Animals and Archaeology: 4. Husbandry in Europe 9780860542957, 9781407338385

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Animals and Archaeology: 4. Husbandry in Europe

edited by Caroline Grigson and Juliet Clutton-Brock

BAR Int ernat ional Series 227 1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR -S227, 1 984 :'Animals and Archaeology :4.Husbandry in Europe'

©

The Indi victual Authors, 1984

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542957 paperback ISBN 9781407338385 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542957 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C NTENTS PREFACE

1

A. T. CLASON: The possible first ap pearance of different breeds of domestic animals in the Netherlands .

3

J. G. NANDRIS: Man-animal relationships and the validation of ethnoarchaeology in highland south-east F.urope.

13

RUDOLF MUSIL: The first known domestication of wolves in central __ / Europe.

23

PAUL G. BAHN: Pre-Neolithic control of animals in western Europe: the faunal evidence.

27

PE TER BOGUCKI: Patterns of animal exploitation in th Neolithic of the Polish lowlands.

35

early

HASKEL J. GREENFIELD: A model of changing animal exploitation strategies during the later prehistory of the Central Balkans.

45

ALICE M. CHOYKE: Patterns in the use of cattle and sheep/goat metapodials in Bronze Age Hungary .

57

LASZLO BARTOSIEWICZ: Reconstruction of prehistoric cattle represented by astragali in a Bronze Age "sacrificial pit".

67

M . 4St. UDRE SCU: Problemes d'archeozoologie concernant les periodes geto-daces et daco-romaine en Roumanie .

81

MANFRED TEICHERT: Size variB;,.:ion and Ge mania Libera.

93

1 cattle from C_nnania Romana

BARBARA A. NODDLE: A comparison of the bones of cattle, sheep, and pigs from ten Iron Age and Romano-British sites.

105

J. M . MAL T BY:

125

Animal bones and the Romano-British economy.

L. TEICHERT: Zur Wirtschaft und Kultur der slawischen Stamme im Oder-Havelgebiet der DDR, dargestellt am Beispiel der Tierreste aus den slawischen Burgen Wiesenau, Kr. Eisenhuttenstadt, und Brandenburg(Havel)PhaseibisII/III.

139

ALICJA LASOTA-MOSKALEW SKA: Anatomical distribution of bone remains from the Medieval castle at Ciechanow, Poland.

155

KATHLEEN BIDDICK: Pig husbandry on the Peterborough Abbey Estate from the twelfth to the fourteenth century A.D .

161

ANNIE GRANT: evidence.

Medieval animal husbandry:

the archaeozoological

179

It

HANNS-HERMANN MULLER: Zoological and historical interpretation of bones from food and sacrifices in early Medieval times.

187

LOUISE H. van WIJNGAARDEN-BAKKER: Faunal analysis and historical record: meat preservation and the faunal remains at Smeerenburg, Spitsbergen.

195

LOUIS CHAIX: A Rhaetian deposit of goat bones at Monte-Ozol, Trentino, Italy: problems of interpretation.

205

I. KUHL: Animal remains in cremations from the Bronze Age to the Viking period in Schleswig-Holstein, North Germany.

209

ANNIE GRANT: Survival or sacrifice? A critical appraisal of animal burials in Britain in the Iron Age.

221

LESLIE CRAM:

229

Footprints in the sands of time.

ACHILLES GAUTIER: How do ·1 crunt you, let me count the ways? Problems of archaeozoological quantification.

237

JOHN R. BAKER: The study of animal diseases w ith regard to agricultural practices and man's attitude to his animals.

253

SUE STALLIBRASS: The distinction between the effects of small carnivores and humans on post-glacial faunal assemblages. A case study using scavenging of sheep carcasses by foxes.

259

PREFACE T his is the fourth and final volume of the proceedings of the fourth major conference of the International Council for Archaeozoology, which was held in April 1982 at the University of London under the auspices of the Institute of Archaeology. The general theme of the conference was, '%e Contrirution of Faunal Analysis to the Study of Man", with an emphasis on the relationships between peopl e and animals, and the d etailed aspects of human strategies for obtaining food during the prehistoric and historic periods. Stress was laid on the need for the collection and interpretation of scientifically valid data, and papers. on methodology were included in the programme. As well.as the organization of conferences the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ) exists to develop and stimulate research, to standardize me�hods, to strengthen cooperation amongst archaeozoologists, and to foster collaboration with archaeologists and other scientists working in the field of archaeology. After the Conference in London, we felt that a good way to further these aims would be to publish in full the majority of the papers that were presented to the meeting, and we would like to express our gratitude to BAR for publishing nearly one r.undred papers. The first two volumes, "Animals and Archaeology: 1. Hunters and their Prey" and "Animals and Archaeology: 2. Shell Middens, Fishes and Birds" (BAR International Series 163 and 183) were published in 1983. They were followed early in 1984 by, "Animals and Archaeology: 3. Early Herders and their Flocks" (BAR International Series 202). This volume covers the archaeozoology of domestic animals in Europe, b egi nning with papers on the origins of breeds and the relevance of ethnoarchaeology. The papers on husbandry as part of subsistence are arranged in chronological order from the Pal aeolithic to historical times; they include discussions on the correlation of the faunal analysis with historical documentation, and are followed by contributions on the use of animals in ritual activities and funerary practices. Further aspects that are discussed are the interpretation of preserved animal footprints and the osteological manifestations of pathology. The papers on methods that compl ete the volu me touch on two major problems: the quantification of animal remains on archaeological sites and the taphonomic factors that influence the nature of archaeological assemblages .

l

F inancial

s upport

f or t he c onference w as p rovided b y a l oan f rom t he

R oyal S ociety, a nd g rants t o p articipants f rom t he B ritish C ouncil, t he N ational S cience F oundation , t he L .S .B . L eakey F oundation , t he W enner-Gren F oundation f or A nthropological R esearch , t he T hreshold F oundation , a nd t he M editerranean A rchaeological T rust . T he I nternational C ouncil f or A rchaeozoology w ould l ike t o r eiterate i ts g ratitude t o t hese i nstitutions f or t heir m agnificent a ssistance w hich e nabled t he c onference t o b e s uch a s uccess. I n a ddition we would

l ike

t o t hank t he s taff o f t he I nstitute o f

A rchaeology a nd a ll t hose f riends a nd c olleagues who h elped u s w ith t he r unning o f t he c onference , t he r eceptions , a nd t he e xcursions . F inally , w e m ust e xpress o ur g ratitude t o M rs . D iana B roun o f " WordPowern, f or t yping s o m any p apers o f v arying l ength , s tyle a nd l anguage , a s w ell a s t ables a nd r eference l ists o f t ortuous c omplexity , a nd f or e nduring a d iverse v ariety o f c orrections a nd r e-corrections w ith m uch p atience a nd g ood h umour .

J uliet C lutton-Brock D epartment o f Z oology

C aroline G rigson O dontological M useum R oyal C ollege o f S urgeons 3 5-43 L incoln 's I nn F ields

B ritish M useum ( Natural H istory) C romwell R oad L ondon S W7 5 BD

L ondon W C2A 3 PN

2

T HE P OSSIBLE F IRST A PPEARANCE O F D IFFERENT B REEDS O F D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS

A .T. C lason A rchaeozoological D epartment B iologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut P oststraat 6 9 712 E R G RONINGEN N etherlands

D uring t he p ast d ecade t here h as b een a g rowing c oncern t hat m any o f t he t raditional b reeds o f f arm a nimals a re r apidly d isappearing a nd a re b eing r eplaced b y a l imited n umber o f b reeds w ith a h igh y ield o f m eat, m ilk, e ggs o r w ool.

T he q uestion a rises a t w hat p oint i n t ime t he d ifferent b reeds o f

d omestic a nimals f irst c ame i nto e xistence. I t i s d ifficult,

a nd i n m ost c ases i mpossible ,

t o d istinguish b reeds o n

t he b asis o f d ata o btained b y s tudying s ubfossil b ones, c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t his c entury i t w as

a lthough i n t he 1 9th

t hought p ossible t o d o s o ,

a nd m any b reeds w ere d istinguished a nd g iven n ames ( Antonius, 1 922; H ilzheimer , 1 926). L ater , i t w as t hought t hat t his h ad b een t oo o ptimistic , b ut n ow t here i s m uch m ore a rchaeozoological m aterial a vailable f or r esearch a nd w e a re c autiously t rying t o f ind

o ut

w hether o r n ot w e

c an d iscern a t

l east r egional d ifferences i n t he s ize a nd s tature o f d omestic a nimals. H erre & R öhrs

( 1973)

h ave

p ointed

o ut

t hat

t he n otion o f

a b reed

c an

o nly b e u sed f or t he s ubdivision o f d omestic a nimals. A b reed c onsists o f t hose s pecimens o f a d omestic s pecies w hich d iffer f rom t he o ther a nimals o f t he

s ame

d omesticated

s pecies

A b reed

i s

i nheritable q ualities

v ariety,

i ts p articulars c an o ften b e m easured s tatistically.

C lutton-Brock ,

i solation.

a nd

i n

b ut

s exual

i n c haracteristics

a nd a re k ept

a s ubjectively

d etermined ( See a lso

1 979).

D uring t he

1 8th a nd

1 9th c entury

t here w as a m ounting i nterest i n f arm

a nimals

i n n orthwestern E urope.

B erckhey

( 1811) d escribed c attle a nd h orse k eeping i n t he 1 8th c entury.

t he

f irst

b reeds, l ater

h alf

o f

t he

w hile H engeveld t o

r ecognized B oogaert, W hat,

m ake i n

a n T he

I n

T he

1 9th c entury N uman ( 1865)

i nventory N etherlands

t ravelled o f

D utch

w ere

N etherlands,

( 1835)

d escribed

L e

F rancq

v an I n

t he D utch s heep

t hrough T he N etherlands s ome y ears c attle.

f inally

T he

c attle

e stablished

i n

b reeds

1 907

n ow

( Adrichem

1 970). w e m ay a sk ,

i s t he e arliest d ate a t w hich w e c an e xpect d ifferent

b reeds o f d omestic a nimals, a nd w hy o r h ow d id t hey c ome i nto e xistence? T o

b egin w ith ,

t he w ild

s pecies

t hat w ere

f irst

d omesticated a nd a re

s till o f m ajor i mportance t o m an h ad a w ide d istribution r ange a nd v ariations

3

C LASON : B REEDS O F E ARLY D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS m ust h ave

o ccurred

d omesticated

d ue

i n m ore

t o

g eographical

t han o ne

l ocality,

e ach o ther m ay h ave b een d omesticated,

d ispersion.

I f

a nimals

w ere

s ubspecies s lightly d iffering f rom s o

t hat

r ight

a t

d omestication a n umber o f b reeds m ay w ell h ave a risen.

t he

b eginning

o f

A ccording t o H erre &

R öhrs ( 1971), h owever , t he v ariation i n t he n ewly d omesticated a nimals w as s o l arge e verywhere t hat n o g eographical d ifferences c ould h ave o ccurred. A s econd c ause o f v ariation i s a daptation t o n ew b iotopes o utside t he o riginal d istribution a rea , w hence t he d omesticated a nimals w ere t aken b y m an. A t hird p ossibility i s t hat m an s tarted t o u se c ertain a nimals f or o ther p urposes t han f or t he p roduction o f f ood , b one a nd h ides. A ccording t o H erre & R öhrs ( 1973), i t w as o nly d uring a c ivilisation t hat b reeds c ould b e d eveloped

f or

s pecialised

p urposes.

A fter

t he

d isintegration

o f

a

c ivilisation t hese b reeds d isappeared a gain . W hen c an w e e xpect f irst d ifferent b reeds i n T he N etherlands? 4 500 B .C., s outh o f

A round

B andceramic f armers b rought t he f irst d omesticated a nimals t o t he T he N etherlands:

c attle,

s heep,

g oat,

p ig a nd d og.

I n t he

f ollowing m illennia f arming s pread f rom t he s outh t o t he r est o f t he c ountry. T he f irst d omesticated a nimals

t hat w ere b rought t here w ere a dapted t o

c entral a nd n orthwest E uropean c onditions, t hat i s t o s ay, t o a n a rea c overed b y m ore o r l ess c losed d eciduous w oods, w ith s mall t emporary m an-made c learings, a lternating w ith m oors, l akes a nd r ivers. T his s ituation a lso e xisted i n T he N etherlands w hen t he f irst d omestic a nimals w ere i ntroduced. A c hange o ccurred i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium B .C. i mpact o n t he v egetation b ecame m ore p ermanent ,

i .e.

w hen m an 's

w hen l arger a reas w ere

d eforested a nd w hen t here w as a b eginning o f t he f ormation o f h eathland.

