Burial Law of 1983, a statute that regulates the treatment of abandoned grave sites. The Uxbridge Almshouse Burial Ground, which has now been completely removed, was located in the Ironstone section of Uxbridge, in the southeast corner of the town (Fig. 1). Uxbridge itself is situated in southeastern Worcester County, in the central uplands of Massachusetts. The town lies within the valley of the Blackstone River, which runs in a southeasterly direction between Worcester, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island . The principal highway between Worcester and Providence, Route 146, runs through Uxbridge south of, and generally parallel to, the Blackstone River. The almshouse cemetery was located in a wooded area ca. 350 ft (ca. 107 m) west of the southbound lane of former Route 146 (Fig. 2); it was the proposed relocation of the Route 146 highway that occasiqned the discovery and subsequent excavation of the burial ground. Like much of Worcester County, the Uxbridge area is characterized by irregular and uneven .topography. The underlying bedrock of the area consists of granite, which was an important source of economic activity to the inhabitants of southeastern Worcester County, as well as to those of the neighboring towns of Rhode Island, during the 19th century (MHC 1985: 275). Local evidence of what was likely small-scale granite quarrying comes from the cemetery site itself, where many of the stone grave markers were made of granite, and several bore quarry marks. The land immediately west of the burial ground consists of an extensive quarrying operation for sand and gravel; additional large gravel pits are located nearby (see Fig. 1). The extraction of sand from the area around the almshouse cemetery has been going on for over a century. Inmates of the poor farm are known to have quarried sand on the farm's property for sale (Town Reports 1855-1868), and the Boston, Hartford, & Erie Railroad Company was granted a privilege to extract sand from the property south of the railroad, which was located very near the cemetery, beginning in 1866 (Town Meetings, etc. 5: 359,361; Town Reports 1870: 14). At the time of the archaeological fieldwork, the second-growth woods in the vicinity of the cemetery showed numerous signs of earth moving activities that produced an uneven ground surface marked by mounds and depressions. Just beyond the northern edge of the almshouse
1
SCALE 1:25 000
I
0
I 1000
0 I E--3
2000
1000
E--3
.5 E--3
5000
0 E--3
CONTOUR NATIONAL
4000
3000
6000
7000 FEET 1 KILOMETER
E--3
INTERVAL
GEODETIC
VERTICAL
10 FEET DATUM OF 1929
* "' \~ GN
BLACKSTONE, MASS.-R.
14Y.,·
258 MILS
N4200-W7130/7.5 p
C2J
Grave 1 Location: Northernmost grave in Row 1, adjacent to Grave 11. Grave Markers: Granite headstone and footstone with quarry drill marks (see Fig. 10a). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. 1. 1.73 m; max. w. 0.46 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit : 278.3 ft; top of coffin: 275.0 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.6 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.7 ft. 30 fragments of clear glass forming a rectangular view plate (mended dimensions 35.6 x 15.2 cm) over the head of the deceased; 2 white metal hinges ; 16 coffin screws ; 29 coffin tacks; 20 iron nails and nail fragments. Well preserved skeleton of an adult female, ca. 30 years of age at the time of death.
Position: The elbows were flexed at ca. 45° and the palms, left atop right, would have rested on the lower abdomen (Fig. 26). Analysis:
This woman stood approximately 5 ft 4 in (162.45 cm) tall. There was no skeletal evidence of arthritis or other joint disease nor were any caries or abscesses present in her teeth. The right side of the lower jaw, however, seems to have sustained an incomplete (greenstick) fracture near where it would join the cranium; this fracture occurred some time prior to death, since a sort of false joint was developing at the line of the break. Although this condition would surely have affected this person's ability to chew food, it is unlikely that it would have been a direct cause of death.
84
GLASS VIEW PLATE FRAGMENTS
~~Cl
iti) ~
HINGE
-
SCREW
-~ l 0
~~ \
; !
\
\
J
\
t
"
0
.
c:, \)
00
llllf
11
Figure 26. Grave 1. Note: the scale of Figs. 26-56 is 1:10.
85
Grave 2 Location: Row 1, between Graves 3 and 11. Grave Markers: Granite headstone with quarry drill marks; unmodified schist fieldstone used as footstone (see Figs. 8, 10a). Coffin: Irregular coffin, possibly made of chestnut wood (max. I. 0.66 m; max. w. 0.20 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 278.1 ft; top of coffin: 275.4 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.8 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.3 ft. 2 white metal coffin screws; 2 coffin tacks; 1 white metal lining tack (?); 1 straight pin fragment; 4 iron nails or nail fragments. Very poorly preserved skeleton of a neonate (very young infant) who died at an age between birth and six months. The sex could not be evaluated.
Position: The exact position of the hands could not be determined but the arms were slightly akimbo alongside the ribs and the legs were slightly bowed (Fig. 27). A similar "arrangement" was observed for other skeletons of infants at Uxbridge, and surely results from the natural, relaxed position of an infant's corpse. Analysis:
The preservation of the skeleton was so poor, and the individual so young, that no useful observations could be made.
86
FABRIC
Figure 27. Grave 2.
87
Grave 3 Location: Row 1, between Graves 2 and 4. Grave Markers: Roughly dressed headstone with "II" carved on east-facing side (see Fig. 11); unmodified schist fieldstone used as footstone (See Fig. 10a).
Coffin:
Elevations:
Artifacts: Demography:
Position:
Analysis:
Hexagonal coffin made of yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 0.61 m; max . w. 0.22 m). Top of grave pit: 277.7 ft; top of coffin: 275.1 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.7 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.0 ft. 9 coffin tacks; 23 iron nail fragments; 2 straight pins. Poorly preserved skeleton of an infant who died at an age between birth and six months. The sex could not be evaluated. The arms were slightly akimbo alongside the ribs and the hands were near the waist (Fig. 28). From the knees down the legs were embedded in a mass of dark textile. The preservation of the skeleton was so poor, and the individual so young, that useful observations were precluded.
88
FABRIC
Figure 28. Grave 3.
89
Grave 4 Location: Row 1, between Graves 3 and 5. Grave Markers: Granite headstone with quarry drill marks; unmodified granite footstone (see Fig. 10b). Coffin: Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 1.64 m; max. w. 0.38 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 277.0 ft; top of coffin: 273.7 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.8 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 4.2 ft. 2 brass hinges; 7 white metal coffin screws; 51 iron nails and nail fragments; 1 iron tack; 1 copper lining tack(?); 1 straight pin fragment; 1 milk glass button; 5 mother-of-pearl buttons; 2 bone buttons. Well preserved skeleton of an adult female who was at least 40-50 years of age at the time of death.
Position: The elbows were flexed at ca. 90° so that the right palm rested on the lower left chest and the left palm atop the upper side of the right hip (Fig. 29). The position of the bones of the shoulder indicated that the coffin may have been slightly too narrow for that part of the corpse, and that the shoulders had to be "shrugged" slightly to fit the deceased into the coffin. This arrangement was noted in several of the Uxbridge burials. Analysis:
This woman stood approximately 5 ft 5 in (164.30 cm) tall. Her dental health was terrible, with extensive tooth loss before death, receding gums, caries, and large, active abscesses in her upper jaw. Most of her vertebrae showed signs of arthritis, with bony spurs growing out from their edges. The last (lowest) lumbar vertebra was fused to her sacrum, but this could be a developmental anomaly and not the direct result of bone disease. Heavy muscle attachments on the left humerus suggest an active life, and some small outgrowths on the thigh bones (femora) may indicate that she had a limp, or at least an odd gait.
90
figure 29. Grave 4.
91
Grave 5 Location: Row 1, between Graves 4 and 31. Grave Markers: Granite headstone and footstone with quarry drill marks (see Fig. 10b). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 0.79 m; max. w. 0.25 m). Elevations:
Artifacts: Demography:
Top of grave pit: 276.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.2 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.1 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.3 ft. 2 brass hinges; 8 white metal coffin screws; 8 iron nails. Poorly preserved skeleton of a child who died at between one and two years of age. No evaluation of sex was possible.
Position: The elbows were slightly flexed akimbo so that the hands would have rested upon the upper outside edges of the hips (Fig. 30). Analysis:
The relative youth of this child, and the poor preservation of the skeleton, precluded any significant observations.
92
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Figure 30. Grave 5.
93
Grave 6 Location: Row 1, between Graves 20 and 21. Grave Markers: Granite headstone with quarry drill marks (see Fig. 10b);
no footstone found. Coffin:
Pine coffin of indeterminate shape (max. 1. 1.87 m; max. w. 0.45 m).
Elevations: Top of grave pit: 274.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.0 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.1 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 2.3 ft. Artifacts: 2 iron wood screws; 33 iron nails and nail fragments; 3 milk glass buttons. Demography: Not very well preserved skeleton of an adult female, ca. 30-40 years of age at the time of death. Position: The elbows were flexed at ca. 45° so that the left palm would have rested atop the right forearm, and the right palm atop the left hip (Fig. 31). Analysis:
This woman was fairly tall, standing approximately 5 ft 9 in (175.38 cm), but suffered from poor dental health. Five teeth were lost before death from the upper jaw, one from the lower, and caries and an abscess showed that, had death not intervened, her dental misery would have continued. The left side of her cranium displayed some signs of what would have been a low-grade bone infection, possibly involving the scalp.
94
--
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Figur e3 1· Grave 6.
95
Grave 7 Location: Row 2, between Graves 8 and 14. Grave Markers: Granite tabular headstone; granite footstone with quarry drill marks (Figs. 9, 10c). Coffin: Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. 1. 1.72 m; max. w. 0.41 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 276.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.8 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.9 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.5 ft. 2 brass hinges; 4 iron wood screws; 22 iron nails and nail fragments; 1 iron tack; 1 brick fragment; 3 metal buttons. Poorly preserved skeleton of an adult female who died at an age between 40 and 50+ years.
Position: The elbows were flexed at 90° so that the forearms crossed the abdomen at right angles to the long axis of the body (Fig. 32). The forearms were parallel to one another, with the left slightly higher up on the trunk than the right. Analysis:
This woman stood approximately 5 ft 7.5 in (171.32 cm) and was one of the taller women in the Uxbridge series. As many as 20 teeth were lost before death, leaving her little more than her upper back teeth (molars) and her lower front teeth (incisors, canines, and some premolars). With the loss of so many teeth her gums had receded dreadfully, endangering her remaining teeth and making chewing an ineffident process. An opening in the bone of the right elbow may be the result of disease, but it is very difficult to diagnose. Some of the vertebrae display changes in the bone resembling Schmorl's nodes; these may indicate strenuous activity during life that eventually ruptured the intervertebral discs.
96
Figure 32. Grave 7.
97
Grave 8 Location: Row 2, between Graves 7 and 19. Grave Markers : Carved marble headstone in four joining pieces, with
red sandstone base (see Figs. 10c, 12). The base was found in situ; the headstone was found a few cm below the ground surface, lying with its carved face up ca. 2 m east of Grave 8. No footstone was found. Headstone inscription reads : MRS. NANCY ADAMS, A respectable colored woman. was born in Louisiana Mar . 311766 [di]ed in Uxbri[dge ] U]une [ ]
Grave 8 is the only grave in the Uxbridge series that was marked with a traditionally carved headstone, and therefore is the only grave for which the identity of the individual buried there is known. Nancy Adams was "removed" to the almshouse in 1859, according to the selectmen's records. She is listed in the death records as "colored-slave," and is reported to have died June 9, 1859 at the age of 100 years, 3 months, and 6 days. Coffin: Hexagonal coffin made of pine and yellow-poplar wood
(max. I. 1.75 m; max. w. 0.41 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Position:
Top of grave pit: 275.9 ft; top of coffin: 273.2 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.4 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.5 ft. 1 brass hinge; 7 iron wood screws; 61 iron nails and nail fragments . Not especially well preserved skeleton of an adult female who died at an age of 50-60+ years. The gravestone associated with this interment identifies her as a "colored woman," and no observations on the skeleton contradict this racial identification. The cranium, however, was pilfered from the laboratory before it could be studied in detail. The shoulders were shrugged. The arms were straight, fully extended along the sides of the torso, and the hands would hav e been alongside the upper thighs (Fig. 33).
98
Analysis: Judging from her humerus (the bone of the upper arm), this woman stood approximately 5 ft 8.5 in (174.04 cm); but she had suffered an injury to her hip joint and her pelvis was misshapened and her thigh bones distorted and shortened. Estimating from the femur produces a stature of only 5 ft 5 in (164.80 cm), and this is likely closer to her actual stature during life. The injury to the left hip joint must have been a fracture or a severe dislocation that occurred some years before death. Doubtless this woman had a serious limp, and for no small duration. In addition, her vertebrae displayed nodes resembling those of Schmorl 's disease, perhaps a consequence of the strains produced on the spine by the distorted pelvis. In a likely unrelated condition, the arch covering the spinal cord on her lowest vertebra was unfused; this was not a serious condition.
The teeth in the pilfered cranium were not observed, but in the mandible as many as six posterior teeth were lost before death and the remaining teeth were very heavily worn down. This constellation of infirmities is quite consistent with what we might expect for an elderly person who had led a difficult life.
99
100
Figure 33. Grave 8.
101
Grave 9 Location: Grave Markers:
Southernmost burial in Row 3, adjacent to Grave 28. Granite headstone with quarry drill marks; unmodified schist fieldstone used as footstone (see Fig. 10c).
Coffin:
Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 1.12 m; max. w. 0.28 m).
Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 276.2 ft; top of coffin: 273.9 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.2 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.0 ft.
Artifacts:
2 brass hinges; 18 iron nails and nail fragments; 3 iron wood screw fragments; from the fill of the grave pit: 7 pearlware fragments (from 1 bowl); 2 redware fragments (from 1 vessel).
Demography: Poorly preserved skeleton of a child who died at about the age of seven years. No evaluation of sex was possible. Position: The skeleton was so poorly preserved that the arrangement of the arms could not be discerned (Fig. 34). The left knee seemed to be slightly flexed, but this circumstance could easily have been the result of settling rather than a deliberate positioning of the leg of the corpse. Analysis:
The skeleton was so poorly preserved that only one observation of any significance was made. Several of the permanent teeth showed constrictive defects in the enamel of their crowns, a condition known as "enamel hypoplasia." It seems likely that this child survived an episode of serious metabolic stress, such as prolonged malnutrition or a severe illness, at about the age of one to one and a half years. The child lived for five or six years after the stress, but retained the scar-like defects in the teeth.
102
Figure 34. Grave 9.
103
Grave 10 Location: Row 4, between Graves 12 and 13. Grave Markers: Schist headstone and gneiss footstone (see Fig. 10c). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. 1. 1.90 m; max. w. 0.42 m). Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 277.5 ft; top of coffin: 274.6 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.0 ft. Depth of grave shaft : 3.5 ft.
Artifacts:
2 brass hinges; 2 iron wood screws; 34 iron nails and nail fragments; 2 bone buttons.
Demography:
A well preserved skeleton of a male who died at an age between 20 and 25 years.
Position : The shoulders were shrugged . The elbows were flexed at ca. 45° angles so that the ends of the forearms (left atop right) crossed over the lower abdomen (Fig. 35). Analysis:
This man stood approximately 5 ft 9 in (174.53 cm) during life. There were some slight deformations in the collarbones and on the 12th thoracic vertebra, in the lower spine; the sacrum (the lowermost part of the spine) displayed an open canal for the spinal cord. Likely none of these conditions were serious, but after death this man was the subject of at least a partial autopsy in which the top of his skull was sawn off to permit an examination of the brain (see Chapter Six for a detailed account of the autopsy and its historical context). There was no evidence that the postmortem examination extended to the rest of the corpse. Although this man lost no teeth prior to death, he died with three abscesses and several carious teeth.
104
Figure 35. Grave 10.
105
Grave 11 Location: Row 1, between Graves 1 and 2. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Rectangular pine coffin (max. I. 0.75 m; max. w. 0.19 m). Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 278.2 ft; top of coffin: 275.9 ft; bottom of coffin : 275.3 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 2.9 ft.
Artifacts : 2 brass hinges; 4 coffin screws; 14 coffin tacks; 3 iron wood screws(?); 19 iron nails and nail fragments; 6 straight pin fragments. Demography:
A well preserved skeleton of a child who died between the ages of one and two years . No evaluation of sex was possible .
Position: Both of the upper arms were straight alongside the ribs (Fig. 36; see Fig. 16). The left elbow was flexed so that the left hand would have been at about the center of the chest; the position of the right forearm could not be determined. Analysis:
No observations of interest were noted on this individual.
106
Figure 36. Grave 11.
107
Grave 12 Location: Southernmost burial in Row 4, adjacent to Grave 10. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Rectangular coffin of pine and yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 1.73 m; max . w. 0.33 m). Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 276.8 ft; top of coffin: 273.7 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.3 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.5 ft.
Artifacts:
51 clear glass fragments of a rectangular glass view plate (measurements after mending: 35.4 x 22.8 cm); 2 brass hinges; 1 brass hook-and-eye fastener; 18 iron nails and nail fragments; 3 iron wood screw fragments; 4 iron tacks; 1 brick fragment; 1 creamware ceramic sherd from fill of grave pit.
Demography:
A moderately well preserved skeleton of an adult female, ca. 25-30 years of age at the time of death. Observations on the skeleton indicate that she was a Black.
Position: The preservation of the left arm was too poor to be certain, but it seemed to be extended straight along the left side of the body (Fig. 37). The right arm was definitely extended along the right side, and the right palm would have rested alongside the right hip. Analysis:
This woman was short, standing only about 4 ft 11 in (149.33 cm), but there were no signs of arthritis or any other disease affecting the skeleton. No teeth had been lost prior to death although three teeth in the lower jaw had caries. Two of her upper front teeth (the lateral incisors) displayed a very slight amount of "shoveling," a condition frequently seen in American Indians and others of Asian extraction; the condition does appear in individuals of other groups, however, so the slight incidence seen in this woman does not mean that she was necessarily an Indian. In fact, so slight an amount of shoveling is negligible in terms of racial identification.
108
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NAIL
Figure 37. Grave 12.
109
VIEW
FRAGMENTS
Grave 13 Location: Northernmost burial in Row 4, adjacent to Grave 10. Grave Markers: Granite headstone with quarry drill marks (see Fig. 10d); no footstone found. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.85 m; max. w. 0.44 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 278.0 ft; top of coffin: 274.8 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.0 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 4.0 ft. 2 brass hinges; 48 iron nails and nail fragments; 2 iron wood screw (?) fragments; 3 mother-of-pearl buttons ; 1 brick fragment . A well preserved skeleton of an adult male , approximately 40-50+ years of age at the time of death.
Position: The shoulders were shrugged. The elbows were flexed at ca. 90° angles so that the forearms were nearly parallel with each other (Fig. 38); the left crossed the lower chest and the right crossed the upper abdomen. Analysis:
This man stood ca. 5 ft 8 in (172.62 cm) and his skeleton displayed several features of interest. He had lost at least seven teeth prior to death; those remaining were severely worn down and bore scars in the enamel that indicated prolonged malnutrition or illness between the ages of four to six years. There was a fair amount of arthritis in his spine, and several vertebrae were even fused together. The sacral canal was partly open (not a serious condition) but some of the foot bones were fused together and there were signs of arthritis in his ankles. The impression one gains is that of an aged man in declining health at the time of death.
110
Figure 38. Grave 13.
111
Grave 14 Location:
Grave Markers: Coffin:
Elevations:
Artifacts:
Row 2, between Graves 7 and 16. None. Hexagonal coffin (see Fig. 13) of chestnut(?) wood (max. 1. 1.85 m; max. w. 0.40 m). Top of grave pit: 277.2 ft; top of coffin: 273.1 ft; bottom of coffin: 271.9 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 5.3 ft. 7 coffin screws; 12 coffin tacks; 29 iron nails and nail
fragments; 1 straight pin fragment with textile adhering; 1 brick fragment. Demography:
The moderately well preserved skeleton of an adult female who died at an age between 30 and 40 years.
Position: Both of the arms were straight alongside the body and the hands would have rested alongside the hips/upper thighs (Fig. 39). Analysis:
This woman stood ca. 5 ft 5 in (165.01 cm) and her skull retained some patches of light colored hair. At least nine teeth had been lost before death and five others were carious or abscessed; her dental health was very poor and doubtless caused her much suffering. Her two upper front teeth (medial incisors) displayed a slight amount of shoveling. Her skeleton was otherwise unremarkable, displaying no sign of arthritis or other diseases of the joints, but she did retain an open suture, the metopic, on her forehead. The metopic suture normally closes at about two years of age, but in as much as 10% of the population it remains open until well into adulthood. The open suture is a minor anomaly, and the woman would not have even been aware of it.
112
Figure 39. Grave 14.
113
Grave 15 Location: Row 5, between Graves 23 and 27 Grave Markers : Granite headstone with quarry drill marks; unmodified gneiss footstone (see Fig. 10d). Coffin: Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 1.89 m; max. w . 0.39 m). Elevations : Top of grave pit: 277.7 ft; top of coffin: 274.4 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.5 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 4.2 ft.
Artifacts : 2 brass hinges; 4 iron wood screws; 51 nails and nail fragments; 3 metal buttons . Demography : A fairly well preserved skeleton of an adult male who died at an ag e in excess of 50 years. Position:
The shoulders were shrugged. The elbows were flexed at ca. 60° (from full, straight-armed extension) so that the forearms crossed (left atop right) over the abdomen (Fig. 40).
Analysis : This man stood ca. 5 ft 9 in (174.77 cm) tall and his skeleton displayed a number of signs of advancing age. All but five teeth were lost before death, and his gums had receded greatly . Arthritis had fused the middle vertebrae of the spine into a solid block and there were signs lower in the back of even more spinal deterioration. The pelvis displayed the bony spurs seen in cases of advanced age and there was thickening of the bones of the lower legs that suggested some inflammation there , as well. None of these conditions was life threatening , but the composite picture is one of a man suffering som e of the infirmities of old age such as a stiff back, leg trouble , and bad dental health .
114
TREE ROOT
METAL BUTTON
I
Figure 40. Grave 15.
115
Grave 16 Location: Row 2, between Graves 14 and 17. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.84 m; max. w. 0.33 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Top of grave pit: 277.2 ft; top of coffin undetermined; bottom of coffin: 273.3 ft. Depth of grav e shaft : 3.9 ft. 2 coffin screws; 28 coffin tacks; 39 nails and nail fragments; 5 milk glass buttons .
Demography : A well preserved skeleton of an adult male who died at an age in excess of fifty years. It is likely, judging from the skeleton, that he was of Indian extraction . Position: The shoulders were shrugged, and the arms were straight along the sides; the elbows were fully extended (Fig. 41; see Fig. 15). The hands seem to have been clasped over the groin. Analysis:
This man was approximately 5 ft 8 in (172.02 cm) tall and his skull retained some patches of light colored hair. At least 14 teeth had been lost prior to death, and of those remaining several were mere rotten stubs or broken away before death. As one would expect, there was massive receding of his gums. There were numerous bony spurs on his spinal column and two of the vertebrae in his lower back had fused together. This individual had some of the same peculiarities of the collarbone noted in the skeleton from Grave 10. The left forearm, near the wrist, displayed a large defect in the radius (one of the bones of the forearm) that may have been caused by a bone tumor. This man clearly had come to the end of a hard life, with few, rotting teeth, a stiff back, and what was likely a diseased arm.
116
• MILK GLASS BUTTON
Figure 41. Grave 16.
117
Grave 17 Location: Row 2, between Graves 16 and 18. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.75 m; max. w. 0.38 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Position:
Analysis:
Top of grave pit: 278.5 ft; top of coffin: 274.1 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.4 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 5.1 ft. 8 coffin screws; 17 coffin tacks; 39 iron nails and nail fragments. A fairly well preserved skeleton of an adult female, aged 50 years or more at the time of death. The left arm was straight alongside the body with its hand near the left thigh; the right elbow was flexed so that the right hand would have rested atop the lower abdomen or groin (Fig. 42). This woman stood ca. 5 ft 4 in (162.23cm), and the bones of her skeleton were very light, as if a significant amount of demineralization had taken place (before death?). She had not a tooth in her head when she died; all of them were lost long before and a truly extravagant amount of gum receding had occurred. There were signs of advanced arthritis in her spine and one of her vertebrae had collapsed and fused with its neighbor. Her left shoulder and both ankles showed signs of inflammation of the bones. Perhaps most serious, she had sustained a serious fracture of her right hip some time before death; she seems not to have received adequate medical attention for this injury and when her hip bone (innominate) mended itself the fragments were offset. This poor woman must have made a pitiful sight with her stooped back, toothless mouth, and damaged hip joint.
118
. 42· Grave 17. Figure
119
Grave 18 Location: Northernmost burial in Row 2, adjacent to Grave 17. Grave Markers: Unmodified granite headstone (see Fig. 10d); no foots tone. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.80 m; max. w. 0.48 m). Elevations : Top of grave pit : 278.8 ft; top of coffin: 275.3 ft; bottom of coffin: 274.6 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 4.2 ft. Artifacts:
37 iron nails and nail fragments; 7 milk glass buttons; 1 mother-of-pearl button; 3 copper straight pins.
Demography : A fairly well preserved skeleton of an adult male, 50+ years of age at the time of death. Position: The elbows were flexed at right angles so that the forearms were parallel to each other as they lay atop the lower chest; the right was slightly higher up on the torso than the left (Fig. 43). Analysis:
This man stood ca. 5 ft 6 in (168.22 cm) and displayed several of the infirmities of advanced years. He had lost all of his teeth except for the front five in his lower jaw, and one of those was only a rotting stub. With the loss of support provided by the roots of the missing teeth, his gums had receded back in upon themselves until they were mere vestiges of their normal shape. There was some evidence of arthritis in the spine, with two of the vertebrae fused together and two of the bones of the hip (sacrum and left innominate) were fused also. In a!.1unrelated condition, the sacral canal was open. One of the joints in his left forefinger was fused, perhaps because of an old injury. Almost certainly the result of a serious injury was the misshapened joint of the left knee. It is possible that the damage to the pelvis already mentioned was an effort on the part of his body that tried to compensate for the pronounced limp that surely existed because of his left knee. The left ankle also showed signs of inflammation, likely the result of wear and tear on the joint from favoring the bad knee. This poor man, aged, practically toothless, with a very bad left leg and stiff back, seems almost a parody of an inhabitant of an almshouse.
120
MOTHER-OF-PEARL
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Figure 43. Grave 18.
