American Indian and African American People, Communities, and Interactions : An Annotated Bibliography 9780313072635, 9780313323478

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American Indian and African

American People, Communities, and Interactions

Recent Titles in Bibliographies and Indexes in American History The Native American Sun Dance Religion and Ceremony: An Annotated Bibliography Phillip M. White, compiler Native North American Shamanism: An Annotated Bibliography Shelley Anne Osterreich, compiler Guide to Native American Ledger Drawings and Pictographs in United States Museums, Libraries, and Archives John R. Lovett, Jr. and Donald L. DeWitt, compilers Native America and the Evolution of Democracy: An Annotated Bibliography Bruce E. Johansen, compiler The Kickapoo Indians, Their History and Culture: An Annotated Bibliography Phillip M. White, compiler The American Settlement Movement: A Bibliography Domenica M. Barbuto, compiler Reconstruction in the United States: An Annotated Bibliography David A. Lincove, compiler and annotator Books on Early American History and Culture, 1991-1995: An Annotated Bibliography Raymond D. Irwin Peyotism and the Native American Church: An Annotated Bibliography Phillip M. White A Comprehensive Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of James Monroe, Volume I Daniel Preston A Comprehensive Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of James Monroe, Volume II Daniel Preston Books on Early American History and Culture, 1986-1990: An Annotated Bibliography Raymond D. Irwin

American Indian and African American People, Communities, and Interactions

An Annotated Bibliography

Lisa Bier

Bibliographies and Indexes in American History, Number 48

PIRAEGER

Westport, conneotjcut Londong

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bier, Lisa, 1971American Indian and African American people, communities, and interactions : an annotated bibliography / Lisa Bier. p. cm.—(Bibliographies and indexes in American history, ISSN 0742-6828 ; no. 48) Includes index. ISBN 0-313-32347-X (alk. paper) 1. United States. Army. Cavalry, 10th—Bibliography. 2. Indians of North America—Mixed descent—Bibliography. 3. African Americans—Relations with Indians—Bibliography. 4. African Americans—History—Bibliography. I. Title. II. Series. Z1209.B54 2004 [E98.M63] 016.305896'073—dc22 2003068989 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 2004 by Lisa Bier All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003068989 ISBN: 0-313-32347-X ISSN: 0742-6828 First published in 2004 Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.praeger.com Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For the Black Seminoles of Texas and Coahuila Everyone should know their story

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Contents Acknowledgments Introduction Overviews The Northeast The Mid-Atlantic The Upper South The Deep South The Five Tribes Cherokee Chickasaw Choctaw Creek Seminole The West The Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers The Midwest and the Great Lakes Alaska and Canada Arts and Literature Miscellaneous Index

ix xi 1 13 37 41 73 87 113 129 133 139 149 185 205 215 223 229 239

247

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Acknowledgments I would like to thank the following for the support that I received from them throughout this project and at many other times. Dr. Loriene Roy, Shawn Parker, and Denene DeQuintal for feedback and smart advice, Heidi McKinnon and Emily Luce for being both sensible and visionary, Melissa Moran for southern hospitality, Laura Moulton for invaluable assistance with research, formatting, and indexing, Helene and Louis Bier for always being on the lookout for relevant materials, Susan Stewart and Gaby Kaye for their friendship and humor during my time at the Mashantucket Pequot Research Library, Annette Esposito Hird for dog-sitting, and Jake for being good while being dog-sat. Enormous thanks to Michael Ryan for marathon editing. At Southern Connecticut State University, I would like to thank Alba Reynaga for a stimulating and supportive office environment, Dr. Paul Holmer for his interest in this project, Dr. Susan Cirillo and my colleagues on the Hilton C. Buley Library Departmental Evaluation Committee for awarding me release time for research and writing, the Office of Faculty Development for providing a faculty library card to the Yale University Libraries, and the staff of Buley Library's inter library loan department. I also thank the Connecticut State University System for awarding a faculty research grant that enabled me to visit research facilities in the southeast, Texas, and Oklahoma.

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Introduction American Indians and people of African origin have had extensive contact throughout the history of the Americas. These interactions have occurred in all areas of North and South America, and in just about every possible context. While the interactions of whites with American Indians and, separately, whites with African Americans have been studied extensively, the contacts between Indians and Blacks have remained until recently a largely unexplored aspect of the recorded histories of both groups. These interactions reveal communication, alliances, and agency between the two groups, a neglected layer of North American history that for too long has been overlooked or deliberately ignored. Interest in this topic is growing rapidly, both as a field of academic research and as people with multiracial African American and American Indian backgrounds voice interest in researching their own unique histories, but materials can be difficult to locate because of the ways that libraries and research databases organize information. Online library catalogs, article databases, indexes, and the world wide web have made library research much different than in the past, and in many cases, more efficient and exact when properly used. But there are still subjects that are made no less difficult to locate with electronic resources. These online tools are still dependent on the original library organizational method of using a controlled vocabulary to catalog, classify, and index materials. If the process of organizing is not done properly and accurately, whether in paper format or electronic, the search will not be successful. Complicating this issue further is the fact that mainstream terminology changes over time. African Americans, for example, have in the past been referred to as Moors, Negroes, Colored, and Afro-Americans. American Indians can be referred to as Indians, American Indians, Native Americans, Indigenous People, and by the names of individual tribal communities or governments. Subject cataloging is often inadequate for Native American issues alone, but when one attempts to search for information on the intertwined histories of African Americans and Native Americans, the issues are magnified even further. It was with these limitations in mind that this bibliography was compiled. This is a bibliography of books, articles, dissertations, websites, and videos containing information on interactions between African American and Native American people and communities in the United States and Canada. It

xii American Indian and African American Interactions was originally intended to be a comprehensive bibliography, but in the final publication certain items have undoubtedly been unintentionally overlooked and some (mainly newspaper articles) had to be intentionally omitted to limit the size of the work. The terms American Indian, Native American, and Indian are used here interchangeably, although whenever possible the name of the relevant tribal group will be used, as opposed to a more generic term. The terms African American and Black are used interchangeably, while African is used to refer to people who are identified as having been born in Africa. Black-Indian or IndianBlack is used as shorthand for "African American and Native American." The bibliography is divided into seventeen chapters. Most of the chapters are geographic in scope, although it must be pointed out that many Indian groups were extremely mobile or migrated great distances, often against their will. As a result, certain groups may be found in more than one chapter. For example, information on the Iroquois can be found in both the Northeast and Canada chapters. The first chapter covers items that present summaries or general discussions of Indian-Black interactions. Northeast includes New England and New York. Mid-Atlantic refers to Delaware and Maryland. The Upper South includes all groups north of Georgia, excluding the Five Tribes. The Deep South chapter focuses on all other southern groups, excluding the Five Tribes. The five groups often referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes, or simply the Five Tribes, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole, are found in six chapters. The Five Tribes have had the most written about their interactions with African Americans, and items pertaining to them make up the bulk of the bibliography. As a result of the large amount of resources on these five groups, each has a chapter. The Five Tribes chapter includes all the items that that were written about the Five Tribes in general without specifically focusing on one group, or that refer to more than one of them. The chapters that focus on the Five Tribes are not geographically limited, and therefore include items from the southeast, the Indian Territory, and beyond. Material dealing with the American West can be found in two chapters. One is the Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers, which mainly contains items on the African American men who joined the Army following emancipation and served in the Indian Wars. The West chapter includes all other interactions. The Midwest chapter includes the Midwest and Great Lakes areas. The northernmost parts of North America are included in the Alaska and Canada chapter. Arts and Literature contains items dealing with arts, music, and literature. Miscellaneous includes items that were not easily categorized in any of the other chapters. Items are indexed in the back of the book by author, subject, tribe or community name, and location. All items in the bibliography have been given a unique alphanumerical identifier, so that index entries refer to an item number, not a page number. For example, all items in the first chapter have been given an item number beginning with the letter A. All items in the second chapter have been given an item number beginning with the letter B, and so forth.

Introduction xiii It is important to note that this is a descriptive bibliography, not an evaluative one. Many of the items in the bibliography are quite dated in attitude, terminology, and content. Every attempt has been made to locate, read, and describe what is covered in each resource, but no suggestions are offered as to accuracy, biases, or quality of scholarship. The researcher must make her or his own evaluations when using the resources.

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Overviews Al.

Bennett, Lerone, Jr. "Red and Black: The Indians and the Africans." Ebony 26, no. 2 (December 1970): 70-80. Overview of Indian-Black relations, presenting many examples of cooperation.

A2.

Breen, T. H. "Creative Adaptations: Peoples and Cultures." In Colonial British America: Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era, edited by Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984. Looks at colonization of North America and presents some of the ways Native Americans and African Americans adapted to and perceived each other.

A3.

Brown, Walton L. "The Forgotten Heritage: African-Amerindian Relations in America." Proteus 9, no. 1 (1992): 11-17. Provides an overview of African and Native American contacts in North America. Focuses mainly on the slave trade, the impacts of Africans on Native American life, slaveholding Indians in the southeast, the effects of removal and the Civil War on southeastern tribes, and the resulting status of people of both African and American Indian heritage.

A4.

Calhoun, Daniel H. "Strategy as Lived: Mixed Communities in the Age of New Nations." American Indian Quarterly 22 (1998): 181-202. Also in Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Although partially about Black-Indian relations in Mexico, this article discusses examples of Black-Indian interaction in the U.S. as well.

2

American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at systems of interaction as a larger movement in North American history.

A5.

Carew, Jan. "The Undefeated: Joint Struggles of Native Americans and Peoples of the African Diaspora." In Exploring the African-American Experience, edited by Niara Sudarkasa and Levi A. Nwachuku. Lincoln University, PA: Lincoln University Press, 1996. Overview of Black and Indian interactions in response to the 1992 Columbus Centennial. Focuses on Black and Seminole cooperation in opposing slavery.

A6.

Catterall, Helen Tunnicliff. Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro. New York: Octagon Books, 1968. This is a collection of legal cases that document many instances of Indian/Black interaction. Cases mention fugitive slaves living among Indians, Indians being enslaved alongside Blacks, and slaves who challenged their legal status on the basis of their partial Indian ancestry, including Marie Scipion.

A7.

Chamberlain, Alexander Francis. "African and American: The Contact of Negro and Indian." Science 17, no. 419 (1891): 85-90. An overview from an anthropological perspective of African American contact with American Indians in the Americas, beginning in 1503. Cites a number of primary and secondary sources reflecting Black/Indian contact in Bermuda, Canada, New York, the eastern seaboard, and southeastern, midwestern and western United States.

A8.

Chamberlain, Alexander Francis. "Negro and Indian." In Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, edited by Frederick Webb Hodge. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912. Provides an overview of Black and Indian relations and Indian groups known to have had significant numbers of Blacks marry into the community.

A9.

Dempsey, Mary A. "The Indian Connection." American Visions 11 (August/September 1996): 40-42. Discusses the research of librarian Deborah Tucker who has spent twenty years researching African American and Native American connections. She discusses some of the reasons why this type of genealogy is particularly difficult.

Overviews A10.

3

Dramer, Kim. Native Americans and Black Americans. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1997. Overview. Intended for juvenile audiences.

All.

"Exploring the Legacy and Future of Black/Indian Relations." Kansas Institute of African American and Native American Family History, 2001. http://web.m.it.edu/vviohnsoii/www/kiaanaflT/NCAI pdfTranscript.pdf This is a transcript of a session held November 14, 2001, at the National Congress of American Indians 57th annual session. Wilma Mankiller moderated the program and speakers were Dr. Willard R. Johnson, Dr. Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr., Dr. Patrick Minges, Ms. Deborah Tucker, and Dr. David Wilkins.

A12.

Forbes, Jack D. Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993.

A13.

Forbes, Jack D. Black Africans and Native Americans: Color, Race and Caste in the Evolution of Red-Black People. New York, NY: Blackwell, 1988. Traces the development of colonial racial classification systems and usage of particular terminology, including the terms mulatto, mestizo, and mustee. Tracks how usage has changed over time and how people of African and American Indian ancestry were legally and socially classified. Africans and Native Americans is a revised edition of Black Africans and Native

A14.

Americans.

Forbes, Jack D. "Envelopment, Proletarianization and Inferiorization: Aspects of Colonialism's Impact Upon Native Americans and Other People of Color in Eastern North America." Journal of Ethnic Studies 18, no. 4 (1991): 95-122. Looks at how colonialism in the U.S. resulted in the combination of ethnic groups to create a "colored" class, free persons of color, through the process of legal redefinition within the racial classification system. Focuses on how this process effected Eastern Indians, specifically in Virginia, who intermarried with Blacks.

A15.

Forbes, Jack D. "The Manipulation of Race, Caste and Identity: Classifying AfroAmericans, Native Americans and Red-Black People." Journal of Ethnic Studies 17, no. 4 (1990): 1-51.

4

American Indian and African American Interactions An overview of the development of racial classification systems. Because it is not always clear how terminology was used in the past and whether the terms used today have retained their original meanings, it is crucial to understand these systems and how people were represented by these labels before beginning a study of Black-Indian relations.

A16.

Forbes, Jack D. "Mulattoes and People of Color in Anglo-North America: Implications for Black-Indian Relations." Journal of Ethnic Studies 12, no. 2 (1984): 17-61. An overview of early contacts resulting in intermarriage and the resulting development of terminology to classify the offspring of these unions. Looks at historic usage of the term "mulatto" to refer to people with Indian ancestry in the eastern United States.

A17.

Forbes, Jack D. "Mustees, Half-breeds and Zambos in Anglo North America: Aspects of Black-Indian Relations." American Indian Quarterly 7, no. 1 (1983): 57-83. Argues that in order to begin to study Black-Indian relations, it is crucial to have a workable meaning for the terms that were used historically to describe people of mixed African Native American ethnicity. Looks at the origins and use of the terms "mustee," "halfbreed," and "zambo."

A18.

Forbes, Jack D. "Undercounting Native Americans: The 1980 Census and the Manipulation of Racial Identity in the United States." Wicazo Sa Review 6, no. 1 (1990): 2-26. Describes how the U.S. census classifies people of multiracial backgrounds, including those of combined African and Native American backgrounds.

A19.

Forbes, Jack D. "The Use of Racial and Ethnic Terms in America: Management by Manipulation." Wicazo Sa Review 11, no. 2 (1995): 53-65. Describes the development of terms for racial classification in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. Presents evidence that the term mulatto was used to refer to people of combined Indian and African ancestry. Also looks at usage of the words "mustee," "zambo," and "mulatto." Describes how these terms were used, with altered meanings, in the British colonies to create a caste system, which eventually lumped all non-whites into a general "colored" category that eventually came to be interpreted as "Black." Also looks at

Overviews

5

terminology manipulation in the U.S. census, and the complex issues surrounding the assignation of racial and ethnic terms by outsiders. Looks at the different meanings of being designated as a race, a people, a nation or an ethnic group and the political meanings of these terms. A20.

Forbes, Jack D. "The Use of the Terms "Negro" and "Black" to Include Persons of Native American Ancestry in "Anglo" North America." Explorations in Ethnic Studies 7, no. 2 (1984): 11-26. Analyzes how the term "Negro" was applied to Native Americans in racial classification systems. Argues that the Portuguese referred to American Indians as Negroes, and the English gradually began to equate the terms African, Ethiopian, Blackamoor, Negro and Moor. "Negro" was eventually applied to American Indians both with and without African heritage. Uses runaway slave advertisements and other records to illustrate how this inaccurate labeling was applied to individuals and entire communities.

A21.

Grenier, Richard. "Black Indians: An American Legacy." The Washington Times, February 21, 1997, p A19. Overview of certain Black-Indian alliances.

A22.

Hallo well, A. Irving. "American Indians, White and Black: The Phenomenon of Transculturalization." Current Anthropology 4 (1963): 519-531. Looks at African Americans who have lived among Indian groups and acquired Indian cultural characteristics and roles in these societies. Describes the process of transculturalization, in which a person from one culture becomes a member of another culture.

A23.

Hammond, Peter B. "Afro-American Indians and Afro-Asians: Cultural Contacts Between Africa and the Peoples of Asia and Aboriginal America." In Expanding Horizons in African studies, edited by Gwendolen M. Carter and Ann Paden. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969. Argues that academic inattention to the relationships between Blacks and Native Americans has resulted in a void in the historical and anthropological knowledge of the new world. Suggests specific areas for further research, and discusses several populations of Indian - Black groups, but uses pseudonyms and altered locations to refer to them.

6

American Indian and African American Interactions

A24.

Harries, Renee Abraham. "Deborah Tucker: Expert on Black & Indian Heritage." The Crisis 101, no. 2 (Feb-Mar 1994): 14. Discusses Deborah Tucker, a librarian and researcher who has studied African and Native American interactions extensively. Overview of Tucker's observations about the historical interactions between the two populations.

A25.

Heard, J. Norman. The Black Frontiersmen: Adventures of Negroes Among American Indians, 1528-1918. New York: John Day Company, 1969. Looks at interactions between Black men and Indians on the frontier. Includes Estevan among the Pueblo Indians, Briton Hammon in Florida, missionaries John Marrant and John Stewart, Pompey, who fought with the Shawnee against Daniel Boone, Ed Rose and Jim Beckwourth, fur traders who lived with the Crow, York of the Lewis and Clark expedition, Luis Pacheco among the Florida Seminole, and Henry Ossian Flipper, U.S. soldier who fought the Apache.

A26.

hooks, bell. Black Looks: Race and Representation. Boston: South End Press, 1992. In an essay entitled "Revolutionary "Renegades": Native Americans, African Americans, and Black Indians" the author argues that Africans and American Indians eagerly and quickly bonded under white oppression, but that racist whites have deliberately encouraged racist attitudes in Indians that caused them to dislike Blacks.

A27.

Johnston, James Hugo. "Documentary Evidence of the Relationship Between Negroes and Indians." Journal of Negro History 14 (1929): 21-43. An overview of interactions between Blacks and American Indians. Looks at evidence of early and continual interaction in New England, Long Island, New Jersey, and the Southeast. Uses letters, government publications, newspaper notices for fugitive slaves, and archival documents. Also discusses the impact of Indian ownership of Black slaves.

A28.

Jones, Rhett S. "Black and Native American Relations before 1800." Western Journal of Black Studies 1, no. 3 (1977): 151-63. Presents a historical overview of African and American Indian interaction in the context of slavery and discusses differing policies towards preventing interaction between the two groups by the

Overviews

7

governments of Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal. Looks at issues of racial classification, cooperation in slave revolts, and intermarriage. A29.

Jones, Rhett S. "Black/Indian Relations: An Overview of the Scholarship." Transforming Anthropology 10, no. 1 (2001) 2-16. Presents an overview of the published works on Black/Indian interactions. Points out that a scholarly, book-length treatment of African American-Native American relations has yet to be written.

A30.

Jones, Rhett S. "Black Over Red: The Image of Native Americans in Black History." Umoja: A Scholarly Journal of Black Studies 1, no. 2 (1977): 13-30. Critiques the depiction of Native Americans by African American historians. Argues that some of these historians are too quick to accept the stereotypes and misconceptions surrounding American Indian history and that they repeat the errors that are represented in histories authored by whites.

A31.

Katz, William Loren. "Black and Indian Cooperation and Resistance to Slavery." Freedomways 17 (1977): 164-174. Looks at alliances between Africans and American Indians and their combined resistance to white oppression. Describes intermarriage between the two groups, fears of colonial authorities towards these alliances, and notable individuals of Black and Indian heritage. Also focuses on Black-Indian cooperation in the Seminole Wars.

A32.

Katz, William Loren. Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage. New York: Atheneum, 1986. An overview of Black and Indian interactions in North America. Includes information of Black Indian individuals and cooperation between African Americans and Native Americans.

A3 3.

Katz, William Loren. Proudly Red and Black. Stories of Africans and Native Americans. New York: Atheneum, 1993. Includes short biographies of Black and Indian people Paul Cuffe, Edward Rose, John Horse, Edmonia Lewis, George Henry White and Bill Pickett. Also includes a chapter on contemporary people who have researched their African American and Native American ancestry. For juvenile audiences.

8

American Indian and African American Interactions

A34.

Katz, William. The William Loren Katz Site. http://www.williamkatz.com. Contains an essay on Indian-Black relations.

A35.

Lockman, Paul T., Jr., and George A. Agogino. "Black and Red Alliances: Black and Indian Uprisings in Early United States History." Chesopiean 27, no. 3 (1989): 18-21. Looks at documented instances of Blacks and Indians involved in uprisings as early as 1657 in New England and New York. Also discusses alliances formed in the southeast and the Seminole Wars.

A36.

Micco, Melinda. "African Americans and American Indians." In Encyclopedia of North American Indians, edited by Frederick E. Hoxie. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996. Brief overview of African American and Native American contacts, formation of Black-Indian communities, and the variety of relationships in different areas.

A37.

Nash, Gary B. "The Hidden History of Mestizo America." Journal of American History 82 (1995): 941-964. Provides an overview of racial intermarriage in the Americas, including Indian-Black intermarriage. Discusses Lucy Gonzalez Parsons, a woman of Black, Creek, and Mexican ancestry. Describes castas paintings, a genre depicting mixed race families, used in the Spanish colonies to illustrate their system of racial classification.

A38.

Native America Calling. African and Native American Heritage and History. Native American Public Telecommunications, 2000. One hour radio call-in show on the intertwined histories of African American and American Indians, originally broadcast February 28, 2000. http://www.nativecalling.org/archives/topics/race.html

A39.

Native America Calling. Black Indians. Native American Public Telecommunications, 2000. One hour radio call-in show on issues surrounding people of African American and American Indian ancestry, originally broadcast February 2, 1998. http://www.nativecalling.org/archives/topics/race.html

Overviews A40.

9

Phillips, Valerie J. "Epilogue: Seeing Each Other Through the White Man's Eyes: Reflections and Commentary on the "Eating Out of the Same Pot" Black Indian Conference at Dartmouth College." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. This is a critique of the April 2000 conference on Indian-Black relations held at Dartmouth College. Author reveals problems in the discourse between African Americans and American Indians at the conference. She argues that many Indians today still view Blacks from the perspective of white people, and treat Black-Indians differently than they treat Indians with European ancestry. She argues that the perspectives and paradigms of white male academia continue to dominate the study of Black-Indian interactions.

A41.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. The Negro on the American Frontier. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1971. This is a collection of some of Porter's previously published articles, dealing with many aspects of Indian-Black interaction in most parts of the United States.

A42.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Notes Supplementary to "Relations Between Negroes and Indians Within the Present Limits of the United States."" Journal of Negro History 18 (1933): 282-321. Follow-up to below article, "Relations Between Negroes and Indians Within The Present Limits of the United States," adding newly found information. Includes many more instances of interaction. Suggests that the term "Aframerindian" might be used to identify people of African and American Indian origin.

A43.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Relations Between Negroes and Indians within the Present Limits of the United States." Journal of Negro History 17 (1932): 287-367. Extensive coverage of relations, encompassing all areas of the United States and all eras. Looks at the associations when Indians and Blacks were enslaved together, contacts in warfare and as allies, and the achievements of individuals with both Black and Indian heritage.

A44.

Richie, Chip. Black Indians: An American Story. Dallas, Rich-Heape Films, 2000.

10 American Indian and African American Interactions Video documentary explores the interwoven histories of African Americans and Native Americans. Includes interviews with many Indian-Blacks discussing their identity. A45.

Schneider, Dorothy and Carl J. Schneider. Slavery in America: From Colonial Times to the Civil War. An Eyewitness History. New York: Facts on File, 2000. Contains a chapter titled "Indians as Slaves, and Friends and Enemies of Blacks Slaves, and as Slave Holders, 1529-1865." Describes the many varying ways in which Blacks and Indians have interacted in enslavement and exploration scenarios. Includes a timeline of BlackIndian interactions and a collection of firsthand accounts.

A46.

Small wood, Arwin D. "A History of Native Americans and African Relations from 1502-1900." Negro History Bulletin 62, no. 2/3 (AprilSeptember 1999): 18-31. Presents an overview of African and African American interactions with indigenous people in all regions of the United States.

A47.

Snipp, C. Matthew. "Who Are the American Indians? Some Observations about the Perils and Pitfalls of Data for Race and Ethnicity." Population Research and Policy Review 5 (1986): 237-252. Describes issues relating to how people describe their race and ethnicity and how the U.S. Census Bureau deals with respondents who identity themselves as being of multiple races and ethnicities. States that of people identifying themselves as having American Indian ancestry, 4% (256,700) identified their race as Black.

A48.

"Special Focus: The Ties That Bind African and Native Americans." AAHGS News: The Bi-Monthly Newsletter of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society, Inc. (May/June 1999) 6-16. Overview of Black-Indian relations in the United States. Focuses on information for genealogists.

A49.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. "Race Before Racism and the Disappearance of the American: Jack D. Forbes' Black Africans and Americans: Color Race and Caste in the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples." Plantation Society in the Americas 3, no. 2 (1993): 73-91. An extensive review of Jack D. Forbes' study of the interactions of Africans and indigenous people of the Americas.

Overviews 11 A50.

Washington, Booker T. The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery. New York: Doubleday, 1909. Contains a chapter titled "The Indian and the Negro." Washington described his experiences working at Hampton Institute when he was placed in charge of the first Indian students there, presented an overview of Black-Indian contacts, argued that intermarriage was far more common than most people wanted to believe, and described his visit to Oklahoma, formerly Indian Territory.

A51.

Wellburn, Ron. "A Most Secret Identity: Native American Assimilation and Identity Resistance in African America." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Exploration of how and why many people identified as "colored" or Black did not and do not emphasize their Native American ancestry, yet manage to retain distinct characteristics of it. Includes a discussion of how Blacks perceive Indian-Blacks and how many people with both Native American and African American ancestry have had their Indian identity subsumed beneath their Black identity. Presents an argument against the use of the term "Black Indian" as opposed to simply Indian.

A52.

Winddancer, Eve and Louis Myers. African Native Americans: We Are Still Here. This is a website based on an exhibit of photographs of people with African and Indian ancestry. Most of the subjects live in the New York area and were photographed in powwow regalia. http ://ne vvman.baruch.cuny.edu/digi tal/nati ve/

A53.

Woodson, C. G. Free Negro Heads of Families in the United States in 1830 Together with a Brief Treatment of the Free Negro. Washington: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1925. A compilation of names taken from the 1830 census. Discusses the implications of Black and American Indian intermarriage and the origins of the free Black population and members of Black-Indian communities who were included as "Free Negro" on the census. Certain names on the list also reflect obvious Indian origin.

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The Northeast Bl.

"An Act Concerning the Indians of Massachusetts." Journal of Negro History 5 (1920): 58-62. Reprints an act passed by the Massachusetts legislature in 1861 requiring a survey of all Indian people and land in the state. Includes mention of "people of color" living on Indian land.

B2.

Adams, H. G. God's Image in Ebony: Being a Series of Biographical Sketches, Facts, Anecdotes, etc., Demonstrative of the Mental Powers and Intellectual Capacities of the Negro Race. London: Partridge and Oakey, 1854. Contains a short biography of Paul Cuffe, Wampanoag-Black.

B3.

Arpey, Andrew W. "The Van Nest Killings and the Trial of William Freeman: Insanity, Politics, and Race in Antebellum New York." Ph.D. diss., SUNY Albany, 2000. Study of the 1846 murder trial of William Freeman, of Black and Stockbridge Indian ancestry, and how prosecutors attributed some of his actions to his ethnicity.

B4.

Arthur. The Life and Dying Speech of Arthur who was Executed at Worcester, October 20, 1768, for a Rape Committed on the Body of one Deborah Metcalfe. Boston, 1763. This is a broadside that was published after the execution of its author, a Black slave who lived in Massachusetts. Arthur described frequently running away and spending time among the Indians at Sandwich and at one point disguising himself as an Indian woman.

B5.

Bakker, Peter. "First African into New Netherland, 1613-1614." De Halve Maen 68, no. 3 (1995): 50-53.

14 American Indian and African American Interactions

States that not all Africans brought to New Amsterdam in the early colonial period were slaves, and that Africans were brought as employees of trading companies specifically to work as interpreters with the Indians. Specifically mentions Jan Rodriquez, a "mulatto" from the West Indies who worked as an interpreter in the Hudson River region, possibly as early as 1612, and Matthieu da Costa, who interpreted for the French with the Micmac of Nova Scotia and Acadia as early as 1604. B6.

Baron, Donna Keith, J. Edward Hood, and Holly V. Izard. "They Were Here All Along: The Native American Presence in Lower-Central New England in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries." William and Mary Quarterly, 3d Series, 53 (1996): 561-586. Presents research that documents the presence of Indians in central Massachusetts in the 1700's and 1800's, primarily the Nipmuc. Mentions intermarriage with Blacks and the resulting classification in documents and historical records that created the illusion that Natives were extinct in this area. Describes the inconsistencies of census record keeping that could result in an inaccurate record of Indian demographics. Based largely on data from the Earle Report of 1861 and local records.

B7.

Barsh, Russel Lawrence. ""Colored" Seamen in the New England Whaling Industry: An Afro-Indian Consortium." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discusses Afro-Indian seamen employed in the whaling industry in southern New England. Uses vital records to show significant intermarrying between Black men and Indian women, that numbers of Afro-Indian seamen declined, and that they were replaced by Portuguese seamen just as whaling was approaching its most prosperous era. Argues that shared economic concerns temporarily united the Black and Indian communities, but for the most part this was not permanent.

B8

Belknap, Jeremy and Jedidiah Morse. Report on the Oneida, Stockbridge and Brotherton Indians, 1796. Indian Notes and Monographs, No. 54. Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation, 1955. Mentions Oneidas of African descent living at the Oneida reservation in New York State in 1796. Also mentions that the Natick Indians of Massachusetts had intermarried with Blacks by this time.

The Northeast 15 B9.

Belton, Bill. "The Indian Heritage of Crispus Attucks." Negro History Bulletin 35, no. 7 (1972): 149-152. Discusses the role of Crispus Attucks in the Boston Massacre and postulates that John Attucks, an Indian man from Natick who was hanged during King Philips War, was likely a direct ancestor.

BIO.

Benedict, Jeff. "The Intruders." The Hartford Courant Northeast Magazine, May 13, 2001. Attempts to document an alleged criminal relationship between certain Mashantucket Pequot tribal members and African Americans living in Providence, Rhode Island.

Bl 1.

Bird, F. W. Report on the Commissioners Relating to the Condition of the Indians in Massachusetts. Boston: Massachusetts House of Representatives Document 46, 1849. Reports on the numbers and status of Indians in Massachusetts. Indicates that eight Indians in the state were "full-blood" and most of the rest were part-African. Reprints results of a survey that was sent to white commissioners of each community. One of the questions asked about the intermarriage of Blacks into Indian communities.

B12.

Boen, William. Anecdotes and Memoirs of William Boen, a Coloured Man, Who Lived and Died Near Mount Holly, New Jersey. To Which is Added, The Testimony of Friends of Mount Holly Monthly Meeting Concerning Him. Philadelphia: John Richards, 1834. Describes Boen, along with his owner's family, worrying about attacks by Indians.

B13.

Boissevain, Ethel. "Narragansett Survival: A Study of Group Persistence Through Adopted Traits." Ethnohistory 6 (1959): 347-362. Describes some Narragansetts as being of partial African American ancestry, and notes that being perceived as Indian had more advantages in the community than being perceived as Black.

B14.

Bolton, H. Carrington. "Gombay, A Festal Rite of Bermudian Negroes." Journal of American Folklore 3 (1890): 222-226. Mentions that the "colored" community of Bermuda is comprised of the descendents of African slaves and American Indians from southern New England who were enslaved and sold in Bermuda following the

16 American Indian and African American Interactions Pequot War and King Philip's War. Claims the Indian admixture is visible in the physical characteristics of the population. B15.

Borg, Linda. "Trail-Blazing 19th Century Black Woman Honored." Providence Journal-Bulletin, September 23, 2002, p. Bl. Newspaper article describes life of Christiana Carteau Bannister, an African American-Native woman, born 1822 in Rhode Island, who was an abolitionist, a successful business woman, and fought for equal treatment for Black Civil War veterans.

B16.

Brasser, T. C. "The Coastal Algonkians: People of the First Frontier." In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie. New York: Random House, 1971. Includes information on some of the causes and results of the intermarriage of Blacks into east coast Indian communities.

B17.

Breslaw, Elaine G. "The Salem Witch From Barbados: In Search of Tituba's Roots." Essex Institute Historical Collections 128, no. 4 (1992): 217-238. Explores the possible ethnic identity of Tituba, the slave accused of witchcraft in Salem in 1692. Argues that Tituba was probably a South American Indian, perhaps Arawak or Carib, who had been captured, taken to Barbados, sold into slavery, and from there brought to Massachusetts. In records from the witch trials, Tituba is referred to as an Indian, but historians and writers since then have claimed she was Black.

B18.

Breslaw, Elaine G. Tituba, Reluctant Witch of Salem: Devilish Indians and Puritan Fantasies. New York: New York University Press, 1996. Despite the fact that Tituba was always identified in the witch trial records as Indian, writers since then have depicted her as an African. The author presents evidence that she was most likely an Arawak Indian from South America. Also discusses what kinds of interactions between Indians and Blacks would have been likely in Massachusetts during the late 1600's.

B19.

Brissot de Warville, Jacques-Pierre. New Travels in the United States of America. Bowling Green: Historical Publications Company, 1919. Originally published in 1791. Describes encountering Indians and Black slaves near the Oneida reservation.

The Northeast 17 B20.

Brown, Barbara W. and James M. Rose. Black Roots in Southeastern Connecticut, 1650-1900. Detroit: Gale Research, 1980. The authors have compiled all mentions of Blacks in southeastern Connecticut land deeds, account books, manumission documents, and birth, marriage, death, church, court, probate, pension and tax records. The introduction describes how offspring of intermarriage between Blacks and Indians can show up in records as "mulatto." Many of these records refer to people who were also described as Indian, Native, colored, or were members of the Mohegan, Niantic or Pequot communities. Indicates interactions between people considered Black and Indians, as well as record keeping tactics that labeled Indians as Black.

B21.

Brown, William J. The Life of William J. Brown, of Providence R.I. : With Personal Recollections of Incidents in Rhode Island. Freeport, N.Y. : Books for Libraries Press, 1971. Originally published in 1833. Brown descended from Narragansett Indians on his mother's side, and African Americans on his father's side. In the first chapter, Brown relays the story of how his Narragansett grandmother "purchased" his grandfather from the white people, and how she explained that it was common practice because Indian women thought they could improve their lives with Black husbands as opposed to Indian husbands.

B22.

Burgess, Kim. "The Pequots' Conversion to Christianity." In Spirit Wars: Native North American Religions in the Age of Nation Building, edited by Ronald Niezen. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. Briefly mentions monthly religious meetings held on the Eastern Pequot reservation in the 1930's that were also attended by neighboring Blacks.

B23.

Byron, Christopher. "Return of the Natives: Connecticut Land Grab." New York 26, no. 27 (1993) 16-18. Opinion piece looks at the land claims of the Paugussett Indians of Connecticut, who are described here as African American-Indian hybrids.

B24.

Campisi, Jack. The Mashpee Indians: Tribe on Trial. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1991.

18 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the Mashpee Indian land claims case of 1977. Includes some information on how intermarriage with African Americans caused the group to be perceived by authorities. B25.

Carrillo, Karen. "American Indians Confuse Conn.; They're Also Black, Brown, and White." New York Amsterdam News, November 6, 1993, p. 18. Discusses Connecticut residents' reactions to realizing the Golden Hill Paugussetts are of partial African American ancestry.

B26.

Carrillo, Karen. "Native Americans in Conn. On the War Path for Sovereignty." New York Amsterdam News, August 14, 1993, p. 5. The chief of the Golden Hill Paugussetts discusses his tribe's African American ancestry.

B27.

Chanler, David. "The Jackson Whites: An American Episode." Crisis 46, no. 5 (May 1939): 138. Looks at the Jackson Whites of the Ramapo Mountain region of northern New Jersey. Describes them as part Indian, part Black, and part white, speculates on the community's possible origins, and argues that multiracial groups like this one are a crucial element in American history.

B28.

Chappell, Kevin. "Black Indians Hit Jackpot in Casino Bonanza: Pequot Descendants Flock to Connecticut to Cash in on Gambling Craze." Ebony 50 (June 1, 1995): 48-50. Looks at the African American members of the Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation.

B29.

Chase, Henry E. "Notes on the Wampanoag Indians." In Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year 1883. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1885. An overview of the history of certain New England tribes. The author noted frequently that the descendents of various tribes were now mixed as opposed to "pure" Indian and purported that frequent intermarriage with Blacks was the reason.

B30.

Cohen, David Steven. The Ramapo Mountain People. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1974.

The Northeast 19 Presents the history and current situation of the population of the Ramapo Mountains of northern New Jersey, known to outsiders as the Jackson Whites. They had long been described as being descended from Tuscarora Indians, Hessian deserters from the Revolutionary War, escaped slaves, and British prostitutes. The author argues, based on genealogical research, that this is incorrect and the group is likely descendants of free Blacks and Dutch settlers. Many community members identify themselves as having Indian ancestry and do not want to be classified as Black. Relations with neighboring Blacks and Black community organizations are discussed. B31.

Cohen, David Steven. "The Origin of the 'Jackson Whites'; History and Legend Among the Ramapo Mountain People." Journal of American Folklore 85 (1972): 260-266. Looks at the folklore surrounding the origin of the Ramapo Mountain community known pejoratively as the "Jackson Whites." Disputes various myths using genealogical evidence found in vital, land, and church records.

B32.

Collins, Daniel. "The Racially-Mixed People of the Ramapos: Undoing the Jackson White Legends." American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 1276-1285. The term Jackson Whites refers to a multiracial (Indian, Black, and White) community living in the Ramapo Valley along the New YorkNew Jersey border. Folklore surrounding the group's history and characteristics has always been extremely negative. The author argues that while the group is far from being an organized body, the folklore serves to keep them isolated from neighboring communities.

B33.

Cottrol, Robert J. From African to Yankee: Narratives of Slavery and Freedom in Antebellum New England. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1998. Contains narrative by Blacks in New England mentioning interactions with Indians.

B34.

"A Description of Mashpee, in the County of Barnstable. September 16th, 1802." Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society 3, Second Series (1815): 1-12. Describes the Mashpee Indian community as having many "Negroes, mulattoes, and Germans."

20 American Indian and African American Interactions B35.

Diamond, Arthur. Paul Cuffe, Merchant and Abolitionist. New York and Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989. Life of Paul Cuffe, son of a former slave from Africa and a Wampanoag woman, who married a Pequot woman. For juvenile audiences.

B36.

Doughton, Thomas L. "Unseen Neighbors: Native Americans of Central Massachusetts, A People Who Had "Vanished."" In After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, edited by Colin G. Calloway. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College and University Press of New England, 1997. Looks at how intermarriage of Nipmuc Indians with Africans was reflected in legal records and how New England society made it possible to classify members of both groups, as well as people of dual heritage, in the general "colored" category, resulting in the perceived "disappearance" of Indians in central Massachusetts. Discusses how the ethnicity of individuals of these communities was recorded in the Earle Report of 1861, which documented the Indian presence in Massachusetts.

B37.

Fair, James. "A Slow Boat to Nowhere: The Multiracial Crews of the American Whaling Industry." Journal of Negro History 68 (1983): 158-170. Looks at the development of whaling in the eighteenth century. Describes the Black and Wampanoag men who worked on whaling crews beginning in the 1740's. Looks at life on ship and shore.

B38.

Feder, Kenneth L. A Village of Outcasts: Historical Archaeology and Documentary Research at the Lighthouse Site. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing, 1994. Uses archaeological data and historical records to study the Lighthouse, a rural Connecticut community made up of Indians, whites, and free Blacks that existed between 1740 and 1860.

B39.

Fisher, J. B. "Who Was Crispus Attucks?" American Historical Record 1(1872): 531-533. Argues that Crispus Attucks, martyr of the Boston Massacre and usually described as Black, was likely a Natick Indian on leave from a Nantucket whaling ship.

The Northeast 21 B40.

Foote, Thelma Wills. ""Some Hard Usage": The New York City Slave Revolt of 1712." New York Folklore 18(1992): 147-159. Describes the New York City slave revolt of 1712 in which Black slaves and three Spanish speaking indigenous men from South America took part.

B41.

Games, Alison. "The Sanctuary of Our Rebell Negroes': The Atlantic Context of Local Resistance on Providence Island, 1630-41." Slavery & Abolition 19, no. 3(1998): 1-21. Discusses the British colony of Providence Island, where some Pequots were sold following the Pequot War in 1637. The island also had a large population of African slaves and a slave revolt occurred in 1638.

B42.

Goffe, Leslie. "Red, Black, and Green: Proving Pequot Blood Has Led To a New Cultural Identity - and Financial Security." Emerge 10 (February 1999) 78-84. Members of the Mashantucket Pequot tribe discuss their combined African American-Pequot heritage.

B43.

Gonzalez, Ellice B. "Tri-racial Isolates in a Bi-Racial Society: Poospatuck Ambiguity and Conflict." In Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States, edited by Frank W. Porter III. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1986. Presents a history of the Poospatuck, also known as the Unkechaug, of Long Island. Shows how Blacks married into the group in the nineteenth century and how this was reflected in census records. In 1935, the Board of Education tried to stop funding the Poospatuck school, claiming they were not Indian. The group ultimately regained the funding. Since 1977, factionalism within the Poospatuck community has created problems, with each group accusing the other factions of being Black, not Indian.

B44.

Gray, Lloyd. "Heritage Circle Connects Africans, Native Americans." Bay State Banner, August 13, 1992, p7. Describes the Heritage Circle, a Boston organization that helps people of African American and Native American heritage explore their dual ancestry.

B45.

Green, Frances H. Memoirs of Elleanor Eldridge. Providence: B. T. Albro, 1838.

22 American Indian and African American Interactions Life of Elleanor Eldridge, descended from Black slaves and Narragansetts. B46.

Greene, Frances Ensign. "The Tobacco Road of the North." American Mercury 53 (July 1941): 15-22. Dated explanation of who the group referred to as the Jackson Whites are and how they came to be known as the Jackson Whites.

B47.

Guillaume, Bernice Forrest. "Character Names in Indian Trails by Olivia Ward Bush (Banks): Clues to Afro Assimilation into Long Island's Native Americans." Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 10, no. 2 (1986): 45-53. Discusses the unpublished play Indian Trails; or, Trail of the Montauk by Olivia Ward Bush (Banks), a writer of Black and Montauk heritage. Looks at the names used in the play and discusses to what extent the words could have been still in use in the Montauk community while Bush was growing up.

B48.

Guillaume, Bernice Forrest. "The Life and Work of Olivia Ward Bush (Banks), 1869-1944." Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, 1983. Olivia Ward Bush (Banks) was of Montauk Indian and African American ancestry, and was a poet, playwright, teacher and journalist.

B49.

Hall, Benjamin F. The Trial of William Freeman, for the Murder of John G. Van Nest. Auburn: Derby, Miller and Co., 1848. Discusses the life of William Freeman, son of an ex-slave father and a Stockbridge Indian mother. The writer attributes certain aspects of Freeman's personality to his Indian ancestry.

B50.

Hansen, Chadwick. "The Metamorphosis of Tituba or Why American Intellectuals Can't Tell an Indian Witch from a Negro." The New England Quarterly 47 (1974): 3-12. In documents from the time of the Salem witch trials, Tituba was always referred to as an Indian from Barbados. In later historical writings and literature, Tituba's identity gradually was changed to partially African and then totally African. Argues that Tituba was a Carib Indian, not Black.

B51.

Harrington, M. R. "Past and Present of the Shinnecock Indians." Southern Workman 32 (1901): 282-289.

The Northeast 23 Describes the Shinnecock community as having many members with partial African American ancestry. B52.

Harrington, M. R. "Shinnecock Notes." Journal of American Folklore 16 (1903): 37-39. Describes the Shinnecock reservation on Long Island as being populated by many people whose physical appearance indicated a combination of American Indian and Native American ancestry. Makes note of Indian characteristics, material culture, and use of the Shinnecock language.

B53.

Harris, Sheldon H. Paul Cuffe: Black America and the African Return. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972. Life of Paul Cuffe, Black-Wampanoag, who married a Massachusetts Indian woman. Focuses on his leadership efforts in the return to Africa movement.

B54.

Hart, William B. "Black "Go-Betweens" and the Mutability of "Race," Status, and Identity on New York's Pre-Revolutionary Frontier." In Contact Points: American Frontiers from the Mohawk Valley to the Mississippi, 1750-1830, edited by Andrew R. L. Cayton and Fredrika J. Teute. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1998. Presents the cases of several Blacks who either lived with or interacted often with American Indians in New York State. A Black man known as Sun Fish lived among the Seneca. Eve Pickard, described in colonial records as mulatto, attempted to steal land from the Mohawk. A runaway slave named Sam Tony lived among the Indians at Otsiningo. Also discusses a Cayuga leader referred to in the 1750's as "The Negro."

B55.

Hauptman, Laurence M. Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War. New York: The Free Press, 1995. Contains a chapter on Austin George, a Mashantucket Pequot who served in the Thirty-First United States Colored Infantry of the Army of the Potomac alongside African Americans. Includes a discussion of the interaction of Blacks and Indians in southern New England.

B56.

Hauptman, Laurence M. "The Oneida Nation: A Composite Portrait, 1784-1816." In The Oneida Indian Journey: From New York to Wisconsin, 1784-1860, edited by Laurence M. Hauptman and L. Gordon McLester III. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999.

24 American Indian and African American Interactions Mentions a Mohawk African named Lewis Cook, also known as Atayataghronghta, who was adopted by a prominent Oneida man, Skenandoah. B57.

Hawk, William. "The Revitalization of the Matinnecock Indian Tribe of New York." Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1984. Explores the history and relatively recent revitalization of the Matinnecock tribe of the northwest shore of Long Island. Many of the Matinnecock intermarried with Blacks in the 1700's and gradually came to be perceived by white authorities as Blacks, not Indians. The tribe began to reorganize and reassert itself in the 1950's. Author emphasizes cultural identity, as opposed to racial identity.

B58.

Herndon, Ruth Wallis and Ella Wilcox Sekatau. "The Right to a Name: The Narragansett People and Rhode Island Officials in the Revolutionary Era." Ethnohistory 44 (1997): 433-462. Argues that archival records show that Narragansett Indians were reclassified racially first as "mustee" and then as "Negro" in order to erode their rights as Indians. Mentions that some Narragansetts came to resent Blacks to the point that babies fathered by non-Indians were abandoned to the elements because they were considered imperfect.

B59.

Herrick, E. P. "The Schaghticokes of Connecticut." The Southern Workman 38, no. 7 (1909): 385-390. Describes the Schaghticoke as having "intermarried with the blacks."

B60.

Hicks, George L. and David I. Kertzer. "Making a Middle Way: Problems of Monhegan Identity." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 28 (1972): 1-24. Looks at racial identity issues within a southern New England group referred to by the pseudonym "Monhegan." Based on historical details mentioned, the group discussed is probably the Narragansetts. Describes how Blacks married into the group in the 1800's and explains how the group is now often perceived and classified as Black. Discusses how group members emphasize their Indian identity and how relations within the tribe are modified by the racial heritage of its members.

B61.

Jea, John. The Life, History, and Unparalleled Sufferings of John Jea, the African Preacher. Printed for the Author. No Date. Jea married an Indian woman in New York in the late 1700's.

The Northeast 25 B62.

Jones, Rhett S. "Miscegenation and Acculturation in the Narragansett Country of Rhode Island, 1710-1790." Trotter Institute Review 3 (1989): 8-16. Includes information on interactions and intermarriage between Narragansett Indians and Blacks.

B63.

Knight, Mabel Frances. "Wampanoag Indian Tales." Journal of American Folklore 28 (1925): 134-137. Includes a tale recorded from a Gay Head Wampanoag of Martha's Vineyard, entitled "The Mother of the Kinky-Haired Indians." The tale is about an Indian woman who met a Black man who caused her hair to turn kinky. The chief foresaw that the tribe would intermarry with these other people and cast her out.

B64.

Lacy, Sam, with Moses J. Newson. Fighting for Fairness: The Life Story of Hall of Fame Sportswriter Sam Lacy. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press/Tidewater Publications, 1998. Lacy, known as a pioneering African American sportswriter who fought to integrate professional sports, stated that his mother was Shinnecock.

B65.

Larkin, John. "How They Endured." Old Sturbridge Visitor 42, no. 2 (2002): 4-6. Discusses an exhibit at Old Sturbridge Village called "The Enduring People," dealing with the Native groups of New England, specifically Worcester County, Massachusetts, home of the Nipmuc. Explains that the survival of Native groups in New England is inextricably tied to African Americans. Discusses intermarriage between members of the two groups and how this was reflected in census records. Describes what the census records for 1790-1850 can show about these people, including their geographic mobility, land ownership, occupations, and characteristics of family life.

B66.

Laudin, Harvey Golden. "The Shinnecock Powwow: A Study of Culture Change." Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1973. Includes information on the Black heritage of the Shinnecock of Long Island, and how that is viewed both within the tribe and by outsiders. Includes statements by tribal members on how they reconcile their multicultural heritage, which results in their being perceived as Black in some contexts and Indian in others.

26 American Indian and African American Interactions B67.

Lindquist, G. E. E. "The Gay Head and Mashpee Indians of Massachusetts." The Southern Workman 58, no. 6 (1929): 252-3. Describes the Gay Head and Mashpee Wampanoag communities as being a mixture of Indian, Black, and Portuguese.

B68.

Lockman, Paul T., Jr., and William Hawk. "Black Native Americans on the East Coast: The Case of the Algonkian Remnants of Long Island." Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 23 (May 1995): 11-14. Discusses the historical interactions among Native Americans and African Americans, and how that interaction impacted Long Island Indians.

B69.

Mandell, Daniel. "The Saga of Sara Muckamugg: Indian and African American Intermarriage in Colonial New England." In Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, edited by Martha Hodes. New York: New York University Press, 1999. Takes an in-depth look at the known information surrounding the life of Sara Muckamugg, a Hassanamisco woman who married two Black men during her lifetime. Marriage between Native women and Black men was relatively common in Southern New England because so many Native men had died during King George's War and the Seven Years War, resulting in a Native population imbalance of about sixty percent more women than men. There were also more Black men in New England than Black women, and it is argued here that Black men and Native women sought each other out as marriage partners out of necessity. Discusses what this meant to Native communities in terms of population characteristics and property rights.

B70.

Mandell, Daniel R. "Shifting Boundaries of Race and Ethnicity: IndianBlack Intermarriage in Southern New England, 1760-1880." Journal of American History 85 (1998): 466-501. Describes the effects of Blacks intermarrying with Native people in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Argues that while this was a survival strategy for Native individuals and communities, it led to new problems by transforming the racial, ethnic and cultural aspects of these groups. Uses archival records to explore the population dynamics of these groups. Specifically looks at political conflicts within the Narragansett and Mohegan tribes where inheritance of land or political authority was protested because of a person's African ancestry. Argues that this reaction was a likely response to all outsiders who could threaten group cohesion, not an adoption of white racism,

The Northeast 27 since, in general, children of mixed marriages were readily accepted in Native communities. B71.

Mann, Barbara Alice. Iroquoian Women: The Gantowisas. New York: Peter Lang, 2000. Mentions Iroquois treatment and acceptance of African Americans.

B72.

McMullen, Ann. "Blood and Culture: Negotiating Race in Twentieth Century Native New England." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discusses twentieth century identity issues as they relate to race, culture, and "blood" among American Indians in southeastern New England. Explores how tribes and individuals present their ancestry, whether heavily European or African American, as being Indian. McMullen argues that this is validated by cultural demonstrations, history, and genealogy rather than by phenotype, or appearance.

B73.

McMullen, Ann. "Culture By Design: Native Identity, Historiography, and the Reclamation of Tradition in Twentieth Century Southern New England." Ph.D diss., Brown University, 1996. Mentions issues Narragansetts.

B74.

of racial

identity

among

the

Pequots

and

McNamara, Eileen. "Black Indians Learn to Embrace Two Worlds." The Day, November 11, 2001. Discusses the activism of Carolyn Brown, who is of African American and Cherokee background, who promotes awareness of Black-Indian connections. Discusses Black Indians in southern New England among the Mashantucket Pequots, Eastern Pequots, and Golden Hill Paugussetts.

B75.

McNamara, Eileen. "Race Matters." New London Day, June 24, 2002. Members of the Eastern Pequots discuss issues of race, including a community rift that some attribute to the fact that many members of one group are considered black while members of the other are considered white.

B76.

Miller, Richard. "Two Vineyard "Men of Color" Who Fought in the Civil War." Dukes County Intelligencer 36, no. 1 (1994): 3-23.

28 American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at two Martha's Vineyard men who served in the 5th Massachusetts Cavalry (Colored). One man was an Indian from New York and the other was married to a Wampanoag woman and may have been of partial African American ancestry. B77.

Morice, John H. and Frank G. Speck. "A Letter by John H. Morice and a Reply by Frank G. Speck: Concerning "An Ethnological Introduction to the Long Island Indians."" Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 7 (1946): 59-62. Anthropologist Frank Speck, who argues that the tribes of Long Island are far from extinct, answers a letter claiming that Indians on Long Island are extinct because of their intermarriage with the "colored race".

B78.

Moss, Richard Shannon. "Slavery on Long Island: Its Rise and Decline During the Seventeenth Through Nineteenth Centuries." Ph.D. diss., St. John's University, 1985. Mentions interaction between Africans and Indians on Long Island resulting from the simultaneous enslavement of the two populations.

B79.

Mwalim. A Mixed Medicine Bag: 7 Original Folk-tales From a BlackWampanoag Culture. Mashpee, MA: Talking Drum Press, 1998. Contains seven Wampanoag folktales. Author is a Wampanoag-Black musician and performance artist.

B80.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Golden Hill Paugussett Tribe Resolution. Contains the text of a resolution issued by the Connecticut State Conference of NAACP Branches that discusses the history of the tribe, how the tribe came to be viewed as a Black tribe, and supports the tribe in their quest for federal recognition. http://www.paugusselts.coin/naacp.htni

B81.

Nell, William Cooper. The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, With Sketches of Several Distinguished Colored Persons: To Which is Added a Brief Survey of the Condition and Prospects of Colored Americans. Boston: Robert F. Wallcut, 1855. Mentions a Black soldier marrying a Punkapog Indian woman, contains biographical information on Black-Wampanoag Paul Cuffe, and describes Black soldiers who married into the Mashpee tribe.

The Northeast 29 B82.

Novak, Viveca, and Mark Thompson. "The Lost Tribe?" Time 155, no. 9 (March 6, 2000): 66-68. Discusses recent efforts by the Golden Hill Paugussetts of Connecticut to obtain tribal federal recognition. Much of the focus is on historical African and Native American interaction and the debate over whether tribal members are really descended from Native Americans.

B83.

O'Brien, Jean M. ""Divorced" From the Land: Resistance and Survival of Indian Women in Eighteenth Century New England." In After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, edited by Colin G. Calloway. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College and University Press of New England, 1997. Discusses the issues faced by Indian women in New England that sometimes led to intermarriage with free Blacks.

B84.

O'Connell, Barry. ""Once More Let Us Consider": William Apess in the Writing of New England Native American History." In After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, edited by Colin G. Calloway. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College and University Press of New England, 1997. Discusses Pequot minister and author William Apess, who is thought to have been part African American.

B85.

Peters, Paula. "Worlds Rejoined." Cape Cod Times, July 13, 2002. Multi-story report on the June 2002 meeting between members of the Mashpee, Wampanoag, and Pequot tribes and a community in Bermuda who believe they are descended from members of the New England tribes who were sold into slavery following the Pequot War and King Phillip's War. The Bermuda group intermarried with African slaves and retained oral history of their New England past.

B86.

Philbrick, Nathaniel. Abrams's Eyes: The Native American Legacy of Nantucket Island. Nantucket: Mill Hill Press, 1998. Includes information on the American Indians of Nantucket intermarrying with African Americans and Cape Verdeans, which began to happen more frequently in the late 1700's. Discusses Crispus Attucks, who may have been on shore leave from a Nantucket whaler at the time of his death in the Boston Massacre, and Absalom Boston, who led efforts to desegregate the Nantucket schools in the 1840's. Includes portraits of some of Nantucket's prominent Black-Native citizens.

30 American Indian and African American Interactions B87.

Plane, Ann Marie. Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000. Explores aspects of Black-Indian intermarriage in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Discusses characteristics of marriage reflected in legal records. Includes information on Sara Muckamugg, a Nipmuc woman from Hassanamisco who married two African Americans during her lifetime.

B88.

Plane, Ann Marie and Gregory Button. " The Massachusetts Indian Enfranchisement Act: Ethnic Contest in Historical Context, 18491869." In After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, edited by Colin G. Calloway. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College and University Press of New England, 1997. Looks at the white perceptions of Indians in Massachusetts at the time that Massachusetts began to enroll Indians for the purpose of allotting their lands to individuals. Discusses how African Americans who intermarried into the Mashpee Tribe influenced rulings on the tribe. Also mentions interactions between Blacks and Indians that were recorded in legal testimony from the time.

B89.

Prince, J. Dyneley. "Last Living Echoes of the Natick." American Anthropologist 9 (1907): 493-498. Describes ethnographic research done in 1907 by Frank Speck at Mashpee, Massachusetts, where he recorded a vocabulary list of the Natick language. One of the Mashpee informants and speakers of Natick, John Booker, is described as "an old man of Negro blood."

B90.

Putney, Martha S. "Pardon Cook: Whaling Master." Journal of the Afro-American Historical Society 4 (1983): 47-54. Discusses the whaling career of Pardon Cook, an African American who married Alice Cuffe, daughter of Paul Cuffe, AfricanWampanoag. Cook's sister Polly had earlier married Cuffe's son, Paul Cuffe, Jr.

B91.

Randolph, Peter. From Slave Cabin to the Pulpit. The Autobiography of Rev. Peter Randolph: The Southern Question Illustrated and Sketches of Slave Life. Boston: James H. Earle, 1893. African American Baptist minister describes visiting communities at Mashpee and Nantucket in the mid-1850's.

Indian

The Northeast 31 B92.

Rantoul, Robert. "Negro Slavery in Massachusetts. Portions of a Paper Read Before the Beverly Lyceum, April, 1833." Historical Collections of the Essex Institute 24, no. 4-5-6 (1887): 81-108. Briefly mentions that Blacks had "incorporated" with Indians on Cape Cod and Martha's Vineyard.

B93.

Red Thunder Cloud. "A Study of the Long Island Indian Problem." Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Association 5 (1944): 1719. Discusses how writers and historians have overemphasized the African ancestry of the tribes of Long Island. Argues that the Montauk, Shinnecock, Matinecock, and Poospatuck are still very traditional.

B94.

Rogers, Robert and John Bradstreet. Diary of the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac: Also a Narrative of the Principle Events of the Siege by Major Robert Rogers, a Plan for Conducting Indian Affairs by Colonel Bradstreet, and other Authentick Documents Never Before Printed. Albany: J. Munsell, 1860. Mentions fears that whites had in the mid-1700's that Indians near Albany were planning a revolt, but that Blacks were thought to be in no danger.

B95.

Rosenthal, Bernard. "Tituba's Story." New England Quarterly 71 (1998): 190-203. Reviews the historical scholarship that debates the ethnic identity of Tituba, of the Salem witch trials. Documents from the time of the trials always referred to her as Indian, but many scholars and writers thought she may have been an African by way of Barbados.

B96.

Russell, Donna Valley. "The Abrahams of Natick and Grafton, Massachusetts." Journal of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society 5 (1984): 47-52. Genealogical study of a Black and Indian family of Massachusetts.

B97.

Sharkey-McCarthy, Patricia Ann. "Educating through Celebrations: An Examination of Tradition-as-Process within the Narragansett Indian Tribe's August Meeting." Ph.D. diss., University of Connecticut, 1995. Contains information on the intermarriage of Narragansetts with Blacks, how this is viewed within the tribe and by outsiders and how this was reflected in census records.

32 American Indian and African American Interactions B98.

Sherwood, Henry Noble. "Paul Cuffe." Journal of Negro History 8 (1923): 150-232. Life history of Paul Cuffe, son of an African-born former slave and a Wampanoag Indian mother. Cuffe was a sea captain and active in the return to Africa movement.

B99.

"Shinnecock Pow-wow. Mixed Offspring of Long Island Indians Cling to Heritage, Fight for Reservation." Ebony 14, no. 1 (November 1958): 156-162. Describes Shinnecock Indians who are also African American. Many photos.

