Ad Astra per Aspera et per Ludum: European Archaeoastronomy and the Orientation of Monuments in the Mediterranean Basin: Papers from Session I.13, held at the European Association of Archaeologists Eighth Annual Meeting in Thessaloniki 2002 9781841715247, 9781407325583

Citation preview

Ad Astra per Aspera et per Ludum European Archaeoastronomy and the Orientation of Monuments in the · Mediterranean Basin Papers from Session 1.13, held at the European Association of Archaeologists Eighth Annual Meeting in Thessaloniki 2002

Edited by

Amanda-Alice Maravelia N

BAR International Series 1154 2003

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1154

Ad Astra per Aspera et per Ludum: European Archaeoastronomy and the Orientation of Monuments in the Mediterranean Basin © The editors and contributors severally and the Publisher 2003 COVER IMAGE Free synthesis (collage) of a modern orientation azimuth frequency diagram (see Mary Blomberg's paper in this volume: fig. 2) and of a composite hieroglyphic sign (Gardiner's C209, from the extended library) showing the ceremony of stretching the cord (who w3w3.t), used by ancient Egyptian priest-astronomers to orientate their monuments towards the northern group of stars (especially Ursa Major): goddess Seshat (S:s-3.t) and the pharaoh use measuring rods, poles and a rope to perform the ritual. (i) 2003, Amanda-Alice Maravelia & Mary Blomberg.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841715247 paperback ISBN 9781407325583 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841715247 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2003. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

TH E PR ESENT VO LUME I SDE D ICATED TO :

PR OFESSOR M I CHAEL HOSK IN, IN H ONOREM FO R TH E ST ELLAR W A YS TH AT HEOP ENED FO R AL L OFUS , WI TH HI S RE STLESS W O RK & SC HOLARLY PU BL ICAT IONS

CONTENTS C l ive R ugg l e s F o r ewo rd

i

F o rme rE AA A rchxoa s t ronom ica l S e s s ions

v

Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia I n t roduc t ion

v

ANCIENT EGYPT K ur tL ocher T he A rche typa l S ymbo l i sm o ft h e Mo s tA nc ien tC on s te l la t ions : AC ompa r ison E gyp t/ C h ina Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia & MA . Mo sa lam S ha l tou t I lum ina t ion o ft h e S ac ra r ium i nt h eG rea tT emp le a tA bu S imbe l , i t sA s t ronom ica l E xp lana t ion , a nd S ome H in t so nt h eP o s s ib le S t e l la rO r ien ta t ion o ft h e Sma l l T emp le J uan A n ton io B e lmon t eA v i lj s AC e le s t ia l Map o ft h eA nc ien tE gyp t ian F i rmamen t

7

3 1

EUROPE G a i lH igg inbo t tom , A nd r ew S m i th , K en S imp son & R og er C lay Mo re t h an O r ien ta t ion : P l ac ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h eC o sm ic O rde r

3 9

Ma ry B lomberg a nd G öran H enr ik s son L i te ra ry a nd A rchxoa s t ronom ica l E v idence f o rt h eO r ig ins o ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r i nt h eA egean B ronze A ge

5 3

P e t er E .B lomberg T he E a r ly H e l len ic S ky Map r e con s t ruc ted f r om A rchxoa s t ronom ica l a nd T ex tua l S tud ie s

7 1

R a lph M R ow l e t t A nI r on A ge B o l ide S t r ik e i nS ou thern G au l

7 7

C j sa rE s t eban E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ions i nP re—Roman R e l ig ious a nd F une ra ry Monumen t s o ft h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

8 3

Em i l ia P ä sz tor & C u r tR o s lund AP os s ib le A s t ronom ica lO r ien ta t ion o fR ock C a rv ing s i nt h eK i lma r t in A rea

1 01

F lor in S täne scu T he T rac ing o fS anc tua r ie s i nA nc ien tD ac ian Wo r ld , O ra s t ie Moun ta in s , R oman ia : S ome P o s s ib le Mea su r ing U n i t s ,1

1 05

D ragana M lad enovd & A ndor V i nj e T he A pp l ica t ion o fS o la rC ompa s s i nA rcheo log ica l F i e ldwo rk : A nA l te rna t ive Way o fO b ta in ing O r ien ta t ion Mea su remen t s

11

MESOA MER ICA S tan i s law l wan i szew sk i T he S oc ia lC on s t i tu t ion o fH o r izon A s t ronomy o ft h e P y ram id a tC u icu i lco ( Mex ico ) , a nd G roup Ea tU axac tun ( Gua tema la )

1

19

AUTHORS & ADDRESSES J uan A n ton io B e lmon t e I n s t i tu to d e A s t rof i s ica d e C ana r ia s , E 382 0 0 , L a L aguna , T ene r if e , E spa r ia . [ e -ma i l :j ba @ l l . iac .e s ] Ma ry B lomberg : D epa r tmen to fA rcha eo logy a nd A nc ien tH is to ry , U pp sa la U n ive r s i ty ; S t . E r ik 's T o rg 5 ,S E-753 1 0 , U pp sa la , S weden . [ e -ma i l : m a ry .b lombe rg @an t iken .uu .se ] P e ter E . B lomberg : D epa r tmen t o fA rch aeo logy a nd A nc ien t H is to ry , U pp sa la U n ive r s i ty ; S t . E r ik 's T o rg 5 ,S E-753 1 0 , U pp sa la Sweden . [ e -ma i l : p e t e r @m ik rob .com ] R og er C lay : D epa r tmen t o f P hy s ics a nd Ma thema t ica l P hy s ics , U n ive r s i ty o f A de la ide ; A de la ide , 5 005 , S ou th A u s t ra l ia ,A u s t ra l ia . [ e -ma i l : r c lay @phy s ics .ade la ide .edu .au ] C j sar E s teban : I n s t i tu to d e A s t rof i s ica d e C ana r ia s , E 382 0 0 , L a L aguna , T ene r if e , E spa f ia . m a i l : c e l@ l liac .es ]

[ e -

G öran H enr ik s son : A s t ronom ica l O b se rva to ry , U pp sa la U n ive r s i ty ; P .O . B ox 5 15 , S E-751 2 0 , U pp sa la , S weden . [ e -ma i l : g o ran .hen r ik son @a s t ro .uu .se ] G a i l H igg inbo t tom : D epa r tmen t o f P hy s ic s a nd Ma thema t ica l P hy s ic s , U n ive r s i ty o f A de la ide ; A de la ide , 5 005 , S ou th A u s t ra l ia , A u s t ra l ia /C en t re f o r E u ropean S t ud ie s a nd G ene ra l L ingu is t ic s , D epa r tmen t o f C la s s ic s , U n ive r s i ty o f G la sgow , G la sgow , G 12 8 QQ , UK . [ e -ma i l : g h igg inb @phy s ic s .ade la ide .edu .au ] S t an is law I wan iszew sk i : D iv is ion d e P o sg rado , E scula N ac iona l d e A n t ropo log ia e H i s to r ia , c . P e r if e r ico S u r y Z apo t e s / n D e leg . T la lpan , MX14030 , Mex ico , D .F . , Mex ico . [ e -ma i l : s iwan isz @yahoo .com ] K u r t L ocher : O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te , Z ü r ich U n ive r s i ty , W ie sen S t raße 9 ,C H-8008 , S w i tze r land . m a i l : l o che r@ tomma s i .ch ]

[ e -

Amanda-A l ice Ma rave l ia : C en t re d eR eche rche se n S c iences d e l 'An t iqu i t, F acu l té d e s L e t t re se td e s S c ience s H uma ine s , U n ive r s i t6 d e L imoge s ; 3 9E , R ue C am i l le G u6 r in , F -870 3 6 , L imoge s C edex , F rance /S u i te # 1 21 ; 2 4 , H ag iou I öannou S t r . , GR15342 , H ag ia P a ra skeu; A then s , H e l la s . m a i l : a _ma rave l ia @ho tma i l .com ]

[ e -

D ragana M lad enovd : U n ive r s i ty o fB e lg rade ; P a r iske K omune 5 9A / I 1 / 12 , YU11070 , N ew B e lg rade , S e rb ia , Y ugo s lav ia . [ e -ma i l : m lad .2d s @EUne t .yu ] Em i l ia P ä sz tor : Ma t r ica Mu seum ; G e sz tenye s u .1 3 , S zazha lomba t ta , HU2440 , H unga ry . k a ra th @en te rne t .hu ]

[ e -ma i l :

C u r t R o s lund : D epa r tmen t o fA s t ronomy , C ha lme r s & G o thenbu rg U n ive r s i ty ; 8 6 , V a s te r s lan t S t r . , S E-41296 , G o thenbu rg , Sweden . [ e -ma i l : n oe -ma i la dd res sp rov ided ] R a lph M R ow l e t t : U n ive r s i ty o fM is sou r i ; 1 07 , S wa l low H a l l , C o lumb ia , M I-65211 , M is sou r i , USA . [ e -ma i l : r ow le t t r @m is sou r i .edu ] MA . Mo sa lam S ha l tou t : U n ive r s i ty o f Manuf iya , D e se r t E nv i ronmen t R e sea rch I n s t i tu te , ' E l -Sada t C i ty , Manuf iya , T he A rab R epub l ic o fE gyp t . [ e -ma i l : m am .sha l tou t @f r cu .eun .eg ] K en S imp son : D iv is ion o fG ene t ic sa nd B io inf o rma t ics ,T he Wa l te ra nd E l iza H a l lI n s t i tu te o f Med ica l R e sea rch ; 1 GR oya l P a rade P a rkv i l le , V IC 3 050 , A u s t ra l ia . [ e -ma i l : k s impson @weh i .edu .au ] A nd rew S m i th : D epa r tmen t o fP hy s ics a nd Ma thema t ica l P hy s ics , U n ive r s i ty o fA de la ide ; A de la ide , 5 005 , S ou th A u s t ra l ia , A u s t ra l ia . [ e -ma i l : a sm i th @phy s ic s .ade la ide .edu .au ] F lor in S täne scu : F acu l ty o f S c ience s , U n ive r s i ty L uc ian B laga , P .O . B ox 4 8 , R O-2400 , S i b iu 1 , R oman ia . [ e -ma i l : f l o r ins @a thena .u ls ib iuso ] A ndor V inj e : U n ive r s i ty o fB e lg rade ; P a r iske K omune 5 9A / I I 1 12 , Y U11070 , N ew B e lg rade , S e rb ia , Y ugo s lav ia . [ e -ma i l : m lad .2d s @EUne t .yu ]

i v

FORE WORD T he re w a s at ime , n o t s o l o ng a go , w hen A r cheoa s t ronomy s e emed t o b e a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly t h e p r e se rve o f t e chnoph i le s s e a rch ing f o r h o r izon a l ignmen t s a nd l i gh t—and— shadow h i e rophan ie s . S ome t ime s t h ey w ou ld b r ing t o b ea r a n i mp r e s s ive w e igh t o f q uan t i ta t ive a ppa ra tu s i n o rde r t o d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e a s soc ia t ion s d u ly i d en t if ied w e r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een i n ten t iona l . B u t r a re ly d i d t h e re s e em t ob e a ny g r ea t c oncer ne i the rw i th t h e w e igh to fe v idence r e la t ing t ob roade rc u l tu ra l i s sue s o rt ot h e e x i s t ing b ody o fa r cheo log ica lt h eo ry a nd m e thod t h a tm igh th ave h e lped p l a ce s ky— re la ted p ra c t ice s i n as en s ib le i n te rp re ta t ive c on tex t . I ndeed , a t temp t s t oa s se s s t h e c u l tu ra l s i gn if icance o fp u ta t ive a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s , w he re t h ey a ppea red a ta l l , a l l t oo o f ten s e emed f r om a n a r cheo log ica l p e r spec t ive t ob e s imp l i s t ic o r e ven l a ughab ly n a ïve . I tw a s s c a r ce ly s u rp r i s ing t h a t t h e b u rgeon ing a c t iv i ty c ha ra c te r i sed a sA rch c eoa s t ronomy w a s r ega rded b y A r cheo log i s t s a tl a rge w i th c omp le te i n d if f e rence a tb e s t , a nd e ven o cca s iona l ly —whe re i ti mpa c ted d i rec t ly u pon t h e i r o wn w o rk — w i th o pen h o s t i l i ty . L e t t ing a s t ronom ica l « a l ignmen t h un t ing» d i c ta te t h e r e sea r ch a genda o n ly m ake s s en se i fo ne h a s a l ready m ade t h e a s sump t ion , w he the r e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted o r n o t , t h a t s ky a s soc ia t ion s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave e xe r ted a s i gn if ican t i n f luence u pon w ha teve ra spec t s o fs pa t ia l a nd /o rt empo ra l p a t ter n s i nt h e m a te r ia l r e co rd h ave b een s e lec ted f o r s t udy . T h i s , s u re ly , i sp u t t ing t h e c a r t b ef o r e t h e h o r se : a nd i tc an b r ing g r ea te r d ange r s , i fs t r ic tm e thodo log ica l p rocedu re s a r e n o t a dhe r ed t o , o f f i nd ing w ha t o ne i sl o ok ing f o r s imp ly t h rough p e r seve rance a nd b e ing s e lec t ive w i th t h e d a ta . T he r e m ay , o fc ou r se , b e s o l id t h eo r e t ica lj u s t if ica t ion s f o rs uch a n a s sump t ion i nc e r ta in s i tua t ion s ,b u tt h ec a se w a ss e ldom c onv inc ing ly m ade . Y e t , f ew A rcheo log i s t s w ou ld d eny , o re ve rh ave t r i ed t od eny , t h e l i ke ly i mpor tance o ft h e o b jec t s , e ven t s a nd c yc le s o ft h e s ky t o ag r ea t m any d i ve r se h uman s oc ie t ie s i nt h e p a s t . A s s oon a sw e s t a r t t ot h ink a bou t h ow p eop le p e rce ived a nd c once ived t h e w o r ld , a ss oon a sw e s t a r t e xam in ing e v idence o fh uman a c t ion s haped b y a nd e nac ted i na cco rdance w i th s u ch p e r cep t ion s , t h en w e n eed t oc on s ide r n o t o n ly t h e l a nd ( a nd s ea ) b u t t h e t o ta l i ty o ft h ev i s ib le e nv i ronmen tw i th in w h ich t h o se p eop le l i ved . We c an n o t i g no r et h e s ky , a ny mo re t h an w e c an c oncen t ra te u pon i tt o t h e e xc lu s ion o f e ve ry th ing e l se . F u r the rmo re , u s ing m oder n A s t ronomy w e c an r e con s t ruc t , t or ema rkab le a ccu ra cy , t h e a ppea rance o fp a s t s k ie s . T h i s d oe s n o t e x tend t oo ne—of fe ven t s ( s uch a s t h e a ppea rance o fr a re c ome t s o r n ove ) , b u t w e c an s ay , i ne f ec t , w ha t t h e S un , s t a r s , Moon a nd p l ane t s l o oked l i ke t o a nc ien t p eop le s , a nd w e c an v i sua l i se t h e i r c yc le s o fc hange . T h i s ( a t l e a s t f o r u s , i nt r y ing t o r e con s t ruc tp a s tp a t te rn so ft h ough ta nd a c t ion f r om t h em a te r ia l e v idence ) s i ng le s o u tt h e s ky f r om o t he rp a r t s o f t h ee nv i ronmen to fp a s tp eop le s . I st h e r e s t i l l ap rob lem? It h ink s o . A r ch z eoa s t ronomy h a s c e r ta in ly moved o n , b u t t oo g r ea t ad i s tance r ema in s b e tween t h o se w ho w o rk i n t h e f i e ld a nd t h e i r A rch z eo log i s t c o l league s w ho d o n o t . A p i ece o f w o rk t h a t d i scu s se s a s t ronom ica l s ymbo l i sm o r a l ignmen t s i nt h e b roade r c on tex t o f l a nd scape p e rcep t ion o rp reh is to r ic c o smo log ie s m ay b e t a ken s e r iou s ly e nough i fi ta ppea r s i n am a in s t ream a r cheo log ica lj our na l o rb ook , b u tt h e s ame w o rk l a be l led a s « A r cheoa s t ronomy» , e spec ia l ly i fi ta ppea r s i no ne o ft h ej our na l s o r ab ook d ed ica ted s o le ly t ot h a t s ub jec t , m ay b e d e s t ined t or e ce ive s e r iou s c on s ide ra t ion o n ly b y a n a ud ience l a rge ly o u t s ide t h e a r cheo log ica l c ommun i ty . P e rhap s o ne o ft h e d if i cu l t ie s i st h a tt h i s r e la t ive ly s ma l l , a l be i t i mpo r tan t , p a r t o ft h e g ene ra l s t udy o f p e r cep t ion a nd C o smo logy h a s p r e sumed t o e l eva te i t se lf t o t h e s t a tu s o f « i n te rd i sc ip l ine» , t a k ing o n as epa ra te i d en t i ty i n aw ay t h a tt h e b roade r s t udy i n to w h ich i tf i t s h a s n o t . Wou ld A r cheoa s t ronomy n o t b e b e t te r r e ga rded s imp ly a s as e t o fm e thod s a nd f i e ld t e chn ique s r e levan t t o c er ta in b roade r p rob lem s r e la t ing t oC o smo logy a nd c ogn i t ion? T h i si s ad eba te t h a tw i l ld oub t le s sc on t inue . . I nt h e m ean t ime , t h e i mpor tan t t h ing i st h a t s e s s ion s s uch a st h i s o ne d u r ing t h e E AA 2 002 C onf e r ence , h e ld a t T he s sa lon ik i a nd o rgan ized b y Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia , a r e t a k ing p l ace . A rcheoa s t ronomy h a s c e r ta in ly b een t h r iv ing i nE u rope f o r an umbe r o fy ea r s —one s e r ie s o fa nnua l m ee t ing s h a s b een h e ld i nv a r iou s E u ropean c oun t r ie s c on t inuou s ly s i nce 1 988 , f o rma l i sed s i nce 1 993 u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o ft h e S oc ij tj E u ropjenne p our l ' As t ronom ie d an s l aC u l ture ( SEA C )— , b u t i ti sc ommun ica t ion t h a tc oun t s , a nd t h e o ppo r tun i ty f o rt h i sw o rk t o b e r e po r ted d i rec t ly t ot h e b roade r a r cheo log ica l c ommun i ty , a sw e l l a st h e o ppo r tun i ty f o rA r ch z eoa s t ronome r s t of u r the r c on tex tua l i se t h e i r s t ud ie s i ss u re ly t ob e w e lcomed . T he p ape r s i nt h is v o lume r e p re sen t ar a nge o f a pp roache s a nd t op ic s a s w e l l a sr e f lec t ing t h e v i ta l i ty a nd b road s cope o f E u ropean A rch z eoa s t ronomy . L ong m ay t h ed i a logue c on t inue ! [ L e i c e s t e r , M a r ch 2 003 ] C l ive RUGGLES P rof e s so ro fA r cheoa s t ronomy S choo l o fA rcheo logy a nd A nc ien tH i s to ry U n ive r s i ty o fL e ice s te r

v

FOR MER EAA ARCHIEOASTRONO M ICAL S ESSIONS 1 .E uropean A s soc ia t ion o fA rch c eo log i s t s. 5t hA nnua l Mee t ing , B ou rnemou th , U n i ted K ingdom , . t h_ 4 1 9t h S ep tembe r 1 999 : A rch g eoa s t ronomy ( Round T ab le ) : 1 8t h S ep tembe r , O rgan ized b yD r Em i l ia P ä sz to r . 2 .E u ropean A s soc ia t ion o fA rchao log i s t s 7t hA nnua l Mee t ing , E s s l ingen , G e rmany , 1 9-23 t h S ep tembe r2 000 : A s t ronomy , Ma te r ia l i ty & C hang ing L and scape ( Se s s ion 3 2 ) : 2 3"IS ep tembe r , O rgan ized b yD rS t an i s law I wan iszew sk i . 3 .E u ropean A s soc ia t ion o fA rch c eo log i s t s 8t hA nnua l Mee t ing , T he s sa lon iU ,H e l la s , 2 4-29 t h S ep tembe r2 002 : A dA s t ra p e rA spe ra e tp e rL udum ( Se s s ion 1 .3 ) : 2 7t h S ep tembe r , O rgan ized b yD r Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia .

v i

I NTRODUCTION A r chxoa s t ronomy i s ar e la t ive ly mode rn i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry s c ience , u s ing b o th A rchwo logy a nd A s t ronomy a sc omp le m en ta ry m ean s o fs yn the t ic r e sea rch . I tf i r s t a ppea red d u r ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 2 0t h c en tu ry , a nd s i nce t h en i tc on t i nued t op re sen t b o th i n te re s t ing a nd i n t r igu ing r e su l t s . I ti s mo re a pp rop r ia te t ov i ew i ta s ar e a sonab le s yn the s i s o f b o th h e rs ub—d i sc ip l ine s , t h an av i r tua lf i gh tb e tween t h em , o re ven at e nden t iou s p y ram id ( io t )o log ic o rf a n ta s t ic ( S to n ehenge H awk in s— type ) a pp roa ch . B o th d i sc ip l ine s h ave c ommon p o in t s a nd u se t h e r e a son a st h e i rm a in w ay o fd e d uc ing r e su l t s a nd p r e sen t v i ab le t h eo r ie s . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r ch z eo log ica l s i te s i nt h e c on tex to fa s t ronom ica l o b s e rva t ion s i st h e mo s te v iden tp o in to fc on tac t , w h i le a no the ro ne i st h e c on t r ibu t ion o ft h e a r chwo log ica l r e co rd t ot h e s t udy o fe i the r m ino r o rm a jo rp a s t c hange s i nt h e c o sm ic s c ene ry t h a t a r e e i the r r a re o r s l ow ( i . e . : e c l ip se s , c ome t s , m e teo r i te s , b o l ide s , s upemov z e , E a r th 's r a te o fr o ta t ion , &c . ) . D u r ing t h e l a s t d ecade s a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry c o r rec tb a s i s h a s b een p u t t owa rd s af r u i tf u l s yn the s i s i nA r chwoa s t ronomy , a f t e r t h e i mpo r tan t w o rk s b y A n thony A ven i , M i c hae lH o sk in ( t ow ho se h onou rw ep re sen tt h i sv o lume ) , E dw in K rupp , C l ive R ugg le s ,A lexande rT hom , a nd o t he r s . T he o r ien ta t ion o f monumen t s a l o ve rt h e Med i te r ranean i s amo s t f a sc ina t ing t op ic , t h a t p r e sen t s p rom inen t c o r r e la t i on s w i th c e r ta in p henomena a nd /o r s t a r s o ft h e f i rmamen t , h e lp ing t ou nde r s tand t h ef orma m en t i s o fa nc ien tp eop le a r ch z eo log ica l ly a sw e l l a sa s t ronom ica l ly . I nE gyp t , N or th A f r ica , H e l la s , t h e B a lkan P en in su la , I b e r ia a nd t h e w ho le o f E u rope , t h e re a r e m any e xamp le s o f a s t ronom ica l ly o r ien ted monumen t s t h a t r ef lec t p a s t c u s tom s a nd w ay s o f t h ough t ,p e r ta in ing t ot h e p o s s ib le a s t ronom ica l ( s te l la r , s o la ro rl u na r ) o r ig in s o fa nc ien tr e l ig ion s . T hey a l so e cho t h e i re s i s t ib le a r che typa l i mpac tt h a t c e le s t ia l p henomena a nd t h e o b se rved c o sm ic o rde rh ad o n t h e l i ve s o fa nc ien t p eo p l ea nd t h e i rs ub sequen ti n co rpo ra t ion i n to t h e i rs oc io— r e l ig iou so b se rvance s a nd i n to t h e i rc a lend r ic s y s tem . D u r ing t h e EAA 8t h C onf e r ence i nT he s sa lon ike , H e l la s , w e e ndeavou red t oo rgan ize a n a r chwoa s t ronom ica l s e s s ion , t a rge t ing a tt h e a bove s cope s . O u rm a in c oncer nw a st o of e r af o rum f o ra n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach b e tween A s t ro n omy a nd A rch z eo logy , a sw e l l a st h e p lu ra l i ty o fo p in ion s a nd p a r t ic ipa t ion s . T he o u tcome o ft h a t f r u i tf u l s e s s ion i s c on ta ined i nt h e p age s t h a t f o l low . A n a t temp t h a s b een m ade , i no rde r t h a t t h e h o s ted p ape r s f o l low s ome g ene ra l c ommon g u ide l ine s i nf o rma t a nd a ppea rance , a l though t h e p r inc ipa l t r a i t s o fe ach a nd e ve ry o ne o ft h em h ave b een g ene ra l ly p r e se rved . We c o r r ec ted a nd c hecked f o r v a r iou s e r roneou s o ru nc lea r p o in t s i nt h em , a l though w e w i sh t o p o in to u tt h a tf o ra ny s pec if ic e r ro rt h a tm igh te x i s t o n ly t h e a u tho r ( s ) o ft h e c o r re spond ing a r t ic le s i s (a re ) r e spon s ib le . We s hou ld a l so l i ke t ot h ank : ( i ) t h e t h ree r e f e ree s ( i n ter na t iona l ly d i s t ingu i shed c o l league s i nt h e f i e ld o fA r chwo a s t ronomy ) , t h a tc hecked t h ep ape r s a nd p ropo sed s ome a mendmen t s f o r s ome o ft h em , w ho se a nonym i ty w ek eep h e r e —r e spec t ing t h e i rd e s i r e—a nd w ho se h e lp w a sv a luab le i n deed ; ( i ) P rof . D rC l ive R ugg le s f o rh i sn i ce f o rewo rd . L e tu st a ke ac l o ser s hor tl o ok a tt h ep a r t ic ipan t s o ft h i s v o lume a nd t h e i rc on t r ibu t ion s . T he f i r s tp a r to ft h i sw ork i s d ed ica ted t oA nc ien tE gyp ta ndf ea tu re st h ree i n te re s t ing p ape r s . *Kur t L ocher , k nown f o rh i sb r i l l ian t i d ea s a bou tt h e i d en t if ica t ion o fa nc ien t E gyp t ian a s te r i sm st o mode rn c on s te l l a t ion s , t a lked a bou t t h e a r che typa l s ymbo l ism o ft h e m o s t a nc ien t b e tween t h em , c ompa r ing s ome c a ses f r om E gyp t a nd C h ina . I nt h e 1 9t h c en tu ry , w hen S pd .t ( Sö th i s ) w a s p rog re s s ive ly b e ing a cknow ledged a st h e p r inc ipa l E gyp t ian a s t ra l d e i ty , a rche type a s am y tho log ica l n o t ion h ad a sy e tt ob e c o ined , b ef o re s he c ou ld b ecome al e ad ing a r che typa l f i gu re f o rt h eJ ung ian i d ea o ft h e Mo the r /Godd e s s . T r ea ted w i th e qua lw e igh tb yt h eh i s to r ica l s ou rce s , h e rm a le c oun t e rpa r tS 3 1 : 1 ( O r ion ) w a s o fm ino r i mpor tance i nh i s mo r e o r ig ina l a s t ra l r o le o fb e ing o n ly t h e h a rb inge ro ft h e f o rme r , i nt h e a nnua l r hy thm o fh e rp henomena . I nC h ine se my tho logy b y c on t ra s t , t h e f ema le /ma le c oup le s a lway s a ppea r i n s t r ic t s ymme t ry . T hough , s o f a r m a in ly f ound i nt h e m e r e ly t er e s t r ia l s ymbo l ism o fy in / yang , r e cen t ly d i scove red s ou r ce s r e vea l t h a t t h ey m igh t b e o fa s t ra l o r ig in a sw e l l , o r ig ina t ing t h rough t h ef eng / long ( ph c en ix /d ragon ) c oup le , w h ich o ccu r si nt h e se n ew s ou r ce sa s as ubg roup o ft h e f ou r7 — sec t ion—qua r te r so ft h e2 8l u na rm an s ion s( x iu ) . * Amanda—A l ice Marave l ia a nd M .A . Mo sa lam S ha l tou t p re sen t ar ev iew o n t h e i lum ina t ion p henomenon a tt h e G r ea tT emp le a tA bu S imbe l , u nde r l in ing t h e s o la ro r ig in o fi t so r ien ta t ion , p ropo se ap l au s ib le h ypo the s is a nd d i scu s s t h e p auc i ty o fa ny s i f n if ican t a s t ronom ica l o r ien ta t ion f o rt h e Sma l l T emp le . T he c o lo s sa l T emp le a tA bu S imbe l ( d e d i ca ted t oR e '—Ho rakh ty , t h e d e if ied K ing R am se s I , Amun—Re ' a nd P tah ) i st h e b igge s t o ne r o ck c u t a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld . I tc an b e c on s ide red a s ac l imax p o in t i na nc ien t E gyp t ian A rch i tec tu re a nd G eome t ry . T he p henomenon t h a t m ade t h i s T emp le p rom inen t a mong o t he r a nc ien t E gyp t ian o ne s i st h e e n t rance o fs un l igh t a l ong i t sm a in a r ch i tec tu r a l a x i s t w ice p e r y ea r , d u r ing t h e e a r ly mo rn ing , i n to t h e s ac ra r ium t or e ach t h e f ou r s t a tue s , i lum ina t ing t h i s d a rk p l ace c u td eep ly i n to t h e r o ck . T he p henomenon o fi lum ina t ion a ppea r s t ob et h er e su l to fc o r r ec ta s t ronom ica l c a lcu l a t ion s b y a nc ien tp r ie s t s—a s t ronomer s ( i my .w -wnw .t ) , w ho s e em t oh ave b een a wa r e o fp rac t ica l a s t ronom ica l k now l e dge . H ence , i ti sp l au s ib le t h a t b o th d a te s o fi lum ina t ion w e re s e lec ted o n p u rpo se b y t h em . T he a u tho r s e xam ine t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ie s , p ropo s ing ap l au s ib le t h eo ry . T hey u se a ccu ra te a s t ronom ica l s of twa re a nd f e ed i tb y a s t ronom ica l , g eog raph ica l a nd t opog raph ica l d a ta i n pu t , i no rde r t oc a lcu la te t h e a l t i tude a nd a z imu th o ft h e S un f o r e ve ry d ay o f t h ey ea ra tA bu S imbe l . T hey a l so c a lcu la te t h e a z imu th o ft h e S un f o ra l lt h e l a t i tude so fa nc ien tE gyp tb e tween 2 2 ° N a nd 3 2 ° N . T he i rc a lcu la t ion s s how t h a tt h e e l onga t ion o ft h e S un m ea su red f r om d ue E a s t( AO =A —9 0 ° ) , f o rt h et wo

v i i

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAV EL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP E R AS P E R AE TP E R LU DU M

d ay sw hen t h ei lum ina t ion p henomenon o ccu r s( c .2 1s to fF eb rua ry a nd c .2 1s to fO c tobe r , f o l low ing t h e G rego r ian C a l e nda r ) , d ec r ea se s s l igh t ly a sw e move t owa rd s t h e S ou th . A dd i t iona l ly , t h ey p r e sen t c ompu te r s imu la t ion s o ft h e a n c i en t a nd moder n d awn s ky a tA bu S imbe l f o rt h e se d a te s , i no rde rt os t udy t h i s p henomenon . T ho se t wo d a te s w e re p robab ly r e p r e sen t ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e a g r icu l tu re p e r iod ( c . 2 1' o f O c tobe r ) , a f t e r t h e w a te r o ft h e N i le h ad s t a r ted t or e cede ; a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e h a rve s tp e r iod f o r s ome g r een c r op s l i ke o n ion s a nd g r een b ean s ( c . 2 1' o f F eb rua ry ) . T he se d a te s w e re a l so p l aced r e la t ive ly c l o se i nt ime t ot h e b eg inn ing o ft h e W in te r( P r .t ) a nd t h eS umme r ( gmw ) r e spec t ive ly . H ence i tw ou ld b e p l au s ib le t oa s sume t h a t t h e p henomenon o fi lum ina t ion o ccu r r ing o n t h em w a s u sed a s ap rac t ica l a s t ronom ica l h a rb inge ro ft h e se a nc ien tE gyp t ian s e a son s . I ti sk nown t h a tt h eh e l iaca lr i s ing o f S i r iu s w a s u sed l i kew i se , i no rde r t o d e te rm ine t h e b eg inn ing o fI nunda t ion ( 3 h .t ) , a nd t h e N ew Y ea r 's D ay ( W p .t R np .t ) . T hu s , t h ey w e r e v e ry i mpo r tan t d ay s t ot h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian m ind , d u r ing a n e r a w hen t h e l a nd w a s p l an ted o nce p e ry ea ru s ing t h e s y s tem o fi r iga t ion b y c ana ls a nd b a s in s . T he se l e ad t h e a u tho r s t oa s sume t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o fb u i ld ing s u ch at emp le i nt h i s p l ace m ay b e e xp la ined b y b o th a s t ronom ica l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l r e a son s , b e s ide s t h e h o l ine s s o ft h ep l ace a nd t h e d e s i re o fR am ses t h e G r ea tt od azz le h i s s ou the rn n e ighbo r s i nN ub ia . F u r the rmo r e , s pe c i a l a s t ronom ica l c a lcu la t ion s e xc lude t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e Sma l l T emp le o fA bu S imbe l ( d ed ica ted t oH a tho r / I s i s a nd Q ueen N ef e r t i ry a sa n i n ca rna t ion o fS ö th i s ) w a s o r ien ted a s t ronom ica l ly w i th a ny c e r ta in s i gn if ican t s t e l la ro rs o l a r o r ien ta t ion , m a in ly b ecau se b o th S i r iu s a nd t h e S un a r e e xc luded . S ome e r roneou s c l a im s b yG e l in sky a r e a l so d i s c u s sed a nd c o r rec ted , p rov ing o nce mo re t h a t i r r e levan t p e r son s t e nd t ot w i s tt h e e v idence , m i su s ing s c ien t if ic r e su l t s , i no rde rt op r e sen te r roneou s a nd t e nden t iou sh ypo the se s . T h i sp ape rs ugge s t st h ep u re ly s o la rn a tu r e a nd s eman t ic s o f o n ly t h e G r ea t T emp le o fR am se s Ia tA bu S imbe l , w h i le i ts e em s p l au s ib le t h a tt h e Sma l l T emp le w a s b u i l t n o t f o l l ow ing a ny p a r t icu la ra s t ronom ica lo r ien ta t ion . *J uan A n ton io B e lmon te A v i le s ,k nown f o rh i s i mpo r tan tc on t r ibu t ion t o Med i te r ranean A rch z eoa s t ronomy ,p r e sen t s h i s o p in ion s a bou tt h e p o s s ib le w ay t h a tt h e E gyp t ian s w e re l o ok ing a tt h e f i rmamen t . A l though w e d o n o t a g r ee w i th a l h i s p o in t s , w e n o te t h a t s ome o fh i s i d ea s s e em p l au s ib le a nd v e ry i n te re s t ing . I nh i s s ho r t p ape r h e g i ve s as um m a ry o ft h e r e su l t s f r om a n a s t ronom ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e i n f o rma t ion a ppea r ing i nt h e d i agona l s t a r c l ock s o ft h e MK a nd t h e R ame s s ide c l ock s o ft h e NK . T he se , t oge the r w i th as t udy o ft h e e x i s t ing g raph ic r e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h e E gy p t ian s k ie s f r om t h e m id 2nd M i l lenn ium B CE d own t ot h e H e l leno—Roman P e r iod , h ave p romp ted h im t op r epa re a t e n ta t ive l i s to fc o r r e la t ion sb e tween E gyp t ian s t a r s a nd c on s te l la t ion s a nd a c tua l s t a r s a nd a s te r i sm s i nt h e s ky . O nt h e o ne h and , a pa r tf r om t h ew e l l—known i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h eB u l l ' s T h igh ( H pg , Ms l i tyw ) w i th t h eP lough ( U r sa Ma jor ) , n ew i n te rp r e ta t ion s o fw e l l i d en t if ied c on s te l la t ion s s u ch a s 5 3 1 : z o r S pd .t a r e p ropo sed a nd d i scu s sed . O n t h e o t he r h and ,t h e r e a r e s ome n ew i n te re s t ing a nd c ohe ren ti n come s s uch a st h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e d ecan T hou sand s( 1 ) 3 .w )o r F lock t ot h eP le iad e s , t h eL ion (M 3 i )w i th o u rc on s te l la t ion L eo , o re ven t h e i d en t i ty b e tween t h e H ippopo tamu s a s . t c 1 3 .t - Mw .t I ib -p t ) c on s te l la t ion o ft h e n o r ther ns ky r e p r e sen ta t ion s i ns eve ra l t omb a nd t emp le c e i l ing s a nd t h e F ema le H ippopo tamu s ( Rr . t ) o ft h e R ame s s ide s t a r c l ock s . W i th a l l t h i s i n f o rma t ion , h e e ndeavou red t oe l abo ra te at e n ta t ive m ap c o r re spond ing t ot h ea nc ien tE gyp t ian c oncep t ion o ft h ef i rmamen t . T he s econd —and b igg e s t— p a r to ft h i sv o lume r ef e r s t os eve ra l a rch c eoa s t ronom ica lt h eme sf rom a round t h e Med i t e r ranean a nd E urope . I tf ea ture s e i gh tp ape r st h a tp romo te c u r ren tr e sea rch . *Ga i l H igg inbo t tom ( e ta l .) , w ho se a r chwoa s t ronom ica l r e sea r ch i nt h e UK i sr e s t le s s , g i ve u sa n a c coun to ft h er o le o fa nc ien t monumen t s i nt h e c on tex t o fl o ca l h o r izon s , a st h ey w e re p l aced i no rde rt ov i r tua l ly s ymbo l ize t h e c o sm ic o rde r ( at o p ic a l so d i scu s sed i nD r I wan i szew sk i 's p ape r ) . C u l tu ra l i n te r e s t i nt h e movemen t s o ft h e Moon a nd S un i s s t rong ly s uppo r ted b ym any w o rk s i nA r ch z eoa s t ronomy . R e sea r ch o nt h e o r ien ta t ion o ft omb s i nt h e L a te—M inoan c e m e te ry a tA rmeno i , C re te , a sw e l l a sA ven i 's a nd H a r tung 's w o rk o nt h e z en i th t ube s a t Mon te A lban a nd X och ica lco , i lu s t ra te t h i s f a c t . O r ien t ing s t ruc tu re s t owa rd s p a r t icu la r a s t ronom ica l p henomena , h oweve r , m ay n o t h ave b een t h e o n ly v a r iab le t oc on s ide ri nc hoo s ing t h e i rl o ca t ion . R ugg le s ' a nd Ma r t lew 's N o r th Mu l l i n ve s t iga t ion s f ound t h a ts i te s w e re p r ef e ren t ia l ly p l aced s o a st oa s soc ia te p rom inen t s e conda ry p eak s , o rg roup s o fp eak s , w i th p a r t icu la ra s t rono m ica l p henomena , r e ga rd le s s o ft h e i r o r ien ta t ion . I np a r t icu la r , a s soc ia t ing t h em w i th t h e s ou the rnmo s tm oon r i se n ea r e rt h e M ino r S t and s t i l l o rt h e r i se a nd s e t o ft h e s o l s t i t ia l S un . T he o u tcome so ft h e c u r ren t s t udy s uppo r ta nd e xpand t h e i r m a in c onc lu s ion s . F i r s t ly , i tw a s f ound t h a t w hen e r ec t ing amonumen t , c on s ide ra t ion w a s s ome t ime s g i ven n o t o n ly t o as i ng le a s t ronom ica l p henomenon , b u t a l so t oa n a s soc ia t ion w i th a / some c omp le te c o smo log ica l c yc le / s . S ec o nd ly , t h a tt h e se c yc le s w e re n o t i n d ica ted i nt h e i re n t i r e ty , b u tt h e i re x i s tence w a s i mp l ied b yt h e o r ien ta t ion t owa rd s a n i n s tance o fi t .T h i sp ape rp re sen t st h er e su l t so fr e sea rch i n to f r ee— s tand ing m ega l i th s o nt h e i s land s o f Mu l l a nd T i r e e ,r evea l ing l i nk sb e tween t h e i rl o ca t ion a nd t h e i ro r ien ta t ion ,t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape a nd a s t ronom ica lc yc le s . *Mary B lomberg a nd G öran H enr i l i s son ,w ho se l o ve f o rH e l la s i ss hown i nm any o ft h e i rs t ud ie s , d i scu s sw ha tt h e B ronze A ge o r ien ta t ion s i n d ica te a bou t t h e Mycenxan a nd M inoan o r ig in o fl a te r H e l len ic A s t ronomy . T he re a r e a n umbe r o fL inea r Bt a b le t s , w h ich b eg in w i th t h e n ame o f amon th a nd w h ich c on ta in i n f o rma t ion a bou t of e r ing s m ade t od i v in i t ie s . T he se t a b le t s s ugge s tt h e e xc i t ing p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l a te r H e l len ic r i tua l l u n i so la r c a lenda rm igh t h ave b een d e r ived f r om t h e Mycen a zan c u l tu r e . We k now t h a t t h e H e l lene s h ad t h e a s t ronom ica l k now ledge t or e gu l a te s uch ac a lenda rt h rough i n te r ca la t ion , b u t t h e re i sn o e v idence t h a tt h e Mycen z ean s h ad ac ompa rab le k now ledge .

v i i i

Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia : I n t roduc t ion

S uch e v idence c ou ld h ave e x i s ted i nw r i t ten f o rm , w h ich d i d n o t s u rv ived , o ri tc ou ld b e i n d ica ted b yt h e o r ien ta t ion s o fi mpor tan t b u i ld ing s t ot h e c e le s t ia l e ven t s , o b se rva t ion s o fw h ich a r e n ece s sa ry f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion a nd m a in ten a nce o f al u n i so la rc a lenda r . Ap r e l im ina ry s umma ry o f Mycen z ean o r ien ta t ion s i nm a in land H e l la s i sp re sen ted b yt h e a u tho r s : t h e se d o n o t i n d ica te a ny i n te re s t i ns y s tema t ic o b se rva t ion s o fc e le s t ia l e ven t s . A mo re t h o rough i n ve s t iga t i on o ft h e o r ien ta t ion s o fm a jo rM inoan p eak s a nc tua r ie s a nd p a lace s , h oweve r , p o in t st ol o ng t e rm s y s tema t ic o b se r v a t ion s o ft h e mo t ion s o ft h e S un , t h e Moon a nd t h e s t a r s , t h a t w ou ld h ave m ade s u ch ac a lenda rp o s s ib le , a sw e l l a s t os t e l la rn av iga t ion . H e l len ic A s t ronomy i sg ene ra l ly t h ough t t oh ave i t s r oo t s i n Me sopo tam ia . T he a u tho r s p ropo se t h a t a no the rp l au s ib le s ou r ce i st h e a s t ronom ica l k now ledge a cqu i red b yt h e M inoan s , w h ich i ni t st u rn w a s c onveyed t ot h eH e l lene sb yt h e Mycenxan s . *P e ter B lomberg c omb ine sf r u i tf u l ly t h eo r ien ta t ion s t ud ie s w i th t e x tua l a na ly s i s o fa nc ien t H e l len ic w r i t ten r e co rd s , i no rde rt od educe c onc lu s ion s a bou t v a r iou s a r chxo log ica l f i nd ing s a nd t h e i rc o r r e la t ion t oa s t ronom ica l c oncep t s . I t h a s e a r l ie rb een s hown t h a tt h e w a l l s o nt h e h i l l s o fP e t sopha s a nd T rao s ta lo s ( i n e a s te rn C re te ) h ave a s t ronom ica l s i g n if icance . T ha t c onc lu s ion r e su l ted i n an ew i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h ef i nd s f r om t h o se h i l l top s . A lmo s ta l lt e r raco t ta f i gu r i ne s c ou ld b e e xp la ined a sh av ing a n a s t ronom ica l s i gn if icance . H oweve r , s ome c on s te l la t ion s , w h ich a r e i mpor tan t f o rt h e moder ns ky m ap , a r e n o tr e p re sen ted a mong s tt h e f i nd s f r om t h e se h i l l top s . U r sa Ma jor , i np a r t icu la r , i sl a ck i n g . T he e a r ly H e l len ic t e x t s a nd p opu la rt r ad i t ion s r ega rd ing t h e n o r ther nc on s te l la t ion s h ave t h e r ef o re b een s t ud ied . T he a u tho r s how s t h a t e a r ly H e l lene s s aw t h e c on s te l la t ion s a r ound t h e n o r ther n c e le s t ia l p o le i nt h e s ame w ay a s o t he r E u ropean c u l tu re s . A n a r ch z eo log ica l e va lua t ion o fo r ien ta t ion s h a s t h u s r e su l ted i n an ew u nde r s tand ing o fs o m et e r ra co t ta f i gu r ine s a nd a l so o ft h e e a r ly H e l len ic c on s te l la t ion s . We p o in t o u tt h a tt h i s a nd t h e p r ev iou s p ape r s o f t h e B lombe rg r e sea r ch t e am a r e i mpo r tan t i ns how ing t h e v e ry e a r ly o r ig in o fH e l len ic a s t ronom ica l c oncep t s , af a c t w h ich a g r ee s p e rf ec t ly w i th t h e d a t ing o ft h e a s t ronom ica l a nd c o smov i s iona l n o t ion s f ound i nt h e O rph ic H ymn s f r om c .1 3t h c en tu ry BCE ( wh ich w e re t h ough w r i t ten d own of i c ia l ly a nd i n i t ia l ly a tc . 6t h c en tu ry BCE) . *R a lph M .R ow le t t ,w ho se l o ve f o rA rchwoa s t ronomy i se v iden t , c on t r ibu te s a no r ig ina lp ape ro na nI r on A ge b o l ide s t r ike i nS ou ther n G au l . Wh i le s u ch ad ange r d i d n o t s e em v e ry l i ke ly i nt h e l a te 1s tM i l len ium BCE , b y t h e e a r ly 3rd M i l len ium CE , s c ien t if ic r e sea rch i nA s t ronomy , G eo logy , P a l z eon to logy a nd A rchxo logy h a s m ade i ta bundan t ly c l ea rt h a tt h e E a r th i ss t i l l u nde rb omba rdmen t f r om a s te ro id s , c ome t s , a nd o t he rc e le s t ia l o b jec t s ( l ike m e teo r i te s a nd m e teo r s ) t h a t c ou ld v e ry w e l l p rove d i sa s t rou s f o r l i f e o n E a r th i nt h e f u tu r e ,j u s t a si th a s b een i nt h e p a s t . T he B o se ( Ch ina )b o l ide s t r ike a s soc ia te sw i th A cheu lean h and a xe s . T he A r izona Me teo r C ra te r i se s t ima ted t oh ave b e ing f o r m ed 5 0 ,000 y ea r s a go , o n ly s ho r t ly b ef o re h uman b e ing s a r r ived i nt h e N ew Wo r ld . T he t wen t ie th c en tu ry T ungu ska b o l ide i nS i be r ia w ou ld h ave b een d eva s ta t ing i fi th ad h i t az one d en se w i th h uman p opu la t ion , a nd s t r ike s o fs u ch m agn i tude a r e e s t ima ted t oo ccu ra tt h e r a te o fa bou t o ne p e r c en tu ry . O bv iou s ly , s ome o ft h e se s hou ld b e d e tec tab le i nt h e a r chxo log ica l r e co rd . Ac omb ina t ion o fA rchwo logy a nd t h e H e l len ic l e gend o ft h e T en th L abou r o fH e rak le s , w hen h e i sr e tur n ing e a s twa rd a f te rh av ing s t o len t h e r ed c a t t le o fG e ryon , i mp l ie s t h a tC e l t s o rC e l to—L igu r ian s e xpe r i enced s uch ab o l ide s t r ike b y s t ony m e teo r i te s i ns ou ther n G au l i nt h e 6t h c en tu ry o rt h e e a r ly 5t h c en tu ry BCE . T he L abou r s o fH e rak le s , o fc ou r se , c on s t i tu te ac omp i la t ion o fs t o r ie s , s ome o fw h ich s e em t od a te f r om t h e P a lxo l i th ic , m any f r om t h e B ronze A ge a nd p e rhap s o t he r s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t I r on A ge . T he e a r l ie s t v e r s ion o ft h e T en th L abo r , i n H e s iodo s a nd S t e s icho ro s f o r i n s tance , s e em s n o t t om en t ion t h e f a l l ing o fs t one s f r om t h e s ky , s en t b y Z eu s , t os ave h i s s on . T h i sw ou ld h ave b een d u r ing H a l l s ta t t I b ( = D 2 ) i nt e rm s o fI r on A ge c u l tu re—h i s to r ica l p e r iod s ; t h u st h e e qu i pmen t o ft h e p eop le s t ruck b yt h i s b o l ide c an b e e a s i ly r e con s t ruc ted , s how ing i t s a f in i t ie s w i th C e l t ic c u l tu ra l m a te r i a l s . T he H e l len ic a ccoun t s f r om t h e 5t h c en tu ry o nwa rd a r e f a i r ly s pec if ic i nt e rm s o fl o ca t ion o ft h e s t r ike a sw e l l a s t h e m ake—up o ft h e b o l ide , p rov id ing i n va luab le a s s i s tance i nt h e l o ca t ion o ft h i s s t r ike . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h e g r ea t d ange rt oh uman l i f e ,p o sed b ys u ch b omba rdmen t s , t e s t if ie st ot h e a s tu tene s s o fC e l t ic l o r e a nd k now ledge . T he r e cu r r e nce o fs uch e ven t s a l so m ake s i te v id en tt h a tm oder nd ay E a r th l ing s s hou ld u se t h e i rt e chno logy t od eve lop d ef en se s a ga in s ts uch c o sm ic b omba rdmen t s , i n s tead o ff i gh t ing a nd k i l l ing e ach o t he r . *C e sar E s teban g u ide su st h rough l a te rA n t iqu i ty , b ye xam in ing t h e e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s i ns ome P r e—Roman ( ma in ly P un ic a nd P hc en ic ian ) N o r thwe s ter nA f r ican t emp le s a nd t omb s . H e p re sen t s a nd d i scu s se s d a ta o n a r chwoa s t ronom i c a l f i e ldwo rk c a r r ied o u t i n s a nc tua r ie s a nd n ec ropo l i se s o f t h e P re—Roman I b e r ian c u l tu re i nt h e S ou th— We s t o f S pa in . T he d a ta a r e q u i te r e vea l ing , s how ing ap o s s ib le o r ien ta t ion p a t ter no ft h e monumen t s i n d ica t ing a n u nde r ly ing a s t ronom ica l s i gn if icance . T he a na ly s i s o ft h e h o r izon f e a tu re s s u r round ing t h e s i t e s i mp l ie s t h a t as i gn if ican t p e r cen t a ge o ft h em s how r ema rkab le a nd s im i la r e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s . T he se m a rke r s s e em t oi n d ica te t h e h a lf—way p o in t i n t ime b e tween S o l s t ice s ( a bou t h a lf ad eg r ee n o r th o ft r ue E qu inox ) . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t a na logou s m a rke r s h ave b een f ound i nP r e—Roman s i t e s o fN or th A f r ica . T he se A f r ican s i te s w e re r e la ted t ot h e c u l t o fB aa l—Hamon a nd S a tur ni nP r e—Roman a nd R oman t ime s ,r e spec t ive ly . T he l i ke ly o r ig in o ft h i sc onve rgence i sa l so d i scu s sed . * Em i l ia P ä sz tor a nd C ur t R o s lund b r ief ly d i scu s s ap o s s ib le a s t ronom ica l o r ien ta t ion o fr o ck c a rv ing s a tt h e K i l m a r t in a r ea , UK . T he h ighe s t c oncen t ra t ion o fr o ck c a rv ing s i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land i sf ound n ea r t h e s ma l l v i l lage o f K i lma r t in i nM id A rgy l l o nt h e S co t t i sh We s tC oa s t . W i th in ar ad iu s o ft e n k i lome t re s f r om K i lma r t in , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c oun t mo re t h an ah und r ed s i t e s w i th r o ck c a rv ing s . T he s t rong c ohe rence i no r ien ta t ion o fc up—and— r ing r o ck c a rv -

i x

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

i n g s i nt h eK i lma r t in a r ea c an r e a sonab ly b e i n te rp re ted a sh av ing b een a ch ieved b ya s t ronom ica l m ean s . A l though w e c anno t u nequ ivoca l ly p i npo in tt h e c e le s t ia l t a rge t o rt h e p u rpo se o ft h e a l ignmen t , t h e S un a nd t h e Moon w ou ld b e l i k e ly c and ida te s . A st h ec ohe rence i no r ien ta t ion i sl e s s p ronounced a to t he rs i t e s i nS co t land , i ti sn o t i ra t iona lt os up p o se t h a tt h ec up—and— r ing m o t if w i th ar ad ia lg roove o r ig ina ted i nt h e K i lma r t in a r ea . *F lor in S täne sku , ar e s t le s s R oman ian c o l league , e xam ine s s ome p o s s ib le u n i t s o fm ea su remen t s b yt r a c ing t h e s a n c t ua r ie s o fa nc ien t D ac ia . H i s p ape ra r gue s t h e p o s s ib le a nd e ven p robab le e x i s tence i nt h e D ac ian w o r ld o f au n i t o f l e ng th e qua l t o0 . 436 m , t h e ref o re v e ry c l o se t ot h e H e l leno—Roman c ub i tu s ( = 0 . 443 m ) . T h i s o ne c ou ld h av e b een u sed t ob u i ld s ome o ft h e s anc tua r ie s o ft h e s a c r ed t e r ra ce , w h ich —tak ing i n to a ccoun tt h e e x i s tence i nA n t iqu i ty o f s ome s pec ia li n d ica t ion sc once rn ing t h eb u i ld ing o fs a nc tua r ie si n c lu s ive ly o fs ome s pec ia l u n i t s , a sw e l l a ss ome a s t ro n om ica l o r ien ta t ion so ft h o se c on s t ruc t ion s— ,g ran tt ot h a tu n i tt h ep o s s ib le s t a tu s o ft h es ac red c ub i tu so ft h eD a c ian s . *D ragana M ladenov ie a nd A ndor V in e , A r ch z eo log i s t s f r om S e rb ia , p r e sen t t h e i r i d ea s a bou t t h e s uppo sed a d v an tage s o ft h e s o la rc ompa s s i nc ompa r ison t ot h e m agne t ic c ompa s s f o rf i e ldwo rk a z imu th m ea su remen t s . A l though t h e r e a r e s ome g ood p o in t s i nt h i s p ape r , w h ich t r i e s t oa n swe r a n o l d q ue s t ion , w e d o n o t f u l ly a g ree w i th t h em , b u t p re sen t t h e i r r e su l t s t ot r igge r s ome f u r the r d i scu s s ion . U s ing am agne t ic c ompa s s f o r m ea su r ing o r ien ta t ion o fs t ru c t u re s a nd o b jec t s a ta n a r ch z eo log ica l s i te i ss t i l l t h e mo s t c ommon m e thod t h a tA r chxo log i s t s u se . T he n ew a nd i m p roved t e chno log ie s e x i s t , b u t a n a ve rage A r ch z eo log i s t w o rk ing o n a n a ve rage p ro jec t o f ten d oe s n o t h ave a c ce s s t o t h e se « wonde rf u l» g adge t s . S o o ne u se s am agne t ic c ompa s s , as imp le , c heap a nd r e l iab le m e thod . T he a u tho r s o ft h i s p ape rc r i t ic ize t h i st e ndency . T hey c l a im t h a t G eo log i s t s h ave s t opped u s ing m agne t ic c ompa s se s d u r ing t h e 7 0 's , a nd n o tw i thou t ag ood r e a son . A st h ey h ave d i scove r ed am agne t ic c ompa s s c an b e s u rp r i s ing ly i n a ccu ra te d ue t o aw ho le v a r ie ty o fr e a son s t h a t t h ey d i scu s s . T he p rob lem i t s e lf i sn o t u nknown a mong A r chwo log i s t s , e spec ia l ly t h o se w o rk i n g i nt h ef i e ld o fA rchwoa s t ronomy , b u tt h e a u tho r s f e e l t h a t i th a s n o t b een g i ven e nough a t ten t ion o n aw ide r l e ve l . A s a n a l te rna t ive , G eo log i s t s h ave s t a r ted u s ing s o la rc ompa s se s , e a sy— to—u se i n s t rumen t s , t h a t i nc omb ina t ion w i th a s imp le c ompu te r s of twa re p rov ide t h em w i th v e ry p r ec i se o r ien ta t ion d a ta . H oweve r , t h i s i n s t rumen th a sn o th ad aw i d e r a pp l ica t ion i na r chwo log ica l f i e ldwo rk . T h i s p ape rd ea l s w i th t h e a u tho r s ' f i r s t h and e xpe r ience o fw o rk ing w i th a s o la r c ompa s s a ts i te s f r om d i f f e r en tp e r iod s , t h e a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s o fi t s u sage a ta n a r cheo log ica l e xca v a t ion , t oge the r w i th s ome r e su l t s o b ta ined t h i s w ay . T he a u tho r s b e l ieve t h a t t h e n ew p o s s ib i l i t ie s t h i s i n s t rumen t of e r s w ou ld b e o fi n te r e s t t oa l l t h o se w o rk ing i nt h e f i e ld o fA rch z eoa s t ronomy , w he re i ti sv i ta l t oh ave p r ec i se o r i e n ta t ion m ea su remen t s . A nd a l so t oa l t h o se w o rk ing a te xcava t ion p ro jec t s w i th l i m i ted b udge t s w ho j u s tc an n o t a f f o rd mo r e e xpen s ive e qu ipmen to re mp loy ing aG eode s i s tt ot a ke o r ien ta t ion m ea su r emen t s . We h ave t op o in to u tt h a t amagne t ic c ompa s s c an b e u s ed a f t e re a sy c o r rec t ion s o rj u s tb yo b se rv ing t h e r i s ing o rs e t t ing o f ac e le s t ia l o b jec t a t t h e s ame p l ace ,j u s t l i ke t h e s o la r c ompa s s ( t he c apab i l i ty o fw h ich i nd i s tan t b a se m ea su remen t s i sv e ry l i m i ted , a nd t h e c omp lex i ty o fi t s u s e i sd i scou rag ing ) . B e s ide s , i nt h e m a jo r i ty o fs i t e s w he re t h e m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion i sr e l iab le , i ti s mo r e p ruden t t ou se c a r ef u l ly t h e m agne t ic c ompa s s . F ina l ly , t h e i r c l a imed a ccu ra cy ( — 2 ° ) i s much l e s s t h an t h e o ne o b ta ined a nd c hecked u sua l ly b ye xpe r ienced u se r so fp r ec i se m agne t ic c ompa s se s . L a s t , b u tn o tl e a s t , t h e t h i rd —and s ma l le s t— p a r to ft h i s v o lume i sd ed ica ted t o Me soame r ican A rch c eoa s t ronomy . I t h o s t s o n ly o ne p ape r ,p rov ing o nce m o re t ha tq ua l i ty i sb e t te rt han q uan t i ty . *S tan i s law I wan i szew sk i , av e ry e xpe r ienced a nd r e s t le s s c o l league f r om P o land t h a tr e s ide sa nd t e ache s i n Mex ico , p r e sen t s au sef u l r e v iew o n A s t ronomy , L and scape a nd t h e Ma te r ia l C u l tu re , a na lyz ing t wo c a se s i n Mex ico a nd G ua t ema la . F rom s ome t ime o nwa rd s s cho la r sh ave s t a r ted t oe xam ine d i f f e r en th o r izon p rof i le s i nt e rm s o f ah ypo the t ica l c a lenda r b a sed o n p o s i t ion s o ft h e r i s ing a nd /o r s e t t ing S un i np a r t icu la r m omen t s o f ay ea r . I n Me soamer ican A r c h z eoa s t rony t h e h o r izon p rof i le a s s e en f r om d i f f e ren t l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e B a s in o f Mex ico h a s b een a na lyzed b y A n thony A ven i , F ranz T ichy , J ohanna B roda , J e sü s G a l indo , I v an S p ra jc a nd S t an i s law I wan i szew sk i . T he e a s te rn h o r i zon —a s s e en f r om t h e t o p o f t h e c i r cu la r p y ram id a t C u icu i lco — , w he r e t h e s now— cove red moun ta in top s o f P opoca tepe t la nd I z ta cc ihua t l ,t oge the rw i th P apayo , T e lapon a nd T la loc a ppea rt ob e l o ca ted w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o f i mpo r tan ts o la rd a te s ,h a sr e ce ived p a r t icu la ra t ten t ion . F rom t h e moder na r chwo log ica lp o in to fv i ew t h ep henomenon o ft r a c ing a n i mag ina ry a l ignmen t b e tween t h e m a te r ia l s t ruc tu re a nd t h e d i s tan t h o r izon h a s n o t b een f u l ly e xp lo r ed y e t . C ompa red w i th t h e U axa c tun ian h uman—made h o r izon , t h e C u icu i lco s pa t ia l a r rangemen t t h row s a n a dd i t iona l l i gh t o n to t h e p roce s s o fm ak ing h o r izon ( a nd l a nd scape ) s i gn if ican t . U s ing t h e c oncep t s o fm e tonym ic a nd m e tapho r i c c on s t ruc t s , t h e a u tho r d educe s t h e d i f f e rence s i nt h e c u l tu ra l p e rcep t ion a nd c on s t ruc t ion o fl a nd scape s a tt wo d i f f e ren ts i te s ,w h ich d eno te t h ee me rgence o f ac omp lex s oc ie ty a tt h e e nd o ft h eF o rma t ive P e r iod i n Me soame r ica . We d o h ope t h a tt h er e ade r s w i l lf i nd i nt h ep r e sen tv o lume s ome a n swe r st os e ve ra l i s sue s c oncer n ed w i th t h e c u r r en t a r chxoa s t ronom ica l r e sea rch . We w ho lehea r ted ly w i sh t h em t oe n joy t h e i rv i r tua l t r ip i n to t h eh o r izon . .o fk now led g e , a tt h et h re sho ld o ft h r ee c on t inen t s : E u rope ,A f r ica a nd Ame r ica . [ A then s , A p r i l2 003] Amanda—A l ice MARAVEL IA

x

ANCIENT EGYPT

The A rche typa l S ymbo l i sm o ft he Mo s t Anc ien tC on s te l la t ion s : AC ompar i son E gyp t /Ch ina K ur t Locher

A b s trac t

I ti su b iqu i tou s i n mo s t h i s to r ica l s i te s o fC h ina f r om t h e l a s tt wo m i l lenn ia t h a t aq uad rup le to f my tho log ica lf i gu re s ( d ragon , p hc en ix , t i ge r , t u r t le ) w a s c on s ide red s ymbo l ica l ly s t ruc tu r ing t h e g eog raph ic p a r t o f C h ine se c o smo logy b y a s s ign ing t h e f ou r f i gu re s t o e ach o f t h e f ou r c a rd ina l d i rec t ion s , a nd t h a t t h e p a i r o f i t s f i r s t t wo c on s t i tuen t s ( Long , F eng ) e me rged f r om t h em a sa n a dd i t iona l s ymbo l o f t h e s ymme t ry o f t h e g ende r s ( Yang , Y i n , r e spec t ive ly ) [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . T ha t a l t h e se f e a tu re s m igh t u l t ima te ly b e o f a s t ra l o r ig in i se spec ia l ly s ugge s ted b y t h e a s t ronom ica l c e i l ing3 o f t h e H an t omb d i scove red i n X i 'an i n 1 987 , w he re t h e f ou rf i gu re s a ppea r c onnec ted t of ou r s ubg roup s e ach c on ta in ing 7 o u t o ft h e 2 8 l u na r l o dge s ( c a l led X iu ) . T h i s c omp le te ly s ymme t r ica l 4 x7 a r rangemen t h a s s ome l e s s s ymme t r ica l p r ecu r so r s , t h e m o s t r ema rkab le o fw h ich b e ing t h e l a cque r ed v o t ive b ox f ound i nt h e t omb o fZ eng H o Y i f r om t h e 5th c en tu ry BCE , s how ing t h e d ragon a nd t i ge r f l ank ing r ough ly t h e s ame t wo s ubg roup s o f 7X iu , e ach a si nt h eX i 'an t omb 4.T he l a rge c o l lec t ion o fp i c to r ia l s t eh e f r om t h e H an e poch e xh ib i ted i n t h e N anyang Mu seum c on ta in s m any r e p re sen ta t ion s o f a s te r i sm s c onnec ted t o t h e my tho log ica l f i gu re s o f t h e q uad rup le t m en t ioned a bove , a mong w h ich Wu Z engde s w a s a b le t o d e tec t s ome o ft h e s ame a s s ignmen t s o ft h e se f i gu r e s t ot h e X iu e ven b ef o r e t ho se i nt h e X i 'an t omb h ad b een d i scove r e d . S im i la r ly , t h e a t t r ibu t ion o f t h e t i ge r t o i t s 7X iu i s d ocumen ted f r om N anyang i n R enhua 's & Y ux iang 's a r t ic le 6 w i th r e f e rence t oc e r ta in H an s t eh e .

I nt h e 19 th c en tu ry , w hen S pd . t ( Sö th is ) w a s p rog r e s s ive ly b e ing a cknow ledged a st h e c en t ra l E gyp t ian a s t ra l d e i ty , a rche type a sa my tho log ica l n o t ion h ad a s y e t t o b e c o ined , b ef o r e s he c ou ld b ecome a l e ad ing a r che typa l f i gu re f o r t h e J ung ian i d ea o ft h e Mo ther /Godd e s s . T rea ted w i th e qua l w e igh t b y t h e h i s to r ica l s ou rce s , h e r m a le c oun te rpa r t S 3 1 3 ( O r ion ) w a s o f m ino r i mpo r tance i n h i s mo r e o r ig ina l a s t ra l r o le o f b e ing o n ly t h e h a rb inge r o ft h e f o rme r , i nt h e a nnua l r hy thm o fh e rp henomena . I n C h ine se my tho logy b y c on t ra s t , t h e f ema le /ma le c oup le s a lway s a ppea ri ns t r ic t s ymme t ry . T hough , s of a rm a in ly f ound i n t h e m e re ly t e r re s t r ia l s ymbo l ism o fy in / yang , r e cen t ly d i scove red s ou r ce s r e vea l t h a t t h ey m igh t b e o f a s t ra l o r ig in a s w e l l , o r ig ina t ing t h rough t h e F eng /Long ( Ph c en ix /D ragon ) c oup le , w h ich o ccu r s i nt h e se n ew s ou rce s a s as ubg roup o ft h e f ou r 7 — s e c t ion—qua r te r so ft h e2 8l u nar m an s ion s( x iu ) . I nt h ep r e sen tp a p e r a l t h e se f e a tu r e s w i l l b e s t ud ied a nd i lu s t ra ted w i th t e x tua l a nd i c onog raph ic d ocumen t s . KEY WORDS : S ö th is , O r ion , A nc ien t E gyp t ian C on s te l la t ion s ; F eng ( Ph en ix ) , L ong ( D ragon ) , A nc ien t C h ine se C on s te l la t ion s ; C e le s t ia lA r che type s ,J ung ian A rche type s , Mo the rG odde s s .

I .I n troduc t ion N ew i n s igh t i n to t h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian w o r ldv iew o cca s io n a l ly a r i se s f r om t h e e xchange o f i d ea s a t m ee t ing s o f s cho la r s , b u t v e ry r a r e ly f r om n ew ly e xcava ted m a ter ia l , t h ew ho le c o rpu s o fs u ch m a te r ia l h av ing i n c r ea sed b yo n ly af ew p e rc en t s i nce t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 2 0 'h c en tu ry . T h i s s i tua t ion c on t ra s t s w i th t h a t o f C h ina , w he re f r equen t e xcava t ion s a r ep e rmanen t ly b e ing a dded t ot h et e x tua l a nd i c onog raph ic m a te r ia l a va i lab le f o rt h e s t udy o ft h e h i s to ry o f c u l tu re , o f w h ich a nc ien t A s t ronomy m ake s u p a c on s ide rab le p a r tb o th i nE gyp ta nd C h ina .

Among t h e p o s t—Han d ocumen t s c on t inu ing t h e t r ad i t ion o ft h e 4f i gu r e s b e ing a t t r ibu ted t os ubg roup s o ft h e2 8X iu , t h e re a r e s eve ra l w e l l p r e se rved s epu lch ra l w a l l p a in t ing s f r om t h e 5th c en tu ry CE , e spec ia l ly t h o se f ound i n Manchu r ia ' a nd No r th K o reas. I n C h ina , t h i s s ame a t t r ibu t ion a l so s e em st oh ave b een w e l l e s tab l i shed b yt h a t t ime a cco rd ing t o S chaf e r 's t a b le 9, b u t t h i s a u tho r , o t herw ise v e ry c a ref u l i n h i s d ocumen ta t ion s , i sr e t icen t a bou tt h e s ou rce s i nt h i s c a se . A s a l ready m en t ioned a bove , t h e e me rgence o f t h e m a le /f ema le c oup le o u t o f t h e q uad rup le t m igh t b e a so l d a st h e l a t te r i t se lf a nd t h e ref o re o fu l t ima te ly a s t ra l o r ig in . N one o fm y d i scu s s ion p a r tne r s i nN anyang h ad a ny a r gumen t s e i the r f o r o r a ga in s t t h is . T he c o—au tho r o fT he C h ine se S ky d u r ing t h e Han d i d n o t

H . A nc ien tC h ine se A s ter i sm s T oday 's s t age o fo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h e mo s ta nc ien tt r a c e s o f C h ine se A s t ronomy i sc ompa rab le t o t h a t o f t h e 1 930 's i nt h e E gyp t ian c a se , w h ich w a s t h e t ime o fP ogo 's w o rk ' . A b ook w h ich m ay b e c on s ide red a C h ine se e qu iva len t o f t h i s i s t h e o ne b y S un X iaochun a nd K i s temake r2,e spec ia l ly i t s c hap te r 6 , w h ich r e l ie s o n a n ew ly e xcava ted s ou rce . D e sp i te t h i s b ook b e ing p ub l i shed f ou ry ea r sp r io rt ol a s ty ea r 's ( 200 1) I COA 4C onf e r ence o n O r ien ta l A s t ronomy i n N anyang , t h e a t tend ing n a t ive C h ine se s cho la r s w e re n o t y e t f u l ly a wa re o f t h e n ew i n s igh t w h ich t h a t v e ry c hap te r 6h a s p rov ided . I nf a c t t h e m a in i d ea s Ia m p r e sen t ing h e r e c r y s ta l l ized d u r ing t h e s i de—d i scu s s ion sa tt h a tc onf e rence .

3 4

C f . o p . c i t . , 15 : f i g . 6 . 1 .

SH I , F. :« Zhongguo Z haoq i X ingx iang tu Y an j iu» , Z h iran K exue sh i Y an j iu ,9 ,1 990 , 15 : f i g . 4[ p a r t 1 ,w i th a b s t ra c ti nE ng l ish : 18 ] . 5 ZE NGD E , W .& ZH OU DAO,Z. :« Nanyang H an H uax iang sh i Z hong d e S henhua y u T ianwen» , Z heng zhou D axue X uebao , 4 , 1 978 , #4 : t a b le , l i ne s 1 4 ( d ragon ) , 7( ph c en ix ) , 5 -6 ( t ig e r ) , a nd 8 -9 ( t u r t le ) . 6

RE NHUA , W .& YU X IANG,H . : « Sh i lun G uan shan T ian mu d e H u ix ing t u » ,H an H ua Y an j iu , 1 993 , #3 :f i g . 1 . 7 I LKU EN , K . : « Koda i j in tach i n o T enmonkan — K oku r ihek iga n o K oda i S e izazu» ,K ankoku B un / ca ,J une 2 002 , 8 11 . 8 SMTOU , T. : K i tachou sen K oukogaku n o S h inhakk en , T okyo ( Yuhzankaku ) 1 996 , p l a te s 8 10 ; s e e a l so n .7 .

1 PO GO , A. :« Ca lenda r s o nC of f in L id s f r om A syu t» ,I s i s , 1 7 , 1 932 , 6 -24 ; i d em : « Th ree U npub l ished C a lenda r s f r om A syu t» , O s i r i s , 1 ,1 936 , 5 00 0 9 .

2

9 „

A IAOCHUN , S.& KI ST EMAKER , J. :T he C h ine se S ky d u r ing t h e H an , L e iden ( B r i l l /S in ica L e id en s ia ,3 8 ) 1 997 .

3CH AFER , E .H . : P ac ing t h e V o id : Tang A pp roaches t o t h e S tar s , B e rke ley ( Be rke ley U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) 1 977 ,t a b le 2 .

3

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED .) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

S ö th i s ,w h ich a l so i n c lud et h a to fb e ing t h er e gu la to ro ft h e c a lenda r2 ° a nd o f t h e t empo ra l e x t en s ion s o f f u n e r ea l r i tua l s2 1 .I n b o th t h e se r o le s h e r h e l ia ca l r i s ing w a s t h e c en t ra le v en to ft h e a nnua l s i de r ea lr hy thm . T h i s e v en tw a s p r ed ic tab le2 ,b u t n eed ed f o r e runn e r s o b se rvab le b o th i n t h e s ame n i gh t a ta n e a r l ie r h ou r a nd a tt h e s ame n i gh t ly h ou r o n a n e a r l ie r d a te . T he r i s ing o fO r ion , t h e E gyp t ian S 3 1 3 , s ugg e s t ed i t s e lf c l ea r ly a s s u ch a h a rb ing e r e ven t , s i nce t h i s c on s t e l la t ion w a s b o th t h e m o s t c on sp icuou s i n t h e s ky a nd s i tua t ed a t t h e s am e d ec l ina t ion ( t he r ef o r e r i s ing i nt h es ame p l a ce o ft h eh o r izon )a sS ö th i s( S pd . t ) .

d i sc lo se a d if e r en t o p in ion w hen e ven tua l ly a pp roa ched o n t h i s q u e s t ion ' °.P r imo rd ia l p r io r i ty i si n deed g i v en t o t h e D ragon /Phwn ix ( = L ong lF eng ) c oup le i n t h e m y t h o log ica l t e x t H ua inan z i f r om t h e H an P e r iod , w he r e t h e s u cce s s ion o fc r ea t ion s i sw ind s— >d e i t ie s— >an ima l s , a mong t h e l a t te rt h e d r agon a nd p ho en ix o ccu r r ing a tt h et o po ft h e l i s t" . T h i s s am e t e x t a l so n am e s s ome n o ft h e p e r t in en t 7 +7 X iu p a r t so ft h eb od ie so ft h et wo m y th i ca la n ima l s . T he m a le /f ema le c oup le o ff i gu re s h av ing b een i mp l ic i t ly p r e sen t s i nce t h e H an t i me s a sd e sc r ibed s o f a r , w a s g i ven a n a dd i t iona l e xp l ic i t , i . e . : l i t e ra l Y ang /Y in , p r e sen ce i n a no th e r p a r t o f t h e s ky i n a bou t t h e 4th c en tu ry CO . A l though i t s c e le s t ia l r e p r e sen ta t ive s a r e ap a i r o f f a in t s t a r s , w h ich i se xa c t ly c on t r a ry t oi t sE gyp t ian c oun t e rpa r t , i t sp r e s t ig e i sr e p r e sen ted b y i t s v e ry p rox im i ty t ot h e c e l e s t ia lp o le , ar e g ion c on s ide r ed p a r t icu la r ly n ob le b yb e ing t h e c en t ra l o ne o ff i ve p a la ce s a r rang ed i nt h e s h ape o fa s ymme t r i ca lc r o s s1 4.

T h i s i st h e r e a son w hy O r ion o ccu r s a st h e s ymbo l ic m a le p a r tne r o f S ö th i s a l r eady i nt h e m o s t a n c ien t t e x t s2 3 .H i s r o le a sh a rb ing e r —a sm en t ioned a bove — i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h e b road c o rpu s o ft h e s o— ca l led d i agona l s t a r c l ock s f r om t h e i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing c en tu r ie s2 4. P i c to r ia l e mpha s i s o f S ö th i s ' a nd O r ion 's i n t ima t e r e la t ion sh ip i s g i ven i nt h e my tho log ica l c en t ra l s t r ip s o ft h e se d i agona l s t a rc l ock s , w h ich r e p r e sen tt h em w i th j o ined s c ep t r e sh e ld b y h e r r i gh t a nd h i s l e f t h and2 5 .T h i s o ccu r r en ce o f t h e s c ep t r e s w a s s hown b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho r n o t o n ly t ob e s ymbo l ic ,b u ta l so d i r ec t ly c op ied f r om t h es ky2 6.

I I .A nc ien tE gyp t ian C on s te l la t ion s Wh i le i n C h ina t h e s ymm e t ry o f t h e g end e r s w a s t h u s p h i lo soph ica l ly u nd e rp inn ed , w h ich m ay t o day b e c on s id e r ed a n e a r ly m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e a r ch e typa l a n imu s /an ima l s c oup le , e ve ryday p r a c t ice a s c r ibed v e ry d if e r en tr o le st ot h em , e s pec ia l ly i nt h eu ppe rc l a s se s ,a f t e r w ho se c u s tom s t h e a s t r a l s ymbo l i sm s w e r e m od e l led i n b o th t h e C h ine se a nd E gyp t ian c u l tu r e . T h i s a s ymm e t ry i s e s pec ia l ly d i s t inc t i nt h e E gyp t ian c a se [ s ee F ig . 2 ] , w he r e t h ee a r l ie s tc on s t e l la t ion sw e r ed e i t ie s e qua l i ns t a tu st ot h e c on s te l la ted d ecea sed k i ng ,w ho w a st h eo n ly p e r son m ean t t o s e e E t e rn i ty d u r ing t h e 2 4 'h c en tu ry BCE , t h e e poch o f t h e e a r l i e s t k nown s ou r ce s1 6 o f a s t ra l s ymbo l i sm . I n t h i s c on t ex t , t h e f ema le d e i ty S ö th i s , e qua l iz ed w i th H e l leno— R oman S i r iu s s i n ce P lu ta r ch ' ' , w a s t h e m a le k i ng 's f ema le p a r tne r , ar e la t ion sh ip f u r the rp e r sona l iz ed i n ar ema rkab le d ocumen t f r om ap e r iod s ome c en tu r ie s l a t e r1 8 ,w h e r e t h e a s t ra l g odd e s s i ss a id t o« speak t om e» ( i . e . : o r ig ina l ly , t o t h e k i ng ) , ap e r sona l a dd r e s sv e ry r a r e i nE gyp t ian r e l ig ion i na l l e poch s , e mpha s iz ing t h e a r che typa l a t t ra c t ion o ft h e o ppo s i t e s e x t ot h e k i ng i nh i s a f t e r l if e [ s ee F ig . 3 ] . T h i s s i gn if i cance o ft h e c e le s t ia l c oup le c ome st ot h e f o r e a ga in i nt h ei n c lu s ion o fS ö th i si n aNK l o ve p oem ° . T he E gyp t ian w o rd f o ry ea r ( r np . t ) , l i t e ra l ly r e juvena t ion , i s o f t h e f em in ine g end e r , c onf o rm ing t o t h e r o le s o f t o 1

I V .C onc lu s ion s T he se p a ra l le l a s t r a l m y th s i nt wo a u toch thonou sc u l tu r e s , t ow h ich t h r ee mo r e ( Baby lon ia" , H e l la s2 8 ,P ro toa rab ia2 9) c ou ld b ea dded ,a r ee v idence o fJ ung 's» t h eo ry o ft h ec o l le c t iv e u n con sc iou s , e ven m e r e ly b y t h e f a c t t h a t a l l t h e se n a t ion s f i l led t h e i r s k ie s w i th i mage s u sua l ly i n d epend en t o f i n t e r cu l tu ra l e x ch ang e : « Sc ien ce b eg an w i th t h e s t a r s , a nd h umank ind d i scove r ed i nt h em t h e d om inan t s o ft h e u n con sc iou s»3 1.

2 0 KRAU SS , R . : S o th i s— u nd Mondda t en , H i lde she im ( G e r s tenbe rg V e r lag IHAB ,2 0 ) 1 985 ,3 6 -76 . 2 1 L OCHER , K . : « Egyp t ian C o smo logy» , E ncyc loped ia o f C o smo lo gy ( He the r ing ton ,N .S . ,e d . ) NY ( Ga r land ) 1 993 , 1 89 -94 . 2 LU FT , U. :D ie c hrono log i sche F ix ierung d e s ä gyp t i schen M i t t l er en R e iches n ach d em T empe la rch iv v on R lahun , V ienna ( Akadem ie / V eröf f en t l ichung en d er ä g yp t i schen K omm i s s ion ,2 ) 1 992 , §2 . 13 & p l . 7 . 2 3 S ee n .1 6 ,s upra . 2 4 S ee n .1 .S ee a l so N EUGEBAUER , 0 . &P ARKER , R .A . :E gyp t ian A s t ro n om ica lT ex t s , I ,P rov idence R I( B rown U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) 1 960 ,c hap .! & p l s . 1 23 ; L OCHER , K . : «M idd le K ingdom A s t ronom ica l C of f in L id s : E x ten s ion o ft h e C o rpu s f r om 1 2t o 1 7 S pec imen s s i nce N eugebaue ra nd P a rk e r» , P roceed ing s o f t h e S even th I n t erna t iona l C ong r es s o f E gyp to log i s t s , L euven ( P ee te r s /O LA , 8 2 ) 1 998 , 6 97 -702 ; S YMON S , S . : « Two F ragmen t s o fD iagona l S t a r C lock s i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum» , JHA , 3 3 ,2 002 ,2 57 -60 . 2 5 S ee n .2 4 , E AT , I :p l s . 4 -6 , 8 .F o r ac o lou r p ho tog raph , s e e n .2 6 : f i g . 1 9 ( h and s i n t e r chang ed ) ; c f a l so f i g . 1 0 15 , f i g . 1 7 18 , f i g . 2 2 -23 ( o lde r v e r s ion ,t r an s lucen ta nd p a in ted o ve r ) . 2 6 VO N B OMHARD , AS . : T he E gyp t ian C a l enda r , aW o rk f o r E t ern i ty , L ondon ( Pe r ip lu s ) 1 999 , f i g . 1 6 17 , 1 9 , 3 8 ; R enhua & Y ux iang , o p . c i t . , 9 8 . 2 7 HUNGER , H . &P INGREE , D . :A s t ra lS c i ences i n Mesopo tam ia , L e iden ( Br i l l ) 1 999 . E a ch r e f e r ence i nn n . 2 7 -29 i sg i ven f o rt h e mo s t a u then t ic b ook .

A tAOCHUN ,S . : Pr iva te Commun ica t ion , 2 002 .

MA JOR ,J . S . : H eav en a nd E a r th i nE ar ly H an T hough t : C hap t er s3 ,4 , a nd 5o ft h eH ua inanz i ,A lbany ( Un ive r s i ty P r e s s ) 1 993 ,2 09 : l i ne 1 2 . 1 2 C ompa r eo p . c i t . , 1 27 , t a b le 1 8 : #1 ,2 ,5 ,6 ,2 7t oX IAOCHUN & K ISTEMAKER ,o p . c i t . , 1 57 -61 : #9 3 -98 , 16 19 . 1 3 X IAOCHUN & K ISTEMAKER , o p . c i t . , 1 66 167 1 4 S ee o p . c it , 2 2 . 1 5 J UNG , C .G . : C o l l ec t ed W o rk s , ( t ran s la ted b y H u l l , R .F .C . ) , L ondon ( Rou t ledge ) 1 966 ,2 30 -234 : § 3 84 & 3 87 -39 1 . 1 6 K RAUSS ,R . :A s t ronom i sche K onzep t eu nd J en se i t s vor s t e l lung en i nd en P y ram id en t ex t en , W ie sbaden ( Ha r a s sow i tz /Ä gAbh , 5 9 ) 1 997 , 1 58 : # 1 5 1a -c .

I I I IAPXOE : Ap c irov x a iE i x 5deov . P a tvo idv c ov ' E enr iar tg , L e ipz ig ( Teubne r ) 1 894 . 2 9 F o r t h e n on—P to lema ic d e sc r ip t ive s e c t ion o f e a ch c on s t e l la t ion s e e ` ABD ' AR -RA f imAN B IN ` UMAR K i täb s uwar ' a l -kawäk ib ' a l -48 ( M .N izamudd in ,M . ,e d . )H ayda räbäd ( D jäm i ` iyah ) 1 954 . 2 8

1 7 r IAOYTAPXOE :I l ep i -k i tbag K a i Oof e tbog ( Hopf ne r ,T . ,e d . ) , P rague ( M onog raph i en d es A r0 r ,9 )1 940 , 1 2 , §2 1 : f i na ll i ne s . 1 8 D EB UCK ,A . : T he E gyp t ian C of f i n T ex t s ,V ,C h icago ( Un ive r s i ty P r e s s IO r ien ta lI n s t i tu t eP ub l ica t ion s , 7 3 ) 1 954 ,3 71 , S pe l l4 67 : l i ne b . 1 9 MARAVEL IA , A—A . : « A s t ronom ica l a nd C o smov i s iona l E l emen t s i n t h e C o rpu s o f A nc ien t E gyp t ian L ove P oem s» , L ingua A egyp t ia , 1 , 2 003 , i np r es s ; s e et a b . 1 :l i ne 3 1 &s e c t ion I 1 . 2 : §7& s e c t ion 1 . 3 : §7 .

3 0

3 1

4

J UNG ,o p . c i t . O p . c i t . : x i i ,2 45 : §3 46 .

K u r tL o ch e r :T h eA r ch e typa lS ymbo l i sm o ft h eM o s tA n c ien tC on s t e l la t ion s( Egyp ta nd C h ina )

FI GURE 1 .T he D ragon w i th s ome o fi t s 7p e r t inen tx i u .T he r egu la rb ow r ep r esen t st h ef r on to fc l a s s ica lS corp iu s , i . e . : i t s f ou rs t a r sß ,8 ,i t , a nd p ,w h i le A n ta re si st ob ei mag ined i nt h e h ea r to ft h eD ragon [ 1s tc en tu ry B CE ,N anyang Mu seum C a ta logue o fU ranog raph ic S te la . , 1 994 , 18 : #2 9 ] . ©C opy r igh t2 003 ,N any ang Mu seum .

FI GURE 2 .S ö th i s /S i r iu sa sa na s t ra lg odd e s s , a f t e rE AT ,I I ,p l s . 1 8 , 3 ,2 0 ,r epub l ished i n VO N BOMHARD , o p . c i t . ,4 9 :f i g . 3 3 . ©C opy r igh t 1 9 99 ,A nn e—Soph ie v on B omh a rd .

5

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

• e 0.

e

e

e e ee

\ NO

, .e

e

„ , . c . •. c

\ ‘ . , e ,0 e Ne . • ( ,0 e e "•• .\ `e '0

049

(f i na l s i gns o f p reced ing s pe l l

p hone t ic e lemen t Md

T here s peaks

p hone t ic s upp lemen t d md w p hone t ic e lement W d e term ina t ive f or o ra l a ct ion ( no te h and t ouch ing mou th & c ompa re t o s im i la rbe low)

t o me Soth is ( = S ir ius)

p repos it ion p ronoun ( compare t o s im i la r s i gn a bove) Spd-

t

i deogram f or S ir ius & f em in ine t e rm ina t ion

d e term ina t ive f or g oddess

a t

t he t ime

p repos it ion p hone t ic e lement n w s et t w ice nw p hone t ic s upp lement W d e term ina t ive f o r t e mpora l n ot ion

(h er )

S ) ( 3 o f t he 5 s ources c onta in ing t h is s pe l l a dd t he f em in ine p ossess ive p ronoun h ere)

FI GURE 3 .E gyp t ian C Ts pe l l d e ta i l , a s men t ioned i nt h e t ex t . C )C opy r igh t2 003 , B r i t ish Museum , R e se rve C o l lec t ion #3 0842 ( Cou r te sy ) .

6

I lum ina t ion o ft he S acrar ium i nt he G rea tT emp le a t Abu S imbe l , i t sA s tronom ica lE xp lana t ion ,a nd S ome H in t so n t he P o s s ib le S te l lar O r ien ta t ion o ft he Sma l lT emp le* Amanda—A l ice Marave l ia a nd M.A . Mosa la m S ha l tout

s c ien t if ic r e su l t s , i n o rde r t o p re sen t e r roneou s a nd t e nden t ious h ypo the se s . O u r s t udy s ugge s t s t h e p u r e ly s o la r n a tu re a nd s e m an t ic s o fo n ly t h e G rea t T emp le o f R am se s Ia tA bu S imbe l , w h i le i ts e em s p l au s ib le t h a t t h e Sma l l T emp le w a s b u i l t n o t f o l low ing a ny p a r t icu la ra s t ronom ica l o r ien ta t ion .