121
I
Grave 19 Location: Southernmost burial in Row 2, adjacent to Grave 8. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Made of yellow-poplar wood, probably hexagonal in shape (max. l. 0.90 m; max. w . 0.29 m). Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 275.0 ft; top of coffin: 273.8 ft; bottom of coffin: 273.2 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 1.8 ft.
Artifacts : 2 brass hinges; 5 iron wood screws; 29 iron nails and nail fragments. Demography:
An extremely poorly preserved skeleton of a child who died between one and two years of age . No evaluation of sex was possible.
Position: Since the skull was the only part of the skeleton that survived to be examined, nothing could be determined about the arrangement of the arms and legs (Fig. 44). The skeleton below the skull was present only as small, waxy fragments and stains in the earth. Analysis:
Except to give an estimate of the age at death, no other observations could be noted regarding this skeleton.
122
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figure 44. Grave 19.
123
Grave 20 Location: Southernmost burial in Row 1, adjacent to Grave 6. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. I. 1.75 m.; max. w. 0.37 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Position:
Analysis:
Top of grave pit: 274.2 ft; top of coffin: 272.5 ft; bottom of coffin: 271.6 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 2.6 ft. 5 coffin screws; 41 iron nails and nail fragments; 1 iron lining tack(?); 12 metal buttons; 4 milk glass buttons; 1 iron buckle. A well preserved skeleton of an adult male, 40-50+ years of age at the time of death .
The elbows were flexed at ca. 45° angles so that the forearms crossed, right atop left, over the abdomen (Fig. 45). The shoulders were shrugged, the left more than the right. This man stood ca. 5 ft 6.5 in (169.22 cm) his feet had been injured some time before death. Two of the bones (calcaneus and talus) in the left foot were fused together, and the same bones in the right foot also showed signs of injury. His teeth were all gone long before death, except for one broken, rotted stub of the lower left eyetooth (canine). Like others who had lost most or all of their teeth, his gums suffered massive receding.
124
Figure 45. Grave 20.
125
0
MILK
•
METAL
GLASS
BUTTON
BUTTON
Grave 21 Location: Row 1, between Graves 6 and 31. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Pine coffin of undeterminable shape (max. I. 1.81 m;
max. w. 0.37m). Elevations : Top of grav e pit: 274.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.1 ft; bottom of
coffin: 272.0 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 2.4 ft. Artifacts:
2 brass hinges; 9 iron wood screws; 66 iron nails and nail fragments.
Demography : A poorly preserved, fragmentary skeleton of an adult
female, 30-40 years of age at the time of death. Position:
Analysis:
Both elbows were flexed at ca. 90° angles and the forearms, parallel to one another, crossed the lower chest, with the right slightly higher up on the chest than the left (Fig. 46). This woman stood ca. 5 ft 4 in (162.73 cm) tall and her skeleton was remarkable only in that the bones of the left lower leg showed some degree of inflammation. While this condition may have caused some discomfort, we cannot be sure that she had even a limp. Seven teeth were lost prior to death and five others were mere carious stubs, two of which accompanied abscesses in the jaw.
126
go~
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127
NAIL
Grave 22 Location:
Southernmost burial in Row 5, adjacent to Grave 29.
Grave Markers: Schist headstone and footstone (see Fig. lOe). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. 1. 1.21 m; max. w. 0.32 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Top of grave pit: 276.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.1 ft; bottom of coffin : 272.6 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.8 ft. 2 brass hinges; 7 iron wood screws; 41 iron nails and nail fragments.
Demography : Only a single, small fragment of a long bone was present; it could have come from either a child or an adult . No evaluation of sex was possible . Position: Not applicable; the bone fragment, however, was found within the coffin where a femur might be expected to be located (Fig. 47). Analysis:
Nothing can be said in this regard.
128
HINGE
I
NAIL
f!li!JWOOD
IEJ
bone
Figure 47. Grave 22.
129
Grave 23 Location: Row 5, between Graves 15 and 29. Grave Markers: Schist headstone and footstone (see Fig. 10e). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.77 m; max. w. 0.41 m).
Elevations: Artifacts:
Top of grave pit: 277.6 ft; top of coffin: 273.1 ft; bottom of coffin: 271.7 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 5.9 ft. 6 iron wood screws; 43 iron nails and nail fragments; 6 milk glass buttons.
Demography: A fairly well preserved skeleton of an adult male who was 40-50+ years of age at the time of death . Position: The shoulders were "shrugged," and the arms were extended straight along the sides of the torso (Fig. 48). The wrists were turned in slightly towards the mid line of the body, so the palms would have rested atop the upper thighs. Analysis:
This man was not tall, standing only approximately 5 ft 4.5 in (164.11 cm). There is little evidence of any arthritic changes in the skeleton, but the left collarbone had the same slight malformation seen also in the males from Graves 10 and 16. He had lost only three teeth prior to death, not bad by Uxbridge standards, but all of his four remaining upper molars were ravaged by caries. Of interest is the pattern of atypical wear of his teeth at the front "corners" of his jaws; irregular arcs of wear were seen, resembling what one would expect if the man had been in the habit of holding, say, nails or a pipestem between his teeth at these points. Over a long course of time, tiny amounts of wear accumulated until a "hole" was formed on each side of his closed jaws, between his eyeteeth (canines) and front teeth (lateral incisors). These sorts of wear have been attributed to the work habits of holding nails in the mouth (carpenters, cobblers) or possibly from the stems of clay tobacco pipes.
130
•
MILK GLASS BUTTON
Figure 48. Grave 23.
131
Grave 24 Location: Row 6, between Graves 25 and 26. Grave Markers:
Schist headstone (see Fig. 10e); no footstone .
Coffin : Rectangular casket of pine and yellow-poplar wood (max. 1. 1.73 m; max. w. 0.35 m). Elevations : Top of grav e pit: 277.7 ft; top of coffin: 272.2 ft; bottom of coffin: 271.5 ft. Depth of grave shaft : 6.2 ft. Artifacts : 2 brass hinges ; 4 iron wood screws; 45 iron nails and nail fragments. Demography : The poorly preserved skeleton of an adult female who died at an age in excess of 50 years . Position: The shoulders were very slightly shrugged. The left elbow was flexed at ca. 45° so that the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the lower abdomen (Fig. 49). The right elbow was flexed to a much greater degree and the right hand would have rested atop the left lower ribs, in the crook of the left elbow . Analysis:
This woman stood ca. 4 ft 10 in (147.25cm), quite short, and her skeleton seemed not to have any signs of arthritis (but the bones were too poorly preserved to be very certain of this) . She did suffer from an inflammation of the bone of the left thigh; that seemed however, not to have been serious. The jaws were too poorly preserved for much to be said about her dental health. At least one of her wisdom teeth (lower left 3rd molar) was impacted; that is, there was not enough room in the jaw for the tooth to grow normally, so as it developed it pushed against the adjacent tooth. The severity of discomfort that this condition may have caused her is difficult to say; but since she lived to a considerable age without having it extracted, any discomfort must have been tolerabl e.
132
HINGE
Figure 49. Grave 24.
133
Grave 25 Location: Northernmost burial in Row 6, adjacent to Grave 24. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. 1. 1.98 m; max. w. 0.49 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 277.4 ft; top of coffin: 272.6 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.1 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 5.3 ft. 2 brass hinges; 9 iron wood screws; 26 iron nails and nail fragments. A not poorly preserved skeleton of an adult female, 50 or more years of age at the time of death.
Position: The elbows were extended straight out so that the arms
rested alongside the torso (Fig. 50). The hands would have been alongside the upper thighs, or possibly bent in slightly towards the midline of the body and resting atop the upper thighs. Analysis:
This woman was quite tall, standing 5 ft 9.4 in (176.23 cm) with only very slight evidence of arthritis. A gentle swelling on her skull could possibly be a benign tumor, but this is not certain. The bones of both legs display swellings and striations that represent an injury, or perhaps some sort of systemic inflammation, to both legs. The effects on the bones were not so marked as to suggest a crippling condition, but perhaps this woman had reason to complain of sore legs. She had lost all her upper front teeth some time before death, si~ce the sockets in the gum had completely healed over. Other teeth had been lost prior to death as well, and the remainder were very severely worn, some were abscessed, and her gums were receding badly.
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Figure 50. Grave 25.
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Grave 26 Location: Southernmost burial in Row 6, adjacent to Grave 24. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.81 m; max. w. 0.41 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 276.2 ft; top of coffin: 273.1 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.3 ft. Depth of grave shaft : 3.9 ft. 2 brass hinges; 5 iron wood screws; 66 iron nails and nail fragments. An incomplete and poorly preserved skeleton of an adult male who died at an age of 50 or more years.
Position : The elbows were flexed at ca. 45° angles so that the hands (left atop right) would have rested upon the lower abdomen (Fig. 51). Analysis:
This short man only stood ca. 5 ft 3.5 in (161.52 cm) and at least two of his vertebrae had fused together after one of them had collapsed. His back must have been slightly (at least) bowed and stiff. So little of the skeleton was adequately preserved that not much can be said about any other signs of advanced age or illness. At least 15 teeth had been completely lost in life and some of those retained had been worn to mere stubs. An enormous amount of his gums had receded. The picture one has is of a small, elderly man with a bowed back and very bad teeth.
136
Figure 51. Grave 26.
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Grave 27 Location: Northernmost burial in Row 5, adjacent to Grave 15. Grave Markers: Unmodified schist headstone and granite footstone (see Fig. 10e). Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.65 m; max. w. 0.38 m) . Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 278.7 ft (see Fig. 6); top of coffin: 276.2 ft; bottom of coffin: 275.0 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.7 ft.
Artifacts : 5 coffin tacks; 1 iron wood screw; 29 iron nails and nail
fragments; 1 milk glass button. Demography:
This grave contained two skeletons (Fig. 52). The first (designated 27A) was an excellently preserved skeleton of an adult female who had died between the ages of 25 and 35 years . She was accompanied in her coffin by the tiny, neonate skeleton designated 27B, for which no evaluation of sex was possible.
Position: The shoulders of 27A were shrugged and her elbows were
extended so that her forearms passed straight down alongside the torso. Her hands would have been alongside, or possibly atop, the sides of her upper thighs. Tucked in between her right arm and her right side was the tiny skeleton of 27B, a very young infant, possibly newborn. The corpse of the infant was apparently laid out straight alongside that of the woman; there was no appearance of the woman cradling the infant. Analysis:
The female was very short, standing ca. 4 ft 10 in (146.94 cm); except for her teeth, which displayed caries and abscesses, her skeleton showed little sign of arthritis or other ailments. Her upper eyeteeth (canines) were missing, perhaps congenitally . The infant's skeleton was too tiny and too poorly preserved to reveal much about this small unfortunate . It seems likely that this dual interment (the only multiple interment present at Uxbridge) is that of a mother and small infant. No such link can be demonstrated via the skeletons, but the context of the remains is persuasive .
138
NEONATE SKULL
I
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I I
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: ~ll# I
F'igurc 52. Grave 27.
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Grave 28 Location: Row 3, between Graves 9 and 30. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.86 m; max. w. 0.41 m). Elevations:
Top of grave pit: 276.6 ft; top of coffin: 273.6 ft; bottom of grave pit: 272.9 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.7 ft.
Artifacts : 7 coffin screws; 23 coffin tacks; 30 iron nails and nail fragments; 1 copper straight pin fragment; 3 milk glass buttons; from fill of grave pit: 3 redware sherds (from 1 vessel). Demography : A poorly preserved skeleton of an adult female who died at an age between 25 and 30 years . Position : The shoulders, particularly the left, were shrugged. The left elbow was flexed at a right angle so that the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the abdomen (Fig. 53). The right elbow was flexed at only ca. 45° so the right hand would have rested lower on the abdomen than the left. Analysis:
This woman stood ca. 5 ft 7 in (170.53cm) and no convincing sign of arthritis was discerned on the admittedly poorly preserved skeleton. The sacrum displays a partly open sacral canal, but this is merely an anomaly, not a life-threatening condition. Every one of the 32 adult teeth were present, but two of the molars were reduced to carious stubs, and one of these was abscessed. Three of the four wisdom teeth (3rd molars) were impacted against the adjacent molar, but there was no evidence of abscessing or other complications. Presumably any discomfort arising from this condition was tolerable.
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•
MILK GLASS BUTTON
Figure 53. Grave 28.
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Grave 29 Location: Row 5, between Graves 22 and 23. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. l. 1.72 m; max w. 0.46 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Demography:
Top of grave pit: 276.4 ft; top of coffin: 273.4 ft; bottom of coffin: 272.6 ft. Depth of grave shaft: 3.8 ft. 2 brass hinges; 4 iron wood screws; 51 nails and nail fragments; 1 mother-of-pearl button. An unevenly preserved skeleton of an adult male who was 50 or more years of age at the time of death .
Position: The shoulders were shrugged. The left elbow was flexed at ca. 45° so that the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the right lower abdomen (Fig. 54). The right elbow was fully extended and the right hand would have rested atop the upper right thigh. Analysis:
This man stood ca. 5 ft 8 in (172.56 cm) but his back was in wretched condition. The vertebrae displayed many of the bony outgrowths characteristic of joint diseases like arthritis, and a dozen vertebrae are fused into blocks that involve between two and four vertebrae each. In addition, the last lumbar (lower back) vertebra is fused to the sacrum, but this seems to be a developmental anomaly, and not the result of disease. The shoulders also display what may be arthritic changes. His teeth were in an even worse state of health than his spine; he had only one tooth in his jaws when he died, and that one was worn down to a stub. All of his other teeth had been lost some time before death and his gums displayed a truly extravagant amount of receding. As much as any individual in the Uxbridge series, this man shows the ills to which the flesh is heir in advanced years. Aged, practically toothless, with arthritic shoulders and a stiffening, diseased spine, death may well have been a relief for this poor soul.
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BONE BUTTON
Figure 54. Grave 29.
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Grave 30 Location: Northernmost grave in Row 3, adjacent to Grave 28. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal pine coffin (max. I. 1.66 m; max. w. 0.40 m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Top of grave pit undetermined; top of coffin: 274.4 ft (see Fig. 14); bottom of coffin: 273.7 ft. Depth of grave shaft: undetermined. 1 white metal hinge; 6 coffin screws; 42 coffin tacks; 22 iron nails and nail fragments; 1 milk glass button; 1 copper straight pin fragment; 1 whiteware ceramic sherd.
Demography : A well preserved skeleton of a female who died at 50 or more years of age. Position: The shoulders were not shrugged but, unique for the adults in the Uxbridge series, the upper arms were not straight alongside the ribs; rather, the elbows were moved out slightly to the sides (Fig. 55). Both of the elbows were flexed at ca. 90° angles and the forearms were nearly parallel with the left resting slightly higher up on the torso than the right. Both of the wrists were aligned with the midline of the body. Analysis:
This woman stood ca. 5 ft 3 in (160.12 cm) and her skeleton displays only moderate arthritic involvement. Her teeth, however, were mostly lost at some considerable time prior to death. In fact, the only sockets present were very shallow ones for four of the front teeth in the lower jaw. All of the other teeth were lost before death and the gums were greatly receded. So shallow are the sockets for the front teeth, in fact, it is likely that these teeth were barely being retained in the jaw, and then mainly by the soft tissues of the gum, not the underlying bone.
144
figure 55. Grave 30.
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Grave 31 Location: Row 1, between Graves 5 and 21. Grave Markers: None. Coffin: Hexagonal coffin of yellow-poplar wood (max. 1. 1.82 m;
max. w. 0.40m). Elevations:
Artifacts:
Undetermined. Depth of grave shaft: undetermined. The stratification of the grave was wholly obscured by extensive tree roots. 2 brass hinges; 5 iron wood screws; 57 nails and nail fragments; 4 milk glass buttons.
Demography : A very poorly preserved skeleton of an adult male who
died at an age between 30 and 40 years. Position:
Analysis:
The shoulders were shrugged and both elbows were flexed at ca. 45° so that the forearms crossed (right atop left) over the abdomen (Fig. 56). The stature for this man could not be reconstructed since not a single arm or leg bone was completely preserved. The vertebrae seem to be largely free of signs of arthritis, but the presence of Schmorl's nodes suggests a strenuous life that injured the vertebral discs. At least seven teeth had been lost prior to death and three others were carious, one reduced to a rotten stub.
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MILK GLASS BUTTON
-Figure 56. Grave 31.
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Chapter Five Osteological Analysis by Al B. Wesolowsky
Introduction The human skeletal remains from the cemetery of the Uxbridge Almshouse were examined on two occasions . First, the exposed skeleton, in situ, was described in some detail in the field notes; the most crucial observations here pertained to the burial position of the corpse . Second, the cleaned skeletons were studied and measured in the laboratory ; this work dealt more directly with the human biology of these individuals. While some of what follows (the "Burial Position," mainly) is based on field observation, all of the biological information was reviewed during laboratory work. The remains in most cases were cleaned by dry, soft brushing; seldom was water required to cleanse the bones of their earthen matrix. Care was taken to keep the remains segregated by grave and , as a precaution, all of the major skeletal elements were inked with the grave number in (usually) inconspicuous places. The presentation of each skeleton is given in the following format: 1. "Burial Position." These accounts give basic information on the posture of the corpse, based on observations of the exposed skeleton while it remained in situ in the grave. Some aspects of the position of the skeleton are happenstance from the bones settling as the soft tissues liquefy; examples might be the direction in which the skull faced and whether or not the jaw was open. Other aspects are more clearly the results of actions taken by the survivors in arranging the corpse in the coffin; the position of the arms and hands, and occasional "shrugging" (see Grave 4) of the shoulders, are more likely to be culturally significant. In fact, the disposition of the arms of the deceased is about the only source of variation in the arrangement of the corpse. All of the graves were extended inhumations, on their backs, with the head to the west. (Grave 22, with its solitary fragment of bone, remains a conundrum and is probably not to be explained by variation in the arrangement of the corpse.). 2. "Analysis." This section provides commentary on the degree of preservation of the skeleton and an assessment of the sex and age at the time of death. These observations are buttressed with specific comments on relevant aspects of the skeleton. A reconstruction of living stature for the adults is presented as well as occasional comments of demographic relevance. Many aspects of the analyses are discussed and compared with other skeletal series in Chapter Six. 3. "Observations." This section presents information on pathology or other abnormalities of the skeleton that may give us some insight into the health of the individual. Generally ~ but not always, the sequence of observations will start with the head, then go down the spinal column, and then consider the arms and legs . Since not every skeleton had noteworthy aspects of all of these anatomical elements, the reader is not to be alarmed by the absence of one or more of these areas from the discussions. Also, some disorders may cross-cut more than one element, so the general order of consideration might be interrupted as we turn aside to consider a systemic ailment. The observations for each grave concludes with a brief description of the dentition. Full osteometric and dental tables are in Appendix Three.
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Grave 1
Burial Position Grave 1 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back, with the head at the west end of the grave (see Fig. 26). The skeleton was fully articulated and appeared to be complete. A pane of glass, once serving as a view plate at the head end of the coffin, was broken into a number of fragments that lay atop the skull and upper chest of the skeleton. The skull rested on its right lateral surface with the face "looking" down towards the right shoulder. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage. The forearms were flexed at ca. 45° angles from complete extension and both were pronated so that the palms of the hands would have rested on the lower abdomen. The forearms of the corpse would have crossed at the wrists, with the left placed atop the right. The legs were fairly straight and the medial surfaces of the knees ca. 10 to 12 cm apart. The position of the skeleton shows no evidence of the corpse having been crowded into a coffin that was too short for the stature of the deceased.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 1 was quite well preserved. Although some postmortem erosion was observed on some of the long bones and parts of the scapulae and innominata were not preserved, all of the vertebrae, for example, were present and complete. The features of the skull (Figs. 57, 58) and pelvic bones, as well as the general gracility of the long bones, are all well within the female range; the evaluation of sex seems unequivocal. Both of the upper 3rd molars were erupted and functional (the lower 3rd molars appear to have been agenic, i.e., congenitally missing), the medial epiphyses of the clavicles were completely fused, ectocranial synotosis of the sutures was limited to a few spots, and the occlusal attrition of the teeth was not at all advanced. These observations are consistent with an age of 30 years at the time of death. The reconstructed stature for this individual is 162.45 cm± 3.51 cm (5 ft 4 in ± 1.4 in).
Observations MANDIBLE
Grave 1 displayed a malformation in the mandible that was, at first, thought to be merely postmortem distortion of the ascending ramus, in the mandibular neck just inferior to the right mandibular condyle. The right condyle (the point where the mandible articulates with the cranium) and the most superior part of the right mandibular neck were displaced to the medial (or inwards) plane of the body (Fig. 59). The displacement was superior to a fine, serrated line that was visible on the lateral side of the neck (Fig. 60). This line resembled nothing so much as a fine cranial suture, and even allowed some unnatural flexibility to the neck; the condyle could be gently manipulated from side to side for a millimeter or so. The medial side of the neck displayed no discontinuity related to the lesion. On the lateral side, the serrate line ran from superior-anterior to inferior-posterior and there was no formation of a bony callus. When viewed from above (Fig. 59) and compared to the left condyle, the right condyle was displaced, at an angle, to the medial by some 10-12 mm. Oddly enough, despite this displacement of the right condyle, the mandible still articulated well with the cranium and there was no obvious sign of differential wear of the teeth that could be attributed to malocclusion. The enhanced wear on the lingual surfaces of the upper incisors might have been related to this feature of the mandible, but the wear was so bilaterally even that this seems unlikely. The coronoid processes of the mandible were asymmetrical; while the processes were approximately the same width at their bases, the right was more pointed and slender than the left. These processes are the attachment points for the temporalis muscles that descend from the side of the cranium to the mandible. T~ese muscles are important for mastication and
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5cm
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Figure 57. Grave 1: cranium, anterior view.
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Figure 58. Grave 1: cranium, left lateral view. Note the alveolar resorption (receding gums) at the molars .
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Figure 59. Grave 1: mandible, occlusal view. The neck of the right ascending ramus is warped to the medial plane. The line of the "healing fracture" can just be seen on the lateral side, posterior to the coronoid process. See Figure 60 for a detailed view. Note also the occlusal attrition with islands of dentine clearly visible on the left 1st molar, and less visible on the other molars.
Figure 60. Grave 1: mandible, right lateral view of right ascending ramus. The line of the "healing fracture" is clearly visible at the base of the condyloid process. The illustration can only suggest the fine, serrate, almost suture-like appearance of the fracture line.
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the asymmetry of the coronoid processes may relate to an imbalance of the force of these muscles subsequent to the malformation of the right neck. The impression one gains is that this individual sustained a greenstick fracture, a condition in which only one side of the bone is actually broken (in this case, the lateral) and the other is compressed (here, the medial). Assuming that the thin, suture-like line is in fact the result of a fracture, the lack of bony callus and the unnatural slight mobility at the plane of fracture suggests that the injured bone was not successfully immobilized through medical attention. Rather than the normal process of osseous healing, this individual would have had a persistent nonunion of the fracture, possibly reinforced by fibrous tissue. The injury must have occurred some time prior to death, to permit the development of this apparent nonunion, but not so long as to engender other changes in the temporomandibular joint or in the occlusal surfaces of the teeth. SPINAL COLUMN
The spinal column was complete, very well preserved, and unremarkable. appreciable lipping or signs of joint involvement on the vertebral centra.
There was no
DENTITION
The dentition of Grave 1 was free from pathological involvement; no caries or abscesses were present (the only mouth so healthy in the Uxbridge adult series). Still, alveolar resorption (see Fig. 58) indicates periodontal disease. The two incisors on the right mandible were slightly rotated clockwise (in occlusal view) and both lower 3rd molars were absent, perhaps congenitally.
Grave 2
Burial Position Grave 2 contained the skeleton of a neonate resting on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 27). The bones were so tiny and soft that only a few fragments of the postcranial skeleton could be recovered. Enough of the skeletal tissues were present, however, to show that the arms were slightly akimbo alongside the ribs and the legs were slightly bowed. That is, the bones of the legs rested on the surface that is intermediate between lateral and posterior and the knees were slightly flexed. Such an "arrangement" of an infant's corpse was noted in other burials of neonates at Uxbridge and likely resulted from the anatomical limitations of positioning such tiny corpses, with their short limbs, for burial.
Analysis The neonate's skeleton from Grave 2 was extremely poorly preserved and was represented in the laboratory only by cranial fragments and some small remains of the postcranial bones. Although the degree of preservation was adequate to allow a reasonably detailed observation of the burial position, the bones did not tolerate exhumation with any degree of completeness. Both sides of the mandible were preserved, however, and the development of the dentition indicated that this individual died between birth and six months of age. No assessment of sex was possible, of course, nor were any other useful observations possible. No osteometry could be performed on this poorly preserved skeleton, and no stature reconstruction was forthcoming.
Observations The poor preservation observations.
of the skeletal remains from Grave 2 precluded
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any useful
DENTITION
Other than to say that the development assessment of age at the time of death,
of the dentition was consistent with the no useful observations could be made.
Grave 3
Burial Position Grave 3 contained an infant's skeleton that was fully articulated and, while poorly preserved, showed no sign of postmortem disturbance (see Fig. 28). The skeleton was extended on its back, with the head to the west. The skull rested on the base of the occipital and the chin would have rested upon the upper chest. The arms were along the sides and were slightly akimbo, with the hands at about the level of the waist. Judging from the relative position of the left radius and ulna, the left palm (assuming that the hand was not curled into a fist) would have been flat against the lateral side of the left waist. ' Preservation was too poor to judge the position of the right forearm. The leg bones seemed to be fully extended with the femora converging towards the knees. At about the level of the knees the bones of the legs disappeared into a mass of a dark, fibrous substance that seemed to be a textile. This mass occupied the internal space of the coffin from the knees to the feet, and the lower legs could not be examined in situ. The mass, with the bones of the lower leg, was removed in one bulky piece for laboratory treatment.
Analysis The remains of the neonate from Grave 3 were slightly better preserved than the skeleton from Grave 2, but few significant observations could be made in the laboratory in either case. Grave 3 did present a complete diaphysis (the shaft of a long bone; in this case, the right radius). Most of the mandible was present, and the degree of dental development was consistent with an age at the time of death between birth and six months. No assessment of sex was possible, nor were any anomalies noted on the fragmentary remains of the skeleton. No stature reconstruction was forthcoming.
Observations The poor preservation and extreme youth at the time of death precluded any useful observations on the skeleton from Grave 3. DENTITION
The degree of development of the dentition was consistent with the assessment of the age at the time of death, and was in no way remarkable.