B100.

Speck, Frank G. "The Jackson-Whites." Southern Workman 40, no. 2 (1911): 104-107. A brief discussion of the community in the Ramapo Mountains (New York/ New Jersey area) known as the Jackson Whites. Describes them as being a mix of Indian, Black, and white. Author argues the Indians were Delaware and Tuscarora joined by runaway Black slaves and "vagabond" whites. Describes material culture.

B101.

Speck, Frank G. "A Note on the Hassanamisco Band of Nipmuc." Massachusetts Archaeological Society Bulletin 4 (1943): 49-56. Looks at the Hassanamisco Nipmuc of central Massachusetts, who are described as having intermarried with Blacks around the early 1800's. Looks at how writers and historians have treated this aspect of Nipmuc history.

B102.

Speck, Frank G. "Penobscot Tales and Religious Beliefs." Journal of American Folklore 48 (1935): 1-107. Includes a very brief Penobscot folktale entitled "Why the Negro is Black."

B103.

Speck, Frank G. "Pequot Indian Remnants." Southern Workman 46, no. 2 (1917): 100-103. Describes a 1903 visit to the Mashantucket Pequot reservation in Connecticut, sees all the residents as "more or less crossed in blood with the Negro."

The Northeast 33 B104.

Speck, Frank G. "Reflections Upon the Past and Present of the Massachusetts Indians." Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 4 (1943): 33-38. Discusses how the treatment of Massachusetts Indians by writers and historians contributed to the idea that they were extinct or that their Indian ancestry had been lost due to intermarriage with African Americans.

B105.

Storms, J. C. The Origin of the Jackson-Whites of the Ramapo Mountains. Park Ridge, NJ: J.C. Storms, 1945. Repeats local folklore that the community known as the Jackson Whites originated from Tuscarora Indians, Hessian soldiers, prostituted British women, and free Blacks.

B106.

Strong, John A. The Montaukett Indians of Eastern Long Island. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2001. Discusses how members of the Montauk community intermarried with African Americans and how that impacted the federal government's recognition of the tribe and other legal decisions regarding land tenure in the early twentieth century. Also discusses tribal regulations of the mid-1750's that attempted to bar Montauks with African heritage from living at Montauk, and that barred from the tribe Montauk women who married African men.

B107.

Strong, John A. "We Are Still Here": The Algonquian Peoples of Long Island Today. Interlaken, NY: Empire State Books, 1998. Includes information on intermarriage between African Americans and Mattinecocks, Shinnecocks, Montauks, and Unckechaugs (Poospatucks). Includes many photos, both historical and recent.

B108.

Strong, John A. "Who Says the Montauk Tribe is Extinct? Judge Abel Blackmar's Decision in Wyandank V. Benson." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16 (1992): 1-22. Also in Long Island Historical Journal 10 (1997): 39-55. States that the Montauk began intermarrying with African Americans in the mid-eighteenth century. Looks at a 1909 court case in which it was ruled that the Montauks were no longer an Indian tribe.

B109.

Sweet, John Wood. "Bodies Politic: Colonialism, Race and the Emergence of the American North. Rhode Island, 1730-1830." Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1995.

34 American Indian and African American Interactions Includes information on Black intermarriage among the Narragansetts and other southeastern New England groups, beginning around the mid-1700's, and describes other social interactions between the two groups. Bl 10.

"The Jackson Whites." EugenicalNews 16 (1931): 218. Another attempt to describe the origins of the community known as the Jackson Whites as possibly being descended from Tuscarora Indians traveling from North Carolina to New York, free Blacks, and Hessian soldiers.

Bill.

Thomas, Lamont D. Rise to Be a People: A Biography of Paul Cuffe. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986. Paul Cuffe, born 1759 to an African ex-slave father and a Wampanoag mother, became a wealthy merchant and a leader in the return to Africa movement. Cuffe married another Indian, possibly a Pequot. Describes life for Indian-Blacks in southeastern New England in the eighteenth century.

Bl 12.

Tilmon, Levin. A Brief Miscellaneous Narrative of the More Early Part of the Life ofL. Tilmon, Pastor of a Colored Methodist Congregational Church in the City of New York. Jersey City: W.W. & L. A. Pratt, 1853. African American preacher describes visits in the 1840's to the Shinnecock community on Long Island and the Narragansetts in Rhode Island.

Bl 13.

Tucker, Veta Smith. "Purloined Identity: The Racial Metamorphosis of Tituba of Salem Village." Journal of Black Studies 30 (2000): 624-634. Looks at historical interpretations of the ethnicity of Tituba.

Bl 14.

Welch, Moses C. The Gospel To Be Preached To All Men, Illustrated in a Sermon, Delivered in Windham, at the Execution of Samuel Freeman, a Mulatto, November 6, A.D. 1805, For the Murder of Hannah Simons, Together With an Appendix, containing Memoirs of His Life, A Sketch of His Trial, His Appearance After Condemnation, Confessions, &c. Windham, CT: Printed by John Byrne, 1805. Sermon recounts the event in which Freeman, described as a mulatto, killed Simons, an Indian woman with whom he cohabited.

The Northeast 35 B115.

Welch, Vicki S. "The Keys to the Shackles." Connecticut History 40, no. 2 (2001): 225-246. Discusses research on African American genealogy and Native American genealogy in Connecticut. Presents a genealogical case study of the Henry family, of African American and Pequot/Niantic origins. Discusses how Niantic and Brothertown Indians perceived intermarriage with Blacks.

B116.

Weller, George. "The Jackson Whites." The New Yorker 14, no. 31 (September 17, 1938): 29-32, 36, 38-39. The New Yorker's perspective on the Jackson Whites. Discusses folklore of their origin and describes them as white, Black, and probably Tuscarora. Discusses their interactions with neighboring Blacks.

B117.

Westez, Carlos A. H. (Red Thunder Cloud) "An Ethnological Introduction to the Long Island Indians." Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 6 (1945): 39-42. An overview of the history and current status of the Matinnecock, Poospatuck, Shinnecock, and Montauk, all of whom are described as having some African ancestry.

Bl 18.

Wiggins, Rosalind Cobb. Captain Paul Cuffe's Logs and Letters, 18081817: A Black Quaker's "Voice from within the Veil." Washington: Howard University Press, 1996. Publishes the correspondence and ships' logs of Paul Cuffe, BlackWampanoag.

B119.

Woodson, C. G. "The Relations of Negroes and Indians in Massachusetts." Journal of Negro History 5 (1920): 44-57. Argues that there was extensive intermarriage between Blacks and American Indians in Massachusetts after the mid-1600's. Looks at census records, laws, and the Earle report of 1861. Explores how intermarriage with Blacks or whites led Indians to be reclassified as one or the other. Includes a list of individuals identified as Black receiving a pension from the state for the sale of Indian lands.

B120.

Ziner, Karen Lee. "Women in R.I. History Making a Difference: Business Woman Stood Up to Injustice." Providence-Journal Bulletin, March 7, 1994, p. 2A.

36 American Indian and African American Interactions Newspaper article tells the story of Elleanor Eldridge, African American-Narragansett entrepreneur, born in Rhode Island in 1785.

The Mid-Atlantic Cl.

Babcock, William. "The Nanticoke Indians of Indian River, Delaware." American Anthropologist 1 (1899): 277-282. Describes two groups in eastern Delaware, the so-called Moors of Kent County and the Nanticokes of Indian River. Describes a tendency towards segregating themselves from Blacks.

C2.

Blakey, M. L. "Social Policy, Economics, and Demographic Change in Nanticoke-Moor Ethnohistory." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75 (1988): 493-502. Looks at biocultural differentiation in three different Nanticoke Moor communities in central and southern Delaware. Author used data from cemetery headstones, birth and death records, genealogical data and ethnographic fieldwork to compare how the three groups were defined legally and mentions the level of interaction each group had with Blacks. The Nanticoke had intermarried with both whites and Blacks before most of the tribe moved to Canada to join the Iroquois in 1792.

C3.

Brinton, D. G. "On Certain Supposed Nanticoke Words Shown to Be African." American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 9 (1887): 350354. Discusses a vocabulary list recorded among the Nanticoke by Moravian missionary Rev. J. C. Pyrlaeus between 1741 and 1751. Argues that these words are not American Indian but are similar to Mandingo. Surmises that there were Africans or Black Nanticokes from whom the vocabulary was obtained.

C4.

Fournier, Merlinda. "The Tidewater People." World & I 1 (December 1986): 511-525.

38 American Indian and African American Interactions Magazine article discusses history of the Nanticoke of Delaware. Mentions historical attempts to classify community members as Black, not Indian. C5.

Gilbert, Benjamin. A Narrative of the Captivity and Sufferings of Benjamin Gilbert and his Family: Who were Surprised by the Indians and Taken From Their Farms on the Frontiers of Pennsylvania in the Spring, 1780. Philadelphia: Joseph Crukshank, 1784. Mentions a French officer using a Black man as an interpreter when negotiating with Indians in Pennsylvania.

C6.

Gilbert, William H., Jr. "Memorandum Concerning the Characteristics of the Larger Mixed-Blood Racial Islands of the Eastern United States." Social Forces 24 (1946): 438-447. Presents an overview of the mixed communities known as the Brass Ankles, Cajans and Creoles of Alabama, Lumbee (Croatan), Guineas of West Virginia, Issues of Virginia, Jackson Whites, Melungeons, Moors and Nanticokes, Red Bones of Louisiana, and Wesorts of Maryland. Looks at phenotype, military draft status (whether they serve with Blacks or Whites), history, and "cultural peculiarities" which describe possible Indian cultural characteristics.

C7.

Gilbert, William H., Jr. "The Wesorts of Southern Maryland: An Outcasted Group." Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 35 (1945): 237-246. Looks at a community in southern Maryland said to be white, Indian, and Black. Suggests the origin of the term Wesort may be Algonquin. Presents varying theories about the origins of the group and looks at their interactions with neighboring whites and Blacks. Describes how the group's ethnicity has been recorded in local and census records, and states that although there is little Indian American culture left among them, their celebration of the Feast of the Virgin Mary (which local white Catholics do not celebrate) may be a survival of the Indian Green Corn Festival.

C8.

Harte, Thomas J. "Social Origins of the Brandywine Population." Phylon 24 (1963): 369-378. Attempts to track the genealogy of the Brandywine community of southeastern Maryland, said to be Black, white, and Indian.

The Mid-Atlantic 39 C9.

Porter, Frank W. "Anthropologists at Work: A Case Study of the Nanticoke Indian Community." American Indian Quarterly 4, no. 1 (1978): 1-18. Discusses the anthropological research that has been done on the Nanticoke of Delaware, resulting publications, and repercussions on the community. Describes individuals of Nanticoke descent as sometimes being classified as Black by the Army, but as Indian by the state of Delaware. Nanticokes refused to attend Black schools, but were not allowed to attend white ones.

C10.

Porter, Frank W., III. "Strategies for Survival: The Nanticoke Indians in a Hostile World." Ethnohistory 26, no. 4 (1979): 325-345. Reprinted as "The Nanticoke Indians in a Hostile World," in Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States, edited by Frank W. Porter III. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1986. Presents an overview of the issues faced by tribes in the U.S. who are not federally recognized. Discusses the use of the term "tri-racial isolate" to refer to many of these groups by academics, which resulted in a lack of emphasis on the preferred Indian identity of these groups.

Cl 1.

Roberts, James. The Narrative of James Roberts, a Soldier Under Gen. Washington in the Revolutionary War, and Under Gen. Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans, in the War of 1812: "a Battle Which Cost Me a Limb, Some Blood, and Almost My Life. " The Author: Chicago, 1858. African American soldier born in slavery in 1753 described helping his owner kill many Indians in the Revolutionary War, something he eventually came to regret.

C12.

Smith, Anna Bustill. "The Bustill Family." Journal of Negro History 10 (1925): 683-644. Study of the Bustill family, traced back to a marriage between a free Black man and a Delaware Indian woman.

C13.

Speck, Frank. "The Nanticoke Community of Delaware." Contributions from the Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation 2, no. 4 (1915): 1-43. Includes a community efforts not community

discussion of the physical attributes of the Nanticoke that indicate possible African heritage. Discusses their to be classified as Black. Includes photographs of many members.

40 American Indian and African American Interactions C14.

Speck, Frank. "The Nanticokes of Delaware." The Southern Workman 44, no. 7 (1915): 391-396. Describes the Nanticoke of Delaware and some of their interactions with Blacks, and mentions a dispute having to do with integration of schools and churches that split the Nanticoke into two factions.

C15.

Taylor, Helen Louise. "Items from New Castle, Delaware." Journal of American Folklore 51 (1938): 92-94. Briefly mentions the Moors of Delaware and noted that they intermarried with the Nanticoke, but would not associate with Blacks. Presents folklore about the origins of the group.

C16.

Troy, William B., Rev. Hair-Breadth Escapes from Slavery to Freedom. Manchester: W. Bremner, 1861. Mentions a fugitive slave who lived among Indians in Maryland for three years.

C17.

Weslager, C.A. Delaware's Forgotten Folk: The Story of the Moors & Nanticokes. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1943. Study of the Moors and Nanticokes of Delaware. Looks at early interaction between African slaves and indigenous people of Delaware that led to the creation of mixed race communities. Explores contemporary issues of race relations and efforts by authorities to racially classify group members as Blacks not Indians. Describes evidence of American Indian cultural continuity among these communities, including medicinal plant use, folklore, hunting and fishing techniques, and material culture.

C18.

Weslager, C.A. Nanticoke Indians Past and Present. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1983. Includes information on various Nanticoke efforts to prevent themselves from being legally classified as "Negroes" for purposes of taxation, school segregation, or service in the armed forces.

The Upper South Dl.

Adams, David Wallace. "Education in Hues: Red and Black at Hampton Institute, 1878-1893." South Atlantic Quarterly 76 (1977): 159-176. Looks at the interaction of Black and Indian students during the period that Samuel C. Armstrong was Superintendent of Hampton Institute. Argues that although students attended classes together, social interaction was not encouraged. While it was feared by Hampton benefactors that contact with Blacks could have a negative influence on the Indian students, it was also believed that Blacks, who were familiar with hard labor and the English language, could serve as models for good American behavior for the Indians. Includes information on Booker T. Washington's attitudes towards the Indian students while he was at Hampton.

D2.

Anthony, Ronald W. "Tangible Interaction: Evidence From Stobo Plantation." In Another's Country: Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on Cultural Interactions in the Southern Colonies, edited by J. W. Joseph and Martha Zierden. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002. Archaeological study of colonoware pottery made and used by African Americans and Native Americans in the south. Presents evidence from investigations to show that Native Americans interacted extensively with plantation Blacks.

D3.

Aptheker, Herbert. American Negro Slave Revolts. New York: International Publishers, 1943. Describes the roles of American Indians in Black slave revolts, both as co-conspirators of Blacks and as allies of whites.

D4.

Ball, Bonnie. "Mystery Men of the Mountains." Negro Digest 3 (1945): 39-41.

42 American Indian and African American Interactions Magazine article speculates on the possible white, Indian, Black or Portuguese origins of the Melungeons of the south. D5.

Barkley, Key L. "Inter- and Intra-Group Levels of Esteem Among Three Ethnic Groups." Journal of Negro Education 54 (1995): 56-70. Measures the attitudes of African American, Indian, and white high school seniors in Robeson County, North Carolina, toward one another. The subjects came from three different segregated schools. Although the article does not mention a specific tribe, Robeson County is the home of the Lumbee Indians. Data was collected in the early 1960's.

D6.

Barton, Lew. The Most Ironic Story in American History: An Authoritative, Documented Account of the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina. Pembroke, NC: Lew Barton, 1967. History of the Lumbee, by a Lumbee. Includes a chapter on the Ku Klux Klan's unsuccessful attempt at teaching the Lumbee a lesson about "race-mixing." Author states that the segregation of whites, Blacks, and Indians in North Carolina already occurs on a completely voluntary basis, and the stated goals of the Klan are already in effect.

D7.

Beale, Calvin L. "American Triracial Isolates: Their Status and Pertinence to Genetic Research." Eugenics Quarterly 4, no. 4 (1957): 187-196. Presents an overview of the racial classification of the triracial groups east of the Mississippi in the 1950 census. Defines triracials as having intermingled Black, white, and Indian ancestry. States that as of 1950 there were at least 77,000 triracial individuals in seventeen states in communities with populations ranging in size from 50 to 20,000. Many of the groups described here as triracial identified themselves as Indian, including the Mattaponi and Chickahominy of Virginia, Rappahanock of New Jersey, Nanticoke of Delaware, Houma of Louisiana and Lumbee of North Carolina.

D8.

Beale, Calvin L. "Census Problems of Racial Enumeration." In Race: Individual And Collective Behavior, edited by Edgar T. Thompson and Everett C. Hughes. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1958. Looks at the problems inherent in the census' classification by race, especially among the triracial groups of the Southeast. The census worker, not the individual, decided a person's race. Cites specific cases in the 1930 census where groups were self-identified as Indian but neighboring whites insisted they be classified as Black, or the members

The Upper South 43 of the same family were classified in different races based on appearance only. D9.

Beale, Calvin. "An Overview of the Phenomenon of Mixed Racial Isolates in the United States." American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 704710. Defines tri-racial isolates as "real or alleged white-Indian-Negro mixtures" that are not currently affiliated with tribal group or with a traceable historical continuity to a particular tribal group. Looks at stereotypes of these groups held by outsiders and anthropologists. Provides many historical instances of multiracial communities, showing that racially ambiguous communities have always appeared in the historical record of the United States.

D10.

Belue, Ted Franklin. "Did Daniel Boone Kill Pompey, the Black Shawnee, at the 1778 Siege of Boonesborough?" Filson Club Historical Quarterly 67 (1993): 5-22. Discusses Pompey, a Black living with the Shawnee who was killed at the siege of Boonesborough on the Kentucky frontier in 1778. Very little is known about how he came to live among the Shawnee. He was bilingual and served as an interpreter between the Shawnee and whites.

Dll.

Bennett, Milledge Franklyn. "Black Other: The Identities of Racially Mixed Native Americans in Northeastern Georgia." Ph.D. diss., University of California Berkeley, 1999. Argues that mixing of the races in America occurred far more often than historians admit because multiracial identity presents a conceptual difficulty for many people. The author explores in particular people of tri-racial identity (Black, Indian, and white) in Augusta, Georgia. Prefers the term "tri-racial" to the older "tri-racial isolate," arguing that these people are far from isolated and are instead very present. Explores survival strategies of the tri-racials, analyzes the lack of recognition of tri-racials, places them in the present by including case studies and oral histories of individual members of Augusta's tri-racial community and emphasizes the importance of personal voice. Presents a history of Black-Indian interactions from colonial days to today.

D12.

Bentley, Martha M. "The Slaveholding Catawbas." South Carolina Historical Magazine 92, no. 2 (1991): 85-98. Examines how the Catawba's attitudes towards African slavery changed. Catawbas were paid for catching Black runaway slaves for whites, and by the late 1800's wealthier members of the tribe were

44 American Indian and African American Interactions adopting planting systems that encouraged the use of Blacks as slaves. Argues that Black slavery was adopted by the Catawbas in an attempt to survive in white society. D13.

Berry, Brewton. Almost White. New York: MacMillan, 1963. The author spent twenty-five years investigating the tri-racial or mestizo populations of the east and southeast. These groups are not defined as white, Black, mulatto, or Indian, but are probably mixtures of all of these. Using ethnographic interviews, the author shows how members of these groups perceive themselves and are perceived by neighboring whites and Blacks. Presents issues of triracial classification and illustrated how the politics of racial categorization are enacted in daily interaction. States that these groups are undoubtedly descendants of the Indian tribes of these regions that most people assume have vanished. Looks at segregation in terms of social interactions, education, military service, and voting.

D14.

Berry, Brewton. "America's Mestizos." In The Blending of Races: Marginality and Identity in World Perspective, edited by Noel P. Gist and Anthony Gary Dworkin. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1972. Looks at the mestizo or triracial groups of the southeast and MidAtlantic States, their origins, and their race relations with other groups.

D15.

Berry, Brewton. "The Mestizos of South Carolina." American Journal of Sociology 51 (1945): 34-41. Looks at communities in South Carolina described as mestizos of white, Black, and Indian ancestry. Includes the Lumbee. Argues that these groups are probably descended from the original South Carolina coastal Indian groups, free Blacks, and whites. Describes how these groups interact with neighboring whites and Blacks, especially in terms of South Carolina's segregated school system.

D16.

Bloom, Leonard. "Role of the Indian in the Race Relations Complex of the South." Social Forces 19 (1940): 268-273. Looks at the position of American Indians in the race relations of the Southeast.

D17.

Blu, Karen I. The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Study of the history and identity of the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina. Looks at their possible origins, how they have been classified

The Upper South 45 racially by authorities in the past, and recent race relations with neighboring African Americans. Looks at the activities of Henry Berry Lowry, a Lumbee outlaw who was active in the 1860's and 1870's, the cooperation and support he received from Blacks, and Black and Lumbee interactions in the 1960's in local politics. D18.

Blu, Karen. ""We People": Understanding Lumbee Indian Identity in a Tri-Racial Situation." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1972. Recounts the Lumbee Indian's long attempts to gain recognition as Indians, at both the state and federal level, and relations with neighboring Blacks, whites, and non-Lumbee Indians. Discusses white attempts to classify the Lumbee as Black and Lumbee resistance to this assignation in the form of armed revolt in the early 1800's. The resistance eventually resulted in their recognition by the state as Indian in 1885, and argues that whites accepted this because it helped to politically divide the Indians and Blacks of Robeson County who otherwise formed a majority. Discusses racial stereotypes and perceptions that the cultures have of each other, including issues involving segregation and Lumbee resistance to the KKK, and the differing perceptions of Lumbee with African ancestry compared to Lumbee with European ancestry.

D19.

Blumer, Thomas J. "Practical Pointers in Tracing Your Indian Ancestry in the Southeast." Journal of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society 13, no. 1-2 (1994). Provides advice to African Americans who believe they have Native American ancestry on how to begin the process of correct genealogical research.

D20.

Brudvig, Jon Larsen. "Bridging the Cultural Divide: American Indians at Hampton Institute 1878-1923." Ph.D. diss., College of William and Mary, 1996. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute was founded in 1868 for the education of Blacks. In 1878 it began admitting American Indians, and Black and Indian students, male and female, attended simultaneously. Includes a chapter on the experiences and attitudes of the Black and Indian students towards each other. Students lived and ate in separate areas, but attended classes together. Includes biographical information on twenty-eight students who were of African and Indian heritage, Black and Indian students who married, and racial tension at Hampton. In addition to influencing interaction at the schools, Hampton had an outing program where students spent the summer working for families. One Apache student spent the summer of

46 American Indian and African American Interactions 1916 with a mixed Shinnecock and Black family on the Shinnecock reservation. He later married a Shinnecock woman, and when she died, he married a woman of Shinnecock and Black ancestry. D21.

Burnett, Swan M. "A Note on the Melungeons." American Anthropologist 2 (1st Series) (1889): 347-350. Describes eastern Tennessee folklore about the local Melungeon community, and debates whether they were Indian, white, Black, or Portuguese.

D22.

Butler, George E. The Croatan Indians of Sampson County, North Carolina: Their Origin and Racial Status: A Plea for Separate Schools. Durham, N.C.: The Seeman Printery, 1916. This book begins with a petition from the Indians of Sampson County requesting separate schools from those of the "colored" students, followed by a historical sketch arguing that the Croatans (now called Lumbee) are probably of mixed white and Indian ancestry, but for years were classified with "free Negroes" although they refused to attend Black schools or churches. Presents a genealogical argument that the Croatans may be descended from the lost colony that disappeared from Roanake Island in 1590.

D23.

Cook, Samuel R. "The Monacan Indian Nation: Asserting Tribal Sovereignty In the Absence of Federal Recognition." Wicazo Sa Review 17 (Fall 2002): 91-116. Discusses the recent history of the Monacans of Virginia and their efforts to be reclassified under Virginia state law as Indian, not Black.

D24.

Corner, Phil. "Haliwas: Indian or Negro? School Boards Ponder Real Problem." Greensboro Daily News, Sunday, August 24, 1958. Haliwa Indians had previously been classified as Blacks for years and at the time the article was written were claiming Indian identity and requesting separate schools from Blacks.

D25.

Craven, Patricia and Richard L. Pangburn. From Out of The Dark Past Their Eyes Implore Us: The Black Roots of Nelson County, Kentucky. Bardstown, KY: P. Craven and R. Pangburn, 1996. Genealogical study of African American families in Kentucky who intermarried with American Indians. Includes a section on the practice of Black Indian genealogy.

The Upper South 47 D26.

Crowe, Charles. "Indians and Blacks in White America." In Four Centuries of Southern Indians, edited by Charles M. Hudson. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1975. Looks at the experiences of Blacks and Indians and white oppression. Briefly discusses interaction between the two and the problem of attempting to racially classify mixed populations in the Southeast.

D27.

Cuming, Fortescue. "Cuming's Tour to the Western Country, 18071809." In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edited by Ruben Gold Thwaites. Cleveland: A.H. Clark, 1904. Mentions a man named Daly, described by Cuming as mulatto, who is insulted by a slave woman who tells him he looks like an Indian.

D28.

Dane, J. K. and B. Eugene Griessman. "The Collective Identity of Marginal Peoples: The North Carolina Experience." American Anthropologist 14 (1972): 694-704. Looks at the Haliwa and Lumbee of North Carolina, including changing perspectives of their racial identity, issues of classification, demographics and desegregation in North Carolina.

D29.

Daniel, G. Reginald. More Than Black? Multiracial Identity on the New Racial Order. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002. Includes a discussion of how communities and individuals of Black and Indian ancestry define themselves and are defined by authorities. Mentions many eastern groups as examples.

D30.

Dannenberg, Clare Jacobs. "Sociolinguistic Constructs of Ethnic Identity: The Syntactic Delineation of Lumbee English." Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1999. Studies the ethnic language boundaries as manifested in various uses of the verb "to be" in Robeson County, home of the Lumbee Indians. Contrasts Lumbee usage with that of neighboring African Americans and whites. Argues that ethnic identity is a negotiable process that can be reconfigured over time.

D31.

Deal, Joseph Douglas. Race and Class in Colonial Virginia: Indians, Englishmen and Africans on the Eastern Shore during the Seventeenth Century. Garland: New York, 1993. Includes some information on intermarriage and economic interactions between Africans and American Indians on the Virginia coast.

48 American Indian and African American Interactions D32.

DeMarce, Virginia Easley. "Looking at Legends - Lumbee and Melungeon: Applied Genealogy and the Origins of Tri-racial Isolate Settlements." National Genealogical Society Quarterly 81, no. 1 (1993): 24-45. Uses genealogical data from archival records to identify and track key families of the Lumbee and Melungeon communities. Looks at an infusion of white, Indian, and Black into both groups, and contrasts folk knowledge about both groups with the genealogical record.

D33.

DeMarce, Virginia Easley. ""Verry Slitly Mixt": Tri-racial Isolate Families of the Upper South - A Genealogical Study." National Genealogical Society Quarterly 80, no. 1 (1992): 5-35. Looks at triracial isolate groups, mainly of Virginia and North Carolina, using genealogical data to identify white, Indian, and Black ancestors. Shows how ethnic or racial identities of these groups are reflected in colonial records. Traces the Bass, Chavis, and Goins names, which are common in many of the triracial groups.

D34.

Dunlap, A.R. and C. A. Weslager. "Trends in the Naming of Tri-racial Mixed-blood Groups in the Eastern United States." American Speech 22 (1947): 81-87. Looks at triracial groups and the terms that are used to refer to these groups, both internally and externally. Many of the terms used to describe certain groups are considered derogatory by the group members. Authors state that names are based on legends supposedly explaining the origin of a group, are derived from the name of a prominent family of the group, or are plainly racially derogatory.

D35.

Engs, Robert F. "Red, Black, and White: A Study in Intellectual Inequality." In Region, Race, and Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of C Vann Woodward, edited by J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Describes the educational programs for Blacks and Indians at Hampton Institute.

D36.

Eslinger, Ellen. "The Shape of Slavery on the Kentucky Frontier, 17751800." Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 92, no. 1 (1994): 123.

The Upper South 49 Mentions several incidents in which Black slaves were killed or captured by Indian groups as well as incidents in which slaves ran away and joined Indian communities. D37.

Estabrook, Arthur H. and Ivan E. McDougle. Mongrel Virginians: The Win Tribe. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Company, 1926. Presents a eugenicist's perspective on the "social problem" presented by multiethnic populations in the South. Describes an unspecified group in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia whom the authors refer to as the Win tribe. Group members identify themselves as Indians. Looks at genealogy, describes Black or Indian ancestry, and the physical appearances of individuals.

D38.

Evans, W. McKee. "The North Carolina Lumbees: From Assimilation to Revitalization." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L. Williams. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Discusses attempts by outsiders to determine the racial origins of the Lumbee and provides an account of the Lumbee repelling the KKK from Robeson County. Profiles Henry Berry Lowry, Lumbee leader of a band of Confederate deserters, Union Army escapees from POW camps, and escaped slaves who waged a guerilla war against authorities.

D39.

Evans, W. McKee. To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band, Indian Guerrillas of Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971. History of Henry Berry Lowry, Lumbee, and his group of outlaws, made up of Lumbees and some African Americans. The group directed their raids against wealthy whites and received popular support from Indians, Blacks, and poor whites.

D40.

Everett, C. S. "Melungeon History and Myth." Appalachian Journal 26, no. 4 (1999): 358-409. Looks at the Melungeons of Tennessee, their history, and outsider's attempts to classify them. Shows that group members have historically tried to identify themselves as Indian, but writers and historians have long attempted to create a mythology that the group's origins are mysterious and unknown. Shows that historically the term Melungeon was used to refer to people of mixed Indian-Black heritage. Argues that since this group does not refer to itself as Melungeon, academics and

50 American Indian and African American Interactions other writers should not either. Argues that the Melungeons are possibly descendents of the Saponi of North Carolina. D41.

Faggins, Barbara A. Africans and Indians: An Afrocentric Analysis of Contacts Between Africans and Indians in Colonial Virginia. New York and London: Routledge, 2001. Looks at social interaction of Africans and American Indians in seventeenth century Virginia from the Afrocentric theoretical perspective.

D42.

Ferguson, Leland. "Looking for the "Afro" in Colono-Indian Pottery." In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America: AfroAmerican and Asian-American Culture History, edited by Robert L. Schuyler. Farmingdale, NY: Baywood Publishing, 1980. Discusses Colono-Indian pottery of the southeast. Argues that while this pottery was most likely made by Indians, it is frequently found in African archaeological sites and could also have been made by Blacks.

D43.

Ferguson, Leland. Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, 1650-1800. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. Looks at some archaeological evidence suggesting early interaction and cultural exchange between Indians and Blacks.

D44.

Folsom, Cora M. "When the Sioux Came to Hampton." Southern Workman 57, no. 3 (1928): 113-121. Account by an employee of Hampton Institute, recalling the 1878 arrival of American Indian students from the west and plains. Mentions some interaction with Black students.

D45.

Furman, McDonald. "Negro Slavery Among the South Carolina Indians." American Antiquarian 12 (May 1890): 177. A brief letter to the editor describing a mention of slavery among the Peedee and Catawba Indians in an account by a Rev. Alexander Gregg, "History of the Old Cheraws."

D46.

Gaillard, Frye. "Desegregation Denies Justice to Lumbee Indians." Indian Historian 4, no. 3 (1971): 17-22. Describes Lumbee experiences and attitudes regarding a 1970 school desegregation order. Argues that the Lumbee resistance to school desegregation was not racism, but should be viewed instead as a

The Upper South 51 response to whites who were attempting to control the community's school system and to classify the Lumbee community as Blacks instead of as Indians. D47.

Garrow, Patrick. The Mattamuskeet Documents: A Study in Social History. Raleigh, NC: Archaeology Branch Division of Archives and History, Department of Cultural Resources, 1975. Collection of previously unpublished documents concerning the Indians of the Mattamuskeet reservation, comprised of various groups from coastal North Carolina. Includes a summary of the history of the group. Includes documents referencing a slave uprising, an "unlawful Negro marriage," and census documents often describing Mattamuskeet individuals as "mulatto" or "black." The reservation was eliminated by 1761.

D48.

Gaskins, Avery F. "An Introduction to the Guineas: West Virginia's Melungeons" Appalachian Journal 1, no. 3 (1973): 234-237. Discusses the population of about 1500 multiracial people living in central West Virginia, known by outsiders as the Guineas. Describes some of the oral history about the founding of the group, and describes them as having a unique body of folklore that may have both African and Native American origins.

D49.

George, David. "An Account of the Life of Mr. David George, from Sierra Leone in Africa; Given by Himself in a Conversation with Brother Rippon of London, and Brother Pearce of Birmingham." Baptist Annual Register for 1790, 1791, 1792 and part of 1793 (1793): 473-484. George, born in Virginia to African parents, described running away, being found by Creek Indians and living among them for four months. Later he ran away again to live with the "Nautchee" Indians. Stated that his wife's brother was half Indian and half Black. Later he moved to Nova Scotia where he preached to some Quebec Indians.

D50.

Gilbert, William H. Jr. "Mixed Bloods of the Upper Monongahela Valley, West Virginia." Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 2>6 (\9A6)\ 1-13. Looks at the mixed-blood community referred to as the Guineas living in West Virginia. Looks at possible white, Black, and Indian origins of the group, discusses how outsiders viewed the group and how their ethnicity has been recorded in census records.

52 American Indian and African American Interactions D51.

Gleach, Frederic W. "Anthropological Professionalization and the Virginia Indians at the Turn of the Century." American Anthropologist 104 (2002): 499-507. Looks at Indians of Virginia and discusses how their placement in racial categories other than "Indian" by authorities has impacted professional interest in them by anthropologists.

D52.

Goddard, Ives. "The Identity of Red Thunder Cloud." Society for the Study of Indigenous Languages of the Americas Newsletter (April 2000). Presents the known facts about Red Thunder Cloud, also known as Carlos Westez, who worked with Frank Speck and for the Museum of the American Indian and the American Museum of Natural History. Red Thunder Cloud worked with the Long Island tribes and claimed to be the last living speaker of Catawba. He said he was raised among the Narragansetts and Shinnecock. Here it is argued that Westez was the descendent of prominent Blacks from Newport and Baltimore and had little, if any, Indian ancestry. http ://www. nmnh. si. edu/departments/anthro .html/goddard 1 .html

D53.

Goodyear, Albert C. and Glen T. Hanson, editors. Studies in South Carolina Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Robert L. Stephenson. Columbia: South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of South Carolina, 1989. Contains information on the colonoware ceramic types of the Southeast, debating which were made by American Indians and which were made by Black slaves. Discusses manufacture and in what context they have been found.

D54.

Greissman, Eugene. "The Collective Identity of Marginal Peoples: The North Carolina Experience." American Anthropologist 74 (1972) 694704. Looks at tri-racials in North Carolina focusing on the Haliwa and Sampson County Indians. Discusses segregation issues in education and perceptions of racial identity.

D55.

Grinde, Donald A., Jr., and Quintard Taylor, Jr. "Native American and Black Interaction in the American Southeast During the Colonial Period." Hampton Institute Journal of Ethnic Studies 9 (1981): 52-60.

The Upper South 53 Overview of southeastern Black and Indian relations. Looks at the coenslavement of the two groups and white attempts to create animosity between them. D56.

Groover, Mark D. "Evidence for Folkways and Cultural Exchange in the 18th Century South Carolina Backcountry." Historical Archaeology 28, no. 1(1994): 41-64. Archaeological study of a frontier plantation site in South Carolina. Argues that interactions between whites, Black slaves, and local American Indian groups were likely.

D57.

Hadden, Sally E. Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001. Looks at the regulation of slavery through the activities of slave patrols, citizen patrols that enforced slave laws. Briefly mentions the use of Catawbas as slave catchers, and the use of Black slaves to fight against the Yamassee and the Tuscarora.

D58.

Henige, David. "Origin Traditions of American Racial Isolates: A Case of Something Borrowed." Appalachian Journal 11, no. 3 (1984): 201213. Looks at origins of four groups, the Guineas of West Virginia, Melungeons of Eastern Tennessee and Kentucky, the Lumbee of North Carolina, and the Ramapo Mountain People of northern New Jersey. Looks at the oral history of each group and what they believe about their origins, including Black and Indian ancestry.

D59.

Hill, Matthew W. "Ethnicity Lost? Ethnicity Gained? Information Functions of 'African Ceramics' in West Africa and North America." In Ethnicity and Culture: Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association of Calgary. Calgary: Archaeological Association, University of Calgary, 1987. Looks at the colonoware pottery produced by Indians and/or Black slaves of the southeast. Discusses how each group would have influenced the characteristics of the pots.

D60.

Hoefel, Roseanne. ""Different by Degree": Ella Cara Deloria, Zora Neale Hurston, and Franz Boas Contend with Race and Ethnicity." American Indian Quarterly 25 (Spring 2001): 181-202. Discusses the attitudes of Ella Cara Deloria, a Lakota anthropologist, and Zora Neale Hurston, an African American anthropologist,

54 American Indian and African American Interactions regarding theories of race and ethnicity recorded in letters each wrote to Franz Boas. Deloria did fieldwork among the Lumbee of North Carolina, and sections of letters are reprinted that indicate her impressions of the Lumbee's racial and cultural background and of the group's interactions with neighboring whites and Blacks. D61.

Hudson, Charles M. The Catawba Nation. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1970. Discusses the role of the Catawbas in keeping the African American slaves in check, from the perspectives of neighboring white slaveholders. Although the governing authorities of South Carolina encouraged Catawbas to hunt runaway slaves and fostered generally negative relations between the two groups, interactions eventually became more cooperative. Also discusses the "Black Code," a series of statutes designed to prevent interracial relationships, and the triracial mestizos of South Carolina.

D62.

Hultgren, Mary Lou and Paulette Fairbanks Molin. To Lead and Serve: American Indian Education at Hampton Institute, 1878-1923. Virginia Beach: Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and Public Policy, 1989. Catalog for an exhibit on American Indian students at Hampton Institute. Describes the biracial educational program. Contains many photographs.

D63.

Johnson, Guy B. "Personality in a White-Indian-Negro Community." American Sociological Review 4 (1939): 516-523. A sociological study of the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina. Discusses their history, race relations with other groups, their racial classification by others, and treatment of those within the group who appeared to have African ancestry.

D64.

Johnston, Frances B. The Hampton Album: 44 Photographs by Frances B. Johnston from an Album of Hampton Institute with an introduction and a note on the photographer by Lincoln Kirstein. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966. Contains photographs of Hampton Institute taken at the turn of the last century by Frances Benjamin Johnston. The photos show Black and Native American students together in Hampton classrooms and shops.

D65.

Joseph, J. W. "From Colonist to Charlestonian: The Crafting of Identity in a Colonial Southern City." In Another's Country: Archaeological

The Upper South 55 and Historical Perspectives on Cultural Interactions in the Southern Colonies, edited by J. W. Joseph and Martha Zierden. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2002. Presents archaeological evidence for close interaction between Black slaves and American Indians in early eighteenth century Charleston. D66.

Katz, William Loren. "Black/Indian Origins of the Fight for Democracy." Freedomways 24, no. 2 (1984): 141-143. Brief overview of Native Americans being aided by Africans in the southeast.

D67.

Katz, William Loren. "A Tradition of Freedom: Black-Indian Community." Southern Exposure 12, no. 5 (1984): 16-19. Looks at early African-Native interaction in the southeast, which began with the attempt by Lucas Vasquez de Allyon to establish a Spanish colony in South Carolina in 1526. The unsuccessful colony, San Miguel de Gualdape, included about one hundred African slaves who ran away and joined the Native population.

D68.

Kessler, John S. and Donald B. Ball. North From the Mountains: A Folk History of the Carmel Melungeon Settlement, Highland County, Ohio. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2001. Looks at the Carmel Indian community of southern Ohio. Looks at history, race relations, and how authorities have classified them. Describes community members as being of African American, Native American and white ancestry.

D69.

King, Wilma. "Multicultural Education at the Hampton Institute - The Shawnees: A Case Study, 1900-1923." Journal of Negro Education 57 (1988): 524-535. Hampton Institute began admitting American Indians partially because Congress provided the school with extra funding for doing so. Discusses the school's attempt to classify members of a particular family, the Shawnees. The children's mother was a Creek freedwoman and their father was a former fugitive slave who had been adopted by the Shawnee tribe and taken Shawnee as his surname. Reports on the experiences of the Shawnee children at Hampton and the political and social attitudes of politicians, the general public, Hampton educators, and Indians towards biracial education.

56 American Indian and African American Interactions D70.

Latta, M. L. The History of My Life and Work: Autobiography by Rev. M. L. Latta, A.M., D.D. The Author: Raleigh, Montreal, and Chicago, 1903. Latta describes himself as part Indian and presents his views on Indian civilation and education.

D71.

Learning, Hugo Prosper. Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas. New York: Garland, 1995. Discusses Black maroons and their interaction with American Indians, including the maroon community of Dismal Swamp, Virginia. Discusses slave insurrections organized by Black and Indian slaves.

D72.

Lerch, Patricia Barker. "State-Recognized Indians of North Carolina, Including a History of the Waccamaw Sioux." In Indians of the Southeastern United States in the Late 20fh Century, edited by J. Anthony Paredes. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992. States that many of North Carolina's state-recognized tribes have some Black ancestry. Mentions older census records for the Waccamaw Sioux that are unclear as to whether they may have Black ancestry.

D73.

Lewis, George. "Not so Well Red: Native Americans in the Southern Civil Rights Movement Reconsidered." Borderlines: Studies in American Culture 3, no. 4 (1996): 362-375. Describes perceptions of Lumbee identity and how it was discerned in the Southern bi-racial classification system that placed people in one of two categories: white or non-white. Despite being placed in the same categories as Blacks, Lumbees continued to fight for recognition as Native Americans. Also looks at Lumbee voting behavior in local elections.

D74.

Lindsey, Donal F. Indians at Hampton Institute, 1877-1923. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995. Describes the experiences of Indian students at Hampton Institute, originally a school for African Americans. Includes a chapter on how the two groups interacted. Black students were encouraged to act as "examples" for the Indian students in behavior, demeanor, and dress. Booker T. Washington played an important role in the Indian education program at Hampton.

D75.

Lofton, John M., Jr. "White, Indian, and Negro Contacts in Colonial South Carolina." Southern Indian Studies 1 (1949): 3-12.

The Upper South 57 Looks at early contacts between African slaves and Indians in South Carolina. D76.

Lucas, Marion B. "African Americans on the Kentucky Frontier." Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 95, no. 2 (1997): 121-134. Looks at the experiences of Blacks in Kentucky in the eighteenth century, describing many violent interactions between Indians and the colonists' Black slaves. Also discusses Pompey, the Black man who served as interpreter for the Shawnee leader Blackfish and was killed during a Shawnee attack on Daniel Boone's fort, and comments on Monk Estill, a slave who was freed in gratitude for his bravery in fighting Indians.

D77.

Magdol, Edward. "Against the Gentry: An Inquiry Into a Southern Lower-Class Community and Culture." Journal of Social History 6 (1972-1973): 259-293. Looks at race relations in late nineteenth century Robeson County, North Carolina, home of the Lumbee Indians. Also discusses Henry Berry Lowry, a Lumbee outlaw whose band consisted of Blacks and Indians.

D78.

Makofsky, Abraham. "Experience of Native Americans at a Black College: Indian Students at Hampton Institute, 1878-1923." Journal of Ethnic Studies 17, no. 3 (1989): 31-46. Describes the experiences of Indian students at Hampton Institute, especially students from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians who attended the school. Looks at conditions of the Eastern Cherokees and the effect they had on the experiences of the students. States that interactions between Blacks and Indians at the school were generally good.

D79.

Matthews, Harry Bradshaw. The Family Legacy of Anthony Johnson: from Jamestown, VA, to Somerset, MD, 1619-1995: A Multi-racial Saga in Black, Red and White: The Negro Johnson and Indian Puckham Lineage: A Case Study in Historiographic Genealogy. Oneonta, NY: Sondhi Limthonkul Center for Interdependence, Hartwick College, 1995. Genealogical study of a Black and Indian family in Virginia and Maryland.

58 American Indian and African American Interactions D80.

Maynor, Malinda. "Indians Got Rhythm: Lumbee and African American Church Song." North Dakota Quarterly 67 (2000): 72-91. Also "Making Christianity Sing: The Origins and Experience of Lumbee Indian and African American Church Music," in Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discussion of how Lumbee church music came to sound as it does today. The author argues that Lumbee adoption of Christianity has been critical to the survival of the Lumbee as a people. Demonstrates when and how African American church music styles began to differ from that of the Lumbee.

D81.

Maynor, Malinda. Real Indian. Women Make Movies, Inc., 1996. Maynor's film explores being Lumbee and American misconceptions of "real Indians" as opposed to "fake Indians." Looks at the idea of an Indian having "good blood" (white) and contrasts that with "bad blood," (Black) and what that means in terms of identity.

D82.

McClain, Kimberly Ann. "From Black to Indian: The Racial Identity of the Haliwa-Saponi Indians of North Carolina." BA Honors Thesis, Harvard University, 1989. The Haliwa-Saponi of North Carolina had been designated by authorities as "free persons of color, " a category that over time came to implicate an assumed Black identity, although it originally included Indians. In 1950 the Haliwa began the legal fight to have the group's legal designation changed to Indian, which occurred in 1965. Explores how the Haliwa viewed their identity and race, and also how whites and Blacks perceived it. Not all Haliwa believe they are Indian, and some continue to identify as African American. Explores belief surrounding "race" in America and the specifics of racial categorization in North Carolina. Based on personal interviews and the Haliwa-Saponi petition for federal recognition.

D83.

McGowan, Kathleen. "Where Do We Really Come From? A New Generation of DNA Genealogists Stand Ready to Unearth our Ancestors. We May Not Like What They Find." Discover 24 (May 2003): 58-64. Describes the results of a genetic analysis of a Melungeon community of Appalachia, concluding that they are mostly Eurasian, with some African and some American Indian ancestry.

The Upper South 59 D84.

Merrell, James H. "The Racial Education of the Catawba Indians." Journal of Southern History 50, no. 3 (1984): 363-384. Looks at the changing and varied attitudes of Catawbas towards Blacks. Describes early interactions that became more frequent as Catawbas became active in the deerskin trade in the 1700's. Cites specific instances of interaction, some friendly, some not. By the mid-1800's relations became generally negative, with Catawbas working as slave hunters and adopting white attitudes toward social interactions with Blacks.

D85.

Molin, Paulette Fairbanks. "Reclaiming History: Native American Researchers at Hampton University. " Winds of Change 1, no. 4 (1992) 46-52. Discusses research being done by American Indian historians on the Indian education program at Hampton University, a school originally established for Blacks.

D86.

Montell, Lynwood. "The Coe Ridge Colony: A Racial Island Disappears." American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 710-719. Explores genealogy, history, and misconceptions surrounding a triracial group living in the mountains along the Kentucky-Tennessee border. Looks at the early interactions of Black slaves, Indians, and slaveholders in the area and how they eventually generated an isolated community whose population was known as free blacks.

D87.

Montell, William Lynwood. The Saga of Coe Ridge: A Study in Oral History. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1970. Study of the people of Coe Ridge (Kentucky and Tennessee) who are descended from Cherokees, whites, and Blacks. Based on interviews with community members.

D88.

Moretti-Langholtz, Danielle. "Other Names I Have Been Called: Political Resurgence Among Virginia Indians in the Twentieth Century." Ph.D. diss., University of Oklahoma, 1998. Studies recent political activity of American Indian groups in Virginia. These groups were typically classified by authorities as "free persons of color" rather than as Indians, and as a result of the Racial Integrity Act of 1924 were prohibited by law from self-identifying as Indians. The Supreme Court declared the Racial Integrity Act unconstitutional in 1968. In the 1980's, Chickahominy, Eastern Chickahominy, Mattaponi, Upper Mattaponi, Pamunkey, and Rappahanock groups reorganized.

60 American Indian and African American Interactions D89.

Morgan, Philip D. Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Looks at slave life in the Chesapeake area of Virginia and the Lowcountry of South Carolina. Includes information on interactions with Indians in these areas.

D90.

Morrow, Christina D. "Political Legitimization of Native American Identity Among the Occaneechi People." Honors Thesis, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 1999. Presents the history of the Occaneechi of Little Texas, North Carolina, from European contact to their recent bid for recognition. The group was historically classified by authorities as "free persons of color," and more recently simply as Black. Includes a chapter based on interviews with tribal members discussing their ethnic identity.

D91.

Murray, Paul T. "Who is an Indian? Who is a Negro? Virginia Indians in the World War II Draft." The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 95, no. 2 (1987): 215-31. Looks at racial classification in Virginia, and how a group of Virginia Indians challenged their local draft boards when they attempted to register the men as Black under the assumption that any person with any Black ancestry was to be labeled Black, not Indian. The draft boards resisted, largely because re-labeling the men as Indian meant that they would serve in white units. The Indians refused to serve in Black units. The case took five years to be successfully resolved in favor of the Indians. Similar cases occurred in Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Louisiana. Also discusses the Virginia Racial Integrity Law and its main promoter, Dr. Walter Plecker.

D92.

"Mystery People of Baltimore: Neither Red nor White nor Black, Strange "Indian" Tribe Lives in a World of its Own." Ebony 12, no. 11 (September 1957): 70-73. Looks at a community of Lumbee Indians living in Baltimore. Contains many photographs.

D93.

Nowell, Jeremiah James. "Red White and Black: Race Formation and the Politics of American Indian Recognition in North Carolina." Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2000.

The Upper South 61 Explores the racial and cultural history of the Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation of North Carolina, previously referred to by others as the Little Texans or Texas Negroes, and their attempts to achieve federal recognition in the 1990's. Documents the Little Texas community's awareness and revitalization of their heritage, beginning with archaeological excavations of the old Occaneechi Indian Town, tribal reorganization, and the movement for federal recognition. Documents the reactions of other North Carolina tribes and the general public to the Occaneechi bid for recognition, and proposes that North Carolina's denial of state recognition was a result of anti-Black sentiments. Also provides an overview of the long and intertwined history of Blacks, Indians, and Black Indians in North Carolina and the process of racial formation in North Carolina's remaining Indian communities. D94.

Parker, Freddie L. Stealing a Little Freedom: Advertisements for Slave Runaways in North Carolina, 1791-1840. New York: Garland, 1994. This book reprints ads for fugitive slaves from North Carolina newspapers. Includes descriptions of slaves who were part Indian, or were reported to have the appearance of an Indian, or were described as having long, straight hair like an Indian.

D95.

Parra, E. J. et al. "Ancestral Proportions and Admixture Dynamics in Geographically Defined African Americans Living in South Carolina." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 114(2001): 18-30. Presents the results of a genetic study of African Americans in six different locations in South Carolina. Includes information on evidence for Native American genetic material in these populations.

D96.

Parsons, Elsie Clews. "Folk-lore of the Cherokee of Robeson County, North Carolina." Journal of American Folklore 32 (1920): 384-393. This group is now known as the Lumbee. Author notes that individuals insisted they had no Black ancestors, but their folk tales appeared to be primarily of American Black and Scottish origin. Includes mention of how the group interacted with and was perceived by neighboring Blacks.

D97.

Pate, Albert. The Coree are Not Extinct: Discussion of Some Indian, White, and Black Relationships in Early America. Pikeville, NC: Albert F. Pate, 1993. Self-published analysis of the history of the Coree and the author's personal odyssey in researching the manuscript.

62 American Indian and African American Interactions D98.

Peabody, Francis Greenwood. Education for Life: The Story of Hampton Institute. College Park, MD: McGrath Publishing, 1918. Hampton Institute, established in Hampton, Virginia, for the education of former slaves, began admitting American Indian students in 1878. Includes information on the recruitment of Indians to Hampton and their experiences there.

D99.

Pittman, Nicole. "Living Among Three Worlds: Indian Education at Hampton Institute 1878-1923." Honor's thesis, Duke University, 1994. Hampton Institute, founded in 1868 as a training school for former slaves, began admitting Indian youths in 1878. The first 17 students were members of various western tribes who had been imprisoned in Florida by General Richard H. Pratt for three years. Black students were initially kept separate from Indian students but eventually the programs were combined. Primarily focuses on the experiences of the Indian students, but mentions Booker T. Washington's term at the school as a supervisor of the Indian boys' dormitory, and discusses the effect of Black fellow students on the Indian students. Includes photos of combined classes.

D100.

Pollard, Jno. Garland. "The Pamunkey Indians of Virginia." Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 17. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894. Mentions that there are Pamunkey Indians who have partial African ancestry even though at the time this was written intermarriage with people of African descent was strictly prohibited in Virginia.

D101.

Pollitzer, William S., R.M. Menegaz-Boch, and J.C. Herion. "Factors in the Microevolution of a Triracial Isolate." American Journal of Human Genetics 18 (1966): 26-38. A genetic study of a triracial Indian group in northeastern North Carolina, probably the Haliwa. Describes their physical appearance and the conflicts between African American and non-African American members.

D102.

Pollitzer, William S. "The Physical Anthropology and Genetics of Marginal People of the Southeastern United States." American Anthropologist 75 (1972): 719-734. Argues that the idea of biologically distinct races is not valid and that the idea of race is largely a cultural construct. Looks at Cherokee,

The Upper South 63 Lumbee, Haliwa, Catawba, Melungeon, Cajan, and Brandywine groups and estimates their genetic origins. D103.

Porter, Frank W., III. "Nonrecognized American Indian Tribes in the Eastern United States: An Historical Overview." In Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States, edited by Frank W. Porter III. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986. Presents an overview of issues faced by tribes in the eastern U.S. that are not federally recognized. Discusses the use of the term "tri-racial isolate" and the resulting lack of academic emphasis on the Indian identity of these groups.

D104.

Price, Edward T. "A Geographic Analysis of White-Negro-Indian racial Mixtures in the Eastern United States." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 43, no. 2 (1953): 138-155. Provides an overview of various tri-racial groups, including the Melungeons, Lumbee, Redbones of Louisiana, Cajans of Alabama, Issues of Virginia, Guineas of West Virginia, Wesorts of Maryland, and Moors and Nanticokes of Delaware.

D105.

Price, Edward T. "The Melungeons: A Mixed Blood Strain of the Southern Appalachians." Geographical Review 41 (1951): 256-271. Looks at the Melungeons of East Tennessee and Virginia who are described as being mixed blood. Some claim Cherokee ancestry while others are described as having African ancestry.

D106.

Price, Edward T. "Mixed Blood Populations of Eastern United States as to Origins, Localizations, and Persistence." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 1950. Looks at the triracial communities of the eastern U.S.

D107.

Price, Edward T. "The Mixed Blood Racial Strain of Carmel, Ohio, and Magoffin County, Kentucky." Ohio Journal of Science 50 (1950): 281290. Describes the "Carmel Indians" of Ohio and Kentucky. The group is described as being of white, Black, and Indian (possibly Cherokee or Shawnee) ancestry.

D108.

Pulley, Clyde. Blacks Who Pass for Indian and White. Chicago: Adams Press, 1978.

64 American Indian and African American Interactions The author's wife was an African-American-Haliwa who was part of a group of 392 people who succeeded in having their racial status officially changed from "colored, Black or Negro" to Indian in 1956. The group argued that they had "never been accepted as or associated with the black, colored or Negro race, but are members of the Indian race." Pulley, who identified himself as Black and thought his wife was also Black, questioned the validity of this situation. D109.

Ramsey, William L., III. ""Heathenish Combination": The Natives of the North American Southeast During the Era of the Yamasee War." Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, 1999. Includes information on the co-enslavement of Indians and Blacks in the southeast and resulting intermarriages.

DUO.

Rayson, David Timothy. "A Great Matter To Tell: Indians, Europeans, and Africans from the Mississippian Era through the Yamasee War in the North American Southeast, 1500-1720." Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1996. Provides information on interactions between American Indians and Blacks in the southeast from initial contact to 1720.

Dill.

Rice, Horace R. The Buffalo Ridge Cherokee: A Remnant of a Great Nation Divided. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1995. Looks at the Cherokee who avoided removal and whose descendants live today in western North Carolina and western Virginia but are not members of a state or federally recognized tribe. Discusses issues of racial classification. Some of these people intermarried with African Americans and merged into Black society, while others were simply labeled Black by authorities. Looks at issues of acceptance by other Indian tribes. Includes many photos and statements from community members.

D112.

Roper, Moses. A Narrative of the Adventures and Escape of Moses Roper, from American Slavery. Philadelphia: Merrihew & Gunn, 1838. Roper was the son of a white slave owner and of an Indian and Black slave mother.

D113.

Rountree, Helen C. "Ethnicity Among the "Citizen" Indians of Tidewater Virginia, 1800-1930." In Strategies for Survival: American Indians in Eastern United States, edited by Frank W. Porter III. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986.

The Upper South 65 Discusses ethnicity among the Portobacco/Rappahannock, Mattaponi, Pamunkey, Chickahominy, Gingaskin, and Nansemond of Virginia. The term "citizen Indian" is used to refer to groups that no longer collectively hold tribal land. Discusses how these groups perceived themselves, shows how their ethnicity and race were recorded in official document and records by white observers, and describes attempts by these groups to distance themselves from Blacks or to prevent themselves from being labeled as Blacks. Also discusses the effects of racial segregation laws passed in Virginia beginning in the early 1900's. In 1923, Virginia passed the Racial Integrity Law, which required that the State Vital Statistics Bureau classify all people racially. Dr. Walter Plecker, who headed this effort, demanded that all state Indians be classified as "Negro" based on old records that classified the Indians as "colored," a category that in the past had legitimately included both African Americans and American Indians. D114.

Rountree, Helen C. "The Indians of Virginia: A Third Race in a Biracial State." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L. Williams. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Discusses how the Gingaskin and Nottoway intermarried with free Blacks and how anthropological writings about Pamunkey-Black intermarriage negatively affected the tribe's attempts to define themselves during the Jim Crow era. Describes racial classification systems and race relations following the Civil War, and the attempts of Walter Plecker, head of the Virginia Bureau of Vital Statistics, to forcibly categorize Indians in the state's racial classification system which only recognized white and colored.

Dl 15.

Rountree, Helen C. and Thomas E. Davidson. Eastern Shore Indians of Virginia and Maryland. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 1997. Ethnohistorical research on Virginia and Maryland's Eastern Shore tribes, from initial contact to the early 19th century. Includes documentation of African American-Indian marriages, individuals identified in colonial records as both Indian and Black, Indian interaction with Black slaves and free Blacks, and the detribalization of these Indian groups as a result of their being reclassified by governmental authorities as "free people of color."

D116.

Salley, Alexander, S., ed. Narratives of Early Carolina, 1650-1708. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1911. Contains the 1654 narrative of Francis Yeardley, who recorded reports of Blacks living among the Tuscarora Indians.

66 American Indian and African American Interactions D117.

Schall, Keith, ed. Stony the Road: Chapters in the History of Hampton Institute. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1977. Discusses various aspects of the history of Hampton Institute, including public reaction and objection to Blacks and American Indians attending an integrated school.

D118.

Schilling-Estes, Natalie. "Redrawing Ethnic Dividing Lines Through Linguistic Creativity." American Speech 75 (Winter 2000): 357-360. Looks at how the Lumbee of North Carolina use linguistic patterns to help create an identity separate from other groups, such as neighboring African Americans.

D119.

Sider, Gerald. "Lumbee Indian Cultural Nationalism and Ethnogenesis." Dialectical Anthropology 1, no. 2 (1976): 161-175. Mentions Lumbee Indian relations with African Americans in terms of local political issues of the 1970's.

D120.

Sider, Gerald. Lumbee Indian Histories: Race, Ethnicity, and Indian Identities in the Southeastern United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Exploration of Lumbee ethnicity and Lumbee relationships with neighboring whites and Blacks. Discusses political relationships and voter registration drives by Blacks and Indians beginning in the 1960's. Presents the historical argument that in colonial times Lumbees were considered white, with some owning Black slaves, but in the mid nineteenth century came to be classified as "free persons of color". Includes a short discussion on the terms mulatto and mustee.

D121.

Smallwood, Arwin Doremus. "A History of Three Cultures: Indian Woods, North Carolina, 1585 to 1995." Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1997. History of the Indian Woods section of Bertie County, North Carolina, looking at all three major populations - Native American, Black, and white. Initial contact between the African and Native populations came between 1650 and 1710 when the two were commonly enslaved together. By the early 1800's, most of the local Tuscarora had emigrated to New York state, but pockets remained that intermarried with the Black population, and the author states that the remaining Tuscaroras were very active in sheltering runaway Black slaves. Descendants still reside in Indian Woods.