Abs trac t T he c o lo s sa l T emp le a tA bu S imbe l ( d ed ica ted t oR e '—Ho rakh ty , t h e d e if ied K ing R am se s I , Amun—R e ` a nd P tah ) i st h e b igge s t o ne r o ck c u t a l o ve rt h e w o r ld . I tc an b e c ons ide red a s ac l imax p o in t i n a nc ien t E gyp t ian A rch i tec tu re a nd G eome t ry . I ti sn o t d if i cu l tt oa s se s s w i th r e la t ive c e r ta in ty h ow al a rge b u i ld ing l i ke t h is i sf ound i n ar emo te b ounda ry a r ea o f t h e c oun t ry . T he re m igh t b et wo r e a son s f o rt h is : ( i ) e i the rt h e A bu S imbe l h i l ls h ad as p ec ia l s i gn if icance ( o r e ven p e rhaps h o l ine s s ) f o r R am se s I ; ( i ) o rt h ep ha raoh m igh th ave w an t ed t od azz le h i sn e ighbou r s i n t h e b o rde r a r ea o fN ub ia n ea r t h e s e cond c a ta ra c t , b y e xh ib i t ing t h em h i s f o r ce a nd w ea l th . T he p henomenon t h a t m ade t h i s T emp le p rom inen t a mong o t he r a nc ien t E gyp t ian o ne s i st h e e n t r ance o f s un l igh t a l ong i t s m a in a r ch i tec tu ra l a x is t w ice p e r y ea r , d u r ing t h e e a r ly mo rn ing , i n to t h e s acrar ium t or e a ch t h e f ou rs t a tue s , i lum ina t ing t h is d a rk p l a ce c u t d eep ly i n to t h er o ck . T he p henomenon o f i lum ina t ion a ppea r s t o b e t h e r e su l t o f c or r ec t a s t ronom ica l c a lcu la t ion s b y a nc ien tp r i e s t s—a s t ronomer s ( imy .w -wnw . t ) , w ho s e em t o h av e b een a wa r e o f p ra c t ica l a s t ronom ica l k now ledge . H ence , i ti sp lau s ib le t h a tb o th d a te s o f i lum ina t ion w e re s e lec ted o n p u rpo se b y t h em . I n t h e p re sen t a r t ic le w e e xam ine t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ie s , p ropo s ing a p l au s ib le t h eo ry . We u se a ccu ra te a s t ronom ica l s of twa re a nd f e ed i tb y a s t ronom ica l , g eog raph ica l a nd t o pog raph ica l d a ta i n pu t , i no rde r t oc a lcu la te t h e a l t i tude a nd a z imu th o ft h e S un f o r e ve ry d ay o f t h ey ea ra tA bu S imbe l . We a l so c a lcu la te t h e a z imu th o ft h e S un f o r a l t h e l a t i tude s o fa nc ien t E gyp t b e tween 2 2 ° N a nd 3 2 ° N . O u r c a lcu la t ion s s how t h a t t h e e l onga t ion o ft h e S un m ea su red f r om d ue E a s t ( AO = A — 9 0 ° ) , f o r t h e t wo d ay s w hen t h e i lum ina t ion p henomenon o ccu r s ( c . 2 1s t o fF eb rua ry a nd c .2 1" o fO c tobe r , f o l low ing t h e G rego r ian C a lenda r ) , d ec rea se s s l igh t ly a s w e m ove t owa rd s t h e S ou th . A dd i t iona l ly , w e p r e sen t c ompu te rs imu la t ion so ft h ea nc ien ta nd mode rn d awn s ky a tA bu S imbe l f o rt h e se d a te s , i no rde rt os t udy t h is p henomenon . T ho se t wo d a te s w e re p robab ly r e p r e s en t ing t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e a g r icu l tu r e p e r iod ( c . 2 1" o fO c tobe r ) , a f t e rt h e w a te ro ft h eN i le h ad s t a r ted t or e cede ; a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eh a r ve s tp e r iod f o r s ome g r een c r op s l i ke o n ion s a nd g r een b ean s ( c . 2 1' o f F eb rua ry ) . T he se d a te s w e re a l so p l a ced r e la t ive ly c l ose i nt ime t o t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e W in t er ( P r .t ) a nd t h e S ummer ( Smw ) r e spec t ive ly . H ence i tw ou ld b e p l au s ib le t o a s sume t h a t t h e p henomenon o f i lum ina t ion o ccu r r ing o n t h em w a s u sed a s a p ra c t ica l a s t ronom ica l h a rb inge r o f t h e se a nc ien t E gyp t ian s e a son s . I ti sk nown t h a t t h e h e l ia ca l r i s ing o f S i r iu s w a s u sed l i k ew ise , i no rde rt od e te rm ine t h eb eg inn ing o fI nunda t ion ( 3 3 1 . t ) , a nd t h e N ew Y ea r 's D ay (W p . t -Rnp . t ) . T hu s , t h ey w e r e v e ry i mpo r tan t d ay st ot h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian m ind , d u r ing a n e r aw hen t h e l a nd w a s p l an ted o nce p e ry ea ru s ing t h e s y s tem o fi r iga t ion b y c ana ls a nd b a s in s . T he se l e ad u st o a s sume t h a t t h e s e lec t ion o fb u i ld ing s uch at emp le i nt h i s p l ace m ay b e e xp la ined b yb o th a s t ronom ica l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l r e a sons , b e s ide st h eh o l ine s so ft h e p l a ce a nd t h e d e s i r e o fR am se s t h e G rea t t o d azz le h i s s ou the rn n e ighbou r s i n N ub ia . F u r the rmo re , s pec ia l a s t ronom ica l c a lcu la t ion s e xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h e Sma l l T emp le o fA bu S imbe l ( d ed ica ted t o H a tho r / Is is a nd Q ueen N ef e r t i ry a s a n i n ca rna t ion o f S ö th is ) w a s o r ien ted a s t ronom ica l ly w i th a ny c e r ta in s i gn if ican ts t e l la ro rs o la ro r ien ta t ion ,m a in ly b ecau se b o th S i r ius a nd t h e S un a r e e xc luded . S ome e r roneou s c l a im s b y G e l insky a r e a l so d i scu s sed a nd c o r rec ted , p rov ing o nce mo r e t h a t i re levan t p e r son s t e nd t o t w is t t h e e v idence , m isus ing

KEY WORDS : A bu S imbe l , G rea tT emp le o fR amse sI ,S ma l l T e mp le o fQ ueen N ef e r t i ry , O r ien ta t ion o fT emp le s , S un , O b se rva t i on s o f R i s ing S ta r s , A z imu ths o f R i s ing , C a lenda r , S ea sons , S ö th is .

I .I ntroduc t ion

T he c o lo s sa l R ame s s ide G r ea t T emp le a tA bu S imbe l ( a nc . H e l len ic : ) lßovyx 0 i st h e b igge s t o ne r o ck c u t a l l o ve r t h e w o r ld ' . I tc an b e c on s ide red a s ac l imax p o in t i n a nc ien t E gyp t ian A r ch i tec tu r e a nd G eome t ry . I t i s n o t d if i cu l t t o a s se ss w i th r e la t ive c e r ta in ty h ow a l a rge b u i ld ing l i ke t h i s i sf ound i n ar emo te b ounda ry a r ea o ft h e c oun t ry [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . T he r e m igh t b e t wo r e a son s f o r t h i s 2: ( i ) e i the r t h e A bu S imbe l h i l l s [ Meha (M h3 ) a nd I b shek ( f i g l c ) ] h ad a s pec ia l s i gn if icance ( o r e ven p e rhap s h o l ine s s ) f o r R am se s I ; ( i ) o r t h e p ha raoh m igh t h ave w an ted t od azz le h i s n e ighbou r s i nt h e b o rde ra r ea n ea rt h e s e cond c a ta rac t b y e xh ib i t ing t h em h i s f o rce a nd w ea l th . T he re i s ap o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e o r ig in o ft h e i d ea o fb u i ld ing A bu S imbe l T emp le s m ay b e a cc red i ted t o K ing S e ty I , f a the r o f R am se s t h e G rea t3.T he A bu S imbe l T emp le s w e re f i n i shed a nd i n augu ra ted a t a bou t 1 255 B CE , m o s t p robab ly t owa rd s t h e e nd o fF eb rua ry 4.T he G r ea t T emp le w a s d ed ica ted t o t h e w o r sh ip o f R e '—Ho rakh ty ( R e -lj r *T he p r e sen tp ape rh a sb een d eve loped ,e n r iched , c o r r ec ted a nd e x tended b y t h e f i r s t a u tho r ( A .—A .M . ) , b a sed o n as ho r te r i n i t ia l p ape r ( s ee n .2 3 , i n f ra ) b yt h e s e cond a u tho r( M .A .M .S . ) . Many t hank s a r e d ue t oD r R o lf K rau s sf o rh i s c ommen t s a nd i n f o rma t ion . T hank s a r ea l so d ue t oM rK u r t L oche r , MA , f o r r e ad ing t h e i n i t ia l t e x t . O ne o fu s ( A .—A .M . ) w ou ld l i ke t o a cknow ledg e h e r a ccommoda t ion a nd a s s i s tance b y t h e I n spec to r o f A bu S imbe l , D rA hmed S aleh a nd h i s a s s i s tan tM r s H eba ` ta l lah A hmed , d u r ing h e r v i s i t a nd a z imu th m ea su r emen t s o fb o th t emp le s . O ne o fu s ( M .A .M .S . ) w ou ld l i ke t oa cknow ledg e t h e a s s i s tance o fD r Y a s se r ` Abd ' e l -Fa tah ` Abd ' e l -Had i a nd D r ' Am i r H u se in H a san i nh i s i n i t ia l s ho r t p ape r ( d ea l ing o n ly w i th t h e G r ea t T emp le ) . S end of p r in tr e que s t st ot h e f i r s ta u tho ra th e re —ma i la dd re s s :a _mar av e l iaeho tma i l .c om 1 S ee MACQU ITTY , W . : A bu S imbe l , L ondon 1 965 . S ee a l so GABALLA , G .A . & MAHER T AHA , M . : L eg rand t emp l e d 'Abou S imbe l : I .L af açad e [ A -E ] , L e C a i re ( SCA ) 2 00 1 . F o r c omp le te r e f e rence s o n b o th A bu S imbe l t emp le s , s e e PM , V I I , 9 5 119 . C f . a l so L Ä , I ,1 975 , c o l s . 2 5 -27 : a r t . « Abu S imbe l» ; W ILK INSON , RH : T he C omp l e t e T emp l es o fA nc ien t E gyp t , L ondon ( Thame s & H ud son ) 2 000 , 2 23 -228 ; B A INES , J . & MÄLEK ,J . :A t la so fA nc ien tE gyp t , O xf o rd ( Pha idon )' 1988 , 1 84 . 2 S ee f o r e xamp le K ITCHEN , K .A . : P haraoh T r iumphan t : T he L if e a nd T imes o fR ames se sI ,C a i ro ( The AUC P r e s s ) 21 997 , 6 5 -66 . 3 F o r S e ty I ,h i s s on R ame se s Ha nd t h e R ame s s ide P e r iod , s e e K ITCHEN , o p . c i t . ,c hap te r s 2 -3 ; GR IMAL ,N . : AH i s to ry o fA nc ien tE gyp t( t ran s la ted f r om F r ench b y S haw , I . ) , O xf o rd ( B lakwe l l ) 21 992 , 2 45 -6 1 . C f . a l so D ESROCHES—NOBLECOURT ,C . : T he G r ea tP ha raoh R am s e sa nd h i sT ime , Mon t r ea l ( Canada E x im G roup ) 1 985 . 4 S ee K ITCHEN , o p . c i t . , 9 9 .

7

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAV EL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP ER AS P E R AE TP E R LU DU M t r ad i t iona l s c ene s , l i ke t h e r oya l c a r touche s , w h ich i mp ly a c e r ta in s o la r a nd c o sm ic s ymbo l i sm , a nd t h e c e le s t ia l s ym b o l o f t h e f a lcon—w inged s o la r d i sk ( a n a t t r ibu te o fb o th H or n so fB ehde ta nd R e '—Ho rakh ty ) .

H o ru s a s as ky d i v in i ty w a s i n te rm ing led w i th t h e s o l a r g od R e ' i nt h eh yb r id p e r sona o ft h is d e i tys.H ew a s r e p r e sen t ed a s af a lcon—headed a n th ropomo rph ic d e i ty , b ea r i n g t h e s o la r d i sc a nd u rwu s . T hu s , o ne o ft h e p u rpo se s o f f ounda t ion o ft h is t emp le w a s p o s s ib ly t h e s o la r c u l t . T h i s s e em s p l au s ib le a nd i ss hown l a te r i nt h is a r t ic le , b y u s ing a s t ronom ica la r gumen t s( s ee §I I , i n f ra ) .

O n t h e n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn w a l l s w e f i nd e n t rance s l e ad ing t o ag roup o f c hambe r s b ea r ing s ome l i t u rg ica l s c ene s o nt h e i rw a l l s , t h a tw e r e u s ed a ss t o re— room s f o rt h e p r ie s t s [ s ee F ig . 6 ] . T he m idd le e n t rance i nt h e w e s te rn w a l l l e ad s t o as ma l le r h a l l o ff o u r s qua r ed p i l la r s b ea r ing m o r e l i t u rg ica l s c ene s . T h i s h a l l h a s t h re e d oo r s : t h e n o r ther n a nd s ou ther n o ne s l e ad t ou ndeco ra t ed c hambe r s , w h i le t h e w e s ter n o ne l e ad s t o t h e a d y tum ( s ac ra r ium ) , w h ich i st h e e x t en s ion o ft h e t emp le 's m a in a x i s . P i c tu r e s o ft h e s a c r ed b oa t or namen tt wo w a l l s o ft h e s a nc tua ry . O n t h e s ou ther n w a l l , t h e k i ng i ss e en b ur n ing i n cen se . H e i s s t and ing b ef o re t h e s a c r ed b oa t o f Amun—Re ' . O n t h e n or the rn w a l l , h e o f f e r s i n cen se b ef o r e t h e s a c r ed b oa t o f R e '—Ho rakh ty . O n t h e w e s ter n w a l l o ft h e s ac ra r ium , w e f i nd f ou rs ea ted s t a tue s c u t i n to t h e r o ck . F rom r i gh tt ol e f t , t h e se s t a tue s r e p re sen t R e '—Ho rakh ty , t h e d e if ied K ing R am se s I , Amun—R e '1 a nd P t ah l 2 [ s ee F ig s . 7 8 ] . T oday , i n t h e m idd le o f t h e s ac ra r ium w e f i nd t h e t a b le o f o f f e r ing s o n w h ich t h e o b la t ion s w e r e p l aced w hen t h e s un l igh t w a s e n t e r ing a f te r d awn [ s ee F ig . 7 ] . I tw a s h e r e t h a tt h e s a c red b oa tw a s s t and ing .

T he mo s t i mpo r tan t c ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h i s t emp le t h a t g i ve i ti t s p rope r i d en t i ty a r e t h e f ou r c o lo s sa l s e a ted s t a tue s o f K ing R am se s Ic u t i nt h e h i l l r ock s [ s ee F ig . 3 ] . Two o f t h e se s t a tue s a r e f l ank ing e ach s i de o ft h e t emp le e n t rance [ s ee F ig . 4 ] . T hey a r e mo re t h an 2 2 m h i gh , r e p r e sen t ing R am se st h e G r ea te n th roned w ea r ing t h e d oub le c rown ( p 3 s l im ly ) u pon a n ms -headd re s s w i th u rwu s 6. S eve ra l r e la t ive ly s ma l l s t a tue s o f Q ueen N ef er t i ry a nd o f s ome r oya l c h i ld ren a r e a l so p rom inen t . A l l t h e se g roup s s t and o n ah i gh p ede s ta l b ea r ing t h e c a r touche s o ft h e p ha raoh , a nd d ep ic t ing A s ia t ic a nd N ub ian c ap t ive s . T he t h rone s , w h ich a r e b l ock— shaped , h ave b een d eco ra ted i n t h e t r ad i t iona l w ay d ep ic t ing t h e u n if ica t ion o ft h e t wo l a nd s ' : D e l ta a nd U ppe r E gyp t ( zm3 -3 .wy ) . T he t emp le 's f r on t , w h ich r e p re sen t s t h e b ackg round o f t h e f ou r c o lo s sa l s t a tue s , f o rm s af r ieze a nd b ea r s ar ow o f 2 2 s e a ted c ynocepha l i w i th t h e i r a rm s u p ra i sed i na do ra t ion f o r t h e s un 8.A l so , o n t h e n i che a bove t h e e n t rance , t h e re i s as t a t u e o fR e '—Ho rakh ty .

O n 9J anua ry 1 960 t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e H igh D am a t A swan s t a r ted . I n 1 964 g ood p rog re s s h ad a l ready b een m ad e . A c ro s s t h e g r ea t r i ve rt h e i mmen se w a l l o ft h e D am w a s r i s ing g radua l ly . T he h ighe r t h e D am r o se , t h e h i ghe r t h e w a te r r o se i nt h e L ake . A nd t h e h ighe r t h e w a te r r o se , t h e m o re s e r iou s t h e s i tua t ion a tA bu S imbe l b ecame . I fn o a c t ion w e re t a k en , t h e r i s ing w a te r w ou ld d rown t h e a nc ien t Nub ian t emp le s . E gyp ta sked f o rh e lp a nd UNESCO t oge the r w i th s ev e ra l n a t ion s w e re w i l l ing t o h e lp a nd a c tua l ly o f f e r ed g r ea t a s s i s tance 1 3 .T he w o rk o f r e scu ing t h e t emp le s w a s c a r r ied o u t b y ag roup o f c ompan ie s , b e long ing t o d i f f e ren t c oun t r ie s . A t p r e sen t , a f te r t h e i r r e scue f r om t h e N i le f l ood ing , t h e t wo T emp le s o f A bu S imbe l s t and h igh ( a bou t 7 0 m h i ghe r t h an t h e i r i n i t ia l p o s i t ion ) o n t h e m oun ta in . N ow t h ey l i e s a f e b eyond t h e w a te r so ft h eg r ea ta r t if ic ia lL ake N a se r .

T he t emp le h a s an a r row d oo r . I tw a s p l a ced i nt h e c en te r o ft h e f a çade a nd i nt h e m idd le o ft h e f ou r g r ea t s t a tue s [ s ee F ig . 5 ] . T he e n t rance o ft h e t emp le l e ad s t o ab i g h a l l ( p ronao s ) , w h ich h a s t wo p a ra l le l r ow s o ff ou rp i l la r s e ach ( hypo s ty le h a l l ) . Ab ig s t and ing s t a tue o ft h e k i ng w ea r ing t h e d oub le c r own a nd h o ld ing t h e s c ep t r e a nd t h e f l a i l , r e c l ines o n e a ch o ne o ft h e se p i l la r s . T he p i l la r s a nd t h e w a l l s o f t h e h a l l , w h ich i sa bou t 1 0 m h i gh , h ave b een c ove r ed b yr e l ig iou s s c ene s a sw e l l a sv a r iou sh i e rog lyph ic t e x t s , a nd e cho t h e m i l i ta ry g l o ry o fR am se s I . T he m o s t i n t e r e s t ing a nd f amou s o ne i sf ound o n t h e n o r the rn w a l l , w he re w e c an f o l low t h e v a r iou s p ha se s o ft h e a mb iva len t b a t t le o f Q ade sh 9, d ep ic t ing t h e p ha raoh 's m i l i ta ry c ampa ign a ga in s t t h e H i t t i te s d u r ing t h e 5t h y ea r o f h i s r e ign . T he l o ng e p ic p oem , w r i t ten b y t h e c ou r t s c r ibe a nd p oe t P en twe re , i se ng raved i nn i ce h i e rog lyph s b o th h e re a nd o n t h e w a l l s o fo t he r t emp le s , s uch a st ho se i nL uxo r a nd K a rnak").T he w a l l s o f t h i s h a l l a r e d eco ra ted w i th l i t u rg ica l s c ene s , i n c lud ing t h e c e remon ia l p roce s s ion o f t h e s a c r ed b oa t , a nd w i th i mage s o f t h e p ha raoh i n t h e p r e sence o fv a r iou s g od s . T he c e i l ing h a s b een a do rned b y

I . T he I lum ina t ion o f A s tronom ica l E xp lana t ion

t he

A dy tum

a nd

i t s

T he p henomenon t h a t m ade t h i s t emp le p rom inen t a mong o t he r a nc ien t E gyp t ian o ne s i st h e e n t rance o f s un l igh t t w ice p e r y ea r , a l ong t h e m a in a r ch i tec tu ra l a x i s o f t h e t emp le , d u r ing t h e e a r ly mor n ing , i n to t h e s acra r ium t o r e a ch t h e f ou r s t a tue s , i lum ina t ing t h i s d a rk p l ace c u t d eep ly i n to t h e r o ck t h a t w a s s i tua ted a bou t 6 5 mf a r f r om t h e p r inc ipa l e n t rance o ft h e t emp le . F o r o u r c a lcu la t ion s u se w a s m ade o f t h e f o l low ing g eog raph ica l c oo rd ina te s f o rt h es i te o fA bu S imbe l" : =2 2 °21 'N ; 3 1°38 'E .

5S e e

L Ä ,V , 1 984 , c o l s . 1 56 -80 : a r t . « Re» , a nd L Ä , I I , 1 980 ,c o l s . 1 4 -25 : a r t . « Hor n s» ( c f . a l so c o l . 2 5 f . ) . S ee a l so H a r t , G . : AD ic t ionary o f E g yp t ian G od s a nd G odd e s ses , L ondon ( RKP ) 1 987 , 1 79 -82 : a r t . « Re» , ma in ly 9 4 . 6

F o r t h e c o lo s s i , s ee PM , V I I , 1 00 . F o r t h e v a r iou s r oya l c r own s , s ee BMD , 1 996 , 7 4 -75 : a r t . « c rown s a nd r oya l r e ga l ia» ; f o r t h e u rwu s , s e e WI LK INSON , R .H . : R ead ing E gyp t ian A r t : A H ierog lyph ic G u id e t o A nc i en t E gyp t ian P a in t ing a nd S cu lp tu r e , L ondon ( Thame s & H ud son ) 1 992 , 1 08 -09 .

I t

7„ F o rt h i s t o p ic s e e WI LK INSON : o p . c i t ., 8 0 -81 , a nd GA BALLA & MA HER

S ee L Ä , I ,1 975 , c o l s . 2 37 -48 : a r t . « Amun» . C f . a l so n .5 .

1 2

TA HA : o p . c i t . , 1 0 1 : p l . LXXX IX . 8 S ee W I LK INSON : op . c i t . , 7 2 -73 , a nd GA BALLA & MA HER TA HA : o p . c i t . , 8 1 : p l . LX IX .

S ee L Ä , I V , 1 982 , c o l s . 177 -80 : a r t . « P tah» . F o rt h es acrar iu m o ft h e G r ea tT emp le , s ee PM ,V I I , 10 .

S e e PM , V I I , 1 03 -04 . F o r t h e b a t t le o fQ ade sh , s ee KI T CHEN , op . c i t ., 5 2 -64 ; s e e a l so GI UMAL : op . c i t . , 2 50 -58 . t o S e e L ICHTHE IM , M. :A nc ien tE gyp t ian L i t era tur e : AB ook o fR ead ing s , I , B e rke ley ( Un ive r s i ty o f CA P r e s s ) 1 976 , 5 7 -72 , m a in ly 5 7 .

1 4

1 3

9

F o rt h i ss e en .2 6 , i n f ra .

S ee f o r i n s tance BA INE S & MÄL EK , o p . c i t . , 2 33 . O n 0 7 -X 1 1 -2002 , o ne o fu s( A .—A .M . ) u sed a na ccu ra te G PS s y s t em ( Ca s io P ro t r ek Mod . 2 240 , w i th am ean a ccu racy o f±1 0 m ) , i no rde rt od e te rm ine t h eg eog raph ica l c oo rd ina te s o fb o th t emp le s n ea rt h e i re n t rance s . T he m ea su remen t s , t h a t

8

Amanda—A l ice Ma rave l ia & M .A .M . S ha l tou t : Abu S i mbe l T emp les a nd t he ir A s t ronom ica l O r ien ta t ion

I n 1 874 , t h e k nown e xp lo re r M r s Ame l ia E dwa rd s a nd h e r t e am o b se rved t h i s p henomenon a nd r e co rded i ti n h e r b ook a sf o l low s ' s: A ts u n r i s e , t h e s a c ra r ium s t a tu e s b e come o fa n i n c r ed ib l e e f f ec t a nd a r ec o v e r ed b y ab eau t if u lc o r ona o ff e a ra nd v e n e ra t ion . I f a ny o n ed i dn o to b s er v et h ef a l l ing o ft h es u n l igh to nt h es t a tu e s , h e w ou ld d oub t a bou t i t s b i g e f f e c t , a c cu ra t e l y c a l cu la t ed a c co rd ing t ot h ea s t ronomy a nd a r i thm e t i co fa n c i en tE g yp t ian s . T h i s i sb e cau s e t h e d i r ec t ion o f t h e t e mp l e w a s a c cu ra t e l y c a l cu la t ed f o r ac e r ta in a ng l et or e c e i v et h i sr ad ia t ion o nt h ef ou r s t a tu e s' f a c e s .

o r So fE( max imum ) a nd c l o sed t owa rd s t h e We s t , t h e s un l igh t w i l l i lum ina te t h e c l o sed w e s te rn w a l l t w ice a y ea r ( r e spec t ive ly ) . S o , i ti sn o rma l t oo b se rve t h e s un l igh t e n te r ing A bu S imbe l T emp le a nd i lum ina t ing t h e f ou r s t a t u e s i nt h es ac ra r ium p e rpend icu la r ly t w ice ay ea r , b ecau se i t s a x i s i ss h if t ed b y a n e l onga t ion o fa bou t 1 0 ° .5 So fE , c o r re spond ing t oa na z imu th o fa bou t 1 00 ° .5 E o fN . E

T he p henomenon o f i lum ina t ion i st h e r e su l t o f c o r r ec t a s t ronom ica l c a lcu la t ion s b y a nc ien t p r ie s t s—a s t ronomer s , w ho w e re a wa r e o f p rac t ica l a s t ronom ica l k now ledge 1 7. H ence , i ti sp l au s ib le t h a t b o th t h e d ay s ( o r r a the r t h e f ew d ay s ' p e r iod ) o fi lum ina t ion w e re s e lec t ed o n p u rpo se b y t h em . T h i s i sb ecau se ar e la t ive ly c ompe t en t k now ledge o f r ud imen ta ry A s t ronomy a nd s ome o b se rva t ion sa r en eeded , i no rde r t od e te rm ine t h e c onven ien t e l onga t ion o ft h e a x i s o ft h e t emp le f r om d ue E a s t ( wh ich h a s t ob e b e tween 9 0 ° ± Am a x =9 0 ° ±2 5° .5 ) . F u r thermo re , t h e p henomenon t a ke s p l ace i n ap e rf ec t ly s t ra igh t a x is a l ong a d i s tance o f 6 5 m e te r s c u t i n t h e r ock , w h ich a l so i mp l ie s a g ood b ackg round o fA rch i tec tu re ' s.

A t a bou t 0 6 :25 ' ( l oca l t ime ) o n c .2 1" o fF eb rua ry o r a t a bou t0 5 :55 ' ( l oca lt ime ) o nc .2 1' o fO c tobe r( e ve ry y ea r ) , t h e s un l igh t e n te r s s moo th ly i nt h e a d y tum r e ach ing K ing R am se s ' f a ce , v i r tua l ly h ugg ing a nd k i s s ing h im . Af l ux o f l i gh t i rad ia te s t h e p ha raoh 's f a ce i n t h e h o l ly c hambe r l o ca ted i n s ide t h eh ea r to ft h et emp le . Af e e l ing o fa we a nd as ma l lp u l se v i b ra te o ne 's h ea r t ,a si ft h e l i gh t s howe rp e r t u rb s h i s /h e rd ep th b y a n i mmanen t« mag ic p owe r» . T hen , t h e s un l igh t i ss p r ead s oon t ob e ab und le o fl i gh ti lum ina t i ng t h ree o u t o f t h e f ou r s t a tue s ' f a ce s i n s ide t h e s ac ra r ium , l e av ing t h a t o fP t ah i nh a lf d a rkne s s [ s ee F ig . 7 ] . B u t i nr e a l i ty t h e o n ly t r ue « mag ic» i st h a t o f c o r rec t a s t ronom ica l c a lcu la t ion s , w h ich c on s i s t t h e s c ien t if ic e xp lana t ion f o rt h is v e ry p henomenon .

A l though f o r t h e m omen t t h e re i sn o h i s to r ica l e v idence p rov ing s uch a n a s sump t ion , t h e re a r e s ome E gyp to log i s t s b e l ive ing t h a t t h e a nc ien t d a te s c o r r e spond ing t o t h e ( G rego r ian C a lenda r ) d a tes o fc .2 1" F eb rua ry a nd c .2 1' O c tobe r w e re i d en t ica l t o t h e b i r th a nd t h e e n th ronemen t d ay s o f R am se s 11 9 .I n t h i s a r t ic le w e s ugge s t t h a t t h o se t wo d ay s m igh t r a the r h ad a p rac t ica l a s t ronom ica l s i gn if icance . T he se t wo d a te s w e re p robab ly r e p re sen t ing t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e a g r icu l tu r e p e r iod ( c . 2 1" o fO c tobe r ) , a f t e r t h e w a te r o ft h e N i le h ad s t a r ted t or e cede ; a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e h a rve s t p e r iod f o r s ome g reen c r op s l i ke

I ti sk nown t h a t a s ar e su l t o f t h e mo t ion o f t h e E a r th a r ound t h e S un i n an ea r ly c i r cu la r o rb i t , t h e re i s a n a ppa r en t mo t ion o ft h e S un t h rough t h e E c l ip t ic , w h ich i s i n c l ined b y 2 3 ° .5 t o t h e c e le s t ia l e qua to r ( t i l t ) . T hu s , t h e p o s i t ion o fs un r i se v a r ie s d a i ly o n t h e h o r izon i n ac e r ta in i n te rva l f r om d ue E a s t ( d epend ing o n t h e l a t i tude ) , w he r ef rom t h e S un r i se s o n ly o n t h e 2 1' o f Ma r ch a nd o n t h e2 2n d o fS ep tembe r e a ch y ea r( Sp r ing a nd A u tumn E qu i n oxe s ) ,w h ich b o th c o r re spond t oS un 's d ec l ina t ion 5= 0 ° . D u r ing S p r ing a nd S umme r t h e S un r i se s f r om ap o s i t ion s h if t ed f r om E a s t b y s ome d eg r ee s N o r th" . T h i s s h if t ( c a l led e l onga t ion ) r e ache s i t s m ax imum o n t h e 2 1' o f J une ( Summe r S o l s t ice ) . O n t h e o t he r h and , d u r ing A u tumn a nd W in te r t h e S un r i se s f r om ap o s i t ion s h if t ed f r om E a s t b y s ome d eg ree s S ou th . T h i s e l onga t ion r e ache s i t s m ax imum o n t h e 2 1" o f D ecembe r (W in te r S o ls t ice ) . A cco rd ing ly , i fo ne b u i ld s al o ng p a th ( i . e . : t h ec o r r ido re n t r ance—ad y tum i n at emp le ) d i r e c ted t ot h e E a s t , o rs h if t ed t oi tb ya na ng le b e tween 0 ° E( m in imum )a nd A max ( ° ) N o f

1 7 S ee f o r i n s tance K RUPP , E .C . : « A s t ronome r s , P y ram id s a nd P r ie s t s» ,I n S earch o fA nc ien t A s t ronom ies ( K rupp , E .C . , e d . ) , L ondon ( Cha t to & W indu s ) 1 979 , 1 86 -2 18 ( f o r A bu S imbe l s e e 2 08 & 2 12 : f i gu r e ) ; i d em : « Egyp t ian A s t ronomy : T he R oo t s o f Modem T ime K eep ing» , N ew S c ien t i s t , 8 51 8 8 ,L ondon 1 980 , 2 4 -27 ; i d em : « Egyp t ian A s t ronomy : A T a le o f T emp le s , T rad i t ion , a nd T omb s» , A rch c eoa s t ronomy a nd t h e R oo t so fS c ienc e ( K rupp , E .C . , e d . ) , CO (We s tv iew P r e s s /A AAS S e l ec t ed S ympo s ium S er i es , 7 1 ) 1 984 ,2 89 -320 ( f o rA bu S imbe l s e e3 08 & 3 16 17 : f i gu r e s ) ; i d em : « L igh t i nt h e T emp le s» , R ecord s i nS tone ( Rugg le s , C . , e d . ) , C amb r idg e ( Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) 1 988 , 4 73 -99 ( f o r A bu S imbe l s e e 4 83 & 4 84 : f i g . 2 1 .7 ) ; D r K rupp p ropo sed t h a t t h e G r ea t T emp le w a s o r ien ted t owa rd s t h e s un r i se a t c . 1 8 O c tobe r ( & c . 2 2 F eb rua ry ) 1 260 BCE , c o r r e spond ing t o IP r . t 1o ft h ec i v i lc a lenda ra nd t o t h e ( 30 ` h)j ub i lee o fR am se s I ; s e e a l though n . 1 9 . F o r m odem a r chxo a s t ronom ica l t e chn ique s , s e e R UGGLE S , C . : A s t ronomy i n P reh i s tor ic B r i ta in a nd I r e land ,N ew H aven ( Ya le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) 1 999 ( s ee 2 4 -25 &p a s s im f o r ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e a nnua l s o la r mo t ion s a nd s ome r ema rk so nt h ea tmo sphe r ic r e f rac t ion ) ; a nd Hos iuN ,M . : T ombs , T emp l es a nd t h e i rO r ien ta t ion s : AN ew P er spec t ive o n Med i t er ranean P r eh i s to ry , B ogno rR eg i s ( Oka r ina B ook s )2 00 1 . 1 8 F o r t h e i lum ina t ion o f t h e s ac rar ium ( d e sc r ibed b y t h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian p r ie s t s a s « t he u n ion w i th t h e S un 's d i sc» ) , s e e K ITCHEN , o p . c i t . , 9 9 100 . L ocky e r i n h i s b ook r e f e r s t o A bu S imbe l ( mo s t ly t o N ef e r t i ry 's t emp le ) , a l though n o t t o t h e i lum ina t ion p henomenon , w i th e r roneou s d a t ing ( 3 200 BCE , s i c ! ) a nd i n f o rma t ion ; f o r t h i s s e e L OCKYER , J .N . : T he D awn o fA s t ronomy : AS tud yo ft h e T emp l e W o r sh ip a nd My tho logy o f t h e A nc ien t E gyp t ian s , C amb r idg e MA ( The M IT P r e s s ) 21 964 , 1 6&3 06 . 1 9 A cco rd ing t o P rof e s so r K .A . K i tchen , w ho i s as p ec ia l is t i n t h e R ame s s ide e r a , t h e r e i sn o s uch e v idence t h a t A bu S imbe l w a s aj ub i lee t emp le . O n t h e c on t ra ry , ac e r ta in t e x t i n d ica t e s t ha t i tw a s r a the r a m emo r ia lt emp le , l i nk ing t h e c u l t s o ft h es o la rg od a nd Amun t ot h er oya l c u l t ( f o r t h i s s e e K ITCHEN , o p . c i t . , 2 52 ; s e e a l so t h e i n sc r ip t ion o n t h e s t e le o fR am se s—A shaheb sed i n6 6 -67 , f o r w h ich c f . PM , V I I , 17 : 9& KRI ,I I ,2 03 -04 ) .

w e r e p e rf o rmed i ns i tu , g ave t h e f o l low ing r e su l t s : G r ea tT emp le ( DOP = 2 . 0 a t 1 2 :35 ' l o ca l t ime ) : 4 )= 2 2 °20 ' 13" .7 N ; =3 1°37 '32" .7 E ; Sma l l T emp le ( DOP = 1 . 6 a t 1 2 :22 ' l o ca l t i me ) : 4 )= 2 2 °20 ' 10" .3 N ; = 3 1°37 '49.5 E .T he se v a lue s a r ea lmo s tc o inc iden tw i th t h eo ne su sed h e r e f o ro u rc a lcu la t ion s . 1 5 S e e E DWARD S , A . : AT hou sand M i l es u pt h eN i l e , L ondon 11 877 ,4 43 4 4 [ 21 89 1 , 3 03 -04 ] . T he i lum ina t ion p henomenon w a s a l so d e sc r ibed b y m ode rn a u tho r s , l i ke C HR ISTOPHE , L .A . , « Que lque s r ema rque s s u r l e G rand T emp le d 'A bou S imbe l» , R evu e d u C a i re , 4 72 5 ,L e C a i r e 1 96 1 , 3 16 -32 ; a nd i d em : A bou—S imbe l , B ru s s e l s ( E inaud i ) 1 965 , 2 00 -03 . S ee a l so t h e a r t ic le b y V AN D ER HAAGEN , J .K . : i n UNESCO C our ier , 1 5" , O c tobe r 1 962 , 1 0 15 ; a nd G EL INSKY , G . : « E in H e l iak i sche rF rühauf gang b e i A bu S imbe l» , GM ,9 ,1 974 , 1 9 -24 . 1 6 F o rt h e c a lcu la t ion o ft h e a z imu th o ft h e S un d u r ing r i s ing a nd s e t t ing , s e e f o r i n s tance S MART , W .M . : T ex tbook o n S pher ica l A s t ronomy , UK ( Camb r idg eU n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) I i ) *

, v w v . 6 , A* \

*

-

3 5

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

2 5

*I

2 6 2 7

rr t

. , -> * --

r i

' ' )

% ( --2 ,

_ i ,

2 8

T he H yad e sC lu s te r( DC ) . H igh ly p robab le .

J aw? —

*

S b3 ns e r

C ape l la ( mo s tp robab le )o rA ld ebaran ( i fn o t

S ta ro fS a `r ( F i re? )

b e long ing t o2 5 ) . RA o b ta ined f r om RC .

3 pd T he B i rd

T r iangu lum —the p eak — & P er seu s( RC ) . P e rhaps a l so t h eb i rd o fs ome t omb c e i l ing s .

r y t

C a s s iope ia ( RC ) . No tt ob ec onf u sed w i th 2 5 . T he r e ad ing i sp rob lema t ic .

( The T wo )J aw( s )? _ L I

2 9

; , , _1_

0

1 r" .

3 0

@

* I

= ' — '*

3 1

W il yA ,

3 2

r nw G od Horus l i ke A nu

T he re a r et wo a l te rna t ive s : 2 9 i st h e mo s tp robab le ,

Msh tyw T he T h igh ( Bu l l ' sF ore leg )

U ndoub ted ly ,t h eP lough . I nd o t—da shed l i ne , o ne o f

Mn i t Moor ing P o s t

S omewhe r eb e tween t h e P lough a nd t h eH ippo ( GR ) .

Mn i t .(w )y T he T wo P o le s ( Two Moor ing P o s t s )

T he C e le s t ia l &t h e E c l ip t ic P o le s? T he 2n d h a st h e f o rm o f ac r ocod i le ( pa r to fD raco ) . I nd o t—da shed

a cco rd ing t o GR .A rc turu sm igh tb e long t oA nu4. t h e H eaven 's Ad ze s( PT ) . M i za rm igh tb e T 3 -nf r+ . T he S t a r Mn i .t m igh tb eA lka id ( RC ) #.

l i ne , UM ii st h es e cond o ft h eH eaven 's Ad zes ( PT ) 4.

3 3

< > u . , , , .i d

3 4

° .*

A 2nd C rocod i le

3 5

1

S tand ing man /god ?

S hu °.I tc ou ld b e i d en t ica lt o2 0 .

Nw .t T he S ky—Godd e s s Nu t

P e rhaps t ob ef ound i nt h e s ky ( GR ) , s he w ou ld b et h e

R r .t ( 3 s .t d 3 .t Mw t h b -p t ) T he H ippopo tamus

C ove r ing f r om B oo tes t oL y ra ( RC & GR ) . I tm igh tb e e ven l a rge re x tend ing t oO ph iucu sa nd S e rpens4. T he C ocod r i le o nt h eb ack o f R r t( GR ) . S e rpens o fc l a s s ica l s ou rces? O n ly p resen ti n GR [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . P e rhap st h ea i rg od

I ,

j

72

öc 2,

Nw . t

. 1

M i lky W ay a cco rd ing t o We l l s [ WE LLS , 1 984 ] *.

*N o te o ft he e d i tor : C f . BE AUX ,N . : « S i r iu s , & o i le e tj eune H oru s» , Homag e s äJ .L ec lan t( Be rge r , C . , e ta l . , e d s . ) , 1 ,L eC a i re ( I F AO , B iE tud , 1 06 " ) 1 994 : 6 1-72 , w he re am e thod o ft r iangu la t ion f o rt h eo bse rva t ion o fi t sh e l ia ca lr i s ing i sd i scu s sed . 1 . "N o te

o ft he e d i tor : Mo s tp robab ly n o t . I ts hou ld b e S i r iu s ; s e e f o r i n s tance W A INWR IGHT , G .A . : « O r ion a nd t h e G r ea t S t a r» ,J EA , 2 2 ,

1 936 : 4 5 -46 . N o te o ft he e d i tor : A n o b so le te c on s te l la t ion t oday ; c o r r e spond sr ough ly t oC ar ina ; f o r ab r ief h i s to ry s e e AL LEN , R .H . : S tar N ame s : T he i rL or ea nd Mean ing , NY ( Dove r ) 21 963 : 6 4 -75 . N o te o ft he e d i tor : O nw ha tg round s hou ld w en ame i ts o? F o rs e ra nd av a r ian t , s e e W b . , I V :4 8 . •N o te o ft he e d i tor : We t h ink t h a t t h i s i si mpo s s ib le ; s e e f o r i n s tance MA RAVEL IA ,A .—A . : « The S t e l la r H o r izon o fK huf u : A r chxo a s t ronomy , E gyp to logy . a nd S ome I mag ina ry S cena r ia» , AH , 1 7 , 2 003 : 5 8 &f i g . 2 .F o rt h ec e le s t ia l a dze sa nd t h e i mpo s s ib i l i ty o ft h e i d en t if ica t ion o fo ne o ft h em w i th UM i , s e e o p . c i t . : 6 86 9 &n . 89 4 . I ts e em s u n r ea sonab le t o c on s ide r R r . t s o e x tended o n t h e c e le s t ia l s phe re . H e rp ropo r t ions a r en eve rd rawn g i gan t ic i na ny o ft h et omb sw i th a s t ronom ica l c e i l ing s . +N o te o ft he e d i tor : H ow t h i sc ou ld b ec ompa t ib le w i th w ha ts t a ted i nt h i st a b le ( cf . 1 4 )f o ra —V i rg in i s? °N o te o ft he e d i tor : Why? O nw ha tg round ss hou ld w ei d en t if yt h i sf i gu r et oS hu? *N o te o ft he e d i tor : We l ls w a s n o t t h e o n ly o ne t od i scu s s t h is t op ic . C f . a l so KO ZLO F F , A .P . : « R i tua l I mp lemen t s a nd R e la ted S t a t u e t te s» , E gyp t ' s D az z l ing S un : Amenho tep I I a nd h i s W or ld ( Koz lof f , A . & B ryan , B .M . , e d s . ) , C leve land 1 992 , 3 31-48 ; KO ZLOF F , A .P . : « S ta r—Gaz ing i nA nc ien t E gyp t» , H ommag e s äJ .L ec lan t ( Be rge r , C . , e ta l . , e d s . ) , I V , L e C a i re ( B iE tud , 1 06" ) 1 9 94 , 1 69 -76 ; MA RAVEL IA ,A .—A . : « Co sm ic S pa ce a nd A r che typa l T ime : D ep ic t ion s o ft h e S ky—Godde s sN u t i nT h r ee R oya l E gyp t ian T omb s o ft h e N ew K ingdom» , GM , 1 97 , 2 003 , i np r e s s .

3 6

EUROPE

More t han Or ien ta t ion : P lac ing Monu men t s t ov iew t he Cosm ic Order Ga i lH igg inbo t tom ,A ndrew Sm i th ,K en S impson a nd R oger C lay*

b e tween t h e f r ees tand ing m ega l i th s : t h e i r l o ca t ion s a nd o r ien ta t ion , t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape a nd t h e a s t ronom ica l c y c le s .

Ab s trac t C u l tu ra l i n te re s t i n t h e m ovemen t s o f t h e moon a nd s un i s s t rong ly s uppo r ted b y m any w o rk s i n A rchxoa s t ronomy . R e sea rch b yH o sk in a nd c o l league so nt h eo r ien ta t ion o ft omb si n t h e L a te—M inoan c eme te ry a tA rm eno i , C re te , a sw e l l a sA ven i 's a nd H a r tung 's w o rk o n t h e z en i th t ube s a t Mon te A lban a nd X och ica lco , i lu s t ra te t h i s ' . O r ien t ing s t ruc tu re s t owa rd s p a r t icu la r a s t ronom ica l p henomena , h oweve r , m ay n o t h ave b een t h e o n ly v a r iab le c on s ide r ed i n l o ca t ion c ho ice . R ugg le s ' a nd Ma r t lew 's No r th Mu l l i n ve s t iga t ion s f ound t h a t s i te s w e re p r ef e r en t ia l ly p l a ced s o a s t o a s soc ia te p rom inen t s e conda ry p eak s o r g roup s o f p eak s w i th p a r t icu la r a s t ronom ica l p he n omena , r ega rd le s s o ft h e i r o r ien ta t ion ; i np a r t icu la r , a s soc ia t ing t h em w i th t h e s ou the rnmo s t m oon r i se n ea re r t h e m ino r s t and s t i l l o r t h e r i se a nd s e t o f t h e s o l s t i t ia l s un . T he o u t come s o f t h e c u r r en t s t udy s uppo r t a nd e xpand t h e m a in c onc lu s ion s o f t h is w o rk . F i r s t ly , i tw a s f ound t h a t , w hen e r ec t ing a monumen t , c on s ide ra t ion w a s s ome t ime s g i ven , n o t o n ly t o a s i ng le a s t ronom ica l p henomenon , b u t a l so t o a n a s soc ia t ion w i th ( a ) c omp le te c o smo log ica l c yc le ( s ) . S econd ly , t h a tt h e se c yc le s w e re n o t i n d ica ted i nt h e i r e n t i re ty , b u t t h e i r e x is tence w a s i mp l ied b y t h eo r ien ta t ion t owa rd sa n i n s tance o fi t .

•

i

4 2 -

KEY WORDS : O r ien ta t ion s o f Monumen t s , S co t land , H o r izon , Me r id ian ,E qu inoxe sa nd S o ls t ice s , S un , Moon ,L una rS t and s t i l l s , S t a r s , P lane t s ,A nc ien tA s t ronom ica lC u s tom s , C o sm ic O rde r .

N iC r j

1 7

c ß

I .I n troduc t ion

T h i s p ro jec t b egan a s a n i n ve s t iga t ion i n to t h e p o s s ib le i n te r e s t o f N eo l i th ic /B ronz e A ge p eop le s o f w e s te rn S co t land i na s t ronom ica lp henomena ,a nd w a sb a sed o nt h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h i s m igh t b e r e p re sen ted o r m i r ro red i n t h e d e s ign o ft h e i rm ega l i th ic m onumen t s [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . T he p ro jec t 's s cope g r ew a nd w e u sed e nv i ronmen ta l i n f o rma t ion t of u r the r i n ve s t iga t e monumen t s ' p o s i t ion ing , d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter na nd s e t t ing . I nt h i s w ay , amo r e h o l i s t ic p i c tu re o f t h e c o smov i s ion o f t h i s r eg ion c ou ld b e i n ve s t iga ted .

FI GURE 1 .S how ing a r ea o fw e s te rn S co t land w i th t h es t udy 's s i te sm a rked o u tb yb l a ck d o t s . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S urvey 1 : 50000 L andf o rm PANORAMA m ap w i th p e rm is s ion o ft h e C on t ro l le ro fH e r Ma je s ty 's S ta t ione ry O f f ice . S ee F i gu r e 9f o ra c l o se u po fC o l la nd T i r ee . ©C rown C opy r igh t .

I . S ummary R epor t s : P hase s 1a nd 2

T h i s p ape r w i l l o u t l ine t h e i n i t ia l r e su l t f o r t h e f i r s t t wo p ha se s o ft h e p ro jec tt oe nab le b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e r e g ion . I tw i l lp r e sen tt h e r e su l t s o fv i ew shed ( VS )r e sea r ch f i r s ta nd d i scu s sh ow t h i s a nd o u ro t he rr e sea rch f i t s i nw i th R ugg le s e t a l . v a r iou s w o rk s i n t h i s g eog raph ica l a nd a r ch a zo log ica l f i e ld . F ina l ly , t h e n ewe s t f o rm o f G eog raph ica l I n f o rma t ion S y s t em s ( G IS ) m e thodo logy d eve loped f o r t h i s a r ea i s t o b e r e vea led ( 360 ° , 3 -D l a nd scape v i ew s o f C o l l a nd T i ree , r e vea l ing t h e l i nk s

I LL F ree-S tand ing S tones : P ha se 1

T he i n i t ia l s t age s o ft h e s t udy f o cu sed o n ly u pon t h e monu m en t s . C lu s te r a na ly se s p rev iou s ly d eve loped f o r A s t ronomy a nd A s t rophy s ic s w e r e u sed t o i n v e s t iga te t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e f ree-s t and ing s t one s o f w e s te rn S co t land .2 T he r aw d a ta o f a z imu th s a nd d ec l ina t ion s o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s c ame f r om R ugg le s 1 984 s t udy . F rom t h e a na ly se s , c onc lu s ive e v idence w a s f ound t o s uppo r t t h e h ypo the s i s o f d e l ibe ra te o r ien ta t ion o f m ega l i th s i n t h i s

* We w ou ld l i k e t of o rma l ly a cknow ledg e t h e g ene rou s a s s i s tance o ft h e O rdnance S u rvey o fG r ea t B r i ta in f o rt h e u se o fL andf o rm P ANORAMA D ig i ta l H e igh t D a ta a tn om ina l 1 : 50 0 00 s ca le ( L icence N 2 ED 0 178A ) . We w ou ld a l so l i ke t o w ho lehea r t ed ly t hank R on N ewbo ld f o r h i s c on t inuou s s uppo r tt h roughou tt h i sw o rk .

2

T h i s t ype o fa na ly s i s w a s f i r s t d i scu s sed b y G . GERARDI , R . BUCCHER I & B . SACCO : P roceed ing s o f CO MPSTAT 8 2 , P hy s ica—Va r lag , V ienna ( IASC , 11) 1 982 . S ee a l so S .D . ELTON : AS earch f or C e l e s t ia lS ourc e s o f V ery H igh E nergy G amma—Ray Em i s s ion u s ing t h e ü e r enkov T echn ique ( PhD T he s is , A de la ide ( Un ive r s i ty o f A de la ide ) 1 989 . [ Ed i tor 's N o te : A dd i t iona l ly o n c l u s te r a na ly s is ' m e thod s , s e e F . M URTAGH & A . HECK : Mu l t iva r ia te D a ta A na ly s i s , D o rd r ech t ( Re ide l ) 1 987 ] .

M. „ rAPATHANASS IOU , M. A . HOSKIN & H . PAPADOPOULOU : « O r ien ta t i o n s o fT omb s i nt h e L a te M inoan C eme t e ry a tA rmeno i , C r e te» , A A , 1 7 ( s upp l . t o JHA , 2 3 ) 1 992 , S 43 -55 . A . AVENI & H . HARTUNG : « The O b se rva t ion o f t h e S un a tt h e T ime o f P a s sage t h rough t h e Z en i th i n Me soame r ica» ,A A , 3( s upp l . t o JHA , 1 2 ) 1 98 1 , S 51-70 .

3 9

AMANDA-AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

f o cu s a nd a vo idance i n e ach o f t h e se r eg ion s f u r the r s uppo r t s t h e c onc lu s ion s o ft h e p r ev iou s s t udy i nw h ich w e d i scove red p o s s ib le r e g iona l d i f f e r ence s [ s ee T ab le 1 ] .

a r ea3. I mpor tan t ly i tw a s s hown t h a t t h e r e i s ag r ea te r g eog raph ica l e x t en t a nd s t r eng th o fo r ien ta t ion p r ef e rence s t h an p rev iou s ly r e por ted i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e , i n c lud ing P a t r ick & F r eeman a nd R ugg le s e t a l . 4.F u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion r e vea led t h a t f o r t h o se r eg ion s w he re c l u s te r ing w a s s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t , e ach r e g ion f o cu sed t ov a ry ing d eg re e s u pon d i f f e ren t o r ien ta t ion r a nge s , s uppor t ing , p e rhap s , t h e e x i s tence o fs ub— cu l tu ra l i n d ica t ion p r ef e r ence s . T he se r eg ion s w e r e U is t , I s lay ( w i th J u ra ) , Mu l l ( wh ich i n c lude s N o r th A rgy l l , C o l l a nd T i r ee ) a nd A rgy l l ( wh ich i n c lude s L o rn ) .

R e g ion M u l l

I A r

g Y "

I s l ay

1 .2 .1 . Me thodo log ica lC ons idera t ions O ne o ft h e q uanda r ie s o fi n ve s t iga t ing p r eh i s to ry i s« how d o w e k now w he re t h e m onumen t b eg in s a nd e nd s f o r t h e se p eop le?» F o l low ing o n f r om t h i s , i tm igh tn o tb e s a f e t o d ema rca te b e tween monumen t s o r b e tw een monumen t s a nd t h e i rs u r round ing l a nd scape . F o rt h e se r e a son s , t h er e s t o f t h e s t udy f o l low s ap h i lo soph ica l l i ne e xp re s sed i n B rad ley 's w o rk A l ter ing t h e E a r th 5. N ame ly t h a t monumen t s mu s t n o t b e c on s ide r ed s e pa ra te ly f r om t h e t r ea tmen t o fo t he r p l ace s i nt h e l a nd scape , a nd i n deed , n o t s epa ra ted f r om t h e l a nd scape i t s e lf .

2 0-25 ( s t h l y ) 2 5-30 ( n t h l y ) 3 0-35 ( n t h l y )

0 . 062 0 . 026 0 . 002

15--2 0 (s t h l y ) 510 ( s t h l y ) 0 - 5( s t h l y ) 0 -5 ( n t h l y ) 1 5-2 0( n t h ) y )

0 . 05 1 0 . 035 0 . 096 0 . 095 0 . 005

P o sa s t r op hen L u n a r( M a j o rS t a n d s t i l l ) L u n a r( M a j o rS t a n d s t i l l )

D e ca v 1 0— +5 7 1 0-1 5

L u n a r( M a j o rS t a n d s t i l l ) S o l a r( W i n t e rS o l s t i c e )

-1 510

L u n a r( M a j o rS t a n d s t i l l )

2 0-25 8

U n k n ow n -b u ti n d i c a t e s L u n a r( M i n o rS t a n d s t i l l )

-3 0--2 0

S o l a r( f l a n k i n gE q u i n o x ) ?

2 0-30

S o l a r( f l a n k i n gE q u i n o x ) S o l a r( f l a n k i n gE q u i n o x ) L u n a r( M i n o rS t a n d s t i l l )

TA BLE 1 . T he t h ree r e g ion st h a td emons t ra te p o s s ib le i n te r e s ti n a s t ronom ica lp henomena . P robab i l i t ie si nb o ld a r ew he r e p< 0 . 05 , o the r sa r ew he re p< 0 . 1 . S ig d ec = S ign if i can td ec l ina t ion b in-w id th si nd eg r e e s ; p=p robab i l i ty ; P o sa s t ro p hen =P o ss ib le a s t ronom ica lp henomena ; D ec a v =D ec l ina t ion r a nge s s i gn if ican t ly a vo ided 9' 1 °. [ No te : +=n o r the rn ; -=s ou ther n ] .

T he d a ta f o r Mu l la ppea rt os uppo r ta n i n te re s ti nt h e Moon a tt h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l b o th i nt h e s ou the r ly a nd n o r the r ly d i r ec t ion s . F o r t h o se f a c ing S ou th , h a lf a r e f o cu sed o n t h e r i s ing Moon a nd h a lf o n t h e s e t t ing . T he Mu l l o r ien ta t ion s , h oweve r , s i gn if ican t ly a vo id t h e S un 's p o s i t ion a tt h e E qu i n ox .

T o t e s t f o r c onnec t ion s b e tween m onumen t s a nd a s t rono m ica l p henomena , w e m a in ta ined t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a l t h ing s h ave t h e p o ten t ia l t o b e c onnec ted . We c ho se t o c on s ide r t h e h o r izon a s a n e x ten s ion o f t h e monumen t s , w h e re t h e monumen t i st h e b ack s igh t , t ov i ew a nd i n d ica te t h e d i rec t ion i n w h ich t h e p henomena m ay l i e , a nd t h e h o r izon t h e f o re s igh t , u pon w h ich t h e p henomena a ppea r . I ti st h e mo s t d i s tan t , a nd t h u s f i na l , p o in t p eop le c an s e e . T he h o r izon i t se lf , t h en , m ay b e o fp a r t icu la r s i gn if icance t ot h e b u i lde r s o ft h e monumen t s . N a tu ra l ly , s u ch at h eo ry i sa l so t h e e x ten s ion o ft h e a s t ronom ica l a s sump t ion s t h a t w e h ave h ad t o make . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e s t udy o f N eo l i th ic /B ronze A ge A s t ronomy i n t h e B r i t i sh I s le s i s b a sed u pon t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e a nc ien t p eop le s w e r e i n t e res ted i nc e le s t ia l b od ie s a st h ey r o se a nd s e t a l ong t h e h o r i zon .

F o r A rgy l l , o ne s i gn if ican t i n te r e s t a ppea red t ob e t h a t o f t h e S un a tt h e W in te r S o l s t ice . S o l s t ice i n d ica t ion s w e re s ou the r ly w i th t wo t h i rd s o r ien t ed t owa rd s t h e s un se t a nd o ne— th i rd t h e s un r i se . T he Moon a tt h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l m ay a l so h ave b een o f i n te r e s t h e re , w i th s i t es f a c ing n o r thea s t ( r i s ing ) a nd n o r thwe s t ( s e t t ing ) . T he re w a s v e ry s t rong s t a t i s t ica l s uppo r t f o r i n t e re s t i na n a r ea o u t s ide t h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l a r ea i n t h e s ou the r ly d i rec t ion ( 4 ° d ec l ina t ion s ou th o f+ 28° , + 28 ° b e ing t h e d ec l ina t ion f o r t h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ) . T he o n ly k nown r e g ion i nt h e s ky t h a t c o inc ide s w i th t h e se v a lue s i st h e d i sc o ft h e M i lky Way , w h ich a tt h e se l a t i tude s , a nd i nt h i s r eg ion o f t h e s ky , i sv e ry s t r ik ing i n a ppea r an ce . I s lay 's m a rg ina l ly s i gn if i can t r a nge s i mmed ia te ly f l ank t h e E qu inox b y 5 ° e i the r s i de . Mo r e s i gn if ican t ly ( s ta t i s t ica l ly s peak ing ) , t h i s c on t inue s f o r 5 ° t o 1 0 ° i n an o r the r ly d i re c t ion . T he re i sa l so e v idence f o ra n i n te re s t i nt h e Moon a t t h e M ino r S t and s t i l l , m a rg ina l t owa rd s t h e S ou th , b u t s t rong ly s i gn if ican t t owa rd s t h e N o r th . A l so v e ry s i gn if i c an t ly , t h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e s i t e s i nI s lay s how n o af in i ty w ha t soeve rw i th t h e S un .

1 .2 .2 . Ou tcome s F o r t h e t h r ee r e g ion s o f I s lay , Mu l l a nd A rgy l l , b o th t h e h o r izon s a nd s p ec if ic a s t ronom ica l p henomena w e re f ound t o b e t h e f o cu s o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e f r ee— s tand ing s t one s o f We s te rn S co t land 6.T he c ho ice o f o r ien ta t ion

G . I l IGG INBOTTOM & R . CLAY : « Rea s se s smen t o f S i t e s i nN o r thwe s t S co t land : AN ew S t a t i s t ica l A pp roa ch» ,A A , 2 4 ( s upp l . t o JHA ,3 0 ) 1 999 , S 44 : T ab . 3 .

7P l ea se

8

n o te t h e se v a lue sw e r e i n co r r ec t ly l i s ted a s -5 —+1 0i no p . c i t . , 4 9 .

P l ea se n o te t h e se v a lue s w e r e i n co r r ec t ly l i s ted a s 1 5-25 i no p . c i t . , 4 9 a nd G . H IGG INBOTTOM , A . , S M ITH , K . S IMPSON & R . C LAY : « I nco rpo ra t ing t h e N a tu ra l E nv i ronmen t : I nve s t iga t ing L and scape a nd Monumen ta sS a c red S pa ce» ,O ne L and , Many L and scape s( M .G o jda a nd T . D a r v i l l , e d s . ) O xf o rd ( B r i t ish A r chxo log ica l R epo r t s , 9 87 ) 2 00 1 , 5 3 6 2 . 9 H e r e t h e r e f e r enc e t od eg r ee s i st od eg r ee s o fd ec l ina t ion . D ec l ina t ion s a r e v a lue s g i ven t ot h e p a th s a l ong w h ich c e le s t ia l b od ie s t r ave l . L oo se ly s peak ing a d ec l ina t ion i s c a lcu la ted u s ing 3 p i ece s o f i n f o rma t ion : d i r ec t ion ( o r ien ta t ion i n d eg r ee s f r om N o r th ) , a l t i tud e o f h o r izon a nd l a t i tude o fo b se r ve r . l o R ep roduced w i th k i nd p e rm is s ion o fC . E s teban a nd J . —A . B e lmon t e , s e en .5 .

J .P ATR ICK & P . FREEMAN : « AC lu s te rA na ly s i s o fA s t ronom ica l O r ien -

t a t ion s» , R ecord s i nS tone ( C .L .N . R ugg le s , e d . ) , C amb r idge ( Camb r idg e U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) 1 988 , 2 51-6 1 . C .L .N R ugg le s e t a l . : M ega l i th ic A s t ronomy : AN ew A rch c eo log ica la nd S ta t i s t ica lS tud y o f3 00 W e s t ern S co t t i sh S i t es , O xf o rd ( B r i t i sh A r chxo log ica l R epo r t s , 1 23 ) 1 984 . 5

P 0 . 025 0 . 095 0 . 077

d i s co fM i l k yW a y

1 .2 . I ncorpora t ing t he N a tura l L and scape : P hase 2

4

S i gd ec 3 0--3 5( s t h l y ) -2 5-3 0( s t h l y ) 2 5-3 0( n t h l y )

-

R . BRADLEY : A l t er ing t h e E ar th , E d inbu rgh ( Soc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s o f

S co t land ) 1 993 .

6G . t l IGG INBOTTOM , A . S M ITH , K . S IMP SON & R .

CLAY : « Gaz ing a tt h e H o r izon : S ub—Cu l tu ra l D if f e r ence s i n We s ter n S co t land?» , P roc eed ing s o ft h e O xf o rd V I I n terna t iona l C onf er ence o n A rch c eoa s t ronomy a nd A s t ronomy a nd C u l ture ( C . E s teban a nd J . —A . B e lmon te ( e d s . ) , T ene r if e ( O rgan i smo A u tönomo d e Mu seo s d e l C ab i ldo d eT ene r if e )2 000 ,4 3 -49 .

4 0

G a i l H igg inbo t tom , A nd rew Sm i th e ta l . : Mo re t han O r ien ta t ion : P lac ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h e C osm ic O rde r

1 .2 .3 . C onc lus ion

S i te

N ame

l o ca t ion

T hom

O SC a rd

I tw ou ld b e r e a sonab le t o s ugg e s t t h a t t h e re i sc onv inc ing e v idence t h a tt h eh o r izon w a s s e en a s as i gn if ican tf a c to ri n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e f r ee— s tand ing s t one s i nt h e r eg ion s o fA rgy l l , Mu l l a nd I s lay . T he h o r izon m ay h ave e ven b een s e en a s a n e x ten s ion o f t h em . I ti sl i ke ly a l so t h a t t h e se s ame monumen t s w e re d e s igned w i th a s t ronom ica l p henomena i n m ind . T he k now ledg e o r a ppea rance o f t h e se monumen t s m ay h ave i n duced t h e a pp rop r ia te c o smo log ica l c onnec t ion s t o c e le s t ia l p henomena o r e ven t h e h o r izon . We c an n ow s e e t h e p o s s ib le c onnec t ion b e tween t h e monumen t , t h e l a nd scape a nd t h e p henomena . T he i mpor tance o fv i s ib i l i ty , t o o , f o rt h e p l acemen t o ft h e m onumen t s i sn ow c onf i rmed . I n l i gh t o f t h e se r e sea rch o u tcome s a nd t h e c onc lu s ion s d r awn , f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion w a sd eemed n ece s sa ry .

N A1

B r ana u l t

N M56NWO2

A r dnam u r c han

—

N A3 C ama sn a nG ea l l A r dnamu r c han

—

N M56SE02

C T 1

A c ha

C o l l

—

N M 15NE 17

C T2

T o t r ona ld

C o l l

M 3 / 1

N M 15NE 15

C T3

B r eac ha c ha

C o l l

—

N M 15SE 15

C T7

H ough

T i r ee

—

N L 94NE20

—

N L9 4NE23

C T7 C T8

B a r r apo l l

T i r ee

M 4 / 3 NL 9 4SW 1

C T9

B a l inoe

T i r ee

M 4 / 2

M L 1

G l en go rm

M u l l

M L / 7 N M45NWO2

M L2

Q u in i s h

M u l l

MU 3 N M45NWO5

M L4

B a l l i sc a t e

M u l l

M L / 8 N M 45SE0 1

M L7

C i l l c h r io s d

M u l l

M L / 2 N M35SE05

N L 94SE04

M L9

M ao lMo r

M u l l

M L / 4 N M45SW05

M L 10

D e rv a i gN

M u l l

M 115 N M45SW04

I I .V iew shed s a nd t he E n t ire H or izon : P hase 3

M L 11

D e r va i gS

M u t t

M 1 / 6 N M45 sW07

U p t o t h i s p o in t , t h e monumen t s h ave b een t r ea ted a s a g roup , b u t w i th t h e m e thodo logy a pp l ied f o r P ha se 3 t h e m onumen t s a r e p r edom inan t ly c on s ide red i n d iv idua l ly . I t i sn o t t h e a im o f t h i s p a r t icu la r p ape r t o r e po r t a l l t h e m e thod s a nd r e su l t s o ft h i s p ha se . I tw i l l d i scu s s o n ly t h o se i s sue s t h a t r e la te t o t h e s i t e s ' r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape o rn a tu ra lp henomena a nd t h o se t h a t e n l igh ten o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e g eog raph ica l r eg ion o f Mu l l , No r th A rgy l l C o l l a nd T i r ee , w i th af o cu s u pon t h e l a t t e r t wo a r ea s H .T ho se m e thod s a nd o u tcome s w h ich d i scu s st h e o t he rr eg ion s , a sw e l la st h e r e la t ion sh ip s o ft h e s i te st oe ach o t he r , w i l lb e d i scu s sed e l sewhe r e1 2.

M L 12

A r dna c r o s s

M u l l

M 1 / 9 N M54NWO3

M L 13

T enga

M u l l

M 1 / 10 W 54Nw04

M L 14

T o s t a r ie

M u l l

M 1 / 1 1 N M3 4NE03

M L 15

K i l ic h r o nan

M u l l

M 2 / 15 N M54SW0 1

M L 16

G r u l ine

M u l l

M 2 / 16 N M53NWO3

T he r e g ion o f Mu l l w a s c ho sen a si tr e ce ived as t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t s co re f o ra n i n te r e s t i nt h eh o r izon i t s e lf , a sw e l l a s ao b ta in ing as i gn if ican t r e su l t f o r a n i n t e re s t i ns pec if ic a s t ronom ica l p henomena . I na dd i t ion , a nd i mpo r tan t ly , t h e r e su l t s c ou ld b e c ompa red s omewha t w i th t h o se o f R ugg le s , w ho c on t inued t o s t udy Mu l l b u t u sed e i the r d if e r en t t e chn ique s o r ad i f f e r en t a r ch z eo log ica l f o cu s1 3. B e low i n T ab le 2 a l i s t o f s i t e s i ss hown , u sed i n t h e v i ew shed a na ly s i sp i lo ts t udy o fP ha se 3 .

M L27

R o s sa l

M u l l

M L28

L o c hb u ie

M u l l

M L30

T ao s l in

M u l l

M 2 / 8 N M 32SE0 1

M L3 1

U i s ke n

M u l l

M 2 / 10 N M3 1NE02

M L33

A r da lan i s h

M u l l

M 2 / 9 N M3 1NE0 1

M L 16

M 2 / 1 N M5 3NWO 1

M L 16 M L 18

C r a ga i g

U l va

M L25

U l uva l t l

M u l l

M L25 M L25

N M43NWO9 —

N MS3SW02

—

N M5 3SW02

—

W 5 '3NWO3

—

N M52NWO6

M 2 / 14 N M62NWO3

TA BLE 2 .S i tes u sed i nt he v i ew shed a na ly s is f o r Mu l l , C o l l , T i ree a nd Nor th A rgy l l . S i te = s i te n ame g iven b yR ugg les a nd c on t r ibu to r s( 1984 ) . T hom = T hom 's s i te i d en t if ie r . O S c a rd = Un i ted K ingdom O rdnance S urvey I den t if ie r . T ab le a dap ted f r om R ugg le s [ RuGGLEs , 1 984 ] .

I I .! . Me thodo logy

T he r e a son f o r c omb in ing t h e a r ea s w a s p r ima r i ly s t a t i s t ica l a nd g eog raph ica l . F o r af u l le re xp lana t ion , s e e n .6 ,s upra : HIGGINBOTTO M e t a l . : o p . c i t . 1 2

1 3

A s v i s ib i l i ty w a s s hown t ob e as i gn if ican tf a c to ri nt h ep l a c emen t o ft h e m onumen t s , v i s ib i l i ty a s av a r iab le c an b et e s t ed f u r the r . S pec if ica l ly , w ha t e l se w a s m ean t t ob e s e en f r om t h e v an tage p o in t o ft h e monumen t w hen i tw a s c on s t ruc ted? V iew shed a na ly s i s w a s c ho sen t o t e s t f o r a n i n te re s t i nt h e s u r round ing l a nd scape a s aw ho le a nd f o rt h e f u r the r s i gn if icance o f t h e e n t i r e h o r izon . Mo re o ve r , a f o cu s u pon ad ef ined v i sua l b and i nt h e d i r ec t ion i n d ica ted b y t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e s i te w a s i n ve s t iga ted , a so ppo sed t o t h e n a r rowe r p o in t f o re h e r e to c oncen t ra t ed u pon a s i n d ica ted b y t h e a c tua l d e s ign o ft h e s i te i t se lf" . T hu s , t h e

G . HIGGINBOTTO M : E labo ra t eL and scapes , f o r thcom ing .

S e e n .4 ,s upra , RUGGLES e ta l . : o p . c i t . S ee a l so C .L .N . RUGGLES, R . P .D . HINGE : « The No r th Mu l l p ro jec t ( 2 ) : t h e W ide rA s t ro n om ica l P o ten t ia l o ft h e S i te s» ,A A , 1 6( s upp l . t o JHA ,2 2 ) , 1 99 1 , S 51-75 ; C .L .N . RUGGLES & R . M ARTLE W : « The N o r th Mu l l P ro jec t ( 3 ) : P rom inen t H i l l S umm i t s a nd t h e i r A s t ronom ica l P o ten t ia l» , A A , 1 7 ( s upp l . t o JHA , 2 3 ) , 1 992 , S 113 ; R .D . M ARTLE W & C .L .N . RUGGLES : « R i tua l a nd L and scape o n t h e We s t C oa s t o fS co t land : A n I nve s t iga t ion o f t h e S tone R ow s o fN o r the rn Mu l l» , P roceed ing s o ft h e P r eh i s to r ic S oc i e ty ,6 2 , 1 996 , 19 ;C .L .N . RUGGLES & D .J . MEDYCKYJ—SCOTT : « S i te L oca t ion , L and scape V i s ib i l i ty , a nd S ymbo l ic A s t ronomy : A S co t t i sh C a se S tudy» , N ew Me thod s , O ld P rob l ems : G eog raph ic I nf orma t ion S y s t ems i n Mod ern A rch c eo log ica l R e s earch ( H .D .G . Ma schne r , e d . ) , S ou th e rn I l ino i s ( Un ive r s i ty a t C a rbonda le /C en te r f o r A rchwo log ica l I n ve s t iga t ion s O cca s iona l P ape r N o . 2 3 ) , 1 996 , 1 27 -46 ; P .F ISHER & C . FARLEY , A . M ADDOCKS & C .L .N . RUGGLES : « Spa t ia l A na ly s i s o fV i s ib le A r ea s f r om t h e B ronze A ge C a ir n s o f Mu l l» , J ourna l o fA rch c eo log ica l S c ience , 2 4 , 1 997 , 5 8 1-92 . M ARTLE W &

1 4

T h is p o in t w a s t h e m id—po in t o f R ugg le s ' i n d ica ted a z imu th r a nge ( IAR ) u sed i nh i s s t udy , o fw h ich t h e r e w e r e t wo g roup s : t h e i n t ra— s i t e g roup , u sed f o r a n a l ignmen tw i th in as i t e o rs t ruc tu r e a nd t h e i n ter— s i t e , w he r e a n a l ignmen t w a s c r ea ted b y t wo s epa ra te s i te s . T he I AR f o r t h e f o rme r i st h e r a ng e o fh o r izon t ha t c an r e a sonab ly b e s uppo sed t oh ave b een i n d ica ted b y as t ruc tu r e « on t h e g r ound» , w he rea s t h e l a t te r i st h e

4 1

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED .) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

c en t ra l d i rec t ion r ema in s t h e s ame , b u t t h e s c ope f o rv i ew ing w idens . T h is a dd i t iona l f i e ld o f v i s ion i s c a l led t h e « d i r ec t iona lv i ew shed» a nd t a ke s i n to a ccoun tw ha te l se m igh t b e i n t h e v i sua l f i e ld o f av i ewe r w hen l o ok ing a t a p henomenon o n t h e h o r izon . T h i s i n c lude s s uch f a c to r s a s w ha t c an a v i ewe r s e e w hen l o ok ing a t t h e e dge s o f t h e p henomena , n o t j u s t t h e c en t re , a nd s o i n co rpo ra t ing t h e n o t ion t h a t t h e p henomena mu s t a lway s b e i n c luded i n t h e f i e ld o fv i ew . F o r af i r s t f o ray i n to t h e d e s ign o f ad i rec t iona l v i ew shed t h er a nge o f3 0° w a sc ho sen ,t h a ti s± 1 5 °e i the rs i de o ft h e « l ine» o f i n d ica ted o r ien ta t ion 1 5 .A r ch z eo log i s t s h ave u sed t h e se a pp l ica t ion s , a s v an L eu sen i mp l ie s , t o d i scove r s oc ia l i n d ica to r st h a tr e ly u pon c ommuna l o rs har edf ocu s 16 . T o t e s t t h e q ue s t ion o fv i s ib i l i ty as e r ie s o fh ypo the se s w e re d eve loped ; t h e i n i t ia l p ha se s a r ep r e sen ted i nt h i s p ape r ' ' ' . T he i n i t ia l h ypo the se s c r ea ted w e re : ( i ) t h e t o ta l a r ea o f t h e v i ew shed , i ns qua re k i lome t re s ( s ize ) , f o r e ach s i te i sl i ke ly t o b e d ue t o c hance f a c to r s ; ( i ) t h e f r a c t ion o f a r ea o ft h e d i r e c t iona l v i ew shed , w i th in e ach t o ta l v i ew shed i sl i ke ly t ob e d ue t o c hance f a c to r s ' s.S pec if ica l ly t h e a n swe r s t ot h e se h y p o the se s w i l l h e lp u s t od e te rm ine w he the r a ny th ing e l se o u t s i de t h e n a r row ly i n d ica ted p o in t w a s o f p o s s ib le i n te re s t , w he the ri tb e l a rge u n— ind ica ted a r ea s a bou tt h e m onumen t ( s ) o r w he the r i tb e t h e r e g ion o f l a nd f l ank ing t h e i n d ica ted d i rec t ion o ft h em onumen t ( s ) .

c a t ion a nd l a nd scape ( o b se rved d a ta ) . T o d e r ive s ome s i gn if i c an tr e su l t s o ra r r ive a t as i gn if i can tc onc lu s ion ,t h a tw i l lh ave a r chwo log ica l r e levance , t h e l a t te r v i ew shed s m u s t b e « suf f ic ien t ly d i f f e r en t f r om t h e b ackg round v i s ib i l i ty p rope r t i e s( b a ckg round v a lue so re xpec ted d i s t r ibu t ion s )o ft h es t udy a r ea» 20 .

I I .1 .1 . Ob ta in ing t he Observed Da ta F ou rs e t s o fi n f o rma t ion a r er e qu i red : ( i )t h ec o—o rd ina te s( c a s t ing sa nd n o r th ing s )o ft h es i te s ; ( i )t h eo r ien ta t ion s( a z imu th v a lue s ) o ft h e s i te s ; ( i i ) an on—d i rec t iona l v i ew shed o fe a ch s i te ; ( i v ) ad i rec t iona l v i ew shed o fe a ch s i te . T he o r ien ta t ion s o b ta ined f r om t h e s i te s f o r P ha se 2 w e re u s ed f o r b o th h ypo the se s . T he c o—o rd ina te s f o r b o th h ypo the se s w e re t a ken f r om t h e o r ig ina l R ugg le s d a taba se . T he t h i rd a nd f ou r th d a ta s e t s —na tu ra l ly — n eed t ob ec r ea ted .

1 1 .1 .2 . Ob ta in ing t he E xpec ted D a ta F ou r s e t s o fi n f o rma t ion a r e r e qu i red : ( i ) r a ndom ly g ene ra ted c o—o rd ina te s ( c a s t ing sa nd n or th ing s ) ; ( i )r a ndom ly g ene ra ted o r ien ta t ion s ( a z imu th v a lue s ) ; ( i i ) an on—d i rec t iona lv i ew shed o fe ach r a ndom ly g ene ra ted c o—o rd ina te t ob e c r ea ted ; ( i v ) a d i rec t iona l v i ew shed o fe ach r a ndom ly g ene ra ted c o—o rd ina te t ob e c r ea ted . F o rt h e c r ea t ion o ft h eb a ckg round d i s t r ibu t ion , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t 6 07 r a ndom v i ew shed s w e r e c r ea ted . T he e xa c t n umbe r i sn o t i mpo r tan t , t h e m in imum n umbe r r e qu i red w a s r ough ly t h e n umbe r o fa l ignmen t s t ime s t e n f o r s t a t i s t ica l r e a son s , r emembe r ing t h a t mo re i sa lway s b e t te r . T he p rog ram g ene ra t ing t h e r a ndom v i ew shed s w a s t o b e s t opped m anua l ly i na cco rdance w i th t h em in imum n umbe ro f v i ew shed s r e qu i red , b u t w a s t o b e r un a s l o ng a s p o s s ib le t h e r eaf t e ri ft ime a lowed . F o rt h ev i ew shed a na ly s i s ,e a ch s i te i n t h e c a se s t udy a r ea w a s c ompa red w i th t h e r a ndom b a ckg round l a nd scape v a lue so ft h ea r ea .

I nG IS t h e i n f luence o fl a nd scape f a c to r s c anno tr e a l ly b e u n d e r s tood f r om as i ng le m ode l . T h i s i sb ecau se t h et opog raphy o ft h e l a nd scape v a r ie s . T hu s , a ny mode l o r e xpec ted d i s t r i b u t ion w i l l b e « dependen t o n s i te— spec if ic t e r ra in» 1 9 .T he re f o re , an umbe r o f mode l s , o r e xpec ted d i s t r ibu t ion s f o r e a ch s e pa ra te g eog raph ica l r e g ion , w e re c r ea ted . T h is a lowed f o r t h e d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e i n f luence o f l a nd scape s hape u pon v i s ib i l i ty , a s w e l l a s t h e l o ca t ion o f as i te w i th in t h a t l a nd s c ape . D e te rm ina t ion o f i n f luence i sc on s ide red b y c ompa r i s on o f t h e v i ew shed m od e l , w h ich r epre sen t s ap a t ter n t h a t o ccu r s w hen c hance f a c to r s a r e d om inan t ly r e spon s ib le , w i th ar ea lv i ew shed c r ea ted f r om r e a l a r chwo log ica l s i te d a ta , l o -

1 1 .2 . R e su l t s 1 1 .2 .1 . Hypo the s i s( i )

r a ng e o fh o r izon t h a t c an r e a sonab ly b e s uppo sed t oh ave b een i n c luded b y o ne s i t e a sv i ewed b y a no the r . S ee S ec t ion 3 o fR ugg le s 1 984 s t udy ( c f . n .4 )f o r mo r ed e ta i l s .

I tc an b es e en f r om T ab le 3t h a tt h ea moun to fv i ewed a r ea f o r m o s t s i te s i sn o t s i gn if ican t i nn a tu re . S ix ( 6 ) s i te s i nN o r th A rgy l l a nd C o l l , h oweve r , d i sp lay as i gn if ican t ly l a rge a moun t o f v i ew ing a r ea , n ame ly , NA 1 , NA3 , CT 1 , C T2 , CT3 a nd CT7 . F o r t h e se s i t e s o n ly i sh ypo the s is o ne r e jec ted , a nd t h e a l te rna t ive a ccep t ed .

1 5

F o r d e ta i l s o fv a r iab le s t a ken i n to a c coun tf o rt h e d i r ec t iona lv i ew shed s e e G . HI GG INBOTTOM , A . SM ITH , K.SI MP SON & R . CL AY : Mu l l , T i ree a nd C o l l : S ha red V a lues , f o r thcom ing . 1 6 M .J . V AN LE USEN : « V iew shed a nd C o s t S u r f a ce A na ly s is u s ing G IS ( Ca r tog raph ic Mode l l ing i n aC e l l—Ba sed G IS I )» , N ew T echn iques f or O ld T ime s /C AA 9 8 : C ompu ter A pp l ica t ion sa nd Q uan t i ta t ive Me thod si n A r cha eo log y : P roceed ing s o f t h e 2 61 h C onf er ence i n B arce lona ( JA . B a r c e lo , I .B r iz & A . V i la , e d s . ) , O xf o rd ( B r i t i sh A r chwo log ica l R epo r t s , 7 57 ) 1 999 , 2 15 -23 . 1 7 T he i n ve s t iga t ion h a s a dd re s sed t wo e qua l ly i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion s : ( i )I s t h e r e la t ion sh ip t h a t h a s b een s e en b e tw een m onumen t , h o r izon a nd a s t ronom ica l p henomena ac on t inuou s o ne a c ro s s t h e l a nd scape? T ha t i s , a r e t h e re a ny o t he r a r ea s o r o b jec t s b e tw een t h e m onumen t s a nd t h e i n d ica ted p henomena t h a tp a r t ic ipa te i nt h i sr e la t ion sh ip ,o rs e c t ion so fi t ? O the r s oc ia l i n d ica to r s i n b e tw een t h e f r ee— s tand ing s t one s a nd t h e i r h o r izon s w e r e i n ve s t iga ted . T he s o c ia l i n d ica to r s c ho sen w e r e a l o t he r N eo l i th ic a nd B ronz eA ge m onumen t s ,t h a t c ou ld b e d ef ined a ss u ch , a nd t h a tw e r en o ti n c luded i nt h e 1 984 s t udy o fR ugg le s ' a nd c on t r ibu to r s( see n .4 ,s upra ) . ( i ) D oe s t h e c onnec t ion b e tween m onumen t , h o r izon a nd a s t ronom ica l p henomena a l so c on ta in a n e x t ra v i sua l c omponen t ? M igh t t h e r e n o t b e av i sua l c onnec t ion b e tween t h e f r ee s tand ing s t one s , t h e p henomena , t h e h o r izon a nd o t he r N eo l i th ic o r B ronze a ge f e a tu r e s? I t w i l l b e s e en t h a t t h e h ypo the se s d i scu s sed b y t h e c u r r en t p ape r o n ly a dd r e ss as ma l l s e c t ion o ft h e P ha se 3i n ve s t iga t ion . 1 8 R emembe r ing t h a t t h e c en t ra l l i ne s o ft h e d i r ec t iona l v i ew shed s a r e i n d ica ted b y t h e o r ien ta t ion o fe a ch s i t e 's a l ignmen t , b e i ti n te r— s i t e o r i n t ra— s i te . 1 9 S ee n .1 3 ,s upra , FI S HER e ta l . : o p . c i t . , 5 84 .

1 1 .2 .2 . Hypo the s i s( i ) H ypo the s i s t wo s t a te s t ha t w hen c ompa r ing t h e a moun t o f a r ea ( s qua re k i lome t re s ) w i th in t h e d i rec t iona l v i ew shed w i th t h e e qu iva len t r a ndom b ackg round d i s t r ibu t ion , t h e a r ea s e en w i th in t h e d i rec t iona l v i ew shed i sl i ke ly t ob e d ue t oc hance f a c to r s . T h is h ypo the s i sw a sr e jec ted a nd t h ea l te rna t ive h ypo t h e s is w a s a ccep ted f o r t h e s i te a l ignmen t s o f ML 1—ML9 , ML7SE , ML7—ML2 a nd ML 11 a bcSSE [ s ee T ab le 4 ] . I t s hou ld b en o ted t h a t 1 4o t he r sw e re v e ry b o rde r l ine c a se s( t ha t i s 0 . 1 > p< 0 . 2 ) . T he se a l ignmen t s i n c lude NA l baSSE , NA3NN W , CT2baSS W , CT7—CT8 , ML2SSE , ML4abcN , ML9NN W , ML9—ML 1 , ML25abcN W , ML25cbaSE , ML25— ML27 , ML27—ML25 , ML31S W , ML33ba WN W .

2 0

4 2

S ee n .1 6 ,s upra , V AN LE USEN : o p . c i t . , §3 . 2 .

Ga i l H igg inbo t tom , Andrew Sm i th e ta l . : More t han O r ien ta t ion : P lac ing Monumen ts t o v iew t he Cosm ic O rde r

R ug ID N A 1 N A3 C T 1 0 12 C T3 C T7 C T8 C T9 M L 1 M L2 M L4 M L7 M L9 M L 10 M L 11 M L 12 M L 15 M L 16a M L 16b M L 16c M L 18 M L25a M L25b M L25c M L27 M L30 M L3 1 M L33

E 1 5 2680 1 5 6050 18600 16650

N 7 6 9500 7 6 1840 7 56740 7 5 5940

15 190 7 53290 9 5880 7 45 180 9 4680 7 43000 9 73 10 7 42580 1 4 3470 7 57 150 1 4 1340 7 55240 1 4 9960 7 54 130 1 3 7730 7 53480

a r ea 1 0 56 .33 1 4 1 .58 1 3 34 .3 1 1 8 99 .79 1 6 98 .24 1 3 02 . 11 8 0 .5707 1 5 9 .94 1 1 4 8 .259 4 . 1588

R ugA l ign 10 1 1 12

R ugA l ign ID N A 1abNNV V

0 . 03 0 . 03 0 . 07 0 . 6 1 0 . 49

13 1 4 15 16

C T 1S C T2abNNE C T2baSSW

1 7 18 19

C T3-CT2 0 17-CT8 C T8-CT7 C T9SSW M L 1-ML9

0 . 50 0 . 74

1 4 3550 7 53 110 1 4 3900 7 5 2020

6 4 .68 1 7 8 .649

0 . 69 0 . 64 0 . 67 0 . 48

1 4 3850 7 5 1630 1 5 4220 7 49 150

1 0 0 .705 3 8 .7394

0 . 58 0 . 76

1 5 40 10 1 5 4560 1 5 4370 1 5 4460

3 9 .9987 3 8 .0877 3 0 .4976

0 . 75 0 . 76 0 . 82

5 20 .694 4 56 .945 8 69 .583 7 04 .55 1

0 . 27 0 . 29 0 . 16 0 . 19

6 .30 19 6 57 .644 2 84 .337 5 96 .359 4 7 .6378

0 . 67 0 . 20 0 . 39

7 4 1930 7 39600 7 39770 7 39680

1 4 0280 7 390 10 1 5 4690 7 30040 1 5 4680 1 5 4650 1 5 4340 1 3 9730 1 3 9 160

7 29960 7 29930 7 28200 7 22390 7 1 96 10

1 3 7840 7 18880

5 8 .26 1 7 3 .985 1

p r ob 0 . 10 0 . 08 0 . 07

C T2-CT3

1 2 0 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 4 1 2 5 1 2 6 1 2 7 1 2 8 1 2 9 1 3 0 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 3 4 1 3 5 1 3 6 1 3 7 1 3 8 1 3 9 1 4 0 1 4 1 1 4 2 1 4 3 1 4 4

0 . 22 0 . 73

TA BLE 3 .T o ta l a r ea i nv iewshed . R ug ID = ID f o r R ugg les s i te , E= e a s t ing , N =n or th ing , a r ea = a rea i n km 2,p rob = c hance p robab i l i ty ( l ies b e tween 0 a nd 1 ) . Embo ldened f on t =s i gn if ican t o u tcomes .

