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English Pages [352] Year 1982
A Zooarchaeological Study of the Roman North-western Provinces
Rosemary-Margaret Luff
B A R International Series I 3 7 1982
B.A.R.,
B.A.R.
122 Banbury
Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker; M.A.
B.A.R.-S1J7, 1982:: 'A Zboarc haeologic al Study of the Roman North-western Provinces' © Rosemary-Margaret Luff, 1982 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541684 paperback ISBN 9781407328126 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541684 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
' A g ood d eal o f
t he r ash a nd h asty
g eneralization o f o ur t ime a rises f rom t he u nreliability o f t he e vidence u pon w hich i t i s b ased. I t i s n ext t o i mpossible t o g ive a c ontinuous n arrative o f a ny a rchaeological i nvestigation t hat i s e ntirely f ree f rom b ias; u ndue s tress w ill b e l aid u pon f acts t hat s eem t o h ave a n i mportant b earing u pon t heories t hat a re c urrent a t t he t ime w hile o thers t hat m ight c ome t o b e c onsidered o f g reater v alue a fterwards a re p ut i n t he b ackground o r n ot r ecorded, a nd p osterity i s e ndowed w ith a l egacy o f e rror t hat c an n ever b e r ectified. B ut w hen f ulness a nd a ccuracy a re m ade t he c hief s ubject o f s tudy, t his e vil i s i n a g reat m easure a voided.'
L ieutenant-General P itt-Rivers 1 888.
C ONTENTS p age A cknowledgements P reface L ist o f P lates a nd M aps C HAPTER O NE Z OOARCHAEOLOGY - T he p ossibilities a nd l imitations 1 .1
A b rief h istory o f t he s ubject
1
1 .2
A ims a nd m ethods
2
1 .2.1 1 .2.2 1 .2.3
S ampling T aphonomy Q uantification
5 5
1 .2.4 1 .2.5 1 .2.6
B utchery I dentification S exing
1 4 1 5
1 .2.7 1 .2.8
W ithers h eight A geing
1 9
3
8
1 8
S ummary
2 5
C HAPTER T WO S HEEPEN - T he f irst c entury A .D.
i n R oman B ritain
2 .1
I ntroduction
2 6
2 .2
B one f ragment c ount o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies
2 8
2 .3
B utchery 2 .3.1 C attle b utchery 2 .3.2 S heep/goat b utchery
3 0 3 0 3 3
2 .3.3
3 4
P ig b utchery
2 .4
M inimum n umber o f a nimals
3 5
2 .5
T he S heepen c attle
3 5
2 .6
S ocio-economic c hange i n t he f irst c entury B .C. t o f irst c entury A .D.
o f R oman B ritain
5 0
2 .7
T he S heepen s heep/goat
5 3
2 .8
T he S heepen h orse
6 1
2 .9
T he S heepen p ig
6 1
2 .10 T he S heepen d ogs
6 1
2 .11 T he S heepen b irds
6 3
2 .12 W ild a nimals
6 5
2 .13 P athology o f S heepen a nimals
6 5
p age 2 .14
S heepen - T he b ackground o f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman P eriod ( first c entury) 2 .14.1 2 .14.2
C attle s ize S heep s ize
2 .14.3 2 .14.4
P ig s ize H orse s ize
6 9 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1
T ABLES 2 :1 - 2 :18 C HAPTER T HREE C OLCHESTER - t he f irst t o f ifth c enturies A .D.
i n
R oman B ritain 3 .1
T he T rinovantian l andscape
9 7
3 .2
T he R omano-British p opulation
9 8
3 .3
T he B alkerne L ane d eposits a t C olchester
9 9
3 .4
B one f ragment c ount
1 00
3 .4.1
1 00
U se o f o x s capulae a s s hovels/scoops
3 .5
B utchery
1 02
3 .6
A c omparison o f t he b one f ragment c ount f or S heepen a nd C olchester
1 04
3 .7 3 .8
3 .9
M inimum n umber o f a nimals o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies
1 05
T he f requency o f s keletal e lements p er s pecies 3 .8.1 C attle
1 07 1 07
3 .8.2 3 .8.3
1 08 1 08
S heep/goat P ig
T he C olchester c attle
1 08
3 .10 T he C olchester s heep/goat
1 18
3 .11 T he C olchester p ig
1 27
3 .12 T he C olchester h orse
1 30
3 .13 T he C olchester d ogs
1 30
3 .14 T he C olchester b irds
1 31
3 .15 W ild a nimals
1 31
3 .16 M etrical a nalysis o f a nimal b ones f rom v arious s ites i n R oman B ritain 3 .16.1 M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British
1 31
c attle M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British s heep/goat M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British
1 32
3 .16.2 3 .16.3
h orse 3 .17 T he f irst B ritain
t o f ifth c enturies A .D.
T ABLES 3 :1 - 3 :27
1 34 1 36
o f R oman 1 36
C HAPTER F OUR
E mt
C HELMSFORD - T he f irst
t o f ourth c enturies A .D.
4 .1
I ntroduction
4 .2
R itual b one d eposits
1 75
T he Chelmsford
4 .2.2
T he s ignificance o f t he h orse s kulls
4 .2.3
H orse b urial
1 89
4 .2.4
Foundation d eposits
1 90
4 .2.5
T emple s acrifices
1 91
4 .2.6
Puits
f ungraires
1 93
4 .2.7
' Odd'
d eposits
1 93
a nd b ones
4 .3
1 76
4 .2.1
C helmsford - t he
' votive' w ell d eposit
f rom s ite AR
1 76 1 86
f irst f our c enturies A .D.
1 94
4 .3.1
A nimal b one r emains f rom t he C helmsford
4 .3.2 4 .3.3
C attle s exing T he C helmsford b irds
4 .3.4
T he C helmsford d ogs
1 98 1 98
4 .3.5
B utchery
2 01
4 .3.6
T he s ize o f
s ites
4 .3.7
1 97 1 98
t he C helmsford d omestic
a nimals
2 01
T he C helmsford h orses
2 04
TABLES 4 :1 - 4 :19
C HAPTER F IVE T HE R OMAN N ORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES, E XCLUDING B RITANNIA 5 .1
I ntroduction
2 37
5 .2
rovincial d iet T he R oman N orth-western P
2 48
5 .3
rovincial h T he R oman N orse orth-western P
2 52
5 .4
rovincial T he R oman N orth-western P
2 58
5 .5
heep/goat rovincial s orth-western P T he R oman N
2 61
5 .6
rovincial p ig T he R oman N orth-western P
2 63
5 .7
rovincial d og T he R oman N orth-western P
2 63
5 .8
oultry rovincial p T he R oman N orth-western P
2 64
5 .9
I ntroduced s pecies 5 .9.1 T he a ss - E quus a sinus
2 64
5 .9.2
T he d omestic c at - F elis c atus
2 65
5 .9.3 5 .9.4
T he c amel T he p eacock - P avo p avo
2 65 2 65
5 .9.5
T he
2 66
5 .9.6 5 .9.7
T he e lephant T he g uinea f owl - Numidia m eleagris
c attle
f allow d eer - D ama d ama
5 .10 W ild a nimals T ABLES 5 :1 - 5 :32
2 64
2 66 2 66 2 66
C HAPTER S IX C ONCLUSIONS 6 .1
T he C anton o f t he T rinovantes
3 07
6 .2
B ritannia a nd t he o ther N orth-western P rovinces
3 08
6 .3
T he w ider i mplications o f
3 10
B IBLIOGRAPHY
t his r esearch
3 11
A cknowledgements Many p eople h ave h elped d irectly a nd i ndirectly i n t he e ffort t o p roduce
t his b ook which o riginated a s p art o f a d octoral r esearch
p roject.
I am g rateful
t o t he D .E.S.
f or f inancing my r esearch w hile
Iw as a g raduate s tudent a t C ambridge University. P hilosophical S ociety who e nabled m e t o c omplete p rovided m e w ith f unds t o t ravel a broad. Iw ould l ike t o t hank M iss J oan L iversidge C ambridge)
I t hank t he C ambridge t his w ork a nd w ho
( Dept. A rchaeology,
f or h er c ontinued s upport a nd e ncouragement w ithout w hich
t his b ook w ould n ot h ave b een c ompleted. P . A rmitage
( B.M., N at.Hist.)
t hanks a re d ue
I am m ost g rateful
f or h is i nterest a nd h elp.
t o D r
M y e special
t o D r G raeme L awson a nd Mr P aul D rury who p rovided m e
w ith much i nformative d iscussion.
I a m a lso i ndebted t o B ob W ilson,
B etty W estley, R osalind N iblett, P aul D rury, C live P artridge, N ina a nd P hilip C rummy who f reely g ave i nformation c oncerning t heir w ork. I t hank J . Musty o f t he D .O.E.,
P aul Drury,
R osalind N iblett a nd
P hilip C rummy f or a llowing m e t o p ublish my f aunal a nalytical r esults f or S heepen,
C olchester a nd C helmsford.
C lassical A rchaeology,
P rofessor A .
h uge amount o f a nimal b one i n t he ARK b asement; M r E .E.
J ones a nd B .D.
( Dept.
I t hank h im a nd a lso
T hompson f or t heir u nfailing c heerfulness.
W ith r egard t o t he c ontinental material, o f P rofessor J .
S nodgrass
C ambridge) v ery k indly a llowed m e t o s tore t he
I a m v ery a ppreciative
B oessneck's g enerosity i n a llowing m e t o b orrow much
p ublished a nd u npublished m aterial f rom t he University L ibrary i n Munich.
S imilarly, Dr A .T.
C lason
( Biol.-Arch.Institute,
G roningen)
p rovided me w ith p apers a nd b ooks t hat w ere u nobtainable i n B ritain a nd g ave me much v aluable a dvice. f or t heir r eadiness
t o h elp.
I t hank t hem b oth m ost s incerely
Iw ould a lso l ike t o t hank D r V .
P rummel
f or k indly a llowing m e t o u se h er u npublished manuscripts. A dvice c oncerning b one p athology was r endered r eadily b y C olonel J . H ickman a nd Dr A .R. J ennings ( Cambridge V et. S chool) a nd a lso b y M r C hris C ollis ( Equine R esearch S tation, N ewmarket) who v aliantly X -rayed t he C helmsford a nd W ickford h orse s kulls. I e xpress m y g ratitude. I t hank Mr A .S. C larke o f t he R oyal S cottish Museum, E dinburgh f or a llowing m e s kulls.
t o e xamine a nd m easure t he N ewstead h orse
T he p hotography w as
s kilfully e xecuted b y G wil O wen t o whom
I a m t hankful. I e xtend a s pecial w ho e ncouraged m e
t hank y ou t o t he Directors o f E icon R esearch
t o p roduce t his b ook.
H owever c ompletion w ould n ot
h ave b een a chieved w ithout t he a ssistance o f Mrs S ally R oberts who t ransformed a h orrendous m anuscript i nto l egibility. I am m ost g rateful. I s hould l ike t o t hank m y p arents a nd u ncle Mr a nd M rs L .B. a nd T .G. Luff f or t heir wholehearted s upport a nd p atient e ncouragement. I t hank t hem d early.
L astly I am i ndebted t o my husband, D r T ony H ooley
w ho made m e l augh when m oments w ere b leak - my d eepest t hanks.
P reface T his b ook i s a n i nvestigation i nto t he v arious t ion,
p articularly s ocio-economic,
t ypes o f i nforma-
t hat c an b e r evealed b y R oman a nimal
b ones. E mphasis i s p laced o n t he a nimal b ones b ecause t here i s a s carcity o f p ublished d ata c oncerning o ther z oological r emains, e .g. m olluscs,
f ish a nd i nsects.
Z ooarcha2ology, a g lobal b asis.
S ince n o s tandard m ethodology e xists i n
p ast a nd c urrent a nalysis t echniques a re r eviewed o n T he c hoice o f t echniques i s l argely d etermined b y
t he t ime a vailable f or a nalysis a nd t he o verall c ost e ffectiveness. T he a uthor h as d evised a m ethod o f r ecording b utchery p atterns, w hich e ases t he d ifficulties i nvolved i n c omparison o f s ites. U sing b one material f rom a v ariety o f r elated s ites i n R oman E ssex, t he v alidity o f
t he a nalysis m ethods c hosen i s d iscussed.
i nclude C helmsford,
C olchester a nd S heepen
( Fig.
1 .1).
T hese s ites
T he a rea i n
w hich t hey l ie i s n aturally d emarcated o n t he e ast by t he N orth S ea, o n t he s outh by t he R iver T hames, i ts
o n t he w est b y t he L ea V alley a nd
t ributaries a nd i n t he n orth w est b y t he w atershed o f t he B oulder
C lay.
T he p hysical g eography o f t he whole a rea l ies w ithin t he L ondon
B asin. T o t he n orth o f C helmsford i s a s heet o f e asily w orked B oulder C lay w ith o utcrops o f g lacial s ands a nd g ravels, e .g. e xposed a long r iver v alleys a nd a round C olchester a nd C helmsford. S outh o f C helmsford i s t he l ess f ertile b elt o f L ondon C lay which i s v irtually c ontinuous e xcept f or p laces c apped b y b eds o f p ebbles,
g ravels a nd s and.
Much
o f E ssex i s e ndowed w ith many f resh w ater s prings a nd s treams. R esults s ites
f rom t he E ssex s ites a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom o ther
i n B ritain a nd a lso t he C ontinent,
R hineland,
S witzerland a nd
i .e.
F rance,
t he N orth G erman P lain.
B elgium ,
H olland,
I n p articular,
i nformation has b een g ained by a m etrical i nvestigation o f h orse,
m uch c attle
a nd s heep/goat s pecies i n t he R oman N orth-western P rovinces. T he F igures a nd M aps
r eferred t o i n e ach C hapter w ill b e f ound
a djacent t o t he f irst p oint o f r eference while
t he T ables h ave b een
g rouped t ogether a t t he e nd o f e ach C hapter t o l ighten t he t ext. T he f ollowing s tatistical
s ymbols a re u sed:-
n
-
number
✓
-
r ange
X
-
m ean
s
-
s tandard d eviation
V
-
c oefficient o f v ariation
-
c oefficient o f d ifference
C .D.
L ist o f P lates
P late 1
C ow mandible,
P late
P ole-axed c ow s kull
2
p age
p ossibly g nawed b y r odent f rom S heepen
P late 3
C attle h orn c ores
P late 4
T wo d eformed s heep h orn c ores
3 1 3 2
f rom S heepen
4 8 ( centre) w ith
t wo n ormally d eveloped h orn c ores
6 6
P late 5
L esion i n p arietal b one o f S heepen c ow s kull
6 7
P late 6
F ractured p ig humerus a nd f emur p ig m etapodials w ith e xostoses
( above); ( below)
6 8 1 19
P late 7
C attle h orn c ores f rom C olchester
P late 8
F our h orned s heep
P late 9
H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.
D orsal v iew
1 79
P late 1 0
H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.
L ateral v iew
1 80
P late 1 1
H orse s kull C HAR 2 96.
V entral v iew
1 81
P late 1 2
H orse s kull C HAR 2 78.
D orsal v iew
1 82
P late
H orse
s kull C HAR 2 78.
L ateral v iew
1 83
P late 1 4
H orse s kull C HAR 2 78.
V entral v iew
1 84
P late 1 5
C attle h orn c ores
P late 1 6
49, H orse s kull BW 1
4 ,
1 .
D orsal v iew
2 07
P late 1 7
kull B H orse s W 1 49,
4 ,
1 .
L ateral v iew
2 08
P late 1 8
W 1 49, H orse s kull B
4 ,
1 .
V entral v iew
2 09
P late 1 9
H orse s W 1 49, kull B
4 ,
2 .
D orsal v iew
2 10
P late
H orse
49, s kull BW 1
4 ,
2 .
Lateral v iew
2 11
P late 2 1
W 1 49, H orse s kull B
4 ,
2 . V entral v iew
2 12
P late
andible orse m X -ray p hotograph o f C helmsford h
1 3
2 0
2 2
f rom C olchester c .
4 9 A .D.
1 28
2 00
f rom Chelmsford
2 17
L ist o f Maps
M ap 5 .1
D istribution o f I ron A ge S ettlements
( La T ene)
M ap 5 .2
D istribution o f R oman P rovincial T owns a nd
2 39
C ivil S ettlements
2 41
M ap 5 .3
D istribution o f R oman P rovincial V illas
2 43
M ap 5 .4
D istribution o f S ettlements o utside
M ap 5 .5
t he
R oman Empire
2 45
D istribution o f R oman P rovincial F orts
2 47
, 4 ••
b 1 : 1 •r l
.
g i ,
r eproduced b y c ourtesy o f C helmsford A rchaeological T rust.
C HAPTER O NE
Z OOARCHAEOLOGY - T he p ossibilities a nd l imitations
b ioarchaeology i s n ot i n t he f inal a nalysis b iological, i t i s a rchaeological b ecause i t i s c oncerned w ith c ommunities whose b ehavioral p atterns w ere c onditioned a nd mediated b y a nd c ulture-communities...' ( J.G.D. C lark 1 972, 1 5)
1 .1
A b rief h istory o f
t he s ubject
I n N orth-western Europe l ogical s ites
t he
s tudy o f f aunal r emains f rom a rchaeo-
s tarted i n t he l atter p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury.
U nfortunately,
i nterest was
l ithic a nimals.
c hiefly f ocused o n t he f ossilised P alaeo-
I n F rance much p ost-Palaeolithic material was
c arded w ithout p roper s cientific a nalysis,
e .g .
G auls d uring J ulius C aesar's s iege o f A lgsia R l itimeyer
t hrough
( 1861),
d is-
t he h orses u sed b y t he
( Poulain 1 976).
H owever
i n h is w ork o n t he S wiss Lake Dwellings d iscussed
t hree i mportant z ooarchaeological a nd d omesticated s pecies,
b )
t hemes;
h istory o f
a )
d ifferences b etween w ild
t he d omesticated s pecies,
a nd
c ) s tock b reeding a nd h unting p ractices o f d ifferent c ultures i n o ne a rea. Many w orkers f ollowed h is l ead p articularly o n C entral E uropean material,
e .g.
S tuder,
K eller, Duerst,
A dametz a nd H ilzheimer.
I n B ritain, G eneral P itt-Rivers' c lassic r eports s tand o ut, p art icularly t he a ccounts o f t he a nimals e xcavated f rom t he R omano-British v illages o f R otherley, t heir b uild a nd A t t he
t urn o f
W oodcuts a nd W oodyates
s tructure w ith r eference
t o
i n w hich h e d escribes
t ype
s pecimens
( 1887-1892).
t he c entury, D anish r esearch w as w ell u nder w ay w ith
t he ' Kj Akenm f 6ddinger' - k itchen r efuse m ounds f rom l ate M esolithic a nd N eolithic s ettlements which h ad b een s ituated a long o ld c oastlines ( Winge 1 903).
I n t he N etherlands d uring t he n ineteenth c entury a nimal
r emains w ere b eing a nalysed f rom t he
t erpen
( Schoor 1 887; C lason 1 973a).
T hus a t t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth a nd b eginning o f
t he
t wentieth c en-
t ury a uthors w ere l isting f auna a lthough n o r eal q uantification w as g iven, i t i s
i .e.
G lastonbury L ake V illage - ' Remains a re s o numerous
i mpossible t o i ndicate
s ented.'
t he
t hat
t otal n umber o f i ndividuals r epre-
( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 911,
I t w as n ot u ntil 1 928 o ne o f
t he
t hat t he S wiss,
6 49). L ouis R everdin e ffected
f irst a ttempts a t q uantifying a nimal r emains w ith s ites o n
L ake N euchätel.
H e made a t horough d etermination o f m easurements,
p roportions o f a dults a nd y oung,
r aces a nd s pecies p ercentages.
h e c ompared d ifferent l ayers.
1
A lso
H ans P eter U erpmann
( 1973a)
h as
c laimed t hat
t he f irst s erious
a ttempts t o e xtract s ocio-economic i nformation f rom a rchaeological f inds w ere m ade i n E astern E urope ( Kubasiewicz 1 956; P aaver 1 958). I n
t he U .S.A.
f aunal
s tudies
i nitially p rogressed t hrough m ethods
u sed t o
t ackle P alaeo-Indian B ison K ill
1 955).
L ater i n t he 1 960's d ue
( 1976)
t he i mportance o f
t o
S ites
( White 1 952,
t he w ork o f p eople
1 953,
1 954,
l ike F lannery
s ite e cology was r ealised.
I n s ome p arts o f E urope t here i s s till a d earth o f i nformation c oncerning f aunal r emains ( see C hapter F ive); t hus G autier c ommented i n 1 968,
' In B elgium,
h owever,
a lmost n o
o f w ild o r d omesticated a nimals
s tudies h ave b een p ublished
c ollected f rom a rchaeological
a lthough s everal s ites y ielded w ell p reserved f auna." 2 41). 1 .2
A ims a nd m ethods
' Any b one r eport i s s imply o ne man's v iew; a d efinitive b one r eport.'
t here i s n o s uch t hing a s
( Payne i n H iggs 1 972,
I n 1 970 a t t he B udapest C onference G eschichte d er H austiere)
7 9).
( Domestikationsforschung u nd
b oth L awrence a nd C lason c alled f or a
s tandardisation o f m ethodology. make
s ites
( Gautier 1 968,
L awrence
t hese c omparisons b roadly p roductive
t hus
s ums u p,
' In o rder t o
( between s ites) w e n eed t o
r each a s much a greement a s p ossible o n c riteria f or o steological i dentification,
p ertinent i nformation t o b e i ncluded i n t he r eport,
t echniques f or r ecording a nd r etrieving d ata a nd t he whole f ield o f a nalysis f rom methods t o o bjectives.' ( Lawrence 1 973, 3 97). I n h is b ook, C haplin
( 1971)
T he S tudy o f Animal B ones f rom A rchaeological
S ites,
c arefully a nd s ystematically e xplained h ow t o u ndertake
a f aunal a nalysis.
H e d iscussed t he m ore i mportant m ethods a nd
s uggested w ays o f i mprovement.
T hese w ill b e d iscussed a s
t he t ext
u nfolds t ogether w ith m ore r ecent w ork. H owever t here i s s till n o g eneral a greement c oncerning m ethodology a lthough G rigson ( 1978) p rop osed a b lueprint f or a nimal b one r eports i n a rchaeology,
o mitting
d iscussion o f t he p roblems i nvolved. C omparison o f m y d ata w ith t hat o f o ther r esearchers h as b een a lmost i mpossible s ince f ully. d ue
t o
t heir a nalytical m ethods a re n ot e xplained
T his i s a v ery s erious p roblem , l ack o f
a fter a nalysis. P itt-Rivers'
s torage f acilities b one
p articularly i n B ritain w here s amples
F uture w ork o n t he material i s
t end
t o b e d iscarded
t hus i mpossible a nd
r emarks o f n early a c entury a go r ing l oud a nd c lear,
' ... p osterity i s e ndowed, w ith a l egacy o f e rror t hat c an n ever b e r ectified.' ( Frontispiece 1 888). A lso r esearchers h ave p references f or d ifferent m ethods. C hapter F ive d escribes t he d ifficulties e nc ountered when G erman a nd E nglish m ethods o f s exing R oman c attle b ones a re
c ompared. S ome w orkers d o n ot y et w ant
( 1977,
1 32) writes,
c orrelate m ethods
' While
t he
t o s tandardise m ethods,
C asteel
f rustrations i nvolved i n a ttempts
t o
f aunal s tudies d one b y d ifferent i nvestigators u sing d iverse
c an r eadily b e a ppreciated
t he i dea o f i mposing a u niform
f ramework f or s uch s tudies b efore b eing f ully a ware o f t he r ange o f
2
a pplicability o f e ven t hese f ew m ethods a vailable a t t he p resent d oes n ot s eem t o b e a s tep i n t he r ight d irection .' I n a nother p aper C asteel
( 1977)
i llustrates t he d iverse t erminology i n c urrent u se,
e xample m any d ifferent
1 977,
s ymbols a re u sed t o r epresent t he
f or
s ame s tatistic .
H owever a t t he I nternational C ouncil o n A rchaeozoology i n J uly ( British Mus., N at. H ist.), s everal w orking g roups w ere c reated,
o ne o f w hich w as t o s tandardise methods. p rove p roductive i n t he f uture . 1 .2.1
I t i s h oped t hat t his w ill
S ampling
' A h ypothesis i s...
t he o bligatory s tarting p oint o f a ll e xperimental
r easoning. W ithout i t n o i nvestigation w ould b e p ossible a nd o ne w ould l earn n othing; o ne c ould only p ile u p b arren o bservations. T o e xperiment w ithout a p reconceived i dea i s t o w ander a imlessly.' ( Claude B ernard 1 865) I f a n e xcavation i s u ndertaken t o t est a h ypothesis, t hat h ypot hesis m ay h ave n othing t o d o w ith f aunal s tudies y et m ay i ncidentally y ield l arge q uantities o f b one. T he f aunal d ata h as b een p roduced b y a ccident a nd i n f act p robably a ll t he d ata f or R omano-British a nd l ater t owns h as b een u nearthed a s a r esult o f a n e xperiment c onducted f or a nother r eason . T eamwork i s v aluable w hen s ites a re c hosen f or t heir a bility t o y ield d ata h elpful t o a n umber o f c urrent r esearch t opics, b ut c are must b e t aken t hat t his d oes n ot r esult i n a n e xcav ation i nadequate i n a ll a spects r ather t han s ome. Many b one r eports a re merely l ists o f a nimal s pecies t acked o nto t he e nd o f e xcavation r eports. One q uestions t he u se o f r eports w here p ossible s ources o f s ampling b ias h ave n ot b een c onsidered . I t i s i mportant t o d efine t he q uestions t o b e a nswered b y t he a rtefacts b efore d igging u p t he s ample . T his w ill a ffect t he e fficiency w ith w hich t he s ite i s d ug,
e .g. w hether s oil
s ieving s hould b e u sed o r
n ot. E ven t hough s ome w orkers h ave b een a ware o f t his ( I ligham 1 967; P ayne 1 972; C lason a nd P run imel 1 977), G amble ( 1978) i s q uite r ight i n p roclaiming t he g eneral d iffidence o f t he z ooarchaeologist i n s tating h is/her a ims a nd o bjectives. T he
s ites I a m d ealing w ith i n t his b ook a re
' urban s ites' a nd
p ose s pecial p roblems o f t heir o wn. I t i s i mpossible t o e xcavate t otally e ach s ite a nd s o, ' Selectivity b ecomes t he c ardinal p rincipal i n u rban a rchaeology' ( Biddle 1 974, 1 04 i n R hatz). I t i s s alutary t o r emember t hat l ess t han 2 % o f t he t otal a rea w ithin t he d efences a t W inchester w as e xcavated d uring 1 961-1971 a m ost a mbitious r esearch p roject .
( Biddle 1 973) and t his w as
One o f t he m ajor d ifficulties i n s ampling f rom a multi-period s ite i s t hat o f r esidual material. A lthough o ne c an n ever b e s atisf ied t he d eposit i s f ree f rom c ontamination , l arge s amples f rom w ell s ealed f eatures h elp p artially t o a lleviate t his p roblem . Another d ifficulty n ot g enerally a ppreciated i s t he f act t hat t here i s a h uge b acklog o f b one w aiting t o b e a nalysed, n one o f w hich i s s ieved .
I t
a ppears t hat t he r elative f requencies o f t he l arge s pecies a re v irt ually u naffected b y i t ( Barker 1 975). H alstead ( in p rint) h as c laimed t hat w ith t he R omano-British v illa W endens Ambo,
3
' Fairly e xtensive
s ieving o n t he s ite d id s uggest t hat, a lthough a n umber o f s mall b one a nd p ot f ragments w ere n ot b eing f ound d uring e xcavation, t he l oss o f u seable i nformation w as r elatively s light.' P ayne ( 1975) v ehemently d isputes t his w ith e vidence f rom t he F ranchthi C ave, G reece w hich w as e ntirely s ieved . H owever i t w ould t ake o ne w orker b etween f orty a nd f ifty y ears t o c omplete t he b one a nalysis ( Gamble 1 978) t hus e mphas ising C lason a nd P rummel's p oint ( 1977, 1 75), ' But i sn't t here a m oment w hen w e m ust a cknowledge i f t he t ime s pent o n t hese i dentific ations i s r ewarded b y t he a mount o f e xtra i nformation t hus o btained .' N one o f my s ites h as b een s oil s ieved ; o n s ome r escue e xcavations t here s imply i s n ot e nough t ime. T he h uge i nput o f h uman e ffort v ersus t he s mall o utput o f r esults i s a f ailing b eing e xperienced n ot o nly b y f aunal a nalysts,
b ut a lso p ottery a nd
t ile r esearchers.
A t t he C onference o n S ampling ( 1978), G amble a nd C herry s uggested t hat m any l evels o f e nquiry r equired o nly s mall s amples, e .g. f or r elative p ercentages o f d omestic s pecies. G amble's p aper i s i mportant b ecause h e h as p ointed o ut t hat t he q uestions t o b e a nswered d etermine t he s ize o f t he s ample n ecessary . H e h as p roduced a m odel f or e stimat ing a ppropriate s ample s ize a nd s ampling f ractions f or r anked z ooa rchaeological q uestions. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat w ith t he R omano-British U ley T emple b ones a m ere 1 0% o f t he s ample w ould h ave b een s ufficient t o a nswer s ome g eneral q uestions. Ih ave w orked o ut t he s tandard o f b one r ecovery f rom m y s ites b y m easuring t he l engths o f t he u nidentifiable b one f ragments
( not
r ecently b roken, i .e . W atson's F ragmentation Method 1 972). T his, t aken i n c onjunction w ith t he r ecovered m icrofauna r evealed a r easona bly g ood l evel o f r ecovery f or a ll s ites. C haplin ( 1971) h as p rovided, a s a g uideline, a l ist o f t opics c oncerning a nimal b ones f rom a rchaeological s ites. W ith m y o wn d ata I h ave m odified a nd a dded t o t his
l ist a s
f ollows :-
S ubjects t o b e i nvestigated 1 .
D iet o f i nhabitants. A d istinction must b e made b etween w aste f rom f ood c onsumption a nd w aste f rom s laughter a nd i ndustry. I t i s n ecessary t o b ear i n m ind t he q uantity o f m eat c onsumed a nd t he a vailability o f a nimal b y-products s uch a s m ilk a nd c heese.
2 .
B utchery p ractices.
3 .
Animal h usbandry. A ge a nd s ex d eterminations, i n c ertain i nstances c an r eveal s laughter p atterns a lthough c are must b e t aken t hat d ietary p reference i s n ot t he d eciding f actor.
4 .
Animal p athology.
5 .
H unting, r atio o f w ild t o d omestic animals.
6 .
I ndustries, a )
7 .
P ets k ept.
b one, b )
t anning,
4
c )
h orn,
a nd d )
g lue .
8 .
E vidence o f e nvironmental c onditions, a nd m icrofauna.
9 .
A nimals
e .g.
b irds, w ild m ammals
s acrificed .
1 0.
Animal
1 1.
S patial d istribution p atterns o f s keletal e lements, p erhaps s ignifying r ubbish d isposal, s laughter a reas e tc. I t
s ize.
i s v ital
t o k now t he g eology a nd
t opography o f
e ach s ite a s
w ell a s t he n ature o f t he a rchaeological d eposits i n o rder t o u nders tand t he i ntegration o f t he a nimals w ith t heir e nvironment. O ne o f
t he m ajor p rinciples o f
s ampling i s t he r ange o f p ossible
v ariation t o b e s ampled a dequately. T herefore n ot o nly h ave I l ooked a t c hronological d ifferences i nter a nd i ntra s ites b ut a lso I h ave c onsidered s patial d ifferences i ntra s ites, i .e. d eposits f rom d ifferent a reas o f t he s ame s ite. s ites i t i s i mportant t o b ear o f s upply o f meat. 1 .2.2
c omparing b one I n d ealing w ith u rban
i n m ind m ethods o f m arketing a nd s ources
T aphonomy
O nce t he s ample h as b een r ecovered, f actors a ffecting b one p res ervation f rom t he t ime o f b utchery u p u ntil e xcavation must b e c ons idered . T aphonomic s tudies a re n ow p laying a n i ncreasingly i mportant p art i n z ooarchaeological s tudies. ' Taphonomy i s t he d etailed s tudy o f t he t ransition o f a nimal r emains f rom t he b iosphere i nto t he l ithosphere a nd t hus e xplores p ost-mortem r elations b etween o rganic r emains a nd t heir e xternal e nvironment.' ( Efremov 1 940, q uoted b y N oe-Nygaard 1 977). O bservations o n t he c ondition o f b one w hether h ard,
s oft, b rittle,
c olouration e tc. w ould b e u seful h ere b ut i nformation i s s canty ( see C oy 1 975). ' Old' b ones a re d efined a s t hose w hich s how s igns o f w eathering ( i .e. c racked, c razed o r f laked s urfaces). I f t he b ones h ave a ' fresh' a ppearance t his s uggests b urial o r t hat e ntry i nto w ater h as t aken p lace f airly r apidly ( Behrensmeyer 1 975). S ome b ones d evelop s plit-line p atterns a nd t hese c an g ive a n i dea o f h ow l ong t he b one h as b een l eft l ying a round o n t he g round 1 .2.3
1 969,
Q uantification
I n q uantifying f aunal
r esults t hree m ain m ethods a re u sed .
a )
N umber o f b one f ragments.
b )
M inimum n umber o f a nimals
c )
W eight o f b one f ragments.