The Upper South 67 D122.

Smith, Donald B. Long Lance: The True Story of an Impostor. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982. Recounts the very involved life story of Sylvester Long of North Carolina, probably of Lumbee, white, and Black ancestry, who reinvented himself first as Sylvester Long Lance and then as Blackfoot Chief Buffalo Child, and became a journalist, lecturer, athlete, aviator, author, silent film actor, and public figure. Long's family denied having African ancestry, but under the binary racial classification system of the early twentieth century South which only recognized two groups, the family could not be considered white and were therefore classified as "colored," and often referred to as "Negro".

D123.

Smith, Donald B. "From Sylvester Long to Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance." In Being and Becoming Indian: Biographical Studies of North American Frontiers, edited by James A. Clifton. Chicago: The Dorsey Press, 1989. Life of Sylvester Long, Lumbee Indian with possible African American ancestry, who claimed to be a Blackfoot chief.

D124.

Smith, J. David. The Eugenic Assault on America: Scenes in Red, White, and Black. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Press, 1993. Describes ways in which racial classification systems have been used to create the appearance of fewer American Indians by reclassifying them as Black. Looks at the "racial purity" movement of the 1920's, its proponents, and the effects the movement had on the Indian communities of Virginia. Discusses the writing of and motives behind Arthur H. Estabrook and Ivan E. McDougle's book Mongrel Virginians, about the Indians of Amherst County, Virginia.

D125.

Smithey, Sherman Bryan. "Croatans Preferred Ignorance to Negro Schools: Robeson Indians Classed as Negroes 48 Years." Charlotte Observer, Sunday November 22, 1931. Newspaper article contains overview of Croatan (now called Lumbee) history and their resistance to desegregation.

D126.

Speck, Frank G. "Remnants of the Machapunga Indians of North Carolina." American Anthropologist 18 (1916): 271-276. Mentions members of the Machapunga (or Mattamuskeet) community of coastal North Carolina who appear to have African ancestry.

68 American Indian and African American Interactions D127.

Springston, Rex. "Blacks, American Indians Celebrate Mixed Ancestry; Mixed Cultures." Richmond Times Dispatch, August 29, 1999, p. Bl. Describes a gathering in Richmond, Virginia, of people with both African American and Native American ancestry.

D128.

Standing Bear, Zug G. "To Guard Against Invading Indians: Struggling for Native Community in the Southeast." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 18, no. 4 (1994): 301-320. Describes the creation of the Deer Clan, a Native American cultural association based in the southeast that formed following the cultural resurgence of the 1960's. Discusses certain African American applicants to the organization and their reasons for wanting to join.

D129.

Stern, Theodore. "Chickahominy: The Changing Culture of a Virginia Community." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96, no. 2(1952): 157-225. Discusses the history of the Chickahominy Indians of Virginia, including interaction with Blacks. States that Chickahominy who married Blacks were generally ostracized from the group. Also discusses issues of racial classification that placed Blacks and American Indians in the same racial category, much to the displeasure of the Chickahominy.

D130.

Stinson, Byron. "The Melungeons." American History Illustrated 8, no. 7 (1973): 38-45. Looks at the triracial groups of the southeast, describing them as being a mixture of Black, white, and Indian.

D131.

Taukchiray, Wesley DuRant and Alice Bee Kasakoff. "Contemporary Native Americans in South Carolina." In Indians of the Southeastern United States in the Late 20th Century, edited by J. Anthony Paredes. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992. States that the Catawba tribe resists intermarriage with Blacks, and that Catawbas who marry African Americans or are part African American are not allowed to live on the reservation.

D132.

Thaxton-Ward, Vanessa D. "A Shared Heritage: Hampton Memories." International Review of African American Art 17, no. 1 (2000): 54-8.

The Upper South 69 Looks at the educational experiences of African Americans and American Indians at Hampton Institute, Virginia. Includes photographs of students. D133.

Thompson, Edgar T. "The Little Races." American Anthropologist 74 (1972): 1295-1306. Includes a general discussion of triracial populations in the United States.

D134.

Tingey, Joseph W. "Indians and Blacks Together: An Experiment in Biracial Education at Hampton Institute, 1878-1923." Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1978. Looks extensively at aspects of educational programs for Indians at Hampton Institute, originally established for African Americans. Includes a section on relations between the Black students and Indian students, classes, dorms, employment and interpersonal relations. Discusses Booker T. Washington's attitudes towards the Indian students.

D135.

Tudor, Kathleen. "David George: Black Loyalist." Nova Scotia Historical Review 3, no. 1 (1983): 71-82. Life of David George, who was born a slave in 1742 in Virginia. Briefly mentions that, as a youth, George ran away to the Creek and Natchez Indians.

D136.

Vest, Jay Hansford C. "From Bobtail to Brer Rabbit: Native American Influences on Uncle Remus." American Indian Quarterly 24, no. 1 (2000): 19-46. Argues that the Uncle Remus stories recorded by Joel Chandler Harris, varieties of which appear in both African American and American Indian folklore, are of American Indian origin, not African. Argues that early interactions that occurred when Indians and Africans were simultaneously enslaved led to Black adoption of the stories.

D137.

Walls, Dwayne. "Haliwa Pays Prohibitive Price to Live as Indian." Durham Morning Herald. Sunday, February 22, 1959. Newspaper article contains interviews with Haliwa individuals and presents their perspectives on school segregation.

D138.

Walsh, Lorena S. "Slavery at Carter's Grove in the Early Eighteenth Century." Virginia Cavalcade 41 (1998): 110-125.

70 American Indian and African American Interactions Includes some examples of how African slaves might have interacted with American Indians in early colonial Virginia. D139.

Washington, Booker T. Up From Slavery. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1996. Originally published in 1901. Washington discusses his time at Hampton Institute working with the Indian students.

D140.

Williams, Walter L. "Patterns in the History of the Remaining Southeastern Indians, 1840-1975." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L. Williams. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1977. Discusses African American and Native American interaction today, the results of the South's biracial classification system, and the need for further study of Black and Indian contacts.

D141.

Williams, Walter L. "Southeastern Indians Before Removal: Prehistory, Contact, Decline." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L. Williams. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Provides an overview of southeastern Indian groups before removal, briefly mentioning their interactions with Blacks, which often occurred while the two groups were simultaneously enslaved. Later, many Indians worked as slave catchers and gradually adopted Black slavery themselves. Also discusses racial classification.

D142.

Willis, Cecil Lee. "An Analysis of Indian American and Negro American Relations." Master's thesis, East Carolina University, 1974. Studied group levels of prejudice of African Americans and Eastern Cherokees towards each other in North Carolina.

D143.

Willis, William S., Jr. "Anthropology and Negroes on the Southern Colonial Frontier." In The Black Experience in America: Selected Essays, edited by James C. Curtis and Lewis L. Gould. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970. Discusses the tendency of anthropologists to ignore African Americans in favor of Indians. Also describes the intertwined histories of Blacks and Indians in the southeast.

The Upper South 71 D144.

Winston, Sanford. "Indian Slavery in the Carolina Region." Journal of Negro History 19 (1934): 431-440. Looks at the conditions under which Indians and Africans were enslaved together in colonial South Carolina and North Carolina.

D145.

Wood, Peter H. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion. New York: W. W. Norton, 1973. A focused history of Blacks in South Carolina. Includes important clues to interactions between Africans and Native Americans during the early colonial period.

D146.

Woods, Ruth Dial. "Growing Up Red: The Lumbee Experience." Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2001. Uses oral histories of over seventy Lumbee elders to explore Lumbee history and culture. Includes a section on colonial Indian-Black interaction that explores how whites worked to create animosity between the two groups, and states the Lumbee are for the most part isolated from Blacks.

D147.

Wooten, James T. "Haliwas Themselves Disagree on Background." The Charlotte Observer. Monday, August 7, 1972. Discusses the racial background of individuals identifying themselves as Haliwa and asks several in interviews whether they consider themselves to be Black or Indian.

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The Deep South El.

Abrams, Ira R. and Harry Ratner, director. New Orleans' Black Indians: A Case Study in the Arts. Huntington Beach: KOCE-TV, 1983. This documentary video suggests that the practice of African Americans masquerading in costumes as Indians began in the 1880's and springs from a time when Black slaves took shelter with Louisiana Indians and with some Plains Indians who had come to New Orleans.

E2.

Alegria, Ricardo E. Juan Garrido, el Conquistador Negro en las Antillas, Florida, Mexico y California c. 1502-1540. San Juan de Puerto Rico: Cento de Estudios Avanzados de Puerto Rico y El Caribe, 1990. Garrido, thought to be a free Black born in west Africa, visited Florida with Ponce de Leon in 1513 and 1521. In Spanish.

E3.

Ball, Charles. Fifty Years in Chains: or, the Life of an American Slave. Indianapolis: H. Dayton, 1859. Describes a Georgia slave who considered running away to join the Indians in Florida.

E4.

Berry, Jason. The Spirit of Black Hawk: A Mystery of Africans and Indians. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1995. Looks at certain African American spiritualist churches in New Orleans, founded by an Indian-Black woman named Mother Leafy Anderson. The churches contain shrines to Sauk warrior Black Hawk.

E5.

Blassingame, John W. The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

74 American Indian and African American Interactions Briefly discusses maroon communities that developed in the south, where they were located, racial makeup, and various tribes that incorporated free or escaped Blacks into their community. E6.

Bond, Horace Mann. "Two Racial Islands in Alabama." American Journal of Sociology 36 (1931): 552-567. Describes a sociological study of the Cajuns of Alabama, who are described as having some Black ancestry but self-identify as Indian and white.

E7.

Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xavier de. Translated and edited by John Gilmay Shea. History and General Description of New France. New York: Francis P. Harper, 1900. Discusses the Natchez Indian uprising of 1729, stating that the Natchez harmed few Black slaves while killing French colonists because they were interested in selling the slaves to the English.

E8.

Davis, Dave D. "A Case of Identity: Ethnogenesis of the New Houma Indians." Ethnohistory 48 (2001): 473-494. Looks at the Houma Indians today who are descended from Indian, white, and Black groups. Despite an oral history tradition indicating Houma ancestry, the Bureau of Indian Affairs ruled that the group had no connection to the historical Houma tribe. Discusses how Louisiana's racial classification laws influenced the group's identity. Also looks at court cases relating to Blacks and Indians in the contexts of inheritance of property and segregation in education.

E9.

Downs, Ernest C. and Jenna Whitehead. "The Houma Indians: Two Decades in a History of Struggle." American Indian Journal 2 (1976): 2-18. Reprints letters exchanged between Houmas, Bureau of Indian Affairs workers, and anthropologists Frank Speck and Ruth Underhill about the state of the Houma between the 1920's and 1940's. One of the issues discussed is segregation of schools. It is stated in the letters that because about 5% of Houma had African American ancestry, none of the tribe could attend white schools, but they refused to attend Black schools.

E10.

Draper, David Elliott. The Mardi Gras Indians: The Ethnomusicology of Black Associations in New Orleans. Ph.D. diss., Tulane University, 1973.

The Deep South 75 Study of the musical traditions of the African Americans, known as Mardi Gras Indians, who masquerade in elaborate costumes based on Plains Indian regalia. Ell.

Dunbar-Nelson, Alice. "People of Color in Louisiana." Journal of Negro History 1(1916): 361-376. Discusses relations between Blacks and Indians in Louisiana and the activities of whites in maintaining social distance between the two. In 1729, the governor armed a group of Black slaves and ordered them to destroy the Chouacha tribe, which resulted in hostilities. Blacks fought on both sides during the Natchez war on the French, and free Blacks commanded Black troops against the Choctaw in 1735.

El2.

Everett, Donald E. "Free Persons of Color in Colonial Louisiana." Louisiana History 7 (1966): 21-50. Looks at free Blacks in French colonial Louisiana. Mentions several instances when free Blacks were used in military conflicts against the Choctaws and Natchez.

El3.

Fischer, Ann. "History and Current Status of the Houma Indians." In The American Indian Today, edited by Stuart Levine and Nancy Oestreich Lurie. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1972. Looks at the Houma of Louisiana, their relations with neighboring African Americans, their efforts to prevent being classified as African Americans, school segregation, and intermarriage with Blacks.

E14.

Foley, William E. "Slave Freedom Suits Before Dred Scott: The Case of Marie Jean Scypion's Descendants." Missouri Historical Review 79, no. 1(1984): 1-23. Marie Jean Scypion was born in the 1740's to a Natchez Indian mother and a Black father, both slaves. In 1769, it became illegal under Spanish colonial law to own Indian slaves. In 1805, her daughters sued for freedom based on their Indian ancestry. They were declared free but were later arrested, and a trial in 1806 declared them to be slaves. More suits were unsuccessfully filed by the family in the 1820's. In 1836, a jury declared the family free.

El5.

Fontenot, Wonda L. Secret Doctors: Ethnomedicine of African Americans. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 1994.

76 American Indian and African American Interactions This study of African American folk medicine in Louisiana describes Blacks who have Indian ancestors, and presents their shared and borrowed medicinal traditions. El6.

Gayarre, Charles. Louisiana: Its Colonial History and Romance. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1851. Includes information on the role of Blacks in the Natchez War, including Simon, a free Black who headed a company of Black soldiers against the Natchez Indians under French command. Also discusses the Natchez taking Black slaves as prisoners of war.

El7.

Gold, Robert L. Borderland Empires in Transition: The Triple-Nation Transfer of Florida. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1763, resulted in the transfer of Florida from Spain to Great Britain. The Spanish removed to Cuba, and many Indians and Blacks went with them. Contains demographic data on the numbers of Blacks and Indians who went.

El8.

Greenbaum, Susan. "What's in a Label? Identity Problems of Southern Indian Tribes." Journal of Ethnic Studies 19 (1991): 107-126. Looks at racial classification of Blacks and Indians in the southeast and how these categories can complicate a tribe's attempt to become federally recognized today. Groups with members who have partial African American ancestry have been relabeled as Blacks or given new names entirely, as in the case of many of the triracial groups. Shows how these groups are now reasserting their desire to be referred to as Indians.

El9.

Greissman, B. Eugene and Curtis T. Henson, Jr. "The History and Social Topography of an Ethnic Island in Alabama." Phylon 36, no. 2 (1975): 97-112. Looks at a community in Alabama. Census records show that at least some of the group's ancestors were of Black or "mulatto" origin. The group members referred to themselves as Indian, and refused to send their children to Black schools.

E20.

Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992.

The Deep South 77 In French colonial Louisiana, people of mixed Black-Indian ancestry were referred to as "grif." Contains extensive information on interactions between African slaves and Indians of the area. French and Spanish colonial authorities feared permanent ties between the two groups and took measures to create tensions between them, but interactions were inevitable. Documented are many instances of Black slaves running away with Indians, who were also enslaved. Formal alliances between the two groups were over by the 1730's, but familial and cultural connections continued. E21.

Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo. "The Formation of Afro-Creole Culture." In Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization, edited by Arnold K. Hirsch and Joseph Logdson. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992. Describes Indian and African slaves seeking refuge among the tribes near New Orleans. Also describes the role of Black slaves in the Natchez Indian revolt against the French. Later the Choctaw assisted the French in retrieving the Black slaves from the Natchez and punished those involved in the uprising.

E22.

Hammon, Briton. A Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings, and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man, — Servant to General Winslow, of Marshfield, in New England; Who Returned to Boston, After Having Been Absent Almost Thirteen Years. Boston: Green & Russell, 1760. Hammon described being taken captive by Indians while working on a ship off the coast of Florida.

E23.

Harm, John H. "Heathen Acuera, Murder, and a Potano Cimarrona: The St. Johns River and the Alachua Prairie in the 1670's." Florida Historical Quarterly 70, no. 4 (1992): 451-474. Reprints translated records from the General Archive of the Indies in Seville that document a criminal inquiry into a series of murders allegedly committed by members of the Acuera band of the Timucua Indians. Includes information on Indian women who married fugitive Black slaves.

E24.

Harmening, Stuart. Native American and African American Encounters in the Eighteenth Century Lower South: The Indians' Formative Ascription to a Racial Consciousness. Master's Thesis, University of Wyoming, 2001.

78 American Indian and African American Interactions This is an ethnohistorical investigation of how awareness of race among southeastern Indians to 1800 impacted their interactions with Blacks. Describes early cooperation between the two, historical terms of racial classification, the changing perceptions of race on the part of Indians, and attitudes towards Blacks that eventually became much closer to those of whites. E25.

Holmes, Jack D. L. "The Abortive Slave Revolt at Point Coupee, Louisiana, \19 5" Louisiana History 11 (1970): 341-362. Looks at plans for a revolt among slaves in Louisiana. Tunica Indians first reported rumors of the insurrection to colonial authorities. Indians were also recruited to serve in a militia created for protection of colonists.

E26.

Howard, David A. Conquistador in Chains: Cabeza de Vaca and the Indians of the Americas. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1997. Describes the travels of Cabeza de Vaca through Florida and Texas with Esteban the African. They encountered many Indian groups and were enslaved for a period of time.

E27.

Jenkins, Robert L. "Africans in Colonial and Territorial Mississippi." In Ethnic Heritage in Mississippi, edited by Barbara Carpenter. Jackson: University of Mississippi, 1992. Includes information on the cooperation between the Natchez Indians and Blacks who massacred settlers at Fort Rosalie. In 1736, the French used Africans to subdue the Natchez and to attack the Chickasaw. Later, attempting to keep Blacks and Indians at odds, they sent a group of Black slaves to destroy the Chouacha tribe near New Orleans.

E28.

Joseph, John. The Life and Sufferings of John Joseph, a Native of Ashantee, in Western Africa: Who Was Stolen from His Parents at the Age of 3 Years, and Sold to Mister Johnstone, a Cotton Planter, in New Orleans, South America. Wellington: J. Greedy, 1848. Slave describes running away and being assisted by an Indian man.

E29.

Landers, Jane. "Black-Indian Interaction in Spanish Florida." Colonial Latin American Historical Review 2 (1993): 141-162. Explores African and Indigenous contact and interaction between 1526 and 1821. In 1526, an early Spanish attempt at establishing an outpost ended when African slaves joined Guale Indians in an uprising. Indians

The Deep South 79 and Blacks were in frequent contact with one another as slaves, and later in the 1600's when Blacks and Indians assisted in defending Spanish territory from the English. In 1762, the Treaty of Paris temporarily gave Florida to the English, and most of the colony, including Indians and Blacks, evacuated to Cuba. E30.

Landers, Jane. Black Society in Spanish Florida. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999. This study of Blacks in Spanish Florida from the contact period to 1821 includes many examples of interaction with Florida Indians.

E31.

Landers, Jane. "Gracia Real de Santa Theresa de Mose: A Free Black Town in Spanish Colonial Florida." American Historical Review 95 (1990): 9-30. Describes the presence of a community of maroons in Spanish Florida. Some of them reached Florida from the British colonies with the assistance of Yamasee Indians. Blacks and Indians also served in Spanish militias together.

E32.

Landers, Jane. "An Eighteenth-Century Community in Exile: The Floridianos in Cuba." NWIG: New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe WestIndische Gids 70 (1996): 39-58. In 1763 the signing of the Treaty of Paris caused Spain to give up Florida. The colonists were evacuated to Cuba along with Florida Indians and runaway Blacks from the English colonies who had formed the free Black outpost of Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose. Intermarriage between Florida Indians and Blacks occurred and these families were among those moved to Cuba.

E33.

Landers, Jane. "Jorge Biassou, Black Chieftain." El Escribano 25 (1988): 85-100. Life of Jorge Biassou, Black leader of the Haitian slave revolt who later settled in St. Augustine, Florida. Biassou headed a militia comprised of other Haitians and fugitive Blacks from the northern states in the defense of St. Augustine against the Creeks.

E34.

Legleu, Stephanie. "Indians and Africans in Slave Society." Loyola University Student Historical Journal 32 (2000-2001). Looks at interactions between Blacks and Indians in colonial Louisiana. Discusses cooperation in the Natchez War, the maroon village of

80 American Indian and African American Interactions Natanapalle, which was inhabited by fugitive Blacks and Indians, and the French use of Black soldiers to rebuff the Choctaw. http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/Legleu.html E35.

Le Petit, Fr. Mathurin. Translated by Richard H. Hart. The Natchez Massacre. New Orleans: Poor Rich Press, 1950. Describes the events of the Natchez War of 1729. The Natchez attacked the French colonists, and the French then sent the Choctaw after the Natchez to retrieve the prisoners, including many Africans. States that the Natchez killed none of the Black slaves during the war, but in other skirmishes did not hesitate to do so.

E36.

Lipsitz, George. "Mardi Gras Indians: Carnival and Counter-Narrative in Black New Orleans." Cultural Critique 10 (1988): 99-121. Briefly discusses colonial interactions between Blacks and Indians in New Orleans. Argues that Mardi Gras Indians are most influenced by Caribbean festivals and Wild West shows than by local Indian groups. Also discusses African American music from New Orleans that references American Indians.

E37.

Martin, Joan. "The Black Indians of Mardi Gras: Recollections of a Vanishing Tribe." Obsidian 4, no. 3 (1978): 46-54. Discussion of Mardi Gras Indians of New Orleans. Suggests the tradition originated from Creoles and Louisiana Indians integrating into clans or tribes.

E38.

Martinez, Maurice M. "Mardi Gras Indians." World & 14, no. 2 (1989): 666-677. Describes the Mardi Gras tradition of African Americans masquerading in decorative costumes partially based on Plains Indians dress. Looks at colonial interactions between Blacks and Indians in Louisiana.

E39.

Northup, Solomon. Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup, a Citizen of New-York, Kidnapped in Washington City in 1841, and Rescued in 1853. Auburn: Derby and Miller, 1853. Northup describes his time as a slave in Louisiana and his interactions with Indian-Black slaves and with a local Indian group, possibly Choctaw. Mentions an incident in which the Indians assisted a white man in recapturing fugitive slaves from another plantation.

The Deep South 81 E40.

Parenton, Vernon J., and Roland J. Pellegrin. ""The "Sabines": A Study of Racial Hybrids in a Louisiana Coastal Parish." Social Forces 29 (1950): 148-154. Describes the "Sabines," a name applied to a group assumed here to be of Indian, Black, and French ancestry. States that their way of life is far more French than either Black or Indian in all matters including language. Segregation of educational facilities presented problems for this group because they were not allowed to attend white schools but refused to attend Black schools.

E41.

Posey, Darrell A. "Origin, Development, and Maintenance of a Louisiana Mixed-Blood Community: The Ethnohistory of the Freejacks of the First Ward Settlement." Ethnohistory 26 (1979): 177-92. Study of the community known to outsiders as the Freejacks, a triracial group thought to be descended from whites, Blacks, and Indians, possibly Choctaw or Acolapissa. The group self-identified as white.

E42.

Post, Lauren C. "Some Note on the Attakapas Indians of Southwest Louisiana." Louisiana History 3 (1962): 221-244. At the end of this article on the Attakapas Indians, there is a brief mention of local Blacks who say they are descended from the tribe.

E43.

Proctor, Samuel, ed. Eighteenth Century Florida and Its Borderlands. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1975. Reprints papers presented at the First Annual Bicentennial Symposium in 1972. William C. Sturtevant's "Commentary" touches on the importance of further study of Black-Indian interactions.

E44.

Remini, Robert V. "Andrew Jackson's Adventures on the Natchez Trace." The Southern Quarterly 29 (Summer 1991): 35-42. Describes an incident in which the U.S. agent for the Mississippi Choctaws began confiscating Black slaves from white travelers who could not prove ownership, in an attempt to halt the flow of runaways through Choctaw territory.

E45.

Ricard, Ulysses S., Jr. "African Slavery in Provincial Mississippi." In Native, European, and African Cultures in Mississippi, 1500-1800, edited by Patricia K. Galloway. Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1991.

82 American Indian and African American Interactions Discusses the fear that French colonists had of Indians and Blacks aligning forces. The French colonial government organized Black slaves to attack the Chaouacha tribe near New Orleans. Free and enslaved Blacks were also used in campaigns against the Natchez and Chickasaw. Describes the communities that evolved in eighteenth century Louisiana and provincial Mississippi as Creole, being a combination of European, Indian, and African. E46.

Roach, Joseph. "Mardi Gras Indians and Others: Genealogies of American Performance." Theatre Journal 44 (1992): 461-483. Discusses varying theories about the origin of the masquerading tradition of the Mardi Gras Indians, including the possible influence of Wild West Shows that visited New Orleans in the 1880's.

E47.

Sands, Rosita M. "Carnival Celebrations in Africa and the New World: Junkanoo and the Black Indians of Mardi Gras." Black Music Research Journal 11 (1991): 75-92. Describes the Mardi Gras tradition of African Americans masquerading in American Indian costumes. Presents evidence that this may have been occurring as early as 1781.

E48.

Smith, Michael P. "New Orleans' Carnival Culture from the Underside." Plantation Society in the Americas 3 (1990): 11-32. Looks at lesser known aspects of Carnival in New Orleans, focusing on the "Black Indians" or "Mardi Gras Indians." Author argues that Africans and American Indians were probably interacting in New Orleans in the early 1700's, and that the practice of African Americans masquerading as Indians was heavily influenced by the appearances of Plains Indians in the Wild West shows that began to visit New Orleans in the 1880's.

E49.

Speck, Frank G. "A Social Reconnaissance of the Creole Houma Indian Trappers of the Louisiana Bayous." America Indigena 3 (1943) 134145. Briefly mentions that there are some Houma with Black features and how they are referred to by other members of the tribe.

E50.

Stanton, Max E. "A Remnant Indian Community: The Houma of Southern Louisiana." In The Not So Solid South: Anthropological Studies in a Regional Subculture, edited by J. Kenneth Morland. Athens: Southern Anthropological Society, 1971.

The Deep South 83 Briefly mentions interaction of the historical Houma tribe with escaped Black slaves. At the time the article was written, Houma were being forced out of their traditional areas (largely by oil companies moving into their swamplands) and into areas already populated by African Americans and whites, and the article discusses attitudes towards these new neighbors. Argues that the Houma have some African ancestry but not as much as has been implied in other works. E51.

Stanton, Max E. "Southern Louisiana Survivors: The Houma Indians." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L. Williams. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Discusses the Houma of Louisiana, some of whom have African ancestry, and how this is viewed within the tribe.

E52.

Street, Lairold M. with Kathy Ferger. "Raised by Former Slaves: A Conversation with Mamie Burkes, 23 July 1983." Journal of the AfroAmerican Historical and Genealogical Society 17, no. 1 (1998): 1-28. Interview with Mamie Burkes, born 1897. States her grandmother was a half-Indian slave in Alabama.

E53.

Swanton, John R. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of Ethnology Bulletin 137. Washington: GPO, 1946. Mentions a Black slave from the De Soto expedition living among the Indians in Alabama for twelve years and two runaway Black slaves who married women of the Ais tribe of Florida.

E54.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold. The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents: Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France: 1610-1791. Cleveland: The Burrows Brothers Company, 1896-1901. Most references to African American and Native American interaction are in volume 68 and refer to slaves among the Natchez in the early eighteenth century.

E55.

United States. Letter from the Secretary of the Navy Transmitting in Obedience to a Resolution of the House of Representatives, of the Twenty-Sixth Ultimo, Sundry Documents Relative to the Destruction of the Negro Fort in East Florida, in the Month of July, 1816. E. De Krafft: Washington, 1819. Includes letters written by members of the U.S. Navy leading up to and following the destruction of the Negro Fort, which the British had

84 American Indian and African American Interactions turned over to the control of Indians and fugitive Black slaves. Includes a first-hand account of the attack. E56.

Usner, Daniel H. Jr. "American Indians in Colonial New Orleans." In Powhatan 's Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Peter H. Wood, M. Thomas Hatley, and Gregory A Waselkov. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1989. Includes information on early interaction between Indians and Blacks in colonial New Orleans. Members of both groups were often enslaved together. Mentions the maroon village of Natanapalle, which was populated by fugitive Blacks and Indians. Describes colonial attempts to discourage alliances between the two, including hiring Indians as slave hunters and using Blacks to destroy the Chouacha Indian village.

E57.

Usner, Daniel H., Jr. "American Indians on the Cotton Frontier: Changing Economic Relations with Citizens and Slaves in the Mississippi Territory." Journal of American History 72 (1985): 297317. Describes the economic changes in Mississippi Territory between the late 1700's and early 1800's that led Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creeks to begin farming cotton and exploiting Black slaves. Briefly discusses how Blacks and Indians interacted and created multiracial communities, such as the Cajuns of Alabama and the Freejacks of Louisiana. Looks at government concern over the potential of combined Black and Indian revolts.

E58.

Usner, Daniel H., Jr. "From African Captivity to American Slavery: The Introduction of Black Laborers to Colonial Louisiana." Louisiana History 20 (1979): 25-48. Describes associations between Louisiana Indians and Africans that occurred when Black slaves ran away, including the maroon village of Natanapalle, where Black and Indian fugitives were found living together, and recounts efforts made by French colonial authorities to keep Blacks and Indians from aligning.

E59.

Usner, Daniel Henry Jr. "The Frontier Exchange Economy of the Lower Mississippi Valley in the Eighteenth Century." William and Mary Quarterly 44 (1987): 165-192. Examines the regional economy of colonial Louisiana in which Indian traders, African slaves, and European colonists participated.

The Deep South 85 E60.

Usner, Daniel H., Jr. "Indian-Black Relations in Colonial and Antebellum Louisiana." In Slave Cultures and the Cultures of Slavery, edited by Stephan Palmie. Knoxville: University of Texas Press, 1995. Looks at interactions between Indians and Blacks in the lower Mississippi Valley, using a range of contact points such as Indian villages, plantations, maroon camps, hunting camps, the deerskin trade, and port towns where people came together. Earliest contact occurred when the two groups were enslaved simultaneously and intermarriage occurred in the early 1700's. The French colonial government took pains to discourage alliances between the two groups, hiring Indians as slavecatchers. During the Natchez Indian War of 1729, 300 Black slaves were captured by the Natchez, and Choctaws allied with the French were sent to retrieve them. In response to the Natchez attack, the French sent Black slaves to destroy the Chaouacha Indians. After Spain gained control of the colony, the colonial government began to control interactions between the two groups and by the 1820's interaction had decreased, although it did not end entirely.

E61.

Usner, Daniel. Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1992. Includes information on cooperation and interaction between Black slaves and Indians in Louisiana, including the maroon village of Natanapalle. Also discusses the Natchez War.

E62.

Webre, Stephen. "The Problem of Indian Slavery in Spanish Louisiana, 1769-1803." Louisiana History 25 (1984): 117-135. Describes enslavement of Indians in Spanish colonial Louisiana, a practice that was supposedly illegal. In 1790, three slaves went to court for their freedom, arguing that because they were part Indian, they should be freed. Author located thirteen similar cases in Spanish colonial records.

E63.

Wehmeyer, Stephen C. "Indian Altars of the Spiritual Church: Kongo Echoes in New Orleans." African Arts 33, no. 4 (2000) 62-69, 95-96. Looks at the African American Spiritual churches of New Orleans, which venerate Native American historical figures, especially Black Hawk. Focuses on the altars of the churches, the presentation of American Indian imagery, and how they are used.

86 American Indian and African American Interactions E64.

Williams, James. Life and Adventures of James Williams, a Fugitive Slave, with a Full Description of the Underground Railroad. San Francisco: Women's Union Print, 1873. Author describes his service in the Modoc War. Contains a description of a fugitive slave from Georgia named Jim Bow-legs, said to be the nephew of Seminole Chief Billy Bowlegs.

E65.

Willis, William S. "Divide and Rule: Red, Black, and White in the Southeast." Journal of Negro History 48 (1963): 157-76. Documents the fears that colonial authorities had of Black slaves and Indians joining forces and rising up against them. Discusses how authorities attempted to control the interaction of the two, not always successfully. Discusses fugitive Blacks among the Indians, Blacks forming maroon villages, and the white practice of using Indians as slave catchers. Whites also used Blacks in battle against the Indians and told Indians that Blacks were responsible for smallpox epidemics. Also discusses the Stono Rebellion of 1739, during which colonial authorities used Indians to suppress a Black slave insurrection. Concludes that, on the whole, relations between Indian and Blacks in the colonial southeast were hostile rather than cooperative.

E66.

Young, Mary. "Racism in Red and Black: Indians and Other Free People of Color in Georgia Law, Politics, and Removal Policy." Georgia Historical Quarterly 73 (1989): 492-518. Looks at race relations between Blacks, Native Americans, and whites in antebellum Georgia. Looks at the role of the American Colonization Society, which aimed to deport free Blacks to Africa, and parallels this with removal.

The Five Tribes Fl.

Abel, Annie Heloise. The American Indian and the End of the Confederacy, 1863-1866. Edited by Theda Perdue and Michael Green. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Looks at the experiences of the Five Tribes in the Civil War and the relationships between the Confederacy and the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole governments. Describes the experiences of former slaves of the Five Tribes following emancipation and what was required of each of the tribes regarding its freedmen in the treaties signed in 1866.

F2.

Abel, Annie Heloise. The American Indian as Slaveholder and Secessionist. Edited by Theda Perdue and Michael Green. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. Looks at slaveholding in the Five Tribes, support for the Confederacy, and the beginnings of the Civil War.

F3.

Abel, Annie Heloise. The American Indian in the Civil War, 18621865. Edited by Theda Perdue and Michael Green. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Describes the experiences of the Five Tribes during the Civil War. All five signed treaties with the Confederacy, but in the Cherokee, Creek and Seminole Nations, enough people were opposed to joining the Confederacy that it led to factionalism and civil strife within each nation.

F4.

The Afro-American Advocate. Coffeyville, Kansas. This weekly newspaper began publishing in 1891, and stated that it was "published in the interest of the Negro race of Southeast Kansas, and the freedmen of the Indian Territories. Particular attention will be given to the elevation of the race, and especially to the doings of the race in this section of the Indian Territory."

88 American Indian and African American Interactions F5.

Alexander, Adele Logan. Ambiguous Lives: Free Women of Color in Rural Georgia, 1789-1879. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1991. Studies the lives of free women of color in upper central Georgia. Discusses the American Indian ancestry that many of these families had and situations that led to Black- Indian intermarriage.

F6.

Andrews, Thomas. "Freedmen in Indian Territory: A Post-Civil War Dilemma." Journal of the West 4 (1965): 367-376. Looks at Reconstruction in Indian Territory and the results of the 1866 treaties, signed by each of the Five Tribes with the U. S. government. The treaties gave the freedmen of each tribe citizenship, but the tribes reacted in a range of ways, from accepting their new citizens to rejecting them. Specifically looks at the Choctaw and Chickasaw whose treaty gave them the option of having the freedmen removed from their nation.

F7.

"Appendix 37." Chronicles of Oklahoma 5 (1927): 79-94. Reprints the 1870 Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners to the Secretary of the Interior. Contains a section ("The Negroes") that overviews the status of freedmen in the different Indian Territory nations. Other instances of interactions between Blacks and Indians are mentioned elsewhere in the report.

F8.

Aptheker, Herbert. "Additional Data on American Maroons." Journal of Negro History 32 (1947): 452-460. Mentions fugitive Black slave interactions with Creeks and Catawbas in South Carolina.

F9.

Aptheker, Herbert. "Maroons Within the Present Limits of the United States." Journal of Negro History 24 (1939) 167-184. Describes activities of fugitive Black slaves in the United States, including interactions with American Indians in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

F10.

Bailey, M. Thomas. Reconstruction in Indian Territory: A Story of Avarice, Discrimination, and Opportunism. Port Washington, NY: National University Publications, Kennikat Press, 1972.

The Five Tribes 89 Includes information on the treatment of the former slaves of the five tribes following the Civil War. Fll.

Baker, T. Lindsay and Julie Baker. The WPA Oklahoma Slave Narratives. Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1996. Reproduces all the known WPA slave narratives from Oklahoma. Contains many references to American Indians. Many interviewees identified themselves as being of partial Indian ancestry, and many mention that their owners were Indian.

F12.

Baker, Ronald L. Homeless, Friendless, and Penniless: The WPA Interviews with Former Slaves Living in Indiana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000. Includes narratives by ex-slaves describing life among the Indians or mentioning parents or ancestors who were part Cherokee or Choctaw.

F13.

Banks, Dean. "Civil-War Refugees From the Indian Territory, In the North, 1861-1864." Chronicles of Oklahoma 41 (1963): 286-298. Describes the conditions during the Civil War faced by Indians and Blacks who fled from Indian Territory to Kansas to avoid the fighting.

F14.

Bartl, Renate. "Native American Tribes and Their African Slaves." In Slave Cultures and the Cultures of Slavery, edited by Stephan Palmie. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 1995. Provides an overview of African slavery among American Indians, focusing on the Five Tribes. Criticizes historians and writers for generalizing about Indian slaveholding and argues that much of what has been written on the subject is not based on historical evidence. Looks at the effects of removal, the Civil War, and reconstruction on the nations in the Indian Territory.

F15.

Bibb, Henry. The Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, American Slave. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001. Autobiography of Henry Bibb, who was purchased by an Indian in the Indian Territory sometime during the late 1830's. He stated that this period of his enslavement was the least cruel of all his experiences.

F16.

Billington, Monroe. "Black Slavery in Indian Territory: The Ex-Slave Narratives." Chronicles of Oklahoma 60, no. 1 (1982): 56-65.

90 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the ex-slave narratives collected by the Federal Writers Project of the Works Progress Administration, later published as The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography. Describes the narratives of ex-slaves from Indian Territory who had been owned by Indians. Includes photographs of former slaves. F17.

"Black Indians." American Visions 12, no. 6 (1997-1998): 51-? A brief overview of slavery in the Five Tribes.

F18.

Bolt, Christine. "The Anti-Slavery Origins of Concern for the American Indians." In Anti-Slavery, Religion and Reform: Essays in Memory of Roger Anstey, edited by Christine Bolt and Seymour Drescher. Folkestone, England: Dawson, 1980. Looks at the abolition movement among the different missions to the Five Tribes, and the relationship between abolitionism and later concern for the welfare of American Indians.

F19.

Brown, Lois Katz. Negro-Indian Relations in the Southern United States, 1526-1890. Thesis, University of Toledo, 1968. Focuses on Black and Indian interaction among the tribes of the southeast who held slaves and were removed to Indian Territory. Looks at how Spanish, French, British and American colonial authorities established policies to control the interactions between the two groups. Discusses early interaction between the two, the gradual acceptance of Black slavery among each of the Five Tribes, and the effects of removal and reconstruction.

F20.

Burton, Art T. "The Legacy of Bass Reeves, Deputy United States Marshal." The New Crisis 106, 3 (1999) 38-41. Looks at the life of Bass Reeves, Deputy U.S. Marshal in Indian Territory. Reeves was born a slave but escaped into Indian Territory where he lived with the Creek before becoming a lawman.

F21.

Butrick, Tilly. "Butrick's Voyages, 1812-1819." In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edited by Ruben Gold Thwaites. Cleveland: A. H. Clark, 1904. Describes encountering slaveholding Chickasaws and Choctaws in the southeast.

F22.

Carter, Kent. "Choctaw-Chickasaw Enrollment: Part 1." Prologue 31 (1999): 230-245.

The Five Tribes 91 Details the activities of the Dawes Commission, which in 1898 was tasked with the creation of rolls that were to list all Chickasaw and Choctaw citizens and freedmen. By 1890 the population of these areas was approximately 11,000 Choctaws, 5,000 Chickasaws and 8,000 Blacks. Looks at the legislative background of the Commission and the process faced by those applying for enrollment. F23.

Carter, Kent. "Choctaw-Chickasaw Enrollment: Part 2." Prologue 32 (2000): 6-22. Continuation of above article. Describes issues surrounding the enrollment of freedmen.

F24.

Carter, Kent. The Dawes Commission and the Allotment of the Five Civilized Tribes, 1893-1914. Ancestry.com, Inc., 1998. Describes the issues surrounding allotment policy of the U. S., and how records were created and used in the process that determined who was entitled to a share of land in Indian Territory.

F25.

Chapman, Berlin B. "Freedmen and the Oklahoma Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 29 (1948): 150-159.

Lands."

Describes the situation of freedmen of the Five Tribes following emancipation regarding legal status and ownership of land and the activities of African Americans from other states attempting to settle there. F26.

Christian, Emma Ervin. "Memories of my Childhood Days in the Choctaw Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 9 (1931): 155-165. Mentions slaves and freedmen of the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations.

F27.

Confer, Clarissa Woelfel. "Turmoil in Indian Territory: The Civil War Experience of the Five Nations." Ph.D. diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1997. Argues that while most of the Five Tribes practiced a style of slavery similar to whites, the Seminoles were an exception in their relatively decent treatment of Black slaves. Outlines how the Five Tribes became involved in the national debate on slavery and what effect this had on each nation. Also explores each nation's relationship with the Confederate government and the United States government. Includes a section on the experiences of Black slaves in Indian Territory during the Civil War.

92 American Indian and African American Interactions F28.

Cunningham, Frank. General Stand Watie's Confederate Indians. San Antonio: Nay lor Company, 1959. History of the Cherokee Confederate Brigadier General Stand Watie. Watie's troops fought African American Union troops at the Battle of Honey Springs.

F29.

Doran, Michael. "Negro Slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 68 (1978): 335-350. Looks at the practice of slavery among the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole. Argues that the earliest slave holders among the Indians were white traders and Indian leaders of partial European ancestry, and that full-blooded Indians did not begin to own slaves until much later and never in the quantities that mixed bloods did. Looks at how slavery that began in the southern states continued once the tribes had been removed to Indian Territory, and in what capacity the slaves were used. Presents demographic statistics on slaves, slave ownership, and numbers of slaves owned in the Indian Territory.

F30.

Doran, Michael. "Population Statistics of Nineteenth Century Indian Territory." Chronicles of Oklahoma 53 (1975-1976): 492-515. Analyzes population statistics for Indian territory. Includes some data on slave populations.

F31.

Duncan, Otis Durant. "The Fusion of White, Negro, and Indian Cultures at the Converging of the New South and the West." The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 14 (1934): 357-369. Briefly discusses Black slavery among the Five Tribes in the movement of populations into Oklahoma.

F32.

Dundes, Alan. "African Tales Among the North American Indians." Southern Folklore Quarterly 29 (1965): 207-219. Looks at the similarity of Cherokee and Creek folktales to traditional Black stories such as the Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit tales. Argues that these folktales are African in origin and were adopted by American Indians, and not vice versa.

F33.

Fischer, Leroy, ed. The Civil War Era in Indian Territory. Los Angeles: Lorrin L. Morrison, 1974.

The Five Tribes 93 A collection of articles previously printed in The Journal of the West dealing with the Civil War in Indian Territory. Provides information on the attitudes of the Indian Territory nations towards slavery and the Confederacy, and on the treatment of freedmen following emancipation. F34.

Fisher, Mike. "The First Kansas Colored: Massacre at Poison Springs." Kansas History 2, no. 2 (1979): 121-128. Describes the 1864 battle at Poison Springs, Arkansas, in which members of the Union Army's Kansas First Colored engaged in battle with the Confederate forces, which included the Second Indian Brigade, made up of Choctaws under the command of Colonel Tandy Walker. As many as three hundred members of the Kansas First Colored were killed.

F35.

Fite, Gilbert. "Development of the Cotton Industry by the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Country." Journal of Southern History 15 (1949): 342-353. Looks at the adoption and growth of the cotton industry among the five tribes. Includes a discussion of the role of Black slaves in developing the industry.

F36.

Foley, Hugh William, Jr. "Jazz from Muskogee, Oklahoma: Eastern Oklahoma as a Hearth of Musical Culture." Ph.D. diss., Oklahoma State University, 2000. Explores reasons why so many great Jazz musicians came from Muscogee, OK, formerly Indian Territory. Argues that this location was similar to New Orleans in that it was a meeting ground for people of many cultures which, coupled with the Eastern Oklahoma all-black town movement, allowed for independence and relative freedom of cultural expression. Discusses the interaction of Blacks and Indians in this area and includes biographical information on several Jazz musicians who were of Black and Indian heritage.

F37.

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. "A Cherokee Pioneer." Chronicles of Oklahoma 7 (1929): 364-374. Cherokee citizen Ella Flora Goodey Robinson recalled her family's Black slaves being very unnerved by finding Seminole gravesites.

F38.

Geist, Christopher. "Slavery Among the Indians. An Overview." Negro History Bulletin 38, no. 7 (October November 1975): 465-467.

94 American Indian and African American Interactions Overview of similarities and differences between white slaveholders and Indian slaveholders, and suggests that Indians were more humane to their slaves. Examines slavery before and after removal to the Indian Territory. F39.

Govenar, Alan. African American Frontiers: Slave Narratives and Oral Histories. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2000. Contains several first person narrative accounts of African Americans describing Indians as slave owners.

F40.

Grinde, Donald A. Jr. and Quintard Taylor. "Red vs. Black: Conflict and Accomodation in the Post Civil War Indian Territory, 1865-1907." American Indian Quarterly 8 (1984): 211-229. Describes the situation in the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole tribes following the Civil War. Because they had sided with the Confederacy, the federal government declared all previous treaties void. New treaties were signed with all five in 1866 which rendered all Black slaves free and members of the tribe of their former owner. Describes the different ways in which the tribes either rejected or accepted their former slaves as full tribal members.

F41.

Gross, Ariela. "Between "Race" and "Nation": Indian/Black Identity in the Southern Courtroom, 1780-1840." University of Southern California Law School Research Paper No. 00-6, 2000. Looks at identity and legal status of people with African American and Native ancestry as revealed in legal disputes. Looks at early IndianBlack interaction and legal steps taken by tribes to prevent intermarriage with Blacks or to prevent themselves being classified as Blacks.

F42.

Grow, Stewart. "The Blacks of Amber Valley: Negro Pioneering in Northern Alberta." Canadian Ethnic Studies 6, no. 1-2 (1974): 17-38. Discusses the experiences of Oklahoma Blacks, including some of the freedmen of the Five Tribes, who emigrated to Alberta in the early 1900's.

F43.

Harris, N. Sayre. "Journal of a Tour in the Indian Territory." Chronicles of Oklahoma 10 (1932): 219-256. Published entries from the 1844 journal of N. Sayre Harris, secretary and general agent of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Harris described seeing a Black woman act as an interpreter for a Choctaw family and

The Five Tribes 95 meeting Seminole leaders Micanopy and John Horse. Also mentions the status of the Seminole Blacks under the Creeks. F44.

Jackson, Neeley Belle. Political and Economic History of the Negro in Indian Territory. Masters thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1960. Includes information on laws in the Indian Territory nations that impacted both free and slave Blacks, the level of acceptance of Black slavery among the Five Tribes, effects of the movements for and against slavery, attempts to re-enslave free blacks, slave uprisings in the Cherokee Nation, and the enrollment and allotment periods. Seminole interaction with slaves and freedmen was different from the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw and Creek because the Seminoles allowed Black slaves to establish separate Black towns within the Seminole Nation.

F45.

Jeltz, Wyatt F. A Study of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians as Slaveholders. Masters thesis, Kansas Teachers College of Pittsburgh, 1945. Explores the history of slavery among the Choctaw and Chickasaw, both before and after removal. Argues that the Indians with white ancestry were the first to own slaves in each tribe and that slavery as practiced by the Indians was far less harsh than that of whites. Intermarriage between Indians and Blacks was common, although prior to the Civil War the tribes began implementing laws designed to promote less interaction between the two. Discusses the restrictions placed on Blacks, both free and slave, and threats from slave hunters. Both the Choctaw and Chickasaw allied with the Confederacy in 1861, but later took different approaches toward the freedmen at the time of allotment.

F46.

Jeltz, Wyatt F. "The Relations of Negroes and Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians." Journal of Negro History 33 (1948): 24-37. Looks at the status of Blacks in the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations, from before removal to the reconstruction era. Looks at the treatment of slaves in the two Nations, and argues that it was identical to the practice of slavery by southern whites.

F47.

Johnson, Willard. "Tracing Trails of Blood on Ice: Commemorating "The Great Escape" in 1861-62 of Indians and Blacks into Kansas." Negro History Bulletin 64 (2001): 9-18. Describes the exodus during the early Civil War of a group of Creeks, Creek slaves, Seminoles, and Shawnees who left Indian Territory under

96 American Indian and African American Interactions the leadership of Opothleyahola and headed for Kansas. The group, loyal to the Union, were pursued by Confederate Indian troops. Survivors of the group were later enlisted into the Union Army's First Indian Home Guard and into the First and Second Kansas Colored Regiments. Traces the genealogy of some of those who remained in Kansas. F48.

Joseph, Denise A. African Americans, Native Americans, and the Treaties of 1866: The Impact of Federal Policy Towards Slave-owning American Nations. Thesis, Howard University, 1996. Describes the reconstruction treaties of 1866 and their impact on the Five Tribes and their former slaves.

F49.

Kelton, Paul Timothy. "Not All Disappeared: Disease and Southeastern Indian Survival, 1500-1800." Ph.D. diss., University of Oklahoma, 1998. Discusses the devastating impact of diseases from white colonists and African slaves on American Indians of the Southeast. Focus is on how the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw were able to survive the epidemics.

F50.

Kenney, Susan A. "Exploring the Dynamics of Indian-Black Contact: A Review Essay." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 5, no. 3 (1981): 49-57. An extended review of four of Daniel F. Littlefield, Jr.'s books: Africans and Seminoles, The Cherokee Freedmen, Africans and Creeks, and The Chickasaw Freedmen.

F51.

Krauthammer, Barbara. "Blacks on the Borders: African Americans' Transitions from Slavery to Freedom in Texas and the Indian territory, 1836-1907." Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 2000. Looks at slavery and emancipation in the Creek, Choctaw, and Chickasaw Nations. Looks at the roles of Blacks in each nation preceding and following the Civil War.

F52.

Lane, Isaac. Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, LL.D. With a Short History of the C.M.E. Church in America and of Methodism. South Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the M. E. Church, 1916. African American minister recorded his experiences preaching and traveling in the Indian Territory in the 1870's.

The Five Tribes 97 F53.

Laracy, Brother John. "Sacred Heart Mission and Abbey." Chronicles of Oklahoma 5 (1927): 234-250. Reprints the diary of Joseph Lanchet, a French traveler in Indian Territory in 1884. Lanchet noted freedmen among the tribes, including the establishment of a mission school for them.

F54.

Lewitt, Robert T. "Indian Missions and Antislavery Sentiment: A Conflict of Evangelical and Humanitarian Ideals." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50 (1963): 39-55. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions sent missionaries to convert the Cherokee and Choctaw beginning in 1816. Many of the most powerful Cherokee and Choctaw were slaveholders, and in order to ensure that their new converts were comfortable with the church, the American Board refused to condemn slavery. Despite this, the missionaries were still viewed by the Indians as Northern abolitionists.

F55.

Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. with Peter Nabokov. "Recovering the Past and Spreading the Word: A Conversation with Daniel F. Littlefield." North Dakota Quarterly 67 (2000): 174-187. Littlefield discusses his work on African American and Native American interactions.

F56.

Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr., and Lonnie Underhill. "Black Dreams and "Free Homes": The Oklahoma Territory, 1891-1894." Phylon 34 (1973): 342-357. Looks at the efforts of African American groups to obtain former Indian lands in the Oklahoma Territory. Lands of the Cherokee, Sac and Fox, Iowa, Potawatomi, Cheyenne-Arapaho, Tonkawa, and Pawnee were opened for settlement between 1891 and 1894. Mentions certain tribes expressing resistance to the arrival of Blacks.

F57.

Littlefield, Daniel and Lonnie E. Underhill. "Negro Marshals in the Indian Territory." Journal of Negro History 56 (1971): 77-87. Looks at the activities of African American men who served as U.S. Marshals in the Indian Territory. Some were part Indian, some were Indian freedmen, and others, such as Bass Reeves, were from outside Indian Territory. The lawmen were responsible for bringing criminals within Indian Territory to the U.S. Court in Fort Smith, Arkansas.

98 American Indian and African American Interactions F58.

Manning, Edwin Cassander. Biographical, Historical Miscellaneous Selections. Cedar Rapids: E. C. Manning, 1911.

and

Manning was First Lieutenant in charge of a Union army Indian Brigade. He describes Creeks and Seminoles who enlisted with their former slaves who served as their interpreters. Manning complained he could not give orders unless the Blacks were present to interpret. F59.

May, Katja. African Americans and Native Americans in the Creek and Cherokee Nations, 1830's to 1920's: Collision and Collusion. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996. Begins with an overview of Creek and Cherokee interactions with Blacks to the 1830's, then delves in detail into the post-removal period in Indian Territory, including the Civil War, emancipation, and allotment. Looks at the experiences of people of both African and Native ancestry. Includes a demographic profile of each nation from 1880-1910.

F60.

McLoughlin, William G. The Cherokee Ghost Dance: Essays on the Southeastern Indians, 1789-1861. Macon: Mercer University Press, 1984. Includes several essays on slavery among the Cherokees and Choctaws.

F61.

McLoughlin, William Gerald. "Indian Slaveholders and Presbyterian Missionaries, 1837-1861." Church History 42 (1973): 535-551. Discusses how the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions, based in New York City, treated its Indian Missions among the slaveholding Five Tribes. Its main competitor, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, withdrew all missions to these groups because of their proslavery stances, which the missionaries opposed. Looks at the various situations among the Creeks, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee and Seminoles as recorded in the archives of the Presbyterian Historical Society. Mentions relations between Black slaves and the Indians as well as individuals of combined Black and Indian ancestry.

F62.

McLoughlin, William G. "A Note on African Sources of American Indian Racial Myths." Journal of American Folklore 89 (1976): 331335. Argues that American Indian folktales that attempt to explain the origins of white, Black, and Indian people and offer a racial hierarchy probably were African in origin.

The Five Tribes 99 F63.

McLoughlin, William G. "Red Indians, Black Slavery, and White Racism: America's Slaveholding Indians." American Quarterly 25 (1974): 367-385. Describes the differing ways that slaveholding Indians interacted with and treated their slaves. Argues that Black interactions with the Seminoles were demonstrably different from other southeastern tribes because the two groups initially met under Spanish governance, not American. Looks at missionary activity directed at the slaveholding Indians and the gradual adoption of white racial attitudes by Indians.

F64.

Mellinger, Philip. "Discrimination and Statehood in Oklahoma." Chronicles of Oklahoma 49, no. 3 (1971): 340-378. History of discrimination against African Americans in Oklahoma by both whites and Indians.

F65.

Mereness, Newton D., ed. Travels in the American Colonies. New York: MacMillan, 1916. This is a collection of first-hand accounts of travel in North America between 1690 and 1783. Includes several accounts that mention African and Native American interaction among the Natchez, Creeks, Cherokees, and Mohawks. Tobias Fitch's account of attempting to retrieve a Black man from the Creeks is more extensive.

F66.

Miles, Tiya. "Uncle Tom Was an Indian: Tracing the Red in Black Slavery." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Argues that the popular conception that only people of African origin were enslaved is incorrect, and that concepts of slavery must be broadened to include the many American Indians and Black Indians who were also enslaved in great numbers. Uses the WPA Federal Writers Project interviews with former slaves to explore issues of how Black Indians view themselves and their ethnicity. Also uses evidence from the interviews to expose the harsh lives of Black Indian women.

F67.

Minges, Patrick. Aframerindian http://www.people.virginia.edii/-pnm3i7afrani/

Slave

Narratives.

Searchable website contains many narratives by former slaves who identified themselves as having both Black and Indian ancestry.

100 American Indian and African American Interactions F68.

Minges, Patrick. "Beneath the Underdog: Race, Religions, and the Trail of Tears." American Indian Quarterly 25 (2002): 453-479. Begins with a recounting of the enslavement and selling of Indians by Europeans, occurring in the earliest colonial years, and describes how Africans and Indians first encountered each other in the common state of enslavement. In the late 1700's whites began to fear an alliance between the two groups and implemented laws limiting or prohibiting interaction, but extensive interaction continued nonetheless. Following the Revolutionary War, the U. S. began to implement an Indian Policy that resulted in the eventual forced relocations of the southeastern tribes. Looks at the experiences of Blacks and Native Americans on the Trail of Tears, where estimates of combined Black and Indian deaths are between five and eight thousand. Also discusses Seminole and Black Seminole resistance to removal.

F69.

Minges, Patrick. ""His Brother and Not His Slave": Africans, Native Americans, and the "Trail of Tears." Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society Journal 18, no. 2 (1999): 67-75. Looks at the experiences of Blacks and Indians of the Southeast, focusing on the experiences of the Cherokee Nation in the removal period.

F70.

Morton, Ohland. "Confederate Government Relations with the Five Civilized Tribes." Chronicles of Oklahoma 31, no. 2 (1953): 189-204 and 31, no. 3 (1953): 299-322. Includes information on slavery, tribal attitudes towards slavery, and relations with the Confederacy in each of the Five Tribes.

F71.

Mundende, D. Chongo. "The Undesirable Oklahomans: Black Immigration to Western Canada." Chronicles of Oklahoma 76 (1998): 282-297. Discusses the roles of freedmen of the Five Tribes in the migration of American Blacks to Canada in the early 1900's.

F72.

Naylor-Ojurongbe, Celia E. ""Born and Raised Among These People, I Don't Want To Know Any Other": Slaves' Acculturation in Nineteenth-Century Indian Territory." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America. Edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Uses the WPA interviews with former slaves to explore how Black slaves of both Indian and non-Indian descent viewed their enslavement

The Five Tribes 101 by Indians, and to what extent they grew to culturally identify with Indians. Many of the interviewees recalled wearing Indian clothing, having knowledge of an indigenous language, or being familiar with native cooking and medicine. Contains extensive information on daily life of slaves in Indian Territory. F73.

Neilson, John C. "Indian Masters, Black Slaves: An Oral History of the Civil War in Indian Territory." Panhandle-Plains Historical Review 65 (1992): 42-54. Discusses the oral histories of the Slave Narratives Collection of the Federal Writers Project collected between 1936 and 1938 and published in George P. Rawick's The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography. Includes excerpts of testimony dealing with the perceptions of Indian slave owners.

F74.

O'Dell, Larry. Oklahoma's Black Towns. Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, 2000. Discusses the establishment of all-Black towns within the territories of the Five Tribes following emancipation.

F75.

Perdue, Theda. Mixed-Blood Indians : Racial Construction in the Early South. Athens : University of Georgia Press, 2003. Includes information on the adoption of Blacks into southeastern Indian groups, slavery, and the perception of biracial people in these societies. Includes many examples of Black-Indian interaction.

F76.

Pfaff, Carol W. "The Question of Pidgin Transmission from Blacks to American Indians in the United States: Some Sociolinguistic Effects of Contact." In Von Shakespeare bis Chomsky, edited by Elfi Bettinger and Thomas Meier-Fohrbeck. Frankfurt: Verlag Peter Lang, 1987. Looks at linguistic exchange between the Five Tribes and African Americans. Argues that Black slaves were more likely to learn an Indian language than to transmit pidgin to Indians. Looks at slavery, use of Blacks in treaty negotiations, and linguistic exchange in the sphere of religion.

F77.

Rampp, Lary C. "Negro Troop Activity in Indian Territory, 18631865." Chronicles of Oklahoma 47, no. 1 (1969): 531-559. Details the experiences of Blacks serving in the Union Army in Indian territory. In one battle, the Kansas First Colored Volunteers Infantry

102 American Indian and African American Interactions regiment fought with the Union Indian Brigade to defeat a Confederate unit at Cabin Creek. F78.

Rawick, George P. The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1972. Volume 12 of the Supplement, First Series, reprints slave narratives from the Indian Pioneer Settlers Project of the Oklahoma Historical Society and from the Federal Writers Project. Many of the people interviewed were part Indian, were owned by an Indian, or had a parent owned by an Indian.

F79.

Ronda, James P. ""We Have a Country": Race, Geography, and the Invention of Indian Territory." Journal of the Early Republic 19 (1999): 739-755. Discusses the political creation of Indian Territory by white authorities and mentions the status of slaves, free blacks, and freedmen.

F80.

Russell, Steve. "Apples are the Color of Blood." Critical Sociology 28 (2002): 65-76. Looks at American Indian attitudes regarding skin color, perceptions of race, and Indian identity. Discusses race, racism, and slavery in Indian Territory.

F81.