1 1 .3 . B r ief D i scus s ion F o r C o l l , T i ree a nd No r th A rgy l l , t h e a r ea s p e r iphe ra l t o Mu l l , t h e 3 60 ° v i ew ing a r ea s w e re s i gn if ican t f o r 6 / 8 s i tes ( 7 5% ) . I tc an b e n o t iced t h a t t h ere w a s ag rea t a moun t o f s e a i nt h e se v i ew sheds [ s ee F ig s . 2 -8 , o fC o l l a nd T i ree a s e xamp le s ] . F u r the r , w e f i nd a n u n te s ted c or re la t ion b e tween t ho se s i te s w i th al a rge a moun to fa r ea v i ewed a nd as i gn if ican t a s t ronom ica l d ec l ina t ion ( 9 / 11 o r ien ta t ions ; 8 1 .2% ; 7 / 9 f o r s i gn if ican t o r ien ta t ions ma tched w i th a s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t ly a moun t o f a r ea v i ewed : 7 7 .8% [ s ee T ab le 5 ] ) .

N A 1baSSE N A3NNV V

1 4 5 1 4 6

a z i 3 28 .8 1 4 8 .8 3 29 .5 1 7 9 .7 1 8 .4 1 9 8 .4 2 04 .8 2 4 .8 2 04 .6 2 4 .6 1 9 5 .8 1 7 5 .3

M L2SSE M L2-ML7

1 6 8 2 40 .5

M L4abcN M L4cbaS M L7SE M L7-ML2 M L9NNV V

5 . 3 1 8 5 .3 1 3 3 6 0 .5 3 42

M L9-ML 1 M L 1ONNV V M L 11abcSSE M L 12abcNNE

3 55 .3 3 29 .8 1 5 7 . 1 2 7 .6 2 07 .6

M L 12cbaSSW M L 15-ML 16 M L 16baNV V M L 16abSE M L 16-ML 15

1 6 5 .3 3 08 . 1

M L 18baENE M L25abcNV V M L25cbaSE M L25-ML27 M L27-ML25

1 2 8 . 1 3 45 .3 6 7 . 1 3 17 1 3 7 1 9 1 .8 1 .8

M L3ONNW M L3 1NE M L3 1SV V M L33baV VNW

3 29 .3 4 9 .8 29 .8 2 82 .4

f r a c

p r ob

0 . 000887 0 . 230227 0 . 0005 14

0 . 74 0 . 11

0 . 000009 0 . 00 1069 0 . 19453 1 0 . 12 169 1 0 . 005949 0 . 196496 0 . 002946 0 . 0002 14 0 . 9 13293 0 . 165748 0 . 0099 19 0 . 1826 18 0 . 0 10864 0 . 143749 0 . 0783 16 0 . 0 1158 1 0 . 006738 0 . 00 1156 0 . 495297 0 . 073570 0 . 004660 0 . 00 122 1 0 . 055004 0 . 0429 17 0 . 024470 0 . 000055 0 . 069 188 0 . 035404 0 . 064968 0 . 045 148 0 . 00 1126 0 . 005449 0 . 302 109 0 . 306 163

0 . 15 0 . 7 1 0 . 88 0 . 11 0 . 2 1 0 . 92 0 . 12 0 . 28 0 . 37 0 . 0 0 . 17 0 . 24 0 . 16 0 . 42 0 . 07 0 . 09 0 . 12 0 . 16 0 . 43 0 . 05 0 . 36 0 . 39 0 . 39 0 . 25 0 . 33 0 . 27 0 . 63 0 . 17 0 . 19 0 . 17 0 . 19 0 . 34 0 . 6 1 0 . 11 0 . 14

TA BLE 4 .F rac t ion o fa r ea i n3 0° b and c en t red a round s urveyed , a z imu th . R ugA l ign ID = I D n umbe r f o r R ugg les a l ignmen t , R ugg les i RugA l ign = R ugg les d esc r ip t ion o ft he a l ignmen t , a z i s urveyed o r ien ta t ion ( az imu th ) , f r ac = f r ac t ion o ft o ta l v iewshed a b le t ob e v iewed , p rob = c hance p robab i l i ty .

ugA l ign ID R ugA l ign R

S i te s w i th v i ew s o ft h e s ea m ay i n deed b e d e l ibe ra te ly c ho s e n f o r t h e i r c l ea r v i ew o fa s t ronom ica l p henomena . M igh t t h e re b e o t he r d i rec t ions o r f o rms o fa s t ronom ica l i n te re s t t h en , o t he r t h an t h ose i n d ica ted b y t h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e s i te o r i n te rs i te a l ignmen t s? S im i la r ly , m igh t t h e 3 60° v i ew shed s i n d ica te a r ea s o f i n t eres t w i th in t h e l a ndscape i t se lf ?

10

N A 1abNNV V

1 1 12

N A 1baSSE N A3NNW C T 1S

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 2 0

T he a moun t o f v i ewed a r ea f o r a l l s i te s i n Mu l l w a s n o t f ound t o b e s i gn if ican t f o r t h e 3 60° v i ew sheds , t h ough a l a rge p e rcen tage ( 14 /36 ,3 9% w e re b o rde r l ine ) . T he re w e re , t h ough , 3s i tes ( 4 a l ignmen t s ) w i th as i gn if ican t a moun t o f v i ew ing a r ea w i th in t h e d i rec t iona l v i ew sheds , n ame ly : G lengorm , ML1 ( i n te rs i te ) , C i l lch r iosd , ML7 ( bo th o ns i te , SE , a nd i n te rs i te , ENE) , a nd D e rva ig S t h , ML11 ( ons i te , S SE ) .

C T2abNNE C T2baSSV V C T2 -C T3 C T3 -C T2 C T7 -C T8 C T8-CT7 C T9SSV V

S i te n o

A r ea k m

p r ob

a z i

d ec

N A 1 N A 1 N A3 C T 1 0 12

1 056 .33

0 . 10

3 28 .8

14 1 .58 1 334 .3 1

0 . 10 0 . 08 0 . 07

1 4 8 .8 3 29 .5 1 7 9 .7

2 8 .25 25 .75 3 4 . 1 34 .05

1 899 .79

0 . 03 0 . 03 0 . 03

1 698 .24 1 302 . 11 8 0 .5707 1 5 9 .94 1

0 . 03 0 . 07 0 . 6 1 0 . 49

1 8 .4 1 98 .4 2 04 .8 2 4 .8 2 04 .6 2 4 .6 1 95 .8

0 12 0 12 0 13 0 17 0 18 0 19

3 1 .35 32 .55 30 .8 2 9 .85 29 .85 2 9 .8 3 1

TA BLE 5 .R ugA l ign ID = I D n umbe r f o r R ugg les a l ignmen t , R ugg les i RugA l ign = R ugg les d escr ip t ion o ft he a l ignmen t , A r ea ( km ) = Amoun t o fa rea i n3 60° v iewshed ; p rob = c hance p robab i l i ty f o ro b ta in ing t h is amoun t o fa rea i nv i ewshed ; a z i = o r ien ta t ion o fa l ignmen t o fs i te ( az imu th ) , d ec = d ec l ina t ion o f o r ien ta t ion . B o ld i nd ica tes s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t o u tcomes .

I V . F i t t ing t oge ther Or ien ta t ion a nd V i s ib i l i ty

o f t h e i n d iv idua l s i te s ' V S s , a nd a n a vo idance i n t h e n or the r ly d i rec t ions g ene ra l ly a nd t h e n o r thwes t i n p a r t icu la r . S i te NA1 d oe s n o t d i sp lay t h is t r end . O ve ra l l ,

F o r t h e c a se s t udy r eg ion o f Mu l l , C o l l , T i ree , a nd N or th A rgy l l t h e re a r e p r ef e ren t ia l v i ew s i nt h e s ou thern q ua r te r s 4 3

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

t h i s c onf i rm s t h e v i sua l a s se s smen t o ft h e t o pog raph ica l 2 — D h o r izon p rof i le s .2 1 T he se p rof i le s i n d ica te t h e h o r izon d i s tance s o fe ach s i te . A rea s f ound i nt h eN o r th o n t h e 2 —D p rof i le s t e nded t o h ave c l o se h o r izon s w h i l s t t h o se i nt h e S ou th w e r e t h e mo re d i s tan t . N ow , a s t h e se s i te s a r e l o ca ted o n i s land s , t h e s i te s c ou ld h ave c ho sen t ol o ok o ve r t h e s e a i n to t h eN o r th , b u tt h em a jo r i ty d i dn o t . E ven t h o se s i te s o n t h e w e s te rn s i de o fC o l l a nd t h e n o r th a nd n o r th— w e s te rn a r ea o f T i r ee s t i l l h ave p r ef e r en t ia l v i ew s t o t h e s ou the rn s e a sr a the rt h an t h en or th .

S ou th , n ea r t o t h e s ou the r ly l i m i t o ft h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l r i se . T h i s i s ap ref e r r ed d ec l ina t ion f o r Mu l l 's o r ien ta t ion s a cco rd ing t ot h e c u r r en tp ro jec t 's o u tcome s . F u r the rt ot h i s , t h ey w i shed t od i s cove r « whe the r s i t e s w e re p r ef e ren t ia l ly p l aced s o a s t o a s soc ia te p rom inen t p eak s w i th p a r t icu la r a s t ronom ica l p henomena , r ega rd le s s o ft h e i ro r ien ta t ion»2 6. E v idence w a s f ound t h a t a ts ome s i t e s u se w a s m ade o fa s e cond p eak o rg roup s o fp eak s , a s soc ia t ing t h em w i th t h e s ou the r ly l i m i t o ft h e M ino r S t and s t i l l r i s ing o r s e t t ing o f t h e s o l s t i t ia l S un 2 7.

H av ing s e en a l t h i s , t h en , i ti sw e l l t or emembe r R ugg le s ' a nd Ma r t lew 's w o rk s , a l ong w i th R ugg le s , Ma r t lew a nd H inge , a nd H inge 's P hD r e sea r ch , i nN o r the rn Mu l l . H e re t h e l a t te rt h ree r e sea r che r s , a sp a r t o f ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o f s even s t one r ow s , i n ve s t iga ted t h e v a r ia t ion o f h o r izon d i s tance w i th a z imu th 2 .T hey c ompa red t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f v i s ib i l i ty f r om r e a l s i te s a nd w i th d a ta f r om c on t ro l p o in t s2 3. U s ing t h e K o lmogo rov—Sm ir nof o ne s amp led t e s t t h ey d e te rm ined t h a tt h e p opu la t ion o fr e a l d a ta w a s d r awn f r om ad if e ren tp opu la t ion t ot h a to ft h er andom d a ta f o r3 o u t o f 4t y pe s o fh o r izon d i s tance s . I tw a s s hown t h a t f o r t h e c a tego r ie s 1 -3 km a nd o ve r 5 km , p=0 . 1 , a nd f o r h o r izon s c l o se rt h an 1k m , p= 0 . 5 . T he r e a l d a ta t h en , w a s s i gn if ican t ly d i f f e ren t f r om r a ndom a nd t hu s w e re u n l ike ly t oh ave o ccu r r ed b yc hance . T he se h o r izon s , i ts e em s , w e re c ho sen d e l ibe ra te ly . A dded t o t h i s , t h e r e i s am a rked d if e rence b e tween t h e t opog raphy o f t h e a r ea a nd t h e p o s i t ion s o ft h e s i te s i nr e la t ion t ot h e h o r izon d i s tance i n N o r th Mu l l . T he l o ca l t opog raphy h a s ap r eponde rance o f d i s tan t h o r izon s t ot h e NW a nd t h e NN W ,a l ong t h e l i ne o f t h e r i dge s a nd v a l ley s , b u t mo s t o ft h e h o r izon s t ot h e SW a nd WSW a r e r e s t r ic ted b y a n a d ja cen t r i dge . A t NE a nd ENE a nd e spec ia l ly a r ound a z imu th 6 0 °,t h e r e a r e v i r tua l ly n oh o r izon sf u r the rt h an 3km 2 4. I nc on t ra s tt ot h i s , t h e s i te s a vo id n ea rby h o r izon s i nt h e S a nd S SW a nd d i s tance h o r izon s i nt h e NW a nd t h e NN W . T he r e sea r che r s c onc luded t h a t : « t he re w a s ac on sc iou s e f f or t o nt h e p a r t o ft h e b u i lde r s o fN o r th Mu l l s t one r ow s t ol o ca te monumen t s a cco rd ing t oh o r izon v i s ib i l i ty c r i te r ia t h a t w e re n o t e a sy t o a ch ieve g i ven t h e g ene ra l t opog raph ica l c on s t ra in t s i n t h e a r ea» 2 5 .T he se s t a t i s t ica l o u tcome s s uppor t ing h o r izon p r ef e rence i n N o r th Mu l l r ef lec tt h e o ve ra l l c o r r e la t ion b e tween h o r izon d i s tance a nd d i rec t ion i n d ica ted b y t h e c u r r en t p ro jec t 's v i ew shed s o f C o l l , T i r ee , N or th A rgy l l a nd Mu l l . F u r the r , i tw a s f ound b y t h e 1 99 1 p ro jec t t h a t 5o ft h e 7N o r th Mu l l r ow s w e re a l so o r ien ted o n to t h e S SE , w h ich f a l l s w i th in t h e d i r ec t iona lp r ef e rence f o rt h e mo s td i s tan th o r izon .

G iven t h e se r e su l t s o ft h e 1 99 1 a nd 1 993 s t ud ie s , i tw a s o f i n te re s t t o t h e c u r r en t r e sea r che r s t o i n ve s t iga te n e ighbou r ing a r ea s o f N o r th Mu l l i n d e ta i l , i n o rde r t o d e te rm ine h ow t h e v i sua l l a nd scape a nd A s t ronomy w e re w oven t oge the rn ea rby .

R ugg le s ' a nd Ma r t lew 's n ex t s t ep w a s t o i n ve s t iga te t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t s i gn if ican t p eak s e x i s ted i nt h e se p r ef e r r ed o r i n d ica ted d i rec t ion s . T he a na ly s i s o fp rom inen t h o r izon f e a tu re s i n a l l d i rec t ion s , a s v i ewed f r om b o th t h e s t one r ow s a nd a l te rna t ive p o in t s a r ound t h em , r e vea led a p r ef e rence f o r ah i l l s umm i t t o b e l o ca ted t o t h e E a s t o f 2 1

F o ra ne xamp le o ft h e2 —D h o r izon p rof i le s s e en .6 ,s up ra , G . HI GG IN B OTTOM e ta l . : o p . c i t . F o r a l h o r izon p rof i le s s e e G . HI GG INBOTTOM e t a l . : Mu l l , C o l la nd T i r ee : S har ed V a lues , f o r thcom ing .

CT1

FI GURES 2 -8 . T he o rde ro ft h e v i ew sheds i s CT 1 , CT2 , CT3 , CT7 , CT8 , a nd CT9 . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf orm PANORAMA map w i th p e rm iss ion o ft h e C on t ro l le r o fH e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry Of f ice . ©C rown C opy r igh t .

V . T he I nve s t iga t ion c on t inue s : More t han O r ien ta t ion D ue t o t ime r e s t r i c t ion s w e w e r e u nab le t o u se s t a t is t ica l a na ly s i s . T h i s m ean t w e w e r e u nab le t o i n ve s t iga te a r ea s t h a t h ad m any p o t en t ia l a l te rna t ive p eak s . U s ing s u ch a r ea s w i thou t t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s t a t i s t ica l t e s t ing w ou ld b e l e av ing t o o much t og ue s s w o rk a nd i n t roduc ing an umbe r o fe r ro r s t ot h e a s se s smen t . A s R ugg le s a nd Ma r t lew s t a te , i d en t if y ing t h e mo s t p rom inen t h i l l s umm i t s a te ach s i te i s s ub jec t ive u p t o ap o in t2 8 .T h is m ean s t h a t Mu l l i t s e lf a nd N or th A rgy l l w er er u led o u t a ss ub jec t s . C o l l a nd T i ree , o n t h e o t he r h and , a r e p r ime c and ida te s f o r t h e f u r the r i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h i s t r end . F o r t h e a r ea s a r ound t h e s i te s , a nd o n t h e i s land s g ene ra l ly , a r e q u i te l ow i np rof i le a nd a ny s umm i t i s g ene ra l ly e x t r eme ly o bv iou s , w i th l a rge l ow— ly ing a r ea s e i the r s i de . T he g eog raphy i s mo re a k in t o L ew i s . T hu s , t h e r e i sl i t t le d if i cu l ty i nl a be l l ing as umm i t a sp rom inen t i nr e la t ion t ot h e s i t e 's p o s i t ion [ s ee F ig . 9f o r ab i rd 's e ye v i ew ] .

2

T he se s i te s c o inc ided w i th ML ! , ML 2 , ML4 , ML 9 , ML IO , ML !1 , ML 1 2 . 2 3

2 4 2 5

2 6

S ee n .1 3 , RU GGLES e ta l . : o p . c i t . , S 67 .

S ee n .1 3 ,s upra , RU GGLES & M A RTLEW : o p . c i t . , S 4 . 2 7_ 3 ee n .1 3 ,s upra , RU GGLES & M A RTLEW : o p . c i t . , S 6 -S8 , S 12 . 2 8 S ee n .1 3 ,s upra , RU GGLES & MA RTLEW : o p . c i t . , S 6 .

S ee n .1 3 , RU GGLES e ta l . : o p . c i t . , S 68 . S ee n .1 3 , RU GGLES e ta l . : o p . c i t . , S 68 .

4 4

G a i lH igg inbo t tom ,A nd rew Sm i th e ta l . : Mo re t h an O r ien ta t ion : P la c ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h eC osm ic O rde r

l a nd scape s , i tw i l l b e s e en t h a t q u i te a n a maz ing p a t te rn i n vo lv ing l a nd scape , p a r t icu la r c e le s t ia l p henomena a nd s i te l o ca t ion e x i s t s .

CT7

FI GURES 2 -8 . T he o rde ro ft h ev i ew shed si s CT 1 , CT2 , CT3 , CT7 , CT8 , a nd CT9 . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf o rm PANORAMA m ap w i th p e rm is s ion o ft h eC on t ro l le r o fH e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry O f f ice . @C rown C opy r igh t . FI GURES 2 -8 .T he o rde ro ft h ev i ew shed si s CT 1 , CT2 , CT3 , CT7 , CT8 , a nd CT9 . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf o rm PANORAMA m ap w i th p e rm is s ion o ft h eC on t ro l le r CT3

o fH e r Ma je s ty 's S ta t ione ry O f f ice . @C rown C opy r igh t .

CT8

FI GURES 2 -8 .T he o rde ro ft h ev i ew shed si s CT 1 , CT2 , CT3 , CT7 , CT8 , a nd CT9 . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf orm PANORAMA m ap w i th p erm is s ion o ft h eC on t ro l le r o fH e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry O f f i ce . @C rown C opy r igh t . FI GURES 2 -8 .T he o rde ro ft h ev i ew shed si s CT 1 , CT2 , CT3 , CT7 , CT8 , a nd CT9 . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf o rm PANORAMA map w i th p e rm is s ion o ft h eC on t ro l le r

T he n ewe s t f o rm o f G IS m e thodo logy , d eve loped f o r t h i s p ro jec t b y D r A nd rew Sm i th , w a s 3 60 ° , 3 —D l a nd scape v i ew s . T he se v i ew s w e r e u sed t oi n ve s t iga te w he the ro rn o t as im i la r r e la t ion sh ip a s t h a t f o und o n Mu l l , m igh t b e f ound o n C o l l a nd T i r ee ; t o s e e —l ike R ugg le s e ta l .— « whe the r s i te s w e re p r ef e r en t ia l ly p l aced s o a st oa s soc ia te p rom inen t p eak s w i th p a r t icu la r a s t ronom ica l p henomena , r e ga rd le s s o ft h e i r o r ien ta t ion» . O n i n spec t ion o ft h e 3 —D

o fH e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry O f f ice . @C rown C opy r igh t .

4 5

A MANDA— AL ICE M ARAVEL IA ( ED .) :

ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

CT9

FI GURE 9 . A2 —D m ap w i th az —co—o rd ina te , d emon s t ra t ing t h e e spec ia l ly f i a tn a tu re o fT i ree . C o l l i sf l a t te ri nt h e s ou thern a r ea s w he re t h e s i tes a r et ob ef ound . B a sed u pon t h eO rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf orm PANORAMA map , w i th p erm i s s ion o ft h e

2-8 .T he o rde ro ft h e v i ew shed s i sC T1 ,C T2 ,C T3 ,C T7 , C T8 , a nd C T9 .B a sed u pon t h e O rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf orm P ANORAMA map w i th p e rm is s ion o ft h e C on t ro l le ro f FI GURES

C on t ro l le ro fH e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry O f f ice . ©C rown C opy r igh t .

H e r Ma je s ty 's S t a t ione ry O f f ice . ©C rown C opy r igh t .

W in te r S o l s t ice , a nd t h e l o nge r , t h e S umme r S o l i t ice . A l te rna t ive ly , t h e se c an b e c on s ide red t h e p a th o ft h e S un o n t h o se d a te s . G r een l i ne s a r e t h e e x t r eme d ec l ina t ion s o f t h e Moon a tM ino r S t and s t i l l . R ed l i ne s a r e t h e e x t r eme d ec l ina t ion s o f t h e Moon a t Ma jo r S t and s t i l l . L ine s a r e d r awn 0 ° .5 w ide t o r e -p re sen t a ppa ren t w id th o ft h e S un a nd t h e Moon . A l l p a th s h ave b een c o r r ec ted f o r a tmo sphe r ic r e f rac t ion .

V .1 . 3 —D L and scape s V .1 .2 . T he ir R ender ing T he l a nd scape r e co rd c ame i n t h e f o rm o f T he U n i ted K ingdom O rdnance S u rvey 1 : 50 0 00 L andf o rm PANORAMA d i g i ta l d a ta . T he c h rono log ica l p a rame te r c ho sen , l a be l led « Epoch» , w a s t h e s ame a s t h a t u sed f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e p ro jec t , n ame ly 2 000 BCE . T h i s w a s c on s ide red a p o s s ib le a pp rox ima te m id—po in t f o r t h e e r ec t ion o f N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge f r ee— s tand ing s t onemonumen t s2 9 .T he v a lue o f2 5 km w a s t a ken f o r t h e v a r iab le « V i s ib i l i ty» f o rt h e 3 —D l a nd scape s v i ewed i nt h i s p ape r . I mpo r tan t ly , t h ough , t h i s v a lue i su sed s o t h a t t h e m o re v e ry d i s tan t moun ta in s w ou ld a c tua l ly b e f a in t ly v i s ib le r a the r t h an t o ta l ly i n v i s ib le , t o c l a r if y w ha t w a s a c tua l ly h appen ing n ea r t h e h o r izon r e ga rd ing t h e p he n omena . O b se rve r h e igh t w a s t a ken a t 2m . E leva t ion R ange : — 10 ° .0 t o + 30° .0 . N o te t h a t t h e e x i s tence o f a ny d e sc r ip t ion c on ta ined h e r e in , r ega rd ing t h e p o s s ib le i n te r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween p eak s a nd a s t ronom ica l p henomena , w a s c hecked a ga in s t 3 —D h o r izon p ano rama s v i s ib i l i ty s e tt o 1 0 k m . T h i s i s amo r e r e a l is t ic d i s tance f o r v i ew ing i nw e s te rn S co t land3 °.

T he v er t ica l r ed b and i s t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e s i te a l ignmen t d e te rm ined b y R ugg le s s u rvey . L igh t e r p a r t i s t h e o u te ra z imu th r a nge ( AAR 1 t o AAR2 ) a nd d a rke rp a r t i s t h e i n ne ra z imu th r a nge ( IAR 1 t oI AR2 )3 1 . I ti sn o t n ece s sa ry t o l i s t a l l t h e l a nd scape f e a tu re s i na l l d i r ec t ion s , f o rt h e se c an b e o b served b yl o ok ing a tt h e 3 60 ° 3 —D l a nd scape s o ft h e DTMs o ft h e a r ea s s u r round ing e ach s i te [ S ee F ig s . 1 0 15 ] . B e low , h oweve r , a r e t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip s f ound b e tween l a nd scape , t h e r i s ing , s e t t ing a nd p a th s o ft h e S un a nd t h e Moon a nd t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e s i te s . I tw i l l b e n o t iced t h a t t h e re a r e m o r e t h an o ne DT M f o r s ome s i t e s , t h i s i sb ecau se s ome s i t e s h ave mo r e t h an o ne a l ignmen t .

V .2 . C o l l

V .1 .3 . H ow t or ead T hem

V .2 .1 . CT!

Y e l low l i ne s d eno te t h e d ec l ina t ion s o f t h e S un a t t h e E qu inoxe s a nd S o l s t ice s . T he s ho r te ry e l low l i ne sa r et h e

L ook ing a tC T I f i r s t , i nt h e NE , t h e S umme r S o l s t ice S un ( y e l low l i ne ) r i se s o u t o f ad i s tan t p eak , f l anked b y t h e n or the r ly e x t r eme s o f t h e M ino r a nd Ma jo r S t and s t i l l s . T hough t h e l a t te r r i se o u t o fl ow h i l l s , t h ey a r e m en t ioned a sa l lt h ree a r et h en s e en t os e to nt h ep l a teau o ft h eh ighe s t h o r izon p o in t , l e s s t h an 1 00 m e t re s a way i nt h e NW . T he r i s ing E qu inox S un a l so r i se s o u t o f l ow h i l l s i nt h e E a s t a nd s e t s i nt h e We s t o n t h e u ppe r w e s ter n f l ank s o f t h e

2 9

T he m agn i tude o fd if e r ence o ft h e S un 's m ovemen t a l ong t h e h o r izon i sq u i te s ma l l , e spec ia l ly i fo ne i si n ve s t iga t ing o r ien ta t ion a s av i ew ing r a nge r a the rt han ap o in t o n t h e h o r izon . F o r i n s tance , a tl a t i tude 5 5°30 ' , t h e S un 's p o s i t ion w ou ld b e 4 4 ° .11 i na z imu th a ti t s r i s ing i nt h e y ea r 2 500 BCE a nd 4 3° .96 i nt h ey ea r2 000 BCE .T he E qu inox p o s i t ion i se ven s l owe rt oc hange . 3 0 S ee A .G .K . SM ITH : O ver v iew o ft h e L and scape R end er ing S of twar e u sed i nt h eA rch c eoa s t ronom ica lI nve s t iga t ion s , f o r thcom ing .

3 1

4 6

S ee n .1 0 ,s up ra .

G a i lH igg inbo t tom ,A nd r ew S m i th e ta l . : Mo r et h an O r ien ta t ion : P l a c ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h eC o sm ic O rde r s ame e x t reme ly p rom inen t moun ta in . A t t h e b a se o f t h e s ame p eak t h e s ou the r ly l im i t s o ft h e S t and s t i l ls s e t , h av ing j u s t b een s e en t o t r ave r se t h e e n t i re s ky o ve r t h e s ou the rn b ay a r ea a nd t o h ave a r isen o u t o f as e t o f v e ry d i s tan t m oun ta in s o n t h e o t he r s i de o ft h e b ay . N a tu ra l ly a s b o th S t and s t i l l s c ou ld b e o bse rved , s o t oo t h e e n t i re p a th o ve r t h e b ay o f t h e S un a t W in te r S o l s t ice . Wha t w e s e em t o h ave h e re i s am i r ro r ing e f f ec t , w ha t i sf ound i nt h e e a s te rn q ua r te r s i sf ound i nt h e w e s te rn q ua r te r s a l so . H e re t oo , w e f i nd t h a tt h e s i te i sn o t o r ien ted u pon ap rom inen tp eak b u t t h e o ppo s i te . T he s i te i so r ien ted S ou th t owa rd s t h e c en t re o ft h e b ay a nd t h e a r ch ing o ft h e S un 's a nd Moon 's p a th s a r e i n d ica ted b yt h e a l ignmen to fC T 1 .

t ot h e NW w e h ave t h e S umme r S o ls t ice s e t t ing f l anked b y t h e n or the rn l im i t s o f t h e M ino r a nd Ma jo r L una r S t and s t i l ls o ccu r r ing u pon t h e h ighe s t p eak s a l ong t h e h o r izon . I n a dd i t ion , t h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l Moon s l ip s o ve r S S W moun ta in s o n i t s mo s t w e s te rn f l ank h av ing j u s t s k immed o ve r an o tch ( A =2 04° .6 ) . E ven mo re f a sc ina t ing t hough , i st h a tt h e a l ignmen t o fC T7—CT8 a c tua l ly i n d ica tes t h e p o in to fw here t h e Moon s k im s o ve rt h i sf l ank , w i th t h e o u te r i n d ica t ing r a nge s ( l igh te r r ed c o lou r ) i nd ica t ing t h e n o tch . T h is Moon h a s t r ave l led o ve r t h i s moun ta in r ange f r om t h e S E o ve r t h e v i ew o f t h e s ea a nd p r io r t o t h a t , a no the r moun ta in r a nge f l ank ing t h e b ay a r ea t o t h e S E . T h is r i s ing o ve r ab ay a r ea a nd s e t t ing o n t h e o t he r s i de , w i th f l ank ing moun ta ins , i sr ema rkab ly s im i la r t o t h e s i te s d i scu ssed i nC o l l . T he r i s ing p o in t o ft h is p henomenon i s n o t ap rom inen t p eak t h i s t ime , n one the le s s t h e e f f ec t i s s t r ik ing , a s a r e t h e c o r re spondences : ac on t inua t ion o f d i s tan t s ea v i ew s i nt h e S ou th a l ong w i th t h ee n t i re p a th s o f t h e s ou the r ly l im i t s o ft h e Moon a nd t h e W in te r S o ls t ice S un , f u r the r s uppo r t t h is o b serva t ion . I nt h i s c a se , t h e s i te

V .2 .2 . CT2 C T2 h a s t h ree 3 —D mode ls . T hu s , t h e l a nd scape a nd t h e a s t ronom ica l i n f orma t ion a r e t h e s ame , b u t t h e i n d ica ted o r ien ta t ion s f r om t h e a l ignmen t s t o t h e h o r izon w i l l b e d if e ren t . F i r s t ly , l e t u s make a l i s t o f t h e s i gn if ican t

i sa l igned w i th t h e s e t t ing Ma jo r S t and s t i l l ( 8 = --2 9° .85 , =2 04° .6 ) . A lso t o b e n o ted i st h e s e t t ing o ft h e E qu inox S un i n to t h ef oo to f mo s tp rom inen tp eak s .

d ec l ina t ion s f o r C T2 , n ame ly C T2baSSW ( A =1 98 ° .4 , 8= — 3 2 ° .55 ) ,

C T2—CT 3

( A

= 2 04° .8 ,

8 = — 30° .8 ) .

T he

i n s ign if ican t o ne w a s C T2abNNE ( A =1 8° .4 , 8= + 31° .35 ) . A so ne l o ok s a r ound t h e h o r izon o fa ny o ft h et h ree mode l s f o rC T2 , t h e re c an b e s e en s ome v e ry d i s t inc t ive p eak s . I na s im i la r f a sh ion t o t h e C T 1 l o ca t ion , t h e s e t t ing M ino r a nd

V .3 .2 . CT8 I n t h e n or the r ly d i rec t ion s , NWN , o n ly t h e Ma jo r L una r S t and s t i l l c an b e s e en t os e tb eh ind ad i s tan tp rom inen th i l l . I nf a c t i ts e t s i nt h es ame n o tch a st h a t s e en f r om C T7 . T he i n d ica ted o r ien ta t ion ( CT8—CT7 ) i s2 4 .6 °NE . T he a ccompa -

Ma jo r No r the r ly S tand s t i l l s l o ok t o f l ank t h e S umme r S o l s t ice s e t t ing u pon t h e h ighe s t p eak a l ong t h e h o r izon . A l so i nt h e s ame w ay a s C T 1 , t h e re i st h e m ir ro r ing e f f ec t , w he reby t h e p a t te rn f ound i nt h e NW i sf ound a bou t ap eak i nt h e NE . T he S umme r S o l s t ice S un r i ses o u t o f ap eak , e i the r s i de o ft h is h ighes t e a s ter np o in ta r e f ound t h e r i s ing

n y ing h o r izon d ec l ina t ion f o rt h i s a l ignmen t i s +2 9 ° .84 , t h e r i s ing n o r the r ly l im i t o ft h e Ma jo r S tand s t i l l . S o h e re , v i a s i te o r ien ta t ion a nd p rom inen t p eak , b o th t h e r i s ing a nd s e t t ing o f al im i t o f t h e Ma jo r L una r S tand s t i l l may b e a ccoun ted f o r . A s u sua l , t h e t wo moun ta in c ha in s a r e s e en t o f l ank t h e b ay , w i th t h e s ou the r ly l im i t o f t h e Ma jo r S t and s t i l l r i s ing o u t o f moun ta in s e a s t o ft h e b ay , c l imb ing

n or the r ly L una r S t and s t i l l s . T ot h e S ou th , t h e e n t i re p a th o f t h e s ou the r ly l im i t o ft h e M ino r S tand s t i l l , s t radd les ab ay , a s w a s f ound i n C T 1 . A lso t h e M ino r S t and s t i l l a nd t h e W in te r S o ls t ice p a thway s a r e i nf u l l v i ew a c ro ss t h e s ame b ay . T he s i gn if ican t i n d ica ted d ec l ina t ion s , 6= -3 2° .55 , 0 =1 98° .4 a nd 6=__300.1,

a nd t r ave l l ing o ve r t h e s ou the rn b ay a nd s e t t ing i n t h e moun ta in s w es t o ft h e b ay , a s f o r C T7 . Mos t f a sc ina t ing i s

0=2 04° .8 ,w e re b o th i n as ou th—

w e s te r ly d i rec t ion . Aga in , l i ke C T 1 , i n d ica t ing t h e t r ave r s ing o ft h e S un a nd Moon a c ro s s t h e b ay , t h i s t ime w i th in 7 ° a nd 3 ° o ft h e s ou the r ly Ma jo r L una r S t and s t i l l ( r ed l i ne ) .

t h a tt h e Moon s e t s i n an o tch h e re a nd t h en r e appea r s a tt h e f oo t o f t h e c ha in . F ur the rmo re , t h i s v e ry n o tch m ay i n d ica ted b y t h e a l ignmen t s o f « CT7 t o C T8» , a dd ing f u r the r w e igh t t o t h e i d ea t h a t t h e se t wo s i tes , C T7 a nd C T8 , a r e i n deed c onnec ted . A dded t o t h i s t h e W in te r S o l s t ice S un i s s e en t o r i se o u t o f t h e e a s ter n c ha in o f moun ta in s a nd s e t t ing i nt h e s ou thwe s t , s l igh t ly w es t o ft h e w es te rn moun ta in r a nge . T he s ame s e t t ing o ccu r s , n a tu ra l ly , a t C T7 . T he s ou the r ly l im i t o f t h e M ino r S t and s t i l l s e t s s l igh t ly We s t o f SW , h av ing r i sen e a s t o ft h e e a s tern c ha in a nd t r ave l led a c ro s s t h e b ay f i r s t a nd t h en o ve rt h ew es te rn r ange o f moun ta in s .

V .2 .3 . CT3 No te t h a t t h e NW p eak s f o r C T 3 ( b e tween 1 5 ° t owa rd s No r th f r om NW a nd 1 0° s ou th f r om NW ) a r e t h e SW p eak s f o r C T2 . O nce mo re t h e e n t ire r i s ing a nd s e t t ing o f t h e s ou ther n l im i t s o ft h e Ma jo r a nd M ino r L una r S t and s t i l ls a nd t h e W in te r S o ls t ices a r e p l aced o ve r t h e s e a i n t h e S ou th . A t 0 = 3 12° .5 ( NW ) , t h e s ame p a t ter n o f t h e S umme r S o ls t ice s e t t ing f l anked b y t h e n o r ther n l im i t s o f t h e M ino r a nd Ma jo r L una r S t and s t i l l s o ccu r s u pon t h e

No t ice i nt h e n or the r ly d i rec t ion t h a t a te xac t Nor th af o re s ho r tened h o r izon i sc ho sen , b e ing b locked o u t b y ac ha in o f moun ta in sb e tween 3 54 ° a nd 1 0° i na z imu th .

h i ghe s t p eak s a l ong t h e h o r izon . T he s i gn if ican t a l ignmen t w a s 6 = —+2 9° .85 , 8=2 4° .8 ( r i s ing n o r ther n l im i t Ma jo r S t and s t i l l ) .

V .3 .3 . CT9 S ou the r ly Ma jo r Moon t r ave l s f r om t h e e dge o f t h e b ay s ou thea s t o fs i te C T9 o ve r t h e s ame moun ta in c ha in i nt h e n ow S SW t h a t t h e s ou the r ly Ma jo r Moon a ts i te C T7 r o se o ve ra nd C T8 r o se o u to f . A tC T9 i tv i r tua l ly s k im s o ve rt h e ma jo r i ty o f t h is e n t i re c ha in j u s t b ef o re s e t t ing a t i t s w e s te rn f oo t . T he s ou the r ly M ino r Moon i ss e en t or i se o u t

V .3 . T iree V .3 .1 . CT7 C T7—CT8 : E ven t hough w e a r e n ow o n ad i f f e ren t i s land , s t r ik ing s im i la r i t ie s i nl a nd scape c ho ice a ppea r . O nce mo re 4 7

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAV EL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS P ER AE TP ER LU DU M d i s tance v i ew s , a s i n d ica ted b y t h e v i ew shed s a nd h o r izon p rof i le s i ss ou the r ly . T h is i sr e inf o rced b y t h e p r ef e r red d i re c t ion o ft h ea s t ronom ica l v i ew s , a ss uppo r ted b yt h es t a t is t ica l a na ly s i s . T he o t he r s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e se s i te s a c ro s s t h e i s land si st h a tt h ea z imu th so nC o l la nd T i ree a r ew i th in 1 0 °o f e ach o t he r f o r a l 7s i te s , 6w i th in 5 ° . F o r 6o ft h e se s i te st h e b u i lde r s h ave m anaged t o g e t s im i la r d ec l ina t ion s a l so , t hu s d e l ibe ra te ly c hoo s ing ah o r izon t h a tw ou ld g i ve t h em n o to n ly t h e s ame d i rec t ion i ng ene ra l , b u t t h e c o r rec t a l t i tude i nt h e d i rec t ion r e qu i r ed t oi n d ica te a na s t ronom ica l b ody .

t h is s ame b ay , a nd p o s s ib ly W in te rS o ls t ice S un i ss e en t or i se o u t o ft h i s b ay t o o . T hey b o th t r ave l o ve rt h e s ame moun ta in c ha in a st h e Ma jo r Moon w i th t h e M ino r Moon s e t t ing i nt h e s ame o bv iou s c ha in t h a tt h e Ma jo r Moon s e t s i na nd r e appea r s a ss e en f r om CT8 , a nd t h a tt h e Moon a t CT7 s k ims a c ro s st h e w e s te rn t i p o fp r io rt os e t t ing . T he W in te r S un a nd t h e M ino r Moon t hu s t r ave r se t h e b ay i ns ou thwe s t o ft h e s i te , t h ough t h e b ay d oe s n o t a ppea r t ob e s e en . I na dd i t ion , t h e S umme r S o ls t ice S un s e t s i nt h e d i s tance , b u t p rom inen t p eak i nt h e NW , a si td i d a tt h e s i te CT7 . V e ry i n te re s t ing ly , t h e s i te o r i e n ta t ion c l ea r ly i n d ica te s t h e n o tch i nt h e m oun ta in c ha in i n t h e S SW t h a tt h e Ma jo r Moon s k im s a bove . A lso t ob e n o ted i st h a t , l i ke C T7 , t h e S umme r S o l s t ice S un s e t s b eh ind t h e p rom inen tc ha in i nt h e NW .

V .4 .2 . S ummar iz ing We a l ready k now f r om P ha se 2 t h a t t h e h o r izon s hape w a s i mpo r tan tt ot h e b u i lde r s o ft h e m onumen t s ; i ti sn ow k nown , t h a th o r izon d i s tance a nd d i rec t ion a r e d ependen tv a r iab le s . I t i sa l so e v iden tt h a tt h e re i sa n i n te re s ti nv i ew ing a r ea s ,p o in t s o r s e c t ion s o f t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape , o t he r t h an t h e i n d ica ted p o in t o n t h e h o r izon i nC o l l a nd T i r ee . I na dd i t ion , t h e r e i st h e p o s s ib le e xamp le o f t wo s i te s b e ing b u i l t t o c on s ide re a ch o t he ro n T i ree ( CT7 a nd CT8 ) , i n as im i la rw ay t o s i te s o n Mu l 13 2 .I n deed a n e l abo ra te n e two rk o f s i te s , l a nd scape a nd c e le s t ia l p henomena c r ea t ing i n t r ica t e v i s ta s i s n ow i ne v idence .

V .4 . P ref erred Hor izons a nd t he ir D i s tance s U nde r « F i t t ing t oge the r O r ien ta t ion a nd V i s ib i l i ty» i ns e c t ion I V , s upra , i tw a s m en t ioned t h a t f r om t h e 2 —D h o r izon p ro f i l e st h e c l ose s th o r izon s u sua l ly i n c lude N or th . A dded t ot h i s , t h e 2 —D p rof i le s r e vea l t h a tt h e m o s t d i s tan t h o r izon s u sua l ly i n c lude E a s t , a nd S ou th o fE a s t . T he t a b le b e low d e ta i l s t h i s . mo re s pec if ica l ly : S i te n ame C T 1 C T2 C T3 C T7

C T8 C T9

C l oses tH o r izon R anges

F u r thes tH o r izon R anges

SW -N Nt o1 5 .W e s to fN W> N NE WNW E NE

E SE E SE

S l i gh t l yW e s to fN ( 5 0we s t ) O ve r a l l NW >N NE ( s ma l lg ap d ead o nN o r t h , b u ts t i l l ac l o se h o r izon h e re w i t h m oun t a in ) NWN E NE

E NE

SW SW ;W

V I . C onc lus ion : P lac ing Monumen t s t ov i ew t he C osm ic Order

N E- SSE E N >S E

N E

I n te re s t ing ly , w e h ave a lmo s t c ome f u l l c i rc le b a ck t oA rch ie T hom 's i d ea , t h a t as i ng le m onumen t m igh t a c t a s ac a len d r ica l i n d ica to rf o r s e ve ra l s pec if ic t ime s o ft h ey ea ro ry ea r s , f o r r e a son s o fs ymbo l i sm o r o t he rw ise , a nd m igh t i n d ica te a n umbe r o fr e levan t a s t ronom ica l p henomena t h a t o ccu r a l ong t h e h o r izon . H e re w e h ave as im i la r i d ea d eve lop ing , b u t r a t h e r t h an t h e s i t e i n d ica t ing e ven ly d i v ided c a lend r ica l d a te s a bou t t h e h o r izon ; i ts e ems t h a t as i te , s uch a s as t one r ow , c ou ld r epr e sen tb yi t sp r e sence j u s t af ew o ft h e se d a te sw h i l s t a c tua l ly i nd ica t ing o n ly o ne ( o r p o s s ib ly t wo f o r a2 —way a l ignmen t ) . T he m onumen t 's e x i s tence i s u s ed t o c om mun ica te t h e l o ca t ion f r om w h ich s uch s pec ta c le s c an b e o b s e rved , a nd t hu s d eno te s t h e l o ca t ion 's i mpo r tance . I tm ay b e t h ej ob o f as pec if ic l a nd scape f e a tu re , s uch a s ar a nge o fh i l l s o rw a te r , t oi n d ica te t h eo t he rd a te s e xp re s sed a sa s t ronom ica l p henomena . T hu s , c o inc idence o ft h e l a nd scape f e a tu re s a nd t h e a s t ronom ica l p henomena c an o n ly b e s e en f r om a p a r t icu la ra ng le a nd p o s i t ion , g i v ing e x t ra w e igh tt ot h et h eo ry o f p urpo se ly l o ca ted monumen t s . I tm igh t b e t h e se v e ry l a nd scape f e a tu re s , t h en , t h a t n o t o n ly p rov ide t h e i n d ica t ion n ece s sa ry t om a rk o u tt h e p henomena v i sua l ly , b u tt oi n d ica te t h e i rc u l tu ra l s t a tu sa mong s tt h e b u i lde r s o ft h em onumen t s a s b e ing c o smo log ica l ly s i gn if ican t . T he s i te s a nd t h e l a nd scape c ou ld w e l lh ave b een s e en a si n teg ra lp a r t so ft h eo r de ra sw e l l a s r e p re sen ta t ive s o f t h a t o rde r . P e rhap s p a r t o f t h e monumen t s ' r o le s , t h en , w a s t o b ear w i tne s s t os u ch e ven t s a nd n o t m e re ly t o r e co rd o r r e g i s te r t h em . T he m onumen t s m ay n o t b e s e en a s s epa ra te f r om t h e l o ca t ion : t o g e the r t h ey a r e ap l a ce , a l ong w i th t h e l a nd scape a nd t h er e levan tc e le s t ia l p henomena . T he m onumen t s t h em se lve s a r e p a r t ic ipa t ing i n t h e e ven t s . I ti sp l au s ib le t h en , t h a t monumen t s w e re b u i l t t o b e ap a r to fa nd t ov i ew t h ec o sm ic o rde r .

E SE

S E

TA BLE 6 .O u t l in ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een h o r izon r a ng ea nd t h ed i s tance t h eh o r izon i sf r om t h es i t e . V .4 .1 . C ompar ing Mu l l w i th Co l l a nd T iree : I n tr ica te V i s ta s T hough t h e re h ave b een d ef in i te p a t ter n s f ound i nC o l l a nd T i ree t h ey a r e n o t a ss imp le a st h o se f ound b y R ugg le s e ta l . i n Mu l l , b u tt h e re a r e s ome s im i la r i t ie s . T he re i s ap r ef e rence f o r c l o se o r r e s t r ic ted n o r ther n h o r izon s f o r a l s i te s a nd d i s tan t e a s te r ly a nd NE t oS E f o rf ou ro ft h e s i te s ( CT 1 , C T2 , CT3 , CT7 ) a nd E SE t o SW f o rt h er ema in ing t wo ( CT8 , C T9 ) . F o r Mu l l , t h e re w a s ad i s t inc t a vo idance o fd i s tan t n o r the rn h o r izon sa nd n ea rby Sa nd S SW r e s t r ic ted h o r izon s . Wh i l s ta l t h e s i gn if ican t p r ef e r red o r ien ta t ion s a ppea r t of a l l i n to t h o se s e c t ion s o ft h e v i ew shed s w i th d i s tan t h o r izon s , a s d o t h o se f o r Mu l l , f i ve o ft h e p r ef e r red d ec l ina t ion s a r e l o ca ted a tt h e s e t t ing o ft h e s ou the r ly Ma jo r S t and s t i l l ( SS W ) , a nd t h e o t he r t wo a tt h er i s ing o ft h en or the r ly Ma jo rS t and s t i l l( NNE ) . Mu l l h a s l o ca t iona l p r ef e rence s f o r ah i l l i nv i ew i nt h e S SE a nd as e cond g roup o fp eak s i nt h e SW . C o l l a nd T i ree a l so a ppea r t oh ave p eak s a tt h e se h o r izon p o in t s , b u tt h e S E /SSE p eak s a r e n o t a lway s p rom inen t , a nd m ay i n deed b e v e ry d i s tan t . Two o t he r g roup s o fp eak s , o r ap eak , a lway s a ppea r i nt h e NW , a nd w i th 5 / 6 s i te sh av ing ap eak i nt h e NE , o ft h e s e 3 / 6 a ppea r v e ry d i s tan t ly a nd 2 / 6 v e ry p rom inen t ly . T he se p eak s i nt h e S E a nd NE a r em en t ioned , d e sp i te t h e i r d i s tance , b ecau se o ft h e i r c on s i s ten t a s soc ia t ion s w i th t h e s ame r i s ing ( s o la ra nd l u na r )f o re a ch s i te .

3 2

I nN o r ther n Mu l l a nd t h e K i lma r t in V a l ley a r ea o fM id—A rgy l l , w he r e 2a l ignmen t s w e r e f o und i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion o rb u i l t i n to t h e s ame s i t e , o ne w a s o r ien t ed n ea r— 30 ° a nd t h e o t he r w i th in ad eg r e e o r2 ° t o— 24 ° . S ee n .1 3 ,s upra , MA RT LEW & RU GGL E S : op . c i t . , 19 . F o rt h eK i l lma r t in a r ea , s e ea l so t h ea r t ic le b yP ä sz to r &R o s lund i nt h ep r e sen tv o lume .

Wha t c an b e s a id f o r C o l l a nd T i ree i st h a t , t h ough n o t a c tu a ly s t a t i s t ica l ly t e s ted , t h e o ve ra l l p r ef e r red d i rec t ion o ft h e 4 8

G a i l H igg inbo t tom ,A nd rew Sm i th e ta l . : Mo r et h an O r ien ta t ion : P la c ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h eC o sm ic O rde r

AM ANDA-AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

Y AK A Se etem Ate,

5 0

G a i l H igg inbo t tom , A nd rew Sm i th e ta l . : Mo re t h an O r ien ta t ion : P lac ing Monumen t st ov i ew t h e C osm ic O rde r

5 1

AM ANDA-AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

5 2

L i terary a nd A rchwoa s tronom ica lE v idence f or t he Or ig in s o ft he H e l len ic C a lendar i nt he A egean B ronze Age Mary B lo mberg a nd Göran Henr i leson

o f f e r ing s t ob e m ade t os pec if ic d e i t ie s a ts pec if ied s h r ine s i nt h e m on th s n amed [ VENTR is & CHAD W ICK , 1 973 : 2 75 , 3 03 12 ] . T he s e a sona l c ha rac te r i n d ica ted b y t h e v e ry n ame s o f s e ve ra l o f t h e Mycenwan mon th s , f o r e xamp le t h e s a i l ing m on th o n t a b le t T n 3 16 [ s ee F ig . 1 ] , p o in t s t oa l u n i so la r c a lenda r [ PALA imA , 1 995 : 6 29 & n .2 6 ] . I no t he r c a se s t h e m on th n ame s w e re t ho se o fd e i t ies a nd s eve ra l o f t h e se , a sw e l l a st h e n ame s o ft h e d e i t ie s t h em se lve s , h ave s u rv ived i n l a te r c a lenda r s o f t h e v a r iou s H e l len ic c i ty— s t a te s , f o r e xamp le L apa to i nA rkad ia a nd D io s i nA i tö l ia , Makedon ia a nd L e sbo s [ VENTR Is & CHAD W ICK , 1 973 : 3 05 , SAMUEL , 1 972 : 6 4 -65 ] . T he s ame t ype o f r i tua l c a l e nda r r e gu la ted o f f e r ing s t ot h e g od s i nt h e c i ty— s ta t e s o f l a te r H e l la s [ GEm iNos , 8 : 7 9 ] . T hu s , t h e re a r e s t r ik ing s im i la r i t ie st ot h e l a te rH e l len ic r i tua l l u n i so la rc a lenda r s i n t h e Mycen z ean d ocumen t s .

A b s trac t T he r e a r e an umbe r o f Mycen z ean L inea r Bt a b le t s , w h ich b eg in w i th t h e n ame o f am on th a nd w h ich c on ta in i n f o rma t ion a bou t o f e r ing s m ade t o d i v in i t ie s . T he se t a b le t s s ugge s t t h e e xc i t ing p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e H e l len ic r i tua l l u n iso la r c a lenda r s o f t h e A r cha ic P e r iod ( a nd l a te r ) a r e ah e r i tage f r om t h e Mycenwan p e r iod . We k now t h a t t h e H e l lene s h ad t h e a s t ronom ica l k now ledge t or egu la te s uch ac a lenda r t h rough i n te r ca la t ion , b u t t h e r e i s o n ly f r agmen ta ry e v idence t h a t t h e Mycenwans h ad c ompa rab le k now ledge . We h ave p e r f o rmed a p r e l im ina ry a r chxoa s t ronom ica l s t udy o f Mycenwan o r ien ta t ion s i nm a in land H e l la s a nd t h e se d o n o t i n d ica t e a ny i n te r e s t i n s y s tema t ic o b se r va t ion s o f c e le s t ia l e ven t s . A n i n ve s t iga t ion o f c or r e spond ing o r ien ta t ions i n C r e t e , o n t h e o t he r h and , g i ve s s t rong e v idence o f l o ng t e rm a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s o n t h e p a r t o ft h e M inoan s , o b se rva t ion st h a tw ou ld h ave m ade p o s s ib le t h er e gu la t ion o f al u n i so la rc a lenda r . Mo r eove r ,t h e i n ve s t iga t ion i n d ica te st h a tt h e M inoan sd i dh ave s u ch ac a lenda r . A sw ek now t h a t t h e Mycenxan c u l tu re w a s d eep ly i n f luenced b y t ha t o ft h e M inoan ,t h er e su l t so fo u rr e sea rch p rov ide a r ch z eo log ica l s uppor t f o r t h e s u rv iv ing l i t e ra ry e v idence o f a Mycenxan l u n iso la r c a lenda r . We p ropo se , t h e r ef o r e , t h a t t h e M inoan s w e re t h e s ou r ce o f t h e a s t ronom ica l k now ledge n ece s sa ry f o r t h e Mycen z ean c a lenda r a nd t h a t t h e Mycen z ean s t r an sm i t t ed t h is k now ledge t o t h e l a te r H e l lene s , w he r e i ta l so e xe r ted ama jo r i n f luence o nH e l len ic A s t ronomy .

I . R egu la t ing L un i so lar C a lendar s L un i so la r c a lenda r s r equ i re a dequa te a s t ronom ica l k now ledge a bou tt h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c yc le s o ft h e S un a nd t h e Moon , f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f am e thod i n o rde r t o k eep mon th s a nd s e a son s s ynch ron ized . T h i s i s b e s t d one b y t h e i n te r ca la t ion o f a mon th a t r egu la r i n te rva l s s o t h a t t h e s ame l u na r m on th s o ccu r i nt h e s ame s o la r s e a son s . T he u se o ft h e e i gh t— o r t h e n i ne teen—yea r c yc le , a tt h e e nd o fw h ich t h e S un , t h e Moon a nd t h e E a r th h ave v e ry n ea r ly t h e s ame r e la t ion sh ip t o e a ch o t he r a s t h ey h ad a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e c yc le , f a c i l i ta te s t h e r egu la t ion o f s uch a c a lenda r , t h e n i ne teen—yea r c yc le b e ing m o r e a ccu ra te t h an t h e e i gh t—yea r c yc le [ SAMUEL , 1 972 : 1 12 ] . T he e x i s tence o f a l u n iso la r c a lenda r , h oweve r , d oe s n o t p rove t h e u se o f t h e se c y c le s , a s t h e c a lenda r c an b e r e gu la ted o n t h e b a s i s o f v a r iou s a s t ronom ica l r e la t ion sh ip s . We k now t h a t an umbe r o f r u le s o ft h umb b a sed o n s u ch r e la t ion sh ip s w e r e d eve loped f o r i n te rca la t ion a ta n e a r ly d a te i nt h e N ea r E a s t [ CoHEN , 1 993 : 5 6 ] .

KEY WORDS : H e l len ic C a lenda r s , B ronze A ge , A egean S ea , C re t e , Mycenx , L i te ra ry S ou r ce s , L inea r B T ab le t s , T ho lo s T omb s , T ha lamo s T omb s , S anc tua r ie s , O r ien ta t ion s , A nc ien t A s t ronomy .

I .I n troduc t ion S eve ra l t h ou sand s ma l l c l ay t a b le t s , w r i t ten i n t h e s o— c a l led L inea r Bs c r ip to ft h e My cenwan s ,w e re f ound i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge r u in s o fs eve ra lp a la ce s i nt h e a r ea w h ich n ow c omp r i se s H e l la s . T he g r ea t m a jo r i ty c ome f r om P y lo s i n We s te rn H e l la s a nd K nö s so s i nC r e te [ VENTR is & CHAD W ICK , 1 973 ] . T he b r i l l ian t d ec iphe rmen t o f t h e se t a b le t s b y M ichae l V en t r i s p roved t h a t t h ey h ad b een w r i t ten i na n e a r ly f o rm o fH e l len ic , a nd t h e i rd ecod ing h a s b een c ha rac te r ized a so ne o ft h e g r ea te s t s cho la s t ic f e a t s o f t h e 2 0t h c en tu ry [ CHADW ICK , 1 960 ] . T he s i gn if icance o f t h i s a ch ievemen t f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o f t h e c u l tu re s o f a nc ien t H e l la s i s s t i l l b e ing r e a l ized . F o r e xamp le , a r gumen t s c an n ow b e m ade ( b a sed o n s ome o f t h e se t e x t s ) , c once rn ing t h e o r ig in s o f t h e H e l len ic l u n iso la r c a lenda ri n aMycenwan p r edece s so rt h a tw a sd e r ived f r om t h e M inoan c a lenda r . T he se a r gumen t s c an n ow b e s uppo r ted b y e v idence f r om t h e a r chwo log ica l r ema in s o f t h e i s land o fC r e te .

I I . AF ore ign I n f luence o n t he A egean C a lendar s? S im i la r c a lenda r s w e r e f ound a tA la lakh i nt h e N ea r E a s t , d a t ing t o t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e s e cond m i l lenn ium BCE [W ISEMAN , 1 953 : 9 2 -93 ] . T hu s w e h ave t e x t s p o in t ing t o c ompa rab le B ronze A ge r i tua l l u n i so la r c a lenda r s i n t h e N ea r E a s t a nd i nH e l la s . A l though i tm ay b e t emp t ing t o s e e t h e Mycen z ean c a lenda r a st h e p roduc t o fN ea r E a s te rn i n f luence , i no u ro p in ion i ti s mo r e l i ke ly t h a tt h e c a lenda r s o f b o th a r ea s g r ew o u t o f s im i la r c u l tu ra l c i r cum s tance s . H e re t h e o ve r r id ing i mpo r tance o f a n a g r icu l tu ra l e conomy , w he re of e r ing st ot h e g od s i nt h e p rope rs ea son s w e re r e ga rded t ob e o fg r ea t i mpo r tance i ns e cu r ing d i v ine g ood w i l l a nd —con sequen t ly-- c on t inu ing f e r t i l i ty . A l so , t h e s im i la r i t ie s m en t ioned a bove b e tween t h e Mycenwan a nd t h e H e l len ic c a lenda r s p o in t m o r e t o al o ca l t r ad i t ion r a the r t h an t o b o r row ing f r om t h e N ea r E a s t [ S A MUEL ,

Among t h e L inea r Bt a b le t s f ound a tP y lo s a nd K nö s so s w e r e s eve ra l i n t roduced b y t h e n ame o f am on th , f o r e xamp le o nt a b le t T n 3 16 [ s ee F ig . 1 ] , a nd i ns eve ra l c a se s t h ew o rd f o r mon th , m& io s , f o l low st h en ame ( a sw e w ou ld s ay n owaday s « i n t h e mon th o f X » ) . T he se t a b le t s a r e c on s ide r ed t o b e p a r t s o f ar i tua l c a lenda r s t ipu la t ing t h e 5 3

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP E R AS P E R AE TP E R LU DUM i n s t ruc t ion s f o r r i tua l o f f e r ing s f ound i n t h e Mycenxan d ocumen t s ( i n t roduced w i th t h e n ame o f amon th ) i n d ica te t h eu se o f al u n i so la rc a lenda r .

1 972 : 2 1-22 ] . We h ave , a sw e i n tend t os how , b o th l i t e ra ry a nd a r ch z eoa s t ronom ica l e v idence f o rt h e i n d igenou s o r ig in a nd d eve lopmen t o f a l u n i so la r c a lenda r i n H e l la s , e v idence w h ich s t r e tche s f r om t h e E a r ly t ot h eL a te B ronze A ge . T h i s i mp l ie s a s w e l l t h e i n d igenou s o r ig in o f t h e a s t ronom ica lk now ledge n eeded .

V . On t he A rchwoa s trono rn ica l Me thod O u r e v idence f o r M inoan a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s h a s b een o b ta ined t h rough t h e a pp l ica t ion o f a r chxoa s t ronom ica l m e thod s t o M inoan a r ch z eo log ica l r ema in s . T h i s —in p ra c t ice — m ean s s t udy o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e i r monumen t s , t h e b a s ic m e thod o f A r chxoa s t ronomy [ HosK IN , 2 001 :7 -20 ; B LOMBERG & H EN IUKSSON , 2 00 1 : 6 09 10 ] . A s f a ra sw e k now , t h i s i st h e o n ly w ay o fr e cove r ing t h e a s t ronom ica l a ch ievemen t s o f a n a nc ien t c u l tu r e , o f w h ich n o l e g ib le d ocumen t s h ave s u rv ived , a nd i ti sd ue t o t h e f a c t t h a t p eop le i n m any p l ace s a nd p e r iod s h ave b een s t rong ly m o t iva ted t o e s tab l i sh p hy s ica l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h em se lve s a nd t h e c o smo s b y o r ien t ing t h e i r s e t t lemen t s a nd b u i ld ing s t o p rom inen tc e le s t ia l e ven t s .

T he e x i s tence o fi n te rca la t ion a ta n e a r ly d a te i nt h e N ea r E a s t may b et h er e a son w hy i th a s b een s ome th ing o f at r a d i t ion t o a s sume i n f luence f r om t h a t a r ea o fH e l la s i nt h e t r an sm is s ion o ft h e k now ledge o ft h e e i gh t— a nd n i ne teen— y ea r c yc le s . H oweve r t h e e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t t h e H e l lene s w e re u s ing b o th c yc le s n o l a te r t h an t h e f i f th c en tu ry B CE,w h ich i se a r l ie r t h an w e k now o ft h e i r u s e a mong t h e B aby lon ian s [ D icKs , 1 970 : 1 72 173 ; S AMUEL , 1 972 : 3 5 -49 ; C OHEN , 1 993 : 5 6 ; N EUGEBAUER , 1 957 : 8 0 8 2 ] . E gyp t d oe s n o t s e em al i ke ly s ou r ce o fi n f luence s i nce t h e i r c a lenda r h ad b een s epa ra ted f r om a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s a ta n e a r ly d a te , a nd b y t h e M idd le B ronze A ge w a s b a sed o n t h e m echan ica l a s s ignmen t o f as e t n umbe r o fd ay s t ot h e w eek , m on th a nd y ea r , v e ry m uch l i ke o u ro wn c a lenda r . A l though w e s t i l ld e te rm ine t h e d a te f o r E a s te r i n a cco rdance w i th l u n i so la r c a lend r ic p r inc ip le s , w h ich a r eb a sed o nt h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e S un a nd t h eF u l l Moon f o l low ing t h e S p r ing E qu inox .

C ruc ia l t ot h e a c cu ra cy o ft h e r e su l t s o b ta ined i sr e l iance o n a dequa te m ea su r ing e qu ipmen t a nd c ompu te rp rog ram s . F o r m ea su r ing o r ien ta t ion s w e u sed t h e d i g i ta l t h eodo l i te S OKK IA S ET 4C.F o r t h e c ompu ta t ion s o f a s t ronom ica l d a ta w e u se t h e c ompu te r p rog ram d eve loped b y H en r ik s son , a nd f o r s t a t i s t ica l e va lua t ion s w er e ly u pon t h e D epa r tmen t o f Ma thema t ica l S t a t i s t ic s a t U pp sa la U n ive r s i ty . T he p a rame te r s f o r c a lcu la t ing t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f b r igh t s t a r s a r e f r om B empo rad [ BEMPORAD , 1 904 ] , S iden topf [ S IDENTOPF , 1 94 1 ] , L jungha l l [ L JUNGHALL , 1 949 ] , a nd S chm id t [ SCHM IDT , 1 865 ] . I ti si mpo r tan tt ou s e S chm id t 's v i s ib i l i ty c a l ib ra t ion s f o r A then s f r om c . 1 850 C E,a s h i s o b se rva t ion s w e re m ade b ef o r e m oder n a i r p o l lu t ion .

O u rk now ledge f r om c une if o rm t e x t s a st ot h e e x i s tence o f al u n i so la r c a lenda r i nt h e N ea r E a s t i ss upp lemen ted w i th i n f o rma t ion f r om t h e s ame s ou rce s a bou t t h e c u s tom o f a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s n ece s sa ry f o r t h e c on s t ruc t ion a nd m a in tenance o f ac a lenda r . T he r ew e re s c r ibe s c ha rged w i th o b se rv ing a nd r e co rd ing t h e mo t ion s o ft h e c e le s t ia l b od ie s f r om a se a r ly a st h e 3r d m i l lenn ium [ CoHEN , 1 993 : 4 ] . H oweve r w e h ave o n ly r e cen t ly b een a b le t o s ugge s t j u s t h ow s u ch k now ledge m ay h ave b een a cqu i r ed b y t h e My cenxan s , a s ide f r om t h e u n suppo r ted a s sump t ion o f i n f luence f r om t h e N ea r E a s t . F rom o u r a r ch z eoa s t ronom ica l s t ud ie s w e h ave f ound i n d ica t ion st h a t t h e m e thod u sed b y t h e My cenwan s t or e gu la te t h e i r r i tua l c a lenda r o r ig ina ted i n i t ia l ly f r om t h e M inoan s a nd w a s c onveyed b yt h e Mycenxan s t ot h e H e l lene s . We c an s how t h a t t h e M inoan s h ad c on s ide rab le a s t ronom ica l k now ledge , w h ich b y i t s v e ry n a tu re mu s t h ave b een t h e r e su l t o f many y ea r s o fs y s t ema t ic o b se rva t ion s o ft h e m o t i on s o fc e le s t ia lb od ie s .

V I . M inoan O r ien ta t ion s I n o u r s t udy o f 3 23 g rave s w i th p a s sage a pp roache s i n C re te w e r e l ied o n p ub l i shed p l an s , e xcep t i nt h e c a se o f t h e 2 24 g r ave s a tA rmeno i . T he o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e se w e re e s t ima ted b y t h e a s t ronome r s w ho m ea su red t h em t o b e a ccu ra te t o ±1 ° [ PA PATHANASS IOU e ta l . , 1 992 : S 45 ) . We m ea su red t h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e r ema in ing 9 9 g r ave s o n t h e p ub l i shed p l an s [ BOSANQUET , 1 90 1-02 ; E VANS , 1 905 ; E VANS , 1 9 14 ; F ORSDYKE , 1 926 -27 ; HOOD & D E J ONG , 1 952 ; HOOD , HUXLEY & S ANDARS , 1 958 -59 ; HUTCH INSON , 1 956 ; I MMERWAHR , 1 971 ; PM , 1 968 ; P OPHAM , 1 974 ; P OPHAM , 1 980 ] . N o i n f o rma t ion w a s a va i lab le a st ot h e a ccu ra cy o ft h e t h e se , b u t w e t h ink i ti s r e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t t h ey a r e a ccu ra te t ow i th in ± 5 ° . O n ly p a s sage g rave s w e re c ho sen , s i nce t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f l o ng w a l l s c an b e m o r e a ccu ra te ly m ea su r ed t h an t h o se o f c i s t o r p i t g rave s . T he g r ave s s how a n a maz ing a dhe rence t oe a s twa rd o r ien ta t ion w i th in t h e l i m i t s o fs un r ise : 8 6% l i e w i th in t h e se l i m i t s , w h ich i so n ly 1 8% o ft h e c i rc le , a nd 4 0% l i e w i th in ± 1 0 ° o fd ue E a s t , w h ich i sl e s s t h an 6% o f t h e c i r c le [ s ee F ig . 2 ] . F rom t h e se d a ta i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o t e l l w he the r t h e o r ien ta t ion s w e re d e te rm ined b y r e l ig iou s o r o t he r f a c to r s , b u t i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e re w a s as t rong i n t e r e s t i nh av ing t h eg rave s o r ien ted t ot h e E a s t w i th in t h e l i m i t s o f s un r i se , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t o s un r i se a t t h e E qu inoxe s .

I V . T he H e l len ic L un i so lar C a lendar T he c l ea re s t w r i t ten s t a temen t o n t h e a n t iqu i ty a nd i mpo r t a nce o f s e a sona l o f f e r ing s i n H e l la s c ome s f r om t h e a s t ronome r G em ino s ( 1s t c en tu ry B CE) : «When t h e y ea r s a r e r e ckoned e xac t ly a cco rd ing t ot h e S un , a nd t h e m on th s a nd d ay s a cco rd ing t ot h e Moon , t h en t h e H e l lene s t h ink t h a t t h ey s a c r if i ce a cco rd ing t ot h e c u s tom o ft h e i r f a the r s ; t h a ti s ,t h e s ame s a c r if ice st ot h e g od sa r em ade a tt h es ame t im e s o ft h ey ea r» [ GEm iNo s , 8 :1 5 ] . T he H e l lene s w e re i n f a c t b ound b y l aw t oo b se rve t h i s c u s tom [ GEm iNos , 8 :7 9 ] . A l though G em ino s i s al a te s ou rce , h i s w o rk s how s g ood k now ledge o ft h e h i s to ry o fA s t ronomy i nH e l la s a nd c on ta in s m any r e f e rence s t o e a r l ie r a s t ronome r s w ho se w r i t ing s w e re s t i l l a va i lab le . A cco rd ing t o G em ino s , t h e k now ledge n eeded t o r e gu la te a l u n i so la r c a lenda r w a s a nc ien t i nH e l la s , a nd t h e L inea r Bc a lenda r t a b le t s o f f e r s uppo r t f o r t h i s v i ew . A s w e p o in t o u t a bove , t h e 5 4

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i te ra ry a nd A rchwoa s t ronom ica l E v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r

O u r s t udy o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f f i f t een m a jo r M inoan m onumen t s o t he rt h an g rave s —the f ou rm a jo rp a lace s , t h e s i x p eak s anc tua r ie s w i th a dequa te s u rv iv ing w a l l s , a nd f i ve o ft h e l a rge v i l la s— g i ve s e ven mo r e s t r ik ing r e su l t s [ s ee F ig . 3 ] . T en o f t h e se f i f t een monumen t s h ave o r ien ta t ion s t o m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s : s un r i se a t t h e S umme r S o l s t ice i nt wo c a se s ; s un r i se a tt h e E qu inoxe s i n f o u r c a se s ; s un se t a tt h e E qu inoxe s i no ne c a se ; s un se t a t t h e S umme r S o l s t ice i nt h r ee c a se s ; s un r ise a tt h e W in te r S o l s t ice i n o ne c a se ; moon r i se a t t h e S ou ther n Ma jo r S t and s t i l l i no ne c a se ; t h eh e l ia ca l r i s ing o fA r c tu ru s i nt wo c a se s ; a nd t h e h e l iaca l s e t t ing o f t h e s ame s t a r i n t h r ee c a se s . At o ta l o fs even teen o r ien ta t ion s t o m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s a t t h e se t e n s i te s , a nd e l even o f t h e s even teen o r ien ta t ion s w e r e m a rked b y af o re s igh t . S even o f t h e se w e r e n a tu ra l f o r e s igh t s a nd f ou r w e r e h uman—made . T he a s t e r i sk s i nF ig . 3s i gn if y t h e p r e sence o f af o re s igh t . F ou r o f t h e monumen t s h ave o r ien ta t ion s t o mo r e t h an o ne m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t : t wo , e a ch i nt h e c a se o f t h e p eak s a n c tua r ie s o n P y rgo s a nd T rao s ta lo s ; t h r ee , i nt h e c a se o f t h e v i l la a tV a thype t ro ; a nd f o u r , i nt h e c a se o ft h e p eak s a nc tua ry o n P e t sopha s . S un r i se a t t h e S o l s t ice s a nd E qu inoxe s a r e a l l c ommon o b jec t s o fM inoan o r ien ta t ion s . S un se t a tt h e se t ime s s e em s n o tt oh ave b een a si mpo r tan t ; a nd t h o se t h r ee o r ien ta t ion s t owa rd s s un se t a tt h e S umme r S o l s t ice a r e t h e r ef o re e spec ia l ly i n te re s t ing a nd w i l l b e d i s cu s sed b e low . T he o r ien ta t ion a tP e t sopha s t os un se t a t t h e E qu inoxe s i sa l so u n ique a nd i sd ue , w e t h ink , t ot h e s p e c ia l f unc t ion o f t h a t s i te f o r o b se rv ing t h e c e le s t ia l b od ie s : f o rt h es ake o fk eep ing t h ec a lenda r , f o rn av iga t ion , a nd p e rhap sa l so f o rr e l ig iou sr e a son s.

r i s ing o f A rc tu ru s , i ti st ime t o i n te r ca la te a mon th . T he N ew Moon w a s c ho sen a s i t s f i r s t v i s ib i l i ty i st h e mo s t e a s i ly d e te rm ined p ha se o ft h e Moon [ SAMUEL , 1 972 : 1 4 ] . I tw a s t r ad i t iona l i n l a te r H e l la s t o u se t h e f i r s t c r e scen t Moon f o l low ing o ne o ft h e S o l s t ice s o r E qu inoxe s a s t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e y ea r [ SAMUEL , 1 972 : 1 4 17 ] . D if f e r en t c i ty— s ta te s u sed d i f f e r en t c e le s t ia l e ven t s . T hu s , a t P e t sopha s w e h ave e v idence t h a t t h e M inoan y ea r b egun w i th t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o ft h e N ew Moon f o l low ing t h e A u tumn E qu inox . A t J uk ta s , t h e p eak s a nc tua ry n ea r K nö s so s o n t h e n o r th c oa s t o fc en t ra l C r e te , t h e re w a s as im i la ra r rangemen t [ s ee F ig . 5 ] . H e re t h e S un r i se s o n t h e mo rn ing o f t h e E qu inoxe s i n as add le f o rmed b y t wo p eak s o ppo s i te t h e s anc tua ry , a nd e l even d ay s l a te r i t r i se s w he re t wo moun ta in s i n te r sec t . T he re i s n o c o r re spond ing w e l l— m a rked p o s i t ion t ot h e N o r th , w he r e t h e S un r i se s e l even d ay sb ef o re t h e A u tumn E qu inox [ s ee F ig . 6 ] . T he e l even th d ay a f t e r t h e A u tumn E qu inox h a s t h e s pec ia l v a lue o f p red ic t ing t h e p ha se o ft h e Moon a tt h e f o l low ing A u tumn E qu inox , s i nce t h e p ha se o ft h e Moon w i l l b e t h e s ame o n b o th d ay s [ BL OMBERG & HE NR IK SSON , 2 002 : 8 2 -83 ] . K now ing t h e p ha se o f t h e Moon i n a dvance o ft h e n ew y ea r m ay w e l l h ave b een r i tua l ly i mpo r tan t a s t h e r e a r e i n d ica t ion st h a tt h e Moon h ad ap rom inen tp l ace i nM inoan r e l ig ion [ BL OMBERG & HE NR IKSSON , 1 996 : 3 4 -35 ] . I n t h e c a se o f t h e p a lace a t K nö s so s t h e w e s t w ing i s o r ien ted t o s un r i se a tt h e E qu inoxe s a nd t h e r e su l t i ss uch t h a t ac on sp icuou s s ha l low b ow l f o rm ing o ne o ft h e s t one s o f t h e f l oo r i n t h e m o s t s a c red a r ea o f t h e b u i ld ing i s i lum ina ted b y t h e f i r s t r a y s o ft h e S un o n t h e E qu inoxe s a nd , w hen f i l led w i th w a te r , c a s t s ar e f lec t ion o n t h e r e a r w a l l o f t h e r oom [ s ee F ig . 7 ] . E leven d ay s a f te r t h e A u tumn E qu inox t h e S un s t r ike st h e s t one f o rt h e l a s tt ime , u n t i l i td oe s a ga in e l even d ay s b ef o re t h e S p r ing E qu inox . H e r e t h e s ame r u le o ft h umb a pp l ie s i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e A u tumn E qu inox : i ft h eN ew Moon a ppea r s i nt h e i n te rva l f o l low ing t h e E qu inox , w hen t h e f i r s t r a y s o fs un r i se s t r ike t h e b ow l , a nd e l even d ay s f o l low ing t h e A u tumn E qu inox , w hen t h e s ha l low b ow l i si lum ina ted f o rt h e l a s tt ime u n t i l t h e S p r ing E qu inox , t h en i ti st ime t o i n te r ca la te amon th . T he r e w e re n o a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s w h ich i n te rf e red w i th t h e p ropo sed a r rangemen t a nd t h e re a r e s eve ra l w h ich s uppo r t o u r i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e d e l ibe ra te c on s t ruc t ion o f ac a lenda r d ev ice i nt h i s v e ry i mpo r tan t M inoan b u i ld ing . O ne f e a tu re i st h a t t h e s hadow c a s t b y t h e S un o n t h e m o rn ing o f t h e E qu inoxe s j u s t g raze s a d oub le a xe i n sc r ibed i nt h e s ou the rn w a l l [ BL OMBERG & HE NR IKSSON , 2 002 : 8 3 -85 ] . A no the r i st h a t t h e f l oo r l e ve l o ft h e s a c red a r ea r ema ined t h e s ame o ve r t h e c en tu r ie s a s t h e l e ve l o f t h e C en t ra l C ou r t r o se . T he p o s i t ion o ft h e s t one a bove t h e o r ig ina l f l oo r l e ve l i sc r uc ia l f o r t h e f unc t ion ing o f t h e d ev ice .

T h eo r ien ta t ion s o ft h ep a lace a tK nö s so s a nd t h ep eak s an c t ua ry o nJ uk ta s w e r e e s tab l i shed i nt h e E a r ly B ronze A ge , a nd t h e ref o re o u rr e su l t s i n d ica t e l o ng— te rm s y s tema t ic o b s e rva t ion s o f t h e c e le s t ia l b od ie s b eg inn ing p robab ly n o l a te rt h an t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h et h i rd m i l lenn ium BCE . T he d ev ia t ion s f r om d ue E a s t i nt h e c a se o fo r ien ta t ion s t ot h e E qu inoxe s i sd ue t o t h e moun ta inou s c ha rac te r o f C re te , w h ich s h if t s s un r i se s ou thwa rd s ( e xcep t w hen i to ccu r s a t t h e s e a l e ve l a s i n t h e c a se o f P y rgo s ) . We a r e i n t h e p roce s s o fs t udy ing o t he r monumen t s b u t o u r r e su l t s f r om t h o se b u i ld ing s a r e s t i l l p re l im ina ry . We c an s a y , h oweve r , t h a t w e h ave f ound n o th ing , w h ich c on t rad ic t s t h e r e su l t s m en t ioned a bove .

V I I .T he M inoan C a lendar T he p r ef e r ence f o r o r ien ta t ion t owa rd s t h e S umme r S o l s t ice , t h e E qu inoxe s a nd t h e h e l iaca l r i s ing a nd s e t t ing o f A r c tu ru s , i n d ica te s t h a t t h e m a in p u rpo se o f t h e M inoan s w i th t h e i r o b se rva t ion s w a s c a lend r ic . T h i s i s u nde r sco r ed f r om t h e s pec ia l a r rangemen t s m ade a tt h ree s i te s , t o s how w hen i tw a s t ime t o i n te rca la te am on th i n t h e c a se o f al u n i so la r c a lenda r . A t P e t sopha s , t h e p eak s a nc tua ry o n t h e e a s t c oa s t n ea r t h e i mpo r tan t M inoan t own n ow k nown a s P a la ika s t ro , a nd a s i te w i th mu l t ip le o r ien ta t ion s t o m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s [ s ee F ig . 4 ] , t h e h e l ia ca l r i s ing o f A rc tu ru s o ccu r red o ne l u na r mon th b ef o r e t h e A u tumn E qu inox . T he w a l l AB w a s o r ien ted t o t h i s e ven t a nd t h e a ppea rance o fA rc tu ru s a tt h a t t ime p e r m i t t ed t h e a pp l ica t ion o f as imp le r u le o ft h umb f o r d e te r m in ing w hen t o i n te r ca la te a m on th : i ft h e n ew c r e scen t Moon a ppea r s i n t h e e l even—day i n te rva l f o l low ing t h e

O n ly t h e p a lace a t Ma l l ia w a s n o t o r ien ted t o am a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t , b u t i tp r e sen t s a n a l ignmen t o fc a lend r ic s i gn i f i cance , a s w e h ave s hown e l sewhe r e [ HE NR IKSSON & BL OMBERG , f o r thcom ing ] . T hu s , e v idence f r om t h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h ree o ft h e m o s t i mpor tan t M inoan s i te s i n d ica te s t h a t t h e M inoan y ea r b egan i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e F a l l E qu inox . T h i s w a s n o t t h e m o s t u sua l t ime f o rt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e y ea r i nH e l la s . 5

AMANDA-AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T R AP ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

c on t ra s tt ow ha t w e f ound i nt h e c a se o fM inoan b u i ld ing s . N o c on s i s ten t i n te r e s t c an b e d i sce rned f o r m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s .

T he S o l s t ice s w e re mo re u sua l ly f o l lowed b y t h e S p r ing E qu inox [ TRümPY , 1 997 : 1 ] . I t m ay t h e ref o re b e s i gn if ican t t h a t t h e n ew y ea r i nK nö s so s i nt h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod b egan i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e A u tumn E qu inox [ GuARDucc i , 1 945 : 7 9 ] .

I no u r o wn i n ve s t iga t ion s o fM inoan monumen t s , h oweve r , w e f ound t h ree s ma l l s h r ine s i nC r e te w h ich d ev ia ted i n t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s f r om t h o se o ft h e o t he r b u i ld ing s i no u r s t udy : t h e o b l ique b u i ld ing i nt h eN or th C ou r to ft h ep a la ce a t Ma l l ia , t h e s im i la r s ma l l s h r ine j u s t s ou thea s to ft h e v i l la a tH ag ia T r iada ( b u i ld ing H ) , a nd t h e t r ipa r t i t e s h ine j u s t e a s t o ft h e c o lumna r h a l l o ft h e v i l la a tV a thype t ro . T he se t h ree b u i ld ing s w e re r e l ig iou s i nc ha rac te r a nd a l h ave t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion : t os un se t a tt h e S umme r S o l s t ice [ F ig s . 3 & 1 0 ] . T he f i r s t t wo w e r e b u i l t f o l low ing t h e i s l and—w ide d e s t ruc t ion s a t t h e e nd o f t h e p e r iod L a te M ionan I B [ PELoN , 1 997 ; L A R OSA , 1 985 ] , t h e p e r iod c on s ide red b y m any t o h ave b een f o l lowed b y Mycen z ean c on t ro l i n C r e te . T he t r ipa r t i te s h r ine c ou ld n o t b e d a ted a r chwo log ica l ly b u t s ha rd s f r om L a te M inoan I I w e re f ound i n t h e a r ea o f t h e V i l la [ DR IE ssEN & S AKELLARAKES , 1 997 ; S HAW , 1 978 ; H ENR IK SSON & B LOMBERG , f o r thcom ing ] . T he se t h ree s ma l l s h r ine s a r e t h e o n ly b u i ld ing s w h ich w e h ave f ound i nC r e te w i th t h i s p a r t icu la r o r ien ta t ion . We t h ink i tp robab le t h a t t h ey a r e Mycen z ean , c on s t ruc ted i nC r e te u nde rt h e i n f luence o ft h e M inoan c u s tom f o r o r ien t ing i mpo r tan t m onumen t s t o m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s . T hey m ay p rov ide c onc re te e v idence o f My cen z ean a cqua in tance w i th t h e M inoan t e chn ique s f o r k eep ing t h e i r l u n iso la r c a lenda r , a nd a l so w i th M inoan a s t ronom ica lk now ledge i ng ene ra l .

I no u r o p in ion , t h e re i ss t rong e v idence f o rc onc lud ing t h a t t h e M inoan s h ad a l u n i so la r c a lenda r o ft h e s ame t y pe a s t h e l a te r H e l lene s , w h ich w a s ac a lenda r t h a t b egan a tt h e f i r s t a ppea rance o f t h e n ew c r e scen t Moon f o l low ing a n E qu inox o rS o l s t ice ,t h eA u tumn E qu inox i nt h ec a se o ft h e M inoan s . I n o rde r t o b e a b le t o o r ien ta te c omp lex s t ruc tu re st os eve ra l m a jo rc e le s t ia l e ven t s ( a s a tP e t sopha s a nd P y rgo s ) , t h e M inoan s m u s t h ave c onduc ted s y s tema t ic o b se rva t ion s a tt h e se s i te s f o r av e ry l o ng t ime . S i nce t h e p eak s anc tua ry o n J uk ta s w a s i nu se i nt h e E a r ly B ronze A ge a nd t h e w e s t w ing o ft h e p a lace a tK nö s so s r e ta ined t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e E a r ly B ronze A ge s t ruc tu r e o n t h e s i te w hen i tw a s b u i l t i n t h e M idd le M inoan P e r iod [ CATL ING , 1 973 -74 : 3 4 ; S HAW , 1 977 : 4 8 ] , w e c an a s sume t h a t t h e M inoan s h ad b egun t h e ir s y s tema t ic o b se rva t ion s o ft h e c e le s t ia l b od ie s l o ng b ef o r e t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 2nd M i l lenn ium B CE . T he Mycenxan s , a s w e k now , a s sumed p owe r i nC r e te a ts ome p o in t i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge . T he p r ec i se t ime f o r t h i s a nd t h e n a tu re o ft h e i r s up remacy i s v e ry much d eba t ed b u t i ti sg ene ra l ly a g r eed t h a t t h ey h ad g a ined c on t ro l i n C r e te b y t h e L a te M inoan I P e r iod [ DR iEssEN & MACDONALD , 1 997 ] . T hey a dap ted t h e M inoan L inea r As c r ip t f o rw r i t ing t h e i ro wn l a nguage a nd t h e i r p o t te ry s t y le s a r e c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h o se o f t h e M inoan s . T he ref o re , i tw ou ld n o tb e s u rp r i s ing a ta l l i ft h ey h ad a l so a dop ted t h eM inoan c a lenda r .

