Acta Biotechnologica: Volume 1, Number 3 [Reprint 2021 ed.] 9783112543689, 9783112543672

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Acta BiotethDiliglca •

Journal of microbial, biochemical and bioanalogous technology

Akademie-Verlag Berlin Acta Biotechnologica 1 (1981) 3, 205-308 31 007 EVP 3 0 , - M ISSN 0138-4988

Number 3 • 1981 • Volume 1

Instructions to Authors

1. Only original papers that have not previously been published will be accepted. Manuscripts may be submitted in English, German or Russian but always in Duplicate. The name of the institute (inclusive full address) from which the manuscript orginates should be stated below the author's name(s). The authors are responsible for the contents of their contributions. 2. Original papers should not consist of more than 20 typewritten pages (2 lined-spacing), including references, tables and figures; short original communications may have a maximum of 6 typewritten pages. 3. Each paper should be preceded by a summary in a language different from the used for the paper. 4. Latin names of species as well as passages to be printed in italics for greater emphasis should be signed with weved line. Please use only units and symbols of the Si-system. 5. Tables may be used to effect a reduction of the text or to make assimilation easier. They should be numbered consecutively throughout and supplied with a brief heading. They shouldn't be written among the text but on seperate sheets. 6. Number and size of illustrations should be limited to the essential minimum, they should be numbered consecutively and brought on seperate sheets. Line drawings including graphs and diagrams should be drawn in black ink. Half-tone illustrations should be supplied as white glossy prints. Figure legends are to be typed in sequence on a seperate sheet. Authors name is to be written on to the backside of each sheet. 7. References, listed at the end of the contribution, should contain only works cited in the text. They should be numbered in the order in which they are at first mentioned in the text. Please give surnames and initials of all authors, name of journal abbreviated according to "Chemical Abstracts — List of Periodicals", volume number, year of publication, issue number or month, first page number; books are to be cited with full title, edition, volume number, page number, place of publication, publisher and year of publication. 8. Notes on the text may be given as footnotes on the relevant page. 9. 50 reprints are free of charge. Additional reprints may be ordered. 10. The author recieves 2 galley proofs for correction. They are send back to the chief editor (Dr. Dimter DDR-7050 Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15) as soon as possible.

ISSN 0138 - 4988

Ada Blotecholoiica Journal of microbial, biochemical and bioanalogous technology

Edited at Institute of Technical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the G.D.R., Leipzig and Institute of Technical Microbiology, Berlin by M. Ringpfeil, Leipzig and G. Vetterlein, Berlin

Editorial board: P. Mohr, Berlin P. Moschinski, Lodz L. D. Phai, Hanoi W. Plötner, Leipzig H. Sahm, Jülich W. Scheler, Berlin R. Schulze, Kothen B. Sikyta, Prague G. K. Skrjabin, Moscow M. A. Urrutia, Havana J . E. Zajic, El Paso

1981

M. E. Beker, Riga H. W. Blanch, Berkeley S. Eukui, Kyoto H. G. Gyllenberg, Helsinki J . Hollo, Budapest M. V. Iwanow, Pushchino F. Jung, Berlin H. W. D. Katinger, Vienna K. A. Kalunjanz, Moscow J . M. Lebeault, Compiegne P. Lietz, Berlin D. Meyer, Leipzig

Volume 1

Redaction:

L. Dimter, Leipzig

Number 3

AKADEMIE-VERLAG

• BERLIN

"Acta Biotechnologica" published reviews, original papers, short communications and reports out of the whole area of biotechnology. The journal shall promote the foundation of biotechnology as a new, homogeneous scientific field. According to biotechnology are microbial technology, biochemical technology and technology of synthesyzing and applying of bioanalogous reaction systems. The technological character of t h e journal is guarenteed thereby t h a t microbial, biochemical, chemical and physical contribution^ must show definitely the technological relation.

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Acta Biotechnologica Herausgeber: I n s t i t u t f ü r technische Chemie der AdW, D D R - 7050 Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15 (Direktor: Prof. Dr. Manfred Ringpfeil) und Institut f ü r Technische Mikrobiologie D D R -1017 Berlin; Alt-Stralau 62 (Direktor: Dipl. Ing. G. Vetterlein). Verlag: Akademie-Verlag, D D R -1080 Berlin, Leipziger Straße 3 — 4; Fernruf: 2236221 und 2236229; Telex-Nr.: 114420; B a n k : Staatsbank der D D R , Berlin, KontoNr. : 6836-26-20712. Redaktion: Dr. Lothar Dimter (Chefredakteur), Martina Bechstedt (Redakteur), D D R - 7 0 5 0 Leipzig, Permoserstr. 15; Tel.: 6861255. Veröffentlicht unter der Lizenznummer 1671 des Presseamtes beim Vorsitzenden des Ministerrates der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Gesamtherstellung: V E B Druckhaus „Maxim Gorki", D D R - 7400 Altenburg. Erscheinungsweise: Die Zeitschrift „Acta Biotechnologica" erscheint jährlich m einem Band mit 4 Heften. Bezugspreis eines Bandes 120,— M zuzüglich Versandspesen; Preis je H e f t 30,— M. Bestellnummer dieses Heftes: 1094/1/3. Urheberrecht: Alle Rechte vorbehalten, insbesondere der Übersetzung. Kein Teil dieser Zeitschrift darf in irgendeiner Form — durch Photokopie, Mikrofilm oder irgendein anderes Verfahren — ohne schriftliche Genehmigung des Verlages reproduziert werden. — All rights reserved (including those of translations into foreign languages). No part of this issue may be reproduced in any form, by photoprint, microfilm or any other means, without written permission from t h e publishers. © 1981 by Akademie-Verlag Berlin. Printed in the German Democratic Republic. AN (EDV) 42133

Acta Biotechnologica 1 (1981) 3, 2 0 7 - 2 4 6

The Renaissance of Biotechnology: Man, Microbe, Biomass and Industry E. J.

DASILVA

Division of Scientific Research and Higher Education UNESCO 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France

Contents Introduction Origins of Microbial Technology Renaissance of Microbial Biotechnology High-Capital Technology Single-Cell-Protein Technology Pharmaceutical Microbiology Intermediate-Capital Technology Fermented Food Technology Biological Nitrogen-fixation Technology Microbial Biomass Technology Low-Capital Technology Bio-gas Technology Integrated Rural Biomass Technology Potential of New Biotechnologies Vaccine Technology Microbial Insecticides Biometallurgy Hydrogen Technology Desert Biotechnology Gene Technology Biotechnology — A Global Pursuit References

Introduction On the occasion of the First International Conference on the Global Impacts of Applied' Microbiology (GIAM I) m 1963, Nobel Laureate A K N E T I S E L I U S in his inaugural address [1] remarked: "all of us have witnessed the recent tremendous development in such fields of pure and applied research which are particularly apt to give us new and powerful arms m combatting starvation and disease. Those laymen and politicians who judge only from the headlines may be under the impression that today's research is dominated by the atomic nucleus and space. They overlook, then, the recent revolution in biological research which is perhaps particularly striking in microbiology and in related fields. In other fields of research we have seen how careful planning and efficient 1*

Acta Biotechnologica 1 (1981) 3, 2 0 7 - 2 4 6

The Renaissance of Biotechnology: Man, Microbe, Biomass and Industry E. J.