Grave 4
Burial Position Grave 4 contained the single inhumatioli of an adult, with a fully articulated skeleton showing no sign of disturbance (see Fig. 29). The skeleton was extended on its back with the head to the west. The skull rested on its left posterior surface and faced slightly to the corpse's left. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage (see "Shrugging," below) and the forearms were flexed. The right forearm was flexed at slightly more than 90° from full extension (or, making an angle of somewhat less than 90° with the humerus) placing it across the lower ribs. The left forearm was flexed at 90° and so crossed the abdomen at a right angle to the long axis of the body. Both forearms were pronated, with the right palm resting on the lower left chest and the left palm resting on the superior part of the right hip. Both legs were straight and ca. 12 cm separated the medial edges of the knees. There was no sign of
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the corpse having been crowded into a coffin too short for the stature of this individual. "SHRUGGING"
There was, however, evidence that the width of the coffin was not adequate for the normal, relaxed width of the shoulders of the corpse. The position of the bones of the shoulder girdle resembled nothing so much as a shrug (in the case of Grave 4, a slight shrug; for a pronounced shrug, see Grave 16 and Fig. 41): the lateral ends of the clavicles were elevated relative to the manubrium, and the scapulae are elevated somewhat above the first rib. These positions were sometimes subtle, and are best appreciated when the skeleton is in situ; photographs and drawings do not always convey the impression one gains from observing the skeleton in the grave. The explanation for this posture is probably that the coffin was a little too narrow for the relaxed width of the shoulders. In order for the corpse to fit, the shoulders were shrugged, or perhaps "rolled" to the anterior, when the deceased was placed in the coffin. This posture was observed in varying degrees in a number of the Uxbridge burials: Graves 4 (this discussion), 8, 10, 13, 15, 16, 20, 23, 24 (slightly), 27, 28, 29, and 31. The practice may indicate that coffins were not custom-made to fit the individual, but rather more or less standard sizes were on hand; and if the coffin was a little too narrow for the late departed, a little effort on the part of those preparing the corpse for burial would resolve the matter.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 4 was quite well preserved despite some postmortem erosion of the articular ends of the long bones. There was a tough, fibrous patch of organic material attached to the posterior of the cranium, in the region of the lambda. Surely, this was a remnant of the scalp although no hair was preserved. Features of both the skull (Figs. 61, 62) and pelvis indicate that these are the remains of a female, an assessment supported by the gracility of the long bones. The age at the time of death was more difficult to estimate; extensive antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption, ectocranial synotosis of the sutures, and some measure of joint disease in the spinal column are consistent with an age of 40-50 years or more at the time of death. This individual was, beyond question, well into the mature years at death. Living stature was reconstructed at 164.30 cm± 3.51 cm (5 ft 5 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The spinal column was quite well preserved and only one of the thoracic vertebrae was so broken that it could not be added to the spinal column as it was rearticulated in the laboratory . Osteophytes, or "lipping," were present on the anterior edge of the centra of all the cervical and lumbar vertebrae. A sharp, progressive increase in the extent of osteophytes was noted in the three lowest thoracic vertebrae. The 5th lumbar vertebra was fused to the sacrum, more heavily on the right than on the left (Fig. 63). At first one wondered if the 5th lumbar might have been fused to the sacrum as a result of extensive lipping attendant upon arthritic-like joint involvement. Certainly, the progressively greater amount of osteophytes from the 9th thoracic through the 4th lumbar would seem to support such a notion. But, while the articulation of the 5th lumbar with the 1st sacral did have two fused-over areas on the anterior surface, the inferior surface of the 5th lumbar•~ centrum did not seem to show any effects of severe joint involvement that might have led to fusion with the sacrum. The fusion was so complete that the right transverse process of the 5th lumbar blended into the auricular area of the sacrum; the corresponding auricular surface of the right innominate was atypically roughened. If this "sacralization" of the 5th lumbar was the product of trauma, or injury, that caused
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0
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Figure 61. Grave 4: cranium, anterior view.
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5 cm
Figure 62. Grave 4: cranium, left lateral view.
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5cm
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Figure 63. Grave 4: sacrum, anterior view. The 5th lumbar vertebra is fused to the 1st sacral vertebra. Note the loss of differentiating contours of the right superior side of the bone.
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localized destruction of bone tissue and which resulted in an erratic process of healing that fused the 5th lumbar to the 1st sacral, one would expect more widespread damage to the lower vertebrae. The bony remodeling that would result from such injury is absent. Likely, the anomalous union of the 5th lumbar to the 1st sacral is developmental in origin. Still, the increasing severity of osteophytes in the lower vertebrae is suggestive; possibly the slight decrease in spinal mobility occasioned by the sacralization of the 5th lumbar caused stresses for intervertebral articulations that, in turn, increased the likelihood of osteophytes developing. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The left humerus displayed an unusually robust deltoid tuberosity. The significance of this observation is unclear, except to say that this individual could have favored her left arm for certain activities requiring abduction (lifting the arm away from the torso). There were some anomalous formations of bone on the proximal ends of the femora; the medial side of the greater trochanter of each was marked by roughening of the surface in a restricted area. On the right femur the condition appeared as six little rounded hemispheres, or nodules, of cortical bone located in the shadow of the greater trochanter. The hemispheres, while separate, formed an aggregate mass ca. 21 mm by 4 mm that extended from the superioranterior to the inferior-posterior. The left femur displayed only some roughening i_n the same area, lacking the nodule formations of the right femur. When the right femur was first examined, it appeared that the posterior-lateral surface of the greater trochanter was crushed and flattened post mortem, with the bone fragments retained by impacted earth. More detailed scrutiny revealed that the flattening was, in fact, the true shape of the bone. The posterior-lateral surface of the greater trochanter was indeed flattened and there were nodules of atypical ossification that appeared as outgrowths of cortical bone, similar to those on the medial side of the greater trochanter. This roughened, flattened area extended from just inferior to the superior tip of the greater trochanter, down to a point level with the lesser trochanter. The affected area was ca. 65 mm superior-inferior by ca. 30 mm wide. There was a small postmortem exposure of cancellous bone in the area of the gluteal tuberosity of the right femur, which may appear on photographs of the specimen. One wonders if the anomalies of the greater trochanters reflect disturbances of those muscles of the pelvis that insert into that region on the femur: the gluteus medius; the gluteus minimus; the piriformis; the obturator internus; the obturator externus; and the superior and inferior gemelli. The result may have been some slight aberration of gait, possibly a limp. It is tempting to associate the more anomalous of the greater trochanters, the right, with the sacralization of the fifth lumbar, which is more pronounced on the right side of that vertebra. But one must realize that, in the clinical sense, the functional effect of these anomalies may have been minimal. None of the anomalies, on the fifth lumbar or on the greater trochanters, seemed to have been the result of trauma; there were no obvious fracture planes, no displacement of normal contours, and no convincing instances of bony callus as one would expect by osseous healing mechanisms subsequent to a fracture. Since the greater trochanter of the right femur was more heavily anomalous than that of the left, the condition was not quite bilateral. One is at a loss to decide between trauma or a developmental etiology for these observations on the femora. DENTITION
Extensive antemortem tooth loss, alveolar resorption, and large, active abscesses resulted in only two teeth (the lower left canine and first premolar) being retained in the jaws after excavatio ·n (see Figs. 61, 62). The upper left 2nd and 3rd molars (both of which displayed caries) and the upper right 3rd molar were present at death but their sockets had been so ravaged by abscesses that the teeth were not retained by the maxilla after death. Besides these three teeth in the upper jaw, and the two already mentioned in the lower jaw, sockets
157
(and then only remnants of the tips) were present also for only the low er left lateral incisor and the lower right canin e and 1st premolar . All other teeth ha d been lost before death and, as already mention ed, extensive alveolar resorption had ensued.
Grave 5
Burial Positions Grave 5 contained the single extended inhumation of a child resting on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 30). The cranium, severely fragmented, was resting on the base of the occipital. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were slightly flexed. The lower arms were pronated so that the palms would have been flat against the hips. The legs were straight and converged at the ankles . There was no evidence that this individual had been crowded into a coffin too short for the corpse.
Analysis The skeleton of a child from Grave 5 was very poorly pres erved; while most of the postcranial skeleton was represented, only a single diaphysis (that of a fibula) was complete enough to be measured. The cranium was very fragmentary but enough of the dentition was present to estimate an age at the time of death of one to two years. No evaluation of sex was possible , nor were there any observations of skeletal anomalies . No statur e reconstruction was forthcoming.
Observations The poorly preserved child's skeleton from Grave 5 yielded not a single observation of note on either the cranial or postcranial skeleton . DENTITION
The degree of dental development was unremarkable and no observations of any real significance were made on this individual's teeth.
Grave 6
Burial Position Grave 6 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 31). The skeleton appeared to be fully articulated and, despite poor preservation, none of the major bone elements seemed to have been disturbed . The skull rested on the right posterior part of the occipital and faced slightly to the deceased's lower right. The mouth was open and the mandible, while fully articulated with the cranium, rested on its right gonion. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were flexed at ca. 45° angles from full extension so that the left palm would have rested atop the right forearm, and the right palm atop the left hip. The bones of both forearms were poorly preserved but they seem to have been pronated. The femora converged towards the knee and only ca. 4-6 cm separated the medial surfaces of the knees. The lower legs were straight and parallel and did not converge towards the knee. There was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin to short for the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 6 was not very well preserved; the calvaria was largely intact but the face was fragmented, many of the long bones were eroded and incomplet e, and the spinal column was present only as fragments. Still, enough diagnostic features were present to make the assessment of female quite certain; most of the right innominate was
158
present and the greater sciatic notch is very wide indeed. The general robusticity of the skeleton, however, was marked and placed this individual near the upper limits of the female range for this attribute. The age at the time of death had to be judged on the bases of synotosis of the cranial sutures and occlusal attrition of the dentition, neither of which is as reliable as one might wish. In any event, this individual seems to have died in the fourth decade of life (i.e., between 30 and 40 years). The preliminary, field assessment was "30-40+" years, and laboratory examination indicates that the"+" may be omitted. The living stature for this individual was reconstructed at 175.38 cm± 3.55 cm (5 ft 9 in± 1.4 in).
Observations CRANIUM
There was a generalized, possibly antemortem, defect of the outer table of the left parietal along with a few other, localized defects that were clearly post mortem. The generalized defect was limited mainly to the anterior medial quarter of the left parietal. Also involved was the posterior of the frontal adjacent to the affected part of the left parietal, but the involvement here was much less marked. The defect measured ca. 70 mm in diameter and its edges were occasionally sharply defined. Although parts of the defect resembled mere postmortem erosion of the outer table, other regions looked like the outer table had been modified into a granular tissue, quite unlike the normal, smooth appearance of the cranial vault. There were no obvious exotoses or unequivocal signs of bony remodeling that would satisfy a diagnosis of this lesion being the result of a pathological process. It could have been a postmortem feature in which part of the outer table had eroded away and what now appears as granular tissue could be no more than the remnant of the outer table left unaffected by differential erosion. The erosion is certainly not the result of rodent gnawing. Some degree of periostitis (inflammation of the tissue adjacent to the bone) or osteitis (inflammation of the bone itself) would seem to be indicated. The postcranial skeleton, both axial and appendicular, preserved no features of interest. DENTITION
The lower 3rd molars were absent, possibly agenic, and this individual did not enjoy good dental health. Five teeth were lost before death from the upper jaw, and two incisors were nearly destroyed by caries. In the lower dentition only one tooth was definitely lost ante mortem (right 1st molar) but the two left molars had a total of three caries and shared an abscess.
Grave 7
Burial Position Grave 7 contained the skeleton of a single adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 32). Although the ribs were so poorly preserved that they did not survive exhumation, the skeleton was fully articulated and none of the major bone elements appeared to have b.een disturbed. The skull rested on the posterior base of the occipital, giving the appearance of the face looking straight down the front of the chest. The vertebrae of the neck, however, were not so flexed that the head of the corpse appeared to have been forced into a cramped position because the coffin was too short for its occupant. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were flexed at 90° angles so that the forearms crossed the abdomen at right angles to the long axis of the body. The bones of the forearms did not cross but were parallel, and practically touching, with the left higher up on the abdomen than the right. The left forearm would have been pronated with the left palm flat on the lateral side of the right rib cage, the fingers inside the crook of the right elbow. The right hand also would have been pronated, with the palm resting above the left hip and the tips of
159
the fingers just below the left elbow. The legs were fairly straight and the femora converged slightly towards the knees, which were only ca. 6-7 cm apart. The lower legs were parallel and showed no sign of this individual having been forced into a coffin too short for the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 7 was not very well preserved but most of the major skeletal elements were represented. Only two long bones (the right humerus and femur) were intact for their full length, but even these had parts of the articular ends missing. The cranium is largely intact except for parts of the maxilla (the palate, however, is completely preserved). The contours of the skull were feminine and the brow ridges were not pronounced , but the mastoid processes were large. The postcranial skeleton was robust but not so much as to seriously contradict an assessment of female. An estimate of the age at the time of death was based on the advanced synotosis of the coronal and sagittal sutures and the less advanced closure of the lambdoid suture. These, with the extensive antemortem loss of teeth and consequent alveolar resorption, suggest that this individual was in or beyond the fifth decade of life (40-50+ years) when she died. Living stature was reconstructed at 171.32 cm± 3.72 cm (5 ft 7.5 in ± 1.5 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The spinal column was incompletely preserved and such vertebrae as were present had suffered postmortem erosion to a greater or lesser degree. Four lumbar vertebrae displayed interesting defects that resembled "worm tracks," or linear channels of erosion, across the centra that, in a few cases, penetrated the horizontal surface of the centra. There were some signs of bony remodeling that distinguished these "worm tracks" from the erosion on the articular ends of most of the long bones of this individual. The linear shape of these lesions was suggestive of some antemortem affliction, most likely Schmorl's nodes, resulting from an injury to the intervertebral disc (Ortner and Putschar 1985: 323, figs. 709, 715; Rose and Sateford 1985: fig. 25). There was little or no incidence of lipping on the vertebrae. The only other observation of note on the axial skeleton was that the superior part of the sacral canal was open down to the level of the midpoint of the 2nd sacral vertebra. This configuration is anomalous, rather than pathological, and likely represents an extreme of normal variation. Usually, the sacral canal, when viewed from the posterior, closes over about halfway down the 1st sacral vertebra. This was likely not a life-threatening condition, and the individual probably was not even aware of its existence. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The posterior aspect of the lateral epicondyle of the right humerus (i.e., the outside edge of the right elbow) displayed a curious, curved defect (Fig. 64). In shape the defect was roughly lunate, with its lower point at the posterior-inferior edge of the lateral epicondyle, the upper point at the posterior-superior edge of the lateral epicondyle, and the body of the defect flush against the lateral margin of the trochlea. The lunate shape of the defect was open towards the anterior, with the points directed forward. The defect measured ca. 22 mm from tip to tip and its body had a maximum width of ca. 6 mm and a depth of ca. 4 mm into the interior of the bone. Cancellous bone was exposed within the defect. The edges of the defect were too irregular to have been the result of a mechanical, postmortem trauma (like a cut from a trowel during excavation) but were also a little too well defined to be easily equated with the gross weathering and erosion that was so generalized on the articular ends of the long bones of this individual. Since only slight signs of bony remodeling could be identified, some
160
5cm
0
Figure 64. Grave 7: right humerus, distal end, posterior view. The lesion on the lateral epicondyle (right side of the photograph) is adjacent to the lateral side of the trochlea and appears as missing cortical bone (the dark areas at the base of the bone curving up and to the right).
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form of invasive osteitis seems unlikely. A tumor that invaded the bone is a more likely culprit. The lesion in the humerus was in gross appearance similar to, but not identical with, the Schmorl's nodes in the lumbar vertebrae. DENTITION
The upper jaw retained only the right 2nd and 3rd molars; all the remaining teeth were lost before death and with much subsequent alveolar resorption. The lower jaw had only four or five teeth lost ante mortem (all posterior teeth). Agenesis of the 3rd molars is difficult to evaluate; the upper right was present, but antemortem loss of other molars suggested that the other 3rd molars, if present, may have been lost in life.
Grave 8
Burial Position Grave 8, identified as that of "Nancy Adams," contained the extended skeleton of an adult that rested on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 33). The skeleton was fully articulated and there seemed to be no disturbance to the bones . None of the major skeletal elements were absent when the grave was excavated but the cranium was later pilfered from the laboratory. The cranium rested on the right posterior part of the occipital so that the face looked down and slightly towards the right. The shoulders were shrugged, and both of the upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage. The forearms were extended down alongside the body so that the wrist would have been about the level of the hip joints . The left forearm was pronated so that the palm would have been flat against the left hip/upper thigh . The right forearm was similarly pronated and the right hand would have been alongside the right hip. The legs were fairly straight and converged slightly towards the ankles. There was no evidence that this individual had been forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis When Grave 8 was excavated the cranium was intact and some observations on it were recorded in the field. After laboratory cleaning, but before detailed analysis or photography, the cranium was pilfered from the laboratory. This loss is doubly distressing because Grave 8 is identified as that of "Nancy Adams," the only grave at Uxbridge for which we have direct contextual evidence for the identity of the occupant; in addition, she is identified on her gravestone as a "colored woman," the only direct archaeological evidence for racial affinity in the Uxbridge series. Grave 12, as we will see presently, was identified on osteological grounds as that of a Black; Grave 16, also through osteology, was identified as that of an Indian. The postcranial skeleton was not especially well preserved; some of the long bones had suffered extensive postmortem erosion, several of the vertebrae did not survive exhumation, and only a few of the ribs were preserved. Field observations made on the now absent cranium, the features of the mandible and of the pelvis, and the general gracility of the long bones all indicated that this skeleton was that of a female. The amount of occlusal attrition on the lower teeth and the aveolar resorption caused by antemortem tooth loss suggested an age at death of well beyond 30 years. Some joint involvement in the spinal column and the pathology of the left hip joint likewise suggested a person of advanced years, and an estimate of 50-60 or more years of age at the time of death would seem reasonable. This estimate is not contradicted by the age attested by the gravestone or by archival sources. The living stature, calculated from the humerus (see Chapter Six, "Stature Reconstruction"), was 174.04 cm± 4.25 cm (5 ft 8.5 in± 1.7 in).
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Observations AXIALSKELETON
Although there was some joint involvement in a few of the cervical vertebrae, with minor osteophytes, the spinal column was largely unremarkable. The exception was the 5th lumbar vertebra which possessed a "floating," or unfused, neural arch. That is, the neural arch, located on the posterior of each vertebra, normally is fused with the main body of the vertebra to form a protecting arch for the spinal cord, which runs down the posterior of the main vertebral bodies. In the case of this 5th lumbar, the neural arch, with its spinous process, inferior to the superior articular surfaces, was unfused to the remainder of the vertebra. A sort of false joint had developed in which the neural arch touched the bone just inferior to the superior articular surfaces and some signs of bony remodeling were apparent. This condition is surely a failure of ossification and not the aftermath of an injury. A very similar instance is illustrated by Brothwell (1981: fig. 4.18 D). The lower half of the spinal column, specifically the 5th thoracic through the 5th lumbar, displayed to a greater or lesser degree one or two small depressions on either or both the superior or inferior surface of the vertebral centrum. The pits were ca. 4 mm wide by 1-2 mm deep, were smooth in contour, and involved no appreciable exposure of cancellous tissue. These anomalies must have been present during the life of this individual and are most likely Schmorl's nodes. The initial stage of demineralization of the bones as a consequence of advanced age may have contributed to these lesions. HIP JOINT
Since the hip joint comprises elements of both the axial (innominate) and appendicular skeleton (the femur), this discussion appears under its own heading. The left hip joint was pathological and the head of the left femur was as severely mushroomed as one would ever expect to see in an archaeological series. The head of the femur had a grotesque, flattened appearance with the articular surface approximately twice its normal size and with osteophytes lipping over the edge of the articular surface (Fig. 65). The fovea capitis in the femoral head had "descended" from its normal position (where it is superior to the greater trochanter) to one inferior to the base of the greater trochanter. One gains the impression that the shaft of the femur moved up (relative to the pelvis), causing the neck of the femur to shorten and the head of the femur to mushroom in an effort to compensate for this shortening. The acetabulum (the socket for the head of the femur) of the left innominate was much enlarged, with its articular surface perhaps twice its normal size, expanded mainly in a superior direction (Fig. 66). The acetabulum was abnormally flattened and shallow. There was, superior to the superior edge of the acetabulum and adjacent to it, an abnormal circular pit that measured ca. 15 mm in diameter. The pit was shallowest at its superior edge and ca. 10 mm deep at its inferior edge. There was no exposure of cancellous bone or any obvious sign of osteitis. The pit may have been a stabilized sequela, or aftereffect, of the injury to the hip. The head of the right femur was slightly flattened, a condition mirrored by its acetabulum, but these abnormalities were in no way as serious as the gross deformity on the left hip. Since the deformity of the left hip joint was unaccompanied by other signs of serious osteoarthritic degeneration elsewhere in the skeleton, it is likely that the deformity was the result of a fracture and/ or severe dislocation of the hip, one that was never correctly reduced, or treated. A similar example is illustrated by Brothwell (1981: pl. 6.10 A). DENTITION
Since the cranium had been pilfered from the laboratory prior to analysis, the upper dentition was not observed. The lower arcade lacks both 3rd molars and four other posterior teeth were lost during life.
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0
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Figure 65. Grave 8: proximal femora, posterior view. The left femur (on the left of the photograph) displays a massive, mushroomed head that has sunk below the level of the greater trochanter. The right femur is much less seriously affected, but the head is slightly flattened and note the elongated malformations on the intertrochante ric crest. Figure 66 shows the effects on the sockets of the pelvis.
Figur e 66. Grav e 8: acetabula e of th e innominata, inferior view. The left innominate (on the left of the photograph) has a grossly enlarged acetabulum to accommodate the mushroomed head of the left femu r shown in Figur e 65. The ace tabulum of the rig ht innom inate is more nearly normal , but it, too, show s the changes resulting from the flattened head of its femur.
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Grave 9
Burial Position Grave 9 contained a single extended inhumation of a juvenile, resting on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 34). Although no evidence of disturbance or disarticulation was seen, the preservation of the skeletal remains was so poor that few details of the burial position could be determined. The arrangement of arms was not clear but the left knee seemed to be very slightly flexed. The skull rested on the basal part of the occipital, and there was no sign of the corpse having been forced into a coffin too short for its stature.
Analysis The child's skeleton from Grave 9 was very poorly preserved, with a fragmentary cranium and not a single long bone preserved for its full diaphyseal length. In fact, fragments of only two diaphyses (shafts of, in this instance, immature long bones) survived exhumation. Enough of the dentition was preserved, however, to assess the age at the time of death at seven years. No evaluation of sex was possible, nor was a reconstruction of living stature.
Observations The skeleton was so poorly preserved that no measurements or even observations were forthcoming on the postcranial skeleton. Of interest, however, was the pronounced enamel hypoplasia visible on the upper left medial permanent incisor and both upper permanent first molars (Fig. 67). Just below the occlusal surface of each of these teeth was a profound constriction in the enamel; on the incisor it actually took the form of a groove. These deficiencies in the calcification of the teeth are thought to be the aftereffects of some metabolic insult, possibly of no small duration, during the time in which the tissue was forming. Prolonged malnutrition and serious illnesses are two etiologies that have been posited for enamel hypopla sia (Brothwell 1981: 159). The sequence of events would have been similar to the following: first, the tissue (in this case, the teeth) would have began to develop normally; the insult occurs and development of certain tissues is arrested; finally, health is regained and normal growth and development resume, but the "scar" of the status of the tissue during the insult survives. Development subsequent to the insult may be quite normal, but the defects in calcification of the teeth cannot mend themselves and will persist throughout life. Judging from standard charts of dental development such as those in Brothwell (1981: fig. 3.3 A), Shipman, Walker, and Bichell (1985: fig. 15-2), and Ubelaker (1978: 112- 113), this individual suffered the metabolic insult that produced the enamel hypoplasia at some point between approximately one and one-and-a-half years of age. DENTITION
The dentition of this child was very poorly preserved and fragmentary , but, as already discussed, pronounced enamel hypoplasia was observed on three permanent maxillary teeth : both 1st molars and the left lateral incisor (Fig. 67).
Grave 10
Burial Position Grave 10 contained the extended skeleton of an adult, resting on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 35). The remains were fully articulated and well preserved. The skull rested on the area of the left temporal and mastoid and the face was towards the left shoulder of the corpse. This individual had been autopsied prior to burial, and the calvaria (top of the cranium) had been cut away, presumably to permit access to the brain (Figs. 68-71). When the grave was excavated the calvaria was found adjacent to the remainder of the cranium in a
165
Figure 67. Grave 9: right upper 1st (permanent) molar. The circumscribed line of enamel hypoplasia is clearly evident.
166
5cm
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Figure 68. Grave 10: cranium less calvaria, anterior view. Note that the plane of transection is higher on the cranium's left side and dips to the cranium's right.
167
�
0\ 00
5cm
Figure 69. Grave 10: calvaria, right lateral view.
0
~
0\ \0
0
5cm
Figure 70. Grave 10: cranium less calvaria, right lateral view. In this view and in Figure 69 note the evenness of the plane of transection. There is an apical abscess visible for the 1st molar, appearing as a lesion in the jaw above the gap in the teeth.
5 cm
0
Figure 71. Grave 10: vertical view of cranium less calvaria. The structures at the base of the cranium are intact, showing that this area was not damaged during the autopsy.