V I I I . Mycenxan O r ien ta t ions I fw e c on s ide r , i n s tead , t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e c a lenda r o f t h e Mycenxan s w a s b a sed o n t h e i r o wn a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s r a the r t h an h av ing b een b o r rowed f r om t h e M inoan s , i st h e re a ny s uppo r t f o r t h i s? We s t ud ied t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f 3 70 p a s sage g r ave s i n Mycenwan H e l la s [ s ee F ig . 8 ] . T he 5 4 a tP ro symna w e re m ea su red w i th a t h eodo l i te a nd c an t h e r ef o re b e a s sumed t ob e a ccu ra te t o l e s s t h an + 1 ° [ BLEGEN , 1 937 ] . T he o t he r s w e re m ea su red b y u s o n t h e p ub l i shed p l an s a nd ( a s i nt h e c a se o f t h e M inoan g rave s a bove ) , w e e s t ima te t h e a ccu ra cy o f t h e m ea su remen t s t o b e w i th in ± 5 ° [ BLEGEN , 1 973 ; B ULLE , 1 906 -09 ; D EMAKOPOULOU , 1 990 ; F ROD IN & P ERSSON , 1 938 ; H EARTLEY & S KEAT , 1 930 -31 ; HOPE S IMPSON , 1 958 -59 ; I AKOv IDEs , 1 980 ; KONTORLE—PA PADOPOULOU , 1 987 ; MARAVEL IA ,2 002 ; P A PADOPOULOS , 1 976 ; P APA Z OGLOU—MAN IOUDAKE , 1 994 ; P ERSSON , 1 931 ; P ERSSON , 1 942 ; P ROTONOTAR IOU—DE ILAKE , 1 990 ; WACE , 1 932 ; WELLS , 1 990 ] . I ti sa ppa r en t t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e Mycen z ean o r ien ta t ion s i sc omp le te ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h e M inoan . T he r e i sn o c oncen t ra t ion t o a ny m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t . T he r e i si n deed a s i gn if ican t c oncen t ra t ion t o t h e s ou thwe s t q uad ran t ( 56% ) , b u t n o t t owa rd s s un se t a tt h e W in te rS o l s t ice . We a l so m ea su red t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e Mycenxan p a lace s a nd c u l tr oom s f r om t h er e cen t ly p ub l i shed p l an s i n as pec ia l s t udy o ft h e se p l ace s , w he re t h e o r ien ta t ion s a r e i nm o s t c a se s s t a ted [ WH ITTAKER , 1 997 ] . T he se s t ruc tu re s s how n o p a t te rn i n t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s [ s ee F ig . 9 ] , i n

A s ide o ft h e se t h r ee r ema rkab le s ma l l s h r ine s w e f i nd n o o t he r e v idence o f Mycen z ean s y s tema t ic o b se rva t ion s o f t h e c e le s t ia l b od ie s i nt h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h e i r g r ave s a nd o t he r monumen t s , a sw e d o i nt h e c a se o ft h e M inoan s . Y e t w e d o f i nd t h e u s e o f al u n i so la r c a lenda r i n Mycenwan d ocumen t s . Mo reove r t h is c a lenda r i so ft h e s ame t y pe a s t h a t u sed b y t h e l a te r H e l lene s . T he Mycenxan s w e r e a cqua in ted w i th M inoan c u l tu r e t o t h e e x ten t t h a t t h ey c ou ld a dap t t h e L inea r As y l lab ic s c r ip t o ft h e M inoan s t o t h e i r o wn l a nguage , a l though t h e t wo l a nguage s s e em n o t t o h ave b een c l o se ly r e la ted . I n g ene ra l t h e Mycenxan s g i ve t h e i mp re s s ion o f h av ing b een g r ea t a dm i re r s o f M inoan c u l tu r e a nd w i l l ing t o b e i n f luenced b y i t . We p ropo se t h a t t h e s ou rce o ft h e i r c a lenda r w a s t h a t o ft h e M inoan s , a nd t h a tt h i s c a lenda rc on t inued t ob e u sed i nt h e l a te r H e l len ic c ommun i t ie s , m any o fw h ich g r ew u p i no r n ea r t h e r u in s o ft h e f o rme r Mycen z ean c en t e r s . T h i s i sb y n o m ean s a n u n r ea l i s t ic a s sump t ion a so u r o wn c a lenda r i s d e r ived f r om t h e J u l ian c a lenda r , w h ich g oe s b a ck b ef o re o u ro wn e r a . T he r e su l t s f r om o u r a r chwoa s t ronom ica l i n v e s t iga t ion s o f t h e a r chwo log ica l r u in s o f t h e M inoan s ( a nd a l so o f t h e Mycen z ean s i n C r e te ) , s uppo r t t h e e v idence f r om t h e Mycen z ean d ocumen t s t h a tt h e i rc a lenda rw a s l u n i so la ra nd t h a t i tw a s d e r iv ed f r om t h e M inoan s , r a the r t h an h av ing b een d eve loped f r om t h e i r o wn o b se rva t ion s o r f r om a f o re ign i n f luence .

I X . T he M inoan I n f luence o n H e l len ic A s tronomy O u r a r chxoa s t ronom ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o f M inoan monu m en t s i n d ica t e a n a ccumu la t ion o f c on s ide rab le 5 6

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i te ra ry a nd A r ch z eoa s t ronom ica lE v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r B LOMBERG , M . & H ENR IKSSON , G . : « The C a lenda r ic R e la t i o n sh ip b e tween t h e M inoan P eak S anc tua ry o n J uk ta s a nd t h e P a lace a t K nös so s» , P roceed ing s o f t h e C onf er ence « As t ronomy o fA nc ien t C iv i l iza t ion s» o ft h e E uropean S oc ie ty f or A s t ronomy i nC u l ture ( SEAC ) a nd Na t iona lA s t ronom ica l Mee t ing ( JENA M ) Moscow , May 2 3 -27 , 2 000 ( Po tyomk ina , T .M . &O b r idko , V .N . , e ds . ) , Moscow ( Nauka ) 2 002 , 8 1-92 .

a s t ronom ica l k now ledge . We p roposed t ha tt h is k now ledge —a s i n t he c a se o f t he c a lenda r — wa s a cqu i red b y t he Mycenwans

a nd

w a s

c onveyed

t h rough

t hem

t o

t he

H e l lenes . T he i n t r ins ic r easonab leness o ft h is i ss uppor ted b yt he c oncre te e v idence o ft he Mycenwan o r ien ta t ions t oa ma jo r c e les t ia l e ven t o ft h ree i mpor tan t b u i ld ing s i nC re te , a s w e l l a s o f p a ssages i n e a r ly H e l len ic l i te ra tu re wh ich

B LOMBERG , P . : « An A s t ronom ica l I n te rp re ta t ion o f F ind s f r om M inoan C re te» ,A s t ronomy a nd C u l tura lD iver s i ty : P ro c eed ing so ft h eI n terna t iona lC onf erence O xf ord V Ia nd S EAC 9 9 , L a L aguna , 2 1-29 J une 1 999 , ( E s teban , C . & B e lmon te , J .A . , e d s . ) , T ene r if e ( O rgan ismo A u tönomo d e Museos d e l C ab i ldo )2 000 , 3 11-18 .

a t tes t t o e a r ly c e le s t ia l o bserva t ions , i . e . : t he s t udy o ft he h eavens o n t he p a r t o ft he e pho r s a tS pa r ta [ BL OMBERG & HE NR IKSSON 1 996 : 3 9 ] . O the r

s i gns

f o r

t he

t r an sm iss ion

o f

a s t ronom ica l

k now ledge l i e i n t he n av iga t iona l h andbook s wh ich h ave s u rv ived . T he mos t c omp le te o f t hese wa s w r i t ten b y

B LOMBERG , P . : « An A t temp t t o r e cons t ruc t t he M inoan S ta r Map» , P roceed ing s o ft h e C onf erence « As tronomy o fA nc ien t C iv i l iza t ion s» o ft h e E uropean S oc ie ty f or A s tronomy i nC u l t ure ( SEAC ) a nd N a t iona l A s t ronom ica l Mee t ing ( JENA M ) Mo scow , May 2 3 -27 , 2 000 ( Po tyomk ina , T .M . & Ob r idko , V .N . e d s . ) , Moscow ( Nauka ) 2 002 , 9 3 -99 .

A ra tos i nt he r ic en tu ry BCE . T h is work h as i t s p lace i na l i t e ra ry t r ad i t ion t ha t wa s s eve ra l c en tu r ies o ld b y A ra tos ' t ime , a nd wh ich c on t inued l ong i n to t he R oman p er iod . T he d ependence o ft h is work o n B ronze Age o b serva t ions h a s b een s hown b y an umbe r o f mode r n a u tho r s u s ing s evera l

d if f eren t

BL OMBERG ,

1 999 ;

me thods

o f p roof

HE NR IKSSON

&

[ HE NR IKSSON

&

BOSANQUET , R .G . : « Excava t ion s a t P a la ika s t ro» , A nnua l o f t h eB r i t i sh S choo la tA thens , 8 ,1 901-02 , 2 86 -316 .

BL OMBERG , 2 000 ;

BL OMBERG , P. ,p resen t v o lume ] . G iv ing s t rong s uppor t t o

BULLE , H . : O rchomenos I .D ie a l tern A ns ied e lung ssch ich ten ( Baye r ischen Akadem ie d e r W issen schaf t en , P h i los .—Ph i lo l . k l . A bhand lungen , 2 4 2)München 1 906 -09 .

t h is h ypo thes is a r e t he a rcheo log ica l f i nd s o f p a r t s o f f i gu r ines f r om t he p eak s anc tua r ies o n P e t sopha s a nd T raos ta los . T hese a re a lmos t e xc lu s ive ly o ft he t ype u sed

CATL ING , H . W . : « A rchwo logy i nG reece , 1 973 -74» , A rch c e ° log ica lR epor t s , 1 973 -74 , 3 4 . C HADW ICK , J . : T he D ec iphermen t o fL inear B , C amb r idge ( Camb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re ss ) 1 960 .

b y A ra tos t o d escr ibe t he c on s te l la t ions a s t hey r i se a nd s e t d u r ing t he n igh t [ BL OMBERG , 2 002 ; BL OMBERG , 2 000 ] . Ou r s t udy i nd ica tes t ha tt he p os i t ions g iven b yA ra tos w ere t hose o f t he r e levan t s t a r s a t c .2 000 BCE a nd t ha t t he re

COHEN , M . : T he C u l t ic C a l endar s o ft h e A nc ien t N ear E a s t , B e the sda ( CDL P re s s ) 1 993 .

wa s c on t inu ing a d jus tmen t d ue t o t he s h if t i n s t e l la r p os i t ions a s ar e su l t o f t he p recess ion o f t he c e les t ia l

D £MAKOPOULOU , K . : « The B u r ia l R i tua l i nt he T ho lo s T omb a tK ok la , A rgo l is» , C e l ebra t ions o fD ea th a nd D iv in i ty i nt h e B ronze Ag e A rgo l id : P roceed ing s o f t h e 6 1 1 I n terna t iona l

s phe re . A s i n t he c a se o f t he l un iso la r c a lenda r , t he Mycenwans a nd t he l a ter H e l lenes h ad g ood n eed o f n av iga t iona l s k i l ls a nd wou ld mos t p robab ly h ave u sed t he k now ledge a cqu i red b yt he M inoans .

S ympo s ium a t t h e S wed i sh I ns t i tu te a t A then s , 1-13 J une 1 988 , ( Hägg , R . & No rdqu is t , G .C . e ds ) , Gö tebo rg ( As t röm ) 1 990 , 13 -23 . D ICKS , D .R . : E ar ly G reek A s tronomy t o A r i s to t le , L ondon ( Thame sa nd H ud son ) 1 970 .

X . B ib l iography B EMPORAD , A . : « Zu r T heo r ie d e r E x t ink t ion d e s L ich te s i n d e rE rda tmosphä re» , M i t te i lung en G ro ssh . S t ernwar te z u H e i d e lberg , 4 ,1 904 , 7 8 .

DR IESSEN , J . & MACDONALD , C .F . : T he T roub led I s land , L i e ge ( Un ive r s i ty o fL iege ) 1 997 . DR IESSEN , J .& S AKELLARAKES , J . : « The V a thype t ro—Com p l ex : S ome O b se rva t ions o n i t s A rch i tec tu ra l H is to ry a nd F unc t ion» , T he F unc t ion o ft h e «M inoan V i l la» : P roceed ing s o ft h e 81 l i n terna t iona lS ympo s ium a tt h e S wed i sh I ns t i tu te a t A then s , 6 -8 J une 1 992 ( Hägg , R . , e d . ) , S tockho lm 1 997 , 6 37 7 .

B LEGEN , C .W . : ( 1973 ) . T he P a lace o fN es tor a tP y los i n W e s t ern Mes sJn ia , I I , P r ince ton N J ( P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) 1 973 . B LEGEN , C .W . : P ro symna : T he H e l lad ic S e t t l emen tp reced ing t h eA rg ive H erxum , C amb r idge ( Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) 1 937 .

E VANS , A . : « The P reh is to r ic T ombs o fK nösso s» , A rchwo lo g ia , 5 9 2,1 905 , 3 91-562 .

B LOMBERG , M . & H ENR IKSSON , G . : « A rchwoa s t ronom ica l L igh t o n t h e P r ie s t ly R o le o ft h e K ing i nC re te» , R e l ig ion a nd P ower i n t h e A nc ien t G r eek W or ld : P roceed ing s o f t h e U pp sa la S ympo s ium 1 993 , ( He l ls t röm , P .& A l ro th B . , e d s . ) , U pp sa la ( BOR AS U ppsa la S tud ie s i n A nc ien t Med i te r ranean a nd N ea rE a s te rn C iv i l iza t ions ,2 4 ) 1 996 , 2 7 -39 .

E VANS , A . : « The « Tomb o ft h e D oub le Axe s» a nd A ssoc ia ted G roup , a nd t h e P i l la rR ooms a nd R i tua l V es se ls o ft he " L i t t le P a lace" a tK nös so s» ,A rchwo log ia , 6 5 , 1 914 , 1 94 . F ORSDYKE , E . J . : « The Mav ro S pü l io c eme te ry a tK nössos» , A nnua lo ft h e B r i t i sh S choo la tA then s ,2 8 , 1 926 -27 , 2 43 -96 .

B LOMBERG , M . & H ENR IKSSON , G . : « D if f e rence s i nM inoan a nd Mycenwan O r ien ta t ions i nC re te» ,A s tronomy , C osmo logy a nd L and scape : P roceed ing s o ft h eS EAC 9 8 Mee t ing , Dub l in , I r e land , S ep tember 1 998 ( Rugg les , C . , P rende rga s t , F .&T om R ay ,T . , e ds . ) ,B ogno rR eg is ( Oka r ina B ook s )2 001 , 7 2 -91 .

F RÖD IN , 0 . & P ERSSON , A .W . : A s inJ : R esu l t s o ft h e S wed i sh E xcava t ions 1 922 -1930 , S tockho lm ( Gene ra ls tabens L i tog ra f i ska An s ta l t ) 1 938 . G EM INOS : I n troduc t ion a ux P hjnom i .nes ( Au jac , G . , e d . ) , P a r i s( Soc ie te d 'üd i t ion L es B e l les L e t t res ) 1 975 .

B LOMBERG , M . &H ENR IKSSON , G . : « A rchwoa s t ronomy : N ew T rend s i nt h eF i e ld ,w i th Me thods a nd R e su l t s f r om S tud ie s i n

GUARDUCC I , M . : « No te s u l C a lenda r io C re te se» , E p ig raph ica , 7 ,1 945 , 7 2 -87 .

M inoan C re te» , J ourna l o f R ad ioana ly t ica l a nd N uc lear C hem i s try , 2 47 , 2 001 , 6 09 -19 .

5 7

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M P APATHANASS IOU , M . , HOSK IN , M . & P APADOPOULOU , H . : « O r ien ta t ion s o f T ombs i n t h e L a te—M inoan C eme te ry a t A rmeno i , C re te» , A rch c eoa s t ronomy 1 7 ( s upp l . t o JHA , 2 3 ) ,

H EARTLEY W .A . & S KEAT , T .C . : « The T ho lo s T omb s o f Ma rma r iane» , A nnua l o f t h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t A then s , 3 1 , 1 930 -31 , 1 55 .

1 992 , S 43 -55 .

H ENR IKSSON , G . &B LOMBERG , M . : « New A rgumen t s f o rt h e M inoan O r ig in o f t h e S t e l la r P os i t ion s i n A ra tos ' P ha i n omena» , A s t ronomy a nd C u l tura l D iver s i ty : P roceed ing s o f t h e I n terna t iona l C onf erence «Oxf ord V I a nd S EAC 9 9» , L a L aguna , 2 1 -29 J une 1 999 ( E s teban , C . & B e lmon te , J .A . , e ds . ) , T ene r if e ( O rgan ismo Au tönomo d e Mu seos d e l C ab i l d o )2 000 , 3 03 -10 .

P APAZOGLOU—MAN IOUDA IM L . : « A Mycenwan Wa r r io r 's T omb a tK rönö n ea r P a t ra s» , A nnua l o ft h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t A then s , 8 9 , 1 994 , 1 7 1-200 . P ELON , 0 . : « Le P a la is P os t—Pa la t ia l ä Ma l ia» , L a C rte My c jn ienne : A c tes d e l a T ab le R ond e I n terna t iona l e O rgan i sje p ar l ' Eco l e F rança i se d 'A t Nnes , ( D r ies sen J .& F amoux , A . e ds . ) , B u l l e t in d e C orrespondance H e l lM ique . S upp l . , 3 0 , P a r is ( tco le F rança ise d 'A thene s ) 1 997 , 3 41-55 .

H ENR IKSSON , G . & B LOMBERG , M . : « Some P rob lems i nM i n oan A rcha zoa s t ronomy» ( Pape r d e l ive red a tt h e C onf e rence C u l tura l C on tex tf rom t h e A rch c eoas t ronom ica l Da ta a nd t h e E choes o fC osm ic C a ta s troph ic E ven t s , S EAC 2 002 , T a r tu , 2 7 -30 Augu s t2 002 ) , f o r thcom ing .

P ERSSON , A .W . : T he R oya l T ombs a t D end ra n ear M id ea , L und ( Kung l iga H uman is t iska V e tenskapssamf unde t ) 1 931 . P ERSSON , A .W . : N ew T ombs a t D end ra n ear M id ea , L und ( Kung l iga H uman is t iska V e ten skap ssamf unde t ) 1 942 .

HOOD ,M S .F . &D EJ ONG , P . : « La te M inoan Wa r r io r—G rave s f r om H ag io s I öannö s a nd t h e N ew H osp i ta l S i te a tK nö s so s» , A nnua lo ft h e B r i t i sh S choo la tA thens , 4 7 , 1 952 , 2 43 -77 .

P IN I , I . : B e i t räg e z ur m ino i schen G räberkund e , W ie sbaden ( F ranz S t e ine rV e r lag ) 1 968 .

HOOD , M .S .F . , HuxLEY , G . & S ANDAR S , N . : « A M inoan C e m e te ry o n U ppe r G ypsade s» , A nnua l o ft h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t A thens , 5 3 -54 , 1 958 -59 , 1 94 -262 .

P OPHAM , M . : « A L a te M inoan T omb o n L owe r G yp sade s» , A nnua lo ft h eB r i t i sh S choo la tA thens , 7 5 , 1 980 , 1 69 -173 . P OPHAM , M . : « Se l lopou lo T omb s 3a nd 4 : Two L a te M inoan G rave sn ea rK nö sso s» ,A nnua lo ft h eB r i t i sh S choo la tA then s , 6 9 , 1 974 , 1 95 -225 .

HOPE S IMPSON , R . : « Neme s is : A Mycenwan S e t t lemen t n ea r t h e Men id i T ho lo s T omb» , A nnua l o ft h e B r i t i sh S choo l a t A thens , 5 3 -54 , 1 958 -59 , 2 92 -94 .

P ROTONOTAR IOU—DE ILAKt " , E . : « The T umu l i o f Mycenx a nd D end ra» , C e l ebra t ion s o fD ea th a nd D iv in i ty i n t h e B ronze A ge A rgo l id : P roceed ing s o ft h e 61"I n terna t iona lS ympos ium a tt h eS wed i sh I n s t i tu te a tA then s , 1-13 J une 1 988 ( Hägg , R . & No rdqu is t , G . C . e d s . ) , G ö tebo rg ( Äs t röm ) 1 990 , 8 5 -106 .

HOSK IN , M . : T ombs , T emp l es a nd t h e ir O r ien ta t ion s , B ogno r R eg is ( Oca r ina B ook s )2 001 . HUTCH INSON , R .W . : « A T ho los T omb o ft h e K epha la» , A n n ua lo ft h eB r i t i sh S choo la tA thens , 5 1 , 1 956 , 7 4 -86 . I AKöv ip£s , S . : E xcava t ions o ft h e N ecropo l i s a tP era t i , L o s A nge les ( Un ive r s i ty o f C a l if o rn ia /I n s t i tu te o fA rcha eo logy , O cca s iona lP aper s , 8 ) 1 980 .

S AMUEL , A . : G reek a nd R oman C hrono logy ( Handbuch d er A l ter tumsw i ssen schaf t , 17) ,München ( C .H . B eck 'sche ) 1 972 . S CHM IDT ,J .F . : « Übe rd i e D ämme r ing» ,A s t ronom ische Nach r i ch ten , 6 3 , 1 865 , a r t ic le n o . 1 495 .

I MMERWAHR , S .A . : T he A then ian Agora : R esu l t s o fE xcava t i ons C onduc ted b y t h e Amer ican S choo l o fC la s s ica lS tud ies a tA then s : T he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Ag es , 1 3 , P r ince ton N J ( Ame r ican S choo l o fC la ss ica l S tud ie s a tA thens ) 1 971 .

S HAW , J .W . : « The O r ien ta t ion o f t h e M inoan P a lace s» , A n t ich i tä C re tes i , 1 ,1 977 , 4 7 -59 . S HAW , J .W . : « Ev idence f o r t h e M inoan T r ipa r t i te S h r ine» , A JA , 8 2 , 1 978 , 4 29 -48 .

KONTORLE£—PAPADOPOULOU , L . : « Some A spec t s c once rn ing L oca l P ecu l ia r i t ie s o f t h e Mycenxan C hambe r T ombs» , T hana to s : L es c ou tumes f unjra ires e nE g ee äl ' äg ed uB ronze =A eg c eum , I :A c tes d u C o l loque d e L iege 2 1-23 A vr i l 1 986 ( Laff ineu r , R . , e d . ) , . L iege ( Un ive r s i ty o f L iege ) 1 987 , 1 45 6 0 .

S I EDENTOPF , H . : « Neue Me ssungen d e r v i sue l len K on t ra s t s chwe l le» ,A s t ronom i sche Nachr ich ten , 2 71 , 1 94 1 , 1 93 -203 . T RÜMPY ,C . : U n t er suchung en z ud en a l tgr iech i schen Mona t s n amen u nd Mona t sf o lgen , H e ide lbe rg (W in te r /( B ib l io thek d e r k l a ss ischen A l te r tumsw is senschaf ten , N eue F o lge 1 ,R e i h e9 8 ) ) 1 997 .

L A ROSA , V . : « Hag ia T r iada» , A nc ien t C re te . A Hund red Y e a r s o fI t a l ian A rch c eo logy ( 1884 -1984 ) , R ome ( De L uca E d i t o re ) 1 985 , 1 28 -29 .

V ENTR IS , M . & C HADW ICK J . : Documen t s i n Mycen c ean G reek , C amb r idge ( Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss )2 1973

L JUNGHALL , A . : « The I n ten s i ty o f Tw i l igh t a nd i t s C onne c t ion w i th t h eD en s i ty o ft h e A tmosphe re» , Medd e land en f rän L und sA s t ronom i ska O bserva tor ium , S e r . 2 ,1 31 2 5 ,1 949 .

WACE , A .J .B . : « Chambe r T omb s a t Mycenx» , A rchc eo log ia , 8 2 , 1 932 .

MARAVEL IA , A .—A . : « The O r ien ta t ions o f t h e N ine T ho lo s T omb s a t Mycenx» , A rch c eoa s tronomy 2 7 ( s upp l . t o JHA , 3 3 ) , 2 002 , S 63 -66 . NEUGEBAUER , 0 . , T he E xac t S c iences i n A n t iqu i ty , N ew Yo rk ( Dove r ) 1 957 .

2n d

WELLS , B . : « Dea th a t D end ra : O n Mo r tua ry P ra c t ice s i n a Mycenwan C ommun i ty» , C e l ebra t ion s o fD ea th a nd D iv in i ty i nt h e B ronze A g e A rgo l id : P roceed ing s o ft h e 6r nl i n t erna t io n a lS ympos ium a tt h e S wed i sh I n s t i tu te a tA then s , 1-13 J une 1 988 ( Hägg , R . & No rdqu is t , G .C . e ds . ) , G ö tebo rg ( Äs t röm )

e d . ,

1 990 , 1 25 -39 .

P ALA IMA , T .G . : « The L a s t D ay s o f t h e P y los P o l i ty» , P o l i t e ia : S oc ie ty a nd S ta te i nt h eA eg ean B ronze A g e =A eg c eum 1 2 : P roceed ing s o ft h e . 51 h I n terna t iona lA egean C onf erence , U n iver s i ty o f H e id e lberg , A rchäo log i sches I n s t i tu t 1 0 -13 A pr i l 1 994 ( Laff ineu r , R . & N ieme ie r , W .—D . , e d s . ) , L iege ( Un ive r s i ty o fL iege ) 1 995 , 6 23 -33 .

WH ITTAKER , H . : Mycen c ean C u l t B u i ld ing s , B e rgen ( Mo n og raphs f r om t h e Norweg ian I n s t i tu te a tA thens , 1 )1 997 . W ISEMAN , D .J . : T he A la lakh T ab l e t s , A nka ra ( B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o f A rchxo logy /( Br i t ish I n s t i tu te o f A rchwo logy a tA nka ra O cca s iona l P ub l ica t ions S e r . ,2 ) ) 1 953 .

P APADOPOULOS , A .J . : E xcava t ions a t A ig ion — 1 970 , G ö tebo rg ( Ä s t röm /( S tud ies i n Med i terranean A rch c eo logy , 4 6 ) 1 976 .

5 8

Ma ry B lomb e rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i t e ra ry a nd A r ch oa s t ronom ica lE v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r TA BLE

1 .

G rave O r ien ta t ion si nC re te .

1

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1

8 2

5 7

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 9 6

8 3

13

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 2

12

2

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2

9 8

5 8

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 9 8

8 2

14

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 3

1 04

3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3

5 6

5 9

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 60

7 2

15

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 4

9 8

4

A rmeno i ,Z one A ,4

1 03

6 0

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 61

7 2

16

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 5

1 22

5

A rmeno i ,Z one A ,2 5

6 5

6 1

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 62

7 8

17

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 6

8 8

6

A rmeno i , Z one A ,2 6

7 6

6 2

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 63

7 5

18

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 7

9 7

7

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 7

8 1

6 3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 67

9 2

19

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 8

9 9

8

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 8

9 3

6 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 68

7 0

1 20

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 9

9 8

9

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 9

8 3

6 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 71

8 1

1 21

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 2 0

9 6

1 0

A rmeno i , Z one A , 3 0

7 6

6 6

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 72

7 2

1 22

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 2 1

9 6

1

A rmeno i , Z one A , 3 1

7 8

6 7

A rmeno i , Z one A , v 173

7 6

1 23

A rmeno i , Z one B , 2 2

9 6

1 2

A rmeno i , Z one A , 3 2

7 4

6 8

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 74

7 7

1 24

A rmeno i , Z one B , 2 4

9 2

1 3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3 3

7 2

6 9

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 75

6 0

1 25

A rmeno i , Z one B , 4 9

1 00

1 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3 4

9 8

7 0

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 76

7 8

1 26

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5 1

1 05

1 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3 5

9 4

7 1

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 77

6 8

1 27

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5 2

1 02

1 6

A rmeno i , Z one A , 3 6

7 4

7 2

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 79

6 9

1 28

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5 3

10

1 7

A rmeno i , Z one A , 3 7

6 8

7 3

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 80

7 0

1 29

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5

1 22

1 8

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3 8

5 4

7 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 81

7 0

1 30

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5 7

1 06

1 9

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 3 9

5 2

7 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 82

6 8

1 31

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 6 3

13

2 0

A rmeno i ,Z one A ,4 0

7 8

7 6

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 83

8 3

1 32

A rmeno i , Z one B , 6 4

1 22

2 1

A rmeno i , Z one A ,4 1

8 4

7 7

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 85

7 8

1 33

A rmeno i , Z one B , 8 1

9 2

2 2

A rmeno i , Z one A ,4 2

6 2

7 8

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 86

9 5

1 34

A rmeno i , Z one B , 8 2

9 5

2 3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 4 3

5 6

7 9

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 87

9 3

1 35

A rmeno i , Z one B , 8 3

9 2

2 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 4 4

6 4

8 0

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 89

1 09

1 36

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 3 1

9 9

2 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A ,4 5

6 4

8 1

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 90

5 8

1 37

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 32

18

2 6

A rmeno i , Z one A ,4 6

6 4

8 2

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 1 91

5 8

1 38

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 39

9 8

2 7

A rmeno i , Z one A ,4 7

7 2

8 3

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 92

8 4

1 39

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 40

9 2

2 8

A rmeno i , Z one A ,4 8

7 5

8 4

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 96

8 4

1 40

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 4 1

1 08

2 9

A rmeno i , Z one A , 6 5

8 1

8 5

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 98

6 8

1 41

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 42

1 02

3 0

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 6 6

6 8

8 6

A rmeno i , Z one A , 1 99

6 6

1 42

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 43

14

3 1

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 6 7

8 8

8 7

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 00

1 06

1 43

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 57

1 22

3 2

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 6 8

9 0

8 8

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 01

1 02

1 44

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 58

16

3 3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 6 9

9 0

8 9

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 02

9 2

1 45

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 59

12

3 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 0

9 2

9 0

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 03

9 3

1 46

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 64

12

3 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 1

8 2

9 1

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 04

8 5

1 47

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 65

1 02

3 6

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 2

8 6

9 2

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 05

8 8

1 48

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 69

9 6

3 7

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 3

1 00

9 3

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 06

6 5

1 49

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 70

8 9

3 8

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 4

9 2

9 4

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 07

8 9

1 50

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 93

1 06

N 2

An

N2

S i te a nd G rave D e s igna t ion

A ( ° )

N 2

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion

A ( ° )

3 9

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 5

1 0 1

9 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 2 08

8 2

1 51

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 94

19

4 0

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 7 6

7 2

9 6

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 09

8 4

1 52

A rmeno i , Z one B , 1 97

17

4 1

A rmeno i , Z one A , 7 7

7 2

9 7

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 10

8 9

1 53

A rmeno i , Z one B , ?

1 02

4 2

A rmeno i , Z one A , 7 8

7 6

9 8

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 11

12

1 54

A rmeno i , Z one B , ?

1 24

4 3

A rmeno i , Z one A , 7 9

7 4

9 9

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 12

1 20

1 55

A rmeno i , Z one B , ?

1 07

4 4 4 5

A rmeno i , Z one A , 8 0

5 8

1 00

A rmeno i , Z one A , 2 13

1 28

1 56

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 2 3

1 08

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 8 4

8 9

1 01

A rmeno i , Z one A , L I I I

8 6

1 57

A rmeno i , Z one C , 5 0

9 8

4 6

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 8 5

9 6

1 02

A rmeno i ,Z one A , L IV

9 2

1 58

A rmeno i , Z one B , 5 4

1 07

4 7

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 8 6

12

1 03

A rmeno i ,Z one A , ?

9 5

1 59

A rmeno i , Z one C , 5 6

18

4 8

A rmeno i , Z one A , 8 7

8 8

1 04

A rmeno i , Z one A , ?

9 4

1 60

A rmeno i , Z one C , 5 8

1 20

4 9

A rmeno i , Z one A , 8 8

1 00

1 05

A rmeno i , Z one A , ?

8 1

1 61

A rmeno i , Z one C , 5 9

1 28

5 0

A rmeno i , Z one A , 8 9

9 2

1 06

A rmeno i ,Z one A , ?

9 2

1 62

A rmeno i , Z one C , 6 0

1 01

5 1

A rmeno i , Z one A , 9 0

8 3

1 07

A rmeno i , Z one B , 6

1 01

1 63

A rmeno i , Z one C , 6 1

12

5 2

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 9 1

9 4

1 08

A rmeno i , Z one B , 7

9 9

1 64

A rmeno i , Z one C , 6 2

18

5 3

A rmeno i , Z one A , 9 2

1 26

1 09

A rmeno i , Z one B , 8

1 33

1 65

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 00

18

5 4

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 9 3

1 23

10

A rmeno i , Z one B , 9

19

1 66

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 0 1

1 24

5 5

A rmeno i ,Z one A , 9 4

10

11

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1 0

15

1 67

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 02

1 08

5 6

A rmeno i , Z one A , 9 5

7 5

12

A rmeno i ,Z one B , 1

1 09

1 68

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 03

12

5 9

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP ER AS P ER AE TP ER LU DU M TA BLE 1 .G rave O r ien ta t ion s i nC r e te ( c on t inued ) .

N2

1 69

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 04

A ( ° )

N 2

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion

A ( ° )

13

2 21

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion A rmeno i ,Z one C ,2 20

18

2 73

Mav ro S pe l io 7

2 42

9 3

2 22

A rmeno i , Z one C , L I

1 06

2 74

Mav ro S p no 9

10

2 23

A rmeno i , Z one C ,L I I

10

2 75

2 08 2 48 2 32

A (° )

N 2

1 7 1

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 05 A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 06

1 72

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 07

8 2

2 24

A rmeno i , Z one C , ?

? 94

2 76

Mav ro S p no 1 2 Mav ro S pel° 1 3

1 73 1 74

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 08

2 25

2 77

Mav ro S pe l io 1 4

2 71

2 26

Z af e rP apou ra 8 Z af e rP apou ra 9

10

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 09

9 6 17

9 9

2 78

Mav ro S pü l io 1 5

2 36

1 75

A rmeno i , Z one C , 10

12

2 27

Z af e rP apou ra 1 0

7 2

2 79

MA VRO SP EL IO 1 6

2 31

1 76

16

2 28

Z af e rP apou ra 1

9 7

2 80

Mav ro S pZ l io 1 8

2 62

1 77

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 11 A rmeno i , Z one C , 12

12

2 29

Z af e rP apou ra 1 2

1 06

2 81

Mav ro S pM io 1 9

2 48

1 78

A rmeno i , Z one C , 13

15

2 30

Z af e rP apou ra 1 3

9 6

2 82

Mav ro S pü l io 2 1

2 24

1 79

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 14

18

2 31

Z af e rP apou ra 1 4

1 20

2 83

Mav ro S pü l io 2 2

2 43

1 80

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 15

14

2 32

Z af e rP apou ra 1 5

1 02

2 84

G yp sades 1

9 1

1 81

A rmeno i , Z one C , 16

1 09

2 33

Z af e rP apou ra 1 6

9 6

2 85

Gyp sades 3

6 8

1 82

A rmeno i , Z one C , 17

13

2 34

Z af e rP apou ra 1 7

9 5

2 86

G yp sades 4

1 83

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 18

1 26

2 35

Z af e rP apou ra 1 8

9 5

2 87

G ypsades 5

8 7 9 2

1 84

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 19

1 01

2 36

Z af e rP apou ra 1 9

9 6

2 88

GY PSADES 6

4 9

1 85

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 20

1 20

2 37

Z af e rP apou ra 2 0

9 5

2 89

G ypsades 7

2 9

1 86

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 21

14

2 38

Z af e rP apou ra 2 1

9 6

2 90

G yp sades 8

1 87

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 22

1 04

2 39

Z af e rP apou ra 2 2

9 5

2 91

G ypsade s9

3 59 9 1

1 88

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 23

12

2 40

Z af e rP apou ra 2 9

9 4

2 92

G ypsades 1 0

5 3

1 89

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 24

13

2 41

Z af e rP apou ra 3 2

9 8

2 93

G ypsades 1 5

2 5

1 90

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 25

1 22

2 42

Z af e rP apou ra 3 5

13

2 94

L owe rG yp sade s

2 57

1 9 1

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 26

9 9

2 43

Z af e rP apou ra 3 9

9 3

2 95

1 25

1 92

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 27

14

2 44

Z af e rP apou ra 4 0

9 5

2 96

K nos sos , H osp i ta l S i te 1 K no sso s , H osp i ta l S i te 3

1 93

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 28

1 01

2 45

Z af e rP apou ra 4 9

1 00

2 97

K no s so s , H o sp i ta l S i te 5

8 9

1 94

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 29

1 22

2 46

Z af e rP apou ra 5 0

9 7

2 98

Kno s so s , S e l lopou lo 3

2 43

1 95

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 30

1 00

2 47

Z af e rP apou ra 5 2

1 00

2 99

K no s so s , S e l lopou lo 4

2 43

1 96

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 33

14

2 48

Z af e rP apou ra 5 3

9 9

3 00

K no s so s , H ag . I oanns

2 49

1 97

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 34

1 00

2 49

Z af e rP apou ra 5 4

9 9

3 01

2 39

1 98

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 35

9 2

2 50

Z af e rP apou ra 5 6

9 6

3 02

K no sso s , K epha la K no s so s , W o fT emp le T omb

1 99

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 36

9 2

2 51

Z af e rP apou ra 6 9

15

3 03

K no s sos , I s opa ta ?

6 7

2 00

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 37

1 24

2 52

Z af e rP apou ra 8 0

9 5

3 04

K nos sos , I s opa ta 1

2 01

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 38

1 22

2 53

Z af e rP apou ra 8 1

9 6

3 05

K no s so s , I s opa ta 1 A

1 0 1 01

2 02

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 44

1 30

2 54

Z af e rP apou ra 8 2

9 2

3 06

KNÖSSOS ,

1 70

2 03

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 45

2 04

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 46

1 28 1 02

2 55 2 56

Z af e rP apou ra 8 4

1 05

I S OPATA 2

14

3 31

3 57

3 07

K no s sos , I s opa ta 3

6 1

Z af e rP apou ra 8 5

9 5

3 08

K no s sos , I s opa ta 4

3 09

K no s sos , I s opa ta 5

1 04 9 1

2 05

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 47

18

2 57

Z af e rP apou ra 8 6

9 4

2 06

A rmeno i , Z one C , 1 48

9 8

2 58

Z af e rP apou ra 8 9

9 5

3 10

K no s so s , I s opa ta 6

Z af e rP apou ra 9 0

9 4

3 11

P ha i s to s4

9 2

3 12

P ha is to s 5

1 06

2 07

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 49

2 08

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 50

1 03

2 60

Z af e rP apou ra 9 3

9 8

2 09

1 02

2 61

Z af e rP apou ra 9 4

9 7

3 13

P ha i s to s6

1 06

2 10

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 5 1 A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 52

2 62

Z af e rP apou ra 9 5

9 2

3 14

P ha i s tos 7

9 0

2 11

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 53

2 63

Z af e rP apou ra 9 6

3 15

P ha i s tos 8

9 6

2 12

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 54

3 16

P ha i s tos 9

9 5

2 13

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 55

9 2

2 14

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 1 56

2 15 2 16 2 17

9 2

9 7 9 7 8 3 15 13

2 59

2 64

Z af e rP apou ra 9 7

9 8 18

2 65

Z af e rP apou ra 9 8

9 4

3 17

P ha i s tos 1 0

2 66

Z af e rP apou ra 9 9

9 6

3 18

P ha i s tos 1

9 2

1 39

3 19

P ha is tos 1 2

1 00

A rmeno i , Z one C , 2 14

1 06

2 67

Z af e rP apou ra 1 00

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 2 15

18

2 68

Kno s so s , T emp le T omb

A rmeno i ,Z one C ,2 16

1 26

8 4

3 20

P ha is tos 1 3

1 07

2 69

Mav ro S pel° 1

2 41

3 21

P ha i s tos ?

9 6

1 29

2 70

Mav ro S pe l io 3

2 39

3 22

Ma l l ia , C h ry so lakkos

8 2

Mav ro S pe l io 4

2 44

3 22

P a la ika s t ro

1 90

Mav ro S pl io 6

2 38

3 23

A rchanes T ho lo sA

7 8

2 18 2 19

A rmeno i ,Z one C ,2 17 A rmeno i ,Z one C , 2 18

1 32

2 71

2 20

A rmeno i ,Z one C , 2 19

1 35

2 72

6 0

Ma ry B l ombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i t e ra ry a nd A r chxoa s t ronom ica lE v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r TA BLE 2 .G rave O r ien ta t ion s i n Ma in land H e l la s .

N2

1

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion Mycen z eC ly ta imne s t ra G rave

A ( ° )

N2

S i te a nd G rave D e s igna t ion

A ( ° )

N2

1 68

5 6

D end ra 1 4

2 31

11

S i te a nd G rave D e s igna t ion P ro symna XXXV

A ( ° ) 1 94

2

Mycen z eG rave c i rc le A

2 59

5 7

D end ra 1 5

2 62

12

P rosymna XXXV I

1 96

3

Mycenx C —T G rave

15

5 8

D end ra 1 6

2 56

13

P ro symna XXXV I I

1 03

4

Mycen z eA t reu s G rave

1 01

5 9

D end ra T ho lo s

2 56

14

P ro symna XXXV I I I

9 6

5

Mycen z e 1

2 85

6 0

P y los G rave I I

2 33

15

P rosymna XXX IX

8 6

6

Mycenx 2

1 95

6 1

P y lo s T ho los I V

2 27

16

P rosymna XL

6 5

7

Mycenx 3

2 00

6 2

P y los E -4

1 78

17

P rosymna XL I

2 66

8

Mycenx 4

2 59

6 3

P y los E -6

1 70

18

P ro symna XL I I

2 46

9

Mycen z e 5

2 76

6 4

P y los E -8

1 82

19

P ro symna XL I I I

1 26

1 0

Mycenx 6

3 38

6 5

1 78

1 20

P rosymna XL IV

2 37

1

Mycen z e 7

3 07

6 6

P y lo sE -9 P y lo sE 10

1 81

1 21

P ro symna XLV

2 62

1 2

Mycenw 8

7 7

6 7

P y lo s K1

1 93

1 22

P rosymna XLV I

2 76

1 3

Mycenx 9

1 74

6 8

P y lo s K-2

2 69

1 23

P ro symna XL V I I

2 20

1 4

Mycenx F ig T ree T omb

1 04

6 9

A s ine 1No r th—Ea s t

1 3

1 24

P ro symna XL V I I I

2 63

1 5

Mycenw ?

14

7 0

A s ine 1E a s t

5 4

1 25

P rosymna XL IX

2 66

1 6

Mycenx 1 02

1 02

7 1

A s ine 2

3 5

1 26

P ro symna L

2 04

1 7

Mycen z e 5 02

16

7 2

A s ine 3

4 7

P ro symna L I

1 96

1 8

Mycenx 5 04

9 7

7 3

A s ine 5

6 1

1 27 1 28

P ro symna L I I

1 88

1 9

Mycenx 5 05

9 0

7 4

A s ine 6

4 0

1 29

P ro symna WI

2 28

2 0

Mycenx 5 13 , K a lkan i

3 41

7 5

A s ine 7

5 3

1 30

P ro symna WI I

2 67

2 1

Mycen z e 5 14 , K a lkan i

1 6

7 6

A s ine I : 1

9

1 31

K ok la I

2 2

Mycenx 5 15 , K a lkan i

5

7 7

P ro symna I

2 40

1 32

Kok la V I I I

9 8

2 3

Mycena e 5 16 , K a lkan i

1

7 8

P rosymna I

1 24

1 33

Kok la I X

10

2 4

Mycen z e 5 17 , K a lkan i

3 58

7 9

P ro symna I I

1 29

1 34

K ok la V I I

1 37

2 5

Mycenx 5 18 , K a lkan i

1 0

8 0

P ro symna I V

1 36

1 35

K ok la V I

1 29

2 6

Mycen z e 5 19 , K a lkan i

7

8 1

P ro symna V

2 88

1 36

K ok la V

17

2 7

Mycena z 5 20 , K a lkan i

2 82

8 2

P ro symna V I

3 04

1 37

K ok la I V

1 03

2 8

Mycenw 5 21 , K a lkan i

2 48

8 3

P rosymna V I I

3 26

1 38

K ok la I

12

2 9

Mycenx 5 22 , K a lkan i

2 17

8 4

P ro symna V I I I

3 04

1 39

A ig ion A

1 2

3 0

Mycenw 5 23 , K a lkan i

1 99

8 5

P ro symna I X

2 84

1 40

A ig ion 1

2 2

3 1

Mycen z e 5 24 , K a lkan i

2 17

8 6

P ro symna X

2 13

1 41

A ig ion 2

3 1

3 2

Mycenx 5 25 , K a lkan i

1 7

8 7

P rosymna X I

2 47

1 42

A ig ion 3

2 2

3 3

Mycen z e 5 26 , K a lkan i

1 3

8 8

P ro symna X I I

2 60

1 43

A ig ion 4

1 3

3 4

Mycenx 5 27 , K a lkan i

2

8 9

P ro symna X I I I

1 28

1 44

A ig ion 5

3 2

3 5

Mycenx 5 28 , K a lkan i

7

9 0

P rosymna X IV

3 16

1 45

A ig ion 5 a

3 47

3 6

Mycen z e 5 29 , K a lkan i

1 4

9 1

P rosymna XV

3 15

1 46

A ig ion 5 b

2 3

3 7

Mycenw 5 30 , K a lkan i

2

9 2

P rosymna XV I

2 31

1 47

A ig ion 6

3 0

3 8

Mycen z e 5 31 , K a lkan i

2 24

9 3

P ro symna XV I I

2 53

1 48

A ig ion 7

1 9

3 9

Mycen z e 5 32 , K a lkan i

1 5

9 4

P ro symna XV I I I

2 79

1 49

A ig ion 8

2 2

4 0

Mycenx 5 33 , K a lkan i

4

9 5

P ro symna X IX

2 86

1 50

A then s , Ago ra 1

2 0

4 1

Mycen z e ? ,K a lkan i

2 17

9 6

P ro symna XX

2 82

1 51

A then s , Ago ra 3

2 5

4 2

Mycen z e ? ,K a lkan i

2 21

9 7

P ro symna XX I

2 85

1 52

A then s , A go ra 4

1 6

4 3

D end ra 1

2 58

9 8

P ro symna XX I I

2 70

1 53

18

4 4

D end ra 2

2 63

9 9

P ro symna XX I I I

2 29

1 54

A then s , A go ra 5 A then s , Ago ra 7

2 83

4 5

2 60

1 00

P ro symna XX IV

2 42

1 55

A thens , A go ra

8 8

4 6

D end ra 3 D end ra 4

2 59

1 01

P ro symna XXV

2 31

1 56

A then s , Ago ra

7

4 7

D end ra 5

2 40

1 02

P rosymna XXV I

2 25

1 57

A then s , Ago ra 1 3

1 4

4 8

D end ra 6

2 49

1 03

P rosymna XXV I I

2 39

1 58

A then s , Ago ra 1 4

1

4 9

D end ra 7

2 48

1 04

P ro symna XXV I I I

2 14

1 59

A then s , Ago ra 1 5

2 8

5 0

D end ra 8

2 51

1 05

P rosymna XX IX

1 55

1 60

A then s , Ago ra 1 8

5 9

5 1

D end ra 9

2 26

1 06

P ro symna XXX

2 40

1 61

A then s , Ago ra 2 0

1

5 2

D end ra 1 0

2 47

1 07

P rosymna XXX I

2 25

1 62

A then s , Ago ra 2 1

3 5

5 3 5 4

D end ra 1 D end ra 1 2 C u i ra s s T omb

2 38

1 08

P ro symna XXX I I

2 23

1 63

A thens , A go ra 2 3

3 04

2 55

1 09

P ro symna XXX I I I

2 19

1 64

A then s , Ago ra 2 4

1 0

5 5

D end ra 1 3

2 40

10

P ro symna XXX IV

2 22

1 65

A thens , Ago ra 4 0

2 46

6 1

13

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP ER AS P ER AE TP E R LU DUM TA BLE 2 . Gr ave Or i en ta t ion s i n Ma i n land He l la s ( con t inued ) .

N2

Si t ea nd Gr ave De s igna t ion

1 66

Pe ra t i 1

2 74

1 67

Pe r a t i2

2 52

A( ° )

Si t ea nd Gr ave De s igna t ion

A( ° )

2 19

Pe r a t i 9 6

1 55

2 72

Pe r a t i 1 51

1 91

2 20

Pe ra t i 9 7

1 58

2 73

Pe r a t i 1 52

2 05 2 03

N2

N2

Si t ea nd Gr ave De s igna t ion

A( ° )

1 68

Pe ra t i 3

2 50

2 21

Pe ra t i 9 9

8 2

2 74

Pe ra t i 1 53

1 69

Pe ra t i4

2 65

2 22

Pe r a t i 1 00

1 34

2 75

Pe r a t i 1 54

1 99

1 70

Pe ra t i 5

2 37

2 23

Pe r a t i 1 02

2 38

2 76

Pe r a t i 1 55

2 16

1 71

Pe r a t i 1 0

2 38

2 24

Pe r a t i 1 03

2 46

2 77

Pe r a t i 1 56

1 94

1 72

Pe ra t i 1 2

1 93

2 25

Pe r a t i 1 04

2 44

2 78

Pe r a t i 1 57

1 92

1 73

Pe r a t i 1 3

1 98

2 26

Pe r a t i 1 05

2 17

2 79

Pe r a t i E1

2 21

1 74

Pe r a t i 1 4

2 48

2 27

Pe r a t i 1 06

2 26

2 80

Pe r a t i E2

2 57

1 75

Pe r a t i 1 5

2 44

2 28

Pe r a t i 1 07

2 08

2 81

Pe r a t i E3

2 39

1 76

Pe r a t i 1 6

2 41

2 29

Pe r a t i 1 08

2 11

2 82

Pe r a t i E4

2 63

1 77

Pe r a t i 1 7

2 63

2 30

Pe r a t i 1 09

1 85

2 83

Pe r a t i E5

2 39

1 78

Pe r a t i 1 8

1 82

2 31

Pe r a t i 10

2 12

2 84

Pe r a t i E6

18

1 79

Pe r a t i 1 9

2 47

2 32

Pe r a t i 11

1 93

2 85

Pe r a t i E7

1 41

1 80

Pe ra t i2 0

2 50

2 33

Pe r a t i 12

1 91

2 86

Pe r a t i E8

2 13

1 81

Pe r a t i2 1

2 41

2 34

Pe r a t i 13

1 70

2 87

Pe r a t i E9

1 90

1 82

Pe ra t i2 3

2 27

2 35

Pe r a t i 14

2 15

2 88

Pe r a t i E1 0

1 64

1 83

Pe ra t i2 5

2 30

2 36

Pe r a t i 15

2 80

2 89

Pe r a t i E1

2 10

1 84

Pe ra t i2 6

1 98

2 37

Pe r a t i 16

2 77

2 90

Pe r a t i E1 2

2 09

1 85

Pe ra t i2 7

1 97

2 38

Pe r a t i 17

2 97

2 91

Pe r a t i E1 3

1 54

1 86

Pe ra t i 3 1

2 04

2 39

Pe r a t i 18

2 57

2 92

Pe r a t i E1 4

1 95

1 87

Pe ra t i 3 3

2 12

2 40

Pe r a t i 19

2 71

2 93

Pe r a t i E1 5

1 66

1 88

Pe ra t i 3 6

2 19

2 41

Pe r a t i 1 20

2 84

2 94

Pe r a t i E1 5

1 69

1 89

Pe ra t i 3 9

2 17

2 42

Pe r a t i 1 21

2 64

2 95

Pe r a t i E1 6

1 90

1 90

Pe ra t i4 2

2 80

2 43

Pe r a t i 1 22

2 34

2 96

Pe ra t i E1 8

1 91

1 91

Pe ra t i4 3

3 59

2 44

Pe ra t i 1 23

2 36

2 97

Pe r a t i E2 2

1 84

1 92

Pe ra t i4 6

2 26

2 45

Pe ra t i 1 24

2 36

2 98

Pe ra t i E2 3

1 90

1 93

Pe ra t i4 7

2 17

2 46

Pe r a t i 1 25

2 29

2 99

Pe r a t i E2 4

2 06

1 94

Pe ra t i4 8

2 76

2 47

Pe ra t i 1 26

2 17

3 00

Pe r a t i E2 5

1 98

1 95

Pe ra t i 4 9

2 73

2 48

Pe r a t i 1 27

2 26

3 01

Pe r a t i E2 6

2 09

1 96

Pe ra t i 5 0

2 74

2 49

Pe ra t i 1 28

2 21

3 02

Pe r a t i E2 7

1 63

1 97

Pe r a t i 5 1

2 27

2 50

Pe ra t i 1 29

2 46

3 03

Pe ra t i E2 8

1 81

1 98

Pe ra t i 5 2

2 00

2 51

Pe r a t i 1 30

2 39

3 04

Pe r a t i E2 9

1 47

1 99

Pe ra t i 5 3

1 95

2 52

Pe r a t i 1 31 a

2 26

3 05

Pe ra t i E3 0

1 74

2 00

Pe ra t i 5 5

2 24

2 53

Pe r a t i 1 3 1b

2 18

3 06

Pe r a t i E3 1

1 29

2 01

Pe ra t i 5 7

3 08

2 54

Pe ra t i 1 32

2 27

3 07

Pe r a t i E3 2

14

2 02

Pe ra t i 6 4

1 30

2 55

Pe r a t i 1 33

2 23

3 08

Pe ra t i E3 3

1 99

2 03

Pe ra t i6 5

1 28

2 56

Pe r a t i 1 34

2 03

3 09

Pe r a t i E3 4

1 80

2 04

Pe ra t i 6 6

1 95

2 57

Pe r a t i 1 35

2 12

3 10

Pe ra t i E3 5

15

2 05

Pe ra t i 6 7

1 85

2 58

Pe r a t i 1 36

2 09

3 11

Pe r a t i E3 6

1 32

2 06

Pe ra t i6 8

1 64

2 59

Pe r a t i 1 37

2 10

3 12

Pe ra t i E3 7

1 22

2 07

Pe ra t i 7 4

1 04

2 60

Pe ra t i 1 39

2 20

3 13

Pe r a t i E3 8

1 93

2 08

Pe ra t i 7 5

9 3

2 61

Pe r a t i 1 40

2 07

3 14

Pe ra t i E3 9

1 98

2 09

Pe ra t i 7 6

9 7

2 62

Pe ra t i 1 41

1 9 1

3 15

Pe r a t i E4 0

1 86

2 10

Pe ra t i 7 7

1 25

2 63

Pe r a t i 1 42

2 05

3 16

Pe r a t i E4 1

1 93

2 11

Pe ra t i 7 8

2 09

2 64

Pe ra t i 1 43

2 21

3 17

Pe r a t i E4 3

2 51

2 12

Pe ra t i 8 7

2 73

2 65

Pe r a t i 1 44

2 08

3 18

Pe ra t i E4 4

1 37

2 13

Pe ra t i 8 8

2 83

2 66

Pe ra t i 1 45

1 98

3 19

Pe r a t i E4 6

2 00

2 14

Pe ra t i 8 9

2 75

2 67

Pe r a t i 1 46

2 03

3 20

Pe ra t i E4 7

2 23

2 15

Pe ra t i9 0

1 46

2 68

Pe ra t i 1 47

2 40

3 21

Pe ra t i I4 8

1 89

2 16

Pe r a t i 9 1

1 27

2 69

Pe r a t i 1 48

1 98

3 22

Pe ra t i E4 9

1 87

2 17

Pe ra t i9 2

1 34

2 70

Pe ra t i 1 49

2 20

3 23

Pe r a t i /5 0

2 58

2 18

Pe ra t i 9 3

1 88

2 71

Pe r a t i 1 50

1 96

3 24

Pe ra t i E5 1

2 69

6 2

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i t e ra ry a nd A r ch z eoa s t ronom ica lE v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r TA BLE 2 .G rave O r ien ta t ion s i n Ma in land H e l la s( c on t inued ) .

N2

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion

A (° )

N2

3 25

P e ra t i E5 2

2 37

3 26

P e ra t i E5 3

2 36

3 27

P e ra t i E5 5

3 28

S i te a nd Grave D e s igna t ion

A ( ° )

N2

3 41

T r iphy l ia , T ho los 1

2 07

3 57

S i te a nd Grave D es igna t ion V o l im idh ia A 8

3 42

T r iphy l ia , T ho los 2

1 79

3 58

K eph . K on togenada sA

2 15

2 12

3 43

T r iphy l ia , K opanak i T ho los

2 03

3 59

K a l l i thea 0

2 62

A ( ° ) 1 81

1

P e ra t i E5 5

2 38

3 44

T r iphy l ia , Ma l th i , T ho lo s 1 2 91

3 60

E p idau ros—L ime ra A

3 29

P e ra t i E5 6

2 35

3 45

T r iphy l ia , Ma l th i , T ho lo s2 2 82

3 61

K eph . Me taxa ta Ad

2 9

30

P e ra t i E5 7

2 38

3 46

T r iphy l ia , V a s s i l iko

1 21

3 62

K eph . Me taxa ta A d

2 1

31

P e ra t i E5 9

2 38

3 47

T r iphy l ia , K akova to sA

1 64

3 63

N emes is

1 33

3 32

P e ra t i E6 0

2 71

3 48

T r iphy l ia , K akova tos B

2 11

3 64

T ho r ikos B

1 85

33

V a r iou s ,A t t ika , V rana 1 0C

2 00

3 49

T r iphy l ia , K akova tos C

2 15

3 65

P höc is , Medeön A l

2 66

34

S pa r ta ,A rk ines A

1 28

3 50

K rene ( Acha ia ) 3

2 90

3 66

P höc is , Medeon T 239

2 27

3 35

S pa r ta , A rk ine s B

3 5

3 51

Ma rma r iane 1

2 08

3 67

D im in i B

2 96

3 36

N ichö r ia 3

2 41

3 52

Ma rma r iane 2

1 90

3 68

T hes sa l ia , P te leon A

1 45

3 37

N ichö r ia 4

2 06

3 53

Ma rma r iane 3

2 14

3 69

T hes sa l ia , P te leon C

1 42

3 38

Me s sen ia , R ou t s i , T ho lo s 1

3 31

3 54

Ma rma r iane 4

1 61

3 70

T hes sa l ia , P te leon E

2 55

3 39

Me ssen ia , R ou t s i , T ho los 2

3 20

3 55

Ma rma r iane 6

2 23

3 40

Messen ia , T ou r l id i t sa

1 57

3 56

O rchomeno s T ho lo s

1 58

6 3

A MANDA- AL ICE M ARAVEL IA ( ED .) :

ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

R eve r se

O bve r se

FI GURE 1 .L inea r Bt a b le ti n t roduced o nt h eo bve r se b yt h en ame o ft h es a i l ing m on th [ s ee PA LA IMA , 1 995 : p l . L XX IV ] . C opy r igh t( &C ou r te sy )2 003 , o ft h eP rog ram i nA egean S c r ip t sa nd P reh is to ry , U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sa tA u s t in ; b ya u tho r iza t ion o ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fC inc inna t i , D epa r tmen to fC la s s ic s .

FI GURE 2 .O r ien ta t ion so f3 23 p a s sage g rave s f r om 1 5s i t e s i nC r e te .

T h icke rl i ne ss i gn if y mo r et h an o ne g rave w i th t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion . C OC opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 4

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i te ra ry a nd A r chxoa s t ronom ica l E v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r

e qu inox es

e qu inox es

* Pe t sopha s

T y l i s so sC

t ? 5 ' >z ` p a lace s -

•••• p eak s a nc tua r ie s

v i l la s

m a jo rc e l es t ia le v en t s

FI GURE 3 .O r ien ta t ions o f1 5 ma jo r Minoan monumen t s : 4p a laces , 6p eak s anc tua r ies a nd 5 v i l la s . ©C opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 5

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

( m ) 1 4 1 2 1 0 8 6 4

2

2

4

6

8

1 2

1 0

1 4

1 6

1 8

2 0

2 2

FI GURE 4 .P lan o ft h e M inoan p eak s anc tua ry o nP e t sopha s , E a s te rn C r e te . CC opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

i t e r ra ce I c ha sm a l ta r

t e r ra ce I 5m

r P

' . ' ' . . . . o . . .m . . . .

FI GURE 5 .P lan o ft h eM inoan p eak s anc tua ry o nJ uk ta s , c en t ra l C r e te . CC opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 6

2 4

( m )

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i te ra ry a nd A rchxoa s t ronom ica lE v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r

h ( )

2 N i t . S e lena

_ 1/9 2 000 BCE

BCE

1 0 ,9 2 000 BCE 8 5

9 0

9 5

FI GURE 6 .T he S un r i se so nt h em o rn ing o ft h eE qu inoxe s i n as add le f o rmed b yt wo p eak s o ppo s i te t h ep eak s anc tua ry o n J uk ta s , a nd 1 d ay s l a te ri tr i se sw he re t wo m oun ta in s i n te r sec t . T he re i sn oc o r re spond ing w e l l—ma rked p o s i t ion t ot h e N o r th , w he r et h e S un r i se s 1 d ay sb ef o re t h eA u tumn E qu inox . CC opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

FI GURE 7 .T he f i r s tr a y so ft h eS un o nt h em o rn ing o ft h e E qu inoxe s s t r ike as ha l low b ow l ( A )b u i l ti n to t h ef l oo ro ft h e d a rke s tp a r to ft h e C en t ra lP a lace S anc tua ry i nt h ep a lace a tK nö s so s . Ar ef lec t ion ( B )i sc a s to nt h ew e s ter nw a l l , a nd t h e s hadow o nt h es ou the rn w a l lt ouche st h et i po ft h e i n c i sed d oub le a xe ( C ) . CC opy r igh t2 003 ,b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 7

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

FI GURE 8 .O r ien ta t ion s o f3 70 p a s sage g raves f r om 2 5 s i te s i n Mycenxan H e l la s . T h icke rl i ne s s i gn if y mo re t h an o ne g rave w i th t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion . C )C opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 8

Ma ry B lombe rg & G ö ran H en r ik s son : L i te ra ry a nd A r chxoa s t ronom ica l E v idence f o rt h eO r ig in so ft h eH e l len ic C a lenda r

s u m mer

s u m mer

s o lst ice

s o ls t ice 4 .

G

r \SI

G t g i v o z a i a Yce n ae

8

OPhy l akop i -Karphi

1 (2. t . p hi

Win ter

w in ter

S o ls t ice

s o ls t ice p p

c i •4 2

2, 4 ej

®

A s ine ,r oom 3 2 ,h ou se G C e : Mycenaean p a lace m ega ron 0 Mycenae ,c u l tc en t re ,m ega ron Mycenae , c u l tc en t re ,t emp le Mycenae , c u l tc en t re ,f r e sco c omp lex Mycenae ,c u l tc en t re ,f oom s2 5 ,2 8 ,2 4 G Mycenae , c u l tc en t re , T soun ta s 'h ou se s h r ine P hy lakop i ,w es ts h r ine ( DPhy lakop i , e a s ts h r ine P y lo s ,m ega ron P y lo s ,r oom 9 3

( i g )

( L ) T i ryn , mega ron f bT i ryn s ,r oom s 10 , 10A T i ryn s ,r oom 17 e ( ) A . T r iada ,b u i ld ing H G ourn ia , s anc tua ry

1 Q 9

Ma l l ia ,b a t imen to b l ique Knos so s , s h r ine o ft h ed oub le a xe s K a rph i ,r oom 1 K a rph i ,r oom16 -17 O K a rph i ,r oom 5 8 Q K a rph i ,r oom 16

FI GURE 9 .O r ien ta t ion so f2 2 Mycen z ean c u l tr oom s . ©C opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

6 9

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED .) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

t r ipa r t i te s h r ine

FI GURE 1 0 . T he s h r ines a tH ag ia T r iada ( A ) , Ma l l ia ( B ) ,a nd V a thype t ro ( C ) .

©C opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof D r Ma ry B lombe rg & D rG ö ran H en r ik s son .

7 0

The Ear ly He l len ic S ky Map r econs truc ted f ro m Archwoas trono m ica l a nd T ex tua l S tud ies P e ter E . B lo mberg

Ab s trac t

[ RuTKowsm , 1 99 1 ; DAVARAS , 1 972a ; DAVARAS, 1 972b ; 1 978 ; DAVARAS , 1 981 ; DAVARAS, 1 984 ] . T he i d en t if ica t ion o fb o th s i te s a sM inoan p eak s a nc tua r ie s a nd t h e d a t ing o ft h em t ot h ep e r iod s MM I —LM I( c . 2 000 1600 B CE ) i sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted . T ha t w a s t h e t ime w hen t h e M inoan c u l tu re w a s a ti t s p eak . T he r e i sn o e v idence f o r a ny a c t iv i ty a tt h et wo s i te s d u r ing LM I — I I I .

I th a s e a r l ie r b een s hown t h a tt h e w a l l s o n t h e h i l l s o fP e t sopha s a nd T rao s ta lo s i n e a s te rn C re te w e r e o r ien ted t owa rd s t h e p o s i t ion so fc e r ta in h eaven ly b od ie s . T ha tc onc lu s ion r e su l ted i na n ew i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e f i nd s f r om t ho se h i l l top s : a lmo s t a l t e r ra co t ta f i nd s c ou ld b e e xp la ined a s h av ing a n a s t ronom ica l s i gn if icance . H oweve r , s ome c on s te l la t ion s , w h ich a r e i mpo r tan t f o r t h e m ode rn s ky m ap , a r e n o t r e p r e sen ted a mong s t t h e f i nd s f r om t h e h i l l top s . U r sa Ma jo r , i np a r t icu la r , i sm i s s ing . T he e a r ly H e l len ic t e x t s a nd p opu la r t r ad i t ion s r e ga rd ing t h e n o r the rn c on s te l la t ion sh ave t h e r ef o r eb een s t ud ied . T h is s t udy i sp r e sen ted h e re a nd i ti ss hown t h a tt h ee a r ly H e l lene s s aw t h ec ons te l la t ion s a r ound t h e n o r ther n c e le s t ia l p o le i n t h e s ame w ay a s o t he r E u ropean c u l tu r e s . A n a r chxo log ica l e va lua t ion o f o r ien ta t ion s h a s t hu s r e su l ted i n an ew u nde r s tand ing o f s ome t e r ra co t ta f i gu r ine sa nd a l so o ft h ee a r ly H e l len ic c on s te l la t ion s .

DAVARAS ,

B o th p l ace s l i e c l o se t ot h e Med i te r ranean s ho r e a nd t h e r e i s c l ea r e v idence i n t h e a r chxo log ica l r e co rd t h a t t h e M inoan s i nt h e a r ea h ad c on tac t w i th o t he r p eop le t o t h e E a s t a nd S ou thea s t , e . g . : t h e E gyp t ian s . T he re i s a n u nob s t ruc ted v i ew o ft h e h o r izon f r om t h e N o r thwe s t o ve r t h e E a s t t o a bou t S ou thea s t f r om b o th s i t e s . Ma ry B lombe rg a nd G ö ran H en r ik s son [ s ee p r ev iou s r e f e r ence s ] h ave a l r eady p r e sen ted t h e o r ien ta t ion s o ft h et wo s i te s a nd p ropo sed t h a tt h ey w e re u sed f o ro b se rv ing c e le s t ia l e ven t s i no rde rt ok eep ac a lenda r a nd t ob e a b le t on av iga te w i th t h eh e lp o fv a r iou s s t a r s .

KEY WORDS : A nc ien t H e l len ic O u ranog raphy , S ky Map s , N or ther n C on s te l la t ion s , U r sa Ma jo r , U r sa M ino r , B oo te s , A r c tu ru s , B ronze A g e , A egean S ea , C r e te , P e t sopha s , T rao s ta lo s , T e r ra co t ta F igu r ine s , L i te ra ry S ou r ce s , S anc tua r ie s .

O n t h e se h i l l top s a l a rge n umbe r o f s ma l l t e r raco t ta f i gu r ine s h ave b een f ound . Mo r e t h an 2 000 b e tween t h em h ave b een r e co rded : mo s t ly a n ima l s , s ma l lh uman f i gu r ine s a nd h uman a na tom ica l m embe r s . T he re w e re a l so t wo s ma l l s t ruc tu r e s .

I .I n troduc t ion : B ackground F o r s ome y ea r s n ow at e am f r om U pp sa la U n ive r s i ty h a s s t ud ied s ome M inoan b u i ld ing s a nd t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s . T h i s t e am h a s s hown t h a t m any p eak s a nc tua r ie s , p a lace s , a nd v i l la s w e r e o r ien ta ted t owa rd s m a jo r c e le s t ia l e ven t s , e . g . : S un r i se /S un se ta tt h e E qu inoxe s a nd S o l s t ice s . A tt h ep eak s anc tua r ie s o n t h e h i l l top s o fP e t sopha s a nd T rao s ta lo s i t h a s a l so b een s hown t h a t t wo w a l l s a r e d i rec ted t owa rd s t h e h e l iaca l r i s ing a nd s e t t ing o ft h e b r igh t s t a rA rc tu ru s , a v e ry u sef u l s t a r f o r k eep ing ac a lenda r a nd f o r n av iga t ion [ HENR IKSSON & BLO MBERG , 1 996 ; HENR IKSSON & BLOMBERG , 1 997 -98 ; BLO MBERG & HENR IKSSON , 1 999 ; BLOMBERG & HENR IKSSON , 2 000 ] .

T he p reva i l ing i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se f i nd s i st h a t t h ey a r e v o t ive o f f e r ing s u sed i n a tl e a s t t h r ee c u l t s : ( i ) ah ea l ing c u l t , mo t iva ted b y t h e a na tom ica l p a r t s ; ( i ) af a rme r s ' f e r t i l i ty c u l t , r ep re sen ted b y t h e a n ima l s ; a nd ( i i ) s ome k i nd o f c u l t t o o ne o r mo re c e le s t ia l b od ie s , s u ch a s t h e Moon a nd O r ion [ MAcG iLuvRAY , 2 000 ] r e p r e sen ted b y t h e h uman f i gu r ine s . I th a s e a r l ie r b een s hown t h a t t h e se i d ea s c anno t e xp la in a l l o f t h e f i nd s , n o r d oe s i ts e em l o g ica lt h a tt h e s ma l l s t ruc tu re s o nt h e se p eak s s hou ld h ave h ou sed s eve ra l r a the r d i f f e ren t c u l t s [ BLO MBERG , P . , 1 999 ; BLO MBERG , P . ,2 002 ] .

T he p r ev iou s a u tho r sh ave a l so a na ly sed t h e t e x tb yA ra to s a nd h ave s hown t h a t p a r t o ft h e a s t ronom ica l i n f orma t ion g i ven i n h i s P ha inomena p e r ta in s mo r e c o r rec t ly t o t h e M idd le M inoan P e r iod ( c . 2 000 1650 B CE ) t h an f o r h i s o wn t ime ( c . 2 75 B CE ) . A ra to s ' t e x t f o l low s c l o se ly t h a to f t h e a s t ronome r E udoxo s [ c . 3 95 -342 / 1 BCE; LASSERRE , 1 966 : 1 39 ] a nd s e ve ra l i n dependen t s t ud ie s o ft h e se t e x t s s how t h a t b o th E udoxo s a nd A ra to s b a sed t h e i r i n f o rma t ion o n o l de r p o s i t ion s t h a t s e em t o h ave b een t r an sm i t ted f r om c . 2 000 BCE t o t h e i r t ime . S ee t h e A ppend ix f o r as umma ry o ft h e se s t ud ie s .

I n o rde r t o u nde r s tand t h e se s i t e s w e mu s t a l so t a ke i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h a t s ome o ft h ew a l l s o ft h ep eak s anc tua r ie s d o n o t m ee t i nr i gh t a ng le s , b u t i nr a the r s pec if ic a ng le s , c o r rec tf o rp o in t ing o u tt h e d i r ec t ion f o re . g . : t h er i s ing a nd s e t t ing o ft h e i mpo r tan t s t a r A r c tu ru s , t h e b r igh te s t s t a r i n t h e c on s te l la t ion B oö te s [HENR IKSSON & BLO MBERG , 1 996 ] . I th a s a l ready b een a r gued t h a t t h e f i gu r ine s r e p re sen t t h e h eaven ly b od ies , e spec ia l ly c on s te l la t ion s o r p a r t s t h e reof a sd e sc r ibed b y A ra to s a nd a l so i nE gyp t ian t e x t s o n c of f in l i d s [ BLO MBERG , P . ,2 002 ; NEUGEBAUER & PARKER , 1 960 : 1 32 ] . B u t w e a l so f i nd f i gu r ine s t h a t s e em t o r e p r e sen t c ome t s , &c . [RUTKO WSK I , 1 991 , e . g . : 1 IM 4 855 ] .

A s p a r t o ft h e w o rk o ft h e U pp sa la t e am , as t udy o ft h e s ma l lt e r ra co t ta f i nd s f r om t h e t wo p eak s a nc tua r ie s a nd a n a t temp t f o r r e con s t ruc t ing t h e e a r ly H e l len ic s ky m ap b a sed o nt e x tua l e v idence h ave b een a t temp ted .

T he f a c tt h a t a lmo s t a l ( — 9 9% ) o ft h e f i gu r ine s c an b e e x p l a ined a sr e p re sen t ing h eaven ly b od ie s , t h a t t h e w a l l s a r e d i r ec ted t owa rd s c e le s t ia l e ven t s a nd t h a t t h e r e e x i s ted a t r ad i t ion i nt h e H e l len ic a r ea r e ga rd ing t h e p o s i t ion s o ft h e s t a r s f r om M inoan t ime s d own t o H e l len i s t ic t ime s , i n d ica te t h a t t h e M inoan s h ad a c ompe ten t k now ledge o f

H .T erraco t ta F igur ine sf r om P e t sopha s &T rao s ta lo s P e t sopha s w a s f i r s t e xcava ted e a r ly d u r ing t h e p r ev iou s c en tu ry [ MYREs , 1 902 -03 ] ; T rao s ta lo s w a s e xcava ted o n t wo o cca s ion s i nt h e 1 970 s a nd t h en r e cen t ly i nt h e 1 990 's 7 1

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAV EL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP E R AS P E R AE TP E R LU DU M w ha tw e c a l lA s t ronomy , a nd t h a tw e c an c onc lude t h a tt h e f i gu r ine s f ound o n P e t sopha s a nd T rao s ta lo s r e p re sen t c on s t e l la t ion s a nd o t he r h eaven ly b od ie s . T h i s M inoan « sky m ap» i s( mu ta t i sm u tand i s )v e ry l i ke o u r mode rn m ap o ft h e s ky . T hey h ad a l r eady d ef ined mo s t c on s te l la t ion s . T he r e s e em st oh ave b een a n e xchange o fi d ea s a r ound t h e E a s te rn Med i te r ranean , a l though n o t ar egu la r t r an sf e r o f k now ledge , a s t h e M inoan a s te r i sm s d i f f e r p a r t ly f r om t h o se i nt h e E a s t . H oweve r , t h e re a r e s ome a r ea s i nt h e s ky t h a t a r e n o t c l ea r ly u nde r s tood ; s o -me i mpo r tan t modem c on s te l la t ion s a r e m i s s ing a nd s ome f i gu r ine s s e em t o r e p r e sen t c on s te l la t ion s t h a t w e d o n o t u se t oday . A s a n e xamp le w e c an t a ke t h e s heep . We h ave n o c on s te l la t ion S heep ,b u ti tw a s ac on s te l la t ion i na r ea sa r ound t h e e a s ter n Med i te r ranean i n t h e B ronze A ge [ LOCHER , 1 981 ; LOCHER , 1 993 ] . U nexp la ined i n t h e f i r s t a na ly s i s o f t h e f i gu r ine s a r e t h e b u l l s . T he re a r e q u i te an umbe r o fb u l l s , mo s t ly c omp le te a n ima l s , i n as t anda rd s i ze o f5 -6 c m , b u t t h e r e a r e s ome l a rge o ne s a sw e l l . T he re i sn o f r on tp a r t o f ab u l l , l i ke o u r c on s te l la t ion T au ru s a nd n o f i gu r ine t h a t c an b e i d en t if ied a s ac ow .

A ra to s , h e i sa l so c a l led Ap a eroT t i 2a, t r an s la ted a s t h e B ea r W a tche r /Gua rd [ ARATos , 9 2 ] . C lo se t o t h e p o le , b e tw een U r sa Ma jor a nd U r sa M inor , w e h ave D raco , a c on s te l la t ion t h a t a ppea r s u nde r t h e n ame A p cbm ov , b u t i t i sn o t m en t ioned i nt h e H e l len ic t e x t s u n t i l a f t e r 5 00 BCE s o i ti sl ef to u to ft h ep re sen td i scu s s ion . T he m a jo r p rob lem w e f a ce i s : u nde r s tand ing w ha t H ome ro s m ean t w i th A 'c v ero s , a nd —if i ti st h e s ame a s o u rB ig D ipper w hy h e d id n o tr e cogn ize U r sa M inor a s a s epa ra te c on s te l la t ion? T he s e cond p rob lem i s w hy s hou ld t h e c on s te l la t ion b e n amed t h e B ea r ? A s m any s cho la r s h ave p o in ted o u t , i td oe s n o t l o ok l i k e ab ea r [ ALLEN , 1 963 : 4 23 ] . T he n ame o ft h e n ea rby c on s te l la t ion , B oo t e s t h e O x—Dr i ve r , i sa l so s t range a s i ti sc l o se t ot h e B ea rb u t f a ra way f r om T auru s .

I I . A n U nexp la ined P rob lem i nH e l len ic A s tronomy A m a jo r p rob lem i n u nde r s tand ing e a r ly H e l len ic A s t ronomy c oncer n s t h e c i rcumpo la r s t a r s , i . e . t h o se s t a r s t h a tn eve r s e tb e low t h e h o r izon a nd a r e c l o se t ot h eN o r th C e le s t ia l P o le . T he m a in moder n c on s te l la t ion i nt h i s a r ea i sU r sa Ma jor , i nH e l len ic e t h e B ea r . T he o l de s t t e x t t h a t c on ta in s t h i s n ame i sm e t i nH ome ro s ' Od y s sey . O dy s seu s w a s i n s t ruc ted b y C a lyp so t o k eep A 'pzro; o n h i s l ef t w hen h e s a i led t o t h e l a nd o f t h e P h anc ian s [ Od y s sea , V : 2 81 ] . Wh i le s a i l ing h e a l so w a tched t h e P l e iad e s , t h e l a te— se t t ing B oö te s a nd ö r iön . H ome ro s n o te s t h a t t h e B ea r w a s a l so c a l led t h e W agon , Auc ta i n H e l len ic . T he B ea r i ss a id t o c i r c le o r r o ta te w he r e i ti s . H ome ro s a l so m en t ion s s ome o t he r c on s te l la t ion s w i th t h e c ommen t t h a t t h e B ear i st h e o n ly o ne t h a t d oe s n o t g o d own b e low t h e h o r izon , t h u s i ti sc i r cumpo la r [ Od . , V : 2 70 -76 ] . C on sequen t ly , f r om t h e H e l len ic n ame w e o b ta ined o u rL a t in t r an s la t ion U r sa ' , w h ich w e u se f o rt wo c on s te l la t ion s , U r sa Ma jor a nd U r sa M ino r . H oweve r , H ome ro s d oe s n o tm en t ion U r sa M inor , h e u se s A 'pzro ;i nt h e s i ngu la r .

A p x , „ ,

e

e

T he a l te rna t ive n ame , t h e W agon o r A ' ,ua c e , d e s igna te s af ou r—whee led v eh ic le u sua l ly d rawn b y o xen . I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e se e a r ly t e x t s t h a t i tw ou ld b e t h e c o r r ec tw o rd f o r aw agon p u l led b yo ne o rs eve ra l o xen . B o th n ame sf o rt h e c on s te l la t ion , u c te C t a nd A 'px ro g,a r e f em in ine a nd o n ly u sed i nt h e s i ngu la rb yt h e e a r ly a u tho r s s u ch a sH ome ro s . H oweve r l a te r o n , b y e . g . : A ra to s a nd N onno s [ s ee XL VII : 2 51 ] , t h ey a r e a l so u sed i nt h e p lu ra l a nd t hu s d e s igna te t wo d i s t inc t c on s te l la t ion s , n ame ly U r sa Ma jor a nd U r sa M inor [ s ee ARATOS, 2 7 ] . C lo se t ot h e se t wo c on s te l la t ion s w e h ave B oo te s , t h e O x D r ive r , s ome t ime s t r an s la ted a s t h e P loughman . O n o u r moder n s t a rm ap , h oweve r , h e h a s n o o xen t o d r ive . B oo te s i su sed f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f H e l len ic l i t e ra tu r e , b u t l a te r o n , e . g . : b y E udoxo s a nd

We d o n o tf i nd a ny b ea r a mong s t t h e f i gu r ine s f r om P e t so p ha s n e i the r f r om T raos ta lo s , a nd b ea r s s e em n o t t oh ave l i ved i n C re te . T he e a r ly c on s t e l la t ion s w e re n o rma l ly g i ven n ame s a f t e r w e l l—known a n ima l s a nd /o r o b jec t s o f t h e d a i ly l i f e s u ch a sb u l l , r a ven , m a r ten , c r a te r , &c .T he r e a r e s eve ra l s uch c on s te l la t ion s a nd t h i s e xp lana t ion r e ga rd ing t h e i r n ame s i sp re sen ted i nm o s t p ub l ica t ion s o n e a r ly c on s te l la t ion s . T hu s , i ti sd if i cu l t t ou nde r s tand w hy t h e e a r ly H e l len ic p eop le w ou ld n ame ac on s te l la t ion B ea r . We m ee t t wo n ame s f o r t h e s ame n o r ther nc on s te l la t ion i n t h e e a r ly t e x t s : t h e B ea r ( 7 ) Apxro ;-)a nd t h e W agon ( e o T he o l de s tt e x t s d o n o tm en t ion U r sa M inor , a nd t h e r e s e em s t o h ave b een o n ly o ne c on s te l la t ion B ea r . Many s cho la r s h ave c ommen ted u pon t h i s a nd h ave s a id t h a t H ome ro s d i d n o t k now t h e c on s te l la t ion c a l led U r sa M inor , a s h e d i d n o t m en t ion i t[ MART IN , 1 998 : c ommen t t o1 .2 7 ] . T he b ackg round i st h a tH ome ro sm en t ion s s e ve ra l c on s te l la t ion s i n c lud ing A 'ezzo; , a nd t h en s a y s t h a t s h e i s t h e o n ly c on s te l la t ion t h a t d oe s n o t g o d own b e low t h e h o r izon a nd t h a t s he r o ta te s . T h i s c an o fc ou r se m ean t h a t A 'px . ro ;- w a s t h e o n ly o ne a mong s t t h e c on s te l la t ion s m en t ioned t h a td oe sn o tg o d own i n to t h e o cean , b u ti tm ay a l so m ean t h a t i tw a s t h e o n ly t h en i d en t if ied c on s te l la t ion t h a t w a s c i rcumpo la r . T he i d ea p r eva i l ing d u r ing t h e 2 0t h c en tu ry w a s t h a t U r sa Ma jor w a s t h e o n ly i d en t if ied c i r cumpo la r c on s te l la t ion o f t h e H e l lene s a tt h e t ime o f H ome ro s . T he c on s te l la t ion U r sa M ino r i sn o t m en t ioned i na s t ronom ica l t e x t s b ef o r e T ha le s ( 6t h c en tu ry BCE) w ho i s s a id t o h ave i n t roduced i t t o f a c i l i ta te n av iga t ion [ SCHERER , 1 953 : 1 76 ] . A ra to s s a id t h a t t h e a nc ien t H e l lene s s a i led u s ing U r sa Ma jo r , w h i le t h e P h c en ic ian s n av iga ted u s ing U r sa M inor [ ARATOS , 3 7 -39 ] . I ti sn o t k nown w hen t h e M inoan s a nd t h e P h c en ic ian s b egan s a i l ing , b u t t h ey s a i led i nt h e Med i te r ranean w e l l b ef o re Mycen z ean t ime s . H oweve r , a sb o th t h e e a r ly H e l lene s a nd t h e P h c en ic ian s a r e s a id t o h ave u sed d i f f e ren t c on s te l la t ion s f o rn av iga t ion ,t h e a nc ien tH e l lene s s e em n o t t o h ave l e a rned a bou t t h e h eaven ly b od ie s f r om n e i the r P h c en ic ian s n o r B aby lon ian s —the g ene ra l o p in ion i nt h e l i t e ra tu re [ ALLEN , 1 963 : 1 6 -20 ]— a s U r sa M inor i s ab e t t e r c on s te l la t ion f o r d e te rm in ing N o r th [ K IDD , 1 997 : 1 8Of f ] .

-c e z ) .

K idd , i nh i s c ommen t st oA ra to s , s ay st h a t Kvv c ioo vpa ( < H u t * o öpä = d og ' s t a i l ) mu s t h ave b een t h e o r ig ina l H e l len ic n ame f o r U r sa M ino r , b u t d oe s n o td i scu s s i t sa ge n o r w hy h e s ay s s o [ K IDD , 1 997 : 1 88 ] . T h i s n ame i sn o t

E d i tor sN o te : F o rt h e h i s to ry o fU r sa Ma jo r , s e ea l so L EBO EU F L E ,A . : « H i s to i r ed el aG rande O u r se , o ul e sm e tamo rpho se sd 'une c on s te l la t ion» , V i ta L a t ina , 1 00 , A v ignon ( Aubane l ) 1 9 8 5 , 1 5-2 0 ; KR U P P , E .C . : « The D ippe ri nD i sgu i se» , G re th O bs er ver ,5 1 ' 2,1 9 87 , 3-1 8 .

7 2

P e te rE .B lombe rg :T he E a r ly H e l len ic S ky Map r e con s t ruc ted f r om A r chxoa s t ronom ica l a nd T ex tua l S tud ie s

m en t ioned i nt h e t e x t s b ef o r e A ra to s . E udoxo s a nd T ha le s

s how t h e S em i t ic i n f luence o n H e l len ic l a nguage a nd c u l tu re [ SZE MERENY I , 1 962b : 1 9 ] . S uch at e ndency c ou ld v e ry w e l l h ave i n f luenced t h e e xp lana t ion o f f e red o n t h e o r ig in o ft h e c on s te l la t ion o ft h eB ea r .

u sed t h e t e rm A 'pxro;. M txpä , w h ich i n d ica te s t h a t Kvvd c rovoc t c ou ld n o th ave b e en t h e o l d n ame [ EuDoxos , f r agm . 1 :1 3 ] .

I V .T he E n igma ' AQxrog T he n ame B ea r b ea r s ap r ob lem . I t c ome s f r om t h e H e l len ic t e x t s o n A s t ronomy a nd n av iga t ion [ c f . Od . , V , 2 70 -76 ] . I ti si nt h em t h a t w e f o r t h e f i r s t t ime m ee t t h i s n ame r e f e r r ing t o ac on s te l la t ion . T h e re a r e n o c on s te l la t ion s c a l led B ea r a nywhe r e i n E u rope , n o r i n t h e N ea r E a s t . Many s c ho la r s h ave s ugge s ted s eve ra l b a ckg round s f o r t h e n ame . T he L a t in U r sa c an b e e xp la ined s imp ly a st h e t r an s la t ion f r om t h e H e l len ic , b u t w hy t h e H e l la le s c ho se A 'pxrc s - r ema in s a m y s te ry . No E u ropean p opu la r t r ad i t ion h a s a w o rd m ean ing b ea r f o r ac on s te l la t ion . I n S weden t h e p opu la r n ame i sK a r la vagnen , i . e . C ha r le s ' Wagon , a nd a lmo s t a l l E u ropean p eop le h ave ac e le s t ia l Wagon o r s ome s pec if i c w agon . Many c u l tu re s h ave a l so o xen t h a tp u l l t h e w agon . T he re a r e c u l tu r e s t h a t c on s ide rt h e s even s t a r s o ft h e B ig D ippe r j u s t a s s e ven s t a r s o r e ven s even o xen , l i ke t h e R oman s [ RoscHER , 1 909 15 , s p . 8 73 ] . I nB aby lon ia t h e re s e em st oh ave b een aw agon a nd o xen [ RoscHER , 1 909 15 , s . v . S t e rne , s p . 1 489 ] . O u r o l d c h i ldhood f r i end , J akob G r imm , w ho w a s a l so a g r ea t s c ho la r i nf o lk lo re , c l ea r ly s t a t e st h a tB ea ra sn ame f o r ac on s te l la t ion w a sn o tu sed i n a ny o l d G e rman t e x t s a nd i ti sn o t f ound i nS l av ic , L i thua n i an n o r i n F inn i sh [ GR IMM , 1 854 : 6 87f f ] . T he s ame o p in ion i sf ound i nt h e m any a r t ic le s b y R ené B a s se t , w ho d u r ing t h ey ea r s 1 886 1905 p ub l i shed an umbe ro fn o te s i n t h e R evue d e s t r ad i t ion s P opu la i re s o n p opu la r n ame s f o r d i f f e r en t c on s te l la t ion s , a lmo s t o ne n o te i ne ach v o lume . E ven i nB a sque , w he re t h e my th o ft h e s ky b ea r i ss t rong , h ef i nd st h a t U r sa Ma jo r i sr e p r e sen ted a st wo o xen , l e db y ab oy , p u l l ing aw agon [ BASSET , 1 902 : 3 42 ] . I ti sc l ea rt h a t t h e r e w a s n o a s te r i sm B ea r a mong s t t h e E u ropean p eop le , n o te ven w he re t h ea n ima lb ea rh ad as a c red p o s i t ion . T he m o s t c ommon s ugge s t ion d u r ing t h e 2 0t h c en tu ry h a s b een t h a t t h e n ame i s am i sunde r s tand ing o f a n e a s te rn n ame f o r U r sa Ma jor . Two p o s s ib i l i t ie s h ave b een g i ven . A cco rd ing t o t h e f i r s t , i tc ome s f r om t h e o l d I nd ian n ame m ean ing r ad ian t . T ha tw o rd w a st h en c o r rup ted v i a ä rca t i , a rkä— , a rc4— , i n to a rk to s ( s ee e . g . : SCHERER , 1 953 : 1 34 ) . T he s e cond s ugge s t ion i st h a t A 'px . rog i sd e r ived f r om t h e A kkad ian w o rd e r eqqu ( = w agon ) [ HEuBECK e ta l . , 1 988 : i v i i i ; SZE MERENY I , 1 962 ] . T h i s s ugge s t ion i sb a sed o n s ound l i ngu i s t ic p r inc ip le s . T he H e l lene s , a cco rd ing t ot h i s e xp lana t ion , c onf u sed t h e s ound o ft h e A kkad ian n ame f o r w agon w i th t h e i r o wn w o rd f o r b ea r . T h i s i sn o t e n t i re ly l o g ica l , a s t h ey s e em a l ready t o h ave c once ived t h e c on s te l la t ion a s aw agon , j u s t a s t h e A kkad ian s d i d . I t s e em s a l so c l ea r t h a t t h e e a s te r n i n f luence o n t h e e a r ly H e l len ic A s t ronomy i sv e ry l i m i t ed [ D ICKS , 1 970 ] .