DASILVA

Division of Scientific Research and Higher Education UNESCO 7, place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France

Contents Introduction Origins of Microbial Technology Renaissance of Microbial Biotechnology High-Capital Technology Single-Cell-Protein Technology Pharmaceutical Microbiology Intermediate-Capital Technology Fermented Food Technology Biological Nitrogen-fixation Technology Microbial Biomass Technology Low-Capital Technology Bio-gas Technology Integrated Rural Biomass Technology Potential of New Biotechnologies Vaccine Technology Microbial Insecticides Biometallurgy Hydrogen Technology Desert Biotechnology Gene Technology Biotechnology — A Global Pursuit References

Introduction On the occasion of the First International Conference on the Global Impacts of Applied' Microbiology (GIAM I) m 1963, Nobel Laureate A K N E T I S E L I U S in his inaugural address [1] remarked: "all of us have witnessed the recent tremendous development in such fields of pure and applied research which are particularly apt to give us new and powerful arms m combatting starvation and disease. Those laymen and politicians who judge only from the headlines may be under the impression that today's research is dominated by the atomic nucleus and space. They overlook, then, the recent revolution in biological research which is perhaps particularly striking in microbiology and in related fields. In other fields of research we have seen how careful planning and efficient 1*

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E . J . DASILVA

support can utilize our resources and lead to results of greatest practical and theoretical significance. I t is my belief that a mobilization of resources in the biological fields similar to what we have experienced in the fields of atomic energy and space research would, more than anything else, help in relieving the world of much suffering." Nearly two decades later, there has been a fulfilment of that belief. There is an upsurge in microbial biotechnology with more and more emphasis by governmental, nongovernmental and U. N. agencies on the need to tap, harness and channelize the enormous potential packed in micro-organisms having a volume of one cubic micron or less. The energy, economic, employment and environmental crises plague all countries. In the technically-advanced countries, strategies focus on developing new non-conventional fuels to replace conventional supplies, measures to counteract economic recession, pollution of the environment and a slow-down of . the unemployment growth rate. In the non-industrialized countries, policies emphasise the production of non-conventional fuels to supplement conventional fuels, and actions to conserve the environment, promote economic progress and parity and job opportunities for ever- increasing populations. In this context, the slow, growing reliance on microbial technology reveals a role for the lowly microbe whose potential has been neglected in the bygone days of cheap energy acquisition, affluent economies and easy living.

Origins of microbial biotechnology In 1855, two diseases fatal to man — A D D I S O N ' S disease and pernicious anaemia — were first described by T H O M A S A D D I S O N in Guy's Hospital in London. Ten decades later, three discoveries, two novel and one serendipitous, in the form of cortisone, vitamin B 12 and penicillin respectively, channelled the brimming enthusiasm of the 'Antibiotic Era' into a new field — pharmaceutical microbiology. As a result there developed a close rapport between applied microbiology and several other disciplines such as engineering and chemistry. A report [2] which foresees valuable contributions from the microbial kingdom to the world markets of the 1980's, defines microbial biotechnology as 'the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing and service industries'. Such a forecast is well-founded as the industrial facet of the microbial world embraces some of mankind's traditional, essential and socio-domestic activities. Nearly every civilization and nation have one or more fermented milks made by the souring action of the naturally occurring lactic acid bacteria on the milk of cows, donkeys, goats and sheep. The leben of Egypt and Syria, the taettemjôlk of the Scandinavians, the matzoon of the Armenians, the dahi of the Indians, the piner of the Lapps, the yakult of the Japanese and the chah and the mopwo of the Kenyans are well-known examples. The scientific origins of biotechnology go back to the 19th century when Louis P A S T E U R established the microbial origins and differences of fermentation and putrefaction. The basic contributions of K O C H , J E N N E R , D O M A G K , F L E M I N G and a host of other researchers are at the foundation of several biotechnological processes that have contributed to societal development and progress. In addition, developments are also linked with World Wars I and II. To meet the acute shortage of acetone in 1914/1919 — essential in munition factories for the dissolution of cordite — studies on an anaerobic bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum resulted in the manufacture of acetone and butanol, which latter product has significance in the manufacture of rubber. In 1939/1945, to counter the grave loss of life resulting from inadequate medical therapy, studies were initiated to develop greater yields of penicillin — the forgotten wonder drug produced by the fungus, Pénicillium notatum. These footholds in the world of technology led to the

Renaissance of Biotechnology

209

industrialized domestication of micro-organisms through a thriving microbial biotechnological fermentation industry. Except for the production of vitamins, hormones and amino acids, the industry in the mid-1950 s went into abeyance with the unanswerable challenge of cheap petroleum and cracking technology. However, as the 1980's begin, the expectations of the levelling-off of world oil production and its availability [3] herald the renaissance of biotechnology. Considered as a frontier area offering a new technological base to meet the problems of all countries, developed and developing [4], biotechnology today involves man, microbe, biomass and industry in emphasizing the utilization of renewable resources with a low environmental impact and a high regenerative capacity. Functioning as a mediator, and described as a Cinderella technology which has potential to change the face of industry in a pollution-free world, biotechnology has roots in at least 12 major fields: microbial genetics, industrial microbiology, zoology, marine biology, chemical engineering, biophysics, biochemistry, agronomy, ecology, botany, microbial physiology and microbial genetics, which frequently interact with and reinforce each other. In.the process a number of potential technologies are spawned.