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position that suggested that the calvaria had been replaced on the cranium prior to burial; with the passage of time the calvaria may have slipped to the position in which it was found. The location of the calvaria when found, and its orientation (anterior and posterior, in the anatomical sense) are wholly consistent with such an interpretation. The shoulders were shrugged and the upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage. The elbows were flexed at ea. 45 ° angles so that the ends of the forearms (left atop right) crossed at the level of the lower abdomen. Both hands would have been pronated, with the palms resting upon the abdomen. The femora converged towards the knees, and the latter were separated by only 3-5 cm. The lower legs were parallel and there was no sign of the individual having been forced into a coffin too short for the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 10 was quite well preserved, even in light of the damage to the cranium caused by the autopsy. The long bones were intact and the axial skeleton (i.e., the head and trunk, minus the limbs) was in a good state of preservation. The brow ridges and mastoid processes were pronounced, though not massive, and these were consistent with other masculine features of the skull. The pelvic bones were unequivocally those of a male, confirming the assessment based on the skull. All four of the 3rd molars were erupted and functional, a circumstance that placed this individual at no less than 20-21 years of age at the time of death. The medial ends of both clavicles were incompletely fused with their epiphyses, an observation that limited the age at the time of death to probably no more than 25 years. This male, then, died between the ages of 20 and 25 years. Of some interest in the evaluation of the age at the time of death was the state of synotosis of the sagittal suture; it was well progressed ectocranially but largely absent endocranially. This is the reverse of the normal progression of the closure of cranial sutures, which begins endocranially and is only later apparent on the external surface of the cranium. This circumstance could merely be normal variability, or it could somehow be related to whatever made this individual a candidate for an autopsy. There were, as will be considered presently, two additional anomalous aspects of the skeleton. Living stature was reconstructed at 174.53 cm.± 3.51 cm (5 ft 9 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
A detailed presentation of ob servations regarding th� autopsy of this individual is deferred to Chapter Six. Suffice it here to note that the calvaria had been sawn away in the course of a postmortem examination. The spinal column was very well preserved and was free from the osteophytoses of joint involvement on the periphery of the vertebral centra. The 12th thoracic vertebra was slightly malformed; the right transverse process was not pointing out to the right side, as would be normal, but was directed upwards so that it was posterior to the posterior surface of the right superior articular process. The upturned part of the transverse process was ea. 12 mm long. This anomaly was seen nowhere else in the spinal column and there were no convincing signs of trauma in the vertebrae, and it is difficult to assess how much, if any, loss of spinal mobility might have been the case. Likely, this malformed transverse process was a localized developmental anomaly rather than the result of injury. The sacrum displayed a sacral canal that was open for the entire length of the posterior aspect of the bone (Fig. 72). The width of the opening was 26 mm at the superior end of the sacrum, it narrowed to 6 mm at the level of the 3rd sacral vertebra, and then widened again to 20 mm at the inferior end of the sacrum. This condition, spina bifida occulta, was seen several times in this skeletal series (see "Pathology" in Chapter Six) and is identified as a congenital anomaly. It is thought to have a genetic mode of transmittal but should not be confused with
171
0
5cm
Figure 72. Grave 10: sacrum, posterior view . Note the open sacral canal.
Figure 73. Grave 10: medial ends of the clavicles. The incomplete union of the epiphyses is readily apparent, the "excavated" or "depressed" configuration of the medial ends less so. The left clavicle is on the right side of the photograph, and the inferior is to the bottom.
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the much more serious condition of spina bifida, a congenital birth defect that endangers life. Brothwell (1981: 109, fig. 4.18 E) mentions spina bifida occulta in the context of positing familial relationships among several Saxon graves from Britain and illustrates an example . Walton (1981: 1281) remarks on the condition: Spina bifida occulta, with such failures of fusion in the arches of the fifth lumbar or first sacral vertebrae, may be entirely asymptomatic but can also be accompanied by various abnormalities of development of the spinal cord, the cauda equina, or both. Sometimes a dimple in the skin or a tuft of hair may overlie such a defect. A more extensive failure of fusion of the neural arches- spina bifida-is more often associated with overt abnormalities of the cord and its coverings ... APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The medial ends of the clavicles were anomalous. Each medial end appeared as an irregular, conical pit approximately 10 mm deep (Fig. 73). The medial epiphyses were not quite completely fused, but the tissue of the exposed, unfused end of the diaphysis seemed normal enough. Similar "sunken" ends are seen also in the clavicles from Graves 16 and 23. The right clavicle had, in addition, a definite depression on the inferior side, near the medial end. The depression was 8 mm wide in the anterior-posterior dimension, 12 mm wide in the lateral dimension, by ca. 5 mm deep. The borders of the depression were clear and sharp, and the floor of the depression displayed mainly cortical bone with some evidence of bony remodeling in the small exposures of cancellous bone that were visible. The left clavicle was quite normal in this respect, displaying only the usual "roughened impression" where the costoclavicular ligament inserts (see Shipman, Walker, and Bichell: 103, fig. 9-2). The manubrium, likewise, looked quite normal. Since the depression (one hesitates to term it a "lesion") on the inferior side of the right clavicle was in the location for the insertion of the costoclavicular ligament, it had greatly exaggerated the normal appearance of that insertion site. This anomaly was likely associated with the architecture of the ligament although it could have been nothing more remarkable than a developmental anomaly. Possibly a serious separation of the ligament during life with a subsequent disorder of the healing process is indicated, but there were none of the bony overgrowths commonly associated with a fracture or a severe separation of the periosteum. To return to the medial ends of the clavicles, with their depressed (or "excavated") sternal ends, we should say that this condition is attested in the literature, but without much explication . Why the deep excavation should occur we have never been able to discover . It is quite a striking fact that marked excavation of the clavicle interferes in no way with the typical life history of the sternal epiphysis (fodd and D'Errico 1928: 30).
It is interesting that a number of developmental anomalies appear on the one skeleton from Uxbridge that was certainly subjected to an autopsy: the malformed 12th thoracic vertebra, the open sacral canal, and the anomalous medial ends of the clavicles. DENTITION
The maxillary dentition of this individual displayed abscesses in the alveolus (see Fig. 70) of both 1st molars and a large caries on the left 1st premolar. Both of the upper 3rd molars were reduced in size, but were not "peg-shaped." The lower arcade possessed a carious, abscessed left 1st molar and there was some crowding in the anterior teeth, from the left medial incisor around to the right canine. The lower left 3rd molar, like its counterparts in the maxilla, was somewhat reduced in size, but the lower right 3rd molar was full-sized.
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Grave 11
Burial Position Grave 11 contained the skeleton of a child, extended on its back, with the head to the west (see Fig. 36). The skeletal remains were, for an Uxbridge sub-adult, quite well preserved. The cranium rested on the basal part of the occipital, facing straight down the chest (see Fig. 16). The upper arms were alongside the rib cage. The left elbow was flexed at an acute angle such that the left wrist would have been at the approximate center of the chest. The left forearm was pronated so that the left palm would have rested atop the right breast . The bones of the right forearm were too poorly preserved to be certain of their position. The right femur was straight in line with the long axis of the body. The left femur was flexed at ca. 30° at the hip joint so that the left knee came to within a few centimeters of the right . Both knees were slightly flexed and the ankles touched each other. This sort of flexing of the legs would be the sort of result one might expect from forcing a corpse into a coffin that was too short for the person's stature, but such seems not to be the case in this instance. The size of the coffin could be judged with some certainty, and there was adequate space for the feet had the legs been fully extended. Likely the slight flexion observed on the legs of this burial resulted from the arrangement of the corpse or the vicissitudes of postmortem settlement of the bones.
Analysis The child's skeleton from Grave 11 was fairly well preserved and most of the postcranial diaphyses could be measured. The skull was fragmentary, but enough of the dentition of both the maxilla and mandible was preserved to provide an assessment of the age at the time of death as between one and two years. The degree of dental development was very similar to that of the child in Grave 5. No anomalies were observed on the skeleton, no evaluation of sex was possible, and no stature reconstruction was forthcoming.
Observations There were no abnormalities or observations of pathology for the skeleton from Grave 11. DENTITION
The dentition of this child had nothing remarkable about it.
Grave 12
Burial Position Grave 12 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 37). Although the skeleton was not well preserved, the elements seemed to be fully articulated and lacked any sign of serious disturbance. The area of the skull and the upper right arm was covered by shards of window glass, a circumstance that prevented disclosure of the precise position of the skull in the grave until the glass and the earthen matrix beneath it could be documented and removed. The glass was in a number of fragments with the largest (measuring ca. 15 x 5 cm) resting with one of its long edges transversely upon the anterior side of the vertebrae of the throat, and leaning against the skull. The glass was transparent and was mended in the laboratory to form a rectangular pane; clearly, it was a view plate on the coffin and the shards should not be interpreted as the residue of a fatal mishap or incidental to the grave fill. Once exposed, the skull was seen to rest on the posterior part of the left inferior temporal, nearly on the basal aspect of the occipital. The skull faced to the inferior and left of the corpse, towards the left shoulder. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage. The position of the left forearm was uncertain because of poor bone preservation but it seemed to be extended alongside the left pelvis. The right forearm was pronated alongside the right hip; the palm would have rested on the outside edge of the hip. The bones of the leg were fully extended with the inside of the knees no more than 4 cm
174
apart. The tibiae converged towards the ankles. There were no signs of this corpse having been forced into a coffin too short for its stature.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 12 had very variable preservation. The skull was in excellent condition (Figs. 74, 75) but some of the long bones were so badly eroded that their maximum length could not be measured. This erosion attacked not only the articular ends of the long bones but also the shafts. During excavation it was posited that rodents may have gnawed the bones, so striking was the appearance of the eroded areas; inspection in the laboratory, however, revealed none of the characteristic gnaw marks of rodents on the bones. Perhaps some very localized features of the burial environment induced relatively rapid decomposition of parts of bones while the left side of the cranium retains patches of scalp and straight brown hair. The bones were quite small and gracile, but definitely those of an adult. The brow ridges were so slight as to be virtually non-existent and the mastoid processes were small . The right innominate was much the better preserved of the pair and had a very wide greater sciatic notch; the preserved fragment of the left innominate preserved enough of its greater sciatic notch to provide, on its own merits, an assessment of female. The long bones were so gracile that an evaluation for this skeleton as female would be justified on this basis alone . There was only minimal ectocranial synotosis, and that was limited to the short stretches of the coronal and sagittal sutures near the bregma. The basilar suture (or basi-sphenoid synchondrosis, a feature at the base of the cranium) was wholly closed. All four of the 3rd molars were erupted and functional and their occlusal surfaces were worn to the extent that cusp morphology was no longer clear. An assessment of an age at the time of death of 25-30 years seems reasonable. Features of the cranium, including the shape of the lower border of the nasal aperture (see Fig. 74) and maxillary prognathism (a jutting forward of the mouth area; see Fig. 75) suggested that this woman may have been Black. The application of discriminant function analysis (Giles and Elliot 1962) supported this analysis; Grave 12 was likely that of a short, slender woman, likely Black. Living stature was reconstructed at 149.33 cm± 3.22 cm (4 ft 11 in± 1.2 in).
Observations The skeleton from Grave 12 displayed no anomalies or evidence of pathology. The bones were quite small, but normal in their configuration. None of the vertebrae showed any sign of osteophytes or of joint involvement. DENTITION
The upper dentition was healthy and, save for some slight crowding of the medial incisors, unremarkable. The lateral incisors did display some very slight shoveling (Fig 76). The mandibular dentition displayed caries in the left 2nd premolar and 1st and 2nd molars and right 3rd molar. All four lower incisors displayed some amount of crowding.
Grave 13
Burial Position Grave 13 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west end of the grave (see Fig. 38). The skeleton appeared to have been fully articulated and with no sign of any serious disturbance. The skull rested on the most posterior part of the occipital and faced straight "up" in the grave. The shoulders were shrugged and both of the upper arms were alongside the rib cage. The elbows were flexed so that the left forearm crossed the area of the lower chest and the right forearm crossed the upper abdomen. The left elbow was flexed slightly more than the right, hence the left forearm was slightly higher up on the torso than the right. The angle created by the left humerus and forearm is slightly more than 90° from full extension, that created by the right elbow is slightly less than 900.
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Figure 74. Grave 12: cranium, anterior view. The shape of the inferior nasal border is suggestive of Negro ancestry.
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Figure 75. Grave 12: cranium, left lateral view . The alveolar prognathism and the contours of the cranium suggest Negro ancestry. The patches of scalp that are visible retain brown, straight hair.
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Figure 76. Grave 12: maxillary dentition, occlusal view. The lateral incisors are slightly shoveled. Occlusal attrition has exposed dentine on the incisors, and islands of dentine on the 1st molars. Note also the slight crowding of the incisor teeth.
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The left forearm was pronated so that the palm would have been flat against the lower ribs on the right side of the chest. The tips of the left hand would have touched the crook of the right elbow. The right forearm was likewise pronated and the right palm would have rested against the left upper abdomen. The tips of the right fingers would have been just inferior to the point of the left elbow. The femora converged towards the knee, with the insides of the knees ca. 3 cm apart. The lower legs were straight and parallel. There was no sign of this individual having been forced into a coffin too short for the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 13 was well preserved; despite some erosion on the edges of some of the bones, anatomical landmarks were usually distinct and the long bones were preserved for their full length. The cranium (Figs. 77, 78) was so well preserved that even the right styloid process was intact; such fragile features are not often seen in excavated materials. The brow ridges were indeed pronounced and the mastoid processes were massive. An assessment of this individual as a male is supported by the pelvis, where the configuration of the greater sciatic notches was well within the masculine range. The postcranial skeleton was large and robust, and the identification of this individual as a male is unequivocal. Ectocranial synotosis was advanced for all of the sutures, even the squamous. The sagittal , coronal, and lambdoid sutures were so thoroughly fused that the track of the sutures cannot always be discerned. There is little doubt that this individual was well into the mature years at the time of death. An evaluation of dental attrition is confused because of antemortem tooth loss and consequent absence of opposing teeth. The features of the pubic symphyses were so far advanced beyond the range useful for assessing age at the time of death, and the synotosis of cranial sutures was so complete, that this individual must have been 40-50+ years of age at the time of death. Emphasis should be placed on the "+". Living stature was reconstructed at 172.62cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 8 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The superior articular facets of the atlas (those for the occipital condyles) displayed elevated margins; this condition, indicating some amount of joint involvement, was present on practically every articular surface in the spinal column. The 4th and 5th cervical vertebrae were ankylosed, or fused, by overlapping osteophytes on the anterior surface of the vertebral centra. There is no question but that the osteophytes increased in size until fusion occurred. The ankyloses, then, represents osteophytes that were exaggerating the "normal" contours of the bone. The 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic vertebrae, however, were ankylosed by osseous tissue that could not be so comfortably classified as "excessive lipping of the joint margins." Rather, these vertebrae were fused by a distinct formation of bone that resembled dense, cortical tissue. The formation does not resemble the rather porous-looking, normal cortical surface of vertebral bodies; this tissue was quite dense and reflected none of the normal contours of vertebral anatomy that underlay the formation. The formation was on the right anterior aspect of the vertebrae; if the transverse plane of the body is thought of as a clock face, with 12 o'clock being straight ahead, then this lesion was located between 1 and 2 o'clock. In the area affected, the lesion involved almost all of the depth of the 11th thoracic. The maximum width of the lesion, at the top and bottom of the 9th thoracic, varied between 28 and 34 mm, measured from the anterior /left to the posterior /right. It narrowed to ca. 8 mm near the superior edge of the 8th thoracic; at this point there were two osteophytes, one much longer than the other, that ascended to, but did not interfere with, the articulation of the 8th and 7th thoracic. The 7th thoracic, interestingly enough, had a roughened, anomalous surface on the right anterior aspect of the body, with an osteophyte at the superior edge mirroring the osteophytes at the superior edge of the 8th thoracic. The 6th thoracic, as far as this particular lesion is concerned, seemed uninvolved.
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Figure 77. Grave 13: cranium, anterior view. One of the medial incisors (left) has been lost ante mortem, the other post mortem.
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Figure 78. Grave 13: cranium, left lateral view. Alveolar resorption is clearly visible, but the exposure of the root of the first molar is post mortem.
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The 11th thoracic had an exotosis on the right superior edge of its articulation with the centrum of the 10th thoracic, but it was not at all clear if this exotosis was part of the well defined lesion that fused the 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic. The remainder of the anterior surface of the 11th thoracic was normal, quite different from the comparable but roughened area of the 7th thoracic. The impression one gained is that of a lesion centered, or at least most advanced, on the 9th thoracic; the lesion then spread to the 8th and 10th thoracic and was on its way to serious involvement with the 7th thoracic when either the condition stabilized or death intervened. A not dissimilar instance is illustrated in Brothwell (1981: plate 6.9) where the upper vertebrae labeled "Medium" is fused with its superior neighbor by a mass of bony tissue. Brothwell diagnoses the lesions in his example as the result of one of the more common forms of osteoarthritis and comments (1981: 146) ... the cause may be completely unknown, or directly related to injury, infection or more probably age-related stress and strain. The disease usually affects middle-aged or older individuals.
The 11th and 12th thoracic and the 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae had large exotoses at several points on their superior and/ or inferior borders , with the more pronounced examples on the right side. The 4th lumbar had an exotosis on the left superior sid e of its centrum and the 5th lumbar had a very pronounced one on the anterior, slightly to the right of center, along with a less pronounced (but still extensive) elaboration along the right inferior margin of the centrum. The 1st sacral vertebra had a large exotosis on its right anterior superior border, adjacent to one on the 5th lumbar. The impression given by the spinal column is bipartite: 1) There is a generalized condition of involvement of joint margins and surfaces, producing osteophytes, especially in the lower half of the spinal column. These bony excrescences are usually branched in shape and appear as small, brittle outgrowths; 2) The right and right anterior aspect of the spinal column, especially its lower half, display osteophytes that are larger than the others, present the appearance of smooth, dense cortical bone, and have ankylosed several vertebrae. The condition seems to have been close to fusing several additional vertebrae whose exotoses were adjacent, and very nearly touching, when either the condition stabilized or, more likely, death intervened. _The former condition, the generalized involvement, is well attested in the literature (Brothwell 1981: 143-151; Ubelaker 1978: 78-79) and surely represents one of the forms of arthritis (Ubelaker 1978: table 11) from which humankind has suffered for millennia. The second condition, that of the larger outgrowths appearing as cortical tissue, could perhaps be ascribed to a different etiology because of the following observations: 1) the lesion on the 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic vertebrae had a localized nature and dense, smooth appearance; 2) it was involved with the entire depth of the vertebrae and not just the articular margins of the centra; 3) and there were no additional, isolated exotoses elsewhere on these three vertebrae. The 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic appeared otherwise unaffected; the neural arches and the spinous processes seemed to be more or less normal, so a serious crushing injury seems unlikely. The ribs were normal, so some massive penetrating wound seems unlikely. Besides, such a penetrating wound would have passed through vital organs in order to damage the anterior and right anterior aspects of these thoracic vertebrae. Such an injury would have made it unlikely that the individual would have survived long enough to permit the development of the osseous lesion. There is, however, the possibility that the condition is the same as that discussed by Manchester (1987: 169, fig. 132.2) as "Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis." The disease, of unknown aetiology, causes a relentlessly progressive ossification of spinal ligaments and extra-spinal soft tissue .... The result is a gradual spinal fixation and limitation of other joint movements. It is possible, therefore, to picture the severe disability of the afflicted individual and to understand the increasing support of kinsme:n which was necessary. but it is also known from modern clinical studies that the disease is associated, in many cases, with
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maturity-onset diabetes mellitus. Maturity-onset diabetes, a common problem in current medical practice, is also known to be associated with obesity. Was, therefore, the individual with this skeletal disease in antiquity, an obese diabetic?
The weight of the evidence, after all, favors the identification of the second category of lesion as the continued development of the first category. That is, what appeared to be separate on the skeleton were in fact stages in a continuum of arthritic changes. These stages are illustrated in Ubelaker (1978: fig. 77) and Brothwell (1981: pl. 6.9). Ubelaker retains the nomenclature developed by Stewart (1958) and stages 1 and 2 resemble our "first" condition, stages 3 and 4 our "second" condition. Attention was drawn earlier to the ankylosed vertebrae in Brothwell's illustration (1981: pl. 6.9) as resembling the lesion that fused our 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic. The diagnosis of "arthritis," however, is only of a general nature. In discussing a variation of a classification scheme for the varieties of arthritis, Ubelaker (1978: 78, drawing on Aegerter and Kirkpatrick 1975: 623) cautions: A recent classification of arthritic disorders . . . includes many varieties that cannot be diagnosed reliably from skeletal remains. Their diversity serves to emphasize the complexity of the problem of identification and the probability of erroneous diagnoses by an untrained observer.
The sacrum was somewhat anomalous in that the sacral canal was open at the superior end and revealed the posterior aspect of the 1st, 2nd, and superior half of the 3rd sacral vertebrae. The open canal was the full width of the neural arch at the level of the 1st sacral, narrowed at the level of the 2nd sacral, and came to a "V" point midway down the 3rd sacral. Although there is some amount of variation in the size of the "exposure" of the sacral canal among 1st sacral vertebrae, textbook illustrations of normal sacra show that only the posterior of the 1st sacral is usually "open" (Crouch 1978: fig. 8-30; Gardner and Osburn 1978: fig. 4-46; Shipman, Walker, and Bichell 1985: fig. 7-3). This condition is more anomalous than pathological, and must represent some variation on the theme of spina bifida occulta (see Grave 10) or unfused neural arches in the lower lumbar vertebrae (see Grave 8). APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The long bones were all quite robust with the landmarks unusually sharp and well defined. There was some small amount of lipping on the margins of the articular surfaces, and some minor exotoses were noted on the lateral superior posterior margins of the iliac crests of the innominata. Congruent with these relatively minor instances of osteophytes were the "overossification" of the hyoid and of the connective tissue of the 1st ribs at the manubrium. The xiphoid process of the sternum is likewise ossified. The head of each femur, while otherwise normal, dispJayed an enlarged fovea capitis. They measured approximately 15 by 20 mm and displayed elaborations on their margins. These elaborations were not so extensive as to greatly interfere with articulation, and likely represent nothing more traumatic than a normal concomitant of the aging process. Some marginal lipping was present on the edges of the articular surfaces of the femoral heads. There were signs of pathology in the region of the distal articulations of the tibiae and fibulae. The external aspects of the bones were roughened, and some small exotoses were present, in the distal 50 mm or so of the lateral sides of the tibiae and the corresponding medial sides of the fibulae. The condition was bilateral on the tibiae and fibulae, but the talus and navicular bones of the right foot were fused together. The edges of the articular surfaces of the talus/navicular joint were still distinct and easily discerned, so the fusion must be towards the center of the joint surface. The bones of the left foot were unremarkable. The condition in the lower ·legs could have been caused by some localized arthritis or osteitis or possibly have been a response to a bilateral injury. The former explanation would fit the clinical picture of the rest of the skeleton, one displaying generalized and systematic
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joint involvement, possibly as an aging process. The latter explanation might account for the two fused bones in the right foot. In any event, the condition seemed not to have been especially serious. DENTITION
The maxillary dentition had a left 2nd premolar that had decayed to a shell and had lost the left medial incisor ante mortem (see Fig. 77). In the lower arcade the 3rd molars seemed agenic and six posterior teeth had been lost ante mortem, perhaps from the sort of alveolar resorption seen in Figure 78. There were some signs of enamel hypoplasia on the crowns of the teeth that were present. None of these incidences were marked and they resembled the examples illustrated in Brothwell (1981: pl. 6.13 B, the two specimens on the left). Judging from the locations of the lesions, it would seem that this individual, who died an adult, suffered some metabolic insult in childhood, perhaps between the ages of four to six years judging from the degree of development of the crown when the enamel hypoplasia occurred . The reader is referred to the observations on Grave 6 in the Uxbridge series for more information on enamel hypoplasia.
Grave 14
Burial Description Grave 14 contained the inhumation of an adult, fully extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 39). The skeleton was not very well preserved but all of the major bone elements seemed to have been present and there was no sign of any serious disturbance to the remains. The skull rested on the posterior part of the right temporal and faced down and to the right of the corpse. Both of the upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the forearms were alongside their respective hips. Both forearms were pronated and the palms would have rested against, and alongside, their respective upper thighs. Both femora converged slightly towards the knee and the insides of the knees were separated by no more than ca. 4 cm. The tibiae were very nearly parallel and converged only slightly towards the ankles. The plan drawing of Grave 14 (Fig. 39) shows an elongated object (labeled "wood") resting beneath the left lower leg. This object was at first thought to be a wooden splint, or orthopedic brace, for the left lower leg; it was eventually identified as nothing more than a piece of the floor of the coffin that had been fortuitously preserved in proximity to the tibia.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 14 was not especially well preserved but the cranium was fairly complete. The long bones and vertebrae, however, showed some amount of postmortem erosion. Two patches of hair and scalp were preserved; one was on the left side of the cranium (Fig. 79) and the other just posterior to where the right ear would have been. Both had irregular borders and retained coarse light colored hairs. Although the metopic suture, which normally closes by two years of age (Krogman 1978: 87-88), of the forehead was visible (Fig. 80), there is no question that this skeleton was that of an adult. The brow ridges were not developed at all and the mastoid processes were small. The contours of the mandible were well within the feminine range, the bones of the postcranial skeleton were small and gracile, and the features of the pelvis, like those of the cranium, were classically feminine. The right upper third molar was erupted and functional (the others may have been lost ante mortem or were simply agenic) but antemortem tooth loss made uncertain the value of occlusal attrition as an indicator of age. All parts of the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures, as well as the metopic, were open ectocranially. These observations support an estimate of the age at the time of death at 30-40 years. Living stature was calculated at 165.01cm± 3.55 cm (5 ft 5 in± 1.4 in).
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Figure 79. Grave 14: cranium, left lateral view. Patches of scalp retaining some coarse, light-colored hair are visible.
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Figure 80. Grave 14: cranium, anterior view. The damage to the left side of the face is post mortem (the white object is the clipped end of a root that had grown into the face), but the open metopic suture running down the forehead is clearly visible. The left medial incisor has fallen out post mortem, but the left lateral incisor has been reduced to a rotten stub.
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Observations Aside from the open metopic suture (see Fig. 80), which is a developmental anomaly, there was little of note regarding this skeleton. The spinal column displayed virtually no sign of joint involvement; there were instances of slight bony elaborations on the interior posterior aspect of the neural arch of the 6th, 8th, and 11th thoracic vertebrae only. DENTITION
The upper arcade had lost no fewer that six teeth ante mortem, and the right 1st and 2nd molars were decayed to a carious stub and a shell, respectively. The left medial incisor was a carious stub as well (see Fig. 80). The medial incisors in the maxilla displayed some slight shoveling (Fig. 81). In the mandible both 3rd molars were likely agenic. The left 1st and 2nd molars were carious, and the former was abscessed. The three posterior teeth on the right were lost ante mortem, and there was some slight crowding of the incisors.