A much e a r l ie r s ugge s t ion d e r ive s f r om C la s s ica l a nd H e l len i s t ic a u tho r s w ho d i scu s sed H ome ro s ' u se o f Apx zw i n t h e i r c ommen ta r ie s . T oday w e s t i l l h ave S t rabön 's G eog raphy , w he r e h e c ommen t s o n t h e n av iga t ion i n s t ruc t ion s t h a t O dy s seu sr e ce ived a nd e xp la in s A 'pxro; a sb e ing t h e c i rcumpo la r s t a r s o rt h e A rc t ic C i r c le a sd ef ined b yt h e e a r ly H e l lene s , i . e . t h e c i rc le t h a te nc lo se s t h e c i rcumpo la r s t a r s [ s ee I , 1 ,6 ] . T he i r A rc t ic C i r c le c hanged l o ca l ly a s i t s p o s i t ion o n t h e s ky c hange s w i th l a t i tude . O the r e a r ly a u tho r s s ha r ing t h i s v i ew w e r e , a cco rd ing t o S t rabön , H e rak le i to s ( 6 -5 c en tu ry B CE . ) , a nd K ra te s ( 1s t c en tu ry B CE ) [ S t rabön , / , 1 ,6 ] . T he se t h r ee a u tho r s a r e e spec ia l ly i n te re s t ing a s t h ey l i ved i n t h e H e l len ic t r ad i t ion a nd u sed t h e l a nguage . I n t h e c a se o f H e rak le i to s , t h i s w a s c l o se t o t h e t ime w hen t h e Od y s sey w a s w r i t ten d own i n t h e f o rm t h a t h a s r e a ched u s . T he w o rd d u r ing t h e i r o wn t ime f o r t h e A r c t ic C i rc le w a s f i e t e xux ,5 ; , w h ich c an m ean n ea r /of t h e b ear , a rc t ic , n or the rn , & c .T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w a s t o ta l ly a ccep ted b y t h e E nO i sh s cho la r R ober t B rown w ho t r an s la t ed A ra to s i n t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry a nd f a ced d if i cu l t ie sw i th t h e c on s te l la t ion Apxr c s- [ BRowN , 1 899 1900 : 2 5Of f ] . A 'px . ro; a s o r ig ina l ly r e f e r r ing t oa l t h e c i r cumpo la r s t a r s s e em s t ob e t h e mo s t l o g ica l e xp lana t ion a s t h e r e a r e s eve ra l c a se s i n t h e l i t e ra tu re w he re e i pxroj i su sed f o rN or th ; f o r i n s tance , H e rodo to s s ay s t h a t ap l ace i ss a id t of a ce N o r th , e xTov [ 1-1 £RODOTOS , I : 1 48 ] . T h i s v e ry e a r ly u nde r s tand ing o f A rk to s a s t h e c i r cumpo la r s t a r s m ake s i tv e ry e a sy t o u nde r s tand w hy t wo n ame s w e re u sed b y s e ve ra l e a r ly a u tho r s , o ne f o r t h e c i r cumpo la r s t a r s a mong s t w h ich t h e m a in c on s te l la t ion i sU r sa Ma jo r , a nd a no the r f o r W agon , w h ich t oday i sc a l led t h eB ig D ipper i nE ng l i sh . I n te re s t ing i nt h i sc on tex t i sa l so t h e o t he rn ame f o rB oo te s , Apzroq 2 i 1 . 1 .a, w h ich m ean s t h e b ea r w a tche r . T he n ame c an v e ry w e l l a l so r e f e rt o ac on s te l la t ion t h a t i n d ica te s t h e A r c t ic C i r c le , a s i ti sp a r t ly c i r cumpo la r a nd p a r t ly n o t . A cco rd ing t o A ra to s , B oo te s ' l ef t h and n eve r s e t s a nd i t w ou ld m ake t h e c i r cumpo la r s t a r s f a i r ly e a sy t o b e i d en t if ied b y an av iga to r . D u r ing M idd le M inoan t ime s t h e b r igh t s t a r A rc tu ru s , p o s i t ioned i nt h e s ou ther n e x t rem i ty o fB oo te s , r o se a nd s e t a ta bou t 3 8° o f ft r ue N o r th a ss e en f r om P e t sopha s . E a r l ie r a nd i nt h e m o re n o r the r ly p a r t o f H e l la s , w he re H ome ro s i ss a id t oh ave o r ig ina t ed , t h e s t a r A rc turu s w a s i t se lf c i rcumpo la r d u r ing t h e e a r ly M inoan t ime s , i . e . t h e c on s te l la t ion B oo te s a nd i t s b r igh te s t s t a r A rc turu s c ou ld b e u sed f o r i d en t if y ing t h e l i m i t s o f t h e c i rcumpo la rs t a r s . L e t u s t u rn a ga in t ot h e B ig D ipper . A s a l ready s t a ted , i t w a s u nde r s tood a s aw agon i nm o s t c u l tu r e s a r ound H e l la s , a nd i nm o s t o ft h em a s aw agon d rawn b y o ne o r s eve ra l o xen . T he L a t in n ame f o r t h e B ig D ipper m ean s s even o xen a nd t h e o l d T he sau ru s G r i f Ec c e L ingu c e f r om t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 1 9t h c en tu ry g i ve s t h e L a t in w o rd S ep ten t r ione s a st r an s la t ion f o r 4 ua a . I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e R oman s t ook t h e i r A s t ronomy f r om t h e H e l lene s , t h u s w e c an s ay —a s many s c ho la r s a l r eady d i d— t h a t i t i s c l ea r t h a t t h e H e l lene s s aw t h e B ig D ipper a so ne o rs eve ra l o xen w i th a

T he w o rd A 'px w s -a l so m ean sN o r th a nd i su sed i nc omb i n a t ion st h a tm ean b e ing s t rong , &c .I ts e em st h a tt h eb a ck g round f o rt h e u se o fA 'pxr c s , a s am i s in te rp r e ta t ion o fa n e a s ter n n ame , i sp a r t ly b a sed o n t h e p opu la r b e l ief t h a t H e l len ic A s t ronomy i s d e r ived f r om B aby lon ian A s t ronomy . I n at a lk o n L ingu i s t ic s i n L ondon i tw a s e mpha s i sed t h a to ne o ft h e m a in a im s o ft h e s p eake rw a st o 7 3

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

w agon . A no the r f a i r ly e a r ly a u tho r i sG e rman icu s Cx sa r w ho t r an s la ted A ra tos ' p oem a nd s ay s a bou t B oo tes : « t he P loughman , w ho s l ow ly f o l low s h i s s e t t ing w agon» [ GA IN , 1 976 : 1 38f f ] 2.A ra tos c ou ld a l so h ave m ean t t h e s ame , when h e w ro te a bou t B oö tes ' s e t t ing : « No mo re w i l l B oö tes b u lk l a rge a bove a nd b e low h o r izon , t h e l e sse rp a r t b e ing a bove a nd g r ea te r a l ready i nd a rkne s s . I tt a ke s f ou r s i gn s o f t h e Z od iac t oge the r f o r t h e O cean t o r e ce ive B oö tes ' s e t t ing . When h e i s s a ted w i th d ay l igh t , h e o ccup ie s mo re t h an h a lf t h e p a ss ing n igh t i nt h e l oo s ing o f h i s o xen , i nt h e s e a son w hen h e b eg in s s e t t ing a s t h e S un g oe s d own . T hese n igh t s a r e n amed a f t e r h i s l a te s e t t ing .» [ ARATos , 5 81-85 ] . T he H e l len ic w o rd u sed f o r l o o s ing h i s

S EAC 9 9 , L a L aguna , 2 1-29 J une 1 999 , ( E s teban , C . &

B e lmon te , J .A . , e d s . ) , T ene r if f e ( O rgan ismo A u tönomo d e Mu seos d e l C ab i ldo )2 000 , 3 11-18 . B LOMBERG , P . : « An A t temp t t o r e con s t ruc t t h e M inoan S t a r Map» , P roceed ing s o ft h e C onf erence « As t ronomy o f A nc ien t C iv i l i za t ion s» o f t h e E uropean S oc ie ty f or A s t ronomy i n C u l ture ( SEAC ) a nd Na t iona l A s t ronom ica l Mee t ing ( JENA M ) Mo scow , May 2 3 -27 , 2 000 ( Po tyomk ina , T .M . & O b r idko , V .N . e d s . ) , Mo scow ( Nauka ) 2 002 , 9 3 9 9 .

o xen i sß om lu rd ; , an oun f o rmed b yß oog ( = o x ) a nd A . r i c o ( = t o l o o se , u nyoke , & c . ) , i ti sn o rma l ly u nde r s tood a s i nd ica t ing t h e t ime o ft h e d ay w hen i ti st ime t o u nyoke o ne 's o xen , i . e . : t h e l a te a f t er noon o re ven ing . H oweve rt h e o r ig ina l m ean ing mu s t b e t o l oo sen t h e o xen f rom t h e i r w agon o r p lough . T he re a r e a l so s eve ra l S cho l ia [ e .g . : S cho l ia V e tera , 2 7 : 7 7f f ] t h a t c ommen t a nd i n d ica te a w agon w i th o xen

B LOMBERG , P . : « A R e in te rp re ta t ion o ft h e F igu r ines f r om P e t sopha s a nd T rao s ta los» , P roceed ing s o ft h e 9r n C re to lo g ica lC onf erence h e ld a tE lounda , i np res s . B ROWN , R . : R e sea rche s i n to t h e O r ig in o ft h e P r im i t ive C on s te l la t ions o ft h eG reek s ,P h c en ic ian sa nd B aby lon ian s , I 1 1 , L ondon 1 899 1900 . C ROMMEL IN , A .C .D . : « The A nc ien t C on s te l la t ion F igu re s» , Hu tch in son ' s S p lendor o f t h e H eaven s : A P opu la r A u thor i ta t ive A s t ronomy ( Ph i l l ip s , T .E .R . & S t eaven soon , W .H . , e d s . ) , I , L ondon 1 923 . DAVARAS , C . : « Two N ew L inea r A I n sc r ip t ion s o n L iba t ion V e s se ls f r om P e t sopha s» , Kadmo s , 1 , 1 972a , 1 0112 .

V . C onc lus ions T he n or thern s t a r s —af ter t h e p re sen t s t ud y— c an b e u nd er s tood i n t h e f o l low ing w ay s : T he g roup t ha t w a s

DAVARAS , C . : s . v . P e t sopha s , AA , 2 7 , B 2 , 1 972b , 6 52 -53 .

c i rcumpo lar w a s c a l led " Ao ttog a nd t h i s w ord h ad a l so t h e m ean ing Nor th . T he ma in c ons te l la t ion , o ur B ig

DAVARAS , C . : « Th ree N ew L inea rAL iba t ion V e s se l F rag m en t s f r om P e t sopha s» , Kadmo s , 2 0 , 1 981 , 1 6 .

D ipper , wa s c a l led " A i x 4a a nd w a s u nd er s tood a s a w agon p u l led b y o ne o r s evera l o xen . B oö tes w a s l e ad ing t h e w agon d r iven b y o ne o r s evera l o xen ( a w agon a nd

DAVARAS , C . : 1 978 , s . v . P e t sopha s « C re te» , A A , 3 3 , B 2 ( Ch ron ika ) , 3 92f f .

o xen a re f ound a to r n ea r P e t sopha s ) . A 'gw rog y l ik 4 w a s t h es t ar A rc tu ru s ( Ac ixio Nog ) a nd w a s u sed t oa id i nt h e r ecogn i t ion o ft h ec i rcumpo lar s t a r s .

T rao s ta lo s ,

DAVARAS , C . : s . v . P e t sopha s , AA , 3 1 , B 2 , 1 984 , 3 8Of f . D ICKS , D .R . : E a r ly G reek A s t ronomy t oA r i s to t le , L ondon ( Thame s&H ud son ) 1 970 .

Wha ts t a r ted a s a n a na ly s i s o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o fw a l l s o fa p eak s anc tua ry o n e a s tern C re te e nd ed w i th as t ud y o ft h e f i nd sf rom t ho se p eak s anc tuar ie s , a nd a l so a s a n e xp la n a t ion o fh ow an or the rn c on s te l la t ion w a sn amed U r sa .

V I . B IBL IOGRAPHY

GA IN , D .B . : A ra to s , T he A ra tu s a scr ibed t o G e rman icu s Ce sar ( Ga in , D .B . , e d . ) , L ondon 1 976 . GR IMM ,J . : : D eu t sche My tho log ie , G ö t t ingen 3 18 54 . H ENR IKSSON , G . &B LOMBERG , M . : « Ev idence f o r M inoan A s t ronom ica l O b se rva t ion s f r om t h e P eak S anc tua r ie s o n P e t sopha sa nd T rao s ta lo s» , O pA th , 2 1 , 1 996 , 9 9 -114 . H ENR IKSSON , G . & B LOMBERG , M . : « Pe t sopha s a nd t h e S umme rS o l s t ice» , O pA th , 2 2 , 1 997 -98 , 1 48 -51 .

A LLEN , R .H . : S ta r Name s : T he i r L ore a nd Mean ing , NY ( Dove r ) 21 963 . BASSET , R . : 1 886 -1905 .

a nd

H ENR IKSSON , G . & B LOMBERG , M . : « New A rgumen t s f o r t h e M inoan O r ig in o ft h e S t e l la rP o s i t ion s i nA ra tos ' P ha i n omena» , A s t ronomy a nd C u l tura lD iver s i ty : P roceed ing s o ft h eI n terna t iona lC onf erence «Oxf ord V Ia nd SEAC 9 9» , L a L aguna , 2 1-29 J une 1 999 ( E s teban , C . & B e lmon te , J .A . , e d s . ) , T ene r if f e ( O rgan i smo Au tönomo d e Mu seos d e lC ab i ldo )2 000 , 3 03 -10 .

i n R evue d e s t r ad i t ions p opu la i re s , P a r is

B LOMBERG , M . &H ENR IKSSON , G . : « Fu r the r E v idence f o r t h e M inoan O r ig in o f t h e G reek C a lenda r s» , HE IIPAT MENA H ' A IONOYE KPHTOAOT IKOY EYNEAP IOY , f e ra -

k l e ion 2 000 , 1 09 -28 .

H EUBECK , A . , WEST , S . , HA INSWORTH , J .B . : A C ommen ta ry o n Homer ' s Od y s sey , I( I n t roduc t ion & B ook s i v i i i ) , O xf o rd 1 988 .

B LOMBERG , M . &H ENR IKSSON , G . : « Ev idence f o rt h e M i n oan O r ig in s o f S t e l la r N av iga t ion» , A c te s d e l a ?n e C onf e rence d e l a SEAC , Gd an sk , 5 -8 S ep tembre 1 997 , Wa r szawa—Gdan sk ( Sw ia tow i t S uppL S er ie s H : A n thropo logy , I ) 1 999 .

KI DD , D . : A ra tu s P hwnomena , C amb r idge ( Cambr idge C la ss ica l T ex t sa nd C ommen ta r ie s , 3 4 ) 1 997 . L ASSERRE , F . : D ie F ragmen te d e s E udoxo s v on K n ido s , B e r l in ( T ex te u nd K ommen tare : E ine a l ter tumsw ( en s chaf t l iche R e ihe , B and 4 ) 1 966 .

B LOMBERG , P . : « An A s t ronom ica l I n te rp re ta t ion o f F ind s f r om M inoan C re te» , A s t ronomy a nd C u l tura l D iver s i ty : P roceed ing so ft h eI n terna t iona lC onf erence O xf ord V Ia nd

L OCHER , K . : « A C on jec tu re c oncer n ing t h e E a r ly E gyp t ian C ons te l la t ion o ft h e S heep» ,A rch c eoa s t ronomy 3( s upp l . t o JHA , 1 2 ) , 1 981 , S 73 -75 .

2

G a in c omm en t s t h a tt h e s e l i n e s a r e n o t at r a n s la t ion , b u tt h e a u t ho r ' s p i c tu r e i st a k en f r om A r a t o s ' 1 .5 8 18 5 . Iu n d e r s t a nd t h a t G e rma n i cu s C x sa r m e an t t h a t B o o t e s w a s l e a d ing aw a g on a n d w a s u n y ok ing h i s o x en ,w h i ch w e r ep u l l ing t h ew a g on . 7 4

P e te rE . B lombe rg : T he E a r ly H e l len ic S ky Map r e cons t ruc ted f r om A rchxoa s t ronom ica l a nd T ex tua l S tud ies LOCHER , K . : « New A rgumen t s f o r t h e C e le s t ia l L oca t t ion o f t h e D ecana l B e l t a nd f o r t h e O r ig in s o f t h e s 3 1 )H ie rog lyph» ,A t t i V IC ong re s so l i n terna t iona le d iE g i t to lo g ia , I , 1 993 , 2 79 -84 .

A . : G e s t i rnnamen b e i d en i ndogerman i schen V ö lkern , H e ide lbe rg ( For schungen z um W or t scha t z d er i ndogerman i schen S prachen , 1 )1 953 .

SCHERER ,

S ZE MERENY I , 0 .J .L . : I nn sbrucker B e i t räge K u l turw ißen schaf t , S onde rhef t1 5 , 1 962a , 1 75 -212 .

J .A . : « The G rea t K ou ro s i nC re tan A r t» , T he P a la ika s t ro K ouro s : A M inoan C hry se lephan t ine S ta tue t te ( MacG i l l iv ray , J .A . , D r ie ssen , J .M . & S acke t t , L .H . ,e d s . ) L ondon ( BSA S tud ies , 6 )2 000 , 1 23 -30 . M ACG ILL IVRAY ,

M ART IN , J . : A ra to s P hjnom Me s , U n ive r s i tes d e F rance )P a r is 1 998 . M AUNDER ,

( Co l lec t ion

z ur

S ZEMERENY I , 0 .J .L . : T rend s a nd T a sk s i n C ompa ra t ive P h i lo logy , L ondon ( An I n augu ra l L ec tu re D e l ive red a t Un ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon , 2 3 O c tobe r 1 961) 1 962b .

d es

S . : « A ra tu s ' P ha inomena : D a t ing a nd Ana ly s ing i t s P r ima ry S ou rce» , A s t ronom ica l a nd A s t rophy s ica lT ran sac t ion s , 1 7 , 1 999 ,4 83 -500 . Anc ien t Au tho r s , T ran s la t ion s a nd P ub l ica t ion sU sed : ZH ITO M IRSK I J ,

E .W . : T he A s t ronomy o f t h e B ib le , L ondon

1 908 . MYREs ,J .L . : « Excava t ions a tP a la ika s t ro , I . §1 3 : T he S an c t ua ry—S i te o fP e t sof ä» , BSA, 9 ,1 902 -03 .

ARATOS : s ee K IDD ,

R .A . : E gyp t ian A s t ronom ica l T ex t s , I :T he E ar ly D ecan s , P rov idence R I ( B rown U n ive r s i ty P res s ) 1 960 .

ARATOS : s e e GA IN , D .B . : A ra to s , T he A ra tu s a scr ibed t o

D . : A ra tu s P hwnomena , C amb r idge ( Cambr idge C la s s ica lT ex t sa nd C ommen tar ie s , 3 4 ) 1 997 .

NEUGEBAUER , 0 . & PARKER ,

G erman icu s Cx sar ( Ga in , D .B . , e d . ) , L ondon 1 976 .

OVENDEN , M.

F . : D ie F ragmen te d e s E udoxo s v on K n idos , B e r l in ( T ex te u nd K ommen ta re : E ine a l ter tumsw ißen schaf t l iche R e ihe , B and 4 ) 1 966 .

ROSCHER , W .H . , A usf ür l iche s L ex icon d er g r iech i schen

u nd r öm i schen My tho log ie , L e ipz ig 1 909 -15 .

F IERODOTOS : s ee GODLEY , A .D . : H erodo tus H i s tory , C am b r idge MA ( Ha rva rd U n ive r s i ty P re ss , Lcb C la ss ica l L ib r ary , 17 ) 51 98 1.

RO Y , A . E . , « The O r ig in s o ft h e C on s te l la t ion s» V i s ta s i n A s t ronomy , 2 7 , 1 984 , 1 71-91 .

H Es ioDos : s ee W EST , M .L . : W ork s a nd Day s , Ed i ted w i th P ro legomena a nd C ommen ta ry, O xf o rd 1 978

RUTKOWSK I , B . , P e t sopha s : A C re tan P eak S anc tuary ,

NONNOS : s e eD iony s iaca , XLV I I , 2 51 .

EUDOXOS : s ee LASSERRE ,

W . : « The O r ig in o ft h e C on s te l la t ion s» , P h i l o soph ica l J ourna l , I I , G la sgow ( T ran sac t ion s o f t h e R oya lP h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty o fG la sgow ) 1 966 , 1 18 .

Wa r saw ( S tud ie s a nd Monog raphs i n Med i ter ranean A rchxo logy a nd C iv i l i za t ion , S e r . I ,I )1 991 .

S TRABON : s e e JONES , H .L . : T he G eog raphy o f S t rabo , C amb r idge MA ( Lc eb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry ) 1 969 .

AP PEND IX S TUD IES REGARD ING THE AGE O F THE I NFOR MAT ION I N ARATOS '

Y ear S cho lar R e su l ti nY ear s BCE 1 885 R ober tB rown c .2 085 1 908 Maunde r c .2 700 1 923 C romme l in c .2 500? 1 966 O venden 2 600 ± 8 00 1 984 R oy c .2 000 1 999 Z h i tom i r sk i j E a r ly 2n d M i l lenn ium 2 000 H en r ik s son /B lombe rg c .2 250

7 5

PH A INOMENA

Me thod Ana ly s i s o ft h e G rea tC i rc le s Ana ly s i s o ft h e S ou the rn S ky Ana ly s i s o ft h e S ou the rn S ky A na ly s is o fS imu l taneou sR is ing s A na ly s is o ft h eG rea tC i rc les A na ly s i s o ft h eG rea tC i rc les A na ly s is o ft h e G rea tC i rc le s

A MANDA-AL ICE M ARAVEL IA ( ED .) :

ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

A Commen t o ft he Author o n B rad ley S chaef er 's Recent P aper i n JHA ,3 3 ,2 002 ,3 13 -350 . B rad ley S cha ef e r s e em s n o tt oh ave r e ad am ode rn p ub l ica t ion o n A ra to s w i th c ommen t s [ e .g . : KIDD, 1 997 ] . I nt h e v e ry b eg inn ing h e s a y st h a tb o th H e s iodo sa nd H omö ro sm en t ion t h eB ig B ear ; s ome th ing t h a tn e i the ro ft h em d o , af a c td i scu s sed i na l m ode rn c ommen t s o nt h e i rt e x t s . T hey m en t ion o n ly A r /do s , i nt h e s i ngu la r , n o « B ig» . A s am a t te ro ff a c t , h ed oe sn o tm en t ion w h ich e d i t ion o fA ra to sh e u s e s , n e i the rd oe sh em en t ion w he re i nt h eH e l len ic t e x t sh ef o und w ha th ec i te s . Ig o tt h ei mp re s s ion t h a th ed i dn o tr e ad t h ec omp le te t e x t s . H e c on t inue s i n as im i la rw ay w hen h e s a y s t h a tt h e re w a s ac on s te l la t ion B ea r i nm any E u ropean c u l tu re s . I ti s ,h ow eve r , c l ea r t h a tt h e re w a sn os u ch c on s te l la t ion a nywhe re i nE u ropean f o lk c u l tu r e ,n o te ven i nc u l tu r e sw he r et h ea n ima lb ea rh ad as a c r ed p o s i t ion s u ch a st h e S aam i p eop le o r i nt h e B a sque c u l tu re . T he B a sque c u l tu re h a s aS ky B ea r , a sh e s a y s , b u t i ti sn o t ac on s t e l la t ion . I n N o r ther nE u rope t h ef o lk u nde r s tand ing o ft h ec on s te l la t ion U r sa Ma jo ri sa ne l k . S of a ra s Ik now h ei sc o r r ec tt h a tt h eN o r th Ame r ican I nd ian sh ave ac on s te l la t ion B e a r , b u t Ih ave n o t s e en a ny b a se f o rt h a tu nde r s tand ing b ef o re t h eE u ropean sc ame t oN o r th Ame r ica a nd h ad U r sa Ma jo ra nd U r sa M ino rw i th t h em a sn av iga t ion c on s te l la t ion s . T he se m is take si nh i sp ape rm ake m eu nea sy i nr e ad ing i t . I fw e l o ok a th i s a na ly s i s o ft h e « vo id is t s» h e i sm o re o n h i s o wn g round . I nn o te 3 0 h e c i te s t h e L aL aguna C onf e r enc e p ub l ica t ion , w h ich m ean st h a th ei sa wa r eo ft h ep ape rb y Ma ry B lombe rg a nd G ö ran H en r ik s son ,w he r et h ey d i scu s st h ea ge o fA ra to s ' i n f o rma t ion , a sw e l la sm yp r e sen ta t ion o ft h ef i nd sf r om t h ep eak s a nc tua r ie so nC re te . H oweve r ,h es t a t e st h a tt h e re i sn oa r chwo log ica le v idence f o r u nde r s tand ing t h e c on s te l la t ion s i nH e l la s b ef o r e H omö ro s a nd H e s iodo s . H e d oe s n o t c ommen to n m ine a nd Ma ry B lombe rg 's p ape r s f r om L aL aguna . H es e e so n ly w ha th ew an t st os e e . When r e ad ing h i sp ape ri ti si n te re s t ing t of i nd f o ri n s tance t h a tt h ec on s te l la t ion t h e A l tar w a s s e en f r om C re t e d u r ing M inoan t ime s , b u t n o t m uch l a te r . A n a l t a r b e long s t ot h e f i nd s f r om t h o se p eak s a nd S cha ef e r 's a na ly s i s t h u s c onf i rm s t h a t s e em ing ly t h e M inoan s c ou ld h ave h ad ac on s te l la t ion n amed A l tar , w h ich t h e l a te r H e l lene s d i d n o t s e e . S ome c on s te l la t ion s n o t s e en d u r ing t h e M inoan t ime s , a c co rd ing t oS cha ef e r 's a na ly s is , a r em i s s ing f r om t h o se p eak s . T he f i nd s f r om t h o se p eak s a r e v e ry i n te re s t ing a s am a t te r o ff a c t . H oweve r , w e m u s t n o t d r aw t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e w e s te rn c on s t e l la t ion s w e r e f o rmed a nd i d en t if ied b y t h e M inoan s . T h i s p roce s s i sm o s t l i ke ly m uch o l de r , b u t i ts e em s t h a t t h e n ame s w e u s e t o day f o r m any c on s te l la t ion sw e re a l r eady e s tab l ished d u r ing t h eM inoan t ime s . C r e te s e em st oh ave b een a n i mpo r tan tp o in to fc on ta c ti nt h eE a s ter n Med i te r ranean d u r ing t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge . T he k now ledge a nd f o rma t ion o ft h e c on s t e l la t ion s mu s t b e m uch o l de r a nd m o s t l i ke ly t o ok p l a ce o ve r al a rge g eog raph ica l a r ea . T he m o re o ne l o ok s i n to t h e h i s tor y o f A s t ronomy , t h e o l de r i ts e em s t ob e ; a nd t h e i n f o rma t ion c om ing d own t ou s s e em st oh ave b een c omp i led p robab ly b y s e ve ra l c u l tu r e s . I ts e em st om e , h oweve r , t h a tA ra to s u sed i n f o rma t ion f r om a r ound 2 000 B CE f o r much ,b u tn o ta l l , o fh i st e x t .A tl e a s ts ome o ft h ei n f o rma t ion i mpo r tan tf o rn av iga t ion & c .m ay b el a te rt h an M inoan t ime s . H is a na ly s is o ft h e« vo id i s t s» a ss u ch i so fi n te r e s ta nd a dd sf u r the ru nde r s tand ing t ot h ee a r ly s t udy o ft h ec on s te l la t ion s ,b u th eh a sn o r e a lr e a son b eh ind s ome o fh i sc onc lu s ion so nt h eh i s to ry o ft h ec on s te l la t ion s . H em ay b er i gh ta bou tm i s take sm ade b yt h e« vo id i s t s» , b u tt od a t et h ew e s ter nc on s te l la t ion st ot h et ime j u s tb ef o r eH ome ro sa nd H e s iodo ss e em st ob ei n co r r ec tt om e . S chaef e r 's p ape r ,w h ich i si n te r e s t ing , c on ta in ss ome s e r iou s f a u l t sc a s t ing d oub t s o nt h ew ho le o fi t .H is l a ck o fk now ledge o ft h eH e l len ic t e x t sa nd w ha tt h ey r e a l ly t e l la nd m ean i sad r awba ck . O the rw ise , Ih ave n od oub t sa bou th i sm a thema t ica lc a lcu la t ion s , &c .

7 6

An I ron Age B o l ide S tr ike i nS ou thern Gau l Ra lph M. Row le t t

i th a s b ecome r e a l ized t h a tt h e E a r th h a s b een i mpa c ted b y a s te ro id s o r c ome t s a t t h e e nd o f t h e C r e taceou s [ ALvÄREz , 1 997 ] , t h e T r ia s ss ic , a nd t h e P e rm ian [ DAUBER & MÜLLER , 1 996 ] . B o l ide s o ft h e m agn i tude o ft h e 1 908 S t ony T ungu ska i mpac t a r e e s t ima ted t oo ccu r a bou t o nce p e r c en tu ry [ CLARK & P EAR , 1 997 ] . T he se c o sm ic c o l l i s ion s a nd t h e ir e f ec t s o n t e r r e s t r ia l l i f e , a nd r e la t ive ly c l o se f l y—by s o fa s te ro id s i nt h e l a te 2 0t h c en tu ry a nd o n 1 4 J une o f 2 002 [ BEvAN & D E UETER , 2 002 ] h ave p u t t h e s hoe o n t h e o t he r f oo t . C e l t ic f e a r s n ow s e em n o t w i ld ly f a n ta s t ic , b u t a s tu te , p e r sp ica ceou s a nd r e a l is t ic ! C ou ld t h e a nc ien t C e l t s h ave w i tne s sed a m e teo r i t ic i mpac t o r a b o l ide s t r ike s omewhe r e i nt h e i rt e r r i to ry?

A b s trac t Wh i le d ange r f r om a n a s te ro id s t r ike d i d n o t s e em v e ry l i ke ly i n t h e l a te 1 s t M i l lenn ium B CE , b y t h e e a r ly 3 rd M i l lenn ium C E , s c i e n t if ic r e sea rch i n A s t ronomy , G eo logy , P a leon to logy a nd A r cheo logy h a s m ade i ta bundan t ly c l ea r t h a t o u r p l ane t i ss t i l l u nde r b omba rdmen t f r om a s te ro id s , c ome t s , a nd o t he r c e le s t ia l o b jec t s ( l ike m e teo r i te s a nd m e teo r s ) t h a t c ou ld v e ry w e l l p rove d i sa s t rou s f o r l i f e o n E a r th i nt h e f u tu r e ,j u s ta si th a sd one i nt h e p a s t . T he B ose c e le s t ia l b ody s t r ike ( Ch ina ) a s soc ia te s w i th A cheu lean h and a xe s . T he A r izona Me teo r C ra te r i se s t ima ted t o h ave b een f o rmed 5 0000 y ea r s a go , o n ly s ho r t ly b ef o re h uman b e ing s a r r ived i n t h e N ew Wo r ld . T he Twen t ie th C en tu ry T ungu ska B o l ide i nS ibe r ia w ou ld h ave b een d eva s ta t ing i fi th ad h i t az one d en se w i th h uman p opu la t ion , a nd s t r ike s o f s uch m agn i tude a r e e s t ima ted t o o ccu r a tt h e r a te o fo ne p e r c en tu ry ! O bv iou s ly , s ome o f t h e se s hou ld b e d e tec tab le i n t h e a r cheo log ica l r e co rd . A c omb ina t ion o f A r ch z eo logy a nd t h e H e l len ic l e gend o ft h e T en th L abou r o fH e rak le s , w hen h e i sr e t u rn ing e a s twa rd a f t e rh av ing s t o len t h er e d c a t t le o fG e ryön , i m p l ie s t h a t C e l t s o r C e l to—L igu r ian s e xpe r ienced s uch a b o l ide s t r ike b y s t ony m e teo r i te s i nS ou the rn G au l i nt h e 6t h c en tu ry o r t h e e a r ly 5t h c en tu ry B CE . T he L abou r s o fH e rak le s , o fc ou r se , c on s t i tu te a c omp i la t ion o fs t o r ie s , s ome o fw h ich s e em t o d a te f r om t h e P a l z eo l i th ic , many f r om t h e B ronze A ge a nd p e rhap s o t he r s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t I r on A ge . T he e a r l ie s t v e r s ion s o f t h e T en th L abou r s e em n o tt om en t ion t h e f a l l ing o fs t one s f r om t h e s ky , s en t b y Z eu s t o s ave h i s s on . T h is w ou ld h ave b een d u r ing H a l l s ta t t I b ( =D 2 ) i nt e rm s o f I r on A ge c h rono logy ; t hu s t h e e qu ipmen t o f t h e p eop le s t ruck b y t h i s i mpa c t c an b e e a s i ly r e con s t ruc ted , s how ing i t sa f f in i t ie sw i th C e l t ic c u l tu ra lm a te r ia ls . T he H e l len ic a ccoun t sf r om t h e 5t h c en tu ry B CE o nwa rd a r ef a i r ly s pec if ic i nt e rm s o ft h e l o ca t ion o ft h es t r ik e a sw e l l a st h e m ake— u p o ft h e m e teo r i te . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h eg r ea td ange rt oh uman l i f e p o sed b y s uch b omba rdmen t s t e s t if ie s t o t h e a s tu tene s s o f C e l t ic l o re a nd k now ledge . T he r e cu r rence o f s uch e ven t s a l so m ak e s i te v iden t t h a t m oder n d ay E a r th l ing s s hou ld u se t h e i r t e chno logy t o d eve lop d ef en se s a ga ins t s u ch c osm ic b omba rd m en t s .

I . T he Me teor i t ic I mpac t S uch a n h ypo the s i s s e em s e n t i re ly r e a sonab le , s o as ea rch s hou ld b e m ade f o r p o s s ib le i mpa c t s i t e s w i th in t h e C e l t ic a r ea . T h i s c ou ld b e af a i r ly d aun t ing t a sk , h oweve r , f o r i n a nc ien t t ime s t h e C e l t ic t e r r i to ry c ove r ed r ough ly 1 / 3 o f E u rope , e mb rac ing s ome o f t h e c on t inen t 's m o s t r ugged t e r ra in i nt h e A lp ine z one s [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . T he k nown c on tex t o f t h e s t a temen t t o A lexande r t h e G rea t p rov ides s ome c h rono log ica l i n d ica t ion , i . e . t h e i mpa c t w ou ld h ave t o h ave o ccu r red b ef o re 35 BCE . Wh i le i tw ou ld b e i no rde r t o l o ok f o r m e teo r i t ic i mpac t s i te s i n a nc ien t t ime s b ef o re 35 B CE , h e lp d oe s c ome f r om a r a the r u n l ike ly s ou rce . I n t h e a ccoun t s o f t h e L abou r s o f H e rak le s , t h e r e i sg i ven a n a coun t o f s t one s f a l l ing f r om t h e s k ie s i nS ou ther nG au l ,w i th in t h et e r r i to ry o f C e l to—L igu r ian s , a nd i n deed f a l l ing u pon C e l to— L igu r ian s . A t f i r s t g l ance t h e L abou r s o f H e rak le s s e em l i ke a n u n l ike ly p l ace t o f i nd s c ien t if ic e v idence , f o r H e rak le s b e long s t o t h e my tho log ica l d r eam t ime o f t h e a nc ien t H e l lene s [ BURKERT , 1 979 ] . When w ou ld t h is s uppo sed t o h ave b een? S ome o f H e rak le s t a sk s , s u ch a s e s tab l i sh ing t h e P i l la r s o fH e rak le s a tG ib ra l ta r , w ou ld g o b a ck t ot h e b eg inn ing o ft h e P l iocene . S ince H e rak le s k new b o th K ing M inö s a nd K ing P r iamo s a tT roy , w ho f ough t a ga in s t t h e H e l lene s ( l ed b y A gamemnön a nd Mene laos ) , o ne w ou ld i mag ine t h a t h e e x tend s d own t oc . 100 B CE w i th t h e f a l l o fT roy [ BETANCOURT , 1 976 ; HO OD , 1 995 ] . O n t h e o t he r h and , H e rak le s i s s uppo sed t o h ave e s tab l i shed t h e O lymp ic g ame s , w h ich r e la te s t o r e a l e ven t s a nd t h u s t h eo r e t ica l ly p rov ide s ap r ec i se d a te o f 7 76 B CE .

K EY WORDS : Me teo r i te s , B o l ide S t r ike s , S ou the rn G au l , C e l to— L igou r ians , I r on A ge ,H a l ls ta t tI l b( = D 2 ) ,H e rak le s ( He r cu le s ) , L a b ou r so fH e rak lö s , H e l len ic My tho logy .

I .I n troduc t ion I n 3 35 B CE , w hen A lexande r t h e G r ea t a sked a G a la t ian C e l t ic c h ief ta in w ha t i tw a s t h e C e l t s f e a red , h e r e p l ied «We f e a rn om an , o n ly t h i s . .t h a tt h e s ky s hou ld f a l l u pon o u r h ead s» [ CUNL IFFE , 1 997 : 8 0 ] . T h i s r e p ly w a s c ons ide red b y t h e a nc ien t H e l lene s a nd R oman s ( a nd a g r ea t m any moder n s cho la r s ) a s e v idence b o th o f C e l t ic c ou rage a nd C e l t ic s t up id i ty , s i nce i tw a s n o t w ide ly b e l ieved t h en o r i n l a te r t ime s t h a t t h e re w a s a ny g r ea t d ange r f r om i t em s f a l l ing f r om t h e s ky . Wh i le a nc ien t G e rman s a nd S l ay s d id n o t l e ave a r e co rd o f e d i to r ia l iza t ion o n t h i s G a la t ian r ema rk , t h e c oncep t s e em s t ob e s a t i r ized i nt h e w ide sp read f o lk ta le o fC h icken L i t t le , w ho g o th im se lf a nd h i s g u l l ib le f r i end s i n to ag r ea t d ea l o f t r oub le b ecau se t h e c h ick le t b e l ieved t h a t af a l l ing a co rn w a s ap i ece o fs ky f a l l ing u pon h im . B y t h e y ea r2 002 C E , h oweve r , w hen t h e s l amm ing o f t h e S hoemake r—Levy c ome ti n to J up i te rw a s w i tne s sed b ym i l l ion s o nt e lev i s ion ,

Ac l o se l o ok a tt h e a ccoun t o ft h e s t one f a l l f r om t h e s ky ( o rt h e h eaven s ) , h oweve r , p rov ide s am o re p rec i se d a t ing . T he i n c iden t o ccu r s i nt h e f amou s s t o ry o fh ow H e rak le s , a s p a r t o f h i s o b l iga to ry 1 0t h L abou r , m u s t g o f a r t o t h e We s t t o s t ea l t h e r ed c a t t le o f am on s t rou s h uman , t h e t h ree—headed G e ryön . A cco rd ing t o t h e a nc ien t d e sc r ip t ion s , t h i s w ou ld h ave t a ken p l a ce o f ft h e A t lan t ic c oa s t o f p r e sen t d ay S ou th— We s ter n P o r tuga l o n ar ed i s land . T h is s t o ry i n i t s e lf i s f u l l o f a s t ronom ica l a nd c o smo log ica l s i gn if icance , f o r H e rak le s m u s t r i de i n t h e 7 7

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

g o lden « cup» b oa t o fH e l io s t h e S un , a nd t h e r ed c a t t le o f G e ryön , w h ich a r e s en t o u t t op a s tu re a tn i gh t i nt h e w e s t , s e em s t o b e r e f e r r ing t o r ed c l oud s a t s un se t . F rom t h e A t lan t ic H e rak le sw a s o b l iged t od r ive t h e c a t t le h e rd b a ck [ s ee F ig . 2 ] a c ro s s t h e I b e r ian P en in su la , a l ong S ou the rn G au l , t h rough E t ru r ia a nd e ven tua l ly g e t t ing b a ck t oH e l la s a f t e rm any a dven tu re sa l ong t h ew ay .

g l ac ia t ion s a nd d epo s i ted w hen t h e Med i te r ran ean s ho re w a s2 0 k m mo re i n land t h an t oday . T he s a lva t ion o fH e rak le s b yt h e s t one s f r om t h e s ky a tt h e P l a ine d e G rau c ou ld n o t p o s s ib ly h ave b een i n tended b y A i schy lo s , b ecau se h e s pec if ica l ly p o in t s o u t t h a t t h e g round w a s s of t , a nd l i gh t c o lou r ed . T he P la ine d e G rau i s t h ick ly p aved f o rm any s qua re m e te r s w i th r o ck s , a nd i nn o s e n se c ou ld b e c a l led s of t o r l i gh t c o lou r ed . S i nce A i schy lo s n o te s t h a t t h e s t one s f e l l f r om o r t h rough a c l oud , o ne m igh t i mag ine t h a t t h e s t one s w e re i c e b a l l s o r l a rge h a i l— s tone s , b u t h e s pec if ica l ly s ay s t h a t t h e s t one s w e re d a rk a nd d a rkened t h e g round b y t h e i r p r e sence . H e s e em s t o b e d e sc r ib ing a s howe r o f s t ony m e teo r i te s , p o s s ib ly b roken u p b y g r av i ta t iona l ( t ida l ) f o r ce s [ BURNS , 2 002 ] u pon t h e p a s sage o ft h e b o l ide t h rough t h e E a r th 's a tmo sphe re .

T he a ccoun t g oe s c l ea r ly b ack t o t h e 9t h c en tu ry a tl e a s t , b e ing c i ted b y H ome ro s a nd a ga in i nt h e 8th b y H e s iodo s . T he e ve r—popu la r s t o r ie s o f H e rak le s a nd h i s l a bou r s a r e r e p r i sed n ume rou s t ime s b y l a te r C la s s ica l a u tho r s . T he se t wo e a r ly a u tho r s d o n o t m en t ion , h oweve r , a ny f a l l o f s t one s f r om t h e s ky o n C e l to—L igu r ian s . S t e s t icho ro s , i n t h e 7t h c en tu ry BCE , w ro te m o s te x ten s ive ly a bou t H e rak le s a nd G e ryön , b u t ( a t l e a s t i nt h e s u rv iv ing f r agmen t s ) t h e re i sn om en t ion o ft h ef a l lo fs t one s f r om t h e s ky . T he f i r s t a nc ien t a u tho r t o m en t ion t h e f a l l o f s t one s i n c iden t i s A i schy lo s , w r i t ing i n t h e e a r ly 5t h c en tu ry . P u t t ing t h e a ccoun t f o rwa rd a s ap rophe sy t o H e rak le s i n t h e p lay P rome theu s D e smö te s , A i schy lo s g i ve s c on s ide rab le d e ta i l , p rov id ing a n a i r o f v e r s im i l i tude . H e rak le s h ad p a s sed Ma s sa l ia , t h e H e l len ic c o lony i n S ou the rn G au l e s tab l i shed a bou t6 00 BCE , a nd h ad c r o s sed t h e R höne , w hen h e w a s s e t u pon b y t wo C e l to—L igu r ian s , s on s o f P o se idön , i . e . t h e S ea , i n tend ing t o s t ea l t h e c ow h e rd , b u t H e rak le s k i l l s t h em . A dd i t iona l C e l to—L igu r ian w a r r io r s s e ek r evenge , a nd a t tack H e rak le s , w ho s ub sequen t ly r un s o u t o f p o i soned a r row s . D e spe ra te ly p r e s sed , H e rak le s f a l l s t ot h e s of tg round a nd p ray s t oh i s f a the r Z eu s f o r a s s i s tance , w h ich i ss e n t b yt h e d i v ine p ro g en i to r i nt h e f o rm o f as howe r o fs t one s . T he se s t one sk i l l m any o ft h e C e l to—L igu r ian s a nd d r ive a way t h eo t he r s , s a v i ng H e rak le sa nd h i sr u s t led h e rd .

I n g ene ra l t h e s o i l a l ong t h e n or th e dge o f t h e Med i te r ranean i nS ou ther n G au l t e nd s t ob e r o cky , s o t h e a s se r t ion t h a tt h e s o i l w a s s of ta nd p a le h e lp s t od e l im i tt h e p l ace s w he re s uch am e teo r s howe r c ou ld h ave f a l len . T he s wampy l a nd o ft h e C ama rgue i nt h e R höne D e l ta i ss of t e nough , a l though t h i s s o i l t e nd s t o b e r a the r d a rk . A ny c r a te r s m ade t h e r e w ou ld b e b u r ied u nde r t h e s i l t o ft h e D e l ta . I na ny c a se , t h e s t one s a r e s a id t oh ave f a l len e a s t o f Ma s sa l ia , w h ich w ou ld r u le o u t m o s t , b u t n o t a l o f t h e C ama rgue a nd t h en e ighbou r ing s wamp land s . A long t h e t r ad i t iona l R ou te d e H e rcu le i nS ou ther n G au l , P ez e t [ PEzET , 1 962 : 4 9 ] d raw s a t ten t ion t o t h e s t one le ss , s of t a nd o ch r e t o l i gh t b rown s o i l b e tween ST Max im im a nd ST E B aume [ s ee F ig . 2 ] . A t p r e sen t t h i s s e em s a s t h e m o s t l i ke ly p l ace f o r t h e m e teo r i te s t o h ave i mpac ted , s o f u r the r f i e ld w o rk i nt h a t a r ea s hou ld l o ok f o r a dd i t iona l e v idence o f s uch p henomena . I fL igu r ian i sc on s t rued i n t h e s t r ic t s e n se a st h e n ame o fo ne t r ibe , a nd n o tj u s t t h e l a be l e x tended t o an umbe r o fr e la ted t r ibe s c ompo s ing a s ub—g roup o f C e l t s , s u ch a s f o r e xamp le t h e B e ig e , t h e e ven t mu s t h ave h appened a l ong t h e n a r row c oa s ta l p l a in n ea rN ice , a l though as u i tab le s o i l i sn o to bv iou st h e r e .

T he a nc ien t H e l lene s a nd t h e R oman s i n te rp r e ted t h e s t one f a l l a s c om ing f r om Z eu s . T h i s g od , h oweve r , n o rma l ly u sed l i gh tn ing b o l t s , n o t s t one s , a s h i s m i s s i le s ' . T he g od w a s as t r ike r , n o t as l inge r . C ou ld t h i s s t one f a l l b e a n a c coun t o f am e teo r i t ic s howe r , f a l l ing f r om t h e s ky u pon G au l s a nd g i v ing r i se t ot h eC e l t ic f e a ro ft h e s ky f a l l ing o n t h e i rh ead s? T h is w ou ld h ave h appened s ome t ime i nt h e 6t h c en tu ry —af t e r Ma s sa l ia w a s f ounded — , b u t b ef o r e A i schy lo s ' d r ama .

A r chxo log ica l ly , t h i s m e teo re t ic s howe rw ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t I a /D 1 c h rono log ica l h o r izon [ ROWLETT , 1 968 ; R OWLETT & P EREGR INE , 2 00 1 ] . A t t h a t t ime , m o s t o ft h e s ame j ewe l le ry a nd h o r izon m a rke r s c ha r a c te r i s t ic o ft h e e n t i r e w e s ter n H a l ls ta t t z one w ou ld h ave b een p r e sen t , a nd t h e « L igu r ian» m a te r ia l c u l tu r e w ou ld h ave b een v e ry s im i la r t ot h a t i nt h e C e l t ic h ea r t land [ s ee F ig . 3 ] . C e r ta in ly c ommun ica t ion w a s c l ose e nough w i th t h e C e l t s , t h a t w o rd o fd ange rou s o b jec t s f a l l ing f r om t h e s ky c ou ld h av e b een e a s i ly t r an sm i t ted . T he C e l to— L igu r ian w a r r io r s w ho a t tacked H e rak le s —o r m aybe P höcean H e l lene s f r om o ne o f t h e c oa s ta l c o lon ie s— w ou ld h ave l o oked much l i ke t h e o ne i nF i gu r e 4 . S ince H e rak le s o rt h e H e l lene s w e r e s hoo t ing b ack w i th a r row s , o ne mu s t i n f e rt h a t t h e b a t t le d e sc r ibed b y A i scchy lo s w a s e s sen t ia l ly a d i s tanced b a t t le c onduc ted p r ima r i ly b y a r che ry . S i nce t h e l a te 6t h a nd 5th c en t u r ie s BCE a r e n o rma l ly r e ga rded a s t h e d ep th s o ft h e S ub—A t lan t ic c oo l c l ima t ic p e r iod , i ft h e c e le s t ia l i mpac t w a s o fs ome s i ze , i t m igh th ave f u r the rd e te r io ra ted t h ec l ima te f o r af ew y ea r s .

T he a nc ien tt e x t s a l so p rov ide s ome i n d ica t ion a st ow he re t h i s w ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace a sw e l l . L a te r , R oman e r aw r i t e r s i n i t ia l ly i d en t if ied t h e P l a ine d e G rau [ KERtNY I , 1 959 : 1 69 ] e a s t o f Ma s sa l ia /Ma r se i l le a s t h e p l ace w he re t h i s o ccu r red [ s ee F ig . 2 ] . H e r e i st h e P la ine , w h ich i sc ove red f o r many h ec ta re s w i th s moo th , r ounded s t one s . T h i s l a te a t t r ibu t ion , h oweve r , i s c l ea r ly a n e t io log ica l t a le , a nd c ou ld n o t p o s s ib ly b e t h e s i te o fm e teo r i t ic i mpa c t s o rt h e p l ace t h a t A i schy lo s w a s d e sc r ib ing ; e ven t h ough t h a t i d en t if ica t ion h a s e n te r ed i n to t h e c anon ica l l i t e ra tu re . I n moder nt e rm s , t h e P l a ine d e G rau i s as h ing le b each o fa n a nc ien t P l e i s tocene b ranch o ft h e D u rance R ive r , i t s m any s t one s h av ing b een b rough t d own t h e r i ve r b y A lp ine

E d i tor ' s N o t e : F o r ac om pa r i s o n t os i m i la rp r o p e r t i e s a n d s ym bo l s o f t h e E g y p t ia n i t h y p h a l l i c a n d f e r t i l i t yg o d M in , i d e n t if i ed a l s o b o t h w i t h A mun a n dP a n ,s e e WA INWR IGHT ,G .A . :« S om eC e l e s t i a lA s s o c i a t io n so f M in» , J EA , 2 1 , 1 9 35 , 1 5 2 170 ; f o r t h e s e m a n t i c s o fm e t e o r i t i c i r o n i n a n c i en tE g y p t ,s e ef i n a l ly i b i d em :« I r o ni nE g y p t » ,J EA , 1 8 , 1 9 32 ,3 15 .

I ti su nc lea r w he the r a ny r e a l l i f e H e l lene s w i tne s sed t h i s e ven t , o ri ft h ey h ea rd o fi tm e r e ly f r om t h en a t ive p eop le s . 7 8

R a lph M . R ow le t t : A nI r on A g eB o l ide S t r ike i nS ou the rn G au l I nt h o se p re—Soc ra t ic d ay s , t h ey i n terp re ted t h e e ven t a s a u n ique , d iv ine i n te rven t ion , u n l ike t h e n a tu re—ob se rvan t C e l t s , a t ten t ive t o c e le s t ia l p henomena [ OLmsTED , 1 992 ; HOPE , 1 987 : 1 40 ] , w ho may h ave c on s ide red i ta s amo re g ene ra ln a tu ra l p henomenon .

BURKERT , W . : S t ruc ture a nd H i s to ry i nG reek My tho logy , B e rke ley CA ( Un ive r s i ty o fC a l if orn ia ) 1 979 . BURNS , J . : « Two B od ie s a r e B e t te r t han O ne» , S c ience , 2 97 , 2 002 , 9 42 -43 . C LARK , J . & P EAR , N . : S t range a nd U nexp la ined P henomenon , U SA ( Ga le R esea rch I n c . ) 1 997 . C UNL IFFE , B . : T he W or ld o ft h e C e l t s , L ondon ( Pengu in ) 1 997 .

I I . C onc lus ions I n s umma ry , f r om a2 1g c en tu ry p e r spec t ive , t h e I r on Age C e l t ic f e a r o f d ange r s f a l l ing f r om t h e s ky , s uch a s

DAUBER , P . & MÜLLER , R . : T he T hree B ig B ang s , NY ( Add i son Wes ley ) 1 996 .

m e teo r i t ic o r a s te ro id i mpac t s , s e em s w e l l—p laced . T he a nc ien t H e l len ic a ccoun t , i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e 6t h c en tu ry t o t h e c o rpu s o f s t or ies a bou t t h e h e ro H Z rak le s , a c tua l ly

HOOD , S . : « The B ronze A ge C on tex t o fH ome r» , T he A ges o f Homer ( Ca r te r , J . & Mor r is , S . , e ds . ) , Au s t in T X ( Un ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res s ) 1 995 ,2 5 -32 .

d esc r ibe s t h e f a l l o f s t ony o b jec t s f r om t h e s ky u pon a C e l to—L igu r ian w a r b and . T h is c ou ld h ave b een t h e b a s i s o ft h e C e l t ic f e a ro ft h e s ky , a nd i na ny c a se t h et a le s e em s t o r e co rd a s howe r o f s t ony m e teo r i te s d u r ing H a l ls ta t t I l a /D 1 . Add i t iona l g eo log ica l , a r ch z eoa s t ronom ica l , a nd a r chwo log ica l f i e ld w o rk n eed s t o b e d one i n S ou th— E a s te rn G au l t o t e s t f u r the r t h i s h ypo the s i s o f am e teor i mpac t t h a t c o inc ided c l o se ly w i th t h e c o ldes t t ime o ft h e S ub—A t lan t ic c l ima t ic e r a .

HOPE , M . : T he A nc ien t W i sdom o f t h e C e l t s , L ondon ( Tho r son s ) 1 987 . K ERt i \m , C . : T he H eroe s o ft h e G reek s , L ondon ( Thames &H ud son ) 1 959 . O LMSTED , G . : T he G au l i sh C a lendar , B onn ( Habe l t ) 1 992 . P EZET , M . : H ercu le s , P a r is ( Ed i t ion sD eux Mondes ) 1 962 . ROWLETT , R . : « The I r on Age Nor th o ft h e A lp s» , S c ience , 1 61 , 1 968 , 1 61-64 .

I V . R ef erence s

ROWLETT , R . & P EREGR INE , P . : «Wes t—Cen t ra l E u ropean

A LVÄREZ , W . : TR ex a nd t h e C ra ter o f Doom , P r ince ton N J ( P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty ) 1 997 .

L a te I r on Age» , E ncyc loped ia o fP reh i s tory : E urope ( Pe re g r ine , P . & Embe r , M . , e d s . ) , I V , D o rd rech t ( K luwe r /P le n um )2 002 , 3 99 -405 .

B ETANCOURT , P . : « The E nd o ft h e G reek B ronze Age» , A n t iqu i ty , 5 60 , 1 976 , 4 0 -70 . B EVAN , A . & D E L i ETER , J . : Me teor i te s , Wa sh ing ton DC ( Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion )2 002 .

A cknow ledgemen t s :T he a u tho rt h ank sD uane H a a che r &J am e s L af f e r ty f o rm any h e lpf u ls u gge s t ion s .

7 9

AMANDA—AL I CE M A RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

K roghede

A a re B r oddo r l E zr n t a kup in

D el l Grave Cu lture

FI GURE 1 .Map o ft e r r i to ry o ccup ied b y C e l t s d u r ing t h e I r on A ge a bou tt h et ime o fM idd le L aT ene , t h et ime o ft h e ir g r ea te s te x tens ion . I .L aT ene c u l tu ra l a r ea ; 2 .a r ea s o f mod if ied L aT ene C u l tu re ; 3 . Nor th E u ropean L ow land ( NEL ) c u l tu ra l a r ea ; 4 .A pp rox ima te l im i t o fh eavy s t eppe n omad a s sau l t ; 5 .H unsruck—E if e l L aT ene V a r ian t ; 6 . Ma rn ian L a T ene V a r ian t ; 7 .H ou se U rn NEL V a r ian t ; 8 .F ace U rn NEL V a r ian t [ RowLETT , 1 968 ] . 0C opy r igh t 2 003 , b y P rof . D r R a lph R ow le t t .

4 '4

4

i 4 4

( 2 1

c b

S ALUV I I

.

C )

k t 4, g

c e

0

OXU B I I S t . M ax im in

4 ,

r

Pt i c

r x

e l ? A 7 c e Ni c ea

A ude R . L aV a le t te ' 49 0 x

5 0

1 00 k m

Med i ter ranean S ea 1 . 1 .1

FI GURE 2 . Map s how ing t h et r ad i t iona l R ou te o fl U rak ls a s soc ia ted w i th t h e Gryön e p isode . C e l to—L igu r ian t r iba l n ames i n d ica ted b yc ap i ta l l e t te r s . A rea w i th d i agnona l d a shed l i ne s r e p re sen t st h e z one o fl i gh tc o lo red s o i l b e tween ST Max im in a nd ST E B aume ; a r ea w i th s chema t ic i regu la r« r ock s» r e p re sen t st h e P l a ine d e G rau . C DC opy r igh t 2 003 , b y P rof . D rR a lph R ow le t t .

8 0

R a lph M . R ow le t t : A n I r on A ge B o l ide S t r ike i nS ou thern G au l

FI GURE 3 .H a l ls ta t t 1 b /D2 a r t if ac t s f r om t h e C e l t ic h ea r t land i n We s tern a nd C en t ra l E u rope . ©C opy r igh t2 003 , b y P rof . D rR a lph R ow le t t .

8 1

AMANDA—AL I CE M A RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

FI GURE 4 .H a l ls ta t t I b /D2 a r t if ac t s f r om S ou thern G au l n ea rt h er eg ion o ft h e ST Max im in / ST E B aume . C DC opy r igh t2 003 , b yP rof . D rR a lph R ow le t t .

8 2

E qu inoc t ia l Marker s a nd Or ien ta t ions i nP re—Roman R e l ig ious a nd F unerary Monumen t s o ft he We s tern Med i terranean* Cisar E s teban

A b s t rac t

r e f e rence p o in t s o ft h e h o r izon w i th t ho se o b ta ined u s ing d e ta i led m ap s o ft h e z one . I ng ene ra l , t h e t y p ica l p r ec i s ion o ft h e d a ta i se s t ima ted t o b e ± 0 0. 5 0 f o r t h e a z imu th a nd

We d i scu ss t h e p r e sence o f E qu inox m a rke r s i n a r chxo log ica l s i te so fP re—Roman I b e r ia a nd N o r thwe s tA f r ica . We a l so a na ly se a nd c ompa re t h e o r ien ta t ion p a t te rn s o fR oman a nd P re—Roman r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s o ft h e se a r ea s . We c onc lude t h a t t h e E qu inox o rt h et empo ra lM id—Po in tb e tween S o ls t ice sw a sa na s t ronom ica l e ven t o fg r ea t i mpo r tance i nt h e r i tua l a nd c u l t ic d oma in a nd /o r c a lenda r i nP r e—Roman We s te rn Med i te r ranean . T h is c ou ld b e a c u l tu ra lh e r i tage o ft h eP h c en ic ian a nd /o rH e l len ic c o lon isa t ion .

± 0 . °25 f o r t h e h e igh t . Mo re d e ta i l s o n t h e m ea su r emen t p rocedu re a nd t h e d e r iva t ion o f t h e f i na l c e le s t ia l c oo rd ina te sc an b e f ound i nt h er e f e r ence s . A l though t h e w o rk s h ave c ove red av e ry e x tended g eog ra p h ica l a r ea , w e h ave f ound s ome u nexpec ted c ommon r e su l t s t h a t m ay i n d ica te p o s s ib le r e la t ion s b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t c u l tu ra l r eg ion s . T he mo s t r ema rkab le g ene ra l r e su l t i st h e f i nd ing o fe qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s o n c on sp icuou s e l emen t s o ft h e h o r izon i n an umbe r o fi mpor tan t r e l ig iou s p r ec inc t s o ft h e t h ree c u l tu ra l a r ea s u nde r s t udy . T h i s i so f c ou r se av e ry s t r ik ing r e su l tt h a tw i l l b e d i scu s sed i nd ep th i nt h e f o l low ing . A no the r i n te r e s t ing r e su l t i st h e f i nd ing o f f a i r ly s im i la r p a t ter n s i nt h e o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s o rt emp le s o ft h e I b e r ian sa nd t h e L ibyan s .

KEY WORDS : O r ien ta t ion s o f Monumen t s , Med i te r ranean , I b e r ia , N or th—We s te rn A f r ica , H o r izon , E qu inoxe s a nd S o l s t ice s , E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r s , M id—Po in t s , S un r ise s , S un se t s , S un , Moon , L una r S t and s t i l ls , S t a r s , P lane t s , C ommon A s t ronom ica l C u s t om s .

I .I n troduc t ion I nt h e l a s t d ecad e , Ih ave b een i n vo lved i ns eve ra l a r chwo a s t ronom ica lf i e ldwo rk s t ud ie s i nt h e I b e r ian P en in su la , t h e Magh r eb a nd t h e C ana ry I s land s . Mo s t o ft h em h ave b een c a r r ied o u t w i th t h e c o l labo ra t ion o f S pan ish A r chxo log i s t s a nd a n i mpo r tan t f r ac t ion o f t h e se s t ud ie s h av e b een a l so s ha red w i th m y c o l league J uan A n ton io B e lmon te . T he c ommon o b jec t ive o f t h e se a r ch z eoa s t ronom ica l w o rk s h a s b een t o e l uc ida te t h e a s t ronom ica l e l emen t st h a tc ou ld b e p r e sen ti nt h er e l ig iou s a nd f u ne ra ry w o r ld o fa nc ien t c u l tu re s o ft h e a r ea , a s t h e P re—Roman I b e r ian s o fS ou thea s t S pa in , t h e P re—Roman o r P ro to—Be rbe r p eop le ( t he s o— ca l led L ibyan s ) o f t h e p r e sen t—day Magh r eb , a nd t h eP r e—H i span ic p opu la t ion s o f t h eC ana ry I s land s .

I . E qu inox Marker s a nd T emp le O r ien ta t ions i n t he I ber ian C u l ture Ih ave s u rveyed a bou tf i f t een s anc tua r ie s l o ca t ed i nt h ep r e s en t—day S pan i sh p rov ince s o f A l ican te , V a lenc ia , A lbace te a nd Mu r c ia , mo s t ly c oncen t ra ted i nt h e I b e r ian t e r r i to ry k nown a s C on te s tan ia [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . T he m a in p r e l im ina ry r e su l t s o f t h i s s t udy h ave b een r e cen t ly p r e sen ted [ ESTEBAN & C ORTELL , 1 997 ; E STEBAN , 1 999 ; E STEBAN , 2 001 ; E STEBAN ,2 002 ] . I ti si mpor tan tt or ema rk t h a tJ .M . B läzqu ez , o ne o ft h e l e a d e r s pec ia l i s t s o n I b e r ian r e l ig ion , c on s ide r s t h a t t h e I b e r ian s h r ine s a r e v e ry s im i la r t ot h e P re—Roman B e rbe r o ne s . B o th a r e u sua l ly l o ca ted a tp l ace s t h a t f a vou r t h e m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e s a c red , a s o n t h e t op o f moun ta in s ( h igh p l ace s i ng ene ra l ) , c ave s , o r t h e p rox im i ty o fw a te r s p r ing s [ BLAzQuEz , 1 994 ] . R uano R u iz [ RuAN0 R u iz , 1 988 ] c l a s s if ie s t h e I b e r ian s h r ine s a s : ( i ) L oca S ac ra L ibera , o pen a i r d epo s i t s o r c ave s ; a nd ( i ) s h r ine s o r t emp le s , s ome t ime s monumen ta l b u i ld ing s , h ou s ing a s t a tue o f t h e d i v in i ty a nd a l a rge n umbe r o f o f f e r ing s , s im i la rt ot h e H e l len ic t h ü sauro i . We h ave av i v id v i ew o f t h e p opu la r I b e r ian r e l ig ion t h ank s t ot h e l a rge n umbe r o f e x v o to o fb ronze , s t one o r c l ay t h a t h ave b een f ound i n m any o ft h e s a c red p rec inc t s . T he se e x v o to o f f e r ing s r e p r e sen t mo s t u sua l ly t h e w o r sh ippe r s ( p e rhap s p r ie s t s o r p r ie s te s se s i n s ome c a se s ) o r a n ima ls ( mo s t ly h o r se s a nd o t he r e qu ine s a s i n E l C iga r ra le jo ) . A l so , t h e o f f e r ing s i n c lude p o s s ib le r e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h e d i v in i ty a s i n cen se b u rne r s r e p re sen t ing f ema le b u s t s , a s t ho se t y p ica l o ft h e c u l t o f t h e H e l len ic D üm e . t e r . T he c h rono logy o f t h e I b e r ian s anc tua r ie s r a nge s f r om t h e 8t h c en tu ry BCE [ a s t h e b u i ld ing a tC ä s tu lo , f o r w h ich s e e B LÄZQUEZ & GARC IA— G ELABERT , 1 994 ] u p t o 4f i c en tu ry C E , w hen T heodo s io s p roh ib i ted t h e P agan c u l t s a l o ve rt h eR oman Emp i r e .

T he m e thodo logy h a s b een t h e s ame i n a l t h e a r ea s , n ame ly : ( i ) t h e m ea su r emen t o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e m a in a xe s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s o f t h e s i t e s ; ( i ) t h e d e t e rm ina t ion o ft h e h o r izon ta l a ngu la r c oo rd ina te s o ft h e d if e ren t r ema rkab le f e a tu re s o ft h e h o r izon v i s ib le f r om t h e a r chxo log ica l s i te s , e spec ia l ly t h e mo s t c on sp icuou s e l emen t s , a s m oun ta in p eak s , v i sua l ly i n te r connec ted a r ch z eo log ica ls i te s , a nd s u ch . T he i n s t rumen t s u sed f o r t h e m ea su r emen t s c on s i s ted o f s e ve ra l p r ec i s ion c ompa s se s ( f o r mu l t ip le i n dependen t b ea r ing s t a ken b y d i f f e ren t m embe r s o ft h e w o rk ing t e am ) a nd a p o r tab le c l inome te r c a l ib ra ted a t s e a l e ve l . T he m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion w a s d e te rm ined f r om d i r ec t o b se rva t ion s o f t h e r i s ing o r s e t t ing S un f r om t h e a r chxo log ica l s i te s ( t h i s w a s m ade f o r a s ub s tan t ia l f r a c t ion o ft h e s i te s a nd e spec ia l ly i nt h e m o s t i n te r e s t ing o ne s ) o r , c onve r se ly , c ompa r ing t h e a z imu th s o b ta ined f o r

T h ea u t ho ri sg r a t e f u lt om a ny c o l l e a g u e sa n df r i e nd st h a th a v es h a r ed t h i sa m a z ing w o r ki nd i f e r en tp l a c e sa n dm om e n t s :J . A .B e lmo n t e ,M .A . P e r e r aB e t a n c o r t ,J .P e r e zB a l l e s t e r ,E .C o r t e l l ,M .J i m e n e z ,R .S c h lu e t e r , a n d — e sp e c ia l ly— C . P i n z a a n d S . E s t e b a n , a mo ng o t h e r s . T h e p r e s e n t a t io no fh i sw o r kh a sb e e nf i n a n c e db yt h eI n s t i t u t od eA s t r o f i s i c a d eC a n a r ia su n d e rt h ep r o j e c tA rqu eoa s t ronom i a . 8 3

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

T he mo s t i n te re s t ing r e su l t o f t h e s u rvey h a s b een t h e d i scove ry o f f a i r ly s im i la r e qu inoc t ia l ma rke r s i n t h e h o r izon s u r round ing t h ree r ema rkab le s anc tua r ie s : E l Ama re jo ( Bone te , A lbace te ) , L a S e r r e ta ( A lco i , A l ican te ) a nd L a C a r rapo sa ( L lane ra d e R ane s a nd R o tg lä iC o rbe ra , V a lenc ia ) . T he t h r ee s i te s a r e l o ca ted i n s ide a c i r cu la r g eog raph ica l a r ea o f 8 0 k m o fd i ame te r . We s ay t h a t a n a s t ronom ica l m a rke ro ccu r s , w hen ac e le s t ia l b ody r i se s o r s e t s o n ar ema rkab le t opog raph ica l f e a tu r e o ft h e h o r izon i n as i ng le m omen t o f i t s a ppa ren t movemen t o n t h e c e le s t ia l s phe r e . I no u r c a se , t h e c e le s t ia l b ody i st h e S un , a nd t h eu n ique momen ti st h eE qu inox .

E qu inox —and n o t t h e S p r ing o ne — w ou ld b e t h e a s t ronom ica l e ven to fi n te re s t . E s teban & C o r t e l l [ ESTEBAN & C ORTELL , 1 997 ] f ound a no the r p o s s ib le e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r i n t h e I b e r ian s a nc tua ry o f L a S e r r e ta . D u r ing 6 d ay s a bou t t h e E qu inoxe s , t h e S un r i se i sp roduced o ve rt h e d i s tan t p rof i le o f S i e r ra D 'A ixo r ta , w h ich l i e s b e tween t wo n ea r e r m oun ta in r a nge s a nd e x tend s f o r a n a z imu th i n te rva l o f

E l Ama re jo i s as ma l l I b e r ian s e t t lemen t l o ca ted o nt h et op a nd t h e s l ope s o fa n i s o la ted f l a t— top l i t t le moun ta in . I th a s b een p a r t ly e xcava ted i ns eve ra l c ampa ign s [ BRONCANO & B LÄNQUEZ , 1 985 ] . T he A r ch z eo log i s t s f ound a r i tua l d epo s i t i nt h e f o rm o f ad eep w e l l o fa bou t 4m o fd ep th l o ca ted j u s ta tt h ee a s ter nb o rde ro ft h e p l a teau [ s ee F ig . 2 ] . Among t h e c on ten t s o ft h e d epo s i t a r e or namen ta l o b jec t s , p o t t e ry , a n a sko i r e p re sen t ing a d ove a nd a m e rma id , a f r agmen t o f ac l ay f em in ine b u s t ( po s s ib ly r e p re sen t ing T an i t ) , f r agmen t s o ff a b r ic s a nd m any d i f f e ren t o b jec t s f o r s ew ing . T he p r e sence o fo b jec t s l i nked w i th t h e f em in ine w o r ld s ugge s t st h e d ed ica t ion t o ag odde s s p ro tec to ro ft h e t r ad i t iona l w oman a c t iv i t ie s . O n t h e o t he r h and , al a rge n umbe r o f s e ed s a nd b one s o f y oung a n ima l s w e re a l so f ound a mong t h e o f f e r ing s i n t h e d epo s i t . F rom t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e p o t te ry t y po logy a nd or namen ta t ion , B roncano [ BRONCANO , 1 989 ] d a te s t h e e nd—po in t o ft h e u se o f t h e d epo s i t a r ound t h e e nd o f 3r d c en tu ry o r b e g inn ing o f 2nd c en tu ry BCE . A s i nt h e o t he rt wo e qu inoc t ia lm a rke r st h a tw i l lb e d i scu s s ed b e low , t h e h o r izon v i s ib le f r om t h e r i tua l d epo s i t o fE l Ama re jo i sc omp le te ly o pen t ot h e E a s t . T he h i ghe s t a nd mo s t c on sp icuou s f e a tu re o f t h e h o r izon i s moun ta in C h ina r , a t ad i s tance o f2 . 7 k m a nd w i th ah e igh t o fa bou t 2 00 m e te r s a bove t h e s u r round ing p l a in . T he a na ly s i s o f t h e c oo rd ina te s o ft h e moun ta in p eak a nd t h e o b se rva t ion o ft h e S un r i se i n d ica te t h a t t h e S un r i se a t —o r v e ry n ea r t o— t h e E qu inoxe s t a ke s p l ace j u s t o ve r t h e p eak [ ESTEBAN , 1 999 ; E STEBAN , 2 002 ] . F igu re 3 s how s t h e S un r i se a ss e en f r om t h e r i tua l d epo s i ta t Ma rch 1 9t h, 2 000 , o ne d ay b ef o re t h e S p r ing E qu inox o ft h a t y ea r . A t t h i s d a te ,t h e S un r i se s s omewha t l e s st h a to ne s o la rd i ame te rt o

a bou t 3 ° o ft h e e a s ter n h o r izon . F rom d i r ec t o b se rva t ion s o f S un r i se [ s ee F i g . 4 ] w e e s t ima te t h a t t h e S un r i se t a ke s p l a ce o ve rt h e e dge s o ft h e p rof i le o fS i e r ra D 'A ixo r ta 1 2 d ay s a f t e r ( o r b ef o r e ) a nd 4 5 d ay s b ef o r e ( o r a f t e r ) t h e A u tumn E qu inox ( o r t h e S p r ing E qu inox ) . T he c en t r e o f t h e p rof i le i sl o ca ted a ta r ound 8= + 0 ° .5 . T he S un r e a che s t h i s d ec l ina t ion 1 2 d ay s b ef o re ( o r a f t e r ) t h e A u tumn E qu inox ( o rt h e S p r ing E qu inox ) . T h i s s a nc tua ry w a s d ed i c a ted t o af e r t i l i ty g odde s st h a tw a sr e p re sen t ed i n ac l ay f i g u r ine m ade b e tw een t h e 3 "1a nd t h e 2n d c en tu r ie s BCE .T he s a nc tua ry h ad al o ng l i f e a nd w a s u sed u n t i lt h e 4t h c en tu ry C E.

At h i rd e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r h a s b een f ound i nt h e r e cen t ly d i scove red o pen—a i r I b e r ian s a nc tua ry o f L a C a r rapo sa [ PüREZ B ALLESTER & B ORREDÄ ME J lAS , 2 003 ] . I tw a s d ed ica ted t o ag odde s s d evo ted t o t h e f e r t i l i ty o f t h e e qu ine s a nd i tw a s i nu se b e tween t h e 2n d c en tu ry a nd t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 1 s t c en tu ry BCE .As i nE l Ama r e jo , i nL a C a r rapo sa t h e S un r i se a to r v e ry n ea r t ot h e E qu inoxe s i s p roduced o ve r ar ema rkab le p eak o ft h e h o r izon [ s ee F ig . 5 ] , i nt h i s c a se t h ep eak o f Mondübe r , t h eh i ghe s tm oun ta in o ft h e z one [ ESTEBAN , 2 002 ] . T he p eak i sl o ca t ed a t 8— + 0 0. 5 0 ° .5 , as o la r d i ame te r t ot h e N o r th o ft h e E qu inox b u t s t i l l c on s i s ten t w i th i ti n s ide t h e u nce r ta in t ie s . We d o n o t h ave d i rec t o b se rva t ion s o ft h e S un r i se f r om t h e s i te , a nd t h e a z imu th o ft h e p eak h a s t h e n om ina l u nce r ta in ty o f o u r c ompa s s b ea r ing s . I n F igu re 5 ,w e c an s ee t h a t t h e r e a r e t wo s im i la r c on ica l p eak s a t b o th s i de s o f t h e Mondübe r , t h e se p eak s a r e l o ca ted n ea re r t oL a C a r rapo sa a nd a ta z imu tha l d i s tance s o f2 ° ( nor ther n p eak ) a nd 1 . 7 ° ( s ou ther np eak ) w i th r e spec tt o Mondübe r . T h i s f a c tm ake s t h a t t h e S un r i se t a ke s p l ace o ve r t h e se c on t iguou s p eak s a bou t 4d ay sb ef o r ea nd a f t e ri to ccu r s o ve r Mondübe r . T he t h r ee s i te s d e sc r ibed a bove ( E l Ama r e jo , L a S e r re ta a nd L a C a r rapo sa ) s how s t rong s im i la r i t ie s : ( i ) t h ey m a rk d a te s c o inc iden t o r v e ry c l o se t o t h e a s t ronom ica l E qu inoxe s ; ( i ) t h e d a i ly c hange s i nt h e p o s i t ion o ft h e S un a r ound t h e E qu inoxe s c an b e e a s i ly f o l lowed o ve r a h o r izon t h a t i sv e ry r i ch i nt o pog raph ica l f e a tu r e s . T he se c ommon c ha ra c te r i s t ic s l e ad u s t o p ropo se t h a t t h e

t h e s ou th o ft h e moun ta in p eak ( Sun 's p o s i t ion : 6=— 0 ° .4 ) . A t Ma rch 2 0t h,d u r ing t h e S p r ing E qu inox , t h e S un w ou ld a ppea rj u s t o n t h e p eak , a nd a l so d u r ing t h e t wo f o l low ing d ay s : Ma rch 2 1s t a nd 2 2n d ( 8 =+ 0 ° .4 a nd + 0 ° .8 r e spe c t ive ly ) t h e S un w ou ld f o l low at a ngen t ia l t r a jec to ry ( w i th a n a ng le o f3 9 ° w i th r e spec t t ot h e v er t ica l ) c l imb ing o ve r t h e n o r ther n s l ope o f t h e moun ta in , w h ich h a s a n i n c l ina t ion o fa bou t4 8° .

E qu inoxe s —o r ad a te v e ry n ea r t o t h e se a s t ronom ica l e ven t s— w e r e o f s p ec ia l i mpor tance i n t h e r e l ig ion a nd r i tua l o f t h e a nc ien t I b e r ian s , a tl e a s t i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e C on te s tan ia . T he i n te re s t ing a r ch z eo log ica l f i nd ing s i nt h e r i tua l d epo s i t o f E l Ama re jo i n d ica te t h a t o f f e r ing s t o ok p l ace p e rhap s a tt h e A u tumn E qu inox . T he p r e sence o fn e a r by c on sp icuou s t o pog raph ica l f e a tu r e s n ea r t h e p o in t o f t h e E qu inox S un r i se s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s d a te c ou ld b e p r ed ic ted s ome d ay s i n a dvance . T h i s w ou ld b e e a s i ly a ccomp l i shed j u s t o b se rv ing t h e d a i ly c hange o ft h e S un 's p o s i t ion a td awn w i th r e spec t t o t h e d i f f e r en t f e a tu r e s o f t h e h o r izon . T he p r ed ic t ion w ou ld p e rm i t t o a r r ange t h e c e leb ra t ion s a nd a n t ic ipa te i tt o t h e p opu la t ion o f t h e

T he A rch&o log i s t s f ound t h a t t h e of e r ing s w e r e b ur n ed a nd d i s t r ibu ted i n a ppa ren t ly p e r iod ica l l a ye r s i n s ide t h e d epo s i t o fE l Ama r e jo . Mo reove r , t h e d eg ree o fg row th o f t h e l a rge a moun t o fa cor n s f ound i nt h e d epo s i t i n d ica te s t h a t t h ey w e re c o l lec ted s t i l l u n r ipe a tt h e b eg inn ing o f A u tumn . T he ref o re , t h i s w ou ld b e t h e mo s t p robab le momen t o f t h e c e leb ra t ion o f t h e r i tua l s [ BRoNcANO , 1 989 ] . T h i s s t r ik ing r e su l tg i ve s i n dependen ts uppor tt oo u r a r chxoa s t ronom ica l f i nd ing s , i nt h e c a se t h a t t h e A u tumn 8 4

Usa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ion so f Monumen t s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

n e ighbou r ing v i l lage s . I n f a c t , s ome a u tho r s i n d ica te t h a t a nnua lo rp e r iod ica l p i lg r image t ot h e s a nc tua r ie sw ou ld b e a c ommon c e leb ra t ion i n t h e o l d I b e r ian r e l ig ion [ ARANEGU I , 1 994 : 1 27 ] .

H e l lene s i nt h e S ou thea s t o fS pa in w a s i mpor tan t a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e c oncep t o ft h e a s t ronom ica l E qu inox w a s a lmo s t c on tempo ra ry t o t h e s t ud ied I b e r ian s anc tua r ie s , i ti sh a rd ly a r guab le t h a t s u ch ac oncep t c ou ld b e o f a ny p ra c t ica l u t i l i ty f o r a c u l tu re w i thou t a s oph i s t ica ted m a thema t ica l a nd g eome t r ica l k now ledge , a s w a s p robab ly t h e c a se o ft h e I b e r ian c u l tu re . Ic on s ide rt h a t t h e a s t ronom ica l m a rke r s a r e p e rhap s r e la ted t o t h e s o— c a l led t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween S o l s t ice s . T h i s i sa mo re p rac t ica l c oncep t . I t s d e te rm ina t ion i s b a sed o n c oun t ing t h e n umbe r o fd ay s b e tween t h e p r ec i se momen t s o f b o th S o l s t ice s ( Summe r a nd W in te r , t h a t c an b e d e te rm ined f r om d i r ec t o b serva t ion ) a nd h a lv ing t h a t n umbe r ( a bou t 1 83 ) . C onve r se ly , a no the r moda l i ty w ou ld b e d i v id ing i n f ou r e qua l p a r t s t h e t o ta l d u ra t ion o f t h e s o la ry ea rf r om o ne o ft h e S o l s t ice s ( Summe ro rW in te r )t o t h e f o l low ing s ame S o l s t ice ( t h i s i st h e b a s is o fA lexande r T hom 's p reh i s to r ic s o la r c a lenda r ) [ THom , 1 967 : c hap . 9 ] . T he d e te rm ina t ion o ft h e se d a te s c ou ld p e rm i t t h e d iv i s ion o ft h e s o la ry ea r i nf ou r e qua l p a r t s ( a c tua l ly a lmo s t e qua l , d ue t ot h en on— in tege rn umbe ro fd ay s i nt h et r op ica ly ea r ) . O bv iou s ly , w e h ave t os uppo se s ome l e ve l o fn ume racy t o c oun t a nd m an ipu la te n umbe r s u p t oa tl e a s t f ew h und red s . I n a ny c a se , It h ink t h a t t h e I b e r ian s c ou ld a ch ieve t h is d eg r ee o f n ume r ica l m an ipu la t ion b ecau se t h ey h ad a w r i t ten l a nguage ( s t i l l i n dec iphe rab le ) , amone ta ry s y s tem a nd l o ng c en tu r ie s o f l a rge— sca le c omme rce a nd c l o se c on tac tw i th b o th t h e P h c en ic ian sa nd t h eH e l lene s .

B e s ide s i t s r i tua l i mpo r tance , t h e A u tumn E qu inox c ou ld a l so h ave a c a lend r ica l u t i l i ty f o r t h e I b e r ian s . I n f a c t , m any d i f f e ren t c u l tu re s o ft h e p a s t h ave d eve loped w h ich a r e k nown a s h or i zon c a lenda r s . T he se a r e b a sed o n t h e u se o f s o la r h o r izon o b se rva t ion s f o r p i npo in t ing c e r emon ia l o r a g r icu l tu ra l e ven t s [ s ee RUGGLES , 1 999 : 1 52 ] . A s i ti sw e l l k nown , t h e d a i ly v a r ia t ion o ft h e S un 's d ec l ina t ion i s f a s te r a r ound t h e E qu inoxe s [ 2 4 ' , h ence a bou t o ne s o la r d i ame te rp e r d ay , f o r w h ich s e e RUGGLES , 1 999 : 2 4 ] . T he ref o r e , t h e d a i ly c hange i nt h e p o s i t ion o f t h e S un r i se ( o r S un se t ) o ve r t h e h o r izon i sl a rge r a tt h is m omen to ft h ey ea r . S umma r i s ing , i fw e w an tt oc a l ib ra te a c a lenda rb a sed o n s o la rh o r izon o b se rva t ion s a tt h e S un r i se ( o r S un se t ) , w e w i l l a ch ieve ab e t t e rp r ec i s ion i fw e d o t h a t a r ound t h eE qu inox . I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t t h e u se a nd c a l ib ra t ion o fh o r i zon c a lenda r s n eed s « spec ia l i sed p e r sonne l» , p e rhap s o ne o r m o re r egu la r e xpe r ienced h ab i tua l o b se rve r s . Mo reove r , t h ey s hou ld l i ve a t o r n ea r t h e s a nc tua r ie s t o c a r ry o u t ef i c ien t ly c on t inuou s o b se rva t ion s . T h i s r e qu i r emen t c ou ld g i ve an ew e l emen t o nt h ed i scu s s ion o ft h ep ra c t ica l o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e I b e r ian c u l t , a nd h igh l igh t s t h e ( s ome t ime s q ue s t ioned ) e x i s tence o f p r ie s thood i n t h e a nc ien tI b e r ian r e l ig ion .