Savage, W. Sherman. "The Role of Negro Soldiers in Protecting the Indian Territory from Intruders." Journal of Negro History 36 (1951): 25-34. During the late 1870's and the 1880's, Black soldiers of the U. S. Army's Ninth Cavalry served in preventing whites from illegally settling in Indian Territory. This continued until 1889 when the territory was officially opened to white settlers.

F82.

Shepard, R. Bruce. Deemed Unsuitable: Blacks from Oklahoma Move to the Canadian Prairies in Search of Equality in the Early 20th Century, Only to Find Racism in Their New Home. Toronto: Umbrella Press, 1997. Describes how attitudes towards Blacks in the former Indian Territory influenced the migration of Blacks to Canada.

F83.

Shirley, Glenn. Marauders of the Indian Nations: The Bill Cook Gang and Cherokee Bill. Stillwater, OK: Barbed Wire Press, 1994.

The Five Tribes 103 Outlaw Cherokee Bill, a part Black enrolled Cherokee, was in a gang with Bill Cook, also Cherokee, and other Cherokees. F84.

"Slavery Among the Indians." Southern Literary Messenger 28 (1859): 333-335. Discusses the prevalence of slavery among the Oklahoma tribes, arguing that the acceptance of slavery is a requisite to becoming "civilized."

F85.

Smith, Bruce. Black Slavery and Black Citizenship in Indian and Oklahoma Territory. Masters thesis, University of Central Oklahoma, 2001. Uses slave narratives to explore the relationships between Blacks and Indians, beginning with the slave/slaveholder relationship and progressing towards the days of emancipation and Black citizenship in Indian Territory. Includes a chapter contrasting conditions of slavery under Indians with slavery under whites, and a chapter on white and Indian attempts to politically disenfranchise freedmen.

F86.

Smith, Gloria L. Trails to Grandma's House: The Darkest Tears on the Trail of Tears. Blacks Involved in the Removal of the Five Civilized Tribes: Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminoles, and Cherokee. Tucson: Gloria L. Smith, 1995. Self-published volume on the involvement of Blacks in the removal to Indian Territory. Also documents records of Black and Indian contact prior to removal. Includes some lists of slaveholder's names, number of slaves, and names of slaves involved in removal, taken from government records.

F87.

Speck, Frank. "Negro and White Exclusion Towns in Indian Territory and Oklahoma." Southern Workman 36, no. 8 (1907): 430-432. Discusses towns that developed in Indian Territory and Oklahoma for Blacks only or whites only.

F88.

Speck, F. G. "Observations in Oklahoma and Indian Territory." The Southern Workman 36, no. 1 (1907): 23-27. Briefly describes tensions between Indians and freedmen in Indian Territory resulting from the distribution of land allotments.

104 American Indian and African American Interactions F89.

Spring, Joel H. The Cultural Transformation of a Native American Family and its Tribe, 1763-1995: A Basket of Apples. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996. The history of Choctaws and Cherokees, focusing on the author's own Choctaw family history. Includes issues of Indian ownership of Black slaves and the continued poor treatment of Black Choctaws and Black Cherokees following the Civil War, including allotment, segregation of schools, and the Choctaw laws that limited the activities of freedmen. Explores the issue of anti-black racism among Choctaws.

F90.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Freedmen of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. Petition of Freedmen of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations, with other Papers on the Same Subject. 42" Cong., 2nd Sess., Misc. Doc. 46. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1872. The freedmen stated in this petition that they desired to be U.S. citizens, not citizens of an Indian nation. Contains a list of heads of freedmen families. Also contains testimonies of government agents on the status and activities of the freedmen.

F91.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. United States v. Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations, etc. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, Transmitting a Record of the Judgment of the Court of Claims in the Case of the United States against the Choctaw Nation and the Chickasaw Nation and the Chickasaw Freedmen. 61 st Cong., 2nd Sess., H. Doc. 920. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. It was ordered that the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations recover $600,000 from the United States for lands allotted to freedmen.

F92.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Various Tribes of Indians in the Indian Territory. 51 st Cong., 1st Sess., Report 2837. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1890. Written in 1890, this Committee on Indian Affairs report discusses a lawsuit by freedmen and others against the Cherokee Nation regarding the distribution of funds from land sales.

F93.

United States. Congress. Senate. Allotment of Land to Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen, etc. 55th Cong., 1st Sess., Document No. 183. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1897.

The Five Tribes 105 Contains statements by R. V. Belt, attorney for the Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen, protesting against any agreement with these nations that did not provide each of its citizens with forty acres. F94.

United States. Congress. Senate. Argument Against Transfer of Names of Certain Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen, etc. 59th Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. 298.Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907. Presents arguments by lawyers for the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations against the reclassification of certain freedmen as full citizens. Argues that even freedmen with partial Choctaw or Chickasaw ancestry should remain on the freedmen rolls, and that illegitimate children of Indian men and freedmen women should have no legal basis for being granted full citizenship rights.

F95.

Unites States. Congress. Senate. Argument Made by Judge M'Kennon Before the Committee on Indian Affairs of the House of Representatives, Relative to Condition of Affairs in the Indian Territory, Together with Other Papers, and Senate Document No. 12, Report of the Commission Appointed to Negotiate with the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians, Known as the "Dawes Commission." 54th Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. No. 182. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896. Contains statements by the Choctaw freedmen and Chickasaw freedmen.

F96.

United States. Congress. Senate. Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior Transmitting in Response to Resolution of the Senate of December 18, 1897, Copy of a Communication from the Commissioner on Indian Affairs, Containing a Full Statement in Regard to the Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen. 55th Congress, 2nd Session, S. Doc. 84. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1898. Contains reports on the activities of Choctaw and Chickasaw freedmen who were lobbying for rights guaranteed in the 1866 treaty.

F97.

United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians. 59th Congress, 2nd Session, Doc. 257. Hearing, January 30, 1907. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907. Text of a hearing about the transfer of names from the Choctaw and Chickasaw freedmen rolls to the "citizens by blood" roll. Presents

106 American Indian and African American Interactions testimony on what the rights of the freedmen should be and reprints some of the application cards of freedmen. F98.

United States. Congress. Senate. Indian and Freedmen Enrollment Cases Pending Before the Commissioner of the Five Civilized Tribes. 59th Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. 390. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907. A letter from the acting Secretary of the Interior regarding the number of pending freedmen enrollment cases.

F99.

United States. Congress. Senate. Letter from the Secretary of War, Communicating in Compliance with a Resolution of the Senate of the 16th Instant, a Copy of the Report of S. N Clark, Special Agent of the Freedmen's Bureau, upon the Condition of the Freedmen in the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian Nations. 41 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Exec. Doc. 71. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1870. Report discusses the status of the freedmen in the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations in light of the 1866 treaties.

F100.

United States. Congress. Senate. Pending Cases of Indian and Freedmen Enrollment. 59th Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. 364. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior discussing the number of pending freedmen enrollment cases.

FlOl.

United States. Congress. Senate. Message from the President of the United States Transmitting a Communication of 10th Instant, From Secretary of the Interior, Submitting an Estimate of Appropriation for the Settlement, Under Existing Treaties, of Certain Freedmen and their Descendants upon Lands Known as the Oklahoma District, Indian Territory. 48th Cong., 1st Sess., Exec. Doc. 51. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1884. Written in 1884, this letter from President Chester A. Arthur discusses the appropriation of $25,000 for the freedmen of the Five Tribes.

F102.

United States. Congress. Senate. Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians. Brief in the Matter of Contracts with Individual Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians before the Attorney-general of the United States, and a Protest by the Choctaw Nation against enrolling Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen as Indians, as submitted by McCurtin and Hill, attorneys for the Choctaw Nation. 61 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. 553. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910.

The Five Tribes 107 The Choctaws and Chickasaws argued that other slave owners of the South were not required to provide for their former slaves, and therefore the Choctaws and Chickasaws should not be required to either. F103.

United States. Congress. Senate. Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior Transmitting, in Response to Resolution of the Senate of December 18, 1897, Copy of a Communication from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Containing a Full Statement in Regard to the Choctaw and Chickasaw Freedmen. 55th Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. No. 84. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1898. Discusses the status and rights of the Choctaw and Chickasaw freedmen and their treatment by the tribal governments.

F104.

United States. Congress. Senate. Letter of the Secretary of the Interior, Communicating Papers Relating to the Rights of Freedmen Under the 3d Article of the Treaty with the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations of Indians, Concluded April 28, 1866. 40th Cong., 2nd Sess., S. Exec. Doc. 82. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1868. Discusses the rights of the Choctaw and Chickasaw freedmen as stipulated in the 1866 treaties, which were not being met by either nation. Includes a statement by delegates of the Choctaw and Chickasaw freedmen.

F105.

United States. Congress. Senate. Memorial of a Committee on Behalf of the Colored People of the Choctaw and Chickasaw Tribes of Indians Representing their Grievances, and Praying the Adoption of Such Measures as Will Secure to Them Equal Rights and Privileges with White Citizens. 41 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Misc. Doc. 101 Washington: Government Printing Office, 1870. The Committee stated that none of the rights guaranteed to freedmen in the 1866 treaties were being met. Discusses resolutions made by a meeting of freedmen, and another meeting that was prevented from taking place by the Choctaws. Includes statements of community members in support of the freedmen.

F106.

United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. Transfer of Certain Names to Roll of Citizens by Blood of Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. Hearing, March 24 and April 14, 1910. 61 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. 5875. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1910.

108 American Indian and African American Interactions Text of a hearing debating whether to move freedmen to the "by blood" rolls. Presents extensive background information on the lives of Blacks and slaves in the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations. F107.

United States. Congress. Senate. Report of the Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate, on the Condition of the Indians in the Indian Territory, and Other Reservations, etc. In Two Parts. 49* Cong., 1st Sess., Rep. 1278. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886. Summary of conditions in Indian Territory in the mid-1880's. Part 2 contains extensive testimony of and about Cherokee freedmen regarding their treatment and their disenfranchisement from Cherokee services, including education, health services, and equal treatment under the law.

F108.

United States. Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes. Annual Report of the Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes to the Secretary of the Interior. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899. These annual reports provide data on the enrollment of freedmen.

F109.

Wallenstein, Peter. "Native Americans are White, African Americans are Not: Racial Identity, Marriage, Inheritance, and the Law in Oklahoma, 1907-1967." Journal of the West 39(2000): 55-63. Looks at interracial relationships in Oklahoma between statehood in 1907 and the 1967 Supreme Court decision that decriminalized interracial marriage. Examines how Oklahoma courts ruled in five cases involved inheritance of property in Indian/Black marriages, and how the courts were required to determine the racial identity of an individual.

FllO.

Walton-Raji, Angela Y. Black Indian Genealogy Research: African American Ancestors Among the Five Civilized Tribes. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1993. Discusses slavery in the Five Tribes and shows how to search historical records for freedmen ancestors. Includes a list of surnames of freedmen from the Five Tribes. Also discusses genealogical research among the triracial communities of the upper South.

Fill.

Wickett, Murray R. Contested Territory: Whites, Native Americans, and African-Americans in Oklahoma, 1865-1907. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000.

The Five Tribes 109 Explores how each of the Five Tribes reacted to the requirement that they adopt their former slaves as citizens. Discusses freedmen who were of partial Indian ancestry, the treatment of ex-slaves by the Indian justice system, African American soldiers in Indian Territory, and the use of Black lawmen in Indian Territory. Fl 12.

Wickett, Murray. "The Fear of "Negro Domination": The Rise of Segregation and Disenfranchisement in Oklahoma." Chronicles of Oklahoma 78 (2000): 44-66. Looks at the status of Blacks and Indian freedmen in Oklahoma Territory from the late nineteenth century to around 1910.

Fl 13.

Williams, Nudie E. "Black Men Who Wore the "Star."" Chronicles of Oklahoma 59 (1981): 83-90. Describes the experiences of African Americans who served as United States Deputy Marshals in Indian Territory between 1876 and 1907. A few of the Black marshals mentioned were Indian freedmen.

Fl 14.

Williams, Nudie Eugene. A History of the American Southwest Black United States Deputy Marshals in the Indian Territory, 1875-1907. Masters thesis, Oklahoma State University, 1973. Presents the history of the men of color who served as law enforcement officers in Indian Territory. After 1876, the United States government began to enforce U.S. law in the jurisdiction of Indian Territory, which in many cases required deputy marshals to capture the accused and bring them to the closest federal court in Fort Smith, Arkansas. Some of the Black marshals were themselves part Indian, and were involved in bringing both Indians and whites to justice. Argues that Blacks were successful as lawmen in Indian Territory because they were more acceptable to Indians than were whites, due to their history of relative non-conflict and the fact that many Black marshals had knowledge of Indian languages as a result of their previous experiences in Indian Territory.

Fl 15.

Williams, Nudie. "United States vs. Bass Reeves: Black Lawman on Trial." Chronicles of Oklahoma 68 (1990): 154-167. Bass Reeves, a prosperous farmer from Arkansas, served as the first Black deputy U.S. marshal west of the Mississippi from 1875 to 1907. During slavery, Reeves had been a fugitive in Indian Territory, and was familiar with Indian Territory, Indians, and some of their languages. Reeves was involved in apprehending Indians, whites, and Blacks from Indian Territory.

110 American Indian and African American Interactions Fl 16.

Williams, Ronnie. "Pictorial Essay on the Dawes Commission." Chronicles of Oklahoma 53 (1975): 225-238. Reprints photographs from the Oklahoma Historical Society that were taken during the Indian enrollment period, 1893-1905. Includes photos of freedmen waiting to enroll.

Fl 17.

Wilson, Raleigh Archie. Negro and Indian Relations in the Five Civilized Tribes from 1865 to 1907. Masters thesis, State University of Iowa, 1949. Looks at interactions and associations between freedmen and members of the Five Tribes from emancipation to the period of statehood.

Fl 18.

Wilson, Walt. "Freedmen in Indian Territory During Reconstruction." Chronicles of Oklahoma 49 (1971): 230-244. Surveys the status of freedmen in each of the Five Tribes during the reconstruction period. Argues that lack of guidance and action on the part of the United States created many problems for the freedmen. Discusses the various treaties signed by each tribe and what each stipulated regarding the freedmen.

Fl 19.

Winsor, Henry M. "Chickasaw-Choctaw Financial Relations With the United States, 1830-1880." Journal of the West 12 (1973): 356-385. Includes information on the treatment of Chickasaw and Choctaw freedmen as stipulated in the 1866 treaty with the U.S.

F120.

Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. Creeks and Seminoles: The Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. Includes extensive information on the African presence among the Creeks and Seminoles, the Black Seminoles, maroon settlements, the Black role in resistance to removal, and removal.

F121.

Wright, J. Leitch, Jr., The Only Land They Knew: The Tragic Story of the American Indians in the Old South. New York: Free Press, 1981. Looks at Indians of the Southeast, their early enslavement alongside Africans, intermarriage and interaction with Africans, terms used by whites to refer to Indians, Blacks, and Black Indians, and exchange of cultural characteristics between the two, including cooking, folklore,

The Five Tribes 111 language, music, dance, and other shared experience. Discusses white attempts to encourage animosity between the two groups. F122.

Zissu, Erik March. Blood Matters: The Five Civilized Tribes and the Search for Unity in the Early Twentieth Century. New York: Routledge, 2001. Includes some information on Indian-Black relations in the Five Tribes.

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Cherokee Gl.

Ballenger, T.L. "The Colored High School of the Cherokee Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 30 (1952): 454-462. Describes the establishment of a Cherokee boarding school for Black students that was open from 1890 to 1910, one effort the Cherokee Nation took towards educating freedmen.

G2.

Branham, Levi. My Life and Travels. Dalton, GA: A. J. Showalter Co., 1929. Former slave describes his youth as a slave of Cherokee leader Joseph Vann.

G3.

Carter, Kent. "Federal Indian Policy: Cherokee Enrollment, 18981907." Prologue 23 (1991): 24-38. Describes the Cherokee enrollment process, including issues faced by freedmen.

G4.

Carter, Kent. "Federal Indian Policy: The Dawes Commission, 18871898." Prologue 22 (1990): 338-349. Describes the work of the Dawes Commission and enrollment in the Cherokee Nation, briefly touching on records relating to freedmen.

G5.

Christensen, Lawrence O. "J. Milton Turner: An Appraisal." Missouri Historical Review 70 (1975): 1-19. Turner was born a slave in Missouri, attended Oberlin College, served as consul general to Liberia, and returned to the United States, where he founded the Freedmen's Oklahoma Association, which had the goal of settling freed Blacks on land in Indian Territory. He was active in promoting the political and legal rights of Cherokee freedmen in the

114 American Indian and African American Interactions Cherokee Nation and fought for monetary compensation on their behalf. G6.

Dale, Edward Everett. "John Rollin Ridge." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 312-321. Reprints letters from Cherokee John Rollin Ridge to his cousin Stand Watie discussing Ridge's desire to sell or hire out some Black slaves.

G7.

Davis, J. B. "Slavery in the Cherokee Nation." The Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (1933): 1056-72. Explores the establishment of European style slavery among the Cherokees, likely beginning in the early 1700's. Includes excerpts from primary sources, treaties, traveler's journals, and Cherokee laws. Covers removal and the Civil War.

G8.

Duncan, James W. "Interesting Ante-Bellum Laws of the Cherokees, Now Oklahoma History." Chronicles of Oklahoma 6 (June 1928): 178180. Reprints Cherokee laws passed between 1839 and 1867. Includes "An Act to Prevent Amalgamation with Colored Persons."

G9.

Duncan, James W. "The Keetowah Society." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 251-254. Statement of James W. Duncan, English secretary of the Keetoowah Society of the Cherokees. Discusses the role played by the Keetoowahs in attempting to prevent the freedmen from receiving allotments and Cherokee Strip funds.

G10.

Gammon, Tim. "Black Freedmen and the Cherokee Nation." Journal of American Studies 11 (1977): 357-364. Looks at the relationship between the Cherokee Nation and the Blacks enslaved by Cherokee tribal members. Focuses on the activities of James Milton Turner, a Black activist who fought for enforcement of the 1866 treaty that gave citizenship rights to the freedmen.

Gil.

Gammon, Tim. "The Black Freedmen of the Cherokee Nation." Negro History Bulletin 40 (1977): 732-735. Describes slavery among the Cherokees, the enrollment of Blacks in 1866 following the Civil War, and James Milton Turner's role in acquiring monetary funds from land sales for Black Cherokees.

Cherokee 115 G12.

Hackney, Jami D. Cherokee Culture and Racism: An Evaluation of Cherokee and Black Relations from 1800 to 1907. Thesis, Southern Connecticut State University, 1996. Study of the influence of white society and U. S. Federal policy on Cherokee culture as reflected in racial attitudes towards Blacks. Looks at interactions between Cherokees and Blacks, the Cherokee adoption of plantation slavery, the growth of the Black Cherokee population, their legal status within the tribe, and the relations of the tribe with blacks that settled in the Cherokee Nation following emancipation. Argues that Cherokees were for the most part accepting of Blacks, and that resistance to Cherokee citizenship to Blacks was less an adoption of southern white racism than it was a means of protecting Cherokee sovereignty.

G13.

Halliburton, R. "Black Slave Control in the Cherokee Nation." Journal of Ethnic Studies 3, no. 2 (1975): 23-36. Looks at Black slavery in the Cherokee Nation, which the tribe had fully accepted by 1790. Discusses individual Cherokee slave owners, and official legislation relating to Blacks and slaves in the Nation regulating to intermarriage, slave hunting, behavior of slaves, and free Blacks. Concludes that slavery among the Cherokee was very similar to that of whites.

G14.

Halliburton, R., Jr. "Black Slavery Among the Cherokee." American History Illustrated 11 (1976): 12-19. Looks at Cherokee acceptance of Black slavery, individual slave owners and their use and treatment of slaves, and tribal policy regarding slavery. Discusses removal and the Civil War.

G15.

Halliburton, R. Jr. "Origins of Black Slavery Among the Cherokees." Chronicles of Oklahoma 52 (1974-1975): 483-96. Looks at early Cherokee conceptions of slavery and what factors led Cherokees to accept plantation slavery. Argues that enslavement of Blacks spread as Cherokees abandoned communal living and adopted the Anglo-style plantations which were owned by individuals. Details wealthy Cherokee slaveholders and concludes that in the end, Cherokee slavery differed little from white slavery.

G16.

Halliburton, R. Red over Black: Black Slavery Among the Cherokee Indians. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1977.

116 American Indian and African American Interactions Examines the particulars of Black slavery among the Cherokees. Looks at the adoption of plantation farming, removal to Indian Territory, establishment of laws designed to control slaves, the activities of abolitionist missionaries, and the Civil War. Looks closely at how often and in what circumstances Indians and Blacks interacted, and at the conflicts between the two. G17.

Harris, Betty Taylor. Cherokee Indian Rolls, Doubtful and Rejected. Muskogee: Muskogee Genealogical Society, 1999. Compiles the names of applicants that the Dawes Commission ruled were not Cherokee. Includes names of Cherokee freedmen placed on the doubtful and rejected lists.

G18.

Herzog, George. "African Influences in North American Indian Music." In Papers Read at the International Congress of Musicology Held at New York, Sept 11-16, 1939, edited by Arthur Mendel, Gustav Reese, and Gilbert Chase. New York: Music Educator's National Conference, 1944. Exploration of possible African musical characteristics demonstrated in American Indian music, specifically in Cherokee songs. Argues that stylistic survivals in Indian songs include solo-chorus patterns that are present in some music of Indians of the southeast and Atlantic seaboard where early African and Indian contact occurred.

G19.

Jacobs, Wilbur, ed. The Appalachian Indian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967. Originally published in 1755. Contains a reference to "Lower Cherokees" stealing slaves from white settlements in South Carolina.

G20.

Kelton, Paul. "William Penn Adair: Cherokee Slaveholder and Indian Freedom Advocate." Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (1999): 22-53. William Penn Adair was a Cherokee slaveholder and active advocate of slavery who served in a Confederate Cherokee regiment. Uses archival materials to recounts the experiences of some of his slaves. Looks at the abolitionist and pro-slavery movements in Cherokee Territory prior to the Civil War.

G21.

Kremer, Gary R. "For Justice and a Fee: James Milton Turner and the Cherokee Freedmen." Chronicles of Oklahoma 58 (1980-81): 377-391.

Cherokee 117 James Milton Turner was a Black man from Missouri who became interested in the civil rights of the former slaves of the Indians in the 1880's. Turner lobbied on behalf of the freedmen for better treatment, improved legal status, and a share of settlement money. Includes photographs of freedmen. G22.

Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. and Lonnie E. Underhill. "Slave "Revolt" in the Cherokee Nation, 1842." American Indian Quarterly 1977 3(2): 121-131. Describes an attempted escape by more than twenty Black slaves of the Creek and Cherokee Nations who got about 300 miles closer to Mexico before they were recaptured by Cherokees. Before being apprehended, they killed two men, one of whom was a Delaware Indian man who had custody of another group of fugitive slaves being returned to slavery on the Choctaw reservation. Discusses Cherokee reaction to the event, which led them to pass legislation evicting all non-slave Blacks from the Cherokee Nation.

G23.

Littlefield, Daniel. Cherokee Freedmen: From Emancipation to American Citizenship. Westport: Greenwood, 1978. Describes the experiences of the freedmen of the Cherokee Nation from 1865 to 1907. Looks at emancipation, which occurred in 1863 when the Cherokees passed an act of emancipation, the treaty of 1866 which required that the tribe accept its former slaves as full citizens, and how the freedmen adjusted to freedom. Looks at education, how they were affected by the arrival of white and Black settlers from other states, freedman legal battles for rights and money, and the politics of creating census rolls, including the Wallace rolls, the Kern-Clifton roll, and the Dawes roll.

G24.

Lovett, Laura L. ""African and Cherokee by Choice": Race and Resistance under Legalized Segregation." American Indian Quarterly 22 (1998): 203-229. Also in Confounding the Color Line: The IndianBlack Experience in North America. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Looks at Black Indians living under segregation and explores how groups, such as the Lumbee, resisted being placed in the racial category "colored" and insisted on emphasizing their Indian identity. Discusses the WPA slave narratives, Mardi Gras Indians, racial hierarchies, the racial purity movement, and segregation.

G25.

Marrant, John. Narrative of the Lord's Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant, a Black (Now Going to Preach the Gospel in Nova Scotia)

118 American Indian and African American Interactions Born in New-York in North-America. London: Gilbert and Plummer, 1785. Marrant described living among the Cherokees, whom he tried to convert. G26.

McFadden, Marguerite. "The Saga of "Rich Joe" Vann." Chronicles of Oklahoma 61, no. 1 (1982): 68-79. Joseph Vann was a prosperous Cherokee plantation owner and slave owner. Vann owned over 100 slaves and was one of the wealthiest planters in Georgia.

G27.

McLoughlin, William G. "Cherokee Anomie, 1794-1809: New Roles for Red Men, Red Women, and Black Slaves." In Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin, edited by Richard L. Bushman. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1979. Describes the Cherokee Republic from 1794 to removal as a period of rapid change and exposure to white society for the Cherokee. Describes the loss of many traditional Cherokee behaviors and the adoption of new ways of living, including the adoption of plantation farming and Black slavery.

G28.

McLoughlin, William G. After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokee's Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839-1880. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. Includes information on the practice of slavery in the Cherokee Nation following removal, resistance to abolitionist missionaries, attempts by slaves to flee the Nation, and the Cherokee emancipation act of 1863.

G29.

McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Describes Cherokee attitudes towards Blacks prior to removal. Attitudes were generally open and equal until the early nineteenth century when the Cherokees began to practice plantation farming and adopted slavery for economic reasons. Looks at the development of Cherokee laws that gradually came to alter the status of Blacks so as to mirror that of Blacks in white society. Discusses the case of a Cherokee man, Shoe Boots, who married a Black woman, and other legal cases involving Cherokee ownership of Black slaves.

G30.

McLoughlin, William G. "Cherokee Slaveholders and Missionaries, 1845-1860." Historian 45 (1983): 147-166.

Baptist

Cherokee 119 Outlines the activities of Baptist missionaries in the Cherokee Nation prior to and during the Civil War. The Board of Foreign Missions, which oversaw the mission in the proslavery Cherokee Nation, attempted to promote an abolitionist agenda in the Nation. Documents the debate between Northern and Southern missionaries and between differing Cherokee factions. G31.

Merrell, James H. "The Problem of Slavery in Cherokee Culture." Reviews in American History 1 (1979): 509-14. An extended review essay of R. Halliburton Jr.'s Red Over Black: Black Slavery Among the Cherokee Indians and Theda Perdue's Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1840-1866.

G32.

Miles, Tiya Alicia. "Bone of my Bone": Stories of a Black-Cherokee Family, 1790-1866. Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 2000. Uses the history of Shoe Boots, a Cherokee war leader, and his wife Doll, a Black slave, to illustrate Black-Indian relations in Indian Territory. Shoe Boots and Doll had several children, and although Shoe Boots took pains to free them, Doll and her children from a previous marriage remained slaves upon his death. Explores the complexities of the Indian owner/Black slave relationship as well as the difficulties faced in unearthing this story from primary documents.

G33.

Naylor-Ojurongbe, Celia E. "More at home with the Indians": AfricanAmerican Slaves and Freedpeople in the Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory, 1838-1907. Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2001. Based on WPA ex-slave narratives, this dissertation provides a view of the experiences of African American and Afro-Indian slaves from their own perspectives. Many of the former slaves were of Black and Indian ancestry. Discusses the ex-slaves' adoption of aspects of Cherokee culture as well as resistance against the slaveholders. Provides abundant detail of the lives of many former slaves of the Cherokees, and discusses the political effects of the Civil War and abolition on the slaves of Indian Territory.

G34.

Nuttall, Thomas. "Nuttall's Travels in the Arkansas Territory." In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, edited by Ruben Gold Thwaites. Cleveland: A. H. Clark, 1906. Nuttall described encountering Cherokee slave owners.

120 American Indian and African American Interactions G35.

Page, Jo Ann Curls. Extract of The Rejected Applications of the Guion Miller Rolls of the Eastern Cherokee. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1999. The Guion Miller roll consists of Cherokee names compiled between 1906 and 1909. Approximately 60,000 out of 90,000 applicants were rejected, some because of African American ancestry. Extracts include name, application number, state, year of birth, and names of parents and grandparents.

G36.

Page, Jo Ann Curls. Index to the Cherokee Freedmen Enrollment Cards of the Dawes Commission, 1901-1906. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, 1996. Consists of three separate indexes to the Cherokee Freedmen enrollment cards, which were created by the Dawes Commission for the purpose of determining Cherokee allotment. The cards themselves are available on microfilm or at the National Archives, but previously only the final roll had been indexed in a format that only contained the name of the enrollee and the final Dawes Roll number, and not the number of the enrollment card which provides additional information on the applicant. Page's three indexes are "Enrollees Approved for the Final Roll", "Rejected Enrollees", and "Freedmen Minors." Each entry includes the card number, the name of the freedman, age, and names of parents if known.

G37.

Perdue, Theda. "Cherokee Planters, Black Slaves, and African Colonization." Chronicles of Oklahoma 60 (1982): 322-331. The American Colonization Society promoted the repatriation of American Blacks to Africa. For a brief period around 1830, there was a local auxiliary of this group in Georgia comprised of Cherokee slaves. Article describes the activities of this group and the perspectives of the Cherokee slaveholders towards the back-to-Africa movement.

G38.

Perdue, Theda. "Cherokee Planters: The Development of Plantation Slavery Before Removal." In The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History, edited by Duane H. King. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979. Looks at the at the adoption of plantation farming by the Cherokees that led to a market for African slaves and the creation of Cherokee legal codes that pertain to slavery and the regulation of slaves. Discusses the dialogue on slavery that is evident in the Cherokee newspaper from that time and describes the activities of abolitionist missionaries.

Cherokee 121 G39.

Perdue, Theda. "Clan and Court: Another Look at the Early Cherokee Republic." American Indian Quarterly 24 (2000): 562-569. Describes the adoption of Molly, a Black slave woman, into a Cherokee clan, specifically as a replacement for a Cherokee woman who had been murdered. Sixty years later, in 1833, Molly was the focus of a case in which a white person claimed to have ownership of her and all her descendents. Despite the fact that many Cherokees, especially the ruling class, had by this time adopted plantation slavery and white racist attitudes, Molly's status as a Cherokee and a member of the Deer Clan was reaffirmed.

G40.

Perdue, Theda. "Red and Black in the Southern Appalachians." Southern Exposure 12 (1984): 17-24. Study of the interactions between Cherokees and Africans. Mentions a Cherokee woman and an African slave of Hernando de Soto's expedition who ran away together and married in the 1540's. Looks at the process that led to Cherokees adopting a type of slavery similar to that of whites, and the role played by whites in creating animosity between Indians and Blacks.

G41.

Perdue, Theda. Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 15401866. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987. Discusses early African and Cherokee contact, which began at least as early as 1526. Explores the practice of Indians capturing and ransoming Black slaves for profit, the development of plantation farming and slavery among the Cherokee, the removal to Indian Territory of Cherokees and slaves, and the Civil War.

G42.

Phillips, Joyce B. and Paul Gary Phillips. The Brainerd Journal: A Mission to the Cherokees, 1817-1823. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. The recorded experiences of several missionaries at the Brainerd Mission, established in 1817 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions at Chickamauga Creek for Cherokees. Mentions African American slaves.

G43.

Pisacka, Karen Kay. The Cherokee Black Man, 1840-1907. Masters Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington, 1973. Explores the circumstances faced by Black people in the Cherokee Nation. Argues that Cherokee acceptance of slavery came as a result of

122 American Indian and African American Interactions the assimilation of many of the wealthier or mixed-white Cherokees into Anglo-American culture. Covers life during the Civil War, the political and legal persecution of freedmen following emancipation, and experiences during the enrollment and allotment periods. Includes some testimony from the Freedmen enrollment applications. G44.

Reese, Linda W. "Cherokee Freedwomen in Indian Territory, 18631890." Western Historical Quarterly 33 (2002): 273-296. Looks at the lives of Cherokee freedwomen, using testimony published in The WPA Oklahoma Slave Narratives. Describes life during the Civil War and reconstruction, and relations with former owners.

G45.

Ridge, John Rollin. Comments on the Objections of Certain Cherokee Delegates to the Proposition of the Government to Separate the Hostile Parties of the Cherokee Nation. Washington: Intelligencer Printing House, 1866. Reprints a letter written by Ridge to D. N. Cooley, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, discussing disputes in the Cherokee nation brought about by the Civil War. Ridge described the war as "a war of Northern cupidity and fanaticism against the institution of African servitude."

G46.

Riley, Sam G. "A Note of Caution: The Indian's Own Prejudice, as Mirrored in the First Native American Newspaper." Journalism History 6, no. 2 (1979): 44-47. Looks at attitudes towards Blacks exhibited in the pages of the Cherokee Phoenix, the newspaper published by the Cherokees in New Echota, Georgia, between 1828 and 1834.

G47.

Roethler, Michael. Negro Slavery Among the Cherokee Indians, 15401866. Ph.D. diss., Fordham University, 1964. Argues that Cherokee enslavement of Blacks was far less harsh than that of whites, that Black slavery was a crucial element in the "civilization" of the Cherokees, and that Cherokees, with the help of their slaves, were as "civilized" as their white southern neighbors. Contains much information on Cherokees and the slave system that the Cherokees adopted, and the changes this brought to Cherokee society. Also contains information on the removal period, the role of abolitionist missionaries, and the Civil War.

G48.

Saillaint, John. ""Wipe Away All Tears From Their Eyes": John Marrant's Theology in the Black Atlantic, 1785-1808." Journal of Millennial Studies 1, no. 2 (1999).

Cherokee 123 Discusses John Marrant's experiences among the southeastern Indians, including preaching to the Cherokee in the Cherokee language. Journal is available only online at http://wwvv.mille.org/publications/journaL G49.

Shadburn, Don L. Cherokee Planters in Georgia 1832-1838: Historical Essays on Eleven Counties in the Cherokee Nation of Georgia. Roswell, GA: W.H. Wolfe Associates, 1990. Discusses wealthy Cherokee plantation owners whose material success was dependent on owning slaves.

G50.

Smith, Gloria L. Beginning Black Indian History and Genealogy, the Cherokees. Tucson: G. L. Smith, 1995. This self-published volume by a librarian provides a brief overview of Cherokee-Black interactions and the process of researching BlackCherokee genealogy, including information on useful microfilm collections and other sources of genealogical records.

G51.

Sober, Nancy Hope. The Intruders: The Illegal Residents of the Cherokee Nation, 1866-1907. Ponca City, OK: Cherokee Books, 1991. An account of non-Cherokees encroaching on the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory. Includes a chapter on illegal Black residents, showing how former Cherokee slaves were excluded from citizenship under laws that labeled them intruders. The reconstruction treaty signed in 1866 gave the freedmen six months to return to the Cherokee Nation to claim citizenship. Those who missed the deadline were labeled intruders, and the Cherokee government used the law to exclude freedmen from citizenship. Discusses legal efforts on the part of freedmen to obtain citizenship, and the rights and property that came with citizenship.

G52.

Sturm, Circe. Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002. Explores attitudes about blood, citizenship, race, and identity among members of the Cherokee Nation. The author argues that identity is measured in legal, social, political, cultural, biological, and religious units that tend to legitimize Cherokees with European ancestry but not Cherokees with African ancestry. Details the circumstances that have affected issues of Cherokee identity and citizenship for descendents of former slaves of the Cherokee.

124 American Indian and African American Interactions G53.

Sturm, Circe. "Blood Politics, Racial Classification, and Cherokee National Identity: The Trials and Tribulations of Cherokee Freedmen." American Indian Quarterly 22 (1998): 230-258. Also in Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Based on historical research and ethnographic interviews, this article looks at the issues faced by the descendents of the Cherokee freedmen of Oklahoma in the mid-1990's. Provides an overview of Black slavery in the Cherokee Nation, history of allotment, enrollment, and legal cases on which status of the freedmen is based today, and relations between the freedmen and the rest of the Cherokee Nation.

G54.

Sweet, Joyce E. Slavery, Cherokee Style, 1839-1855. Masters thesis, East Texas State University, 1980. Looks at slavery and treatment of Blacks in the Cherokee Nation.

G55.

Thornton, Mary. "Harmony a Distant Fourth in Cherokee Vote." The Washington Post, December 2, 1983, p. E12. Describes the results of an election in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. One of the contested issues was whether Black tribal members should have been allowed to vote.

G56.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, editor. "James's Account of S. H. Long's Expedition, 1819-1820." In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846. Cleveland: Arthur C. Clark Company, 1906. Edwin James's account mentions a Cherokee chief named Tom Graves, described as European in appearance, who only spoke Cherokee and communicated through a Black slave girl interpreter.

G57.

Travis, V. A. "Life in the Cherokee Nation a Decade After the Civil War." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 16-30. Mentions the high school for Blacks that was created in the Cherokee Nation.

G58.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Cherokee Outlet. Letter from the Acting Secretary of the Treasury, Transmitting an Estimate of Appropriation Submitted by the Secretary of the Interior to Meet the Payment due for the Cession of the Cherokee Outlet. 53rd Cong., 3rd Sess., Exec. Doc. No. 188. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1895.

Cherokee 125 Discusses distribution of funds to Cherokee freedmen from the sale of the Cherokee Outlet. G59.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Correction of Cherokee Freedmen Rolls Respecting Age of Sephenia Bean. 61 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Rep. 1671. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. Discusses sale of allotment of freedwoman Sephenia Bean.

G60.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Indian Affairs. Cherokee Freedmen and Others. 50th Cong., 1st Sess., Rep. 844. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1888. This Committee on Indian Affairs report, written in 1888, discusses the freedmen of the Cherokee Nation receiving a share of land sales. Includes statement of J. Milton Turner, lawyer for the freedmen.

G61.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Enrollment of Cherokee Freedmen, Delawares, and Shawnees. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, Transmitting the Estimates of the Secretary of the Interior for an Additional Sum of $10,000, to Carry into effect the Provisions of the Act of March 2, 1889, for the "Enrollment of the Cherokee Freedmen, Delawares, and Shawnees. 51 st Congress, 1st Sess., Exec. Doc. No. 456. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1890. Request for additional funds to pay for the administrative process of enrolling Cherokee freedmen.

G62.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Executive Document No. 82. 49* Cong., 2nd Sess., Rep. No. 2614. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886. Report of the Committee on Indian Affairs relative to the claim of Cherokee freedmen to funds in response to Executive Document 82. Request for additional funds to pay for administrative costs of enrolling the Cherokee freedmen.

G63.

United States. Congress. Senate. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior Transmitting a Communication from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Relative to Certain Sums of Money Appropriated by the Cherokee Nation in Violation of Treaty Obligations. 51 st Cong., 1st Sess., Exec. Doc. 145. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1890.

126 American Indian and African American Interactions Discusses the Cherokee Nation's obligations to its freedmen. G64.

United States. Congress. Senate. Letter From the Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting Papers Relative to an Appropriation for the Benefit of the Cherokee Freedmen. 50th Cong., 2nd Sess., Exec. Doc. 83. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1889. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior containing information relating to an act to provide the Cherokee freedmen with funds from Cherokee land sales.

G65.

United States. Congress. Senate. Payment of $400,000 by the Cherokee Nation on account of the Cherokee. 55th Cong., 3 rd Sess., Doc. 101. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899. Letters, correspondence, and evidence relating to the case of Moses Whitmire, Trustee of the Cherokee Freedmen, v. the Cherokee Nation.

G66.

United States. Congress. Senate. Payment to the Cherokee Freedmen. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting in Response to Senate Resolution of May 25, 1897, Copies of All Papers in Relation to the Payment and of the Correspondence in Connection Therewith, Showing the Reason why the Payment to the Cherokee Freedmen Was Suspended. 55th Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. No. 136. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1897. Discusses issues in the distribution of funds to Cherokee freedmen.

G67.

United States. Congress. Senate. Message from the President of the United States Transmitting a Communication from the Secretary of the Interior Relative to Legislation in Behalf of Certain Cherokee Indians. 49th Cong., 1st Sess., Exec. Doc. 82. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886. This document, written by President Grover Cleveland, discusses the appropriation of $300,000 from land sales for the Cherokee freedmen and others.

G68.

United States. Congress. Senate. The Cherokee Freedmen: Memorial of the Cherokee Freedmen to the Congress of the United States. 63rd Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. 239. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913. Contains a statement by Cherokee freedmen who argued they had been wrongly excluded from the tribal rolls.

Cherokee 127 G69.

United States. Supreme Court. No. 735. In the Supreme Court of the Unites States. October Term, 1911. The Cherokee Nation and the United States, appellants, v. Moses Whitmire, Trustee for the Freedmen of the Cherokee Nation. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912. Details the appeal of the Cherokees and the United States in the Court of Claims regarding distribution of land sales funds to Cherokee freedmen.

G70.

Vann, R. P. "Reminiscences of Mr. R. P. Vann, East of Webber's Falls, Oklahoma, September 28, 1932. As Told To Grant Foreman." Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (1933): 838-844. R. P. Vann, the grandson of Joseph Vann, described the 1843 explosion of Vann's steamboat Lucy Walker, as told to him by the only survivor, a Black slave.

G71.

Warren, Hanna R. "Reconstruction in the Cherokee Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 45 (1967): 180-189. Describes the treaties between the Cherokees and the United Stares signed following the Civil War, and how these impacted the former slaves of the tribe. Freedmen had a deadline of six months to return to the Cherokee Nation and file for citizenship.

G72.

Wrone, David R. "The Cherokee Act of Emancipation." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1, no. 3 (1973): 87-90. Discusses the act of emancipation issued February 21, 1863, by the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokees were the only tribe known to have formally emancipated its slaves before the end of the Civil War. Reprints the text of the act.

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Chickasaw HI.

Bender, Norman J. ""We Surely Gave Them An Uplift": Taylor F. Ealy and The Mission School for Freedmen." Chronicles of Oklahoma 61 (1983): 180-193. Recounts the experiences of Mary and Taylor F. Ealy, Presbyterian missionaries who worked at a school for Chickasaw freedmen in Indian Territory. Because Chickasaws did not recognize freedmen as citizens, missionaries and the Office of Indian Affairs endeavored to provide educational facilities for them. Contains sections from Ealy's memoirs and letters showing his observations of the lives of the freedmen in Chickasaw country.

H2.

Chickasaw Commission. Laws of the Chickasaw Nation, I.T., Relating to Intermarried and Adopted Citizens and the Rights of Freedmen. Ardmore, I.T.: Press of the Chronicle, 1896. Compiles all acts and laws relating to the freedmen in the Chickasaw Nation between 1856 and 1896.

H3.

Chickasaw Nation. Constitution, Laws and Treaties of the Chickasaws, by Authority. Tishomingo City: Printed by E. J. Foster, 1860. Contains the text of Chickasaw laws that pertain to the treatment of slaves, free Blacks holding property, voting, holding office, and engaging in trade.

H4.

Committee of Chickasaw Freedmen's Association. "Statement of the Chickasaw Freedmen, Setting Forth Their Wrongs, Grievances, Claims, and Needs." In Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes Annual Reports of 1894, 1895, and 1896 and Correspondence with the Representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes. From March 3, 1893 to January 1, 1897. Washington: Department of the Interior, 1894.

130 American Indian and African American Interactions Presents the views of the Chickasaw Freedmen's Association on the Dawes Commission, treaty provisions, disagreement with actions of the Chickasaw government, distribution of funds, and the desire that the U.S. government act on their behalf. H5.

Conlon, Czarina C. "Chickasaw Courts: Reminiscences of Judge John H. Mashburn." Chronicles of Oklahoma 5 (1927): 400-404. Mentions a Black Chickasaw man who attempted to avoid Chickasaw jurisdiction by claiming to be an American citizen instead of Chickasaw.

H6.

Littlefield, Daniel. Chickasaw Freedmen: A People Without a Country. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1980. Describes life for emancipated slaves of the Chickasaw Nation. Although free, the Chickasaw Nation resisted adopting its freedmen as tribal members and instead attempted to have them removed from the nation. Describes the freemen's struggles for civil rights, including access to education, and the effects of the Dawes Commission.

H7.

James, Parthenia Louise. "Reconstruction in the Chickasaw Nation: The Freedman Problem." Chronicles of Oklahoma 45 (1967): 44-57. Discusses the treaty of 1866 signed by the Chickasaw Nation and the United States following the Civil War. The Chickasaws wanted their former slaves to be removed from the Nation within two years and all free Blacks to leave immediately. Initially the freedmen also wanted to be relocated to their own territory but by 1869 they were requesting Chickasaw citizenship.

H8.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Freedmen of the Chickasaw Nation. 42nd Cong., 1st Sess., Misc. Doc. 29. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1868. Copy of an act relative to the Chickasaw Nation passed by the legislature of the Chickasaw Nation in 1866.

H9.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Memorial of the Chickasaw Legislature, Etc. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting a Memorial of the Chickasaw Legislature Protesting Against the Enrollment of Certain Children; and also transmitting an Opinion of the Assistant Attorney-General in the Case of Ethel Pierson. 59th Cong., 2nd Sess., Doc. No. 293. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1906.

Chickasaw 131 Statement of the Chickasaw legislature protesting the enrollment of children of Choctaw or Chickasaw freedmen born after 1902. Specifically deals with the case of Ethel Pierson, born 1905 to an enrolled Chickasaw freedman father and a noncitizen mother. H10.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Rights of the Chickasaw Freedmen. 56th Cong., 1st Sess., Rep. No. 1224. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900. Recommended the passage of a bill to authorize the Chickasaw freedmen to bring suit against the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations and the United States for the purposes of determining their rights to citizenship in the Chickasaw Nation.

Hll.

United States. Congress. Senate. Chickasaw Freedmen. Memorandum of the Case of the Chickasaw Freedmen, Brief and Argument by R. V. Belt, their Attorney, Also the Laws of the Chickasaw Legislature, and Acts of the Congress of the United States, Together with a Memorial of the Chickasaw Nation and Chickasaw Freedmen on the Subject, with Argument by General H. E. Paine, Attorney for the Chickasaw Nation. 55th Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. No. 157. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1897. Summary of legislative action relating to the rights of the Chickasaw freedmen, and statements by Chickasaw officials and Chickasaw freedmen.

HI2.

United States. Congress. Senate. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting a Letter From the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Relative to the Freedmen in the Chickasaw Nation. 50th Cong., 1st Sess., Exec. Doc. No. 166. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1888. Discusses the status and condition of freedmen in the Chickasaw Nation. Provides a summary of past legislation relative to the freedmen, contains a "Bill for the Relief of the Freedmen in the Chickasaw Nation, Indian Territory," and reprints statements from the Chickasaw governor and Chickasaw delegates asking that the freedmen be removed from the Chickasaw Nation.

HI3.

Wright, Muriel H. "Historic Places on the Old Stage Line from Fort Smith to Red River." Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (1933): 798-822. Mentions a widowed Chickasaw woman who owned many slaves.

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Choctaw 11.

Bonnifield, Paul. "The Choctaw Nation on the Eve of the Civil War." Journal of the West 12 (1973): 386-402. Includes information on slavery in the Choctaw Nation and the establishment of Black codes that restricted activities of free and enslaved Blacks.

12.

Bryce, J. Y. "Perryville at One Time Regular Military Post." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 184-191. Mentions a part-Black deputy sheriff of the Choctaw Nation who killed an escaped prisoner.

13.

Choctaw Council. The Freedmen and Registration Bills, Passed at a Special Session of the Choctaw Council, Indian Territory. Denison, TX: Murray's Stean Printing House, 1883. These bills, passed in 1883 and based on the terms of the treaties signed in 1866, made provisions to give all persons of African descent formerly held as slaves in the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations full citizenship, with the exception of sharing of financial resources.

14.

Collins, Robert Keith. "De-Constructing the Complex Ethnic Identity of Urban Black Choctaws." Masters Thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1998. Looks at the ethnic identity of Black Choctaws living in the San Francisco Bay area.

15.

Committee of the Choctaw Colored Citizens Association. "Statement of the Choctaw Freedmen, Setting Forth Their Wrongs, Grievances, Claims, and Wants." In Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes Annual Reports of 1894, 1895, and 1896 and Correspondence with the

134 American Indian and African American Interactions Representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes. From March 3, 1893 to January 1, 1897. Washington: Department of the Interior, 1894. Presents the views of the Choctaw Colored Citizens Association on the Dawes Commission and describes discrimination against them, unfair treatment in the distribution of funds, the need for schools, and their desire to be full voting citizens of the Choctaw Nation. 16.

Crossett, G. A. "A Vanishing Race." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 100-115. Mentions that Choctaws and their slaves attended church together.

17.

DeRosier, Arthur H., Jr. "Pioneers with Conflicting Ideals: Christianity and Slavery in the Choctaw Nation." Journal of Mississippi History 21 (July 1959): 174-189. Discusses general attitudes towards slavery in the Choctaw nation of Mississippi prior to removal. Argues that although Presbyterian missionaries from the north helped create anti-slavery sentiment, the Choctaw were still compliant in returning runaway slaves from neighboring areas, and many Choctaws owned large numbers of slaves.

18.

Edwards, John. "The Choctaw Indians in the Middle of the Nineteenth Century." Chronicles of Oklahoma 10 (1932): 392-425. Describes a Black woman being treated for an illness by a traditional Choctaw doctor.

19.

Flickinger, Robert Elliott. The Choctaw Freedmen and the Story of Oak Hill Industrial Academy, Valliant, McCurtain County, Oklahoma, Now Called the Alice Lee Elliott Memorial. Fonda, I A: Journal and Times Press, under the auspices of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen, 1914. The Oak Hill Industrial Academy was established in 1886 by the Presbyterian Church for educating the freedmen of the Choctaw Tribe. Includes information on teachers who were sent to work with freedmen of the other Five Tribes, as well as a detailed history of the Oak Hill Academy. Claims that the "great need" of the Choctaw freedmen children was to attend boarding schools where they could be "trained under the personal supervision of Christian teachers, to a higher standard of living." Includes biographical information and photographs of students who were perceived to be promising future leaders.

Choctaw 135 110.

Halliburton, R. "Chief Greenwood Leflore and His Malmaison Plantation." In After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi, edited by Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tubby. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986. Describes the life and political activities of Greenwood Leflore, a Mississippi Choctaw leader and plantation owner. Leflore was wealthy, owned Black slaves, and constructed a mansion that, at the time it was built, was the largest house in the county. The lumber for the house was cut by his slaves, who also made the bricks for the foundations and chimney. The fifteen-room house was designed to entertain 200 guests at a time and required many slaves to do so. At one time Leflore owned over 400 slaves and farmed 15,000 acres of land.

111.

Kensell, Louis Anthony. "Phases of Reconstruction in the Choctaw Nation, 1865-1870." Chronicles of Oklahoma 47 (1969): 138-153. Contains information on how freedmen were treated in the Choctaw Nation during the reconstruction period.

112.

Lambert, Valerie Long. The Fall and Rise of the Oklahoma Choctaw Nation: Corporate Discontinuities, Socio-Political Indeterminacies and Shifting Ethnicities in America's Heartland. Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999. Ethnographic study of the political reorganization of the Choctaw Nation in the 1980's and its implications for identity, citizenship, enrollment, and ethnicity. Includes information on Blacks in the Choctaw Nation, historically and currently. Explores how the categories "white" and "Black" are applied in an Indian tribe, and describes discrimination and racism towards Blacks from the 1940's to 1960's, including Jim Crow law and KKK activities.

113.

Lapsley, Larry, and Alberta Pantle (editor). "The Story of a Kansas Freedman." Kansas Historical Quarterly 11 (1942): 341-369. Account of the life of Larry Lapsley, told in his words. Lapsley escaped from slavery in Texas and fled to Indian Territory during the Civil War. For a period he was held captive by Confederate Choctaws before he escaped and made his way to Fort Gibson.

114.

Littlefield, Daniel, Jr., and Mary Ann Littlefield. "The Beams Family: Free Blacks in Indian Territory." Journal of Negro History 61 (1976): 16-35.

136 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the experiences of the Beams family, a Black woman and her eight children living in the Choctaw Nation of Mississippi. The white patriarch of the family freed the family in Illinois, but upon his death they returned to Mississippi. Mr. Beams' half Choctaw children from a previous marriage to a Choctaw woman claimed ownership of the entire family and all their offspring. For over twenty years, the Beams family faced legal challenges to their freedom and the threat of abduction by slave hunters, which continued after they moved to Indian Territory. 115.

Littlefield, Daniel, ed. The Life ofOkah Tubbee. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988. This is an edited edition of A Sketch of the Life of Okah Tubbee, originally published in 1852 as the life story of Okah Tubbee, a traveling performer and doctor who claimed to be the son of a Choctaw chief. Littlefield concludes in his introduction that Tubbee was more likely the son of a Black slave woman and an unknown father, who could have been Native, but was not the Choctaw leader that Tubbee claimed he was. Argues that Tubbee moved north and created a new identity for himself which included marrying a Mohawk woman and publishing his autobiography. The biography contains references to African Americans and descriptions of life in the Choctaw nation.

116.

McLoughlin, William G. "The Choctaw Slave Burning: A Crisis in Mission Work Among the Indians." Journal of the West 13 (1974): 113-127. Discusses an 1859 incident in which Choctaws burned at the stake a slave woman who had been accused of instigating another slave to kill their Choctaw owner.

117.

Morrison, James D. "Notes on Abolitionism in the Choctaw Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 38 (1960): 78-84. Reprints editorials written in newspapers prior to the Civil War relating to slavery and abolitionism in the Choctaw nation. Many pertain to abolitionist missionaries working in the Choctaw nation and the proslavery groups who opposed them.

118.

Morrison, W. B. "The Choctaw Mission of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions." Chronicles of Oklahoma 4 (1926): 166-183.

Choctaw 137 Discusses the activities of missionaries in the Choctaw Nation in Indian Territory. Contains references to the conflicting feelings of the missionaries towards slavery and abolitionism. 119.

Smith, C. Calvin. "The Oppressed Oppressors: Negro Slavery Among the Choctaw Indians of Oklahoma." Red River Valley Historical Review 2 (Summer 1975): 240-253. Outlines the particulars of slavery among the Choctaw in Indian Territory. Argues that Choctaws who owned large numbers of slaves were more likely to be of white and Choctaw ancestry and wealthier than the average Choctaw. Argues that ownership of slaves was key to the economic success of many Choctaws. Includes information on the Beams family, eight Blacks and their mother, whose freedom had been purchased by their father, a white man living among the Choctaws, who was also their former owner. Also includes information on laws created by the Choctaws that prohibited the education of slaves, ordered all prohibitionists to leave the nation, and later, required all free blacks to leave. Discusses the influence of both pro-slavery and abolitionist missionaries on Choctaw behavior, and argues that by 1861 Choctaws attitudes became vehemently "Southern" in support of the Confederacy.

120.

Smith, Joy McDougal. "Alice Lee Elliott Memorial Academy: A School for Choctaw Freedmen." Chronicles of Oklahoma 72 (1994): 264-279. Presents the history of the Alice Lee Elliott Memorial Academy, established as the Oak Hill Industrial School in 1886 for the education of freedmen of the Choctaw tribe. Discusses earlier attempts at education for freedmen and the establishment of the school. Contains photographs of school buildings, teachers, and students. The school remained in use until the 1960's when students were integrated into local schools.

121.

United States. Congress. Senate. Certain Freedmen of the Choctaw Nation. Letter of the Acting Secretary of the Interior, Transmitting Copy of a Communication and Accompanying Copy of a Memorial from Certain Freedmen of the Choctaw Nation, Relative to Their Rights as Members of that Tribe. 55th Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. No. 149. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1897. Brief statement of a committee of Choctaw freedmen who argued that the Choctaws had "left the colored people out entirely in regards to schools and money."

138 American Indian and African American Interactions .

122.

Whipple, Charles K. Relation of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions to Slavery. Boston: R. F. Wallcut, 1861. Contains letters written by missionaries to the Choctaw Nation regarding the death of a slave woman who was burned at the stake by Choctaws in 1859.

123.

Wiley, Lisa Dianne. Choctaw Slaveholders: A Study of Acculturation and the Relationship Between the Choctaw and African Americans. Thesis, University of California Los Angeles, 1997. Looks at slavery, treatment of Blacks, and cultural exchange in the Choctaw Nation.

124.

Wright, Muriel H. "Additional Notes on Perryville, Choctaw Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 8 (1930): 146-148. Contains a map of Perryville showing the placement of cabins inhabited by Blacks.

125.

Wright, Muriel H. "Old Boggy Depot." Chronicles of Oklahoma 5 (1927): 4-17. Describes a freedman named Johnson Cline living in the Choctaw town of Old Boggy Depot.

Creek 11.

Baszile, Jennifer Lynn. Communities at the Crossroads: Chiefdoms, Colonies, and Empires in Colonial Florida, 1670-1741. Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1999. Explores how American Indians, Africans, Spanish, French and British interacted in colonial Florida. Beginning in 1720, many Blacks fled from northern areas into Spanish Florida, which offered freedom from the plantations of Georgia and South Carolina.

J2.

Braund, Kathryn E. Holland. "The Creek Indians, Blacks, and Slavery." The Journal of Southern History 57 (1991): 601-636. Describes interactions between Creeks and Blacks, which probably began in the 1500's when an African man deserted from Hernando de Soto's expedition. More frequent contact came as Creeks became active in the deerskin trade and met traders and the trader's slaves. Some Black slaves ran away to join the Creeks, but colonial authorities went to great lengths to discourage cooperation between the two groups by paying Creeks to return runaway slaves. Describes intermarriage between Creeks and Blacks and how Creek society treated these unions. Describes daily life of Blacks who lived among the Creeks, both slave and free. Black slavery among the Creeks was very different from that of whites, at least until the early 1800's when a slaveholding elite of cotton planters emerged, leading to the Creek War which pitted more traditional Red Sticks against white mixed-blood slaveholders.

J3.

Braund, Kathryn E. Holland. Deerskins and Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993. States that there were few Blacks in Creek country until the Revolutionary War, but soon after that the adoption of cotton farming created a market for Black slaves among the Creeks.

140 American Indian and African American Interactions J4.

Britten, Thomas A. "The Creek Draft Rebellion of 1918: Wartime Hysteria and Indian-Baiting in WWl Oklahoma." Chronicles of Oklahoma 79 (2001): 200-215. Looks at a 1918 incident in which Creeks and Creek freedmen were allegedly spurred into unrest by the anti-draft rhetoric of Creek Red Cross worker Ellen Perryman.

J5.

Campbell, John Bert. Campbell's Abstract of Creek Freedmen Census Cards and Index. Muskogee, OK: Phoenix Job Printing Company, 1915. Index to Creek freedmen census cards.

J6.

Carter, Kent. "Snakes & Scribes: The Dawes Commission and the Enrollment of the Creeks." Prologue 29 (1997): 28-41. Looks at enrollment among the Creeks, including how freedmen were treated during the enrollment process.

J7.

Crockett, Norman L. "Witness to History: Booker T. Washington Visits Boley." Chronicles of Oklahoma 67 (1989-90): 382-391. Discusses Booker T. Washington's 1905 and 1915 visits to Boley, Oklahoma, an all-Black town in the former Creek territory. Many Boley residents were former slaves of Creek Indians. One of Washington's interests was to implement a Native American education program at Tuskegee Institute.

J8.

DuChateau, Andre Paul. "The Creek Nation on the Eve of the Civil War." Chronicles of Oklahoma 52 (1974): 290-315. Mentions aspects of life in the Creek Nation was like for Blacks immediately prior to the Civil War, including laws that were designed to increase control over the slaves.

J9.

Dysart, Jane E. "Another Road to Disappearance: Assimilation of Creek Indians in Pensacola, Florida, During the Nineteenth Century." Florida Historical Quarterly 61, no. 1 (1982): 37-53. Looks at Creek Indians in Florida and their interactions with whites and Blacks in light of the South's biracial society. Describes how Creeks "disappeared" as a result of being categorized in official records and historical accounts as Black, mulatto, colored, or Creole, and were absorbed into the Black and Creole communities.

Creek 141 J10.

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. "Alexander McGillivray, Emperor of the Creeks." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1 (1929): 106-120. Contains multiple mentions of Creek leader McGillivray's ownership of Black slaves.

Jll.

Gray, Linda C. "Taft: Town on the Black Frontier." Chronicles of Oklahoma 66 (1988-1989): 430-447. Taft, an all-Black town, was formed from Creek freedmen allotments following the Civil War. The population grew as Blacks moved there from other states.

J12.

Grayson, George Washington. A Creek Warrior for the Confederacy: The Autobiography of Chief G W. Grayson, edited by W. David Baird. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. George Washington Grayson, of Creek and European ancestry, campaigned with Creek units for the Confederacy during the Civil War. Mentions slaves owned by Creeks in the Indian Territory.