Grave 15
Burial Position Grave 15 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 40). The skeleton was fully articulated and there was no evidence of disturbance . The skull rested on the posterior area of the right parietal and faced slightly to the corpse's right. The upper arms were straight alongside the ribs and both elbows were flexed so that the forearms were at angles of ca. 60° from full extension. The left forearm crossed atop the right, with the approximate center of the right forearm located beneath the left wrist. Both forearms were pronated and the palms would have rested upon their opposite hips (left palm atop the right hip and vice versa). The femora converged slightly towards the knees, with some 10 cm separating the inside edges of the knees. The lower legs were quite parallel and there was no evidence of this individual having been forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse. The shoulders were, however, shrugged.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 15 was fairly well preserved, despite some damage to the face (Fig. 82) and erosion on the articular ends of some of the long bones. Some patches of scalp and light colored, probably blond, hair were preserved on the cranium (Fig. 83); the longest strands were ca. 60 mm in length. The brow ridges were well developed and the mastoid processes were massive. Despite its nearly edentulous nature, the mandible retained a square chin and masculine proportions. The pelvic bones were well preserved and the greater sciatic notches are classically male in configuration. There was extensive ectocranial synotosis with the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures nearly completely closed. There has been extensive antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption, and the pubic symphyses support an evaluation of an age at the time of death in excess of 50 years. Living stature was reconstructed at 174.77cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 9 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIALSKELETON
The vertebrae were well preserved except that the 7th cervical was incomplete, the 1st and 2nd thoracic were missing, and the 7th through 12th thoracic were missing parts of their left side. All of these losses were, of course, post mortem. The cervical vertebrae displayed virtually no lipping or joint involvement. The two uppermost thoracic were missing, but the 3rd thoracic displayed no sign of joint involvement.
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Figure 81. Grave 14: maxillary dentition, lingual view . The right medial incisor displays slight shoveling; the left, also slightly shoveled, was found loose and not replaced for this photograph.
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Figure 82. Grave 15: cranium, anterior view. The left side of the face is damaged (post mortem) . The right maxillary teeth are all lost ante mortem and alveolar resorption is advanced.
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Figure 83. Grave 15: cranium, right lateral view. The resorption from the lost maxillary dentition is apparent. Note also the well preserved styloid process and patches of scalp with light-colored, straight hair .
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The 4th through 9th thoracic vertebrae were fused together at the time of death. The points of fusion were fragile, as were the vertebrae themselves, and the assemblage fragmented somewhat during laboratory cleaning. The fresh breaks were easy to identify, however, and there was no doubt that this segment of the spinal column was ankylosed during life. The principal agency of fusion was an elongated growth, resembling dense cortical bone, located mainly on the anterior surface of the vertebral centra . This growth resembled the one that fused together the 8th, 9th, and 10th thoracic of Grave 13· and the reader is referred to that discussion for comparanda. There was also, in Grave 15, evidence of what appeared to be ossification of the in vertebral discs; between the 6th and 7th thoracic there was exposed (by the breakage during cleaning) an ossified oval of tissue. This oval was located towards the posterior of the centrum and was 19 mm wide (laterally) by 10 mm anterior-posterior. Study of the sections through the six fused vertebrae showed that not only were the anterior parts of the vertebral centra ankylosed by the large outgrowth but the processes at the posterior of the vertebrae were fused as well. The degree of fusion did seem to be most advanced on the anterior. There was no collapse of any vertebrae. The lumbar vertebrae displayed large, but non-fusing, exotoses at several locations. There was an appreciable amount of joint involvement on the articular surfaces of the vertebral arch of these vertebrae. Both the superior and inferior articular surfaces were involved, displaying osteophytes on their margins, and the condition was most marked at the articulations of the 5th lumbar with the 1st sacral. The articular surface of the left inferior process of the 5th lumbar displayed some linear irregularities, oriented vertically, that could have resulted from ebumation, a "polishing" of joint surfaces resulting from bone-on-bone movement. Normally, the articular surfaces of bones are protected by cartilaginous tissue; in some diseases of the joints, such as osteoarthritis, the cartilage is destroyed and the bones come into direct contact with one another. This abnormal contact, combined with movement of the joint, will produce eburnation of the points of contact (Ubelake r 1978: 78). Such a condition might be indicated in the present instance. Among the lumbar vertebrae there were, in addition to the exotoses of the vertebral arch, osteophytes on the margins of the vertebral centra. None of these, however, involved fusion of bones. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton was largely unremarkable except for some observations that are consistent with an advanced age at the time of death. There were some exotoses on the iliac crests and ischia of the innominata as well as some enlargement of the acetabular margins. In addition there was some slight bilateral thickening of the distal fibulae; this is not necessarily a development associated with advanced age, however. More likely, an infection like periostitis is indicated. A comparable example is illustrated in Ubelaker (1978: fig. 19, third and fourth specimens from the left). DENTITION
The maxillary arcade had lost all but four teeth (right canine through 1st molar) ante mortem, with consequent extravagant alveolar resorption (see Fig. 83). The mandible was even more thoroughly ravaged and the socket for only the right 2nd premolar was present; all of the other teeth had been lost ante mortem with subsequent alveolar resorption. One could not say whether or not any of the 3rd molars had ever been present.
Grave 16
Burial Position Grave 16 contained the extended inhumation of an adult, resting on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 41). The skeleton was fully articulated and there was no evidence of any
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significant disturbance (see Fig. 15). The skull rested on the left area of the occipital so that while the face was in a level anatomical plane, it was "looking" slightly to the corpse's left. This was one of the graves in the Uxbridge series that displayed some evidence that strongly suggests that the coffin was too narrow to accommodate the width of the corpse. There was no indication that the coffin was too short, but the position of the bones of the shoulder girdle suggests that the coffin was somewhat too narrow at the shoulders, so they were shrugged. Grave 16 had as narrow and, judging from the proximity of the remains of the sides of the coffin with the bones, as tightly fitting a coffin as any in the Uxbridge series. The upper arms were straight, with the left alongside the rib cage and the right actually in front of the right edge of the rib cage. The latter circumstance also suggests crowding the corpse. The elbows were fully extended with the bones of the left forearm passing in back of the left edge of the pelvis. Since the bones of the left hand were still articulated, palm down, atop the proximal edge of the left femur, the left hand could not have been tucked away behind the left thigh; rather, the left forearm must have been alongside the hip and, with the decay of the soft tissues, the bones of the forearm must have slipped past the pelvic bones and settled, still articulated with the humerus, on the floor of the coffin. The bones of the right forearm were alongside the right pelvis, with the proximal (elbow) end of the ulna just beneath the pelvis. The right forearm must have been in very close quarters, like the left, and, with decay of the flesh, part of the ulna slipped behind the pelvis. The right forearm was pronated and the bones of the right hand, palm down, were atop the groin area, near the bones of the left hand. Careful examination of these hand bones revealed that the right hand of the corpse was placed atop the left hand. The impression one gained was that the arms of the corpse were placed in a very linear posture, partly because of the constraints of the coffin, and they ran down the sides of the torso with the hands bent in at the wrists towards the midline of the body. The femora converged slightly towards the knees, and the inner surfaces of the latter were ca. 4 cm apart. The tibiae, while nearly parallel, converged very slightly towards the ankles.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 16 was well preserved (see Figs. 15, 41), and some patches of scalp adhere to the cranium and retain short, light colored hair (Fig. 84). The brow ridges and mastoid processes were well developed and, despite extensive antemortem tooth loss and alveolar resorption, the mandible displayed masculine features. The postcranial skeleton was robust and the pelvic bones were characteristically male. Extensive antemortem tooth loss seems to have included all but one of the 3rd molars, assuming that they were not agenic; there was a conical socket observed that almost certainly was that of the lower left 3rd molar. The amount of tooth loss and the degree of occlusal wear on the remaining teeth indicated a person who had lived well beyond the 3rd decade of life. Ectocranial synotosis supported the assessment of advanced years for this individual; the sagittal suture was wholly closed, most of the lambdoid and coronal likewise. The intersection of the coronal and the sagittal sutures, the bregma, could not even be precisely located. The pubic symphyses, likewise, indicated an advanced age. An assessment of 50+ years of age at the time of death seems reasonable. Certain features of the cranium, such as the wide cheekbones (Fig. 85), suggested that this individual could have been an Indian. This surmise is supported by the results of discriminant function analysis reported in Chapter Six, indicating that this man likely had some Indian ancestry. Living stature was calculated at 172.02 cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 8 in± 1.4 in).
Observations A white substance, probably not organic, occurred in patches on the cranium. The substan ce was at its heaviest on the left inferior of the occipital, in the region of the mandibular fossa of the left tempor al, and on the left zygomatic arch (see Fig 85). It appeared as a white, crusty material that adhered securely to the external surface of the bone. Parts of the substance were
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Figure 84. Grave 16: cranium, right lateral view. A small patch of scalp, just visible near the apex of the cranium, retains straight, light-colored hair.
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Figure 85. Grave 16: cranium, anterior view. The white patches, especially visible on the left side of the face, are postmortem depositions. The very wide cheek bones are suggestive of Indian ancestry .
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quite soft and could be easily scraped with a fingernail; other areas of it were so hard that they resisted picking with a probe. Since the substance was found only on the cranium, the possibility presented itself that is was a residue from some material placed into the head end of the coffin at the time of burial. Quicklime would be one suggestion. The cranium, however, was found resting on its left side and the substance had accumulated on that same, lower side; perhaps it is a natural precipitate of calcium carbonate. It remains intriguing that the precipitate, if such it was, formed under only the cranium and not under any of the other bones of the skeleton. AXIAL SKELETON
The spinal column displayed several large exotoses on the margins of the vertebral centra. There was minor anterior lipping on the 4th and 5th cervical but little else in the way of joint involvement until the 9th thoracic. There, an exotosis with a surface resembling dense cortical tissue grew out over the edge of the anterior right border of the centrum; the inferior end of this exotosis was reflected in a corresponding "lip" on the right anterior superior edge of the 10th thoracic. The exotosis was linear, with its long axis superior-inferior, and measured 7 mm wide by 20 mm long (the latter being the same dimension as the thickness of the centrum). A similar exotosis situated slightly more to the right, appeared on the inferior edge of the 10th thoracic, and formed a lip 14 mm wide (anterior-posterior) that extended over the superior edge of the 11th thoracic. In fact, the 10th and 11th thoracic may have been lightly fused at this point but separated during excavation. Lower down in the spinal column, similar lips were certainly fused by a very similar exotosis that bridged the 12th thoracic with the 1st lumbar in the right anterior quarter of the vertebral centra (Fig 86). This exotosis displayed the appearance of cortical bone and measured ca. 25 mm superior-inferior by ca. 25 mm at its widest point (where it bridges the vertebrae). Yet another, similar outgrowth bridged the 1st and 2nd lumbar and these vertebrae may have been lightly fused at the time of death (Fig. 86). The osteophyt~s from each of the two vertebrae did touch, perhaps forming a sort of false joint. The 3rd and 4th lumbar were largely uninvolved, but the 5th did have an exotosis on its anterior superior right quarter that had a very slight corresponding irregularity on the anterior inferior right of the 4th lumbar. The impression given by this condition is of a chain of lesions descending from the 9th thoracic to a climax at the articulation of the 12th thoracic and 1st lumbar. It then trailed off, lessening in severity, to the 5th lumbar. The lesions were all on the anterior right quarter of the affected vertebrae, and were not accompanied by other signs of joint involvement among vertebral centra. That is, these large exotoses were present, but there were none of the smaller ones we might expect in severe joint disease. The articular facets for the 8th through the 12th ribs, on the corresponding numbered thoracic vertebrae, were progressively larger and display increasingly greater bony elaborations on the edges. This condition was restricted to the left side, away from the exotoses on the vertebral centra. One wonders if some sort of compensating reciprocity might be indicated. HYOID
In spite of some postmortem damage, it was apparent that both cornua had fused with the body of the hyoid (a small bone in the throat region). There were, in addition, paper-thin pieces of ossified material recovered from the throat area; doubtless these represented some of the cartilages of the larynx, most likely the thyroid or crinoid cartilages. The fusion of the cornua with the body of the hyoid (Shipman, Walker, and Bichell 1985: 233-234) and the ossification of some of the cartilages of the larynx (Crouch 1978: 524) are consistent with an advanced age at the time of death.
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Figure 86. Grave 16: 12th thoracic, 1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae, anterior view. Osteophytoses have fused the upper two vertebrae together on their right side, and have nearly fused together the bottom two. A sort of "false joint" can be seen as a dark line running across the bottom of the "bridge."
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Figure 87. Grave 16: distal left forearm, anterior view. The large defect on the radius shows signs of bony remodeling, especially at the upper (proximal) end of the lesion.
191
RIBS
The left 1st rib displayed joint involvement with the manubrium, and the latter exhibited ossified cartilaginous material. This example of "overossification," like that seen in the throat area, would be a concomitant of advanced years and not a lesion developing from some injury or disease. CLAVICLES
The medial end of the right clavicle displayed a surface for the sternoclavicular articulation that was depressed. That is, the articular surface was not more or less flat, but as sunken in the center, much like the same surfaces on the skeleton from Grave 10. The condition is replicated, but not as markedly, on the left clavicle of Grave 16 and on the left clavicle (at least) of Grave 23. RADIUS
The distal 30 mm of the left radius was missing its anterior surface and the cancellous tissue that would normally underlie the cortical bone was likewise absent. At first sight this lesion resembled postmortem damage (which was present), but careful scrutiny identified some signs of bony remodeling on its edges. The lesion was roughly triangular in shape (Fig. 87), with its broad base formed by what would have been the epiphyseal line of the distal end of the radius. Indeed, some of the anterior edge of the distal articular surface was absent but this was due, in part at least, to postmortem damage since the edge of a fresh break was present. The lesion measured ca. 25 mm wide at the distal end and narrowed to ca. 4 mm at the proximal end. The lesion seemed to have removed all of the cancellous tissue that would have been exposed, revealing the interior aspect of the posterior surface of the radius. There were signs of bony remodeling on the edges of the lesion, in the cortical bone, especially at the proximal apex of the lesion where the anterior and lateral surfaces of the distal end of the shaft met, some 36 mm proximal to the location of the styloid process of the radius. At this location there was a little "lip" of cortical tissue that was not part of the normal contours of the bone. Doubtless this lip was some sort of response to the agency causing the lesion. Close examination of the exposed section of cortical bone on the periphery of the lesion revealed irregular contours not to be confused with postmortem breakage. Likewise, extremely localized postmortem weathering is not a likely possibility either. The cortical bone on the posterior side of the distal radius, opposite the lesion, was largely intact but did display a score or so of tiny penetrations completely through it. It is possible that these pinholes resulted from postmortem weathering, but this inference seems doubtful. There was some postmortem damage to the distal end of the left ulna, but there were no observations that could be related to the lesion on the adjacent radius. The bones of the right forearm were normal, as were the left carpals. This lesion defies easy diagnosis. It appears to have been isolated, not part of more generalized syndrome, and neighboring bones seem not to have been affected. Tuberculous osteitis, which may begin at the end of a long bone (Broth well 1981: 129) is one possibility. Although the lesion in Grave 16 seems to have been a solitary one, and well advanced at that, multiple myeloma is another possibility. This condition is more frequent in males by a ratio of 3:1 (Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 15th edn., s.v. "myeloma") and its occurrence, in modern humans, is most common between the ages of 40 to 60 years (Brothwell 1981: 143). In multiple myeloma, however, the skull is usually affected by "punched-out holes" (Brothwell 1981: 143); the skull of Grave 16 displayed no such lesions. The weight of the observations suggests a tumor of some sort.
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DENTITION
The upper arcade had lost at least six teeth ante mortem, the right 1st premolar was a carious stub, and the crown of the right medial incisor seems to have been broken off ante mortem. In the mandible at least eight teeth had been lost ante mortem, two of the remaining ones (left canine and 1st premolar) were barely retained by the alveolus, and two others (right lateral incisor and canine) were reduced to carious stubs. Both arcades suffered from extensive alveolar resorption (see Fig. 85).
Grave 17
Burial Position Grave 17 contained the extended inhumation of an adult, lying on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 42). The skeleton seemed to be fully articulated and without evidence of any significant disturbance. The skull rested on the left rear quarter of the occipital with the face turned to the corpse's left. The skull · was found in the northwest corner of the coffin, articulated with the cervical vertebrae, but there was a gap of 3-5 cm between the lowest cervical and the uppermost thoracic vertebrae. During excavation it was thought that the "missing" vertebrae represented by the gap were present, but could not be exposed because of impossibly cramped working conditions. Laboratory analysis, however, revealed that several upper thoracic vertebrae were absent; doubtless this circumstance was the result of differential preservation, perhaps because of demineralization of the bones, rather than some antemortem loss of the affected vertebrae through disease or an immediately postmortem loss through dissection in the course of an autopsy. Both of the upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the left elbow was fully extended. The left forearm was pronated so that the palm of the left hand rested against the floor of the coffin. The right elbow was flexed at an angle of ca. 30° from full extension and .the right forearm, which was pronated, lay across the right pelvis. The hand would have rested palm down atop the lower abdomen/ groin. The femora converged slightly towards the knees and the inner surfaces of the ankles, although the latter were ca. 7 cm apart. The knees were fully extended and converged slightly towards the ankles. Although the lateral ends of the clavicles were elevated, there is no convincing evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 17 was not badly preserved, but the bones were very light as if some significant amount of demineralization, perhaps ante mortem, had taken place. This observation may be related to the "missing" vertebrae mentioned earlier, as well as the poor preservation of the ribs. The configuration of the skull, including the slight brow ridges and small mastoid processes, was quite feminine (Figs. 88, 89). Likewise, the gracility of the postcranial skeleton and the wide greater sciatic notches of the innominata identified this individual as female. The cranial sutures were, ectocranially, almost wholly obliterated through synotosis; small stretches of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures remained visible, but otherwise · these sutures could not be traced. · The right coronal was nearly closed as well, although the left coronal could still be seen. The skull was edentulous, with consequent extensive alveolar resorption, and there was a significant amount of joint involvement among the vertebrae. These observations all support an evaluation of 50+ years of age at the time of death. Living stature was calculated at 162.23 cm± 3.55 cm (5 ft 4 in± 1.4 in).
0 bservations AXIAL SKELETON
All of the cervical vertebrae, seven of the thoracic, and all of the lumbar were present and
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Figure 88. Grave 17: cranium, anterior view. The loss of all the maxillary teeth during life has caused the upper jaw to recede until it has nearly disappeared.
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L_~~-~~
Figure 89. Grave 17: cranium, left lateral view . The effects of the antemortem loss of the maxillary teeth ar e apparent. The upper jaw has lost all definition and is receding in upon itself.
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were not poorly preserved. The cervical vertebrae showed some light lipping on the anterior margins of the centra, but very little of that. There was more significant joint involvement in the lower thoracic and lumbar regions. The five thoracic vertebrae that were missing would seem to be the 2nd through the 6th, since the remainder articulated well with the 7th cervical (in the case of the 1st thoracic) and among themselves (in the case of the 7th through 12th thoracic). The 12th thoracic was ankylosed with the 1st lumbar, which latter was collapsed. Beginning with the articulation between the 7th and 8th thoracic, there was progressively greater developments of osteophytes that culminated in the fusion of the 12th thoracic with the collapsed 1st lumbar. The osteophytes continued on down through the inferior articulation of the 5th lumbar but without any of additional ankylosing of adjacent vertebrae. The fusion of the 12th thoracic with the 1st lumbar was most pronounced at a bridge of osseous tissue on the left posterior aspect of the centra. The left inferior articular facet (of the neural arch) of the 12th thoracic is fused with its counterpart left superior articular facet of the 1st lumbar, but the line of articulation remains visible. The bridge is composed of dense osseous tissue that resembles cortical bone. The osteophytes in the spinal column of this individual tended to be either on the right or the left sides; they did not display the "elongated growth" pattern seen, for example, on Graves 13 and 15 in this series. In the latter cases, one gains an impression of an etiology that had produced, by the time of death, a single elongated mass of dense cortical bone that bridged and fused vertebrae. While the end result, in Grave 17, at least, was the same (vertebrae fused by a bridge of dense osseous tissue) there was in this instance no pattern of an elongated lesion. Rather, the individual in Grave 17 had an array of exotoses and two of the vertebrae were ankylosed by one of them. Quite possibly only one disease process is represented here, with the earlier stages represented by "random" osteophytoses and the latter stages by the coalescence of these outgrowths into an "elongated" mass. The 1st lumbar was collapsed on the anterior aspect, reducing the anterior dimension of the centrum to ca. 5 mm. By comparison, the same dimension on the unaffected 2nd lumbar was 25 mm. Throughout the spinal column, and especially in the lower thoracic and lumbar regions, the posterior superior and the posterior inferior articular facets showed some joint involvement and lipping on the margins. PELVIS
The right innominate displayed a lesion of considerable interest (Fig. 90), and its appearance should be compared with that of the left innominate (Fig. 91). The bone appeared to have suffered a fracture of the ilium that involved displacement and, during healing, the subsequent formation of a bony callus. The line of the fracture was quite visible for its entire length. The inferior terminus of the fracture was about a quarter of the way down the anterior border of the greater sciatic notch, measuring from the apex of the greater sciatic notch. The line of the fracture went first almost directly to the anterior (i.e., towards the lateral margin of the acetabulum). After crossing approximately half the distance along the border of the acetabulum the fracture turned towards the superior and pc sterior and meandered up to the iliac crest. The superior terminus of the fracture was posterior to the anterior superior iliac spine, approximately one quarter of the distance back along the iliac crest. The anterior fragment of the innominate was displaced slightly to the medial direction. Bony remodeling stabilized the fracture with the posterior part of the innominate overlapping by a few millimeters the anterior part on the latter's lateral side. Displacement seems to have been no more than a few millimeters and the effects of the fracture, and subsequent healing, are much more obvious on the lateral side of the innominate than on the medial side. The bony callus and other signs of bony remodeling were not as completely formed as one might expect had death not intervened. While almost all of the surfaces exposed by the fracture had remodeled the cortical bone, the surfaces of the remodeling on the lateral side had some edges that were sharper than would have eventually become the case. The
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Figure 90. Grave 17: right innominate, lateral view. The jagged, irregular line of the fracture runs between the acetabulum and the iliac crest. Compare with Figure 91 .
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Figure 91. Grave 17: left innominate, lateral view. Compare this normal specimen with the fractured right innomina te shown in Figure 90.
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medial side of the innominate displayed depressions and undulations along the line of the fracture but was, on the whole, much smoother than the lateral side. Both of the innominata displayed roughened auricular surfaces for the articulation with the sacrum, but not excessively so. Inside both acetabulae the articular surfaces for the head of the femora were somewhat enlarged and slightly lipped on the margins, but, again, not excessively so. The heads of both femora displayed only some slight lipping on the margins of the articular surfaces. Fractures of the pelvis are not uncommon among the aged, and the generalized decalcification of the bones in the living elderly doubtless contributes to the incidence of the injury. The apparent degree of demineralization of the excavated bones of this grave may in fact reflect an antemortem condition. In the present case, the fall (or however the injury was sustained) was not immediately fatal, if at all. The individual survived the injury long enough for the healing process to introduce bony remodeling, but it is possible that death intervened before remodeling was complete. The absence of extensive alteration to joint surfaces elsewhere in the lower skeleton suggests one of the following: 1. The pelvic injury was not so severe as to introduce peculiarities into the gait that in turn produced bony remodeling elsewhere in the skeleton by way of adjustments to the new biomechanical stresses. The apparent severity of the fracture as seen on the bone, however, makes this explanation unlikely. 2. The process of such adjustment was under way (viz. the slight lipping in the acetabulum and on the margins of the head of the femur) but death, from whatever cause, intervened before such adjustments were further manifested. This individual may have been bedridden for some months after the injury to the pelvis; if so, there may have been little walking about, an activity that would have, eventually, effected adjustments elsewhere in the skeletal frame. Death, perhaps, intervened before full mobility was gained. The lesion on the humerus (see below) seems unrelated to the pelvic injury. The changes in the spinal column are likely, in part, at least, a concomitant of the aging process rather than responses to the injury that produced the pelvic lesion. The collapsed 1st lumbar vertebra, however, suggests that a compressive fracture, possibly related to the fracture of the pelvis, is not out of the question. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The left humerus (Fig. 92) displayed a misshapen head, a large fossa on the anterior of the shaft just inferior to the head, and a roughened, granular surface of the inferior half of the shaft. The head of the humerus seemed to be displaced slightly to the inferior, as if the shaft had moved to the superior (with reference to the plane of the shoulder girdle) but with the head remaining in its normal position in the joint. This defect is analogous to the one seen in the left femur of Grave 8, in which the head remained in its socket in the pelvis but the shaft "ascended" a few centimeters. The bicipital groove was enlarged, but cannot be compared to that on the right humerus since the latter bone was too badly damaged for comparative purposes. The abnormal fossa on the left humerus was inferior to the lesser tuberosity and measured ca. 14 mm in diameter and 2- 3 mm deep. The fossa would seem to be more likely some sort of response to a change in the mechanics of the left shoulder joint and not the result of a penetrating wound or a localized infection. The inferior half of the shaft of the left humerus displayed an irregular roughening that was variable in its occurrence. Parts of the shaft seemed to be normal and other parts displayed the roughened surface. Some of the roughened, granular patches were as large as 80 mm (proximal-distal) by 20 mm wide, and some even encircled the shaft of the bone. The lesions appeared in an area of the left humerus ca. 100 mm long that ended 70 mm above the distal end of the bone. The affected areas appeared to be limited to the cortical bone but did not display the gross swelling such as that shown in Ubelaker (1978: fig. 109, two specimens on the left). Rather, the appearance more closely resembled that illustrated in Brothwell (1981:
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Figure 92. Grave 17: proximal humeri, anterior view. The left (the more complete specimen on the right) has a misshapened, flattened head and a large, abnormal fossa just below the head.