The renaissance of microbial biotechnology Fossil fuels to date have been channelled, essentially towards meeting the gfowth rates of the planet's population and its technological accomplishments. In addition, the concomitant clustering in the mid-1970 s of the energy, environmental, economic and employment crises, dented several national budgets in the industrialized and nonindustrialized sectors of the globe. For example, more than nine-tenths of crude oil were produced from the OPEC countries by foreign transnational companies in 1972. The production dropped to one-fourth in 1977, whilst by then, the share of the oilproducing countries in the pricing of crude oil had reached 98 percent. In comparison to the industrialized sector of the globe, 61 developing countries import more than 75 percent of their commercial energy. From 21 million dollars in 1971, the balance of payments deficit of these countries amounted to some 32 million dollars in 1978, and the estimate for 1980 is expected to be almost 50 billion dollars. To make matters worse, some of these developing countries are faced with the threats of deforestation and desertification arising from excessive reliance on traditional wood fuels. The proportion of wood usage in the total consumption of energy in the developing countries is estimated at 25 percent, South of the Sahara at 75 percent and in the Sahel (Chad, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta) at 84 percent [5]. In this context, a reassessment, of the consumer-society oriented technologies in the technically-advanced countries and of the excessive exploitative utilization of traditional economic resources, such as wood, is a necessity. In adopting a rational approach to the use and management of natural resources in the quest for substitute sources of fuel, feed, food, fibre and fertilizer, the lowly microbe, commemorated in verse by HILAIKE BELLOC, holds vast potential for the future. In the fields of energy, animal feed, food production, aquaculture and pharmacy, the production of biofuels and chemical feedstocks, single-cell protein (SCP) and microbial-biomass-product [(MBP)6] and the development of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, bioinsecticides, biocatalysts and other livingsystems were considered important indices of already fast-growing biotechnologies [7]. Already biotechnological processes for human somatostatin, growth hormone and insulin are patented. The potentially wonder-drug of the 1980s — interferon — is the subject of world-wide research. Furthermore, in response to economic, academic, international socio-cultural and public pressures, there is expected to be a far greater reliance on microbial interaction with bioregenerable resources. The substitution of physicochemical reactions, either in part or in whole, by microbial activity in established techno-

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E . J . DASILVA

logical processes indicate t h a t 'biology is expected to have as great an impact on industry in the twenty-first century as chemistry and physics did in the twentieth'. As the bandwagon begins to roll, biotechnology is expected to come in to full bloom [8]. Already the vast potential of microbial technology to catalyse economic progress in the developed and developing countries is being harnessed and tapped (Table 1). In terms of available resources, however, the choice of technology depends upon a variety of factors (Table 2).

Table 1. Contribution of Microbial Technology to Industrial Growth A) Annual Production of Japanese Industries using Microbes Industry

Production*

Alcoholic beverages Amino acids Antibiotics Enzymes Industrial alkohol Miso (soya) paste Nucleotides, related compounds Organic acids Soya sauce Miscellaneous (glucose, pickles, latic acid beverages, fructose syrup)

12,000 500 1,600 80 70 400 100 20 1,000 ca. 4,000 19,770

* in hundred million yen

B ) 1971 Export and Import Singaporean Statistics lor Microbial Products (adapted) Microbial Product

Quantity

Value (S.

Exports Antibiotics Antisera Casein Dried mushroom (China) Glutamic acid Hormones Peptones Soy sauce Vitamins Yeast

54,500 kilograms 100 tonnes 10,000 tonnes 23,000 tonnes 700,000 litres 2,363,636 kilograms

800,000 851,000 189,000 1,000,000 3,550,000 175,000 86,000 488,000 3,000,000 1,500,000

Imports Antibiotics Antisera Dried mushroom (China) Glutamic acid Hormones Soy sauce Vitamins Yeast Source: Unesco, 1975

21,378 kilograms 175 tonnes 115,000 kilograms 2,250,000 litres 275,000 kilograms

36,000 306,000 2,000,000 334,000 9,000 1,500,000 505,000 385,000

Renaissance of Biotechnology

211

Table 2. Criteria influencing the Development of Microbial Technologies Technology Level

Characteristics

Considerations

High-capital

Relatively heavy finan- Food scarcity. World cial investments. Sohunger in relation to phisticated operating increasing population. procedures. Large-scale plants with complex equipment. High maintenance costs.

Intermediate-capital

Moderate financial investments. Less complex operating procedures. Medium-scale plants with appropriate equipment and maintenance costs.

Re-evaluation of Production of fermented management of ener- foods and animal feed, gy and other natural Biofertilizer production. resources. EnvironDevelopment of Micromental considerations, bial Biomass Products Utilization of 'wastes : (MBP) from bioregeneresources out of rabie residues, place'.

Low-capital

Low financial investments. Small scale operating procedures. Technology non-waste and nonpolluting. Simple, indigenous equipment necessary.

Eradication of rural and village poverty. Conservation of the environment. Need for social actionorientated programmes.

Examples Single-cell protein (SCP) production from paraffins, gas-oil, hydrocarbon fractions, methanol, ethanol. Production of pharmaceuticals.

Bio-gas technology. Mushroom cultivation. Photosynthetic-oxidation pond systems. Hygienic disposal and recycle of organic refuse into useful MBP.

S u m m a r y of Influences and Stimuli in the Development of Microbial Technology Occurrence of crises and their resolution.

R a w material availability

Availability of 'new' techno- Product scarcity logy (directly or indirectly designed for the fermentation industries. Interference of t h e 'normal p a t t e r n ' by outside influences. Source:

Utilization of decentralized units. Integration of MBP into traditional social and cultural systems.

Exploitation of a novel pro- I m p o r t substitution, duct and environmental awareness.

E., (1980). I n : Renewable Resources — A Systematic Approach, ed. LOPEZ, E., Academic Press pgs. 329 —368.

DASILVA,

CAMPO-

High-capital technology This technology involves relatively heavy financial investments, sophisticated operating procedures, large-scale plants with complex equipment and high maintenance costs. Recognized as a way of life m Japan, where the discipline of microbiology is considered as part art and part science, microbial technology has been of benefit mainly to the industrialized countries deploying it on a large scale. In the occidental world, over 200,000 tonnes of citric acid were produced, in 1974, from either molasses or ra-paraffms. About half of the cheese produced m the USA is prepared through the use of a fungal

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B . J . DASILVA

enzyme — rennet. In 1973, 875 million hectolitres of beer, worth DM 7.3 thousand million, were consumed in Federal Republic of Germany. In Japan, industries linked to microbial technology constitute as much as 5 percent of the national tax income. Since the early days of penicillin production in 1946 with the guidance of the late J . F O S T E R , the total sales of novel antibiotics produced in Japan have exceeded 86 billion yen. Today industry is increasingly dependent upon the use of microbial fermentation technology in preference to complex synthetic processes (Table 3). And, with the advances achieved with enzyme engineering, an increasing number of microbially produced enzymes are used to produce a variety of industrial products in daily use (Table 4).