I n

t he f irst m illennium B .C. n atural p astures c ame i nto e xistence i n W estF riesland i n t he n orthwestern c oastal a rea , a nd i n t he n orth a long t he c oasts o f w hat a re n ow t he P rovinces o f G roningen a nd F riesland. W hether

t his

d iversification

o f

t he

l andscape

l ed

t o

t he

f orming

o f

d istinctive b reeds c annot y et b e p roved, b ut i t i s n ot u nlikely. H eath s heep, f or i nstance, c ould o nly d evelop a fter t he h eathers h ad c ome i nto e xistence , a nd p older- o r m ilking s heep o nly a fter t he f orming o f t he n atural p asture a reas i n t he w est a nd n orth. I t i s , h owever , p ossible t hat t he s heep k ept i n t he s mall c learings i n t he w oods b y B andceramic a nd l ater f armers w ere a nimals w ith s uch u nspecialised f ood d emands t hat t hey c ould a lso s ubsist o n t he h eathland , a nd d id n ot d iffer m uch f rom t he a nimals t hat w ere f irst i ntroduced. I nitially, a reas

i n

t he

H eideschaap

t he r emains o f n orth

( Figure

t he s heep t hat w ere t aken t o t he n ew p asture

r esembled

1 ),

t he

a t

p resent

s till

e xisting

D rentse

a b reed f rom t he P rovince o f D renthe i n t he n orth o f

T he N etherlands ( Reitsma ,

1 932).

W e d o n ot y et k now w hen t he h ornless F riesian M ilksheep,

w hich i n

h istoric t imes w ere f ound i n t he c oastal p asture a reas f rom B elgium i n t he s outh t o G ermany i n t he n orth , w ere d eveloped o r c ame i nto e xistence. T hey w ere m entioned i n t he s ixteenth c entury a nd s o m ust h ave e xisted b efore t his p eriod ( Bottema & C lason , h ornless.

1 979).

T hereafter t he m ajority o f t he s heep w ere

T hat t hose h ornless a nimals w ere t he p rogenitors o f t he M ilksheep

i s o ne o f t he p ossibilities.

F I GURE

1 :

T wo e wes o f

t he D rentse h eldeschaap

5

o n

t he

h eath

o f

D wIngelo.

C LASON : B REEDS O F E ARLY D OMESTIC A NIMALS I N T HE N ETHERLANDS I n t he s econd h alf o f t he 3 rd m illennium B .C. w e a lso h ave t he f irst i ndications t hat t he d omestic a nimals w ere n ot o nly k ept f or t heir m eat b ut w ere a lso u sed f or o ther p urposes. B ig w ooden w heels w ere f ound w hich m ust h ave b een p arts o f s imple , t wo-Wheeled c arts t hat c ould o nly h ave b een p ulled b y c attle. T hey b elonged t o t he P rotruding F oot B eaker c ulture ( Waals, 1 963). E lsewhere i n E urope , f igurines o f s uch c attle p ulling c arts h ave b een f ound. T he f irst t races o f p loughing a lso c ome f rom t his p eriod. A s a p lough t he a rd w as u sed w hich c ould a lso h ave b een p ulled b y c attle. C attle w ere e vidently u sed a s w orking a nimals a t l east a t 2 000 B .C. T he f irst f armers o f t he B andceramic c ulture b uilt l arge f armhouses ( Figure 2 ) w hich w ere , h owever , p robably n ot u sed f or s talling l ive-stock ( Bäkels, 1 978). F rom t he f ollowing m illennia n o f armbuildings a re k nown. I t i s o nly d uring t he s econd m illenium B .C. t hat w e a gain f ind t races o f l arge f armhouses , t his t ime w ith c lear i ndications t hat c attle w ere s talled ( Figure 3 ) i n t he s andy a rea o f D renthe I n t he n orth o f T he N etherlands ( Waterbolk, 1 975). W hy, a fter c attle h ad b een k ept o utdoors f or t hree m illennia , t he a nimals n ow h ad t o b e s talled i s a n u nanswered q uestion . I t i s t he m ore p uzzling s ince s talling c attle b rought m uch e xtra w ork, f or t he a nimals h ad t o b e p rovided w ith f ood a nd t he s tables h ad t o b e c leaned. W e c an o nly t ry t o f ormulate s ome p ossible a nswers t o t hese q uestions : 1 .

T he l arger a rea u nder c ultivation a t t he t ime m ade i t n ecessary t o m anure t he f ields, a nd t he m ost e fficient w ay o f c ollecting t he m anure w as b y s talling t he a nimals i n s tables.

2 .

C attle h ad g rown s o s mall i n s ize b y t hat t ime t hey h ad t o b e s talled d uring w inter t o s urvive p eriods o f c old a nd f rost.

3 .

T he p ractice o f m ilking c ows h ad c ome i nto u se a nd t he a nimals h ad t o b e s talled d uring w inter , s ince m ilk p roduction i s i nfluenced u nfavourably b y t he c old , a lthough a t emperature a bove 1 4* i s n ot r equired ( Duerst , 1 931). I t i s n ot p ossible t o p rove t hat o ne o f t hese p ossibilities a pplied , b ut

i t m ay h ave b een t hat a c ombination o f a ll t hree m ade i t a dvisable t o s tall c attle. W hether

t he

c hange

i n

t he

h usbandry

o f

c attle

a lso

l ed

t o

t he

d evelopment o f d ifferent b reeds t o s erve e ach d ifferent p urpose i s n ot u nlikely, t hough i t i s n ot n ecessary e ither , s ince p rimitive f arm a nimals w ere o ften , e ven n ot s o l ong a go , m ulti-purpose a nimals, w hich w ere m ilked , u sed f or t raction a nd s laughtered i n t he e nd t o p rovide m eat, f at , h orn , h ides a nd o ther r aw m aterials. I f b reeds d id e merge a t t hat t ime , t hese w ere p robably n ot d eliberately c reated b y m an . I t i s o nly d uring t he R oman p eriod,

w hen t he r iver R hine w as

t he

n orthern f rontier o f t he R oman E mpire , t hat i n T he N etherlands s outh o f t his l ine , a g reater v ariation i n t he s ize o f t he s keletal r emains o f c attle , h orse, s heep, p ig a nd d og c an b e o bserved t han b efore o r a fter t his o ccupation . N ot o nly i s ag reater v ariation f ound , b ut t he m aximum a nd m ean v alues a re a lso h igher ( Clason , 1 980). U nder t he i nfluence o f t he R omans , b etter a nimals o f i mproved b reeds m ay h ave b een i mported i nto t he a rea t o c ross w ith l ocal l ive-stock. I t i s a lso p ossible t hat b reeds w ere l ocally d eveloped f or d istinct p urposes. T here i s n o w ritten e vidence , h owever , t o

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G REENFIELD :

AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES

S ection 1 o f t he M odel I t c an b e p redicted t hat i ncreased f orest c learance a nd t he c oncomitant s pread o f a reas u nder c ultivation a fter t he t ermination o f t he A tlantic o ptimum a nd t he o nset o f t he S ub-boreal f unctioned t o d ecrease t he i mportance o f w ild a nimal s pecies f avoring f orest h abitats , e specially t hose s pecies w hich w ould h ave

c ompeted w ith h umans

a nd d omestic

a nimals

f or a ccess t o

s tanding c ultivated c rops a nd g razing r esources . T his w ould h ave o ccurred t hrough a d isruption o f t heir h abitat r esulting i n ad ecrease i n t he d ensity , a ggregation l evel a nd p redictability o f w ild a nimal s pecies , t hereby r educing t heir i mportance t o t he s ubsistence e conomy . T he s pread o f f orests d uring t he A tlantic o ptimum ( c . 6 000 - 3 000 b c) , i n c onjunction w ith p eriodic c learing o f a reas a nd t heir e ventual r egeneration , w ould h ave f avored r elatively h igh p opulation d ensities f or r oe d eer ( Capreolus c apreolus) , r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus) , a nd p igs ( Sus s crofa ) . R oe d eer p refer m ixed f orests w ith o ccasional o pen a reas a nd h eavy u ndergrowth .

R ed d eer h ave h igher

d ensities i n o pen f orests , w ith l ight u ndergrowth . P igs p refer a f orest b iotope w ith h eavy u ndergrowth t o f acilitate r ooting b ehavior . D ensities o f a urochs ( Bos p rimigenius) m ight h ave b een s omewhat d epressed . U ngulates m ight b e e xpected t o e xperience t emporary l ocal i ncreases i n d ensity a round a reas c leared f or a griculture , g razing , o r h abitation , s ince • plant r egeneration w ould R hoades ,

b e

m ost

i ntense

i n

t emporary

e cotones

( Mellars ,

1 976 ;

1 978) .

W ith t he o nset o f t he S ub-boreal a t a bout 3 ,000 b c ,

p ollen s pectra f rom

n orthern , c entral a nd s outheastern E urope i ndicate a d ecrease i n a rboreal p ollen . T he i ntroduction a nd r apid s pread o f p lough c ultivation a nd p erhaps o f c astrated c attle f or t raction i n t he L ate N eolithic o r E arly B ronze A ge ( C . S chwartz, p ers . c omm . ; S herratt, 1 980b) a ppear t o a ccount f or t his w idespread h orizon r ather t han s imple c limatic f actors . D eforestation d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a s w idespread i n t emperate E urope , a s i t w as i n t he m ore a rid a reas t o t he s outh . N evertheless , a n i ncrease i n t he a rea o f l and u nder c ultivation a nd f or g razing i s n oticeable a nd s o w ild ungulates p robably d ecreased .

T heir r esponse

t o

i ncreased

p redation a t

t he f orest

m argins m ay h ave b een t o r etreat f arther a way f rom a reas f requented b y h umans -i n o ther w ords , t here was a r egional r edistribution o f w ild a nimal p opulations t o l ess a ffected a reas . E ven d omestic p ig p roduction m ay h ave b een a ffected b y t hese c onditions . P igs a re k nown , h istorically , t o h ave b een r aised i n f orest h abitats i n E urope ( Gri pon , 1 982) . D omestic p ig p roduction m ay h ave b een r elegated t o a reas d eep i n t he f orests i n o rder t o k eep t hem o ut o f f ields . I n f act , t his w as t he s ituation i n h istorical S erbia ( Halpern , 1 967) . T he p resence o f d ogs a nd t heir p robable c ompetition f or r efuse , a s w ell a s t he e xtremely l ow d ensity o f b one r emains o f a ll s pecies i n B ronze A ge s ites ( Bankoff & W inter , 1 982 ; B ankoff , W inter & G reenfield , 1 980) m ay i ndicate t hat p igs w ere l argely f orest-bred . D ecreases i n t he f orested a rea c lose t o s ettlements m ay h ave r esulted i n i ncreased e nergy e xpenditure t o r aise t hem i n t he m ore d istant f orest e nvironments , which c ould e asily b e o ffset b y t heir r eproductive c apability . T he i mportant r ole t hat d omestic p igs c ontinue t o p lay i n t he e conomy a nd t he l ack o f e vidence f or e nclosures ( i .e . p igsties) i n B ronze A ge s ites m ay i mply t hat e xtra e ffort w as m ade t o r emove t hem f rom h abitation a nd a gricultural a reas . D omestic c attle , s heep a nd g oats a re e xpected t o i ncrease a s g rasslands e xpand , a nd a s m an h unts o ut t hose w ild a nimals c ompeting f or t he s ame g razing r esources , a nd a s h e p rotects d omestic a nimals

5 0

G REENFIELD :

AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES

f rom p redation , f avoring t heir r eproductive p otential . U tilization o f a nadromous f ish , f or e xample t he s turgeon , i s e xpected t o d ecrease d uring t he B ronze A ge . D uring t he P iora O scillation a nd t he S ub b oreal , w ith t heir a ssociated t emperature a nd p recipitation f luctuations , c ontinued f orest c learance, r esulting i n i ncreased r un-off v ariability , e rosion a nd s iltation , m ay h ave d isrupted t he s hallower u pstream s pawning t ributaries ( Schalk , 1 977) . D uring t he N eolithic , when t emperature a nd p recipitation l evels a re t hought t o h ave b een h igher ( Gribben & L amb , 1 978) , r un-off a nd s tream d ischarge r egimes w ould h ave b een r elatively f avorable f or t he m igration a nd s pawning o f a nadromous f ish . T he p redictable r uns o f a nadromous f ish t o u pstream s pawning a reas a ppear t o h ave p rovided a n i mportant d ietary r esource d uring t he N eolithic , b ut e vidence f or a nadromous f ish e xploitation a way f rom m ajor r ivers , s uch a s t he D anube a nd S ava , d uring t he B ronze A ge i s n on-existent .