J13.

Greenberg, Jonathan D. Staking a Claim: Jake Simmons and the Making of an African-American Oil Dynasty. New York: Atheneum, 1990. Biography of Jake Simmons, a descendant of a Black Creek slave, Cow Tom, who became a tribal leader. Discusses the status of freedmen in the Creek Nation following the Civil War.

J14.

Halliburton, Janet. "Black Slavery in the Creek Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 56 (1978): 298-314. Describes the adoption of plantation style slavery by many Creeks prior to removal, how slavery continued when the tribe was relocated to Indian Territory, and the creation of strict laws governing interaction with Black slaves and the activities of slaves.

J15.

Krehbiel, Randy. "Black Indians Find Roots Well-Hidden; Mixed Blood Shoved into Obscurity in Dawes Days." The Tulsa World, February 4, 2002. Describes the results of allotment and the Dawes Rolls among the Freedmen of the Five Tribes in Oklahoma, focusing on the Creeks. Contains interviews with descendents of the Creek freedmen.

142 American Indian and African American Interactions J16.

Littlefield, Daniel. Africans and Creeks: From the Colonial Period to the Civil War. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1979. Looks at early contact between Creeks and Africans in Alabama and Georgia, adoption of slavery, the Creek War, removal to Indian Territory, and the continued state of slavery in the west. Also looks at tensions between the Creeks and Seminoles because of Creek claims that many of the Black Seminoles legally belonged to the Creeks.

J17.

Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr. and Lonnie E. Underhill. "The "Crazy Snake" Uprising of 1909: A Red, Black, or White Affair?" Arizona and the West2Q{\91%): 307-324. Looks at the roles of Creeks, Creek Freedmen, and "state" Blacks (Blacks who had moved to Oklahoma following statehood) in the eastern Oklahoma "Crazy Snake Uprising" of 1909. What began when a gathering of a Creek faction was joined by Creek Freedmen escalated into an extended series of violent attacks on Indians and Blacks, generally perpetrated by whites, although it was commonly perceived as a Black or Indian uprising.

J18.

Loomis, Augustus W. "Scenes in the Indian Territory Kowetah Mission." Chronicles of Oklahoma 46 (1968): 64-72. Originally published in 1851. Loomis described the use of Black interpreters at the Kowetah Mission and other Blacks present there.

J19.

Lynch, Eric. "Socio-economic Relations Between the Creek Nation and Blacks from 1790-1860: A Case Study." Thesis, Cornell University, 1977. Looks at slavery in the Creek Nation.

J20.

Martin, Joel W. Sacred Revolt: The Muscogee's Struggle for a New World. Boston: Beacon Press, 1991. Discusses the Red Stick Revolt of 1813-1814, the Muscogee (Creek) entry into the African slave trade, how Muscogees interacted with escaped slaves and with free blacks working in the deerskin trade, and the influence of intermarriage with Blacks on Muscogee culture.

J21.

Muscogee Nation. "Laws of the Creek Nation." In A Creek Sourcebook, edited by William Sturtevant. New York: Garland, 1987.

Creek 143 A list of the laws of the Muscogee Nation as of 1824. Many pertain to interactions with Blacks, including laws relating to the killing of Black slaves, intermarriage with Blacks, and the freeing of slaves. J22.

"Oglethorpe's Treaty With the Lower Creek Indians." Georgia Historical Quarterly 4 (1920): 3-16. Reprints the treaty signed in 1751 between the colony of Georgia and the Lower Creeks. Includes a clause that required the Creeks to apprehend and return runaway slaves, and established what the Creeks would be paid for this service.

J23.

Paredes, J. Anthony. "Back from Disappearance: The Alabama Creek Indian Community." In Southeastern Indians Since the Removal Era, edited by Walter L Williams, Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1979. Discusses the Creek community of Poarch, Alabama, and briefly mentions current attitudes towards neighboring Blacks. Mentions two former slaves who, upon inheriting from their former owner land that included the Creek cemetery, returned the cemetery to the Creek community.

J24.

Pew, Thomas W., Jr. "Boley, Oklahoma: Trial in American Apartheid." American West 17, no. 6 (1980): 14-21, 54-56, 63. Recounts the history of Boley, Oklahoma, an all-Black town incorporated on land donated by a Creek freedwoman in the former Creek Nation. Discusses slavery among the Five Tribes following removal to Indian Territory. Following the Civil War, the former slaves of the Indians competed for resources with other Blacks who moved to Indian Territory independently. Boley thrived for the ten years following its incorporation in 1904 and hosted two visits from Booker T. Washington, but later fell on hard times.

J25.

Robertson, Alice M. "The Creek Indian Council in Session." Chronicles of Oklahoma 11 (1933): 895-898. Account of a trip to the Creek Nation in 1878. Contains several mentions of Creek freedmen.

J26.

Rucker, Brian R. "West Florida's Creek Indian Crisis of 1837." Florida Historical Quarterly 69 (1991): 315-334.

144 American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at anti-Creek sentiment in West Florida in the 1830's, some of which was created slaveholding whites' fears that Creeks might assist fugitive Blacks. J27.

Sameth, Sigmund. Creek Negroes: A Study of Race Relations. Master's Thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1940. Studies how relations between Creeks and their Black slaves affected the acculturation of the slaves. Presents a history of slave ownership among the Creek, and argues that Creek slavery was more lenient than white slavery, although many slaves came into the tribe after being captured from other tribes, and that intermarriage between Indians and Blacks was acceptable. After emancipation, the Creek Freedmen were admitted to tribal rolls and settled in Black towns, but were removed from the rolls in 1896. Includes a chapter on race relations of 1940, which describes interactions with other Blacks, whites, and Indians.

J28.

Saunt, Claudio. A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733-1816. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Includes information on the status of Blacks in Creek territory prior to removal. Fugitive slaves sometimes found sanctuary with the Creeks, Blacks and Indians intermarried, and Blacks and Black-Indians were occasionally found in positions of power among the Creeks.

J29.

Saunt, Claudio. ""The English Has Now a Mind to Make Slaves of Them All": Creeks, Seminoles, and the Problem of Slavery." American Indian Quarterly 22, no. 1-2 (1998): 157-180. Also in Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discusses the Creek reaction to slavery in the British colonial era of the Carolinas. Argues that most Creeks found the British system of forced slavery abhorrent and in direct opposition to their own beliefs about kinship and political order. However, in the northern part of Creek territory, the children of Creek women and British men soon created a social class that rose to prominence in Creek society and fully accepted plantation style slavery and forced labor. Southern Creeks continued to resist plantation style slavery and practiced a far more relaxed version which often included adoption of Black slaves into Creek society. In 1813, the political differences between the two Creek factions led to the Red Stick war, which resulted in Creek and Black dissidents fleeing to Florida.

Creek 145 J30.

Searcy, Martha Condray. "Introduction of African Slavery into the Creek Nation." Georgia Historical Quarterly 66 (1982): 21-32. Details the adoption of Black slavery by the Creeks, which began to occur in 1779. Prior to this time, Creeks were encouraged by white authorities to return runaway slaves. It was during the Revolutionary War that Creeks, fighting on the side of the British, began to capture and keep Black slaves.

J31.

Shingleton, Royce Gordon. "David Brydie Mitchell and the African Importation Case of 1820." Journal of Negro History 58 (1973): 327340. Discusses a case in Georgia in 1817 in which the U.S. Indian agent to the Creek nation was accused of illegally importing and transporting African slaves. Discusses alleged involvement of certain Creeks in the incident.

J32.

Shirley, Glenn. Thirteen Days of Terror: The Rufus Buck Gang in Indian Territory. Stillwater, OK: Barbed Wire Press, 1996. Describes the activities of the Rufus Buck gang, made up of four Creeks and one Creek freedman, who terrorized Creek territory for two weeks in 1895. The gang was later hanged for their crimes.

J33.

Speck, Frank G. "The Creek Indians of Taskigi Town." Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 2 (1907): 99-164. Study of the town of Taskigi in the former Creek Nation of Oklahoma. Mentions other towns created by the Creek freedmen and that Creek residents of Taskigi had intermarried with Blacks.

J34.

Speck, Frank. "Missions in the Creek Nation." The Southern Workman 40, no. 4 (1911): 206-208. Describes relations between Creeks and Creek freedmen, and individuals of mixed Creek and Black ancestry. Describes a church attended by Blacks, Yuchi Indians, "half-blood" Creeks, Black Creeks, and whites.

J35.

Speck, Frank G. "The Negroes and the Creek Nation." Southern Workman 37, no. 2 (1908): 106-110. Surmises on the relationships between Creeks and Creek freedmen, and Black and Indian relations in general.

146 American Indian and African American Interactions J36.

Stubbs, Caroline Quillian. "Slavery and the Creeks: Indian and Negro Slavery Among the Creek Indians." Essays on the Ethnohistory of the North American Indian 3 (1984): 133-150. From a collection of papers written for an archaeology class taught by Ian W. Brown. Historical overview of Creek slavery in Georgia and Alabama.

J37.

Sutton, F. M. Sutton 's History of Creek Freedmen Families, Tracing the Family Connections, Descendents and Antecedents of Certain Creek Freedmen Who Were Granted Allotments in the Creek Nation of Indian Territory. Tulsa: F.M. Sutton, 1908. Traces the genealogy of Creek freedmen families.

J38.

Swanton, John R. "The Green Corn Dance." Chronicles of Oklahoma 10(1932): 170-195. Mentions that Blacks worked as interpreters for the Creeks, and that a Creek chief won a Black man in a dice game.

J39.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Loyal Indians and Freedmen of the Creek Nation. 41 st Cong., 2nd Sess., Exec. Doc. 217. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1870. Letter from the Secretary of the Interior requesting funds for Creeks and Creek freedmen who fled Indian Territory during the Civil War.

J40.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Petition of the Delegates of the Creek Nation, with Reference to the Awards Made to those Creeks who Enlisted in the Federal Army, Loyal Refugees and Freedmen Asking Early Action of Congress upon that Subject. 45th Cong., 2nd Sess., Misc. Doc. 38. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1878. The Creeks and freedmen who were loyal to the Union petitioned for funds for their services in the army and for their losses at the hands of Confederates.

J41.

Williams, James. Narrative of James Williams, an American Slave, Who Was For Several Years a Driver on a Cotton Plantation in Alabama. Boston: Isaac Knapp, 1838. Former slave described receiving assistance from a Georgia Creek community while a runaway.

Creek 147 J42.

Wilson, L. M. S. "Reminiscences of Jim Tomm." Chronicles of Oklahoma 44 (1966): 290-306. Jim Tomm, a Creek freedman born in 1859, describes growing up in Indian Territory. Discusses the Civil War in Indian Territory and Kansas, conditions in the Creek Nation following the Civil War, and Creek culture.

J43.

Zellar, Gary. "Occupying the Middle Ground: African Creeks in the First Indian Home Guard, 1862-1865." Chronicles of Oklahoma 76, no. 1(1998): 48-71. During the Civil War, the Creek Nation was split into two factions. The anti-Confederacy faction, along with about three hundred Creek Blacks and some Black Seminoles, left Indian Territory for Kansas, where they joined the First Indian Home Guard. Black Creeks served as soldiers, interpreters, negotiators, and scouts for the Union Army.

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Seminole Kl.

"A Nation Divided; Dispute over Black and Red Seminoles and Who Should Be Included in the Tribe." Sixty Minutes II, CBS. Aired July 10, 2002. This segment from Sixty Minutes II explores the problems within the Seminole Tribe of Oklahoma relating to the status and rights of freedmen descendents. Contains interviews with tribal members. Transcript available in Lexis-Nexis.

K2.

Adams, Mischa B. "Naming Practices Among the Black Seminole of the Texas-Mexico Border Region." Journal of Big Bend Studies 11 (1999): 119-144. Examines kinship and naming patterns of the Black Seminoles of the Texas-Mexico border region. Focuses on traditional African and indigenous elements that are apparent, the practice of switching between Spanish names while in Mexico and English names while in Texas, and the Black Seminole trait of using multiple names in various contexts. Many Brackettville, Texas, and Nacimiento, Mexico, Black Seminoles are bilingual and pass easily over the border to visit the community on the other side. Author states that this flexibility has allowed them to survive as a culture. Based on recent ethnographic interviews.

K3.

Anderson, Robert L. "The End of an Idyll." Florida Historical Quarterly 42, no. 1 (July 1963): 35-47. Looks at the Black slaves who fled slavery from the southern states to Florida beginning in 1687. Describes their interactions with American Indians and the events leading up to the establishment and the fall of the Negro Fort, a stronghold of Blacks and Indians, which ended a period of freedom for Blacks in Florida.

150 American Indian and African American Interactions K4.

Bateman, Rebecca. "Africans and Indians: A Comparative Study of the Black Carib and Black Seminole." Ethnohistory 37 (1990): 1-24. Compares the Black Carib of Central America to the Black Seminoles of Oklahoma, Texas, Mexico, and Bahamas. Argues that Black Seminoles did not become culturally Indian, but became an entirely new culture that was a distinctive blend of African and Indian. Provides information on Black Seminole history, domestic organization, community, and ethnicity.

K5.

Bateman, Rebecca B. "Naming Patterns in Ethnogenesis." Ethnohistory 49 (2002): 227-257.

Black

Seminole

Explores Black Seminole patterns of naming, primarily among the Oklahoma freedman group. Argues that the pattern that resulted in people identifying themselves by more than one name may have been African derived. Contains information on the specific African backgrounds of the runaway slaves who became the Black Seminoles. K6.

Bateman, Rebecca Belle. ""We're Still Here": History, Kinship, and Group Identity Among the Seminole Freedmen of Oklahoma." Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins, 1991. Based on fieldwork and archival research, this study explores the relationship between the Seminole freedmen and the Seminole Indians of Oklahoma. Spanning from 1898 to the time of writing, it covers issues of allotment of land to the freedmen, land thefts by whites during statehood, the effects of Jim Crow law on the freedmen, participation of the freedmen in political movements, and emigration of some freedmen to Africa, Canada, and California. Describes perceptions and attitudes of Freedmen and Seminoles towards each other, and historical and current freedman participation in Seminole tribal politics.

K7.

Berry, Mary Francis. Black Resistance, White Law: A History of Constitutional Racism in America. New York: Penguin Books, 1994. Argues that the U.S. Constitution has sanctioned violence against and repression of African Americans. Analyzes government actions during the Seminole Wars through the lens of government repression and control of Blacks.

K8.

Blanchard, Daniel F. An Authentic Narrative of the Seminole War and of the Miraculous Escape of Mrs. Mary Godfrey, and Her Four Female Children: Annexed is a Minute Detail of the Horrid Massacres of the Whites, by the Indians and Negroes in Florida in the Months of December, January, and February. New York: D.F. Blanchard, 1836.

Seminole 151 Describes the experiences of Mary Godfrey and her children during the Seminole Wars. Describes Blacks working with the Seminoles as fighters and interpreters. K9.

Boyd, Mark F. "Asi-Yaholo or Osceola." Florida Historical Quarterly 33 (1955): 249-305. Biographical information about Seminole leader Osceola. Mentions Osceola's words being incorrectly interpreted by Black translators, and that he supposedly had a wife who was Black Seminole.

K10.

Boyd, Mark. "Events at Prospect Bluff on the Apalachicola River, 1808-1818." Florida Historical Quarterly 16 (1937): 55-96. Documents the events leading up to the destruction of the Negro Fort and the assistance the British gave the Blacks and Indians who took over the fort when the British abandoned it.

Kll.

Boyd, Mark F. "The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset." Florida Historical Quarterly 30, no. 1 (1951): 3-115. Looks at the events precipitating and surrounding the Dade Massacre, in which Seminoles and Blacks wiped out a U.S. Army regiment of over 100 men in December, 1835. Looks at the alliances between Seminoles and Blacks, and the activities of Luis Pacheco, a Black slave who served as an interpreter for Dade's forces and was spared during the battle.

K12.

Boyett, Cheryl Race. "The Seminole-Black Alliance During the Second Seminole War, 1835-1842." Master's Thesis, California State University, Dominguez Hills, 1996. Looks at the roles of Blacks as interpreters, guides, and fighters in Seminole resistance to removal. Argues that Blacks were a dominant reason for the Second Seminole War and why it continued as long as it did. Looks at causes of the war, Black resistance to removal, and how American authorities perceived the Seminole-Black alliance.

K13.

Britten, Thomas A. A Brief History of the Seminole-Negro Indian Scouts. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1999. The Seminole Negro Indian Scouts were formed in 1870 to protect settlers on the frontier from border hostilities. Covers the origins of the Black Seminoles in Florida, their removal to Indian Territory with the Seminoles, and their flight to Mexico. The Seminole Negro Indian

152 American Indian and African American Interactions Scouts were initially based at Fort Duncan, Texas, and were later transferred to Fort Clark in Brackettville, Texas. The Scouts fought Plains tribes, including Cheyennes, Comanches, Arapahoes, and Kiowas. The Scouts were disbanded in 1914. K14.

Britten, Thomas A. "The Dismissal of the Seminole-Negro Indian Scouts, 1880-1914." Fort Concho and the South Plains Journal 24 (1992): 55-77. History of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts and the U.S. government's refusal to grant them land that had been promised in return for their services.

K15.

Britten, Thomas A. "The Seminole-Negro Indian Scouts in the Big Bend." Journal of Big Bend Studies 5 (1993): 67-77. Details the activities of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts in the Big Bend region of west Texas.

K16.

Brown, Canter Jr. "Race Relations in Territorial Florida, 1821-1845." Florida Historical Quarterly 73 (1995): 287-307. Overview of race relations in territorial Florida. Looks at interactions and alliances between Indians and Blacks, and the actions taken by the U.S. government to control them.

K17.

Brown, Canter Jr. "The Florida Crisis of 1826-1827 and the Second Seminole War." Florida Historical Quarterly 73 (1995): 419-442. Looks at activities of Black and Seminoles during the Second Seminole War, focusing on the roles of Blacks as advisors and leaders of the resistance against the United States.

K18.

Brown, Cloyde. Black Warrior Chiefs: A History of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts. Fort Worth, TX: C.I. Brown, 1999. History of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts of Texas.

K19.

Buker, George E. "The Mosquito Fleet's Guides and the Second Seminole War." Florida Historical Quarterly 57 (1979): 308-326. In 1840, during the Second Seminole War, a Black man who said he had escaped from the Seminole leader Chakaika offered to guide the U.S. forces to the Seminoles. His advice and guide skills were used in several actions against the Seminoles.

Seminole 153 K20.

Carew, Jan. "The African and the Indian Presence: Some Aspects of Historical Distortion." Race and Class 27, no. 1 (1985): 29-44. Provides a brief overview of historical misconceptions and lies about the "discovery" of the New World. Argues that these misconceptions are largely the result of corrupt colonizers then and ignorance now about the active roles of Indians and Africans in the Americas. Also discusses the Seminole Wars.

K21.

Carter, L. Edward. "The Seminole Nation After Leaving Florida, 18551860." Chronicles of Oklahoma 55 (Winter 1977-1978): 433-453. Describes the Seminoles following removal from Florida, includes information on slaves establishing separate towns in the Seminole Nation, as they had in Florida, and the experiences of the Black Seminoles who migrated to Mexico and Texas.

K22.

Cazneau, Mrs. William L. (Cora Montgomery) Eagle Pass: or Life on the Border. New York: Putnam, 1852. Mrs. William L. Cazneau, writing under the pen name of Cora Montgomery, published this account of time spent in Texas. This appears to be erroneously cataloged as fiction in some library catalogs. Cazneau described the arrival in Eagle Pass, Texas, of the Seminoles and Blacks who were fleeing Oklahoma, and an incident in which she was visited by Black Seminole John Horse and Seminole Wild Cat.

K23.

Clark, Ransom. "Ambush." In Scalps and Tomahawks: Narratives of Indian Captivity. Edited by Frederick Drimmer. New York: Coward and McCann, Inc., 1961. Statement of Private Ransom Clark, the only survivor of the Dade Massacre, in which Blacks and Seminoles killed almost all of a unit of soldiers. Originally published in the Boston newspaper Morning Post in 1837.

K24.

Clark, Ransom. Narrative of Ransom Clark, The Only Survivor of Major Dade's Command in Florida; Containing Brief Descriptions of What Befel Him from his Enlistment in 1833, Till his Discharge, in 1836; With an Account of the Inhuman Massacre, by the Indians and Negroes, of Major Dade's Detachment. Binghamton NY, Printed by Johnson & Marble, 1839. Clark, Ransom. The Surprising Adventures of Ransom Clark, Among the Indians in Florida. Binghamton, NY: J. R. Orton, 1839.

154 American Indian and African American Interactions Clark describes surviving the Dade Massacre, in which Seminoles and Blacks killed approximately one hundred soldiers. K25.

Cook, Vivian L. "Black Warriors of the Seminole: Maroons Dictating Political and Economic Policy." Archaeology Jamaica 9-10 (1995): 19. Overview of Black Seminole history, from Florida to Texas.

K26.

Covington, James. "The Negro Fort." Gulf Coast Historical Society Review 5 (1990): 79-91. Describes the establishment and destruction of the Negro Fort on the Apalachicola River, Florida. The British turned over control of the fort to fugitive Blacks and Indians when they evacuated. The leader of the Blacks, Garcon or Garcia, had been trained in the Negro Colonial Marines.

K27.

Covington, James. The Seminoles of Florida. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993. Overview of Seminole history in Florida from the early eighteenth century through the twentieth century. Seminole and Black interactions are discussed briefly throughout.

K28.

Deagan, Kathleen and Darcie MacMahon. Fort Mose: Colonial America's Black Fortress of Freedom. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995. This volume complements an exhibit of the Florida Museum of Natural History on Fort Mose, a Florida town established by the Spanish for African runaways from the British colonies in the mid-1700's. Presents background history, interaction of the Blacks with other cultures, including Indians, and archaeological and genealogical data.

K29.

De Castelnau, Comte. "Essay on Middle Florida, 1837-1838." Translated by Arthur Seymour, foreward by Mark Boyd. Florida Historical Quarterly 26, no. 3 (1948): 199-255. Translation of an essay written by French traveler Francis de la Porte, Comte de Castelnau, that was originally published in Nouvelles Annuales des Voyages et des Sciences Geographiques in 1843. Describes the Seminoles and their villages, mentioning Abraham the interpreter and some Black Seminole villages.

Seminole 155 K30.

del Moral, Paulina and Alicia Siller. Recetario Mascogo de Coahuila. Mexico, D.F.: Consejo Nacional Para La Cultura y Las Artes, 2000. Describes food preparation of the Black Seminoles of Nacimiento, Coahuila, Mexico, and recent photographs of community members preparing food and a brief summary of the Black Seminole's history, emphasizing cultural influences on their foodways. In Spanish.

K31.

del Moral, Paulina. Tribus Olvidadas de Cohuila. Coahuila, Mexico: Gobierno del Estado de Cohuila / Consejo Nacional Para Cultura y Las Artes, 1999. Deals with the history and interactions of the Black Seminoles, Seminoles, and Kickapoos who settled in Coahuila, Mexico, and later Brackettville, Texas. Based on historical research and interviews done in the 1990's. Contains recent photographs of the Black Seminoles still living in Mexico. In Spanish.

K32.

Dillard, J. L. Black English: Its History and Usage in the United States. New York: Vintage Books, 1973. Looks at the history and development of Black English. Chapter nine looks at early adoption of English among Indian and African slaves, arguing that American Indians in many locations appear to have adopted a pidgin English learned from Black slaves. Specifically looks at evidence of transmission of English from Africans to the Seminoles in Florida, and later spoken by the Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas.

K33.

Di Silvestro, Roger and Shirley Boteler Mock. "Freedom Train to Mexico." Americas 52, no. 6 (2000): 22-31. Presents a history of the Seminoles and Blacks led by Wild Cat and John Horse who fled Oklahoma for freedom in Mexico in 1850. Mexico had abolished slavery in the 1820's. The group was made naturalized citizens of Mexico and given land, where they were occasionally harassed by slave catchers from the United States. Includes many photographs and illustrations.

K34.

Duffner, Michael Paul. "The Seminole-Black Alliance in Florida: An Example of Minority Cooperation." Master's Thesis, George Mason University, 1973. Explores the confederacy between the Seminoles and Black runaways in Florida. Provides a historical context and examines the extent of the interactions while offering reasons why the cultures of the two groups

156 American Indian and African American Interactions were receptive to such extensive contact, which was beneficial to both groups. K35.

Dundes, Alan. "Washington Irving's Version of the Seminole Origins of Races." Ethnohistory 9 (1962): 257-264. Examines Washington Irving's account of a Seminole myth about the origins of Black, Indian, and white people. Argues that the myth Irving published is not credible and it is doubtful whether it is actually a Seminole myth. Presents a version of the tale that may be authentic.

K36.

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. "Billy Bowlegs." Chronicles of Oklahoma 33 (1955): 512-532. Reviews the life of Seminole leader Billy Bowlegs, including his activities in the Seminole Wars and his interactions with Black runaways, warriors, and interpreters.

K37.

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. "The Jumper Family of the Seminole Nation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 34, no. 3 (1956): 272-286. Relates the activities of various members of the Jumper family. Details activities of Black interpreters between Seminoles and representatives of the U. S. government.

K38.

Foster, Laurence. Negro-Indian Relationships in the Southeast. Philadelphia: AMS Press, 1978. Focuses mainly on the history of the Black Seminoles. Based on ethnographic interviews and historical research done in the late 1920's. Includes extensive information on the Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas and Nacimiento, Mexico.

K39.

Frazier, Herb. "Gullah-Seminole Link Comes to Light." The Post and Courier, July 6, 1999, p. Al. Describes the results of recent research indicating cultural connections between the Gullah of South Carolina and the Black Seminoles. Includes views of Seminoles regarding the Black Seminoles.

K40.

Frazier, Herb. "Seminole, Gullah Ties Traced." The Post and Courier, November 14, 1998, p. Bl. Describes historic research on the linguistic and cultural relationships of the Gullah and the Black Seminoles.

Seminole 157 K41.

Gallaher, Art, Jr. "A Survey of the Seminole Freedmen." Masters thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1951. Based on historical research and anthropological fieldwork among the Seminole freedmen of Oklahoma. Includes a historical background on the Seminole - Black relationship. Contains demographic information concluding that in 1950 there were about 455 people considered Seminole freedmen. Includes data on material culture, lifeways, medicinal practices, burial customs, relationships with Freedmen of other tribes and other Black groups, and political and social interactions with the Seminole tribe. Discusses the political organization of the freedmen bands and their roles in the Seminole tribal government.

K42.

Garvin, Russell. "The Free Negro in Florida Before the Civil War." Florida Historical Quarterly 46 (1967): 1-17. Looks at free Blacks in Florida before the Civil War, including may interactions with Indians and the episode of the Negro Fort, which the British gave to a group of armed Indians and Blacks.

K43.

Gassaway, Carolyn T. "Black Indians in the Seminole Wars." South Florida History 27 (1998-99): 10-17. Overview of the role of Black Seminoles in the Seminole wars.

K44.

Giddings, Joshua R. The Exiles of Florida: Or The Crimes Committed by Our Government Against the Maroons, Who Fled From South Carolina and Other Slave States, Seeking Protection Under Spanish Laws. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times, 1969. Originally published in 1858, this contains extensive information on the Black slaves who fled to Florida and lived with or near the Seminoles, attempts by other colonies to recapture them, the roles of Blacks in the Seminole Wars, and controversy over the ownership of the Black Seminoles.

K45.

Gifford, John C. Billy Bowlegs and the Seminole War. Coconut Grove, FL: Triangle Company, 1925. Much of this was originally published in Harper's Weekly in 1858. Discusses the roles of Blacks in the Seminole Wars, including Ben Bruno.

K46.

Glaberson, William. "Who Is a Seminole, and Who Gets to Decide?" New York Times, January 29, 2001, p. Al.

158 American Indian and African American Interactions Presents the current situation faced by the Black Seminoles of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, race relations within the tribe, and how financial and health benefits are being contested on the basis of the recipient's racial background. Brief overview of Black and Seminole history. K47.

Goggin, John M. "An Anthropological Reconnaissance of Andros Island, Bahamas." American Antiquity 5 (1939): 21-26. Discusses the Black Seminoles of Andros Island. Based on fieldwork done in 1937. Surmises that the Black Seminoles came to the Bahamas between 1810 and 1820 to escape slave catchers. Describes evidence of Seminole culture in the group, such as in hunting methods or house types, and the use of the family name Bowlegs.

K48.

Goggin, John M. "The Seminole Negroes of Andros Island, Bahamas." Florida Historical Quarterly 24 (1946): 200-206. Study of the Black Seminole community in Mastic Point on Andros Island, Bahamas, who probably emigrated by canoe and larger vessel from Florida to Nassau between 1819 and 1840. Author interviewed a grandson of one of the original emigrants who stated they were "black Indians," not "white Indians," and were fleeing slave hunters.

K49.

Guinn, Jeff. Our Land Before We Die: The Proud Story of the Seminole Negro. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam 2002. History of the Black Seminoles of Texas and Mexico. Based on historical sources and extensive interviews with community members.

K50.

Hancock, Ian. "The Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas." World & 7 4 (December 1986): 676-687. History of Black Seminoles and their linguistic relationship to Gullah. Based on interviews with community members.

K51.

Hancock, Ian. "Texan Gullah: The Creole English of the Brackettville Afro-Seminoles." In Perspectives on American English, edited by J. L. Dillard. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. Argues that the dialect spoken in certain social situations by the Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas, is an offshoot of the dialect spoken by the Gullah people of the Georgia and South Carolina Sea Islands. At the time of writing, many older Black Seminoles still spoke this creolized English, although English and Spanish were used more often in everyday conversation.

Seminole 159 K52.

Hancock, Ian. "Texas Seminole and Their Language." African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center Papers (University of Texas) Series 2, 1980. Describes the language of the Black Seminoles of Texas, tracing its development from Gullah. Includes word lists.

K53.

Harrington, M. R. "Funko the Slave." Masterkey 20, no. 5 (1946): 169170. Brief article recounts the meeting of a woman of apparently African heritage living with a Seminole group near Lake Okeechobee in Florida. The author encountered her in 1908 and at the time she was still identified as a slave.

K54.

Hawkins, Lynn McClary. "Wise Child/Wise Woman: The Story of Annie May McClary Walker." Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska, 1998. Life story of Annie Mae McClary Walker, whose mother was Seminole and father was a Black Gullah from South Carolina. McClary Walker was a professor of anthropology.

K55.

Haynes, Lillith. "Candid Chimera: Texas Seminole." In Southwest Areal Linguistics Then and Now: Proceedings of the Fifth Southwest Areal Language and Linguistics Workshop. San Antonio: Trinity University, 1976. Presents the results of an ethnographic investigation of the language of the Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas. Many community members speak English, Spanish, and Seminole, which the author argues is neither a Creole nor a variety of English but its own language.

K56.

Herron, Jordan Thomas. "The Black Seminole Settlement Pattern, 1813-1842." Thesis, University of South Carolina, 1994. Study of Black Seminole settlements in Florida over a thirty year period.

K57.

Howard, Rosalyn. Black Seminoles in the Bahamas. Gainesville, University of Florida Press, 2002. Ethnographic study of Black Seminole descendents in Red Bays, Andros Island, Bahamas.

160 American Indian and African American Interactions K58.

Johnson, Charles, Jr. "Black Seminoles: Their History and Their Quest for Land." Journal of the Afro-American Historical and Genealogical Society \,no.2{m0)\ 41-5%. Looks at the history of the Black Seminoles, focusing on the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts. The Black Seminoles were promised land by the government in exchange for their service but never received it.

K59.

Johnson, John Allen. "The Medal of Honor and Sergeant John Ward and Private Pompey Factor." Arkansas Historical Quarterly 29 (1970): 361-375. John Ward and Pompey Factor, both Seminole Negro Indian Scouts born in Arkansas during removal, received the Medal of Honor for bravery in action in 1876. Provides background information on the Black Seminoles and the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

K60.

Jones, H. Conger. "Old Seminole Scouts Still Thrive on the Border." Frontier Times 11 (May 1934): 327-337. Magazine article describes some social and religious behavior of the Black Seminoles of Brackettville, Texas. Includes history of the community, descriptions of homes, and engagements of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts in battles with the Comanches and Apaches.

K61.

Jones, Vinnie and Denise Matthews. Black Warriors of the Seminole. Asheville, NC: Ironwood Productions, 1997. Documentary video contains interviews with descendents of Black Seminole warriors living in Brackettville, Texas, and recounts the history of the Seminole-Black alliance during the Seminole Wars. Argues that the relationship was not primarily one of slavery, but of pursuing a free life together. Commentary by William Warrior, Jane Landers, Brent Weisman, John Mahon, and Rebecca Bateman.

K62.

Jumper, Betty Mae Tiger and Patsy West. A Seminole Legend: The Life of Betty Mae Tiger Jumper. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. States that following the Third Seminole War in 1858, only three Black slaves remained with the Florida Seminole. Discusses the Seminole Black clan known as Little Black Snake. Describes the Bluefields Massacre of 1889, which occurred when Jim Jumper, a member of the Black clan, allegedly proposed marriage to a Seminole woman, was refused because of his race, and killed several people in a rage.

Seminole 161 K63.

Katz, William Lorenz. "Six "New" Medal of Honor Men." Journal of Negro History 53 (1968): 77-81. Describes the events for which John Ward, Isaac Payne, Pompey Factor, and Adam Payne, all members of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, were awarded the Medal of Honor for outstanding acts of bravery in military service.

K64.

Kersey, Harry A. Jr. "The Seminole Negroes of Andros Island Revisited: Some New Pieces to an Old Puzzle." Florida Anthropologist 34(1981): 169-176. Author discusses what is known about the Black Seminoles who emigrated to the Bahamas in the 1820's and 1830's. Looks at information from newspaper articles published in the 1850's in the Bahama Herald that discuss a Black Seminole man who was captured from the Bahamas and enslaved in Cuba. The articles provide firsthand testimony from other members of the man's family who were born in Florida, lived among the Indians near Tampa, and emigrated to the Bahamas.

K65.

Kinsall, A. Ray. Fort Duncan, Texas: Birthplace of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts: A Documentary Analysis of the First Seminoles in the U.S. Army. Piedras Negras, Cohuila, Mexico: Al Kinsall, 1999. Self-published account of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts at Fort Duncan, Texas, a division that came into being in 1870. Reprints many documents, primarily Army correspondence relevant to the Scouts, and oral histories. Also reprints several Mexican government memos relating to the 1855 Callahan raid into Mexico, which unsuccessfully attempted to capture and enslave the Black Seminoles, but was repelled by the Mexican army.

K66.

Klos, George. "Blacks and the Seminole Removal Debate, 1821-1835." Florida Historical Quarterly 68 (1989): 55-78. Details the disputes between Seminoles and whites over the ownership and status of Blacks in Florida, including specific disputes over the return of runaway slaves to white claimants. Looks at the roles played by Blacks as intermediaries and interpreters in these debates and the negotiations over removal.

K67.

Klos, George E. "Black Seminoles in Territorial Florida." Southern Historian 10 (1989): 26-42.

162 American Indian and African American Interactions Presents the historical background of the escaped black slaves who lived with the Seminoles, adopting many of their cultural attributes and fighting with them against the United States Army in the Seminole Wars. Discusses the slave claims made by the Creeks who argued the Black Seminoles legally belonged to them. Argues that the end of the Second Seminole War created an atmosphere that was no longer hospitable to Black Seminoles, influencing many of them to move West to Indian Territory. K68.

Klos, George E. "Black Seminoles in Territorial Florida." Thesis, Florida State University, 1990. Historical study of the fugitive slaves who became the Black Seminoles.

K69.

Krapf, Kellie A. and Floyd B. Largent, Jr. "The Black Seminole Scouts: Soldiers Who Deserve Praise." Persimmon Hill 24, no. 4 (1996): 73-75. Overview of the history of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

K70.

Krogman, Wilton Marion. The Physical Anthropology of the Seminole Indians of Oklahoma. Rome: Comitato Italiano per lo Studio dei Problemi del la Popolazione 2, 1935. Includes information on Blacks and Black Seminoles in Seminole society. States that Seminole Black ancestry was the original subject of the study, but the rest of the Seminole community resented the implications of the study, and its purposes were reworked. States that the Seminole Freedmen were wary of the study and avoided participating, although a few are included.

K71.

Krogman, Wilton Marion. "The Racial Composition of the Seminole Indians of Florida and Oklahoma." Journal of Negro History 19 (1934): 412-430. Anthropometrical, historical, and genealogical study of Seminoles of Oklahoma and Florida attempting to estimate their racial origin.

K72.

Lancaster, Jane F. Removal Aftershock: The Seminole's Struggle to Survive in the West, 1836-1866. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994. Looks at the experiences of the Seminoles following their removal to Indian Territory. Discusses the changing status of Blacks in the

Seminole 163 Seminole Nation, which led some to seek freedom and better lives in Mexico. K73.

Landers, Jane. "Black Community and Culture in the Southeastern Borderlands." Journal of the Early Republic 18(1998): 117-135. Looks at the Black population of Spanish Florida and some of their interactions with Seminoles.

K74.

Laumer, Frank. Dade's Last Command. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995. Presents the events surrounding the attacks by Seminoles and Blacks on Major Francis Dade's command. Almost all the soldiers were killed, with the exception of two soldiers and Dade's Black guide, Louis Pacheco, who was captured and lived with the Seminoles following the attack. The appendix contains Pacheco's statement on the massacre.

K75.

Laumer, Frank. "Incident by the River." Florida Historical Quarterly 46, no. 4 (1968): 322-339. Details the battle between General Clinch and the Seminole and Black warriors, led by Osceola, in 1836 on the Withlacoochee River.

K76.

Lawuyi, Olatunde Bayo. "Seminole Freedmen's Identity in Plural Setting." Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1985. Explored the self-perceptions held by Seminole freedmen in the town of Wewoka, Oklahoma, their interactions with whites, Seminoles, and "Stateraised" Blacks, African Americans who moved to Oklahoma on their own following statehood, and how these groups view the freedmen. Explores the political roles of freedmen in relation to the Seminole tribal government. Freedmen were given full citizenship in the treaty of 1866 following the Civil War, but many Seminoles did not see that as a valid reason for sharing resources with the freedmen. Includes an indepth reporting of the debate of the 1980's surrounding the dispersal of Indian Claims Commission funds for the loss of land in Florida to tribal members, and how tribal members felt about sharing the money with freedmen.

K77.

Lawuyi, Olatunde Bayo. "Shifting Boundaries and Seminole Freedmen's Identity Constructions: Insider and Outsider in Racial Context." Plural Societies 20 (1990): 41-50.

164 American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at relationships between Seminole Freedmen and Seminoles in Oklahoma and analyzes origin myths that describe the creation of white, Black, and Indian people. Also discusses terminology that is used to create boundaries between the freedmen and the Seminoles, and recent political developments in the Seminole Nation. K78.

Littlefield, Daniel. Africans and Seminoles: From Removal to Emancipation. Westport: Greenwood, 1977. Extensive and detailed history of Africans among the Seminole Indians from the 1830's to 1865. Covers the Second Seminole War, removal, settlement in Indian Territory among the Creeks, the Black Seminole migration to Mexico, discussion of individual slaves and their attempts to clarify their status in court, the Civil War, and emancipation.

K79.

Lockman, Paul T., Jr., and George A. Agogino. "Maroon Communities 1672-1864: The Centers of Early Guerilla Warfare in the United States, Information for Historical Archaeologists." Chesopiean 30, no. 1-2 (1992): 31-37. Looks at the formation of maroon communities created by runaway slaves in the southeast, from North Carolina to Florida to Louisiana. Argues that these communities were important centers for resistance. Focuses on the maroons of Florida who interacted with the Seminoles.

K80.

Mahon, John K. "British Strategy and Southern Indians: War of 1812." Florida Historical Quarterly 44 (1966): 285-302. Examines British plans to use Indians and Blacks to reacquire United States Territory. The area of Prospect Bluff, Florida, was intended to become the center of British opposition to the U.S., but later the British turned it over to the Blacks and some Indians and it became known as the Negro Fort.

K81.

Mahon, John. The History of the Second Seminole War, 1835-1842. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1967. Contains information on the roles and activities of Blacks in the Second Seminole War. Blacks served as guides, interpreters, and fighters.

K82.

Mahon, John. "Two Seminole Treaties: Paynes Landing, 1832, and Ft. Gibson, 1833." Florida Historical Quarterly 41 (1962): 1-21. Discusses factors that affected treaties, including slavery, as practiced by the Seminoles. The Seminoles' and whites' assertions that each had

Seminole 165 slaves belonging to the other was a constant source of friction. Brief discussion of the importance of Black interpreters. K83.

Mattson, Marcia. "Unearthing New History: Student's Work Reveals a Picture of the Area's Black Seminoles." The Florida Times-Union, November 4, 2001, p. El. Describes the research of archaeologist Terry Weik, who is excavating the Black Seminole village of Peliklikaha, also known as Abraham's Old Town.

K84.

McCabe, Scott. "Black Indians Fight for Equality, Lawsuit Against U.S. Seeks Eligibility for Indian Benefits." The Palm Beach Post, July 25, 1999, p. 1A. Outlines lawsuits by Black Seminoles against the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma over citizenship rights and money.

K85.

McCabe, Scott. "Black Seminoles 'Back in the Fight' For Indian Benefits, Payout Money." Palm Beach Post, September 23, 1999, p. 1A. Overview of the legal battle between the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Black Seminoles who were suing for part of a $56 million land claims settlement to the Florida and Oklahoma Seminoles for lands taken in Florida.

K86.

McCabe, Scott. "Searching for Peliklakaha, Land of the Forgotten Seminoles." Palm Beach Post, August 20, 2001, p. 1A. Describes the archaeological excavation of Peliklakaha, the largest and best known of the Black Seminole villages. Provides a historical overview of the site and current issues of the Black Seminoles. Also describes a shift in perception that is leading historians to see the Seminole War as the U.S.'s largest slave revolt, and not just its longest Indian War.

K87.

Mexico. Comision Pesquisidora de la Frontera del Norte. Reports of the Committee of Investigation Sent in 1873 by the Mexican Government to the Frontier of Texas. Translated From the Official Edition Made in Mexico. New York: Baker & Godwin, 1875. Contains several mentions of the activities of the Seminoles and Black Seminoles living in Mexico.

166 American Indian and African American Interactions K88.

Micco, Melinda Beth. "Freedmen and Seminoles: Forging a Seminole Nation." Ph.D. diss., University of California Berkeley, 1996. Describes the roles of Blacks in the formation of the Seminole Nation. Explores slavery among the other Oklahoma tribes. Looks at how relationships between Blacks and Seminoles continued following removal to Indian Territory. Partially based on oral histories from Seminole tribal elders.

K89.

Miller, Susan A. "Wild Cat and the Origins of the Seminole Migration to Mexico." Masters thesis, University of Oklahoma, 1988. Examines Seminole history up to 1852. Describes early interactions between fugitive Blacks and Seminoles, their roles during the Seminole Wars, removal to Indian Territory, and the leadership of Wild Cat in the migration to Mexico.

K90.

Miller, Susan Allison. "Wild Cat's Bones: Seminole Leadership in a Seminole Cosmos." Ph.D. diss., University of Nebraska, 1997. Historical study of Wild Cat, the Seminole leader who accompanied the Black Seminoles from Oklahoma to Mexico. Discusses the roles of Seminole Blacks in the Seminole Wars, removal, the flight to Mexico, and the establishment of settlements there.

K91.

Milligan, John D. "Slave Rebelliousness and the Florida Maroon." Prologue 6 (1974): 5-18. Discusses maroons in Florida and their relationship to the Seminole Indians. Describes the activities of the two groups in resisting the control of the U.S. government, and the establishment and destruction of the Negro Fort, which the British gave to the maroons and their Indian allies.

K92.

Mock, Shirley Boteler. Black Seminoles in Texas and Mexico. University of Texas Institute for Texas Cultures at San Antonio, 2000. http://www.texanculmres.utsa.edu/seminole/blackseminoleintro.htm Online exhibit on the Black Seminoles of Texas.

K93.

Mock, Shirley Boteler and Mike Davis. "Seminole Black Culture on the Texas Frontier." CRM 20, no. 2 (1997): 8-10. Provides a progress report of an ongoing cultural resources management project relating to the Seminole Black culture in and around Brackettville, Texas. The project has engaged in collecting oral

Seminole 167 histories, producing a video documentary, creation of a museum exhibit, and an archaeological investigation. K94.

Moses, Yolanda T. "Laurence Foster, a Black Anthropologist: His Life and Work." Western Journal of Black Studies 7 (1983): 34-42. Looks at the life and career of Laurence Foster, author of the pioneering work Negro-Indian Relations in the Southeast. The work was his dissertation at the University of Pennsylvania, where Foster was the first African American to earn the doctorate in anthropology. Presents an overview of his work on Black and Indian relations, especially the Black Seminoles.

K95.

Mulroy, Kevin. "Ethnogenesis and Ethnohistory of the Seminole Maroons." Journal of World History 4 (1993): 287-305. Discusses the political, cultural, and historical influences that led to the creation, or ethnogenesis, of the Seminole maroon society, the fugitive Black slaves who lived near the Seminole Indians. Views the Seminole maroons as separate from the Seminole Indians.

K96.

Mulroy, Kevin. Freedom on the Border: The Seminole Maroons in Florida, the Indian Territory, Coahuila, and Texas. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 1993. Covers the history of the Black Seminoles from the eighteenth century to the present. Discusses their origins in Florida, removal to Indian Territory, flight to Mexico, the establishment of villages in Mexico, relations with the Mexican government, their return to the U.S., and the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

K97.

National Public Radio. Black Seminoles: A Celebration of Survival. Washington: National Public Radio Education Services, 1981. Audio documentary on the Black Seminoles.

K98.

Native America Calling. The Black Seminoles. Native American Public Telecommunications, 2001. A one hour radio call-in show on the issues surrounding the Black members of the Seminole tribe of Oklahoma, originally broadcast February 21, 2001. Available at http://www.nativecalling.org/archives/topics/race.html

K99.

Noah, Belinda. The Black Seminoles: The Little Known Story of the First Seminoles. Tallahassee: Noah Productions, 1995.

168 American Indian and African American Interactions History of the Black Seminoles in Florida. K100.

Ogunleye, Tolagbe. "The Self-Emancipated Africans of Florida: PanAfrican Nationalists in the "New World."" Journal of Black Studies 27, no. 1(1996): 24-38. Argues that the self-emancipated Africans of Florida held a wholesome African worldview, and that despite living near American Indian villages and serving as intermediaries, they retained their pan-African characteristics. Argues that this worldview was the guiding force to attaining their freedom.

KlOl.

Opala, Joseph A. "A Brief History of the Seminole Freedmen." African and Afro-American Studies Research Center Papers 3 (University of Texas) Series 2, 1980. Origin of Seminoles, the Estelusti, and the Seminole Wars are discussed. Suggests that the history of the alliance between Blacks and Indians in Florida dates from the time of the American Revolution.

K102.

Opala, Joseph. "Double Homecoming: American Indians with African Roots Return to the "Rice Coast."" West Africa 3778 (January 22-28, 1990)97. Reports on the visit of a "Gullah delegation" of African Americans who visited Sierra Leone in November 1989. The delegation included two Black Seminoles from Oklahoma and met with President Momoh of Sierra Leone.

K103.

Opala, Joseph. "Seminole-Africa Relations on the Florida Frontier." Papers in Anthropology of the University of Oklahoma Department of Anthropology 22 (1981): 11-51. Presents the history of Black and Seminole interaction in Florida. Argues that Seminole Blacks are the ultimate example of Black resistance against slavery, given the fact that their resistance was unprecedented and unrepeated, in terms of geographical span and length of time. Also studies the interaction of Indians with the independent maroon communities that were unaffiliated with the Indians, making a distinction between the Seminole Blacks, who were runaways who placed themselves under the authority of the Seminoles or were purchased by them, and the independent maroons.

Seminole 169 K104.

Parsons, Elsie Clews. "Folk-tales of Andros Island, Bahamas." Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society 13. New York: American Folk-Lore Society, 1918. These folktales were collected on Andros Island, Bahamas. At least one of the informants, Samuel L. Bowlegs, was a descendant of the Black Seminoles who emigrated from Florida to the Bahamas in the 1830's.

K105.

Patrick, Rembert W. Florida Fiasco. Rampant Rebels on the GeorgiaFlorida Border 1810-1815. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1954. Describes cooperation between Blacks and Seminoles in Florida in the First Seminole War.

K106.

Pingenot, Ben E. "The Great Wagon Train Expedition of 1850." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 98 (1994): 183-225. Based on a recently discovered journal kept by Brevet Major John T. Sprague who recorded seeing Wild Cat and John Horse leading Seminoles and Blacks to Mexico.

K107.

Pirle, Caleb, III, and Michael F. Cusack, Fort Clark: The Lonely Sentinel on Texas's Western Frontier. Austin: Eakin Publications, 2000. Fort Clark was where the Seminole Indian Scouts were stationed from 1872 until 1914.

K108.

Pollitzer, William S. "The Seminole Indians of Florida: Morphology and Serology." American Journal of Physical Anthropology 32 (1970): 65-81. This genetic study of Florida Seminoles looks at African ancestry as reflected in the genes of the selected population.

K109.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Abraham." Phylon 22 (1941): 105-116. Presents the life of Abraham, born in the late 1700's in Pensacola, who escaped from slavery to the Seminoles, where he became an advisor and translator to the Seminole leader Micanopy. In 1826 he accompanied a Seminole delegation to Washington. He also translated at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Dade in 1837, and in 1839 he was among Seminoles and Blacks removed to Indian Territory.

K110.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Billy Bowlegs (Holata Micco) in the Seminole Wars." Florida Historical Quarterly 45 (1967): 219-242.

170 American Indian and African American Interactions Life of Billy Bowlegs, Seminole leader. Includes many interactions with Blacks, both free and enslaved. Bowlegs was among the last of the Seminoles to surrender and was moved to Indian Territory in 1858. Kl 11.

Porter, Kenneth W. "Davy Crockett and John Horse: A Possible Origin of the Coonskin Story." American Literature 15 (1943): 10-15. Suggests that a story attributed to Davy Crockett might really have originated with John Horse, also known as Gopher John, a Black Seminole leader. Looks at how the story of Horse selling the same turtles over and over to the same person could have been attributed to Crockett.

K112.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Early Life of Luis Pacheco ne Fatio." Negro History Bulletin 7, no. 3 (1943): 52, 54, 62, 64. Life of Luis Pacheco, Black slave and interpreter for Major Dade, whose command was annihilated by a force of Seminoles and Blacks in 1835. Pacheco interacted with Seminoles often in his youth and lived with them following the Dade massacre.

K113.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Farewell to John Horse: An Episode of Seminole Negro Folk History." Phylon 8 (1947): 265-273. In 1882, Black Seminole leader John Horse headed for Mexico City to argue the group's claims in a land dispute and was never seen again. Presents testimony from people of the community of Nacimiento, Mexico, recalling how the village bid farewell to Horse as he departed on his journey, and background information on the informants themselves.

K114.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Florida Slaves and Free Negroes in the Seminole War, 1835-1842." Journal of Negro History 28 (1943): 390421. Divides the Black population of Florida into three groups: slaves owned by whites, free Blacks, and those affiliated with the Seminole Indians. Looks at the roles of each in the Second Seminole War and argues that they were united by resistance to exploitation and oppression.

K115.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "John Caesar: Seminole Negro Partisan." Journal of Negro History 31 (1946): 190-207.

Seminole 171 Looks at the life of Black Seminole John Caesar. Caesar led fighters in the Second Seminole War, served as an intermediary between Seminoles and the Army, led a band of runaways in guerilla style warfare, and was eventually killed by U.S. soldiers. K116.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "A Legend of the Biloxi." Journal of American Folklore 59 (1945): 168-173. Presents folklore collected in 1943 from Black Seminoles in Brackettville, Texas, and Nacimiento, Mexico. Presents community members' recollections of a family of Biloxi Indians that joined up with the runaway Seminole Blacks in Mexico.

K117.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Negro Abraham." Florida Historical Quarterly 25 (1946): 1-43. Presents the life of Abraham, fugitive slave from Pensacola, who served the Seminoles as an interpreter during the Second Seminole War. Born between 1787 and 1791, Abraham probably ran away to Seminole country around 1815, and in 1825 he accompanied a delegation of Seminoles led by Micanopy to Washington. Abraham later negotiated the surrender of some of the Seminoles and served as a guide for the U.S. Army in Florida. In 1839 he moved to Indian Territory with Micanopy, and in 1852 returned to Florida to interpret during the Third Seminole War. Following that, he accompanied Billy Bowlegs to New York where they were the subject of media attention. Reprints a letter from Abraham to negotiators.

K118.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negro Guides and Interpreters in the Early Stages of the Seminole War, Dec. 28, 1835-Mar. 6, 1837." Journal of Negro History 35 (1950): 174-182. Discusses the Black interpreters and guides "King" Cudjo, Nero, Ben Wiggins, and Primus, who helped the U.S. Army locate Seminoles and Black Seminoles who were still resisting removal.

K119.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes and the East Florida Annexation Plot, mi-mi" Journal of Negro History 30 (1945): 9-29. Looks at the attempted annexation of Spanish east Florida by the U. S. Army and Georgia militiamen, and the alliance between the Spanish authorities, Blacks, Seminole Blacks, and Seminoles in rebuffing the invaders. Argues that the presence of Blacks in Florida was the determining factor in delaying the annexation of east Florida to the U.S. for almost ten years.

172 American Indian and African American Interactions K120.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes and the Seminole War: 1817mS." Journal of Negro History 36 (1951): 249-280. Describes early Seminole-Black interaction in Florida and the background to the First Seminole War. Also discusses the Red Stick War, the Negro Fort, and the Battle of Suwannee.

K121.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes and the Seminole War: 18351842. " The Journal of Southern History 30 (1964): 427-450. Details the position and status of Blacks in Seminole society. States that it was the presence of Africans among the Seminole that made them a target of removal by the U. S. government because authorities and neighboring whites desired the return of the Blacks to their original owners, and describes the activities of the slave catchers who attempted to return the Blacks to slavery. Details the activities of Blacks and Black Seminoles in the Second Seminole War as leaders, fighters, interpreters, and negotiators.

K122.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes on the Southern Frontier." Journal of Negro History 33 (1948): 53-78. Begins by looking at the Black slaves used by the British in South Carolina to fight Indians, focusing on the Yamassee War. Later, Blacks fled to Florida and joined the Indians and Spanish in resisting British troops in the siege of St. Augustine in 1740.

K123.

Porter, Kenneth W. "Notes on Seminole Negroes in the Bahamas." Florida Historical Quarterly 24 (1945): 56-60. Looks at the history of the Seminole Blacks who left Florida, probably around 1836, for Andros Island, Bahamas. Reports that folk music researcher Alan Lomax had recorded a song sung by a Black Seminole named Bowlegs (a common Seminole name) in the Bahamas in 1936.

K124.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Osceola and the Negroes." Florida Historical Quarterly 33 (1955): 235-239. Osceola's interactions with Blacks are well documented. During the Seminole War, when some Blacks surrendered to the United States, Osceola commanded the remaining defiant runaways in continued resistance. Makes a distinction between recent Black runaway slaves from the northern states and "Indian Negroes," defined here as Blacks born among or long assimilated with the Seminoles.

Seminole 173 K125.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Hawkins' Negroes Go to Mexico: A Footnote to History." Chronicles of Oklahoma 24 (1946): 55-58. Article is based on interviews with Black Seminoles in Brackettville, Texas, and Nacimiento, Mexico. Presents the testimony of some individuals who believed that they were also descended from Creeks and Creek freedmen. Explores folklore that suggests a Creek Indian slaveholder sent his slaves to Mexico to prevent them from being stolen by slave hunters, but never retrieved them, and they joined the Black Seminoles.

K126.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Episode of Osceola's Wife: Fact or Fiction?" Florida Historical Quarterly 26 (1947): 92-98. Seminole leader Osceola was said to have had a wife who was of partial African ancestry, who was abducted by slave hunters. The author looks at the historical basis for this story, and concludes that while many Seminole men were married to women of African ancestry and that Blacks were frequently abducted, there is not specific historical evidence for the Osceola story.

K127.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Seminole Flight From Fort Marion." Florida Historical Quarterly 22 (1944): 112-133. Seminole leader Wild Cat escaped from a prison in Fort Augustine, Florida, and it is argued here that he probably was accompanied by Black Seminole leader John Horse.

K128.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Seminole in Mexico, 1850-1861." The Hispanic American Historical Review 31 (1951): 1-36. Describes the arrival of the Seminoles, Black Seminoles, and Kickapoos in Mexico. Led by Wild Cat and John Horse, the group left Indian Territory because they were being forced to live among the Creek who were attempting to treat the Black Seminoles as slave property. Along with a band of Kickapoo who joined them along the way, they were given land in Mexico in exchange for helping to protect Mexican colonists from hostile Indian tribes.

K129.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "The Seminole Negro-Indian Scouts, 18701881." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 55 (1952): 358-377. History of the Black Seminoles and the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, formed in 1872 at Fort Duncan, Texas. The scouts saw action in battle against Apaches, Kickapoo, Kiowa, and Cheyenne.

174 American Indian and African American Interactions K130.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Thlonoto-sassa: A Note on an Obscure Seminole Village of the Early 1820's." Florida Anthropologist 13 (1960): 115-119. Discusses the probable origins of a Tampa Bay area village. Argues that this may have been the birthplace of Black Seminole leader John Horse, and was populated by Blacks and Seminoles.

K131.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Three Fighters for Freedom." Journal of Negro History 28 (1943): 51-72. Biographical and historical background of John Caesar, intermediary for the Seminoles, and Luis Pacheco, slave and guide for the U. S. Army.

K132.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Tiger Tail." Florida Historical Quarterly 24 (1946): 216-217. Looks at historical evidence that Seminole leader Tiger Tail, thought to have died either in Florida or Oklahoma, may have been among a group of Seminole and Kickapoo led by Wild Cat who visited Mexico City in 1852.

K133.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Wild Cat's Death and Burial." Chronicles of Oklahoma 24 (1943): 41-43. Reviews the circumstances of the 1857 death of Seminole leader Wild Cat in Coahuila, Mexico. Explores folklore surrounding the event and how Black Seminoles remembered it in the 1940's.

K134.

Riordan, Patrick. "Finding Freedom in Florida: Native Peoples, African Americans, and Colonists, 1670-1816." Florida Historical Quarterly 75 (1996): 24-43. Explores the haven that Florida provided for fugitive slaves and Indians from 1670 until the destruction of the Negro Fort in 1816, when whites began to settle in Florida in large numbers. Looks at interaction between the Creeks, Muskogees, Spanish, British, Blacks, and the United States.

K135.

Riordan, Patrick. "Seminole Genesis: Native Americans, African Americans, and Colonists on the Southern Frontier from Prehistory through the Colonial Era." Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1996. A study of the creation of the Seminole tribe, formed of Creeks who migrated to Florida. Regards early backcountry Florida as a place

Seminole 175 where both Black slaves and emigrating Indians found refuge from Europeans. Most of the Black runaways were African born, and began fleeing to Spanish Florida as early as 1685. Includes a chapter on Black and Seminole interaction, and argues that the Negro Fort was blown up on purpose by the Blacks and Indians who preferred death to capture by the British, and not a well-aimed British cannonball, as is commonly thought. Also includes a chapter on popular publications of the time that portrayed allied Blacks and Indians marauding and torturing whites. K136.

Ritchie, Michael James and David Carillo. The Armadillo and Twelve Others. Austin: Eakin Press, 1982. Contains folklore from cultures of south central Texas, including one folktale from the Black Seminoles.

K137.

Rivers, Larry Eugene. Slavery in Florida: Territorial Days to Emancipation. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. This study of slavery in Florida includes a chapter titled "Interactions Between Blacks and Indians" which covers Black slavery among the Seminole and the alliance between Seminoles and Blacks during the Seminole Wars. Author states that the Second Seminole War might be better viewed as the United States' largest slave rebellion, but by 1840 Florida was no longer the refuge for runaway slaves that it once had been, and Blacks and Seminoles were no longer as closely allied.

K138.