Table 3. Biotechnological procedures compared with chemical processes. Advantages

Disadvantages

1. Stereospecificity of enzymatic reactions. 2. Introduction of chiral centres. 3. Several coupled reactions involved in one fementation step. 4. High biosynthetic yields of complicated structures. 5. Mild reaction conditions. 6. Usage of cheap raw materials as nutrient media and substrates. 7. Low temperatures (exept for sterilization) 8. Operation in aqueous media (except for product recovery). 9. Reduced formation of chemical waste and recycling of extraction solvents.

often lower volume/time efficiency, sometimes expensive purification procedures, sterile operation, yield variation with different batches of raw materials and occasionalty the formation of noxious odours, energy requirement for aeration and sterilization, sewage contamination with consumed nutrient media, formation of waste biomass,

increased number of control and 10.1 Manufacture of products, which are not regulation parameters, biological fluctuations due to the use of living 11. > available by means of chemical cells, complaints by the sanitary 12. I synthesis. authorities about the hazards Source: TNO, 1980, 13th International TNO Conference — Biotechnology, a Hidden Past, a Shining Future — TNO, The Hague, Netherlands

Single-Cell

Protein

Recently the production of single-cell protein (SCP) was shown to be a potential microbiological solution to a biological problem: the menace of food scarcity resulting from demographic growth [9]. Considered as a non-agricultural means of producing feeds or foods, SCP production processes involve the use of a variety of substrates — crude petroleum, natural gas, waste sulphite liquor, cellulose and starchy wastes. Single-cell protein is a collective name for products that comprise dried micro-organisms with a high protein content. Typically, yeasts are used, such usage being governed by the long-standing acceptability of many yeasts as food ingredients and additives by government regulatory bodies. In some cases bacteria have been used, whereas in others, fungi and algae have been employed.

213

Renaissance of Biotechnology Table 4. Application Processes of Microbes to Various Industries Application Processes of Microbes

Industry

Production of Fermented Poods

Soy-Sauce, Vinegar, Natto, Cheese, Yoghurt, Dried bonite, etc.

Fermented Food Industry, Livestock Industry, Fishery Food Industry

Production & Utilization of Microbial Cells

Baker's Yeast, Food or Fodder Yeasts, Nori (laver), Single Cell Protein (SCP). Utilization of ribonucleic acid, protein and other cellular components. Utilization of microbes for preparation of microbial insecticides and for production of bio-fertilisers.

Food Industry, Fodder and Feed Industry. Food Industry, Bio-pharmaceutical Industry, Chemical Industry Agricultural Industry Medical Industry

Brewing

Sake, Beer, Wine and other distillery beverages.

Brewing Industry

Production of Industrial solvents

Industrial ethyl alcohol. Additive ethyl alcohol.

Chemical Industry Brewing Industry

Production of organic acidulants

Citric, lactic, fumaric and itaconic acids, etc.

Food and Chemical Industry

Production of macromolecular polysaccharides

Dextran, laevan, xanthan, mannan, caragheenan, etc.

Food Industry

Production of antibiotics

Penicillin, Streptomycin, Kanamycin, Bleomycin, Actinomycins Blasticidin S, Kasugamycin Thiostrepton, Thiopeptin

Medical and Pharmaceutical Industry

Vitamin B, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Microbial Transformation of Steroids, Sugars and Alkaloids Giberellins (Plant Growth Hormones)

Medical and Biopharmaceutical Industries

Production of Physiologcally active substances

Agricultural medical Industry Feed Industry

Agro-medical Industry

Production of Amino acids

Glutamic acid, Lysine, Aspartic Acid, Arginine, Ornithine, Threonine, Valine, Tyrosine, Phenylalanine, Leucine, Tryotophan

Production of Mononucleotides and related compounds

5'-inosinic acid, 5'-guanylic Food and Medical Industries acid, 5-amino-4-imidazolcarboxyamide (AICA)-riboside, ATP, cyclic AMP

Production & Utilization of enzymes

Amylase, Protease, Milkclotting enzyme (rennin), Lipase, Cellulase, Aspartase, Melibiase, Naringinase, BetaAmylase and other insoluble enzymes.

Food and Feed Industries Chemical Industry

Brewing, Food and Fodder Industries, Fibre Industry, leather and tanning industries Laundry and washing industries

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E. J . DASILVA

Table 4. (Continuation) Application Processes of Microbes

Industry

Production & Utilization of enzymes

Penicillinase

Medical, cosmetics and chemical industries. Other applications: medical therapy and diagnosis ; chemical ana lyses, etc.

Conservation of the Natural Environment

Treatment of Sewage, Industrial Wastes and Waste waters, Recovery and recycling of bio-degradable Utilisable Wastes. Prevention of Noxious Microbes

Relevant Industry

Others

Bacterial leaching of ores, Recovery of Copper, Uranium, zinc and manganese from mining and colliery wastes. Utilization of microbial probes for oil deposits. Utilization of Bagasse, production of Ensilage. Utilization of nitrogen-fixing algae and rhizobia.

Industries of Food, Glass, Metal works, Electric tools and machinery, Aircraft, Railway, Fibre, Papermaking, Paints, Plastics and others. Mining industry

Petroleum Industry Feed and Agricultural Industries

Source: UNESCO 1975

SCP production facilities have been surveyed recently [10] with an information list on the number, types and levels of plants m a number of countries with general details on the process characteristics, product properties and other miscellaneous criteria. Whilst discussing some of the problems that plague the acceptability of SCP, the review underscores the economic attractiveness in developed countries of SCP biomass products as protein supplements to human foods and animal feeds. More developments in these SCP-biomass processes reflect a concerted and concentrated effort in counteracting pollution problems arising from waste sulphite liquor, whey, bagasse, manure, starch and sugar wastes emanating from the food-processing industries. S E N E Z [ 1 1 ] in a technological and economical survey of industrial single-cell proteins concluded that SCP is a well established reality, its future depending upon economic viability and public interest. It was even postulated that, sooner or later, SCP would become an absolute necessity in Europe and other industrialized countries. Already SCP production in Europe is well advanced (Table 5) and an association of producers called UNICELPE is functioning. Based in Brussels, the association provides a forum of discussion of technical problems and a channel of communication between members and the EEC lawmakers. The future of SCP is expected to increase gradually as its production is not climatedependent ; its availability will be consistent and its cost will not fluctuate as widely as that of soymeal. In its initial years, SCP will be a potential substitute for fishmeal and soymeal, and a supplement for some human foods. In summary, the potential for production of cheap protein has been recognized for some time, e. g. TOPRINA (Ital-