( M.I.N.).
L ist o f v ariables a ffecting b one 1 .
( Tappen 1 964,
f ragment r ecovery
P oor r etrieval
5
1 970).
2 .
W eathering
3 .
B ias i n f avour o f m ature b ones
4 .
B ias d ecreasing t he i mportance o f s mall b ones a nd i ncreasing t he i mportance o f l arge b ones ( Payne 1 972)
5 .
P hysical a nd c hemical c omposition o f b ones
( Brain 1 967)
6 .
C limate a nd n ature o f s oil
T appen e t a l.
7 .
P ost-depositional a ctivities o f m en a nd a nimals - T aphonomy
8 .
C ooking p rocesses
9 .
B utchery p ractices
1 0.
S election o f b one f or t ools
( Ducos 1 968;
( Cornwall
1 966;
P ayne 1 972;
G rant 1 975)
1 970)
( Payne 1 972)
W orkers h ave a dhered t o u sing t he n umber o f b one f ragments f or m any r easons, o ne b eing t hat i t i s t he o ldest m ethod a nd i s t he o nly way e arly r eports c an b e c ompared. T here a re s everal d rawbacks i n u sing t his m ethod s ome o f which c an b e c ompensated f or, e .g. d ifferent a nimals h ave d ifferent n umbers o f b ones, i .e. a d og h as 5 2 t o 5 8 p halanges, a p ig 4 8, a c ow 2 4 a nd a h orse 1 2. O ne c an n ever b e s ure o f t he i ndependence o f b one f ragments f rom e ach o ther. A lso b ones a re n ot e qually i dentifiable. P alaeontologists w ere u sing M .I.N.
i n t he 1 920's a nd 1 930's a nd
W hite i ntroduced i t i nto American a rchaeology i n t he 1 950's.
C asteel
s ays, ' that t he M .I.N. c oncept w as b eing p resented e xplicitly i n t he e arly 1 880's i n R ussia'. ( 1977, 1 25). A lthough t his i s p robably t he m ore p opular m ethod c urrently i n u se t here a re s till m any p roblems t o b e r esolved. G rayson p ointed o ut t hat M .I.N. v aried g reatly a ccording t o whether s ite s tratigraphy w as u sed ( i.e. m aximum d istinction m ethod) o r s tratigraphy n ot u sed ( i.e. m inimum d istinction m ethod). A s G rayson s ays, ' There s eems t o b e n o s et w ay o f d etermining t he c lusters o f f aunal material w ithin a n a rchaeological s ite w hich a re i n t urn u sed t o c alculate M .I.N.' ( 1973, 4 33). I gnoring t he q uestion o f r etrieval ( 1972) a )
f rom d ifferent l evels,
C lason
c oncentrated o n f our m ethods o f e stimating M .I.N.
C alculation o f
t he s keletal p art o f t he s pecies m ost n umerous i n
t he s ample. b )
C areful a nalysis o f e ach s keletal e lement, m atched a gainst o thers i n r espect o f a ge, s ex a nd s ize; a d ecision i s m ade a s t o w ich b one b elongs t o o ne i ndividual ( Chaplin 1 971), i .e. G MT = where G MT = G rand M inimum N umber o f a nimals r epreeented, C t otal n umber o f c omparable p aired e lements, o f d issimilar
c )
a nd D
/ 2+D t , =
= t otal n umber
e lements.
T he m andible i s o ne o f t he m ost f requently f ound b ones o f t he s keleton. T eeth c an i ndicate w hether m andibles a re f rom t he s ame i ndividual o r n ot
( Higham 1 967).
i s a pplied t o l arge s amples a nd b ) 6
I f n o m andibles a re p resent, t o s mall
s amples.
a )
d )
The n umber o f e lements i n t he s keleton o f e ach s pecies u naffected b y
' cultural'
n otion,
o r p reservational f actors.
T his i s a v ery v ague
u nacceptable s ince i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o d etermine
which e lements w ould n ot b e a ffected b y e ither c ultural o r p res ervational f actors ( Perkins 1 973).
b )
S umming u p, a ) t ends t o o ver-represent s pecies w ith s mall n umbers, t ries t o a void t his a nd c ) t ries t o c ombine a ) a nd b ).
C lason f elt t he m ain d isadvantage o f a ll f our m ethods w as t hat m ore o ften t han n ot t he n umbers o btained w ere l ow a nd i t w as i mpossible t o c alculate p ercentages h aving a ny s ignificance.
M .I.N.
o bviously
e xaggerates t he i mportance o f t he r arer a nimals. P ayne ( 1972 i n H iggs) s uggested t hat b y c omparing t he r epresentation o f d ifferent b ones p er s pecies s ome o f t hese p roblems c ould b e o vercome. I f t he r elative a bundance o f t he d ifferent b ones w as s imilar i n a ll c ounts t hen o ne c ould b e c onfident a r easonable p icture h ad b een a ttained. c ould b e l ooked f or i f t he c ounts w ere d ifferent.
P atterns
M any d ifferent
m ethods o f c alculating M .I.N. h ave b een p roposed ( Ziegler 1 965, 1 973; K rantz 1 968; B ökönyi 1 969, 1 970; C haplin 1 971; C lason 1 972; U erpmann 1 973a, 1 973b; P erkins 1 973). C asteel ( 1977) c ompared C haplin's m ethod w ith t hat o f K rantz who t ried t o e stimate t he n umber o f a nimals i n t he o riginal p opulation; h e c oncluded t hat C haplin's w as t he m ore v alid s ince K rantz's l acked a n e mpirical b asis a nd w as l imited t o m atched p airs o f e lements. At a ll t imes t he t ype o f s ite b eing d ealt w ith must n ot b e f org otten. N oddle ( 1975b) c laimed M .I.N. w as o f l ess v alue i n u rban c onditions where r etail b utchery m ight h ave b een p ractised t han o n a r ural s ite. G rant ( 1975) a lso p ointed o ut t hat a lthough M .I.N. t ells u s t he n umber o f a nimals d ealt w ith, i t i s u nable t o d istinguish b etween a nimals r epresented b y j oints r ather t han c arcases, s ome a nimals a re c ollected f or i ndustrial p urposes.
o r w hether
T he t hird m ethod o f c omparing s ites c onsiders t he w eight o f b one. T his w ill b e s ubject t o t he s ame v ariables a s t he n umber o f f ragments m ethod. I n a ny c onsideration o f d iet i t w ould b e much m ore u seful t o t hink i n t erms o f m eat p otential t han p ercentages o f b one f ragments o r M .I.N. T wo m ethods o f c alculating t he m eat p otential a re:1 .
Multiplication o f t he w eight o f b one p er s pecies b y a f actor r epres enting t he m ean w eight o f a n i ndividual.
2 .
T he W eighing M ethod o r ' Weigemethode' which w as o riginally d evised b y K ubasiewicz ( 1956) w ho s tated t hat f or c attle a c onstant r el ationship e xisted b etween s keletal w eight a nd m eat w eight. H e m aintained t hat t he s keleton m ade u p 7 % o f t he b ody w eight a nd t hus b y w eighing a rchaeological b one o ne c ould d etermine b ody w eights. C haplin
( 1971)
c riticised t he
' Weigemethode'
s aying t hat i t
a ssumed t he m eat/bone r atio i s c onstant f or a ll s pecies which i s u nproven. B ut s till w orkers c ontinued t o u se i t. I n a r ecent p aper C asteel ( 1978) u sing m odern d ata f or d omestic p igs p roved t hat t he b asic a ssumption o f t he w eight m ethod ( i.e. t hat a c onstant r elations hip e xists b etween b one w eight a nd m eat w eight w ithin a t axon) w as i n e rror f rom 2 8% t o 2 243% a nd t hus p roved t his t o b e h ighly u nreliable. 7
U sing t his
s ame d ata h e g raphically s howed t hat t he r elationship
b etween p ercentage-bone-by-weight,
a nd m eat w eight i n p igs f ollowed a
d ownward c urve; t hat i s, t he p ercentage o f b one d oes n ot r emain c ons tant b ut d ecreases n on-linearly a s m eat w eight i ncreases. C asteel p ointed o ut t hat t he m ajor p roblem w ith t he w eight m ethod i s t hat o ne i s m aking e stimates o f m eat w eight f ar i n e xcess o f t hose k nown t o o ccur i n a s ingle i ndividual o f a t axon. H is d ata e xtends u p t o 8 1 K g f or d omestic p igs. H e s ums u p, ' Thus i f t he b one w eights f or p igs f rom a n a rchaeological a nalysis e xceed 1 0 K g t hen t o f ollow t he a pproach o f K ubasiewicz a nd o thers r equire
t o a ssume a ll b ones c ome f rom a s ingle
i ndividual o f s ome i ncredible y et p redictable w eight.' 7 4).
( Casteel
1 978,
O ne o f t he m ain p roblems i n a ssessing b ody w eight i nvolves s easonal w eight f luctuations a nd g rowth r ates which D oney e t a l. ( 1974) f ound w ith S oay s heep. C haplin ( 1971, 6 8) s uggested t hat d ressed w eight s hould b e u sed i n p reference t o b ody w eight i n o rder t o c ounteract t his. T here a re, h owever, d ifficulties i n d efining e xactly w hat t he d ressed w eight i s. N oddle ( 1973a) d evised a m ethod w hereby b one m easurements c ould i ndicate c attle b ody w eight. B ones f rom m odern c attle o f k nown f at f ree c arcase w eights w ere m easured, e .g. m etatarsal m id-shaft m ediol ateral a nd a ntero-posterior w idth d imensions. A multiple o f t hese m easurements w as p lotted a gainst t he f at f ree c arcase w eights a nd N oddle c laimed a s traight l ine r elationship g oing t hrough t he o rigin ( Noddle 1 973a, 3 80). H owever t he p oints o n t he g raph a re v ery d iffuse a nd a s traight l ine f it d oes n ot n ecessarily p ass t hrough t he o rigin. F urther, N oddle h as f ound t hat t he d ifferent b ones f rom t he s ame s keleton d o n ot g ive c onsistent r esults. T his m ethod, a s N oddle h ers elf h as m entioned, n eeds much m ore r efinement. A nother m ethod ( Uerpmann 1 973b) a ssumes t hat t he b ody w eight r atio o f U ngulates ( cattle:sheep) i s s imilar t o t he r atio o f w eights t hat a re i mposed o n t he c ross s ections o f b earing s keletal p arts. T hus r atios o f s quared p roximal m etacarpal w idths o f b ody w eight
( w).
T here i s
( c.s.)
c an b e c ompared t o r atios
s till o ne f inal m ethod i n u se,
i .e.
m ultiplication o f M .I.N . b y a n e stimated f actor w hich i s m eant t o b e t he meat w eight o f o ne i ndividual o f t he t axon ( White 1 953; C arter 1 965;
S mith 1 975;
S tewart a nd S tahl 1 977).
S umming u p, t here i s n o e xact m ethod o f d etermining t he b ody w eight o f d omestic a nimals, a t b est o nly r elative v alues b etween t he s pecies c an b e g iven. S ince t he pH o f B ritish s oils c an v ary c ons iderably a cross o ne s ite t he u se o f b one f ragment w eight h as b een e liminated. T hus I h ave u sed t he f inal m ethod m entioned, i .e. m ultip lication o f M .I.N. b y t he e stimated f actors o f C arter e t a l. ( 1965), w hich a re c ow 4 08 K g, h orse 3 63 K g, s heep 5 6.7 K g, a nd p ig 9 0.7 K g. 1 .2.4
B utchery
B utchery i s a v ery much n eglected t opic a nd many w orkers f eel l ists o f s keletal e lements
( proximal/distal e tc.)
s uffice i ts r ecording.
H owever i t i s t he t echniques u sed t hat a re i mportant. I t i s e ssential t o b e a ware o f a ny p atterning o f b utchery m arks o n d ifferent b ones b ecause t his w ill h ave a m ajor e ffect o n t he u ltimate n umber o f f ragm ents a nd M .I.N.
N oe-Nygaard h as e mphasised 8
t his p oint i n h er w ork o n
M esolithic W est E uropean S ites,
' Comparisons o f f aunas f rom d ifferent
s ites b ased o n t he n umber o f b one
f ragments m ust b e p receded b y a nalysis
o f t he marrow f racturing t echniques u sed a t t he v arious s ites. T he n umber o f f ragments p er e stimated M .I.N. s hould i ndicate t he d egree o f t aphonomic l oss.' ( 1977, 2 18). N oe-Nygaard g ave f our h ypotheses t o e xplain t he i nterdependence b etween n umber o f r ecovered b ones, e stimated M .I.N. a nd b utchery a nd m arrow f ragmentation t echniques. 1 . T he n umber o f f ragments p er i ndividual o f a s pecies d epends o n t he b utchery a nd marrow f racturing t echniques e mployed. 2 . D ifferences i n b utchery a nd m arrow f racturing o f d ifferent s pecies o n a s ite r esults i n d ifferences i n t he p roportion b etween n umber o f f ragments a nd e stimated M .I.N. 3 . T he d egree o f r etrieval o f d ifferent s pecies o n a s ite d epends o n t he b utchery a nd m arrow f racturing e mployed. 4 . D ifferences i n t he p roportions o f f ragments t o e stimated M .I.N. o f a s pecies a t d ifferent s ites e xpress t he d egree o f t aphonomic o verprint, o ther t hings b eing e qual. s trong a nd v ice v ersa.
I f t he p roportion i s s mall
t he o verprint i s
T here h as b een a t endency i n s ite r eports t o i gnore u nidentified f ragments o f b one b ut a lthough t he s keletal e lement c annot b e r ecognised t he s pecies c an ( Watson 1 972). T here i s v aluable i nformation t o b e g ained f rom t heir s tudy ( Uerpmann 1 973a; P rummel 1 975; L awrence 1 978). P rummel w eighed a nd c ounted b one f ragments f rom P eriods 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 a nd t he M iddle A ges o f t he R oman V alkenburg F ort. S he f ound t hat t he m ean w eight o f c attle b one f ragments w as n ot t he s ame i n e ach p eriod. S mall f ragments w ere c ollected f rom P eriod 1 a nd i n l arge n umbers; m edium s ized f ragments f rom P eriod 2 i n l arge n umbers; m edium s ized f ragments i n s mall n umbers f rom P eriod 3 . L arge s ized f ragments w ere c ollected f rom P eriod 6 a nd t he M iddle A ges, b oth i n s mall n umbers. B ecause o f t heir s mall s ize, t wo t hirds o f t he c attle b ones f rom P eriod 1 c ould n ot b e d etermined. F or o ther P eriods t he u ndetermined f ragments m ake u p n ot m ore t han a q uarter o f t he t otal n umber. P rummel c oncluded t hat
t he d ifferences i n t he d imensions o f
t he
b one f ragments m ay b e t he r esult o f d ifferences i n b utchery t echnique p ractised ( see a lso S chmid 1 967). V alkenburg Z .H . P eriod
1 962.
A pprox. D uration
I
B os T aurus I dentified
( yr)
U nidentified N o.fgs/yr
f ragments
f ragments
2 .5
8 1
1 61
I I I II
2 .5 2 2.0
1 50 1 56
V I
5 0.0 5 0.0
M id.Ages
M ean W t o f f gs
( Gms)
9 7
1 5.8
3 7 5 7
7 5 9 .7
3 1.0 3 3.4
5 29
8 4
1 2.2
5 6.4
1 79
3 8
4 .3
5 5.9
9
T here a re c uts,
s everal r easons why butchery p atterns
c hopmarks a nd s awmarks o n b one)
d ifficulty i n r ecording. K ooros 1 975)
1 972,
1 975;
b ut t hese a re
a g eneral
S everal w orkers h ave
B iddick & T omenchok 1 975; t oo
( i.e.
h ave b een i gnored.
a r ecord o f O ne i s
s uggested m ethods
t he ( Sadek-
B oessneck & v on d en D riesch
t ime c onsuming f or t he a verage w orker.
l ack o f u nderstanding p revails c oncerning
S econdly
t he f racturing o f
b one. R aymond Dart o riginally made a v aliant p ioneering a nalysis o f b reakage i n t he Makapansgat f ossil b one a ssemblage, a lthough i ts i nterp retation i s n ow o pen t o s peculation d ue B rain
( Dart 1 957).
t o t he r ecent f indings o f B ob
C urrently R ob B onnichsen
( 1979)
i s w orking c losely
o n t he s ubject. I h ave d eveloped my o wn numerical p rocedure f or r ecording b utchery p atterns
t hus a llowing e asy c omparisons i nter a nd i ntra s ites.
E ach l ong b one o f c ow, p arts,
i .e.
a nd Unit 3 .
p roximal,
p ig,
s heep/goat c an b e s plit i nto
t hree
s haft a nd d istal c orresponding t o U nit 1 , U nit 2
T he p roximal a nd d istal u nits t hemselves c an b e f urther
s ubdivided i nto h alves a nd q uarters.
H alving i n a ntero/postero 4 d irection
h alving i n
6
m edio/lat d irection
q uartering i n a ntero/postero a nd m edio/lat d irection
3
h alving i n a ntero/postero d irection
8
5 h alving i n 7 m edio/lat d irection
q uartering i n a ntero/postero a nd m edio/lat d irection
M a nd L a re u sed i n c onnection w ith t he medial b one r espectively.
I f p art o f
t hen U nit 1 -2 o r 3 -2 i s u sed.
a nd
9
l ateral
s ides o f a
t he s haft i s s till a ttached t o
1 o r 3
Any o ther t ypes o f butchery p eculiar
t o
e ach s pecies b one t ype h ave b een g iven f urther b utchery u nits a ccording
1 0
BUTCHERY
UNITS
F IG.
1 :2
CATTLE
Unit
Unit
1
s capula cut
Unit
3 , neck
Unit
2 , glenoid cavity
intact
through
and
supraglenoid tuber
1 1
4 , blade
supraglenoid
tuber
BUTCHERY
UNITS
FIG.
1 :2
contin. CATTLE
PELVIS
Unit
2
acetabulum halved Unit
1
Unit
Unit
3
i schium
acetabulum/pubis
Unit
5
4 acetabulum/
i lium
1 2
t o t he d esignations s hown.
( Fig.
1 :2).
O n m y b utchery c harts I t herefore h ave r ecorded t he U nit p er b one p er s pecies a nd a lso w hether t here a re a ny c utting, c hopping o r s aw marks a s w ell a s e vidence o f c hewing b y c arnivores a nd r odents e tc. T he g eneral c ondition o f t he b one w as a lso n oted. T he manner o f t his r ecording i s i mportant b ecause s ites c an b e c ompared v isually v ery e asily a nd a ny d ifferences c an i nstantly b e p icked o ut. F or e xample, v an M ensch 's w ork ( 1974) a t t he R oman F ort, Z wammerdam i n H olland s howed m uch c attle l ong b one h ad b een q uartered, i .e. t he e piphyses f or p ossible s oups. O bviously t he n umber o f c attle b one f ragments o n t his s ite w ould b e m uch h igher t han o n a s ite w here p erhaps r oasting o f m eat w as m ore c ommon a nd t he l ong b ones w ere l eft v irtually i ntact. S o f ar i t h as b een i ntimated t hat a ccurate r ecording o f m ethodology i s v ital i f a ny c omparisons a re t o b e v alid. O nce a ll t he f actors h ave b een w eighted i n d etermining M .I.N. a nd t he n umber o f f ragments t hen i t h as b een a ssumed t hat w ith a r easonable s ample s ize t he t wo m ethods s hould g ive s imilar r esults. A number o f s tudies c omparing t hese q uantitative m easures h ave i lluminated t he i nherent d ifficulties i n u sing t hem. I n 1 968, D ucos ( and a lso G ejvall 1 969) s howed g raphically a p arabolic c urve r elationship b etween M .I.N. p lotted a gainst t he n umber o f f ragments. P ayne ( 1972) d emonstrated t hat t he r elative f requency o f p ig :sheep/goat:cow a t L erna 2 a nd 3 i n t wo d ifferent s amples w as s ign ificantly d ifferent a t t he 1 % l evel u sing i dentified s pecimens b ut i n t erms o f M .I.N. t he s amples w ere n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t t he 1 0% l evel. H e e xplained t his b y s tating t hat d ifficulty i n t he s tatistical t reatment w as c aused b y s imple i nflation - a f ew a nimals m ay b e r epres ented b y a l arge n umber o f i dentified s pecimens. G rayson ( 1978) s howed w ith t he a id o f s everal s ites t hat l ike D ucos a nd G ejvall a p arabolic c urve w as o btained p lotting t he M .I.N. n umber o f b one f ragments.
r atio a gainst t he
G raph s howing t he r elationship b etween t he m inimum n umber o f a nimals a nd t he n umber o f b one f ragments ( after G rayson 1 978)
M IN
E = n umber o f b one f ragments
1 3
I n h is p aper h e h as s hown t hat o ne c an f ind o ut a l ower l imit ( for M .I.N.
a nd n umber o f b one
b etween t he
t wo a re n ot v iable.
f ragments) b elow w hich c omparisons O bviously t his w ill v ary f rom s ite t o
s ite. T his i s am ost u seful p iece o f w ork a nd v ital i nformation t o b e i ncluded i n a ny b one r eport . 1 .2.5
I dentification
B efore a ny o f t he a bove m ethods o n q uantification c an b e u sed, a n a ccurate i dentification o f t he d ifferent s keletal e lements p er s pecies must b e a ccomplished ( Cornwall 1 956; E llenberger a nd B aum 1 956; R yder 1 968;
P ales a nd L ambert 1 971;
S chmid 1 972).
A g ood i dentification i s p roportional t o t he l evel o f e xpertise o f t he a nalyst . H owever s pecies i dentification i s n ot a c lear c ut m atter. V arious c riteria h ave b een p ut f orward t o d istinguish s heep a nd g oat m orphologically ( Boessneck a nd T eichert 1 964; S chramm 1 976). T hese c riteria h ave n ot b een f ound u niversally a pplicable, e .g. t he d istinction o f s heep/goat f rom C ayonu ( Lawrence 1 973) a nd 5 0% o f N oddle's s kull c ollection o f M anx, J acob a nd B lack S t. K ilda s heep s howed f lat f rontal-parietal s utures, a f eature t hought m ore c haracteristic o f g oats ( Noddle 1 978). I t w ould b e h elpful i f w orkers w ould m ention t hese d iscrepancies i n t heir r eports. P fund ( 1961) u sing m easurements, f ound t he r atio A SG ( base o f s pine t o e dge o f g lenoid c avity) a gainst m inimum n eck w idth f airly g ood f or e mphasising t he r elative s limness o f c aprid s capulae. H igham ( 1966) a dvised c aution s ince t he m agnitude o f t he d egree o f o verlap b etween t he t wo s pecies w as 1 4 .5%. U sing a s mall s ample o f m odern male a nd f emale s heep/goat b ones f rom N epal h e f ound t hat t he r atio o f t he m inimum a ntero-posterior d iaphysial w idth a gainst m inimum t ransverse w idth ( metacarpal) s ignificantly d ifferent b etween s heep a nd g oats ( C.D. b etween r atios f or f emale g oats a nd m ale s heep 1 .56 i ndicating a 6 % o verlap). T his r atio t aken t ogether w ith B oessneck's m orphologic al d istinction o f t he m etacarpal d istal a rticulatory s urface p roved a r easonable s eparation ( Boessneck 1 964). B ut h e d id n ot f ind t he s ame r esult w ith t he m etatarsals ( male a nd f emale s heep a nd m ale a nd f emale g oats, c f S tudents t t est - i n n o c ase w as t he v alue o f t s ignificant a t t he 5 % l evel p ossibly d ue t o t he i mmaturity o f t he b ones u sed). T he K iel s chool ( Klein a nd R eichstein 1 977; S pahn 1 978) h ave c laimed a 7 0% s eparation o f s heep/goat o n t he b asis o f t he l ong b ones u sing m aterial f rom t he m edieval s ite o f H aithabu. P ollock ( 1976) h as c onsidered d istinctions o f s heep a nd g oat s kulls. B oessneck's ( 1964) s eparation o f s heep/goat m etacarpals w as a chieved b y e xpressing t he d iameter o f t he d istal c ondyle a s a p ercent age o f t he d iameter o f t he d istal t rochlea. S heep g ive a v alue o f m ore
t han 6 3% a nd g oat l ess
t han 6 3%.
A s imilar m ethod w as
l ater d e-
v ised b y P ayne ( 1969) w ho p lotted t he m edio-lateral w idth o f t he c ond yle ( w c ond) a gainst t he a ntero-posterior w idth o f i ts e xternal t rochlea
( w t roch).
T he s ituation i s c omplicated w ith d omestic v ersus w ild p ig s ince n o m odern c omparative s amples h ave b een a nalysed . H ammond ( 1932) s howed t hat d omestic m eat a nimals h ave much t hicker b ones i n p roportion t o t heir l ength t han w ild a nimals h ave. 1 4
O ne p resupposes s eparation
s hould b e p ossible m etrically.
I t w as a ssumed b y B oessneck
( 1963)
a t
S eeberg B ürgaschisee-Sud a nd C lason w ith t he V alkenburg material t hat a d ifference i n s ize e xisted b etween w ild a nd d omestic s wine. ( 1966)
u sed B oessneck's m easurements
Maglemosian s ites a s h is
H igham
f or w ild p ig a nd d ata f rom t wo
c riteria f or p resence o f w ild p ig a t
T rOddebjerg. W orking o n European w ild p ig d entition, Matschke ( 1967) f ound a major d ifference i n t he u pper a nd l ower f ourth p remolar e ruption s equence. I n t he d omestic p ig u pper p remolar 4 e rupted b efore p remolar 4 .
l ower
D istinction o f w ild a nd d omestic p ig
L OWER MOLAR 3 4 1 M ax.
W ILD P IG
l ength
(u m0
DOMESTIC P IG 4 0
Max.
S ince mandibles a s ite, F lannery
B readth
(
t end t o b e o ne o f
( 1960)
s ummarised t he
p ig d omestication b oth i n E urope a nd
)
t he more r obust b ones f ound o n t ooth e vidence f or o rigins o f
t he N ear E ast.
T eichert
( 1966)
i n h is c lassic p aper o n p ig w ithers-height s ummarised m any p apers c oncerned w ith d omestic/wild p ig s eparation o f C entral European p reh istoric s ites.
L ater K ratochvil
( 1973) p rovided d iscriminatory
c haracters o n t he a cropodium f or s eparation o f d omestic a nd w ild p ig. U nfortunately t he b iggest p roblem l ies i n t he f act t hat i t i s n ot y et p ossible
t o s eparate i mmature w ild p ig a nd d omestic p ig.
I n a ny b one a nalysis
i t i s w ise t o b e a ware o f a nimals m issing.
I n t he R omano-British a nd i ndeed p re-Roman I ron A ge p eriod r ed d eer a ppears v ery s carce.
C ertainly i ts numbers w ere d eclining d ue
t o
t he i ntense N eolithic o nslaught but w ere t hey r eally t hat s carce? I t i s p ossible s ome b one f ragments may h ave b ecome c onfused w ith c attle. 1 .2.6
S exing
G rouping a nimals i nto males,
f emales a nd c astrates
i mportant i nformation r egarding husbandry p ractices. methods a re s till
s omewhat h azy a nd u nresolved.
T he most n otable c ontribution i n o f H igham
c an g ive
U nfortunately
t his f ield i s u ndoubtedly t hat
( 1966) w ho b y u sing modern d ata d emonstrated s tatistically
t hat t he s exes o f c attle b reeds c ould b e s eparated m etrically. P rior t o t his i n 1 946 Dottrens c oncluded f rom a n a nalysis o f t wo i mmature b ulls a nd
t welve a dult c ows o f
u nspecified b reed t hat male p halanges
1 5
h ave g reater b readth t o l ength r atios t han f emale p halanges. L ater ( 1960) Z alkin m easured t he m etapodials f rom 8 2 i ndividuals o f t he K almyk b reed o f c attle ( 59 c ows, 1 0 b ulls a nd 1 3 o xen). H e r eported t hat t he m etacarpal d isplayed s exual d imorphism b etween b ulls a nd c ows ( a f inding o f H ammond 1 932), c ows w ere o f s imilar l ength.
a lso t hat t he m etapodials o f b ulls a nd F urther t hat i f t he r atio o f t he d istal
e piphysis t o t otal l ength w as c alculated, o xen g rouped b etween c ows a nd b ulls. H e f ound t he m etatarsal o f l ittle u se b ecause o f t he l arge r ange i n a bsolute s ize. H oward ( 1963) u sing 1 36 m etapodials f rom r ecent c attle, b reed u nspecified, c onstructed 2 i ndices which s he m aintained w ere r easonably c onstant w ithin e ach s ex . F urthermore s he s tated t hat d espite a lterat ions i n t he a bsolute s ize, t he r elative p roportions o f t he b ones h ad n ot c hanged w ith t ime t o a ny g reat e xtent, a n i mportant i mplication f or a rchaeological m aterial. H oward's i ndices D istal b readth l ength
f or s exual s eparation o f c attle M id-shaft w idth
x 1 00
l ength
T ake D B/L f or t he m etacarpal
x 1 00
T ake M B/L f or t he m etacarpal
f emales
2 4.8 - 3 3.6
( 40)
1 2.9 - 1 9.5
o xen
2 9.3 - 3 2.9
( 8)
1 4.0 - 1 8.3
m ales
3 2.5 - 3 7.8
( 18)
1 8.6 - 2 4.5
I a gree w ith t he o bservation o f C haplin h ave l imited d iscriminatory v alue.
( 1971)
t hat t hese v alues
H owever t hey d o p rovide a u seful
c omparison w ith s ome o f H igham 's m ethods. T ake D B/L f or t he m etatarsal
T ake MB/L f or t he m etatarsal
f emales
2 2.1 - 2 8 .6
( 44)
1 1.5 - 1 4.7
o xen
2 4.6 - 2 7.5
( 8)
1 2.7 - 1 5.8
m ales
2 4.8 - 3 0 .3
( 18)
1 4.7 - 1 9.2
H oward a lso c onstructed i ndices f or t he s kull O H/FB x 1 00
O H - b asion t o t he o ccipital c rest F B - n arrowest p art b etween o rbits a nd h orn c ore b ases
a nd O B/OH x 1 00
O B - o ccipital b readth m easured b etween p osterior m argins o f t he t emporal f ossae.
I f i ndex O H/FB i s h igher
t han O B/OH t he s kull i s i nvariably f emale
b ut i f i ndex O B/OH i s h igher
t he
T hese i ndices d o n ot a lways
s kull i s i nvariably m ale. f orm a d istinct d etermination o f s ex
( Deger 1 :41 1 970). I n D anish s kulls o f d omestic N eolithic m ales, D egerb ( 61 f ound t wo i ndividuals h aving t he O H/FB i ndex h igher t han t he O B/OH i ndex. O ne w as a n a dult f airly y oung a nimal o f 4 y ears o ld p erhaps e xplaining t he d iscrepancy b ut t he o ther w as a n a dult w ith s trongly g rooved h orn c ores a nd w orn t eeth.
1 6
T he major a ssumption i n H igham 's w ork i s m odern b one
t hat,
' If f or a ny g iven
s exual d imorphism i s e stablished t hen i t w ill b e a ssumed
t hat q ualitatively s imilar d imorphism w as
d isplayed b y t he s ame b one
d imension
s ame
f rom p rehistoric a nimals o f
1 7).
H is a nalysis w as p erformed o n
A ngus
( fore a nd h ind l imbs
t he
s pecies.'
o f 4 0 c ows a nd 4 0 s teers)
( fore a nd h ind l imbs o f 2 7 c ows
( Higham 1 966,
t wo b reeds o f c attle;
a nd a b ull).
T he
A berdeen
a nd R ed D anish
c arcase w eights a nd
a pproximate a ges o f d eath o f e ach a nimal w ere k nown.