O ne w ou ld t h ink t h a t t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween t h e S o l s t ice s s hou ld c o inc ide w i th t h e a s t ronom ica l E qu inox , b u t t h i s i sn o t t h e c a se b ecau se t h e d i s tance b e tween t h e

A lmag ro G o rbea [ALMAGRO GORBEA , 2 002 ] p ropo se s t h a t f r om t h e e nd o ft h e 6t h c en tu ry BCE t h eI b e r ian s o c ie ty s uf f e r ed a n i mpo r tan t c hange b ecau se o ft h e s ub s t i tu t ion o f

S un a nd t h e E a r th —and t h e r ef o re t h e E a r th 's o rb i ta l v e loc i ty — i sn o t c on s tan t a l ong t h e y ea r . T he d i f f e r ence o f t h e d a te s b e tween t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t s a nd t h e E qu inoxe s i sr a the r s ma l l . I n f a c t , t h e M id—Po in t o ccu r s b e tween o ne t o t h r ee d ay s b ef o r e ( o r a f t e r ) t h e A u tumn E qu inox ( t he S p r ing E qu inox ) d epend ing o n t h e w ay w e d i v ide t h e s o la r y ea r . I fw e c oun t f r om o ne S o l s t ice t ot h e n ex t o ne (W in te r t o S umme r o r v i ce v e r sa ) t h e c o r re spond ing S un 's d ec l ina t ion a tt h e M id—Po in t w ou ld b e + 0 ° .7 ± 0 ° .2 ( f o r ar e f e rence y ea r o f3 00 BCE a nd u s ing t h e t a b le s o f d u ra t ion o f t h e a s t ronom ica l s e a son s p u b l i shed b y Meeu s [ MEEus , 1 983 : 3 1 ] . I fw e c oun t f r om o ne S o l s t ice t ot h e s ame n ex t S o l s t ice ( Summe rt oS umme r o r W in te r t o W in te r ) , t h e d ec l ina t ion o f t h e S un a tt h e momen t o f0 . 25 a nd 0 . 75 o ft h e d u ra t ion o ft h e y ea rw ou ld b e + 0 ° .4 ± 0 ° .2 o r+ 1° .1 ± 0 ° .2 , r e spec t ive ly , d epend ing o n t h e E qu inox w e a r e c on s ide r ing a nd t h e S o l s t ice w e a r e t a k ing a s s t a r t ing p o in t . T he u ncer ta in ty o f ± 0 ° .2 i n t h e g i ven n umbe r s c on s ide r s t h a t w e c an o n ly d e term ine t h e o ccu r r ence o ft h e d ay o fi n te r e s t a tt h e S un r i se ( o r S un se t ) c l o se r t o t h e e xac t m omen t o ft h e M id—Po in t , t h a t c ou ld h appen a t a ny momen t o f t h e d ay . T he ref o re , 0 ° .2 c o r re spond s t o h a lf o ft h e d a i ly r a te i nd ec l ina t ion o ft h e S un a tt h e E qu inoxe s . S umma r i s ing , i ft h e m a rk e r s w e re i n tended t om a rk t h e M id—Po in t i nt ime b e tween S o ls t ice s , t h ey s hou ld p o in t d ec l ina t ion s s l igh t ly a bove 0 ° , i n f a c t b e tween + 0 ° .2 a nd + 1° .3 .

s a c r ed mona r ch ie s —cha ra c te r i s t ic o f t h e o r ien ta l iz ing p e r iod a nd i n f luenced b y t h e P hc en ic ian s— b y « he ro ic— t y pe» w a r r io r mona rch ie s . T h i s n ew t y pe o f p o l i t ica l o rgan i sa t ion w a s ac on sequence o fi n te rna l s o c ia le vo lu t ion b u t w a s a l so f a vou red b y H e l len ic i n f luence . T he w a r r io r r oya l d yna s t ie s w e re d e scendan t o f amy th ica l a nd h e ro ic a nce s to r a nd t h e k i ng s w e r e c onf e r r ed w i th a s a c red a u tho r i ty o f d i v ine o r ig in . Mo r eove r , t h e k i ng w ou ld c on t ro l t h e l o ca l r e l ig ion a nd t h e c u l t . A lmag ro G o rbea c on s ide r s t h a t o ne o f t h e m a in r e spon s ib i l i t ie s o f t h e se k i ng s w a s t o s a f egua rd t h e f e cund i ty o f t h e p eop le , t h e f e r t i l i ty o f t h e l a nd a nd t h e l i ve s tock . I n t h i s s en se , o u r a r chxoa s t ronom ica l f i nd ing s s ugge s t t h a t , c on t ro l l ing t h e a s t ronom ica l m a rke r s , t h e e l i te h ad ap ra c t ica l t oo l f o r r e g u la t ing t h et empo ra l o rgan i sa t ion o ft h e r e l ig iou s , b u t a l so p e rhap st h e e conom ica l a nd s o c ia l a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e c ommu n i ty . T he s ynch ron i sa t ion o ft h e se a c t iv i t ie st ot h e c yc le s o f N a tu re c ou ld b e c on s ide red b y t h e s ub jec t s a st h e u nequ i v oca l d emon s t ra t ion o ft h e r oya l c on t ro l o ve r N a tu r e a nd , t h e ref o re , ac l ea rm an if e s ta t ion o fp owe r . A s i th a s b een d i scu s sed i nd ep th b y R ugg le s [ RUGGLES , 1 997 ; RUGGLES , 1 999 : 1 50 -51 ] t h e a s t ronom ica l E qu inox i sa n a b s t ra c t c oncep t t h a t h a s s e n se i nt h e f r amewo rk o f t h e H e l len ic Ma thema t ica l A s t ronomy , w h ich w a s o r ig ina ted i nt h e 4 t h3 r d c en tu r ie s BCE . T he E qu inoxe s a r e d ef ined a s t h e t wo momen t s o f t h e y ea r w hen t h e S un

Ic on s ide r t h a t t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f o r t h e t h ree I b e r ian e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s a r e m o re c on s i s ten t w i th t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween S o l s t ice s . I n f a c t , a t L a S e r r e ta , t h e c en t re o ft h e p rof i le o fS i e r ra D 'A ixor ta c o r r e spond s t o =

p a s se s t h e c e le s t ia l e qua to r a td ec l ina t ion 0 ° . U n l ike t h e S o l s t ice s ( wh ich a r e c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i shab le b y d i rec t o b se rva t ion s ) t h e E qu inoxe s a r e n o t m a rked i na ny s pec ia l w ay a t S un r i se o r S un se t . A l though t h e i n f luence o f t h e 8 5

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T R AP ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DU M

+ 0 .5' ; a tL a C a r rapo sa , t h e p eak o f Mondübe r i n d ica te s a s o la r p o s i t ion o f 6= + 0 ° .5 ± 0 ° .5 ; a nd a tE l Ama r e jo , t h e s pec ta cu la r t a ngen t ia l c l imb ing o f t h e S un o ve r t h e n o r the rn s l ope o fC h ina r c o r r e spond s t o ap o s i t ion o ft h e S un a ta bou t + 0 .4° . T h i s r e su l t s ugge s t s t h e e x i s tence o fa d i v i s ion o ft h e y ea r i n —a t l e a s t— f ou r e qua l p a r t s i nt h e I b e r ian c a lenda r . T he t h ree r ema rkab le s i te s d i scu s sed a bove a r en o tt h eo n ly I b e r ian s anc tua r ie st h a tm ay b e r e la ted t ot h e E qu inoxe s . I n E s teban [ ESTEBAN , 2 002 ] , Id i scu s s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e o pen—a i r s h r ine o fC o imb ra d e l B a r ranco A ncho ( J um i l la , Mu r c ia ) m ay h ave a s im i la r e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r , a l though t h e e xa c t l o ca t ion o f t h e s a nc tua ry i sn o t k nown . T he o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s o f L a A lcud ia ( E lche , A l ican te ) , E l C ho r r i l lo ( Sax , P e t re r a nd E lda , A l ican te ) a nd C e r ro d e l o s S an to s ( Mon tea leg re d e l C a s t i l lo , A lbace te ) m ay b e r e la ted t ot h e S un r i se a to rn ea r t h e E qu inoxe s . F ina l ly , i t i s w o r th n o t ing t h a t t h e a r rangemen t o f t h e t omb s i n t h e I b e r ian n ec ropo l i s o f C abezo L uce ro ( Gua rdama r d e l S egu ra , A l ican te ) i s c l o se ly a l igned a l ong t h e E a s t— We s t a x i s ( h ence , a l ong t h e E qu inox S un r ise—Sun se ta x is ) . E s teban [ ESTEBAN , 2 002 ] h a s c a r r ied o u t t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f as amp le o fI b e r ian r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s . I n F igu r e 6 , w e s how t h e d i ag ram o f o r ien ta t ion s o f a l l t emp le s e xcep tt h o se c l a s s if ied a sd ed ica ted t of am i ly c u l t s [ c la s s if ied a s g en t i l ic io s b y A LMAGRO GORBEA A ND MONEO , 2 000 ] . T he d i ag ram i n c lude s a l l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s l o ca ted o u t s ide a nd i n s ide t h e c i t ie s b u t l o ca ted i ni s o la ted o rr e levan tp l a ce s . A s i tc an b es e en , mo s to ft h e b u i ld ing s a r e o r ien ta ted w i th t h e i r e n t rance f a c ing t h e i n t e rva l o fs o la r ( o r l u na r ) r i s ing . T he s h r ine s d ed ica ted t o f am i ly c u l t s a r e l o ca ted i n s ide t h e c i t ie s , s t ruc tu ra l ly i n d i s t ingu i shab le o fo t he rb u i ld ing s a nd f o l low ing t h e m a in o r ien ta t ion p a t te rn o ft h e v i l lage s w he r e t h ey a r e l o ca ted . T he se l a s t s anc tua r ie s d o n o t s how a ny s i gn if ican t a s t rono m ica l o r ien ta t ion s [ ESTEBAN ,2 002 ] .

Ma c ta r ( Tun i s ia ) . T h i s i mpo r tan t s e t t lemen t w a s p robab ly f ounded i n 3 '1 c en tu ry B CE b y t h e C a r thag in ian s [ M 'CHAREK , 1 982 : 1 ] . T he i mpac t o f t h e P un ic c o lon i sa t ion w a s v e ry i mpor tan t o n t h e c u l tu re o ft h e l o ca l L ibyan ( Num id ian ) p opu la t ion . I n f a c t , t h e N um id ian— P un ic t r ad i t ion s w e re v e ry s t rong a nd s u rv ived t h e r e f o r s eve ra l c en tu r ie s [ M 'CHAREK , 1 982 : 1 2 ] . T he m a rke r h a s b een f ound a t t h e R oman T emp le o f A po l lön , l o ca ted o u t s ide t h e c i ty , w h ich i so r ien ta ted p e rf ec t ly E a s t— We s t [ s ee F ig . 8 ] a nd b u i l t o ve r ap r ev iou s P un ic o r Num id ian s a nc tua ry [ P icARD , 1 984 ] . T he T emp le i sf a c ing a s ma l l n a tu ra l c u t i n am oun ta in w h ich l i e s v e ry n ea r t h e p o in t w he r e t h e S un r i se t a ke s p l a ce a tt h e E qu inoxe s . T h is w a s l a te r c onf i rmed b y d i rec t o b se rva t ion s o f t h e S un r i se b y J .A . B e lmon te , M .A . P e r e ra B e tancor t a nd A . T e je ra i n Ma r ch 2 002 . T he p ho tog raph s t a ken b y t h e se r e sea r che r s [ p ub l i shed i nt h e c o lou rp ho tog raph s s e c t ion o fB ELMONTE & HOSK IN , 2 002 ] i n d ica te t h a t t h e s ma l l s t ep i n t h e moun ta in c o r re spond s t o ad ec l ina t ion o fa bou t + 1° . A s i n t h e c a se o f t h e I b e r ian m a rke r s , t h is n umbe r i s m o r e c on s i s ten t w i th t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tw een S o l s t ice s . T he s im i la r i ty o ft h i s a s t ronom ica l m a rke r a t Mac ta r a nd t h e I b e r ian o ne s ( a l r eady d i scu s sed a bove ) i s r e a l ly s t r ik ing . I t i s w o r th n o t ing t h a t t h e s up reme P un ic g od B aa l H ammon w a s c on f la ted w i th S a tu rn i n mo s t o ft h e R oman p rov ince o f A f r ica . T he re i ss ome c on t rove r sy t h a t t h i s c ou ld n o t b e t h e c a se i n t h e r eg ion o f Mac ta r [ s ee d i scu s s ion b y M 'CHAREK , 1 99 1 &r e f e r ence st h e r e in ) . B i s i [ B is t , 1 978 ] s ugg e s t st h a t t h e a nc ien t c u l t oB aa l H ammon w a s a s s im i la ted t oA po l lön i n Mac ta r , p r ec i se ly t h e s un— g od o ft h e R oman s . I ft h is h ypo the s i s i st r ue , t h e p r e sence o fa n e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r a tt h e T emp le o fA po l lön w ou ld p rov ide ap roof o ft h e t r an sm i s s ion o ft h e s o la r e l emen t s f r om t h e a nc ien t P un ic—Num id ian r e l ig ion t o t h e R oman i sed l o ca l c u l t s .

T he o r ien ta t ion p a t ter no ft h e I b e r ian t emp le s s hown i nF i g u r e 6i sr a the r s im i la r t o t h o se s hown b y H e l len ic o ne s [ s ee D INSMOOR , 1 939 ; AVEN I&R OMANO , 1 994 ; AVEN I& R OMANO , 2 000 ] , b u t d ef in i t ive ly d i f f e r en t t ot h e E t ru scan ( AvEN I & R OMANO , 1 994 ) a nd R oman ( AvEN I & R OMANO , 1 994 ; E STEBAN e t a l . 2 001) p a t ter n s [ s ee c ompa ra t ive d i ag ram s i n E STEBAN , 1 999 & E STEBAN , 2 002 ] . O n t h e o t he r h and , i nE s teban [ ESTEBAN , 2 003 ] I a na ly se t h e s c a rce d a ta a va i lab le o n o r ien ta t ion s o fP un ic t emp les , f i nd ing t h a t t h ey a r e o r ien ta ted t owa rd s af a i r ly n a r row z one o ft h e h o r izon , w i th a z imu th s f r om 9 0 ° t o 1 27 ° , a l so c on s i s ten t w i th a s o la r ( o r l u na r ) c u s tom a nd r a the rs im i la rt ot h eI b e r ian p a t ter n( s ee S ec t ion V , i n f ra ) .

I I . EQU INOX MARKERS AND TE MPLE OR IENTAT IONS I N PRE—RO MAN NORTH WEST AFR ICA

A no the r p o s s ib le r e la t ion w i th t h e E qu inoxe s h a s b een f ound a tt h e T emp le B o fV o lub i l i s ( Mo rocco ) , t h a t s how s a l l t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e t emp le s o fS a tur n , b u t l a ck ing ad i r ec t c onf i rma t ion o fi t s d ed ica t ion . I ti sl o ca ted o ve r a p romon to ry a tt h e E a s t a nd o u t s ide t h e c i ty . I ti so r ien ta ted t owa rd s t h e S un r i se n ea r t h e E qu inoxe s [ MoREsi i i \ r , 1 980 : 5 6 -57 ; E STEBAN e ta l . , 2 001 o b ta in 8= + 1° .0 ± 0 ° .5 ] , t h a t t a ke s p l a ce o ve r t h e n ea rby moun ta in Z e rhoun , o ne o ft h e mo s t f amou s h o ly m oun ta in s o f Mo rocco [ s ee MOREST IN , 1 980 : 1 35 ] . T he a c tua l R oman b u i ld ing w a s b u i l t o ve r a p r ev iou s t o f e t d a ted f r om t h e 1 s t c en tu ry B CE , t h e w e s te rnmo s t P un ic f u ne ra ry s a c r ed a r ea k nown i nA f r ica . T h i s t o f e t h a s o ne o ft h e l a rge s t s e r ie s o f f u ne ra ry s t e lx . T he b u i ld ing w a s a n o pen—a i r c ou r tya rd s urounded b y p o r t icoe s i nt h r ee o fi t s s i de s a nd a n a l ignmen t o fe i gh teen s qua red s t one b a se s j u s t o n t h e e a s ter n s i de . A d e ta i led a r ch eoa s t ronom ica l a na ly s i s o f t h e d if e r en t e l emen t s o f t h eb u i ld ing w ou ld b ep rom i s ing a nd h igh ly d e s i rab le . At h i rd p o s s ib le e qu inoc t ia l m a rke rc ou ld b e a tt h e T emp le o fS a tur na tT hugga i nT un is ia [ s ee F ig . 9 ] . A s i nt h e c a se o ft h e T emp le B o fV o lub i l is a nd t h e T emp le o fA po l lön a t Ma c ta r , t h e R oman t emp le w a s b u i l t o ve r ap r ev iou s P un ic

I nE s teban e ta l . [ ESTEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1] w e p re sen tt h e r e s u l t s o f a n e x ten s ive s t udy o n t h e o r ien ta t ion s o f al a rge s amp le o f P re— I s lam ic t emp le s o f N or thwe s t A f r ica , r epo r t ing t h e d i scove ry o fs eve ra l r ema rkab le a s t ronom ica l m a rke r s i ni mpo r tan t P r e—Roman a r ch eo log ica l s i te s [ s ee F ig . 7 ] . O ne o ft h e mo s t i n te r e s t ing m a rke r s i sa tt h ec i ty o f

t o f e t . T h i s t emp le i so r ien ta ted t o 11° ( 8 =— 16 ° ) , i n s ide t h e r a nge o ft h e S un r i se s , b u t i sn o t r e la ted t ot h e S o ls t ice s o r E qu inoxe s [ ESTEBAN e t a l . , 2 001] . I n t h i s s en se , B e lmon te p ropo se s t h a tt h e r e a son o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e 8 6

C d sa rE s t eban : E qu ino c t ia lM a rk e r sa n dO r ien ta t ion so fM onum en t si nt h eW e s t e r nM ed i t e r r anea n t emp le c ou ld b e t h e r i s ing p o in t o f S i r iu s [ BELMONTE & HO SK IN , 2 002 : 3 58 ] . A r e f e r ence o f t h e p o s s ib le i mpo r tance o f t h i s s t a r a mong t h e a nc ien t L ibyan s i s c o l lec ted b y L yko s R heg ino s , w ho r ema rk s t h a t A f r ican c a t t le ,a tt h er i s ing o fS i r iu s ,t ur nt of a ce i t[ s ee r e f e r ence i n B ATES , 1 970 : n . 7 ] . A no the r p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion o f t h e o r ien ta t ion t owa rd s ö=— 16 ° i st h a tt h i s i st h e a pp rox ima te d ec l ina t ion o ft h e S un a tt h e M id—Po in t i nt ime b e tween t h e A u tumn E qu inox ( o r t h e M id—Po in t i nt ime b e tween S o l s t ice s ) a nd t h e W in te r S o l s t ice [ s ee R UGGLES , 1 999 : 5 ] , w h ich w ou ld i n d ica te ap a r t i t ion o ft h e y ea r i na tl e a s t e i gh t p a r t s o f e qua l d u ra t ion , a nd t h a t t h e se i n te rmed ia te d ay sc ou ld a l so b e o fs ome r i tua l i n te re s t . L eg lay ( LEGLAY , 1 961 : 2 08 )r epo r t s ac ommen tb yL .C a r ton s ay ing t h a tt h e t wo p eak s o ft h e r ema rkab le B ou K our ne in a nd t h e Z ag h ouan moun ta in c an b e s e en f r om t h e T emp le o fS a tu rn a t T hugga i nc l ea r d ay s . I n E s teban e ta l . ( ESTEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1) w e d o n o t r e po r t t h e s i gh t o f t h e se moun ta in s b ecau se t h e m e teo ro log ica l c ond i t ion s w e re n o t g ood e nough d u r ing o u r v i s i t t o T hugga . Ih ave m ea su red t h e a pp rox ima te a z imu th s o ft h e l i ne s c onnec t ing T hugga a nd b o th m oun ta in s i nd e ta i led t o pog raph ic m ap s o f T un i s ia ,

t h a t mo s t o ft h e r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s d ed ica ted t oS a tu rn i n R oman t ime s a r e o r ien ta ted t owa rd s t h e r a nge o fa z imu th s w he re t h e S un ( o r t h e Moon ) r i se s a l ong t h e y ea r . T he s i m i la r i ty b e tween t h e o r ien ta t ion p a t te rn o f t h e A f r ican t emp le s d ed ica ted t oS a tu rn a nd t h a t o ft h e I b er ian t emp le s s hown i nF igu re 6i sr ema rkab le . S ince t h e s em ina l w o rk b y L eg lay [ LEGLAY , 1 96 1 ; L EGLAY , 1 966a ; L EGLAY , 1 966b ] i ti sw e l l k nown t h a tt h e t emp le s d ed ica ted t o S a tu rn h ad s ome c ommon d i s t inc t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic s : t h e i r e n t rance f a ce t h e E a s t [ d emon s t ra ted i n F ig . 1 ] , t h ey a r e u sua l ly l o ca ted o n h i gh p l ace s a nd o u t s ide t h e c i t ie s , a nd t h ey a r e b u i l t o ve r o r v e ry n ea r p r ev iou s P re—Roman s a c red s i t e s . We h ave made as imp le s t a t i s t ic s o f t h e 4 0 s anc tua r ie s o f t emp le s d ed ica ted t o S a tur n d e sc r ibed b y L eg lay [ LEGLAY , 1 96 1 ; L EGLAY , 1 966a ] i n mo re o r l e s s d e ta i l , f i nd ing t h a t 5 5% o f t h em s t and o n h igh p l a ce s a nd 7 0% a r e i s o la ted a nd l o ca ted o u t s ide t h e c i t ie s . I ti sw or th n o t ing t h a t m any s anc tua r ie s h ave n o t b een i n c luded i n t ho se p e r cen tage s s imp ly b ecau se L eg lay d oe s n o t d e sc r ibe t h em w i th e nough d e ta i l , n o t n ece s sa r i ly b ecau se t h ey d o n o t f o l low t h e c ommon f e a tu re s . T he se c ha rac te r i s t ic s m ake t h e t emp le s d ed ica ted t o S a tu rn s u i tab le p l ace s f o r a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s a nd /o r f o r t h e « man if e s ta t ion» o f ( e p iphany ) o r t h e « commun ica t ion» w i th a na s t ra l d e i ty .

f i nd ing t h a t t h e p eak o fZ aghouan i sl o ca ted a ta bou t 8 9 ° , w h ich c o r r e spond s t o ad ec l ina t ion o f a bou t + 1° ( f o r a n e s t ima ted a l t i tude o f0 ° .5 ) , v e ry n ea r t h e p o in t w he r e t h e S un r i se t a ke s p l a ce a t t h e E qu inoxe s a nd t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in tb e tween S o l s t ice s . I ti si mpor tan tt or ema rk t h a t Z aghouan i sn o t o n ly t h e h ighe s t p eak o fT un i s ia b u t a l so t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t w a te r s ou rce o f a nc ien t C a r thage . I n f a c t , t h e R oman e mpe ro r H ad r ian b u i l t a n i mp re s s ive a queduc to f9 0 km l o ng f r om G ebe l Z aghouan t oC a r thage . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e o t he r r ema rkab le moun ta in s e en f r om t h e T emp le o f S a tu rn , B ou K ou rne in , i s l o ca ted w he re t h e r i se o f ac e le s t ia l b ody w i th 8= + 19 ° s hou ld b e e xpec ted . T h i s i s a c u r iou s o r ien ta t ion , b ecau se t h e e n t rance o ft h e o t he rt emp le d ed ica ted t oS a tu rn i nT hugga ( a t t h ef o rum ) i sf a c ing p rec i se ly t o t h i s d i r ec t ion . O the r N o r th A f r ican t emp le s o r ien ta t ed c l o se t o t h i s d i rec t ion a r e : t h et emp le d ed ica ted t oS a tu rn a t Mac ta r , t h e c ap i to l ia a tB u l la R eg ia a nd S ab ra tha , a nd t h e a nonymou s t emp le a t C o t ta [ ESTEBAN e t a l . , 2 00 1 ] . A s t ronom ica l ly , t h i s o r ien ta t ion c ou ld b e r e la t ed t o t h e n o r the rn M ino r S t and s t i l l o ft h e Moon , o r t h e r i s ing p o in t s o fR egu lu s o r t h e P l e iade s a t t h e momen t o f t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e s anc tua r ie s .

I ti sb road ly a ccep ted t h a t S a tu rn w a s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t d e i ty w o r sh ipped i nN o r thwe s t A f r ica d u r ing R oman t ime s [ P ICARD , 1 954 : 1 00 -29 ; L EGLAY , 1 966b ; B üNABOU , 1 975 : 3 70 -75 ] f r om a nc ien t Num id ia t o Mau r e tan ia ( p r e sen t—day T un i s ia a nd Mo rocco , r e spec t ive ly ) . H i s c u l t h ad s t rong a nd c l ea r P re—Roman r oo t s a nd w a s t h e i n he r i to r o f t h e a nc ien t c u l t t o t h e P un ic B aa l H ammon , a s i t i s d emon s t ra ted i n t h e d ed ica t ion s o f t h e s anc tua ry o f ' E l H of ra a nd t h e N eo—Pun ic o ne o f T h inn i su t . S a tu rn /Baa l H ammon w a s a l so t h e mo s t i mpor tan t g od f o r b o th t h e r u ra l a nd P un ic i sed L ibyan p opu la t ion , p robab ly d ue t ot h e s t rong s im i la r i t ie s o ft h e C a r thag in ian d e i ty w i th af o rm e r a nc ien t s up reme L ibyan g od [ s ee f o r i n s tance L EGLAY , 1 966b : 4 17 -47 ] . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a tt h e c u l t o fS a tur ni sa lmo s t c omp le te ly a b sen t i n t h e d eep ly P un ic i sed T r ipo l i tan ia [ LEGLAY , 1 966b : 2 67 -68 ; B ROUQU IER—REDDÜ , 1 992 : 2 55 -65 ] . I nt h i s r eg ion J up i te r—Hammon w a s a n a dap ta t ion o ft h e g r ea tg od o f t h e E a s te rn L ibyan s , t h e r am—headed Ammön , w ho se c u l t i n t h e f amou s o r ac le o f S iwa w a s r e f e r r ed b y t h e a nc ien ta u tho r s s i nce t h e 6f i c en tu ry B CE [ BüNABOU , 1 975 : 3 35 -38 ; MATT INGLY , 1 994 : 1 67 -68 ] . T he s p r ead o ft h e c u l t o f Ammön i s d emon s t ra ted b y t h e m any r u ra l ( mo s t ly

A s i tc an b e s e en f r om t h e p r ev iou s d i scu s s ion , t h e r e a r e p o s s ib le e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s i nt h ree s a c r ed a r ea s o rt o f e t s o fi mpo r tan t c i t ie s o fL ibyan—Pun ic o r ig in . I nt h ree c a se s , t h e s a nc tua r ie s w e r er e—u sed d u r ing R oman t ime s a nd w e re d ed ica t ed t oS a tur n —the g r ea tN o r th A f r ican d e i ty — o rt o t h e R oman ( a nd a l so H e l len ic ) s o la r g od A po l lön . I ti s w o r th n o t ing t h a t E s teban e ta l . [ ESTEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1) f ound t h a tt h e R oman b u i ld ing s ( mo s t ly b u i l t i nt h e 2n d a nd 3r d c en tu r ie s C E ) s how a d ef in i te r a ndom d i s t r ibu t ion o f o r ien ta t ion s [ s ee F ig . 1 0 ] a nd n o c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e d ed ica t ion o f t h e t emp le s a nd t h e i r o r ien ta t ion , e xcep t t h o se d ed ica ted t o S a tu rn [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . I n F igu r e 1 w e i n co rpo ra te d a ta f r om p ub l i shed m ap s [ LEGLAY , 1 96 1 ; L EGLAY , 1 966a : T imgad , T idd i s , ' E l -Hof ra ; MOREST IN , 1 980 : H ippona ; HURST , 1 999 : t emp le a t t h e t o f e t o f C a r thage ] t o t h e s amp le m ea su red b y E s teban e t a l . ( ESTEBAN e t a l . , 2 001 : Mac ta r , S im i thu s , V o lub i l i s a nd t wo t emp le s i nT hubu rbo Ma ju s a nd T hugga ) . I ti se v iden t

i n d igenou s ) t emp le s o r a mmöne ia f o r w h ich w e h ave e v idence i nT r ipo l i tan ia a nd i t s h i s to r ica l p r e sence a mong t h e G a raman te s a nd t h e L ibyan d e se r t o a se s o f S iwa a nd A ug i la [ MATT INGLY , 1 994 : 3 6 , 1 68 ] . We h ave c o l lec t ed p ub l i shed d a ta f o r r u ra l s h r ine s b u i l t i n R oman t ime s i n T r ipo l i tan ia [ l oca ted m o s t ly i nt h e G ebe l : E STEBAN e ta L , 2 00 1 ; B ROUQU IER—REDDÜ , 1 992 , & r e f e r ence s t h e re in ] a nd f o r t h e G a raman t ian a sh la r m a son ry t emp le f ound a t G e rma [ ESTEBAN e t a l . , 2 00 1 ] . We f ound t h a t m o s t o f t h em a r e f a c ing t h e S un r ise o r S un se t b u t s ome f a ce d ue S ou th [ s ee F ig . 1 2 ] . I ti sr ema rkab le t h a tt h er a nge o fo r ien t a t ion s o f m any o f t h e r u ra l s anc tua r ies o f T r ipo l i tan ia s how a n o r ien ta t ion s im i la r t ot h o se d ed ica ted t oS a tu rn i n t h e r e s t o ft h e Magh reb , af a c t t h a t c ou ld b e r e la ted t o a 8 7

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DUM

c ommon P re—Roman s ub s t ra te i n t h e p opu la r r e l ig ion i n b o th t e r r i to r ie s . I n c iden ta l ly , t h e T emp le o ft h e O ra c le i n S iwa , t h e o r ig in o ft h e c u l tt o Ammön , w ho se l a s tb u i ld ing d a tes b ack t o t h e r e ign Ama s i s Io ft h e 2 6t h D yna s ty o f E gyp t ( 570 -526 BCE) ,h a s i t s e n t rance f a c ing S ou th [ A = 1 6 1° , p l an p ub l ished b y F AKHRY , 1 973 : f i g . 4 7 ] . T h i s g ene ra l o r ien ta t ion i s n o t s t range i n E gyp t ian t emp le s , a bou t 1 0% o f t h e t emp le s a na ly sed b y B e lmon te [ BELMONTE , 1 999 : 1 60 ] a r e f a c ing t ot h i s p a r t icu la r z one o f t h e h o r izon , p e rhap s r e la ted t o c on s te l la t ion s o f t h e s ou the rn h em i sphe r e . Among t h e T r ipo l i tan ian r u ra l s h r i n e s , t h e o ne o fG h i rza ( bu i ld ing 3 2 , s t ud ied b yB rogan a nd Sm i th 1 984 : 8 0 -92 ) i se spec ia l ly i n te re s t ing d ue t oi t s l a te d a r t ing , f r om t h e 4t h c en tu ry t ot h e 6t h c en tu ry CE,a nd i t s s t rong P un ic e l emen t s , t h a t m ake i t au n ique monumen t i n T r ipo l i tan ia . B rogan a nd Sm i th [ BROGAN & S M ITH , 1 984 : 8 8 ] s ugge s t t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s p e rhap s d evo ted t o t h e c u l t o f B aa l—Sa tu rn i n h i s r o le o f E a r th ly f e cund i ty a s a d i v in i ty , b u t B rouqu ie r—Red & [ BROUQU IER—REDDÜ , 1 992 : 1 46 ] p ropo se st h a tt h e s anc tua ry s hou ld b e d ed ica ted t ot h e L ibyan b u l l—headed g od G u rz i l , s on o f Ammön . I n f a c t , t h e n ame G h i rza h a s b een r e la ted t ot h e n ame o ft h e g od [ BROGAN & S M ITH , 1 984 : 3 6 ] . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t E lmaye r [ ELMAYER , 1 982 ] r epor t s aN eo—Pun ic i n sc r ip t ion o f L epc i s Magna t h a t s ugge s t s t h e a s s im i la t ion b e tween G u rz i l a nd S a tu rn , a l though t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion h a s b een q ue s t ioned [ BROUQU IER—REDDÜ , 1 992 : 2 23 ] . F rom t h e p l an s p ub l i shed b y B rogan a nd Sm i th [ BROGAN & S M ITH , 1 984 : f i g s . 2 5 -26 ] t h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing i st owa rd s t h e E a s t ( 78° ) , v e ry s im i la r t o t h a t o f G e rma [ A =7 5° , E STEBAN e ta l . , 2 001 ] a nd i n s ide t h e s un— r i s ing o r ien ta t ion p a t te rn . F ina l ly , i nE s teban e ta l . [ ESTEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1 ] w e h ave a l so m ea su red t h e o r ien ta t ion o fs ome P re—Roman t emp le s b u i l t b e tween t h e 2 '1 c en tu ry BCE a nd t h e 1 ' c en tu ry CE d u r ing t h e e poch o f t h e N um id ian a nd Mau r e tan ian k i ngdom s , p r io r t o t h e R oman a nnexa t ion o f a l l N o r th A f r ican p rov ince s . T he se k i ngdom s w e re a u toch thonou s b u t d eep ly P un ic i sed i nt h e i r c u l tu re , m a in ly i nt h e of i c ia l l a nguage a nd r e l ig ion [ CAmPs , 1 979 ] . T he t emp le s m ea su red w e re t ho se a t K bo r K l ib a nd S im i thu s ( Num id ian ) a nd t h e a nonymou s s anc tua ry o ff ou r c e l l c e a t V o lub i l i s ( Mau r e tan ian ) . A l l s how a q u i te s im i la r

t h i s p opu la t ion a r r ived f r om N or th A f r ica a r ound t h e b eg inn ing —o r s omewha t e a r l ie r o f t h e C h r i s t ian E ra — p e rhap s a st h er e su l to fd epo r ta t ion s o fr e be l l iou sp eop le o f L ibyan t r ibe s c a r r ied o u t m o s tp robab ly b y R oman s o re l se b y P un ic s [ s ee P ALLARÜS P AD ILLA , 1 976 ; MEDEROS MART iN & E SCR IBANO C OBO , 1 999 ] . Mede ro s Ma r t in a nd E sc r ibano C obo [ MEDEROS MART IN & E SCR IBANO C OBO , 1 999 ] p ropo se Mau re tan ia T ing i tana a st h e m o s t p robab le r e g ion o f o r ig in o f t h e a nc ien t i s lande r s . H oweve r , B e lmon te e ta l . [ BELMONTE e ta l . , 1 998 ] s ugge s t N um id ia a s t h e l i ke ly h ome land , f o l low ing c e r ta in l i ngu is t ic c on s ide ra t ion s . A s w e c an s e e , t h e f i r s t s e t t le r s o f t h e C ana ry I s land s w e r e c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e N o r th A f r ican c u l tu re w ho se s a nc tua r ie sh ave b een d i scu s sed i nt h ep r ev i o u s s e c t ion . F ina l ly , i ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t t h e e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s f ound i nt h e C ana ry I s land s , a st h e N o r th A f r ican a nd I b e r ian o ne s , s e em t ob e m o r e c on s i s ten tw i th t h e s o la r p o s i t ion a t t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween S o l s t ice s [ ESTEBAN e ta l . , 1 996a ] .

V . On t he O r ig in o fC ommon A s tronom ica lC u s toms F rom t h e s c a r ce h i s to r ica l r e f e r ence s a va i lab le , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e a s t ra l c u l t s w e re o fg r ea t i mpo r tance f o r t h e P re— R oman p eop le o f N o r thwe s t A f r ica . F o r e xamp le , H e rodo tu s , i nh i s b ook s o fh i s to ry [ IV , 3 7 ] , t e l l s t h a t t h e S un a nd t h e Moon w e re t h e o n ly g od st ow hom a l L ibyan s m ade s a c r if ice s , e xcep t t h o se l i v ing a t L ake T r i ton i s . Mo reove r , R oman a u tho r s r ema rk t h a t t h e N um id ian s a nd Mau r e tan ian s w o r sh ipped t h e S un . I n p a r t icu la r , C ice ro [ De R epub l ica , I V , 3 ] t e l l s t h a t t h e N um id ian k i ng Ma s in i s sa i n voked « t he p owe rf u l S un a nd a l l t h e d i v in i t ie s o fH eaven» , w hen d ef end ing S c ip io t h e A f r ican . D iodö ro s S ike l iö te s [ / / / , 5 7 : 4 ,5 ]m en t ion st h e e x i s tence o f aL ibyan H e l io s g od . Mak rob io s [ Sa turna l ia , I ,2 1 ] d ec la re s t h a t u nde r t h e n ame o f H ammon t h e L ibyan s w o r sh ipped t h e d ec l in ing S un . F i na l ly , t h e l a te r A rab ic a u tho r , ' I bn K ha l d ün i nh i s H i s to ry o ft h e B e rbe r s m en t ion s t h a t t h e e a r ly B e rbe r sw e r ew o r sh ippe r s o ft h e S un a nd t h e Moon . S a tu rn , t h e g r ea t g ood o fR oman A f r ica h ad i nf a c t s t rong c e le s t ia l a t t r ibu te s . H i s m a in s ymbo l s w e r e t h e l u na r c r e scen t a nd t h e s o la r d i sc . F o l low ing L eg lay [ LEGLAY , 1 966b : 1 66 -87 ] , t h e c e le s t ia l c ha ra c te r o f S a tur n w a s d ue p e rhap s t o am ix tu r e a nd c onve rgence o f E a s te rn a nd a nc ien t A f r ican t r ad i t ion s . T he se a s t ra l s ymbo ls a r e n o t o n ly p re sen t i nt h e L ibyan f u ne ra ry s t e lx b u t a l so i nt h e i n te r io r o fh awanä t , d o lmen s a nd f u ne ra ry ur n s , i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e L ibyan s a s soc ia ted t h e s o la r c u l t t o t h e f u ne ra ry r i tua l . T he r e la t ion b e tween f u ne ra ry a nd s o la r c u l t i sa w e l l e s tab l i shed f a c t i nN or th A f r ica f r om t h e s t ud ie s o f t h e o r ien ta t ion s o fS aha ran d ry s t one f une ra ry m onumen t s ( i d ebnän ) d a ted f r om t h e N eo l i th ic u p t o t h e A rab ic i n va s ion . T he o r ien ta t ion s o f m any k i nd s o f t h e se monumen t s a r e o v erwhe lm ing ly c onnec ted t o t h e r i s ing S un [ SAvARY , 1 966 ; P AR IS , 1 996 ; GAUTH IER & GAUTH IER , 1 999 ; GAUTH IER & GAUTH IER , 2 002 ; GAUTH IER & GAUTH IER , 2 003 ; HACH ID , 2 000 ] . T h i s e ndu r ing S aha ran t r ad i t ion h a s a c on t inu i ty i n t h e o r ien ta t ion p a t te rn o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s o f t h e P ro toh i s to r ic a nd P re— Is lam ic s t one b u r ia ls o f a u toch tonou s f o rm s a s t h e c hape l— tumu l i , n i che monumen t s a nd t h e g r ea t A lge r ian m au so lea [ s ee C AMPS , 1 961 : 1 80 -84 , 1 77 -78 , 1 99 -205 ; B ELMONTE e ta l . , 1 999 ;

o r ien ta t ion , i . e . : f r om 8 1° t o 9 9 ° [ s ee F ig . 1 3 ] , c on s i s ten t w i th t h e p a t te rn s f ound f o r t h e t emp le s o f S a tur n a nd t h e r u ra l t emp le s o f T r ipo l i tan ia . A l l t h e e v idence g a the r ed i n d ica te s t h a t w e a r e f a c ing ag enu ine P re—Roman L ibyan t r ad i t ion i nt h e o r ien ta t ion o fr e l ig iou sb u i ld ing s . Wha t i ti s n o t a c tua l ly c l ea ri sw he the rt h i s c u s tom h ad a n a u toch tho n ou s o r P un ic o r ig in , af a c t w h ich d e serve s f u r the r f u tu re i n ve s t iga t ion .

I V . E qu inox Marker s i n t he P re—H i span ic C anary I s land s I nE s teban e ta l . [ ESTEBAN e ta l . , 1 996a ; E STEBAN e ta l . , 1 996b ; E STEBAN e ta l . , 1 997 ] w e r e po r tt h e f i nd ing o fs t r i k i ng E qu inox m a rke r s i ns ome o ft h e m o s t i mpor tan t r e l i g i ou s a nd f une ra ry p rec inc t s i ns eve ra l i s land s o ft h e C ana r an A rch ipe lago , a nd e spec ia l ly i n G ran C ana r ia . T he P ro to—Be rbe r o r ig in o f t h e P r e—H i span ic c u l tu re s o f t h e a r ch ipe lago i sw e l l e s tab l i shed [ s ee T E JERA GASPAR & GONZÄLEZ ANTON , 1 987 ] . I ti sc l ea rt h a t t h e f i r s t w ave s o f 8 8

C e sa rE s t eban :E qu inoc t ia l M a rk e r sa n dO r ien ta t ion so fM onumen t si nt h eW e s t e r nM ed i t e r r ane an C ASTELLAN I , 1 995 ] . Mo reove r , i n t h e l a nd o f t h e G a raman te s , B e lmon te e ta l . [ BELMONTE , 2 002a ] h ave a l so o b ta ined a c l ea r s un— r i s ing p a t t e rn i nt h e o r ien ta t ion s o f f u ne ra ry monumen t s o f d i f f e r en t t y po logy ( py ram ida l , m a s taba— l ike a nd m ud—b r ick t omb s ) , a l though a N i lo t ic i n f luence c anno tb e d i s rega rded i nt h i s c a se . T he se f i nd ing s c l ea r ly i n d ica te t h a t s o la r o r ien ta t ion s w e r e e s sen t ia l a spec t s i nt h e f une ra ry a nd r e l ig iou s w o r ld o ft h e a nc ien t L ibyan s p r io r t o t h e c on ta c t s w i th t h e P h c en ic ian , P un ic a nd H e l len ic c i v i l iza t ion s . T he r ef o r e , w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a n e ndu r ing No r th A f r ican t r ad i t ion , w ho se d eep r oo t s c an b et r aced b a ck a se a r ly a st h eN eo l i th ic .

C aanan i te s ou rce s , p ropo se st h a tt h e P hc en ic ian—Pun ic y ea r b egan d u r ing t h e A u tumn , t h e f i r s t mon th c o r re spond ing a pp rox ima te ly t oo u r O c tobe r . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e A u t umn E qu inox ( o r an ea rby d a te ) c ou ld b e u sed a s t h e s t a r t ing p o in to ft h ey ea r . T he re i ss ome a dd i t iona l p o s s ib le e v idence o fe qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s i n t h e a va i lab le a r chwoa s t ronom ica l l i t e ra tu r e a bou tt h ea nc ien t Med i te r ranean . B lombe rg a nd H en r ik s son [ BLOMBERG & H ENR IK SSON , 1 999 ] r e po r te a r ly e qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s i n M inoan s anc tua r ie s o f C re te ( M idd le B ronze A ge ) , a st h e H ou se o fT ab le t s i nt h e w e l l—known p a lace o f K nö s so s a nd t h ep eak s anc tua ry o fP e t sopha s . I np a r t icu la r , a t P e t sopha s , t h e S un se t a t t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween t h e S o l s t ice s t o ok p l ace o ve r t h e p eak o f Moun t Mod i . Av e ry r e cen ti n te re s t ing r e su l th a sb een o b ta ined b y J .A . B e lmon te i n T emp le C a tS e l inu s , aH e l len ic—Pun ic c i ty i n S i c i ly . T h i s a u tho r h a s f ound t h a t T emp le C ( po s s ib ly d ed ica ted t oA po l lön a nd b u i l t b e tween 5 80 a nd 5 30 B CE ) i sp e rf ec t ly o r ien ta ted t ot h e S un r i se a to r n ea r t h e E qu inoxe s , t h a t t a ke s p l ace j u s t o ve r t h e t op o f a c on sp icuou s moun ta in p eak [ BELMONTE & HOSK IN , 2 002 : 2 03 -06 ] . I n te re s t ing ly , t h i s m a rke r i sa na logou s t ot h e o ne f ound a t Mac ta r d e sc r ibed i n s e c t ion 3 , w h ich w a s a l so d ed ica ted t oA po l lön , a sw e l l a st ot h e o t he r s f ound i nt h e I b e r ian s i te s .

A l though i ti sc l ea r t h a t s o la r f u ne ra ry —and p e rhap s r e l i g i ou s— t r ad i t ion s w e r e p re sen t s i nce v e ry e a r ly t ime s i n t h e r e g ion , c ou ld t h e E qu inox m a rke r s a l so b e c on s ide red g enu ine L ibyan e l emen t s? T he i r c o r re la t ion t ot h e a nc ien t P un ic t o f e t s m ake s o ne c on s id e r ing t h em a s ap o s s ib le P un ic o r P h c en ic ian h e r i tage . O the r i n d ica t ion f o rt h i s f a c t i st h a t t h e a s t ronom ica l m a rke r s a s soc ia ted w i th e a r l ie r L ibyan a r ch z eo log ica l s i te s s e em t o b e r e la ted t o t h e S umme r S o l s t ice S un r i se . T h i s i st h e c a se o ft h e m a rke r r e la t ed t ot h e d o lmen s a nd N um id ian t omb sa tt h ef o rum o f S im i thu s ( ESTEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1) a nd t h e s t r ik ing m a rk e r a t t h e G a raman t ian a nc ien t c ap i ta l o fZ inchec ra [ BELMONTE e t a l . , 2 002b ) . A n e ven e a r l ie r p o s s ib le e v idence o f a r e la t ion t ot h e S umme r S o l s t ice h a s b een f ound b y McK im Ma lv i l le e ta l . [ MCK IM MALV ILLE e ta l . , 1 998 ] a tN ab ta P l aya , i nE gyp t , o nt h e b o rde ro ft h e L ibyan D e se r t , w he r e ag roup o fm ega l i th ic c i rc le s a nd s t one r ow s d a ted a ta bou t 4 500 B CE c ou ld b e o r ien ta ted t o t h e S umme r S o l s t ice S un r i se o rz en i th p a s sage o ft h e S un . I nE s teban [ ESTEBAN , 2 003 ] Ia na ly se t h e o r ien ta t ion o fs ome o ft h e f ew P un ic t emp le s k nown , f i nd ing t h a t t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s a r e c omp r i sed w i th in a r e la t ive ly n a r row r a nge o f a z imu th s , b e tween 9 0 ° a nd 1 27 ° [ s ee F ig . 1 4 ] . T he a ppa r en t ly o l de s t t emp le s ( a t C a r thage , ' E l -Hof ra , Mo tya a nd K e rkoane ) s e em t o b e o r ien ta ted t owa rd s o r n ea r t o t h e W in te r S o l s t ice S un r i se , w h i l s t t h e l a t e r N eo—Pun ic b u i ld ing s s e em t o s how m o r e e a s te r ly o r ien ta t ion s ( Th inn i su t a nd ' E l -Ken i s s ia ) . H oweve r , t h e s ma l l s amp le d oe s n o t p e rm i t t oi n f e r as t a t i s t ica l ly c l ea rp a t te rn .

Many a nc ien t c h ron ic le r s a nd m oder ns cho la r s a g ree i nt h e s t rong a s t ra l c ha ra c te r o ft h e r e l ig ion o ft h e a nc ien t a bo r i g i ne s o f t h e C ana ry I s land s , a s w e l l a s i t s r ema rkab le s im i la r i ty t o t h e a nc ien t L ibyan a nd B e rbe r r e l ig ion [ LEGLAY , 1 966b : 4 24 -25 ; T E JERA GASPAR , 1 988 ; J IMENEZ GONZÄLEZ , 1 994 ; B ELMONTE e t a l . , 1 995 ] . F o r A n th ropo log i s t s , i ti sw e l lk nown t h a t r e l ig ion i so ne o ft h e mo s t c on se rva t ive c u l tu ra l e l emen t s i n ag i ven s oc ie ty . P e rhap s , t h e f i nd ing o fe qu inoc t ia l m a rke r s i nt h e C ana r ian A rch ipe lago r ef lec t s t h e e ndu rance o f s ome a s t ronom ica l e l emen t s o f a n o l d N o r th A f r ican r i tua l , c a r r ied i n t h e c u l tu ra l l u ggage o ft h ef i r s ts e t t le r s o ft h e i s land s . A l l t h e se a maz ing f i nd ing s a r e l i ke l o ose p i eces o f a c omp lex p uzz le s t i l l t ob e r e so lved . T he e v idence g a the red s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p r e sence o fm a rke r s o ft h e E qu inox , o r t h e t empo ra l M id—Po in t b e tween S o l s t ice s , w a s a n o ld a nd i mpo r tan t e l emen t o fd i f f e r en t P re—Roman c u l tu r es o ft h e We s ter n Med i te r ranean . P e rhap s w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a P an—Med i te r ranean t r ad i t ion , t h a t o r ig ina ted i n t h e E a s t a nd s p read b y t h e P hc en ic ian a nd /o r H e l len ic c o lon i sa t ion a l ong t h e 1s t M i l lenn ium B CE . T h i s a nc ien tt r ad i t ion c ou ld s t i l l h ave a l o ng— la s t ing e p i logue i n t h e r i tua l o f t h e i s o la ted C ana r ian a bo r ig ine s , u n t i l p e rhap s t h e e nd o ft h e M idd le A ge s , w hen t h e E u ropean e xpan s ion c hanged t h e f a ce o ft h ew o r ld .

T he p r e sence o fe qu inoc t ia lm a rk e r s i nt h e I b e r ian s anc tua r i e s o fC on te s tan ia , c ou ld b e a l so i n te rp re ted a s ap robab le P un ic h e r i tage . T h i s z one h ad as t rong P un ic i n f luence . I n f a c t , a n i mpo r tan t P hc en ic ian c i ty d a ted f r om t h e 8t h c en tu ry B CE ( t he n o r the rnmo s t P h c en ic ian s e t t lemen t i n m a in land S pa in ) h a s b een f ound i n s ide t h e s ou the rn l im i t s o fC on t e s tan ia [ GONZÄLEZ P RAT S e ta l . , 1 997 ] . Mo r eove r , a nc ien th i s to r ian sa sP l iny [M , 1 9 , 2 0 ] a nd P to lomy [M , 6 : 6 1 ] i n c lude C a r thago N ova , t h e c ap i ta l o f t h e I b e r ian e mp i re o f t h e B a rc id f am i ly , i n C on te s tan ia . Many A rchxo log i s t s h ave i n d ica ted t h e s t rong c u l tu ra l i n f luence o f t h e F ' un ics i nt h i s z one , i np a r t icu la r o n t h e r e l ig iou s a sp ec t s , a nd e spec ia l ly o n t h e i c onog raphy a nd p e rhap s t h e r i tua l [ MAR IN C EBALLOS 1 987 ; L LOBREGAT 1 994 ; P OVEDA NAVARRO 1 999 ] . T he c ommon P un ic s ub s t ra te o f b o th g eog raph ica l r e g ion s u nde r s t udy i nt h i s p ape r ( I be r ia a nd N o r thwe s t A f r ica ) m ake s l i ke ly c on s ide r ing t h a t t h e r i tua l a nd /o rc a lend r ica l u se o ft h e E qu inoxe s ( o rt empo ra l M id— P o in t i nt ime b e tween t h e S o l s t ice s ) c ou ld b e a n i n he r i ted S em i t ic e l emen t . I n t h is s e n se , i ti s w o r th n o t ing t h a t S t ieg l i tz [ ST IEGL ITZ , 2 000 ] , a t tend ing t ot h e P hc en ic ian a nd

V I . R ef erence s AL MAGRO GO RBEA , M . : « Lo s i b e ro s : n ueva s p e r spec t iva s s o b r e s u s o r igene s» , L o s i b ero s e n l aC oma rca d e R equena— U t i e l ( V a l enc ia ) ( Lo r r io , A . J . , e d . ) , A l ican te ( Un ive r s idad d e A l ican t e )2 00 1 , 3 -47 . AL MAGRO GO RBEA , M., MO NEO , T. :S an tua r io s u rbano se ne l m undo i b j r ico , Mad r id ( Rea lA cadem ia d el aH i s to r ia ) , 2 000 . AR ANEGU I , C. :« E l c i r cu lo d e l s ude s te y e lc ome r c io e n t r e i b e ro s yg r iego s» , H ue l va A rqueo l6g ica , X 1 1 1 1,1 994 , 2 97 3 18 . 8 9

AMANDA—AL ICE MARAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DUM AVEN I , A .F . , R OMANO , G . : « O r ien ta t ion a nd E t ru scan R i tua l» , A n t iqu i ty , 6 8 , 1 994 , 5 45 -563 .

E LMAYER A .F . : « The L ibyan G od G u rz i l i n aN eo—Pun ic I n s c r ip t ion f r om T r ipo l i tan ia» , L ibyan S tud ies , 1 3 , 1 982 , 4 9 -50 .

AVEN I , A .F . , R OMANO , G . : « Temp le O r ien ta t ions i n Magna G rxc ia a nd S i c i ly» , A rch c eoa s t ronomy 2 5 ( Supp lemen t t ot h e JHA ,3 1) 2 000 , 5 1-57 .

E STEBAN , C . : « A s t ronomy a nd t h e A nc ien t I b e r ians : A rchw o a s t ronom ica l F i e ldwo rk i nI b e r ian S ac red E nc losu re s» , S w i a tow i tS upp lemen tS er ies H :A n thropo logy , I , 1 999 , 11-30 .

B ATES , 0 . : T he E a s tern L ibyan s , L ondon ( F rank C a ss & C°. L td . )' 1970 [ ' 19 14 ] .

E STEBAN , C . : « A s t ronom ia y r e l ig iön i b e r ica» , R ev i s ta d eA r q ueo log ia ,2 38 , 2 001 , 1 2 -19 .

B ELMONTE , IA . : L a s l e yes d e l c i e lo , Mad r id ( Ed ic ione s T e ma s d e H oy , S .A . ) 1 999 .

E STEBAN , C . : « E lemen to s a s t ronöm icos e n e l mundo r e l ig io so yf une ra r io i b e r ico» , T raba jos d e P reh i s tor ia , 5 9 2,2 002 , 8 11 00 .

B ELMONTE , J .A . , E STEBAN , C . , A PAR IC IO , A . , T E JERA GA S PAR , A . , GONZALEZ , 0 . : « Cana r ian A s t ronomy b ef o re t h e C onque s t : t he P re—H ispan ic C a lenda r» , R ev i s ta d e l aA cad e m ia C anar ia d e C ienc ia s , V I , 1 994 , 1 33 -56 .

E STEBAN , C . : « Temp le s a nd A s t ronomy i n C a r thage» , S ym b o l s a nd O r ien ta t ions : L egac ies o f A s tronomy i n C u l ture ( B lombe rg , M . , H en r ik sson , G . , & B lombe rg , P .E . , e d s . ) 2 003 , i np re s s .

B ELMONTE , J .A . , E STEBAN , C . , P ERERA B ETANCORT , M .A . , MARRERO , R . : « A rchwoa s t ronomy i nt h e S aha ra : t h e T ombs o f t h e G a raman te s a t Wad i ' e l A g ia l ( Fezzan , L ibya )» , A r c h c eoas t ronomy 2 7( Supp lemen tt ot h e JHA ,3 3 ) , 2 002 , 1 19 .

E STEBAN , C . , B ELMONTE , J .A . , P ERERA B ETANCORT , M .A . : « The E qu inox i nP r e—H ispan ic C ana ry I s lands» , P roceed ing s o ft h e 5t h O xf ord C onf erence o n A rchf f loa s tronomy 1 996 , i n p r e ss .

B ELMONTE , J .A . , E STEBAN , C . , P ERERA B ETANCORT , M .A . , MARRERO , R . : « The S un i nt h e Nor th o fA f r ica b ef o re t h e I s l am : AS o ls t i t ia l Ma rke r i nt h e S aha ra» ,A s t ronomy o fA nc ien t C iv i l i sa t ion s ( Po temk ina , T . & O b r idko , K . , e d s . ) 2 002b , i n p re ss .

E STEBAN , C . , B ELMONTE , J .A . , P ERERA B ETANCORT , M .A . , MARRERO , R . , J IMENEZ GONZALEZ , J . J . : « O r ien ta t ion s o fP re — I s lam ic T emp le s o ft h e No r thwe s t A f r ica» , A rch c eoa s trono m y2 6( Supp lemen tt ot h e JHA ,3 2 )2 001 , 6 5 -84 .

B ELMONTE , J .A . , HosK IN , M . : R ef l e jo d e l C o smo s : A t la s d e A rqueoa s tronom ia d e l Med i ter räneo A n t iguo , Mad r id ( Equ ipo S i r iu s ) 2 002 .

E STEBAN , C . , C ORTELL P EREZ , E . : « Cons ide rac ione s a r queo a s t ronöm ica s s ob re e ls an tua r io i b e r ico d e L a S er re ta» , R ec e rques d e l Museu d 'Ako i , 6 ,1 997 , 1 31-40 .

B ELMONTE , J .A . , S PR INGER B UNK , R . , P ERERA B ETANCORT , M .A . : « S ta t is t ica l A na ly s is a nd C ompa ra t ive S tudy o f t he L ibyc—Be rbe r w r i t ing s o ft h e C ana ry I s land s , t he Nor th Wes t o fA f r ica a nd t h e S aha ra» , R ev i s ta d el aA cad em ia C anar ia d e C ienc ia s ,X , 1 998 , 9 33 .

E STEBAN C . , S CHLUETER , R . , B ELMONTE , J .A . , GONZALEZ , 0 . : « P re—H ispan ic E qu inoc t ia l ma rke r s i n G ran C ana r ia , P a r t I » , A rch c eoa s tronomy 2 3 ( Supp lemen tt ot he JHA,2 9 ) 1 996b , 7 3 8 0 . E STEBAN C . , S CHLUETER ,R . , B ELMONTE , J .A . , GONZALEZ , 0 . : « P re—H ispan ic E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r s i nG ran C ana r ia , P a r t I » , A rch c eoa s tronomy 2 4 ( Supp lemen t t ot h e JHA ,3 0 ) 1 997 , 5 15 6 .

B ENABOU , M . : L a r & is tance a f r ica ine ä l ar oman isa t ion , P a r i s ( L ib ra i r ie F ran w is Ma spe ro ) 1 976 . B is i , A .M . : « A p ropo s i to d ia l cune s t e le d e l t i po d e l la Gho rf a a lB r i t ish Museum» ,A n t igun& q f r ica ines , 1 2 , 1 978 , 2 1-88 .

F AKHRY , A . : S iwa O a s is , C a i ro ( The AUC P re s s ) 1 973 .

B LÄZQUEZ , J .M . : H i s tor ia d e l a s R e l ig iones d e l a E uropa A n t igua , Mad r id ( Ed ic ione s C ä ted ra ) 1 994 .

GAUTH IER , Y . & GAUTH IER , C . : « O r ien ta t ion e td i s t r ibu t ion d e d i ve r s t ype s d e monumen t s l i t h ique s d u Me s sak e t d e s r e g ions v o is ine s( F ezzän , L ibye )» ,S ahara , 1 , 1 999 , 8 7 -108 .

B LÄZQUEZ , J .M . , GARC IA—GELABERT , M .P . : C ä s tu lo : c i udad i b ero—romana , Mad r id ( Ed ic ione s I s tmo ) 1 994 .

GAUTH IER , Y . & GAUTH IER , C . : «Monumen t s äa n tenne e n " L" o u a ppa ren te s : U ne o r ig ina l i te d u F ezzän? A rch i tec tu re , o r ien ta t ion e td i s t r ibu t ion» ,S ahara , 1 3 , 2 002 , 1 36 -47 .

B LOMBERG , M . , H ENR IKSON , G . : « Ev idence f o r t he M inoan O r ig ins o fS t e l la r N av iga t ion i nt h e A egean» , S w ia tow i t S up p lemen tS er ies H :A n thropo logy , I , 1 999 , 6 9 -81 .

GAUTH IER , Y . & G AUTH IER , C . : « O r ien ta t ion o f S ome D ry S tone Monumen t s : " V s hape" Monumen t s a nd " Gou le t s" o f t h e I mm id i r Moun ta in s ( A lge r ia )» , S ymbo l sa nd O r ien ta t ion s : L egac ies o fA s t ronomy i nC u l ture ( B lombe rg ,M . ,H en r ik sson , G . &B lombe rg , P .E . , e ds . ) , 2 003 , i np re s s .

B ROGAN , 0 . , S M ITH , D .J . : G h ir za : AL ibyan S e t t l emen t i nt h e R oman P er iod , T r ipo l i ( Depa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie s ) 1 984 . B RONCANO , S . : E l d epös i to v o t ivo iHr ico d e E l Amare jo ( Bone te , A lbace t e ) , Mad r id ( Excavac iones A rqueo lög ica s e n E spa i la ,1 56 ) 1 989 .

GONZALEZ P RATS , A . , GARC IA MENARGUEZ , A . , Ru iz S EGU R A , E . : « La F on te ta : U na c i udad f e n ic ia e n O cc iden te» , R ev i s t ad eA rqueo log ia , 1 90 , 1 997 , 8 13 .

B RONCANO , S . , B LÄNQUEZ , J . :E l Amare jo ( Bone te , A lbace te ) , Mad r id ( Excavac iones A rgueo lög ica se nE spa i ia , 1 39 ) 1 985 .

HACH ID , M . : L es p rem ier s B er Nres , A lge r & A ix—en—P ro v ence ( I na—Ya s , ü d i sud ) 2 000 .

B ROUQU IER—REDDE , V . : T emp l es e t c u l tes d e T r ipo l i ta ine , P a r is ( Ed i t ions d u CNRS ) 1 992 .

HUR ST , H . : T he S anc tuary o fT an i ta tC ar thag e i nt h e R oman P er iod , P or t smou th ( J ourna l o fR oman A rch c eo logy . S upp l e m en tary S er ies , 3 0 ) 1 999 .

CAMPS , G . : A ux o r ig ines d e l aB erbjr ie . Monumen t s e tr i tes f unjra ires P ro toh i s tor iques , P a r i s ( A r t s e t Me t ie r s G raph i q ues ) 1 961 .

J IMENEZ GONZALEZ , J . J . : « S is tema s c a lendä r icos , m i tos a s t ra l e s yp räc t ica s a d iv ina to r ia s e n l a s I s la s C ana r ia s p r eh ispän i c a s» , T ime a nd A s t ronomy a t t h e Mee t ing o f T wo W or ld s ( Iwan iszew sk i , S . , L ebeuf , A . e ta l . , e ds . ) , Wa r saw ( CESLA ) 1 994 , 4 02 -18 .

CAMPS , G . : « Le s Num ide s e t l ac i v i l isa t ion p un ique» , A n t i g un& a f r ica ines , 1 4 , 1 979 , 4 3 -53 . CASTELLAN I , V . : « Nec ropo l i d it umu l i c d a r cheoa s t ronom ia» , A rcheo log ia e a s tronom ia : E sper ienze e p rospe t t ive f u ture , R oma ( Accadem ia Naz iona le d e i L ince i ) 1 995 , 8 3 -98 .

LEGLAY , M. : S a tu rne A f r ica in : Monumen t s , I ,P a r is ( Ar t s e t

D INSMOOR , W .B . : « Archxo logy a nd A s t ronomy» , P APS , 8 0 ' , 1 939 , 9 5173 .

Me t ie r s G raph ique s ) 1 961 .

9 0

C e sa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ion so f Monumen t si nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean L EGLAY , M . : S a turne A f r ica in : Monumen t s , I , P a r is ( Ed i t ion s d u CNRS ) 1 966a .

d e l a s I s la s C ana r ia s» ,A lmogaren ,V I I , 1 976 , 1 7 -35 . P AR IS , F . : L es s epu l tures d u S ahara n ig er ien , d u N eo l i th ique äl i s lam i sa t ion , B ondy ( ORSTOM ) 1 996 .

L EGLAY , M . : S a turne Af r ica /n : H i s to ire , P a r is ( Ed i t ions E .D e B occa rd ) 1 966b .

P üREZ BALLESTER , J . , BORREDÄ ME J iAS , R . : « La C a r raposa

L LOBREGAT , E .A . : « T rad ic iön r e l ig iosa f e n ic io—pün ica e n C on te s tan ia» , E l m undo p ün ico : H i s tor ia , s oc iedad y c u l tura ( Gonza lez B lanco , A . , C unch i l lo s I l a r i , J . L . & Mo l ina Ma r to s , M . ,e d s . ) , Mu rc ia ( Ed i to ra R eg iona l d e Mu rc ia ) 1 994 , 1 69 -75 .

( Ro tg lä iC o rbe ra — L lane ra d e R ane s ) : Un l uga r d e c u l to i b e r i co e n e lV a l le d e l C anyo le s ( La C os te ra , V a lenc ia )» , Mad r id er M i t te i lungen ,4 4 ,2 003 , i np r es s . P ICARD , G . : L es r e l ig ions d e l ' Af r ique a n t ique , P a r is ( L ib ra i r i eP lon ) 1 954 .

MAR IN C EBALLOS , M .C . : « zTan i te n E spar ia?» , L ucen tum , V I , 1 987 ,4 3 -79 .

P ICARD , G . : « Le t emp le d u mu see aMak ta r» , R evue a rcheo l og ique ,I , 1 984 , 1 3 -29 .

MATT INGLY , D .J . : T r ipo l i tan ia , A nn A rbo r M I ( The U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan P re ss ) 1 994 .

P OVEDA NAVARRO , A .M . : «Me lqa r t yA s ta r te e n e lo cc iden te m ed i te r räneo : l a e v idenc ia d e l a P en insu la l b e r ica ( s ig los V I I I—V I a .C . )» ,X I IJ ornada s d eA rqueo log ia F en ic io—Pün ica ( Co s ta , B . & F er nandez , J .H . , e d s . ) , E iv issa ( Mu seo A rqueo l ög ico d e I b iza yF o rmen te ra ) 1 999 , 2 5-61 .

M 'CHAREK , A . : A spec t s d e l ' evo lu t ion d emog raph ique e ts o c i a le äMac tar i s a ux 2e e t 3e s i ec l es a p . J . —C . , T un is ( Pub l ica t i ons d e l 'Un ive r s i te d eT un is ) 1 982 . M 'CHAREK , A . : « La r oman isa t ion d u c u l te d e B a 'a l H ammon d ans l a r e g ion d e Mak ta r ( a n t ique T hu sca )» , A c tes d u 3e

RUGGLES , C .L .N . : «Whose E qu inox?» . A rch c eoa s t ronomy 2 2 ( Supp lemen tt ot h e JHA ,2 8 ) 1 997 , 4 5 -49 .

c ong r es i n terna t iona l d es e t ud es p hen ic iennes e t p un iques ( Fan ta r , M .H . & G hak i , M . , e d s . ) , T un is ( Pub l ica t ion s d e l ' U n ive r s i te d eT un is ) 1 99 1 , 2 45 -57 .

RUGGLES , C .L .N . : A s t ronomy i nP reh is tor ic B r i ta in a nd I r e l and ,N ew H aven & L ondon ( Ya le U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) 1 999 .

McK im MALV ILLE , J . , WENDOR F , F . , AMAZAR , A . , S CH ILD , R . : «Mega l i th s a nd N eo l i th ic A s t ronomy i nS ou ther n E gyp t» , N a tur e ,3 92 , 1 998 ,4 88 -91 .

S AVARY , J . P . : Monumen t s e n p i er re s s eche s d u F adnoun , P a r i s ( A .M .G . Mem . d u CRAPE , V I ) 1 966 . S T IEGL ITZ , R .R : « The P ho zn ic ian—Pun ic C a lenda r» , A c tas d e l I V C ong reso I n ternac iona l d e E s tud ios F en ic io s yP ün ico s , ( Aube t M .E . &B a r the lemy , M . , e d s . ) , H , C äd iz ( Un ive r s idad d eC äd iz ) 2 000 , 6 91-95 .

MEDEROS MART IN , A . , E SCR IBANO COBO , G . : « Fuen te s e s c r i ta s s ob re e lp ob lam ien to d e C ana r ia s : d epo r tac iön d e p ob la c i one s d e sde Mau r i tan ia T ing i tana» , V I I I J ornadas d e E s tu d ios s obre L anzaro te y F uer t even tura , I , A r rec if e ( Se rv ic io d e P ub l icac ione s , E xcmo . C ab i ldo I n su la r d e L anza ro te , E x c mo . C ab i ldo I n su la rd eF uer teven tu ra ) 1 999 , 3 39 -64 .

T E JERA GASPAR , A . : L a r e l ig iön d e l o sg uanches ( r i to s , m i tos yl e yenda s ) , L aL aguna ( Ed ico lo r ) 1 988 . T E JERA GASPAR , A . , GONZÄLEZ ANTON , R . : L a s c u l turas a b -

MEEUS , J . : A s t ronom ica l T ab l es o ft h e S un , Moon , a nd P la n e t s ,R ichmond (W i l lmann—Be l l , I n c . ) 1 983 .

o r igenes c anar ia s , S an ta C ruz d e T ene r if e ( I n te r insu la r C a n a r ia ) 1 987 .

MOREST IN , H . : L e t emp le B d e V o lub i l i s , P a r is ( Ed i t ion s d u CNRS ) 1 980 . P ALLARES P AD ILLA , A . : « Nueva t e o r ia s ob re e lp ob lam ien to

*

T HOM , A . : Mega l i th ic S i tes i nB r i ta in , O xf o rd ( OUP ) 1 967 .

Amare jo

*

B as t ida

C . d e l os S an tos

*

C o imbra

I l e ta d es B anye ts

A lcud ia E scuera C . L ucero

E ncarnac iön )e >

)4 > C igar ra le jo

* La L uz

FI GURE 1 .L oca t ion o ft he v a r iou s I be r ian s i tes s u rveyed . G rey b oxes i nd ica te t he s i tes w i th e qu inoc t ia l ma rker s d i scussed i nt he t ex t . [ F igu re a dap ted f r om ES TEBAN , 2 002 ] . CC opy r igh t2 002 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban . 9 1

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

R i tua l d epos it

FI GURE 2 :V iew o ft h ee a s te rn h o r izon a ss e en f r om E lA rna re jo . T he s i te o ft h er i tua l d epo s i ti si n d ica ted . ©C opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rC e sa rE s t eban .

N or th

321

1 . March 1 9 ,2000 2 .E qu inoxes 3 .T empora l m id -po in t b e tween s o ls t ices FI GURE 3 :S un r i se a tE l Ama re jo o n Ma r ch 1 9 ,2 000 . T he l i ne s s how t h ep a th o ft h en o r ther nl i mb o ft h e s o la rd i sk o nt h e d ay o ft h ep ho tog raph a nd a tt h eE qu inoxe s , a nd t h et empo ra l M id—Po in tb e tween S o l s t ices ( a pp rox ima te ly i nt h i s l a s tc a se ) . ©C opy r igh t2 000 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 2

C e sa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ion so f Monumen t s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

1N or th

S unr ise a tL a S er re ta 1 .E qu inox ( Sep tembe r 2 3 , 1 996 ) 2 .T empo ra l m id -po in t b e tween s o ls t ices

FI GURE 4 :S un r i se a tL a S e r r e ta o n S ep tembe r2 3 , 1 996 ( Au tumn E qu inox ) . T he l i nes s how t h ep a th o ft h e u ppe rl imb o f t h es o la rd i sk o nt h ed ay o ft h ep ho tog raph a nd a tt h et empo ra l M id—Po in tb e tween S o l s t ice s ( a pp rox ima te ly i nt h i s l a s tc a se ) . ©C opy r igh t 1 996 , b yE .C o r te l l P e rez .

FI GURE 5 :P a r t ia l v i ew o ft h ee a s te rn h o r izon s e en f r om L aC an-a po sa . Ai n d ica te st h ep eak o f Mondübe r , a t 8= + 0 .5 ° , f l anked b yt wo o t he rp eak s , Ba nd C .T he b l a ck c i rc le i n d ica te st h e s i ze o ft h e s o la rd i sk . 0C opy r igh t2 002 , b yJ .P e rez B a l le s te r .

9 3

AM ANDA—A L ICE MA RAVEL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DUM

N I

I

I

I

I

I

I

i . ....................

w

4 1 7 . . . " 1 1 :8

/

/

I

I

I

7 1 1 . 1 1.

7 • 1 1.

7 11. : : : : : 1 7 1 0

.

I

t I I

I I

I

1 S FI GURE 6 :O r ien ta t ion s o f as amp le o fI b e r ian t emp le s ( s ee t e x t ) . C on t inuou s l i ne s : d i rec tp rec i se m ea su remen t s ; d a shed l i ne s : d i r ec tp r ec i se m ea su remen t so fb u i ld ing sw i th t wo e n t rance s( two l i ne s f o rb u i ld ing , o ne f a c ing t h e E a s ta nd a no the r t ot h e s ou thwe s tq uad ran t ) ; d o t ted l i ne s : a z imu th st a ken f r om p ub l i shed p l an s . [ F igu re a dap ted f r om ES TEBAN , 2 002 ] . ©C opy r igh t2 002 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 4

C e sa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ions o f Monumen t s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

I ber ian

MED ITERRANEAN SEA e s

P en insu la

C o t ta L b cus •B anasa •

L epc is M agna

G ig th is S ab ra tha

V o lub i l is

AFR ICA

AFR ICA

• B u N gem

• Ge rma

FI GURE 7 : L oca t ion o ft h ev a r iou sN o r th A f r ican s i te ss u rveyed b yE s teban e ta l . [ ES TEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1 ] . G r ey b oxe s

i n d ica te t h es i te sw i th E qu inox m a rke r s d i scu s sed i nt h et e x t . [ F igu re a dap ted f r om ES TEBAN e ta l . ,2 00 1] . ©C opy r igh t2 00 1 , b y D rC e sa rE s teban .

FI GURE 8 :R ema in s o ft h eT emp le o fA po l lön i n Mac ta ra nd i t se a s tern h o r izon . T he a r row i n d ica te st h ep l ace w he r et h e S un r ise t a ke sp l a ce a tt h e E qu inoxe s . T he u ppe rl ef tb ox s how s ae n la rg emen to ft h eh o r izon , t h ew h i te c i r c le i n d ica te st h e s i ze o ft h es o la rd i sk . [ F igu r er e p roduced f r om ES TEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1] . 0C opy r igh t2 00 1 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 5

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DUM

FI GURE 9 :G ene ra l v i ew o ft h eT emp le o fS a tu rn i nT hugga a nd i t si mp re s s ive e a s te rn h o r izon . CC opy r igh t2 003 ,b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

FI GURE 1 0 : O r ien ta t ion so f as amp le o fR oman t emp le s o fN or thwe s tA f r ica s t ud ied b yE s teban e ta l . [ ES TEBAN e ta l . ,2 00 1 ] . CC opy r igh t2 00 1 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 6

C e sa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ions o f Monumen t s i nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

%

m o rm o

M O

10 1 11

Min

Ili

1. 11 1

O M

=

%

%

%

%

B M

IMO

%

I

S FI GURE 1 : O r ien ta t ion so ft emp le sd ed ica ted t oS a tu rn f r om R oman N o r th A f r ica [ ES TEBAN , 2 003 ] . C on t inuou s l i ne s : d i rec tp r ec ise m ea su r emen t sb yE s teban e ta l . [ ES TEBAN e ta l . ,2 00 1 ] ; d a shed l i ne s : o r ien ta t ion so b ta ined f r om p ub l i shed p l an s . 0C opy r igh t2 00 1 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 7

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DUM

N I

FI GURE 1 2 : O r ien ta t ion so fr u ra ls anc tua r ie s o fR oman T r ipo l i tan ia . C on t inuou sl i ne s : d i r ec tp r ec i se m ea su r emen t sb y E s teban e ta l . ( 2001) [ ES TEBAN e ta l . ,2 00 1 ] ;d a shed l i ne s : o r ien ta t ion so b ta ined f r om p ub l i shed p l an s . ©C opy r igh t2 00 1 ,b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 8

C e sa rE s teban : E qu inoc t ia l Ma rke r sa nd O r ien ta t ion so f Monumen t si nt h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean

N

FI GURE 1 3 : O r ien ta t ion so fP re—Roman Nor th A f r ican t emp les m ea su red b yE s teban e ta l . [ ES TEBAN e ta l . , 2 00 1] . ©C opy r igh t2 00 1 , b yD rC e sa rE s teban .

9 9

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DU M

FI GURE 1 4 : O r ien ta t ion so fP un ic t emp le sa nd s anc tua r ie s [ ES TEBAN e ta l . ,2 00 1 ] . ©C opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rC i sa rE s t eban .

1 00

AP o s s ib le A s tronom ica lO r ien ta t ion o fR ock C arv ing si nt he K i lmar t in A rea Em i l ia P äsz tor a nd Cur t Ros lund

a r e i n te rv i s ib le w i th a tl e a s t o ne o rt wo o t he r s [ BRADLEY , 1 997 : 1 22 ] .

A b s trac t T he h i ghe s t c oncen t ra t ion o fr o ck c a rv ing s i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land i sf ound n ea rt h e s ma l l v i l lage o fK i lma r t in i nM id A rgy l l o n t h e S co t t ish We s t C oa s t . W i th in ar a d iu s o f1 0 km f r om K i lma r t in , i t i sp o s s ib le t o c oun t mo re t h an a bou t h und red s i te s w i th r o ck c a rv ing s . T he s t rong c ohe rence i n o r ien ta t ion o f c up—and— r ing r o ck c a rv ing s i nt h e K i lma r t in a r ea c an r e a sonab ly b e i n te rp re ted a s h av ing b een a ch ieved b y a s t ronom ica l m ean s . A l though w e c anno t u nequ ivoca l ly p i npo in t t h e c e le s t ia l t a rge t o rt h e p u rpo se o f t h e a l ignmen t , t h e S un a nd t h e Moon w ou ld b e l i ke ly c and ida te s . A s t h e c ohe rence i no r ien ta t ion i sl e s s p ronounced a t o t he rs i te s i nS co t land , i ti sn o ti ra t iona lt os uppo se t h a tt h ec up— a nd— r ing mo t if w i th ar a d ia l g roove o r ig ina ted i nt h e K i lma r t in a r ea .

I . D irec t iona lC onf orm i ty

KEY W ORDS : K i lma r t in , R ock C a rv ing s ( Cup—and—R ing C a r v i ng s ) , A s t ronom ica l O r ien ta t ion , E qu inoxe s , S o ls t ice s , S un , Moon , C e l t ic S ea sona l F e s t iva ls ,M id—Qua r te rD ay s .

I .I n troduc t ion : T he K i lmar t in R ock C arv ing s T he h i ghe s t c oncen t ra t ion o fr o ck c a rv ing s i nB r i ta in a nd I r e land i sf ound n ea rt h e s ma l l v i l lage o fK i lma r t in i nM id A rgy l l o n t h e S co t t i sh We s t C oa s t . W i th in ar a d iu s o f 1 0 km f r om K i lma r t in , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c oun t m o r e t h an a h und r ed s i te s w i th r o ck c a rv ing s [ BUTTER , 1 999 : 6 4 ] . O ne o ft h e se i st h e s i te o fA chnab reck , w he re ar i ch v a r ie ty o f m o t if s t oge the r w i th t h e c l eve r w ay t h e e ng rave r s h ave i n co rpo ra ted n a tu ra l f e a tu r e s o f t h e r o ck i n to t h e i r c ompo s i t ion s , m ake i to ne o ft h e f i ne s t r o ck a r t s i te s i nt h e w o r ld .

As t udy w a s i n i t ia ted i n2 002 o ft h e o u twa rd o r ien ta t ion o f t h e s poke s i nc up—and— r ing c a rv ing s i nt h e K i l ina r t in a r ea e ng raved o n f i a t , s o l id b ed rock t o e n su re t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e c a rv ing s h ad n eve r b een d i s tu rbed . Two r o ck c a rv ing s i te s , A chnab reck a nd C a ir nbaan , w e re c ho sen f o r d i rec t m ea su remen t , m a in ly b ecau se o f t h e i r r i chne s s o fc a rv ing s a nd e a se o fa c ce s s . A l l c a rv ing s w i th a s i ng le a nd c l ea r ly d ef ined s poke w e re m ea su red w i th a m agne t ic c ompa s s a nd c o r rec ted f o r m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion a tt h e p a r t icu la r s i te . T he a z imu th o ft h e o r ien ta t ion w a s r e ad t ot h e n ea re s t mu l t ip le o f5 ° . I nt h e f ew c a se s w he re t h e s poke w a s n o t c omp le te ly s t ra igh t , i t s i n ne rmo s t p a r t c l o se t ot h e c en t ra l c up w a s t a ken t or ep r e sen tt h e c a rv ing . O r ien ta t ion s f o r r o ck c a rv ing s o ve rg rown w i th m o s se s a nd l i chen o r t oo v ague f o r m ea su remen t c ou ld i n s ome i n s tance s b e o b ta ined f r om m ap s p ub l i shed b y t h e R oya l C omm i s s ion o n t h e A nc ien t a nd H i s to r ica l Monumen t s o f S co t land [ RcAHms , 1 999 : 4 2 -71 ] . T he c o r rec tne s s o ft h e n o r th p o in t ma rked o n t h e m ap s w a s c hecked b y a c tua l m ea su r emen tw he re p o s s ib le .

T he m o s t c ommon mo t if a mong t h e K i lma r t in r o ck c a rv ing s i st h e c up m a rk , e i the ri ni s o la t ion o ra tt h e c en t re o fo ne o r mo re c i rc le s . Ar ad ia lg roove , l i ke t h e s poke o fa w hee l , o f t en r un s o u twa rd f r om t h e c en t ra l c up . I th a sb een n o ted t h a t t h e se s poke s s ha r e ac ommon d i r ec t ion , u sua l ly t owa rd s t h e s ou thea s t [ BRADLEY , 1 997 : 7 7 ] . T he l a rge s t c up—and— r ing m o t if s c on ta in u p t oe i gh t c oncen t r ic c i r c le s a nd m ea su re a lmo s t af u l l m e t re a c ro s s . T he K i lma r t in e ng rav ing s b e long t ot h e s ame g ene ra l t r ad i t ion a st h e r o ck a r to fI r e land , B r i t tany a nd G a l ic ia . T he p r ec i se d a t ing o fr ock c a rv ing s i sv e ry d if i cu l t . I ti s n ow c ommon ly b e l ieved t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e K i lma r t in c upand— r ing e ng rav ing s w e r e c r ea ted i nt h e N eo l i th ic A ge d u r ing t h e t h i rd a nd s e cond m i l lenn ia BCE [ BRADLEY , 1 997 : 6 4 -65 ; R CAHMS , 1 999 : 8 ] .

F rom t h e s ame m ap s , o r ien ta t ion d a ta w e r e o b ta ined f o r f ou r s i te s n o t v i s i ted , A rd if u i r , B a l lygowan , P o l ta l loch a nd T o rbh la ren . F o r a l l s i x s i te s t h e a z imu th s w e r e d e te rm ined f o r at o ta l o f 9 3 c up—and— r ing s poke s , 5 4 o f w h ich b e longed t ot h ef amou sA chnab reck s i te . F o rt h ef i ve s i te s o t he rt h an A chnab r eck , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a z imu th s f o r t h e o u twa rd d i r ec t ion o ft h e r ad ia l g roove i n c up—and— r ing c a rv ing s s how s as t rong c o r r e spondence w i th t h e n o rma l f r equency f u nc t ion w i th a m ean a z imu th o f 1 20 ° ( i . e . : 3 0 ° So fE ) a nd a s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f 1 8 ° [ s ee F igu re 1 ] . T h i s i s a n ex amp le o f a n ex cep t iona l c onf o rm i ty i nd e s ign , c on s ide r ing t h a t t h e s i te s a r e s p read o ve r a n a r ea o f a bou t 3 0 km 2.N o p a ra l lax c ou ld b e d e tec ted b e tween d i f f e r en t s i te s f o r ad i s tan t t e r r e s t r ia l f o r e s igh t o nt h e h o r izon i nt h e s ou thea s t , b u tt h e re i ss l igh t e v idence f o r s ome d ependence o ft h e m ean a z imu th o ft h e c a rv ing s o nt h e d ownh i l l d i rec t ion o ft h e moun ta in s l ope a t t h e s i te , a s d educed f r om h e igh t c on tou r s o n O rdnance S u rvey m ap s [ s ee F igu re 2 ] . T he r o ck o u tc rop a tA chnab reck h a s t h ree r o ck c a rv ing p a n e l s , t wo o f w h ich s how t h e s ame o r ien ta t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a sa tt h e o t he rf i ve s i te s , w h i le t h e s poke s i nt h e c up— a nd— r ing s o n t h e t h i rd p ane l a tt h e s ou th e nd o ft h e r o ck a r e p o in t ing a t am ean a z imu th o f2 0 ° W o f S[ s ee F igu re 3 ] . No n o tewo r thy c hange i nt h e c ho ice o r s i z e o f mo t if c ompa r ed t o t h e t wo o t he r p ane l s w a s o b se rved , b u t t h e s t y le o fc a rv ing o nt h et h i rd p ane l s e emed mo r e c r ude .

T he r o ck c a rv ing s i nt h e K i lma r t in a r ea a r e m o s t ly f ound o nt h ef i a t , n ea r ly h o r izon ta l u ppe rs u rf ace o fr o ck o u tc rop s o f s ed imen ta ry s a nd s tone , s ha le a nd l i me s tone [ BECKENSALL , 1 999 : 1 0 1-02 ] a nd a tp l ace st h a ta r eo pen t o t h e s ky a nd t oday o f f e r a n u nob s t ruc ted p ano ram ic v i ew t owa rd s ad i s tan th o r izon i nt h es ou thea s t . F u the rmo re ,s i te s w i th c omp lex c a rv ing s t e nd t ob e c onfmed t ot h e u p land s w i th p oo re r s o i l , t h a t s u r round t h e f e r t i le v a l ley o f K i lma r t in . C ompu te r s t ud ie s s how t h a t t h e se s i t e s a s ar u le

C up—and— r ing m a rk s w i th s poke s p o in t ing d ownwa rd a r e f ound o n s ome s t and ing s t one s i nt h e K i l ina r t in a r ea , s u ch

1 0 1

A MANDA—AL ICE M ARAVEL IA ( ED .) :

ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

a s a tN e the r L a rg ie a nd B a l lymeanoch . T he se s t one s m ay h ow eve r h ave b een moved i n to t h e i r p r e sen t l o ca t ion s i n s t one r ow s l o ng a f t e r t h e i r c a rv ing s h ad b een m ade . C up— a nd— r ing d e s ign s i n c lud ing a r a d ia l g roove a r e f ound a l l o ve rS co t land a nd i n to N o r thumbe r land i nE ng land a sw e l l . A s t h e c ohe r ence i n t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s e em s t o d im in ish w i th d i s tance f r om K i lma r t in , i ti sh e re s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s d e s ign o r ig ina ted i nt h e K i lma r t in a r ea .

1 0

0

1

No rth

E as t

S ou th

A z

I I . A s tronom ica l I n terpre ta t ions

Won

T he s t rong c ohe r ence i nt h e o r ien ta t ion o f c up—and— r ing c a rv ing s a r ound K i lma r t in i sf ound i nt o o l a rge a n a r ea t o b e e xp la ined b y a im ing a t ad i s tan t f o re s igh t o n t h e s ou th— e a s te rn h o r izon . I n s tead , i ti n d ica te s am e thod b a sed o n o b se rva t ion s o f t h e r i s ing o f ac e le s t ia l b ody . T he re a r e g ood r e a son s f o r s ugge s t ing a s t ronom ica l o b jec t s t o h o ld s pec ia l s i gn if icance i n t h e p r eh i s to r ic p eop le 's r e l ig iou s b e l ief s y s tem s , s u ch a st h e S un o rt h e Moon , ap l ane t o ra s t a r .

FI GURE I .D is t r ibu t ion d i ag ram o fa z imu th si n1 5 °i n te rva l so ft h e o u twa rd d i r ec t ion o fs poke si n3 9c up—and— r ing c a rv ing sf o rf i ve o u to ft h es i xs i te ss t ud ied i nt h eK i lma r t in a r ea ;t h eA chnab r eck s i te b e ing l e f to u t , c ompa red t ot h en o rma lf r equency c u rve f o ra s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f1 8 °f r om am ean a z imu th o f3 0 ° So fE . ©C opy r igh t2 003 ,b yD r Em i l ia P ä sz to r &D rC u r tR o s lund .

We s t

A n o bv iou s c and ida te w ou ld h ave b een t h e S un . S un r i se s a r e s pec tacu la r e ven t s a nd e a sy t o o b se rve , b ecau se t h e u sua l i n ten se b r i l l iance o f t h e S un i s r e du ced t o a m anageab le l e ve l a t t h e h o r izon . T he p o in t o f s un r i se v a r ie s w i th t h e s e a son s , b u t t h e S un r i se s i n t h e s ame d i r ec t ion a tt h e s ame l o ca l i ty o n t h e s ame d a t e e ve ry y ea r . A t K i lma r t in , t h e S un r i se s a ta n a z imu th o f3 0° S o f Eo n t wo o cca s ion s , n ea r N ovembe r 7a nd F eb rua ry 5 . T he se t wo d a te s a r e a s t ronom ica l ly i n te r e s t ing , a s t h ey f a l l i n t ime h a lfway b e tween t h e A u tumn E qu inox a nd t h e W in te r S o l s t ice a nd b e tween t h e W in te r S o l s t ice a nd t h e V er na l E qu inox . T hey a r e c a l led M id—Qua r te r d ay s , b ecau se t og e the r w i th t h e i r t wo S umme r c oun te rpa r t s , t h ey d i v ide t h e s e a sona l y ea r i n to f ou r q ua r te r s . B a sed o n a ccoun t s i n e a r ly m ed ieva l I r i sh l i t e ra tu r e , i th a s b een a r gued t h a tt h e re e x i s t ed i nB r i ta in a na nc ien tP an—Ce l t ic y ea rd i v ided b yt h e f ou r s e a sona l M id—Qua r te r d ay s o fS amha in o n N ovembe r 1 , I mbo le o n F eb rua ry 1 , B e l ta ine o n May 1 , a nd L ughna sadh o n A ugu s t 1 .I ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t , t h a t t h e r e h a s b een n o h a rd e v idence f o r as im i la r d i v i s ion o f t h ey ea re a r l ie rt h an t h e M idd le A ge s [ HU TTON , 1 996 : 4 08 1 ] .

S o u th

N or th N or th

S oo*

We s t

DoWnf t if fJ ima /on FI GURE 2 .C ompa r ison o ft h em ean o u twa rd o r ien ta t ion o fs poke s i nc up—and— r ing c a rv ing sw i th t h ed ownh i l ld i rec t ion a ts i te s s t ud ied i nt h eK i lmar t in a r ea . T he s i ze o ft h ed o t s i sr e la ted t ot h e n umbe ro fc up—and— r ing c a rv ing sa tt ha ts i te . T he o pen c i r c le r e f e r st ot h el owe s tp ane l a tA chnab reck . ©C opy r igh t2 003 ,b yD r Em i l ia P ä sz to r &D rC u r tR o s lund .