215

Renaissance of Biotechnology Table 5. Industrial Development of SCP in Europe Pilot Plants* I. C. I. Billingham (U. K.) Hoechst (FRG) Euteco (Italy) Norprotein (Norway) R. H. M. (U. K.) Tate & Lyle (U. K.) G. P. P. (France) Ugine-Kuhlmann Shell (Netherlands)* Exxon-Nestle (Switzerland) Slovnaft Kojetin (Czechoslovakia) Institut Industrielle Fermentation (Spain) VEB PCK Schwedt (GDR)

S.ubstrate

Organism

methanol methanol methanol methanol carbohydrates carbohydrates »¡.-paraffins methanol methane ethanol ethanol

bacteria bacteria yeast bacteria mould mould yeast yeast bacteria yeast yeast

ethanol petroleum distillate

yeast

Yield 1,000 t/a

500 t/a 1,000 t/a 1,000 t/a

yeast

Production Plauts in Operation or completed B. P. Lavéra (France)* B. P. Grangemouth (U. K.) Italprotein-B. P. (Italy)* Liquichimica (Italy)* USSR (several plants)

gas oil n-parraffins n-paraffins n-paraffins n-paraffins

yeast yeast yeast yeast yeast

n-paraffins methanol petroleum distillate

yeast bacteria

60,000 t/a 50,000 t/a

yeast

55,500 t/a

methanol

bacteria

16,000 4,000 100,000 100,000

t/a t/a t/a t/a

Production plants under completion Roniprot (Romania) (1978) I. C. I. Billingham (U. K.) (1979) VEB PCK Schwedt (GDR)

Projected production Fiants I. C. I. (U. K.) (1982)

300,000 t/a

* Some of these pilot plants no longer in operation Sources: 1. SENEZ, J . C.: personal communication 2. Werbe- und Informationsprospekt der Fa. Enteco, Mailand. PRÄVE, P.; PAUST, U.: Vortrag auf dem 12. Internationalen Kongreß für Mikrobiologie, München, 1978. Europ. Chem. News 28 (1976) 736. BAUCH, J . ; KOSLOWA, L . I . ; SOBEK, K . ; TRIEMS, K . ; MESCHTSCHANKIN, G . I . :

Chem.

Technik 30 (1978) 284. MOGREN, H.: Process Biochem. 14 (1979) 3, 2 - 4 , 7. BEKER, M. E.: Einführung in die Biotechnologie Moskau, Verlag Lebensmittelindustrie, 1978. Zeitschrift der Mendelejew-Allunionsgesellschaft für Chemie der UdSSR XVII (1972) 5. Prawda 2. J u n i 1980, S. 7.

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proteine), LIQUIPRON (Liquichimica). Some investments have been successful, others not, for reasons of finance, the environment and nutritional safety. ICI (U. K.) is producing P R U T E E N from methanol, and like processes exist with PROBION of Hoechst (FRG) and Mitsubishi (Japan). The enthusiastic development of SCP processes in the 1960s is linked to the utilization of non-renewable substrates such as methane, petroleum, hydrocarbons and petrochemicals which were, at the time, cheaply available in quantity and easily obtainable [12]. Current trends, economically-speaking, favour the use of renewable substrates (Table 6), the limiting factors in use being their availability, nature and requirements for additional processing before they are adapted for use. Table 7 provides some information on the usage of wastes as substrates. The great potential of waste matter and byproducts is increasingly gaining importance economically due to the necessity of recycling, even if they cannot compete with conventional processes and raw materials.

Table 6. Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources for SCP Production Substrate

Type of Organism

Species

Algae Photosynthetic bacteria

Spirulina maxima Rhodopseudomonas

Cellulolytic bacteria Thermophilic actinomycetes Fungi Yeasts

Cellulomonas; Brevibacterium Thermomonospora sp. Trichoderma viride

Renewable C0 2 -SunIight Cellulose Cellulose

Sugars and starches

Fungi

Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Candida utilis; Kluyveromyces Aspergillus nige/; Fusarium semitecticum ; Endomycopsis fibuligera

Non-renewable Hydrocarbons: Methane

Methane-utilizing bacteria Purified n-alkanes: Bacteria gas oil, kerosene Yeasts

Methylococcus capsulatus; Hyphomicrobium sp. Acinetobacter cerificans; Pseudomonas sp. Candida lipolytica; Candida tropicalis

Petrochemicals: Ethanol Methanol Chemical industry wastes

Bacteria Yeasts Bacteria Yeasts Yeasts Fungi

Source: Reference 12

Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Candida utilis Pseudomonas sp. Hansenula polymorpha; Torulopsis methanosorbosa Candida pseudotropicalis ; Candida lipolytica Trichosporon cutaneum

Renaissance of Biotechnology

217

Table 7. Some developments in SCP production from biodegradable wastes Location

Company

Size (ton/year)

Substrate

Organism

Belize, CA

Tate & Lyle

Pilot

Fruit wastes

Fungi

Cuba

KojinLicense

Large

Molasses

Yeasts

El Salvador

ICAITI

Pilot

Coffee wastes

Yeasts

Finland

Finnish Paper & Pulp Co.

10,000

Sulphite liquor

Yeasts

1973

GDR

several production plants

Sulphite liquor

Yeasts

1980

GDR

several production plants

Molasses/ Distiller's wash of Molasses

Yeasts

1980

Japan

Japan Pulp Jujo Pulp & Paper

20,000 tons Sulphite of yeast produced liquor collectively per year

Yeasts

plants in opération for several years

Sweden

Swedish Sugar Co.

10,000

Potato starch

Yeasts

1974

USA

Milbrew 10,000(?) (Wisconsin) Anhauser-Bush 2,000 (St. Louis) Boise Cascade 10,000 (Wisconsin) General Electric Pilot Caca Grande (Arizona)

Whey

Yeasts

1974

Molasses

Yeasts

1975

Sulphite liquor Manure

Yeasts

Sulphite liquor Wood pulp

Yeasts

USSR

Khabarorsk —

~10,000 1,000,000

Bacteria

Production Date

1972(?)

Yeasts

Sources: Extracted and adapted from material in reference 10 and Table 5 (Sources 2).