T his c annot b e s olely a ttributed t o b iases

i n r ecovery p rocedures . T he e xcavations a t t he B ronze A ge s ites i n t he J asenica d rainage c onducted i n 1 977 a nd 1 980 u sed 1 c m2 a nd 3 mm 2 s ieves ( Bankoff & W inter ,

1 982 ;

B ankoff ,

W inter & G reenfield ,

1 980) .

I n a ddition ,

t here i s an otable a bsence o f a b one f ishing t echnology , w hich h ad b een v ery p revalent d uring t he E arly a nd L ate N eolithic . T his m ay b e a ttributable t o t he u se o f m etal a s as ubstitute , b ut t he a bsence o f b one r emains u ndermines t his l ine o f r easoning . T he d isruptions a ssociated w ith t he c hange t o t he S ub-boreal w ould h ave i nterfered w ith w hat i s h istorically a n i mportant r esource i n t his a rea ( Rohan-Csermak ,

1 963) .

I t s hould b e n oted t hat u ntil

t he c onstruction o f t he H ydroelectric d am a t K aratas a nd t he p ollution o f t he D anube , s turgeon c ame u p t he D anube a s f ar a s B udapest ( Rohan- C sermak , 1 963) .

R emains

o f

c atfish ( Silurus g lanis L .) h ave

b een f ound a t

t he L ate

N eolithic s ites o f S elevac ( Tringham e t a l, 1 980) a nd G omolava ( Clason , 1 979) . U tilization o f c atfish a nd o ther n on-anadromous f ish r esources w ould n ot b e e xpected t o c hange , a s t he e nvironmental c hanges o f t he S ub-boreal w ould n ot h ave a ffected t hem . S imilarly n o c hange w ould b e e xpected i n t he e xploitation o f s easonally a vailable b irds m igrating t hrough t he a rea .

T hey

w ould h ave c ontinued t o m ove u p s uch m ovement-limiting c orridors a s t he V ardar-Morava ( Navy , 1 944) o n t heir m igrations t o a nd f rom n esting g rounds . S ection 2 o f t he M odel I t

i s

e xpected

t hat

i n

t he

a bsence

o f

e vidence

f or

p roductive

s pecilization i n n on-metal r elated a reas o f t he l ocal e conomy d uring t he L ate N eolithic ( Evans , 1 978 ; K aufman , 1 977) a nd t he B ronze A ge ( Bankoff , 1 974 & 1 977) , a nimals w ould n ot b e e xploited i n a s pecialized m anner . P atterns o f a nimal

e xploitation

s hould

n ot

b e

d ifferentiable

i nto

s pecialized

e xploitation s trategies f or o btaining m eat, m ilk , o r h ides, b ut s hould r epresent a c ombined s trategy . E ach l ocal c ommunity s hould b e s elfs ufficient ,

e xploiting t he f ull r ange o f a nimal r esources .

I n a ddition ,

a s

t he e xploitation o f w ild a nimals d ecreased , t he s et o f r esources t hat e ach s pecies h ad c ontributed t o t he l ocal e conomy w ould b e r eplaced b y t hose o f d omestic s pecies .

T o d ate ,

t here i s l ittle t hat c an b e s aid a bout p roductive

s pecialization . A ll t he B ronze A ge l ithics a ppear t o b e d erived f rom l ocal r iver c hannels a nd t here i s n o e vidence f or t he k ind o f l ong-distance e xchange o f s tone a s o ccurred i n t he N eolithic o f t his a rea , a nd e lsewhere i n E urope , d uring t he B ronze A ge ( Ira B erman , p ers . c omm . ; S herratt , 1 976) . A c hange i s a lso e vident a mong t he b one t ools . A nalysis o f E arly a nd L ate N eolithic b one t ools

( Ba &alov ,

1 979 ;

N andris ,

1 972 ;

S terud & S terud ,

1 974 ;

T ringham , 1 971) s hows a t remendous d iversity o f s pecies a nd e lements u sed , o f

5 1

G REENFIELD : t ool t ypes ,

AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES

a nd o f t ool f unction .

W ith t he a dvent o f t he B ronze A ge a nd t he

g rowing u se o f m etals, w e s ee a d ramatic d rop i n t he o verall n umbers o f t ools , t ool t ypes , a nd q uality o f b one t ool m anufacture ( two o r t hree m ajor t ypes a s o pposed t o o ver f ifteen f rom e arlier p eriods) . T he r elatively s udden p roliferation o f m etal a rtifacts i n g raves a nd h oards d uring t he D eveloped B ronze A ge c an b e s een a s a nother i ndication o f t his t rend . A f urther i mplication o f t his i s t hat t he e xchange n etworks o f t he N eolithic m ay h ave s till b een o perative , b ut t hat o ther m aterial ( metal i nstead o f s tone) w as t he a rchaeologically-visible m anifestation o f t he p rocess. S ection 3 o f t he M odel T he p rinciples u nderlying t he d uration a nd s eason o f s ite o ccupation a re b ased ,

i n p art,

o n g eneralized a nimal r esource u tilization s trategies .

T herefore , i f t hese s trategies w ere d ifferent d uring t he B ronze A ge , t he d uration a nd s eason o f o ccupation o f s ettlement m ight a lso h ave b een d ifferent .

U nglates

h ave

g reat

d ifficulty

i n f oraging

a nd

m oving

t hrough

d eeply s now-covered a reas , s o a t t he b eginning o f w inter w ild a nimals m ay h ave t ravelled , a nd d omestic a nimals m ay h ave b een d riven , f rom u pland t o l owland a reas w ith l ess s now , g reater p rotection f rom t he w ind , a nd g reater d ensity ( Clark ,

a nd v ariability 1 952) a nd t he

o f v egetation . T he a ccumulation o f w inter f orage movement o f h erds t o m ore t emperate l owland

e nvironments a re c omplementary s trategies f or e nsuring t he s urvival o f h erds o ver t he w inter . B oth m ay h ave b een p racticed . T he h eavy s nowfall ( two m eters i s n ot u nusual - p ers . o bs .) n ecessitates f odder a ccumulation i n t his a rea ( Halpern , 1 967) . I t i s n ot s uggested t hat f odder c rops w ere g rown , a s t here i s n o e vidence f or t his ; i nstead , f odder was p robably c ollected ( Dennell , 1 978) . I t i s , t herefore , p ossible t hat l owland l ocalities , s uch a s N ovaeka 6 uprija n ear S mederevska P alanka a nd M ala V rbica L ivade n ear K ladovo , w ere o ccupied , a t l east , d uring t he w et a nd c old p eriod f rom l ate A utumn t o e arly S pring . H owever , u sing t he e ffort-minimization a ssumption t hat i t i s e asier t o g row a nd t o s tore c rops i n t he s ame l ocation , i t i s s uggested t hat t hese s ettlements may h ave b een o ccupied a ll y ear-round , e ven t hough m aintaining h erds o f d omestic a nimals i n c lose p roximity t o c rops a nd t o w inter f odder d uring t he g rowing s eason c an c reate p roblems . I n t emperate e nvironments , w here t he s ummers a re m oist a nd t he t opography l ow , i t i s n ot n ecessary t o m ove h erds t o p astures i n t he c ooler h ighlands , a nd l owland a reas a re n ot d essicated b y e xtreme h eat a nd a ridity . I n t he C entral B alkans , t ranshumant a ctivities a re k nown t o h ave b een l argely a f unction o f t he u nstable p olitical c onditions u nder t he O ttomans a nd t he 1 9th c entury S erbian D ynasts . E ven p igs, who a re n ot u sually t hought o f a s v iable t ranshumants , a re k nown t o h ave p articipated i n s uch m ovements ( Navy , 1 944) . I nstead , t he o verall l ow d ensity o f s ites d uring t he B ronze A ge ( although h igher t han i n t he p receding L ate N eolithic) d oes n ot a rgue f or t he r emoval o f l ivestock t o g razing g rounds d istant f rom s ettlements a nd c ultivated a reas . T he e xpectation i s t hat l ivestock w ere p robably g razed l ocally , f or p art o f t he y ear i n n on-cultivated h abitats s uch a s m arshes ,

a nd t he r est o f

t he y ear o n f allow f ields , a s i s t he c ase t oday a nd i n t he r ecent p ast ( Vincze, 1 980) . T he p resence o f s mall B ronze A ge s ites w ith m inimal o ccupation d ebris , l ocated a t p oints s trategic f or c ontrolling h erd m ovements ( e .g . G ob oB rdo a nd J erinin G rad - B ankoff , W inter & G reenfield , 1 980) a nd b etween t he l arger s ettlements w ould a ppear t o s ubstantiate t his e xpectation .

5 2

G REENFIELD :

AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES

C ONCLUSIONS S outheastern E urope i s t hought t o b e t he f irst r egion w ith a t emperate c limate t o h ave r eceived d omesticated p lants a nd a nimals , w hich w as f ollowed b y i ntensification t hrough t he e xploitation o f t he s econdary p roducts o f a nimals ( Sherratt ,

1 980b ) .

A s t he e arliest c enter o f c hange o utside o f t he

N ear E ast , i t i s a n i mportant s ource o f c omparative d ata i n u nderstanding t he r amifying i nfluences o f d omestication a nd i ntensification u pon c ultural a nd e nvironmental s ystems. I ncreased u nderstanding o f t hese p rocesses i s i mportant b ecause w e a re s till e xperiencing t heir e ffects o n o ur m anipulation o f p lants a nd a nimals . T he e volution o f c omplex s ystems o f l and u se , a nd t he i ncreased i ntensification o f f ood p roduction s ystems ,

a re p henomena t hat a re

s till l ittle u nderstood . T he g eneration o f b ehavioral m odels w ill h elp t o a llow a g reater u nderstanding o f h uman-animal i nteractions , o f h ow t hese i nteractions h ave

c hanged o ver t ime ,

a nd o f

t he e ventual e ffects t hey h ave

h ad u pon o ther a spects o f t he c ultural s ystem .

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I nstitute o f

S ome f actors i n t he e arly N eothermal s ettlement o f

S outh-East E urope . I n ( G . d e G . S ieveking , I .H . L ongworth , &K .E . W ilson , E ds .) P roblems i n E conomic a nd S ocial A rchaeology L ondon : D uckworth , p p . 5 49-556. N andris , J . ( 1977) . T he p erspective o f l ong-term c hange i n S outh-East E urope . I n ( F . C arter , E d . ) A n H istorical G eography o f t he B alkans . N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress , p p . 2 5-57. N avy

( 1944) .

Y ugoslavia . G eographical Handbook S eries,

1 , L ondon :

N aval I ntelligence D ivision . R hoades ,

R .E.

( 1978) .

A rchaeological u se a nd a buse o f e cological

c oncepts a nd s tudies, t he e cotone e xample. R ohan-Csermak , G . d e

( 1965) .

A merican A ntiquity 4 3,

S turgeon H ooks o f E urasia .

6 08-614. C hicago :

A ldine. S ahlins , e xpansion.

M .

( 196 0 .

S ahlins, M . t ypes

( 1963) .

a n o rganization o f

p redatory

3 22-345.

P oor Man , R ich Man , B ig Man , C hief, p olitical

i n P olynesia a nd M elanesia .

H istory 5 ,

C omparative S tudies i n S ociety a nd

2 85-303 .

S anders , t he

S egmentary l ineage ,

A merican A nthropologist 6 3,

W .T .

e volution o f

& W ebster ,

D .

( 1978) .

c omplex s ocieties .

U nilinealism ,

I n ( Cd-

A rchaeology , B eyond S ubsistence a nd D ating . 2 49-302.

5 5

R edman ,

N ew

Y ork :

m ultilinealism , e t

a l ,

E ds . )

A cademic

a nd

S ocial

P ress ,

p p .