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pl. 6.1 B, top specimen) but, again, ours was not nearly so seriously affected. The right humerus was poorly preserved and fragmentary, but there did seem to be a few small patches of roughened cortical bone measuring ca. 5 mm x 2 mm. Both forearms seemed quite normal, but the scapulae and clavicles were too poorly preserved to be of any diagnostic value. The condition of the head of the left humerus is reminiscent of the indirect fracture that can occur when one falls forward and extends the arms to break one's fall; the force of the fall is transmitted up the arm, through the locked elbow joints, and into the shoulder girdle, fracturing the acromial or coracoid processes of the scapula. One would think the head of the humerus capable of withstanding such a trauma, so the present lesion is probably not to be explained by such an event. In fact, the absence of the other bones of the shoulder girdle obscures the analysis of the defect. The roughened areas of the humerus are likely to be explained as periostitis, an inflammation of the outer (cortical) bone. Brothwell (1981: 129) points out that periostitis can result from a blow and the effects on the bone can be localized. Perhaps the injury to the head of the left humerus is reflected in the roughened shaft of the bone. In this light also the distal ends of the bones of the lower legs of this individual displayed similar, but slighter, roughening. The joint surfaces seem unaffected. Some injury, bilateral, to the lower legs may be indicated or possibly a systemic disorder. It is possible, of course, that this constellation of injuries, comprising the fractured pelvis, collapsed and fused vertebrae, and affected left humerus and both ankles, may be the result of a single event, such as a bad fall. If so, the degree of healing in the single unequivocal fracture (the pelvis) indicates that some months, at least, ensued prior to death. And death, of course, could have been from causes quite unrelated to the injury or injuries. DENTITION
Both arcades were wholly edentulous, all of the teeth having been lost during life, and pronounced alveolar resorption had ensued (see Figs. 88, 89).
Grave 18
Burial Position Grave 18 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 43). The skeletal remains were not poorly preserved but both of the tibiae had been dislodged by a backhoe that had been engaged to strip overburden from an identified grave. This machine worked under constant monitoring by archaeologists who recognized the tibiae when they were exposed. The machine was then sent away to work elsewhere and the remainder of the skeleton was cleared with hand tools. There is no question, however, of the association of these tibiae with this grave. The skull rested on the posterior point of the occipital and faced straight up out of the grave. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and both elbows were flexed at right angles so that the forearms were parallel as they crossed the abdomen. The right elbow was flexed slightly more than the left, so the right forearm rested higher on the abdomen (closer to the chest) than the left. Both forearms were pronated so that the palms of the hands would have been flat against the lower torso, the left palm resting upon the right side of .the torso and vice versa. The tips of the fingers of the right hand would have been just inside the crook of the left elbow; the tips of the fingers of the left hand would have been inferior to the right elbow. The legs were fully extended and converged slightly towards the ankles; the inside surfaces of the knees were separated by ca. 15-20 cm, but this dimension may be suspect since the femora may have been moved slightly (they were, in fact, damaged) when the backhoe dislodged the tibiae. Still, even 15 cm was as wide a distance separating the knees in situ as for any adult in the Uxbridge series. There was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
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Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 18 was not poorly preserved, excepting some excavation damage to the lower legs by the backhoe. Judging from the features of the skull and pelvis, there can be little doubt that this was the skeleton of a male; the brow ridges and mastoid processes were pronounced and the greater sciatic notches of the innominata were typically male. Ectocranial synotosis was well advanced; the sagittal suture was completely obscured, as were most of the coronal and lambdoid sutures. There had been extensive antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption. The 3rd molars, assuming that they were present and not agenic, were (with the possible exception of the upper right) lost long before death. The pubic symphyses attested to advanced years as well, and the weight of the evidence indicates that this person was 50 years or older at the time of death. There were varying amounts of joint involvement in the left knee, spinal column, right foot, and left hand that would not be inconsistent with advanced years. Although these pathological processes could be induced by trauma in a young person, the degree of involvement suggested a passage of some years between their onset and the eventual death of this individual. Living stature was calculated to have been 168.22 cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 6 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The vertebrae were all present, well preserved, and, with the following exceptions, displayed very little joint involvement: 1) There were some small exotoses on the margins of the lumbar centra; 2) The centra of 11th and 12th thoracic were fused by a wide (36 mm anterior-posterior) mass of compact bone on their right side; 3) The left side of the sacrum is fused with the left innominate. The ankylosis consisted of a mass of compact bone that bridged the superior edge of the sacroiliac joint, quite obscuring the line of articulation. The sacrum displayed a completely open sacral canal. In an unrelated observation, the inferior third of the sacrum, when viewed in the lateral aspect, seemed very sharply curved to the anterior. This last, however, was more likely anomalous than pathological. The cartilagenous tissues of the hyoid area had ossified, an observation consistent with the advanced years of this individual. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The left knee joint (Fig. 93) was grossly misshapen by a pathological process that had resulted in grotesque enlargement of the joint surfaces, massive amounts C?flipping and exotoses on the margins of the articular surfaces, and eburnation of the medial condyles of the femur and tibia. These bones suffered some damage in the course of excavation, so measurements of width of the distal femur and proximal tibia are not possible. The patellar surface on the anterior of the left femur was greatly elongated on its superior margin, where it formed a roughened, pitted crest that rose from the superior margin of the anterior aspect of the femoral condyles. The eburnated areas on the medial condyles of the femur and tibia were so smooth and polished that they resemble ivory or the surface of a polished bone artifact. Comparative specimens are illustrated in Ubelaker (1978: fig. 81d) and Brothwell (1981: pl. 6.8 A) and the latter (p. 148) explains that eburnation is the occasional result of "... bone moving on bone ... in one area where the cartilage had disintegrated during life." The right knee seemed normal, but there were changes in the pelvis that may be associated with the lesion in the left knee. There was some bilateral enlargement of the acetabulae (the sockets on the innominata for the head of the femur) that may be related to changes in the gait occasioned by the bad knee. The ankylosis of the sacrum with the left innominate may likewise have resulted from repeated stresses arising from changes in locomotor habits, or
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Figure 93. Grave 18: left knee, posterior view. Although there has been some postmortem damage to the right (medial) side of the femur and the left (lateral) side of the tibia, the gross elaborations of the edges of the joint surfaces are apparent. These grotesque outgrowths must have affected the movement of the knee to-a considerable degree.
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possibly from some original trauma that injured the left knee. It is not certain that these conditions arose from the traumatized knee, but it seems not unreasonable to link them. What is more, the distal articulation of the left tibia with its fibula displayed a roughened surface; this was likely a sequela of the bad knee. The unilateral and localized nature of the lesion on the left knee, and the relative absence of age-related joint disease elsewhere in the skeleton, would tend to rule out age-associated degeneration as the cause for the diseased knee. Trauma seems to be a much more likely explanation for the abnormalities apparent on the knee, with the changes in the pelvis and left ankle arising from the effects of the injury. In the right foot the 1st metatarsal was fused with its proximal phalange and the latter was canted up (or hyperextended) at ca. 45° with the distal end superior. The distal inferior condylar eminences of the 1st metatarsal had been displaced to the posterior by a few millimeters, but they appeared to have been viable at the time of death. The adjacent 2nd, 3rd, and 4th metatarsals displayed exotoses on their superior surface, all roughly in line but slightly proximal to the former articulation of the 1st metatarsal with its proximal phalange. There was some possible slight displacement of the shafts of the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th metatarsals. The impression given is of a narrow crushing force applied transversely across the arch of the foot, at the instep. The articular ends of the 2nd through 5th metatarsals of the right foot, and all of the left foot, seemed quite unremarkable, so no systemic disorder is indicated. There were two phalanges from the left hand, a proximal and a medial, that had fused into a curve resembling that of a partly flexed finger. The relative size of the phalanges suggested that they belonged to the 2nd finger (or forefinger). The remainder of the bones of the hand were unremarkable. DENTITION
Both arcades experienced much antemortem tooth loss and consequent, extensive alveolar resorption. The upper arcade was wholly edentulous and greatly resorbed. The lower dentition retained, at death, six teeth (all the incisors, the left canine, and the right 2nd premolar) of which one, the left medial incisor, was reduced to a carious stump. In such circumstances of extensive antemortem loss of the posterior teeth, it is difficult to evaluate whether or not the absent 3rd molars were agenic.
Grave 19
Burial Position Grave 19 contained the inhumation of a child, likely extended, and certainly on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 44). The preservation of the bones was extremely poor; the postcranial remains were present only as stains in the earth and, occasionally, as small, waxy fragments of osseous tissue (especially the vertebrae). The anterior part of the skull, comprising the face and the frontal (forehead) bones, was relatively well preserved and showed that the skull rested on the posterior part of the occipital. The face looked straight up out of the grave. Nothing can be determined about the arrangements of the postcranial remains, except to say that the coffin seemed large enough to accommodate the extended corpse.
Analysis The child's skeleton from Grave 19 was extremely poorly preserved. There was, however, enough of the dentition present to permit a reliable evaluation of the age at the time of death as between one and two years. The sex, of course, could not be assessed. No additional observations, metric or otherwise, were possible and no stature reconstruction was forthcoming.
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Observations This skeleton of so young a child was too poorly preserved to permit any observations. DENTITION
Such of the dentition of this child as could be observed was wholly unremarkable.
Grave 20
Burial Position Grave 20 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 45). The skeleton was fully articulated and there seemed to be no significant disturbance to the bones. The skull rested on its left rear side and faced obliquely to the corpse's left. While the mandible had settled so that the posterior aspect of its symphysis rested against the anterior aspect of the vertebral column. I suspect that the position of the mandible more nearly reflected the posture of the head at the time of burial (i.e., facing "straight ahead"). The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and both of the elbows were flexed (the right slightly more than the left) so that the forearms crossed (right atop left) over the lower abdomen. The forearms were pronated so the palm of the left hand would have been resting on the lower right hip and vice versa. The legs were fully extended, and converged only slightly at the knees and even less so at the ankles. The posture of the shoulder joints in this grave, like that observed in several other graves at Uxbridge, suggested that the coffin may have been slightly too narrow for the normal width of the shoulders. The close fit of the sides of the coffin in the area of the shoulders and the elevation of the articulations of the humeri with the scapulae and clavicles indicated that the shoulders of the corpse were "shrugged" in order to fit into the coffin. There is no indication, however, that the coffin was too short for this individual.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 20 was well preserved, despite some fragmentation and erosion of bone surfaces. Features of the cranium (Figs. 94, 95) and of the pelvis render certain an assessment of male. Even though there had been extensive antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption in the lower jaw, the chin retained a square, masculine configuration. Ectocranial synotosis of the cranial sutures was advanced, especially for the sagittal. The pubic symphyses were eroded somewhat, but enough was present to evidence advanced years. This observation was supported by the extensive alveolar resorption subsequent to antemortem tooth loss. Certainly an age in excess of 40 years is indicated, and an evaluation of 50 or more years is reasonable. Living stature was reconstructed at 169.22 cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 6.5 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The spinal column was not poorly preserved although p~.rts of the anterior aspect of some of the vertebrae had been completely eroded. In any event, there was nothing remarkable about the spine. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton was unremarkable save for some bones of the feet. The left calcaneus and talus were fused, largely on the medial side where the line of articulation was quite obliterated. The medial surface of the talus was, in addition, quite roughened and atypical.
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Figure 94. Grave 20: cranium, anterior view. Note in this figure and in Figure 95 how the loss of the maxillary teeth before death has caused the upper jaw to recede in upon itself.
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I
Figure 95. Grave 20: cranium, left lateral view. Note the reduced contours of the maxilla.
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The right calcaneus and talus, while still separate, displayed considerable lipping on the medial side of their articulation. The roughened, pitted appearance of the articular surfaces themselves suggested that had death not intervened, these two bones would have become fused even tu ally. These lesions could have arisen from a bilateral injury to the feet, but the largely normal appearance of the rest of the bones of the feet and legs do not support such an etiology. Neither, however, do they necessarily contradict it. In the final analysis, trauma is probably more likely an explanation than some systemic disorder. DENTITION
Only one tooth, and that the stub of the lower left canine, was retained in this dentition at the time of death. The maxillary arcade was wholly edentulous (see Figs. 94, 95) and extensively resorbed; the lower arcade, with the single exception was equally ravaged. The crown of the canine was broken off, possibly ante mortem, and the pulp cavity was exposed. Death must have intervened before this last tooth could have been exfoliated.
Grave 21
Burial Position Grave 21 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 46). The bones of the arms and torso were not very well preserved but no evidence of any significant disturbance was seen. The skull rested on its right rear surface, and faced slightly to the corpse's right. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and both elbows were flexed at ca. 90°, with the right slightly more flexed than the left. The forearms were across the lower chest with the right slightly higher up on the chest than the left. Both forearms were pronated and the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the lower right ribs; the right palm would have rested beneath the left breast. The femora converged slightly towards the knees, which had their inner surfaces no more than 6-8 cm apart. The tibiae converged slightly towards the ankle. The preservation of the bones of the shoulder girdle was too poor to make any assessment of crowding of the shoulders into a narrow coffin, but there was no evidence of this individual having been forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 21 was poorly preserveC-& and fragmentary, with the skull crushed into several pieces and much of the face missing. In addition, several long bones were broken and incomplete. The skeleton was that of a female, judging from the small brow ridges, small mastoid processes, pointed chin, and the wide greater sciatic notch of the left innominate (the right innominate was not adequately preserved for evaluation). Although the calvaria was broken into no more than five or six pieces, postmortem distortion of the cranial vault rendered mending an unrewarding task; the joins simply would not match up along the complete line of the break. Endocranial synotosis of the sutures was advanced and some degree of ectocranial closure is present on the sagittal. The amount of occlusal attrition, taking into account the amount of synotosis of the cranial sutures, was consistent with an age at the time of death between 30 and 40 years. Living stature was reconstructed at 162.73cm± 3.55 cm (5 ft 4 in ± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
Only fragments of the vertebrae were present and none of these showed any sign of exotoses or of arthritic involvement.
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APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton was largely unremarkable except for a roughened patch of cortical bone on the proximal half of the shaft of the left tibia. This condition, perhaps a consequence of periostitis, consisted of minimal roughening of the surface of the bone principally on the posterior and medial aspects of the shaft in its proximal quarter. Some swelling was present on the medial side, and some "vascular grooves" were apparent as well. There seemed to be no involvement of the cancellous tissues and the fibula was normal. There is no convincing sign of this condition on the right leg, so the condition is unilateral. DENTITION
The alveolar carious prior to
maxillary dentition was marked by four teeth lost before death, with considerable resorption, three teeth (both 2nd molars and the right lateral incisor) reduced to stubs, and abscesses at both 2nd molars. The mandibular dentition lost three teeth death and the right 2nd molar was just a carious stub.
Grave 22
Burial Position Grave 22 was truly enigmatic; only one piece of skeletal tissue was recovered from this grave, possibly a shaft fragment of a femur (see Fig. 47). The fragment, as measured in the field, was 100 mm long by 15 mm wide and did not preserve the complete cross-section of the shaft of the bone. The fragment was found within the remains of a coffin that was of a size appropria te for a child, in a spot within the coffin where a femur would normally have been located. The orientation of the fragment would have been consistent with an east-west orientation of the corpse. The configuration of the remains of the coffin indicated that the head, assuming that the grave ever contained a corpse, must have been at the west. Had the corpse been disturbed by rats or other vermin that completely destroyed or carried off the remainder of the skeleton, it would be surprising to find the single remaining bone fragment correctly oriented. An alternative explanation would be that an extremely harsh postmortem burial environment could have caused the decomposition of all of the skeleton save the one fragment; the bones of Grave 29, immediately to the north, were reasonably well preserved, however. Grave 22 could have been a cenotaph but such an explanation makes little sense in the context of a paupers' cemetery. Also, this would not explain the presence of the bone fragment.
Analysis The remain (and the use of the singular is deliberate and appropriate) from Grave 22 is a conundrum. In the laboratory it was present as a single small, weathered fragment of the shaft of a long bone (Fig. 96). After cleaning, the specimen measured 42 mm long (in the long axis of what would have been the intact bone) by a maximum of 10 mm. The fragment consisted of the external, cortical surface on one side and, naturally enough, the interior surface of cortical bone on the other. There were a few traces of what may be weathered cancellous bone on the interior surface. The breaks all along the edge were sharp, therefore likely post mortem, but were evenly weathered, suggesting that the broken edges were not fresh and recent. The proportions of cortical thickness and curvature of the shaft were consistent with human bone, as opposed to such for non-human animals. The size of the fragment was consistent with that for a child, but an adult was not out of the question. Obviously, no stature reconstruction was forthcoming. The fragment was light grey in color, resembling that of calcined bones from cremations, but not so similar as to make it certain that the present fragment was residue from a cremation. The specimen displayed none of the checkering or twisted convolutions so characteristic of bones from cremations.
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5cm
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Figure 96. Grave 22: the remain, cancellous (interior) side. This tiny, weathered fragment is all that was found in the pit of Grave 22.
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Observations The single small fragment of bone from this grave was not conducive to any observations regarding the health of the individual. DENTITION
Since the contents of Grave 22 were represented by only a single postcranial bone fragment, no dentition was present to be examined.
Grave 23
Burial Position Grave 23 contained the inhumation of an adult, fully extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 48). The skeleton was well preserved and fully articulated with no sign of any serious postmortem disturbance. The skull rested on its left rear surface and faced slightly to the left of the corpse. The shoulder joints, especially the right, seem to be well shrugged and elevated from their normal anatomical position. Although the left shoulder was tight against that side of the coffin, the right seems not to have been so cramped, with 5-8 cm between the head of the humerus and the right side of the coffin. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were fully extended so that the forearms passed over their respective hips. The forearms were pronated and the palms of the hands would have rested atop the upper thighs of their respective sides. One had the impression, from studying the bones of the wrists and hands, that the wrists were adducted, that is, bent in towards the midline of the body. The femora converged slightly at the knees which were some 18 cm apart, measured from their medial surfaces. The tibiae converged slightly towards the ankle. While the position of the shoulders suggested the coffin may have been too narrow for the normal, relaxed width of the shoulders, there was no evidence that the coffin was too short for the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 23 was fairly well preserved although some of the vertebrae and long bones were eroded and incomplete. The brow ridges and mastoid processes (Figs. 97, 98) were well developed and the mandible was quite masculine in its proportions. The identification of male is supported by features of the pelvic bones. All of the 3rd molars were erupted and functional and there was extensive ectocranial synotosis of the sutures, with the coronal and sagittal almost completely obliterated. The combination of suture synotosis, occlusal attrition of the teeth, and the appearance of the pubic syrnphyses all indicate 40-50 years of age at the time of death. Living stature was reconstructed at 164.11 cm± 3.62 cm (5 ft 4.5 in ± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIALSKELETON
The spinal column was poorly preserved, but what was present was unremarkable. The centra and other articular surfaces were clean and showed no signs of significant joint involvement. The left clavicle displayed an articular surface on the medial end that was depressed in its center. The medial end of the right clavicle was too badly damaged post mortem to permit observation. This condition was present on two other skeletons in the Uxbridge series (Graves 10 and 16) and is of uncertain etiology.
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0
5cm
Figure 97. Grave 23: cranium, anterior view. The loss of the anterior teeth is clearly post mortem, but alveolar resorption is advanced (see Figure 98).
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Figure 98. Grave 23: cranium, left lateral view. Note the advanced alveolar resorption and the large caries in the side of the 1st molar.
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DENTITION
The upper arcade had lost the right 1st and 2nd molars ante mortem and the four remaining molars displayed large caries; alveolar resorption was present (see Figs. 97, 98). The mandibular dentition lost only the left 1st molar ante mortem and displayed no caries. An atypical wear pattern between the lateral incisors and canines in both arcades produced what was essentially a "hole" or "circle" on each side of the dentition (Fig. 99). Each upper and lower involved tooth contributed a quarter of the area of the circle for that side; the wornaway parts of, say, the adjacent lateral incisor and canine in the right lower jaw then produced half the circle. When the jaws were closed, the lower half-circles met their upper counterparts and a sort of irregular circle of attrition was formed. Although the upper right canine was lost post mortem and could not be observed, the pattern of the three other teeth (the upper right lateral incisor and the lower right lateral incisor and canine) made it clear that the missing canine must have contributed its part to the circle of attrition. Since there was a circle on each side, right and left and even some additional wear on the lower left (Fig. 99), the effect is of some repeated activity in life that gradually wore away parts of the crowns of these teeth. A similar, but much more regular, example is shown in Brothwell (1981: fig. 4.22 B, bottom) labeled as "accidental wear caused by a clay pipe." Another possible etiology is the habit common to carpenters and cobblers of holding nails in the mouth during work. ·
Grave 24
Burial Position Grave 24 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 49). Although the skeleton was not very well preserved, there was no evidence of any appreciable disturbance. The skull rested on its right rear so that it faced slightly to the corpse's right. The mandible was disarticulated from the cranium and had settled on its right side on the floor of the coffin adjacent to the neck vertebrae; doubtless this unanatomical position results from the vagaries of liquefication of the soft tissues. The humeri were straight along the side of the rib cage and the shoulders seemed to be slightly elevated, or shrugged, but barely so. The fit of the casket seemed snug at the shoulders of the skeleton, but not so pronounced as in the case of, say, Grave 16. Both of the elbows were flexed, the left much less than the right. The left elbow was flexed at ca. 40° from full extension and the forearm was pronated so that the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the lower abdomen, about in the center of the pelvis. The right elbow was flexed at an angle somewhat greater than 90° from full extension and the forearm crossed the lower chest so that the palm of the right hand, pronated, would have rested atop the lower left ribs and the tips of the fingers would have been inside the crook of the left elbow. The femora definitely converged towards the knees and the inside surfaces of the latter were separated by no more than 6-8 cm. The lower legs, oddly enough, diverged towards the ankles which were some 10-12 cm apart. This "knock-kneed" appearance was seen in only one other adult grave at Uxbridge, 27A; it could have existed in life or it may be only a peculiar postmortem settling of the corpse. Certainly, there was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 24 was poorly preserved. Although most of the major skeletal elements were present, including a largely intact skull (Figs. 100, 101), all of the bones had suffered postmortem erosion and only two of the long bones (left humerus and left femur) were preserved for their full length. The features of the cranium were feminine and the postcranial observations supported the assessment of female. The lower left 3rd molar was erupted and functional, and ectocranial synotosis was advanced in the coronal, sagittal, and
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Figure 99. Grave 23: mandibular dentition, left, front quarter, buccal view. In addition to the calculus, or encrustation, on the teeth and the alveolar resorption, note the odd wear pattern that has created "holes" on either side of the canine which has been worn to a point. A similar condition, but with one "hole," obtains for the other three canines.
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5cm
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Figure 100. Grave 24: cranium, anterior view. The anterior teeth have been lost post mortem.
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Figure 101. Grave 24: cranium, left lateral view. The right alveolus has been broken away post mortem and we cannot be certain whether or not the posterior teeth were present at death.
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lambdoid sutures. The extensive suture synotosis and the amount of occlusal attrition on some of the teeth suggest an age of 50 or more years at the time of death. Living stature was reconstructed at 147.25 cm± 3.72 cm (4 ft 10 in± 1.5 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The 16 more or less complete vertebrae displayed almost no lipping on the edges of their articular surfaces. The state of preservation, however, was too poor to permit much reliance on this observation. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Such articular surfaces as were present in the appendicular skeleton showed no appreciable joint involvement. The left femur, however, displayed some pathology, mainly in the proximal two-thirds of its length. The shaft was thickened, with a medial-lateral diameter of 36 mm as compared to 26 mm on the right femur. The cortical surface was roughened and there were linear depressions, resembling "vascular grooves," present but which did not penetrate into cancellous bone. The swelling was much too generalized to be caused by a healing fracture, but no other bones were involved. Periostitis, at least, would seem to be indicated. DENTITION
The upper arcade suffered postmortem damage and the areas posterior to each 1st premolar were not available for inspection (see Figs. 100, 101). The teeth anterior to the 2nd premolars had all been lost post mortem. The mandible was better preserved, with only the area of the right 3rd molar missing. The teeth on the right side of the mandible were all missing post mortem, as well as those anterior to the left 2nd premolar. Of the four teeth remaining (the left molars and 2nd premolar), the 3rd molar was impacted against the 2nd molar and never reached full occlusal height and the 2nd molar was carious.
Grave 25
Burial Position Grave 25 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 50). The skeleton was fully articulated and displayed no sign of significant disturbance. The skull rested on its left posterior surface and faced slightly to the corpse's left. The shoulders seem not to have been shrugged and the coffin was wide enough, it appears, to have accommodated the normal width of the shoulders. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage, the elbows were fully extended, and the forearms passed alongside the pelvis. The forearms and hands were arranged so that the palms would have been flat against the sides of their respective hips, or possibly the wrists were adducted, or bent in towards the midline of the body, so that the palms could have rested atop the front of the upper thighs. The femora converged towards the knees, which were separated by ca. 10-12 cm. The tibiae converged slightly towards the ankles. There was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin that was too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 25 was not poorly preserved but there were significant amounts of erosion on some of the long bones and on most of the flat bones. The cranium was nearly intact (Figs. 102, 103) and presented a generally feminine appearance, with brow ridges that were less than pronounced and medium sized mastoid processes. The mandible was
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Figure 102. Grave 25: cranium, anterior view. The incisors were lost before death.
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Figure 103. Grave 25: cranium, left lateral view .
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equivocal as to sex, but the right innominate displayed a greater sciatic notch that was well within the female range. The 3rd molars were erupted, functional, and very worn. The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures were almost wholly synotosed ectocranially. These observations suggest an age at the time of death of 50 or more years. Living stature was calculated at 176.23 cm± 3.51 cm (5 ft 9.4 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
The cranium was intact except for broken zygomatic arches, some minor post mortem erosion, and a small perforation in the right parietal. The perforation measured ca. 3 mm in diameter and was located ca. 6 mm to the right of the sagittal suture, ca. 15 mm posterior to the coronal suture, and perhaps 40 mm to the right posterior of the bregma; these measurements are necessarily approximate because ectocranial synotosis had obscured the precise location of the sutures. This perforation would normally have been dismissed as a postmortem defect; it was, however, located at the apex of a slight elevation of the exterior surface of the parietal that measured ca. 20 mm in diameter by no more than 2 mm high. This elevation is quite smooth in its contours and displayed no other sign of the bony remodeling that one would expect from, say, periostitis. It was just a gentle bump on the skull. The margins of the perforation were diagnostically ambiguous; one simply cannot be sure if there was any evidence of healing or bony remodeling. It is possible that the elevation, or "bump," may have thinned the cranial vault at this point and that the perforation may have been postmortem, the result of localized erosion. The interior of the cranial vault, inspected by shining a flashlight through the foramen magnum, revealed no certain evidence of pathology that might have contributed either to the elevation or to the swelling. The elevation could be a "button" osteomata, or benign tumor of the bone, except that it seemed not to be circumscribed as definitely as such tumours often are (see Brothwell 1981: 142-143, fig. 6.6 B). The presence of the perforation, if it was other than fortuitous, is problematic. Surgical intervention, or trephining, seems most unlikely, and it appears not to be a traumatic depressed fracture since its edges were smooth and there were no signs of radiating fractures. Localized, postmortem erosion remains a possibility. In addition to the elevation just discussed there was, interestingly, a depressed spot on the right parietal; it was posterior to, and slightly more lateral than, the elevation. The center of the depression was ca. 80 mm posterior to the coronal suture and ca. 30 mm to the right of the sagittal suture. The depression was more or less circular in shape and measured ca. 20 mm in diameter. Although its contours were smooth, its edges were discernible and it was ca. 2 mm deep. Again, this seems not to be a depressed fracture but more of an anomaly. SPINAL COLUMN
The spinal column was incompletely preserved, with the vertebrae displaying a fair amount of postmortem erosion and damage. The 6th and 7th cervical were mere fragments and the 7th thoracic was absent. The vertebrae were largely unremarkable with respect to joint involvement except for some slight lipping on some of the centra. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton, likewise, was largely unremarkable except for some cortical swelling on the leg bones. The femora displayed bilateral, localized swellings of the cortical bone on the distal posterior surface, a few centimeters superior to the medial condyles, measuring ca. 10 mm in diameter, and which were roughly circular. The swellings rose above the normal surface of the bone by no more than a few millimeters and seemed to be nothing more than an elaboration of the cortical bone; there was no exposure of cancellous tissue.