Several laboratory studies indicate significant potential and multiple long-term possibilities. A price fall in the acquisition of chemical and petrochemical raw materials is negated by either the increasing prices for fossil fuels or the high-cost of nuclear energy. Consequently, preference for raw materials like methane and methanol appears justifiable. In fact, methanol has been deployed for PRUTEEN production and is a potential carbon source for the production of enzymes, amino-acids and vitamins [13]. A UNEP/UNESCO MIRCEN has recently conducted some research work in the microbial production of methanol and reviewed the literature m this field [14]. In summary, several countries have begun work on SCP derived either from diesel oil, w-paraffins or carbohydric wastes for animal feeds. Fundamental work on SCP production has been reported in Cuba, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia

218

E . J . DASILVA

and Venezuela. Plants elsewhere and m the People's Republic of China, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Japan, the U. K., the U. S. A. and the U. S. S. R. are envisaged to have planned production capacities to exceed 100,0Q0 tonnes of SCP per year. Commercial production for the 1980s is expected to reach 500,000 tonnes a year. Table 8. Promotion of applied microbiological research in the academic, research and industrial sectors in Japan Sector

Projects and Research Areas

Manpower 1240

Academic Depts.* (33) Agricultural Chemistry (4) Food Science (2) Horticulture (6) Fermentation Technology

Basic research in microbiology leading to applications in the fermented food, livestock feed, agricultural, medical, brewing, chemical, mining, agro-medical, "pharmaceutical, fibre, laundry industries

Professors (280) Associate Professors (243) Assistant Professors (52) Assistants (665)

(1) Biology (2) Applied Microbiology Inst.*

(2) Food Science (1) Scientific Industrial Research (1) Protein Research (1) Fermentation Technology

Research Institutes (27) National (17) Local Prefectures (7) Public (40) Sponsored by Microbiological Industries

Basic and applied research in the production of fermented foods, production of amino acids, physiologically-active substances, production and utilization of enzymes, brewing, conservation of the environment, and produktion of industrial solvents

1148 454 1424 7229

Industrial Agencies (20) (13) (18) (7)

Pharmaceuticals Breweries Food Products Acidulants

Research Research Research Research

in in in in

bio-pharmaceuticals brewery products food and feed products organic acidulants

50678 19066 ,11041 49428

Figures in parentheses indicate number of research departments, institutes and companies in the academic, research and industrial sectors * Depts. = Departments; Insts. = Institutes Source: International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1977, Japan's Most Advanced Industrial Fermentation Technology and Industry — An Academic Review

219

Renaissance of Biotechnology

Pharmaceutical microbiology I n the modern world of pharmaceutical research and industry, the biosynthetic capabilities of micro-organisms are a spectacular example of the technology that has sprouted f r o m some of the simplest scintillating discoveries m the laboratory. The antibactericidal action of penicillin on pathogenic microbes, the exact defining of the nutritional requirements of micro-organisms, the biosynthesis of the B-complex vitamins, the enzymic Table 9. A. Some base characteristics of industrial fermentation technology in Japan Major Companies Main Fermentation Products Capital Sales Employee Number of (number) (million yen) (million yen) strength Plants Breweries (13) Food and food supplements (17) Organic acids (12) Pharmaceuticals

Beer, wine, sake, liquors, whisky and beverages miso, shoyu, seasonings, vinegar, fodder yeast, feedstuff yeast Amino acids, organic acidulants, nucleic acids antibiotics, vitamins, enzymes, agricultural chemicals, sterols

69,275

1,335,000

19,066

39

636,600

592,306

19,924

27

160,918

1,725,755

49,428

29

106,133

1,533,950

52,924

46

B. Position of Fermentation Industries in the Japanese Economy Total Manufacturing Industries

Chemical Industries

Food Industries

270,000 million Í 100%

20,900 7.7 100%

29,300 10.8 140.2 100%

Fermentation Liquors Industries Industries 5,700 2.1

27.3 19.5 100%

4,800 1.8 , 23.0 16.0 84.2

Fermentation Chemicals 900 0.3 4.3 3.1 15.8

C. Some aspects of microbial technology trade — technology transfer Product Acromycin Citric acid Inosine acid Josamycin Kanamycin

Export to

USA France USA USA Korea, Republic of USA Lysine Penicillin G Mexico Turkey Sodium glutamate Indonesia Italy Thailand

Period

Product

Import from

Period

19531961- 1976 19751974

Hygromycin Spiramycin Streptomycin L-Tryptophan Yeast (SCP)

Switzerland France USA Italy U. K.

19711966- 1979 — 1977 1970- 1977 1969- 1984

1958- 1984 197319751970- 2000 1963- 1983 1970- 2020

Source: Prepared from data available in the Academic Review — Japan's Most Advanced Industrial Fermentation Technology and Industry, Int. Tech. Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 197

220

E. J. DASILVA

conversion of progesterone into a hydroxylated derivative and the production of glutamic acid are at the base of the antibiotic, the bioassay, the vitamin, enzyme, steroid and amino acid bioindustries. Microbial biosynthetic industries involve either total or partial microbial synthesis. In the former instance, the desired product results at the end of the microbiological process, whilst in the latter case, either a precursory material is added for transformation (e. g. the condensation of equivalent amounts of pyrimidine and thiazole by yeast into vitamin Bj) or a product is obtained by one or more steps by microbes with the remainder changes being brought about by other means (e. g. the chemical conversion of the biosynthesized product 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6—APA) — the nucleus of the penicillin molecule — into the semi-synthetic penicillins. Examples of total synthesis by micro-organisms are dextran, vitamin B12 and tetracyline products amongst others. The world of pharmaceutical microbiology is well established and several comprehensive reviews are already well-known. Consequently, it would suffice to say that these bioindustries are existent mostly in the industrialized countries. Tables 8 and 9 provide information on the variety of the various application processes of microbes in the development of industry, and on the salient base characteristics of the industrial fermentations in Japan. Intermediate-capital technology Such technology involves moderate financial investments, medium-scale plants with appropriate equipment and maintenance costs and less complex operating procedures. The growth of such technology can be linked to the réévaluation of the management of energy and other natural resources, and to environmental considerations necessitating the utilization of "wastes that are resources out of place." The concept of utilizing organic agricultural residues has stood the test of time [15]. Organic residues are potential bioresources in the light of their promising uses (Table 10). The potentials of microbial bioconversion technologies and the utilization of the planet's biospheric resources in feeding a growing population have recently been dealt .with [16, 17, 18]. In combatting waste of renewable natural resources and in promoting conservation and consequently better utilization of available natural food and feed stocks, an effective and economical tool is the fermentation process which for centuries has been employed in the preparation of the traditional fermented foods. In Southeast Asia, the preparation of fermented foods is a widespread tradition, the fermented products derived from seed, milk, meat, fish and vegetable fermentations which are delicacies that supply protein and enrich predominantly starchy diets with vitamins and other nutrients badly needed by millions of people subsisting on marginal incomes. Fermented Food Technology Indigenous fermented foods are very important as they are socioculturally bound, especially in rural household and village community traditions. They have been at the base of the processes today collectively called biotechnology and are significant elements in the diets of millions of people. Bread, wine, tempeh and cheese are well established in the dawn of different civilizations and attest to the biochemical transformations that help improve the preservation, taste and digestibility of fermented foods substrates. Saccharomyces was recognized and cultured as brewer's yeast in Mesopotamia (6000 B. C.). Yeasts, used for beer and bread fermentations were found in Egyptian tombs of 2000 B. C., and were prescribed for certain debilities by the school of HIPPOCEATES in Cos.