T he c oefficient
o f d ifference w as c alculated i n o rder t o a ssess which b one d imensions w ere
s exually d imorphic.
o f s exual d imorphism, p layed l ittle, t o b e
e .g.
C ertain b one d imensions
e .g.
a stragalus
l ength.
w hile o thers d is-
M easurement o f l ength a ppeared
l ess s exually d imorphic t han b readth.
l imb e xpressed m ore
s howed h igh d egrees
m etacarpal d istal w idth,
s exual d imorphism t han
A lso b ones o f
t he f ore
t he h ind l imb.
A lthough
H igham l acked many c omplete m etapodials h e p ointed o ut t hat Z alkin ( 1960) h ad f ound t he m ean l ength o f c ow metacarpals t o b e s tatistically i dentical w ith t he m eans f or b ulls b ut s ignificantly s horter t han f or s teers.
T he
l ow d egree o f o verlap b etween c ow,
c arpals, i .e.
o n
s teer a nd b ull m eta-
t he b asis o f p roximal a nd d istal w idth-to-length r atios
e nabled m ost c omplete m etacarpals b e s eparated i nto c ows,
( from a nimals o f
bulls o r s teers.
B ones
t he s ame b reed)
s howing
t o
t he m ost marked
s exual d imorphism w ere t he metacarpal, r adius a nd m andible i ncluding d entition. H igham a lso p roved w ith a t heoretical s tatistical t est t hat a s ample o f 1 5-20 s pecimens i s a ll a ccurate e stimate o f M ennerich 's work t radictory r esults
t hat i s n eeded t o p rovide a n
t he p opulation m ean a nd v ariance.
t o
( 1968)
o n 8 0 I llyrian c attle p roduced s ome c on-
t hose o f Z alkin a nd H igham.
T hese r esults w ill
b e d escribed i n m ore d etail i n Chapter T wo. T he b reed i s a p rimitive, s mall, l ate maturing o ne a nd i t i s k nown t hat t he s maller t he c attle a re,
t he more P erhaps
d ifficult i t i s
t o
s ex t hem
( Uerpmann 1 973a).
t he b iggest p roblem r aised i s
d ifferent b reeds a nd s ex; D eger lx 61 c ommented,
t hat o f a dmixture o f
a v ery r eal p roblem i n t he R oman P eriod .
' A c ertain s ex d etermination,
p articularly r egar-
d ing t he e xistence o f b ullocks, i s o nly p ossible when t he b ones c omp ared b elong t o t he s ame b reed o r a nimal p opulation. R egarding p reh istoric r emains s keletal p arts
t his m eans
must b e a t h and.' L ooking
t hat a f airly c omprehensive a mount o f
f rom a c omparatively l imited a rea a nd ( DegerbS1
1 970,
f or e vidence o f c astration i n
D egerb A a sserted
t hat
t he e vidence
s pace o f
t ime
5 2). t he N eolithic p eriod,
i s o ften s elf-contradictory a nd
u nconvincing. H igham e ssential 1 .
I f
c arpal
( 1966) w as i ntensely a ware o f
t hat
t he
t he b ones s ample
f ollowing p oints
o f o ne
s ex c omprise o ver 5 %
t o 1 0% o f t he
t he v ariance w ill b e s ignificantly g reater
f or e ither p ure male o r p ure 2 .
t his p roblem a nd i t i s
f rom h is w ork a re w ell u nderstood.
S ample v ariability m ay b e
f emale
t otal m etat han
t hat
s amples.
i ncreased b y a dmixture o f b reeds a nd/or
s ex. T he m inimum t hickness o f h as b een u sed
t he a cetabular w all o f t he p elvic g irdle
t o d istinguish t he
s exes o f C apra i bex, D ama d ama, 1 7
C ervus e laphus, A lces a lces a nd B ison b onasus ( Boessneck, J equier a nd S tampfli 1 963; L emppenau 1 964). I n a m odern s ample o f N epal s heep, H igham ( 1966) s uggested t hat t he m inimum t hickness o f t he e minentia i liopectinea m ight b e s exually d imorphic. H e f ound t hat i n am ixed N epalese s heep a nd g oat s ample a ll i nter-sexual t -tests o n t hese t wo d imensions w ere s ignificant ( only s mall s ample u sed). E stimates o f v ariance f or male a nd f emale c aprid p elves o n t he b asis o f m inimum t hickness o f t he a cetabular w all i s s ignificantly g reater a t t he 1 % l evel t han t hat f or f emale c aprid p elves o nly. W ith c aprid h umeri H igham f ound t hat a d ifference i n s ize ( on t he b asis o f m aximum t rochl ea w idth) e xisted a t t he 5 % l evel f or m ale a nd f emale h umeri. H owever t he h igh d egree o f o verlap a ssociated w ith a c oefficient o f d ifference o f 0 .55 s uggests t hat t his i s n ot a r eliable d imension f or s exing. A rmitage ( 1977a) h as d evised a m ethod f or s exing n ot o nly m ale a nd f emale s heep b ut a lso c astrates a s w ell; a ) p elvis - b y m orp hological f eatures a nd m easurement o f a nd b ) h orn c ores.
t he
t hickness o f
t he a cetabulum
S exing o f s heep l ong b ones r emains u ndetermined d ue t o t he o verl apping v ariation o f m ale a nd f emale m etapodials ( Uerpmann 1 973a). Z alkin ( 1961) a nd H aak ( 1965) h ave p ublished s tudies o n m odern s heep b ones. H owever, c lear s exual d imorphism i s s een i n t he g oat m etapodial b y t he t ime t he e piphyses f use a nd i dentification i s u sually p ossible ( Schramm 1 976). A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock ( 1976) h ave a ttempted s exing c attle h orn c ores w hile H atting ( 1975) i nitiated a s tudy o f s heep h orn c ores. A t K iel, R eichstein's a pproach i n s eparating t he c attle s exes u sing m ultivariate a nalysis h as n ot y et y ielded s atisfactory r esults ( personal c ommunication). 1 .2.7
W ithers h eight
T he v alue o f aw ithers h eight i s t hat i t a llows m any d ifferent b ones w ithin a s pecies t o b e c ompared a t t he s ame t ime. F actors f or t he l ong b ones o f d ifferent s pecies h ave b een s ummarised b y B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch
( 1974).
T wo p oints must b e c onsidered i n u sing
t hese f actors: 1 .
T he l ength r atio o f t he u pper a nd l ower b ones
f or t he f ore a nd
h ind l egs m ust b e c omparable w ith t hose o f t he s tandard a nimals u sed t o a chieve t he f actors. 2 .
T he e rror f actor o f
t he w ithers h eight s hould b e c alculated .
Im easured t he l ong b ones o f t hree S oay s heep A rchaeology,
C ambridge u niv .)
( Department o f
a nd m ultiplied t he l engths b y t he
a ppropriate f actors d erived b y T eichert
1 8
( 1975).
S OAY F 7
l ength
h umerus r adius
1 22 1 40
f emur t ibia
1 53 1 90
( mm)
w ithers h eight 5 2.2
m etacarpal
1 13.5
5 6.3 5 4 5 7.2 5 5.5
m etatarsal
1 27
5 7.7
h umerus
1 37
5 8.6
r adius f emur
1 47 1 61.5
5 9.1 5 7
t ibia m etacarpal
1 95.5 1 16
5 8.8 5 6.7
m etatarsal
1 27.5
5 7.9
h umerus r adius f emur t ibia
1 29 1 36 1 53 1 82
5 5.2 5 4.2 5 4 5 4.8
m etacarpal m etatarsal
1 09.5 1 22.5
5 3.5 5 5.6
E rror i s
( cm )
2 .75 c m
S OAY X J 6
E rror i s 1 .55 c m S OAY N 6 6
E rror i s 1 .05 c m
I t i s a lso i nteresting t o b ear i n m ind t he a verage p ercentage d ifference b y which a r am e xceeds a e we i n c ertain d imensions H igham 1 966). w ithers h eight V oltz
( 1920)
F reyer
( 1918)
1 .2.8
b ody l ength
( after
t horax b readth
1 5.4
1 6.0
1 7.7
7 .4
1 1.3
9 .7
A geing
' The a geing o f a nimals f rom s keletal r emains o f a ny a ntiquity c annot b e a n e xact s cience a nd c alls f or t he e xercise o f c onsiderable j udgement.' ( Silver 1 969, 3 00). T he p rior c onsideration b efore a ny a ttempt a t a geing i s m ade, i s j ust what s ort o f a ccuracy i s n eeded. I t i s g enerally b elieved a n a nimal c an b e r eliably a ged t o w ithin 3 m onths o f t he f irst t wo y ears o f l ife p roviding e nough m andibles a re a vailable. H owever e vidence i s s urfacing t hat c ontradicts t his. O bviously i t w ould b e a dvantageous t o a ge a s c losely a s t his e specially w hen q uestions o f a utumn s laughter
1 9
a re r aised.
I t s eems a pparent a t t he m oment t hat t his w as n ot a s
w idespread a s o riginally b elieved i n t he p rehistoric p eriod.
I ndeed
i t p robably o nly h appened i n t he M edieval p eriod w hen t he c rops f ailed. E webank ( 1964) m entions t hat r eference t o h ardship d uring w inters g enerally r efers t o c attle. A lso t he a utumn w ould b e t he b est t ime f or s laughter s ince g razing.
t he a nimals w ould b e i n g ood c ondition a fter s ummer
C lose a geing c an g ive i nformation n ot o nly o n d ietary p references b ut a lso t he a ge a t which a nimals w ere s acrificed a nd e ven t heir s eason o f d eath . F urthermore d ata c an b e o btained c oncerning t he a ge s truct ure o f t he f lock o r h erd w hich i n t urn w ould r eflect t heir e conomic s tatus, b ut g reat c are i s n eeded i n m aking i nterpretations. A geing t eeth a fter a ll t he p ermanent t eeth h ave e rupted h as b een a ttempted b y m easurement o f t ooth h eight ( Carter 1 975), w ear p attern o f t he e namel a nd d entine ( Payne 1 973; G rant 1 975) a nd a lso t hin s ectioning o f t he s econdary d ental c ementum i n o rder t o c ount t he g rowth r ings ( Higham a nd S axon 1 968, 1 969). A lthough H igham a nd S axon h ave c laimed t he l atter m ethod c an b e u sed t o a ge a ny o vine s pecies t o w ithin 3 t o 6m onths, i t h as n ot b een u sed i n t his s tudy s ince t he t ime e xpenditure w ould h ave b een c onsiderable. L et u s c onsider t he v ariables t hat a ffect t ooth e ruption a nd w ear a ges. 1 .
I ndividual v ariation C haplin
( 1971,
7 9) h as i ndicated t hat i n d ifferent a reas s ome
f emale s heep m ay l amb a t d ifferent t imes a ccording t o e nvironmental c onditions. T he g eneral t endency i s f or m aturation t o o ccur e arly i n f emales
( Morris 1 972);
t his h as b een t otally i gnored i n a rchaeo-
l ogical r eports. R ecently Andrews
( 1975) h as p roduced s ome s tartling d ata o n
d ifferent b reeds o f c attle o f known a ge a nd s ex. H e i nspected t he t ooth e ruption o f 7 78 a nimals o f a ll a ges, v arying b reed a nd s ex; h e f ound q uite a w ide r ange o f v ariation. A s t his v ariation m ight h ave b een t he r esult o f b reed o r s ex d ifferences h e t hen u sed o nly F riesian f emale c attle i n t he s tudy. T hese a nimals c ame f rom f arms w ith a h igh l evel o f h usbandry. A gain t here w as m uch v ariation i n t he a ge a t w hich a ny s tage o f d ental d evelopment m ight b e s een. A ge o f i ncisor e ruption f or F riesian f emale c attle
N o.
o f c attle
A ge i n d ays M inimum
M aximum
A verage
T otal v ariation
4 2
1 p r i ncisors e merg.
5 45
8 82
6 90.4
3 37 d ays
3 3
2p rs i ncisors e merg.
6 93
9 34
8 40.42
2 41 d ays
1 3
3p rs i ncisors e merg .
8 91
1 140
1 052.38
2 49 d ays
2 0
A ndrews h as
f ound d ifferences i n t he r ate o f m olar e ruption b etween
m ale a nd f emale c attle b ut h e h as n ot y et q uantified h is f indings. T he d ifferences a ppear s imilar t o t hose o f t he r ostral t eeth w here t he b ull t ends t o e rupt i ts t eeth b efore t he h eifer, w ith t he s teer b etween t he t wo. T he p rincipal r esult o f t his i s t hat f or a nimals o f a g iven a ge t he v ariation o f t ooth e ruption i s v ery g reat. M atschke ( 1967) i n a geing w ild N orth E uropean h ogs, f ound t ooth e ruption a nd r eplacement t imes v aried c onsiderably a mong t he h ogs, e ven t hough t hey w ere l itters r aised u nder a pproximately t he s ame c onditions. c reased a s t he s exes. 2 .
T his v ariation i n-
t he a nimals g rew o lder b ut n o d ifference was n oted b etween
L ife s pan T ooth w ear i s a n i ndication o f r elative a geing a nd M orris
( 1972)
h as a rgued t hat t his i s where i ndividual v ariation c ould b e a p roblem , p articularly i n v ery o ld a nimals w here w ear c hanges h ave b ecome s o s light a s
t o b e c louded b y t he n ormal v ariation b etween i ndividuals.
I t i s i mportant t o know w hat r elative l ife s pans
( ignoring c ulling)
c ould b e e xpected f or e arly h istorical a nimals. H artwig ( 1959) e xamined t he m ost i mportant r easons a ffecting p remature c ulling o f a nimals i n G ermany f rom 1 940-1960 ( particularly c attle). H is i nvestig ation o f 1 9 d ifferent b reeds r evealed a n a verage l ifespan o f 7 .1 y ears . T he m ajority o f a nimals w ere c ulled b efore a ttaining t he y ears o f h ighest m ilk p roductivity. H e f ound t hat t he p rincipal r easons f or c ulling c ows w ere s terility, t uberculosis a nd m astitis. e .g.
G erner ( 1952), B aden S terility P iel a nd R umbaur ( 1948), W urttemberg F reudenberg a nd F rancke ( 1956), 1 2 f arms i n t he C entral-German D istrict D inkhauser ( 1940), L ower S axony
3 2% T uberculosis 4 .2% 2 4.3% 4 .6% 5 4.8% 2 3%
1 2.8%
I t i s t empting t o a ssume t hat t hese s ame f actors m ight w ell h ave o perated i n p rehistoric t imes, b ut t here i s e vidence s uggesting t hat a ncient a nimal b reeds w ere p robably h ardier t han t hose f rom t he r ecent p ast. F or e xample, t he H ebridean s heep, ( classified a s a p rimitive b reed) b elonging t o t he L eckford F lock h ave b een r ecorded a s h aving o nly o ne c ase o f d ifficult l ambing o ut o f a bout 4 00 l ambings a nd n o a dult s heep h ad d ied o f i llness d uring a p eriod o f 2 0 y ears ( Ark, J uly 1 979, 3 .
2 06).
D iet N utrition h as
s ignificant e ffects o n t he d ates o f e ruption o f t he
t eeth ( Wiener a nd P urser 1 954). A lso s oil a nd g rass t ype i s o f g reat i mportance i n t ooth w ear; S ilver ( 1969, 2 90) m entions t hat s ome D artmoor p onies a s a ged b y t oothwear a lone g ive a ges 2 y ears e xcess o f a ctual a ge.
I n s ome i nsectivorous b ats,
i n
t ooth w ear c an b e
a n u ncertain i ndicator o f a ge e ven when t he d iet i s u niform .
I ndivid-
u als o f 1 8 y ears o r m ore m ay s till e xhibit s ound t eeth, l eading t o t heir a ge b eing v ery m uch u nderestimated ( Hall, C loutier a nd G riffin 1 957).
2 1
4 .
A vailability o f s trontium a nd f luorine c ompounds R egional d ifferences i n t ooth h ardness d epend o n t he a vailability
i n f ood a nd d rinking w ater o f s trontium a nd f luorine c ompounds n ecessary f or c alcification. 5 .
G enetic v ariations G enetic v ariations i n d ental s tructure a re k nown i n m ice
( Gruneberg 1 956). C ertain a llelomorphs m ay s uffer h ighly a ccelerated t ooth w ear a nd h ave t eeth w orn d own t o t he g ums a t t he a ge o f 6w eeks o r l ess. B arnicoat a nd H all ( 1960) h ave n oticed t hat w ear i n s heep t eeth c an b e i ncreased w ith c ertain u ndesirable a natomical c haracteri stics which a ppear t o b e h ereditary i n o rigin. 6 .
H uman e rror T here i s a lways h uman e rror i n m aking a s ubjective a ssessment o f
t oothwear. S ummarising,
c omparisons b etween s ites must t ake i nto a ccount
v ariation i n e ruption d ue t o g enetic, f eeding d ifferences.
g eographical, m anagement a nd
M ethods c urrently i n u se a )
T ooth e ruption d ates
C urrently t here i s much c oncern w hether t o u se m odern o r o ld a geing d ata a s g iven b y S ilver ( 1969). W ilson ( 1978) h as d emonstrated t hat t he e conomic i nterpretations c an b e q uite d ifferent . S ince t he s equence o f t ooth e ruption i s n ot a ffected b y t he e nvironment, n utrition e tc. f it.
i t h as b een u sed t o d etermine w hich e ruption d ates a re t he b est F or s heep t he m odern s equence b eing p remolar 2 ) t ogether f ollowed b y p remolar 4 p remolar 3 )
whereas
i n t he I ron a ge
p remolar 3 ) p remolar 4 )
t ogether f ollowed b y p remolar 2
Ewebank ( 1964) s uggested t hat s ince t he s equence o f e ruption w as l ikely t o b e c ontrolled p urely b y g enetic f actors, t hen s equential d ifferences i n v arious g roups c ould b e r egarded a s b y-products o f s elective b reedi ng. F urther, t hese t raits c ould b e c hanged b y g eographical m ovements o f a nimals. E webank n oted t hat t he c rypt f or m olar 3 w as v isible i n t he m andible b y t he t ime m olar 2 c ame i nto w ear, w hereas S ilver g ave a p eriod o f a bout 2 y ears b etween t he e ruption d ates o f t hese t wo t eeth i n s emi-wild h ill s heep. T he q uestion a rises a s t o h ow a ccurate a re t hese ' old a ges'. I n 1 927 P rofessor S ir G eorge T . B rown w rote, ' It i s i mpossible t o a void t he c onclusion t hat t he o riginal v ersion o f t he d evelopment o f t he t eeth w as b ased o n i mperfect o bservation, o r o n t he c ustom o f o ne w riter q uoting i n g ood f aith f rom a nother.' ( Brown 1 927,
4 ).
2 2
S ir G eorge q uestioned t he l ate e ruption d atings o f e arlier a uthors s ince f rom 1 850 t o 1 902 w ith i ntensive b reeding n o c hange w as s een i n t he e ruption d ates. I ncidentally P rofessor B rown s et d own t he r ules g overning a ge a nd d entition f or t he R oyal S mithfield S how , w hich h ave r emained u nchanged f rom 1 889 u ntil c omparatively r ecently w hen t hey w ere r eviewed b y A ndrews ( 1975) a s p reviously m entioned. b )
W ear p atterns I n 1 967 L owe u sed t ooth e ruption a nd w ear,
i .e.
t he c ombined
t echnique, a nd f ound i t m ost a ccurate f or a ge d etermination o f t he r ed d eer, C ervus e laphus. H e a chieved a s uccess r ate o f 8 8% a nd f ound t his m ethod e ven b etter t han g rowth r ings i n t he c ement. G rant ( 1975) a nd P ayne ( 1973) b oth d eveloped m ethods f or r ecordi ng t he t ooth w ear p atterns o f s heep. W orkers h ave f ound t he m ethods n ot d irectly c ompatible, e .g. W ilson ( in p ress) c laimed d ifficulty i n r elating t he w ear s tages o f G rant's m ethod; h e f ound t hat w ear s tages A t o E o f P ayne w ere m oderately c onsistent w ith w ear s tages 0 t o 3 2 o f G rant, b ut P ayne's s tages F t o G c onsiderably o verlapped G rant's s tages 3 3 t o 4 1. P ayne's m ethod a ppears p referable s ince o dd w ear s tages c an b e r ecorded a nd b roken m andibles c an b e m ore a ccurately d esignated t o a ge s tages.
T hus
A lso t he a ge s tages a re q uite b road.
T ooth w ear i s d ependent o n f actors t hat d iffer b etween s ites. t ooth w ear c an o nly r eveal i nformation c oncerning a ge g roups i n
o ne p opulation. c )
M easurement o f
t ooth h eight
T his m ethod w as e liminated b y S everinghaus ( 1949), w orking o n w hite-tailed d eer, s ince i ndividual v ariation i n t ooth s ize was s ufficient t o p reclude u sing s uch m easurements f or c onstructing a ge s pans. C arter's m ethod
( 1975)
e ncompasses a n umber o f u nresolved b iases.
1 .
H e d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount t ooth s ize v ariation.
2 .
I t h as n ot b een p roven t hat t ooth w ear r ates a re u niform w ithin
a n a nimal g roup. 3 . B oth t he a bove f actors c an b e i nvestigated b ut t he t hird b ias, i .e. t he d ecision o n w hich t ooth e ruption d ates t o u se, i s d isturbing. F or e xample,
C arter h aving e stimated t he r ate i n w ear,
h eight m easurements
c omputed
f or t he d ifferent t eeth i n t he m andibles.
H e
-t hen p lotted t hese i n a h istogram a nd f ound a s eries o f p eaks e very e ight m onths. C arter ( 1975, 2 31) s tates: ' The r ate o f w ear w as t heref ore r ecalculated u sing t he d ata o f S ilver ( 1969) f or a ges a t which t eeth e rupt i n u nimproved a nd h alf-wild s heep. T hese b eing a bout 5 0% g reater t han t hose o f E webank ( 1964) g enerated a m uch m ore p lausible 1 2 m onth c ycle.' T his d ecision i s c ertainly n ot j ustified o n s cient ific g rounds.
2 3
d )
A geing b y e piphysial f usion
S ilver ( 1969) h as warned a bout a geing b y e piphysial f usion s ince t he a ges a re b ased o n r adiographically f used e piphyses t hat m ay i n f act h ave s eparated f rom t he s haft a fter t he c artilage h ad b een b roken. W atson ( 1978) f ound a s erious f law i n t his m ethod, ' The m istake l ies i n t reating a r ange a s i f i t w ere a p oint.' F or e xample, t he d istal e nd o f a s heep metacarpal f uses b etween 1 8 a nd 2 4 m onths. I f o ne c onsiders a s ample o f s heep m etacarpals 4 0% o f w hich a re f used, t he c urrent o pinion w ould s ay t hat 4 0% o f t he s heep d ied a t o ver 1 8 t o 2 4 m onths.
B ut W atson s tates,
' Any f used b one must b e f rom a n
i ndividual t hat d ied a t o ver 1 8 m ths b ut i s n ot n ecessarily f rom a n i ndiviaual t hat d ied a t o ver 2 4 m ths. A ny u nfused b one m ust b e f rom a n i ndividual t hat d ied a t u nder 2 4 m ths, b ut i s n ot n ecessarily f rom a n i ndividual t hat d ied a t u nder 1 8 m ths.' ( Watson 1 978, 9 7). G rouping t he s keletal e lements a ccording t o t heir f usion a ges w ould p roduce d istorted r esults. C anby 's m ethod ( 1977) a ttempts t o o vercome t his. S he made a n a ttempt t o r epresent a ge g roupings g raphically . T he y ears f rom b irth t o m aturity w ere d ivided i nto a rbitrary s ix m onth p eriods. A b one w hich f used a t 2 1 y ears w ould b e r epresented o nce i n e very c ategory f rom 2 y ears o n i f f used o r b elow 2 1 y ears i f u nfused; t he y oungest s tages w ere o mitted u nless t he b one w as s mall o r p orous. A geing w as m ore a ccurately u ndertaken w ith r ecently f used b ones a nd b ones w ith b oth t he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses p resent. T his m ethod h as t he a dvantage t hat b ones o verr epresented i n l ater o r e arlier s tages c ancel o ut l eaving s ome d efinite p eaks. H istograms c an b e d rawn w hich s how t he p ercentage o f p ossible o ccurrences i n e ach a ge g roup ( this d oes n ot s how t he o riginal n umber o f b ones p resent i n e ach a ge g roup). W hen t hese r esults w ere c ompared w ith t hose f rom t he m andibles ( Hayton R oman F ort) f or s heep, t he m andibles g ave c onsistently g reater a ges t han t he o ther b ones. C anby t hought t his m ight h ave b een d ue t o t he s mall s ample s ize b ut i ndicated i t c ould a lso r eflect t he i mperfect u nders tanding o f e piphysial a nd t ooth e ruption a geing i n a ncient a nimals. A lso a t G ussage A ll S aints H arcourt
( 1979b)
f ound t hat a geing a
c ow v ia t he m andible g ave a n a ge 1 y ear o lder t han t he e piphyses. G rant ( 1972), i n a n i nvestigation o f t he F ishbourne P igs, a ssumed t hat t he c onsiderable d egree o f w ear o n t he f irst a nd s econd m olars b efore e ruption o f t he t hird m olar i ndicated t hat n ineteenth c entury f igures o f a geing s hould b e u sed. S he t hen m ade a n a ttempt t o c orrel ate t he d ate o f f usion o f t he d istal e nd o f t he m etapodial w ith t he e ruption o f t he
t eeth .
A ssuming t he m etapodial f uses b etween 2 a nd 2 y ears a nd u sing n ineteenth c entury d ates f or t ooth e ruption, i .e. t he t hird m olar e rupts a t 3y ears, s he f ound t hat i n a ll p eriod o f o ccupation 7 2% t o 8 6% o f t he m etapodials w ere u nfused; t hus t he t ime o f f usion o f t his b one must b e a fter t hat f or t he e ruption o f t he t hird m olar. M any t hird m olars s howed o nly a s mall a mount o f w ear a nd i t w ould s eem t he m etapodials f used w hen t he p ig w as b etween 3 t o 4y ears o ld. I t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he p igs h ad b een c astrated a nd t he e pip hysial c losure d elayed . S ince R oman t imes c astration w as p ractised
2 4
i n o rder t o p revent y oung d omestic b oars f ighting a nd i t i s a lso w ell k nown t hat m eat o f c astrated a nimals a ges o f f usion m ight b e g reater
t astes b etter.
F urther,
S ilver's
t han a ssumed a t p resent a nd a lso i t
i s p ossible t hat m odern t ooth e ruption d ates a re m ore a pplicable.
P igs
a re o mniverous a nimals a nd t he h igh d egree o f w ear m ight b e s ymptomatic o f a c hange o f d iet. S ummary S ome o f t he m ain m ethods u sed a nd p roblems e ncountered i n f aunal a nalysis h ave b een d escribed. l ack o f a b asic m ethodology i s h ampering t he e mergence o f z ooarchaeology a s a s erious d iscipline i n i ts o wn r ight. I n t he r emainder o f t he b ook t he a uthor h as u sed t he f ollowing m ethods a s w ell a s m any o thers. 1 .
Q uantification:-
N umber o f F ragments M ethod, M .I.N. m ethod.
A c omparison b etween t he t wo m ethods w as p erformed a fter t he m ethod o f G rayson ( 1978). 2 .
E stimation o f m eat p otentials v ia t he
f actors o f C arter e t a l.
( 1965). 3 .
S exing:-
s exing i s n ot e asy a nd a s many d ifferent m ethods a s
p ossible s hould b e u sed i n c hecks. T he a uthor h as f ound t he m orphology o f t he p elvic g irdle v ery u seful a s a c heck o n H oward 's, H igham 's a nd M ennerich 's m ethods
( 1963;
1 966;
1 968).
4 . A geing w as p erhaps t he m ost d ifficult m ethod t o r esolve. T he m ethods o f P ayne ( 1973) a nd G rant ( 1975) w ere u sed f or s heep, a nd p ig a nd c ow mandibles r espectively.
W ith r egard t o e piphysial
f usion,
t his m ethod s hould b e u sed w ith c aution. 5 . M easurements w ere u ndertaken u sing t he o utline d evised b y v on d en D riesch ( 1976) a nd w ithers h eights w ere e stimated a fter B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch
( 1974).
E very s ite i s u nique s ince d ifferent v ariables w ill b e a t w ork b ut i t i s o nly w hen w e c orrect f or t hese v ariables t hat q uantitative c omparisons w ill b e v alid. A t t he n inth I nternational C ongress o f P rehistoric a nd P rotohist oric S ciences h eld i n N ice, 1 976, M eadows d iscussed t he f actors a ffecting t he t rue r epresentation o f t he b one o riginally d eposited. B esides p oints a lready m entioned i n t his t ext, h e c ited t he r espons ibility o f t he a nalyst. T aking a side t he a rchaeological h ypotheses, t he m ethodical s ampling a nd p ainstaking e xcavation, i t i s u ltimately t he f aunal a nalyst w ho d etermines t he c ontents o f a b one r eport .
2 5
C HAPTER T WO
S HEEPEN - T he f irst c entury A .D.
' Most o f
i n R oman B ritain
t he i sland i s f lat a nd o vergrown w ith f orests,
o f i ts d istricts a re h illy.
I t b ears g rain,
c attle,
a lthough m any
g old,
s ilver a nd
i ron. T hese t hings, a ccordingly, a re e xported f rom t he i sland a s a lso h ides, a nd s laves, a nd d ogs t hat a re b y n ature s uited t o t he p urposes o f t he c hase. T he C eiti, h owever, u se b oth t hese a nd t he n ative dogs f or t he p urposes o f w ar t oo.' ( Strabo i v, 5 , 2 ). 2 .1
I ntroduction
S heepen H ill ( Fig. 2 :1) c ommanded a n i mportant p osition i n p reh istoric a nd h istoric t imes; i t w as t he s ite o f a r iver c rossing a nd f avoured a f ine s eaward v iew . T he g eological f oundation o f t he a rea i s T ertiary L ondon C lay. T wo r ivers, t he C olne a nd t he R oman, d emarc ate a n atural p eninsula o f l and, which i s f lanked b y 5 0 f oot a nd 1 00 f oot c ontours t hat f all a way t o t he e stuary m arshes. T he g reater p art o f t he p eninsula i s m ade u p o f w ell d rained g ravel w ith a s mall c entral l oamy b and ( 100 f oot a .s.1.). A lthough t he v alleys o f t he C olne a nd R oman R ivers e xhibit e xtensive b elts o f L ondon C lay, t here i s a n a rea o f l ow l evel g ravel a nd l oam o ccurring o n t he s outh s ide o f t he C olne o pposite S heepen F arm . H ere t he C olne i s p roceeding t hrough a b road f lood p lain. S heepen i s s eparated f rom t he g ravel r idge o n w hich C olchester l ies b y a s mall s teepsided v alley; t he d istance b etween t he t wo s ites i s c . 1 .6 K m . T he s ite o f S heepen i s w ell d rained, f airly w ell s helt ered a nd t here a re g ood s upplies o f f resh w ater f rom t he S heepen S prings
t o
t he w est.
S hortly a fter t he C onquest, R oman m etal w orkers a ppeared o n t he s ite,
( that i s w ithin t he S heepen D yke,
j ust a bove
t he f lood p lain o f
t he r iver), w hich h as r evealed t races o f B elgic o ccupation. r emains c ame f rom a s eries o f r ubbish p its d ated:G roup
1
P re-Roman
G roup 2 G roup 3
4 4 t o 4 9 A .D. 4 9 t o 6 1 A .D.
G roup 4 G roup 5 G roup 6
4 4 t o 5 4 A .D. 4 7 t o 6 1 A .D. 5 4 t o 5 7 A .D.
G roup
5 4 t o 6 1 A .D.
7
F irst N eronian
2 6
T he a nimal
e ▪l
4 4 4 4
•
4
re )
0 00
4
1
4
i r k.• l e
I 1
1I • . C : ) "
4
•
•
aka
4
" •Y' I f'1 4
I , I ,
e e n
4
1 i
I H 1 I
1 .1
i 4 r-
1!
I I e i
14 1
I S
k r )
• 4 •
I :
1
-
1
s
I
4
\
e ll :
1
C O
la
I I I I4
C T
4
I
,c r
Il
r e )
• 0 •1 1 ei
r 3 e
u
4
US
e
•_ J I _ __ _e_ _ _ I L --I F • l e
, . . ,
j 1
4
•
4 < 4 e n r e )4 4 H z =
1 : 2 1 1 : 1 :3
d i t i i e tu t wu - -
4
• •
BALKERNE
•
L ANE
•
7
I i
1 '
I , I ,
S 66
P ub l ic b u i ld ing
-
F o r tress d i tch
. 1 .............................