T he s p r ead i n a z imu th f o r t h e r a d ia l g roove s f r om t h e i r m ean a z imu th c ou ld r e su l t f r om t h e d a te s , f o r t h e M id— Q ua r te r d ay s h av ing b een c ho sen n o t b y a s t ronom ica l m ean s , b u t f r om i mp rec i se e co log ica l c l ue s , s u ch a s t h e f a l l ing o fl e ave s f r om t h e t r ee s a nd t h e r i pen ing o fe d ib le n u t s i nt h e A u tumn , o r t h e r e tur n o fm ig ra to ry b i rd s a nd t h e l amb ing o fs h eep i nt h e e a r ly S p r ing . A no the rc au se f o r t h e s p read i no r ien ta t ion c ou ld h ave b een t h a t o n ly a f ew s poke s w e re s e t o u t b y a c tua l o b se rva t ion s , w h i le t h e m a jo r i ty w e r e a l igned p a ra l le l t o t h em b y e ye j udgmen t a l one , ap rac t ice o f t en l e ad ing t od ecep t ive r e su l t s .

2 0

1 0

N o r th

E a s t

S ou th

A z

A n a l te rna t ive c and ida te t o t h e S un w ou ld h ave b een t h e F u l l Moon . T he s udden a ppea rance o n t h e h o r izon o ft h e f u l l l u na ro rb w i th i t ss u rf ace m a rk ing s i s av e ry s t agge r ing s i gh t . When t h e F u l l Moon h appen s t or i se o n o ne o ft h e S umme rs o la rM id—Qua r te rd ay s , May 5a nd A ugu s t 7 ,i ti s s e ldom e xac t ly a ta na z imu th 3 0 ° So f Eb u tw i th in as e c to r o ft h e h o r izon o f1 0 ° f r om i t ,d ue t o as l ow d r if tf r om y ea r t oy ea r o ft h e Moon 's p a th w i th r e spec t t ot h e E c l ip t ic . A s

Wes t

FI GURE 3 .D is t r ibu t ion d i ag ram o fa z imu th si n1 5 °i n te rva ls o f t h eo u twa rd d i rec t ion o fs poke si n9 3 c up—and— r ing c a rv ing sf o r a l s i xs i te ss t ud ied i nt h eK i lma r t in a r ea . T he s haded a r ea r e f e r s t or o ck c a rv ing so nt h el owe s tp ane l a tA chnab reck . ©C opy r igh t2 003 , b yD r Em i l ia P ä sz to r &D rC u r tR o s lund .

1 02

Em i l ia P ä sz to r &C u r tR o s lund : P o s s ib le A s t ronom ica l O r ien ta t ion o fR ock C a rv ing sa tK i lma r t in

t h e l u na r mon th i sn o t i np ha se w i th t h e s o la r c a lenda r , t h e F u l l Moon c o inc ide s w i th e i the r o ft h e t wo S umme r M id— Q ua r te rd ay s o n ly o nce i n1 9y ea r s a nd c an f a l l a s much a s af o r tn igh t a way f r om a M id—Qua r te r d ay . T he se f a c to r s c ou ld b e a no the r s ou r ce f o r t h e s c a t te r i na z imu th o ft h e s poke s .

c en t ra l P o r tuga l . T hey a r e s o o r ien ta ted t h a t t h e r i s ing E a s te rF u l l Moon c ou ld s h ine t h rough t h e p a s sage w ay a nd l i gh t u p t h e c en t ra l p o lygona l c hambe r [ ROSLUND e ta l . , 2 000 : 1 12 ] .

V . E leva t ion b y I lu s ion

P l ane t s a r e o f t en t h e mo s t c on sp icuou s o b jec t s i nt h e n i gh t s ky a f t e r t h e Moon b ecau se o ft h e i r b r igh tne s s , b u t t h ey move a mong t h e s t a r s i n ac omp lex a nd s e em ing ly e r ra t ic w ay , m ak ing t h em u n su i tab le a st a rge t s f o r a l ignmen t s . I n t h e N eo l i th ic t h e r e w a s n o b r igh t s t a r r i s ing a ta n a z imu th o f 3 0 ° So f Ea tK i lma r t in , a l though t h e b r igh te s t s t a r o n t h ec e le s t ia lv au l t , S i r iu s ,r o se o n ly 1 5 ° So ft h i sp o in t . N oe xp lana t ion h a sb een s ough tf o rt h ed ev ia t ion i no r ien ta t i on o ft h ec up—and— r ing c a rv ing so nt h el owe s tp ane la tA c h nab reck . I ti se n t i r e ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e d ev ia t ion a r o se a s a n u n in tended a be r ra t ion o f t h e u sua l d e s ign a nd h ad n o a s t ronom ica l o b jec t ive . H oweve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t 7 k m a way , t h e 3 18 m h igh h i l l top o fC ruach B renf ie ld p ro t r ude s s l igh t ly f r om t h e h o r izon 2 0 ° W o f Sa s s e en f r om A chnab reck i n t h e m ean d i rec t ion o f t h e s pok e s o n t h e d ev ia t ing p ane l .

I V .C o sm ic C onnec t ion T he c i rc le i sp rof u sed ly r e p re sen ted b o th a mong r o ck c a r v i ng s a nd i nt h e l a you t o fm ega l i th ic monumen t s a nd w a s o bv iou s ly o f g r ea t i mpo r tance a s a n i d eog ram . S ome m onumen t s , s u ch a s S t oneheng e , Woodhenge a nd S t an ton D r ew , i n co rpo ra te i n to t h e i r p l an s t h e mu l t ip le c oncen t r ic c i r c le d e s ign r em in i scen to ft h ec up—and— r ing mo t if s e en i n r o ck a r t [ AvEL ING , 1 997 : 2 32 -33 ; GI B SON , 1 998 ] . S ome e a r then w o rk s i n C en t ra l E u rope f r om t h e s ame p e r iod d i sp lay t h es ame m o t if b a sed o nc i r c le s . S t onehenge i s af i ne e xamp le o f ap r eh i s to r ic monumen t s o d es igned t h a tt h ef i r s tr ay s o ft h e r i s ing S un o n ap a r t icu la r d a te , M id summe r m o rn ing , p ene t ra te t h e e d if ice a l l t h e w ay t o i t s c en t r e , i lum ina t ing t h e w ho le i n t e r io r i n t h e p roce s s [ RkszToR e ta l . , 2 000 : 12 13 ] . A s im i la r l i gh t a nd s hadow e f f ec t c an b e s e en i n t h e c up—and— r ing c a rv ing s w hen t h e r i s ing S un o n t h e W in te r q ua r te r d ay s l i gh t s u p t h e g roove l e ad ing t o t h e c en t ra l c up , f i l l ing i t w i th ar ed g l ow . T he l i gh tf r om t h e r i s ing F u l l Moon , h oweve r , i st oo f e eb le a nd t h e s ky s t i l l t o o b r igh t f o r t h e a ppea rance o fa n a na lo g ou s e f f ec t . P rac t ica l t e s t s p e rf o rmed b y u s s how t h a t t h e F u l l Moon n eed st or e ach a n a l t i tude o fa tl e a s t 1 0 ° b ef o re ad i s t inc t p a t ter n o f l i gh t a nd s hadow s i sp e r cep t ib le i n c up—and— r ing m a rk s o n ah o r izon ta l s u rf ace . T h i s w ou ld e l im ina te t h e F u l l Moon o nt h e S umme rs o la rM id—Qua r te r d ay s f r om t h e l i s to fc and ida te s f o ra l ign ing t h ec a rv ing s , i f al i gh t a nd s hadow e f f ec t w a s i n t ended . O nt h e o t he rh and , t h e f i r s t F u l l Moon a f t e r t h e V er na l E qu inox , t h e E a s te r F u l l Moon , a nd t h e l a s t F u l l Moon b ef o re t h e A u tumn E qu inox , t h e H a rve s t F u l l Moon , c ou ld b e a l te rna t ive c on t e nde r s . C a lcu la t ion s s how t h a t t h e se moon s , w hen t h ey r e ach a n a l t i tude o f 1 ° , o n a n a ve rage w i l l a ppea r a ta n a z imu th o f 3 0 ° So f E . A s t rong c a se f o r t h e E a s te r F u l l Moon t o h ave b een u sed f o r o r ien ta t ing p r eh i s to r ic monumen t s i sf ound f o r p a s sag e t omb s a r ound E vo ra i n 1 03

I ts hou ld a l so b e c on s ide red t h a t l i gh t a nd s hadow s c an c au se av i sua l i lu s ion o fd ep th r e ve r sa l . I th appen s w hen t h e c i r cu la r c oncave g roove s i nt h e c up—and— r ing f i gu re s s e em t o r i se f r om t h e r o ck p ane l l i ke c i r cu la r c onvex r i dge s . T h i s i sd ue t o a n a mb igu i ty i n o u r p e r cep t ion o f l i gh t g rad ien t s i n c a rv ing s o u t s ide t h e r a nge f o r s t e reo scop ic v i s ion . T he i lu s ion i sm o s t o f t en e ncoun te red a tn igh t w hen r o ck c a rv ing s a r e e xpo sed t o t h e s l an t ing r ay s f r om af l a sh l igh t [ Co ns , 1 990 : 1 3 14 ] . I np r eh i s to r ic t ime s , t h e r o ck f i gu r e s c ou ld s u re ly h ave c ome t o l i f e b y t h i s i lu s ion w hen l i tb y t h e f l i cke r ing l i gh t f r om b l az ing t o r che s . T he i lu s ion c an a l so b e s e en i nd ay t ime w hen t h e S un i s l ow i n t h e s ky . I t s a ppea rance t h en d epend s o n s eve ra l f a c to r s , s u ch a st h e o b serve r 's p o s i t ion r e la t ive t ot h e S un ( t he S un i nl i ne w i th t h e o b jec t i nf r on t o ft h e o b se rve r ) , t h e a l t i tude o ft h e S un , t h e c l a r i ty o ft h e a i r , t h e i n c l ina t ion t ot h eh o r izon ta l o ft h ep l ane t h rough t h er o ck c a rv ing s a nd t h e d ep th s o f t h e g roove s i n r e la t ion t o t h e i r w id th s . I n W in te r , t h e i lu s ion c an b e s e en i nb road d ay l igh t b u t i n S umme r o n ly d u r ing t h e e a r ly mor n ing a nd l a te a f t e rnoon . I ti s as t unn ing s i gh t t os e e aw ho le f l ee t o fc up—and— r ing s h ove r ing a bove as un l i tr o ck a r tp ane l . I ft h e c on t ra s t b e tween l i gh t a nd s hadow i ss ha rp e nough , t h e i lu s ion m igh t a l so b e s e en a tn i gh t d u r ing t h e S umme r F u l l Moon s , b u t a ny s ymbo l ic i mp l ica t ion s m igh t b e m i s s ing b ecau se o f t h e f e eb lene s s o f t h e i lu s ion i n t h e d a rkne s s e nve lop ing t h e r o ck c a rv ing s i te . I t i s j u s t p o s s ib le t h a t t h e s poke i nt h e c up—and— r ing s w a s i n tended t o s how t h e g ene ra l d i rec t ion o f s un r i se o n d ay s m o s t f a vou rab le f o r o b se rv ing t h i s i lu s ion o r l e s s p l au s ib ly — o f t h e r i s ing o f t h e F u l l Moon i n n igh t s f a vou rab le f o r o b se rv ing i td u r ing n i gh th ou r s .

V I . C onc lu s ions A though w e h ave v i s i ted s eve ra l p l ace s i n S co t land a nd N or th B r i ta in , i nt h i s p ape rw e h ave c ho sen t op ub l i sh o n ly K i lma r t in a r ea n ow b ecau se : ( i ) K i lma r t in a r ea w a s t h e o n ly o ne , w h ich w a s p e rf ec t ly p ub l i shed w i th d e ta i led p l an s a nd d r aw ing s . I tw a s ap rob lem a sm any s i te s a r e i n b ad c ond i t ion , t h e s u rf a ce s a r e g ene ra l ly n o t c l ea r e nough t od e tec t a l t h e r i ng s a nd s poke s , s o o ne c anno t s e e e ve ry d e ta i l , o n ly a g ood e xcava t ion c ou ld u ncove r e ve ry th ing . ( i ) F o rt h e s i te s o fK i lma r t in a r ea w e w e re mo s t i n te r e s ted i nA chnab r eck , a si th a s n ume rou s c up s w i th s poke s ( 54 o f t h e t o ta l 9 3 o ft h e w ho le a r ea ) ; t h i sm ean st h a tA chnab r ech i st h e m o s t s u i tab le t o d raw s t a t i s t ica l c onc lu s ion s . T he s e cond m o s t i n te re s t ing s i t e w a s C a i rnbaan w i th 1 6 a nd t h e o t he r 4s i t e s s ha re t h e r e s t 2 3 s i gn s , o f w h ich 4 w e r e d if i cu l t t or e a ch ( i t w ou ld h ave t a ken m o re t ime t h an w e h ad a va i lab le ) . We c hecked t h e n o r th d i rec t ion i n t h e A rch a eo log i s t s ' p l an s a nd f ound , t h a t t h ey w e re v e ry p unc tua l ( f o r e xamp le : w e a l so v i s i ted s ome o t he r m ega l i t h ic m onumen t sw h ich w e re d e sc r ibed n o tt oc on ta in c up s

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED .) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU D UM

w i th s t roke s , a nd w e a lway s f ound o n t h e s po t t h a t t h e d e sc r ip t ion s w e r e c o r r ec t . T ha t i sw hy w e t r u s ted o n t h e E ng l i sh c o l league s , w ho m ade t h e K i lma r t in p l an s . ( i i ) A t t h e f i na l c a lcu la t ion , t h e s i t e s o fK i lma r t in a r ea s howed a s t range c ohe rence w i th a n o u t s tand ing r e su l t o f A chnab reck ; t h e o t he r m ea su red s i te s ( s ee b e low ) w e r e a l i t t le b i t d if e ren t , s ow e h ave l ef tt h em o u tn ow a st h ey a r e f a rf r om t h e K i lma r t in a r ea a nd t h ey n eed m o r er e sea r ch a s t h ey d o n o t h ave g ood e xcava t ion r e po r t . N o t o n ly a tt h e f i ve l e s se r s i te s , b u t a t t wo p ane l s o f A chnab reck t h e d i rec t ion sw e r e c l u s te red a r ound 1 20 ° , af a c tt h a t i se qua l ly t r ue o f t hou sand s o f N eo l i th ic p a s sage g r ave s o n c on t inen ta l E u rope . T h is s ound s f a n ta s t ic ! I tm ean s t h a t t h e re w a s s u ch a n e xcep t iona l c onf o rm i ty i n d e s ign , c on s ide r ing t h a t t h e s i te s a r e s p read o ve r a n e x t r eme ly h uge a r ea . T he s t rong c ohe r ence i n t h e o r ien ta t ion i n d i ca te s am e thod b a sed o n o b se rva t ion s o ft h e r i s ing o fa c e le s t ia l b ody . S uch c onf o rm i ty —in t h e c on t inen ta l E u ro p e— m ay b e i n te rp r e ted b y t h e r ema in s o f ac ommon a nc ien t i d ea . I n g ene ra l , w e s pen t m o r e t h an 1 w eek m ea su r ing a t s e ve ra l s i t e s ( No r thumbe r land , K i lma r t in , A chnab reck , G a l loway ) . T he s t rong c ohe r ence i no r ien ta t ion o fc up—and— r ing r o ck c a rv ing s i n t h e K i lma r t in a r ea c an r e a sonab ly b e i n te rp re ted a s h av ing b een a ch ieved b y a s t ronom ica l m ean s . A l though w e c anno t u nequ ivoca l ly p i npo in t t h e s pec if ic c e le s t ia l t a rge to rt h e p u rpo se o ft h e a l ignmen t , t h e S un a nd t h e Moon w ou ld o f c ou r se b e t h e mo s t l i ke ly c and ida te s . A s t h e c ohe rence i n o r ien ta t ion i sl e s s p ro -

n ounced a t o t he r s i te s i n S co t land , i t w ou ld n o t b e i ra t iona l t os uppo se t h a t t h e c up—and— r ing m o t if w i th ar a d i a lg roove o r ig ina ted i nt h ev e ry K i lma r t in a r ea . V I I . R ef erence s AVEL ING , E . : «Magne t ic T race o f aG ian t H enge» , Nature 3 90 , 1 997 , 2 32 -33 . B ECKENSALL , S . : B r i t i sh P reh i s tor ic R ock A r t , B r im scombe ( Tempu sP ub l i sh ing ) 1 999 . BRADLEY , R . : R ock A r t a nd t h e P reh i s to ry o fA t lan t ic E u r ope , L ondon ( Rou t ledge ) 1 997 . BUTTER , R . : K i lma r t in : S co t land ' s R iche s t P reh i s to r ic L and scape , K i lma r t in ( K i lma r t in H ou se T ru s t ) 1 999 . COLES , J . : I mage s o f t h e P a s t , V i t lycke ( Hä l l r i s tn ing smu see t ) 1 990 . G IBSON , A . : S t onehenge a nd T imber C i rc le s , B r im scombe ( Tempu sP ub l i sh ing ) 1 998 . HUTTON , R . : T he S t a t ion s o ft h e S un , O xf o rd ( Oxf o rd U n i v e r s i ty P r es s ) 1 996 . PÄSZTOR , E . , J uHAsz , A . , DOMB I , M. , & ROSLUND , C . : « Compu te r S imu la t ion o f S t onehenge» , V i r tua l R ea l i ty i n A rch c eo logy ( Ba r ce lö , J .A . e t a l . , e d s . ) , O xf o rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r i e s , 8 43 ) ,2 000 , 1113 . RCAHMS : K i lma r t in : P reh i s to r ic a nd E a r ly H i s to r ic Monu m en t s : A n I nven to ry o f t h e Monumen t s e x t rac ted f rom A rgy l l V o lume 6 ,E d inbu rgh (H MSO) 1 999 . ROSLUND , C . , KR IST IANSEN , Y . , & HARDH , B . : « Por tugue se P a s sage G rave s i nt h eL igh to ft h eE a s te r Moon» , F ornv i innen ,9 5 ,2 000 , 1 12 .

FI GURE 4 .As e lec t ion o fc up—and— r ing e ng rav ings a tA chnabreck . CC opy r igh t2 003 , b yD rC u r t R o s lund .

1 04

T he T rac ing o fS anc tuar ie s i n Anc ien tD ac ian Wor ld , Ora s t ie Moun ta in s , R oman ia : S ome P os s ib le Mea sur ing Un i t s , 1 * F lor in S tänesku

A b s t rac t T h i sp ape r a r gue st h ep o s s ib le a nd e ven p robab le e x i s tence i nt h e D ac ian w o r ld o f au n i to fl e ng th e qua l t o0 . 436 m , t h e r ef o r e v e ry c l o se t ot h eH e l leno—Roman c ub i tu s ( =0 . 443 m ) . T h i s o ne c ou ld h ave b een u sed t ob u i ld s ome o ft h es a nc tua r ie s o ft h e s a c r ed t e r r a ce , w h ich —tak ing i n to a ccoun t t h e e x i s tence i nA n t iqu i ty o f s om e s pec ia l i n d ica t ion s c once rn ing t h e b u i ld ing o fs anc tua r ie s i n c lu s ive ly o f s ome s pec ia l u n i t s , a sw e l l a s s ome a s t ronom ica l o r ien ta t ion s o ft ho se c on s t ruc t ions — , g ran t t ot ha t u n i t o f0 . 436 mi t sp o s s ib le u se a st h es acr ed c ub i tu so ft h eD a c ian s . K EY WORDS : T ra c ing o fS anc tua r ie s , D a c ia , M t O ra s t ie , R oma n i a , A nc ien t U n i t s o f L eng th , ( Sa c r ed ) C ub i t , H e l leno—Roman C ub i tu s ,C a lcu lu sw i th I n terva ls .

I .I n troduc t ion : Ob jec t ive so ft h eR e search T he g r ea t c i v i l i sa t ion s o fA n t iqu i ty k new a nd u s ed , a mong d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f m ea su re u n i t s o r c on s t ruc t ive modu le s , l e ng th s , a s f o r e xamp le , t h e S ume ro—Baby lon ian c ub i t ( 0 .4953 m ) o r t h e H e l leno—Roman c ub i tu s ( = 0 .4 43 m ) , t h a ti st h e d i ame te ro ft h e l owe rc o lumn p l in th si nH e l leno— R oman t emp le s . P r ev iou s a t t emp t s t o r ed i scove r t h e a nc ien t m ea su r ing u n i t s o f t h e D ac ian s h ave n o t b een s u cce s sf u l . I n t h e f o l low ing w e s ha l l t r y t o f i nd a l e ng th m ea su re u n i t , u sed b y D a c ian s t o b u i ld s ome o f t h e s a n c tua r ie s o ft h e s a c red t e r ra ce a tS a rm izege tu sa R eg ia . O u r a s t ronom ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s h oweve r r a i se a ga in t h e q ue s t ion o f al e ng th m ea su r ing u n i t .

( w i th 4r ow s o f 1 5p l in th s ) , t h e Sma l l L ime s tone S anc tua ry ( w i th 3 r ow s o f 6p l in th s ) , t h e G r ea t R ound S anc tua ry , w i th a d i ame te r o f a lmo s t 3 0m [ s ee F ig . 1 ] , t h e Sma l l R ound S anc tua ry ( w i th a d i ame te r o f a lmo s t 1 3m ) , t wo o t he r r e c tangu la r a nde s i te s a nc tua r ie s [ s ee F ig . 2 ] , t h e G rea t R ec tangu la r A nde s i te S anc tua ry ( w i th 6 r ow s o f 1 0 e l emen t s e ach ) b u i l t o n t op o fa n o l de r l ime s tone s anc tua ry a nd —la s t b u t n o t l e a s t— t h e a l ta r— sund ia l k nown a s T he A nd e s i te S un [ s ee F ig . 1 , r i gh t ] . T he a r chwo log ica l d i scove r ie s h ave p roved t h a t t h e se s anc tua r ie s a r e n o t a s i ngu la rc a se i nt h e c u l t i sh a nd s p i r i tua l l i f e o ft h e D ac ian s . S anc tua r ie s a r e a l so p r e sen t a t C o s te s t i , R a co s , B rad , B a rbo s i G a la t i , F e t e le A lbe , P u s t io su , B a tca D oamne i , b u t o f s ma l le r s i ze o f c ou r se , a nd l a ck ing t h e s t a te l ine s s o f t ho se a tS a rm izege tu sa—Reg ia . T he a r ch z eo log ica l r e sea rch h a s p roved t h a t t h e i mp r e s s ive c on s t ruc t ion s o n t h e s a c r ed t e r race o ft h e c ap i ta l w e re e poch s anc tua r ie s o fD ac ian s . I n f a c t , an a ra t ion o f I o rdane s [ s ee G e t ica , X I : 7 1 ] , c once r n i ng t h e g rea t r e f o rm s a ccomp l i shed u nde r t h e r u le o f D eceneu , t h e g r ea t D a c ian p r ie s t , c onf i rmed t ha t : « we c ho se f r om t h em , t h e mo s t r ema rkab le a nd w ise b a rba r ian s , t h a t t h eo logy t a ugh t , a dv i sed t o h onou r s ome d i v in i t ie s a nd s anc tua r ie s o r w o r sh ip p l a ce s m ak ing t h em p r ie s t s a nd n am ing t h em p i lea t i» ( «num ina q uwdem e t s a ce l la v ene ra re s ua s i t» ) . F rom t h i s t h e c onc lu s ion c an b e d rawn t h a t s ome s anc tua r ie s o f t h e s a c red t e r ra ce w e re d ed ica t ed t o ( a nd t h ey « honou red» t h e ) s t a r s o r p l ane t s t owa rd s w ho se e x t r eme p o in t s o fa ppea rance o nt h e h o r izon t h er e spec t ive s anc tua ry 's a x i s w a s d i r ec ted ( a l l t h e s anc tua r ie s o f t h e s a c red t e r race a r e d i rec ted a s t ronom ica l ly a f t e rt h e s un a nd t h e mo r e i mpo r tan t s t a r s ) . T hough , i ti st o b e p o in ted o u t t h a t t h i s f a c t w a s n o t t h e o n ly s i gn if ican t f a c to r o f t h e t emp le 's u se a nd d e s t ina t ion . I f t h i s a s t ra l v ene ra t ion r e f e r red t o r e l ig iou s a spec t s e xc lu s ive ly o r i fi ti n c luded c e r ta in i n i t ia t ion c e r emon ie s a s w e l l ( i nc lu s ive ly o f t h a t e r a 's A s t ronomy ) , r ema in s c e r ta in ly a q ue s t ion , t o w h ich t h e p r e sen t p ape r c anno t o f f e r ad ef in i te a n swe r . We t e nd t o b e l ieve t o ac ompo s i te u se o ft h o se c on s t ruc t ions , b e c au se a tt h a t t ime p r ie s t s a nd a s t ronome r s w e re i ng ene ra l i d en t ica lp e r son so rs oc ia lg roup s .

I .T he D ac ian Wor ld a nd i t sH i s tor ica l C on tex t T he a nc ien t c ap i ta l o ft h e D ac ian s , S a rm izege tu sa—Reg ia , l i e s i n t h e O ra s t ie Moun ta in s , i n R oman ia . T he D ac ian k i ngdom w a s c onque red b y t h e R oman Empe ro r T ra jan , a f t e r t wo w a r s w aged b e tween h im a nd t h e D a c ian k i ng D eceba l , a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e 2nd c en tu ry CE T he u nf o ld ing o ft h e se w a r sh a s b een i mmor ta l i sed o ns t one , o n t h e T ra jan ' s C o lumn e r rec ted i nR ome , a nd A dam—C l i s s i i nD ob rogea , R oman ia . A l though i th ad b een k nown b yt h e l o ca l i n hab i tan t s f o r al o ng t ime , t h e i mp r e s s ive c omp lex o fr u in s a tS a rm izege tu sa—R eg ia i nt h e O ra s t ie Moun ta in s w a s n o t m en t ioned i nt h e l i t e ra tu r e u n t i l t h e f i r s t y ea r s o f t h e 1 9t h c en tu ry , w hen t h e g r ea t h oa rd o f K o sön— L y s imacho s g o lden c o in s w a s f o und t h e re . I n t h e s a c red p r ec inc t , a tt h e v i c in i ty o ft h e f o r t r e s s w a l l s , 1 r ound a nd r e c tangu la rs anc tua r ie s w e re d i scove red . T hey w e r eb u i l ta t d i f f e ren t t ime s , d u r ing t h e r e ign o f B u reb i s ta ( l ime s tone c on s t ruc t ion )a nd a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 2n d c en tu ry CE , i n t h ey ea r so fD eceba l 's r e ign ( a nd e s i te c on s t ruc t ion ) .

I I . A na lys i sa nd R educ t ion o ft he D a ta A nc ien t U n i t s o f L eng th . T he r ef o r e , f a c ing t h e se s anc tu a r ie s , w e c an e xpec t —acco rd ing t ot h e c on s t r uc t ion r u le s m e t i no t he ra nc ien t c i v i l i sa t ion s—t od i scove rh e re a sw e l l t h e u se o fs ome p o s s ib le u n i t s o fl e ng th , d ue , n o t o n ly t o s ome d oub t le s s H e l leno—Roman i n f luence s f ound i n t h e D a c ian c i v i l i sa t ion , b u t a l so t o s ome D ac ian r i tua ls . T he s t udy o f as l ide r u le t h a t i sf ound o n t h e k nee s o f t h e S ume r ian P r ince G udea , c omb ined w i th t h e n umbe r s o b ta ined b y a r ch z eo log i s t s f r om o t he r c on s t ruc t ion s ( t he d imen s ion s o f w h ich a r e g i ven i n a nc ien t t e x t s ) , s howed t h a t ac ub i t , w a s e qua l t o0 . 4953 m . T he s ub—mu l t ip le s o f

Among t h e se b u i ld ing s , e r ec t ed o n t h e 1 0t h a nd 1 f i t e r ra ce s , w e c ome a c ro s s t h e G r ea t L ime s tone S anc tua r ie s 1 M a ny t h a nk sa r ed u et oD r Amanda—A l ic eM a r av e l ia f o rh e rc omm en t s , e d i t ing a n d m ak ing m y p oo rE ng l i sh t e x tm o r e i d ioma t ic . O fc o u r s e , t h e p o s s ib le e x i s t enc eo fa ny m i s tak e s i nm ya r t ic le i sd u et om e . P l ea s es e nd o f p r in tr e que s t st om ea tm ye —ma i la d d r e s s : f l or in sga thena . s ib iuxo

1 05

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED .) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

t h e t h is b aby lon ian c ub i t a r e : t h ef i nger , t h e 3 0t hp a r t , t h e f oo t , e qua l t ot h e 2 / 3 p a r t o ft h ec ub i t , a nd t h e mu l t ip le s g o u p t o al e ague e qua l t o 1 80 r ope s ( cord s ) , t h a t i s1 0 .7 km . I n a nc ien t E gyp t 2, t h e l e s se r c ub i t m ea su red 0 . 45 m o ppo s i te t o t h e r oya l c ub i t t h a t m ea su red 0 . 52 m ; 2 0 ,000 r oya l c ub i t s , w e re e qua l t o 1 0 .5 km . I n a nc ien t H e l la s , H ome r m en t ion s a l so t h e k yb i ton , t h ep ygön , t h e o rgy ia ( = 1 . 62 m ) t h ep l e thron ( e qu iva len t t o 1 00 l e g s , h ence t o3 3 m ) . I n t h e a nc ien t R oman w o r ld , t h e s ame c ub i tu s w a s r e spec t ive ly e qua lt o0 . 4430 m . S ome B u i ld ing R u le s f o r S anc tuar ie s i nA n t iqu i ty . D u r i ng A n t iqu i ty G eome t ry a nd c e r ta in o rde red p a t te rn s o f t en o ccu r red i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion o fa l ta r s , s anc tua r ie s a nd t em p l e s a l ike . I n t h i s w ay , t h e v ed ic r i te i n I nd ia , av e ry c omp lex o ne , p u r su i t s t o a ch ieve a m a te r ia l s t a tu s a nd r e la ted a c t ion s t a k ing p l a ce , t h a t w i l l c o r re spond t o t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e U n ive r se a nd t o t h e c o sm ic o r n a tu ra l p henomena , w h ich t h ey t r yt oi n f luence , i no rde rt h a tt h e se ( c once ived a s d i v ine a r che type s ) s hou ld h e lp t h em . T he t e x t c a l led S u l va su t ra ( On t h e W a l l s ' L ine—S t r ing» ) i s d ed ica ted e n t i r e ly t o t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f a l ta r c on s t ruc t ion r u le s . O ne o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t v ed ic t e x t s , c a l led T a i t t i r iya samh i ta , m en t ion s t o o t h e d if e ren t f o rm s o f a l ta r s . T he p l a cemen t o fv ed ic s a c r if ic ia l f i r e s s how s imp le g eome t r ica l s hape s , t h a t r e spec t s ome n ume r ica l d e te rm ined r e la t ion s . T he a l ta r s ( c i t i ) , b u i l t o n b r ick , s how o ne mo r e c omp l ica ted p a t ter n : t h ey h ad t ob e b u i l t a tp re d e te rm ined d imen s ion s a nd b y u s ing av e ry e xac t n umbe r o fb r ick s . A l though t h e i r s u rf a ce c ou ld b e e x t ended , t h e i r s hape h ad t ob em a in ta ined a si tw a s . G round Mea suremen t s a nd D e term ina t ion o ft he I npu t D a ta . I ti sk nown t h a t t h e r e su l t s o f an ume r ica l i n te rp re t a t ion d o n o t d epend o n ly o n t h e u se o f c a lcu la t ion a l go r i tm q ua l i ty , b u tm a in ly o nt h e q ua l i ty o fe n te r ing d a ta . B o th c a tego r ie s c ome f r om t h e m ea su r emen t o pe ra t ion m ade o ve r s ome r ema in s t h a t h ave s uf f e red i n ev i tab le d ef o rma t ion s a s t ime p a s sed , o r d e s t ruc t ion d u r ing p a s t w a r s . B ecau se s ome o ft h e i n i t ia l d imen s ion s a r e mod if ied t oday , a s ar e su l to ft h e d eg rada t ion s uf e red i nt ime b yt h e a nc ien t b u i ld ing s , u se w a s a l so m ade o f an ume r ica l t e chn ique k nown a s c a lcu lu s w i th i n te rva l s . E a ch z — n umbe r i s s ub s t i tu ted b y t h e s ma l le s t c l o sed i n terva l , d eno ted a s[ a ,b ] ,w he r e aa nd ba r er a t iona ln umbe r s f ound i ni t( i n te rva lo ft r u s t ) . A s ag ene ra l iza t ion o ft h en ume r ica l o pe ra t ion , t h a t c an a lway s b e v i sua l ized o n t h e n umbe r a x i s , w e c an s im i la r ly o b ta in t h e a r i thme t ica l o pe ra t ion w i th i n te rva l s . T hu s , i f z1 = [ a , b ] a nd z2 = [ c , d ] , t h e f o l low ing e qua t ion s w i l l h o ld f o r mu l t ip l ica t ion a nd f o r d i v i s ion ( r e spec t ive ly ) :

r e su l t s b e ing a na ly sed s t a t i s t ica l ly . I n t h e f o l low ing , t h e r e su l t s o f t h e m ea su remen t s o b ta ined a f t e r t h is s t a t i s t ica l p roce s s ing a r e u s ed .

I V . Me thodo logy a nd D a ta R educ t ion F rom am a thema t ica l p o in t o fv i ew , w e s ha l l t r y t od e te r m ine ap o s s ib le u n i to fl e ng th , w h ich c ou ld p l ay t h er o le o f ac ommon d i v i so r f o r as t ruc tu r e f o rmed o ft h e g r ea te s t p o s s ib le n umbe r o f p a th s ( l eng th s ) i nt h e p r ec inc t o f t h e s a nc tua r ie s ( s ide s , c i rc le s , &c . ) . B ecau se s u ch au n i t i sn o t a t a l d if i cu l t t o b e f ound ( t he re e x i s t s o ne f o r e ach p o s s ib le g roup o f l e ng th s , w he the r c u r ren t o r a nc ien t , w i thou t o b ta in ing t h e u n i t o f l e ng th o f t h e m ea su r ing s y s tem ) , w e s ha l l s e lec t t h e c omponen t s o f t h e l e ng th— g roup ing o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o low ing c r i t e r ia : ( i ) t h e e x i s tence o fs ome m a rk ing s o n p i l la r s ; ( i ) t h e s i gn if icance o ft h e c ho sen l e ng th , a tl e a s tw i th r ega rd t oo u rh ypo the s i s ; a nd ( i i )s i nce o u rc a se i s ar e s t le s sd i v i s ion : t /U

C

w he r e t h e l e ng th i s d i v ided b y t h e h ypo the t ica l m ea su r ing u n i t Ua nd ar a t io C r e su l t s , w h ich i sn ece s sa r i ly a n i n tege r , w e s h a l l t r y t o d e te rm ine t h e p r e sen ce o ft h i s r a t io i nt h ef i e ld m ea su remen t s .

V . T he R e su l t s a nd t he ir A na ly s i s T he Sma l l R ec tangu lar S anc tuary . F ur the r o n , w e s ha l l i n se r t e l emen t s o fa no the r s anc tua ry i n to o u r c a lcu la t ion s ; t h i s t ime i ti s ar e c tangu la r o ne , n ame ly t h e o n e c on s ide red a sd e s t royed [ s ee F ig . 2 ] . T h rough i t sl o ng i tud ina la x i sp a s s e st h e p ro longa t ion o ft h e « s tone— ray» o ft h e d i sk , i no t he r w o rd s t h e m a rked l o ca l Me r id ian . F rom t h i s s a nc t ua ry o n ly t h e w e s t s i de r ema ined i n ta c t , o n w h ich a n umbe r o f 3 2 s t one p i l la r s a r e f o und . T h i s s i de , m ea su r ing 1 3 .98 m , e qua l s t w ice t h e d i ame te r o f t h e A nde s i te S un . T he ref o r e f o r o ne s t one p i l la r ( p is ) , w e h ave : 1 3 .98 m /32p l s =0 . 436 m /p l s . T he A nde s i te S un . T h is a r chxo log ica l o b jec th ad ad oub le u se : t h i s o f a n a l ta r a nd t h a t o f as und ia l . T he re i sn o c on t rad ic t ion b e tween t h e se t wo a ppa ren t ly m u tua l ly c on t rad ic to ry f u nc t ion s : t h e s a c r if ice s w e r e m ade o n ly d u r ing c e r ta in d ay s , t h e ref o r e i n c e r ta in p o s i t ion s o f t h e S un , a nd /o r u nde r t h e « dom inance» o f c e r ta in c on s te l la t ion s , t h a t mu s t h ave d e te rm ined i n a n a s t ronom ica l m anne r ( u s ing a l so t h e e l emen t s o f s und ia l e x i s ten t o n t h e a l ta r ) t h e t h r ee c i r c le s r e spe c t ive ly : t h e s a c r if iced o f f e r ing ( p e r son , a n ima l o rt h ing ) , w a s p l a ced o n t h e a l ta ro r ien ted t owa rd s No r th o r We s t . W i th t h i s m agn i t ude , t h e e qu iva len t i ns ma l l p i l la r s o ft h e A nd e s i te D i sk 's r a d iu s i s8 ,b ecau se 3 . 49 i n /0 .436 m = 8 ,a nd t h ee qu iva len t o ft h e r ad iu s o ft h e T — s t ruc tu re c i rc le i se qua l t o 7b ecau se 3 . 04 m /0 .436 m = 6 . 97 7 .S o , w e r ed i scove r e ven a tt h e a l ta r t h e s ame m ea su remen t u n i t , h ence t h e m odu le e qua l t o0 . 436 m .

zixz2 = [ a ,b ] x[ c ,d ] =[ m in (ac , a d ,b e ,b d ) ;m ax (ac , a d ,b e ,b d ) ] z1/ z2 = [ a ,b ] /[ c ,d ] =[ m in (a /c ,a i d ,b / c ,b / d ) ;m ax (a /c , a i d ,b / c ,b / d ) ]

G round m ea su r emen t s h ave b een p e rf o rmed f o r m any y ea r s , i n d i f f e ren t d i gg ing a r chwo log ica l c ampa ign s . Ma thema t ica l ly s p eak ing , t h e m ea su remen t s h ave b een m ade w i th m any o pe ra to r s , i nm any s ucce s s ive s t age s , t h e

T he G rea t R ound S anc tuary . I nt h i s c a se w e s ha l l d e te r m ine ( c a lcu la t ing t h e c i r cumf e r ence d i rec t ly ) t h e r ad iu s : 2 10 p l s x0 . 436 m /p l s =9 1 .56 m ( C xU ) , t h u s ar a d iu s o f 1 4 .57 m a sc ompa r ed t ot h e r a d iu s u sed i nt h e c a lcu la t ion s ( e qua l t o 1 4 .51 m ) , f o r ac i rcumf e rence o f 9 1 .20 m . I n o rde rt oc heck i ft h i s m agn i tude h a s amo r e o rl e s s g ene ra l

2 E d i tor 's N o te : F o r a n i n t roduc t ion t ot h e a nc ien t E gyp t ian m ea su r ing u n i t s , s e e GA RD INER , A. H. :E g yp t ian G ramma r : B e ing a nI n t roduc t ion t o t h eS t ud yo fH ierog lyph s , O xf o rd ( G r if f i th I n s t i tu te ,A shmo l ean Mu seum ) 1 988 1 0t h I mp re s s ion ] : 1 97 -200 ; DI L KE , 0 . A. W. :Ma thema t ic s a nd Mea sur emen t , L ondon ( BMP)1 987 :p a s s im .

1 06

F l o r in S t äne sku :T r a c ing o fS a n c tua r ie si nA n c ien tD a c ia & P o s s ib le U n i t so fL eng th ,P a r t 1 c ha ra c te rw e s ha l l a t temp t t os e e i fi tc an b e f ound a l so i n o t he rs a nc tua r ie s . T he Sma l l R ound S anc tuary . I nt h i s c a se [ s ee F ig . 4 ]w e s ha l lp roceed i nt h e s ame m anne r : 14 p l s . x0 . 436 m /p l s = 4 9 .704 m . T he ref o re , w e o b ta in a p roduc t g r ea te r t h an 4 0 .08 m ( wh ich i st h e v a lue t h a t i t sc i r cumf e rence a c tua l ly m ea su r e s ) . N eve r the le s s , t h i s v a lue o f4 9 .704 m d oe s n o t r e p re sen t af o r tu i tou s n umbe rb ecau se 4 0 .08 m /49 .704 m = 0 . 807 , w h ich i sn o th ing e l se t h an h a lf o ft h e r a t io i nw h ich t h e e qu inoc t ia l p o in t E C d i v ide s t h e s hadow o ft h e W in te r S o l s t ice , ar a t io e qua lt o 1 . 618 , o rw i th t h e r a t io o ft h e e l e m en t so ft h e c en t ra l a p se e qua lt o2 1p i l la r s / 13p i l la r s . I no r d e r t oo b ta in t h e r ad iu s , w e c a lcu la te 4 9 .7 m x 1 . 618 /2 = 4 0 .08 m ,h ence t h er ad iu se qua l st o6 . 40 m . F rom a l l t h e a bove i tr e su l t st h a tt h e l e ng th 0 . 436 m r ep r e s e n t s ac e r ta in t y pe o f u n i t , w e w ou ld s ay p r inc ipa l ly a g eome t r ica l u n i t , c ommon t o a l f ou r s anc tua r ie s : t h e A nde s i te S un , t h e d e s t royed S ma l l R ec tangu la r S anc tua ry , t h e G r ea t a nd t h e Sma l l R ound S anc tua r ie s ; a dd i t iona l ly t h e « d i r ec t ion» o r t h e « va lue» , w h ich t h e a nc ien t b u i lde r s a s c r ibed t o as ma l l p i l la r i st h e s ame f o r a l l f ou r . T o p u t i t i na no the r w ay : t h e b road p i l la r s h ad a l so t h e f unc t ion o f s epa ra t ing t h e c i r cumf e rence i ns e c to r s , b u tt h i s e n te r s i n to t h e « ca lcu la t ion s» w i th t h e s ame « va lue» a s t h e n a r row o ne s . A l though w e c anno t t e l l w he the r t h i s c ommon d i v i so r i se i the r au n i t o fl e ng th , ac on s t ruc t ion modu le , o r b o th ,w ew ou ld l i k et os t re s so u tt h ef a c tt h a to n ly o ne s u ch c ommon d i v i so r e x i s t s , f o r w h ich t h e r a t io o ft h e d iv i s ion i sm a te r ia l i sed i nt h e f i e ld b y t h e n umbe r o ft h e ma rg ina l p i l la r so ft h es anc tua r ie s .

e qua l t o t h e a nc ien t c ub i t ( 0 .436m 2 -0 . 443m ) . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le f o r c e r ta in a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s o f s ome o ft h e t emp le s o ft h e p rec inc t t oh ave b een u sed f o r o b serva t ion o f as t a r t owa rd s w h ich t h a t p a r t icu la r s anc tua ry w a s o r ien ted . T hu s , w e d o t h ink a sp o s s ib le a nd e ven p robab le t h e e x i s tence i n t h e a nc ien t D a c ian w o r ld o f au n i t o f l e ng th e qua l t o 0 . 436 m , t h e ref o r e v e ry c l o se t o t h e H e l leno—Roman c ub i tu s e qua l t o 0 . 443m . T h i s o ne c ou ld h ave b een u sed , i no rde rt ob u i ld s ome o ft h e s anc tua r ie s o f t h e s a c red t e r race , w h ich —tak ing i n to a ccoun t t h e e x i s tence i n A n t iqu i ty o f s ome s pec ia l i n d ica t ion s c once rn ing t h e b u i ld ing o fs anc tua r ie s , i n c lu s ive ly o fs ome s pec ia l u n i t s a s w e l l a s s ome a s t ronom ica l o r ien ta t ion s o f t h o se c on s t ruc t ion s— g ran t t ot h a tm ea su re o f0 . 436 m t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fi th av ing b een u sed a st h e s ac red c ub i tu s o f t h e D a c ian s .

V I I . R ef erence s FLORESCU , R . : S anc tua re le Dac ice : T emp l e , A l ta re s au L aca su r id eI n i t ie re ,B ucu r e s t i 1 995 . GLODAR IU , I . , IAROSLAVSCH , E . & R usu , A . : C e ta t i s i A se za r iD ac ice i n Mun t i iO ra s t ie i ,B ucu re s t i 1 988 ,4 8 -55 . GLODAR IU , I . & COSTEA , F . : « Sanc tua ru l d e la R aco s» , E f eme r id e , C lu j—Napoca , 1 992 , 3 4 . F IERODOTOS :

H i s tor ia : L iber I V , 9 4 -96 .

IWAN ISZE WSK I , S . : « The D eve lopmen t o f a R eg iona l A rchxoa s t ronomy : T he C a se o fC en t ra l—Ea s ter n E u rope» , A t t iD e iC onvegn iL ince i , 1 41 , R oma 1 998 , 1 77 -201 .

I oRDANEs : G e t ica ,X I , 6 9 -72 . ÖR IGENES : P h i lo sophoumena , I ,2 -22 .

V I .C onc lu s ion s

P ORPHYR IOS : X I I , 5 9 .

F rom a l lt h e a bove i tr e su l t st h a tt h e u n i tl e ng th o f0 . 436 m ( c ub i t ) h a s t wo c ha rac te r i s t ic p rope r t ie s w o r th m en t ion ing : ( i )t h er a t io C o ft h e d i v is ion b y i to ft h e l e ng th o ft h em a r k ed c i r cumf e r ence s a nd s i de s o ft h e s anc tua r ie s i s ma te r ia l i sed i nt h ef i e ld b y a ne qua ln umbe ro fp i l la r s ; ( i ) i tt r an s f o rm s t h e d imen s ion s o ft h e A nde s i te S un ( a s w e l l a st h e e l emen t s o fl e ng th o ft h e g nömön 's s hadow ) i n to i n tege r s , a low ing c a lcu la t ion s t ob e c a r r ied o u t w i th t h e se i n tege r s o rw i th f r ac t ion s w i th ad enom ina to r e qua lt os even , w h ich i st h en umbe ro fe l emen t s o fo ne o ft h e 3 0m a rg ina l s e c to r s o ft h e g r ea t R ound S anc tua ry . B e s ide s , i ti sa pp rox ima te ly

S TRABON : G eög raph ia ,V I I , 3 ,5 . S CHLOßER , W . &C IERNY , J . :S t e rne u nd S t e ine , D o r tmund 1 996 , 1 0 1-02 . STÄNESCU , F . : « A s t ronom ica l S ign if icance s o f t h e S ac r ed P r ec inc t a t S a rm izege tu sa—Reg ia» , A rch c eome t ry i n R oman ia , I ,C lu j N apoca 1 989 ,2 31 .

F . : « A r chxoa s t ronom ica l R e sea rche s a t S a rm izege tu sa—Reg ia , R oman ia» , PACT-4 5 , B ruxe l le s 1 993 , 5 10 -24 .

STÄNESCU ,

1 07

A MANDA- AL ICE M ARAVEL IA ( ED .) :

ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DU M

FI GURE 1 :P a r t ia lv i ew o ft h ez one o fs a nc tua r ie sa tS a rm izege tu sa—Reg ia i nt h eO ra s t ie Moun ta in s , R oman ia . A tt h e u ppe rl ef t ,t h eG rea tR ound S anc tua ry w i th t h eC en t ra lA p se ;t h e« Ande s i te S un» a nd t h e « s tone— ray» , i n d ica ted t h e N o r th—Sou th d i rec t ion ;t wo s ma l le rr e c tangu la rs anc tua r ie sa nd t h e Sma l l R ound S anc tua ry c an a l so b es e en . T h is z e r ia l p i c tu re w a st a ken i n1 985 d u r ing t h er e sea r ch c a r r ied o u tb yt h e R oman ian S c ien t i s t sA s soc ia t ion . ©C opy r igh t 1 985 , b yt h eR oman ian S c ien t is t s ' A s soc ia t ion ( Cou r te sy ) .

FI GURE 2 :T he Sma l lR ec tangu la rS anc tua ry ( now d e s t roy ed ) , a nd t h e S ma l lR ound S anc tua ry . ©C opy r igh t2 002 , b yD rF lo r in S t äne sku .

1 08

F lo r in S täne sku : T ra c ing o fS anc tua r ie si nA nc ien tD a c ia & P o s s ib le U n i t so fL eng th , P a r t 1

FI GURE 3 :P a r t ia lv i ew o ft h eG rea tR ound S anc tua ry a f t e rt h ea r cheo log ica le xcava t ion s . ©C opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rF lo r in S täne sku .

FI GURE 4 :T he Sma l lR ound S anc tua ry a tt h es e cond p l an . ©C opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rF lo r in S täne sku .

1 09

T he App l ica t ion o fS o lar C ompa s s i nA rchg eo log ica lF ie ldwork : An A l terna t ive Way o f Ob ta in ing Or ien ta t ion Mea suremen t s D ragana Mladenov ie a nd Andor V in e

A b s t rac t

T he se a noma l ie s o r ig ina te a s ar e su l t o fd i f f e ren t f a c to r s : ( i ) s e cu la r v a r ia t ion s i n t h e E a r th 's m agne t ic f i e ld ; ( i ) i mpac t o f t h e S o la r W ind o n t h e E a r th 's s u rf ace ; ( i i ) t opog raph ica l a nd g eo log ica l f e a tu re s ; ( i v ) v a r iou s c u l tu ra l f e a tu r e s . We a r e d i scu s s ing t h e se a noma l ie s i n t h e f o l low ing .

I n t h i s p ape r t h e a u tho r s d i scu s s o ne a l te rna t ive m e thod o f o r ien ta t ion m ea su remen t d u r ing a r ch eo log ica l f i e ldwo rk . Af t e r c ons ide r ing t h e l im i ta t ion s o f am agne t ic c ompa s s a nd t h e p o s s ib le r e a sons o fi t s i n a ccu ra cy , as o la r c ompa s s i si n t roduced a nd t h e m e thod o f w o rk ing w i th t h i s i n s t rumen t i st ho rough ly e xp la ined a nd i lu s t ra ted b y s ome e xamp le s f r om t h e a u tho r s ' r e sea r ch . T he p ape r c onc lude s b y g i v ing a n a ccoun t o f a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s o f as o la r c ompa s s , a sw e l l a st h e a s se s smen t o f t h e p o s s ib le a pp l ica t ions o f t h is i n s t rumen t i n a r chwo log ica lf i e ldwo rk .

( i ) S ecu la r v a r ia t ion s a r e n a tu ra l c hange s i n t h e E a r th 's m agne t ic f i e ld . Magne t ic p o le s a r e c on s tan t ly mov ing , v i r tua l ly t r ave l ing a t a n a cce le ra t ing r a te . A s ar e su l t o f t h i s , t h e N o r th Magne t ic P o le h a s moved m any h und r ed s o f k i lome te r s f r om w he r e i tw a s w hen f i r s t r e ached b y h uman s i n 1 9 t"c en tu ry . A n i mp l ica t ion o ft h i s p roce s s i s t h e f a c t t h a t t wo o r ien ta t ion m ea su remen t s t aken a t t h e s ame l o ca t ion o ve r at ime s pan w i l l d i f f e r , a l though n o t s i gn if ican t ly : a bou t 1 °i n2 0 y ea r s [ M iL iüEv iü e ta l . , 1 995 : 2 38 ] . I ti sa l so g ood t oh ave t h i s i nm ind , w hen o ne u se s o ld g eog raph ic m ap st h a tc on ta in i n f o rma t ion r ega rd ing t h e m agne t ic d ev ia t ion . I ft h ey a r em o re t h an 2 0y ea r s o ld t h ey r a the rs hou ld b ec on s ide red o b so le te .

O r ien ta t ion o f Monumen t s , Magne t ic C ompa s s , Magne t ic D ev ia t ion , S o la r C ompa s s , Mea su r ing Me thod s , F i e ldwo rk . KEY WORDS :

I .I n troduc t ion U s ing am agne t ic c ompa s s f o rm ea su r ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o f p a s t s t ruc tu re s a nd o b jec t s a ta n a r ch eo log ica l s i te i ss t i l l t h e m o s t c ommon m e thod t h a t b o th A rch a zoa s t ronome r s a nd A rch eo log i s t s u se . O f c ou r se , n ew a nd i mp roved t e chn ique s e x i s t , b u t ar e sea r che r w o rk ing o n a mode s t ly b udg e ted p ro jec t o f t en d oe sn ' t h ave a cce s s t o t h e se w onde rf u l g adge t s . S o o ne u se s am agne t ic c ompa s s —a s imp le , c heap a nd r e l iab le i n s t rumen t— , b u t i si tr e a l ly s o? G eo log i s t s h ave s t opped u s ing am agne t ic c ompa s s i nt h e 1 970 's a nd n o t w i thou t ag ood r e a son . A s t h ey h ave d i scove r ed , a m agne t ic c ompa s s c an b e s u rp r i s ing ly i n a ccu ra te , d ue t o aw ho le v a r ie ty o fr e a son s t h a t w i l l b e d i scu s sed h e re .

( i ) S o la r C hromo sphe r ic E rup t ion s c au se t h e e m i s s ion o f i o n ized p a r t ic le s a nd e l ec t ron s ( wh ich r e a ch t h e E a r th r e su l t ing i nm agne t ic s t o rm s ) , a nd t h e S o la rW ind t h a tb o th d i s to r t t h e E a r th 's magne t ic f i e ld , a f ec t e l ec t ron ic a pp l iance s , i n te rf e r e w i th r ad io a nd e l ec t r ic c ommun ica t ion s , a nd s uch . D u r ing t h e se p e r iod s w hen t h e S un 's m agne t ic a c t iv i ty i s h i ghe s t , m agne t ic c ompa s s ' n eed le s h ave b een n o t iced t os w ing w i ld ly . H oweve r , t h i s e f f ec t i sj u s t t empo ra l a nd l e ave s n o c on sequence s o n t h e m agne t ic f i e ld [ V IN E , 2 002 : p r iva te c ommun ica t ion ] .

A s a n a l ter na t ive , G eo log i s t s h ave s t a r ted u s ing a s o la r c ompa s s , a n e a sy— to—u se i n s t rumen t , t h a t ( i n c omb ina t ion w i th as imp le c a lcu la t ion ) p rov ide s t h em w i th v e ry p r ec i se o r ien ta t ion d a ta . H oweve r , t h i s i n s t rumen t h a sn ' t h ad a w ide r a pp l ica t ion i n a r ch a eo log ica l f i e ldwo rk . T h i s p ape r w i l l p r e sen t i t s a u tho r s ' f i r s t—hand e xper ience o fw o rk ing w i th as o la r c ompa s s a ts i te s d a t ing f r om d i f f e ren t p e r iod s , a sw e l la st h e a dvan tage s a nd d i sadvan tage s o fi t su se a ta n a r chwo log ica l e xcava t ion , t o ge the r w i th s ome i n te re s t ing r e su l t so b ta ined t h i sw ay .

I . I naccuracy o f aMagne t ic C ompas s Mo s t p eop le b e l ieve t h a t w hen w o rk ing w i th t h e m agne t ic c ompa s s t h e n eed le o f t h e c ompa s s a lway s p o in t s t o t h e N o r th Magne t ic P o le , b u t a c tua l ly i ta lway s a l ign s i t s e lf w i th t h e l o ca l m agne t ic f i e ld a t t h e l o ca t ion w he re t h e m ea su r emen t i st a k ing p l ace . Wh i le i ns ome a r ea st h e l o ca l m agne t ic f i e ld r ough ly c o r r e spond st ot h e o ve ra l lt e r r e s t r ia l m agne t ic f i e ld , i no t he r s i ts how s m o r e o r l e s s s ub s tan t ia l d ev ia t ion s . T he e x i s tence o fs u ch a noma ly z one s i sn o t a p ecu l ia r i ty , b u t —a s s hown o nF igu re 1— af a i r ly c ommon f e a tu r e , w i th z one s o f v a r iou s d ev ia t ion i n ten s i t ie s u neven ly s ca t te red e ven o ve r ar e la t ive ly s ma l l r eg ion a s t h eo ne p r e sen ted h e re . 11

( i i ) T he r e l ief o f ar eg ion , a s w e l l a s i t s g eo log ica l f e a tu re s , i st h e m a in f a c to r t h a t p redom inan t ly s hape s a l o ca l m agne t ic f i e ld . Moun ta in r eg ion s a r e mo re l i ke ly t o s how a noma l ie s , e spec ia l ly l a nd scape s r i ch w i th r i dge s , t r enche s a nd s e amoun t s . O r e d epo s i t s p l ay a n e ven m o re s i gn if ican t r o le . F e r romagne t ic o r e s , s u ch a s i r on , n i cke l a nd c oba l t , d i amond d epo s i t s , p rec iou s m e ta l s , a nd r o ck s o fv o lcan ic o r ig in , c au se s t unn ing a noma l ie s . F u r the rmo re , g round t h a t h a s b een h i t b y l i gh tn ing o rc on ta in s ma te r ia l s t h a t h ave b een s ub jec ted t o i n ten s ive f i r e a l so s how s a d i s tor t ion i nt h e m agne t ic f i e ld [ M iL iüEv iü , 1 998 : p r iva te c ommun ica t ion ] . T he l a s t h a s as pec ia l i mp l ica t ion i n A r ch eo logy : a r chwo log ica l r ema in s t h a t h ave b u rned , l i ke r ema in s o f h ou se s , c l ay f l oo r s , c e ram ic s , c r ema t ion r emnan t s i n f luence t h e m agne t ic c ompa s s a s t h e a u tho r s h ave e xpe r ienced t h em se lve s . ( i v ) C u l tu ra l f e a tu re s i nt h e l a nd scape s u ch a sp owe r l i ne s , p i pe s , r a i lway l i ne s , b u i ld ing s a nd v eh ic le s a l so a f f ec t a m agne t ic c ompa s s , m ak ing i tv i r tua l ly u se le s s i n d en s ly u rban ized a r ea s .E ven p e r sona li t em sa nd p a r t s o fg a rmen t s , l i ke w a tche s , r i ng s , b e l t b uck le s a nd d i f f e r en t m e ta l t o o l s c an c au se ad ev ia t ion o fu pt o3 0° . T he m agn i tude o ft h e l o ca lm agne t ic f i e ld d ev ia t ion i sm ea s u red b y m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion . Magne t ic d ec l ina t ion i st h e

AM ANDA—AL I CE MA RAVE L IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP E R AS P E R AE TP E R LU DU M

HUNGARY

91 92 93 , 0 495 9km

ROMAN IA

BOSN IA AND HERZEGOV INA

MONTENEGRO

LO W ANO MALY ZONE MED IUM ANO MALY ZONE

1 1 1 I

H IGH ANOMALY Z ONE

FI GURE 1 . Map o fm agne t ic a noma ly z one si nS e rb ia . a ng le b e tween g eog raph ic No r th a nd Magne t ic No r th , i . e . : b e tween w he r e ac ompa s s n eed le a tt ha t l o ca t ion p o in t s a nd t h e t r ue No r th P o le r ea l ly i s . W i th in h i gh a noma ly z one s m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion i su p t o 2 0° -50° o n a ve rage , b u t t h e r e a r e c er ta in s i te s , l i ke t h e v i l lage K o r lace i nt h e K opaon ik r eg ion , i n S ou th— We s te rn S e rb ia , w he re t h e magne t ic d ec l ina t ion r e ache s am ax imum v a lue o f 1 80 ° a nd t h e c ompa s s v i r tua l ly p o in t s S ou th i n s tead o fN o r th . [ DJ ORD JEV Iü e ta l . , 1 996 : 2 07 ] . I ti sa l a rm ing t h a t w i th in a n a noma ly z one am agne t ic c ompa s s a c tua l ly « wo rk s» . I t d oesn ' t b ehave o dd ly a t a l l , s o a p e r son t a k ing a m ea su remen th a s n o w ay o fk now ing w he the rt h e o b ta ined r e su l ti sc o r r ec to rn o t . 12

I I . T he S o lar C ompa s s Nowaday s many i n s t rumen t s e x i s t t h a t of e r a n a l ter na t ive t o am agne t ic c ompa s s , b u t mo s t o ft h em a r e e xpen s ive t o b e p u r cha sed o r u sed a nd i mpo se a f i nanc ia l b u rden o n s ma l l— sca le p ro jec t sw i th l im i ted b udge t s . F a ced w i th t h e se o b s tac le s , t h e a u tho r s h ave s t ar ted l o ok ing f o r a no the r o p t ion t h a t w ou ld b e i n expen s ive , h ave a l l t h e p ra c t ica l a dvan tage s o f am agne t ic c ompa s s a nd s t i l l b e a ccu ra te . G eo log i s t s w o rk ing i n t h e f i e ld o f g eomagne t i sm h ave s ugge s ted a s o la r c ompa s s . A s o la r c ompa s s , o r s un c ompa s s , a s i t i s a l so c a l led , i s as imp le m echan ica l i n s t rumen t t h a t h e lp s t o d e te rm ine t h e a ng le b e tween g eog raph ic N o r th a nd t h e o b jec t w ho se o r ien ta t ion o ne

D ragana M ladenov ió & A ndo rV inee : T he A pp l ica t ion o fS o la rC ompa s si nA r chxo log ica lF i e ldwo rk

w i she st od e te rm ine . I ti sb a sed o nt h e s ame p r inc ip le s a sa s und ia l , h oweve r t h e s hade o f ag nomon d oe sn ' t s how t h e c o r rec tt ime ,b u t i ti su sed a so ne o ft h e e l emen t s i n as im p l e c a lcu la t ion . T he i n s t rumen t c an a l so b e u s ed f o r o b t a in ing t h e o r ien ta t ion , w h ich i sc l o se rt oi t sp r ima l u se a nd t h e i n i t ia lr e a son so fi t sc on s t ruc t ion . As o la rc ompa s s , a sw e k now i tt o day , h a s b een d eve loped d u r ing t h e l a s t c en tu ry , t hough t h eo r ie s o f am uch e a r l ie r u t i l iza t ion o ft h i s i n s t rumen t e x i s t . Mo s t o ft h e m ode l s s t i l l e x i s t ing t oday w e r e c on s t ruc ted d u r ing t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r a s as o lu t ion t o ap rob lem a l a rm ie s f a ced : m agne t ic c ompa s se s w e r e u se le s s i na i rc raf t s a nd s h ip s b ecau se t h ey w e r e p l aced n ex t t o al a rge m e ta l m a s s [ M iL iüEv iü , 1 998 : p r iva te c ommun ica t ion ] .

t h e v a lue o f t h e d i p a nd i s s ome th ing a s o la r c ompa ss c on s t ruc ted f o r a r chwo log ica l f i e ldwo rk w ou ldn ' t n ece s sa r i ly o ugh t t o h ave . O n t h e h o r izon ta l l imb t wo p e rpend icu la r l e ve l— tube s ( 3 ) a r e p l a ced t o h e lp w i th t h e p o s i t ion ing o ft h e c ompa s s i nt h e h o r izon ta l l e ve l . I n t h e c en te r o f a d i a l p l a te t h e re i s ar o ta t ing f r ame ( 4 ) c on ta in ing a s t r ing ( 5 ) t h a t a c t s a s ag nomon c a s t ing a s hadow o n to t h e p ro t rac to r . T he w ho le i n s t rumen t c an b e moun ted o n ap o le o r as t and ( 6 ) .

1 1 .2 . T he Me thod T he re a r e t wo s t ep s i n w o rk ing w i th a s o la r c ompa s s : t a k ing a m ea su remen t i n t h e f i e ld ; a nd c a lcu la t ing t h e r e su l t . T he f i r s t s t ep r e semb le s t o t h e p rocedu re o f m ea su r ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o f o b jec t s w i th a magne t ic c ompa s s . A s t r ing i s p l aced a l ong t h e o b jec t w ho se o r ien ta t ion i s b e ing m ea su red . I n s tead o f p l ac ing a m agne t ic c ompa s s u nde r t h e s t r ing , as o la r c ompa s s i s p l aced s ot h a tt h e s t r ing r un s d i r ec t ly o ve rt h e 0 ° 180° l i ne . Af t e r t h i s s t ep , af r ame w i th ag nomon i si n se r ted a tt h e c en te r o ft h e l imb . I tc a s t s as hadow o n t h e p ro t rac to r a nd t h a t v a lue i sn o ted t oge the r w i th t h e e xa c t t ime w hen t h e m ea su remen t w a s t a ken . T o g e t t h e b e s t p rec i s ion o ft h e r e su l t s i ti sr e commendab le t or e pea t t h e w ho le m ea su r ing p rocedu re ac oup le o ft ime s , t oge the rw i th r e po s i t ion ing o f t h e l i ne . I fa tt h a t m omen t o ne d oe sn ' t p o s se s s o the r d a ta n ece s sa ry f o r c omp i l ing t h e c a lcu la t ion , o r i f c i r cum s tance s d on ' t a low i t ,t h i s i sa l l t h a t i sn eeded t ob e d one a tt h e e xcava t ion s i te .

1 1 .3 . C a lcu la t ion s I n o rde r t o o b ta in t h e a z imu th o f o r ien ta t ion o f ac er ta in monumen t w e w ou ld n eed t h e f o l low ing d a ta : ( i ) 0= t h e a ng le b e tween t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e o b jec t ( 0 ° o n t h e h o r izon ta l p ro t rac to r ) , a nd t h e s hadow c a s t b y t h e g nomon w h ich i st h e v a lue w e h ave r e ad f r om t h e p ro t rac to r o ft h e s o la r c ompa s s ; ( i ) t= t h e G r eenw ich T ime a tt h e momen t w hen t h e m ea su r emen t w a s t a ken ( t ime a t t h e l o ca t ion p lu s /m inu s t h e t ime d i f f e rence ) ; ( i i ) To = t h e S ide r ea l T ime i nG reenw ich a t0 0 1. 0 0 f o rt h e d ay t h e m ea su remen t w a st a k en ; ( i v ) 6 0 =t h ed ec l ina t ion o ft h e S un f o rt h e s ame d ay ; ( v )4 1 ) =t h eg eog raph ica l l a t i tude o ft h e l o ca t ion .

FI GURE 2 :T he S o la rC ompa s s .

T he S ide rea l T ime i nG reenw ich ( T o)f o r 0 0 H. 0 0 a nd t h e d ec l ina t ion o f t h e S un ( 80 ) c an b e o b ta ined f r om t h e A s t ronom ica l E pheme r ide s a nd a l so f r om n au t ica l y ea rbook s ,w he re t h ey a r e g i ven i ns pec ia l t a b le s . A l so f o r t h e p u rpo se o fc a lcu la t ion , a l lt ime s e xp r e s sed i nh ou r s a nd m inu te s mu s t b e c onve r ted i nd eg r ee s , h av ing i nm ind t h a t 1H = 1 5 ° .

I I .! . T he I n s trumen t Mo s t o ft h e mode l s a va i lab le a tt h e m a rke t t o day a r e c om p l ex i n s t rumen t s , b u t v e ry e a sy t o w o rk w i th a nd r e qu i re n of u r the rc a lcu la t ion s .T hey h ave a d ju s tab le p a r t sw h ich — w hen p rope r ly s e tt o al o ca lt ime , l o ca t ion a nd d a te — g i ve ap r ec i se r e ad ing o ft h e o r ien ta t ion . T he i n s t rumen tt h a tt h e a u tho r s h ave u sed i nt h e i r w o rk i so fn ok nown p roduc t ion m ode l [ F ig . 2 ] . I tw a s c u s tom m ade f o r aG eomagne t ic I n s t i tu te i nB e lg rade a nd i ti st h e s imp le s t p o s s ib le v a r ian t o ft h e i n s t rumen t . S ince i tw a s m ade t om ee t t h e n eed s o f G eo log i s t s , i ti sn o t i d ea l f o rA r cheo log i s t s a nd t h e a u tho r s f e e lt h a ts ome s l igh tc hange s s hou ld m ake i tm o re s u i tab le .

O n t h e b a s is o ft h e se d a ta w e c an c a lcu la te t h e o r ien ta t ion a z imu th o f amonumen t o r o b jec t ( A ) , u s ing t h e f o l low ing s t ep s . T he a z imu th e qua l s : A =c o +0

[ 1]

w he re w i st h e a z imu th o ft h e g nomon s hadow a nd 0( a s d f i ned a bove ) i st h e a ng le b e tween t h e d i rec t ion o f t h e o b jec t a nd t h e s hadow c a s t b y t h e g nomon . T h is a ng le w e qua l s t ot h ea z imu th o fS un A0 ( t he a ng le b e tween t h e S un a nd N o r th ) , m ea su red t owa rd s E a s t , w h ich ( f o r e v iden t r e a son s ) mu s tb e i n c rea sed b y 1 80 ° :

T he c ompa s s u s ed h e re c on s i s t s o ft wo l i mb s : ah o r izon ta l ( 1 )w i th ad i a lp l a te ma rked a n t i— c lockw i se i n a3 60 ° s c a le ; a nd av er t ica l ( 2 ) w i th m a rk ing s o f9 0 ° i nb o th d i rec t ion s . Wh i le t h eh o r izon ta l l imb i st h e e s sen t ia l p a r to ft h e i n s t ru m en t , t h e v er t ica l l imb i su sed b y G eo log i s t s t o m ea su r e 13

AMANDA—AL ICE M A RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS TRA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

c o = A0 + 1 80 °

[ 2 ]

B yr ep lac ing Ao i nf ormu la [ 3] w eg e tt h ev a lue o ft h ea z i m u th o ft h eo b jec t ' s o r ien ta t ion :

w h ich i n co rpo ra ted i nt h ee qua t ion [ 1 ] g i ve s : A =As + 1 80 ° +0

[ 3]

I n t h i s f o rmu la t h e u nknown v a lue i st h e S un 's a z imu th ( As ) , w h ich c an b eo b ta ined f r om t h ee qua t ion : t a nA0 =— s in eco s c olanäo —s i norco s t ) ]

A =1 64° + 1 80 ° +3 18° = 6 62° w h ich r ed uced t o a n a ng le o ft h ef i r s tf u l l c i rc l e ( 360° ) g i ve s : A =6 62° —3 60 ° =3 02°

[ 4 ]

i nw h ich ti s al o ca l « t ime a ng le» f o r G reenw ich t ime a c q u i r ed b y « sub jec t ive» t ime , w hen t h e m ea su remen t w a s t a ken a nd t h e S ide rea l T ime i n G reenw ich ( T o)f o r t h a t d ay , b o th c onve r ted i n to d eg ree s . A t t h i s p o in t w e h ave a l l t h e d a ta r equ i r ed f o r c a lcu la t ing t h e S un 's a z imu th ( A0 ) , w h ich i n co rpo ra ted i n to f o rmu la [ 3 ] g i ve su st h ea z imu th o ft h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h eo b jec t , i . e . t h e a ng le b e tween t h e o b jec t a nd t h e No r th . T o i lu s t ra te t h i sm e thod a nd m ake i tc l ea r e rl e tu sg i ve a ne xamp le . E xamp l e L e t ' s a s sume t ha t w e a re m ea sur ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o fa n o b jec t l o ca ted i nB e lg rad e ( 0 =4 4° .8 ) , a t 11a .m . , o n 1 2m A p r i l 1 997 . A f te r p o s i t ion ing t h e s o la r c ompa s s o n t h e h or i zon ta l l i mb w e r ead 3 18° ( 0 = 3 18° ) . T he S un ' s d ec l ina t ion ( 50 ) a nd t h e S id e rea l T ime i nG reenw ich ( T ,) c an b et a ken f rom t h et ab le sf or t ha td ay a nd t h ey r ead : ( 5 0 =8 ° .6 a nd T , =1 3 12 1 m .F u r the r , w e n eed t oc a lcu la te t h e l o ca l t i me a ng l e i nG reenw ich ( t ) , w hen t h e m ea suremen t i st a ken ( c a l ib ra ted t ot h eG reenw ich T ime m inu so ne h our i no u rc a se , s i nce B e lg rad ei si nt h eC en t ra lE uropean t i me z one ) a nd t h eS id e rea l T ime i nG reenw ich ( T0) . t= 1 01 + 1 31 2 1 m =2 3H 2 1m

o r NW—SE w i th t h e o r ien ta t ion o f5 8° W e s t o fN or th o r e qu iva len t ly 3 02° E a s to fN or th [ F ig . 3 ] .

1 1 .4 . D e term in ing t he D irec t ion o fT rue N or th T he s o la r c ompa s s c an a l so b e u sed t od e te rm ine t h e d i r e c t ion o fd ue N o r th a ta n a r cheo log ica l s i te . T he p rocedu re i ss im i la r t ot h e o ne u sed f o r m ea su r ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o f o b jec t s , b u t i n r e ve r se o rde r . T he v a lue o f t h e S un 's a z imu th ( A0 ) i sc a lcu la ted i na dvance f o r as p ec if ic t ime a nd l o ca t ion . A dd ing i ti n to f o rmu la [ 1 ] t h e a z imu th o ft h e g nomon s hadow i sc a lcu la ted ( w ) . A t t h e l o ca t ion a nd a t t h e t ime u sed f o r c a lcu la t ing t h e a z imu th , as o la r c ompa s s i sp l aced i n aw ay t h a t as hadow o ft h e g nomon f a l l s o nt h e m a rk ing o f t h e p ro t rac to r t h a t m a tche s t h e v a lue o f c a lcu la ted c o . I n t h a t p o s i t ion t h e 0 ° 180 ° l i ne o n a h o r izon ta l l i mb e qua ls t h e N or th—Sou th d i r ec t ion . T he o r ien ta t ion o b ta ined t h i s w ay c an b e c oncep tua l ized b y a c o rd o r al i ne , u s ed a s as t anda rd , w i th w h ich am agne t ic c ompa s s r e ad ing c an b e c ompa r ed , t os e e i fa ny a noma l ie s e x i s ta tt h a ts i te . F o r t h i s p u rpo se i ti sn ece s sa ry t o mod if y t h e h o r izon ta l l i mb s ot h a tm a rk ing s r un c l ockw i se ( by p u t t ing ad i f f e r en t p ro t rac to r o n ) o r , i f a n a l te rna t ive p ro t rac to r i s n o t a va i lab le , b y c onver t ing w i n to av a lue w h ich o n a n a n t i— c l ockw i se d i a l w ou ld c o r r e spond t ot h e e x i s t ing v a lue o fc o o n ac l ockw ise d i a l ( 360 ° —w ) .

I V . A pp l ica t ion o ft he S o lar C ompa s s i nF ie ldwork I V .! . T he P od lokan j P ro jec t T he a u tho r s h ave w o rked w i th as o la r c ompa s s f o rt h e f i r s t t ime d u r ing S umme r 1 997 , a ta n e xcava t ion i nP od lokan j [ s ee F ig . 1 ] , i n t h e r eg ion o f N or ther n B ana t , n ea r t h e j unc t ion o fY ugo s lav ian , R oman ian a nd H unga r ian b o rde r . A t t h a t s i te a n E neo l i th ic n ec ropo l i s w a s b e ing e xcava ted d a ted a t t h e v e ry e nd o f T i szapo lga r c u l tu r e [ GR CK I— ST AN IM IROV & ST AN IM IROV—GR CK I , 1 998 : 9 4 ] . O ne o f t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o ft h e T i szapo lga r c u l tu r e i sa s pec if ic b u r ia l r i t e w i th t h e d ead o r ien ted t owa rd s E a s t . B y m ea su r ing o r ien ta t ion a tn ec ropo l i se s o ft h e s ame c u l tu re i nH unga ry , I d a B ogna r—Ku tz ian ( A r ch z eo log ica l I n s t i tu te , B udape s t ) a nd K a ta l in B a na l ( I n s t i tu te o f A s t ronomy o f t h e H unga r ian A cademy o fS c ience s ) h ave d e te rm ined t h a t s k e le ton s a nd g r ave p i t s w e re mo s tp robab ly o r ien ta ted n o t o n ly t owa rd st h e E a s t , b u t mo r ep r ec i se ly t owa rd s t h ep o in t o fs un r i se [ BA RLA I e ta l . , 1 992 : 1 19 ] . T he a u tho r s ' g oa l u pon c om ing a boa rd t h e p ro jec t w a s t o c heck i fs im i la r c u l tu ra l p a t ter n s c an b e f ound i nt h i s n ec ropo l i s a l so , a nd t os e e w he the rt wo A r chxo log i s t s c an s u cce s sf u l ly u se t h i s i n s t rumen t a nd p e rf o rm c a lcu la t ion s i n o rde r t o o b ta in p r ec i se r e su l t s .

FI GURE 3 .T he p ro t rac to rd i sp lay ing t h eo r ien ta t ion a z imu th . N ow w e t r an sf orm h our s a nd m inu te s i n to d eg ree s h a v ing i nm ind t ha t 1H = 1 5° , a nd 1m = 0 ° .25 , w h ich l e ave s u s w i th tz 3 50° . A t t h i sp o in t w e h ave a l l t h e e l emen t sf or f ormu la [ 4] , w h ich r ead s : t a nA 0 -— s in350° / co s44°. 8 . tan8°. 6—s i n44° . 8 .c o s350° t a nA 0 = — 0 . 2945

A0 = —1 6 ° .4 , i .e .:A0 = 1 80° — 1 6 °. 4

= ,1 64° .

14

D ragana M ladenov iC & A ndo rV in e : T he A pp l ica t ion o fS o la rC ompa s si nA rcheo log ica l F i e ldwo rk

I n 1 997 t h ep ro jec tw a sa l r eady i ni t ss e cond s e a son a nd a l l s ke le ton s e xcava ted u p t o t h a t m omen t ( 12 i nt o ta l ) h ave b een d ocumen ted a nd w e re u nava i lab le f o r t h e a u tho r s t o t a ke o r ien ta t ion m ea su remen t s . T he o n ly t h ing t h a t c ou ld h ave b een d one w a s t o t a ke o r ien ta t ion m ea su r emen t s o f t h e s k e le ton s e xcava ted d u r ing t h a t s e a son ( 16 i n t o ta l ) , a nd t ot r yt od e te rm ine t h e d eg r ee o fm agne t ic d ev ia t ion a t t h e s i t e , a nd i fs u ch ad ev ia t ion e x i s ted , i no rde rt oc o r rec t t h e e x i s t ing o r ien ta t ion d a ta t a ken w i th a m agne t ic c ompa s s .

s i t e . O n t h a t l o ca t ion a t umu lu s w i th s eve ra l c r ema t ion b u r ia l sw a s e xcava ted [ SRE iov iü e ta l . , 1 996 : 2 40 ] a nd i ti s t h e a u tho r s ' c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e r ema in s o fb ur ned b one s a nd c e ram ic sc au sed t h a td ev ia t ion . T he o r ien ta t ion o f a l l s t ruc tu re s v i s ib le a t t h e s i te w a s m ea su red b y m ea su r ing t h e a z imu th o f e ve ry w a l l o ft h e s t ruc tu re ( t he r e su l t s a r e t ob e p ub l i shed i nt h e S a rkamen m onog raphy , c u r ren t ly i n p re s s ) . T o a vo id p o s s ib le m i s take s e ve ry m ea su remen t w a s t a ken f i ve t ime s o n a ve rage , a nd e ve ry t ime t h e w ho le p rocedu re w a sr e pea ted , t o ge the r w i th t h e r e po s i t ion ing o f t h e e qu ipmen t . B y a na lyz ing a l l t h e r e su l t s s t a t i s t ica l ly t h e a u tho r s h ave c ome t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e e r ro r o f m ea su remen t u s ing a

F o r t h a t p u rpo se t h e a u tho r s h ave s e t u p al i ne a l ong t h e Me r id ian ( No r th—Sou th ) a x i s d e te rm ined b y a s o la r c ompa s s a nd c ompa r ed i tw i th t h e r e ad ing o f am agne t ic c ompa s s u sed a t t h i s s i te . R e su l t s s howed t h a t as l igh t m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion o f4 ° t o 5 ° e x i s t s . A t t h a t p a r t icu la r m omen t t h i s w a s a l t h e a u tho r s c ou ld d o . I mpor tan t f o r f u r the r r e sea r ch w a s t h e f a c t t h a t , a s t h e a u tho r s h ave c on sequen t ly f ound o u t , t h e i r a s se s smen t o ft h e m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion m a tched t h e i n f o rma t ion f ound o n t h e t opog raph ic m ap s o f t h e a r ea . H ow eve r , t h e m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion c on s tan t ly c hange s a nd t o pog raph ic m ap s t h a t w e re c on su l ted w e re o l d , a nd —in v i ew o fm agne t ic d ec l i n a t ion — r a the r o b so le te , w h ich m ean t t h a t i tw a s s t i l l n o t c l ea r j u s t h ow p r ec i se t h e i n s t rumen t w a s . T he a u tho r s w e r e s t i l l l o ok ing f o r a n o ppo r tun i ty t o t r y o u t t h e i n s t rumen t , w h i le t a k ing al a rge rn umbe r o fm ea su remen t s , a nd u nde rt h e c i rcum s tance s w he re i tw ou ld b e p o s s ib le t o c heck t h er e su l t s .

s o la rc ompa s s i s± 2° .12 . Af t e ra l l t h e o r ien ta t ion m ea su remen t sw e r e t a ken t h e se r e s u l t s w e re c ompa red t o t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om t h e G eode s i s t s ' s t udy . O u t o f3 0 u n i t s , w h ich w e r e m ea su red , o n ly t wo s howed a s i gn if ican t v a r ia t ion : 6 ° a nd 3 ° . A l l o t he r r e su l t s e i the r m a tched o rs howed ad i f f e r ence o fl e s s t h an 1 ° . Wh i le t h e 3 ° d i f f e r ence c ou ld b e a t t r ibu ted t oa n e r ro r o f t h e s o la r c ompa s s , t h e 6 ° v a r ia t ion c an o n ly b e a t t r ibu ted t o ah uman e r ro rb y o ne o ft h e t e am s c onduc t ing t h e o r ien ta t ion m ea su r emen t . I n v i ew o ft h e se r e su l t s , t h e a u tho r s c onc lude t h a t m ea su r ing o r ien ta t ion w i th a s o la r c ompa s s may g i ve e qua l ly p r ec i se r e su l t s a st h e o r ien ta t ion m ea su remen t st a ken b yG eode s i s t s .

V . A dvan tage sa nd D i sadvan tage s I V .2 .T he S arkamen P ro jec t T he o ppo r tun i ty p r e sen ted i t s e lf i n 1 998 a tS a rkamen i n E a s t e rn S e rb ia [ s ee F ig . 1 ] . A t t h i s s i te ar oman i mpe r ia l m emo r ia l c omp lex h a s b een i n ten s ive ly e xcava ted s i nce 1 994 . T he c omp lex c on s i s t s o f v a r iou s s t ruc tu re s : a f o r t if ica t ion , am au so leum , t h e rm xa nd a n umbe r o f s t ru c tu re s o fu nknown f unc t ion [ SRE iov iü e ta L , 1 996 ] . B y 1 998 m o s t o ft h e se s t ruc tu r e s h ad b een e xcava ted a nd a G eode s i s t h a s b een i n v i ted t o m ea su re t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e o b jec t s , ap rocedu re o n t h e b a s i s o fw h ich t h e o b jec t s h ave b een d r awn o n to a t o pog raph ic m ap . D u r ing s ub sequen t w o rk a tt h e s i te t h e m embe r s o ft h e e xcava t ing t e am h ad t a ken t h e i r o wn o r ien ta t ion m ea su r emen t s w i th a m agne t ic c ompa s s a nd t wo d i d n o t m a tch . I tw a s t h en t h a t t h e p r e sen t a u tho r s w e r e i n v i ted t oc onduc t a no the r s e t o f i n dependen tm ea su remen t s . C on s ide r ing t h e q ue s t ioned r e l iab i l i ty o f a m agne t ic c ompa s s t h e a u tho r s h ave a s sumed t h a t t h e m ea su remen t s t a ken b y t h a t i n s t rumen t m igh t b e d ub iou s , b u t t h e G eode s i s t s ' r e su l t s w e re n o t t a ken a p r ior i a s c o r r ec t e i the r . T he a u tho r s h ave i n s i s ted o n n o t b e ing t o ld a ny o f t h er e su l t su n t i lt h e i ro wn r e sea r ch w a so ve r . T he m agne t ic d ec l ina t ion a tt h e s i te w a s d e te rm ined f i r s t . T he s ame m e thod a s i nP od lokan j w a s u sed , b u t t h i s t ime o n 5d i f f e ren t c on t ro l p o in t s , s i tua ted 2 0 m f r om e ach o t he r . A tt h ef i r s t , t h e f o r th a nd t h ef i f th p o in tt h e re w a s n o d ec l ina t ion a nd m ea su remen t s w i th a m agne t ic c ompa s s a nd s o la rc ompa s s m a tched p e rf ec t ly . H oweve r , t h e s e cond a nd t h e t h i rd c on t ro l p o in t s howed ad ec l ina t ion o f5 ° a nd 1 0 ° t o t h e E a s t r e spec t ive ly . T he r e su l t s i n d ica ted t h a t a c e r ta in a noma ly z one e x i s t s w i th in a l i m i ted a r ea a tt h e 15

B a sed o n t h e i r f i r s t—hand e xpe r ience o fw o rk ing w i th t h e i n s t rumen t i n t h e f i e ld , t h e a u tho r s h ave m ad e s ome o b se rva t ion s o f t h e a dvan tage s a nd t h e d r awback s o f w o rk ing w i th as o la rc ompa s s . O ne o ft h e f i r s t a dvan tage s i st h e m echan ica l n a tu r e o ft h e i n s t rumen t , w h ich m ake s i t v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t o m a lf unc t ion w hen u sed b y a n e xpe r ienced p e r son k now ing t o h and le i t .I n o rde r t om ake t h e i n s t rumen t l e s s p rec i se s ome o f i t s p a r t s w ou ld h ave t ob e b rok en o rb en t , af a c t t h a tc ou ld n o tp a s su nno t iced . T he i n s t rumen tw i th w h ich t h e a u tho r sh ave w o rked w i th i s a l so r e la t ive ly s ma l l ( a bou t 3 0 c m h igh ) a nd e a s i ly t r an spo r tab le . When d i sa s semb led ( t he f r ame w i th g nomon i st a ken o ft h e t o p ) i tf i t s i n to aw ooden b ox ( 20 x 1 5 x1 5 c m ) . H oweve r , d i f f e r en t p roduc t ion mode l s c ou ld h ave d i f f e ren t d imen s ion s . Wh i le s o la r c ompa s se s t h a t c an b e f ound o n t h e m a rke t c an b e r a the r e xpen s ive , o ne c an e a s i ly h ave a n i n s t rumen t l i ke t h i s m ade w i th m in ima l e xpen se s ( t he e s t ima ted e xpen se o fm ak ing a n i n s t rumen t l i ke t h eo ne u sed i nt h i sr e sea rch i sa bou t $5 0 ) . T he mo s ts i gn if ican t a dvan tage o ft h e s o la rc ompa s s , a st h e a u tho r s h ave d emon s t ra ted , i si t sp r ec is ion . T he i n s t rumen t h a s p roven i t s e lf t ob e mo re a ccu ra te o ra sa ccu ra te a sa ny o fh e ra l ter na t ive i n s t rumen t s o rm e thod s . T he re a r e a l so s ome d i sadvan tage s , w hen w o rk ing w i th a s o la r c ompa s s . T he mo s t o bv iou s o ne d e r ive s f r om t h e v e ry n a tu r e o f t h e i n s t rumen t : i n o rde r t o w o rk i tn eed s s un l igh t .T h i s c ou ld b e as e r iou sp rob lem i nc l ima te sw i th a r e la t ive ly s ma l l n umbe r o f s unny d ay s , o r a t p ro jec t s c a r r ied o u t d u r ing t h e W in te r mon th s . H oweve r , f u l l

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DUM

s un l igh t i sn o t n ece s sa ry t o o b ta in a m ea su r emen t , s i nce e ven w hen t h e S un i sp a r t ly c ove r ed b y c l oud s i ts t i l l m ay s h ine s t rong e nough t oc a s t as hadow , b u t w o rk ing w i th a s o la r c ompa s s i nd ay s w hen t h e S un a ppea r s o n ly s ho r t ly d u r ing d ay— t ime c an b e av e ry i r i ta t ing e xpe r ience . T h i s —of c ou r se — m ean s t h a t t h e s o la r c ompa s s i s u n su i tab le f o r w o rk ing i n doo r s , u nde r t h e g round , u nde r w a te r a nd i n a ny o t he r p l ace w i thou t s un l igh t . O ne mu s t a l so b e c a r ef u l t o u se a s o la r c ompa s s i n d i rec t s un l igh t o n ly . I fi ti su s ed i n l o ca t ion s w he re d ay l igh t f o r s ome r e a son c ome s f r om al im i ted s ou rce ( aw indow , am ou th o f ac ave , a n o pen ing b e tween l e ave s i n af o r e s t , & c . ) t h e g nomon w i l l a lway s c a s t as hadow i nt h eo ppo s i te d i r ec t ion f r om t h e l i gh ts ou r ce ,r ega rd le s s o ft h e p o s i t ion o ft h e S un o nt h e s ky i nt h a t momen t .

h ave a g r ea te r a pp l ica t ion i n a r chwo log ica l f i e ldwo rk . I t c ou ld a low A r ch a zo log i s t s t o t a ke a ny n umbe r o f o r ien ta t ion m ea su r emen t s a tt h e s i te w i thou t a ny a dd i t iona l e xpen se s o r h i r ing a ny e x t ra s t af f . T h i s c ou ld g i ve r e sea r che r s af r eedom t o p u r sue a ny t h eo ry t h ey m igh t c on s ide r mo re a pp rop r ia te r i gh tt h e r e , i ns i tu . V I I . R ef erence s BARLA I , K . , B OGNAR—KUTZ IAN , I .& Z SOLDOS , E . : « Ray s o f P r eh i s to r ic S un» , R ead ing s i n A rch c eoa s t ronomy : C u r ren t P rob l em s a nd F u ture o f A rch c eoa s t ronomy ( Iwan i szew sk i , S . , e d . ) , Wa r saw 1 992 , 1 19 . B ARLA I , K . & B OGNAR—KUTZ IAN , I . : « Pa t te rn s o f O r ien ta t ion i n N eo l i th ic C eme te r ie s» , C u r ren t P rob lem s a nd F u ture o f A rch c eoa s t ronomy ( Pä sz to r , E . , e d . ) , I , B udape s t 1 995 , 2 5 -32 .