221

Renaissance of Biotechnology Table 10. Potential End-Uses of Organic Residues Food

— — — — — —

Microbial biomass fermented foods beverages mushrooms oils proteins

Peed

— — — —

direct use upgrading (physical, chemical, microbial) ensilage microbial biomass

Fertilizer

— direct use — compost — residue of biogas production

Energy-

— — — —

biogas alcohol producer gas direct use (combustion)

Construction Materials

— boards, panels, bricks

Paper pulp

— paper, paperboard, packaging materials

Chemicals

— — — — —

Pharmaceuticals

— hycogen — antibiotics — vitamins

furfural xylitol alcohol organic acids polysaccharides

Source: W. B a b r e v e l d , Availability of Organic Residues as a Rural Resource, in: Bioconversion of Organic Residues for Rural Communities, U N U Document IPWN-1 /UNUP-4, 1979.

Yeast cells were also identified in the dried remains of a beer product circa 353 B. C. found in Alzey, near Mainz, F. R. G. Laboratory analyses showed partial agreement with contemporary beer analyses [19]. The indigenous fermented food processes offer a unique opportunity for increasing the quantity and quality of protein in areas of the world (Table 11) where the staple food is largely comprised of starch. Such foods are not only suitable, at the village level, for low-cost production of foods with acceptable flavours, textures and nutritive values, but also contribute to western food science. The developments in the occidental world of protein-rich vegetarian meat substitutes such as spun-protein, soy nuggets and mouldbased meat analogues can be traced to the fermented food technology of the developing countries [20]. Biological

Nitrogen-Fixation

(BNF)

Technology

Several of these countries are.generally agrarian-based and rural in life-style. They are further plagued by uncertain agricultural productivity, soil depletion, deforestation, spoilage and loss of crops, deficits in the balance of payments and low usage of fertilizer. 2

Acta Biotechnol., Bd. 1, H. 3

222

E. J. DASILVA

Table 11. Microbes used in the Preparation of Some Fermented Foods Fermented

Where

Organisms

Common name

Substrate Scientific name

Food

consumed

used

Soyabean

Glycine max

Tempeh

Indonesia

Rhizopus sp.

Groundnut

Arachis hypogea

Ontjom

Indonesia

Neurospora

Cassava

Manihot

Gari

West Africa

Peujeum Poi

West Java Hawaii, USA

Geotrichum candidum Aspergillus niger Lactobacilli, streptococci and yeasts

utilissima

silophila

Wheat

Genus Triticum

Kistik, Kushik

Middle East

Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis

Rice

Genus Oryza

Idli Angkak

India Syria

Yeasts, cocci. Monascus purpureus

Maize

Genus Zea

Miso Jamin-bang

Japan Brazil

Ogi Chicha

Nigeria Peru

Mixture of bacterial and yeast populations Mixture of fungal, bacterial and yeast populations

Millets and Sorghums

Braga

Romania

Rhizopus, yeasts and lactobacilli

Milk

Kefir

USSR

Lactobacillus sp.

Sources: STANTON, W. R. and WALLBRIDGE, A., (1969), Process Biochemistry, April, pgs. 45—51, and Table 5 (Sources 2).

The use of fertilizer is critically linked to energy. Vital to land productivity m terms of fertilizer utilization is nitrogen — an element freely available in nature and devoid of political boundaries. Hitherto, nitrogen has been fixed chemically and in such form constitutes a non-renewable resource. Whereas in 1905, 400,000 metric tons were globally produced, the estimated output in 1978 was m excess of 50,000,000 tons [21]. Chemically fixed nitrogen fertilizer is plagued by steep economies and potential environmental problems. There are several chemical fertilizer plants in operation and several more under construction (Table 12). Estimates indicate that the total energy needed for production of global ammonium fertilizers is equivalent to 2 million barrels of oil — another non-renewable resource. For the production of 1 kg. of nitrogen, as ammonia, an estimate of 1 cubic metre of natural gas is utilized. WITTWER [22] proposed the establishment of rhizobial technology centres and a return to cropping systems involving the use of legume green manure and genetic engineering [23, 24]. There are several international agricultural research centres, and modest schemes in interaction with other international programmes such as NIFTAL (Nitrogen fixation by tropical agricultural legumes), are already opferating through microbiological resources centres (MIRCENs) on a level of regional co-operation in East Africa and Latin America [25-28].

Recent research advances in the established symbiotic relationships for legumes, the

Table 12. Projected Construction of Fertilizer Plants (adapted) Country

Plant Capacity N (IO6 t a" 1 )*

Fertilizer product

Bahrain

0.15 0.32 0.28 0.17 0.32 .0.27 0.32 0.14 0.32 0.14 0.32 0.28 0.96 0.62 2.36 0.19 0.32 0.48 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.12 0.42 0.32 0.13

fertilizer 1 ammonia urea ammonia ammonia urea ammonia urea ammonia urea ammonia urea ammonia ammonia urea fertilizer ammonia ammonia ammonia urea ammonia urea urea ammonia ammonium nitrate ammonia I !• urea ammonium ) nitrate jammonia urea ammonium phosphate ammonia 1 nitrophosphate ammonia ) fertilizer ammonia urea [• ammonia urea ammonia ammonia l urea [ ammonia urea ammonia urea

Bangladesh Bolivia Brazil

Canada China Egypt Hungary India

Iran Iraq Ireland Italy Korea, Republic of

0.44 0.12 0.05

Libya Pakistan

0.32 0.04

Romania Spain Sudan Trinidad Turkey U. S. S. R.

0.32 0.07 0.56 0.04 0.26 0.08 0.15 0.18 0.35 0.32 0.16 2.40 0.69 0.80 0.23

Financial source or Technical sponsor

Capital Investment (dollars 106)

India

115

India Argentina Argentina

80

Kellogg International Brazil

60

Canada USA (Kellogg) Japan Holland (Kellogg) World Bank Hungary U. K. and F. R. G.