•
4 1
G roup 8 G roup 9
5 7 t o 6 1 A .D. 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D.
S econd N eronian
T he d ating o f t hese g roups i s b ased u pon t he d ating u sed b y H awkes a nd H ull i n t heir C amulodunum E xcavations ( 1947); t he t erminus p ost q uem d ates a re m ainly s uggested b y h istorical d ocumentation a nd a re t herefore p ossibly s ubject t o s ome l ater m odification. T he m etal w orkers w ere c oncerned w ith t he m anufacture a nd r epair o f m ilitary e quipment. D uring 4 4 t o 4 9 t he l egionary f ortress o ne k ilometre t o t he e ast w as o ccupied a nd l ater, c . 4 9, t he g arrison was w ithdrawn a nd t he C olonia C laudia V ictricensis f ounded. T he m ajority o f p its a re d ated 4 9 t o 6 1 A .D., w hen m etalworking s pread a cross t he s ite.
M any o f t he p its h ad o riginally b een d ug a s g ravel p its a nd t he
m ajority w ere q uickly f illed w ith r ubbish. S uccessive r ubbish p its o ften c ut i nto e arlier p its; p roblems o f c ontamination a re m inimal h owever, s ince t he p its a s 6 1 t he p resence o f p ottery t he m anufacturing b ase f or t he p redominant i ndustry . l ies i n i ts l imited p eriod
aw hole c over a l imited p eriod . I n 4 9 t o a nd t ile w asters i ndicate t hat S heepen w as t he n ew C olonia, a lthough m etalworking w as T he i mportance o f t he s ite f or f aunal s tudies o f o ccupation.
A nimal b one f ragments o f w eight 1 ,574 k ilograms w ere a nalysed . T he f ollowing c reatures w ere p resent: h orse, c attle, s heep, g oat, p ig, b ear, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, h are, d og, f rog a nd b ird . O ut o f a t otal o f 8 ,143 f ragments, 6 ,752 w ere i dentified . 2 .2
B one f ragment c ount o f t he m ain d omestic s pecies
A f ragmentation a nalysis o f b one w as p erformed ( Watson 1 972) u sing b ones w ith o nly o ld b reaks. T heir l engths w ere r ecorded and a r easonable l evel o f r ecovery w as o btained ( Fig. 2 :2). T aking i nto a ccount t he d ifficulty o f a ccurately d ating t he p its,
T able 2 :1 i llus-
t rates t he n umber o f b one f ragments f or e ach p eriod ( excluding h orse a nd b irds). A lthough t he e xact d ating o f t he s ite may b e m odified i n f uture, t he p hasing s hould s till b e b roadly t he s ame. A s triking d ifference i s a pparent b etween m aterial f rom c ontexts d ated 4 4 t o 4 9 a nd 4 9 t o 6 1. I n t he p re-Roman a nimal b one s ample w hich was s mall,
c attle p re-
d ominate w ith p ig a nd s heep/goat a n e qual s econd. T he p its d ated 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D. ( post-conquest) r eveal a n i ncrease i n c attle w ith a d efinite d ecrease o f s heep/goat a nd a d ecrease o f p ig. H owever t he t imespan i ncludes t he o ccupation o f t he f ortress, t he l ater w ithdrawal o f t he g arrison a nd t he s etting u p o f t he C olonia i n 4 9.
I f p it g roups 2 a nd
3 a re s tudied t hen a s izeable r eduction i n c attle c oincides w ith t he e stablishment o f t he C olonia t ogether w ith a l arge i ncrease i n s heep/ g oat, w hile t he p ig l evels r emain c onstant. T he g roup 6 p its i ndicate t he s ame t rends a s t hose o f g roup 3 w ith a s maller i ncrease o f s heep/ g oat w hile t he g roup 7 p its s how a d ecrease o f p ig b ut a l arger i ncrease o f s heep/goat. D omesticates f rom g roups 4 a nd 5 h ave p ercentage r atios w hich s pan p art o f b oth t he f ortress a nd C olonia p eriods; t hey w ere m ore s imilar t o t he g roup 3 d eposits t han g roup 2 . I t s eems l ikely t herefore t hat t he d ifferences b etween g roups 2 a nd 3 , t hat i s t o s ay t he decrease o f c attle, s light d ecrease o f p ig a nd d efinite i ncrease o f s heep/goat, r eflect s ome o f t he c hanges o ccurring w hen t he L egionary F ortress w as r eplaced b y t he n ew C olonia . 2 8
HISTOGRAM ( AFTER
OF
UNIDENTIFIABLE
WATSON
1972
BONE
FRAGMENTS
)
F IG.
300
2 :2
-
250
200
FREnt JENCY
150
_
100
5 0
0
2
4
6
LENGTH
2 9
8
10
1 2
B efore a ccepting t hese r esults i t i s v ital t o s can t he c ontents o f t he p its ( Table 2 :2) i n o rder t o a ssess whether t he b one r efuse w as t he r esult o f r andom f ood r efuse d isposal o r t he w aste a rising f rom b utchery. F or e xample,
t he g roup 2 p its m ight c ontain a h uge n umber o f c attle
w aste b ones ( non m eat b earing) t hus d istorting t he r esults.
f rom s laughter, p halanges a nd m etapodials,
Whole a nimals, c ow , s heep/goat a nd p ig w ere butchered o n t he s ite a nd t heir r emains d istributed b etween t he p its; m eat a nd n on-meat b ones w ere m ixed t ogether . N o d ifferences i n b utchery w ere f ound b etween t he p its o f e ach p eriod; t hus i t w as d eemed p ermissible t o g roup t hem a s a w hole, a ccording t o t he p hasing. 2 .3
B utchery L t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o p resent a c omplete p icture o f t he
R oman butchery p rocess, e ven t oday t here a re n umerous m ethods o f c utting a c arcass. A lso i t m ight b e a sked, o f w hat r elevance i s t his t o t he a rchaeologist? I t w as e mphasised t hat t he b utchery o f a s ample o f b one m ust b e e xamined i n d etail s o t hat c omparisons w ith o ther s amples m ight p rove v alid. F or e xample, i f c ow f emora a re s mashed i nto s mall f ragm ents o n o ne s ite a nd o n a nother s ite l eft w hole, t he c alculation b ased o n t he n umber o f b one f ragments p er s pecies c ould b e r adically d istorted w hen t he t wo s ites a re c ompared. T able 2 :3 i ndicates t he p recision o f t he R oman b utcher i n h is u se o f t ools. S evering a cross j oints w as u ncommon a nd m ost l ong b ones e xhibited c hops b elow a nd a bove p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses. T his T able w ill b e d iscussed i n c onnection w ith r esults f rom o ther E ssex s ites
i n l ater c hapters. 2 .3 .1
C attle b utchery
I t w as
f ound t hat 2 .8% o f t he c attle b ones h ad b een g nawed b y
d ogs a nd t wo c omplete mandibles h ad b een g nawed by a s mall r odent a bout t he s ize o f a water v ole o r r at ( Plate 1 ). I t i s i mpossible t o s ay w hether r at was d irectly r esponsible b ut i t h as b een f ound i n a R oman s tratified c ontext a t Y ork, i .e. t he b lack r at, R attus r attus ( Rackham 1 979). D efinite e vidence o f p ole-axing w as f ound i n P it 2 38, d ated 4 4-61, ( see P late 2 ) where t he b low was d irected a t t he f rontal b one. A f ew s kull f ragments h ad c hopmarks o n t he s uperior s urfaces o f t he o ccipital c ondyles.
H owever t he h ead w as mainly s evered f rom t he
b ody b y o blique c hop marks d irected a cross t he d orsal s urface o f t he a xis a nd a tlas. C hops w ere f requently m ade t hrough t he t emporal a nd f rontal p rocess o f t he z ygomatic b one a nd t hrough t he a nterior p ortion o f t he z ygomatic b one i tself, t hus r eleasing p art o f t he o rbit. S ome o f t he f rontal b ones h ad c uts a cross t hem . T he mandibles w ere c hopped u p i n o rder B efore
t o r elease
t he g ood p roportion o f c heek m eat.
t he h ead w as r emoved t he a nimal w as p robably s kinned,
t he
h ide b eing a v aluable c ommodity . S everal m etacarpals a nd m etatarsals h ad k nife c uts o n t heir m edial a nd l ateral p roximal e dges.
3 0
v I •r 4
0
P ole-axed c ow
f rom S heepen .
T he m etapodials w ere g enerally s evered f rom t he l egs a c ouple o f c entimetres b elow t he p roximal s urface. S ome m etapodials w ere f urther d ivided b y c hopping o ff t he d istal e nd; t he s hafts w ere a bsent f rom t he p its c oncerned . T hese b ones a re p articularly u seful f or b one w orking. N one o f t he v ertebrae s howed s igns o f m edial c leavage; t he c erv ical v ertebrae r emained a lmost w hole h aving s light l ateral t rimming . T he t horacic a nd l umbar v ertebrae w ere c haracterised b y t he r emoval o f t he l ateral p rocesses a nd i n s ome c ases t his was p erformed s o c lose t o t he v ertebra c entral a xis t hat t he s pines h ad a lso c ome a way. A f ew c audal v ertebrae h ad c hop m arks a t r ight a ngles a cross t he a xis o f t he b ody, t hus s evering t he t ail. I t i s n ot t hought w orthwhile
t o e xplain e very c ut a nd c hop m ark
o n t he b ones; t he w ork w ould b e t oo t ime c onsuming a nd t he r eturn w ould b e v ery l ittle. T he t ables a re s elf e xplanatory . I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat s ome d istal a nd p roximal b ones h ave b een q uartered a nd t his t ype o f b utchery s hould b e l ooked f or i n l ater s amples a s e vidence o f a d istortion f actor i n t he b one f ragment c ount . H aving e stablished t hat b utchery was b roadly t he s ame f or a ll p eriods l et u s e xamine t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f e lements ( Table 2 :2). T he m ost i mportant p oint t o n otice i n t he c attle b utchery i s t hat n o p articular j oints a re c ompletely a bsent f rom t he s ite. R ecov ery o f t he s maller b ones e .g. t o t heir s mall s ize.
c arpals a nd t arsals w as d ifficult d ue
P it g roups 4 a nd 6 r endered n o p roximal h umeri,
t hough a ll t he o ther g roups d id; h owever g roup 4 s hows a l arge p rep onderance o f h umerus s hafts. T he c ow p roximal h umerus c onsists o f l ight c ancellous t issue w hich i s p rone t o d isintegrating e asily ( Brain 1 967). P it g roups 2 a nd 3 s how c omparable f igures f or t he r atio o f t he b one f ragment p ercentages o f h umerus a nd r adius ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etacarpal ( non m eat b earing b one) a nd a lso t he r atio o f t he b one f ragment p ercentages f emur a nd p roximal t ibia ( meat b earing b ones)
t o t he m etatarsal
( non m eat b earing b one).
B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones i n c attle
G roup 2 G roup 3
P eriod
F ore
4 4 t o 4 9 4 9 t o 6 1
2 .6:1 2 .4:1
l imb
H ind l imb 0 .9:1 0 .7:1
W hen g roups 4 a nd 6 a re c onsidered a c lear d ifference i s o btained . 4
4 4 t o 5 4
1 0 :1
0 .6:1
G roup 6
G roup
5 4 t o 5 7
1 4:1
1 .03:1
B oth t hese g roups s how a s harp i ncrease i n t he p ercentage o f p elvic r emains o ver t he o ther t wo g roups w ith t he c . 5 4 t o 5 7 s ample a lso s howing a s harp i ncrease i n t he s kull a nd v ertebrae r emains. 2 .3 .2
d ogs.
S heep/goat b utchery
I t w as f ound t hat 1 0 .6% o f t he b one f ragments w ere c hewed b y T hree s kulls o f s heep, i .e. t he r ight s ide, h ad b een s agittally
3 3
s plit,
am ethod c ommonly f ound o n p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites:
L ittle
W oodbury ( Jackson 1 948); G lastonbury ( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 917); M aiden C astle ( Jackson 1 943); A shville ( Wilson 1 978); B ishopstone a nd N ewhaven ( Gebbels 1 978). T wo o f t he s kulls w ere r ecovered f rom P it 1 02 ( 54 t o 6 1) a nd t he o ther f rom P it 1 12 ( 54-61). T he h ead w as r emoved f rom t he b ody b y c hopping t hrough t he a xis, n ormally a t r ight a ngles b ut o ne a xis w as s plit s agittally a nd a lso t wo c ervical v ertebrae d isplayed t his. R egarding T able 2 :2 t he r atio o f t he p ercentage n umber o f b one f ragments o f h umerus a nd r adius ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etacarpal ( non m eat b earing b one) a nd t he r atio o f t he p ercentage n umber o f b one f ragments o f f emur a nd p roximal t ibia ( meat b earing b ones) t o t he m etat arsal ( non m eat b earing b one) i s a s f ollows:B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones i n s heep/goat P eriod
F ore
G roup 3 G roup 7
4 9 t o 6 1 5 4 t o 6 1
1 1.2:1 1 .1:1
1 :1 0 .6:1
G roup 9
4 4 t o 6 1
1 :1
0 .5:1
b ones
l imb
H ind l imb
G roup 3 s hows a much h igher r atio o f m eat t o n on-meat b earing t han t hose o f 7 a nd 9 . T his c ould p erhaps i mply e xtra m eat
b eing b rought o nto t he s ite but e vidence o f b one w orking c ould p ossibly a ccount f or t his d iscrepancy; e .g. v arious a rticles o f b one w orking u tilised t he s heep/goat m etapodials. T he g roup 3 p its r evealed l arge numbers o f b roken h orncores w hile g roup 9 c ontained m any s kull a nd mandible f ragments. O ne s heep h orn c ore a nd a g oat h orn c ore w ere c hopped o ff c leanly a t t he b ase. 2 .3 .3
P ig b utchery
D ogs w ere f ound t o h ave c hewed 2 .8% o f t he b one f ragments. A s w ith s heep/goat t he s kull w as c hopped i n I ron A ge f ashion i n o rder t o e xtract t he b rains; t hus t hree s kulls w ere s plit s agittally a nd i n o ne c ase t he c leaver w as d irected i nto t he p arietal b one a t t he b ack o f t he s kull. S everal r ight h alves o f p igs h eads w ere r ecovered f rom t he e arly f irst c entury m ilitary l ayers a t L incoln ( Harman 1 973a). T he t hree S heepen s kulls w ere r etrieved f rom t he f ollowing p its 1 19, 1 27 a nd 1 38, d ated c onsecutively t o 4 9-61, 4 4-49 a nd 4 9-61. O ne s kull w as c hopped a cross t he s uperior s urface o f t he o ccipital c ondyles a nd 1 2 a tlases w ere c hopped s agittally, p robably a s a r esult o f t he s hape o f t he b one, i n o rder t o s ever t he h ead. T he g roup 4 p its s how a l arger p ercentage o f h umerus s hafts t han t hose o f g roup 6 . T here w ere n o d istal f emora f ound i n p its d ated 4 4 t o 5 4. T he g roup 6 s ample w as c haracterised b y many s kull f ragments a nd a d istinct d isc repancy b etween t he number o f u lnae a nd r adii. I n g roup 2 t here w as a h igher p ercentage o f t he b ack l eg t han f ront l eg w hen c ompared w ith g roup 3 . T he r everse w as t rue i n g roup 3 p its.
3 4
2 .4
M inimum n umber o f a nimals
T here i s a c ertain n umber o f b one f ragments b elow w hich a c alculat ion o f M IN i s n ot a ccurate ( see C hapter O ne). A ccording t o t he m ethod o f G rayson ( 1978) M IN/E ( minimum n umber o f a nimals d ivided b y t he n umb er o f b one f ragments) w as p lotted a gainst E ( number o f b one f ragments). C omparisons b etween M IN a nd E w ere f ound n ot t o b e v alid b elow 6 0 f ragm ents ( Fig. 2 :3). I n o rder t o c alculate M IN a ll t he p it c ontents b elonging t o e ach p eriod w ere a malgamated, t he a ssumption b eing t hat i t w ould b e u nlikely t hat a ll t he b ones o f o ne s laughtered a nimal w ould b e d eposited i n o ne p articular p it; i n a ny c ase, s ome o f t he p its c ontained s mall a mounts o f b one, l ess t han 6 0 f ragments a nd w ould h ave g reatly i nflated c alculation o f M IN. W ith t he M IN m ethod t he i mportance o f p ig i s v ery m uch e mphasised ( Table 2 :4); i t a ppears f irst i n o rder o f p reference o ver c attle a nd s heep/goat i n e very g roup e xcept g roup 7 w here i t i s j oint f irst w ith s heep/goat. I n p its d ated 4 9 t o 6 1, 5 4 t o 6 1 a nd 5 4 t o 5 7 c attle a ppears s econd. W ith t he n umber o f b one f ragments m ethod i t w as h inted t hat t he i mportance o f s heep/goat i ncreased f rom c . 4 9-61 A .D. U nfort unately t he g roup 2 a nd g roup 4 d eposits a re n ot r eliable e nough t o m ake a n a ssessment o f t he i mportance o f s heep/goat v ia M IN. H owever g roups 7 , 9 a nd 4 s ignify i ts p redominance o ver c attle where i t a ppears i n s econd p lace t o p ig. I t w ould b e u nwise t o r ely a bsolutely o n t he a ctual p ercentage f igures; i t i s t he r elative o rder o f t he s pecies w hich i s i mportant. T he MIN f igures f or p ig w ere l argely b ased o n t he w ell r epresented m andibles; t hey a re r obust b ones a nd s urvive much b etter t han t he r est o f t he p ost-cranial s keleton. A lso t hey a re much m ore s ubstantial t han t hose o f c attle a nd s heep/goat. H owever i n t he r elative a ssessment o f m eat p otential i t c an b e s een t hat c attle f ar s urpass t he o ther t wo s pecies a s C unliffe ( 1978) h as p ointed o ut f or p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites. T he f ollowing r atio i s b ased o n t he a verage c arcass w eights u sed b y C arter e t a l. H awkes H ill I ron A ge F armstead. c ow
s heep
4 08 K g
5 6.7 K g
7 .2
1
( 1965)
f or
p ig 9 0.7 K g 1 .6
T he n umber o f f ragments o f b one p er p eriod p er s pecies w as m ultiplied b y t he r elevant u nit a nd t he whole p rocess w as r epeated u sing M IN. T able 2 :5 s hows p ig i n s econd p lace a fter c attle w ith s heep/goat t hird. I t i s e ssential t o r emember
t hat t he r elative f requency o f t he
s pecies r epresents t he e ating h abits o f t he i nhabitants a nd n ot n eces'sarily t he s laughter p attern o f t he f armer. 2 .5
T he S heepen c attle B eef w as
t he m ost i mportant f ood i tem o f t he S heepen i nhabitants,
b ut m eat p roduction w as n ot t he main p urpose f or w hich c attle w ere k ept s ince
t he a nimals w ere
s laughtered a t a n a dvanced a ge. 3 5
' 4 ›
HNO2
JO
0 0
0
O D
SINHWDVU LI
= H
0
_
UH2W I IN
c o 0
H ISNIV9V
0
H/NI W
JO
0
HdVUD
MIN/E t v U i
N ) 0
c t ) 0
N J 0 0
0
CO 0
0 N J
3 6
I n o rder o f H igham
t o d etermine
( 1963;
1 969)
t he
s ex o f
w ere u sed,
t he a nimals c onsumed,
t he m ethods
i .e. m easurements o f m etacarpal d istal
e piphysial w idth w ere p lotted a gainst d istal w idth a nd t hose o f m etac arpal d istal t hickness w ere p lotted a gainst d istal w idth ( Figs. 2 :4 a nd 2 :5). F ig.
2 :4 s hows a c ontinuous a rray o f p oints w ith a c lustering i n
t he c entre;
n o v isual
s eparation w as a pparent.
T he i ndices o f H oward
( 1963) w ere c alculated ( Table 2 :6) s o t hat t he s ex o f t welve c omplete m etacarpal b ones c ould b e t entatively d etermined. A s ex r atio o f 1 0 f emale
:1 c astrate/female
: 1 male w as
f ound w ith
t he DB/L i ndex,
a nd
8 f emale/castrate w ith t he MB/L i ndex. O ne M B/L i ndex f ell o utside t he l ower r ange f or f emales. I f a b one's MB/L i ndex was c astrate/female a nd i ts DB/L i ndex f emale
t hen i t w as a ssumed f emale.
T he o ne d ubious
c astrate/female DB/L i ndex b one l ies w ithin t he r ange o f v ariation o f f emales a nd s teers. F ig. 2 :5 s hows a s imilar p attern t o t hat o f F ig. 2 :4. B esides
t he m etacarpal,
i ndicators o f s ex.
t he r adius a nd p halanx I ( fore)
a re g ood
Unfortunately n ot e nough r adii w ere a vailable b ut
t he measurements f or p halanx I ( fore) w ere.
F ig.
2 :6
s hows
t he m axi-
mum p roximal w idth p lotted a gainst t he maximum p roximal a rticulatory s urface.
Again a c ontinuous a rray o f p oints c an b e o bserved w ith n o
s eparation. A lthough
t he m etatarsal
t he metacarpal, n evertheless F ig.
2 :7 d oes
i s n ot a s s trong a n i ndicator o f i t i s
s till a v alid b one
s ex a s
t o u se.
I ndeed
s uggest s ome s ort o f s eparation i s o ccurring when t he
m etatarsal e piphysial w idth i s p lotted a gainst t he maximum d istal w idth. H oward's DB/L i ndex ( Table 2 :7) o n 1 0 c omplete b ones g ave a s ex r atio o f 9 f emale : 1 f emale/castrate/male a nd t he MB/L i ndex 9 f emale : 1 f emale/castrate. A f ew o f t he a nimals a re v ery s mall a nd d o n ot o ccur w ithin t he l imits s he g ives. T he l argest b one o n t he g raph, D ,
r evealed v alues
o r c astrate a nd
f or
t he DB/L i ndex t hat c ould b e male,
t he MB/L i ndex f emale o r
f airly l arge g ap b etween B d.
c astrate.
5 2.9 a nd 5 6.6 i t w as
S ince
f emale
t here i s a
t hought v alid
t o p er-
f orm a p rincipal c omponent a nalysis. T he e quation f or t he
l ine o f l east-squares b est f it w as f ound t o
b e Y = 0 .67X + 1 2.5 A n e quiprobability e llipse w as c alculated f or B d.
4 2
t o 5 4
e ncompass a ll s ide
( as e xplained b y A rmitage 1 977a).
t he l arger g rouping,
t he p oints a nd i ndeed l eft s ome f emale m etatarsals o ut-
t he c luster. M easurements o f
t arsal
( Fig.
2 :9)
t he s capula
( Fig.
2 :8)
a nd t hickness o f
d emonstrated a s imilar s catter a s F ig.
t he H igham m ethod h as g iven n o c lear i ndication o f a lthough o f
i .e.
T he e llipse d id n ot
t he
i ndices o f H oward h ave
t he a nimals m ay b e B ecause Z alkin
s uggested
2 :7.
t he m etaT hus,
s ex s eparation
t hat a l arge p roportion
f emale.
( 1960)
s howed t hat c ow ,
bull a nd s teer m etacarpals
c ould b e s eparated b y d istal w idth-to-length r atios, a n a ttempt w as made u sing t he S heepen d ata ( Fig. 2 :10). A s eparation i s a pparent a nd 3 7
DISTAL
EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH 4 = .
4 = . O D
HdVUD
0
mm
r l \ idUVDVIH I A I
30
0
› > .
•
1
•
•
•
• •
c o
• •8 e ng t
•
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• 7
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r IVIS IQ
•
ISNIVDV
0 1
HIC IIM
W
r IVISÄHdIdH
O D
HIC IIM
r IVISIC I
•
OMB
0
0
•
•
L f l
• • •
•
•
• • •
• •
• •
• •
•
• •
C N
0 0
0 0 C N
L IU I
SSHNNDIF I LL
(P G)
3 9
C N C N
PROXIMAL N . ) 0
N . ) N )
WIDTH
N ) , A
( Bp)
N ) 0 1
mm N ) 0 0
L O 0
N )
0
L . . ) N )
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I V H
•
0 h i h i 0 7 1 t i l
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N ) N . )
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• •
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ÄUOIV r If IDIL LUV
• •
N . . ) U i
N . ) 0 1
• •
•
• • • 5 44:
•
•
• • •
•
4 0
•• N
H W
< U
• 0 •
AGAINST
•
E 4 •
EPIPHYSIAL
•
•
•
•
• •
•
METATARS AL
•
• •
•
•
M IM
0 1
C r ) • c f .
HIGIM qVISÄHdIdH
4 1
UVISIG
GLENOID CAVITY BREADTH
ISHIVSUD
U . > 0
U . ) . A
L1 4) / OD
( BG)
4 . N J
mm i = . 0 1
U l 0
U l . 4 = .
u i 0
U l
f a .
—
• U l OD
•
•
•
•• •
• • •
01 N J
•
0 • •
•
• • •
•
•
• •
•
•
J
0 •
-
. 4 OD
t i l Z 0 1 3 Z
•
-
0 T i
3
1 3 OD N J
t u -
n > 1 3 1 3
t u
4 2
F r i H n
•
0
•
• L c )
• ( N I I n
•
• • •• • ••
•
•
•
THICKNESS
•
•
• • • • • •
0
b l u l
• •
8 •
c 0
( PH)
HIC IIM
4 3
r IVISIC I
• •
•
DISTAL N J
WIDTH/TOTAL
LENGTH
( Bd/GL)
N . )
x I00 mm
U i 0
U . ) U i
METACARPAL
>•
OF
•
GRAPH
1 0
H U i
n•
DISTAL WIDTH/TOTAL
•c
LENGTH x I00
•
AGAINST
C O 0
TOTAL
H 0 0 U l
•
4 4
H oward's i ndices h ave b een m arked.
T here a re n o s ignificant d iffer-
e nces i n l ength b etween c ow a nd b ull m etacarpals b ut b ulls
t end t o h ave
b roader d istal w idths t han c ows. S teer m etacarpals h ave o n a verage g reater l ength w ith t he s ame b readth a s b ulls. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he p oint i n t he t op l eft h and c orner o f F ig. 2 :10 c ould b e a m ale, p ossibly a b ull, w ith t he r emaining p oints f emale. I f t his i s t rue, t he c ows e xhibit a g reat r ange o f v ariation i n l ength. I n 1 946 D ottrens p ointed o ut t hat t he b roader B P/GL f ore-phalanx I ( proximal w idth d ivided b y t otal l ength) o f m ales e nabled t heir s eparat ion. F ig. 2 :11 d oes s uggest a s imilar g rouping t o t he m etatarsal g raphs. I t i s n ecessary t o m ention h ere t he c onclusions o f M ennerich 's r esearch ( 1968).
H e i nvestigated t he m etacarpals o f 8 0 a nimals o f
t he I llyrian o r B us rindes c attle
( 40 c astrates,
1 9 m ales,
2 0 f emales)
w hich h e c ollected i n B osnia. T his s hort h orned b reed i s s mall, p rimit ive a nd l ate m aturing. T he c attle h ave l ived f or c enturies i n b arren, m ountainous c ountry - h ence t heir s mall s ize. t hese a nimals a re r egarded a s w orking a nimals,
F irst a nd f oremost i .e. o xen; i n s econd
p lace t hey a re e xploited a s s uppliers o f m eat a nd l astly m ilk p roduction w hich i s v ery much i n t he b ackground. M ennerich e stablished t he f ollowing p oints:1 .
T here w as n o i ncrease i n t he h eight o f o xen a nd t he l ength o f
o xen,
b ull a nd c ow m etacarpals s carcely d iffered f rom o ne a nother.
H igham p roduced s imilar e vidence w ith A berdeen A ngus c attle
( 1969).
2 . T he o verlapping i n l ength/breadth i ndices b etween c ow a nd b ull i s s mall, b ut m etacarpals o f o xen a nd b ulls c annot b e d ifferentiated f rom o ne a nother i n t heir g rowth f orm a nd h e m aintained t hat t he b ulls c an e ven b e e xcelled b y t he o xen i n t he l ength/breadth i ndices. H e t hus c oncluded t hat o x a nd bull m etacarpals c annot b e s eparated s atisfacto rily. T he o xen a re b etter f ed t han t he b ulls w hich a re o nly k ept f or b reeding a nd a re s laughtered a s s ubadults o r y oung a dults. M ennerich m aintained t hat t he r elatively g ood f eeding a nd h eavy w ork h ad a g reat i nfluence o n g rowth t hrough t he b readth o f t he b ones. M oreover g rowth i n h eight w as t hought t o h ave b een s uppressed b y h eavy w ork, t he m etac arpals g rowing s carcely l onger t han t hose o f b ulls a nd c ows. H owever, s ince t he a nimals w ere c astrated a s l ate a s 1 t o 2 y ears o ld t hen t heir g rowth a nd d evelopment w ould b e s imilar t o t hat o f a b ull. C astration i n m edieval c attle w as p erformed 1 0 t o 2 0 d ays a fter b irth A rmitage,
( Dr P .
p ers.co u m .).
M ennerich p repared a d iagram f or m etacarpals f rom r ecent c attle p opulations, p re a nd e arly h istorical c attle. T he a dvantage o f s uch a d iagram i s t hat t he p oints a re d oubly d etermined b y r elative b readth m easurements.
F ig.
2 :12 i llustrates
t his a nd a gain H oward's i ndices
h ave b een m arked o n t he g raph. T he o ne m ale b one K d oes s eparate e asily f rom t he f emales. S mall h orned c attle w ere i dentified t ogether w ith t he l arger s hort h orned v ariety a fter t he m ethod o f A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock ( 1976), s ee P late 3 , T able 2 :8. V ery s mall t ypes o f c attle a re n otoriously d ifficult t o s ex ( Uerpmann 1 973a) a nd t his
4 5
FIG. 2 :11 CATTLE
GRAPH LENGTH
60
OF
FORE
AGAINST
PHALANX TOTAL
I PROXIMAL WIDTH/TOTAL LENGTH
•
E 0 0 H
x — 4 0
55
' -
PROXIMAL WIDTH/TOTAL
LENGTH
a i 0 : 1
•
• •
• 50
•
ME M
••
•
• • • • • • •
• •
• • •
•
t
S
•
•
45
_ •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
•
•
40
I
45
5 5
5 0 TOTAL
LENGTH
4 6
( GL)
60 mm
GRAPH
OF
MENNERICH
P . 1m
I AGAINST
INDEX III
S INDEX
INDEX
III
r e )
0
: co
—•
— 5 •
c r ,
•
•
C O
I XH I C INI
4 7
P late 3
C attle h orn c ores
f rom S heepen.
M ennerich's
i ndices f or s exual s eparation o f c attle m etacarpals
I ndex I s mallest b readth d iaphysis l ength
I ndex I II
g reatest d istal b readth l ength
m ight w ell e xplain s ome o f t he d ifficulties e ncountered w ith t he S heepen m aterial. F urther e vidence w as s ought t o e lucidate t he p icture, t hus t he m orphology o f t he p elvic g irdle w as i nvestigated. I n f emale c attle t he i lio-pectineal p rocess i s f lattened a nd t ends t o b e p ointed f orw ard . I t i s c onnected w ith a c oncave d epression u nder t he a cetabulum w hich e xhibits a s hallow m edial r im . T he p ubic b one i n c ross s ection i s l ozenge o r d iamond s haped. I n m ale c attle t he p ubis a nd m edial a cetabulum r im a re m uch t hicker w ith n o c oncave d epression u nder t he a cetabulum , t he p ubis t ends t o b e m ore o val. T his g ave t he s upporting e vidence n eeded, 1 9 f emales : 2 m ales! T hus i t c an b e r easonably c oncluded t hat t he s ample o f c attle b ones c ontains a h igh p roportion o f f emales, i .e. t he f ood t hat t he i nhabit ants o f S heepen a te. I ndeed t he c oefficient o f v ariation ( V) o f t he d istal m etacarpal w idths i s 5 .3, f airly l ow, i ndicating t hat t here w as n ot much a dmixture o f s ex/breed. S ince c attle w ere n ot s laughtered a t t he p rime a ge f or m eat c ons umption a nd whole a nimals w ere b utchered o n t he s ite, i t c ould b e a rgued t hat s exing r eflects t he a nimal h usbandry t hat w as b eing p ract ised l ocally . A h igh i ncidence o f f emales i s s uggestive o f a d airy e conomy b ut t he c orroborative f acts a re s trongly l acking, e .g. e vidence o f t he s laughter o f c alves u nder s ix m onths. C alf p roduction i s n ecessary f or t he e stablishment o f l actation i n t he c ow s ince t his o nly h appens w ith t he o nset o f t he g estation p eriod a nd t he b irth o f t he c alf. I f m ilk o r m ilk p roducts, e .g . c heese, w ere t o b e u tilised b y a c ommunity t hen c alves w ould h ave t o b e d isposed o f e arly i n t heir l ives s o t hat t hese i tems w ould b e f reely a vailable. C urrent p ractice r ecommends t hat t he c alf s tays w ith t he m other o nly a c ouple o f d ays a nd t hen t he m other h erself i s m ated a fter 1 0 w eeks
( M .A .F.F.