G REENFIELD :

AM ODEL O F C HANGING E XPLOITATION S TRATEGIES

S chalk , R .F . ( 1977) . T he s tructure o f a n a nadromous f ish r esource . I n ( L .R . B inford , E d . ) F or T heory B uilding i n A rchaeology . N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress , p p. 2 07-249. S herratt , N eolithic

A .G .

a nd

A rchaeology.

( 1972) .

B ronze

L ondon :

S herratt ,

A ges

S ocio-economic a nd d emographic m odels o f

E urope .

I n

( D . .L .

C lark ,

E d .)

f or t he

Models I n

M ethuen , p p. 4 77-542.

A .G .

( 1976) .

R esources,

t echnology a nd

t rade

i n

e arly

E uropean m etallurgy . I n ( G . d e G . S ieveking , I .H . L ongworth , &K .E . W ilson , E ds . ) P roblems i n E conomic a nd S ocial A rchaeology . L ondon : D uckworth , p p . 5 57-582. S herratt , c ultivation.

A .G .

( 1980a ) .

W ater ,

W orld A rchaeology 1,

S herratt,

A .G .

( 1980b) .

s econdary p roducts r evolution . P atterns o f t he P ast .

s oil

a nd

P lough

a nd

I n ( I . H odder ,

C ambridge :

S terud , E .L . &S terud , A .-K .

s easonality

i n

e arly

c ereal

3 11-330. p astoralism, G .

I saac ,

t he U niversity P ress , ( 1974) .

a spects

o f

& N . H ammond ,

t he E ds . )

p p . 2 61-306 .

Aq uantitative a nalysis o f t he

material r emains. Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen d es B osnischeH erzegowinischen L andesmuseum , S arajevo , 4 A , 1 55-279. T ringham, 6 000-3000 B .C .

R . ( 1971) . H unters , F ishers a nd F armers o f E astern E urope , L ondon : H utchinson U niversity L ibrary .

T ringham, R . , K rstic , D . , V oytek, B . &K aiser , T . a gricultural s ite o f S elevac , Y ugoslavia. V incze, L .

( 1980) .

t echno-environmental 3 87-404. W agley , C .

T he e arly

P easant a nimal h usbandry , ad ialectic model o f

i ntegration

( 1969) .

t wo T upi T ribes . I n G arden C ity , N ew Y ork :

( 1980) .

A rchaeology 3 3, 2 4-32.

i n

a gro-pastoral

s ocieties .

E thnology 1 8 ,

C ultural i nfluences o n p opulations , a c omparison o f V ayda , E d .) E nvironment a nd C ultural B ehavior . N atural H istory P ress, p p. 2 68-280.

5 6

P AI1ERNS I N T HE U SE O F C ATTLE A ND S HEEP / GOAT M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A CE H UNGARY

A lice M . C hoyke 131 B udapest F utar u .

1 7

H ungary

O ver t he l ast t en y ears ,

t here h as b een a c oncentration o f w ork o n h ow

a nimal p roducts w ere a ctually u tilized i n p rehistory. R esearchers h ave e xamined t he t reatment o f t he c arcass f rom p rimary s laughter, t o d isarticulation ,

d efleshing ,

c ooking ,

t he e nd o f t he c onsumption c hain , 1 980;

G uilday,

U erpmann ,

1 971;

1 973).

J ones ,

f racturing f or m arrow a nd f inally,

b one t ool p roduction ( Coy,

1 980;

S adek-Kooros ,

T he l atter t hree a ctivities,

f ound b y a rchaeologists ,

a re u sually m ost

1 975;

1 975;

a t

G ifford ,

N oe-Nygaard ,

1 977;

w hich r esult i n t he a rtifacts

d irectly

m aterial f rom m idden a nd h abitation a reas.

r eflected i n t he f aunal

F rom a c ertain p erspective

t herefore, t he f ield o f s tudy i s a s w ide a s t he n umber o f s pecies p resent a nd t he n umber o f b one p arts p ossessed b y t hose s pecies. T he v arying u ses t o w hich d ifferent

s pecies a re p ut a nd d ifferences

i n t he m orphology

o f

t heir

b ones h ave l ed t o v ariations i n t he t echniques u sed t o e xploit t hem i n p rehistoric t imes. T his p aper w ill f ocus o n t he t reatment o f m etapodial b ones o f c attle a nd s heep o r g oats f rom t he t ime o f d isarticulation f rom t he c arcass t o d eposition i n t he g round a s f ood r emains o r b one t ools. m anufacture o f t ools w ill b e d iscussed a nd t he f unction o f t he m etapodial b ones o f r uminants.

T he

t ools m ade f rom

T HE S ITES T he g arbage a nd w orked b one s amples e xamined h ere c ome f rom n ine e arly a nd m iddle B ronze a ge s ites i n H ungary. T hey w ere o ccupied f rom 1 900 t o 1 400 B C a lthough t he l ife s pan o f a ny y ears.

f rom p lain t o m arshland T ransdanubia , P lain . f or

a nd

e ast

t o h ill o f

c ountry,

t he T isza

r arely m ore t han c irca 2 00

b oth w est o f

r iver

o n

T he s amples v ary i n s ize a nd q uality.

w hich

b ecause

g iven s ite w as

T hese s tratified s ettlements a re l ocated i n av ariety o f e nvironments

t here

t hey

( Domokos,

w ere

w ere

1 908,

b one

t ools

e xcavated

1 912; M arosi,

h ave

i n

t he

1 930).

o r

n ear

G reat

H ungarian

I n a ddition , n ot a ll t he s ites

a c omplementary t ime

t he D anube r iver i n t he

b efore

I t i s

g arbage

b one

s uch b ones w ere

f or t his r eason ,

s ample s aved

t hat o nly

o verall t rends w ill b e e xamined h ere r ather t han t he c ertain i ndividual d ifferences b etween s ites t hat m ay b e r elated a s m uch t o s ampling e rror a s t o t he p rehistoric r eality.

5 7

C HOYKE:

U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY

P ROCESSING I N T HE G ARBAGE B ONE S AMPLE T ypical f or B ronze a ge s ites o f t he a rea a nd p eriod, p redominate i n t he s ample

( Table

1 ;

B ökönyi ,

1 974).

I f

c attle a lways

o ne

l ooks a t

t he

p roportion o f c attle m etapodials c ompared t o t hose o f s heep a nd g oat a t t hese s ites , h owever , t he p icture d iffers s omewhat ( for t his a nalysis o f t ools a ll s mall d omestic r uminant m etapodials w ere t reated a s a s ingle g roup). S heep a nd g oat m etapodials m ake u p

o n m ost

s ites

a s lightly

g reater p ercent

o f

t heir o wn w ithin s pecies b one f requency, t he o ver a ll m etapodial f requency , a nd t otal b one f requency. T hus , r ight a t t he b eginning i t a ppears t hat t hese b ones , d iffering i n s ize b ut s imilar i n f orm t o t hose o f c attle a re a ccorded a nother k ind o f t reatment d uring s econdary b utchering a nd c ooking ( Table 2 ). I n a ddition , t he o verwhelming m ajority o f m etapodial-based t ools c ome f rom s heep a nd g oat. T his s uggests a d eliberate s election f o r t hese b ones w hich m ay h ave r eflected b ack o n t he o riginal m ethods o f d isarticulation a nd p rocessing a llowing t hese b ones t o b e r etained i n r egular w ays. I n t his r egard i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t he s urviving p roximal v entral p ortion o f c attle m etapodials a re f requently d amaged b y d eep c ut m arks w hich o ccurred d uring t he d isarticulation o r t he i nitial s tages o f c ooking. A ll m etapodials e xhibit s ome o f t he r eddish b rown m ottling t ypical f or c ontact w ith f ire. F ollowing c ooking a lmost a ll r uminant m etapodials w ere f ractured t o e xtract t he m arrow . O nly a v ery m ajority o f t he f ractures a re f ractures p roduced b y w eathering , 1 979). T he m anner o f f racture e specially i n t he e xtent t o w hich o r t he o ther e piphysis. T he f ew g rooving d own t he m edial l ine.

f ew s uch m etapodials r emain i ntact a nd t he s piral - b ased a s o pposed t o t he k inds o f c arnivore a ctivity, e tc. ( Bonnichsen , d iffers , h owever , b etween t he t wo s pecies al ength o f d iaphysis i s p reserved w ith o ne i ntact s heep o r g oat m etapodials o ften h ave

T his g rooving m ay a lso b e s een o n t he d orsal

o r p lantar s urfaces o f f ractured b ones a s w ell.

T he m ost c ommon f racture i s

t hin , p ointed, i rregular a nd r uns n on-continuously a cross t he d iaphysal s urface ( see S adek+Kooros, 1 975). T he b low w as s truck a round m id-center w ith f requent r etention o f o ne o r t he o ther e piphysis. B ones w ith p roximal o r d istal e piphysis s till a ttached o ccur i n m ore o r l ess e qual n umbers o ver t he w hole s ample ,

i n s pite o f

t he g reater d ensity a nd d urability o f t he d istal

e nd. M ore o f t he s heep a nd g oat m etapodial t ools m ake u se o f t he g raspable d istal e nd , o nce a gain s uggesting s election f or t his p art o f t he b one. T here

a ppears

t o

b e

m etapodials w ere f ractured.

m uch

g reater

v ariability

i n

t he w ay

c attle

T he g reater f orce n eeded t o s plinter t hese b ones

p erhaps r esulted i n ad rop i n p recision , a nd a w ide v ariety i n f orm o f c attle m etapodial f ragments o ccurs i n t he g eneral s amples a t t hese s ites. P ointed e dges o ccur r arely. T he d iaphyses a re e ither b road a nd f lat o r a re b roken s traight a cross.

E vidence o f g rooving d own t he m edial l ine m ay b e f ound o n

o nly t hree e xamples f rom m any h undreds. I t i s n ot s urprising , f racturing ,

g iven t he r aw f orms m ade a vailable t hrough m arrow

t hat t otally d iffering k inds o f t ools s hould b e p roduced o n t he

b ones f rom t he t wo s pecies.

5 8

T able 1 :

S pec ies p roportions b ased o n r aw c ount i n g arbage b one s ample .

W estern S ites

C att le

S heep/Goat

M ezökomirom-A lsöhegy ( earliest B ronze a ge)

5 0 .7%

1 9 .9%

4 0 .0%

2 9 .5%

3 7.8%

2 5.6%

3 7.0%

2 3.7%

3 7.0%

3 5.0%

3 6.5%

3 4.1%

S ärbogärm-Cifrabo lond-vär ( m idd le B ronze a ge) I gar-Vämpuszta ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) L ovasbereny-M ihi l lyvär ( m idd le B ronze a ge) E astern S ites V idre-Sziget ( m idd le B ronze a ge) T iszaug-Kemenytetö ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) J äszdözsa-Kgpo lnaha lom* ( ear ly B ronze a ge)

2 9.1%

2 1.5%

( m idd le B ronze a ge)

3 7.9%

2 1.5%

( late B ronze a ge)

2 3.4%

9 .9%

*T hanks a re d ue t o D r . S ändor B ököny i

f or s upply ing m e w ith t hese d ata.

5 9

T ABLE 2 : P ercentage o f m etapod ials o f c att le a nd s heep/goat

W estern S ites

C att le

S heep/Goat

M ez5komärom-A 1s6hegy ( ear liest B ronze a ge)

1 7 .9%

1 .42%

S ärbogärd-Cifrabo londvär ( m idd le B ronze a ge)

1 4.5%

1 7.8%

1 0 .4%

1 7.2%

I gar-Vämpuszta ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge) L oyasbereny-M ihälyygr ( m idd le B ronze a ge)

2 3.0%

2 .40%

E astern S ites V idre-Sziget ( m idd le B ronze a ge)

1 0.8%

1 9.4%

1 0 .0%

1 9 .8%

T iszaug-Kemenytetö ( ear ly-m idd le B ronze a ge)

6 0

i n t he g arbage s amp les.

C HOYKE:

U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY

C ATEGORIES O F B ONE T OOLS O ne o f

t he p roblems

i nvolved i n t he a nalysis o f b one t ools i s s orting

o ut t he s ignificance o f s pecies a nd b one e lement ' in t he g eneration o f a p articular b one t ool t ype . U se o f p lanned v ersus e xpedient c ategories c ross-cuts s pecies a nd b one e lement . p atterns .

t he s ame s elected b one . t hat

T hey c an t hus h elp c larify s election

P lanned t ools a re h ere d efined a s t hose t ools m ade r epeatedly o n T he b one i s u sually f ractured i n a p atterned w ay

c reates a r ough f orm r equiring f inishing r ather t han m ajor r eworking .