70 55

220

France Japan Ireland Iraly

100 50

USA, Japan

181

Libya, F. R. G. World Bank K 11 ^ J f

d ^

100

Romania 4

Spain France Trinidad World Bank and F. R. G. U. S. A. U. S. A. Italy Italy

60 50 57 $ $

* The reader is referred to the source reference below for the estimation of the nitrogen content of the various industrial products cited in the table. $ Part of the $ 8 billion deal between Occidental Petroleum and the U. S. S. R. Source: McEl ROY, M. B., WOFSY, S. C. and YUNG, Y. C., 1977, Philosophical Transactions ot the Royal Society of London, Vol. 277, pgs. 159—181. 2*

224

E . J . DASILVA

actinomycete-nodulated angiosperms, the Anabaena-Azolla interactions, the Spirillumrhizosphere associations and the mycorrhizal-root combinations recommend the use of these naturally-occurring phenomena. Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) technology is an apt example of a bioconversion technology devised by Nature. I t has been reported that the rhizobial bacteria, in the root nodules, have the capability of fixing enough nitrogen to match the photosynthetic capability of the legume. F R E D E RICK [29] has discussed B N F and the research needs and principles for pursuing B N F technology and agricultural development in the tropics. The legume has often been described as 'the poor man's meat' which emphasizes its cultural and nutritional use as a protein supplement to cereal diets. Listed amongst some of the earliest agricultural rops, grain legumes-have become an intrinsic component of agricultural-societal development on account of the roles they have: viz, a salient component of human nutritional diets, and as a source of nitrogen in natural agricultural ecosystems. Biological nitrogen-fixation is best known amongst the leguminous plants (Leguminosae) — peanut (Arachis hypogea), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajari), mung bean (Vigna radiata), soybean (Glycine max), lentil (Lens culinaris), french bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lucerne (Medicago falcata), channel clover (Trigonella suavissima), white clover (Trifolium repens), lupin (Lupinus cuteus) and winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) to mention an few species that are often encountered in the developing countries as 'native cash crops'. In addition to harnessing the potentials of the Rhizobium-legame symbiosis, recognition has been increasingly given to the role of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria and their associations with eukaryotic plants in tapping elemental nitrogen from Nature's natural reservoir — the atmosphere. The cyanobacteria (bluegreen algae) are organisms which, using sunlight energy, water as a source of reductant and simple inorganic salts, can convert atmospheric nitrogen and carbon dioxide into cell protein. Most attention has been given to the role of cyanobacteria in increasing significantly inputs of nitrogen into soil has been witnessed in the savanna lands of Southwest Nigeria and the Campina areas of tropical Brazil. However, the full potential of B N F technology has not been fully realized. A report [30] states that 'in the developing countries of Africa, Latin America and Asia, little awareness exists of the usefulness of these nitrogen-supplying micro-organisms. Agricultural scientists in these regions have tended to mimic the approaches used successfully by their colleagues in the advanced nations, and those procedures have relied heavily on the use of fertilizers — which are relatively cheap in Europe, J a p a n and North America — rather than the earlier studies in the technologically advanced countries which were concerned with the microbial utilization and supplying of nitrogen. Coinciding with this low level of awareness is the lack of a meaningful commitment in terms of programmes or financial support. For these reasons, the developing countries have very few active centres that are endeavouring to exploit or study the microbial acquisition of atmospheric nitrogen for plant use. Similarly, few trained individuals exist in Africa, Asia and Latin America, who are in a position to transfer the existing technology from the advanced countries to the developing countries or to do the intitial pioneering studies'. Microbial Biomass Product or MBP

Technology

Agricultural and forest residues have increasingly been investigated as a possible source of energy. The advantages of such a product are domestic production, renewable supply and clean conversion. Recently, a group of experts on the uses of non-food agricultural materials and their relevance to development, identified fuel and energy, biotechnology and bioconversion, and plants with more than one-end use as significant areas of progress [31].

Renaissance of Biotechnology

225

Solar-biological systems generating biofuels are expected to make a modest impact on national energy economies (Fig. 1). The U. S. extracts one to two percent of its energy from biomass (1.3 quads of the national energy use of 75 quads) and optimistic predictions are that this could increase to six-twenty five percent by 2020 to 2025. Biomass is an important source of chemicals, and several adaptive schemes that utilize biomasssugarcan, corn, guayule — as a source of food, materials and chemicals have been analyzed [32], At the World Food Conference in Rome six years ago, it was estimated that of an estimated production of 900 million tonnes of cereal in 1985, we would still be short of our needs by 85 million tonnes. Currently a third of the world's cereal output is fed to domestic animals — a quantity adequate to meet the combined needs of India and China [33]. The report, Reshaping the International Order [34] alludes to the production of protein-aceous animal feed through the action of micro-organisms on cellulose and cellulosic substrates. Resort to such technology could release areas now used for fodder crops to the production of edibles for human consumption. At this stage, it is only fair to point out that several studies have raised a serious question viz. that of utilizing such areas for production of food or fuel crops. Current interest in photosynthetically-derived biomass [35—37], has indicated that plants, diversified and adaptable in existence, constitute an indefinite source of renewable quantities of edible products, fibre, chemicals and fuels. Apart from yielding alcohol and microbial protein, plant biomass can be transformed into major chemical feedstocks for the plastic-fibre and rubber industry [38]. In animal feed stocks production, the resources are abundantly available in the form of starch and cellulose. The latter is the planet's amplest organic compound — readily available (1011 tonnes are produced each year, readily renewable and relatively cheap). I n addition to serving as a base for animal protein — food production, cellulose and starch offer themselves as suitable substrates for chemical feedstock production. Fermentation of sugars from biomass hydrolysis can yield acetone, citric, butyric and lactic acids, butanol, ethanol, glycerol and isopropanol. Through a variety of chemical reactions such as oxidation, dehydration, hydrogenation and the like, a variety of important chemical intermediates can be obtained conveniently and cheaply from these biomassderived intermediates than from petroleum [39]. Details regarding the various microbial processes as well as the ability of micro-organisms to generate fuel and industrial chemicals and interconvert energy resources have recently been dealt with [40, 41]. In a recent analysis [42] it was concluded that microbial syntheses are unsuitable in comparison to conventional processes. However, microbial technologies are competitive in the production of high tonnage chemicals when applied in conjunction with the disposal of wastes. Within the UNESCO developed network of microbiological resources centres in Central America, there are several projects concerning the bioconversion of agricultural and coffee pulp residues, the production of methane, ethanol and methanol. Network affiliates are Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, República Dominicana, Chile and Ecuador. Several cooperative research projects in biogas production, microbial biomass, fermented foods and feeds, ethanol and environmental microbiology are either under way or in the process of negotiation. Likewise UNEP/UNESCO sponsored MIRCENs at Bangkok and Cairo are engaged in regional collaboration and promotion of research projects in harnessing biotechnological procedures for recycling of organic agro-industrial residual materials. A digest of the role of micro-organisms in the deployment of biomass for food production, development of indigenous and economically important fermentations, and waste disposal, for use by microbiological resources centres has recently been released [43],

226

E. J. DASUVA

r

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