1 971).
T hus e ach y ear
o ne c ow g ives b irth t o o ne c alf. T hus t he n umber o f c alves b orn e ach y ear i s g reatly i n e xcess o f t he numbers n eeded f or h erd r eplacement o f a ged a nimals a nd many a re s laughtered f or v eal.
4 9
This evidence is not only lacking from the rural site of Sheepen but also the nearby Canabae situated outside the fortress as well as the later Colonia itself. In fact, convincing evidence of calf slaugh ter is very difficult to find in the Romano-British Period. With regard to the Sheepen material, 35 mandibles had molar 3 erupted which in the majority of cases was well worn (Fig. 2:13). The mature mandibles are supported by the percentages of unfused epiphyses which are low in all periods, 5.3% to 9%. Possibly the innnature animals were sent elsewhere, though this seems unlikely (Chapter Three). The large number of females could be barren cows, but this seems an unus ually large number. A difference in the sequence of tooth eruption might signify a difference of breeds (the term breed cannot be used in the strict sense) since nutritional and environmental factors are not important. Order of premolar eruption in cattle P2
P3
½E
J
C
(after terminology of Ewebank 1964)
P4
E V
The bias is so strongly towards females that the author feels this may represent a deliberate policy in animal husbandry. 2.6
Socio-economic change in the first century B.C. to first century A.D. of Roman Britain
In order to understand this branch of economics it is essential to have some knowledge of population structure and growth. Various authors have proposed figures for the Iron Age. For instance Brothwell (1972) suggests figures from 50,000 to 500,000 for the whole Iron Age. Admitting the evidence was tenuous, Cunliffe (1978b, 124) defined a model describing the relationship between population growth and socio-economic change in the Southern British Iron Age.: 'On balance it seems fair to argue that agricultural improvement and population developed in parallel during the first half of the first millenium, population increase encouraging the evolution of new farming regimes (1000-600 B.C.). A little later the introduction of iron and the creation of centres for exchange offered further scope for increase but soon a crisis situation was reached which led to a long period of stress (400-100 B.C.). This was finally relieved when external forces drew Britain into a system of long distance trade which soon led to the evolution of an urban economy allowing scope for population growth once more (100-43 B.C.). Ideas concerning population in the later Roman Period will be briefly discussed in Chapter Three. In 1971 Peacock showed the importance of amphorae as trade indi cators in pre-Roman Britain. L ater Rodwell (1976) pointed out that most of the amphorae (Dressel lB - second half of the first century) 50
PATTERNS WEAR TEETH
5 ' t 9
S ' 09 5 "85 S • 9 S
1
S ' 1 7 5 5 *Z5
FREQUENCY
AGAINST
AGE
( USING
5 *Z9
5 '05 5 8t.
MANDIBLE
S '91 7 5 '1 71 '
OF
S. 5 'Ot
4-
5 '8£
AJN MÖHU LI
HOVINHDUnd
5 1
h ad b een f ound i n T rinovantian t erritory a nd s uggested t hat t his
t ribe
c ould w ell h ave c ontrolled t he w ine i mportation f rom I taly, w ith C amulodunum b eing a l ikely p ort. S ince t he w ine w as c onsumed g enerally, t he i mported g oods w ere p robably s old i n t he m arkets o f m ajor c entres s uch a s C amulodunum t ogether w ith i mported p ottery . I ndeed t he s ettlement p attern o f t he T rinovantes s ustained g reat c hange i n t he f irst c entury B .C. R ectangular h ouses r eplaced r ound a nd m ore r egular f ield s ystems w ere d evised t hus s uggesting i mprovem ents i n a gricultural
t echnique
( K .
R odwell 1 979,
3 28).
D uring t he e arly R oman o ccupation, h ides a nd c attle w ere e xported f rom B ritain ( Strabo i v, 5 ,2). T he i mportance o f B ritain c oncerning h ide e xport c annot b e u nderestimated s ince b etter s kin q uality i s g enerally o btained f rom a nimals r eared i n c ool m oist c limates ( Reed 1 972, 3 7). T he R oman Army w as
t he g reatest u ser o f l eather i n t he R oman
W orld a s e videnced b y i ts d emand f or c lothing, l eather b oat s ails ( Caesar B .G., i ii, 1 3), b oat c overings ( instead o f t arpaulin), p urses, s addles, h arness a nd s traps o f d raught a nimals, s hield a nd s cabbard c overings, b attle s creens a nd o ther m ilitary p rotective d evices. I ndeed a s R ichmond ( 1967, 1 32) p oints o ut t he n eed f or h ides m ust h ave b een e normous. T here i s d ocumentary e vidence s howing t hat t he R oman r equirement f or l eather c ould n ot a lways b e s upplied f rom t he i mmediate n eighbourhood, f or e xample, t he F risians r evolt a gainst t he s evere R oman t axation i n t he f orm o f o x h ides ( Tacitus, A nnals, i v, 7 2). F urther,
t he p resence o f t he C olonia must h ave i mposed a s evere
d rain o n t he s urrounding n ative r esources o f c attle a nd i ndeed o ther a nimals. F rere p oints o ut t hat T acitus, p robably s peaking f rom a n o fficial s ource, c alculated t he t otal c asualties a t L ondon, S t. A lbans a nd C olchester d uring t he B oudican R ebellion ( 60/61 A .D.) a s 7 0,000 ( Frere 1 978, 2 96). A llowing f or e xaggeration, t he f igures s uggest a p opulation o f 1 5,000 e ach f or C olchester a nd S t. A lbans, a nd p ossibly 3 0,000 f or L ondon. T he c ost o f n ot o nly p roviding f ood b ut a lso r aw p roducts i n t he f orm o f l eather must h ave b een c onsiderable. T hus l arge b reeding h erds w ould h ave b een v ery n ecessary . I t s eems t herefore t hat a n e xtensive l ong d istance t rade o perated i n t he i mmediate p re-Roman P eriod i nvolving s ome f orm o f u rban e conomy l eading t o a p opulation g rowth. I t a lso s eems p ossible t hat t he e arly R oman P eriod s aw a s udden e mergence o f l arge u rban markets o n a f ar l arger s cale t han e ver b efore. T his, t ogether w ith e xporting a nd t he n eed t o f eed a nd c lothe t he a rmy c ould h ave l ed t o a r apid e xponential g rowth i n t he h erd s tructure; h ence t he d ominance o f c ows i n t he S heepen s ample.
I n t he c lassical l iterature c attle a re r egarded v ery much a s
w ork a nimals, i .e. o xen, b ut c ows c an j ust a s e asily b e u sed f or t ract ion: e .g. t he p rimitive t riple p urpose R ossa P ontremolese C attle, t he c ows o f w hich c an b e u sed f or d raught w ork i n l ate s tages o f p regnancy w ithout a ny b ad e ffect o n t he m other o r c alf C arenzi
1 978).
5 2
( Ferrari;
C rimella,
2 .7
T he S heepen s heep/goat I n t he m ajority o f c ases i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o d istinguish
b etween b ones o f t he s pecies s heep a nd g oat .
T he m ost r eliable i ndi-
c ators a re t he h orn c ore a nd p elvic g irdle. G oat w as k nown t o b e p resent i n t he s ample b ecause a h orn c ore w as f ound i n P it 1 53 ( c. 5 4 t o 6 1). A lso P ayne's m ethod ( Fig. 2 :14) i solated a t l east f our b ones t hat c ould p ossibly b e g oat ( Payne 1 969).
i .e.
N oddle ( 1978) s howed t hat B oessneck a nd T eichert 's i ndex ( 1964) t he h eight o f t he s capula n eck d ivided b y t he m inimum l ength o f
t he n eck ( SLC/ASG) w as n ot a g ood s eparator o f s heep a nd g oat. U sing m odern s pecies a s e vidence, s he p ointed o ut t hat t he S oay s heep o verl apped w ith t he d omestic a nd w ild g oat s amples. T his r einforced H igham 's f indings ( 1966) w ith N epalese s heep where h e f ound t he d egree o f o verlap b etween t he t wo s pecies w as 1 4 .5%. T he S heepen i ndices ( Fig. 2 :15) d o n ot o verlap w ith N oddle's S oay s heep o r d omestic g oats. S ince o nly e ight b ones p rovided t he n ecessary m easurements i t c annot b e a ssumed t hey r epresent t he t otal s ample o f s heep/goat o riginally p resent. H owever, t hey d o i ndicate t he p ossible p resence o f l ong t ailed s heep e arly i n t he R omano-British p eriod . N oddle ( 1978) p ointed o ut t hat s capulae o f s hort t ailed b reeds, e .g. t he S oay h ave c omparat ively l onger n ecks t han t hose o f l ong t ailed b reeds, w hile c ross b reeds f all i nbetween. T he S heepen i ndices r anged f rom 0 .74 t o 0 .93 a nd c oincided w ith m easurements f or t he C lun F orest B reed .
R yder
( 1964)
c laimed t hat i n
t he l ate I ron Age t he m ain s heep w as p robably l ike a s hort t ailed S oay a nd t he R omans p ossibly i ntroduced a m ainly h ornless white-faced b reed. T he l ong t ailed S heepen s heep c ould w ell r epresent t his i ntroduction. H igham ( 1966) p ostero d iaphysial f icantly d ifferent w hile t he m ajority
f ound t hat t he r atio o f t he m etacarpal a nterow idth a gainst minimum t ransverse w idth i s s ignib etween s heep a nd g oats. F ig. 2 :16 s hows t hat o f t he p oints c ome f rom o ne p opulation t here i s a t
l east o ne p oint S D15 ( th. 1 0) t hat c ould b e g oat. T his i solated p oint w as a lso n oted o n o ther g raphs, e .g. F ig. 2 :15 ( scapula), F ig. 2 :17 ( metacarpal),
a nd F ig.
2 :18
( tibia).
S eparation o f t he s exes i s n ot e asy b ecause t here i s s o much o verlapping. Z alkin ( 1961) i nvestigated 1 34 d omestic s heep o f 1 1 b reeds a nd f ound s ex d ifferentiation n ot m arked.
T he m ale m etapodials
o n a verage w ere l onger a nd l arger a lthough c astrates c ould n ot b e i dent ified. T he i ndex f or t he m etacarpal, m id-shaft-width d ivided b y l ength x 1 00, h as b een c laimed t o v ary w ith s ex ( Pfund 1 961; H aak 1 965; s ee F ig . 2 :19). O n t he b asis o f t he p revious i nformation t he p oint w ith G L 1 32 h as b een a ssumed t o b e g oat. S ummarising, t he m ajority o f b ones w ould a ppear t o c ome f rom s heep w ith t he o ccasional g oat a mong t hem . S exing v ia t he l ong b ones w as u nsatisfactory a nd t he o nly t hree h orn c ores o f s heep g ave a r atio o f 2m ale t o 1 f emale. g irdle f ragments o f s heep g ave a s ex r atio o f 8 f emales ( after t he m ethod o f A rmitage A c onsiderable n umber o f
E leven p elvic t o 2m ales
1 977a). s heep w ere
s laughtered i n t he
f irst y ear
a s d educed b y P ayne's m ethod ( Fig. 2 :20); 1 5.5% b etween 0 t o 6m onths, a nd 2 7.4% b etween 6 t o 1 3 m onths, i n o rder t o s upply t he S heepen
5 3
TROCHLEA WIDTH
•
•
• 0 METACARPAL
AGAINST
CONDYLE
CONDYLE
• WIDTH
IVOD/dHHHS
TACARPAL
• 55 5
mm WIDTH TROCHLEA O D
C O
5 4
t \ . ) H 0
•
• •
3
•
-
•
o c
SHEEP/GOAT
00
CO
r -
r • •
CT
0 c r )
4
GLENOID
AGAINST
•
• •
•
DISTANCE
SCAPULA
•
•
c c e -4
u n i '
(YTS)
HIGIL V I
5 5
) 1311 \ 1
ANTERO-POSTERIOR
C O
DIAMETER m in
C
H
t• . )
O D
•
OF
•
METACARPAL
•
• •
0
I
•
••
• •
I I I. . ••
• • •e t S o
MID-SHAFT THICKNESS
•
• • •
•
••
•
• •
• •• ••
• ( Ds
•
•
•
•
AGAINST
•
• •
WIDTH
•
IVOD/dHHHS
C : 5 1
5 6
METACARPAL
DISTAL
WIDTH/TOTAL
•
0
ww
( 00 1 x r 19/Pg)
5 7 WIDTH
AGAINST
DISTAL
•
0
r I
•
•
•
• • •
•
•
•
•
0 c \ I
HIDNH VHIGI M
SHEEP/GOAT
TIBIA DISTAL N J
N J
WIDTH
( Bd)
m in
N )
0
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• •
• 0
N J
•
•
`
IVOD/dHHHS
4 2 .
5 8
•• O D
SHEEP/GOAT
•
1 .. . .
-
N M H
0 M H
C O N H
-
-
•
•
•
-
L O N H
e i N I
H E
N N H
0
Z
0
-
•
N H
c o
•
-
H H
. -
l 0 H H
-
. 1, H H
•
•
METACARPAL
( 1 ) H Z
N H .
• •
H
0 H H
N H
wm
001
x E L ION TI
H H
0 H
qVIOI/HIGI M
5 9
0 1
IJVHS
GIN
M
E i U
Z w 4
a < E 1 0
E 1
0
H
N )
W
0
0
0
( %) U-1 0
0
a
o
C / D H
z 0 h i > I -C z t u
H
10 WVUDOISIH
FREQUENCY
C r i
— k C t u i > X i C r )
z
) 3
H
0
t4
t u
4 = . .
U i
> 0 t u
H o
VJOD/dHHHS
> 0 t l i
X r i
6 0
t -r i
H 0 N J •• N ) 0
i nhabitants w ith l amb. I t i s u nlikely t hat t his i s a n e xample o f a utumn s laughter s ince i t i s n ow e stablished t hat t his w as m ore o f a m yth t han a r eality i n t he p re-Roman I ron Age ( Higgs 1 963). 2 .8
T he S heepen h orse T he h orse w as r epresented a t S heepen b y 1 1 f ragments a nd 1 m olar.
N o e vidence s uggested t hat t he h orse w as a n i tem o f f ood a nd i ts s tat ure w as t ypical ( 11.7 h ands) o f t he s mall p re-Roman I ron A ge p ony. 2 .9
T he S heepen p ig
U sing t he d ata g athered b y F lannery ( 1960), l ength m easurements o f u pper a nd l ower m olar 3 p roved t hat t he S heepen p ig s ize f ell w ithin t hat o f m odern d omestic E uropean S us s crofa ( Table 2 :9). E xcept f or o ne s pecimen, l ong b one m easurement w as a voided d ue t o t he i mmaturity o f t he a nimals. A ssuming t he m etapodial e piphyses f use a t 2 t o 2 1 y ears,
t he p er-
c entage o f u nfused m etapodials i s 4 6.9%. i .e. h alf t he s ample i s o lder t han 2 t o 2 1 y ears. I f S ilver's m odern e ruption d ata i s u sed ( Silver 1 963), i .e. m olar 3 e rupts a t 1 7 t o 2 2 m onths t hen 9 0% o f t he S heepen m andible s ample i s 1 7 t o 2 2 m onths o ld o r l ess a nd t herefore t hese t wo a geing m ethods d o n ot a gree. H owever, i f S ilver's e ighteenth c entury d ata i s u sed w ith m olar 3 e rupting a t 3 y ears t hen s ome a greement i s r eached ( Fig. 2 :21). S exing o f t he mandibular c anines g ave a r atio o f 4 6 m ales t o 1 8 f emales. P etch ( 1980) r elates t hat t raditionally i n E ngland y oung m ale p igs w ere c astrated b y 8w eeks o f a ge b ecause t he c arcass w ould b e t ainted i f l eft e ntire. C olumella s uggested t hat b oars s hould b e c astrated a t n ot l ess t han 6 m onths a nd V arro p referably a t o ne y ear ( White 1 970). W hite a lso g athered e vidence w hich i ndicated t hat t he R omans c ould p roduce d iffering f lavours b y a ltering t he d iet. T hat t he a nimals a t S heepen w ere c astrated s eems a r easonable p robability; i t i s w ell k nown t hat b oar p ork r eared t he w rong w ay c an p roduce a s trong t aint m aking t he m eat a lmost i nedible. P etch h as l ikened t his t o ' the p ungent a roma o f r otting f ootball s ocks' ( Petch 1 980). A lso male a nimals a re l ess l ikely t o f ight i f t hey a re c astrat ed .
U nfortunately t he mandibular c anines w ere t oo b roken t o g ive a ny
m etrical d ata c oncerning t his. 2 .10
T he S heepen d ogs T he f irst c entury p its c ontained 1 70 f ragments o f d og,
o f w hich b elonged t o b urials:
P it 1 46 h eld 2 b urials
s everal
( 79 f ragments),
o ne b eing a n o ld a rthritic d og a nd P it 1 20 r evealed t he r emains o f 2 a nimals, o ne a n a dult d og a nd t he o ther a p uppy o f l ess t han o ne y ear. T his p articular p it a lso h ad a n u nusual a ssortment o f b ird b one
( see n ext s ection). T he s ize o f t he d ogs
g iven b y H arcourt
( 1974)
( Table 2 :10)
c oincided w ithin t he r anges
f or p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd R omano-British
d ogs.
6 1
0
SNUH ,1, 1 ,Vc 1
2 7 IVHM
H .LHHI
JO
CO
ÄDNHI IÜHt Il
MANDIBLE FREQUENCY
0
6 2
2 .11
T he S heepen b irds F owl g reatly o utnumbers
b one
t he o ther s pecies w hether t he n umber o f
f ragments o r M IN m ethod i s u sed
( Tables 2 :11 a nd 2 :12).
W ith t he
n umber o f f ragments m ethod, r aven a ppears s econd b ut w ith M IN, t he m allard a ppears s econd . T he m allard i s m ore l ikely t o b e t he s econd f ood i tem s ince
t he r aven o ccurs a s m ore o r l ess w hole s keletons.
P it 1 20 ( 49 t o 6 1) a t f irst s ight p roduced a c urious a ssortment o f b ones, i ncluding n early t wo c omplete r aven s keletons, t he r emains o f t wo w hite t ailed e agles a nd a lso t he b ones o f o ne c omplete d og s keleton a nd p uppy . A lthough t he r aven w as e ndowed w ith p rophetic w isdom b oth i n t he C lassical R oman a nd C eltic w orld, i n a r ural e nvironm ent i t c ould b e r ather a p est. I t i s a w ell k nown s cavenger a nd r ecent r eports h ave s hown i t g uilty o f a ttacking a nd e ven k illing y oung l ambs. T he w hite t ailed e agle p refers c oastal a reas o r l arge i nland w aterways a nd s hould n ot b e r egarded a s a n u nusual o ccurrence a lthough i t i s l ess c ommon t oday. T he c ommon c rane G rus g rus, n ow e xtinct i n B ritain, w as c ommon i n b ogs a nd w ooded s wamps; o utside t he b reeding s eason i t c ould b e f ound i n marshes a nd o n s and b anks. M arshes a nd m eadows a re t he h abitat o f t he b lack-tailed g odwit; i t w inters a long s eashores w ith m udflats. A lso t he w igeon, A nas p enelope i s c ommon t o m arshes, m eadows a nd s wamps w here i t b reeds. T he k not, C alidris c arnutus b reeds i n t he H igh A rctic a nd i n w inter c an b e f ound a long s ea s hores w ith mudflats. C rex c rex, t he c orn c rake i s l ocally c ommon i n m eadows a nd f ields w ith d ense v eget ation. T hus t he e vidence o f t he b irds i ndicates a m arshy e nvironment w ith d ensely v egetated m eadowland; t his f its i n w ell w ith t he a bundance o f p igs. T here i s n ow a s trong b ody o f e vidence p ointing t o t he e xistence o f G allus i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge ( Camulodunum , J ackson 1 947; K ingsd own C amp, J ackson 1 930; S lonk H ill, S heppard 1 977; G ussage A ll S aints, H arcourt 1 979b; S keleton G reen, P artridge, p ersonal c ommunication; W inklebury, C aesar f owls,
J ones 1 977 a nd B ishopstone, ( B.G.
x ii,
h ares o r g eese;
1 6)
i nforms u s
i .e.
t he f emale
1 978).
t hat t he B ritons d id n ot e at
t hey w ere k ept a s p ets.
T able 2 :13 i ndicates t he s ize o f g ives a r atio o f 7 f emales t o 2 males i ndicative o f am ale).
G ebbels
t he f owl a nd t he t arsometatarsus ( i.e. p resence o f t he s pur b eing
T he s ize o f t he S heepen f irst c entury s pecimens
t arsometatarsus,
c ompares v ery w ell w ith t hose o f t he
I ron A ge O ppidum o f M anching i n B avaria
( Schweizer 1 961;
s ee a lso F ig.
2 :22). f emale
t arsometatarsus
G reatest l ength
6
6 6.7
M anching
7
6 6.3
S heepen F irst C entury
C astration o f f owls w as p ractised b y t he R omans. V arro ( De R e R ustica i ii, 9 ), l ater r eiterated b y C olumella, s tated t he o peration i nvolved t he b urning o f
t he l eg s purs w ith r ed h ot i rons,
6 3
t he w ounds
FIG. 2 :22 FOWL
cgApH
OF
AGAINST
TARSOMETATARSUS
TOTAL
LENGTH
DISTAL WIDTH
1 4
13
f t
-
12
g 1 1
r 7 . 1 a 10 E 1
9
f 50
60
70 DISTAL WIDTH
6 4
80 ( Bd)
90 mm
100
b eing h ealed w ith c lay.
T his m ight w ell h ave r esulted i n d eformation
t o t he u nderlying b ony p art b ut t he a uthor h as f ound n o e vidence o f t his, p ossibly b ecause t he s pur i s j oined t o t hin s eptum w hich c an b e b roken v ery e asily. 2 .12
t he
l eg b one b y a v ery
W ild a nimals
H unting c ontributed v ery l ittle t o t he S heepen e conomy. A ltogether 1 2 f ragments o f h are w ere f ound, 2 f ragments o f r ed d eer a nd 7 a ntler f ragments a nd o ne f ragment o f r oe d eer. H owever t he m ost i nteresting w ild m ammal b one f ragment c ame f rom t he m andible o f a b rown b ear. M artial w rites o f b ears b eing i mported f rom S cotland a fter t he c onquest o f A gricola i n t he f irst c entury i n o rder t o k ill c riminals i n R ome ( De S pectaculis v ii, 3 ). T his p erhaps i mplies t hat b ears d id n ot o ccur f requently i n E ngland, p articularly t he s outh e ast i n t he f irst c entury A .D. T oynbee ( 1973) i nforms u s t hat o ut o f a ll t he w ild a nd d angerous a nimals s ought a fter f or d isplay i n p ublic a nd p rivate s pectacles, t he b ear w as t he m ost u biquitous. I t s eems l ikely t hat t his b ear r epresents p ossibly s ome t rophy f rom h unting i n t he n orth o r t he p resence o f a n a nimal u sed i n b ear b aiting . 2 .13
P athology o f S heepen a nimals
P late 4 s hows t wo g rossly d eformed s heep/goat h orn c ores ( Pits 1 01). T he p athology w as p ossibly c aused b y t raumatic o r n utritional p roblems. W hen t he h orn c ore b egins t o d evelop, i ts e mbryonic c ells a re v ery s ensitive t o a ny f orm o f i njury; t his i s w hy m any a bnormalit ies o ccur i n y oung a nimals s ince t he r apidly d eveloping c ells p rovide a s uitable e nvironment f or v iruses a nd b acteria. I f nutritional c auses w ere t he u nderlying f actors r esponsible f or t he d eformation o ne w ould h ave e xpected t o h ave r ecovered m ore a bnormal h orn c ores. T herefore i t i s s upposed t hat t rauma c aused t he d eformity . T he c attle s kull e xhibited i n P late 5 s hows a l esion i n t he p ariet al b one w hich o ccurred b efore d eath . S imilar d iscoveries w ere m ade o n f ive m edieval c attle s kulls a t Y ork ( Ryder 1 970) a nd t wo m edieval s kulls a t E xeter ( Maltby 1 979). T he c ause c annot b e a scertained f or c ertain b ut R yder p roposed t hat t he h oles c ould h ave r esulted f rom a n a cute i nflammatory c ondition c aused b y i ncreased v ascularisation a nd t hat c attle w earing y okes m ay h ave e xperienced t his. T wo p ig l ong b ones,
a r ight h umerus
( Pit 1 02)
a nd a r ight f emur
( Pit 1 37) e xhibited f ractures, t he v ertical a nd h orizontal d isplacem ent r esulting i n a t hickening o f b one ( Plate 6 ). A c ervical v ertebra o f a c ow s howed s pondylosis a nd s everal c attle s econd p halanges w ere a ffected b y o steoarthritis. A l ack o f
t he s econd p ermanent p remolar was f ound i n c attle m an-
d ibles f rom P its 2 03, 1 02, 2 52 a nd 3 16; A ndrews a nd N oddle ( 1975) t hought t he c ondition w as q uite c ommon a nd s uggested a v ariety o f r easons T wo
f or i ts o ccurrence. f owl u lnae, P its 1 20 a nd 1 36 a nd a t ibiotarsus i n P it 2 38
r evealed f ractures which h ad s ubsequently h ealed. c arpus h ad a lso s uffered a f racture ( Pit 1 10).
6 5
A g oose c arpometa-
P late 4
Two d eformed s heep h orn c ores d eveloped h orn c ores.
( centre) w ith t wo n ormally
P late 6
F ractured p ig h umerus a nd f emur w ith e xostoses
( below).
( above); p ig m etapodials
2 .14
S heepen - T he b ackground o f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd e arly R oman p eriod ( first c entury)
I n o rder t o a ssess t he a ftermath o f t he R oman I nvasion o n I ron A ge a nimal h usbandry, i t i s e ssential t o e xamine d ifferent t ypes o f s ite w ithin t he s ame g eographical a rea, t hrough a s et p eriod o f t ime p referably p rior a nd t hroughout t he R oman O ccupation. T his i s b eing i nvestigated b y t he a uthor w ith t he s ites a lready m entioned i n t he C ivitas o f t he T rinovantes. T able 2 :14 l ists t he m ain d omestic a nimal s pecies f rom s ome m ajor s ites i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge a nd f irst c entury o f o ccupation. T he s ites h ave b een c ompared v ia t he N umber o f B one F ragments M ethod s ince t he M IN m ethod w as n ot u sed f or e arly r eports. O f t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites 1 5 a re s heep/goat d ominated a nd 1 1 a re c attle d ominated. T hese f igures
s hould n ot b e r igidly a dhered t o, b ut t hey d o i ndicate
t he i mportance o f s heep/goat w hich o ther r esearchers h ave a lready n oted ( Cunliffe 1 978a). C unliffe a lso o bserved t he g reat i mportance o f m anure, p articularly s heep m anure: ' It i s n o e xaggeration t o s ay t hat w ithout l arge f locks, g rain p roduction o n i ts I ron A ge l evel w ould h ave b een i mpossible t o maintain.' H e a lso p ointed o ut t hat s heep n eed f ar l ess w ater t han c attle ( Cunliffe 1 978a, 1 84). P ig o nly a ppears i n s econd p lace t o c attle a nd s heep/goat o n t hree s ites, i .e. F ord S treet B raughing, C roft Ambrey a nd H awkes H ill. I t r anges f rom 1 .6% a t G lastonbury t o 3 3.7% a t F ord S treet B raughing. T he s econd i mportant s tatement m ade b y C unliffe c oncerning t he I ron A ge p eople o f t he s outh w as t hat, ' The I ron A ge f armers o f t he s outh w ere b eef e aters', which i s a lso t rue o f t he R oman P eriod. T his was b ased o n t he f act t hat a c ow g ives f ar m ore m eat t han a s heep. C learly m any o ther f actors h ave t o b e c onsidered c oncerning t he i mportance o f s heep i n t he I ron A ge, i .e. c limate, t opography, g eology a nd p olitics.
F or i nstance W ilson
( 1978) h as n oted w ith I ron A ge s ites
i n t he U pper T hames V alley t hat t he r atio o f s heep t o a rable i ncreases f rom F armoor, t he l owest r iver s ite t hrough A ppleford, t he f irst t errace t o C ity F arm a nd
o f
t o A shville o n t he s econd t errace.
O verwintering o f s tock w as n ot a p roblem o n m any o f t he s ites: 2 6% t he G rimthorpe s heep w ere o verwintered a t l east t wice; a t E ldon's
S eat 4 0% o f
t he s heep l ived t o m ore t han 2 y ears a nd a pproximately t he
s ame p ercentage w as f ound a t H awkes H ill. A t C roft Ambrey a lmost h alf t he a nimals w ere 2 y ears o ld w hen k illed a nd o nly 6 % o f t he c attle w ere u nder 4 y ears. C atcote h ad 3 2.5% o f s heep s laughtered i n t he t hird y ear b ut 2 2 c attle m andibles h ad n ot r eached t he o ptimum a ge f or m eat o r c alving. M ost o f t he s heep a t C oygan w ere k illed a t 2 y ears a nd a t H ardingstone a l arge n umber o f s heep a nd c attle w ere o verwintered. A t S lonk H ill, o verwintering w as n ot a p roblem f or c attle a nd s heep a nd B eckford h ad 7 0% s heep o verwintered o nce a nd a t l east 4 0% t wice w ith a ll t he c attle s urviving t heir f irst w inter. B ut t he s ituation w as d ifferent a t B arley w here 3 9% o f t he s heep w ere k illed i n e ach o f t he f irst t wo y ears a nd a lso A shville w here 3 7.5% w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear a nd 2 3.2% i n t he s econd y ear. T his m ost l ikely r epresents a d ietary p reference f or y oung m eat w hich w as r easonably p lentiful a nd n ot a utumn s laughter. S heepen s howed s imilar f igures t o B arley a nd A shville. 6 9
B oth B eckford a nd H ardingstone a re n otable h orse b ones.
f or l arge n umbers o f
T here i s e vidence o f e quine b utchery f rom t he f ollowing
s ites: K ingsdown C amp ( Jackson 1 930), G lastonbury ( Boyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson 1 917), L ittle W oodbury ( Jackson 1 948), a nd C roft Ambrey ( Whitehouse a nd W hitehouse 1 974). I t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o p rove t hat t his p ractice p rovided f ood f or h uman c onsumption; t he c arcass c ould h ave b een s tripped t o p rovide m eat f or d ogs. H owever i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat j oints o f p ig a nd h orse h ave b een f ound w ith a n I ron A ge b urial o f a h uman f emale a t W hitcombe n ear D orchester ( Aitken 1 965) - p ossible e vidence o f D urotrigian H ypophaggy! T he i mportance o f t he h orse a t B lewburton I ron A ge H illfort w as r evealed w hen t wo c omplete h orse s keletons w ere f ound b uried i n t he e ntrance p assage. T his a ppears t o h ave b een t he r esult o f s ome r itual a ctivity ( see C hapter F our where r itual d eposits o f a nimal b ones, h orses, a re d iscussed).
i ncluding
At C roft Ambrey i t w as s tated t hat, ' Both c attle a nd s heep m ay b e b red f or m ilk b ut c attle a re much m ore p roductive a nd c ertainly w ould h ave b een t he m ain s ource i f d airy f arming w as p ractised o n a c onsiderable s cale.' ( Whitehouse a nd W hitehouse 1 974, 2 20). H owever, a s e xplained w ith t he S heepen material, e ven w hen a p reponderance o f c ows w as s hown t o e xist, e vidence f or d airying d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow . A t A shville s exing o f t he c attle p elves s uggested m any f emales b ut s upporting e vidence f or d airying w as l acking.