E xpedient b ased

o n

t ools

w ere

s piral

o riginally

f ractures .

d efined

T his

b y

J ohnson

( 1974)

d efinition o verlooks

t he

a s f act

b eing

t ools

t hat

t here

m ay b e d eliberate r egularities i n t he way c ertain b ones a re f ractured , p erhaps e ven a s a f eedback r esponse t o t he f ormal r equirements o f c ertain t ools . E xpedient t ools h ave t herefore b een r edefined t o i nclude t ools b ased o n b one t ype .

f ragments

t hat h appen t o c onform t o t he s ize a nd f orm o f t he t ool

T here m ust a lso b e ap lanned v ariant o f t he t ool t ype . F or t he m etapodials u nder d iscussion h ere a n a ssociation i ndex h as b een

u sed t o d emonstrate h ow t he c ategories c an b e u sed t o m ake p rehistoric p references c lear . T hus , p lanned m etapodial-based t ools a re s hown t o b e h ighly a ssociated w ith s heep a djust

f or

t he

l ow

n umber

a nd

o f

g oat .

t ools

Y ates '

i n o ne

o f

c orrection h as

b een u sed

t he c ategories

( n < 5 ) .

t o T he

r elatively h igh , p ositive c orrelation w hich i s s ignificant o n a p 0 .01 l evel a ccording t o t he s ubsequent c hi-square t est , c onfirms t his c onclusion ( Table 3 ) . T he c alculation s hows c learly t hat s heep a nd g oat m etapodials were d eliberately s elected a nd f all l argely i nto t he p lanned t ool c ategory . T he t ools t hus i ncluded a re p erforators ( Figure 1 , 1& 2 ) w ith a nd w ithout e piphyseal h andles , d ouble-pointed f ishing g orges , a nd t wo o bjects o f u nknown f unction . T hese l atter a re m etatarsals t hat a re c ompletely p olished a nd d rilled a t t he p roximal e nd t o a ccommodate a s mall s eparate p rotruding p iece a lso c arved o ut o f b one ( Figure

1 ,

4 ) .

( Figure

S ince t he b ones

1 ,

3 ) .

T here a re a lso n arrow s crapers

c hosen f or t his

t ool w ere t ibiae t hese

f ew

m etapodial t ools a re c onsidered e xpedient . T ools m ade o f c attle m etapodia f all m ore i nto t he c ategory o f e xpedient t ools .

U se w as m ade o f t he b road s traight s urfaces s ometimes p roduced w hen

t he d iaphysis w as s hattered d uring f racturing f or m arrow .

S uch b one

t ools

o ccur i n s mall n umbers o n a lmost a ll t he s ites b ut s ince t he b one e lements c hosen f or s uch s crapers w ere r ibs i n t he w estern p art o f t he c ountry a nd m andibles

o r

t he

d orsal

d iaphyses

o f

f irst

p halanges

i n t he

e astern a reas

t hey a lmost a ll f all i nto t he e xpedient t ool c ategory ( Figures 1 , 6 & 7 ) . T he i nterpretation o f t hese t ools a s c eramic s crapers i s b ased o n t he f orm a nd o n t he p resence,

o n t he working e nd,

o f

t he u neven c riss-crossing

s triations p roduced w hen t he t ool r an a cross t he h ard b its o f t emper i n t he c lay s urfaces .

O nly t wo o f

t he m etapodial-based t ools

c onsidered p lanned ( Figure 1 , 5 ) . T hey h ave b een f rom t heir s hape , b ut t heir a ctual u se i s u ncertain .

6 1

f rom c attle m ay b e

l abelled

" chisel-like"

T able 3 :

A ssoc iation

i ndex f or p lanned a nd e xpedient t ools.

T ype S pecies

P lanned

s heep/goat

4 2

T otal 4 0

1 3 Y -

4 0 2

c att le

4 2

E xped ient

H

r e jected

T ota l

1 3

5 3

1 4

1 6

2 7

6 9

I=0 .9 1126

2 7

C oefficient o f ( with Y ates'

c orre lat ion c orrection)

T ype S pec ies

s heep/goat c att le

T otal r=0 .50937

P lanned

E xpedient

T ota l

3 9 .5

1 3.5

5 3

2 .5

1 3.5

1 6

2 7

6 9

4 2 c hi-square = 1 7.90238

6 2

d .f.

= 1

2 .

5cr n

F IGURE

1 :

P lanned, E xped ient ,

M etapod ia l-based s heep/goat.

4 .

b one

t oo ls

E xpedient,

f rom B ronze s heep/goat.

c att le .

6 3

A ge 5 .

s ites

i n

P lanned,

H ungary . c attle.

1 -3 6 -7

C HOYKE:

U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY

C ONCLUSIONS P laced i n ap roduction-consumption c ontext , t ools m ade o n b oth k inds o f m etapodials s uch a s s mall p erforators a nd b road c eramic s crapers , w ere m ade f rom b utchered b one t hat h ad b een d isarticulated , m arrow .

c ooked a nd s plit f or

S ince t he t ool u ser h ad a s pecific i dea o f

s uitable

f or

a p articular

a ctivity ,

w hat

r egular f racture

f orm o f

p atterns

t ool w as

o n b ones

o f

a ppropriate s ize n aturally a llowed p roduction o f p articular t ools . O ther b ones w ere u sed l ess o pportunistically when t hey o ccurred i n a f orm u sable w ith m inimal m odification . T he f inal t ool f orm w as d ependent o n w hich a nimals w ere a vailable ,

o r f racturing t raditions a nd o n f inal r efining

a nd s haping t echniques .

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S .

( 1974).

a nd E astern E urope .

T he H istory o f D omestic A nimals

B udapest :

B onnichsen , R . ( 1979). R efugium . O ttawa : N ational

i n C entral

A kademia K iado .

P leistocene B one T echnology i n t he B eringian M useum o f M an , M ercury s eries , A rchaeological

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J .

( 1975).

I ron

A rchaeozoological S tudies . 4 26-430.

c ookery.

I n

( A.T.

C lason,

D omokos ,

J .

( 1908) .

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J .

( 1912) .

A G yulavarsand L aposhalom t argyairol.

K önyvtar E rtesitö , G ifford , h uman s ites . C hicago :

D . I n

J .

Ed.)

A rchaeolo _gia E rtesitö 2 ,

5 5-75 .

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1 9-25 . ( 1980) . ( A .

E thnological

B ehrensmeyer

( 1971) .

c ontributions

& A .P .

U niversity o f C hicago P ress ,

G uilday , f rom

a ge

Amsterdam : N orth H olland P ublishing C ompany , p p .

p p .

B iological

a nd

a 1 7th c entury I ndian v illage .

H ill,

E ds . )

t o

t he

t aphonomy

o f

F ossils i n t he M aking

9 4107 . a rchaeological

a nalysis

o f

b ones

W est V irginia G eological a nd E conomic

S urvey R eport o f A rchaeological I nvestigations N o. 4 . J ohnson ,

E .

( 1977).

a nd B onfire S helter .

P aleo-Indian B one E xpediency T ools-Lubbock L ake

P aper

p resented

a t

t he

4 2nd

A nnual

M eeting

o f

t he

t ools

a nd

S ociety f or A merican A rchaeology , N ew O rleans . J ones ,

P .

( 1980) .

E xperimental

b utchery w ith m odern s tone

i ts r elevance f or P aleolithic a rcheology . M arosi , A . ( 1930) .

W orld A rchaeology 1 2 ,

A P akozdvari ö stelep .

2 , 1 53-165 .

A rchaologiai E rtesitä 4 4,

5 3-73. N oe-Nygaard,

N .

( 1977).

B utchering

t aphonomic f actor i n a rchaeological d eposits.

6 4

a nd

marrow

f racturing

P aleobiology 3 ,

2 18-237.

a s

a

C HOYKE: S adek-Kooros, o f c riteria.

H .

U SE O F M ETAPODIALS I N B RONZE A GE H UNGARY ( 1975).

I ntentional f racturing o f b one :

I n ( A.T. C lason , E d

)A rchaeozoological S tudies.

N orth H olland P ublishing C ompany, p p. U erpmann ,

H .P.

( 1973).

d escription A msterdam :

1 39-150.

A nimal

W orld A rchaeology 4 (3), 3 08-309.

6 5

b one f inds

a nd

e conomic a rchaeology.

R ECONSTRUCTION O F P REHISTORIC C ATTLE R EPRESENTED B Y A STRAGALI I N A B RONZE A GE " SACRIFICIAL P IT"

L aszlö B artosiewicz I nstitute o f A rchaeology H ungarian A cademy o f S ciences , B udapest 1 250, U ri u tca 4 9, H ungary

I NTRODUCTION T his F ourth

a rticle c ontinues t he w ork o utlined i n t he p aper d elivered a t t he

I nternational

( Bartosiewicz,

C onference

u npublished) .

i n

W hile

A rchaeozoology

t hat

p aper w as

i n

L ondon

c hiefly

i n

1 982

c oncerned w ith

t he m ethodological a spects o f e stablishing r elationships w ithin a p articular b one

a ssemblage

t his

a rticle

a ttempts

t o

p rovide

a more

z oological

i nterpretation.

M ATERIAL A ND M ETHODS T he b asic d ata u sed i n t his s tudy a re t en m easurements t aken o n e ach o f 4 4 c attle a stragali

f rom o ne o f

t he p its

( rm .

5 5) a t

h ill-fortress a t L ovasber& ly - M ihglyvgr ( Tables l a ,

t he M iddle B ronze A ge l b a nd l c) .

T his s ite

i s l ocated i n t he e astern s ection o f c entral T ransdanubia i n H ungary a nd w as i nhabited b y p eople o f t he V atya c ulture w ho o ccupied m uch o f n orth e astern T ransdanubia a round 1 400 b .c. P it

5 5

c ontained 3 37

( Bgndi & P etres,

a nimal

b ones ,

p halanges a nd l ong b one f ragments w hich

1 969).

t he m ajority o f w hich w ere c attle w ere n ot

s o

s uitable

f or m etrical

a nalysis . T he 4 4 c attle a stragal' w ere e xceptional f rom t his p oint o f v iew a s t heir r elative a bundance a nd g ood p reservation o ffered a c ompromise b etween m easurability a nd s ample s ize .

O ther s pecies r epresented b y o nly a

f ew b ones w ere h orse , w ild p ig a nd s mall r uminants . A s hort s ummary o f t he m ajority o f t he m ultivariate m ethods u sed i n t he p reliminary s tudy o f t his m aterial ( Bartosiewicz & C hoyke , 1 983) i s n ecessary t o u nderstand t he b asic c oncepts o f t he p resent w ork . 1 .

T he t en m easurements w ere f irst s ubjected t o af actor a nalysis w hich w as s upposed t o o utline t he s tructure o f t heir c orrelations . t he t en p otential f actors h ad a l atent r oot e xceeding 1 . r epresented p redominantly t he " SIZE" o f t he b ones .

O nly o ne o f T his f actor

A r ank o f v ariables

w as e stablished o n t he b asis o f f actor l oadings. 2 .

I ndividual a stragali w ere c lustered a ccording t o t he E ucledian d istances b etween t heir s tandard s cores a nd f ormed t hree g roups u nder a c ritical

6 7

T ABLE c att le

l a :

A stra lagus

i n P it 5 5

a s p resented

m easurements

( in

mm)

a t L ovasbereny-Mihä lyvgr .

o f

t he

T he

" small"

l ast c o lumn

s ize

g roup

c ontains

o f

B ronze

a ge

w eight e st imates

i n t his p aper .