Rivers, Larry E. and Brown, Canter, Jr. "The Indispensable Man:" John Horse and Florida's Second Seminole War."" Journal of the Georgia Association of Historians 18 (1997): 1-23. Discusses John Horse, also known as John Cavallo or Gopher John, the son of the Seminole leader Imotley and an African or African American mother, born around 1812. Discusses Horse's early life, background and events leading up to the second Seminole War, Horse's role in that war, and his later experiences as an interpreter for the United States Army after his surrender.

K139.

Rodgers, B. Ann and Linda Schott. ""My Mother Was a Mover": African American Seminole Women in Brackettville, Texas, 19141964." In Writing the Range: Race, Class, and Culture in the Women's West, edited by Elizabeth Jameson and Susan Armitage. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.

176 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the lives of three women, Rebecca July Wilson, Dorothy Wilson, and Charles Wilson, and their roles in the Black Seminole community of Brackettville, Texas. K140.

Rodriguez, Martha. Historias de Resistencia y Extermino: Los Indios de Coahuila Durante el Sigh XIX. Mexico, D. F.: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social, 1995. Contains information on the Black Seminoles, their flight from slavery to Mexico, the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, and their continuing presence in Coahuila, Mexico, where they are known as Los Mascogos. Includes information on their negotiations with the Mexican government. In Spanish.

K141.

Sattler, Richard Allen. "Seminoli Italwa: Socio-Political Change Among the Oklahoma Seminoles Between Removal and Allotment, 1836-1905." Ph.D. diss., University of Oklahoma, 1987. Discusses Black involvement in Seminole activities, from early nineteenth century when they allied with the Seminoles against the United States, to the post-relocation period in Indian Territory. Mentions the threats Seminole Blacks faced of being abducted by Creek and white slave hunters. Discusses to what extent the Blacks were assimilated into Seminole culture, and argues that the two groups generally maintained social distance.

K142.

Sefton, James E. "Black Slaves, Red Masters, White Middlemen: A Congressional Debate of 1852." Florida Historical Quarterly 51 (1972): 113-128. Looks at a debate held in the United States House of Representatives in 1852. At issue was the legitimate ownership of Black slaves who were claimed by both the Seminoles and the Creeks at the end of the Second Seminole War, and whether the Blacks were to be classified as property of the Seminoles or as prisoners of war.

K143.

Schuyler, George S. "Black Paradise Lost." Opportunity 13 (April 1935): 113-116. Magazine article on the Black and Seminole alliance in Florida.

K144.

Sivad, Doug. The Black Seminole Indians of Texas. Boston: American Press, 1984. Overview of the history of the Black Seminoles of south Texas, beginning with the original alliance of Blacks and Indians in Florida,

Seminole 177 continuing to the Indian Territory and finally to Mexico and Texas. There are still Black Seminole communities in Brackettville, Texas, and Nacimiento, Coahuila. K145.

Skinner, Alanson B. "The Florida Seminoles." The Southern Workman 40, no. 3(1911): 154-163. Ethnographic study of Seminoles remaining in Florida following removal. Author saw no Blacks among the Seminoles and claimed they "despised" Blacks.

K146.

Smith, Gloria L. Beginning Black Indian History and Genealogy: The Seminoles. Tucson: G. L. Smith, 1995. Introduction to resources for researching Seminole-Black genealogy

K147.

Smith, Ralph A. "The Mamelukes of West Texas and Mexico." West Texas Historical Association Yearbook 39 (1963) 65-88. Describes the activities of the Black Seminoles who were employed by the Mexican government to fight southern Plains Indians groups in northern Mexico.

K148.

Southall, Eugene P. "Negroes in Florida Prior to the Civil War." Journal of Negro History 19 (1934): 77-86. Discusses the Black experience in antebellum Florida. Includes interactions with American Indians during the Seminole Wars. Discusses John Caesar and Louis Pacheco, Blacks who served as interpreters between the United States and the Seminoles.

K149.

Strong, Eric Emmerson. "The Lost Treaty of the Black Seminoles." West Texas Historical Association Year Book 15 (1990): 120-130. Discusses the possible existence of a treaty between the Black Seminoles, then living in Mexico, and the United States. The treaty, if it existed, would have been signed around 1870 and is said to have guaranteed land to the Black Seminoles in exchange for their service as scouts for the United States Army.

K150.

Sturtevant, William C. "Creek into Seminole." In North American Indians in Historical Perspective, edited by Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Oestreich Lurie. New York: Random House, 1971.

178 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the migration of certain Creeks from Georgia and Alabama to Florida where they interacted with Blacks and became the Seminole. Describes the role of Blacks in Seminole society. K151.

Sturtevant, William. "Seminole Myths on the Origin of Races." Ethnohistory 10 (1963): 80-86. Presents versions of the Seminole folktale that explains the origins, and place in the social hierarchy, of Blacks, Indians and whites. Some of the stories rank Indians higher than whites, while some rank whites higher than Indians, but all rank Blacks lowest.

K152.

Sumpter, Jesse. Paso Del Aguila: A Chronicle of Frontier Days on the Texas Border as Recorded in the Memoirs of Jesse Sumpter. Austin: The Encino Press, 1969. These edited memoirs of Jesse Sumpter were recorded between 1902 and 1906. Contains several references to the Black Seminoles of Mexico and Texas. Sumpter recalled the events of 1852, when James Callahan led a U.S. Army expedition into Mexico in an unsuccessful attempt to capture and enslave the Black Seminoles, but was turned back by Mexican soldiers.

K153.

TallBear, Kimberly. "DNA, Blood, and Racializing the Tribe." Wicazo Sa Review 18, no. 1 (2003): 81-107. Discusses issues of DNA and blood quantum in the context of American Indian tribal identity. Includes a discussion of the Black Seminoles of Oklahoma.

K154.

Thybony, Scott. "Against All Odds Black Seminole Won Their Freedom." Smithsonian 22 (August 1991): 90-101. Presents the history of the Black Seminoles from their origins in Florida to their current homes in Brackettville, Texas, and Nacimiento, Mexico. Describes how the community view themselves and their ancestors and their efforts to keep the memory of the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts alive.

K155.

Thompson, Richard A. Crossing the Border with the 4th Cavalry: Mackenzie's Raid into Mexico, 1873. Waco: Texian Press, 1986. Describes the United States Army raid with the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts into Mexico, where they attacked and killed a group of Kickapoo, Lipan Apache, and Mescalero Apache near Remolino, Coahuila, Mexico.

Seminole 179 K156.

Trees, May. "Socioeconomic Reconstruction in Seminole Nation, 1865-1870." Journal of the West 12 (1973): 490-498. Mentions aspects of life for Seminole freedmen following the Civil War, including the use of Black interpreters in negotiations with the federal government.

K157.

Tucker, Phillip Thomas. "John Horse: Forgotten African-American Leader of the Second Seminole War." Journal of Negro History 11 (1992): 74-83. Activities of John Horse, Black Seminole, during the Second Seminole War, in which Seminoles and Black Seminoles resisted the U.S.'s attempts at removing them.

K158.

Twyman, Bruce Edward. The Black Seminole Legacy and North American Politics, 1693-1845. Washington: Howard University Press, 1999. Looks at how Spain, Britain, and the U.S. reacted politically to the Black Seminole presence in Florida. Looks at each nation's policies, treaties signed, and military activity.

K159.

Tyler, Ronnie C. "The Callahan Expedition of 1855: Indians or Negroes?" Southwestern Historical Quarterly 70 (1967): 547-585. In October of 1855 Texas Ranger James Hughes Callahan led a raid into Mexico in an attempt to recapture slaves who had fled there. They were rebuffed by Seminoles, Black Seminoles, and Mexicans. Historians have debated whether Callahan was actually pursuing Indians or slave-hunting.

K160.

Tyler, Ronnie C. "Fugitive Slaves in Mexico." Journal of Negro History 57 (1972): 1-12. Looks at Black slaves who fled Texas for freedom in Mexico. Discusses Seminole Blacks and Seminoles in Mexico, the status of Blacks in Mexico, and U.S. attempts at extradition.

K161.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Indians-Creek and Seminole. 33rd Cong., 2nd Sess., House Doc. 701. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1854.

180 American Indian and African American Interactions Reports on the problems between Creeks and Seminoles following the Seminole removal to Indian Territory after the Seminole Wars. Mentions the activities of Wild Cat and John Horse. K162.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Negroes, &c, Captured from Indians in Florida, &c. Letter from the Secretary of War, Transmitting the Information Required by a Resolution of the House of Representatives of the 28th Ultimo, Respecting the Disposition of Negroes and Other Property Captured from Hostile Indians During the Present War in Florida, &c. 25th Cong., 3r Sess., Doc. 225. Washington: Thomas Allen, Printer, 1839. Report from J. R. Poinsett, Secretary of War, presents various letters and orders of the Army on the Blacks who had been captured or surrendered during the Second Seminole War. Includes extensive information on individual Blacks and their relationships to other Seminoles, and lists of all the Blacks, providing names, ages, familial relationships, role in the war, and tribe or owner.

K163.

United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Purchase of Negroes from Seminole Indians: Letter from the Secretary of War in Answer to a Call for Information in Relation to the Purchase of Indian Negroes in the Seminole Country. 24th Cong., 1st sess., Doc. 275. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1836. This letter, dated July 6, 1835, from Secretary of War Lewis Cass states that Seminoles were not interested in selling their Blacks, and were distressed at the idea of it. Mentions that Blacks had great influence over their Seminole owners.

K164. United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Seminole War Slaves Captured. 27th Cong., 2nd Sess., Exec. Doc. 55. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1842. Discusses Black slaves captured by U.S. troops during the Second Seminole War. Some were runaways from northern states, some were owned by Seminoles. Contains lists of slaves, their Indian owners, and whether they were claimed and returned to previous owners. K165.

United States. Congress. Senate. Report: The Committee on Indian Affairs, to whom was Referred the Memorial of the Governor and Members of the Legislature of the State of Florida, Officers and Citizens of said State, Praying that Toney Proctor, a Free Colored Man, May be Compensated for his Services as Seminole Interpreter. 30th Cong., 2nd Sess., Rep. 265. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1849.

Seminole 181 The Committee found no evidence that Proctor had served as a Seminole interpreter, and "resolved that the prayer of the petitioner ought not to be granted." K166.

United States. Congress. Senate. The Dade Massacre. Story of the Massacre by Indians of Detachments of the First and Second Regiments of Artillery and Fourth Regiment of Infantry, United States Army, Under the Command of Major Francis L. Dade, on December 28, 1835. 67th Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. 33. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1835. Describes the massacre of Dade and most of his troops by Seminoles and Blacks.

K167.

Warren, Robin O. "Hamlet Rides Among the Seminoles." Southern Cultures 1, no. 4 (2001): 32-63. Discusses an event during the Second Seminole War in which Seminoles and Black Seminoles robbed a touring Savannah theatre company, killing two people and stealing their costumes. The Seminoles were later seen wearing the Shakespearean costumes at critical points in the war. Describes an African American interpreting for Wild Cat at one of these instances.

K168.

Watts, Jill. ""We Do Not Live For Ourselves Only": Seminole Black Perceptions and the Second Seminole War." UCLA Historical Journal 7 (1986): 5-28. Looks at the motives and conduct of Seminole Blacks during the second Seminole War. Looks at the migrations of Seminoles and Blacks to Florida, characteristics of Seminole Black communities and daily life, relations between Seminole Blacks, whites, and other Blacks. Discusses how other Blacks not affiliated with the Seminole worked clandestinely to support the Seminole fight.

K169.

Weik, Terrance M. "A Historical Archaeology of Black Seminole Maroons in Florida: Ethnogenesis and Culture Contact at Pilaklikaha." Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2002. Archaeological study of the Black Seminole maroon community of Pilaklikaha, Florida.

K170.

Weik, Terry. "The Archaeology of Maroon Societies in the Americas: Resistance, Cultural Continuity, and Transformation in the African Diaspora." Historical Archaeology 31, no. 2 (1997): 81-92.

182 American Indian and African American Interactions Discusses archaeological aspects of maroon settlements, including those of the Black Seminole village of Pilaklikaha, Florida. Discusses how evidence from these sites is analyzed and interpreted. Points out that maroon groups had differing relations with American Indians in different locations, and that context must be considered when looking at archaeological data. K171.

Weisman, Brent R. "The Plantation System of the Florida Seminole Indians and Black Seminoles During the Colonial Era." In Colonial Plantations and Economy in Florida, edited by Jane G. Landers. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000. Looks at the development of plantation farming among the Seminoles and Black Seminoles. Looks at settlement patterns, characteristics of the early economy, division of labor, and changes in material culture as reflected in the archaeological record.

K172.

Welsh, Michael. "The Missionary Spirit: Protestantism Among the Oklahoma Seminoles, 1842-1885." Chronicles of Oklahoma 61 (1983): 28-47. Looks at Presbyterian and Baptist missionaries in the Seminole Nation. Describes the missionary's observations of life for Black slaves in Indian Territory. Some missionaries were active abolitionists in the years before the Civil War. The Presbyterians operated an integrated mission school for Black and Seminole children.

K173.

Welsh, Michael E. "The Road to Assimilation: The Seminoles in Oklahoma, 1839-1936." Ph.D. diss., University of New Mexico, 1983. Includes historical information on the African American and Seminole relationship, Black Seminole towns in the Seminole Nation in Indian Territory, the experiences of Black Seminoles with the Dawes Commission, and interaction in grassroots political movements and unions during the early 1900's. Much material taken from contemporary newspaper accounts.

K174.

Woodhull, Frost. "The Seminole Indian Scouts on the Border." Frontier Times 15, no. 3 (1937): 118-127. The author's family hired Black Seminoles as ranch hands near Brackettville, Texas. Uses historical references and personal interviews with local Black Seminoles and others involved with the Indian Scouts at Fort Clark to present the history of the Seminole Negro Indian

Seminole 183 Scouts. Contains accounts of some battles with the Indians by participants. K175.

Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. "Blacks in British East Florida." Florida Historical Quarterly 54 (1976): 425-442. Looks at the status of Blacks in East Florida between 1763 and 1784. Includes information on their lives among the Indians and states that there had probably been Africans living among the Indians since the mid-1500's.

K176.

Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. "A Note on the First Seminole War As Seen by the Indians, Negroes, and Their British Advisers." Journal of Southern History 34 (1968): 565-575. Looks at the roles, motives, and perspectives of the Creeks, Seminoles, Blacks, and British leading up to and during the First Seminole War. The British armed and trained the Indians and Blacks to fight against the United States.

K177.

Yanez, Aaron Mahr. "The UGRR on the Rio Grande." CRM 4 (1998): 41-44. Discusses Mexico's policies towards slaves fleeing the U.S., including the Black Seminoles, who received land in exchange for serving as auxiliaries of the Mexican Army and defending other Mexican border communities.

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The West LI.

Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem and Stephen Singular. A Season on the Reservation: My Sojourn with the White Mountain Apache. New York: William Morrow and Company, 2000. Abdul-Jabbar describes the time he spent with the White Mountain Apache in Arizona, coaching their basketball team. Discusses his own Carib and Cherokee background, his interest in the commingled histories of African Americans and Native Americans, and how this led to his desire to spend time on the reservation.

L2.

Abing, Kevin. "Before Bleeding Kansas: Christian Missionaries, Slavery, and the Shawnee in Pre-Territorial Kansas, 1844-1854." Kansas History 24 (2001): 54-70. Looks at slavery and attitudes towards slavery among the Shawnee in Kansas prior to the Civil War.

L3.

Ablon, Joan. "Relocated American Indians in the San Francisco Bay Area: Social Interaction and Indian Identity." Human Organization 23 (1964): 296-304. Briefly mentions that many American Indians in the Bay area expressed negative feelings about working with or living near African Americans.

L4.

Allen, Anne B. "Estevanico the Moor." American History 32 (July/August 1997): 36-41, 62. Magazine article about Esteban, a Moroccan-born slave who traveled through Florida, Texas, and New Mexico, encountering many Native groups along the way.

L5.

Babb, Theodore Adolphus. In the Bosom of the Comanches: A Thrilling Tale of Savage Indian Life, Massacre and Captivity Truthfully Told by

186 American Indian and African American Interactions a Surviving Captive: Texas Borderland Perils and Scenes Depicted: The Closing Days of the Trying Indian Struggles upon the Frontiers of Texas. Dallas: Press of John F. Worley Printing Company, 1912. States that the Comanches did not scalp Blacks because they did not believe Blacks had souls. L6.

Bales, Rebecca Anne. ""The Black White Man": Race Relations in the American West." Masters thesis, University of Colorado, 1990. Describes the experiences of five Black men in the American west. Each man had extensive and varying interactions with American Indians. Looks at Estevan, explorer with the Spanish; York, explorer with the Lewis and Clark expedition; James P. Beckwourth, fur trader; Henry Sheldon Anable, California pioneer; and Nat Love, cowboy.

L7.

Beckwourth, James P. The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, as told to T D. Bonner. Edited by Delmont R. Oswald. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972. Although James Beckwourth was Black, this is not mentioned in his autobiography, which was originally published in 1856 and was republished many times after that due to its popularity. Beckwourth was born in 1798 in Virginia, and was a pioneer, fur trader, and Indian Scout who lived with the Crow Indians.

L8.

Beninato, Stefanie. "Pope, Pose-yemu, and Naranjo: A New Look at Leadership in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680." New Mexico Historical Review 65 (1990): 417-35. Examines the argument that the Pueblo Revolt was led by Naranjo, of alleged African and Mexican Indian descent. Argues that while he may have been involved at the leadership level, it is unlikely that an outsider could have achieved such high status in Pueblo society as to be the primary leader of the revolt.

L9.

Berts, Robert. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press, 1985. Attempts to reconstruct the life and experiences of York, a slave owned by William Clark who accompanied the Lewis and Clark expedition. Argues that many of the myths surrounding York are not based on the historical record and instead reflect the racial attitudes of the time. Author argues that the Indian groups encountered on the trip showed

The West 187 great interest in York because of his appearance, and that he may have worked with as Sacagawea as an interpreter. L10.

Boas, Franz. "Tales of Spanish Provenience from Zuni." Journal of American Folklore 35 (1922): 62-98. Includes a folktale entitled "The Sold Child" in which a boy meets a Black man, kills him, skins him, and wears his skin as a disguise.

Lll.

Bradley, John Ed. "Buffalo Soldier." Sports Illustrated 89 (November 30, 1998): 72-85. Article describes what led to Kareem Abdul-Jabaar's coaching a high school basketball team on the White Mountain Apache reservation.

L12.

Brandt, Elizabeth and Christopher MacCrate. ""Make Like Seem Heep Injin": Pidginization in the Southwest." Ethnohistory 29 (1982): 201220. Argues that an American Indian pidgin language based on Spanish and English developed in the American southwest and played a major role in social relationships between Native Americans and other groups. Looks at the presence of Blacks in the Southwest and linguistic evidence for interaction with Native American groups.

L13.

"Britton Johnson, A Former Slave Born in 1835 in Arkansas." Claflin College Review 2 (May 1978) 17-19. Life of Britton Johnson, an African American frontiersman who was killed by Comanches.

L14.

Brooks, James F. Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Looks at the practice of slavery among Indians in the Southwest. Contains some information on African interaction with Indians in Colorado and New Mexico. Some free Blacks worked in the fur trade, or were brought to the area as slaves or servants by white settlers. Discusses an 1858 incident in which a Navajo man killed a Black servant, what may have triggered the act, and reprisals that followed. Also discusses John Taylor, a Black man who married a Ute woman, Kitty Cloud, in the 1880's.

188 American Indian and African American Interactions LI5.

Brooks, James F. "Confounding the Color Line: Indian-Black Relations in Historical and Anthropological Perspective." American Indian Quarterly 22 (1998): 125-133. Brooks, James F. "Introduction." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discusses the African American Utes of the Southern Ute tribe of Colorado. Also presents an introduction to the topic of Black-Indian relations and the collection of essays, Confounding the Color Line.

LI6.

Burton, Arthur T. Black, Red and Deadly: Black and Indian Gunfighters of the Indian Territory, 1870-1907. Austin, TX: Eakin Press, 1991. Depicts some African American and American Indian outlaws and lawmen in Indian Territory. Many were freedmen, spoke their tribe's language, or were of part Indian ancestry.

LI7.

Bustamente, Adrian. ""The Matter was Never Resolved": The Casta System in Colonial New Mexico, 1693-1823." New Mexico Historical Review 66 (1991): 143-63. Looks at the casta (caste) system established by Spanish colonial authorities, which attempted to classify all individuals by their ethnic background. Describes how this system functioned in colonial New Mexico. Details the classifications that were given to people with varying amounts of African and American Indian parentage and estimates the numbers of people with this ancestry, taken from census documents.

LI8.

Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez. Cabeza de Vaca's Adventures in the Unknown Interior of America. Translated and annotated by Cyclone Covey. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983. Narrative of Cabeza de Vaca's travels through Florida and Texas, accompanied by Esteban the African. Cabeza de Vaca recorded many interactions with local tribes.

LI9.

Carew, Jan. "Estevanico, The African Explorer." Journal of African Civilization 3, no. 1 (1981): 86-99. Describes the experiences of Esteban with Indians in Florida and New Mexico, where he was killed by Zuni Indians.

The West 189 L20.

Chavez, Fray Angelico. "Pohe-yemo's Representative and the Pueblo Revolt of 1680." New Mexico Historical Review 42 (1967): 85-126. Argues that Naranjo, an individual with Mexican Indian and African ancestry, was a leader in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, and used the mythology surrounding the Pueblo deity Pohe-Yemo to influence the Pueblo Indians. Attempts to establish this individual's genealogy using archival records.

L21.

Collins, Paul. "Showdown at Wounded Knee." Ebony 28 (June 1973): 46-56. Collins describes his participation in the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, and his interactions with members of the American Indian Movement.

L22.

Cornish, Dudley Taylor. "Kansas Negro Regiments in the Civil War." Kansas Historical Quarterly 20 (1953): 417-429. Describes a company of Union soldiers being recruited from Blacks who had taken refuge among the Sac and Fox Indians.

L23.

Cortesi, Lawrence. Jim Beckwourth: Explorer-Patriot of the Rockies. New York: Criterion Books, 1971. Biography of James Beckwourth, an African American frontiersman who married a number of Indian women and was adopted into the Crow Indian tribe.

L24.

Courlander, Harold. Hopi Voices: Recollections, Traditions, and Narratives of the Hopi Indians. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982. Includes a tale called "The Boy Who Crossed the Water," in which Hopi women marry Black men. A footnote mentions Esteban, the Black explorer, and that Hopis first saw African Americans in great numbers when Black troops were used to force Hopi children to relocate to boarding schools.

L25.

Curtis, K. D. "York, The Slave Explorer." Negro Digest 11 (May 1962): 10-16. Magazine article about York, the Black slave on the Lewis and Clark expedition. Focuses on his alleged appeal to American Indian women.

190 American Indian and African American Interactions L26.

DeBarthe, Joe. Life and Adventures of Frank Grouard. Edited by Edgar L. Steward. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958. Originally published in the 1880's, this is the biography of Frank Grouard, who claimed to be of white and Polynesian ancestry but contemporaries thought was African American and Native American. Grouard lived among the Lakota and Blackfeet, fought Indians in the Indian Wars, and met Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse.

L27.

Dempsey, Hugh A. "Black White Man." Alberta Historical Review 6, no. 3 (1958): 7-11. Looks at the life of Henry Mills, a Black man who worked in Alberta, Canada, as an interpreter at trading posts in the 1830's. He worked with the Blackfeet and later married into the Blood tribe. Also discusses Dave Mills, Henry's son, and Henry's grandson, who was interviewed for the article and is described as a well respected patriarch of the Bloods.

L28.

De Shields, James T. Border Wars of Texas. Tioga, TX: The Herald Company, 1912. Describes the 1834 attack by Tawehash Indians in the southeastern Indian Territory on the party of Judge Gabriel N. Martin, which included a young Black slave boy and a Black servant who had been raised among Indians, Zack Bottom. Also mentions a slave woman stolen from Arkansas who was later found living with the Comanche, having married and had four children. Contains accounts of many other instances in which Blacks were killed or captured by Indians.

L29.

Dolan, Sean, and Nathan Irvin Huggins. James Beckwourth. New York: Chelsea House, 1992. Life of James Beckwourth, African American trapper and mountain man who lived with the Crow and married several Native women. For juvenile audiences.

L30.

Durham, Philip and Everett L. Jones. The Negro Cowboys. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965. Presents the experiences of African American men who worked as cowboys in the American west in the nineteenth century. Includes many instances of interaction with the southern Plains tribes of Texas and Kansas, and those tribes that had been relocated to Indian Territory. Also discusses outlaws, and Blacks and Indians working in the Wild West shows around the turn of the century.

The West 191 L31.

Forbes, Jack D. "Black Pioneers: The Spanish Speaking AfroAmericans of the Southwest." Phylon 27 (1966): 233-46. Many people of African origin came to what is now the American southwest as explorers, soldiers, or colonists as early as the 1530's. Examines census data for people of African origin in Spanish California and discusses how people of various ethnicities were classified. Argues that, although there were many people of African origin in California, they disappeared into the general population as a result of the relative freedom to intermarry, and of the fact that the system of racial classification allowed people's ethnicities to gradually become more "Spanish."

L32.

Forbes, Jack D. "The Early African Heritage of California." In Seeking El Dorado: African Americans in California, edited by Lawrence B. DeGraaf, Kevin Mulroy and Quintard Taylor. Seattle: Autry Museum of Western Heritage in association with University of Seattle Press, 2001. Discusses the African presence in Spanish colonial California, including the racial classification system of the period and some pioneering individuals of Black and Indian heritage. African American fur traders and hunters began arriving in the early 1800's.

L33.

Foreman, Grant. Advancing the Frontier, 1830-1860. Norman, 1933. Mentions several attacks by Comanches and other Texas Indians on groups of white settlers, including Black servants. Mentions Blacks being captured and resold.

L34.

Foreman, Grant. Pioneer Days in the Early Southwest. Cleveland, 1926. Includes information on Jack Ivey, a free Black frontiersman thought to have been possibly part Indian. In the 1820's, Ivey came to the Comanche country of Texas as a fur trader.

L35.

Gilbertson, A N. "Negro-Ute Metis." American Anthropologist 15 (1913): 363-364. Presents a photograph of Black-Ute children taken on the Ute reservation in Colorado in 1910. Describes this as being "not very common" in that area.

192 American Indian and African American Interactions L37.

Gray, W. H. A History of Oregon, 1792-1849, Drawn From Personal Observation and Authentic Information. Portland: Harris and Holman, 1870. Describes an incident in Oregon in which a Black man named Saul, who was married to an Indian woman, was arrested for threatening to incite the Indians against a white man.

L38.

Greer, James Kimmins. Colonel Jack Hays: Texas Frontier Leader and California Builder. New York: Dutton, 1952. Describes an 1838 encounter in East Texas between Jack Hays and a group of Cherokees who used a Black man as an interpreter and intermediary.

L39.

Griffin, John Howard. "Black Concerns for Indians at Wounded Knee." Sepia 22 (September 1973): 30-32. Discusses African American opinion on the standoff at Wounded Knee.

L40.

Guenther, Todd. ""Could These Bones Be From a Negro?" Some African American Experiences on the Oregon-California Trail." Overland Journal 19, no. 2 (2001): 42-55. Describes an archaeological excavation at Rock Ranch, Wyoming, located on the Oregon-California Trail. The skeleton of a Black man, probably a slave brought from Missouri and killed in a battle with Cheyenne and Lakota in 1863, was found buried beneath the floor of a building.

L41.

Gwaltney, William W. "Beyond the Pale: African Americans in the Fur Trade West." Lest We Forget 5 (Jan 1995). Provides many examples Blacks working in the Rocky Mountain west and encountering American Indians.

L42.

Hafen, LeRoy. "The Last Years of James P. Beckwourth." The Colorado Magazine 5 (1928): 134-39. Attempts to tell some of the story of James P. Beckwourth, between the time of the publication of the biography that made him famous in 1856 to his death, possibly in June of 1866. Beckwourth had encounters with Cheyennes and married an Indian woman, worked as a guide for the Army during the Sand Creek massacre, and is said to have died in 1866 in a Crow village, allegedly from eating poisoned dog meat.

The West 193 L43.

Hafen, LeRoy R. The Mountain Men and Fur Traders of the Far West. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1972. Includes chapters on James Beckwourth and Edward Rose, Black fur traders who lived with Indian tribes. Also includes many instances of other Blacks interacting with Indians.

L44.

Hanes, Colonel Bailey C. Bill Pickett, Bulldogger: The Biography of a Black Cowboy. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1977. Life of Bill Pickett, African American cowboy and rodeo star. Pickett, who was part Indian, worked in Wild West shows, including one that featured Geronimo.

L45.

Heath, Jim F. and Frederick M. Nunn. "Negroes and Discrimination in Colonial New Mexico: Don Pedro Bautista Pino's Startling Statements of 1812 in Perspective." Phylon 31 (1970): 372-278. Discusses early African presence in colonial New Mexico and suggests Blacks played a role in the Pueblo Revolt.

L46.

Henderson, James C. "Reminiscences of a Range Rider." Chronicles of Oklahoma 3 (1925): 253-288. Contains an account of an African American cook fleeing from Osage Indians. The Indians were in mourning, and allegedly were intent on killing someone to ease the passage of the spirit of the recently deceased.

L47.

Hitchcock, Ethan Allen. A Traveler in Indian Territory; The Journal of Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Late Major-general in the United States Army. Edited and annotated by Grant Foreman. Cedar Rapids: The Torch Press, 1930. Hitchcock recorded in 1841 that Comanches would sometimes steal or buy Black slaves in order to sell them to Cherokees and Creeks.

L48.

Holmes, Reuben. "The Five Scalps." Glimpses of the Past 5 (1938): 354. Presents the life of Edward Rose, said here to be the son of a white trader and a Black-Indian mother. Rose was a trader who lived, worked, and traveled among the Arikara, Crow, Lakota, Mandans, Poncas, and Omahas, and served as an interpreter between the Crow and U.S. officials. This article was originally published in 1828 in the St. Louis Beacon newspaper.

194 American Indian and African American Interactions L49.

James, Thomas. Three Years Among the Indians and Mexicans. Edited by Walter B. Douglas. St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society, 1916. Mentions Jack Ivey, Black frontiersman of Texas who may have been part Indian, working as a guide for an expedition tracking Indians.

L50.

Johnson, Cecil. Guts: Legendary Black Rodeo Cowboy Bill Pickett. The Summit Group: Fort Worth, 1994. Biography of Bill Pickett, by his great-grandson. Describes Pickett as being part Cherokee on his mother's side and his employment in Wild West shows.

L51.

Katz, William Loren. Black People who Made the Old West. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1977. Adapted version of The Black West.

L52.

Katz, William. The Black West. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday and Company, 1971. Includes information on many interactions between Blacks and Indians in the west, including Esteban, DuSable, York, the Bongas, James Beckwourth, cowboys, and the Buffalo Soldiers.

L53.

Katz, William Loren. Black Women of the Old West. New York: Atheneum, 1995. This short look at pioneering African American women contains many examples of Indian-Black interaction. Many photos.

L54.

Lamar, Mirabeau Bonaparte. The Papers of Mirabeau Bonaparte Lamar. Austin: A. C. Baldwin, 1920-1927. Contains several descriptions of Texas Indian attacks on white settlers and their slaves.

L55.

LaTorre, Felipe A. and Dolores L. Latorre. The Mexican Kickapoo Indians. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976. The Kickapoo tribe originated in the Wisconsin area but by the late 1800's were living in Coahuila, Mexico. The book mentions their interactions with the Black Seminoles with whom they migrated to Mexico in 1849.

The West 195 L56.

Laughlin, Florence. "A Negro Pioneer in New Mexico: Estevanico and the Cities of Gold." Negro Digest 12 (August 1963): 19-22. Magazine article about Esteban's travels among the Pueblo Indians.

L57.

Leonard, Zenas. Narrative of the Adventures of Zenas Leonard. Chicago: The Lakeside Press, R. R. Donnelley and Sons, 1934. Leonard recorded seeing a Black man living with the Crow Indians in the early 1830's. Provides a description of the man leading the Crow into battle.

L58.

Lewis, Anna. "La Harpe's First Expedition in Oklahoma, 1718-1719." Chronicles of Oklahoma 2 (1924): 331-349. In his 1718 visit to the Plains tribes of Oklahoma, Bernard de la Harpe noted that Indian women were enchanted by his two Black slaves, and Indian men wished they could remain with the tribes.

L59.

Linthicum, Leslie. "Queen of Two Cultures." Albuquerque Journal, March 1, 1998, p. Al. Newspaper article on Radmilla Cody, who is African American and Navajo. In 1998 she was voted Miss Navajo Nation. Describes her traditional Navajo upbringing, her insights about her identity, and reactions of other Navajo people to her position as Miss Navajo Nation, both positive and negative.

L60.

Locke, Raymond Friday. James Beckwourth. Los Angeles: Melrose Square Publishing, 1995. Illustrated biography of James Beckwourth, Black fur trader and mountain man who lived with the Crow.

L61.

Logan, Rayford W. "Estevanico, Negro Discoverer of the Southwest: A Critical Reexamination." Phylon 1 (1940): 305-315. Looks at historiography of Esteban, African slave and explorer of Florida, Texas and the Southwest.

L62.

Love, Nat. The Life and Adventures of Nat Love, Better Known in the Cattle Country as "Deadwood Dick. " Baltimore: Black Classics Press, 1988. Nat Love, born a slave in Kentucky in 1854, went west at the age of 15 and became a cowboy. He engaged in a number of gunfights with

196 American Indian and African American Interactions Indians and, for a short while, was captured and adopted by "Yellow Dog's band" (tribe not identified). He described them as having a "large percentage of colored blood in the tribe, and as I was a colored man they wanted to keep me." L63.

Marcy, Randolph Barnes. Thirty Years of Army Life on the Border. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1866. Marcy recalled seeing two Black girls who had been held and tortured by Comanches. The girls had been part of a group of Black Seminoles attempting to get to Mexico to join Wild Cat's group.

L64.

McCue, D. B. "John Taylor - Slave-born Colorado Pioneer." The Colorado Magazine 18, no. 5 (1941): 161-168. Describes an interview with John Taylor, Black pioneer of Colorado, born a slave in Kentucky. After serving a few years in the Union Army he reenlisted and was sent west to fight in the Indian wars. Indicates he had many Hopi, Apache, and Navajo wives. Later became a fur trader in New Mexico, and married and had a family with Kitty Cloud, a Ute woman. Acted as an interpreter on behalf of Indians and Mexicans in Colorado courts.

L65.

McDonald, Dedra S. "Intimacy and Empire: Indian-African Interaction in Spanish Colonial New Mexico, 1500-1800." In Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Reviews Indian and Black interactions in Spanish colonial New Mexico, beginning with the arrival of Esteban at Hawikuh Pueblo in 1539. Outlines how Blacks and Indians interacted as servants, intermarried, and cooperated in rebelling against the Spanish. Also discusses a genre of painting known as las castas, which depicted mixed race families and their offspring, illuminating both the awareness of racial categories and the prevalence of mixed marriages at the time. Also points out that over the past 200 years, the presence of Africans in colonial New Mexico has largely been forgotten, with the single exception of Zuni folktales that recall Esteban.

L66.

Miller, Wick R. Newe Natekwinappeh: Shoshoni Stories and Dictionary. University of Utah Anthropological Papers 94, 1972. Contains a folktale called "Coyote and Negro" in which Coyote outsmarts a Black man.

The West 197 L67.

Monceaux, Morgan. My Heroes, My People: African Americans and Native Americans in the West. New York: Frances Foster Books, 1999. Contains brief biographies and unique illustrations of many IndianBlack figures. For juvenile audiences.

L68.

Mooney, James. Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979. Describes an event recorded in a Kiowa calendar history for the winter of 1870-1871 that appears to represent the scalping of Black soldiers.

L69.

Moulton, Gary, editor. The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987. Thirteen-volume edition of the journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Contains many references to York, Clark's slave who accompanied the expedition.

L70.

Muller, Carol Ann. "Nigger Ben McLendon and His Lost Gold Mine." Journal of Arizona History 14 (1973): 379-84. Presents the story of Benjamin McLendon, the first African American miner in Arizona. Discusses a legend that McLendon had discovered a profitable gold mine but was killed by Apaches before he disclosed the location. Reprints a letter that was written by his son in 1896 discussing the episode.

L71.

Mumey, Nolie. James Pierson Beckworth, 1856-1866, An Enigmatic Figure of the West: A History of the Latter Years of His Life. Denver: The Old West Publishing Company, 1957. Biography of James Beckwourth, a Black man who was adopted by the Crow Indians.

L72.

Mutunhu, Tendai. "Estevanico: Africa's Greatest Explorer of the South-West of the United States and "Discoverer" of Arizona and New Mexico." Kenya Historical Review 3 (1975): 217-233. Gives a few examples of participation of Africans in Spanish attempts to explore and colonize North America. Focuses on Estevanico, who accompanied Panfilo de Narvaez's 1527 expedition to Florida. Following skirmishes and other interactions with Timucua and Apalachee Indians, a shipwreck left the group stranded near present day Galveston, Texas. Esteban and some of the others were held as captives of the Mariame Indians for four years. They eventually escaped and

198 American Indian and African American Interactions spent the next two years trekking to Mexico City. Discusses the crucial role of Estevanico in communicating with Indian groups, including the Avavares and Jumanos. In 1539, Estevanico accompanied an expedition to New Mexico, where he was killed by Zuni Indians. L73.

"Negroes in Indian Service: Many Work in Sprawling Navajo Reservation to Alleviate Plight of Most-Oppressed Minority." Ebony 6, no. 9 (June 1951): 35-39. Describes the experiences of African American men and women working on the Navajo Reservation as doctors, nurses, agricultural workers, and teachers. Discusses attitudes of Navajos.

L74.

Nolen, Oran Warder. "Tom Sullivan, Frontier Darkey." Frontier Times 27 (1950): 48-52. Reprints an interview with an African American man who lived in Texas around the time of the Civil War. Describes interactions with Indians.

L75.

Oswald, Delmont R. "James P. Beckwourth." In Trappers of the Far West: Sixteen Biographical Sketches, edited by LeRoy R. Hafen. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1971. Chapter on James Pierson Beckwourth, born a slave in 1798. Beckwourth lived in the West and worked as a trapper and a hunter in the Rocky Mountains and lived among the Crow.

L76.

Paige, John C. "Wichita Indian Agents, 1857-1869." Journal of the West 12 (1973): 403-413. Includes information on an agent to the Wichita Indians and his treatment of free Blacks who had settled in the Wichita Nation prior to the Civil War.

L77.

Parsons, Elsie Clews. "Pueblo-Indian Folk-Tales, Probably of Spanish Provenience." Journal of American Folklore 31 (1918): 216-255. Contains a Zuni folktale entitled "How Sheep and Horses and Burros Came to Ashiwi" in which a young man has his heart removed and replaced with the heart of a Black man by an eagle. Later in the story Black soldiers, who were borrowed from the underworld, battle against white soldiers.

The West 199 L78.

Perrine, Fred S. "The Journal of Hugh Evans, Covering the First and Second Campaigns of the United States Dragoon Regiment in 1834 and 1835. Campaign of 1834." Chronicles of Oklahoma 3 (1925): 175-215. Mentions Pawnees and Comanches who had Blacks living among them.

L79.

Porter, Kenneth W. "Negroes and Indians on the Texas Frontier, 18311876. Part 1." Journal of Negro History 41 (1956): 185-214 Porter, Kenneth W. "Negroes and Indians on the Texas Frontier, 18311876. Part 2." Journal of Negro History 41 (1956): 285-310. Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes and Indians on the Texas Frontier, 1834-1874." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 53 (1949): 151-163. Examines interactions between Indians and Blacks in Texas, beginning in 1834, and the various and occasionally contradictory ways these are depicted. Looks at Black frontiersmen, relations with the southern Plains tribes, capture of Blacks by Indians and their subsequent killing or adoption into the tribe, and incidents where Blacks became tribal leaders. Argues that while many interactions between Indians and Blacks were hostile and similar to those with whites, there were many cooperative interactions as well, many more than were demonstrated towards white settlers. The Journal of Negro History article is a revised and expanded version of the Southwestern Historical Quarterly article.

L80.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "On Jim Beckwourth: A Review Essay." Journal of Ethnic Studies 1, no. 3 (1973): 78-85. Review of two books on Jim Beckwourth. One is a new edition of Beckwourth's autobiography edited by Delmont R. Oswald, and the other is the biography by Elinor Wilson, Jim Beckwourth: Black Mountain Man and War Chief of the Crows. Also provides an overview of the known facts of Beckwourth's life.

L81.

Reddin, Paul. Wild West Shows. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999. Discusses the history of Wild West shows, which often featured Indians alongside African Americans who portrayed cowboys or Buffalo Soldiers. Mentions that a group of Iowa Indians who were part of a show in London in 1844 were accompanied by a Black interpreter, Jeffrey Deroins.

200 American Indian and African American Interactions L82.

Riley, Carroll L. "Blacks in the Early Southwest." Ethnohistory 19 (1972): 247-60. Discusses male and female Africans who are known to have visited the southwest in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Looks at Esteban, killed by the Zunis, and other Blacks mentioned in accounts of Spanish expeditions in the 1500's. Also discusses individuals of African and Mexican Indian heritage who moved to New Mexico.

L83.

Rippy, Fred J. "The Negro and the Spanish Pioneer in the New World." Journal of Negro History 6 (1921): 183-189. Looks at Africans who traveled to the Americas with the Spanish, including Esteban, who was killed by Pueblo Indians in New Mexico. Quotes a Zuni folktale about Esteban.

L84.

Rodnick, David. "The Fort Belknap Assiniboine of Montana." Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1938. Includes information on an Assiniboine man named Joe Tucker, his wife, who is described as half Black and half Assiniboine, and their children. States that the family felt that they had to overcompensate financially to counteract their being discriminated against because of their African heritage.

L85.

Roth, David R. "Lakota Sioux Terms for White and Negro." Plains Anthropologist 20 (1975): 117-120. Looks at terms used by the Oglala residents of the Pine Ridge reservation to refer to people of African origin, when they were first used, and how and why these terms may have been used.

L86.

Savage, W. Sherman. Blacks in the West. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1976. Mentions African American interaction with Indians as fur traders, soldiers, and cowboys.

L87.

Savage, W. Sherman. "The Negro in the History of the Pacific Northwest." Journal of Negro History 13 (1928): 255-264. Discusses the African American presence in the Pacific northwest. Mentions the first Black man there who was killed by Indians, and another in 1844 who married an Indian woman and threatened to turn the Indians against white settlers.

The West 201 L88.

Savage, William W., Jr. "Monologues in Red and White: Contemporary Racial Attitudes in Two Southern Plains Communities." Journal of Ethnic Studies 2, no. 3 (1974): 24-31. Looks at racial attitudes in two towns in western Oklahoma populated by whites, Blacks, and Kiowa and Apache Indians. Data is taken from the Doris Duke Oral History Project of the University of Oklahoma, which began collecting in 1967. Includes some information on how Indians felt about their Black neighbors.

L89.

Sheridan, Richard B. "Charles Henry Langston and the African American Struggle for Kansas." Kansas History 22 (Winter 19992000): 268-283. Life of Charles Henry Langston, grandfather of Langston Hughes. Charles Henry Langston's mother was an Indian-Black slave who was manumitted by her owner, Langston's father.

L90.

Simmons, Virginia McConnell. The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2000. Mentions that John Taylor, a Black interpreter who married into the Ute Indian tribe, sold an allotment of land that he had inherited from an Indian stepson.

L91.

Sowell, A. J. Early Settlers and Indian Fighters of Southwest Texas. Austin: B. C. Jones and Co., Printers, 1900. Includes many accounts of Texas Indian attacks involving Blacks, usually slaves of white settlers.

L92.

Sowell, A. J. "The Killing of James Winters by Indians." Frontier Times 18 (Oct. 1940): 37-37. Describes an attack by Texas Indians on settlers, including some Blacks.

L93.

Speck, Gordon. Breeds and Half Breeds. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1969. Includes chapters on James Beckwourth and Edward Rose.

L94.

Steele, C. Hoy. "Bonds Between Indians and Other Racial Groups in an Urban Setting." In Interracial Bonds, edited by Rhoda Goldstein Blumberg and Wendell James Roye. Bayside, NY: General Hall, 1979.

202 American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at interactions between Indians and Blacks in the 1970's in an unidentified Kansas city with a large Pottawatomi population. L95.

Stern, Theodore. The Klamath Tribe: A People and Their Reservation. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1965. Mentions tribal families of partial Klamath and partial Black ancestry.

L96.

Taylor, Quintard. "African American Men in the American West, 1528-1990." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 569 (2000): 102-119. Briefly mentions encounters of Black men with Indians in the West, including explorer Esteban and fur trader James Beckwourth.

L97.

Taylor, Quintard. "Blacks in the American West: An Overview." Western Journal of Black Studies 1 (1977): 4-10. Looks at Blacks in the west. Briefly mentions a variety of interactions with Native Americans.

L98.

Taylor, Quintard. In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990. New York: W. W. Norton, 1998. Includes Black interaction with the Seminoles in Mexico and the Five Tribes in Indian Territory. Also discusses encounters of the Black Ninth and Tenth Cavalries and the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Infantries with the Cheyenne, Kiowa, Ute, Comanche, and Lakota between 1866 and 1917.

L99.

Taylor, Ronnie C. and Lawrence R. Murphy. The Slave Narratives of Texas. Austin: Encino Press, 1974. Narratives of ex-slaves living in Texas. Some mention living in Indian territory, encountering Caddo Indians, or being part Indian themselves.

LI00.

Tegtmeier, Kristen Anne. "Bleeding Borders: The Intersection of Gender, Race, and Region in Territorial Kansas." Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2000. Explores the period preceding the Civil War in Kansas that produced much interaction between Indians, Black slaves, and white settlers. This was a complicated time, because Indians owned slaves, many white settlers were anti-slavery, other white settlers from the South were pro-slavery, and there was great debate over whether Kansas should declare itself a slave or free state. Includes information on Black

The West 203 and Indian interaction, slave-hunting Indians, Indian ownership of slaves, and Indians and Blacks being enslaved together. LI01.

Terrell, John Upton. Estevanico the Black. Los Angeles: Westemlore Press, 1968. Study of Esteban, the African who accompanied Cabeza de Vaca through Florida and Texas and was killed in 1549 by Zuni Indians.

L102.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, editor. "Maximilian, Prince of Wieds, Travels in the Interior of North America, 1832-34." In Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, vol. 24. Cleveland: Arthur C. Clark Company, 1906. Describes an incident in which the Black cook of the expedition had a dispute with a Mandan Indian over stolen food.

LI03.

Washington, Huel. "Will African Americans and Native Americans United Stamp Out Racism?" The Sun Reporter, June 13, 1992, p. 1. Reports on an African American professor and the Muwekma Ohlone tribal chairwoman, who announced cooperation in pursuit of civil rights.

LI04.

White, E. E. Experiences of a Special Indian Agent. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1965. Account of Special Indian Agent Eugene Elliot White, originally published in 1893. Describes the negative reaction of Colorado Utes to the arrival of African American soldiers.

LI05.

Wilbarger, J.W. Indian Depredations in Texas. Reliable Accounts of Battles, Wars, Adventures, Forays, Murders, Massacres, etc., Together with Biographical Sketches of Many of the Most Noted Indian Fighters and Frontiersmen of Texas. Austin: Hutchings Printing House, 1889. Includes mention of many instances of Indians attacking settlers, including Blacks and Black slaves. Also includes several accounts of Indian groups that included Black members attacking whites, and some Indian groups that appeared to be led by Blacks. Also discusses Britton Hammon, a Black frontiersman murdered by Comanche or Kiowa.

L106.

Wilson, Elinor. Jim Beckwourth: Black Mountain Man and War Chief of the Crows. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972. Beckwourth, a former slave, lived among the Crow, served as a war chief against the Blackfeet, was captured by the Arikara, worked for the

204 American Indian and African American Interactions U.S. Army in the Seminole War, and encountered many other tribes, including the Ute, Lakota, and Taos Indians. L107.

Winship, George Parker. "The Coronado Expedition, 1540-1542." In Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 189293. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896. Includes information on Esteban's experiences among the Indians of New Mexico, his death at Zuni, and mentions other Blacks who remained in New Mexico when the expedition returned to Mexico.

L108.

Wolfe, Jay L. "He Being Black." American Legacy 6, no. 4 (2001): 3242. History of Esteban, the African who traveled through the southeast and New Mexico, where he was killed by Zuni Indians.

LI09.

Woolfolk, George Ruble. The Free Negro in Texas, 1800-1860: A Study in Cultural Compromise. Published for the Journal of Mexican American History by University Microfilms International, 1976. Includes a discussion on how free Blacks and Indians in Texas viewed each other and interacted, looking at both the southern Plains Indians tribes and groups that had been relocated from the southeast.

LI 10.

Wright, Richard R. "Negro Companions of the Spanish Explorers." American Anthropologist 4 (1902): 217-228. Wright, Richard R. "Negro Companions of the Spanish Explorers." Phylon 2 (1941): 325-333. Looks at early African presence in North America, focusing on Blacks who accompanied explorers to the American West, especially Esteban.

LI 11.

Zochert, Donald. "This Nation Never Saw a Black Man Before." American Heritage 22 (February 1971): 8-9. Describes what is known of York, Black member of the Lewis and Clark expedition.

The Military West and the

Buffalo Soldiers Ml.

Bennett, Charles. "The Buffalo Soldiers and the Apache War Chief." Palacio 101, no. 2 (1996): 44-53. Discusses the Buffalo Soldiers' campaigns against the Apache in New Mexico. Describes an archaeological study in the San Andres Mountains of the site of a battle between the Ninth Cavalry and Victorio's band in April of 1880.

M2.

Billington, Monroe L. "Black Cavalrymen and Apache Indians in New Mexico Territory." Fort Concho and the South Plains Journal 22, no. 3 (1990): 54-76. Details the United States government's campaign to confine the Apaches of New Mexico to reservations in Arizona. Black troops played a large role in subduing the Apaches, Kiowas and Comanches between 1867 and the late 1800's. Mentions that Black soldiers were stationed in Indian Territory to prevent whites from settling there, served with Navajo scouts, and participated in the massacre at Wounded Knee.

M3.

Billington, Monroe. "Black Soldiers at Fort Selden, New Mexico, 1866-1891." New Mexico Historical Review 62 (1987): 65-79. Looks at African Americans who served in the U. S. Army at Fort Selden in southern New Mexico. Some of their responsibilities were to control Indians and to make the area safe for white settlers. In 1879 and 1880, soldiers from the Ninth Cavalry battled the Warm Spring Apache.

M4.

Billington, Monroe Lee. "Buffalo Soldiers in the American West, 1865-1900." In African Americans on the Western Frontier, edited by

206 American Indian and African American Interactions Monroe Lee Billington and Roger D. Hardaway. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1998. Looks at the activities of the African American soldiers on the western frontier. Soldiers were used in battle against Apaches in New Mexico and Arizona, Utes in Colorado, and at Wounded Knee in South Dakota. M5.

Billington, Monroe. New Mexico's Buffalo Soldiers, 1866-1900. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado, 1991. Describes the experiences of the African American soldiers who were stationed in New Mexico. Details the campaigns against Victorio's band of Apaches and also discusses some of the Indian Scouts who worked with the soldiers.

M6.

Burton, Art T. Black Buckskin and Blue: African American Scouts and Soldiers on the Western Frontier. Austin: Eakin Press, 1999. Examines the history and individual life stories of African Americans who served as scouts and soldiers for the United States Army during the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Many of these men lived with or married Indians, or were of partial Indian ancestry themselves. Includes information on individuals, Black units that served in the west during the Civil War, and the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

M7.

Buskirk, Winfred. "The Western Apache: Living With the Land Before 1950." Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986. Mentions a Western Apache man's favorable opinion of African American troops that were stationed at Fort Apache.

M8.

Carlson, Paul H. "William R. Shafter, Black Troops, and the Finale to the Red River War." Red River Valley Historical Review 3 (1978): 247-258. Describes the role of Black troops in the Red River War, 1874-1875, against Comanches, Kiowas, and Cheyennes. Members of the Tenth Cavalry and Twenty-Fourth Infantry were joined by a company of Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

M9.

Carroll, H. Bailey. "Nolan's "Lost Nigger" Expedition of 1877." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 44 (1940): 55-75. Describes the August 1877 expedition of the Tenth Cavalry in which Black troops spent four days without water, tracking Comanches in

The Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers 207 west Texas. Mentions Tonkawa Indians who worked as guides with the soldiers. M10.

Carroll, John M. The Black Military Experience in the American West. New York: Liveright Pub, 1971. A compilation of articles on African American interactions with American Indians in the context of military action.

Mil.

Cashin, Herschel V., and others. Under Fire with the Tenth U. S. Cavalry. New York: Arno Press, 1969. Contains an account by Horace Wayman Bivins of the Tenth Cavalry about fighting Apaches in Arizona and describes other encounters with American Indians.

Ml2.

Coleman, Ronald G. "The Buffalo Soldiers: Guardians of the Uintah Frontier, 1886-1901." Utah Historical Quarterly 47, no. 4 (1979): 421439. Discusses the experiences of the Black soldiers of the Ninth Calvary on the Uintah Frontier of eastern Utah. The military post was created in 1886 to control the Utes and make the area safe for white settlers, and Black troops were stationed there for almost fifteen years. States that the Utes were initially quite disturbed when they discovered the soldiers were black.

Ml3.

Dobak, William A. "Fort Riley's Black Soldiers and the Army's Changing Role in the West, 1867-1885." Kansas History 22 (1999): 214-227. Black soldiers at Fort Riley, Kansas, kept Kansas's reservation Indians under control, were sent to Colorado to assist in the removal of the Utes, and were also used to monitor Navajos and Jicarilla Apache.

Ml4.

Downey, Fairfax. The Buffalo Soldiers in the Indian Wars. New York: McGrawHill, 1969. Details the activities of the African American soldiers who fought in the campaigns against the western Indians.

Ml5.

Drotning, Phillip T. Black Heroes in our Nation's History: A Tribute to Those Who Helped Shape America. New York: Cowles Book Co., 1969.

208 American Indian and African American Interactions Includes a chapter on the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries who served in the Indian Wars in the west. M16.

Ege, Robert. "Braves of All Colors: The Story of Isaiah Dorman, Killed at the Little Big Horn." Montana 16 (1966): 35-40. Discusses the life and death of Isaiah Dorman, a Black man who was killed at the Battle of the Little Big Horn. Dorman had lived in the Dakota Territory, married a Santee woman, and was working as an interpreter for the U. S. Army when he was killed while serving in Major Reno's command.

Ml7.

Erisman, Fred and Erisman, Patricia L. "Letters from the Field: John Sylvanus Loud and the Pine Ridge Campaign of 1890-1891." South Dakota History 26, no. 1 (1996): 24-45. Presents excerpts of letters written by John Sylvanus Loud, a captain of Troop D of the Ninth U.S. Cavalry, a Black regiment that served in the west. In 1890-91, Troop D was sent to the Pine Ridge Agency in South Dakota to monitor the Lakota.

Ml 8.

Flipper, Henry Ossian. Black Frontiersman: The Memoir of Henry O. Flipper, First Black Graduate of West Point. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1997. Flipper was the first Black graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point and served in the Tenth Cavalry. His memoir details many encounters with Indians in Kansas, Oklahoma, Arizona and Texas. In 1896, Flipper published a booklet about Esteban in the Southwest, the text of which is included here, entitled Did a Negro Discover Arizona and New Mexico?

Ml9.

"Former Slave Has Rites of a Hero 80 Years Later." New York Times, October 29, 1984, p. B4. African American soldier Brent Woods was awarded the Medal of Honor for bravery in a battle with Apaches in 1881. Although buried in obscurity, he received full honors in the 1980's.

M20.

Fowler, Arlen L. The Black Infantry in the West, 1869-1891. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1971. Looks at the activities of African American men in the American West during the Indian Wars.

The Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers 209 M21.

Gwaltney, William W. and Welle, Thomas. "By Force of Arms: The Buffalo Soldiers of Colorado." Colorado Heritage (Spring 1996): 3034. Looks at Black soldiers who were stationed in Colorado. Soldiers fought the Cheyenne in the late 1860's and Utes a decade later.

M22.

Gwaltney, William W. "The Making of "Buffalo Soldiers West."" Colorado Heritage (Spring 1996): 45-48. Discusses the development of an exhibition on the Buffalo Soldiers at the Colorado Historical Society. Briefly discusses participation of American Indians in the exhibit, and how the exhibit explored relations between Indians and Blacks.

M23.

Hurtt, Clarence M. "The Role of Black Infantry in the Expansion of the West." West Virginia History 40 (1979): 123-157. Describes the activities of the African American soldiers of the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth U.S. Infantry regiments who served in military action against the western Indians.

M24.

Jeter, Henry N. Pastor Henry N. Jeter's Twenty-five Years Experience with the Shiloh Baptist Church and Her History. Corner School and Mary Streets, Newport, R. I. Providence: Remington Printing Company, 1901. Contains a statement by Sergeant B. F. Morrell of Newport, Rhode Island, who served in the Ninth U. S. Cavalry. Describes several battles with Texas Indians, including Comanches.

M25.

Kenner, Charles L. Buffalo Soldiers and Officers of the Ninth Cavalry, 1867-1898: Black and White Together. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Includes information on the Ninth Cavalry's battles with Indians in the west.

M26.

Laumbach, Karl W. "Fire Fight at Hembrillo Basin. Buffalo Soldiers Hold Their Ground in a Nighttime Skirmish with the Apache." Archaeology 54, no. 6 (2001): 34-39. Uses battlefield archaeology and historical research to recreate the April 6, 1880, battle between Victorio's band of Apaches and Ninth Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers in southern New Mexico.

210 American Indian and African American Interactions M27.

Leckie, William H. The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967. Describes the work of African American soldiers in the western Indian wars.

M28.

Ledbetter, Barbara A. Neal. Fort Belknap Frontier Saga: Indians, Negroes, and Anglo-Americans on the Texas Frontier. Burnet, TX: Eakin Press, 1982. Describes the events leading up to the Kiowa-Apache-Comanche raids on black and white settlers at Elm Creek in north central Texas in 1864. Includes information on free blacks who settled here and were subject to Indian raids, and discusses the experiences of whites and Blacks who were taken captive.

M29.

Lekson, Stephen H. Nana's Raid: Apache Warfare in Southern New Mexico, 1881. El Paso: Texas Western Press, 1987. Describes battles between the Warm Springs Apache and Black soldiers.

M30.

Longacre, E. G. "A Philadelphia Aristocrat with the "Buffalo Soldiers."" Journal of the West 18 (April 1979): 79-84. Describes Louis Henry Carpenter's service in the Army as an officer for various Black Army regiments in the Indian wars.

M31.

Matthews, James T. "Always in the Vanguard: Patrolling the Texas Frontier with Captain Louis Carpenter and Company H of the Tenth Cavalry." West Texas Historical Association Yearbook 15 (1999): 110119. Looks at the battles of Company H of the Tenth Cavalry against Cheyennes, Kiowas, and Apaches.

M32.

Matthews, James T. "Traveling Over an Unknown Trail: Company H of the Tenth Cavalry at Fort Davis, 1875-1885." Journal of Big Bend Studies 12 (2000): 93-104. Discusses the Black troops of the Tenth Cavalry who fought against Victorio and the Apaches.

M33.

Matthews, Jim. "Squarely Fought: Fort Concho and the Campaign Against Victorio." West Texas Historical Association Year Book 69 (1993): 34-44.

The Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers 211 Describes the activities of the African American soldiers of the Tenth Cavalry and Twenty-fourth Infantry who were stationed at Fort Concho, Texas, and the battle against the Apaches. M34.

McConnell, Roland C. "Isaiah Dorman and the Custer Expedition." Journal of Negro History 33 (1948): 344-52. Investigates Isaiah Dorman, interpreter under Custer, who was described in Army records as "colored" and was killed at the Battle of the Little Big Horn.

M35.

Native America Calling. Buffalo Soldiers. Native American Public Telecommunications, 2000. One hour radio call in show on the role of African American men in the Indian wars of the west, originally broadcast February 22, 1999. Available online at http://vvwvv.nativecalling.org/archives/topics/race.html

M36.

Nequatewa, Edmund. Truth of a Hopi and Other Clan Stories of Shung-Opivi. Flagstaff: Northern Arizona Society of Science and Art, 1936. Describes how some Hopi at Oraibi resisted when a troop of African American soldiers was sent to the Hopi reservation to relocate the children to boarding schools.