O ut o f t he 1 0 f irst-century m ilitary s ites,
5 s howed c attle
w ere t he m ost i mportant s pecies v ia t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod, f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig, e xcept f or t he A ldgate F ort w here p ig a nd s heep/goat w ere e qually i mportant, a nd C hichester w here o nly c attle r emains w ere f ound; 4 f orts h ad s heep/goat f irst w ith c attle s econd f ollowed b y p ig. A part f rom F ishbourne, p ig i s n ot v ery i mport ant a nd r anges f rom 0 t o 2 0% o n s ites w hich i s s urprising c onsidering i ts p opularity i n t he R oman W orld ( see f rontier m ilitary s ites i n C hapter F ive). S upplies o f s alted p ork m ay a ccount f or i ts l ow n umbers a nd a lso t he f act t hat t he s oldiers w ere p robably o btaining r equisitions f rom t he l ocal n atives. T he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury w as a t ime o f u nrest a nd a rmies w ere c onstantly o n t he m ove l eaving l ittle t ime f or s teady a gricultural p ursuit. A t L ongthorpe o nly 1 3.7% o f t he s heep w ere i mmature a nd 5 .4% o f t he c attle. T he p eak a ge o f k illing o f s heep a t H ayton w as 2 t o 3y ears a nd o f c attle 21 i t o 3y ears. A mong t he f irst c entury R oman a nd N ative s ites, 7 w ere c attle d ominated a nd 3 s heep/goat d ominated. T he m iddle a nd l ate f irst c entury d eposits a t Exeter s howed a s light i ncrease i n t he i mportance o f s heep i n t he l ater p eriod. O n o nly o ne s ite w as p ig s econd i n o rder o f i mportance, i .e. C lausentum. P ig r anged f rom 4 .9% t o 2 8.4% a nd t he W ar D itches s amples i ndicate t hat i n t he f irst c entury p ig b ecame m ore i mportant. T he F ishbourne s ample f rom t he m ilitary d epot i s u nique a mongst t he I ron A ge a nd f irst c entury d eposits s ince i ts b one s ample i s o verw helmingly p ig d ominated
( 42.8%).
c entages
( Table 2 :1).
3 8.1% a nd 3 5.9%
S heepen h as
7 0
t he s econd h ighest p er-
2 .14.1
C attle s ize
I n t he f irst c entury A .D. v ery m uch f rom t hat o f
t he m ean s ize o f c attle d id n ot d iffer
t he p re-Roman I ron A ge w here t he m ean m etacarpal
l ength r anged f rom 1 67.7 mm a t L ittle W oodbury t o
1 80.3 mm a t I vinghoe
B eacon ( Table 2 :15). T he R oman f irst c entury s ites, i ncluding S heepen f it w ell i nside t hese l imits. C atcote, a n I ron A ge s ettlement i n N ort humberland a nd S heepen i n E ssex h ave i dentical m eans e ven t hough t he s ites a re s everal h undred m iles a part. T he m ean m etacarpal l engths o f I vinghoe B eacon a nd S heepen a re n ot s ignificantly d ifferent a t t he 0 .01
l evel o f s ignificance
( using t he s tatistical S tudents t -test).
A lso t here i s n o s ignificant d ifference b etween t he m etatarsal l engths o f f irst c entury S heepen a nd p re-Roman I ron A ge B arley a t 0 .01 l evel o f s ignificance ( using S tudents t -test). B arley a nd Durrington W alls p roduced t he l ongest m etatarsals k nown i n t he I ron A ge, 2 26 a nd 2 25 mm r espectively. I ndeed t he I ron A ge c attle b ones o f D urrington W alls ( Wiltshire) a nd M ount P leasant ( Dorset) a re w ell w ithin t he N eolithic s ize r ange a nd a re l arger t han a ny o thers r ecorded. T able 2 :15 g ives t he l ength o f t he M ount P leasant r adius b eing 3 18 mm ( Harcourt 1 979a). N aturally w ith t hese s amples i t i s n ot k nown w hether o ne i s c omparing b ones o f c ows w ith c ows o r b ulls e tc. F ew w orkers h ave b een a ble t o s ex t heir c attle b ones; h owever W ilson ( 1978) p ublished d ata c oncerni ng t he w ithers h eight o f c ows f rom s everal I ron A ge s ites i n t he T hames V alley. T able 2 :16 s hows t hat t he S heepen r ange o f w ithers h eight f alls w ithin t hose f rom t he T hames s ites a nd i ndeed t he m ean o f
t he S heepen c attle i s i dentical w ith t he m ean f rom F armoor. 2 .14.2
S heep
s ize
T able 2 :17 s hows t hat t he S heepen t ibiae c .44 t o 6 1 A .D. h ave a n i dentical m ean d istal w idth t o t hose f rom t he R oman v illa o f F rocester, f irst c entury. A lthough t he I ron A ge G rimthorpe s heep a ppear l arger t han t hose f rom S heepen, t he S tudents t -test s hows n o s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel. S imilarly s heep f rom W andlebury I ron A ge H ill F ort a ppear l arger but t he s ample i s t oo s mall t o i ndicate w hether t his i s s ignificant o r n ot. H owever, t he m ost i mportant f eat ure o f T able 2 :17 i s t he s ize o f t he m etatarsal b ones f rom A shville a nd A ll C annings C ross. T hese s ites d emonstrate s ome o f t he l argest I ron A ge b ones a nd i t i s n otable t hat o nly 1 0 R oman s ites o ut o f 3 1 i n T able 3 :18 h ave m easurements i n t his s ize r ange, i .e. g reater t han 1 40 1 1 1 1 1 i n t otal l ength . 2 .14.3
P ig s ize
S heepen o nly p roduced o ne m easurable b one, a t ibia o f l ength 1 74 mm t hat g ave a w ithers h eight o f 6 8.3 c m ( Teichert 1 966). T he d omestic p igs a t S heepen w ere o f a l ong l egged v ariety. 2 .14.4
H orse s ize
D uring t he I ron A ge ( Table 2 :18) p onies o f 1 0 t o 1 3 h ands c ommonly e xisted, b y t he l atter p art o f t his p eriod l arger h orses w ere b eing b red e .g . B arley ( Luff, u npubl.). T his c ould b e t he r esult o f g elding, b etter b reeding o r e ven i mports. I n f irst c entury R oman B ritain i t a ppears t hat i n s ome a reas t he p attern c ontinued a long I ron A ge l ines,
e .g.
S heepen w hile o ther s ites h ave y ielded r emains o f much l arger h orses, e .g.
F rocester 1 5.7 h ands. 7 1
I n c onclusion, r ealised
t he i mportance o f p ig a t S heepen w as o nly f ully
t hrough t he M IN m ethod,
c onsidering o ther s ites. g reater t han t hose
f or s ome o f
H owever c attle p rovided
a p oint w orth b earing i n m ind when
I n s everal p eriods
t he p ercentages w ere
t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ites m entioned.
t he g reatest a mount o f m eat a lthough t here
n o e vidence f or d airying o n a l arge numbers t hrough t he f irst c entury.
s cale.
I ron Age c attle a nd s heep/goat were g enerally s mall a nimals, n ew e vidence s uggests b oth h orse,
t hat t here was
s heep/goat a nd c attle i n
a s
S heep/goat i ncreased i n
but
a g reater v ariation i n s ize o f t he p re-Roman P eriod.
T his c ould
p ossibly r epresent a n i nflux o f n ew b lood f rom o utside B ritain o r a n i ncrease i n b etter b reeding. I mport o f a nimals i n t he I ron Age w as n ot u nknown, T he
f allow d eer i s
t he
l ast g laciation a t t he e nd o f
i ntroduced t he s pecies i nto G aul l arge p arks
( Columella 9 .1).
t inguish f rom o ther d eer W heeler
( i.e.
t he a ntlers.
( 1932,
1 31)
t he P leistocene E poch. f rom A sia where
T rade a cross
n ot b e a n u nlikely p ossibility . m eans a re b y
T he a uthor h as
t he C hannel w ould t herefore
F allow d eer a re v ery d ifficult t o d isf rom t he b ones)
I t i s
a nd t he o nly r eliable
t herefore n ot w ithout i nterest t hat
t he
I ron Age
( 1964)
f ound t wo
l evels a t t he W ar D itches.
t entatively s uggested t hat
t he p resence o f many
t he f irst c entury S heepen d eposits w as d ue
number o f h erds.
T he R omans
f ound a s hed f allow d eer a ntler i n t he p re-Roman
p ieces o f w orked a ntler i n
i n
t he f owl.
t hey w ere k ept i n
l evels a t L ydney i n G loucestershire a nd P hillipson
c ows
e .g.
t hought t o h ave b ecome e xtinct i n B ritain d uring
t o t he i ncreased
T his i ncrease was i nitiated b y t he e mergence o f
l arge u rban markets,
a n i ntensive e xport t rade a nd a rmy r equirements.
7 2
T able 2 :1
P it G roup
B one F ragment C ount o f t he M ain D omestic S pecies - S heepen
P eriod
C attle
%
P ig
%
S heep/Goat
%
1
p recong.
3 5
4 1.2
2 5
2 9.4
2 5
2 9.4
2
4 4 t o 4 9
2 02
5 6.3
1 29
3 5.9
2 8
7 .8
3
4 9 t o 6 1
4 73
4 3.6
3 77
3 4.8
2 24
2 1.6
4
4 4 t o 5 4
1 22
4 2.4
1 15
3 9.9
5 1
1 7.7
5
4 7 t o 6 1
3 4
4 8 .6
1 7
2 4.3
1 9
2 7.1
6
5 4 t o 5 7
2 36
4 5.8
1 96
3 8.1
8 3
1 6.1
7
5 4 t o 6 1
1 283
4 7.0
7 98
2 9.2
6 51
2 3.8
8
5 7 t o 6 1
9
4 4 t o 6 1
T otal
9
1
6 33
6 2.9
2 41
2 4.0
1 32
1 3.1
3 107
5 1.7
1 714
2 8 .5
1 188
1 9.8
7 3
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T able 2 :14
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9 1
F irst C entury
• CV
R oman M ilitary
6 , 2
T able 2 :15
C attle M etapodial L ength M easurements
( mm)
M etacarpal - T otal l ength ( GL) G ussage A ll S aints I vinghoe B eacon
I A
2 1
I A
1 64-185
1 74
7
1 71-187
1 80.3 1 75.4
A shville
I A
5
1 67-183
A ppleton
I A
1
1 71
4
1 74-182
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L A
A ll C annings C ross L A C atcote
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6
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I A I A
L ittle W oodbury B eckford
I A
I A
Q uarley H ill
I A
S wallowcliffe D own B ishops t one
R ainsborough
1 77.8
1 64-185 1 76
1 0
1 62-178
1 71.8
1 .8
1 2
1 58-181
1 69.5
6 .6
3
1 64-172
1 67.7
4
2
1 75-192
1 83.5
2
1 62-169
1 65.5
1 62-175
I C
1
1 67
1
1 76
1 5
I C
L ongthorpe
5 .3
1 55-184
L A
I A
E astwood F awkham S heepen
1 4
1 5.3
I C
6 1
I A
1 62-188 .5
1 76
7 .6
1 65-183.5
1 74.4
8 .9
1 85-206
1 95.4
6 .8
1 83
M etatarsal 1 6
G lastonbury C roft A mbrey
3
1 93-204
1 97.7
B arley
8
1 79-226
1 98.4
4
1 86-207
1 94
9 .8
1 89-206
1 98
5 .4
I A
I vinghoe B eacon
1 8
G ussage A ll S aints G rimthorpe
2
2 00 .4-216.9
2 08.7
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5
1 97-213
2 04.6
F armoor
4
1 88-216
2 03.3
2 4
A ll C annings C ross
1 5
1 82-208
D urrington W alls L A
1
2 25
B eckford
2
2 04-210
2 07
1 85-213
S wallowcliffe D own B ishopstone
1
1 97
L ongthorpe
2
1 91-228
2 09.5
1 90.5-220
2 02
1 1
S heepen
9 2
8 .2
T able 2 :15
( continued)
R adius - T otal l ength ( GL)
n
r
7
I vinghoe B eacon
2
2 75-312
2 93.5
2 33-275
2 51
1 2.1
2 47-255
2 51
5 .6
G ussage A ll S aints
1 4
B arley M ount P leasant
I A
1
9 3
3 18
s
T able 2 :16
M etacarpal
D etermination o f C attle W ithers H eight
T otal l ength
( G I , mm )
S ex
W ithers H eight
f emale
1 76
1 .06
1 71
t
1 .03
1 72
1
1 .03
1 88.5
I t
1 .03
• f t
1 82
1 .1
1 75(2)
I f
1 .09
1 83
I t
1 .05
1 74
I t
1 .1 1 .04
1 74.5 fI
1 76
S heepen
( m )
1 .06
1 .05
s
0 .03
3 Z . A shville
6
A ppleton
1
F armoor
5
1 .00 - 1 .11
1 .07 1 .03
1 .01 - 1 .13
1 .06
T he W ithers H eight w as d etermined b y u sing t he m ethod o f F ock a s d escribed b y v .d. D riesch a nd B oessneck
9 4
( 1976).
( 1966)
T able 2 :17
S heep/Goat L ong B one M easurements
M etatarsal - T otal l ength
( GL) n
2 9
G ussage A ll S aints
( mm )
X 1 15-137
1 23
5 .5
W andlebury
2
1 29-131
1 30
O ld S leaford
2
1 20-127
1 23.5
L ittle W oodbury
4
1 17-135
1 26.2
A shville
7
1 22-140
1 33
A ll C annings C ross
2
1 22-141
1 31.5
G lastonbury
9
1 09-136
1 22.4
9 .5
I vinghoe B eacon
1
1 25
D urrington W alls
1
1 23
E astwood F awkham
1
1 30
L ongthorpe
3
1 24-131
1 26.7
3 .8
S heepen
6
1 09-134.5
1 23.3
8 .8
R ains b orough
2
1 15-120
1 17.5
5
2 2.0-25.5
2 4.04
1 .3
T ibia - d istal w idth G rimthorpe
9 .6
( Bd)
B arley
1 1
1 9.9-26
2 2.3
2 .05
A shville
1 8
2 1-25
2 2.5
0 .86
5 5-100
2 1
2 1.3-29.2
2 3.1
1 .54
1 00-300
3 0
2 1.4-25.9
2 3.3
1 .21
L ongthorpe
3 1
2 0-25.5
2 2.2
1 .4
S heepen
3 3
2 0.5-25.6
2 2.8
1 .38
2 1-24
2 2.8
1 .3
2 1-24
2 2.6
1 .1
E xeter
F rocester
6
1 C
C roft Ambrey
I A
1 0
9 5
T able 2 :18
H orse L ong B one M easurements
R adius - T otal l ength ( GL)
n
( mm )
r
X
s
W ithers h eight ( hands)
W andlebury
1
3 10
1 2.5
B eckford
1
2 94
1 1.9
S wallowcliffe D own
1
2 91
1 1.7
C amulodunum
1
2 80
1 1.3
G lastonbury
1
2 75
1 1.1
3 08
1 2.4
1
2 91
1 1.7
3 90
1 5.7
S keleton G reen S heepen F rocester
1 C
M etatarsal - T otal l ength B eckford
1
2 48
1 2.8
R ainsborough
1
2 65
1 3.7
W inklebury
1
2 35.3
1 2.2
B arley
3
2 51-282.5 2 71
G ussage A ll S aints
1 3-14.6 1 1.6-14 1 2.4-13.1
L ittle W oodbury
2
2 40-254
C amulodunum
3
2 44-260
S wallowcliffe D own
1 7.4
2 25-271
2 53
8 .2
1 2.6-13.4
2 40-260
1 2.4-13.4
2 47
1 2.8
B udbury A shville
4
2 33-258
2 47.5
5
1 2-13.3
G lastonbury
8
2 27-248
2 37
7 .2
1 1.7-12.8
Q uarley H ill
1
2 50
S lonk H ill
1
2 30
2
2 42-276
1
3 12.5
1 2.2
B eckford
1
1 87
1 1
A shville
3
2 04-231
F armoor
1
2 08
1 2.3
A ll C annings C ross
7
1 91-212
1 1.3-12.5
G lastonbury
8
1 83-204
B ury H ill
1
1 86
1 1
L ittle W oodbury
2
1 83-195
1 0.8-11.5
1 99-204
1 1.8-12
B arton C ourt F arm
I A
1 2.9 1 1.9 2 59
1 2.5-14.3
T ibia - T otal l ength W inklebury M etacarpal - T otal l ength
S wallowcliffe D own
1 2-13.6
2 14.3
1 0.8-12
1 93
3
1 95-198
I vinghoe B eacon
1
2 12
1 2.5
D urrington W alls
1
2 05
1 2.1
M ount P leasant
1
2 02
1 1.9
H ockwold
1
2 12
1 2.5
1
2 43.5
1 4.4
1
1 96
1 1.6
I A
L ongthorpe B arton C ourt
L A
9 6
1 96
1 .7
1 1.5-11.7
C amulodunum
C HAPTER T HREE
C OLCHESTER - T he f irst t o f ifth c enturies A .D.
' ...
t hey r ebelled .
W ith t hem r ose
S ervitude h ad n ot b roken t hem,
i n R oman B ritain
t he T rinobantes a nd o thers.
a nd t hey h ad s ecretly p lotted t ogether
t o b ecome f ree a gain. T hey p articularly h ated t he R oman e x-soldiers w ho h ad r ecently e stablished a s ettlement a t C amulodunum . T he s ettlers d rove t he T rinobantes f rom t heir h omes a nd l and, a nd c alled t hem p risoners a nd s laves.' ( Tacitus, Ann. X IV, 3 1). 3 .1
T he T rinovantian l andscape C ontrary t o e arlier o pinions w hich s uggested much o f t he a rea
w as w ooded, p erceptive f ieldwork h as r evealed t hat l arge a reas o f l and w ere o pened u p i n t he p re-Roman p eriod. F or e xample, p re-Roman r ectilinear f ield s ystems h ave b een d emonstrated a t L ittle W altham w here t he R oman r oad t o B raintree c uts d iagonally a cross f ields a nd t racks l aid o ut o n t he v alley s lopes ( Drury 1 978, f ig. 7 4). R elics o f s imilar s ystems a re a lso k nown f rom B raintree i tself a nd K elvedon ( Drury e t a l. 1 976, F ig . 4 9; R odwell 1 978b, F ig. 1 1.5). I n t he R oding v alley l ong s inuous b oundaries o ccur p re-dating t he m ain R oman r oads ( Rodwell 1 978b, F ig. 1 1.8). T he m ain p rehistoric b oundary n ow e stab lished b y p arish b oundaries, t racks t he e astern watershed o f t he R oding r iver f or a bout 4 0 km . A pproximately r ectangular l and b locks a re d emarcated b y o ther p arish b oundary s ections b etween t he m ain p reh istoric b oundary a nd t he r iver. S ince t hese p re-Roman f ield d ivisions h ave s urvived, i t i s e vident t hat t he c anton was n ot t otally r eorganised a long R oman l ines a fter t he C onquest. T his i s o f i mmense i mportance i n t he l ight o f T acitus' r emarks, a nd i ndeed R odwell h as c ogently a rgued f or n ative o wnership c oncerning t he f irst c entury E ssex v illas, p articularly R ivenhall s ituated 1 0 m iles s outhwest o f C olchester . H e warns, ' We m ust b e c areful n ot t o a llow a f ew b rief b ut s tirring r emarks b y T acitus t o s trip t he s outheast o f a l and-owning n ative a ristocracy ' ( Rodwell 1 978a, 1 8). R oman l and p lanning i s a ttested i n t wo l arge a reas o f E ssex,
i n
t he T hurrock r egion a nd t he D engie p eninsula w here r ecent e xcavations a t A sheldham h ave s uggested a R oman d ate f or t he l atter f ield s ystem ( Drury a nd R odwell 1 978). T he v irtual a bsence o f v illas a nd t he e stab lishment o f R oman c oastal s alt w orkings p oints t o t hese a reas b eing p ossible I mperial e states. D rury ( 1979) has c ontrasted t hese t racts 9 7
o f p lanned R oman l andscape, which c onsists o f m ainly L ondon c lay a nd g ravel t erraces, w ith t hose o f t he l ate I ron A ge where t he l andscapes e volved o n b oulder c lay, g lacial h ills a nd t he a lluvium o f c entral E ssex. T he f ormer w ould b e s uitable f or p asture a nd i ndeed R odwell ( 1979, 1 65) m entioned t hat s heep a nd c attle b ones h ad b een f ound i n t he R ed H ills, r elics o f c oastal s alt w orkings, a lbeit i n s mall n umbers T he i nteresting p oint h ere i s t hat s ome o f t he f aunal a ssemblages c ont ained o nly n on m eat b earing b ones, t hat i s s kulls a nd f oot b ones. P ossibly c arcasses w ere p repared a nd s alted, t o b e t ransported i nland l ater. A lso f ish c ould h ave b een e xploited a s w ell, s ince a h igh p remium w as s et o n s alt f ish i n t he R oman w orld. A lthough t he T hurrock a nd D engie a reas e vinced n o e vidence o f R oman c enturiation, a erial r econnaissance h as s uggested i ts o ccurrence i n t he v icinity o f C olchester n ear G osbecks ( G.D.B. J ones 1 979, F ig .1). T he L ondon r oad w as s hown t o c ontinue n orth e ast t o F ordham H eath a nd a p reviously u nknown r oad r an a long a p arallel a xis s outh w est - n orth e ast t o a p osition c lose t o t he G osbecks t ribal c entre. T he d istance b etween t he t wo r oads was 3 x 2 0 R oman a ctus ( actus E 7 10 m a nd 2 0 a ctus d ivisions a re s tandard m ajor c enturiation u nits). J ones c laims t hat t his i s e vidence f or p re-Boudican l and e xpropriation i n t he T rinovantian a rea. H e b ases h is a rgument o n a n e xtract f rom T acitus s tating t he R oman c olony w as f ound o n ' agros c aptivos' ( Tacitus, A nn . X II, 3 2). H owever R ichmond ( 1946, 6 1) p ointed o ut t hat t he a grimens ores d id n ot o rganise l and f rom w hich e nemies h ad b een d riven. H e m aintained a R oman m ight t herefore t ake a s m uch a s h e p leased o f t his t erritory, t hus e mphasising T acitus' r emarks a t t he b eginning o f t his c hapter. I t i s p ossible t hat t his p attern o f s o c alled c enturiation o ccurred a fter t he B oudican r evolt, c oincident w ith t he s evere r epris als o f S uetonius P aulinus. C ertainly T acitus s hould n ot b e t reated a s a n a bsolutely r eliable s ource. F urther e vidence o f l and o wnership m ight b e s ought f rom v illas i n t he e nvirons o f C olchester b ut s carcely a ny w ork h as b een a ccomp lished w ith t he v iew t o i nterpreting t he v illa p lans a nd s tratigraphy. S o whether t his p attern o f l and u se i s p re o r p ost B oudican r emains a m oot p oint.
( Boudica h as b een s pelt a fter J ackson 1 979,
2 55.)
A n a ttempt a t a ssessing t he t erritoria a round C olchester w as m ade b y R odwell ( 1975). H owever t his w as h ampered s ince n o s ecure p oints c ould b e p lotted n orth a nd s outh o f t he c olonia.
R odwell
( 1975,
s ee
F ig. 2 ) i ndicates t hat t he b oundary t o t he w est a nd s outhwest p robably l ay s omewhere i nside t he m iddle d yke s ystem , t hat i s t he T riple d yke. 3 .2
T he R omano-British p opulation
I n C hapter T wo, s ection 2 .6, i t w as s uggested t hat t he l ate I ron A ge p opulation h ad i ncreased q uite d ramatically f or a n umber o f r easons. S ome l ogical a rguments h ave r ecently b een p roposed f or t he i ncrease i n p opulation o f t he R omano-Britons
( M.E.
J ones 1 979).
H ygiene h as b een
c ited a s h aving a v ital e ffect o n m ortality e specially i n t he u rban c ontext w ith f requent b athing e liminating l ice a nd f leas, known c arriers o f t yphus a nd p lague. F urther, J ones p oints o ut t hat e nvironm ental c onditions c an a ffect t he p otency o f s ome d iseases; i s a n i mportant c onsideration.
9 8
t hus c limate
D uring t he R oman R epublic a nd E mpire, t he I talian a nd E uropean c limate w as b ecoming w armer. C irca 5 00 B .C. t he c limate h ad b een c older
t han t he p resent d ay,
b ut b y t he f ourth c entury A .D.
i t m ay
h ave b een w armer t han n ow. I n t he f ourth c entury A .D. t he v ine w as c ultivated i n P aris a nd p ossibly i n a f ew p laces i n t he s outh o f E ngland. I n c entral a nd n orth w est E urope a f ew w inters w ere m arked b y t heir s evere f rosts, A .D. 1 34, 1 73, 2 07, 2 21 a nd 2 31. H owever v ery s evere f rosts w ere n ot d istinguished u ntil b etween A .D. 3 59 a nd 5 65 ( Lamb 1 977, 4 25). I n t he c ase o f R oman B ritain c limate w as f avourable f or a gricult ure a nd t hus p opulation g rowth. A lso g ood d rainage, t he o rganisation o f p rovincial a nd c antonal a dministration, a bility f or m ovement o f r esources, a nd s torage o f t axes p aid i n k ind t o I mperial g ranaries ( thus a llowing r esources f or a ny c alamities), m ade c onditions c onducive t o a n i ncrease i n p opulation. F rere
( 1978,
2 96)
s uggested a p opulation o f c .
2m illion a t t he
e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D. F rom a c onsideration o f l iterary a nd b otanical e vidence, t ogether w ith s ettlement p atterns, J ones c oncludes t hat a t i ts p eak t he R omano-British p opulation w as b etween 3 t o 4 m illion p eople ( I 4 .E. J ones 1 979). A s imilar e stimate o f 4m illion w as m ade b y F owler
( 1978,
7 ), who
maintained t hat t here w as a r elatively s teep r ise i n t he p opulation g rowth b etween 1 000 B .C. a nd t he f irst c entury A .D. I t i s r elevant t o r eiterate h is c omments: ' The l and-scape i mplications o f t his i n t erms o f s ettlement p atterns a nd t ypes, o f t erritorial a rrangements, o f f ood p roduction a nd o f c ulture c ontact i n A tkinson 's s ense h ave n ot y et r eceived t he a ttention t hey d eserve b ut t hey w ere s urely c ons iderable.' 3 .3
T he B alkerne L ane d eposits a t C olchester
R oman a nimal b one was e xamined f rom s ite E a t B alkerne L ane. T his s ite i s c omprised o f 6 p eriods o f o ccupation which a re d escribed a s f ollows. ( see F ig. 2 :1, p . 2 7) P eriod 1 . 4 3-49 A .D. T his i s c ontemporary w ith t he l egionary f ortress a nd c onsists o f a c ivil s ettlement o utside t he m ilitary d efences. P eriod 2 .
4 9-60/61 A .D.
I n t his p eriod t he C olonia w as f ounded
c . 4 9 a nd t he l egionary r ampart a nd d itch w ere l evelled. L ater i n 6 0/61, h ouses f ronting t he t own 's w estern r oad w ere b urnt. P eriod P eriod P eriod P eriod
3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .
6 0/61 c . 7 5 e arly t hird
- c . 7 5 A .D. t o e arly s econd c entury A .D. s econd c entury t o t hird c entury A .D. c entury t o f ourth c entury A .D.
P hilip C rummy h as d escribed a nd s ummarised t his s equence o f d evelopments i n B ritannia 1 977, 9 5. A l arge p roportion o f t he P eriod 1 a nd 2 b ones c ame f rom t he L egionary D itch a nd f rom p its d ug a long i ts e dge. I n t he B ritannia a rticle, C rummy i ndicated t hat t he r emains e xcavated f rom s ite E ,
P eriod 1 a nd 2 ,
c ould b e c ompared f avourably
w ith t hose r ecovered b y H awkes a nd H ull a t C amulodunum ,
9 9
t he t ype o f
o ccupation a t b oth p laces p robably b eing t he s ame.
H owever t he a nimal
b one e vidence f rom N iblett's e xcavations a t S heepen ( Chapter T wo) s uggests t he n ature o f o ccupation was p ossibly q uite d ifferent a nd f or t his r eason b oth s ites w ill b e c ontrasted a nd c ompared t ogether i n t his c hapter. D eposits o f b one f rom l ater p eriods e manated f rom r easonably s ecurely d ated f eatures, t hat i s l arge p it a nd d itch g roups. I n c ons idering d eposits o f b one f rom a n u rban c ontext, n obody h as f ully d ealt w ith t he m ajor p roblem o f r esidual m aterial. O ne w ay o f t esting w hether a n a ssemblage c ontains much r esidual b one i s t o e xpress t he n umber o f l oose t eeth p er s pecies a s a p ercentage o f t he t otal n umber o f b ones. I f t he p ercentage i s g reater t han 5 0% o ne c an s uspect a h igh l evel o f c ontamination. O n t his b asis t he d eposits f rom B alkerne L ane d o n ot a ppear t o s how a h igh l evel o f r esidual b one. T he b one a ssemblages b elonging t o P eriod 1 w ill b e r eferred t o a s G roup 1 d epos its, t hose o f P eriod 2 , G roup 2 e tc. H enceforth, B alkerne L ane w ill b e a bbreviated t o B KC. 3 .4
B one f ragment c ount Animal b one f ragments n umbering 5 ,141 w ere a nalysed f rom t he
B alkerne L ane s ite E , t he s pecies i ncluding c attle, s heep, g oat, p ig, h orse, d og, c at, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, h are, f ox a nd a v ariety o f b irds. A f ragmentation a nalysis o f b one r easonable l evel o f r ecovery.
( section 1 .2.1; F ig.
3 :1)
s howed a
A ll t he g roups s how t hat c attle a re b y f ar t he m ost i mportant s pecies ( Table 3 :1). H owever, i t h as b een c laimed t hat t he e arly c anabae d eposits o f s ite E , t hat i s P eriod 1 , c ontained l arge n umbers o f o x s capulae t hat w ere p ossibly u sed a s s hovels o r s coops ( Crummy 1 977, 7 5). 3 .4.1
U se o f o x s capulae a s s hovels/scoops
P revious r esearchers h ave d eclared o n t he b asis o f e xtremely t enuous e vidence t hat R omano-British o x s capulae h ave b een u sed a s s hovels o r s coops, e .g. J ackson ( 1947, 3 51) w ith 2 s capulae f rom C amulodunum , N oddle ( 1974, 7 6) w ith s capulae f rom S egontium a nd M arples ( 1974, 1 23) w ith 1 3 s capulae f rom L ongthorpe. I n t hese c ases o nly t he b utchery p attern h as b een o bserved a nd n ot t he w ear p attern o n t he b lade. I ndeed, R ees ( 1979, 3 19) s tipulates t hat i t i s t he w ear m arks a long t he b lade a nd t he b ack o f t he b one, w hich must b e t he d eciding f actor i n i nterpreting t he t ool's f unction. S he m aintains t hat s he h as o nly f ound o ne s capula w ith p olish, s haped s capula f rom C orbridge.
a nd a l ittle w ear,
t hat i s,
a
T he 1 49 s capulae f rom t he B KC s ite E g roup 1 d eposits d o n ot g ive a ny c onclusive e vidence t hat t hey w ere e ver u sed a s t ools. T he b utchery p attern i s r easonably u niform a cross a ll t he s ite E p eriods
( see s ection
3 .5). I n f act i f t he a uthor w as t o i nterpret t hese b ones a s t ools, p urely o n b utchery e vidence, t hen i t w ould h ave t o b e s aid t hat m ost R omano-British s capulae w ere u tilised a s s hovels o r s coops. A nnie G rant c oncluded t hat t he m arks o n t he P ortchester s capulae h ad r esulted f rom b utchery a nd n ot t ooling
( see M arples 1 974).
1 00
HISTOGRAM
OF
UNIDENTIFIABLE
( AFTER WATSON
1972
BONE
FRAGMENTS
) FIG.
3 00
250
FREQUENCY
200
150
100
_
50
0
2
4
6
LENGTH
1 01
( cm)
8
10
3 :1
I t i s d ifficult t o i magine s capulae e ver b eing u sed o n a l arge s cale,
D own,
s ince w ooden s hovels w ould h ave b een s uch a v ast i mprovement.