4 -

. c

_C

l e a

0

l eft

f a t f r e c a r c a s ,

a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e

L a t e r a l d e p t h

C h o r d o f t h e

l a t e r a l t

C h o r d o f t h e

D i s t a l b r e a d t h

C O

P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h

G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l

( 1 )

r ight

o f t h e p l a n t a r

r o c h

S m a l e s t l e n g t h

5 4.4

5 2.2

4 3.4

3 5.1

3 4.0

3 3.1

3 3.5

3 1.1

2 4.0

2 9.2

1 63.9

5 5.8

5 7.9

4 3.6

3 5.9

3 5.2

3 7.5

3 5.4

3 0.4

2 8.9

3 1.4

1 93.1

6 1.2

5 6.5

4 6.1

3 9.5

3 8.6

4 0.3

3 6.8

3 5.0

3 1.8

3 4.9

2 26.6

6 0.0

5 6.1

4 7.7

4 0.0

4 1.1

4 3.6

4 0.4

3 3.2

3 0.2

3 6.1

2 34.9

5 9.0

5 4.9

4 5.1

4 0.0

3 7.4

4 1.3

3 8.6

3 3.1

2 9.2

3 5.8

2 05.6

6 1.2

5 6.2

4 8.0

4 1.9

4 0.6

4 4.8

3 9.2

3 2.2

3 3.0

3 5.9

2 37.2

6 3.2

5 8.1

4 9.3

4 2.1

4 1.0

4 5.5

3 8.8

3 6.0

3 1.6

3 6.9

2 55.5

5 8.1

5 4.0

4 4.0

4 0.2

3 5.7

4 0.6

3 7.2

3 2.4

2 9.6

3 2.4

1 90.1

5 8.2

5 3.9

4 4.3

4 1.9

3 6.5

4 1.1

3 8.3

3 2.9

3 0.7

3 4.9

1 94.3

5 8.1

5 5.1

4 4.8

4 0.3

3 6.9

4 2.7

3 9.0

3 2.8

2 9.1

3 5.2

2 00.5

5 9.9

5 4.0

4 4.1

3 9.8

4 0.4

4 2.0

3 7.3

3 3.2

2 8.1

3 4.9

2 2 1.8

6 1.2

5 5.2

4 5.1

4 2.1

4 0.0

4 1.9

3 8.4

3 4.2

3 0.9

3 6.1

2 29 .4

6 1.6

5 8.1

4 7.0

4 3.8

3 9.5

4 3.8

4 1.8

3 4.3

3 1.6

3 7.2

2 40 .0

6 1.7

5 5.5

4 6.2

4 2.7

3 8.5

4 4.0

3 8.5

3 4.0

2 9.6

3 4.6

2 23.8

6 0.0

5 4.9

4 5.0

4 1.7

3 8.0

4 0.8

3 8.9

3 4.1

3 0.1

3 5.0

2 12.5

5 9.4

5 5.4

4 5.0

3 8.6

3 8.0

4 2.4

3 8.7

3 4.6

2 8.7

3 2.9

2 12.3

68

A stra lagus

m easurements

o f

t he

T he

" med ium"

l ast c o lumn

s ize

g roup

o f

B ronze

a ge

c ontains w eight e stimates

f a t f r e c a r c a s ,

B r e a d t h o f t h e p l a n t a r

5 9 .0

4 9 .3

4 1.7

4 0.6

4 7.0

4 0.2

3 5.2

3 3.0

3 6.1

2 55.5

6 5.0

6 0.3

5 0.3

4 1.9

4 0.0

4 5.2

4 1.1

3 5.6

3 2.3

3 7.3

2 60.1

6 4.3

5 7.1

5 0.6

4 4.0

4 0.0

4 7.4

4 0.0

3 5.8

3 0.4

3 5.5

2 43.7

6 5.2

6 0.7

4 8.2

4 5.1

4 2.5

4 6.9

4 2.1

3 7.0

3 2.6

4 0.0

2 79.1

6 3.3

5 9.3

4 8.2

4 5.0

4 2.0

4 4.8

4 1.7

3 4.7

3 3.0

3 7.5

2 6 1.6

6 5.0

5 9.6

5 0.0

4 2.1

4 0.9

4 6.0

4 2 .0

3 5.6

3 1.8

3 5.2

2 62.9

6 5.2

6 0.1

5 0.7

4 6.1

4 2.2

4 8.3

4 1.4

3 6.4

3 2.3

3 9 .1

2 74.4

6 4.1

5 9 .3

4 8 .2

4 3.9

4 1.1

4 3.2

4 0.1

3 5.0

3 1.7

3 6.9

2 59.2

6 2.0

5 4.3

4 6.1

4 5.2

4 1.9

4 4.2

4 0.6

3 4.4

3 1.9

3 8.1

2 34.0

6 2.2

5 8.4

4 7.9

4 4.6

4 2.0

4 4.5

4 0.8

3 4.8

3 0.7

3 7.1

2 53.1

6 4.6

5 7.5

4 7.1

4 6.5

4 3.2

4 6.8

4 1.7

3 4.9

3 2.9

3 9 .1

2 66.2

6 4.2

5 6.0

4 8 .0

4 6.8

4 4.1

4 6.7

4 3.5

3 5.0

3 4.8

3 9 .4

2 63.1

6 4.4

5 9.8

4 9 .8

4 4.3

4 1.2

4 6.8

4 1.0

3 7.0

3 4.3

3 7.2

2 63.2

6 4.8

5 9 .0

4 9 .9

4 3.2

4 1.0

4 7.1

4 1.0

3 6.2

3 1.8

3 8 .2

2 60.1

6 7.2

6 1.2

5 0.7

4 5.0

4 1.4

4 7.1

4 2.2

3 6.0

3 4.7

3 6.1

2 82.5

6 4.2

5 8.9

4 9 .0

4 4.9

4 0.1

4 6.2

4 0.1

3 6.0

3 2.7

3 4.1

2 51.6

6 4.9

6 0.3

4 8.2

4 2.3

4 1.0

4 3.0

3 9 .7

3 5.7

3 3.5

3 7.1

2 66.2

6 5.6

6 0.4

4 9 .4

4 3.0

4 1.8

4 6.0

4 2.2

3 5.2

3 3.1

3 7.8

2 74.8

C h o r d o f t h e

6 9

C h o r d o f t h e

6 4.3

D i s t a l b r e a d t h

a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e

l eft

mm )

i n t his p aper .

G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l

a s p resented

r ight

( in

i n P it 5 5 a t L ovasbereny-Mihg lyvän

l a t e r a l t r o c h l e

l b :

P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h

c att le

S m a l e s t l e n g t h

T ABLE

T ABLE 1 c :

A stra lagus m easurements ( in mm) o f t he " large" s ize g roup o f B ronze a ge c att le

I n P it 5 5 a t L ovasbergny-Mihg lyvgr .

T he l ast c o lumn c ontains w eight e stimates a s

p resented i n t his p aper .

: 1 7 )

l eft

l a t e r a l t r o c h l e a

3

4 4.0

3 9.9

4 6.8

4 1.9

3 5.7

3 3.0

3 6 .1

2 97.6

6 7.9

6 3.0

5 0.8

4 4.9

4 2.9

5 1.1

4 3.0

3 6.2

3 5.0

3 8 .5

3 34.5

6 7.2

6 1.6

4 7.9

4 5.7

4 2.1

4 7.1

4 3.0

3 8.2

3 4.5

3 8 .8

3 17.7

6 7.0

6 2.1

5 2.1

4 5.9

4 1.6

4 9 .2

4 5.5

3 6.9

3 4.6

3 9 .0

3 15.5

6 5.7

6 0.0

5 1.1

4 7.2

4 3.2

4 8.3

4 3.0

3 7.0

3 9.2

4 0 .0

3 10.4

6 7.2

6 1.4

4 9 .9

4 5.1

4 3.2

4 4.5

4 3.2

3 8 .1

3 3.9

3 6.5

3 24.9

6 6.6

6 1.8

4 9.8

4 5.1

4 2.1

4 8.2

4 3.8

3 7.9

3 6.4

3 7.7

3 15.9

6 8.2

6 1.8

5 1.9

4 6.9

4 3.2

4 7.2

4 2.6

3 6.8

3 5.0

3 9 .8

3 31.9

6 8.1

6 3.2

5 0.2

4 7.8

4 4.0

4 7.7

4 3.4

3 8.2

3 2.0

4 0 .7

3 45.2

6 9 .1

6 0.7

5 1.2

4 9 .2

4 5.2

4 8.0

4 2.1

3 7.4

3 4.4

3 8 .8

3 45.6

70

f a t f r e c a r c a s ,

5 0.7

2

L a t e r a l d e p t h

6 1.8

C h o r d o f t h e

6 6.2

C D

C h o r d o f t h e

D i s t a l b r e a d t h

r ight

4 -

0 P r o x i m a l b r e a d t h

G r e a t e s t l a t e r a l

0

B ARTOSIEWICZ: v alue

2 .

I n

t his

R ECONSTRUCTION O F P REHISTORIC C AI1LE

c alculation a ll

t he

t en

m easurements

w ere

e qually

i nvolved d isregarding t he r ank d etermined b y t he f actor a nalysis. T hus, t he r esults a re i nfluenced b y t he p roportions o f t he b ones a s w ell. 3 .

R esults o f

t he d iscriminant a nalysis which a lso s elected t he most

i mportant v ariables a ccording t o t he d istinctive p ower b etween t he t hree g roups

c ompiled

ap riori

o n t he

b asis

o f

t he c luster a nalysis .

T his

c alculation a gain d irected a ttention t o " SIZE" a s a d istinguishing c riterion . T hese

c alculations

w ere u sed

t o

t est t he h ypothesis t hat

t he v ariance

r evealed b y t he t otal o f 4 40 m easurements d id n ot s imply e xpress c ontinuity w ithin t he s ample b ut r ather r eflected v ariability d ue t o t he d ifference b etween

" large" ,

" medium

s ize"

a nd

" small"

c attle

r epresented

i n

t he

p it .

T he r esults w ere s ignificant o n a p l n C V . . .

0

-

c o

4 , , 4 0 4 _

t I A .

r -

. 0 + 1

O D O' N

a )

0 • 4 O •

• 0 0 )
-

-. ° 0

0 ) c 4 -

L . — 0 0 0 0- 0

n u m b e r o f

4 3

. a u )

a n d o c u p a t i o n

U ) u ) + c

a t a v e r a g e 1 0 .

i d e n t i f a b l e b o n e s

t a p h o n m i c l o s ;

B c e s n e 6 & D r i e s c h

G AUTIER :

P ROBLEMS O F A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL Q UANTIFICATION

I n t he l atest d ecades s cientists h ave b egun t o r ealize m ore a nd m ore t hat a rchaeozoological a ssemblages a re n ot r adically d ifferent f rom p urely p alaeontological a nd g enerally o lder a ssemblages . T able 1 s ummarizes s ome e stimates o f p reservation ( or r ecovery) r ates o f i dentifiable ( or p erhaps , b etter , i dentified ) b one f ragments ( or s pecimens) . T hey a re b ased o n d ata , t hemselves a lso e stimates , f ound i n t he l iterature , w hich I m odified i n s ome c ases a ccording t o m y o wn v iews , t hus i ntroducing s ome m ore e stimates . T he r esults a re h ence e stimates , a nd e stimates b ased o n e stimates , p roviding u s w ith s ome i dea o f t he q uantitative r elation i n v arious c ontexts b etween f aunal s amples a nd t he t hanatocoenoses f rom w hich t hey a re d erived . O ther d ata c an b e f ound i n t he l iterature , b ut m ay n ot b e q uantifiable a s i n T able 1 . V on d en D riesch ( 1972) f or e xample r efers t o t he f act t hat a t C erro d e l a V irgen I I ( Spain ) t he o ccupation l asted f or a pproximately 4 00 y ears ( 2 000 1 600 B C ) , w hile t he m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals o f s laughtered c attle i s o nly 4 0 . U erpmann & F rey ( 1981) h ad 5 00 b ones f or s tudy r epresenting a p eriod o f a bout 2 000 y ears i n ' A li T appe ( northern I ran ; 1 0 ,500 - 8 ,000 B C ) . T hey c omment o n t he m arked t aphonomic l oss a nd c onclude t hat t he a ssociation c ollected i s v ery l ikely a r epresentative s ample r esulting f rom r andom s elective p rocesses ( " zmfällsgesteuerten A uswahlverfahren , p . 1 66) . T he p reservation o r r ecovery r ates i n T able 1 c an a lso b e r ead a s p arameters d efining t he c hances o f p reservation o r r ecovery . O n t he b asis f or e xample o f t he E ketorp e stimates , t he c hance t hat a t a nimal o f a p articular a rchaeozoological t hanatocoenosis w ill b e r epresented b y o ne f ragment i n a n a ssemblage s ubmitted f or s tudy , i s 0 .5 . C hances t hat a n a nimal w ill b e r epresented b y nb ones w ould b e l ess t han 0 .5 t o t he n th d egree , i .e . 0 .25 f or t wo b ones , 0 . 125 f or t hree b ones , 0 .0626 f or f our b ones e tc . F rom t he f oregoing w e c an d educe t hat t he d egree o f i nterdependence i .e . t he f act t hat a n a nimal i s r epresented b y s everal b ones a nd h ence c ounted s everal t imes i s m uch l ess t han m any a nalysts f ear . I t i s a lso c lear f rom T able 1 t hat a rchaeozoological a ssemblages a re g enerally q uantitatively v ery m uch r educed s amples o f t he t hanatocoenoses t hat t hey a re d erived f rom . F urthermore w e k now t hat t he b ias i n o ur s amples i s n ot o nly q uantitative , b ut a lso q ualitative ( differential d estruction o f j uvenile , f emale , s enile b ones e tc . ) . H ence , i n g eneral a ny p arameter w e c alculate w ithout c onsiderable m anipulation o f o ur r aw d ata b ears o nly a r estricted o r a t entative r elation t o t he r eal q uantitative c omposition o f t he o riginal t hanatocoenoses . H ence i t s eems r idiculous t o m e t o a ttempt p recise r econstructions o f t hese t hanatocoenoses a nd , b y e xtension , o f p ast e conomies . S uch p recise r econstructions a re a t t heir b est h euristic m odels . U nfortunately t hey a re e asily m istaken b y u nwary . a rchaeologists a nd b y o urselves f or m anifestations o f s cience w ith a c apital S. W hat c an w e d o i f p recise r econstructions a re i ndeed i mpossible? I t hink t hat r esearch s trategies i n a rchaeozoology s hould c oncentrate o n e xtensive i ntra-site a nd i nter-site c omparison o n t he b asis o f r elative p arameters . S uch c omparison h as y ielded a nd w ill y ield p atterns o f s imilarities a nd d issimilarities , w hich i n t he e nd c an g enerally b e c orrelated w ith p alaeoecological , p alaeoeconomical, c ultural, t aphonomic f actors o r s ampling o r o ther a rchaeological r esearch p rocedures i n t he f ield o r t he l aboratory .