M37.

Nunn, W. Curtis. "Eighty-six Hours Without Water on the Texas Plains." Southwestern Historical Quarterly 43 (1940): 356-364. Reprints a report and a letter relating to the August 1877 expedition of Black troops of the Tenth Cavalry. The troops were tracking Comanches and spent four days without water.

M38.

Pewewardy, Cornel. "A View of the Buffalo Soldiers Through Indigenous Eyes." Raven Chronicles 1, no. 2 (1997): 50-53. Argues against the current admiration for the Buffalo Soldiers, the African American soldiers who were stationed in the American West during the Indian Wars. Argues that Buffalo Soldiers, one oppressed group, were exploited by the U.S. to oppress an other, the Indians, and do not deserve the honor of being referred to with the term Buffalo.

212 American Indian and African American Interactions M39.

Pospisil, JoAnn. "Black Defenders in the American West 1865 to 1890." West Texas Historical Association Year Book 76 (2000): 106125. Discusses the Black regiments created during the Indian Wars in the western United States. Discusses daily life of the Buffalo soldiers and campaigns against the Mescalero Apaches, Kickapoos, Lipan Apaches, and Comanches. Two Black regiments also participated in the massacre of the Lakota at Wounded Knee.

M40.

Rickey, Don. "An Indian Wars Combat Record." By Valor and Arms 2 (Fall 1975): 4-11. An overview of African American soldiers in the Indian wars of the west.

M41.

Roome, Richard T. "A Cavalry Company on the Indian Frontier: A Short History of Troop L, 10th U.S. Cavalry." Permian Historical Annual 34 (1994): 25-43. Details the activities of one of two African American cavalry regiments created in 1866. They served in Indian Territory, and fought Cheyennes, Kiowas, Comanches, Kickapoos, and Apaches in the Indian Wars.

M42.

Schubert, Frank N. "Black Soldiers on the Frontier: Some Factors Influencing Race Relations." Phylon 32 (1971): 410-415. Suggests that African American soldiers were most positively received in communities with nearby Indian reservations.

M43.

Schubert, Frank N. Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Honor, 1870-1898. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1997. Discusses those African American soldiers who were awarded the Medal of Honor, mostly in the Indian Wars. Looks at the Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, military action against the Apache, Ute, Lakota, and other northern Plains groups, and Indian scouts who worked with the Buffalo soldiers.

M44.

Schubert, Frank N. Buffalo Soldiers, Braves, and The Brass: The Story of Fort Robinson, Nebraska. Shippensburg, PA: White Mane Publishing Company, 1993. Fort Robinson, located in northwestern Nebraska, from 1885-1898 and 1902-1907 was garrisoned by Black soldiers from the Ninth and Tenth

The Military West and the Buffalo Soldiers 213 Cavalry Regiments of the United States Army. The soldiers served primarily fighting Plains Indians. M45.

Talayesva, Don C. Sun Chief: The Autobiography of a Hopi Indian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1942. Mentions the African American soldiers who were sent to take Hopi children away to government boarding schools.

M46.

Taylor, Quintard. "A View of the Buffalo Soldiers Through Indigenous Eyes: A Response." Raven Chronicles 1, no. 2 (1997). This is the response to an essay by Dr. Cornel Pewewardy, who questioned the veneration of Black soldiers who had fought in the Indian Wars of the west. Taylor argues that the Buffalo Soldiers' relations with the Indians were not merely as their killers. Argues for a new interpretation of the history of the American west that would incorporate all levels of intergroup relations.

M47.

Taylor, Quintard. "Comrades of Color: Buffalo Soldiers in the West, 1866-1917." Colorado Heritage 18 (Spring 1996): 3-27. This is the feature article in a special issue of Colorado Heritage dedicated to the Buffalo Soldiers, the African Americans who served in the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries and the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Infantries. They fought in campaigns against Indians in Kansas, South Dakota, and New Mexico, and also served in Indian Territory protecting those tribes from other Indian groups and whites.

M48.

Thompson, Erwin N. "The Negro Soldiers on the Frontier: A Fort Davis Case Study." Journal of the West 1 (1968): 217-35. Looks at the Black soldiers who were stationed at Fort Davis, Texas, beginning in 1867. Soldiers of various units based at Fort Davis fought the Warm Springs and Mescalero Apache.

M49.

Tucker, Phillip Thomas. Cathy Williams: From Slave to Female Buffalo Soldier. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 2002. Life of Cathy Williams, a slave born in Missouri who disguised herself as a man and served in the Thirty-eighth U.S. Infantry in the Apache wars.

M50.

United States. Congress. Senate. Report of the Secretary of the War, Communicating in Compliance with a Resolution of the Senate of February 4, 1867, a Copy of the Evidence Taken at Denver and Fort

214 American Indian and African American Interactions Lyon, Colorado Territory by a Military Commission Ordered to Inquire into the Sand Creek Massacre, November 29, 1864. 39th Cong., 2nd Sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 26. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1866. Contains testimony of James Beckwourth on the Sand Creek Massacre. Beckwourth was working for the Army as a guide and was present at the massacre. M51.

Utley, Robert M. "The Buffalo Soldiers and Victorio." New Mexico Magazine 62, no. 3 (1984): 47-50, 53-54. Looks at the final months of confrontation between Apache leader Victorio and the Black soldiers of the U.S. Ninth and Tenth Cavalries.

M52.

Wharfield, H. B. "A Fight with the Yaquis at Bear Valley, 1918." Arizoniana 4, no. 3 (1963): 1-8. Describes a 1918 battle between a group of Yaquis and the African American Troop E of the 10th U.S. Cavalry in southern Arizona.

The Midwest and the Great Lakes Nl.

"Black Men in the Fur Trade with the Indians." Gopher Historian 23, no. 2 (1968-69): 1-4. Recounts the activities of African American men in the fur trade of the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay area. Black men worked in all aspects of the fur trade, as hunters, canoe men, guides, interpreters, traders. Discusses mention of these men in diaries and records from the era. Briefly mentions Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, proprietor of a trading post in the 1770's in what in now Chicago, and the Bonga family, descended from a Black couple who came to Michigan as servants. Bonga descendents worked in the fur trade and some married into the Chippewa tribe.

N2.

Bonga, George. "Letters of George Bonga." Journal of Negro History 12 (1927): 41-45. Reprints some of the letters of George Bonga, Black trader in Wisconsin. These letters were written from Leech Lake and refer frequently to the local Chippewas.

N3.

Bray, Edmund C. and Martha Coleman Bray, editors. Joseph N. Nicollett on the Plains and Prairies: The Expeditions of 1838-39 with Journals, Letters, and Notes on the Dakota Indians. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1993. Briefly mentions the attitudes of the Dakota towards the Blacks they encountered, who reportedly had great skill in learning the Dakota language.

N4.

Carrigan, Minnie Buce. Captured by the Indians: Reminiscences of Pioneer Life in Minnesota. Forest City, SD: Forest City Press, 1907.

216 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes a Black man named Joe Godfrey who had married into the Lakota and was living on the Santee Reservation, and was reportedly known for killing white people. N5.

Connolly, A. P. A Thrilling Narrative of the Minnesota Massacre and the Sioux War of 1862-63: Graphic Accounts of the Siege of Fort Ridgely, Battles of Birch Coolie, Wood Lake, Big Mound, Stony Lake, Dead Buffalo Lake and Missouri River. Chicago: A. P. Connolly, 1896. Mentions a Black man named Godfrey who had grown up among the Lakota and was still living among them as a warrior.

N6.

Cortesi, Lawrence. Jean Du Sable: Father of Chicago. Philadelphia and New York: Chilton Book Company, 1972. Dramatized biography of Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, a Black man born in Haiti in 1745, who became the first non-Indian to settle in what in now Chicago. Du Sable was a trader and married a Potowatami woman.

N7.

Densmore, Benjamin. "Benjamin Densmore's Journal of an Expedition on the Frontier." Minnesota History Bulletin 3 (1919): 167-209. Includes a description of an 1857 visit to the home of the Bongas, a Black Chippewa family living in Minnesota.

N8.

Densmore, Frances. "The Importance of Recordings of Indian Songs." American Anthropologist Al (1945): 637-639. Suggest that a particular tone in Chippewa music may be attributed to the presence of Africans in the tribe, particularly the Bonga family.

N9.

DeRamus, Betty. "Native Americans Forge Bonds with Former Slaves: Untold Stories of the Underground Railroad." The Detroit News, February 22, 2000. Looks at African Americans who settled in Michigan beginning in the mid-1800's and the assistance they received from Chippewa Indians, with whom they often intermarried. Interviews some descendents of Black-Indian families.

N10.

Drenning, June. "Black Pioneer of the Northwest." Negro Digest 8 (March 1950): 65-67.

The Midwest and the Great Lakes 217 Magazine article discusses the Bonga family, Blacks who settled in Michigan in 1782. Descendents worked among and married into the Chippewa tribe. Nil.

DuBois, Shirley Graham. Jean Baptiste Pointe de Sable, Founder of Chicago. New York: J. Messner, 1953. Dramatized history of du Sable, the Haitian trader who settled in the Chicago area and lived among the Pottawatomi. Has a chapter on important primary sources mentioning du Sable.

N12.

"Eiteljorg Explores Black and Indian Heritage." Indianapolis Recorder, May 15, 2001, p. Al. Describes a project launched at the Eiteljorg Museum of American Indians and Western Art in Indianapolis aimed at exploring African American and Native American relationships.

N13.

Ekberg, Carl J. with Anton J. Pregaldin. "Marie Rouensa-8cate8a and the Foundations of French Illinois." Illinois Historical Journal 84 (1991): 146-160. Lists the estate of Marie Rouensa, an Illinois Indian, which included several Black slaves.

N14.

Garlick, Charles A. Life, Including His Escape and Struggle for Liberty, of Charles A. Garlick, Born a Slave in Old Virginia, Who Secured His Freedom by Running Away from His Master's Farm in 1843. Jefferson, OH: J. A. Howell, 1902. Former slave describes encounters with Michigan Indians.

N15.

Grivno, Max L. "'Black Frenchmen' and 'White Settlers': Race, Slavery, and the Creation of African-American Identities Along the Northwest Frontier, 1790-1840." Slavery & Abolition 21, no. 3 (2000): 75-93. Looks at Indian-Black interactions in the Great Lakes area. Describes use of Black slaves as interpreters with local tribes in treaty negotiation or for missionaries, and intermarriage with Ojibwas and Dakotas.

N16.

Henson, Josiah. Truth Stranger Than Fiction: Father Henson's Story of His Own Life. Williamstown, MA: Corner House Publishers, 1973.

218 American Indian and African American Interactions Henson describes encountering a welcoming community of Indians in Ohio while fleeing to Canada as a fugitive slave. Originally published 1858. N17.

Huber, Donald L. "White, Red, and Black: The Wyandot Mission at Upper Sandusky." Timeline 13, no. 3 (1996): 2-17. Describes African American Methodist preacher John Stewart and his efforts to spread the gospel among the Wyandots of Ohio. Also mentions another Black man, Jonathan Pointer, who had been raised among the tribe.

N18.

Jones, Peter. History of the Ojebway Indians: With Especial Reference to Their Conversion to Christianity. London: A. W. Bennett, 1861. Includes a brief mention of Ojibwa opinions of Blacks, stating that they found blacks inferior but deeply commiserated with their plight.

N19.

Kappler, Charles J. Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, Volume II. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904. One of the signers of the Treaty with the Sioux, signed in 1815, was "Warchesunsapa, The Negro."

N20.

Katzman, David M. "Black Slavery in Michigan." American Studies Journal 11, no. 2 (1970): 56-66.

MidContinent

Briefly mentions that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, whites in Michigan could buy from Indians Black slaves who had been captured during forays into the trans-Appalachian frontier settlements. N21.

Kinzie, Mrs. John H. Wau-Bun: The ''Early Day" in the North West. Chicago: The Lakeside Press, 1932. Contains a brief mention of Jean Baptiste Point-au-Sable, stating the Indians used to say "the first white man who settled here was a Negro."

N22.

Kohl, Johann Georg. Kitchi-Gami: Wanderings Around Lake Superior. London: Chapman and Hall, 1860. German traveler Kohl described a "mulatto" named Williams who served as an intermediary to an Ojibway man that Kohl was attempting to purchase birchbark scrolls from.

N23.

Kugel, Rebecca. "Leadership Within the Women's Community: Susie Bonga Wright of the Leech Lake Ojibwe." In Midwestern Women:

The Midwest and the Great Lakes 219 Work, Community, and Leadership at the Crossroads, edited by Lucy Eldersveld Murphy and Wendy Hamand Venet. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997. Life of Susie Bonga, born around 1850, Ojibwe-Black granddaughter of fur trader Pierre Bonga. Describes how others in the community perceived the family's African ancestry, focusing on when Susie was being courted by an Ojibwe man who was concerned with how his future wife's ancestry would affect his political future. N24.

Lansing, Michael. "Plains Indian Women and Interracial Marriage in the Upper Missouri Trade, 1804-1868." Western Historical Quarterly 31 (2000): 413-433. Briefly mentions African American intermarriage with Native American women and Native American attitudes towards Black men in the fur trade.

N25.

Loguen, Jermain Wesley. The Rev. J. W. Loguen, as a Slave and as a Freeman. A Narrative of Real Life. Syracuse: J. G. K. Truair & Co., 1859. Describes fugitive slaves who traveled the underground railroad to Canada and encountered mostly hospitable Indian groups in Indiana and Michigan.

N26.

Love, N. B. C. "John Stewart: Pioneer Missionary of the Methodist Episcopal Church." Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 17 (1908): 337-349. Chronicles John Stewart's mission to the Wyandot Indians.

N27.

Marsh, Thelma R. Moccasin Trails to the Cross: A History of the Mission to the Wyandott Indians on the Sandusky Plains. Sandusky, OH: John Stewart United Methodist Church, 1974. Details the life of John Stewart, Black missionary to the Wyandot Indians of Ohio in the early 1800's.

N28.

Meehan, Rev. Thomas A. "Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, the First Chicagoan." Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 56 (1963): 439-453. Life of Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, a Black trader from Haiti who was the first non-Indian to settle in the Chicago area and married an Indian woman.

220 American Indian and African American Interactions N29.

Mitchell, Joseph. The Missionary Pioneer, or, A Brief Memoir of the Life, Labours, and Death of John Stewart, Man of Color. Austin and New York: Pemberton Press, 1969. Reprint of 1827 biography of John Stewart, born to free Black parents in Virginia, who became a missionary to the Wyandot Indians of Ohio.

N30.

Owen, Mary Alicia. Voodoo Tales, as Told Among the Negroes of the Southwest. New York: Putnam, 1893. Folktales collected from a Black and Indian community in Missouri.

N31.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Negroes and the Fur Trade." Minnesota History 15 (1934): 421-433. Includes information on Blacks in the fur trade who intermarried or otherwise interacted with Great Lakes area Indians, including Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, the Bongas, and others.

N32.

Quaife, Milo M. Checagou: From Indian Wigwam to Modern City, 1673-1875. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1933. Mentioned Jean Baptisite Point du Sable, the Black man who settled Chicago and married into the Potowatomi Indian community.

N33.

Schlup, Emil. "Tarhe-The Crane." Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 14(1905): 132-138. Mentions Jonathan Pointer's activities as an interpreter for the Wyandot.

N34.

Schlup, Emil. "The Wyandot Mission." Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly 15 (1906): 163-181. Describes the missionary efforts of John Stewart and Jonathan Pointer, a Black man who had been raised among the Wyandot.

N35.

Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe. Schooleraffs Narrative Journal of Travels Through the Northwestern Regions of the United States, Extending from Detroit Through the Great Chain of American Lakes to the Sources of the Mississippi River, in the year 1820. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1992. Schoolcraft described encountering an Indian-Black family living among the Chippewa, probably the Bongas.

The Midwest and the Great Lakes 221 N36.

Sexton, Sharon-Elizabeth. "The Red and Black Connection." Michigan Citizen, May 2, 1998, pB8. Discusses historical Black-Indian interactions in Michigan, and describes Jean De Baptiste Pointe du Sable as a Haitian former slave who lived among the Ottawa.

N37.

Shaw, Blanche V., and Mrs. Chas H. Duke. Some Historical Facts about Jean Baptiste Pointe de Sable; Chicago's First Permanent Citizen. Chicago: National de Saible Memorial Society, 1938. Life of Jean Baptiste Pointe de Sable, the Black man who settled Chicago.

N38.

Smith, Robert E. "The Clash of Leadership at the Grand Reserve: The Wyandot Subagency and the Methodist Mission, 1820-1824." Ohio History (1980): 181-205. Mentions the activities of John Stewart, Black missionary, and Jonathan Pointer, a Black man who lived among the Wyandot.

N39.

Warren, William Whipple. "History of the Ojibways, Based Upon Traditions and Oral Statements." Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society 5 (1885): 21-394. Describes an incident in which an elderly Ojibway store owner at Red Lake killed his Black employee. Also mentions several members of the Bonga family. Stephen Bonga is noted as being descended from slaves and working as an interpreter between the Sioux and Ojibway.

N40.

Weld, Isaac. Travels Through the States of North America, and the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada During the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797. London: John Stockdale, 1799. Describes an incident in which an Indian woman killed her captured Black slave rather than return him to whites. Also mentions Indians in Michigan who worked as slave hunters.

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Alaska and Canada 01.

Brooks, Joanna. "John Marrant's Journal: Providence and Prophecy in the Eighteenth Century Black Atlantic." The North Star 3, no. 1 (1999). Describes African American missionary John Marrant's experiences in Nova Scotia, where some of his parishioners were Micmac. Journal is available online only, http://northstar.vassar.edu/volume2/little.html

02.

Chittenden, Newton H. Official Report of the Exploration of the Queen Charlotte Islands for the Government of British Columbia. Victoria, B.C.: Printed by the Authority of the Government, 1884. Mentions briefly that there were Haida of many different ethnicities, including Black.

03.

Counter, S. Allen. North Pole Legacy: Black, White, and Eskimo. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1991. Matthew Henson was an African American explorer who accompanied Robert Peary on Arctic expeditions. In 1909, Henson, Peary and four Polar Eskimoes reached the North Pole. Henson took a great interest in Inuit culture and was the only member of the expeditions to learn to speak Inuit. Henson fathered a son with an Inuit woman (Peary fathered two) and the author describes meeting the son and several grandchildren. In the 1980's, family members traveled to the United States to meet other members of the Henson family.

04.

Densmore, Frances. Chippewa Customs. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1929. Contains a legend involving a Black man.

05.

Dent, John Charles. Canadian Notabilities. Toronto: J. B. Magurn, 1880.

224 American Indian and African American Interactions Mentions Mohawk leader Joseph Brant having seven or eight Black servants who had formerly been his slaves. 06.

Dolan, Edward F. Matthew Henson, Black Explorer. New York: Dodd, Mead, & Co., 1979. Biography of Matthew Henson, polar explorer.

07.

Drew, Benjamin. A North-Side View of Slavery. The Refugee: Or the Narratives of Fugitive Slaves in Canada Related by Themselves, with an Account of the History and Condition of the Colored Population of Upper Canada. Boston: John P. Jewett & Co., 1856. Contains a narrative by Sophia Pooley, who was owned by Mohawk Chief Joseph Brant. Describes life in his household.

08.

Fauset, Arthur Huff. "Folklore from the Half-Breeds in Nova Scotia." Journal of American Folklore 38 (1925): 300-315. Folk stories collected in 1923 among a group of Micmac Indians living near a Black settlement. Includes a tale about Blacks going hunting.

09.

Fowler, Robert H. "The Negro Who Went to the Pole with Peary." American History Illustrated 1, no. 1 (1966): 4-11, 52-55, and 1, no. 2 (1966): 45-52. Presents the 1909 Peary expedition to the North Pole from the perspective of Peary's African American assistant, Matthew Henson, who first went north with Peary in 1888. Based on interviews with Henson in 1953 when he was 88. Describes his interaction with Eskimos.

010.

Hamilton, James Cleland. "The African in Canada." Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 38 (1889): 364370. Mentions that while Chief Brant (or Thyendenaga) was rumored to have owned African slaves, Canadian Indians generally did not own slaves.

Oil.

Harper, Kenn. Give Me My Father's Body: The Life of Minik the New York Eskimo. South Royalton, VT: Steerforth Press, 2000. Minik was brought to New York as a child by Robert Peary. Matthew Henson, Peary's African American assistant, interpreted for Minik and others while they were in New York.

Alaska and Canada 225 012.

Henson, Matthew. A Black Explorer at the North Pole. New York: Cooper Square Books, 2001. Originally published in 1912, this is Matthew Henson's account of the 1909 Peary expedition to the North Pole. Henson describes the Eskimo groups encountered throughout the trip and the individuals who assisted with the expedition.

013.

Hungry Wolf, Adolf. The Blood People: A Division of the Blackfoot Confederacy; an Illustrated Interpretation of the Old Ways. New York: Harper and Row, 1977. Describes a Black man named Dave Mills who was married to a Blood woman in the late 1800's and served as an interpreter for a government census. Mentions that he was a competent speaker of the Blood language and his descendents became active members of the tribe. Describes a sacred pipe belonging to one of Mills' descendents that is now in a museum.

014.

Hungry Wolf, Beverly. The Ways of My Grandmothers. New York: Morrow, 1980. In an oral history, an elderly Blood woman recalled the Black interpreter Dave Mills.

015.

Irby, Charles C. "The Black Settlers on Saltspring Island in the Nineteenth Century." Phylon 35 (1974): 368-374. Mentions some interaction between Black settlers and Cowichan Indians on Saltspring Island, southeast of Vancouver Island, in the midnineteenth century.

016.

Johnston, Charles M. The Valley of the Six Nations: A Collection of Documents on the Indian Lands of the Grand River. Toronto: The Champlain Society and University of Toronto Press, 1964. Reprints part of an 1842 Canadian government report that stated several families of Blacks had been adopted into the Grand River Iroquois community. The Black community there was comprised of the descendents of slaves who had been owned by Indians and later were joined by fugitive slaves from the United States. An 1842 letter from a missionary also reported on a group from the United States of mixed Black and Indian heritage.

226 American Indian and African American Interactions 017.

Jones, Livingston French. A Study of the Thlingets of Alaska. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1914. Briefly mentions the tribe's reaction to the first Black man to visit the area.

018.

Ketchum, William. Memoir of the Distinguished Mohawk Indian Chief, Sachem and Warrior, Capt. Joseph Brant. Brantford, Ontario: C. E. Steward & Co., 1872. Mentions an Indian-Black who was present with Joseph Brant at a meeting with an American militia.

019.

Landes, Ruth. Ojibwa Sociology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1937. Mentions a Black man named Billy Ross who married an Ojibwa woman. All of their children married Indians, and all practiced Ojibwa medicinal ways.

020.

Marrant, John. The Journal of John Marrant. http://collect.ions.ic.gc.ca/blackloyalists/index.htm The text of John Marrant's journal is available here. Marrant, a Black preacher, described preaching to Indians in Nova Scotia.

021.

Noon, John A. Law and Government of the Grand River Iroquois. New York, Viking Fund, 1949. Discusses the 1886 court case of Delaware Nation vs. Michael Anthony, in which members of the Delaware tribe argued that Chief Michael Anthony was not an heir to the chieftainship, partially because he had some Black ancestry.

022.

Parsons, Elsie Clews. "Micmac Notes: St. Ann's Mission on Chapel Island, Bras d'Or Lakes, Cape Breton Island." Journal of American Folklore 39 (1926): 460-485. Author reported that a few members of the community appeared to be of African American heritage.

023.

Ransom, Jay Ellis. "Stories, Myths, and Superstitions of Fox Island Aleut Children." Journal of American Folklore 60 (1947): 62-72. Presents stories written by Aleut children of Umnak Island, Alaska, in 1936. Two very short stories are about Black children, and the article

Alaska and Canada 227 mentions that so few Blacks came to this community that it was of great interest to the community members when one did. 024.

Riddell, William Renwick. "The Slave in Canada." Journal of Negro History 5 (1920): 261-377. Looks at the institution of Black slavery in Canada. Mentions Indians capturing or purchasing slaves, and their treatment.

025.

Sandwell, Ruth and John Lutz. Who Killed William Robinson? Race, Justice and Settling the Land. A Historical Whodunnit. http://web.uvic.ca/historv-robinson/ Multimedia teaching website explores the murder of Black Canadian settler William Robinson, allegedly by Tshuaunhusset, an Indian man, on Salt Spring Island, British Columbia. Allows users to view primary resources.

026.

Saney, Isaac. "The Black Nova Scotia Odyssey: A Chronology." Race & Class 40, no. 1 (1998): 78-91. Chronology of the Black presence in Nova Scotia. States that the first Black man in Nova Scotia, Matthew da Costa, served as an interpreter between the Micmac and the de Monts expedition.

027.

Shepard, R. Bruce. "North to the Promised Land: Black Migration to the Canadian Plains." Chronicles of Oklahoma 66 (Fall 1988): 306327. Looks at the emigration of over one thousand Oklahoman Blacks to Saskatchewan and Alberta between 1908 and 1911. While it has been argued that most of these people were of Indian and Black ancestry, the author argues that they were more likely Blacks who had migrated independently to the Creek Nation from the southern states following the Civil War, and not Creek freedmen.

028.

Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, Earl of. The Memorial of Thomas Earl of Selkirk: To His Grace, Charles, Duke of Redmond. Montreal: Nahum Mower, 1819. Mentions some Ottowa Indians and a Black man bringing in a French prisoner.

029.

Smith, Trefor. "John Fremont Smith and Indian Administration in the Kamloops Agency, 1912-1923." Native Studies Review 10 (1995): 134.

228 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes the experiences of John Fremont Smith, a Black Canadian who from 1912 to 1923 served as the Indian agent for the Kamloops Indian Agency, British Columbia. 030.

Steward, Austin. Twenty-two Years a Slave and Forty Years a Freeman: Embracing a Correspondence of Several Years, While President of Wilberforce Colony, London, Canada West. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1969. The autobiography of Austin Steward, a Black slave born around 1793. In 1831 he moved to Canada with a colony of American Blacks, where he interacted on a friendly basis with local indigenous people, which he recorded in a chapter entitled "Incidents and Pecularities of the Indians."

031.

Troper, Harold Martin. "The Creek-Negroes of Oklahoma and Canadian Immigration, 1909-1911." The Canadian Historical Review 53 (1972): 272-288. Between 1909 and 1911, Canadian immigration officials went to great lengths to prevent American Blacks from immigrating into Canada. Looks at Canadian perceptions of the Creek freedmen.

032.

Waugh, Frederick W. Iroquois Foods and Food Production. Ottowa: Government Printing Bureau, 1916. A Black man named Jim Daluki who lived among the Cayuga and Oneida was one of those interviewed for the writing of this book.

033.

West, John. A Journal of a Mission to the Indians of British Provinces, of New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, and the Mohawks on the Ouse or Grand River, Upper Canada. London: L. B. Seeley, 1827. Describes an incident in which Delaware Indians refused to receive missionaries because they had witnessed harsh treatment of Blacks by whites and stated that white missionaries should first be concerned with the needs of Blacks.

034.

Wissler, Indians. History, History,

Clark. Societies and Dance Associations of the Blackfeet (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural v. 11, pt. 4.) New York: American Museum of Natural 1913.

Describes the origins of a Blackfoot ceremony, which reportedly was given to a Black-Indian man in a dream.

Arts and Literature PI.

Bissley, Jackie. "Indigenous Roots Explored in Photos: 'Native Americans: The Red Black Connection' Opens." Indian Country Today, March 7, 2001, p. Bl. Reports on the opening of a photography exhibit with the theme of African American and Native American interactions at the Southwest Museum in Los Angeles.

P2.

Blodgett, Geoffrey. "John Mercer Langston and the Case of Edmonia Lewis: Oberlin, 1862." Journal of Negro History 53 (1968): 201-218. Edmonia Lewis, African American-Chippewa, became an internationally known sculptor. While attending Oberlin College, she was accused of attempting to poison two white students with hot spiced wine. She was defended by John Mercer Langston and it was eventually ruled that there was not enough evidence to try her.

P3.

Brennan, Jonathan Bradford. "Speaking Cross Boundaries: A Nineteenth-Century African/Native American Autobiography." A/B: Auto/Biography Studies 1 (1992): 219-238. Argues that Okah Tubbee, despite being the son of an African American woman, was probably partially Native American, that his cultural affinity to Choctaws effectively made him Choctaw, and that his autobiography should be viewed as a Native American autobiography.

P4.

Brennan, Jonathan Bradford. "When Brer Rabbit Meets Coyote: African-Native American Literature." Ph.D. diss., University of California at Berkeley, 1997. Discusses the African-Native American connection in literature and arts. Looks at writings by the African and Native American writers Okah Tubbee, Buffalo Child Long Lance, Olivia Ward Bush-Banks,

230 American Indian and African American Interactions the Black Indians of New Orleans Mardi Gras, Paul Cuffee, William Apess, James Beckwourth, Alice Walker, Eleanor Eldridge, and Ann Plato. Includes an overview of Black-Indian relations and the development of Black-Indian communities. P5.

Browder, Laura. "One Hundred Percent American": How a Slave, a Janitor, and a Former Klansman Escaped Racial Categories by Becoming Indians." In Beyond the Binary: Reconstructing Cultural Identity in a Multicultural Context, edited by Timothy B. Powell. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1999. Also in Slippery Characters: Ethnic Impersonators and American Identities. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. Examines the phenomenon of individuals purposely misrepresenting their own ethnic identity. Examines how racial identity is treated in two autobiographies. James Beckwourth was a Black fur trader who lived among the Crow, but never identified himself in his autobiography as Black. Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance, born Sylvester Long, came from a North Carolina family descended from slaves and reinvented himself as a Blackfoot chief during his lifetime and in his autobiography.

P6.

Buffalo, Tamara. "Knowing All of My Names." International Review of African American Art 17 (2000): 41-44. Artist talks about discovering her African-Indian ancestry while in her thirties. She is descended from the Bongas, a Black-Ojibwa family of Minnesota.

P7.

Buick, Kirsten P. "The Ideal Works of Edmonia Lewis: Invoking and Inverting Autobiography." American Art 9, no. 2 (1995): 4-22. Edmonia Lewis, African American Chippewa sculptor, has been criticized for her sculptures of African Americans and American Indians who are interpreted as being European in appearance. Presents various interpretations of Lewis's work, and argues that Lewis did not intend for her sculpture to be perceived as autobiographical.

P8.

Buick, Kirsten Pai. "The Sentimental Education of Mary Edmonia Lewis: Identity, Culture, and Ideal Works." Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1999. Looks at the works produced by Mary Edmonia Lewis, African American-Chippewa sculptor.

Arts and Literature 231 P9.

Campbell, Kay Francis. "Afrikan/Native American Art and Resistance: Dual Heritage and the Art of Edmonia Lewis." Ph.D. diss., Bowling Green State University, 1995. Looks at how sculptor Edmonia Lewis's ethnic heritage influenced her perspectives on life and her art. Lewis was the daughter of a Chippewa mother and a Black father. Lewis was a well known sculptor in Paris in the 1870's.

P10.

"Can I Become a Sculptor? The Story of Elizabeth Prophet." Crisis 39 (October 1932): 315. Discusses the artistic career of Elizabeth Prophet, a sculptor of Black and Narragansett heritage. Prophet first became well known in Paris and later was well received in the U.S.

PI 1.

Cochran, Rebekah. "Black Indians: An American Story." Indian Cinema Entertainment 8, no. 4 (2000): 11-12. Reviews the documentary film Black Indians: An American Story. Also discusses the background issues that provided the impetus for the project.

P12.

Cook, Nancy. "The Scandal of Race: Authenticity, "The Silent Enemy," and the Problem of Long Lance." In Headline Hollywood: A Century of Film Scandal, edited by Adrienne L. McLean and David A. Cook. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001. Describes the 1923 film "The Silent Enemy" that starred Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance. Long Lance was born Sylvester Long in North Carolina, and over the course of his lifetime created a fictional identity for himself as a Blackfoot chief. Explores the scandal following the filming of "The Silent Enemy" when it was revealed to the movie's producers that Long Lance was of possible African American ancestry. Explores conceptions of Indian identity in the U.S. and the southeast.

PI3.

Dannett, Sylvia G. L. Profiles of Negro Womanhood. Yonkers: Educational Heritage, Inc., 1964. Contains a section on Edmonia Lewis, Chippewa-Black sculptor.

PI4.

Darcy, Cornelius P. "Edmonia Lewis Arrives in Rome." Negro History Bulletin 40 (1977): 688-689.

232 American Indian and African American Interactions Describes Chippewa-Black sculptor Edmonia Lewis and her arrival in Rome in the 1860's. Reprints excerpts from an article that was written about her in the 1860's describing her work. PI5.

Diedrich, Maria. "The Characterization of Native Americans in the Antebellum Slave Narrative." CLA Journal 31 (1988): 412-435. Explores how and why African Americans depicted encounters with American Indians in slave narratives. Looks at the narratives of Henry Bibb, Solomon Northup, Josiah Henson, and Austin Steward.

PI6.

Downs, Dorothy. "Possible African Influence on the Art of the Florida Seminoles." In African Impact on the Material Culture of the Americas: Conference Proceedings. Winston-Salem, NC: Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts, 1998. Looks at possible African influences on material culture of the Florida Seminoles, looking at basketry, embroidered beadwork, decoration and design of clothing.

P17.

Ellison, Mary. "Black Perceptions and Red Images: Indian and Black Literary Links." Phylon 44, no. 1 (1983): 44-55. Discusses the connections between Black and Indian folklore and literature, focusing on the trickster figure. Looks at African American authors who write about the experiences of American Indians and vice versa.

PI8.

Gilmore, Paul David. "The Genuine Article: Race, Manhood, and Mass Culture in American Literature, 1826-1861." Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1997. Discusses the writing of Okah Tubbee, a former slave who created a Choctaw identity for himself in his writing.

PI9.

Gourgey, Hannah. "Poetics of Memory and Marginality: Images of the Native American in African-American Newspapers, 1870-1900 and 1970-1990." In The Black Press: New Literary and Historical Essays, edited by Todd Vogel. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001. Discusses how Black newspapers covered American Indians and issues facing them during Reconstruction and the late twentieth century.

Arts and Literature 233 P20.

Griffin, Catherine Anne. ""Joined Together in History": Politics and Place in African American and American Indian Women's Writing." Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 2000. Explores literary criticism of the works of African American and American Indian women writers. Looks at how Black-Indian interactions are depicted in literature by these writers.

P21.

Harris, Juliette. "The Black-Indian Connection in Art: American Portraits, Soulscapes, and Spirit Works." International Review of African American Art 17 (2000): 3-40. Looks at many contemporary artists who address themes of BlackIndian interaction in their work. Some, but not all, of these artists are of Black-Indian ancestry themselves. Discusses recent exhibitions that had Black-Indian interactions as a theme.

P22.

Hays, James "Jayson" Robert. "Albery Alison Whitman (1851-1901), Epic Poet of African American and Native American SelfDetermination." Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 2000. Looks at the life and work of Albery Alison Whitman, African American poet and author of The Rape of Florida, a long poem about the Seminole Wars.

P23.

Hayward, Steve. "Against Commodification: Zuni Culture in Clarence Major's Native American Texts." African American Review 28, no. 1 (1994): 109-120. Discusses African American writer Clarence Major's depiction of Zuni culture in his books Some Observations of a Stranger at Zuni in the Latter Part of the Century and Painted Turtle: Woman with Guitar.

VIA.

Holland, Juanita Marie. "Mary Edmonia Lewis's Minnehaha: Gender, Race, and the "Indian Maid"." Bulletin of the Detroit Institute of Arts 69, no. 1-2 (1995): 27-35. Life of Mary Edmonia Lewis, Black-Chippewa sculptor, who lived and worked in Italy. Looks at how Lewis and others referred to her ethnicity, and Lewis's sculptural interpretations of Longfellow's The Song of Hiawatha.

P25.

Holland, Sharon P. ""If You Know I Have a History, You Will Respect Me": A Perspective on Afro-Native American Literature." Callaloo 17 (1994): 334-350.

234 American Indian and African American Interactions Discusses aspects of Black-Native representations in Nettie Jones's Mischief Makers and Leslie Marmon Silko's Almanac of the Dead. Discusses terminology used and the past and present direction of AfroNative literature and literary criticism. P26.

Jones, Dawn Renee. "Red and Black: Sisters and Brothers to the Bone." The Circle, April 30, 1999, p. 18. Describes a series of events, art exhibits, and performances held in Minneapolis celebrating Black Indian heritage.

P27.

Jones, Rhett. "Social-Scientific Perspectives on the Afro-American Arts." Black American Literature Forum 20 (1986): 443-447. Brief review of selected published materials on Afro-Indian, also called Zambo, communities. Provides several possible explanations for the paucity of published research on this topic.

P28.

Kirschenbaum, Blossom S. "Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, Sculptor." Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women 4 (1987): 45-52. Discusses the life and artistic career of Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, sculptor of Black and Narragansett heritage. A footnote states that the tribal historian of the Narragansett tribe told the author that Prophet's paternal grandmother was Narragansett and Pequot and purchased her husband from slavery. Prophet had a successful career in Paris in the 1920's and later taught at Spelman College.

P29.

May, Stephen. "The Object at Hand." Smithsonian 27 (September 1996): 16-18. Describes African American-Ojibwa sculptor Edmonia Lewis's sculpture The Death of Cleopatra. First exhibited in 1876, it was assumed lost until it was recovered in Illinois in 1985. It has been restored and is now at the National Museum of American Art.

P30.

Micco, Melinda. "Tribal Recreations : Buffalo Child Long Lance and Black Seminole Narratives." In Re-placing America: Conversations and Contestations, edited by Ruth Hsu, Cynthia Franklin, and Suzanne Kosanke. Honolulu: College of Languages, Linguistics, and Literature, University of Hawai'i and the East-West Center. Literary Studies East and West \6 (2000): 74-81. Examines "identity cross-dressing" or "ethnic transvestism" in the Seminole Nation and the biography of Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance.

Arts and Literature 235 P31.

Montgomery, Benilde. "Recapturing John Marrant." In A Mixed Race: Ethnicity in Early America, edited by Frank Shuffleton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Looks at the captivity narrative of John Marrant, a Black preacher who lived as a captive among the Cherokee.

P32.

Mosley, Chandra. "Edmonia Lewis and Hagar: Speaking from the Midst of the Wilderness." Masters thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2001. Discusses African American-Ojibwa sculptor Edmonia Lewis's work, in particular her motivations in creating a sculpture of the Biblical figure Hagar. Lewis attended Oberlin College and sculpted in Boston and Rome where her work was well received at the turn of the last century.

P33.

Murray, Timothy. "In Exile at Home: Tornado Breath and Unrighteous Fantasy in Robbie McCauley's Indian Blood." Discourse: Theoretical Studies in Media and Culture 16 (1994): 29-45. Looks at the performance piece Indian Blood, in which artist Robbie McCauley explores her African American and Native American ancestries.

P34.

Novo, Maria. The Indian Maiden Visits San Jose: Rediscovering Edmonia Lewis. Thesis, San Jose State University, 1995. Life and art of Edmonia Lewis, Chippewa-Black sculptor.

P35.

Porter, Kenneth Wiggins. "Lament for Wild Cat." Phylon 4 (1943): 3948. Historian Porter presents the story of Wild Cat and the Black Seminoles in poetry format.

P36.

Prophet, Nancy Elizabeth. "I Will Not Bend An Inch." Rhode Islander Magazine, (The Providence Journal-Bulletin) July 10, 1994, p. 8M. Reprints sections of the journal of Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, a Narragansett-African American sculptor in Paris.

P37.

Quarles, Benjamin. "Document: A Sidelight on Edmonia Lewis." Journal of Negro History 30 (1945): 82-84.

236 American Indian and African American Interactions Reprints a letter from Lydia Maria Child about Edmonia Lewis, Black Chippewa sculptor, revealing attitudes and expectations Lewis was faced with from her benefactors in the art world. P38.

Schulte, Eileen M. "Paintings Depict a Shared Suffering." (Baylife) The Tampa Tribune, December 28, 1996, p. 1. Discusses the paintings of Jeanne Walker Rorex, an artist of Cherokee ancestry whose work depicts Black and Indian women together on the Trail of Tears.

P39.

Sekora, John. "Red, White, and Black: Indian Captivities, Colonial Printers, and the Early African American Narratives." In A Mixed Race: Ethnicity in Early America, edited by Frank Shuffleton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Examines the history of colonial publishing of Indian captivity narratives written by Blacks, focusing on that of Briton Hammon.

P40.

Tucker, Lindsey. "Walking the Red Road: Mobility, Maternity and Native American Myth in Alice Walker's Meridian" Women's Studies 19(1991): 1-17. Includes a discussion of how American Indian mythology and symbolism is employed in the novel Meridian.

P41.

Tufts, Eleanor M. "Edmonia Lewis: Afro-Indian Neo-Classicist." Art in America 62 (1974): 71-72. Overview of the life and artistic impact of Edmonia Lewis, African American-Chippewa sculptor.

P42.

Turner, Daniel E. "Cherokee and Afro-American Interbreeding in The Color Purple." Notes on Contemporary Literature 21, no. 5 (1991): 1011. Argues that African American and American Indian intermarriage did not occur to the extent depicted in Alice Walker's The Color Purple.

P43.

Weber, Bruce. "Reggae Rhythms Speak to an Insular Tribe." New York Times, September 19, 1999. Looks at the popularity of Jamaican reggae music on the Hopi Reservation.

Arts and Literature 237 P44.

Wong, Hertha D. Sweet. "Taking Place: African-Native American Subjectivity in 'A Yellow Raft in Blue Water'." In Mixed Race Literature, edited by Jonathan Brennan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002. Discusses the depiction of Native American-African American identity in the Michael Dorris novel A Yellow Raft in Blue Water.

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Miscellaneous Ql.

Berry, Brewton. "Marginal Groups." In Handbook of North American Indians, Northeast, edited by Bruce G. Trigger. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. Looks at the triracial groups of Delaware, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey. Describes how these groups identify themselves and to what extent they maintain an Indian identity.

Q2.

Catlin, George. Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North American Indians: Written During Eight Years Travel Amongst the Wildest Tribes of Indians in North America, in 1832, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39. London: G. Catlin, 1841. Catlin described seeing people of Indian-Black heritage in Indian communities and commented on their fine and powerful appearances.

Q3.

Chappel, Joyce. People of Color: Africans and Indians: A Handbook on Ethnology. Ontario, CA: Joyce Chappel, 1991. Author describes researching her African and American Indian family history and provides information on how others can approach this process.

Q4.

Cobb, M. Montague. "The Negro as a Biological Element in the American Population." Jo urnal of Negro Education 8 (1939): 336-347. Discusses the biology of the American Black population, said to be composed of varying African, American Indian, and European origin.

Q5.

Dub, Raging Blakkindian. Understanding the Connections between Blacks and Aboriginal Peoples: The Links Between African-American, Black, Native American and Indigenous Cultures. Toronto and San Francisco: The Fire This Time, 2002.

240 American Indian and African American Interactions Author traveled throughout North and South America visiting communities with Indian and African ancestry. North American communities include the Havasupai reservation in Arizona, Vancouver, Berkeley, Detroit, Montreal, Halifax, and Detroit. Focus is on political activism and music. Q6.

"Eighteenth Century Slaves as Advertised by Their Masters." Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 163-216. Includes some descriptions of runaway slaves that use the terms "mustee," "mulatto," and "having the complexion of an Indian."

Q7.

Gilbert, William Harlen. "Surviving Indian Groups of the Eastern United States." In Annual Report of the Board of Regents of The Smithsonian Institution Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the Institution for the Year Ended June 30, 1948. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1948. Author used the 1930 census to determine the extent to which Indian ancestry is noticeable in the Eastern United States, and identifies groups likely to have African ancestry. Classifications are noted to be arbitrary in some cases.

Q8.

Gilbert, William Harlen. Synoptic Survey on the Survival of Indian and Part-Indian Blood in the Eastern United States. Washington: Library of Congress Legislative Reference Service, 1947. Report prepared for Congress. Surveys the status of Indian communities in states east of the Mississippi. Mentions many groups assumed to be part African American.

Q9.

Glass, Bentley. "On the Unlikelihood of Significant Admixture of Genes from the North American Indians in the Present Composition of the Negroes of the United States." American Journal of Human Genetics 1 (1955): 368-385. Also in Readings on Race, edited by Stanley M. Garn. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1968. Looks at the genetic evidence for American Indian ancestry among African Americans.

Q10.

Gonzales, Sandy. "Intermarriage and Assimilation: The Beginning or the End." Wicazo Sa Review 8, no. 2 (1992): 48-52. Presents data on American Indians intermarrying with whites and Blacks. Argues that it is possible for cultural and linguistic traditions to be continued in interracial marriages.

Miscellaneous 241 Qll.

Harrison, Ira E. and Faye V. Harrison. African-American Pioneers in Anthropology. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999. Looks at the anthropological careers of Laurence Foster, who studied Indian-Black relations and the Black Seminoles, Arthur Huff Fauset, who collected folklore in Nova Scotia, and William S. Willis Jr., who studied the Five Tribes and Indian-Black relations.

Q12.

Hauptman, Laurence M. Tribes and Tribulations: Misconceptions about American Indians and Their Histories. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995. Includes several mentions of African American interaction with American Indians, including a discussion of how Eastern Indians, some of whom have African ancestry, are perceived by members of western tribes or federally recognized tribes.

Q13.

Herskovitz, Melville. The American Negro: A Study in Race Crossing. New York: Knopf, 1928. Results of a study of the biological Native American ancestry present in African Americans. Used measurement of physical attributes to attempt to determine ancestry.

Q14.

Herskovitz, Melville J. The Anthropometry of the American Negro. New York: Columbia University Press, 1930. This study of the physical characteristics of African Americans includes data on the estimated percentages of African Americans with American Indian ancestry. The sample was taken from students at Howard University. One third of those surveyed said they had at least one Indian ancestor.

Q15.

Hodges, Graham Russel, ed. Black Itinerants of the Gospel: The Narratives of John Jea and George White. Madison: Madison House, 1993. Reprints the autobiographies of John Jea and George White, both Black preachers. White described preaching to a congregation of Blacks and Indians in Little Neck, Long Island. Jea married an Indian slave woman from New York who later killed her mother and daughter and was executed.

242 American Indian and African American Interactions Q16.

Jolivette, Andrew James. "Native America: White Indians, Black Indians, and the Contemporary Privilege of Color." Master's Thesis, San Francisco State University, 1999. Studies the creation of a social and political hierarchy among American Indians in the San Francisco area. Concludes that those of African descent experience greater discrimination within American Indian social and cultural contexts.

Q17.

Jordan, Winthrop D. "American Chiaroscuro: The Status and Definition of Mulattoes in the British Colonies." William and Mary Quarterly 19 (1962): 183-200. Explores how the term "mulatto" was applied in the British colonies. Includes a brief discussion of how the term could include people of Black and Indian origin. Also discusses the term "mustee."

Q18.

King, C. Richard. "Estrangements: Native American Mascots and Indian-Black Relations." In Confounding the Color Line: The IndianBlack Experience in North America, edited by James F. Brooks. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002. Discusses the use of Native American figures as mascots in sports. Issues include the use of mascots designed to look like stereotypical Indians, offensive team names, and the use of stereotypical imagery in team logos, advertising, and fan behavior. Argues that most African Americans do not see, or choose to ignore, the inherent racism in the use of these mascots. Includes instances where African Americans and Native Americans have worked together to oppose the practice, but these seem to be exceptions to the rule. Uses the term "racial cross dressing" to refer to the use of stereotypical symbols as costumes by non-Indian groups.

Q19.

Kirsch, George B. "Jeremy Belknap and the Problem of Blacks and Indians in Early America." Historical New Hampshire 34 (1979): 202222. Briefly mentions that Belknap noted Black and Indian intermarriage in the northeast and the traits he felt this produced in a population.

Q20.

Morris, Glenn T. "Coalitions and Alliances: The Case of Indigenous Resistance to the Columbian Quincentenary." In The Politics of Minority Coalitions: Race, Ethnicity, and Shared Uncertainties, edited by Glenn T. Morris. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996.

Miscellaneous 243 Includes information on the efforts of the American Indian Movement in lobbying African American groups to protest the 1992 Columbus quincentenary. Also mentions earlier support of AIM on the part of the Nation of Islam and the African People's Revolutionary Army. Q21.

Outlaw, Marpessa Dawn. "The Red and the Black." Emerge 4 (April 1993): 50-53. Magazine article discusses the general history of Black-Indian interactions and recent popular interest in the subject.

Q22.

Panzarella, Robert and Ansley LaMar. "Attitudes of Blacks and Whites Toward Native American Revolutionary Tactics for Social Change." Human Relations 32 (1979): 69-75. Presents the results of a study that looked at the attitudes of Black and white subjects relating to the standoff at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. The study took place during the third week of the standoff. The study found that neither Black nor white subjects had extensive awareness of the events taking place, but Blacks were more likely to express acceptance of the use of militant tactics in social protest.

Q23.

Paschal, Andrew G. "History Shows Indians and Blacks Natural Allies in Battle Against American Treachery." Muhammad Speaks, November 22, 1968, p. 27,30. Argues that African Americans have long shown a strong interest in Native issues, using the Seminole Wars to illustrate longtime cooperation between the two.

Q24.

Peyer, Beradt C. The Tutor'd Mind: Indian Missionary-Writers in Antebellum America. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997. Looks at literacy and writing by Indian missionaries, mentions messages about African slavery, and the role of Blacks as the audiences of these missionaries.

Q25.

Sakolsky, Ron and James Koehnline. Gone to Croatan: Origins of North American Dropout Culture. Brooklyn: Autonomedia/AK Press, 1993. Includes a chapter by Doug Sivad on the Black Seminoles and a chapter by Hugo Prosper Leaming on the Ben Ishmael Tribe, a group of Blacks, Native Americans, and poor whites who lived in Illinois and Indians in the nineteenth century. Also contains an interview with a

244 American Indian and African American Interactions member of the Ramapo Mountain community disputing the work of David S. Cohen on the group's origins. Q26.

Schomburg, Arthur A. "Two Negro Missionaries to the American Indians, John Marrant and John Stewart." Journal of Negro History 21 (1936): 394-405. John Marrant served as a Methodist missionary among the Cherokees and the tribes of New York. John Stewart served among the Wyandot.

Q27.

Shapiro, Henry. "The Mixed-Blood Indian." In The Changing Indian, edited by Oliver LaFarge. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Briefly mentions statistics relating to Indian and Black communities.

Q28.

Simmons, William J. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive, and Rising. Cleveland: Geo. M. Rewell & Co., 1887. Includes biographical sketches of Philip H. Murry, described as African, Indian, and Irish, Samuel R. Lowery, described as Cherokee and Black, Paul Cuffe, described as Black and Wampanoag, John Mercer Langston, described as Indian, Black and white, Rev. Daniel Jones, a Black man who encountered Indians in Oregon in 1849, and Reverend Marshall W. Taylor, who preached in the Indian Territory.

Q29.

Smith, Gloria L. Are You in There, Grandpa? Beginning Black Indian Genealogy: A Look at Those Other Cousins. Tucson: G. L. Smith, 1994. Guide to beginning the process of researching Indian-Black genealogy.

Q30.

Smith, Mapheus. "A Comparison of White and Indian Student Attitudes Toward the Negro." Journal of Negro Education 1 (1939): 592-595. This study surveyed over 100 Indian students from Haskell Institute, Kansas, on their attitudes towards Blacks.

Q31.

Strong, Pauline Turner. "Transforming Others: Captivity, Adoption, and Slavery Reconsidered." In A Companion to American Indian History, edited by Philip J. Deloria and Neal Salisbury. Maiden, MA: Blackwell, 2002. Provides an overview of the recently changing scholarly perspectives of African American enslavement by Indians, placing it in the context of other forms of captivity and enslavement.

Miscellaneous 245 Q32.

Taylor, Helen Rudean. "Ethnic Admixture in African American Ancestry as Reflected in Dental Patterns." Master's Thesis, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, 1991. Looks at ethnographic and historical background of interaction between African Americans and American Indians, and at dental features that might reflect Indian ancestry in African Americans, specifically shovel shaped incisors and Carabelli's cusps.

Q33.

Thornton, Michael C. and Yuko Mizuno. "Religiosity and Black Adult Feelings Toward Africans, African Americans, American Indians, West Indians, Hispanics and Asian Americans." Sociological Focus 28 (1995): 113-128. Looks at how levels of religiosity influence attitudes of African Americans towards members of other ethnic groups, including American Indians.

Q34.

Van Sertima, Ivan. They Came Before Columbus: African Presence in the Early Americas. New York: Random House, 1976. Author argues for pre-Columbian African presence in the Americas. Briefly mentions interaction in the southeastern United States.

Q35.

Wallenstein, Peter. "Tell the Court I Love My Wife": Race, Marriage, and the Law -An American History. Palgrave MacMillan, 2002. Includes information on several legal challenges by slaves who argued that, based on their partial Indian ancestry, they were rightfully free. Also discusses other cases of Indian-Black legal classification involving marriage and inheritance.

Q36.

Anonymous. "White Man's Daughter." Crisis 41 (March 1932): 89, 105. Describes the experiences of a young female student of a State Girls Industrial School who is the daughter of a Black and Indian mother and a white father. Describes her desire to be identified as Indian, not Black.

Q37.

Williamson, Joel. New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States. New York: New York University Press, 1984.

246 American Indian and African American Interactions Looks at the history of interracial relations in the U.S., including between Blacks and Indians. Discusses how multiracial people were classified. Q38.

Zawaba, Robert Eugene, Baharanyi Ntam, and Walter A Hill. Land, Community and Culture: African American, Native American and Native Alaskan Connections: Proceedings of the 58th annual Professional Agricultural Workers Conference: December 3-5, 2000, Tuskegee. Tuskegee, AL: Tuskegee University, 2000. These proceedings contain a paper by African American and Seminole Tony Mitchell on Black/Native connections.

Index Alphanumerical codes following the index term refer to item numbers, not page numbers.

Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, LI, LI 1 Abel, Annie Heloise, Fl, F2, F3 Abing, Kevin, L2 Abolitionism, F18, F54, F61, G20, G30, G47,17,117,118, K172, L100 Abraham, K17, K29, K82, K109, K117,K165 Abrahms, Ira A., El Ablon, Joan, L3 Acadia, B5 Acolapissa, E41 Adair, William Penn, G20 Adams, David Wallace, Dl Adams, H. G., B2 Africa, K102 See also Return to Africa movement African Americans, See Blacks Afro-American Advocate, F4 Adams, Mischa B., K2 Agogino, George A., A35, K79 Ais Indians, E53 Alabama, C6, D104, E5, E6, E19, E52, E53,J23,J36 Alberta, 0 1 3 , 0 1 4 , 0 3 4 Alibamon Indans, E56, E60 Alegria, Ricardo E., E2 Alexander, Adele Logan, F5 Alice Lee Elliott Memorial Academy, 120 Alaska, 017, 023 Aleuts, 023

Algonkian, B68, D66 All-black towns, F56, F74, F87, J7, J11.J24 Allen, Anne B., L4 Anable, Henry Sheldon, L6 Anderson, Mother Leafy, E4 Anderson, Robert L., K3 Andrews, Thomas, F6 Anthony, Michael, 021 Anthony, Ronald W., D2 Anthropologists, K54, K94 Apache, A25, K129, K147, K155, K174, LI, LI 1, L30, L64, L70, L88, M1,M2,M3,M4,M5,M7, Ml 1, M13, M14, M15, M20, M25, M26, M27, M28, M29, M31, M32, M33,M43,M47,M49,M51 Apalachee, E30, L72 Apess, William, B7, B84, P4 Aptheker, Herbert, D3, D4, F8, F9 Arapaho, F56 Arawak, B17 Archaeology, B38, D2, D43, D44, D53, D56, D59, D65, D93, K83, K86, K169, K170,L40 Arikara, L6, L9, L48, L98, LI06 Arizona, LI2, L70, Ml 1, M20, M45 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, D99 Arpey, Andrew, B3 Arthur, B4 Assiniboine, L84 Attakapas Indians, E42, E60 Attucks, Crispus, B9, B39, B86

248 American Indian and African American Interactions Attucks, John, B9 Avavares, L72 Babb, Theodore Adolphus, L6 Babcock, William H.,C1 Bahamas, K47, K48, K57, K64, K104, K123 Baharanyi, Ntam, Q38 Bailey, M. Thomas, F10 Baker, Julie P., Fl 1 Baker, Ronald L, Fl2 Baker, T. Lindsay, Fl 1 Bakker, Peter, B5 Bales, Rebecca Anne, L6 Ball, Bonnie S., D4 Ball, Charles, E3 Ball, Donald B., D68 Ballenger, T.L.,G1 Banks, Dean, F13 Bannister, Christiana Carteau, B15 Barbados, Bl7 Barkley, Key L., D5 Baron, Donna Keith, B6 Barsh, Russel Lawrence, B7 Bartl, Renate, F14 Bartow, Lew, D6 Bass (surname), D33 Baszile, Jennifer Lynn, Jl Bateman, Rebecca, K4, K5, K6, K61 Beale, Calvin L., D7, D8, D9 Beams family, 114,119 Bean, Sephenia, G59 Beckwourth, James, A25, A32, L6, L7, L23, L29, L42, L51, L60, L71, L75, L80, L93, L96, LI06, M6, M50,N31, P4, P5 Belue, Ted Franklin, D10 Belknap, Jeremy, B8,Q19 Belton, Bill, B9 Bender, Norman J., HI Benedict, Jeff, BIO Beninato, Stefanie, L8 Ben Ishmael Tribe, Q25 Bennett, Lerone, Jr., Al Bennett, Milledge Franklin, Dl 1 Bentley, Martha M.,D12 Bermuda, B14, B85 Berry, Brewton, D13, D14, D15, Ql Berry, Jason, E4 Berry, Mary Francis, K7 Betts, Robert, L9

Biassou, Jorge, E33 Bibb, Henry, F15.P15 Biloxi Indians, K116 Billington, Monroe, F16, M2, M3, M4, M5 Bivins, Horace Wayman, Ml 1 Bird,F. W.,B11 Bissley, Jackie, PI Black (as a term), 21 See also Classification Black Hawk, E4, E63 Black Indian(s) (as a term), A51 See also Classification Black Indians of New Orleans, See Mardi Gras Indians Blacks as interpreters, B5, C5, D76, F58,G56,J18,J38,K9,K11,K12, K17, K19, K27, K29, K36, K37, K43, K45, K66, K67, K68, K82, K109, Kl 14, Kl 15, Kl 17, Kl 18, K138, K148, K156, K165, K167, L4, L9, L27, L38, L72, L80, M16, M50, N3, N26, N33, N34, N38, 011, 013, 014, 026 Blacks as law enforcement, A32, F20, Fl 13, Fl 14, Fl 15,12, L16 Blacks as missionaries, B91, Bl 12, F52, G25, G48, N17, N26, N27, N29, N34,N38,Q15 Blacks as soldiers, F77, F81, M1-M52 Black code, D61 Blackfeet, L6, L9, L26, L27, L57, L106,O13,O14,O34 Blakey, Michael L., C2 Blanchard, Daniel F., K8 Blassingame, John W., E5 Blodgett, Geoffrey, P2 Blood quantum, G52, G53 Bloods, L27, 013, 014 Bloom, Leonard, D16 Blu,Karen,D17,D18 Blumer, Thomas J.,D19 Boas, Franz, D60, LI0 Boen, William, Bl2 Boissevain, Ethel, B13 Boley, OK, J7, J24 Bolt, Christine, Fl 8 Bolton, H. Carrington, B14 Bond, Horace Mann, E6 Bonga (family), A32, L51, N1, N7, N15, N23, N20, N31, N35, N39, P6

Index 249 Bonga, George, Nl, N2, N10, N15, N20 Bonga, Jean, Nl, N10, N15, N20 Bonga, Pierre, N1,N 10, N20 Bonnifield, Paul, II Booker, John, B89 Boone, Daniel, A25, D76 Borg, Linda, B15 Boston, Absalom, B86 Boston Massacre, B9 Bottom, Zack, L28 Bowlegs, Billy, K36, K45, Kl 10 Bowlegs, Jim, E64 Bowman, Sam, M6 Boyd, Mark F., K9, K10, Kl 1 Boyett, Cheryl Race, K12 "Brandywine" community, C8, D102 Bradley, John Ed, LI 1 Bradstreet, John, B94 Brandt, Elizabeth, LI2 Branham, Levi, G2 Brant, Joseph, 0 5 , 0 7 , 0 1 0 , 0 1 8 "Brass Ankles", C6, Dl3 Brasser, T. C.,B16 Braund, Kathryn E. Holland, J2, J3 Bray, Edmund C, N3 Bray, Martha Coleman, N3 Breen, T.H., A2 Brennan, Jonathan Bradford, P3, P4 Breslaw, Elaine G., B17, B18 Brinton, D. G., C3 Brissot de Warville, Jacques-Pierre, B19 British Columbia, 02, 015, 025, 029 Britten, Thomas A., J4, K13, K14, K15 Brooks, James F., B7, LI4, LI5 Brooks, Joanna, 01 Brothertown Indians, B8, Bl 15 Browder, Laura, P5 Brown, Barbara W., B20 Brown, Canter Jr., K16, K17, K138, Brown, Carolyn, B74 Brown, Cloyde, K18 Brown, Lois Katz, F19 Brown, Walton L., A3 Brown, William J.,B21,B33 Brudvig, Jon Larson, D20 Bruno, Ben, K45 Bryce, J. Y., 12 Buck, Rufus, A32 "Buckheads", D13

Buffalo Ridge Cherokee, D i l l Buffalo Soldiers, L51, M1-M52 Buffalo, Tamara, P6 Buick, Kirsten P., P7, P8 Buker, George E.,K19 Burgess, Kim, B22 Burkes, Mamie, E52 Burnett, Swan M., D21 Burton, Art T., F20, LI6, M6 Bush, Olivia Ward, B47, B48, P4 Buskirk, Winfred, M7 Bustamente, Adrian, LI7 Butler, George E., D22 Button, Gregory, B88 Butrick, Tilly, F21 Byron, Christopher, B23 Caballo, Juan See Horse, John Cabeza de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, LI 8 Caddo(s), E60, L99 Caesar, John, Kl 15, K131,K148 "Cajans", C6, D102, D104 Cajuns of Alabama, E6, E57 California, L3, L30, L32, LI03 Callahan, James Hughes, K65, K152, K159 Calhoun, Daniel H., A4 Campbell, John Bert, J5 Campbell, Kay Francis, P9 Campisi, Jack, B24 Canada, A7, F42, F71, F82, L27, 08, 024,027,030,031 Carew, Jan, A5, K20, LI9 Carlson, Paul H., M8 Carmel (Ohio) Indians D68, D107 Carpenter, Louis Henry, M30 Carrigan, Minnie Buce, N4 Carrillo, David L.,K136 Carrillo, Karen, B25, B26 Carroll, John M., Ml0 Carroll, H. Bailey, M9 Carter, Kent, F22, F23, F24, G3, G4, J6 Carter, L.Edward, K21 Cashin,HerschelV.,M10 Cass, Lewis, K162 Casta system, LI7 Catawba, A7, D3, D12, D45, D57, D61,D84,D102,D131,F8 Catawba language, D52 Catlin, George, Q2

250 American Indian and African American Interactions Catteral, Helen Tunnicliff, A6 Cazneau, Mrs. William L., K22 Cayuga, B54, 032 Ceil, Laah, 115, P3 Chamberlain, Alexander Francis, A7, A8 Chanler, David, B27 Chapman, Berlin B., F25 Chappel, Joyce, Q3 Chappell, Kevin, B28 Charlevoix, Pierre Francois Xavier de, E7 Chase, Henry E., B29 Chavez, Fray Angelico, L20 Chavis (surname), D33 Cheraw, D45 Cherokee Bill, A32, F83, LI6, L30 Cherokee, A7, A24, A27, D87, D96, D105, D107, E65, F5, F12, F28, F37, F54, F57, F59, F60, F63, F65, F66, F89, G1-G72, G47, L30, L38, L47, L79, L98, L109,P42,Q26 See also Buffalo Ridge Cherokee See also Eastern Band Cherokee Phoenix, G46 Cheyenne, Fl 1, F56, K129, L40, L98, M8, M14, M15, M20, M21, M27, M31 Chickahominy, D7, D13, D51, D88, D91,D113,D114,D129 Chickasaw, A7, E5, E20, E27, E32, E45, E57, E59, E60, E65, F21, F22, F23, F25, F26, F45, F46, F51, F53, F119, H1-H13,13, L79, L98 Chippewa See Ojibwa Chitimacha(s), E56, E59, E60 Chittenden, Newton H., 0 2 Choctaw, A27, El, E5, E12, E21, E34, E39, E41, E44, E57, E58, E59, E60, E61, F12, F21, F22, F23, F25, F26, F45, F46, F51, F53, F54, F60, F89, Fl 19, G22,11-125, L98, L109,P3 See also MOWA Choctaw Choctaw Colored Citizens Association, 15 Chouacha(s), El 1, E20, E27, E45, E56, E60 Christian, Emma Ervin, F26 Christensen, Lawrence O., G5 Church, B22, E4, E63,16,17, J34,

Civil War, B55, Fl, F2, F3, F13, F14, F27, F28, F33, F44, F45, F47, F70, F73, F77, G36, G41, G43, G45, G47, 119, J12, J39, J40, J43, L22, LI00, M6 Clark, Ransom, K23, K24 Classification and terminology of race in the U.S., A12, A13, A14, A15, A16, A17, A18, A19, A20, A28, A37, A47, A49, A51, A53, A53, B6, B7, B20, B24, B36, B50, B57, B58, B70, B95, B113, B119, C4, C9, C13, C17, C18, D7, D8, Dl 1, D13, D17, D18, D22, D23, D24, D26, D28, D29, D32, D33, D37, D40, D46, D47, D50, D51, D68, D73, D82, D88, D90, D91, D93, D108, D i l l , D120, D124, D125, D129, D133, D140,D146,E8,E40,F41, F109, G24, G52, G53,115, J9, K76, L17,L30,L32,Q17,Q35,Q37 Cline, Johnson, 125 Cobb, W. Montague, Q4 Cochran, Rebekah, P11 Cody, Radmilla, L59 Coe Ridge, D86, D87 Cohen, David Stephen, B30, B31 Coleman, Ronald G., Ml2 Collins, Daniel, B32 Collins, Paul, L21 Collins, Robert Keith, 14 Colono-ware, D2, D42, D43, D44, D53, D56, D59, D65 Colorado, L14, L15, L36, L64, L104, M4, M13, M21,M22 Comanche, A7, Fl 1, K13, K147, L6, L24, L30, L34, L47, L63, L78, L79, L98, L105, L109, M5, M8, M9, M14, Ml5, M20, M25, M25, M27, M28, M37, M39 Confer, Clarissa Woelfel, F27 Congress, K142 Congressional documents, F90-F108, G58-G68, J39, J40, K161-K166, M50 Conlon, Czarina C , H5, Connecticut, B6, B7, B14, B20, B22, B23, B25, B26, B28, B38, B59, B70, B72, B73, B74, B75, B80, B87, B103, Bl 14 Connolly, A. P, N5 Cook, Bill, F83 Cook, Nancy, P12 Cook, Pardon, B90

Index 251 Cook, Samuel, D23 Cook, Vivian L., K25 Coree, D97 Corner, Phil, D24 Cornish, Dudley Taylor, L22 Cortesi, Lawrence, L23, N6 Cotton farming, E57, F35, J3 Cottrol, Robert J., B33 Counter, S. Allen, 03 Courlander, Harold, L24 Coushatta, L79 Covington, James, K26, K27 Cowboys, L30, L44, L51, L62, L86 Cowichan, 015 Craven, Patricia, D25 Crazy Snake Uprising, J17 Creek, A7, A24, D3, D49, D135, D143, E5, E32, E33, E57, E59, F5, F8, F20, F47, F51, F57, F59, F65, F66, F120, J1-J42, K34, K67, K78, K125, K134, K135,K137,K141,K142,K143, K150, K176, L47, L98, LI09, Q26 Creoles, C6, E45 Croatan, D22 See also Lumbee Crockett, Davy, K i l l Crockett, Norman L., J7 Crossett, G. A., 16 Crow(s), A25, L6, L7, L9, L23, L29, L48, L57, L60, L75, L98, LI06 Crowe, Charles, D26 Cuba, E32 Cudjo, "King", K118 Cuffe, Paul, Jr., B53, B70, Bl 18, P4 Cuffe, Paul, Sr., A33, B2, B35, B70, B81,B90,B98,B111,Q28 Cuming, Fortescue, D27 Cunningham, Frank, F28 Curtis, K. D., L25 Cusack, Michael F.,K107 Da Costa, Mattieu, B5, 026 Dade Battle, Kl 1, K23, K24, K74, K112,K166 Dale, Edward Everett, G6 Daluki, Jim, 032 Daly, D27 Dane, J. K., D28 Daniel, G. Reginald, D29 Dannenberg, Clare Jacobs, D30 Dannett, Sylvia G. L., PI3

Darcy, Cornelius P., PI4 Davidson, Thomas E., Dl 15 Davis, Dave D., E8 Davis, J. B., G7 Davis, Mike, K93 Dawes Commission, F22, F23, F24, Fl 16, G3, G4, G17, G43, H6,15, J6, J15,K173 Deagan, Kathleen, K28 DeBarthe, Joe, L26 Deal, Joseph Douglas, D31 De Castelnau, Comte, K29 Deer Clan, D128 Delaware, BlOO, C12, LI00, 021, 033 Delaware (state), Cl, C2, C3, C4, C9, C10,C13,C14,C15,C17,C18,D7, D104 del Moral, Paulina, K30,K31 Deloria, Ella Cara, D60 DeMarce, Virginia Easley, D32, D33 Dempsey, Hugh A., L27 Dempsey, Mary A., A9 Densmore, Benjamin, N7 Densmore, Frances, N8, 0 4 Dent, John Charles, 05 dental patterns, Q32 DeRamus, Betty, N9 DeRoins, Jeffrey, L81 DeRosier, Arthur H., Jr., 17 desegregation, D46 De Shields, James T., L28 detribalization, Dl 15 Diamond, Arthur, B35 Diedrich, Maria, PI5 Dillard, J. L., K32 Di Silvestro, Roger, K33 Dobak, William A., M13 documentaries, A44, D81, El, Kl, K61,P11 Dolan, Edward F., 06 Dolan, Sean, L29 Doran, Michael, F29, F30 Dorman, Isaiah, M6, Ml6, M34 Dorris, Michael, P44 Downey, Fairfax, M14 Downs, Dorothy, P16 Downs, Ernest C, E9 Doughton, Thomas, B36 Dramer, Kim, A10 Draper, David Elliott, El0 Drenning, June, N10

252 American Indian and African American Interactions Drew, Benjamin, 07 Drotning, Phillip T., Ml5 Dub, Raging Blakkindian, Q5 DuBois, Shirley Graham, Nl 1 DuChateau, Andre Paul, J8 Duffner, Michael Paul, K34 Duke, Mrs. Chas S., N37 Dunbar-Nelson, Alice, El 1 Duncan, James W., G8, G9 Duncan, Otis Durant, F31 Dundes, Alan, F32, K35 Dunlap, A. R., D34 Durham, Philip, L30 Du Sable, Jean Baptiste Pointe du, see Pointe du Sable, Jean Baptiste Dysart, Jane E., J9 Earle Report, B6,B36,B119 Edwards, John, 18 Eastern Band of Cherokees, D78, D142 Education, D78, Gl, G56, HI, H6,19, 120, K172 See also Hampton Institute See also segregation Ege, Robert, M16 Eiteljorg Museum, N12 Ekberg,CarlJ.,N13 Eldridge, Elleanor, B33, B45, B120, P4 Ellison, Mary, PI7 Emancipation, G72 Engs, Robert F.,D35 Enrollment, F22, F23, F24, Fl 16, G3, G4,G43,J6,J15 Epidemiology, F49 Erisman, Fred, Ml7 Erisman, Patricia L., Ml7 Eskimo, see Inuit Eslinger, Ellen, D36 Estabrook, Arthur H., D37, D124 Esteban See Estevan Estebanico See Estevan Estevan, A25, A32, E26, L4, L6, LI8, LI9, L52, L56, L61, L65, L72, L82, L83, L96, L101, L107, L108, LI 10, F34, Ml 8 Estevanico See Estevan Estill, Monk, D76

Evans, Hugh, L78 Evans, W. McKee, D38, D39 Everett, C. S., D40 Everett, Donald E., El2 Factor, Pompey, K59, K63 Faggins, Barbara A., D40 Fair, James, B37 Fauset, Arthur Huff, 08, Ql 1 Feder, Kenneth, B38 Federal Recognition, B72, B82, B106, D93,C10,D18,D90,E18 Ferger, Kathy, E52 Ferguson, Leland, D42, D43 First Indian Home Guard, J43 Fischer, Ann, El3 Fischer, Leroy, F33 Fisher, J. B., B39 Fisher, Mike, F34 Fitch, Tobias, F65 Fite, Gilbert, F35 Five Tribes, A3, A32, D141, Fl, F2, F3, F6, F7, F10, Fl 1, F13, F14, F16, F17, F18, F19, F24, F27, F29, F30, F31,F32,F33,F35,F38,F40,F41, F43, F44, F48, F49, F52, F55, F61, F67, F68, F69, F70, F72, F73, F75, F76, F79, F80, F81, F85, F86, F88, F92, F98, F100, FlOl, F108, F109, FllO, Fill,F117,F118,F121,F122 See also Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole Flickinger, Robert Elliott, 19, Flipper, Henry Ossian, A25, F34, Ml8 Florida, A5, A24, E2, E5, E17, E22, E23, E26, E29, E30, E31, E32, E33, E43, E53, E55, J3, J9, J26, K3, Kl 1, K16, K19, K26, K28, K34, K44, K53, K56, K62, K73, K74, K79, K80, K81, K82, K83, K91, K100, KlOl, K103, K105,K109,K110,K111,K112, K114,K115,K117,K118,K119, K120, K121,K124,K126,K127, K130, K131,K132,K134,K135, K137, K145, K148, K150, K161-K166, K168,K171,K175,K176,L101,L110 Foley, Hugh William, Jr., F36 Foley, William E.,E14 Folklore, B63, B102, C15, D32, D96, D136, F32, F62, K30, K35, K104,

Index 253 K136, K151, LIO, L24, L66, L77, L83, P17 Folk medicine, El5 Folson, Cora M., D44 Fontenot, Wonda L., El5 Foote, Thelma Wills, B40 Forbes, Jack D., A12, A13, A14, A15, A16, A17, A18, A19, A20, A49, L31, L32 Foreman, Carolyn Thomas, F37, J10, K36, K3 Foreman, Grant, L34, L35 Fort Belknap, TX, M28 Fort Clark, TX, K107, K155 Fort Concho, TX, M33 Fort Davis, M32, M48 Fort Duncan, TX, K65, Kl 55 Fort Marion, FL, K127 FortRiley, KS, M13 Fort Robinson, NE, M44 Fort Selden, NM, M3 Foster, Laurence, K38, K94, Ql 1 Fournier, Merlinda, C4 Fowler, Arlen L., M20 Fowler, Robert H., 0 9 Frazier, Herb, K39, K40 "Freejacks", E41, E57 Freedmen, F4, F7, F42, F51, F64, F71, F74, F82, F85, F87, F88, F107, F108, Fl16, Fl18 Freedmen, Cherokee, Gl, G2, G3, G4, G5, G10, G i l , G12, G17, G21, G23, G44, G51, G52, G53, G55, G58, G59, G60, G61, G62, G63, G64, G65, G66, G67, G68 Freedmen, Chickasaw, F90, F91, F93, F94, F95, F96, F97, F99, FlOl, F102, F104, F105, F106, HI, H2, H4, H6H12,13 Freedmen, Choctaw, F90, F91, F93, F94, F95, F96, F97, F99, FlOl, Fl02, F104,F105,F106,13,15,19,111,114, 120,121 Freedmen, Creek, D69, G22, J4, J5, J6, J7, Jl 1, J25, J27, J33, J34, J35, J37, J39,J40,J42,K41,O27,O31 Freedmen's Oklahoma Immigration Association, F25 Freeman, Samuel, Bl 14 Freeman, William, B3, B49

fur trade, D145, L41, L42, L86, Nl, N24,N20,N31 Furman, McDonald, D45 Gaillard, Frye, D46 Gallaher, Art,Jr.,K41 Games, Alison, B41 Gammon, Tim, G10, Gil Garcon/Garcia, K26 Garlick, Charles A., N14 Garrido, Juan, E2 Garrow, Patrick, D47 Garvin, Russell, K42 Gaskins, Avery F., D48 Gassaway, Carolyn T., K43 Gayarre, Charles, El6 Gayhead, See Wampanoag Geist, Christopher D., F38 genealogy, A9, A24, A48, B20, Bl 15, D19,D25,D32,D33,D79,D111, Fl 10, G17, G35, G36, G50, K146, Q3, Q29 Genetics, D83, D95, D101, D102, K107,Q9 George, Austin, B55 George, Avery F., D48 George, David, D49, D135 Georgia, Dl 1, E3, E5, E64, E66, F5, G26,J3,J31,J36,J41,K105 Giddings, Joshua R., K44 Gifford, John C , K45 Gilbert, Benjamin, C5 Gilbert, William Harlen, C6, D50, Q7, Q8 Gilbertson, AN.,L36 Gilmore, Paul David, PI8 Gingaskin(s), A27, D31, Dl 13, Dl 14, Dl 15 Glaberson, William, K46 Glass, Bentley, Q9 Gleach, Frederic W.,D51 Goddard, Ives, D52 Godfrey, Joe, N4, N5 Godfrey, Mary, K8 Goffe, Leslie, B42 Goggin, John M., K47, K48 Gold, Robert L., El7 Goins (surname), D33 Gonzalez, Ellice B., B43 Gonzalez, Sandy, Q10

254 American Indian and African American Interactions Goodyear, Albert C, D53 Gourgey, Hannah, PI9 Govenar, Alan, F39 Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, E31.E32, K28,K122 Gray, Linda C.,J11 Gray, Lloyd, B44 Gray, W. H., L37 Grayson, George Washington, J12 Green, Stanton, D44 Greenbaum, Susan, El 8 Greenberg, Jonathan D., J13 Greene, Frances Ensign, B46 Greene, Frances H., B45 Greer, James Kimmins, L38 Greissman, B. Eugene, El9 Grenier, Richard, A21 Greissman, Eugene, D28, D53 "grif," as a term, E20 Griffin, Catherine Anne, P20 Griffin, John Howard, L39 Grinde, Donald A., Jr., D55, F40 Grivno, Max L.,N15 Groover, Mark D., D56 Gross, Ariela, F41 Grouard, Frank, L26, M6 Grow, Stewart, F42 Guale Indians, E29, E30 Guenther, Todd, L40 Guillaume, Bernice (Forest), B47, B48 "Guineas", C6, D48, D50, D58, D104 Guinn, Jeff, K49 Guion Miller Roll, G35 Gullah, K39, K40, K50, K51, K52 See also language Gwaltney, William W., L41, M21, M22 Hackney, Jami D., G12 Hadden, Sally E., D57 Hafen, LeRoy, L42 Chittenden, Newton H., 0 2 half-breed (as a term), Al 7 See also Classification Halliburton, R., Jr., G13-543, G31 Haliwa, D24, D28, D54, D101, D102, D108,D137,D147 Haliwa-Saponi, D82 Hall, Benjamin F., B49 Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo, E20, E21 Halliburton, Janet, J14 Halliburton, R.,G14,G15,G16, 110

Hallowell, A. Irving, A22 Hamilton, James Cleland, 010 Hammon, Briton, A25, E22, LI05, P39 Hammond, Peter B., A23 Hampton Institute, A50, Dl, D20, D35, D44, D62, D64, D69, D74, D78, D85, D98, D99, Dl 17, D132, D134, D139, G24 Hancock, Ian, K50,K51,K52 Hanes, Colonel Bailey C, L44 Hann, John H., E23 Hansen, Chadwick, B50 Hanson, Glen T., D53 Harmening, Stuart, E24 Harper, Kenn, 011 Harries, Renee Abraham, A24 Harrington, M. R., B51, B52, K53 Harris, Betty Taylor., G17 Harris, Juliette, P21 Harris, N. Sayre, F43 Harris, Sheldon H., B53 Harrison, IraE., Qll Harrison, Faye V., Ql 1 Hart, William B., B54 Harte, Thomas J., C8 Hauptman, Laurence M., B55, B56, Q12 Hayward, Steve, P23 Hawk, William, B57, B68 Hawkins, Lynn McClary, K54 Hayes, Jack, L38 Haynes, Lillith, K55 Hays, James "Jayson" Robert, P22 Heard, J. Norman, A25 Heath, Jim F., L45 Henige, David, D58 Henderson, James C, L46 Henson, Curtis T., Jr., El9 Henson, Josiah, N16, P15 Henson, Matthew, 03, 06, 0 9 Herion,J.C.,D101 Heritage Circle, B44 Herndon, Ruth Wallis, B58 Herrick, E. P., B59 Herron, Jordan Thomas, K56 Herskovitz, Melville J., Q13, Q14 Herzog, George, G18 Hicks, George L., B60 Hidatsa, L6 Hill, Matthew W., D59 Hill, Walter, Q38

Index 255 Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, L47 Hodges, Graham Russell, Q15 Hoefel, Roseanne, D60 Holland, Juanita Marie, P24 Holland, Sharon P., P25 Holmes, Jack D. L., E25 Holmes, Reuben, L48 Hood, J. Edward, B6 hooks, bell, A26 Hopi, L24, L64, M35, M45, P43, Horse, John, A33, F43, K22, K31, K33, K61, K89, K90, K96, K106, K i l l , K113,K127,K128,K130,K133, K138,K157,P30,P35 Houma, D7, El, E8, E9, El3, El8, E40,E49,E50,E51 Howard, David A., E26 Howard, Rosalyn, K57 Huber, Donald L.,N17 Huddleston, Ned, L30 Hudson, Charles M., D61 Hultgren, Mary Lou, D62 Hungry Wolf, Adolf, 013 Hungry Wolf, Beverly, 014 Hurston, Zora Neale, D60, G24 Hurtt, Clarence M., M23 Ibaja, E29 Identity, D81,D 108 Illinois Indians, N6 Illinois, N13,N32 Inuit, 03, 06, 09, 0 1 1 , 0 1 2 Iowa Indians, F56, L81 Iowa, N15 Irby, Charles C.,015 Iroquois,A7, B71,016 Irving, Washington, K35 "Issues", C6, D104,D124 Ivey, Jack, L35, L49, Izard, Holly V., B6 Jackson, Neeley Belle, F44 Jackson Whites see Ramapo Mountain People Jacobs, Wilbur, Gl9 James, Edwin, G56 James, Parthenia Louise, H7 James, Thomas, L49 Jea, John, B61,Q15 Jeltz, Wyatt F., F45, F46 Jenkins, Robert L., E27

Jesuits, E54 Jeter, Henry N., M24 Johnson, Britton, LI3, M6 Johnson, Cecil, L50 Johnson, Charles, Jr., K58 Johnson, John Allen, K59 Johnson, Grant, F57, Fl 13, Fl 14, LI6 Johnson, Guy B., D63 Johnson, Willard R., A11, F47 Johnston, Charles M., 016 Johnston, Frances B., D64 Johnston, James Hugo, A27 Jolivette, Andrew James, Q16 Jones, Daniel, Q28 Jones, Dawn Renee, P26 Jones, H. Conger., K60 Jones, Livingston French, 017 Jones, Nettie, P25 Jones, Peter, Nl 8 Jones, Rhett S., A28, A29, A30, B62, P27 Jones, Vinnie, K70 Jordan, Winthrop D., Q17 Joseph, Denise A., F48 Joseph, J. W., D65 Joseph, John, E28 Jumares, L72 Jumper, Betty Mae Tiger, K62 Jumper, Jim, K37, K62 Kansas, F4, F13, F47, L2, L22, L89, L94, L100,M13,M39 Kansas Indians, LI00 Kappler, Charles J.,N19 Kasakoff, Alice B.,D131 Katz, William Loren, A31, A32, A33, A34, D66, D67, K63, L51, L52, L53, Q21 Katzman, David M., N20 Keetoowah Society, G9 Kelton, Paul, F49, G20 Kenner, Charles L., M25 Kenney, Susan A., F50 Kensell, Louis Anthony, II1 Kentucky, DIO, D25, D27, D36, D58, D76,D86,D87,D107 Kersey, Harry A. Jr., K64 Kertzer, David I., B60 Kessler, John S., D68 Ketchum, William, 018

256 American Indian and African American Interactions Kickapoo, K13, K31, K58, Kl 13, K128, K129, K155, K174, L55, L74, L100, M20,M39 King Philip's War, B9,B 14 King, C.Richard, Ql 8 King, Wilma, D69 Kinsall, A. Ray, K65 Kinzie, Mrs. JohnH.,N21 Kiowa, Fl 1, K129, L68, L88, L98, L105,M8, M15,M28, M31 Kirsch, George B.,Q19 Kirschenbaum, Blossom S., P28 Klamath, L95 Klos, George, K66, K67, K68 Knight, Mabel Frances, B63 Koehnline, James, Q25 Kohl, Johann Georg, N22 Krapf, Kellie A., K69 Krauthammer, Barbara, F51 Krehbiel, Randy, J15 Kremer, GaryR., G21 Krogman, Wilton Marion, K70 KuKluxKlan,D6,D18 Kugel, Rebecca, N23 Lacy, Sam, B64 La Harpe, Bernard de, L58 Lakota, D44, L26, L30, L40, L85, L98, Ml4, Ml5, Ml7, M20, M34, N3, N4, N19 Lamar, Mirabeau Bonaparte, L54 La Mar, Ansley, Q22 Lambert, Valerie Long, 112 Lancaster, Jane F., K72 Landers, Jane, E29, E30, E31, E32, E33,K61,K73 Landes, Ruth, 019 Landin, Harvey Golden, B66 Lane, Isaac, F52 Langston, Charles Henry, L89 Langston, John Mercer, P2, Q28 Language, C3, D30, Dl 18, F76, K32, K39, K40, K50, K51, K52, K55, LI2, L85 Lansing, Michael, N24 Lapsley, Larry, 113 Laracy, Brother John, F53 Largent, Floyd B., Jr., K69 Larkin, John, B65 LaTorre, Dolores, L55 LaTorre, Felipe A., L55

Latta, M. L., D70 Laugh 1 in, Florence, L56 Laumbach, Karl W., M26 Laumer, Frank, K74, K75, Lawuyi, Olatunde Bayo, K76, K77 Leaming, Hugo Prosper, D71 Leckie, William H , M27 Ledbetter, Barbara A. Neal, M28 Leflore, Greenwood, 110 Legleu, Stephanie, E34 Lekson, Stephen H., M29 Leonard, Zenas, L57 Le Petit, Fr. Mathurin, E35 Lerch, Patricia Barker, D72 Lewis and Clark expedition, see York Lewis, Anna, L58 Lewis, Edmonia, A33, P2, P7, P8, P9, PI3, P14, P24, P29, P34, P37, P41 Lewis, George, D73 Lewitt, Robert T., F54 Lighthouse (CT), B38 Lindquist, G. E. E., B67 Lindsay, Donal F., D74 Linthicum, Leslie, L59 Lipsitz, George, E36 Little Big Horn, Battle of the, Ml 6, M34 Little Texas, NC, D93 Littlefield, Dr. Daniel F., Al 1, F50, F55, F56, F57, G22, G23, H6,114,115, J16,J17 Littlefield, Mary Ann, 114 Locke, Raymond Friday, L60, L61 Lockman, Paul T., A35, B68, K79 Lofton, John M., Jr., D75 Loguen, Jermain Wesley, N25 Lomax, Allen, K123 Long Island, A27, B43, B66, B68, B77, B78,B106,B107 See also New York Long Lance, Sylvester, D122, D123, P4,P5,P12,P30 Longacre, E. G., M30 Loomis, Augustus W., Jl 8 Loud, John Sylvanus, M17 Louisiana, C6, D7, D104, E7, E8, E9, E11,E12,E15,E16,E20,E21,E25, E27, E35, E40, E41, E42, E45, E49, E50,E51,E56-E61,E62 Love, Nat, L6, L30, L62

Index 257 Love, N. B. C , N26 Lovett, Laura L., G24 Lowery, Samuel A., Q28 Lowry, Henry Berry, D17, D18, D38, D39, D77 Lynch, Eric, J19 Lucas, Marion B., D76 Luckey, Buss, LI6 Lumbee, D5, D6, D7, D13, D15, D17, Dl 8, D28, D30, D32, D38, D39, D58, D60, D63, D73, D77, D80, D80, D81, D92, D96, D102, D104, Dl 18, Dl 19, D120, D122,D123,D125, D130, D146, F41.G24 Lutz, John, 025 Machapunga Indians, see Mattamuskeet MacCrate, Christopher, LI 2 MacMahon, K38 Magdol, Edward, D77 Mahon, John, K61, K80,K81,K82 Maine, B102 Major, Clarence, P23 Makofsky, Abraham, D78 Mandan, L9, L102 Mandell, Daniel R., B69, B70 Mankiller, Wilma, Al 1 Mann, Barbara Alice, B71 Manning, Edwin Cassander, F58 Marcy, Randolph Barnes, L63 Mardi Gras Indians, El, ElO, E36, E37, E38, E46, E47, E48, P4, Q18 Mariames, L72 Marrant, John, A25, G25, G48, P31, Q26 Martin, Joan, E37 Martin, Joel W., J20 Maryland, 22, C6, C7, C8, C16, D31, D79, D92, D104, D115 Maroons, A24, D3, D71, E5, E31, E34, E65, F8, F9, F120, Jl, K25, K28, K34, K56, K66, K67, K68, K79, K91, K95, K96, KlOl, K103, K135, K143, K169, K170 Marrant, John, 28, G25, 0 1 , 020 Marsh, Thelma R., N27 Martinez, Maurice M., E38 Mascots, Ql8 Mashpee, See Wampanoag

Massachusetts, A7, A27, Bl, B4, B6, B7, B8, B9, Bl 1, B14, B17, B18, B29, B34, B36, B39, B44, B53, B65, B67, B69, B70, B72, B76, B86, B87, B88, B89,B91,B92,B96, Bl 11, Bl 19 Mattamuskeet, D47, D126 Mattaponi, A7, A27, D7, D51, D88, D91,D113 Matthews, Denise, K61 Matthews, Harry Bradshaw, D79 Matthews, James T., M31, M32 Matthews, Jim, M33 Mattinecock, B57, B68, B93, B107, Bl 17 Mattson, Marcia, K83 May, Katja, F59 May, Stephen, P29 Maynor, Malinda M., D80, D80, D81 Maximilian, Prince zu Wied-Neuwied, LI 02 McCabe, Scott, K84, K85, K86 McCauley, Robbie, P33 McClain, Kimberly Ann, D82 McConnell, Roland C , M34 McCue, D. B., L64 McDonald, Dedra S., L65 McDougle, Ivan E., D37 McFadden, Marguerite, G26 McGillivray, Alexander, J10 McGowan, Kathleen, D83 McLendon, Ben, L70 McLoughlin, William G., F60, F61, F62, F63, G27, G28, G29, G30,116 McMullen, Ann, B72, B73 McNamara, Eileen, B74, B75 Meehan, Rev. Thomas A., N28 Mellinger, Philip, F64 Melungeon(s), A7, C6, D4, D13, D21, D32, D40, D48, D58, D68, D83, D102, D104,D105,D130 Menard, Mary Ann, N15 Menegaz-Bock, R. M., D101 Mereness, Newton D., F65 Merrell, James H., D.84, G31, Mestizo, A12, A13, A19, D61 See also Classification Metcalfe, Deborah, B4 Mexico, A4, K13, K21, K30, K31, K33, K61, K87, K96, Kl 13, Kl 16, K125,K128,K133,K140,K144, K147, K155, K159, K160, K177, L55

258 American Indian and African American Interactions Miami Indians, N6 Micanopy, F43 Micco, Melinda, A36, K88 Michigan, N8, NIO, N14, N15, N20, N40, P30 Micmac, B5, 08, 01, 022, 026 Miles, Tiya, F66, G32 Miller, Richard, B76 Miller, Susan, K89, K90 Miller, Wick R., L66 Milligan,JohnD.,K91 Mills, Dave, 013, 014 Mills, Henry, L27 Minges, Patrick, A l l , F67, F68, F69 Minik, Oil Minnesota, Nl, N7, N8, NIO, N15, P6 Missionaries, F18, F54, F61, F63, G30, G42, HI, 17,19,116,118,119, J18, L2, 033 See also Blacks as missionaries Mississippi, A27, E44, E45, E57,110, I14.K172 Missouri, N30 Mitchell, Joseph, N29 Mizuno, Yuko, Q33 Mock, Shirley Boteler, K33, K92, K93 Modocs, E64 Mohawk, 05, B54, F14, F65, 07, OlO, 018 Mohegan, B6, B7, B20, B70, B72, B75 Molin, Paulette Fairbanks, D62, D85 Molly, G39 Monacan, D23, D124 Monceaux, Morgan, L67 Monhegan, B60 Montana, L84, M20 Montauk, A7, B47, B48, B68, B93, B106,B107,B108,B117 Montell, William Lynwood, D86, D87 Montgomery, Benilde, P31 Mooney, James, C9, L68 Moors, Cl, C2, 181, C15, C17, D104 Moretti-Langholtz, Danielle, D88 Morgan, Philip D., D89 Morice, John H., B77 Morrell, B. F., M24 Morris, Glenn T., Q20 Morrison, James D., 117 Morrison, W. B., 118 Morrow, Christina D., D90 Morse, Jedediah, B8

Morton, Ohland, F70 Mose, see Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose Moses, Yolanda T., K94 Mosley, Chandra, P32 Moss, Richard Shannon, B78 Moulton, Gary, L69 MOWA Choctaw, El 8 Muckamugg, Sara, B69, B87 Muwekma Ohlone, LI03 Mumey, Nolie, L71 Mundende, D. Chongo, F71 Mulatto (as a term), A12, A13, A16, A19,B5,Q17,Q37 See also Classification Muller, Carol Ann, L70 Mulroy, Kevin, K95, K96 Murray, Paul T.,D91 Murray, Timothy, P33 Murry, Philip H., Q28 Music, D80, F36, G18, K123, P44, Mustee (as a term), A12, A13, A17, A19,Q17 See also Classification Mutunhu, Tendai, L72 Mwalim, B79 Myers, Louis, A52 Nabakov, Peter, F55 Nana, M29 Nankivell, John H, M35 Nansemond, Dl 13 Nanticoke, A7, Cl, C2, C3, C6, C7, C9, C10, C13, C14, C15, C17, C18, D7,D13,D31,D104,D115 Naranjo, L8, L20 Narragansett, A27, B6, B13, B21, B33, B45, B58, B60, B62, B70, B72, B73, B97, B109, Bl 12, B120, D52, P10, P36 Nash, Gary B., A37 Natanapalle, E34, E56, E58, E61 Natchez Indians, D135, El, E7, El 1, E12, E14, E16, E20, E21, E27, E34, E35, E45, E54, E58, E60, E61, F19, F121 Natchez War, E34,E35,E61 Natick Indians, B8, B9, B39, B83, F65 Natick language, B89 Nation of Islam, Q20

Index 259 National Association of the Advancement of Colored People, B80, Q18 National Public Radio, K97 Native America Calling, A38, A39, K98, M35, K98 Nautchee, D49 Navajo, L14, L59, L64, L73, M13 Naylor-Ojurongbe, Celia E., F72, G33 Nebraska, M44 Ned, Jim, M6 Negro (as a term), A20 See also Classification Negro Fort, A5, E55, K3, K10, K26, K42, K61, K80, K91, K120, K135, K176 Neilson, John C , F73 Nell, William Cooper, B81 Nequatewa, Edmund, M35 Nero, Kl 18 New Amsterdam, B5 New Jersey, A27, B12, B27, B30, B31, B32,C14,D7,D58 New Mexico, L8, L14, LI7, L45, L56, L61, L65, L72, L107, Ml, M2, M3, M4, M5,M51 New Orleans, E4, E36, E37, E38, E46, E47,E48,E56,E60,E63,G24 New York, A27, A52, B3, B5, B8, B19, B27, B31, B32, B40, B43, B46, B49, B51, B52, B54, B56, B57, B61, B94,B100,B106,B107, B108, See also Long Island Newson, B64 Newspapers, F4, G46, P19 Newxes, Dl 16 Nez Perce, L9 Niantic, B20, B115 Nipmuc, B6, B36, B65, B69, B70, B72, B87,B101,BU9 Noah, Belinda, K99 Nolen, Oran Warder, L74 Noon, John A., 021 North Carolina, D7, D8, D17, D18, D22, D28, D30, D33, D38, D39, D46, D47, D54, D57, D58, D63, D66, D71, D72, D73, D77, D80, D82, D90, D93, D94, D96, D97, D101, D108, D i l l , D118,D119,D120,D121,D126, D137, D144 Northup, Solomon, E39, PI5

Nottoway, D114, 01 Nova Scotia, B5, 0 8 , D49, 020, 022, 026 See also Canada Novak, Viveca, B82 Novo, Maria, P34 Nowell, Jeremiah James, Jr., D93 Nunn, Frederick M., L45 Nunn, W. Curtis, M37 Nuttall, Thomas, G34 Oak Hill Industrial Academy, 19 O'Brien, Jean M., B83 Occaneechi, D90, D93 O'Connell, Barry, B84 O'Dell, Larry, F74 Ogunleye, Tolagbe, K100 Ohio, D107, N16, N17, N26, N27, N29,N33,N34,N38 Ojibwa, A7, Nl, N2, N6, N7, N8, N9, N15, N18, N20, N22, N23, N35, N39, 04,019,P2,P6,P32 Oklahoma, A50, Fl 1, F64, Fl 11, Fl 12, K4, K5, K6, K38, K41, K46, K70, K71, K72, K76, K77, K78, K84, K85, K88, K98, K141, K156, K172, K173, L58, L88 Oklahoma land run, F56 Oneida, B19, B56 Ontario, 04, 07, 018, 019, 021, 028, 032 Opala, Joseph A , KlOl, K102, K103 Opelousa, E60 Oregon, L37, L87, L95 Osage, L46 Osceola, K9, K75, K124, K126 Oswald, Delmont R., L75, L80 Outlaw, Marpessa Dawn, Q21 Outlaws, J32 Owen, Mary Alicia, N30 Pacheco, Luis, A25, Kl 1, K17, K74, K112,K131,K148 Page, Jo Ann Curls, G35, G36 Paige, John C , L76 Paine, Adam, K63 Pamunkey, A27, D51, D88, D91, D100,D113,D114,D124,F121 Pangburn, Richard L., D25 Pan-Indianism, B72, D81 Pantle, Alberta, 113

260 American Indian and African American Interactions Panzarella, Robert, Q22 Paredes, J. Anthony, J23 Parenton, Vernon J., E40 Parker, Freddie L., D94 Parra, E. J., D95 Parsons, Elsie Clews, D96, K104, L77, 022 Parsons, Lucy Gonzales, A37 Paschal, Andrew G., Q23 Pate, Albert T., D97 Patrick, RembertW., K105 Paugussett, A7, B23, B25, B26, B74, B80, B82 Pawnee, F56, L6, L78 Payne, Isaac, K63 Peabody, Francis Greenwood, D98 Peedee Indians, D45 Peliklikaha, K83, K86, K169, K170 Pellegrin, Roland J., E40 Pennsylvania, C5 Penobscot, B102 Pequot, A7, B6, B7, BIO, B14, B20, B22, B28, B35, B41, B42, B53, B55, B70, B72, B73, B74, B75, B84, B85, B98,B103,B111,B115 Pequot War, B14, B41 Purdue, Theda, F75, G31, G37, G38, G39, G40, G41 Perrine, Fred S., L78 Perryman, Ellen, J4 Peters, Paula, B85 Pew, Thomas W., Jr., J24 Pewewardy, Cornel, M38, M46 Peter, Bernd C , Q24 Pfaff, Carol W., F76 Philbrick, Nathaniel, B86 Phillips, Joyce B., G42 Phillips, Paul Gary, G42 Phillips, Valerie, J., A40 physical anthropology, Q13, Q14 Pickard, Eve, B54 Pickett, Bill, A32, A33, L44, L50, Pierson, Ethel, H9 Pingenot, Ben E., K106 Pisacka, Karen Kay, G43 Pirle, Caleb III, K107 Pittman, Nicole, D99 Plane, Ann Marie, B87, B88 Plantation farming, K171 Plato, Ann, P4

Plecker, Dr. Walter, D88, D91, Dl 13, D114, D115,D124,G24 Poinsett, J. R., K161 Pointe du Sable, Jean Baptiste, A25, A41,A43,L51,N1,N6,N11,N21, N28, N20, N31, N32, N36, N37 Pointer, Jonathan, N17, N26, N33, N34,N38 Pokanoket, B72 Pollard, Jno. Garland, D100 Pollitzer, William S., D101, D102, K107 Pompey, A25, D10, D76 Pooley, Sophia, 07 Poospatuck, B43, B68, B93, B107, Bl 17 Pope, L8 Porter, Frank W , C9, C10, D103 Porter, Kenneth Wiggins, A41, A42, A43, K109-K133, L79, L80,N20,N31, P35 Posey, Darrell A., E41 Pottery See Colono-ware Pose-yemu, L8, L20 Pospisil, JoAnn, M39 Post, Lauren, E42 Potowatomi Indians, F56, L94, N6, N11,N32 Powhatan, D66,D114, F121 Powwows, A52, B99 Pregaldin, Anton J., N13 Price, Edward T., D104, D105, D106, D107 Primus, Kl 18 Prince, Dyneley J., B89 Proctor, Samuel, E43 Proctor, Toney, K165 Prophet, Nancy Elizabeth, P10, P28, P36 Providence Island, B41 Pueblo Revolt, L8, L20, L45 Pulley, Clyde, D108 Punkapog,B81,B119 Putney, Martha S., B90 Quaife, Milo M , N32 Quappa, E60 Quarles, Benjamin, P37 Quebec, D49

Index 261 Racial Integrity Act, D88, D91, Dl 13, D114, D115.D124 Ramapo Mountain People, B27, B30, B31, B32, B46, BlOO, B105, Bl 10, B116, C6, D13, D58,Q25 Rampp, Lary C , F77 Ramsey, William L., Ill, D109 Randolph, Peter, B91 Ransom, Jay Ellis, 023 Rantoul, Robert, B92 Rappahannock, D7, D88, D91, Dl 13, D124 Rawick, George P., F78 Rayson, David Timothy, DUO Reconstruction, Fl, F6, F10, F14, F40, F48,F51,F85,F118,F119,G71,H7, 111 "RedBones",C6,D13,D104 Red River War, M8 Red Stick War, J2, J20, J28, J29, K120, K176 Red Thunder Cloud, B93, D52 Reddin,Paul, L81 Reese, Linda W., G44 Reeves, Bass, A32, F20, F57, Fl 13, F114,F115,L16 Remini, Robert V., E44 Removal, A24, E66, F44, F68, F69, F86,G41,G47, K121,K142 Return to Africa Movement, B53, B98, E66, G37 Rhode Island, A27, B7, B13, B14, B15, B21, B33, B45, B62, B69, B70, B72, B73,B109, B112,B120 Ricard, Ulysses S., Jr., E45 Rice, Horace R., D i l l Richie, Chip, A44 Rickey, Don, M40 Riddell, William Renwick, 024 Ridge, John Rollin, G6, G45 Riley, Carroll L., L82 Riley, Sam G., G46 Riordan, Patrick, K134 Rippy, Fred J., L83 Ritchie, Michael James, K136 Rivers, Larry E., K137, K138 Roach, Joseph, E46 Roanoke, D66, D116 Roberts, James, Cl 1 Robertson, Alice M., J25 Robinson, Ella Flora Goodey, F37

Robinson, William, 025 Robinson, Wash, M6 Rodgers, B.Ann, K139 Rodnick, David, L84 Rodriguez, Jan, B5 Rodriguez, Martha, K140 Roethler, Michael, G47 Rogers, Robert, B94 Ronda, James P., F79 Roome, Richard T., M41 Roper, Moses, Dl 12 Rorex, Jeanne Walker, P38 Rose, Edward, A25, A32, A33, L42, L48,L93,M6,N31 Rose, James M., B20 Rosenthal, Bernard, B95 Ross, Billy, 019 Roth, David R., L86 Rouensa, Marie, N13 Rountree, Helen C , Dl 13, Dl 14, Dl 15 Rucker, Brian R., J26 Rufus Buck Gang, J32, LI6 Russell, Donna Valley, B96 Russell, Steve, F80 "Sabines", Dl3 Sac and Fox, F56, L22, LI00 Sacajawea, L9 Saillaint, John, G48 Sakolsky, Ron, Q25 Salem witch trials, B17, B18, B50, B95,B113 Sally, Alexander S., Jr., Dl 16 Sameth, Sigmund, J27 Sampson, K19, K36 Sampson County Indians, D54 Sand Creek Massacre, M50 Sands, Rosita M., E47 Sandwell, Ruth, 025 Saney, Isaac, 026 Santee, M16 Saponi, D40, D82, D93 Sattler, Richard Allen, K141 Saul, L37 Saunt, Claudio, J28, J29 Savage, W. Sherman, L86, L87 Savage, William W., L88 Savage, W. Sherman, F81 Schaghticoke, B59, B75 Schall, Keith, Dl 17 Schilling-Estes, Natalie, Dl 18

262 American Indian and African American Interactions Schlup, Emil, N33, N34 Schneider, Carl, A45 Schneider, Dorothy, A45 Schomburg, Arthur A., Q26 Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, N35 Schott, Linda, K139 Schubert, Frank N , M42, M43, M44 Schulte, Eileen M., P38 Schuyler, George S., K143 Scypion, Marie, A6, El4 Searcy, Martha Condray, J30 Sefton, James E.,K 142 segregation, C9, C14, C18, D6, D15, Dl 8, D22, D24, D54, D69, D82, D93, D120, D125, D137, E9, E13, E19, E40, Fl 12 Sekatau, Ella Wilcox, B58 selective service, D91 Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, Earl of, 028 Sekora, John, P39 Seminole, A4, A5, A7, A25, A27, A37, D143, E5, E30, E64, F47, F58, F63, F120, G22, J29, J43, K1-K177, L98, P16 Seminole Blacks, F120, Kl, K2, K4, K5, K6, K12, K13, K14, K15, K21, K22, K30, K31, K32, K33, K38, K39, K40, K41, K46, K47, K48, K49, K50, K51, K52, K55, K56, K57, K58, K61, K63, K65, K66, K67, K68, K70, K71, K72, K76, K77, K78, K79, K84, K85, K86, K87, K88, K92, K93, K95, K96, K97, K98, K99, KlOl, K102, K103, K106,K113,K116,K125,K128, K133, K136,K139,K140, K144, K146,K152,K153,K154,K156, K158, K159, K160, K161, K162, K174, L55, L63, L109, P30, P35, Q25 Seminole Blacks in the Bahamas, A32, K47, K48, K57, K64, K104, K123 Seminole Negro Indian Scouts, K13, K14, K15, K18, K49, K58, K59, K60, K61, K63, K65, K69, K129, K140, K144, K149, K154, K155, K173, K174, L79,M6,M8, M43 Seminole War(s), A5, A31, K3, K7, K8, Kl 1, K12, K17, K19, K20, K23, K24, K25, K27, K34, K36, K37, K43, K44, K45, K49, K61, K66, K67, K68, K74, K75, K81, K82, K109, Kl 10, K111,K112,K114,K115,K117,

K118,K119,K120,K121,K124, K126,K127,K131,K132,K137, K138, K142, K143, K148, K157, K158,K161,K162,K163,K164, K165,K166,Q23, 845 Seneca, B54 Sexton, Sharon-Elizabeth, N36 Shadburn, Don L., G49 Shaw, Blanche V., N37 Shapiro, Henry, Q27 Sharkey-McCarthy, Patricia Ann, B97 Shawnee, A25, DIO, D69, D76 D107, F47, L2,L6,L100 Shawnee (surname), D69 Shepard, R. Bruce, F82, 027 Sheridan, Richard B., L89 Sherwood, Henry Noble, B98 Shingleton, Royce Gordon, J31 Shinnecock, A7, B51, B52, B64, B66, B68, B93, B99, B107, Bl 12, Bl 17, D20, D52 Shirley, Glenn, F83, J32 Shoe Boots, G29, G32 Shoshone, L6, L9, L66 Sider, Gerald M., Dl 19 Silent Enemy, The, PI2 Silko, Leslie Marmon, P25 Siller, Alicia V , K30 Simmons, Jake, J13 Simmons, Virginia McConnell, L90 Simmons, William J., Q28 Simon, El6 Singular, Stephen, LI Sivad, Doug, K144 Sixkiller, Sam, LI6 Skinner, Alanson B., K145 slave narratives, F l l , F12, F15, F16, F39, F66, F67, F72, F73, F78, G24, G33, G44, L99, 07, P15, P31, P39 slave patrols, D57, J22, K121 slavery, A5, A6, A26, E45, F2, F14, F15, F16, F17, F27, F29, F35, F38, F39, F49, F54, F59, F60, F61, F63, F66, F70, F73, F84, F85, F86, F89, G6, G7, G12-G16, G20, G27, G28, G29, G30, G32, G33, G38, G39, G41, G47, G48, G54,110,116,117,118,119,123, J2, J3, J8, J10, J12, J14, J16, J19, J20, J30, J31, K141, K162, K163, K164, L2,N13,N40,Q6

Index 263 slavery, legal challenges to, A6, A27, D36, D45JE14, E62, E65, F41, G39, Q35 slavery, runaways, A5, A6, D94, D121, D135, D143, E3, E21, E28, E39, F9, G22,113, J22, J41, K3, K44, K66, K67, K68, K91, Kl 17, K121, K137, K159, K160, K162, K163, K164, K177, N16, N25, N40, Q6 slavery, uprisings, A35, B40, D4, D67, D71,E25, E27,E61 Smallwood, Arwin D., A46, D121 Smith, Anna Bustill, Cl2 Smith, Bruce, F85 Smith, C. Calvin, 119 Smith, Donald B., D122, D123 Smith, Gloria L., F86, G50, K146, Q29 Smith, J. David, D124 Smith, John Freemont, 029 Smith, Joy McDougal, 120 Smith, Mapheus, Q30 Smith, Michael P., E48 Smith, Ralph A , K147 Smith, Robert E., N38 Smith, Trefor, 029 Smithey, Sherman Brian, D125 Snipp, C. Matthew, A47 Sober, Nancy Hope, G51 South Carolina, D2, D3, D8, D12, D15, D44, D45, D56, D57, D61, D66, D67, D71, D75, D84, D89, D95, D131, D144, D145, E5, E65, F8, G19, J3, K122 South Dakota, Ml7 Southall, Eugene P., K148 Sowell, A. J.,L91,L92 Speck, Frank C, B77, B89, BlOO, B101, B102, B103, B104, C9, C13, C14, D126, E9, E49, F87, F88, J33, J34, J35 Speck, Gordon., L93 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, A49 Sprague, Bvt. Major John T., K106 Spring, Joel H., F89 Springston, Rex, D127 Standing Bear, Zug G., D128 Stanton, Max E., E50, E51 Steele, C. Hoy., L94 Stern, Theodore, D129, L95 Steward, Austin, 030, PI5

Stewart, John, A25, N17, N26, N29, N34,N38,Q26 Stinson, Byron, D130 Stockbridge Indians, B3, B8, B49 Stono Rebellion, E65 Storms, J. C, B105 Street, Lairold M., E52 Strong, Eric Emmerson, K149 Strong, John A., B106, B107, B108 Strong, Pauline Turner, Q31 Stubbs, Caroline Quillian, J36 Sturm, Circe, G51,G53 Sturtevant, William C , K150, K151 Sullivan, Tom, L74 Sumpter, Jesse, K152 Sunfish, B54 Sutton, F. M., J37 Swanton, John R., E53, J38 Sweet, John Wood, B109 Sweet, Joyce E., G54 Taensas, E56 Taft,OK,Jll Talayesva, Don C, M45 TallBear, Kimberly, Kl 53 Tanner, John, N15 Taos Indians, LI06 Taukchiray, Wesley DuRant, D131 Tawehash, L28 Taylor, Euterpe Cloud, LI 5 Taylor, Helen Louise, C15 Taylor, Helen Rudean, Q32 Taylor, John, L64 Taylor, Marshall W., Q28 Taylor, Quintard, Jr., D55, F40, L96, L97, L98, M46, M47 Taylor, Ronnie C, L99 teeth See dental patterns Tegtmeier, Kristen Anne, LI 00 Tennessee, D21, D58, D86, D87, D105,G42 Terrell, John Upton., LI01 Texas, A24, E26, K2, K4, K5, K13, K14, K15, K18, K21, K22, K31, K38, K49, K50, K51, K52, K58, K60, K61, K65, K89, K90, K92, K93, K95, K96, K106,K125,K129,K136,K144, K149, K152, K154, K174, K177, L6, L28, L34, L35, L38, L54, L74, L79,

264 American Indian and African American Interactions L90, L92, L99, L101, L105, L109, LI 10, M9, M25, M28, M31, M39 Thaxton-Ward, Vanessa D., D132 Thlonoto-sassa, K130 Thomas, Lamont D., Bl 11 Thompson, Edgar T., D133 Thompson, Erwin N., M48 Thompson, James, N15 Thompson, Mark, B82 Thompson, Richard A., K155 Thornton, Mary, G55 Thornton, Michael C, Q33 Tlingits, 017 Thwaites, Reuben Gold, E54, G56, L102 Thybony, Scott, K154 Tiger Tail, K132 Tilmon, Levin, Bl 12 Timuaca, E23, E32, L72 Tingey, Joseph Willard, D134 Tituba, B17, Bl 8, B50, B95, Bl 13 Tobin, Tom, M6 Tomm, Jim, J42 Tonkawa, F56, M9 Tony, Sam, B54 Trail of Tears, See Removal transculturalization, A22 Travis, V. A., G57 Trees, May, K156 triracial(s), B30, B32, B43, BlOO, C6, C7, C9, C10, D7, D8, D9, Dl 1, D13, D14, D18, D21, D26, D28, D32, D33, D34, D48, D54, D58, D61, D68, D86, D87, D102, D103, D104, D106, D133, E18,E19,Q2 See also Classification Troper, Harold Martin, 031 Troy, William B., Rev., C16 Tshuaunhusset, 025 Tubbee, Okah, 115, P3,P4, PI8 Tucker, Deborah, A9, Al 1, A24 Tucker, Joe, L84 Tucker, Lindsey, P40, Tucker, Phillip Thomas, K157, M49 Tucker, Veta Smith, Bl 13 Tudor, Kathleen, D135 Tufts, Eleanor M., P41 Tunica, E20, E25 Turner, Daniel E., P42

Turner, J. Milton, G5, G10, Gl 1, G21, G60 Tuscarora, B30, BlOO, Bl 16, B105, D18,D57,D116,D121 Tuspaquin, B29 Twyman, Bruce Edward, K158 Tyler, Ronnie C.,K159, Kl60 Uncle Remus stories, D136 Underground Railroad, K177, N9, N25 Underhill, Lonnie, F56, F57, G22, J17 Underhill, Ruth, E9 U.S. Census Bureau (records), A18, A19,A47,A53,D8,D11 Usner, Daniel, E56-E61 Utah, Ml2 Utes, L14, LI5, L30, L36, L64, L90, L98, L104, L106, M4, M12, M13, M14, M21,M25,M27,M43 Utley, Robert M., M51 Vann, Joseph, G2, G26 Vann, R. P., G70, Van Sertima, Ivan, Q34 Vest, J. Hansford C, Dl36 Victorio, Ml, M2, M5, M26, M32, M33,M39,M51 Virginia, A14, 22, A27, C6, Dl, D99, D7, D8, D20, D23, D31, D33, D35, D37, D41, D44, D49, D51, D57, D62, D64, D69, D71, D74, D78, D79, D88, D89, D91, D98, D100, D104, D105, D111,D114,D115, D127,D129, D138, G24 See also Racial Integrity Act Waccamaw Sioux, D72 Walker, Alice, P4, P40, P42 Walker, Lynn McClary, K54 Wallenstein, Peter, F109, Q35 Walls, Dwayne, D137 Walsh, Lorena S.,D138 Walton-Raji, Angela Y., Fl 10 Wampanoag, A7, B2, B7, B14, B24, B29, B34, B35, B37, B53, B63, B67, B70,B72, B76,B79,B81,B85,B88, B89, B90, B91, B98, B104, B i l l , B118, B119 Warchesunsapa, N19 Ward, John, K59, K63 Warren, HannaR., G71

Index 265 Warren, Robin 0.,K167 Warren, William Whipple, N39 Warrior, William "Dub", K49, K61 Washington, Booker T., A50, D99, D134, D139,G24,J7,J24 Washington, Huel, LI03 Watie, Stand, F28, G8 Watts, Jill, K145 Waugh, Frederick W., 032 Weber, Bruce, P43 Webre, Stephen, E62 Wehmeyer, Stephen C , E63 Weik, Terrance, K83, K169, K170 Weisman, Brent, K61,K171 Welch, Moses C.,B 114 Welch, Vicki S.,B115 Weld, Isaac, N40 Wellburn, Ron,A51 Weller, George, Bl 16 Welsh, Michael, Kl72, Kl73 Weslager, C. A., C17, C18, D34 "Wesorts", C6, C7, D13, D104 West, John, 033 West, Patsy, K62 West Virginia, C6, D48, D50, D58, D104 Westez, Carlos A. H., Bl 17, D52 See also Red Thunder Cloud Whaling, B7, B37, B90 Wharfield, H. B , M52 Whipple, Charles K., 122 White, E. E., LI04 White, George Henry, A33, Q15 Whitehead, Jenna C , E9 Whitman, Albery Alison, P22 Whitmire, Moses, G65, G69 Wickett, Murray R., F i l l , Fl 12 Wichita Indians, L76 Wiggins, Ben, Kl 18 Wiggins, Rosalind Cobb, Bl 18 Wilbarger, J.W., LI05 Wild Cat, K22, K31, K33, K61, K88, K89, K96, K106, K127, K128, P35 Wild West Shows, E48, L30, L44, L81 Wiley, Lisa Dianne, 123 Wilkins, Dr. David, All Williams, Cathy, M49 Williams, James, E64 Williams, James, J41 Williams, Nudie E.,F113 Williams, Ronnie, Fl 16

Williams, Walter L., D140, D141 Williamson, Joel, Q37 Willis, Cecil Lee, D142 Willis, William S , D143, E65, Ql 1 Wilson, Charles "Smokey", M6 Wilson, Elinor, L80, LI06 Wilson, Emily Charles, K49, K139 Wilson, L. M. S., J42 Wilson, Raleigh Archie, Fl 17 Wilson, Walt, Fl 18 "Win" tribe, D37 Winddancer, Eve, A52 Winship, George Parker, LI07 Winsor, Henry M.,F119 Winston, Sanford, D144 Wisconsin, N1,N2,N15 Wissler, Clark, 034 Wolfe, Jay L., LI08 Women, B83, F66, G44, K139, L53, N23, N24, P20 Wong, Hertha D. Sweet, P44 Wood, Peter H.,D 145 Woodhull, Frost, K174 Wounded Knee massacre, M2, M4, M39, M43 Wounded Knee standoff, L21, L39, Q22 Wright, J. Leitch, Jr., F120, F121, K175.K176 Wright, Muriel H., H6,124,125 Wright, Richard R., LI 10 Wright, Susie Bonga, N23 Wrone, David R., G72 Wyandots, N17, N26, N27, N33, N34, N38, Q26 Wyoming, L40 Wood, Alfred, M6 Woods, Brent, Ml9 Woods, Ruth Dial, D146 Woodson, Carter G., A52, Bl 19 Woolfolk, George Ruble, LI 09 Wooten, James T., D147 Yamassee, D57, E29, E30, E32, F19, Jl Yamasee War, D109, Dl 10, D145, E29,K122,K134 Yanez, Aaron Mahr, K177 Yaquis, M52 Yeardley, Francis, Dl 16

266 American Indian and African American Interactions York (of the Lewis and Clark expedition), A25, A32, L6, L9, L25, L51,L69,L111 Young, Mary, E66

Ziner, Karen Lee, B120 Zissu, Erik March, F122 Zochert, Donald, LI 11 Zuni, A25, L6, LIO, L19, L65, L72, L77, L83, L107,L108

About the Author LISA BIER is Social Sciences Reference Librarian at Southern Connecticut State University.