I n t he c onstruction o f t he e xperimental e arthwork o n O verton W iltshire, w orkers w ere g iven t he c hoice o f u sing o x o r h orse
s capulae ( Dimbleby a nd J ewell 1 966, 5 1). H orse s capulae w ere p ref erred b ecause o f t heir a natomy, b ut s capulae i n g eneral w ere f ound t o b e i nefficient t ools, n ot v ery g ood a s s hovels, s lightly b etter a s s crapers. I n c onclusion t he s capula w as m ost i nefficient c ompared w ith a w ooden s hovel. T he d istribution o f w ooden s pades i n t he p re-Roman a nd R oman p eriod c an n ever b e k nown w ith c ertainty d ue t o p oor p reservation c onditions. I ron s pades w ere n ot c ommon i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge b ut t here a re m any e xamples o f R omano-British i ron s pade s hoes. I n f act, t he e arliest s ecurely d ated e xamples a re a p air f rom C olchester d ated t o t he 4 0 's A .D., f rom a m ilitary c ontext ( Rees 1 979, 3 26). I n t his c onnection,
i t w ould s urely b e
t o t he a dvantage o f t he a rmy i tself
t o i ssue o r i nstruct t he g eneral p opulace c oncerning i ron-tipped s pades. W ood w ould h ave b een l ocally a vailable a nd i ron i tself w as n ot i n s hort s upply a s M anning r elates, ' Clearly t he r equirements o f t he y ears f ollowing t he c onquest w ill h ave i ncreased b y l eaps a nd b ounds, a nd t he s heer q uantity o f d iscarded s crap m etal f ound o n s ites o f t his p eriod makes i t c lear t hat t his d emand w as s atisfied a nd t he v alue o f t he m etal w as s o l ow t hat s mall p ieces w ere r arely w orth t he t rouble o f r eforging.' ( Manning 1 979, 1 16). B efore a ny o f t he C olchester a nd S heepen s ites c an b e c ompared, i t i s n ecessary t o d escribe d ifferences i n b utchery t echnique b etween t he s ites, s ince t his c ould a ffect t he n umber o f b one f ragments r ec overed ( section 2 .3). 3 .5
B utchery
I n t his s ection, t he a uthor w ill o utline t he b utchery o f t he T rinovantian c ow while p ointing o ut d ifferences o f t echnique b etween t he S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane b one a ssemblages o f 4 4 t o 6 1 A .D. T ables 2 :3 a nd 3 :2 w ill b e u sed i n t his c onnection. F rom T ables 2 :2 a nd 3 :3, i t i s a pparent t hat a nimals w ere l ed i n o n t he h oof f or s laughter, t hat i s a t S heepen a nd C olchester. C attle w ere k illed o n b oth s ites b y p ole-axing t hrough t he f rontal b one. P ole-axed c ow s kulls h ave b een f ound a t C orstopitum , P ortchester.
G odmanchester,
S cole a nd
A fter s laughtering t he c attle, t he f irst s tep i n b utchering w as h ide r emoval. E vidence o f s kinning w as d ifficult t o f ind, t he S heepen m etapodials e xhibited k nife c uts t o
t hat e ffect
( section 2 .3.1), b ut
n o c lear e vidence w as f ound o n t he C olchester b ones.
T he c uts o n t he
m etapodials w ould h ave r esulted f rom t he h ide b eing c ut a round b oth t he f ront a nd h ind l egs w ith a s harp i mplement. N o d ifferences i n m etapoaial b utchery c ould b e s een, b oth s ites s howing s imilar b reakage. I t i s n ot o bvious whether t he h ead w ould h ave b een r emoved f rom t he c arcass b efore o r a fter s kinning. B one g roups 2 - 4 o f B KC s ite E c ontained f airly h igh n umbers o f v ery s mall s kull f ragments. I t i s a pposite
t o n ote
t hat w ith t he R udston v illa m aterial C haplin a nd
1 02
B arnetson
( 1980) p roposed t hat t he s carcity o f s kull f ragments a nd
m andibles
( sheep,
c attle a nd p igs)
i n c ontrast t o
t he a bundance o f
t eeth w as d ue t o t he p rocessing o f t he s kulls, p ossibly b y b oiling. T he p rocessing c ould h ave p rovided f ood f or h umans a nd d ogs a s w ell a s p roviding f at a nd g elatin. T he s carcity o f t eeth i ndicates t hat t his p ractice w as n ot f ollowed o n t he r emaining E ssex s ites u nder c onsideration; h owever i t d oes p oint o ut t he u sefulness o f t he h ead a s a f ood i tem . I ndeed t he h ead o f a c ow p rovides a f air p roportion o f m eat. T his w ould b e i n t he f orm o f c heek m eat ( masseter muscle), b rain a nd t ongue. B efore t he masseter muscles c ould b e r etrieved, t he m andibles h ad t o b e r emoved;
o n a ll t he s ites
t he m andibles w ere v ery much b roken u p,
t he
m ain l ines o f b reakage o ccurring t ransversely a cross t he d iastemata a nd a cross t he a ngle o f t he r amus. I t w as c ommon p ractice t o c hop l oose t he v entral b order o f t he mandible i n p igs but n ot i n c attle; t his e nabled a ccess t o t he marrow c avity . T he h ead w as r emoved b y e ither s evering t he n eck b etween t he a tlas a nd o ccipital c ondyles o f t he s kull o r m ore o ften t he f irst t wo n eck v ertebrae, t he a tlas a nd a xis, w ere c hopped t ransversely i n s ome f ashion. T he f ormer m ethod r evealed n icks o n t he s uperior s urfaces o f t he o ccipital c ondyles while t he l atter m ethod i nvolved a v ariety o f t ransverse a nd s agittal c hopmarks o n t he v entral a nd d orsal s urf aces o f t he v ertebrae. A fter t he h ead w as r emoved c arcasses w ere n ot s plit i nto t wo s ides v ia s agittal chopping t hrough t he v ertebral c olumn. D ifferent k inds o f v ertebrae f rom a ll s ites r evealed s ome l ateral t rimming w ith o ccasional v entral a nd t ransverse c hopping . T he s acrum h owever, d id r eveal m id-line b reakage t ogether w ith l ateral t rimming. T he l ow o ccurrence o f c audal v ertebrae m ight b e a ccounted f or b y t heir r emoval w ith t he h ide d uring s kinning. P robably t he f ore a nd h ind f oot b ones w ere n ext r emoved. I n t he c ase o f t he h ind f oot, t hat i s t he h ock j oint, t he c alcaneum s howed a s imilar t rend i n b utchery f or m ost s ites, t hat i s, i ts d istal p rojection h ad b een c hopped o ff. T he a nterior p art o f t he a stragalus r evealed s ome t ransverse m arks b ut n ot o n t he p art c overed b y t he t ibia, t hus i t w ould a ppear, i n m any c ases, t his j oint w as n ot f lexed a t t he t ime o f b utchery. R egarding t he c arpal j oint, a l ack o f c arpal b ones p revented a n a ccurate a ssessment o f b reakage. B oth j oints r evealed b reakages i n t he m etapodial b ones a f ew c entimetres b elow t he j oint. T he d istal e xtremities o f t he t ibiae a nd r adii w ere c hopped c lose t o
t he e piphyses i n many c ases.
A s w ith
t he h ead, t his w as n ot a p art o f t he b ody n ecessarily d iscarded. C haplin ( 1965, 1 93) c ommented i n h is w ork o n H adrian 's W all, ' foot b ones w hich a lthough n ot a j oint c ommonly e aten t oday, w ould n everthel ess p rovide b ody f or a s tew.' I n r emoving t he f orelimb,
t he C olchester s houlder j oint w as
f requently b roken b y c hops t hrough t he s upraglenoid t uber o f t he s capula c ostal s urface; v ery r arely i s t he s capula b roken a cross i ts n eck ( Table 3 :2). T his b utchery m ethod w as p erformed n ot o nly o n t he B KC
s ite E g roup 1 b ones b ut a lso g roups 2 a nd 4 .
Q uite o ften t he
s pine i s b roken a lso b ut t his c ould b e d ue t o i ts r elative f ragility . H owever t he S heepen s capulae s how q uite d ifferent b utchery m ethods i n t hat a pproximately 5 0% h ave b een c hopped a cross
1 03
t he n eck
( Table 2 :3).
B KC s ite E , g roup 6 s hows s imilarities t o B KC s ite E , g roups 1 a nd 2 . T he f ew p roximal h umeri e xhibit c hops t hrough t he m edial a nd l ateral t uberosities b ut a gain t here w ere d ifferences b etween S heepen a nd C olchester.
A t B KC s ite E ,
g roups 1 a nd 2 e xhibited m uch m ore d istal
q uartering o f t he b one t han t hose o f S heepen w here t here a ppeared m any m ore i ntact s hafts a nd d istal e piphyses ( Tables 2 :3 a nd 3 :2). E lbow j oint b reakage a t b oth C olchester a nd S heepen w as a chieved v ia c hops t hrough t he o lecranon f ossa a bove t he d istal h umerus e pip hysis. W hen t he b reakage o f t he r adius i s c ompared b etween t he S heepen g roup a nd B KC s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 , a s w ith t he h umerus, t he C olchester r adii a re m uch m ore c hopped u p. T he p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses a re c hopped i n h alf a ntero-posteriorly whereas a t S heepen t here w ere a l arge n umber o f i ntact p roximal a nd d istal e lements. N o p elves w ere f ound i ntact, t he a cetabulum . I n s ome i nstances,
a ll w ere c hopped u p m ainly t hrough
t he r im o f t he a cetabulum h ad b een s haved i n
s eparating t he p roximal f emur f rom t he s ocket. A ll t he b one g roups f /om b oth S heepen a nd C olchester r evealed a h igh p roportion o f c hopped u p s hafts t ogether w ith t he d istal e xtremity. I n t he c ase o f t he t ibia t he S heepen g roups h ad t he p roximal p ortion d ivided i nto t wo a ntero-posteriorly a nd m any d istal e piphyses h ad b een h alved. A t C olchester, p articularly t he g roup 1 d eposits, d istal h alving o f t he t ibia a ntero-posteriorly w as m ore c ommon. M etapodial b ones f rom a ll p eriods w ere c ommonly c hopped a cross t he s haft t hough t he p roximal a nd d istal e xtremities w ere m ostly l eft i ntact. I n c onclusion, t he B alkerne L ane b one g roup d eposits, p articularly g roups 1 a nd 2 , i n c ontrast t o S heepen , r eveal a much m ore i ntensive p rogram o f h alving a nd q uartering t he p roximal a nd d istal l ong b one e xtremities, p ossibly f or s tews a nd s oups. A s imilar f inding o ccurred i n t he v ici o utside t he F orts a t L ancaster ( Potts 1 974) a nd Z wammerdam ( van M ensch 1 974). S aws w ere n ot u sed t o c ut u p a ny o f t he d omestic a nimal b ones. H owever, t hey w ere u sed o n a ntlers a s w as a lso o bserved a t T histleton a nd G adebridge P ark T he p ig,
( Harcourt 1 974).
s heep a nd g oat h ave m uch s maller b ones t han t he c ow a nd
h ardly a ny d ifferences i n b utchery p ractice w ere f ound b etween t he b one g roups o f S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane s ite E .
T hus u nlike t he c ow ,
a d etailed a nalysis o f b utchery w as n ot t hought n ecessary a t t his s tage. 3 .6
A c omparison o f t he b one f ragment c ount f or S heepen a nd C olchester C learly t he d ifferences b etween B KC s ite E a nd S heepen c annot b e
, wholly e xplained b y e nvironmental s ection 2 .1 a re c .
f actors.
T he s ites a s d escribed i n
1 .6 km a part a nd i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t heir f ood
s upplies c ame f rom s imilar l ocal s ources. M anning h as a rgued c onv incingly t hat m ilitary s ites o f t he H ighland Z one o btained a l arge p art o f t heir n eeds f rom l ocal a griculture Manning 1 975, 1 12).
1 04
O ne m ajor b ias a ffecting t he c omparison o f d escribed i n t he p revious s ection.
t hese s ites h as b een
A n a ttempt t o o vercome
t his
d ifficulty w as m ade b y o nly c ounting t he m edial p ortion o f t he C olc hester e piphyses. H owever q uartering o f t he b ones r endered t his e xtremely d ifficult. T hus a t S heepen,
c attle r emains a re much f ewer i n n umber t han a t
B KC s ite E , p ig i s m uch m ore i mportant while s heep a re s carcer i n P eriod 2 b ut b ecome m ore f requent i n P eriod 3 ( Tables 2 :1 a nd 3 :1). A t B KC s ite E n o c hange i s v isible b etween t he g roup 1 a nd 2 b one d eposits. H owever c hanges a re a pparent a t S heepen w ith g roups 2a nd 3 , t he i ncrease o f s heep a lready m entioned a nd d ecrease o f c attle, t he p ig l evels r emaining c onstant. A rchaeological e vidence a t S heepen i ndicates t hat s emi-military n on-native m etalsmiths w ere w orking u nder m ilitary a uspices. A c omp aratively h igh s tandard o f l iving w as i ndicated b y t he a bundant S amian ware, f ine g lassware, c oins a nd s mall b ronzes. T wo g old-plated b ronze r ings, t wo b ronze d ice, a b ronze d ice s haker a nd f ine c ameo w ere f ound i n b uilding I V o n s ite I II
( Niblett, p rivate c ommunication).
S mithying w as o ne o f t he o ccupations c arried o ut a t t he s ite E C anabae. T he s ite E b uildings w ere r ather i nsubstantial, m ade o ut o f w attle a nd d aub, t hus r ebuilding w as v ery f requent. A l ow s tandard o f i nterior d ecoration w as e videnced b y a bsence o f w all p laster a nd v ery f ew r emains o f r oofing-tiles. T he p re-Boudican c olonial b uildings w ere i nferior t o t hose o f L ion W alk. T hese b uildings w ere s ituated o n t he C olchester-London r oad a nd h ad t imber f rames. T hus i t w ould b e r easonable t o s uppose t hat s ocial d ifferences b etween t he t wo s ites c ould h ave a ffected t he d iet o f t he i nhabitants. T he p ercentage o f p ig r emained s imilar i n P eriods 1 a nd 2 a t S heepen ( groups 2 a nd 3 ) e ven a lthough t he C olonia w as e stablished i n c . 4 9. S ince t here i s n o n atural b uilding s tone i n t he a rea a n e norm ous a mount o f w ood m ust h ave b een c onsumed i n s etting u p t he n ew C olonia. H ence t he s ignificance o f t he p ig o n t he S heepen s ite t hus e mphasising t he h igher s ocial s tatus o f t his s ite. I n s ection 2 :14 t he s ite w ith t he c losest p ercentage o f p ig t o S heepen w as F ishbourne. T he p ost-Boudican s ites a t B alkerne L ane s how a d ecrease i n p ig w ith i ts n umbers i ncreasing f rom t he t hird c entury o nwards. S heep/goat a ppear m ore i mportant i n t he l ate R oman P eriod. C attle p ercentages r emain s imilar u p u ntil c . 7 5 A .D. when t here i s a d ramatic i ncrease a t t he e xpense o f s heep/goat a nd p ig. I ts n umbers d windle f rom t he s econd c entury o nwards a s 3 .7
s heep/goat i ncreases.
M inimum number o f a nimals o f
t he m ain d omestic s pecies
F igure 3 :2 i ndicates a l ower l imit f or t he n umber o f b one f ragm ents b elow w hich a c omparison w ith M IN i s n ot v alid.
T his c oncept
w as e xplained i n s ection 1 .2.4. A t S heepen t he i mportance o f p ig w as s trongly r ealised t hrough a pplication o f t he M IN m ethod ( section 2 .4). S ince c omparisons o f b one g roups f rom t he B alkerne L ane w ere n ot v alid b elow a bout 1 50
1 05
MI N/E
0
N J 0
0
0
Ui
0
JO
HdVUD
0
H/NIW
0 0
H ISNIVDV
N . ) 0 0
F • P 0 0
Ui-
_
0 0
0
E = NUMBER
0 0
X D
0 0
OF
LD
BONE
0 0
FRAGMENTS.
0 0 0
106
f ragments, g roups 2 , 4 a nd 5 f rom s ite E c ould n ot b e u sed. A part f rom g roup 1 t he r emaining g roups i n T able 3 :4 d id n ot d igress g reatly f rom t hose o f T able 3 :1. A s c attle s capulae c ompletely d ominate t he g roup 1 s ample e lement, g roup 1 ,
i t w as
t hought p referable
t o u se t he n ext m ost c ommon
t he m andible. T hus t he i mportance o f c attle i s d iminished i n s o i ncreasing t he l evels o f s heep/goat a nd p ig.
I t i s s ensible t o t reat t hese p ercentages i n t he s ense o f b eing r elative a nd n ot a bsolute. I n t he r elative a ssessment o f m eat p otent ial ( Table 3 :5), c attle a re b y f ar t he m ost i mportant s pecies ( see s ection 2 .4 f or e xplanation o f c alculation). 3 .8
T he f requency o f s keletal e lements p er s pecies
3 .8.1
C attle
I n T able 3 :3 t he b one g roups w ith t he h ighest p ercentages o f s capulae a re B KC s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 ; i ndeed s capulae a re t he m ost f requently o ccurring e lements i n t hose p articular g roups. A lso i f t hese B KC g roups a re c ompared w ith S heepen g roups o f t he s ame p eriod ( Table 2 :2)
t hen q uite d ifferent c onfigurations a re a pparent.
T he l arge p ercentage o f s capulae i n a p oor v icus s ettlement o uts ide a f ort i s p uzzling. b one.
T he s capula i s a n i mportant m eat b earing
S ome i lluminating r esults h ave b een o btained c oncerning t he
s patial d istribution o f b one o n Dutch R oman m ilitary s ites ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977a). T he i nterior o f t he V alkenburg a nd Z wammerdam f orts b oth r evealed l arge n umbers o f s houlder b lades w hile t he v icus o utside t he Z wammerdam f ort e xhibited l arge n umbers o f w ell c hopped u p l ong b one. A lso t he R hine C hannel n ear Z wammerdam a cted a s a d eposit f or o ffal, i n p articular p elvis a nd s pine f ragments. I t c annot b e e ntirely e liminated t herefore
t hat t he B KC s ite E
g roup 1 s capulae h ave n ot c ome f rom t he C olchester f ortress, s ince t he l egionary d itch w as l ocated a t B alkerne L ane o ver a d istance o f 1 38 m etres a nd a l arge p roportion o f s capulae w ere f ound i n i t. C onversely t he c hopped u p b one c ompares w ell w ith t he v ici a t L ancaster a nd Z wammerdam . B KC s ite E g roup 1 d eposits h ave a h igher p roportion o f m eat b earing t o n on-meat b earing b ones a s c ompared t o S heepen. g roup 2 d eposits p rove
H owever t he
t he r everse.
B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on m eat b earing b ones i n c attle f ore l imb ( humerus/radius : m etacarpal) B KC S ite E S heepen
G roup G roup
1 2
7 .4 0 .4
G roup 2 G roup
3
h ind l imb ( femur/tibia : m etatarsal)
:1 : 1
2 .7 0 .5
: 1 : 1
2 .6
:1
0 .9
: 1
2 .4
:1
0 .7
:1
1 07
3 .8.2
S heep/goat
U nlike t he c attle r emains f rom B KC s ite E g roup 1 , t he s heep e xhibit a f airly h igh p roportion o f w aste b ones, t hat i s, n on m eat b earing m andibles, p halanges a nd m etapodials. T his i s a lso e vident f or t he g roup 3 b ones. F rom t he t hird t o f ourth c entury o nwards, m ore m eat b earing b ones o f t he f orelimb a re a pparent T his c an b e s ummarised i n t he f ollowing t able.
( Table 3 :3).
B one f ragment r atio o f m eat b earing t o n on m eat b earing b ones i n s heep/goat f ore l imb ( humerus/radius
h ind l imb
:m etacarpal)
( femur/tibia
:m etatarsal)
G roup 1
0 .7
:1
1 .1
:1
3 6
0 .5 3 .8
:1 : 1
0 .2 0 .1
:1 :1
3 .8.3
P ig
I n a c onsideration o f T able 3 :3, g roups 3 a nd 6 s how a s triking n umber o f m etapodial b ones. A lso g roups 3 a nd 6 e xhibit t he h ighest p ercentages o f s kull f ragments, n eck v ertebrae w ere t otally a bsent f rom g roup 3 , o ne a tlas w as p resent i n g roup 6 . P ig t rotters w ere a f avourite d ish d uring a ll p eriods o f o ccupation a t B alkerne L ane. B one a rtefacts b elonging t o t he a t B utt R oad, C olchester a nd s uggest C rummy, p rivate c ommunication). T he l ong b ones; t he s capula o f a n o x a nd
f ourth c entury h ave b een f ound a p ossible w orkshop n earby ( Nina b one o riginated f rom o x a nd h orse t he p elvic g irdle o f a p ig w ere
p ositively i dentified b y t he a uthor. B ones l ow i n n umber o r a bsent i n T able 3 :3 c ould w ell r epresent i tems u sed i n t he b one i ndustry, f or i nstance, t he a bsence o f c attle p roximal-metacarpal b ones f rom g roup 4 , s ite E . 3 .9
T he C olchester c attle T he e arly i nhabitants o f C olchester m ainly a te m ature b eef,
4y ears o ld
( Fig.
3 :3).
3 t o
Y ounger a nimals w ere a lso c onsumed a t t he
a ge o f 1 8 m onths t o 3y ears o ld. M odern a geing d ata w as u sed s ince t he t ooth e ruption s equence f ollowed t hat p attern ( Silver 1 969) a nd f or t he r easons g iven i n s ection 1 .2.8 . T hese p articular m andibles, 3 8 i n n umber, w ere r ecovered f rom t he L egionary D itch a t t he B alkerne L ane s ite E . T he r esults d irectly c ontradict t hose o btained f rom S heepen w here t he c attle w ere s laughtered a t a n a dvanced a ge ( Fig. 2 :13). G rant 's a geing m ethod ( Grant 1 975) w as u sed i n o rder t o c ompare t he t wo s ites, t he c omparison b eing v alid s ince t he m andibles c ame f rom t he s ame e nv ironment. V ery f ew m andibles w ere a vailable f or a geing f rom B KC s ite E g roups 2 t o 5 . H owever t he n umber o f u nfused e piphysial b ones w as l ow i n a ll t he p eriods o f o ccupation.
1 08
AFTER
OF
GRANT
HISTOGRAM
1975)
MANDIBLE
FREQUENCY
AGAINST
AGE
USING
TEETH
S 'ZS
S ' OS S ' 8 1 7
S 'Ot 7
S '8E 1 > 1 -
S '9£
S ' N
0
C
Ä MM IÜHU L3
L C )
HDVINHDHHd
1 09
WEAR
PATTERNS
T he s ex o f t he a nimal b ones w as i nvestigated f rom s ite E , g roups 1 a nd 2 u sing t he m ethods o f H igham , a s d escribed i n s ections 1 .2.6. F ig. 3 :4 d oes n ot s how a c lear s eparation. W hen t he i ndices o f H oward a re a pplied ( section 1 .2.6 a nd T able 3 :6), i t i s p ossible t hat t he m ajority o f p oints i n t he l ower l eft h and c orner b elong t o f emales; o ne p oint i n t he m iddle o f t he g raph, C , i s a n i ndeterminate c astrate/ f emale. U sing s lightly d ifferent m easurements i n F ig. 3 :5 a s imilar p icture i s a pparent, w ith a p reponderance o f f emales i n t he l ower l eft h and c orner. I dentical m easurements o n t he m etatarsal b one ( Figs. 3 :6 a nd 3 :7) a nd t he a pplication o f H oward 's i ndices ( Table 3 :6) p roduced c omparable r esults, s howing a g reater n umber o f f emales a s o pposed t o m ales/castrates. P roximal w idth a nd p roximal a rticulatory w idth m easurements d id n ot e nable a s exual s eparation f or t he f irst f orephalanx ( Fig. 3 :8). A nalysis o f t he 6 1 A .D.
S heepen c attle f rom t he s ame p eriod c irca 4 3/44-
p roduced s imilar r esults.
S ome r esearchers h ave c laimed t hat
a g reater n umber o f c ows o ver c astrates s hould b e e xpected, s ince m ales w ere k illed a t a y ounger a ge ( Maltby 1 979, 3 4). H owever, s ince t he n umber o f u nfused m etapodials i s e xceedingly l ow o n b oth s ites a nd t he l evel o f r ecovery o f i mmature b one h igh t hen t he f ollowing a ssumpt ion c an b e m ade. I f t he m ajority o f m andibles o n b oth s ites a re o lder t han t hree y ears, t he m etapodials which f inally f use b etween t wo a nd t hree y ears p resumably r eflect t he s ex o f t he s ample. T he v ital p oint n ow t o c onsider,
i s w hy t wo s ites w ith d ifferent
b ovine a ge s tructures s how a p reponderance o f f emales. A b old h ypot hesis w as p ropounded i n s ection 2 .6 f or t he S heepen s ite, w hich w as t hat t he v ast i ncrease o f p opulation n ecessitated a n e quivalent i ncrease i n t he c attle h erd s tructure. A f urther p oint i n c onnection w ith t his i s t hat a f airly h igh s tandard o f l iving w as e njoyed b y t he S heepen i nhabitants.
S urely i f y oung t ender b eef w as r eadily a vailable t hen
i t w ould h ave b een p urchased o r r equisitioned. A lso i f m ales a nd f emales w ere b orn i n e qual n umbers, t hen t here must h ave b een a r easona ble n umber o f m ales/castrates a vailable - j ust w here w ere t hey s ent? I t i s p ossible t hat t hese a nimals w ere t he o nes b eing e xported ( live) a s S trabo d escribes i n t he f irst c entury A .D. ( opening q uotation o f C hapter T wo).
T ransport w ould h ave b een n o p roblem s ince C olchester
w as s ituated i n a n i deal p osition, o n a n avigable r iver. A lso b rine w as u sed f or p reserving m eat i n t he R oman w orld a s w ell a s f ish, v egetables a nd f ruit. S ince t he E ssex c oastal s ites, t he R ed H ills, h ave p roduced m uch e vidence o f R oman s alt w orkings, b een s alted d own e asily a nd t ransported e lsewhere.
m eat c ould h ave
G reat d iscretion i s r equired i n t rying t o i nterpret t hese r esults b ecause m any m ore s ites o f t his p eriod n eed t o b e a nalysed.
( Fig.
I n ac onsideration o f t he c attle m etacarpals f rom s ite E , g roup 6 3 :9), H igham 's m etacarpal d istal w idth w as p lotted a gainst d is-
t al e piphysial w idth.
T he d eductions
t hat c an b e m ade f rom t his g raph
a re l imited b y t he f act t hat o nly t wo m etacarpals y ielded i ndices t hat c ould b e s exually d etermined ( Table 3 :6; H oward 1 963). T he l ower l eft h and p oint w as b elow t he r ange H oward g ives f or f emales a nd t he o ther p oint w as m ost l ikely f emale. I t w ould a ppear t hat t here w as q uite a w ide r ange o f v ariation a mongst f emale c attle. F ig. 3 :10 e xhibits s imilar f eatures
t o F ig.
3 :9.
1 10
T he s ame m easurements f or t he
0
• • •• • • .
WIDTH
r t l
•
L f 1
• •
Lf l
•
• •
0 L I)
HICIM
CO . zr
UVISÄHdIdH
1 11
qVISIG
Co
DISTAL
AGAINST EPI PHYSIAL WIDTH
••
DISTAL THICKNESS
( Dd)
N J
O D
01
mm LA )
LA )
l . 0
1
C O
•
•
•
0
HIC IIM UVIS IG
•
U1
•
U1
Ui
•
U1 CO
0
•
N J
1 12
•
•
•
EPIPHYSIAL
WIDTH
AGAINST
DISTAL
WIDTH
0
• • • < •
00
•
N
U IU I
i n
HIGIM r IVISÄHdIdH
1 13
0
. 11
DISTAL N J W
N J U l
THICKNESS N J
( Dd)
mm
N )
W
I
I
I
n h z 1 x
• •
•• •
W
o I 1 •
0 1 W
• •
-
0 1 L O
C T ) I -1
-
ISNIVDV
SSHN> IDII II ,
r ri LLS I C E
•
BKC E 1/2
• •
•
• •
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•
• •
•I . •
•
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AGA INST
•
• •
• • • •
• •
•
06 •
• 5
E 4
•
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ART ICULATORY
ART ICULATORY
•
•
PROX IMAL
•
• •
• • • •• •• • •
•
• •
••
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H
• • •
• N
0
C f )
0 r e-)
c o
0
u r u i
( d£ 1)
1 15
HLQIM
TV I A IIX0 2 1d
GRAPH
DISTAL
( Bd)
01 4 = .
n un 01 CO
C Z ) tV
1
•
MAXIMUM
C T )
METACARPAL
01 0
WIDTH
OF
MAXIMUM
•
DISTAL
-
WIDTH
• 0 1 0
• •
•
AGAINST
•
•
•
•
• •
•
•
•
• •
C O
•
MAXIMUM
•
• •
0 1
•
gYISÄHdIdH
CO
1 16
0 r I ••
r n
H r 1 1
4 E 1
r z . 1
E "4
< o
• • •
• • •
•
• •
•
•
•
r I r e )
C r )
w i l
( P a )
0
SS M \D IDIHI
1 17
CO
r IVISIC E
m etatarsal w ere p lotted i n F igs.
3 :11 a nd F ig.
3 :12.
P oints A a nd B
w ere a ssigned f emale a nd c astrate i n F ig. 3 :11 ( Table 3 :6; H oward 1 963) a nd i t i s p ossible t he i ntervening p oints w ere f emales a lthough t he e vidence i s r ather t enuous. U nlike
S heepen v ery f ew p elves r emained i ntact e nough f or a s exual
a ssessment. F our p elves f rom t he B KC s ite E g roup 3 d eposits w ere f emale a nd o ne f rom g roup 6 w as f emale. A lso o nly a s mall n umber o f h orn c ores w ere f ound ( Plate 7 ). 3 .10
1 ,
2 ,
T he C olchester s heep/goat G oat w as i dentified a mong b one a ssemblages f rom s ite E , g roups 4 a nd 6 b y t he m ethod o f P ayne ( Figs. 3 :13 a nd 3 :14; r efer
s ection 1 .2.5). O nly t wo s capulae p rovided m easurements f or t he i ndex S LC/ASG ( height o f t he s capula n eck d ivided b y t he m inimum l ength o f t he n eck). T hese i ndexes a re 0 .88 ( BKC s ite E g roups 1 /2) a nd 1 .05 ( BKC s ite E g roups 3 /4); t he l ower v alue i s o utside t he r ange N oddle g ives f or d omestic g oats a nd S oay s heep w hile t he h igher v alue i s w ithin t hese r anges ( Noddle 1 978, F ig. 3 7a). I ndeed t he l ower v alue c oincides w ith m easurements f or t he l ongtailed C lun F orest b reed a s d id s ome o f t he S heepen e xamples. T his i s n ot s urprising s ince i t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he b ones c ame f rom s imilar f locks. I n F igures
3 :15 a nd 3 :16,
H igham 's m easurements
f or s eparation
o f s heep/goat a re p lotted ( refer s ection 1 .2.5), t he d ata h aving b een e xtracted f rom s ite E g roups 1 a nd 2 a nd t he l ater R oman l evels o f s ite E . T he e arly R oman m easurements d o n ot e xhibit a c onvincing s eparation but t he l ate R oman m easurements d o a ppear t o f orm t wo l oose g roupings, w ith t he u pper r ight h and g roup p ossibly c orresponding t o g oats. M orphological d istinction o f s heep/goat, a lthough n otoriously d ifficult, w as u ndertaken w ith t he r esult t hat v ery l ittle b one c ould b e p ositively i dentified a s g oat. T he t ibia w as
t hen i nvestigated a nd F ig.
3 :17 r eveals a p lot o f
t he d istal w idth a gainst t he d istal t hickness f or t he l ater R oman b ones o f s ite E . T wo d istinct g roupings a re a pparent f or t he l ate R oman c oordinates. F our p lots o f b ones f rom g roup 1 , s ite E h ave a lso b een i ncluded. A s w ill b e s hown l ater t here i s a s izeable d ifference b etween b ones o f t he e arly a nd l ate R oman p eriods. R esearch o n m odern s heep h as d emonstrated t hat t he m aximum d istal t ibial w idth o f w ethers i s c . 1 04% t hat o f e wes ( Noddle 1 975a, 2 53). R eferring t o F ig.
3 :17
t he m ean m easurement o f t he u pper c luster
i s 2 7.6 a nd t he m ean m easurement o f t he l ower c luster i s 2 4.3. m ing t he u pper c luster r epresents w ethers
A ssu-
t hen t he d istal t ibial w idth
o f t hese w ethers i s 1 13.6% o f t he l ower c luster p ossibly r epresenting e wes. T his g ives a r atio o f 3w ethers : 2 e wes. H owever i t s eems m ore l ikely t hat F ig. 3 :17 r epresents a s pecies s eparation. T he h igh p ercentage c oefficient o f v ariation o f m etacarpal l ength f or B KC s ite E g roup 6 i n T able 3 :16 i s s triking w hen c ompared w ith t he o ther s ites. T his v alue c ould w ell
r eflect a s trong a dmixture o f g oat,
b eing s hort a nd s tocky.