2 40

L . J . J

D i a g n o s t i c e l e m n t c o u n t s

F r a g m e n t o r s p e c i m e n c o u n t s

S u m a r y c l a s i f i c a t i o n o f q u a n t i f c a t i o n

a )

0 _

U " )

s e a l s o L i e ,

S t e i n f e l d ,

1 9 7 6 a ; 1 9 7 6 b ;

( a s u m e d p a i r s ,

C o r e c t e d r e l a t i v e

_ c

( G i l b e r t &

: M N I c o u n t s

i n a r c h a e o z o l g y .

0

• _ 0

« 3

•

4 0

1 9 7 ; F i e l e r & T u r n e r ,

• •

G AUTIER :

P ROBLEMS O F A RCHAEOZOOLOGICAL Q UANTIFICATION

L ei u s n ow t urn t o t he r elative p arameters t hat c an b e u sed i n o ur c omparisons a nd t he q uantification t echniques i n v ogue . T he t wo p arameters m ost f requently u sed h ave b een l abelled b y C haplin ( 1965) s pecific r atio ( i .e . t he r elative a bundance o f t he a nimal g roups p resent) a nd d ietary r atio ( i .e . t he r elative a bundance o f m eat p rovided b y e ach a nimal g roup) . F or s pecific r atio I w ould l ike t o s ubstitute a nimal g roup r atio , s ince n ons pecific i dentification c ategories c an b e u seful . T able 2 l ists t he m ethods u sed t o o btain t hese p arameters i n what , Ih ope , i s ac oherent s ystem. F ragment ( or s pecimen) c ounts a nd d iagnostic e lement c ounts a re m ost f requently u sed . I n f act t he m ajor s chism i n a rchaeozoological r esearch m ay w ell b etween t he m any a dherents o f m inimum n umber o f i ndividual ( MNI) c ounts a nd a n u ntil n ow m uch s maller g roup o f a postates p referring f ragments ( NT ) , o r s pecimen , c ounts . T he w eight m ethod i s n ot u sed v ery r egularly a nd m any c riticisms, w ell-founded o r n ot , h ave b een a imed a t i t . Moreover t he r elationship b etween b one w eight r atios a nd a nimal g roup o r d ietary r atios i s n ot c lear ( Chaplin 1 971; C asteel 1 978 ) . P robabilistic m ethods a re a lso n ot v ery m uch u sed , b ut a s hort d iscussion o f t hem i s a ppropriate. P robabilistic m ethods f ocus o n q uantification m ainly o n t he b asis o f t he p robabilities o f o btaining p aired b ones . A f ormula w as f irst p ublished b y K rantz ( 1968) . T his e ffort a ttracted l ittle a ttention , s ince t wo d ecades a go m uch c onfusion s till e xists c oncerning t he r elations b etween M NI , t he r eal n umber o f a nimals p resent i n a n a ssemblage ( NRI = n ombre r eel d 'individus s ensu P oplin ( 1976a & 1 976b) ; t he n umber o f a nimals i n t he e xcavated t aphocoenosis) a nd t he i nitial n umber o f a nimals ( NI : n ombre i nitial s ensu P oplin ( ibid . ) ; t he t hanatocoenoses) . M oreover K rantz d id n ot e xplain r igorously h ow h e o btained h is f ormula ; i n f act i t a ppears t o b e e stablished e mpirically . R ecently a ttention i s a gain f ocussing o n p robabilistic m ethods ( Poplin 1 981;

F ieller & T urner 1 982 ;

D ucos 1 984 ;

s ee

a lso L ie 1 980 ; T urner 1 981) . T hese a pproaches c ertainly b ear o ut t he f act t hat MNI h as l ittle v alue a s ap arameter f or e stimating t he s ize o f o ur o riginal t hanatocoenoses a nd n o d oubt t he s tatistical m ethods y ield f ar m ore a cceptable r esults . H owever I m aintain t hat o ur i nability t o r ecognize r eal p airs , e specially i n l arge c ollections , r emains a s erious s ource o f n egative q uantitative b ias , s keletal e lements .

which i s n ot s olved b y c onsidering p airs o f v arious

T urning t o t he m ethods m ost u sed u ntil n ow , w e f ind t hat m any s cholars a re p uzzled w ith t he n on-linear r elation b etween t he r esults o btained . T hose w ho i nvestigated i t e xpressed t his n on-linear r elation i n a s imilar f ashion :

M NI = b . N Fa M NI = 1 /3 N FM M NI = M NI =

N FP+ 1 0 L -N F

( a

1 )

( Ducos 1 968 & 1 975).

( Poplin 1 976 a & b ). ( 0


m >

E

t he p roportiona l

s heep a nd/or g oats a t f our s ites , ( 1969 ) .

a

a m

o m

S t .

K ilda

r epresentat ions

a

. 0

o f

a . c

e lements o f

c alculated u sing t he method o f B rain h as

n ot b een a ffected b y s caveng ing o r

T hat f rom S heffie ld h as b een a ffected b y s cavengers ,

b ut n ot b y

B oth t he Hottentot a nd C ast l eford c o llect ions h ave b een a ffected b y

b oth s cavengers a nd h umans .

S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES T he s tudy a rea c ontained t hree m ain t ypes o f r emains: 1 ) f irst

S cavenged c arcasses ,

r ecording

a s

e ntire

f ound ( due t o r emoval , r eference m aterial. 2 )

w hich w ere m onitored f rom t he t ime o f t heir

c arcasses

u ntil

c onsumption

o r

e ither

b urial) ,

t hey

o r

c ould

t hey

n o

w ere

l onger

b e

c ollected

a s

A g eneral s catter o f d isarticulated b ones c ollected f rom t he

s urface o f t he m oor. 3 )

A s catter o f d isarticulated b ones i n a nd a round t he e ntrances t o a

c luster o f f ox d ens. T hree m ajor a spects w ere s tudied: 1 )

T he

s equence

o f

d isarticulation

a nd

r emoval

o f

e lements

f rom

e ntire

c arcasses. E ach c arcass w as v isited a t a pproximately t wo m onthly i ntervals t o b egin w ith ,

a nd

l ater

a t

f our

t o

s ix m onthly

i ntervals .

O n e ach o ccasion ,

t he

p osition o f t he c arcass a nd o f a ny d isplaced e lements w as r ecorded o n s ketch p lans a t a s cale o f 1 :20 , t he c arcass d eemed

h ad

b een

' removed

o r

a fter a n a rea o f a pproximately 3 0 m r adius

s earched . l ost ' .

E lements T his

p art

n ot o f

f ound

t he

w ithin

s tudy

, his

h as

a round

a rea w ere

n ot

y et

b een

c ompleted , b ut t he i nitial i mpression i s t hat t he s equence o f d isarticulation i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat r ecorded b y H ill A frica .

T his

p robably

r eflects

j oints i n a n u ngulate 's b ody , ( in

r elation

t o

t he

s ize

o f

t he

( 1975) f or u ngulates i n E ast

r elative s trengths o f t he d ifferent

a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t heir p rey)

may

c arcass 's i nherent s equence o f d isarticulation .

b e

a ble

W hilst

l arge c arnivores

t o o ver-ride

t he

a c omparative s tudy

o f t he e ffects o f d ifferent s cavengers ( human a nd n on-human ) o n c omplete c arcasses o f d ifferent p rey s pecies a nd s izes w ould b e o f g reat h elp i n t he i nterpretation o f s cavenged c arcass r emains t hought t o b e a ssociated w ith e arly h umans ,

i t i s o f l ess r elevance t o t he s tudy o f m ost l ater s ites ,

w hen

l arge c arnivores h ad b ecame l ocally s carce o r e xtinct. 2 )

T he r elative s urvival ( recovery) r ates o f d ifferent e lements. I n

t he

s pring o f

v isibility a t i ts b est ,

1 982,

when t he v egetation was a t i ts l owest a nd

s ystematic c ollections w ere m ade o f t he t hree t ypes

o f b one ( carcasses , s urface s catters a nd f ox d en s catters) v isible w ithin t he s tudy a rea ( Figure , 1 ) . A lthough v isibility w as n ot p erfect , a nd s maller b ones m ust h ave b een m issed i n p laces , t hat

o n

a rchaeological

s ites

w here

t he r ecovery w as p robably s imilar t o

p ick

a nd

s hovel,

r ather

t han

s ieving ,

t echniques a re u sed. T he

p roportional

r epresentation w as

c alculated

f ollowing

B rain ( 1969) :

t he M inimum N umber o f I ndividuals ( MNI) w as t aken a s t he g reatest n umber o f o ne e lement

o f

o ne

s ide

( e .g .

1 8 r ight

t ibiae) ,

a nd t he e xpected n umber o f

e lements w as t hen c alculated u sing t he M NI m ultiplied b y t he n umber o f t hat e lement i n t he b ody : e .g . 1 8 x 2 t ibiae = 3 6 ; 1 8 x 1 3 t horacic v ertebrae = 2 34 . T he p roportional r epresentation i s t he o bserved f requency e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f t he e xpected f requency : e .g . d istal t ibiae : 2 9 o bserved 3 6 e xpected = a p roportional r epresentation o f 8 1% ; t horacic v ertebrae : 5 7 o bserved 2 34 e xpected = 2 4% r epresentation . L oose u nfused e piphyses

2 61

S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES w ere n ot i ncluded , t o a void d ouble-counting . N ot a ll e lements w ere u sed : v ery s mall b ones s uch a s s esamoids , c arpals a nd t he s maller t arsals w ere n ot c ounted ( since t hey h ad l ow c hances o f r ecovery o n t he m oorland s urface) , c audal v ertebrae w ere i gnored ( since m ost l ambs a re d ocked s oon a fter b irth ) , a nd p halanges w ere g rouped t ogether i n o rder t o b e c omparable w ith B rain 's d ata . T his l ast p oint i s r egrettable , s ince t here w ere m arked d ifferences b etween t he n umbers r ecovered : p roximal p halanges w ere b y f ar t he c ommonest , a nd m iddle p halanges w ere s carcer t han d istal p halanges . S kulls w ere a lso i gnored , f or t wo r easons : ( i) b ecause i n a rchaeological c ontexts t hey a re o ften s o c omminuted t hat e stimates o f M NIs a nd p roportional r epresentations a re n ot f easible , a nd ( ii) b ecause t heir r ates o f b urial a ppear t o b e v ery d ifferent f rom t hose o f p ost-cranial e lements ( see t he n ote o n b urial r ates b elow ). D ata f rom o ther a reas w ere s ought t o t est s ome o f t he a ssumptions m ade i n t he a nalysis o f t he S heffield s heep m aterial . P rof . P eter J ewell a nd D r . P hilip A rmitage h ave b een s tudying t he S oay s heep o n t he i sland o f S t . K ilda , w hich a re a lmost t otally u naffected b y h umans . I n a ddition , S t . K ilda h as n o t errestrial p redators . T he c arcasses a re o nly l ikely t o b e a ffected b y c orvids, g ulls a nd b irds o f p rey a nd , p ossibly , b y s mall r odents s uch a s f ield m ice . D ifferences b etween c ollections i n t he t wo a reas , t herefore , s hould m ainly b e d ue t o t he p resence o r a bsence o f s cavenging f oxes . O ther f actors , s uch a s s urface v isibility, o bserver b ias , r ates o f b urial a nd w eathering a re p robably o f

f ar l ess

s ignificance .