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Possibly involved was a bilateral injury to the insertions of the medial heads of the gastrocnemius muscles, which descend from the posterior of the knee joint to the posterior aspect of the calcaneus (the heel). The tibiae displayed a similar, but more widespread condition, the left more than the right. These lesions appeared as a combination of linear striations, contained within the cortical tissue, and small patches of curiously smooth cortical bone. On the right tibia, where the striations were more extensive and prominent than the more subtle smooth patches, the condition was present on much of the shaft but was most pronounced on the medial aspect. The left tibia displayed a similar, but more marked and roughened presence of the lesions over most of the shaft, and they were more pronounced on the medial side. The fibulae were likewise involved, with the same gross appearance as the tibiae and with the left more affected than the right. The most severe lesions are in the distal one-third of the shafts of the fibulae and correspond to some especially roughened parts of both tibiae. The impression one gains is that of bone remodeling activity involving both the mechanism that resulted in the striations and the one that produced the smooth patches. It is possible, of course, that two quite different etiologies produced the striations and the smooth patches, but it is clear that both lower legs were affected by this condition. Whether the condition was caused by trauma resulting in periostitis or disease is unclear, but trauma seems the likelier choice. DENTITION
The maxillary dentition had lost all four incisors ante mortem (see Fig. 102) and the crown of the right canine was broken away ante mortem as well. The right 1st molar had produced an alveolar abscess and there was extensive alveolar resorption around the left-hand molars. The mandibular dentition had lost the left-hand molars and the alveolar resorption had extended to involve the area of the left 2nd premolar. The right 2nd and 3rd molars were very heavily worn and are abscessed. Also in the lower arcade the incisors and the right canine displayed crowding and some displacement and rotation.
Grave 26
Burial Position Grave 26 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 51). The degree of preservation of the skeleton was variable but there was no evidence of any significant postmortem disturbance to the bones. The cranium rested precisely on its posterior and faced neither to the corpse's right or left. There was no indication that the shoulders were shrugged and the casket seemed to have ample width to accommodate the breadth of the shoulders. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and both elbows were flexed at angles of ca. 45° from full extension. Both forearms were pronated, and the hands would have rested (left atop right) upon the lower abdomen or groin, palm down. The femora converged toward the knees, which were separated by no more than a few centimeters. The knees were fully extended and the tibiae were quite close together and parallel, nearly touching each other at the knee and ankle. There was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 26 suffered from a varying degree of preservation and did not completely survive exhumation, so fragile were some of the bones. Many of the bones were eroded post mortem and some of the long bones were incomplete. Most of the thoracic vertebrae, for example, were either missing or too fragmentary for inspection. The skull was relatively intact (Figs. 104, 105), with pronounced brow ridges, well developed mastoid processes, and a square chin. The greater sciatic notches of the innominata supported the
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0
5cm
Figure 104. Grave 26: cranium, anterior view. There has been much postmortem damage to the lower part of the face, including the maxilla.
5 cm
0
Figure 105. Grave 26: cranium, left lateral view. Postmortem damage produced a "sunken" appearance to the mouth area. The styloid process, on the other hand, is remarkably well preserved.
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assessment of sex as male. The coronal and sagittal sutures were almost wholly obliterated by advanced ectocranial synotosis, the lambdoid only slightly less so. Even both of the squamous sutures were almost wholly closed. The amount of antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption and the appearance of the pubic symphyses, in conjunction with the synotosis of the cranial sutures, indicate an age at the time of death of 50 or more years. Living stature is reconstructed at 161.52 cm± 3.74 cm (5 ft 3.5 in± 1.5 in).
Observations SPINAL COLUMN
The spinal column was not particularly well preserved but enough of it was present to permit some observations. The seven cervical vertebrae were all present, albeit some were incomplete, but none displayed any excessive lipping or joint involvement. Only seven of the thoracic were present, all in varying degrees of completeness, and two were fused together. Only the right half of these two vertebrae were present, and then little more than the centra; they can be identified only as "mid-thoracic." They were ankylosed by a wide mass of dense bone that not only bridged the two centra but also quite obscured the normal morphology of the articulation. The bridge was located on the right anterior of the vertebrae and was at least 20 mm wide (part of the anterior medial edge was broken away post mortem). The posterior articular facets of the neural arch were fused as well. The lower of the two vertebrae was collapsed; the thickness (height) of the centrum of the collapsed vertebrae was 22 mm at the posterior, but only 14 mm at the anterior. Only the posterior half of each of the five lumbar vertebrae was present and they displayed only minimal joint involvement. The poor preservation of the spinal column for this individual obscured the understanding of the condition that caused the ankylosis of the two thoracic vertebrae. It could have been a concomitant of the aging process, or the result of an illness or injury. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton was poorly preserved, and many of the bones had suffered considerable postmortem erosion. In any event, the bones seemed unremarkable. DENTITION
Most of the right side of the upper arcade was broken post mortem (see Figs. 104, 105), so little can be said about that part of the dentition. The left side suffered antemortem loss of the incisors, the 2nd premolar, and the molars. It is difficult to say whether or not the 3rd molars in either arcade were agenic. In the mandibular arcade only the incisors and the right canine were present at death, and then the left lateral incisor was worn to a stub. All of the remaining lower teeth were lost ante mortem, with consequent and extensive alveolar resorption.
Grave 27
Burial Position Grave 27 contained two inhumations, those of an adult and an infant, within the same coffin in what was surely a single act of interment (see Fig. 52). The adult was designated 27A, the infant 27B. Both were extended on their backs with their heads to the west, and the infant was placed between the right arm and torso of the adult. Grave 27A had its cranium resting on the left side, facing to the corpse's left. The shoulders appeared to have been shrugged, and the left shoulder was indeed crowded up against the left side of the coffin. The right side, however, had several centimeters of clearance between the shoulder and the side of the coffin. Perhaps the coffin could have accommodated the relaxed width of the shoulders, or perhaps the preserved traces of the
218
coffin did not accurately reflect its original dimensions. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were fully extended . The forearms passed over the lateral edges of the pelvis and the palms of the hands would have been pronated and resting atop the lateral areas of the lower abdomen. The femora converged towards the knees, which were separated by no more than 3-4 cm. The tibiae were very nearly parallel, but diverged towards the ankles, which were 15- 17 cm apart. It should be pointed out, however, that the lower right side of the coffin (alongside the legs) seemed to have collapsed inwards, possibly pushing the right knee joint a few centimeters towards the left; this minor disturbance may be the reason for the observation that the knees were closer together than the ankles. Although the shrugging of the shoulders suggested a coffin slightly too narrow for the normal breadth of the shoulders, there is no evidence that the corpse was forced into a coffin too short for its stature. Grave 27B was the tiny, incompletely formed skeleton of an infant. The preservation was very poor, the bones were so fragile, and the working conditions so cramped that is was only with the greatest difficulty that the remains could be cleared of their matrix. The fragmentary remains of the infant's cranium were the first sign that there was more than one interment in Grave 27. The most superior part of the cranium (relative to 27A) was at the level of the 7th thoracic vertebra of 27A, or about the middle of the spine of the adult. The metopic and sagittal sutures of 27B were oriented in line with the long axis of the grave, a circumstance that indicated that the head must have been resting on its posterior surface. The cranial remains were located between the rib cage and the distal one-third of the humerus of 27A; that is, between the torso and the right arm of the adult. The postcranial remains of 27B extended down towards the right pelvis of 27A. Observation of the postcranial bones of 27B during excavation showed that the skeleton was extended on its back, but no details of the positions of the arms and legs could be satisfactorily determined. It is important to note that the bones of 27B were outside the rib cage of 27A; this was not the position of an undelivered fetus. The impression given is that of an adult (27A) placed in the coffin with the arms straight down along the sides. The neonate (27B) was placed next to the adult's right side, between the adult's torso and right arm. The infant's head would have been just above (superior to) the adult's right elbow, with the rest of the infant's corpse extending down to the right hip or right wrist of the adult. There was no evidence that the adult's right elbow was flexed, an arrangement that would have simulated cradling the infant. Multiple interments in a single grave in organized historical cemeteries seem rare in the archaeological record. Grave 8-1 from a Laredo, Texas, cemetery (McReynolds 1981: 50, fig. 14) contained the skeletons of a female and a neonate; the neonate was placed between the legs of the adult, with the infant's head between the adult's knees, and the infant's feet towards the foot of the coffin. The Catoctin Furnace Cemetery in Maryland, which was used for the burial of black slaves connected with the operation of this industrial enterprise between 1790 and ca. 1820 (Kelley and Angel 1987: 199), yielded 35 graves thought to represent perhaps a third of the entire cemetery (Burnston 1981: ii). All the coffins contained a single individual but there was one instance of a coffin, containing an infant who had died at about the age of one year (feature 34), that rested directly atop a second coffin containing an adult female (feature 35). Burnston notes (1981: 11-120)"the two coffins appear to have been interred at the same time." This is clearly a different situation from those at Uxbridge and Laredo, but one may surmise that that a parent-child relationship may be indicated; the age of the adult was, however, assessed at 45-57 years (Angel 1981: unnumbered fifth page), perhaps a little advanced for motherhood. Lanphear (1988: 63) offers a tantalizing statement concerning the Highland Park cemetery near Rochester, New York, which served, among other institutions, the Monroe County Poorhouse between 1826 and 1863 and from which 296 individuals were excavated. "Most of the individuals buried in the cemetery represent single primary interments in simple pine coffins, although 4 coffins had two individuals each." She gives no indication of age or sex for
219
these double inhumations. She does mention that "occasionally several coffins appear to have been laid [one] on top of another. These may represent overcrowding in the cemetery or small mass burials that may have taken place at the end of winter or in the wake of an epidemic" (Lanphear 1988: 63-64).
Analysis Skeleton 27A, that of the adult, was in an excellent state of preservation; postmortem erosion was limited to the left side of some of the vertebrae and the left side of the cranium. This differential erosion made one think of a decomposing corpse partly awash in liquefied tissues; these liquids, or possibly just groundwater seepage, may have been present in Grave 27 for a longer time than for other graves in the Uxbridge series. This circumstance could have had deleterious effects on the preservation of bones resting on this part of the floor of the coffin. There was, upon excavation, a tough organic substance present over parts of the cranium. This substance, surely the remains of soft tissues, was when first exposed dark green or black in color. It did not have an offensive odor and was durable enough to resist prodding with a blunt instrument. Likely, this was a remnant of the scalp, but little hair seemed to be present. The small, gracile proportions of the long bones, the configuration of the skull (Figs. 106, 107) and the mandible, and the wide contours of the greater sciatic notches of the innominata leave no doubt that this skeleton was that of a female. There was virtually no ectocranial synotosis of the cranial sutures; all were open and could be traced with ease . There was a 1 cm stretch of the posterior part of the sagittal that did show some degree of synotosis. The basilar suture was completely closed. The medial epiphyses of both clavicles were wholly fused. Only one 3rd molar was present (the upper right) and it was erupted and functional; the others seem to have been agenic. The degree of occlusal attrition of the teeth was consistent with the late third decade of life, so an age at the time of death of 25-35 years is indicated. Living stature was reconstructed at 146.94 cm± 3.51 cm (4 ft 10 in± 1.4 in). Skeleton 27B was not well preserved but enough of the dentition remained to indicate that death came no later than soon after birth. In fact, while the remains could have been those of a full-term fetus, it is not impossible that the infant was a few months premature or stillborn. Likewise, the infant could have been several months old at the time of death. No evaluation of sex was possible.
Observations Both of the skeletons from this grave were largely unremarkable in terms of pathology. Skeleton 27A, that of the adult, displayed no lipping on the vertebral centra. Skeleton 27B, that of the neonate, was too young and too incompletely preserved to permit much observation. DENTITION
The dentition of the adult (27A) from Grave 27 was not a healthy one. In the maxilla three teeth (both 2nd premolars and the right 1st molar) were lost ante mortem, the right 1st premolar was decayed to a carious stub, and the alveolus of both right premolars was abscessed. The right 3rd molar was present, but not the left, which may have been agenic. Both of the upper canines were absent (see Fig 106), likely congenitally since there were no gaps in the row of teeth nor signs of alveolar resorption attendant on antemortem loss. The lower arcade lacked 3rd molars, as well as the left 2nd molar (agenic?) and the right 1st molar (lost ante mortem, with considerable alveolar resorption). The neonate's (27B) dentition was unremarkable.
220
5cm
0
Figure 106. Grave 27A: cranium, anterior view. The medial incisors are missing post mortem, but the upper canines are missing ante mortem, perhaps congenitally.
0
5cm
Figure 107. Grave 27A: cranium, left lateral view.
221
Grave 28
Burial Position Grave 28 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 53). The skeleton was fully articulated and there was no evidence of any serious postmortem disturbance. The cranium rested -on its posterior surface and faced very slightly to the corpse's right. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and the elbows were flexed. Both of the shoulders displayed shrugging, particularly the left. The coffin as preserved, however, did not appear to be unduly confining. The left humerus was quite close to the left side of the coffin (in fact the wood stains representing that side did bulge out slightly at the shoulder), so the possibility of a coffin too narrow to accommodate the relaxed width of the shoulders should not be dismissed. The left elbow was flexed at a right angle from full extension; the forearm was pronated and the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the right side of the abdomen. The right elbow was flexed also, but only at ca. 45° from fully extended, so the right forearm crossed the pelvis area with the palm of the right hand resting atop the center of the lower abdomen. The femora converged towards the knees, which were only 6-8 cm apart but the tibiae were parallel. There was no evidence that this individual was forced into a coffin too short for the stature of the corpse.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 28 was fairly complete but rather poorly preserved. Only a few of the long bones were intact for their full length and all of the bones had suffered postmortem erosion to a greater or lesser degree. The calvaria was essentially intact but the face was very fragmentary. Part of the right brow ridge was preserved and it was not at all pronounced; the mastoid processes were slender and well within the female range of variation, as were the proportions of the mandible. The innominata were distinguished by greater sciatic notches so wide as to be classically female. There was very little, if any, ectocranial synotosis of the sutures; only a short stretch of the sagittal just posterior of the bregma showed any evidence of closure. The 3rd molars were erupted and functional and occlusal attrition of the dentition was slight. An assessment of an age of 25-30 years at the time of death is indicated. Living stature was reconstructed at 170.53 cm± 4.45 cm (5 ft 7 in± 1.75 in).
Observations SPINAL COLUMN
Only some 17 vertebrae (six cervical, eight thoracic, and three lumbar) were well enough preserved to be examined with any degree of confidence; the other vertebrae were represented only by fragments. The vertebrae were unremarkable and displayed no evidence of joint involvement. The sacrum displayed a sacral canal that was open down to the level of the inferior transverse line of the 2nd sacral vertebra. At that point it closed normally in the shape of the letter "V," except that a thin line continued the "opening" to the inferior transverse line of the 3rd sacral, where the remainder of the sacrum was broken away post mortem. It is difficult to say if this line was an anatomical defect or a postmortem crack. Since the line did tend to replicate the unmistakable "bifiditiy" of the 2nd sacral vertebra, it seems likely that the line is a minor anatomical anomaly. DENTITION
All of the teeth were present in both arcades. The lower right 1st molar was reduced to a
222
carious stub and abscessed. The lower left 1st molar was badly decayed also, with only a stub remaining. Both lower and the upper left 3rd molars were impacted against their respective 2nd molars. None of these had reached the full occlusal height that the upper right 3rd molar did.
Grave 29
Burial Position Grave 29 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 54). The skeleton was not very well preserved (the ribs, for example, could not be lifted from their matrix) but there was no evidence of any serious disturbance or disarticulation. The cranium rested on its posterior surface and faced neither to the right nor left. Both of the shoulders were shrugged upwards, with the bones of the shoulder joint elevated a few centimeters superior to their normal anatomical position. The sides of the coffin were close upon the shoulders and it appeared that the coffin could not easily have accommodated the normal, relaxed breadth of the shoulders. The upper arms were straight alongside the ribs. The left elbow was flexed at ca. 45° from full extension, the pronated forearm crossed the abdomen, and the palm of the left hand would have rested atop the right lower abdomen. The right elbow was fully extended and the forearm passed alongside the right pelvis; the palm of the right hand would have rested atop the upper right thigh since the right wrist was flexed slightly towards the center line of the corpse. The femora converged towards the knees which were separated by ca. 6-8 cm. The tibiae were quite parallel and the ankles were 6-8 cm apart. The outline of the coffin for this grave followed closely the sides and ends of the skeleton, suggesting that the coffin was no longer than was necessary to accommodate the stature of the corpse, and just barely wide enough for the deceased.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 29 displayed a very well preserved skull (Figs 108, 109). The postcranial remains, however, fared less well, being seriously eroded to the point that the humeri were the only long bones preserved for their entire length. The brow ridges were pronounced and the mastoid processes large and rugged; the configuration of the mandible was distorted by significant alveolar resorption subsequent to antemortem tooth loss. Features of the pelvic bones placed this individual well within the male range. Ectocranial synotosis was advanced, with the coronal and sagittal sutures almost completely obliterated and only traces of the lambdoid visible. Even the right squamous suture wai, in an advanced stage of closure. Both jaws were, with the exception of an extremely worn stub of what might have been the lower right first premolar, wholly edentulous and alveolar resorption was extreme. Joint involvement of the vertebrae was significant. The pubic symphyses were not preserved for examination, but the estimate of 50+ years of age at the time of death seems otherwise well attested. Living stature was reconstructed at 172.56 cm± 4.57 cm (5 ft 8 in± 1.8 in).
Observations SPINAL COLUMN
Although the spinal column suffered from some amount of postmortem damage, at least part of every vertebra seemed to be represented. The 5th lumbar was sacralized, bilaterally, apparently as an anomaly rather than a pathological occurrence. The 2nd through 7th cervical displayed elaborate exotoses, principally on the anterior aspect of the vertebral centra. None of the cervical were ankylosed, since the exotoses accommodated one another in forming small articulations of their own. This joint involvement decreased with the 1st through 3rd thoracic, then the 4th through
223
5cm
0
Figure 108. Grave 29: cranium, anterior view. The entire maxillary dentition was lost long before death and alveolar resorption has been so extravagant as to reduce the contours of the lower face to that of an archetype of toothless old age.
0
5 cm
Figure 109. Grave 29: cranium, left lateral view. The loss of all maxillary dentition before death has had a profound effect upon the shape of the upper jaw. The styloid processes are very well preserved.
224
7th thoracic were fused into a single element. The fusion was present, in varying degrees, on the articular surfaces of both the vertebral centra and the neural arches. A postmortem break on the anterior surface of the 5th and 6th thoracic provided a cross-section of the fused vertebrae and showed that the centra were fused on their periphery; the central area of the vertebral body was not party to the ankylosis. The 8th and 9th thoracic were fused to one another, as were the 10th and 11th. The 12th thoracic and 1st lumbar were free; the 2nd through 4th lumbar were fused. (The 5th lumbar, the reader will recall, was sacralized). The inferior articular facets of the neural arch of the 4th lumbar were grotesquely enlarged and flattened, a condition reflected on the superior articular facets of the neural arch of the 5th lumbar. Looking at the entire spinal column, the largest, most fully developed exotoses were located on the anterior right quarter of the affected vertebrae. They formed a mass of varying width and thickness that resembled an overgrowth of dense, cortical bone. The condition was quite similar to that seen in the skeletons from Graves 13 and 15, and likely also resulted from an arthritis-like process. APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The head of the left humerus displayed an atypical acwmulation of cortical bone. The periphery of the head was preserved only on the lateral, anterior, and medial aspects; the posterior was eroded and absent. Wherever the periphery was preserved there was an irregular band between 2-6 mm wide (superior-inferior) by 1- 2 mm thick (internal-external). The right humerus had a similar, but less pronounced, condition. These lesions were not inconsistent with arthritic changes . DENTITION
The dentition was, with the exception of the heavily worn stub of the lower right 1st premolar, edentulous and very resorbed (see Figs. 108, 109). There were no signs of abscesses but resorption was so advanced that one could get no sense of this individual's dental history except to say that it must have been a difficult one.
Grave 30
Burial Position Grave 30 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 55). The skeleton was fully articulated and the:-e was no evidence of any serious disturbance. The cranium rested on its posterior surface and faced very slightly to the corpse's left. The shoulders were not shrugged or elevated. Although the right shoulder seemed displaced laterally from the ribs, such a position was a function of the pattern of settling of the ribs; the shoulder joint was not elevated significantly above its normal anatomical position. The humeri were not straight alongside the rib cage but were abducted, or diverged slightly away from the torso, so that the crooks of the elbows were ca. 12-15 cm away from the ribs. This was the only instance in the Uxbridge adult series in which the upper arms were not straight alongside the ribs, an observation that may be significant in light of the relaxed, unshrugged posture of the shoulders. The left elbow was flexed at slightly more than 90° from full extension of the joint, the right at slightly less than 90°. The forearms crossed the abdomen so that the wrists were on the midline of the body, with the left slightly superior (higher up on the chest) than the right. Both forearms were pronated so that the palms of the hands would have rested atop the lower torso; the left upon the lower right ribs, the right upon the left abdomen. This arrangement of the wrists at the centerline of the body, and the elbows flexed at ca. 90°, could only have been achieved by having the elbows moved out slightly from the torso. The femora
225
converged towards the knees, which were separated by only ca. 2 cm. The tibiae converged towards the ankles, where they nearly touched. Photographs of the skeleton in situ show a piece of wood extending from the medial end of the right clavicle to the left central part of the maxilla. There was another piece of wood going from the left side of the spinal column, at about the level of the 1st thoracic vertebra, to the left side of the face. During excavation it was thought that perhaps these pieces of wood were bony growths or malformations of the skeleton; when the in situ skeleton was examined closely, it was determined that these "growths" were, in fact, unusually well preserved pieces of wood, surely from the lid of the coffin (see Fig. 14).
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 30 was very well preserved, with sound and uneroded bones. The postcranial remains were gracile, but the sex of this skeleton was the most equivocal of any adult in the Uxbridge series. For the cranium (Figs. 110, 111) the brow ridges were developed but were not especially pronounced and the mastoid processes fit more comfortably in the male range. The greater sciatic notches of the innominata were very much on the wide side of the normal range of variation for males; the subpubic angle was ca. 90°, preauricular sulci were absent, but the pubic symphyses were not deep. The postcranial bones were among the shortest in the Uxbridge adult series. Recourse to discriminate function analysis for sex revealed that the cranium was comfortably within the female range so this individual was assessed as a female. Synotosis of the cranial sutures and the appearance of the pubic symphyses indicated an adult of advanced years. There was some amount of joint involvement and extensive antemortem tooth loss with subsequent alveolar resorption. An age of 50 or more years at the time of death is indicated. Living stature was reconstructed at 160.12 cm± 3.51 cm (5 ft 3 in± 1.4 in).
Observations AXIALSKELETON
The vertebrae were complete and well preserved and there was no major arthritic involvement in the intervertebral joints. The centra were largely normal and displayed no exotoses developed enough to interfere with articulation . The articular facets on the neural arches for a number of vertebrae, however, did display some slight lipping. The xiphoid process of the sternum was ossified, as was the hyoid with its horns . These observations were consistent with the evaluation of the age at the time of death for this individual. DENTITION
Extensive antemortem tooth loss and consequent alveolar resorption (see Figs. 110, 111) made for few observations on this individual's dentition. All of the maxillary teeth were lost ante mortem, and only shallow sockets remained for four mandibular teeth (left canine and incisors, and right medial incisor), all the others having been lost ante mortem. If the four mandibular teeth were present at death, they must have been retained primarily by soft tissues, so shallow are the sockets from alveolar resorption.
Grave 31
Burial Position Grave 31 contained the inhumation of an adult, extended on its back with the head to the west (see Fig. 56). The skeleton was fully articulated and no evidence of any serious disturbance was observed. The cranium rested on its rear surface and faced very slightly to the
226
0
5cm
Figure 110. Grave 30: cranium, anterior view. the antemortem loss of all of the upper teeth has, like Grave 29, ravaged the contours of the mouth. The two styloid processes can be seen.
5cm
0
Figure 111. Grave 30: cranium, left lateral view.
227
corpse's right. Both shoulders were fully shrugged upwards; the sides of the ·coffin were too indistinctly preserved to permit an assessment of just how closely the coffin might have confined the shoulders. The upper arms were straight alongside the rib cage and both of the elbows were flexed at ca. 45° from full extension. The pronated forearms crossed (right atop left) at the centerline of the body over the abdomen. The palm of the left hand would have been resting upon the right hip, and vice versa. The femora converge only slightly towards the knees, which were ca. 6-8 cm apart. The tibiae were more or less parallel.
Analysis The adult's skeleton from Grave 31 was very poorly preserved and not a single long bone was intact. Despite the generally poor preservation most, if not all, of the major postcranial elements were present but they were, almost without exception, eroded, fragmentary, and incomplete. The cranium (Figs. 112, 113) and mandible were, however, practically intact. The brow ridges, while not especially massive, were developed and the mastoid processes were square and heavy. The mandible was not massive, but there had been a good deal of alveolar resorption subsequent to antemortem tooth loss. Features of the pelvic bones were well within the male range . There was some amount of ectocranial synotosis, especially of the sagittal and adjacent parts of the coronal and lambdoid sutures. At least two of the 3rd molars were erupted and the medial epiphyses of the clavicles were completely fused. The degree of occlusal attrition of the dentition was consistent with an age of at most 40 years, and the amount of suture synotosis would not demand an age beyond that. An assessment of 30-40 years of age at the time of death is indicated. No stature reconstruction was possible, because of the poor preservation of the post-cranial remains.