T he s e cond d i sadvan tage i st h e f a c tt h a tt h i s k i nd o fi n s t ru m en t d oe sn ' t p rov ide r e sea r che r s w i th a n o r ien ta t ion v a lue r i gh t a way a nd w ha t l o ok s l i ke ac omp l ica ted c a lcu la t ion h a s t ob e c a r r ied o u t i no rde rt oo b ta in r e su l t s . T he a u tho r s w ou ld l i ke t o s t re s s t h a t t h i s i sn o t ac ha rac ter i s t ic o f a l l s o la r c ompa s se s . A s s t a t ed a bove t h e re a r e mode l s w i th a dd i t iona la d ju s tab le p a r t sw h ich —when s e tt oa pp rop r ia te p a rame te r s— g i ve t h e o r ien ta t ion r e su l t s r i gh t a way . F u r the rmo r e , i fa n A r chxo log i s t d oe sn ' t n eed t h e r e su l t s d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e f i e ldwo rk , n one o ft h e c a lcu la t ion s h a st ob ec a r r ied o u ta tt h ea r ch z eo log ica l s i te . Af t e r as e to f m ea su remen t s h a s b een t a ken a nd a l l r e levan t d a ta c o l lec ted , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c ompu te t h e r e su l t s o nce a n e xcava t ing s e a son i so ve r , o rw hen t h e t e am i sb ack a tt h e b a se . Mo reove r , i t w ou ld b e e a sy t o w r i te a s imp le c ompu te rp rog ramme , t oc a lcu la te t h e r e su l t s w i th a n i n pu t o f f i e ld d a ta . F ina l ly , i ti st h e a u tho r s ' e xpe r ience t h a t c ompu t ing t h er e su l t s w i th t h e h e lp o f ab e t te rc a lcu la to r i s n o t ar e a l d if i cu l ty , e ven f o r t h o se n o t v e r sed i n Ma the m a t ic s a nd S phe r ica lA s t ronomy .

M IL IÜEV IÜ , V . & D JORD JEV IÜ , A . : « O r i jen ta c i ja u u s lov ima v i sok ih a noma l i ja m agne t skog p o l ja Z em l je» , S a ve tovan je - G eo log i ja i m e ta log en i ja K opaon ika , ( Bozunov ie , B . &P op—Kon s tan t inov i, N . , e d s . ) , B eog rad 1 995 , 2 35 -42 .

V I . C onc lu s ion s

V INÜE , I . :P r iva te C ommun ica t ion , B e lg rade 2 002 .

Af t e rt h e P od lokan j p ro jec te nded t h e a u tho r s h ave w o rked o nt h e o r ien ta t ion d a ta a cqu i red f r om t h e s i te a nd o b ta ined s ome i n te re s t ing r e su l t s . T he a s sump t ion o ft h e H unga r ian c o l league s [ BARLA I e t a l . , 1 992 ; BARLM e t a l . , 1 995 ] , r e ga rd ing t h e o r ien ta t ion o ft h e d ecea sed t owa rd s t h e p o in t o fs un r ise o nt h e d ay o ft h e i rd ea th o rb u r ia l , a nd m e r e ly t o t h e E a s t w a s c onf i rmed . H av ing t h e a pp rox ima te t ime o f d ea th d e te rm ined f o r e ve ry d ecea sed , amo r ta l i ty r a te f o r d i f f e r en t p e r iod s o f t h e y ea r w a s e s tab l i shed a nd s ome i n te r e s t ing c onc lu s ion s r e ga rd ing t h e s i z e o ft h e g r ave p i t s a nd t h e t ime o fd ea th w e re d e te rm ined [ V IN E , 1 998 ] . F o r t h e p r e sen ta u tho r s , t oc onduc tt h i sk i nd o fa n i n ve s t iga t ion w ou ldn ' t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e p rec i s ion a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie so f as o la rc ompa s s .

D JORD JEV IÜ , A . , M IL IÜEV IÜ , V . & MEK IÜ , N . : « Zna ea j o rded ji v an ja d ek li na ci je u p ro s pe kc i js k im m e todama» , S ave tovan je—Sa v remen i t r endov i r az vo ja g eof i z ike , ( S ta reev ie , M . &B je l ica , B . , e d s . ) , B eog rad 1 996 , 2 07 15 . G RCK I—STAN IM IROV , S .&S TAN IM IROV—GRCK I , S . : « Eneo l i t sko is r edn jevekovno n a laz i g te k od P od lokan ja» , G la sn ik S rp skog a rheo la ekog d ru g tv a , 1 3 , 1 998 , 8 9 -94 .

M IL IÜEV IÜ , V . : 1 998 , P r iva te C ommun ica t ion , B e lg rade 1 998 . S RE JOV IÜ , D . , T omov iü , M . , VA S IÜ , C . : « Sa rkamen , T e t ra r c h ia l I mpe r ia l P a la ce» ,S ta r ina r ,X LV I I , 1 996 ,2 31-43 . V INÜE , A . : « A s t ronom ica l O r ien ta t ion o f S ke le ton s i nt h e E a r ly E neo l i th ic N ec ropo l i s a tP od lokan j» , P ub l ica t ion s o f t h e A s t ronom ica l O b se rva to ry o fB e lg rad e ( D im i t r i jev i6 , M .S . &P opov i, L .C . , e d s . ) , 6 0 , B eog rad 1 998 ,2 30 -33 .

A cknow ledgemen t s : T he a u tho r s w ou ld l i ke t o t h ank D r V lado M i l i ev ié o f T he G eomagne t ic I n s t i tu te , B e lg rade , f o r i n i t ia l ly d raw ing t h e i r a t ten t ion t ot h e p rob lem o fo r ien ta t ion m ea su r ing , p rov id ing t h em w i th a n o ppo r tun i ty t ow o rk w i th t h e i n s t rumen t a nd a l l t h e h e lpf u l i n f o rma t ion t h a t h e h a s o f f e red . F u r the r , t h e i r g ra t i tude a l so e x tend s t o V e sna L e s i6 o f T he G eomagne t ic I n s t i tu te , B e lg rade , f o r a s s i s t ing t h em i nt h e f i na l s t age s o ft h e p r epa ra t ion o f t h i s p ape r , a s w e l l a s D r I s tvan V ine o f T he A s t ronom ica l O bse r va to ry , B e lg rade , f o r r e ad ing t h e i r t e x t a nd f o r h i s c on s t ruc t ive c ommen t s . F u r the rmo re , t h e a u tho r s t h ank t h e i r c o l league s o ft h eP od lokan j a nd S a rkamen p ro jec t s f o rt h e i r i n te re s t i nt h e i rw o rk . L a s t , b u t n o t l e a s tt h ey t h ank D r Amanda— A l ice Ma rave l ia , t h e e d i to r o ft h i s v o lume , f o r c o r r ec t ing s ome a s t ronom ica l e r ro r so ft h e i ri n i t ia lp ape ra nd a l so f o rm ak ing t h e i r t e x tm o r e i d ioma t ic i nE ng l ish .

T o c onc lude , a f t e r u s ing a s o la r c ompa s s i n t h e i r o wn w o rk , t h e a u tho r s a r e c onv inced a bou t t h e p r ec i s ion a nd t h e r e l iab i l i ty o ft h i s i n s t rumen t a nd t h ey f e e l t h a t i tc ou ld

16

ME SOA MER ICA

T he S oc ia lC ons t i tu t ion o f Hor izon A s tronomy o ft he P yram id a t Cu icu i lco (Mex ico ) , a nd G roup E a tU axac tun ( Gua tema la ) S tan is law I wan iszewsk i

Abs t rac t

F rom s ome t ime o nwa rd s s c ho la r s h ave s t a r ted t o a na lyze d i f f e ren t H o r izon p rof i le s , i n t e rm s o f ah ypo the t ica l c a lenda rb a sed o np o s i t ion s o ft h er i s ing a nd /o rs e t t ing S un i n p a r t icu la r m omen t s o f a y ea r . I n Me soame r ican A rchwoa s t rony t h e H o r izon p rof i le a s s e en f r om d i f f e r en t l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e B a s in o fM ex ico h a s b een a na lyzed b y A n thony A ven i , F ranz T ichy , J ohanna B roda , J e sü s G a l indo , I van S 'p r a jc a nd t h e p r e sen t a u tho r . T he e a s ter n H o r izon r e ce ived p a r t icu la r a t t en t ion , a ss e en f r om t h e t o p o f t h e c i r cu la r p y ram id a t C u icu i lco , w he r e t h e s now— c ove r ed moun ta in top s o f P opoca tepe t l a nd I z tacc ihua t l , t oge the r w i th P apayo , T e lapon a nd T la loc a ppea r t o b e l o ca ted w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f i mpo r tan t s o la r d a te s . F rom t h e moder n a r ch z eo log ica l p o in t o fv i ew t h e p heno m enon o ft r a c ing a n i mag ina ry a l ignmen t b e tween t h e m a t e r ia l s t ruc tu re a nd t h e d i s tan tH o r izon h ave n o tb een f u l ly e xp lo r ed y e t . C ompa red w i th t h eU axac tun ian h uman—made H o r izon , t h e C u icu i lco s pa t ia l a r rangemen t t h row s a n a dd i t iona l l i gh t o n to t h e p roce s s o fm ak ing H o r izon ( a nd l a nd scape ) s i gn if i can t . U s ing t h e c oncep t s o f m e tonym ic a nd m e tapho r ic c on s t ruc t s , t h e a u tho r d educe s t h e d if e r ence s i n t h e c u l tu ra l p e r c ep t ion a nd c on s t ruc t ion o f l a nd scape s a t t wo d if e ren t s i t e s , w h ich d eno te t h e e me rg ence o f a c omp lex s o c ie ty a t t h e e nd o f t h e F o rma t ive P e r iod i n Me soame r ica .

e s tab l i shmen t o f aH o r izon r e f e rence s y s tem n ece s sa ry t o f i x i mpo r tan t s o la r a nd c a lend r ica l d a te s Iw i l l p r e sen t , a s a n e xamp le , t h e a r ch a zo log ica l a na ly s i s o f H o r izon s a t C u icu i lco a nd U axac tun . I . C u icu i lco , Mex ico C u icu i lco i sal a rge P re—C la s s ic s i te , l o ca ted i nt h e s ou thern p a r t o ft h e B a s in o f Mex ico . I th a s l o ng b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h e e me rgence o fc omp lex s oc ie t ie s a nd s ome s oc io— p o l i t ica l i n teg ra t ion o ft h e r eg ion . I t s m a in s t ruc tu re i st h e h uge r ound p y ram id w h ich i s2 7 mh igh a nd r e a che s n ea r ly 8 0 m i nd i ame te r , t ow h ich t wo r amp s h ave b een a t tached o n e a s t a nd w e s t s i de s [ F ig . 1 ] . T he p y ram id i sb u i l t o n a n o pen p l a in s i tua ted c l o se t o a nd a bove t h e s ou ther n B a s in l a ke s y s tem a nd o f f e r sp ano ram ic v i ew s i na l l d i rec t ion s .

KEY W ORDS : Me soame r ican A s t ronomy , O r ien ta t ion o f Monu m en t s , H o r izon , S un r ises , S unse t s , E qu inoxes , S o ls t ices , Mex ican P y ram ids , C u icu i lco , Mex ico , G roup E ,U axac tun , G ua tema la .

FI GURE 1 .C ircu la rP y ram id a tC u icu i lco . C OC opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rS t an i s law I wan i sz ew sk i .

F o l low ing P once d e L eön [ PONCE D E L EON , 1 982 : 3 2 , 6 0 ; P ONCE D E L EON , 1 983 : 7 9 , n .2 0 ] , w ho o b se rved an umbe r o fi n te r e s t ing a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s o n e a s te rn H o r izon , B roda [ BRODA , 1 99 1 ; B RODA , 1 993 ; B RODA , 2 000 ; B RODA , 2 001 ] s ugge s ted t h a t t h e c ha in o fv o lcan ic p eak s s hap ing t h e e a s te rn s ky l ine c ou ld h ave s e rved f o r t h e a r rangemen t o f ac a lenda r H o r izon . S im i la ro b se rva t ion s a t C u icu i lco w e re m ade b y R ugg le s [ RuGGLEs , 1 994 ] a nd A › p ra jc [PRA JC , 1 999 ; P RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 63 -73 ] , a nd b y G a l indo a nd E s teban [ GAL INDO & E STEBAN , 2 001 ] w ho r e sea r ched a s t ronom ica l e ven t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f e a tu re s o f w e s te rn H o r izon . A l l t h o se a u tho r s o b se rved t h a t t h e p o s i t ion s o f v o lcan ic p eak s o n b o th H o r izon s c omb ined w i th t h e d a te s o f s o la r e ven t s a t ta ched t o t h em ( Sun r i se s a nd S un se t s ) , a nd c o r re la ted p a r t icu la r ly w e l l w i th t h e a r rangemen t o f r i tua l—ca lend r ica l d a t e s i n t h e A z tec c a lenda r . T he ref o re , t h ey c onc luded t h a t t h e b u i lde r s o f C u icu i lco h ad c a ref u l ly s e lec ted t h e p l a ce t o f o l low s o la r c a lend r ica l o b se rva t ion s [ BRODA , 1 993 : 2 83 -85 ; B RODA , 2 00 1 : 4 12 ; P RA JC ,2 00 1 : 1 72 -73 ] .

I .I n troduc t ion A rchwoa s t ronom ica l r e sea r ch i n Mesoame r ica h a s p roved t h a t n ume rou s c i v ic a nd p ub l ic a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu r e s w e r e a l igned t o t h e S un 's p o s i t ion s o n t h e H o r izon o n p a r t icu la r d a te s . S cho la r s e xp lana to ry f r amewo rk s h ave u sua l ly c l u s te red a r ound t h ree t y pe s o f h ypo the se s : ( i ) b u i ld ing s w e re a l igned u pon t h e k ey p o s i t ion s o ft h e S un ( So l s t ice s , E qu inoxe s , s o la rz en i th p a s sage s ) ; ( i )t h ey w e re o rgan i sed t om a rk t h e r i s ing / se t t ing p o s i t ion s o ft h e S un a t 1 3 a nd 2 0 d ay i n te rva l s ( impo r tan t f o r Me soame r ican c a lend r ic s ) ; a nd ( i i ) t h e t i me p e r iod o f t h e c a lenda r e mpha s ized b y a l ignmen t s w a s i n t ima te ly r e la ted t o t h e s e a sona l c l ima t ic c hange a nd t h e ref o re i mpo r tan t f o r t h e a g r icu l tu re . A l though i t i s c l ea r t h a t s ome H o r izon r e f e r ence s y s tem w a s u sed t ob i nd u p t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t d a t e s o ft h e s o la r y ea r w i th i mpo r tan t l a nd scape f e a tu re s , t h e i mpo r tance o fp a r t icu la rH o r izon f e a tu re s a pp l ied t of i x c a lend r ica l d a te s h a s n o t b een f u l ly d i scu s sed . A s H o r izon f e a tu re s a r e n o t a na ly t ica l ly d i s t inc t f r om o t he r p rom inen t l a ndma rk s , t h ey t o ge the r s hou ld b e i n te rp r e ted i nt e rm s o f t h e i r p o ten t ia l f o r i n hab i tan t s a nd u s e r s , w ho h ave c on s tan t ly a pp rop r ia ted a nd m od if ied t h e i r m a te r ia l e nv i ronmen tt oc r ea te m ean ing f u l a nd s i gn if ican t « f ie ld s o f d i scou r se» [ BARRETT , 1 987 -88 ] . T o d i scu s s m o re f u l ly t h e

T he v i s ib i l i ty f r om C u icu i lco i sc l ea r a nd e x ten s ive v i ew s t owa rd s h igh v o lcanoe s f o rm ing t h e moun ta in r i dge t h a t e nc i r c le s t h e B a s in o f Mex ico e ven t oday a r e i mp r e s s ive . W i th t h i s , c hang ing p a t te rn s o fH o r izon v i s ib i l i ty a r e e a s i ly o b se rved . T he s ky l ine d ef ined b y t h e e a s te rn a nd n or ther n moun ta in r i dge s i so b se rved i nf a r d i s tance [ s ome 5 0 -70 19

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PER AE TP ER LU DU M

km f r om t h ep y ram id ,a cco rd ing t oB RODA , 2 00 1 :T ab le 1 ] , w h i le a s e r ie s o fp rom inen t m oun ta in top s o n t h e s ou the rn a nd w e s te rn e dge s o ft h e B a s in o f Mex ico f o rm aH o r izon s ome 1 2 17 k m a pa r t [ GAL IND0 & E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 03 ] . O n ly t h e m a s s ive b u lge o f Moun ta in o fZ aca tepe t l r i s ing u p w i th in s ome 8 00 m f r om t h e t o p o f t h e p y ram id o b s t ruc t s t h e v i s ib i l i ty i nt h e N o r th— We s t d i rec t ion . S uch i regu la r i t ie s i n v i sua l p e r spec t ive c ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia l t o i t s m ean ing . T he s i gh t l ine s t owa rd s d i s tan t t o pog raph ica l f e a tu re s o f n o r the rn a nd e a s te rn H o r izon s m ay b e t r aced p a s s ing o ve r ar e la t ive ly o pen l a nd scape i n s u ch aw ay t h a t l ow— ly ing l o ca t ion s c ove r ed b y w a te r a nd l a cu s t r ine a nd m a r shy v ege ta t ion m ake a p hy s ica l a nd v i s ib le b a r r ie r b e tween t h em a nd t h e p y ram id . A s t h e p y r am id i sl o ca ted o n ap l a in n ea rt ot h e e dge o f as ma l l l a ke , p robab ly w i th a s e r ie s o f d im inu t ive t r ibu ta ry s t ream s w h ich d ropped d own f r om t h e w e s te rn r i dge o f moun ta in s , i t s l o ca t ion c r ea te s as en se o fc on t inu i ty w i th t h e l a nd scape f o rm o ft h e S ou th— We s ter nc o rne ro ft h eV a l ley . A l though t h e o r ig in s o f t h e C u icu i lco s e t t lemen t m ay b e t r aced b ack t ot h e e a r ly P re—C la s s ic , i ti so n ly d u r ing t h e M idd le P r e—C la s s ic w hen f i r s t c e remon ia l s t ruc tu re s w e re b u i l t [ SANDERS e t a l . , 1 979 : 7 6 ] . C u icu i lco b ecame a n i mpo r tan t r eg iona l c en t re d u r ing t h e L a te P re—C la s s ic a nd i ti sp robab le t h a t t h e f i r s t s t age s o fa r ch i tec tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s t ook p lace d u r ing p ha se 3o ft h e F i r s t I n te rmed ia te P e r iod [ 3 00 100 BCE , a cco rd ing t oS ANDERS e ta l . , 1 979 : 9 9 ] . I ti s g ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a tC u icu i lco w a s d e s t royed b y as e r ie s o fe r up t ion s o ft h ev o lcano X i t le a nd c ove red b yl a va f l ow s a r ound 4 00 CE . E xcava t ion s i n s ide t h e p y ram id r evea led r ema in s o fe i gh t s upe r impo sed r e c tangu la r a l ta r s m ade o fc ompac ted e a r th a nd c ove red w i th ar ed p a in t . T hey p robab ly b e longed t o t h e e a r l ie s tc on s t ruc t ion s t age [ LOPEZ CAMACHO , 1 99 1 : 3 8 , f i g . 3a nd 4 2 , f i g . 4 ; P RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 68 ] a nd a l l w e r e r ough ly a l igned u pon S o l s t ice e x t r eme s . g p ra jc [ i b id . ] b e l ieved t h a t t h e i r o r ien ta t ion s a r e m o r e l i ke ly t o b e c en t red u pon t h e S umme r S o l s t ice S un r i se , a l though n o p rom inen t H o r izon f e a tu r e m a tche s t h i s d i rec t ion [ BRODA , 1 993 : 2 79 , f i g . 9 . 11 ; B RODA , 2 001 : 1 84 , f i g . 1 2 ] . p ra jc [PRA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 7 1] o b se rved t h a t C e r ro d e l aE s t re l la i s l o ca ted c l o se r t ot h a t d i rec t ion , b u t e ven i nt h i s c a se , t h e c o r re spondence i ss t i l l a pp rox ima te . S i nce t h e s i lhoue t te o f C e r ro d e l aE s t r e l la i ss e en f a rb e low t h e H o r izon w h ich i s f l a t a nd f e a tu re le s s b eh ind i t ,i t s p o ten t ia l v a lue f o r d eno t i n g S umme rS o l s t ice s mu s tb ed i sm i s sed . B roda [ BRODA , 1 993 : 2 67 -69 , f i g . 9 . 8 ] f o l low ing P once d e L eön [ PONCE D E LEON , 1 983 : 9 0 -91 ] m en t ioned t h a t t h e W in te r S o l s t ice S un r i se w a s o b served o ve r t h e n or the rn s l ope o f P opoca tepe t l . T hough t h e t op o f P opoca tepe t l s e em s t ob e a n « i dea l» l a ndma rk , a ga in i tm u s t b e t r ea ted o n ly a s a n a pp rox ima te S o l s t ice m a rke r . N a tu ra l H o r izon f e a tu re s a t C u icu i lco m a tch S o l s t ice S un r i se s o n ly a pp rox ima te ly . I f S o l s t ice d a te s w e re i n tended t o b e o b se rved f r om C u icu i lco , t h e S un r i se w ou ld h ave b een s e en o ve r p rom inen t r a the r t h an f l a t o r l i t t le p rom inen t H o r izon f e a tu r e s .

S un se t l o ca t ion s [ GAL INDO & E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 09 , f i g . 5 ] . C on s ide r ing t h a t t h e d a te s o f t r ue E qu inoxe s a nd s o la r z en i th p a s sage s ( May 1 6 a nd J u ly 7 a tC u icu i lco ) a r e n o t a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r a nd p rom inen t H o r izon l a ndma rk s [ GAL IND0 & E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 08 ] , i tm ay b e d educed t h a t p o s s ib le H o r izon c a lenda r s w e re n o t c on s t ruc ted f o rd e l inea t ing t h ek ey p o s i t ion so ft h e S un . O n t h e o t he r h and , i tm ay b e s i gn if ican t t h a t t h e p eak s o f I z tacc ihua t l , P apayo , T e lapon a nd T la loc o n t h e e a s te rn H o r izon a nd o fL a P a lma , S an M igue l , a nd C ocone t la o n e a s te rn H o r izon m ay s e rve a s n a tu ra l m a rke r s o f s o la r e ven t s o ccu r r ing o n c a lend r ica l ly s i gn if ican t d a te s . B roda [ BRODA , 2 001 : 4 1113 ] , p ra j c [PRA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 7 1-73 ] a nd G a l indo a nd E s teban [ GAL INDo & E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 09 11] o b se rved t h a tt h e d a te s o fS un r ise a nd S un se t o ve r t h o se m oun ta in s o ccu r a t i n te rva l s o f 1 3 d ay s o r i t s mu l t ip le s a nd /o ro f2 0 d ay s a nd i t s mu l t ip le s . F o re xamp le , t h e S un r i se o ve r t h e h i ghe s t p a r t o f I z tacc ihua t l [ 1 3RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 72 -73 ] a nd t h e S un se t o ve r S an M igue l [ GA L IND0 &E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 07 , 2 10 , f i g s . 3& 6 ) i so b se rved o n O c tobe r 2 3 a nd F eb rua ry 1 7 , m a rk ing t h e i n te rva l o f 17 d ay s o r n i ne 1 3—day p e r iod s [ F ig . 2 ] . T o g i ve s ome o t he r e xamp le s : d a te s o fS un r i se o nA p r i l 3 0 a nd A ugu s t 1 3 o ve r M t T e lapon m a rk s ubd iv is ion s o ft h e s o la ry ea r i n to 2 60 + 1 05 d ay s [ SPRA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 70 , T ab le 5 . 2 ] , t h e s ame p e r iod o f2 60 d ay s i sb e tw een F ebrua ry 1 2 a nd O c tobe r2 9 , d a t e s o fS un se t o ve rM tC ocone t la [ GAL IND0 & E STEBAN , 2 00 1 : 2 09 10 , f i g .5 ] . T he r ef o re , t h e f i xed i n te rva l s o f2 60 d ay s r unn ing f r om A ugu s t 1 3 t oA p r i l 3 0 a nd f r om F eb rua ry 1 2 t oO c tober 2 9 d e s igned b y p rom inen t n a tu ra l H o r izon f e a t u r e s s e em t o h ave b een t a ken i n to a c coun t b y t h e C u icu i lco b u i lde r s . E x tend ing t h e a na ly s is o f t h i s o r ien ta t ion p a t ter nt owa rd s o t he r a r ch z eo log ica l s i te s f r om t h e C la s s ic a nd P o s t—C la s s ic t ime s , S i a rk iew icz [ S IARK IEw icz , 1 999 ] a nd B roda [ BRODA , 2 00 1] p ropo sed t h a t a l ignmen t s t owa rd s f i xed p e r iod s o f 2 60 / 105 d ay s c r ea ted a b a s ic M e soame r ican f ou rf o ld s t ruc tu r e , w h ich a c ted a s a n o rde r ing p r inc ip le b r ing ing f ou r th t ime a nd s pace t o ge the r .

A iv e

FI GURE 2 .S un r ise o ve rM t I z tacc ihua t l o n O c tobe r2 3 o bse rved f r om Cu icu i lco . CC o py r ig h t2 0 0 2 ,b yD rS t a n i s law l w a n i s z ew s k i .

A l so c on s ide r ing t h e s o ls t i t ia l o r ien ta t ion o f t h e a bove m en t ioned a l ta r s , i ts e em s s i gn if i can t t h a t M t P apayo i sa n a tu ra l l a ndma rk d eno t ing S un r i se s o n Ma r ch 2 3 a nd S ep tembe r 2 0 , d i v id ing u p t h e s o la r y ea r i n to t wo h a lve s [PRA JC , 2 001 : 1 70 , T ab le 5 . 2 ] . A l though P once d e L eön [ PONCE D E L EON , 1 982 : 3 2 , 6 0 , n .3 1] o b se rved t h a t t h e a x i s o ft h e e a s t r amp p o in t s t oM t P apayo , i ti si nf a c t s o much d e s t royed t h a t S ‘ p ra jc [PRA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 68 -69 ] c on s ide r s t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty a s l e s s r e l iab le . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h i s s ame a u tho r [ S 'P RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 72 ] h ypo the s i se s

T he s ame i s t r ue o f t h e w e s ter n H o r izon . A l though moun ta in p eak s , f l a t tened h i l l s , c u t s o r n o tche s m ay w e l l s e rve a s m a rke r s o ft h e S un se t p o s i t ion s o n t h e H o r izon , t h e re a r e n o p rom inen t l a ndma rk s a t tached t o S o l s t ice 1 20

S t an is law I wan iszew sk i : S oc ia l C on s t i tu t ion o fH o r izon A s t ronomy o ft h eP y ram id a tC u icu i lco a nd o fG roup E a tU axa c tun

t h a t t h e se a r e p r ec i se ly t h e r e la t ion sh ip st oM t P apayo a nd M t I z tacc ihua t l t h a t c ou ld h ave i n duced t h e b u i lde r s t os e t t h ep y ram id u p i nt h i sp l ace [ F ig . 3 ] . T ak ing t oge the r e v idence f o r r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e p y ram id a nd t h e d om inan t f o ca l f e a tu r es o nb o th H o r izon s , i t i s a ppa r en t t h a t i t s p l acemen t a nd o r ien ta t ion w a s c a r ef u l ly a r ranged a nd d eve loped i nr e la t ion t o c a lend r ic a nd s o la r o b se rva t ion s . N a tu ra l ly t h e C u icu i l teca s c ou ld h ave o b se rved t h a t S un r i se sm oved a l ong t h eH o r izon f r om P opoca tepe t l t oM t T lamaca s a nd b a ck a ga in , t h a t i s ,f r om o ne W in te r S o l s t ice t o t h e n ex t , a nd c ou ld h ave n o t iced t h a t S un r i se s o ve rM tP apayo m a rked t h e d a te s s p l i t t ing u p t h e y ea r i n to t wo p a r t s o f e qua l l e ng th . H oweve r , t h e i r p r eoccupa t ion i n d ef in ing r e la t ion sh ip s w i th p rom inen t m a rk e r s a t H o r izon d eno t ing i mpo r tan t c a lend r ica l a nd s e a sona l d a te s s e em s t ob em o re i mpo r tan t . I no t he rw o rd s , t h e d a te sm a rked b yt h ep o s i t ion s o ft h e S un a tt h eH o r izon a r e m ean ingf u l b ecau se t h ey a r e s epa ra ted b y i n te rva l s o f 1 3 o r2 0 ( o rt h e i r mu l t ip le s ) d ay s w h ich c o r r e spond t ot h e s t ruc tu re o f Me soame r ican c a lenda r r a the r t h an b ecau se t h ey d eno te t h e k ey p o s i t ion s o f t h e S un t h roughou t t h e y ea r . S uch m a rke r s c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s r e f e rence p o in t se s tab l i sh ing af r amewo rk f o ro rde r ing l o ca lt ime a nd s pa ce .

a sT i l ley [ T ILLEY , 1 994 : 2 04 ] o b se rve s , i t s m ean ing c ou ld b e d ec iphe red f r om e xpe r ienc ing i ta tt h e p l ace ; e mo t ion s a nd p e rcep t ion s o f i n d iv idua l s c anno t b e t h e s ame a c ro s s t ime . O n t h e o t he r h and , i ti sa l so i mpo s s ib le t o a b s t rac t h uman p ra c t ice f r om s pa ce a nd t ime , b ecau se i tr e l ie s o n r e sou rce s e mbedded i np a r t icu la rt ime a nd p a r t icu la r s pace [ S imoNsEN , 1 996 : 5 08 -09 ] , T he ref o re , i ts e em s i mp robab le t h a t C u icu i lco H o r izon s w e r e d evo id o f m ean ing a nd s i gn if icance , c r ea t ing a n eu t ra l m a t r ix o f n a tu ra l f e a tu re s r e ady t o b e i n ve s ted w i th a s t ronom ica l a nd c a lend r ica l r e f e ren t s . I n s tead , i ts e em s n ece s sa ry t o a s sume t h a t t h e a s c r ip t ion o f s ymbo l ic m ean ing s t o p a r t icu la r H o r izon f e a tu r e s w a s a l ready u nde r t h e p roce s s . No t o n ly d i d t h ey s ymbo l i sed t e r r i to r ia l , s oc io—po l i t ica l a nd e t hn ic d i v i s ion s ; t h ey w e re a l so c on s ide red a s a nce s to r s ' d we l l ing s , a n t h ropomo rph ic b e ing s , l i m ina l s i te s , & c . T h i s v e ry c omp lex a nd mu l t if a ce ted h uman r e la t ion sh ip w i th l a nd scape f o rm s c ou ld h ave b een e xpe r ienced , c on s t ruc ted , r e p roduced o r u nde r s tood t h rough my th ica l n a r ra t ive s , f am i ly s t o r ie s , r i tua l a nd e ve ryday p rac t ice s , a nd s u ch . F o l low ing R ic c eu r [ R ic c EuR , 1 992 ] i tm ay b e s t a ted t h a t d i f f e ren t g roup s o fp opu la t ion w i th in t h e B a s in o f Mex ico t r an sf o rmed s pec if ic f o rm s o fl a nd scape , i n c lud ing H o r izon f e a tu r e s , i n to o s ten s ib le i n d ica to r s a nd r e f e ren t ia l m a rke r s f o r au n ique h ere a nd n ow . B ig v o lcanoe s a r e v i s ib le f r om d i f f e r en t d i s tance s , p l a ce s a nd a ng le s w i th in t h e B a s in o f Mex ico , a nd i ti sd if i cu l t t o d ef ine a s i ng le p l a ce f o r a p r iv i leged o b se rve r . A s s t a ted a bove , t h e p y ram id a t C u icu i lco i sl o ca ted i n s u ch a p o s i t ion t h a t o f f e r s p ano ram ic v i s ta s i n a l l d i r ec t ion s . S i tua ted w i th in 1 km o f t h e s ou ther n l a ke s s y s tem , i tw a s m ade v i s ib le d i rec t ly f r om t h e E a s t a nd N or th r a the rt h an f r om a ny o t he r d i rec t ion . T he l o ca t ion o f ap y ram id i sn o t i ni t s e lf ap a r t icu la r ly d om inan t p o in t o f t h e l a nd scape . B e ing o n ly 8 00 m a pa r t , M t Z a ca tepe t l i s h e re a b e t te r c and ida te [ BRoDA , 1 993 : 2 70 -75 ] . T he p y ram id w a s d e l ibe ra te ly p l a ced s o a s t o b e v i s ib le f r om p a r t icu la r d i rec t ion s a nd n o t v i s ib le f r om t h e o t he r s . I t s c i rcu la rf o rm s e em st op r ec lude a ny i n ten t iona l a l ignmen t s . H oweve r , w hen d u r ing t h e f i r s t c on s t ruc t ion p e r iod o ft h e p y ram id t h e a cce s s t oi t s u ppe r b ody w a s m ad e t h rough a r amp l o ca ted o n i t s s i de [ bu t i t s o r ien ta t ion c anno t b e n ow d e te rm ined , a cco rd ing t o P RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 68 ] , t h e s t ruc tu r e a x ia l i ty w a s d e te rm ined . I ts hou ld b e r e ca l led t h a t a l though as e r ie s o fs upe r impo sed a l ta r s w e re r ough ly a l igned u pon t h e S o l s t ice s , i ng r ea t p robab i l i ty t h ey r ema ined i n v i s ib le f o r e x te r io r o b se rve r s , b e ing p l aced i n s ide t h e c i r cu la r s t ruc tu re . I ti sd u r ing t h e s e cond c on s t ruc t ion p e r iod w hen —w i th t h e a dd i t ion o ft h e w e s t r amp [ LOPEZ C AMACHO , 1 991 : 3 6 ; sP RA JC , 2 00 1 : 1 68 ]—i t sb i— ax ia l i ty w a s s e t t led , e s tab l i sh ing v i sua l l i nk s w i th b o th e a s ter n a nd w e s ter n H o r izon s .

FI GURE 3 .S un r ise o ve rM tP apayo o n Ma rch 2 3 s e en f r om C u icu i lco .

©C o py r ig h t2 0 0 2 ,b yD rS t a n i s l aw I w a n i s z ew sk i .

A s n o ted a bove , a l ignmen t st od om inan tp eak s o nt h e l o ca l H o r izon a tC u icu i lco e xh ib i t c on s i s ten t p a t te rn s s i gn if ican t i n t e rm s o f t h e l a te r Me soame r ican c a lenda r . A l though B roda [ BRODA , 1 993 ; B RODA , 2 001 ] , S ' • p ra jc [ S T 3RA JC , 2 00 1] a nd G a l indo a nd E s teban [ GAL IND0 & E STEBAN , 2 001 ] d i scu s st h ep o s s ib le s i gn if icance o fH o r izon p eak s i n t e rm s o f r i tua l— ca lend r ica l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l—a s t ronom ica l c yc le s ( of t en c i t ing h i s to r ica l ly d i f f e r en t a nd t empo ra l ly d i s tan t e xamp le s ) , t h e i r s t a temen t s r e su l t i n p a r t icu la r e p i s temo log ica l i mp l ica t ion s . T hey t e nd t o t r ea t H o r izon f e a tu re s a s i n dependen t r e sea r ch c a tego r ie s [ s ee a l so R UGGLES , 1 994 : 5 05 ] d e tached f r om a ny s oc ia l p rac t ice . T hey a ppea r t o r ega rd t h e H o r izon a s a n e mp ty a nd m ean ing le s s e n t i ty r e ady t ob e i n ve s ted w i th a s t ronom ica l a nd c a lend r ica l m ean ing s . T he i r t r ea tmen t o f H o r izon i s m o r e m a te r ia l ( i n s en se o fm a te r ia l p hy s ica l f r ame s ) t h an s oc ia l . A s sum ing t h a tp rom inen tp eak sm ay r e p r e sen t p o te n t ia l a s t ronom ica l a nd c a lend r ica l t a rge t s , p ra c t ice s r e la ted t os pec if ic p o s i t ion ing a nd r e la t ing C u icu i lco p y ram id w i th t h e o u t s ide ( ma te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic ) w o r ld s hou ld b e d i scu s sed .

I t s hou ld b e r e ca l led t h a t t h e m oun ta in s c on s t i tu ted r e f e r en t ia l m a rk s f o r a s oc ia l p ra c t ice o f d i f f e ren t p opu la t ion s w i th in t h e B a s in o f Mex ico . A l so , v a r iou s o b se rve r s l o ca ted a ts pec if ic moun ta in s a nd h i l l sw i th in t h e B a s in , c ou ld h ave f ound t h em se lve s i n a p r iv i leged p o s i t ion , n o t o n ly b ecau se t h ey w ou ld h ave b e t te r v i sua l c ond i t ion s , b u t b ecau se t h ey w e r e s i tua ted o n e m inen t l a nd scape s ' f o rm s . E leva ted p l ace s t e nd t ob e p e r ce ived a s d om inan t f o rm s i n b o th p hy s ica l a nd s oc ia l l a nd scape s . F o l low ing t h i s , Ia s sume t h a t t h e p hy s ica l a nd s ymbo l ic

A l though t h e u ndu la t ing l i ne o f v o lcanoe s s e en a t C u icu i lco H o r izon s p rov ides s ome b a s i s f o r r e f lec t ion a nd , 1 2 1

AMANDA—AL I CE MA RAVEL IA ( ED . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS PERA E TP ER LU DU M

d om inance o f t h e moun ta in s a t ad i s tan t H o r izon c ou ld h ave b een r e inf o r ced o rc oun te rba lanced b yt h e p l acemen t o ft h e p y ram id i n aw ide ly s e en l o ca t ion . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e a r rangemen t a nd s t ruc tu re o ft h e p y ram id c ou ld h ave b een s e en a s s ome th ing a na logou s t o t h e p roper t ie s o f a moun ta in . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e p y ram id a tC u icu i lco c ou ld h ave b een e xpe r ienced a nd c oncep tua l ized a s av i r tua l m oun ta in . I n my o p in ion , t h e d i scove ry o f as t e le o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e p y ram id a t C u icu i lco [ PE REZ CAMPA , 1 998 ] m ay e xp la in t h e d ec i s ion m ade b yt h ep y ram id b u i lde r s [ F ig . 4 ] . A s P e r ez C ampa i n f o rm s , t h e s t e le w a s s u r rounded b y c i r c le s o fs t one s a nd p ro tec ted f r om a r ch i tec ton ic a c t iv i t ie s p e rf o rmed a tt h e p y ram id . A l though t h e s t e le 's m ean ing h a sn o tb een r e so lved y e t [ b u t c f . PE REZ CAMPA , 1 998 ] , i t s a n t iqu i ty i s i mpo r tan t h e r e . A cco rd ing t o P e r ez C ampa [ p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ] t h e s t e le w a s p l aced w e l l b e low t h e p y ram id l e ve l . S i nce i t s p l a cemen t s e em s t o d eno te s ome k i nd o f r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h e s t e le i t s e lf i s e x t reme ly h i gh ( n ea r ly 4 m ) , i ts ugge s t s t h a t t h e p y ram id b u i lde r s c hoo se t h e p l a ce i n ten t iona l ly . L a te r o n , t h ey r e p laced t h e v e r t ica l a nd h i gh s t one m onumen t w i th t h e h i gh a nd m a s s ive s t one s t ru c tu re . T he c on t inu i ty o fr i tua l u s e o f ap l ace w a s a s su r ed . I ti mp l ie s t h a t t o pog raph ica l l o ca t ion o f t h e p y ram id w a s n o t i mpo r tan t p e r s e , b u t b ecau se i t w a s a l ready u sed b y o t he r —tempo ra r i ly d i s tan t— h uman g roup s . N a tu ra l ly , t h i s l e ave st h e p rob lem o f c hoo s ing a p l a ce s t i l l u n re so lved , b u t m ay e xp la in a t l e a s t p o ten t ia l ly w hy t h e p y ram id b u i lde r s b u i l t i tw he r e i t i s .

r e la t ion s . F i r s t , t h e e r ec t ion o f ad eco ra ted s t and ing s t e le i n vo lved t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f an ew r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l a nd scape . Made o f d u rab le m a te r ia l i ta dded at empo ra l d imen s ion t o t h a t p l ace : i t w i tne s sed t h e p a s sage o f g ene ra t ion s . B y b u i ld ing a p y ram id , t h i s l o ng e s tab l i shed s i gn if icance a s soc ia ted w i th t h a t p l ace w a s c e r ta in ly e xp lo i ted . P y ram id b u i lde r s w e r en ow i n ap o s i t ion t oe xer t m o re c on t ro l o ve r a cce s s t o t h a t p l ace . Mu ch o f t h e s ymbo l ic a nd m a te r ia l d om inance o f t h e p y ram id i n t h e l a nd scape s t em s f r om t h e s ymbo l ic p owe r a s soc ia ted w i th t h a tp l ace . T he ref o re , t h e e r ec t ion o f ap y ram id i ss e en a sa m ean s t o r e inf o r ce p r e— ex i s t ing i d ea s o f a nce s t ra l f i gu r e s a nd o f l o ng— te rm t empo ra l p roce s se s , w h i le o n t h e o t he r h and , i ti n t roduce s an ew l a nd scape p e r spec t ive . I n t h i s l a t te r s en se , t h e e r ec t ion o f ap y ram id a t te s t s f o r c hang ing i d eo log ica l— symbo l ic s y s tem s t h a t i n vo lved a d i f f e ren t r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s o c ia l g roup s a nd t h e l a nd scape . A nd b e ing v i sua l ly l i nked t o d i s tan t v o lcanoe s o n c e r ta in c a lenda r o r s o la r d a te s , ap y ram id r e p re sen t s a n i n ten t t o e s tab l i sh p a r t icu la r m ean ing s c onnec ted t o t h o se H o r izon f o rm s . T he mu l t ip l ic i ty o f m ean ing s a t ta ched t o b i g m oun ta in s w a s a vo ided a nd t h e p roce s s w a s c on t ro l led b y t h o se w ho b u i l t as t ruc tu re . I ti sp o s s ib le t o a s sume t h a t t h e p a r t icu la r m ean ing s o f d i s tan t p eak s r e su l ted , a mong o t he r s , f r om a s p ec if ic c omb ina t ion o f

A s S o l s t ice p o s i t ion s o f t h e S un p e rce ived o n b o th H o r izon s s e em n o t t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th p rom inen t f e a tu r e s , t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t od eve lop am e tapho r ic d i scou r se , l e ad ing t o t h e p l acemen t o f as t e le o r ap y ram id i n t h e w o r ld 's c en t re mu s t b e d i sm i s sed o r mod if ied . A l so a ny i d ea o f p a r t icu la r moun ta in top s b e ing c once ived a s s uppo r t ing t h e s ky v au l th a s t ob e w i thd rawn . T hu s , w e a r e l e f t w i th a t l e a s t t wo p o s s ib i l i t ie s : ( i ) i st h e s hape a nd m ean ing o ft h e p y ram id i t se lf c apab le t ol e nd i t s a u tho r i ty t ol e g i t ima te a nd p r iv i leged o b se rve r s a t op o fi t ? o r( i ) i s t h e re ap a r t icu la ra s t ronom ica l p henomenon o b se rved f r om i t s t o p t h a t s upp l ie s i tw i th a p a r t icu la r s pa t io— tempo ra l r e f e r en t ia lm a rke r? T he monumen ta l i ty o ft h e p y ram id , i t sv e r t ica l d imen s ion s , v i s ib i l i ty ( e spec ia l ly f r om t h e E a s t a nd N o r th ) a nd p rox im i ty t o w a te r r e sou rce s s hou ld b e r e ga rded a s e l emen t s o f an ew d i scou r se . P rom inen t p eak s o n b o th H o r izon s a r e g ene ra l ly o b se rvab le f r om d i f f e ren t l o ca t ion s w i th in t h e B a s in o f Mex ico . B e ing i n ve s ted w i th s p ec if ic m ean ing s b y p a r t icu la r c ommun i t ie s , t h ey p r e sumab ly c on s t i tu ted r e f e r en t ia l m a rke r s f o r s pec if ic d i scou r se s c a r r ied o u t i n d i f f e ren t l o ca t ion s . T he r i se o f ap y ram id c r ea te s n ew s i gn if icance , w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly r e la ted t o t h e f l ow o ft ime . T he m a te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic d om inance o f t h e p y ram id i nt h e l a nd scape o ft h e B a s in i sr e inf o rced b y t h e c r ea t ion o f as en se o f p e rmanence , t h a t i sm ed ia t ing b e tween c ommun i t ie s a nd l a nd scape s . A s t ronom ica l s i gh t l ine s m ay n ow b e c on s ide r ed a s am ean s b yw h ich t h e v a lue s p ro jec ted o n to d i s tan t p eak s a r e b rough t u p a tt h e p y ram id , w i th t h e p y ram id i t se lf b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h em . I ti sn ow o bv iou s t h a t ap hy s ica l p l ace w he r e r i tua l p r ac t ice s w e r e p e rf o rmed c ou ld n o t b ecome p a r t o ft h o se

FI GURE 4 .S te le f r om Cu icu i lco . CC opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rS t an i s law I wan i szew sk i .

s o la r a nnua l movemen t w i th i mpo r tan t r i tua l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l d a te s . T h i s p a r t icu la rm ean ing w a s « s tab i l i sed» t h rough ac on s t ruc t ion o f ap e rmanen t s t ruc tu re . T h i s l e ad s u s a ga in t o d i scu s s « Ho r izon c a lenda r s» a tC u icu i lco . A s s t a ted a bove , n a tu ra l f e a tu re s ( p eak s , c u t s , n o tche s , &c . ) o n t h e e a s te rn a nd w e s te rn H o r izon s a t C u icu i lco c an e a s i ly b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e S un 's m ovemen t s a nd t h e s e a son s . I fp rom inen t p eak s o ft h e l o ca l H o r izon s e rved a s n a tu ra l m a rke r s o fS un r i se s a nd S un se t s o n i mpo r tan t d a te s 1 22

S t an is law I wan iszew sk i : S oc ia l C ons t i tu t ion o fH o r izon A s t ronomy o ft h eP y ram id a tC u icu i lco a nd o fG roup E a tU axac tun

t h roughou t as o la r y ea r [ BRoDA , 1 993 ; B RODA , 2 00 1 ; ›P RA JC , 2 001 ; GAL INDO & E STEBAN , 2 00 1) , t h en i ti s a s sumed t h ey w e r e s e t u pt oge the rt of o rm ap a r t icu la ru n i t w i th in a n ew r e f e r en t ia l f r amewo rk a nd p a r t icu la r m ean ing s a t ta ched t o s pec if ic f e a tu re s w e re s upp re s sed . H av ing b een p l aced i nt h e c on tex t o f an ew m ean ing ( e .g . : i n ac on tex to f as o la r 3 65—day o r at o na lpohua l l i2 60—day c a lenda r s , c on s i s t ing o f i n te rva l s o f 2 0 a nd 1 3 d ay s , r e s pec t ive ly ) , t h ey s imp ly r e p r e sen ted a c oun ted f l ow o f t ime . T hey a s c r ibe n ew m ean ing s w i th in n ew c oncep tua l u n i t s ( c yc le s o f 3 65 a nd 2 60 d ay s ) . T empo ra l c yc le s o r c a lenda r sp rov ide ab a s i s f o rt h ep roduc t ion o f an ew s e to f r e la t ion s b e tween H o r izon l a ndma rk s a nd t h e r e duc t ion o f t h e i r h e te rogene i ty . Me tonym ic r a the r t h an m e tapho r ic a s soc ia t ion sa r ec r ea ted .

l y ing a r ea s w e t o r s e a sona l ly f l ooded . A t ad i s tance b e tween 4 . 5 a nd 7 . 5 km t owa rd s t h e S ou th—Ea s t a nd E a s t , s l igh t ly e l eva ted a r ea s r a i se a ga in t o t h e h e igh t o f t h e G roup E c e remon ia l p l aza , p rov id ing ar e a sonab ly d i s tan t H o r izon r e f e rence f o r t h e o b se rve r l o ca ted a tG roup E .A s E —V I I p y ram id i sl o ca ted a t t h e a r ea 's h i ghe s t e l eva t ion [ R ICKETSON & R ICKETSON , 1 937 : 4 4 -45 ] w i th w ide r v i ew s t o t h e N o r th—Ea s t , E a s t a nd S ou th—Ea s t , t h e r e i s g ood r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t G roup Ew a s p l a ced i nt h e l a nd scape s o a s t o g i ve s i gh t ing s t o aH o r izon b e tween N o r th a nd S ou th—Ea s t a nd t o o b s t ruc t v i ew s i n o t he r d i rec t ion s [ c on su l t PULESTON , 1 983 : f i g . 1 ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t or e a l i se t h a t a l though b a jo d ep res s ion s a r e g ene ra l ly f l a t a nd l e ve l l e d , t h ey a r e u sua l ly c ove red w i th t r ee s . I tm ean s t h a t b e t te r v i ew s a c ro s s t h e b a jo s a r e a va i lab le f r om e l eva ted a r ea s . We m ay b ea ri nm ind t h a t i ti si mpo s s ib le t oi d en t if y a ny p rom inen tf e a tu re so nt h e e a s te rn H o r izon .

N eve r the le s s , a s s t a ted a bove , s o l s t i t ia l H o r izon r e f e ren t s s e em t ob e o n ly a pp rox ima te , s o c a lenda r c yc le s e ncoded i nv i sua l r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween t h e p y ram id a nd p a r t icu la r H o r izon f e a tu r e s d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly r ef lec t t h e i d ea o f o b se rv ing t h e S un 's movemen t f r om o ne S o l s t ice t o a no the r . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i n l i gh t o f S . . p ra jc 's d i scu s s ion [PRA JC , 2 001 ] , i tm ay b e s uppo sed t h a t o n ly p a r t icu la r c yc le s , c yc le s o f s pec ia l i mpo r tance , w e re m apped o n H o r izon s . T he r ef o re , t h e d a te s o fS un r i se s a nd S un se t s a r e s e en a s m ean ingf u l n o t b ecau se t h ey a r e a s soc ia ted w i th m ean ingf u l f e a tu re s o n t h e H o r izon , b u t b ecau se t h ey d eno te t h e p a s sage o f d ay s ' i n terva l s , w h ich a r e m ean ingf u lf r om t h ep e r spec t ive o ft h ec a lenda rs t ruc tu r e . I I . U axac tun , Gua tema la T he s o— ca l led G roup E a r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lex i sl o ca ted i n t h e e a s te rnmo s t e x t reme o fU axac tun a nd i nt h e We s t i s c onnec ted t oo t he r a r ch i tec tu ra l G roup s ( A , Ba nd D ) . T h i s a s semb lage o fs t ruc tu r e s i sl o ca ted o n as ma l l p romon to ry s u r rounded b y az one o fb a jo s . I tw a s a r t if ic ia l ly e l eva ted a nd l e ve l led , of e r ing g ood v i sua l c ond i t ion s o ft h e e a s t er n H o r izon [ R ICKETSON & R ICKETSON , 1 937 : 4 4 -45 ] . T he a r rangemen t o f t h e G roup E b u i ld ing s c on s i s t s o f a n e l onga ted t e r raced mound ( E—XV I ) , a t op w h ich w e re b u i l t t h r ee w e s t—f ac ing s ma l l t emp le s ( E— I , E — I I , E — I I I ) , a c e r emon ia l p l aza a nd ar ad ia l p y ram id E—VI I l o ca ted a ti t s w e s ter n s i de [ F ig . 5 ] . T ho se a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s h ave b een c on s tan t ly m od if ied d u r ing t h e C h icane l a nd T zako l p ha se s ( La te F o rma t ive u n t i l E a r ly C la s s ic , 3 00 B CE -550 C E ) .

I ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a t s ome o b se rva t ion s o ft h e S un r i se a l ong t h e e a s ter nH o r izon w e r e a l ready p e rf o rmed [ M idd le F o rma t ive , 6 00 -300 B CE , R ICKETSON & R ICKETSON , 1 937 : 1 09 13 , 1 34 , 1 36 -37 ; R OSAL e ta l . , 1 993 : 7 2 ] . None the le s s , t h e f i r s t a r chxoa s t ronom ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f G roup E a l ignmen t s c an b e t r aced b ack t o t h e p ha se 2 o f E a r ly C h icane l ( 300 -100 B CE ) , w hen t h e e a r l ie s t v e r s ion s o f p y ram id E —V I I s ub1 a nd o f e a s t p l a tf o rm E—XV I— I w e r e b u i l t . T ak ing i n to a ccoun t t h e c r i t ica l H o r izon e l eva t ion d a ta d i scu s sed b yA ven i a nd H a r tung [ AvEN I & HARTUNG , 1 989 : 4 44 -45 , T ab le 3 5 .1] , i ti sp o s s ib le t o c onc lude t h a t a ny o b se rve r l o ca ted s omewhe re b e low t h e t op o f E —V I I s ub1 ( h =3 . 5 m ) c ou ld p e rf o rm h i s s i gh t ing s a c ro s s t h e c e remon ia l p l aza a nd o ve rt h e e a s t p l a tf o rm ( h =4 . 0 m ) t o t r an sf e r t h e h e igh t o f t h e n a tu ra l H o r izon t o t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l o ne [ F ig . 6 ] . I ti si mpo r tan tt oe mpha s ize , t h a t e ven t h i s e a r l ie s t v e r s ion o fG roup E a r rangemen tr e f e r s t o c r ude a s t ronom ica l s o la r a l ignmen t s , b ecau se t h e t o ta l l e ng th o fE —XV I— I [ 1= 6 2 m , a cco rd ing t o R OSAL e ta l . , 1 993 : 7 3 ] i sn o t e nough t o b e p ro jec ted o n to t h e a nnua l p a th o ft h e S un a l ong t h e H o r izon , a ss e en f r om E —V I I s ub1l o ca t ion s .

T he s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e p y ram id a nd t h e E a s t P la tf o rm c on s t i tu te s o ne o ft h em o s tk nown a nd e a r l ie s te x a mp le s o f t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f a r ch i tec tu ra l ly b u i l t l a nd s c ape s . A s A ven i a nd H a r tung [ AvEN I & HARTUNG , 1 989 ] h ave a l ready s hown , t h e E a s t P la tf o rm w h ich i s a pp rox ima te ly N o r th—Sou th a l igned , e x tend s i n s uch a m anne rt h a ti t s s ou the rn a nd n o r ther nc or ne r s( a ss e en f r om as pec if ic l o ca t ion a tt h e P y ram id E —V I I )f i tt h e p o s i t ion s o f S un a t S o l s t ice s . Mo reove r , a n o b se rve r l o ca ted a t t h i s p a r t icu la rp o s i t ion c an o b se rve t h e c o inc idence o ft h e l e ve l o f t h e t op o f t h e p l a tf o rm w i th t h e h e igh t o ft h e n a tu ra l H o r izon . I ts e em s t h a t t h e b u i lde r s o fG roup E t r an sf e r red d e l ibe ra te ly S o l s t ice o b se rva t ion s f r om a n a tu ra l H o r izon t oa na r t if ic ia lo ne . E a s t P la tf o rm i sa n a r ch i tec tu ra l b a r r ie r , w h ich s epa ra te s t h e c e r emon ia l p l aza f r om t h e B a jo d e J uven tud [ PuLEsToN , 1 983 : f i g . 1 ] . I ti sl o ca ted n ea r t h e b a jo s , l ow

FI GURE 5 .G roup E a tU axac tun .

©C o p y r ig h t2 002 ,b yD rS t a n i s l aw I w a n i s z ew sk i . 1 23

AMANDA—A L ICE MARAV EL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T R AP E R AS P E R AE TP E R LU DUM

e t

o f

o f

R ona n l e C or n ed* e le te l im Pee l N IYE L D E A L IN EAWE I4 10 E N ELP Ah eA lETR ANSf E RI DO ALA P LA TA POS EMA Mi t tr iCI A L.E L OI REE/ t imoon SE a r ga 4 EN, t i r t o m E - VI ISU &

!

1 1 N

aiL

PL AT A fO RN I AS V I E Ct F IC IOS S OMI EPUM O S G E1 4A NERA QU E L A 3 PO S iGKME 5 D ES EAt me D E L S OL 1123 E st & AO I EC I L IACAS A L A A NO L S ITECTURA i L A P O IS IC ION 2 D EV IENE * 0 F UNCI ON A L

t e r i t e s iN

C . -v s ) -S u i t c raw0 100 A CAM PO S D E P ERSPECTNA

v t l S t e8REP L IESTO M AS T ARDE4

S ECUENC IA D E L A E YO LUC IZ /N 1 4 1 1204T I CA D EL

t ome '

V ISTA D E L A C INA M OEV I I ( C As o

J

« U PC Eece io O DSERvA TOR iC SO LE T IC IA L

FI GURE 6 .A r ch i t e c tu ra le v o lu t ion o fG roup E.A f t e rA V EN I &H ARTUNG , 1 9 89 :f i g .3 5 . 10 ( mod if i ed ) . ©C o py r ig h t2 0 0 2 ,b yD rS t a n i s law l w a n i s z ew sk i . E —V I I s ub-2 w a s t r an sf o rma t ion s .

A bou tt wo h und r ed y ea r s l a te r , d u r ing p ha se 5o fL a te C h i c ane ! ( 100 B CE 100 C E ) , t h e t wo s t ruc tu r e s w e re a ga in mod if ied . T h i s f a c t m ade a ny p r ec i se a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t i mpo s s ib le . T he h e igh t o fE —V I I s ub-2 a ch ieved 8 . 07 m , w h i le t h e e a s tp l a tf o rm E —XV I2w a sr a i sed t oo n ly 4 . 52 m a nd i t s w id th w a s e n la rged t o6 4 m( RosAL e ta l . , 1 993 : 8 1 ) . B o th t h e h e igh t a nd t h e w id th o f t h e e a s t p l a tf o rm b ecame a s t ronom ica l ly n on—f unc t iona l . H oweve r , a pp rox ima te a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s w i th s o l s t ic ia l e x t r eme s w e r e s t i l l p o s s ib le f o r a n o b se rve r l o ca ted o nt h e f i r s t p l a tf o rm o f E —V I I s ub-2 ( h = 3 . 5 m ) . A l so t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f as ma l l s t ruc tu r e a t op E —XV I2 m ade a ny e qu inoc t ia la l ignmen tu nconv inc ing .

b u i l t ,

i t

o ve rcame

i mpo r tan t

E ven i ff ou r s t a i rway s w e re m ade o n f ou r s i de s , o n ly t h e s t a i rway o n i t s e a s ter n s i de l e d u p t ot h e f i f th a nd h ighes t p l a tf o rm w he re a t empo ra ry t emp le w a s p l aced [ R ICKETSON & R ICKETSON , 1 937 : P la te 3 0 , 3 ; R OSAL e t a l . , 1 993 : 7 3 ] . T he e i gh teen m a sk s c u rved i ns t ucco w e re p l aced o nb o th s i de s o ff ou rs t a irway s , e i gh to ft h em o nt h e l owe r a nd m idd le z one s a nd t h e o t he r t wo w e r e d i sp layed o n b o th s i de s o ft h e e a s te rn s t a i rway o n t h e p y ram id 's f i f th t e r race [ R ICKETSON & R ICKETSON , 1 937 : 7 2 -97 ] . I t f o l low s t h a t t h e e a s ter n t e r race h ad a n a cce s s b o th s ymbo l ica l ly a nd p hy s ica l ly r e s t r ic ted .

V i sua l c ond i t ion s d i scu s sed b yA ven i a nd H a r tung [ AvEN T & HARTUNG , 1 989 ] t a ken t oge the r w i th r e cen t a r chxo log ica l r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s equence o f G roup E a t U axac tun [ RosAL e t a l . , 1 993 ] s t rong ly s ugge s t t h a t l ow—p rec i s ion a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s w e re f ound o n ly d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fs ome 1 50 -200 y ea r s , i . e . , b e tween C h icane l p ha ses 2 a nd 5 ( a round 3 00 B CE 100 B CE ) . I ti sw o r th n o t ing t h a t w i th t h e s t a r t o fp ha se 5n o t o n ly t h o se a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s b ecame n on— f u nc t iona l , b u t a l so t h e t e r race s o f E —V I I s ub-2 w e re c ove r ed w i th h uge m a sk s .

A cco rd ing t o S che le a nd Ma thew s [ SCHELE & MATHEWS , 1 998 : 3 9 , 3 31] , m uch o ft h e s ymbo l ic m ean ing o ft h i s p y r am id w a s a s soc ia ted w i th my th s o f c r ea t ion a nd o r ig in s [ F ig . 7 ] . A l though i n g ene ra l t e rm s , t h i s p y ram id c ou ld h ave b een c oncep tua l ized a s a r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e moun ta in ( w i t s i n Maya ) , t h e a u tho r s o f f e r ed a mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s . T he l owe s t l e ve l o f t h e s t ruc tu re w i th s nake h ead s b e ing p l aced o n f ou r s i de s r e p r e sen ted t h e S nake Moun ta in ( Kan W i t s ) , a s soc ia ted w i th my th s o f o r ig in . R ep r e sen ta t ion s o f m a ize—moun ta in m on s te r s , p o s s ib ly r e f e r r ing t o t h e Moun ta in o f S u s tenance , w e re d i sp layed o n t h e m idd le l e ve l . F ina l ly , i mage s o f l o ng— n o se b e ing s r e p re sen t ing t h e s a c r ed b i rd ( I t zam—Y e ) o r Mu t

A l though t h ef i r s tv e r s ion o fE —V I I s ub1 w a s af ou r— s ided p y ram id , o n ly as i ng le s t a i rway l e ad ing t o i t s s umm i t w a s a t tached a tt h e e a s ter n s i de [ RosAL e ta l . 1 993 : 7 3 ] . When 1 24

S t an is law I wan iszew sk i : S oc ia l C ons t i tu t ion o fH o r izon A s t ronomy o ft h eP y ram id a tC u icu i lco a nd o fG roup E a tU axac tun

I t zamna ( p rev iou s ly k nown a s P r inc ipa l B i rd D e i ty ) w e r e p l aced o n t h e u ppe r p a r t o fE —V I I s ub-2 . C on s ide r ed a sa n awa lo fI t zamna ,t h i sb i rd w a sa s soc ia ted w i th a c t s o fs o r c e ry a nd s haman 's t r ance ( Sche le a nd Ma t thew s 1 998 : 4 6 4 7 ) . T he s ame a u tho r s [ ScHELE & MATHEWS , 1 998 : 4 7 , 14 , 4 12 ] f u r the r s p ecu la te t h a t i mage s o fI t zam—Y e w e re p l aced o n a r ch i tec tu ra l b u i ld ing s d eno t ing t h em a s I t zam N ah ( s orce ry h ou se ) . I t zamna i t s e lf w a s c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th e so te r ic l o r e , w r i t ing a nd d i v ina t ion . I ta l s ugge s t s t h a tt h e s cu lp tu ra l p rog ram o n E —V I I s ub-2 r e f e r s t os oc ia l a nd c o sm ic o rde r . Me tapho r ica l ly i tr e p re sen ted amy th ica l p l ace o f o r ig in , c a l led t h e S e rpen t— M oun ta in , a nd b e ing l o ca t ed i n ap l ace f r om w h ich e x t r eme p o s i t ion s o ft h e S un c ou ld h ave b een o b se rved a nd s ymbo l ica l ly e ncoded i n s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween E —V I I a nd E —XV I , i t c on s t i tu ted am a te r ia l i sed A x i s Mund i .

FI GURE 7 .P y ram id E -V I I a tU axac tun , e a s tf a cade . C OC opy r igh t2 002 ,b yD rS t a n i s law I wan i sz ew sk i .

B u tl ow—p rec i s ion a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t sf ound a tG roup Es ugge s t t h a t t h e p l a cemen t o ft h e e a s t p l a tf o rm o n t h e e dg e o ft h e u p land h ad t h e p u rpo se t op hy s ica l ly s epa ra te t h e p l aza f r om t h e b a jo a r ea a nd t o a vo id d i r ec t v i ew s t owa rd st h e S un . Wh i le t h e S un m ov ing a l ong t h e H o r izon o n i t s a nnua l c ou r se w a s e a s i ly p e rce ived b y a ny o b se rve r s i tua ted o n t h e t o p o fE —V I I , t h i s v i ew w a s b l ocked b y E — XV I f o rl a rge n umbe r s o fp eop le g a the red i nt h e p l aza . T he s hape a nd e x ten s ion o f t h e p l a za t a ken t oge the r w i th i t s g r ea te r a cce ss ib i l i ty f r om N o r th— We s t a nd S ou th— We s t s ugge s t t h a t i tw a s r e a l ly a p a r t o f ap ub l ic s pace . T he l a you t o fG roup E c r ea te s r e s t r ic ted a nd p r iv i leged p l ace s , i mp ly ing a p hy s ica l s epa ra t ion o f a s ma l l g roup o f o b se rve r s f r om a l a rge n umbe r o f c ommone r s . D if f e r en t s c ho la r s h ave a l ready p o in ted o u tt h a tt h i s a r ch i tec tu re w a s i n tended t o e nab le c e remon ie s w i th a p a r t ic ipa t ion o f a l a rg e n umbe r o fp eop le . F o r e xamp le , C ogg in s [ CoGG INs , 1 980 ] s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s w a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p e r iod ic , c a lend r ica l ly—ba sed c e r emon ie s , i n vo lv ing s ome s o r t o f d i v ina t ion . C ha se [ CHASE , 1 985 : 3 7 ] e mpha s ized t h e c om mun i ta ry c ha ra c te r o f t h o se p ub l ic c e r emon ie s , w h i le C ohoda s [ CoHoDA s , 1 985 : 5 7 -58 ] s t r e s sed i t s p o s s ib le a g r icu l tu ra l— ca lend r ic m ean ing . Mo r e r e cen t ly , I wan i szew sk i [ IWAN ISZEWSK I , 1 993 ] p ropo sed t h a t t h ey w e r e c a lend r ica l ly a nd a s t ronom ica l ly s chedu led c e r emon ie s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e « s te le c u l t» ; A ime r s [ A imERs , 1 993 : 1 66 -68 ] u nde r l ined t h e r e f e ren t ia l c ha rac te r o ft h e a r rangemen t o fG roup E ,p rov id ing m ea n i ngf u lc on tex t sf o rt h ek i nd so fc e remon ie si n vo lved . 1 25

A l l t h e a bove m en t ioned i n te rp re ta t ion s e mpha s ize t h a t t h e p rac t ice s a t tached t oG roup E w e re p e rf o rmed b yg roup s o f p eop le p l aced i nd i f f e r en tl o ca t iona l a nd t empo r a l c on tex t s . I tc an e a s i ly b e i mag ined t h a t s ome m inu te s a f t e r aS un r i se , t h e r a y s o ft h e r i s ing S un w e re a b le t o d i spe r s e t h e m i s t s o ve r t h e b a jo s a nd t o s h ine d i rec t ly o n to t h e p y ram id m a sk s a nd t h e p eop le p e rf o rm ing r i tua l s , w h i le a l a rge n umbe r o fp eop le i nt h e p l aza s t i l l r ema ined i n as hadow c a s ted b y a4 m h i gh e a s t p l a tf o rm . T h i s p o la r i ty b e tween t h e i n d iv idua l s s t and ing i nb o th p l ace s i sa l so e mpha s ized b y t h e d i rec t ion o ft h e i r b od ie s . Wh i le t h e c ommone r s i n p l aza w e re w e s twa rd o r ien ted t oo b se rve b o th t h e p y ram id a nd t h e i r e l i te s s t and ing o ve r i t ,t h e i n d iv idua l s s t and ing a t i t s s t a i rway a nd s umm i t c ou ld e a s i ly o b se rve t h e d i s tan t e a s ter nH o r izon . I ta ppea r st h a tt h el a rge n umbe ro fp eop le , p re sumab ly t h e c ommone r s , w e re s t and ing i ns hadow a nd b e low t h e p y ram id , o b se rv ing h ow i c onog raph ic s ymbo l s l e g i t im iz ing t h e p y ram id a t t h e c en t re o f t h e i r u n ive r se t oge the r w i th t h e i r e l i te m embe r s , p e rf o rm ing r i tua ls , b ecame g radua l ly i lum ina ted b yt h e r a y s o ft h er i s ing S un . F o l low ing t h i s , i tc an b e c onc luded t h a tt h e p u rpo se o ft h i s p a r t icu la r a r ch i tec tu ra l a r rangemen t w a s t o p roduce a n e f ec t o ft h e r u le ra nd o t he r e l i te m embe r s a sd i v ine b e ing s s t and ing a tt h e c en t re o ft h e w o r ld , m ed ia t ing b e tween t h e s upe rna tu ra l w o r ld a nd t h e h uman e x i s tence . I nt h e p l ay o f S un l igh tu pon s ymbo l ic a r ch i tec tu re , t h e h ypo the t ica l c om mone r s c ou ld h ave s e en c e r ta in s i gn s o f c osm ic o rde r . I t may b e p o s tu la ted t h a t s i nce t h e m a sk s p laced u pon t h e f i f th t e r race o f E —V I I s ub-2 a r e r e la ted t o s ome s o r t o f d i v ina t ion , t h e a c t iv i t ie s p e rf o rmed a tG roup E c ou ld h ave b een r e la ted t o s ome k ind o f c a lenda r d iv ina t ion b y l o t s a nd t ot h ea ugu r ie so ft h ef o r thcom ing s ea son . Ia s sume t h a tt h e s i tua t ion , n o t v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om p ha se 5 o f L a te C h icane l , c ou ld h ave b een o b se rved d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p ha se s , w hen l ow—p r ec i s ion a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s w he re o b se rved . I t i s p o ss ib le t h a t —be ing a s soc ia ted w i th S o l s t ice e x t r eme s— t h i s s pec ia l ized a r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lex w a s ap l ace w he re p ub l ic c e r emon ie s w e r e p e rf o rmed i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s o la r y ea r . I n my v i ew , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e e a s t p l a tf o rm o n t h e e a s ter n e dge o ft h e c e r emon ia lp l aza c o r r e spond st ot h e a t temp t st o man ipu la te t h e w ay s i n w h ich p a r t icu la r p l ace s a nd H o r izon f e a tu r e s c an b e i n te rp r e ted . T he e me rgence o ft h e e l i te , s omewhe re d u r ing t h e M idd le F o rma t iv e , m ean s t h e g radua l t r an sf o rma t ion o f e ga l i ta r ian c ommun i t ie s i n to mo re c omp lex , r anked a nd s t ra t if ied s oc ie t ie s . B ya s sum ing t h a t p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t a nd m ean ingf u l p l ace s c ou ld h ave a l so e x i s ted i n G roup s A , D a nd H a tU axac tun , I s ugge s t t h a t t h e s upp re s s ion o f an a tu ra l H o r izon a tG roup Ea nd i t s r e p la cemen t w i th an ew a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re ( E— XV I1) i n d ica te s t h e e f f o r t s o f g e t t ing d i spa ra te c l an g roup s t oge the r w i th in a f r amewo rk o f as i ng le a nd c ohe r en t c o smov i s ion . A l though t h e re i sn o e v idence t h a t p a r t icu la r p l ace s a tU axac tun c ou ld h ave b een r e la ted t o d if e r en t f am i ly o r c l an g roup s , i t i s p robab le t h a t p rom inen t f e a tu r e s i n t h e l a nd scape t o ge the r w i th p a r t icu la r p l ace s a t H o r izon w e re a l ready i n ve s ted w i th s pec if ic m ean ing s . I nt h i s c on tex t , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h i s s t ruc tu r e o f f e r s an ew w ay o fc oncep tua l iz ing t h e H o r izon a s ad imen s ion o ft h e s ha red c o smov i s iona l p a t te rn a nd a c on tex t f o r m ean ingf u l a nd c on t ro l led s oc ia l p rac t ice . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e s upp re s s ion o f n a tu ra l H o r izon s , a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r p l ace s l i nked t o t h e h i s to r ie s o f

AM ANDA— A L ICE MA RAVEL IA ( E D . ) : ADAS T RA P ER AS P ER AE TP ER LU DU M f am i l ies , o r g roups o ff am i l ie s , w a s d one t oc r ea te as i ng le a r t if ic ia l Ho r izon c onnec ted t o t h e d eve lopmen t o f a u n ique c osmov i s iona l f r amework t o b e s ha red b y a l l s egmen t s o ft h e L a te F o rma t ive s oc ie ty a tU axac tun . W i th t h e s uppress ion o f l o ca l H o r izon s , t h e s oc ie ty d eve loped c o l lec t ive r ep re sen ta t ion s a t tached t ot h eS o ls t ice d i rec t ion s i nG roup E . L a te r , w i th t h e e me rgence o f ar u l ing e l i te , a n ew p rog ramme o f d i rec t iona l s ymbo l i sm w a s c r ea ted w h ich empha s ized i t s e l eva ted p o s i t ion a mong s t o t he r c ompe t ing l i neage s , b y a s soc ia t ing r u le r s w i th t h e c en t re o f t h e i r w o r ld a nd d i sp lay ing t h em a s med ia to r s b e tween t h e d i v ine a nd t h ec ommun i ty . O bv iou s ly , i ni t s ma te r ia l i ty ,t h e ma te r ia l e nv i ronmen t c on s t i tu tes b o th f r ames a nd c ond i t ion s f o r a c t ion . T h i s ma ter ia l e nv i ronmen t ( whe the r r ef e r red t o n a tu ra l l a nd scapes o r c omp lexe s o f b u i ld ing s ) h a s m ean ing s i n p eop les ' mode s o fp rac t ice . T hese s ymbo l ic m ean ing s a r e a s c r ibed t o m a te r ia l t h ing s b y s oc ia l c on tex t s . T he p roduc t ion o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l e nv ironmen t s how s t h e a b i l i ty t o d i sconnec t p a r t icu la r m ean ing s f r om s pec ia l l a nd scape f e a tu re s a nd t h et r an sf e ro fd i scou r se t o af i e ld o f i d ea l ism , wh ich a low s f o r a n i n f in i te c apac i ty o f g i v ing m ean ing s . No t o n ly t h e p y ram id E —V I I s ub-2 a s s uch , b u t a l so t h e p laza a nd e a s t p l a tf o rm a s aw ho le b ecome a me tapho rf o rt h e« cen te red» c osmos .

AVEN I , A .F . & HARTUNG , H . : « Uaxac tun , G ua tema la , G roup E a nd S im i la r A ssemb lages : A n A rchwoa s t ronom ica l R econ s idera t ion» , A rch c eoa s t ronomy ( Aven i , A .F . , e d . ) ( Camb r idge Un ive r s i ty P res s ) 1 989 , 4 41-61 .

W or ld C amb r idge

AVEN I , A .F . & HARTUNG , H . : « A rchwoa s t ronomy a nd t h e P uuc S i tes» . A rqueoa s t ronom ia y e t noa s t ronom ia e n Me soamjr ica ( B roda , J . , I wan iszew sk i , S . , & Maupome , L . , e d s . ) , Mex ico ( UNAM ) 1 991 , 6 5 -95 . AVEN I , A .F . , CALNEK , E .E . & HARTUNG , H . : «My th , E nv i r onmen t , a nd t h e O r ien ta t ion o f t h e T emp lo Mayo r o f T enoch t i t lan» , Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty , 5 3 , 2 87 -09 . AVEN I , A .F . : « Ou t o fT eo t ihuacan : O r ig in s o ft h e C e le s t ia l C anon i n Me soame r ica» , Me soamer ica ' s C la s s ic H er i tage : F rom T eo t ihuacan t ot h eA z tec s ( Ca r ra sco , D . , J ones , L .& S e s s ion s , S . , e d s . ) , B ou lde r ( Un ive r s i ty P re s s o fC o lo rado ) 2 000 , 2 53-68 . BARRETT , J .C . : « F ie ld s o fD i scou r se : R econ s t ruc t ing aS o c i a l A rchwo logy» , C r i t ique o fA n thropo logy , 73,1 987 -88 , 5 16 . BRODA , J . : « The S ac red L and scape o f A z tec C a lenda r F e s t iva ls , My th , N a tu re a nd S oc ie ty» , T o C hange P lace : A z tec C eremon ia l L and scape s ( Ca r ra sco , D . , e d . ) , N iwo t ( Un ive r s i ty P res so fC o lo rado ) 1 991 , 7 4 -120 . BRODA , J . : « A s t ronom ica l K now ledge , C a lend r ic s , a nd S a c r ed G eog raphy i n A nc ien t Me soame r ica» , A s t ronom ie s a nd C u l ture s ( Rugg les , C .L .N . & S aunde r s , N .J . e d s . ) , N iwo t( Un ive r s i ty P ress o fC o lo rado ) 1 993 , 2 53 -95 .

I V . C onc lus ions Wh i le a t C u icu i lco i t w a s n o t p o s s ib le t o s upp res s p a r t icu la r mean ing s l i nked t o t h e f e a tu re s o f ad i s tan t Ho r izon , Uaxac tun 's n a tu ra l H o r izon w a s s ub s t i tu ted w i th t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re . I t , t h e ref o re , s e em s t h a t a ny man ipu la t ion w i th t h e m ean ing s o fd i s tan t H o r izon f e a tu res i sl i m i ted b ecau se t h ey a r e o b se rved f r om d if e ren t p l ace s a nd a ng les b y al a rge n umbe r o fp eop le . Wh i le l o ca l a nd n ea r Ho r izons m ay e qua l ly b e a s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la r s e t t ing s o fd i f f e ren tg roup s o fb u i ld ing s , t h i s v a r ie ty c an b e s upp ressed t h rough t h e h uge a r ch i tec tu ra l a s semb lage

BRODA , J . : « Ca lend r ics a nd R i tua l L and scape a tT eo t ihua c an : T hemes o f C on t inu i ty i n Me soame r ican " Co smov i s i on"» , Me soamer ica ' s C la s s ic H er i tage : F rom T eo t ihuacan t o t h e A z tec s ( Ca r ra sco , D . , J ones , L . & S e s s ion s , S . , e d s . ) , B ou lde r ( Un ive r s i ty P re s s o fC o lo rado ) 2 000 , 3 97 -432 . B RODA , J . : « As t ronom ia y p a i sa je r i tua l : e lc a lenda r io d e H o r izon te d e C u icu i lco—Zaca tepe t l» , L a Mon tana e n e l p a i sa je r i tua l ( B roda , J . , I wan i szew sk i , S . & Mon te ro , A . ,

w h ich p rov ide s t h e c ommun i ty w i th a u n ique H o r izon f r amewo rk . A t U axac tun s pec if ic m ean ing s a ppea r t o b e s epa ra ted f r om p a r t icu la r H o r izon s a nd l a nd scape f e a tu res a nd a r e s ymbo l i sed b y m e tapho r s g ene ra ted b y a r ch i tec tu ra l e nv i ronmen t s . A t C u icu i lco , w here d i s tan t H o r izon f e a tu re s w e re n o t r e p laced b y t h e a r ch i tec tu re , t h e i r p ar t icu la r m ean ing s w e re s upp ressed a nd i n co rpo ra ted i n to ag ene ra l s cheme o fs o la rc a lenda rd a te s . T hu s , a t C u icu i lco me tapho r ica l s t a temen t s w e re

e d s . ) , Mex ico ( UNAM— INAH—B UA P )2 001 , 1 73 -99 . CHA SE , A .F . : « A r chxo logy i n t h e Maya H ea r t land» , A r c h c eo log y ,3 8 1,1 985 , 3 2 -39 . COHODAS , M . : « Pub l ic A rch i tec tu re o f t h e Maya L ow land s» , C uad erno s d e a rqu i tec tura m e soamer icana , 6 , 1 985 , 5 1-68 . COGG INS , C . : « The S hape o f T ime : S ome P o l i t ica l I mp l ica t ion s o f aF ou r—Pa r t F igu re» , Amer ican A n t iqu i ty , 4 5 4,1 980 , 7 27 -39 .

s ubo rd ina ted t o c er ta in c ogn i t ive s chema ta a nd t r an sf o rmed i n to am e tonym ica l w ho le ; w h i le a t Uaxac tun i t s a r ch i tec tu ra l a r rangemen t s p rov ided f u r the r me tapho r s e xp la in ing t h e v i r tua l p a ra l le l ism b e tween c e les t ia l a nd e a r th ly c yc les .

GAL INDO T RE JO , J .& E STÜBAN L OPEZ , C . : « E l C er ro S an M igue l c omo p o s ib le ma rcado r c a lendä r ico a s t ronöm ico d e l s i t io P rec lä s ico d e C u icu i lco» , L a Mon tana e n e l p a i sa je r i tua l ( Broda , J . , I wan i szew sk i , S . & Mon te ro , A . , e d s . ) , Mex ico ( UNAM— INAH—BUA P)2 001 , 2 0115 . I WAN ISZEWSK I , S . : « E l p ape l s oc iocu l tu ra l d es e spac io s imbö l ico : l a e vo luc iön d e l s imbo l ismo e spac ia l e n l a t i er ra s b a ja s maya s» ,A c ta sL a t inoamer icana s d e V ar sov ia , 1 5 , 1 993 , 8 5 -116 .

V . R ef erences A IMERS , J . J . : Me s sages F rom t h e God s : A n H ermeneu t ic A na ly s i s o ft h e Maya E —Group C omp lex ( Ma s te r 's T he s is ) , P e te rborough ( T ren t Un ive r s i ty ) 1 993 .

L OPEZ CAMACHO , J . : « La e s t ra t ig raf ia d e l ap i räm ide d e

AVEN I , A .F . & HARTUNG , H . : «Maya C i ty P lann ing a nd t h e C a lenda r» , T ran sac t ion s o ft h e Amer ican P h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty , 7 6 1,1 986 , 1 87 .

C u icu i lco e nr e t ro spec t iva» , C u icu i lco , 2 7 , 1 991 , 3 5 -46 . P EREZ CAMPA , M . : « La e s te le d e C u icu i lco» , A rqueo log ia Mex icana , 53 ° ,1 998 , 3 7 . 1 26

S t an i s law I wan i szew sk i : S oc ia lC on s t i tu t ion o fH o r izon A s t ronomy o ft h eP y ram id a tC u icu i lco a nd o fG roup Ea tU axa c tun PO NCE D E LE ON , A . : F echam ien to a rqueoa s t ronöm ico e n e la l t ip lano d e Mex ico , Mex ico ( D .D .F . ) 1 982 . PO NCE D E LE ON , A . : « Fecham ien to a rqueoa s t ronöm ico e n e la l t ip lano d e Mex ico» , Na t ive Amer ican C ompu ta t ion s o f T ime : C a lendar s i n Me soamer ica a nd P eru ( Aven i , A .F . & B ro the r s ton , G . , e d s . ) , Oxf o rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s , 1 74 ) 1 983 , 7 3 -99 . PU LESTON , D .E . : T he S e t t lemen tS urvey o fT i ka l : T i ka lR e p or t 1 3 , P h i lade lph ia ( The U n iver s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia Mo n og raph , 4 8 ) 1 983 . RI CKETSON , 0 .G . , J R . & RI CKETSON , E .B . : U axac tun , G ua tema la . G roup E : 1 926 -1931 , Wa sh ing ton ( Ca rneg ie I n s t i tu t ion o f Wa sh ing ton , 4 47 ) 1 937 . RI C C EUR ,

P. : H ermeneu t ic s a nd t h e Human S c ience s ,

C amb r idge—Pa r is ( Un iver s i ty o f C amb r idge , Ma ison d e s S c ience sd e l ' Homme ) 21 992 [ 11 981] . RO SAL , M .A . , VA LDES , J .A . & YLA PORTE , J . —P . :« Nueva s e xp lo rac iones e n e lG rupo E .U axac tun» , T i ka l yU axac tun e n e l P rec lä s ico ( Lapo r te , J . P . & V a ldd s , J .A . , e d s . ) , Mex ico ( UNAM ) 1 993 , 7 0 -91 . RU GGLES , C .L .N . : « The Mee t ing o f t h e Me thodo log ica l Wo r ld s? T owa rd s t h e I n teg ra t ion o fD if f e ren t D i sc ip l ine— B a sed App roaches t o t h e S tudy o f C u l tu ra l A s t ronomy» , T ime a nd A s t ronomy a t t h e Mee t ing o f T wo W or ld s ( Iwan iszew sk i , S . , L ebeuf , A . , W ie rch i sk i , A . & Z iö lkow sk i , M . , e d s . ) , Wa r szawa ( CESLA , U n iwe r sy te t Wa r szaw sk i ) 1 994 4 97 -515 . SA NDERS , W. T. , PA RSONS , J .R . , & SA NTLEY , R . : T he B a s in o f Mex ico : E co log ica lP roce s se s i nt h eE vo lu t ion o f aC iv i l i za t ion , NY—SF—London ( Academ ic P res s ) 1 979 . SI ARK IEW ICZ , E . : « Domes t ica t ing t h e L and scape : T he P ro b l em o f t h e 1 7—Deg ree F am i ly O r ien ta t ion i n Me soame r ica» A s t ronomia y d i ver s idad c u l tura l ( E s teban , C . & B e lmon te , J . —A . , e d s . ) , L a L aguna ( OAC IMC ) 1 999 , 2 55 -61 . SI MONSEN , K . : «Wha t K ind o f S pace i n w ha t K ind o f S oc ia l T heo ry?» , P rog re ss i n Human G eog raphy 2 0 4, 1 996 , 4 94 -512 . SC HELE , L . & MA THEWS , P. :T he C od e o ft h e K ing s , NY (W i l l iam Mo r row ) 1 998 . ' 1 3 RA IC , I . :« A rch i tec tu ra l A l ignmen t s a nd O b se rva t iona l C a lenda r s i n P re—H i span ic C en t ra l Mex ico» , A s t ronomy a nd C u l tura l D iver s i ty ( Be lmon te , J . —A . & E s teban , C . , e d s . ) , L aL aguna ( OAC IMC ) 1 999 , 1 07 -14 . P RA JC , I . : « A s t ronom ica l A l ignmen t s a t T eo t ihuacan , Mex ico» ,L a t in Amer ican A n t iqu i ty , i, 2 000 , 4 03-15 . S 'P RA JC , I . :O r ien tac ione s a s t ronöm ica s e n l aa rqu i tec tura p reh i spän ica d e lc en t ro d e Mex ico , Mex ico ( I NAH /C o lec c i ön C ien t if ica , 4 27 )2 001a . ' 1 3 RA JC , I . :« A l ineam ien tos a s t ronöm ico s e n T enayuca» , L a Mon ta i la e n e lp a i sa je r i tua l ( B roda , J . , l wan iszew sk i , S . & Mon te ro , A . ) , Mex ico ( UNAM— INAH—BUAP ) 2 001b , 2 17 -43 . TI L LEY , C. :A P henomeno logy o fL and scape : P lace s , P a th s a nd Monumen t s . O xf o rd—P rov idence ( Be rg P ub l ishe r s ) 1 994 . TI L LEY , C. : Me taphor a nd Ma ter ia l C u l ture , ( B lackwe l l P ub l ishe r s ) 1 999 .

O xf o rd

1 27