I n 1 978 a nd

1 979 P rof .

J ewell a nd D r . A rmitage s ystematically c ollected a ll s urface-visible b ones f rom a n a rea o f r ough g razing i n a nd a round t he d eserted v illage o n S t. K ilda , a nd t hey h ave v ery k indly m ade t heir r ecords a vailable t o m e. F urther c omparisons w ere m ade w ith d ata f rom g oat r emains c ollected i n H ottentot v illages b y B rain ( 1969) , a nd w ith a c ollection f rom a R omanoB ritish f ort a nnexe a t C astleford , W est Y orkshire . T he material f rom C astleford was n ot s ieved . I n a ll f our r epresentations w ere c alculated i n t he s ame w ay .

c ases t he p roportional T he m ain c haracteristics

o f t he c ollections c an b e s ummarised a s : S t. K ilda o riginally e ntire c arcasses , n o h uman i nfluence , n o t errestrial s cavengers , b ird s cavengers. S heffield

s heep

o riginally e ntire c arcasses , n o h uman i nfluence, f ox s cavenging , b ird s cavengers. H ottentot g oats o riginally e ntire c arcasses , h uman i nfluence ( butchery a nd c onsumption ; n o t rade), d og s cavenging , p robably b ird s cavengers.

2 62

S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES C astleford s heep/goats n ot k nown i f c arcasses o riginally e ntire o r n ot , h uman i nfluence ( butchery a nd c onsumption ; t rade p ossible), d og s cavenging , b ird s cavengers ( corvid r emains i dentified a t t he s ite).

F igure 1 s hows t he p roportional r epresentations o f e lements i n t he f our c ollections , f ollowing t he r ank o rder s hown b y t he S t . K ilda m aterial , w hich s hows a s low a nd s teady f all-off f rom t he l arger , d enser b ones s uch a s t he t ibia , p elvis a nd h umerus , t owards t he s maller o r m ore v ascular b ones s uch a s t he c alcaneum , r ibs a nd v ertebrae . T his f all-off c an p robably b e e xplained a lmost t otally b y t wo f actors : ( i ) t he g reater v isibility o f l arge b ones a nd ( ii) t he g reater r esistance o f d ense b one t o c hemical w eathering a nd t o t rampling . S ince t hes b ones w ere n ot f ragmented , t he n umbers o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f l ong b ones a re e qual, d espite t he v ery u nequal d istribution o f d ense a nd v ascular b one ( such a s t he d istal v ersus t he p roximal h umerus) t hat u sually o ccurs o n a rchaeological s ites. T he S heffield s heep b ones s how a b roadly s imilar t rend , b ut w ith n otable e xceptions . I n t his c ase f ragmentation h as o ften s eparated p roximal f rom d istal a rticular e nds , a nd t here a re n oticeably f ewer p roximal t han d istal h umeri . O ther l ong b ones w hich w ould b e e xpected t o s how d ifferences a re t he t ibia , r adius a nd m etapodia . T he t ibia d oes , i n f act , h ave a r educed n umber o f ( vascular) p roximal e nds i n r elation t o t he n umber o f ( dense) d istal e nds. T he m etapodia a nd r adius , h owever , a ll s how v ery s imilar p roportions o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds , a nd t his i s f urther c ommented o n i n S ection 3 , w here f ragmentation p atterns a re d iscussed . T he m ain s urprise i n t he S heffield s heep d ata c omes f rom t he n umber o f r adii r ecovered , w hich s eem d istinctly o verrepresented c ompared t o t he S t . K ilda r esults . I c annot e xplain t his p henomenon a t p resent . T he t hird g roup - t he H ottentot g oat r emains , c ontrasts s harply w ith t he t wo p revious s ets o f d ata a nd , p resumably , t his i s m ainly d ue t o t he e ffect o f b utchery , c ooking a nd c onsumption a ctivities o f h umans . A ll t he v ascular b one p arts - p roximal t ibia , p roximal h umerus , p roximal a nd d istal f emur , s acrum , d istal r adius a nd v ertebrae a re g rossly u nder-represented . T he e lements t hat s urvived b est a re t he d ense d istal t ibia , d istal h umerus, m andible a nd p roximal r adius . T he m andible , i n t his c ase , a ppears g reatly o ver-represented c ompared t o t he ' non-human ' a ssemblages . A p artial e xplanation c ould b e t hat i t w as e x tracted a nd d iscarded e arly o n i n t he b utchery p rocess , a nd s o w as l ittle a ffected b y h uman i nfluence , b ut i ts h igher s urvival r ate w hen s cavenged b y d ogs r ather t han f oxes s eems o dd . T wo p ossibilities a re ( i ) t hat a ll t he o ther e lements w ere p referentially r educed b y h umans b efore d ogs h ad a c hance t o a lter t hem , a nd ( ii) t hat f lat o r d isarticulated m andibles w ere q uickly b uried b y s oil o r v egetation o r b oth i n t he t emperate B ritish s ites a nd , t herefore , w ere l ess e asily s een t han t hose i n t he s cant v egetation a long t he K uiseb R iver , w here t he H ottentot s tudy w as m ade . T he f ourth g roup , f rom R omano-British C astleford , s hows a d istribution t hat i s r emarkably s imilar t o t hat o f t he H ottentot g oats . I t i s t empting t o s uggest t hat , a t t his s ite , e ntire c arcasses o f s heep/goats w ere a vailable ( probably s laughtered i nside t he m ilitary a rea ) a nd t hat n o j oints o f m eat

2 63

F I G U R E 2 :

n e a r S h e f i e l d . ( p u n c t u r e , m o u t h i n g a n d

4 0

C )

0 0 .

2 64

S TALLIBRASS: E FFECTS O F S MALL C ARNIVORES w ere s ubsequently e xported . O n o ther a rchaeological s ites , d eviations f rom t his p attern c ould b e t aken t o i mply t he p referential i mport o r e xport o f c ertain p arts o f t he b ody. O ne f actor t hat c ould n ot b e c ontrolled f or i n t he c ollections c ompared i n t his s tudy w as t he a ge d istribution o f t he c arcasses . T he r esistance o f a b one t o w eathering , c onsumption , e tc" i s p artly r elated t o i ts s tructure a nd d ensity , a nd y ounger b ones , w ith t heir v ascular u nfused e piphyses , a re m ore s usceptible t o d estruction t han a re t heir f used c outerparts . T his m ight a ccount f or s ome o f t he d ifferences b etween t he f our c ollections s hown i n F igure 1 . H owever , t he a ges a t d eath o f t he S t . K ilda a nd S heffield s heep a re v ery s imilar - b oth g roups o f c arcasses c ontained m ainly y earlings a nd m ature a dults . T he H ottentot g oats w ere m ainly e ither 6 12 m onths o ld o r a dult , w hilst m ost o f t he C astleford s heep/goats w ere y earlings a nd s uba dults . I t i s p ossible , t herefore , t hat t he u nder-representation o f m ore v ascular b ones a t C astleford m ay b e p artly d ue t o t his p henomenon . F urther s tudy o f t he S heffield d ata w ill i nvestigate t his p ossibility . 3 )

F ragmentation p atterns o f e lements.

T he o ther m ajor a spect o f t his s tudy i s a n a nalysis o f f ragmentation p atterns o f t he f ox-scavenged s heep b ones . T hese d ata c re s till b eing p rocessed , b ut p reliminary r esults i ndicate t hat t here a re c onsistent p atterns o f b reakage a nd d amage f or e ach e lement . E very f ragment h as b een r ecorded o n a s heet p rinted w ith d rawings o f t he e lement s een f rom v arious a spects , e .g . l ateral, a nterior , d istal . T he s hape a nd p osition o f a ny b reaks a re m arked o n t he r elevant d rawings a s w ell a s t he p ositions o f a ll f lake s cars , p unctures , a nd m outhing a nd g rooving m arks . F igure 2 s hows a t ypical h umerus f ragment w hich h as h ad t he p rox imal e piphysis c ompletely r emoved b y af ox , w ith c onsequent f lake s cars a nd a s piral f racture a round t he b roken e nd o f t he s haft , a nd w ith m outhing , g rooving a nd p uncture m arks a round t he m uscle i nsertions. T o c heck t hat t hese p atterns w ere n ot d ue t o i diosyncracies o f t he l ocal f ox p opulations , n or r estricted t o s heep c arcasses , as imilar s tudy w as u ndertaken w ith r oe a nd r ed d eer c arcasses s cavenged b y f oxes ( and p ossibly a lso b y b adgers) i n G rizedale F orest , C umbria . T he p atterns t here s eem r emarkably s imilar t o t hose i n t he S heffield c ollection , a nd m ay b e t ypical f or s mall - t o m edium-sized u ngulates s cavenged b y s mall ( i .e . d og-sized ) c arnivores . U nfortunately , t he d ense n ature o f m uch o f t he u ndergrowth i n t he f orest p recluded a s urface c ollection s imilar t o t hose o n S t . K ilda a nd t he P ennines . H owever , i n b oth g roups i t w as n oticeable t hat c ertain e lements , e .g . m etacarpus , m etatarsus a nd r adius , w ere h ardly e ver d amaged a part f rom a n o ccasional p uncture m ark ( see F igure 3 ) . T his e xplains t he s urprisingly e qual r epresentation o f p roximal a nd d istal e nds o f e ach o f t hese e lements i n t he o ther c ollections ( see F igure 1 ) r emarked o n a bove . M etapodia a re n ot c overed b y v ery m uch m eat , n or d o t hey c ontain v ery m any b lood - o r m arrow-filled c avities a nd , t herefore , a re p robably o f l ow a ttraction t o s cavengers w hen m eatier p arts o f ac arcass a re a vailable . O n ar adius , m ost o f t he m eat i s a t t he p roximal e nd w hich , u nusually , i s o ne o f t he d enser b one p arts . T he m ore e asily-consumed , v ascular b one i s a t t he d istal e nd , w hich h as c omparatively l ittle m eat o n i t a nd , t herefore , i s p robably a lso o f l ow a ttraction . A lthough t hese s tructural f actors r egarding t he b ones t hemselves a nd t heir c overing t issues m ay g o s ome w ay t owards e xplaining t he l ow d egree o f d amage s uffered b y t hese e lements i n t he

F IGURE 3 : S heffie ld . b een

h eavily

T wo t ypically a ltered s heep r adio-ulnae f rom t he s tudy a rea n ear N ote

h ow

t he

r adii

a re

i ntact ,

a ttacked .

2 66

w hilst

t he p roximal

u lnae

h ave

STALLIBRASS: EFFECTS OF SMALL CARNIVORES

Sheffield sheep and Grizedal e deer studies, they do not explain the differences in frequencies of these bones: many more radii seem to survive than do metapodia. This last fact may be linked with patterns of disarticulation and removal of limbs and partial limbs by predators; aspects which have not yet been investigated for these collections. Whilst the shallow markings of mouthing and tooth grooves are unlikely to survive on archaeological remains that have been weathered or eroded, the presence of puncture marks, and of typical breakage and flake scar patterns, should alert an analyst to the fact that the assemblage has been altered by scavengers, and warn him or her that the more susceptible elements such as the proximal humerus, and the proximal and distal femur, are likely to be under-represented . FURTHER C