Observations AXIAL SKELETON
Most of the vertebrae were present, but in varying degrees of completeness. There was no significant evidence of joint involvement but at least three lumbar centra displayed anomalous accumulations of granular tissue, as did the superior aspect of the 1st sacral. The accumulations appeared as small reticulated masses of cortical bone, absent in the anterior half of the centrum and heaviest towards the posterior. At their most severe they became a more or less consolidated mass but never more than ca. 0.5 mm in height. They do not seem to have been the sort of exotoses that one would expect from joint involvement; possibly some sort of intervertebral periostitis is indicated, or an ossification of the intervertebral disc. The condition was also present on at least one thoracic vertebra as well, but only on the superior surface; the inferior surface was quite normal. DENTITION
The maxillary dentition had four teeth lost ante mortem (left 1st molar and both incisors, right 2nd premolar; see Fig. 112) and two of the remaining teeth were carious (the right 1st molar and the right lateral incisor, which was decayed to a stub). The upper arcade had lost the left 2nd premolar and 1st molar and the right 1st and 2nd molars ante mortem. The left 3rd molar was absent, possibly agenic, and the right 3rd molar was carious.
228
5 cm
0
Figure 112. Grave 31: cranium, anterior view. The left upper incisors were lost prior to death.
0
5cm
Figure 113. Grave 31: cranium, right lateral view . Most of the teeth were lost post mortem as evidenced by the sharp margins of the sockets.
229
Chapter
Six
The Osteology of the Uxbridge Paupers by Al B. Wesolowsky
Introduction In this chapter we will review and synthesize the implications of the osteology of the remains from the cemetery of the Uxbridge Almshouse. The historical documentation for the almshouse is detailed in many particulars and practically silent on others. While we know the cost of providing for the paupers for specific years, and even the value of produce from the poor farm, we are told little about the occupants themselves, either alive or dead. The skeletal remains may be considered, as we shall see, as a bridge, albeit an imperfect one, between the mute evidences of archaeology and the loquacious testimonia of governmental minutiae. They are an imperfect bridge because, with the exception of Nancy Adams of Grave 8, the occupants of the graves remain anonymous. There are some graves for which identifica tions of occupants may be posited (see Chapter Eight and Appendix Two), but these suggestions will likely evade confirmation, or even demonstration. We are reduced to examining the remains of the paupers of Uxbridge in the aggregate, looking for patterns and trends by which this series might be compared to others. Cemeteries of the historical period in North America have not been a prime research area for archaeologists. It is ironic that we now know more about the skeletal biology of prehistoric peoples than we do about our own more immediate precursors. This situation is changing, especially with a growing awareness of the potential for information that is contained in historical cemeteries, information that is amenable to anthropological investigation . Blakely and Beck (1982), Corruccini et al. (1982), Fox (1984), Lebo (1988), Rose (1985b), Taylor, Fox, and Cox (1986), and Lanphear (1988) are among those who have reported on skeletal remains from historical cemeteries. Still, samples are usually small and long-term curation of materials may not be feasible. Fox (1984: 15) mentions legal and contractual obligations to the effect that the remains had to be reburied, in a modern cemetery, on the same day that they were exhumed. Guendling, et al. (1985: 26, fig. 1) had the relative(!) leisure of 24 hours before the remains from Cedar Grove, Arkansas, had to be reinterred. Such immediate pressures as these were not a factor at Uxbridge, but the certainty of reinterment and the consequent inability to reexamine material does remain a factor in the study of human remains scheduled for reburial. A final point regarding the utility of skeletal remains in archaeological investigations is in order: much can be learned from bones, but not everything. The sex of an adult skeleton can be assessed but not, with any reliability, that of a child. And even in the case of adults, there is enough overlap in the morphology of males and females to present an element of uncertainty. Age at the time of death can, assuming that enough of the skeleton is preserved, be accurate to within a few years up until about 20 years of age. After 21 years of age, when the dentition has assumed its adult form, evaluating the age at the time of death becomes more of a matter of estimating the decade within which the individual died, not just a span of a couple of years. After 40 or 50 years of age, it is difficult to be more specific than, say, "50+ years." Pathology, likewise, cannot always be evaluated with certainty through identifying a specific clinical disorder. The capacity of skeletal tissues to respond to disease and injury can be astonishing, but different ailments can produce very similar effects on bones. The osteologist
230
may have to suggest that one of several conditions could have produced the lesion at hand. We simply do not have recourse to the diagnostic procedures that a modern physician can bring to bear on a live patient, or even one recently deceased; we have only the dry bones. With these caveats in mind, then, let us try to place the Uxbridge series into context with a few of its 19th-century contemporaries.
Mortality Distribution Table 13 is a summary of the distribution of age and sex in the Uxbridge series. Sex could not be evaluated for the children, of course, and the adults were occasionally assessed at ages that do not fit tidily onto tables (the "25-35" of Grave 27A, for example). Still, this table is the basic structure of mortality and sex at Uxbridge, and there are some interesting observations to be made presently. Lanphear reports on what is surely an institutional cemetery, near Rochester in western New York State, called variously the Highland Park Cemetery and the Monroe County Poorhouse Cemetery (1988: 62). A total of 296 individuals was recovered and examined from an unstated number of graves, and Lanphear believes that the cemetery was that used by the Monroe County Poorhouse from the establishment of that institution in 1826 until 1863 when burial was mandated in another cemetery that now exists to the west of Highland Park. The source of the corpses buried in Highland Park is rendered somewhat uncertain since it may have been used also by a workhouse established in 1854 (redesignated a penitentiary in 1858) and an insane asylum built in 1857. This uncertainty casts some doubt, as we shall see, on the comparability of Highland Park and Uxbridge. This is an unfortunate circumstance since Highland Park, were it solely occupied by former inmates of the poorhouse, would be the most directly comparable of all our 19th-century series. Table 14 compares Uxbridge with a few other (mainly) 19th-century cemetery series and some explanatory comments are in order. The Clement Site near Lee, Strafford County, New Hampshire (Sargent 1977; Dethlefsen, Briggs, and Biese 1977) is included more for the sake of completeness than for its comparative value since its sample of eight individuals is so small. · Still, Clement may represent a cemetery for a poor farm of the late 18th to early 19th century, although historical research was not undertaken for that site (Sargent 1977: 85), and those under 10 years of age do represent 24% of the sample; this statistic is similar to those shown by Uxbridge and Highland Park and may bear on the question of institutional demography. Choke Canyon (Fox 1984) represents 34 graves from five rural cemeteries dating between ca. 1860 and 1913 on the Frio River in south Texas. Morgan Chapel (Taylor, Fox, and Cox 1986) was a small cemetery in south central Texas with 21 graves dated to between 1891 and 1937. Part of a civic cemetery in Laredo, Texas (McReynolds 1981) yielded 22 graves dating from the late 19th through early 20th century. This last was very nearly a pure salvage excavation in that only those graves directly affected by modem construction were exhumed, and then only those parts of the graves that were directly encountered by modem pits for foundations and pipelines. Oakland (Blakely and Beck 1982) is a large, urban cemetery in Atlanta, Georgia, part of which was examined by exposing the tops of 204 grave pits. Seventeen graves dating between 1866 and 1884 were then excavated, all likely to have been those of Blacks. Cedar Grove (Rose 1985b) in~olved the rescue excavation of 79 graves in a Black cemetery in rural Arkansas; these graves dated from as early as 1834 up through 1927. Uxbridge has 22% of its occupants dying within the first decade of life. Lanphear (1988: table 3) gives the distribution of age and sex for the Highland Park skeletal series. Although 296 skeletons were recovered 44 could not be evaluated for both age and sex, leaving 252 individuals for which we have an evaluation of age and sex; here 23% were under 10 years of age at the time of death. Clement, the last of our "poorhouse series," has 24% who died before 10 years of age.
231
Table 13. Distribution of sex and age in the Uxbridge series . The numerals listed under "Male" and "Female" are Grave numbers. Grave 22, yielding only a single fragment of bone, is not included in the body of the table.
Children (sex not determined)
Female
Male
Age in years
2, 3,278 5, 11, 19 9
0-6 months
1-2 7 20-25 25-30 25-35 3
(;~
f
''O
Nu . 28, l 'c r i;rusa,
JO.G2
b
JU.70
•
No . !JG, l'or i;roea,
10 .8j
Figure 121. Coffin tacks illustrated in 19th-century hardware catalogs: a, Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 331); b, Markham and Strong (1865: 6).
We have successfully overcome this difficulty in the use of Nichols & Abbe's Patented Mould, and will warrant these screws perfect in this respect, and superior to any others in market (Markham and Strong 1865: 7).
A second kind of coffin tack was quite different than the white metal variety. It is a machine-stamped brass semi-spheroid that was soldered to a tapering steel point (see Fig. 120 e). What appear to be similar style tacks (called "silver-plated studs") are depicted in an 1882 trade catalog (Columbus Coffin Company 1882: 30, 31; Fig. 122 a-b). The form depicted in the catalog that most closely resembles the tacks from Grave 27 is shown from the top, in plan view, so whether or not it possessed a milled edge like the Uxbridge examples is unknown (Fig. 122 a). Interestingly, trunk rivets illustrated in the Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 289) catalog are morphologically similar to the brass tacks recovered from Uxbridge and do have milled edges (Fig. 122 c). The tack style that resembles a trunk rivet is problematic. The formal similarities between the trunk rivets and the silver-plated studs are probably related to their similar decorative function. It therefore appears that the br~ss tacks are only coffin tacks by virtue of being used in that context. As with the coffin screws, a number of varieties of coffin tack caps were recognized. Four cap varieties are composed of white metal and one is made of brass. 1. Rounded white metal caps, 1.2 cm in diameter, with a single band of diagonal hatching along the cap base. All examples of this style were unslotted (see Fig. 120 a). 2. Flat white metal caps, 1.2-1.3 cm in diameter, with three bands of diagonal hatching on the cap. All examples were unslotted (see Fig. 120 b). 3. Rounded white metal caps, 1.2 cm in diameter, with two bands of dotted filigree on the cap. One tack was unslotted, one had a slot cast with the tack cap, and the remainder had weak, irregular, off-center slots (see Fig. 120 c, f). This style is illustrated, with slots, in catalogs distributed by Markham and Strong (1865: 6) and by the Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 331) (see Fig. 121 a, b). 4. Rounded white metal caps, 2 cm in diameter, with two fine, parallel lines encircling the cap just below the top, with a diagonally hatched flaring rim or collar. Viewed in profile, these caps have a domed appearance. All examples are unslotted (see Fig. 120 d). 5. Semi-spherical brass caps, possibly with a tin wash, 2.1 cm in diameter, with a basal border of fine, parallel lines perpendicular to the edge of the cap (i.e., a milled edge) (see Fig. 120 e). These are similar to the trunk rivets illustrated in the Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 289) catalog (see Fig. 122 c), and to the silver-plated studs shown in the Columbus Coffin Company (1882: 30, 31) catalog (see Fig. 122 a, b). As mentioned above, coffin tacks were used, like coffin screws, to decorate the coffin lid. Unlike the coffin screws, however, the insubstantial form of the coffin tack did little to secure the coffin lid; the function of the coffin tack was purely decorative. On the coffins recovered at the Uxbridge site, coffin tacks were also used to cover the rough nail holes in the coffin lid. The use of coffin tacks in this manner is evidenced by (1) tacks preserved in coffin wood immediately adjoining cut nails (e.g., in Graves 1, 3, 11, 14, 16, 17, and 28 [see Fig. 120 g], and (2) a small fragment of a coffin lid (from Grave 28) with a beveled edge that shows a nail hole entirely circumscribed by the corrosion stain (or "ghost mark") from a coffin tack (see Fig. 120 h). Seven graves (1, 2, 11, 14, 16, 17, and 28) had matching coffin screws and tacks. Since the ratio of coffin screws to tacks varied, it appears that matching types were not available in sets of limited numbers (e.g., ten screws and ten tacks), but supplied in larger quantities, such as by the gross offered by the Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company
275
No. 20.
No. 32.
a
b
C Figure -122. Silver -plated studs and truck rivets illustrated in 19th-century trade catalogs: a-b, silver-plated studs, Columbus Coffin Company (1882: 30, 31); c, trunk rivets, Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 289).
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(1865: 331). The use of varying ratios of matching screw and tack types may suggest that coffins incorporating these embellishments were individually decorated. Three graves (4, 5, and 20) had coffin screws alone, while two graves (3 and 27) had only coffin tacks.
Glass View Plates Two of the coffins (Graves 1 and 12) at the site had glass view plates set into their lids. The rectangular view plates, made of cast plate glass (Brown 1971: 127; Jones et al. 1985: 171-172), measure approximately 14 x 16 inches (36.6 x 15.2 cm) and 14 x 9 inches (35.4 x 22.8 cm). Both view plates were scored and roughly broken along one edge, and were possibly fashioned from windowpane stock. Windowpane stock was supplied in many different sizes in the 19th century (Wilson 1976: 162). While oval glass view plates probably first appeared on mass-marketed burial containers in 1848 (Habenstein and Lamers 1955: 263), both rectangular and oval forms have been recovered from archaeological excavations at many cemeteries (see this chapter, above). Glass view plates may simply reflect efforts to ornament burial containers, or their use may be related to concerns about disease, fears of apparent death, or an increasing importance of display of the dead (cf. Aries 1982: 397-404; Farrell 1980: 7).
Hook-and-Eye Fastener In addition to a glass view plate, a brass hook-and-eye fastener was recovered from Grave 12 (Fig. 123 a, b). The hook measured 3.8 cm in length, and the eye, still attached to a segment of coffin wood, had an outside diameter of 0.9 cm. The location of the hook-and-eye within Grave 12 was not recorded, so it is difficult to determine how the fastener was used. Although this is a common hardware fastener, it is not reported in graves from any historical cemeteries referenced in this chapter. In the context of this site , the brass hook-and-eye fastener is unusual. While no white metal coffin hardware was used on the Grave 12 coffin, the entire artifact assemblage from this grave indicates that the coffin was minimally ornamented. Grave 12 contained the smaller of the two glass view plates, the smallest pair of hinges (see Fig. 116 d) in the burial ground (measuring 2.2 x 2 cm), and some possible coffin lining tacks. It is difficult, however, to view this common fastener as an ornamental object.
Lining Tacks Three and possibly four graves (2, 4, 12, and 20) had what appear to be lining tacks (Fig. 123 c--e). A tack from Grave 2 was made of white metal (Fig. 123 d) and is similar to forms illustrated in numerous trade catalogs (e.g., Columbus Coffin Company 1882: 34; Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company 1865: 331; Sargent and Company 1861: 109, 1869: 154) (Fig. 124). The tack fragment from Grave 4 was made of copper or an alloy (probably brass), and the remainder of the tacks from Graves 12 and 20 were made of iron or steel (see Fig. 123 c). The tacks range from 0.3 to 1.5 cm in length, and were possibly used to fasten a fabric lining inside the coffin. It is also possible that these artifacts are not lining tacks, but had another function, such as clothing fasteners. I have found no other archaeological examples of lining tacks in the literature. If all of these items were, in fact, used to fasten coffin lining, then the ornamentation of coffins with textile lining is indicated and may be interpreted as an expression of the beautification of death.
Decorative vs. Plain Burial Containers The analysis of the mortuary assemblages indicates that certain items associated with the beautification of death were incorporated into some of the burial containers used at the site. Viewing the distribution of the white metal hinges, coffin screws, coffin tacks, the glass view plates, and the white metal lining tack within the context of the grave presents a range of
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Figure 123. Hook-and-eye fastener and possible lining tacks from Uxbridge: a-b, brass hook-and-eye, plan and profile view (Grave 12); c, e, possible iron or alloy coffin lining tack types, plan and profile views (c, Grave 20; e, Grave 4); d, white metal lining tack from Grave 2.
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Figure 124. Lining tacks illustrated in the Sargent and Company (1865: 154) catalog . "No . 10" closely resembles the Uxbridge example from Grave 2 (see Figure 123 d). Nearly identical illustrations to "No. 10" also appear in Columbus Coffin Company (1882: 34), Russell and Erwin Manufacturing Company (1865: 331), and Sargent and Company (1861: 109).
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variation that is remarkable for the general lack of highly ornamental burial containers. Within the site, coffins found in Graves 1, 12, and 30 were more elaborate than any other burial containers. Grave 1 contained the remains of a female in her thirties with an injury to the right side of the mandible that resembles a greenstick fracture, but in otherwise healthy physical condition. Coffin fittings found in Grave 1 included two white metal butt hinges set into the lid of a divided coffin, outfitted with a glass view plate. The coffin had 16 white metal coffin screws and 29 coffin tacks. Grave 12 (containing the remains of a female, 25 to 30 years old, with no remarkable pathologies) had two small brass hinges on a divided coffin lid provided with a glass view plate like Grave 1, a brass hook-and-eye fastener, three possible iron wood screws, and four possible iron lining tacks. Grave 30 contained the remains of an adult male, over 50 years old, and besides the extensive antemortem tooth loss and subsequent aveolar resorption, this individual had little evidence of pathologies seen in other individuals from the site. The assemblage from Grave 30 contained a single white metal dowel-type coffin hinge, six white metal coffin screws, and 42 coffin tacks-by far the highest frequency of coffin tacks in any grave. While these three burial containers were at the higher end of a range of ornamented coffins at the burial ground, the decorative elements appear minimal next to the far more ostentatious containers recovered from other 19th-century burial grounds. The glass view plates, the hook-and-eye fastener, and the possible coffin lining tacks may not all have been purely decorative items, or decorative items at all. None of the Uxbridge burial containers had coffin handles or nameplates indicating that the coffins found at the site were made at little cost, using a minimal amount of decorative elements. Not including Graves 1 and 30, ten coffins had some amount of white metal hardware, i.e., either white metal screws or white metal tacks or both. One coffin (Grave 27) had neither brass hinges nor white metal hardware, but was minimally decorated with five brass tacks. Eighteen coffins, however, were clearly plain, evidencing only common brass hinges in addition to whatever fasteners (i.e., iron cut nails or iron wood screws) were used to secure the lid. This last group of plain coffins constitutes 58% of the sample. Although the balance of the evidence presented in this chapter indicates that the town made only a minimally decent effort to inter those who could not afford their own burials, the presence of the three most decorative coffins at the site is an intriguing phenomenon, one that may be illuminated by speculation using what little documentary evidence is available. First, the most decorative burial containers could have been from extra coffin stock, bought by the town at a bargain price. While the documentary evidence for the purchase of coffins by the town is far from detailed, there is variation in the price paid for coffins. Coffins were frequently purchased in groups of two or more and at prices lower than those paid for single coffins (see Chapter Three). Second, the most highly decorated coffins may have been specially commissioned for the burials of especially beloved paupers. Skeletal remains in Graves 1, 12, and 30 were not among those that appeared to be placed in ill-fitting coffins (see Chapters Four and Five). Only four entries of coffins bought for specific individuals appear in the town records, and may possibly be evidence that these coffins were made to order. The entries include the "coffin for Sylvia Moore," the "coffin for A Kieth," the "coffin for Mr Huse," and the "coffin for Mrs Fox" (Selectmen's Records: 5 December 1842, 19 February 1845, 21 February 1853, 14 April 1857). Historical records indicate age at the time of death for the four named individuals: Sylvia Moore died at age 90, Artemus Keith died at 76, Alfred Huse at 74, and Bridget Fox at 34. If the highly ornamented coffins were made to order, and if the references to the purchase of coffin for named individuals indicates this practice, then Keith or Huse more or less fits the age and gender criteria for Grave 30, and Fox is the likeliest person of this group to be the individual interred in Grave 1 or 12. Of course, the appearance of single coffin purchases in the town records could just as likely refer to any of the three highly decorated coffins from the site. A number of men and women who died at the almshouse and were given pauper burials
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also fit within the proper age categories to have been the individuals interred in Graves 1, 12, and 30. Determining specific reasons for the presence of specific mortuary assemblages is problematical. The primary historical record for this site is too incomplete to ascertain why specific coffins possessed certain decorative elements, let alone to determine with absolute confidence which people were interred in which graves. A great many factors entered into the manifestation of specific mortuary assemblages, not all of which are amenable to historical or archaeological investigation. The phenomenon emphasized here is the presence of any decorative coffin hardware on 13 coffins (or nearly 42% of all graves). Although the specific reasons behind the decoration of specific coffins appear to be unapproachable with the available site data, the presence of the hardware and glass view plates does indicate that coffin builders were familiar with the use of these items. Recognizing that white metal hardware and glass view plates were popular coffin features, it is not surprising that coffin builders incorporated such features into the coffins they sold. That the town of Uxbridge used more elaborate coffins for the interment of three paupers is a more elusive problem, but again, the relatively low cost of the decorative features was probably an important factor.
Burial Clothing The "Grave cloths" purchased for the pauper Rufus Vickers and the burial "robes" provided to other paupers are the only recorded instances where the Town of Uxbridge paid for burial clothing (see Chapter Three). Archaeological evidence for burial clothing includes straight pins, textile fragments, and clothing fasteners. Laying out bodies in burial robes may be related to the beautification of death; shrouding bodies (especially those of infants) is an ancient practice and dressing the dead in regular clothing seems to have occurred in America as early as the 18th century (Watkins 1962).
Straight Pins Found in nine graves (2, 3, 4, 11, 14, 18, 19, 28, and 30), straight pins were made of copper or brass and sometimes show what appears to be tin-plating (cf. Noel Hume 1970: 254). In some instances, the copper salts from the pins have preserved fragments of textile. In four instances (Graves 4, 18, 28, and 30), clothing buttons and straight pins were found in the same grave. This circumstance suggests that either the bodies were shrouded while still clothed, or that the pins were used for another purpose, such as to hold coffin lining or clothing in place. Straight pins have been recovered from nearly all archaeological excavations of historical cemeteries referenced in this chapter.
Textile Fragments Small, poorly preserved textile fragments were found in Graves 2, 3, 18, 21, 22, and 29. Good (1987, personal communication) conse rved and analyzed this material, and some of her findings are described in this section. Good noted that the small amount of textile found at the site makes functional interpretation difficult and highly conjectural. Weave patterns, archaeologically recorded locations of textiles within graves, and other aspects of the material provide a basis for some conjectural identifications. All the textile fragments were found to be cotton. The material found near the feet of the child buried in Grave 3 was a coarse, hand-woven cotton, possibly from a blanket. A cloth object was found in the neck area of the male interred in Grave 18, and consisted of three separate pieces of dyed cloth, possibly colored with a black aniline dye, that had been twisted, folded over, and pinned together. This item was possibly a cravat, and the porcelain button found underlying the folds may have been from a shirt on which the cravat laid. Graves 22 and 29 contained carbonized textile with a twill weave. Closer examination showed that these convexly shaped carbonized chunks were multi-layered, suggesting
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successive layers of wrappings, as in a bandage. The presence of carbonized textile suggests that the individuals interred in Grave 22 and 29 were possibly victims of the 1846 almshouse fire. A piece of grass or hay was found adhering to one of the textile fragments from Grave 22. Grass or hay was also found adhering to one side of a number of brass hinges (Graves 9, 12, 15, 22, 25, 26, and 29). If hinges were mounted inside the coffin, then it may be that grass or hay was used on the interior of coffins, such as for stuffing coffin lining. These textile fragments, therefore, could also be interpreted as remnants of coffin lining.
Clothing Fasteners Clothing fasteners (Fig. 125) provide more conclusive evidence for burial clothing than do the presence of textile fragments. Buttons and a buckle indicate that some individuals were interred at the burial ground in regular clothing, rather than in shrouds, but it is not clear what types of clothing fasteners, if any, were used on the burial robes supplied for the Uxbridge paupers. Illustrations of burial robes in an 1882 catalog show buttons (Columbus Coffin Company 1882: 60--63). All the buttons found at the site were common 19th-century forms (Shepard 1981; South 1962), and were made from porcelain, mother-of-pearl, bone, and metal. Archaeologically recorded locations indicate that some of the porcelain and mother-of-pearl buttons were from shirts, blouses, high-collared dresses, trousers, or underwear. Porcelain buttons and/or mother-of-pearl buttons were found in the wrist, neck, and chest area of Graves 16, 20, 23, 28, and 30. Buttons made from porcelain found near the pelves of the individuals interred in Graves 15 and 31 suggest such buttons were used on underwear or trousers. The metal buttons and a buckle found in Grave 20 suggests that this individual was buried in a belted jacket or a vest.
Summary and Conclusions The almshouse system was viewed by the selectmen of Uxbridge as both a humanitarian effort to provide care for the poor, and a pragmatic means of supporting the poor at the lowest possible cost. The structure of the poor relief system in Uxbridge, as at other localities in 19th-century America, was possibly influenced by social movements such as Romanticism or evangelical Christianity, all taking place in an era affected by capitalist transformations of life and society. The beautification of death was also related to these social movements and social changes. The possibility that the almshouse institution was influenced by such changes in society also suggests how the beautification of death came to be incorporated into death practices surrounding the burial of paupers: coffin builders who fashioned decorative coffins were similarly influenced by changes in popular culture. Consistent with the humanitarian and pragmatic rationale for the support of the poor while living, pauper burials were meant to provide minimal Christian burial rites for those who could not afford them. Funerary treatment accorded to some paupers in Uxbridge included watching, washing, and dressing the dead, providing coffins, holding funeral services with or without clergy, and sometimes erecting a stone marker. These death practices described in primary documents were traditional activities surrounding death, and do not reflect the more elaborate, commercial nature of the beautification of death. Primary historical documents and the archaeological remains strongly suggest that coffins were produced by local carpenters using hardware that was probably purchased from general merchandise stores. Hardware was sometimes used to fashion decorative burial containers with interesting, if not distinctive, lid styles. Decorative hinges, coffin screws and tacks, glass view plates, and possible coffin lining tacks found in the graves indicate that coffin builders incorporated popular features (not all of which were necessarily decorative) associated with the beautification of death into the coffins sold to the town. Straight pins, textile fragments, and clothing fasteners are often difficult to interpret, but do indicate that some bodies were clothed, rather than shrouded, for burial. The mortuary assemblages from the site reflect the minimal funerary treatment accorded to members of a marginal group dependent on municipal
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Figure 125. Buckle and buttons from Uxbridge: a, iron buckle, Grave 20; b--