1 18
t he b ones
GRAPH
OF
METATARSAL
DISTAL
WIDTH AGAINST
DISTAL
EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH PIG.
3 :11
CATTLE
6 7
BKC
E 6
6 5
6 3
61
5 9
• •
; ( 3
55
WIDTH
5 7
53
P 2
•
••
•
••
•
•
•
•
•
DISTAL
• •
51
•
4 9
•
•
•
• •
• ••
•
J . •
•
47
* A
45 4 1
4 3
45
4 7
DISTAL
4 9
5 1
5 3
EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH
1 20
5 5 mm
5 7
•
T .
t . 0
•
r z g
H 2 •
•
LÖ L C 1
•
•
MAX IMUM
•
• •
METATARSAL
Lf l
•
• L C )
L n
r n
r n
L aw
c \ 1
( PG)
r-
r • I
SSHNADIHI
1 21
LÖ
N
UVISIC
c \ I
• HNÄV c l
dHI LIV
0 3
)
m in
0
•
1 22
n n
t r i t T l
IVOD/dHHHS
•
S . HNÄYd
3
NOIIVUVdHS
•
HNIq
H
h03
TROC HLEA WIDTH
IVOD/dHHHS
TI M INOD
• w
O D U l
H 0
•
•
• •
AFTER
PAYNE
METACARPAL
CONDYLE
TROCHLEA WIDTH
AGAINST
CONDYLE
WIDTH
LINE
FOR
PAYNE'S
SHEEP/GOAT
SEPARATION
SHEEP/GOAT
C Y " )
•
••
r i
•
r H
1 23
0 r H
C 51
HIGI M VT-1 1D0 2 11 ,
C O
•
—
•
•
•
•
1 24
IJVHS-GIN qV c II IVDVIHN ä0
O D
•
•
• •
• HIGIM ISNIVOY SSHNADIHI
a
HdVUO
l . 0
IVOD/dHHHS
0
H
O D
Z/I
ANTERO—POSTERO DIAMETER mm 1 -1 N i
SHEEP/GOAT
r I
• •
•
•
•
• •
•
•
• •
I da
•
METACARPAL
•
C T 1
C O
T 1
0 rH
O D
ww UHIHWVIG OUHISOd-OUHINV
1 25
TIBIA
DISTAL WIDTH
( Bd)
mm
I
•
•I • • • •
•
•
ISNIV9V HIGI M
0
•
• • •
•
SSHMADIHI
• N )
•
•
•
•
t u
1 26
t u
IV00/dHHHS
w
S umming u p,
g oat a ppears m ore p redominantly i n t he l ater R oman
s amples t han t he e arly o nes. I n s everal w ays g oats c ould h ave b een s uperior t o s heep, f or e xample, b efore r efrigeration, g oats w ere u nr ivalled a s a s ource o f f resh m ilk o n s ea v oyages. T hey c ould e ndure t he m otion a nd c onfinement o f s hips b etter t han a ny o ther a nimal ( LO W 1 845). A lso g oat h air p roduces g ood r opes. I n t he f irst c entury c anabae o f C olchester s heep/goat w ere m ainly s laughtered u nder 2 y ears o f a ge ( 44%) a nd b etween 3 a nd 4 y ears ( 32%). T he m ethod o f P ayne ( 1973) w as u sed t o a ssess t he a ge r anges o f 5 0 m andibles ( Fig. 3 :18). R egarding t he S heepen mandibles ( Fig. 2 :20) a m uch h igher p ercentage o f l ambs w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear. I t i s a p ossibility t hat h ere l amb s laughter r eleased e wes m ilk f or h uman c onsumption. W hile a h igher p ercentage o f l ambs w ere c onsumed a t S heepen, m any m ore a dult s heep i n t heir t hird y ear a nd t herefore a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight w ere e aten a t f irst c entury C olchester. T he r emaining m andible s amples a re n ot r eally l arge e nough t o b e v ery r eliable. H owever t hey d o p rovide s ome i ndicators; f or i nstance, t he 1 3 m andibles d ated 6 0/61 - e arly s econd c entury, s uggest s heep/ g oat w ere b eing s laughtered s lightly e arlier t han t he p re-Boudican p eriod. N umber o f M andibles
A ge o f S heep
( after P ayne 1 973)
1 6
2- 6 m onths 6 - 1 2 m onths
4 1 1
1 - 2y ears 2 - 3y ears 4 - 6 y ears
A s w ith c attle a ll p eriods.
t he n umber o f u nfused s heep/goat e piphyses w as l ow i n
F our h orned s heep w ere p resent i n t he R oman p eriod c .
4 9 A .D.
a t
C olchester, a s e videnced b y a s pecimen f rom B alkerne L ane S ite A , A 116 L 17. P olycerate s heep a lso e xisted a t I ron A ge L ongthorpe, t he R oman f ort o f N ewstead a nd p ossibly B ronze A ge J ahrlshof ( Noddle 1 980). T here i s a t endency f or a ll t he s hort-tailed i sland s heep o n t he l ittoral o f w estern E urope t o p ossess m ore t han o ne p air o f h orns ( Ryder 3 .11
1 969).
( Plate 8 ).
T he C olchester p ig P ork w as a m uch m ore p opular d ish a t S heepen.
E vidence o f t he
h unting o f w ild b oar d id n ot e merge f rom t he S heepen s ite, b ut t here i s a p ossibility t hat w ild b oar w as h unted a round C olchester i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. 2 5.2 mm t o 3 8.5 m m,
F ive l ower t hird m olars r anged i n l ength f rom g iving a m ean m easurement o f 3 3.6 mm . T he u pper
p art o f t he r ange n ot o nly c oincides w ith m easurements f or d omestic m odern E uropean S us s crofa b ut a lso m odern w ild E uropean S us s crofa ( Table
2 :9 a nd
s ection 2 .9).
A lso
t he l argest m easurements a re o ut-
s ide t he r ange f or t he F ishbourne p igs, a lthough t hey a re n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t he S hakenoak b easts which h ave a r ange o f 2 9 t o 4 0 mm . A p iglet s keleton w as f ound o n B alkerne L ane s ite A , which i mplies p igs
1 27
F our h orned
f rom C olchester c .
SHEEP/GOAT
0
( 2 C 1
C 7 1
OD
AGAINST
AGE
l t )
. 11
f = a
PAYNE'S
METHOD
C Y 1
USING
O F
MANDIBLE
FREQUENCY
. • •' 1
0 L r ,
0
0 c f )
(96 )
0 c \ 1
AZN2a 10H2 1 ,1
1 29
0
0
w ere p ossibly k ept i n a nd a round t he m ade a t E xeter ( Maltby 1 979).
t own i tself.
S imilar f inds w ere
S exing v ia t he mandibular c anines r esulted i n a p reponderance o f m ale a nimals a s a t S heepen, t hat i s, 6 m ales t o 2 f emales a t B KC s ite E , g roup 1 , a nd 4 m ales t o 1 f emale a t B KC s ite E , g roup 6 . A geing t he p igs, u sing t he m andibles a nd m axillae, w as d ifficult b ecause t hey w ere s o f ragmentary. T hus G rant's a geing m ethod c ould n ot b e a pplied. H owever a l arge p roportion o f t he p igs f rom a ll p eriods h ad t he t hird m olar j ust e rupting a nd w ere a ged c . 3y ears ( Silver 1 969; o ld a geing m ethod). C olumella r eports t hat p ork w as b oned i n A ncient I taly a nd t his s hould b e b orn i n m ind when a ssessing i ts i mportance v ia t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod; ' Therefore, h aving k illed y our p ig w hen i t i s t hirsty, b one i t t horoughly. F or t his m akes t he s alted f lesh, l ess o ily, a nd c auses i t t o k eep b etter.' ( Columella X II, 5 5). T his c ould w ell b e a c ause o f i ts a pparent s carcity o n s ome s ites. 3 .12
T he C olchester h orse
T he o ccurrence o f h orse i s l ow i n a ll p eriods a t C olchester ( Table 3 :1). T here i s n o e vidence t hat i t w as e ver c onsumed b y t he i nhabitants. M etacarpal m easurements i ndicate t hat a nimals o f 1 2 t o 1 3 h ands w ere p resent. 3 .13
T he C olchester d ogs
A t C olchester t he b odies o f d ogs t ended t o b e b uried a s aw hole, t ogether w ith o ther d omestic r ubbish . F or e xample, 2 4 b ones o f a n a dult b urial c ame f rom t he c ontext E 859, L 324. D og b ones w ere n ot b utchered a t C olchester o r S heepen, t here i s e vidence t hat t hey w ere f rom I ron A ge A shville
a lthough
( Wilson 1 978).
W hether t he m eat w as c onsumed b y h umans w ill n ever b e k nown, a lthough t his d id o ccur i n t he R oman w orld ( section 5 .7). P itt-Rivers ( 18881 892) h as c laimed t hat d og w as c onsumed b y t he i nhabitants o f R other l ey, W oodcuts a nd W oodyates a lthough t he a uthor f eels t he p roof i s l acking. T able 3 :7 i llustrates
t he v ariation i n s ize o f t he C olchester
d ogs. B KC E 6 p roduced a n e normous r adius w hich g ave a w ithers h eight o f 7 5.7 c m , o utside t he R omano-British d og r ange g iven b y H arcourt ( 1974). T his b one m ight h ave b elonged t o a w olf o r p ossibly a r ather l arge g uard o r h unting d og. T he l argest d og a t S heepen e xhibited a w ithers h eight o f 5 3 c m . I n f irst c entury C olchester c .
8 0 A .D.,
d ogs o f a t ype a kin t o
t he D achshund w ere b eing b red. T he B alkerne L ane s ite A r evealed e vidence o f t his i n t he f orm o f a t ibia w ith t he p roximal e piphysis a nd s haft b ent a t a r ight a ngle F 34).
t o t he m ain a xis o f t he b one
( A115
T his b one m atched e xactly a t ibia o f aD achshund i n t he B ritish
M useum o f N atural H istory.
1 30
3 .14
T he C olchester b irds C hicken a nd m allard w ere
t he m ost p opular b irds c onsumed b y t he
t own d wellers o f C olchester i n t he t hird t o f ifth c enturies 3 :8). t his.
( Table
B oth t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod a nd M IN m ethod a greed o n T he g rey l ag g oose w as n ot s o p opular; w oodcock, t ufted d uck,
t eal, w himbrel,
b lack-tailed g odwit,
c urlew,
l apwing a nd g olden p lover
a lso p rovided s ome s ustenance. I n R oman t imes a s urprising v ariety o f b ird w as e aten. F or i nstance a t F rocester v illa t here w ere b ones o f t hrush, b lackbird, l ark a nd r obin ( Bramwell 1 979). A lso, o n t he c ont inent, a p rofusion o f b ird f or t he t able o ccurred i n t he R oman k itc hen a t A ugst ( section 5 .2). I n B ritain
t oday,
t he l apwing i s a bundant i n m arshes, m eadows,
m oors a nd f ields. O utside t he b reeding s eason i t h as b een r ecorded i n f locks o f v arying s ize, s ometimes m ixed w ith g olden p lovers. T he b lack-tailed g odwit e njoys a s imilar h abitat, w intering o n mudflats, a s d o t he w himbrel a nd c urlew. T he w oodcock i s c ommonly f ound i n w oods w ith b ogs a nd w et g round, a nd t he t ufted d uck p refers t o n est n ear l akes a nd s wamps a s d oes s urface f eeding d ucks.
t he t eal w hich i s
t he s mallest o f t he
P ortchester a nd F ishbourne s how a s imilar o rder o f p reference f or t he main b ird s pecies a s C olchester ( Eastham 1 975; 1 971). A t E xeter w oodcock r epresents 1 0% o f t he b ird b one s ample ( Maltby 1 979) w hile a t C olchester i t r epresents 6 .2%. H ardly a ny r eports h ave m easurements o f b ones a ppended t hough o ne c an s ometimes g et r ough e stimates o f s ize a s a t F rocester where t he b ulk o f f owl b ones was s aid t o r epresent t he u sual s mall v ariety. H owever a t P ortchester, a m etrical a nalysis r evealed v ery l ittle v aria tion i n s ize o f t he d omestic f owl
( Eastham 1 975).
T he s ize o f
t he
F ishbourne f owl w as q uite d ifferent, t he m easurements s uggesting t hat av ariety o f d ifferent b reeds o f c hicken w ere k ept. T arsometatarsi m easurements i n T able 3 :9 a nd a lso s ection 2 .11 r eveal
t hat C olchester h as
t he l argest b irds.
H owever n o s ize i mprove-
m ent w as s een b etween t he f irst c entury S heepen s ample a nd t hat b elongi ng t o G p6E a t t he B alkerne L ane s ite. 3 .15
W ild a nimals O nly 1 0 f ragments o f w ild a nimals w ere r ecovered f rom t he s ite E
d eposits a t B alkerne L ane
( Table 3 :10).
H unting w as n ot a n i mportant
a ctivity. 3 .16
M etrical a nalysis o f a nimal b ones f rom v arious s ites i n R oman B ritain C aution must b e e xercised i n a ny s ize c omparison o f a nimal b ones
f rom d ifferent s ites.
S pecies a nd s ex d ifferentiations h ave n ot b een
s ecurely e stablished f or s heep a nd g oat
( refer s ections
1 .2.5).
W ith
c attle, p roblems c oncerning s pecies a re n ot i n question a nd s exing c an b e r esolved, i f a s m any d iverse m ethods a s p ossible a re u sed. A s f ar a s h orses a re c oncerned, i nsufficient r esearch h as b een p erformed c onc erning t he e ffects o f g elding o n b one s tructure, 1 31
a lthough i t i s k nown
t hat t aller a nimals r esult.
R oman l iterature,
s culpture a nd e pigraphy
p oint t o t he a bundant u se o f mules i n t he E mpire. U nfortunately a lthough a sses c an b e d istinguished f rom h orses w ith r easonable e ase ( B8k8nyi 1 972), mules p resent p roblems. Armitage ( 1979) i dentified t he j awbone o f am ule f rom t he R oman l evels a t B illingsgate B uildings, C ity o f L ondon a nd t his w as d ated c irca 1 25 - 1 60 A .D. H is i dentification w as b ased o n t he s ize a nd s hape o f t he m andible, a nd t he e namel p attern o f t he m olar t eeth. H owever h e e mphasised t hat t he e namel p atterns o f e quid t eeth c an b e v ariable a nd m ore h orse a nd mule j aws n eed t o b e s tudied b efore a p ositive i dentification c an b e m ade. O ne w onders h ow much m ule, p articularly p ost c ranial f ragments, h as b een m issed i n a nalyses. I ncrease i n s ize m ight a lso b e a r esult o f b etter b reeding a nd f eeding. G eological d eposits a ffect s oil t exture, d rainage a nd f ertil ity w hich i nfluence t he s orts o f g razing a vailable f or s tock; t his g razing c an i n t urn h ave a n e ffect o n t he v igour o f a n a nimal. A lthough i t i s m isleading t o u se
t he t erm ' breed '
w hen r eferring
t o a ncient d omestic a nimals, a t ype c an b e e stablished t hrough a d esc ription o f b uild a nd s tructure. G eneral P itt-Rivers m ade a n i mmense a nd u nparalleled c ontribution t o R omano-British s tudies w ith w ork o f t his n ature ( Pitt-Rivers 1 892). H e s ecured v arious m odern a nimal s keletons, ( for i nstance, N ew F orest a nd E xmoor p onies, a B lack K erry c ow , a B rown C art h orse, a S t. K ildan r am a nd e we, a H orned D orset r am a nd a H ighland H orned e we, a b lack r etriever d og, l arge s ized r etriever d og, s mall s ized f ox t errier) a nd c ompared t hem w ith t he e xcavated a nimal b ones f rom t he R omano-British v illages o f R otherley, W oodcuts a nd W oodyates o n C ranbourne C hase. P itt-Rivers' S t. K ildan s heep a re o f t he S oay t ype a nd n ot w hat i s n ow k nown a s S t. K ildans. ( Jewell, A rk 1 980, 8 8). T his w ork w as a dmirably e xtended t o w ork o n G lastonbury L ake v illage b y B oyd-Dawkins a nd J ackson ( 1917). A n a ttempt a t s tandardisation o f m easurements w as a ttempted b y v .d. D riesch i n 1 976; p rior t o t his, n ot m any u seful m easurements w ere t aken b y r esearchers, f or e xample m id s haft w idths o f l ong b ones. T hus a lthough t he h eight o f a n a nimal w as a scertained, k nowledge o f w hether i t w as r obust o r g racile r emained u nknown . 3 .16.1
M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British c attle
I n 1 963, t he f ollowing c onclusions w ere d rawn f rom a n a nalysis o f c attle f rom R omano-British s ites, ' Remains o f o xen f rom R oman s ites s how e vidence f or t he e mergence o f l arger b easts t han c ommonly e xisted i n t he p receding c enturies. B ut e qually t here w as n o o verall i mprovem ent o f t he s tature o f c attle, a nd t he s pectrum o f s izes o f b ones.' ( Jewell 1 963,
8 8).
T hat t hese r emarks s till h old t rue, c an b e d etermined b y a c ons ideration o f T able 3 :11 w hich d emonstrates c attle m etatarsal l engths. S ome p erspective o f s ize i s p rovided b y m easurements
f rom P itt-Rivers
t est a nimal, a f ive y ear o ld K erry c ow . A s c an b e s een, m any s ites r evealed e vidence o f l arger a nimals t han t he K erry. T he l argest m etatarsal c attle b ones w ere f ound o n t he f ollowing s ites:-
G adebridge P ark v illa,
C orstopitum, P ortchester,
1 32
B arton
C ourt F arm v illa, s ite E 6,
H ucclecote v illa,
A ppleton,
W oodyates,
C olchester B alkerne L ane
T histleton v illa a nd W oodcuts.
t he m easurements a re c onsidered, f ound a t G adebridge P ark v illa, t he H ucclecote v illa
W hen t he m eans o f
l arge a nimals a re a gain p redominantly B arton C ourt Farm v illa, A ppleton a nd
t ogether w ith b easts
f rom G reat C hesterford.
C orstopitum a nd P ortchester p roduced t he
l argest b one
s amples a nd
b oth s howed a s imilar v ariation i n s ize a lthough s everal h undred m iles a part. A s J ewell n otices
t here w ere
s till c onsiderable numbers o f
t he
d iminutive C eltic S horthorn t ype, f or i nstance a t t he f ollowing s ites;f irst c entury F rocester, C orstopitum, P ortchester, f irst t o f ourth c entury E xeter, E ,
g roups
C oygan,
f irst c entury C olchester - B alkerne L ane s ites
1 a nd 2 - W oodcuts, W oodyates,
R otherley.
S ome o f
t hese
t he p re-Roman I ron A ge
B arton C ourt Farm v illa a nd
s ites e xhibited s maller a nimals
s ites,
f or e xample G lastonbury,
t han s ome o f
C roft Ambrey,
B arley, G ussage A ll S aints, G rimthorpe, I ron A ge A shville a nd F armoor ( Table 2 :15). B arton C ourt F arm v illa h as v ery s mall a nd l arge v arieties o f c attle. S o f ar i t h as b een s hown
t hat l arger a nimals d id e merge i n t he
R oman p eriod a nd a cross a w ide g eographical a rea w ith t he s maller v ariety s till b eing h erded. H owever, i n o rder t o d educe whether t here was a n i mprovement i n
s tature d uring t he R oman p eriod,
s amples a re n eeded,
t uries o f o ccupation. a nd i s
l arge s tatistical
f rom c losely d ated c ontexts,
c overing t he f our c en-
T his i s l acking i n R omano-British b one s tudies
s eriously h ampering a ny f urther s ynthesis o f t he c urrent
material. F rom t he E ssex s ites, E ,
g roups
1 ,
2 a nd 6 ),
e vidence i s r ather
S heepen a nd C olchester
t enuous.
c arpal i n T able 3 :12.
( Balkerne L ane s ites
c attle a ppear t o b e i ncreasing i n s ize but t he T he s ame r esults a re s een w ith t he m eta-
L ittle W altham s hows c omparative r esults.
H arcourt h as c laimed t hat t hroughout t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation a t G adebridge P ark v illa, i nteresting, t he c ountry.
s ince t his Also,
t here w as n o
c hange i n c attle s ize w hich i s
s ite p roduced s ome o f
t he l argest a nimals i n
E xeter r evealed n o e vidence o f s ize i ncrease a nd
i ndeed t hroughout t he R oman P eriod t he c attle w ere v ery s mall, C eltic S horthorn v ariety.
b etween t he E xeter a nd B arton C ourt F arm c attle n ificance,
S tudent t -test).
o f
t he
T here i s a s ignificant d ifference i n s ize ( 0.01 l evel o f s ig-
A t F rocester t he a nimals b ecome
a nd t heir l imbs b roader w ith t he p assage o f F or e stimation o f build a nd s tructure
t aller
t ime. t he s lenderness i ndex i s
v ery u seful b ut u nfortunately n ot many s ites u tilise
t his,
w idth m easurements o f t he m etapodials w ere i nvestigated.
t hus d istal G adebridge
P ark a nd T histleton a s m ight b e e xpected h ave t he w idest d istal e xtremi ties t ogether w ith S hakenoak, a nd l ater R oman C olchester ( Balkerne L ane s ite E 6). I n f act t he means o f T histleton a nd C olchester a re v ery s imilar.
( Table
3 :13).
u ry F rocester w ere n ess i ndex t o
T he C eltic S horthorn a nimals f rom f irst c ent-
f airly s tocky c reatures,
t he much
t aller a nimals
h aving a s imilar s lender-
f rom G adebridge P ark.
When t he m etacarpal b ones a re a nalysed i n t he s ame way a s t he m etatarsals, e xtra i nformation i s o btained f rom a dditional s ites.
1 33
T able
3 :12
s hows
t hat s ites w ith t he l argest b ones a re n ot o nly G ade-
b ridge P ark v illa, C orstopitum, l ate R oman C olchester ( Balkerne L ane s ite E 6), B arton C ourt F arm v illa b ut a lso G reat C hesterford a nd f ourth c entury F rocester. I f t he m eans o f t he m easurements a re c onsidered t hen t he l argest a nimals c ome f rom G reat C hesterford, l ate R oman C olc hester ( BKC s ite E 6), G adebridge P ark v illa, t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester, f ourth c entury F rocester a nd F armoor. S imilarly, t he s mallest a nimals w ere r epresented b y E xeter, C orstopitum , B arton C ourt F arm , S heepen, C oygan, L ongthorpe, W oodcuts a nd f irst c entury t o e arly s econd c entury G odmanchester, W oodyates.
T here i s
i ncrease b etween
R otherley a nd
s ome i ndication a t G odmanchester f or a c attle s ize
t he f irst a nd s econd c enturies A .D.
F rom t he m etatarsal s lenderness i ndices a nd d istal w idth m easurem ents G adebridge a nd S hakenoak e xhibit m uch t hicker b ones w hich m ay b e a r esult o f s exual c haracters ( Table 3 :14). S ome r esearchers h ave s coffed a t t he u se o f w ithers h eight w hen c omparing a nimal s izes, m aintaining l ong b one l engths a re q uite a deq uate. H owever i n t his s ection d ata h as b een u tilised f rom t wo d iffere nt t ypes o f b ones w hich n eeds t o b e s ynthesised. T hus w ithers h eights w ere e stimated u sing t he f actors o f F ock ( 1966) a s r eviewed b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). T able 3 :15 s hows t he d ata i n d escending o rder o f s ize. T he m ean v alues i ndicate t hat t he s ites w ith t he l argest a nimals a re G reat C hesterford, l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E 6), A ppleton, G adebridge P ark v illa, H ucclecote v illa a nd e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury G odmanchester. F inally a r ight c attle r adius f rom V indolanda ( GL 3 35 mm ) g ave a w ithers h eight o f 1 44 c m ( using t he f actors o f M atolcsi 1 970), t hus s urpassing t he o ther s ites m entioned . 3 .16.2
M etrical a nalysis o f R omano-British s heep/goat
I n o rder t o a ssess
t he
s ize o f t he a nimals m entioned i n T ables
3 :16 t o 3 :21 s ome m easurements f rom G eneral P itt-Rivers t est a nimals h ave b een i ncluded t ogether w ith d ata f rom t he S oay s heep m entioned i n s ection 1 .2.7. T he l argest m etacarpal b ones, t hat i s a bove 1 40 mm i n t otal l ength , w ere u nearthed f rom t he s ites: H igham F errers, T histleton v illa, l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ) a nd t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester. T hose s ites w ith t he h ighest m ean v alues w ere G adebridge P ark v illa, C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ), t he f irst t o e arly s econd a nd s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels a t G odmanchester
( Table 3 :16).
S ome o f t he s mallest b ones o f t he p eriod w ere f ound a t W oodcuts, C hew P ark v illa, C orstopitum, R udston v illa, W oodyates, C olchester ( BKC s ite E ,
g roup 6 ),
R otherley a nd S heepen .
T he S ite E p eriod 6
B alkerne L ane s ite a t C olchester s howed a w ide r ange o f v ariation w hich a lso e mbraced s ome o f t he l argest a nimals. C onversely C hew P ark v illa e xhibited t he l owest m ean v alue f or t he l ate R oman p eriod a nd R udston i n t he f ourth c entury a lso s howed a l ow m ean v alue. I n f act a t t he 0 .1 l evel o f s ignificance ( Students t -test) t he f irst c entury S heepen a nimals w ere l arger t han t hose o f f ourth c entury R udston.
1 34
V ery f ew s lenderness i ndices w ere a vailable f or c omment.
T he
a nimals a t F rocester w ere s mall a nd s lender a s w ere t hose f rom C hew P ark v illa. I n f act t he m ajority o f i ndices s uggests s lender l imbed a nimals, t he h igh v alue f or S hakenoak p ossibly s uggesting g oat a dm ixture. I f t he d istal w idth v alues a re c onsidered s everal s ites h ave i dentical m eans, R oman C olchester ( Table 3 :17).
C hew P ark v illa ,
( BKC s ite E ,
R udston a nd S heepen.
g roup 6 ) h as
L ate
t he h ighest m ean v alue
I f t he m etatarsal b ones a re e xamined t he f ollowing s ites d emons trated t he l argest b ones: l ate R oman C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ), F indon W ell, t he s econd t o t hird c entury l evels a t F rocester, f ourth c entury l evels a t F rocester, A ppleton, E xeter, C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roups 3 a nd 4 ), t he s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels G odmanchester, G adebridge v illa a nd T histleton v illa ( Table 3 :18). S ites w ith t he h ighest m eans i ncluded G adebridge v illa, W oodyates, T ripontium a nd t he s econd t o t hird c entury l evels o f F rocester. O nce m ore t he s lenderness i ndices r evealed m ainly s lender l imbed a nimals a nd t he d istal w idth m eans s uggested b roader l imbed a nimals a t C olchester ( BKC s ite E , g roup 6 ). ( Table 3 :19). B oth T ables 3 :16 a nd 3 :18 i ndicate t hat s heep i mproved i n s ize f rom t he f irst t o f ourth c enturies a t C olchester; a dditional e vidence f rom S heepen s upports t his. A lso t ibia d istal w idth m easurements ( Table 3 :20) s trengthen t his p roposal u sing t he S tudents t -test. T here i s a s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel b etween t he f irst c entury S heepen b easts a nd t hose f rom l ate R oman l evels o f C olchester ( BKC s ite E 6). T here a re s imilar p ointers f or t he m id f irst c entury t o e arly s econd c entury a nd e arly s econd t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels o f G odmanchester a lthough t he s amples a re v ery s mall. T ibia d istal w idth m easurements e mphasise t hat t here w as n o i mprovement o f s heep d uring t he f our c enturies a t R oman E xeter ( Table 3 :20) a nd t he v illa a t R udston. I n a c omparison o f t he t hird t o f ifth c entury l evels a t B arton C ourt F arm v illa a nd C olchester s ite E 6) t -test),
t here w as a s ignificant d ifference a t t he 0 .01 l evel t he s heep a t C olchester a ppearing l arger.
( BKC ( Students
W ithers h eight w as e stimated f or t he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal b ones u sing t he f actors o f T eichert
( Table 3 :21).
T hus i n c onclusion t he i nhabitants o f G odmanchester
( mid f irst
t o e nd o f t hird c entury l evels), C olchester ( late R oman p eriod), T histleton R oman v illa, G adebridge v illa, H igham F errers a nd W oodyates w ere b reeding t he l argest t ypes o f s heep i n t he c ountry.
A s c an b e
s een f rom T able 3 :21 s ome o f t hese a nimals w ere much l arger t han t he S oay s heep o r e ven P itt-Rivers D orset H orned R am, t hat i s, C olchester ( BKC s ite E ,
g roup 6 )
a nd G odmanchester,
t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f
t hird c entury. I n t his s urvey o f s ize a mong R omano-British s heep,
i t i s d ifficult
t o d etermine w hether t he a nimals w ere b red p rimarily f or m eat o r w ool. A s s een i n s ections 1 .2.5 a nd 1 .2.6 d ifferentiation o f s pecies a nd s heep/goat s exes h as n ot b een c ompletely r esolved,
1 35
s o much a mbiguity
r emains.
H owever t here i s
f locks
i mprove
t o
o f w ool
r emains
s ome e vidence
f or s elective b reeding o f
t he q uality o f t he f leece,
f rom V indolanda
I t i s s ignificant t hat i n t he p revious t he
t hat i s f rom a n a nalysis
( Wild a nd R yder 1 977). s ection
s ites p roducing t he l argest c attle a lso p roduced
t hat i s, where
G adebridge P ark v illa,
t he m id f irst
s heep a nd
t o e nd o f
( 3.16.1),
s ome o f
t he l argest s heep,
l ate R oman C olchester a nd G odmanchester
t he
t hird c entury l evels p roduced l arge
t he e arly s econd t o e nd o f
t hird c entury l evels p roduced
l arge c attle. 3 .16.3
M etrical a nalysis o f
M eek a nd G ray t hree
( 1911)
t he R omano-British h orse
c laimed t hat i n t he R omano-British P eriod
s izes o f h orse e xisted:a )
a t ype o f 1 41 h ands.
b )
a t ype a pproximating
t he
s ize o f a N ew F orest p ony,
a round 1 21 h ands. c ) a s mall s ized a nimal a pproximating t he p ony,
i .e.
1 11
t hat i s
s ize o f a n E xmoor
h ands.
T hey a cknowledged t he p resence o f e ven l arger a nimals s ince a t ibia a nd a m etatarsal a nimal o f 1 41
f rom t he C orstopitum c ollection i ndicated a n
t o 1 5 hands.
I t w ould a ppear f rom T ables 3 :22 a nd 3 :23 t hat many R omano-British h orses w ere o f p ony t ype. I ndeed e arly r eports f requently m ention t his a lthough m easurements w ere n ot i ncluded. w ere m entioned a t S hakenoak v illa,
P ony s ized i ndividuals
C hew P ark v illa a nd V indolanda.
L arge a nimals, 1 41 h ands a nd a bove, o ccurred a t L ynch F arm , C orstopitum , N ewstead, G adebridge P ark v illa, f irst c entury l evels F rocester R oman v illa,
W oodcuts,
W oodyates,
F armoor,
f irst t o
f ifth
c entury l evels B arton C ourt F arm v illa a nd S cole. I n s ection 5 .3,
i t i s s uggested t hat s maller c avalry h orses a re
much m ore e asy t o m anoeuvre.
P ossibly t he l arge b easts o ccurring o n
t he v illa a nd f armstead s ites w ere u sed i n c onnection w ith r ounding u p s heep a nd c attle. A f armer w ould g ain a c onsiderable a dvantage f rom b eing s eated o n a t all h orse. b ones
L arge numbers o f h orse a nd c attle
i n a ssociation h ave b een f ound a t A ppleton,
B ucks,
a nd R ockbourne D own e nclosure
N orfolk,
( Applebaum 1 972,
H ambledon,
2 09).
H ardly a ny s ite r eports p rovided m easurements o f m etapodial m ids haft w idth o r m id s haft c ircumference
s o c onclusions c oncerning b uild
a nd s tructure c ould n ot b e c arried o ut s atisfactorily. 3 .17
T he f irst
t o f ifth c enturies A .D.
R ecently K ing
( 1978)
e xtensively r eviewed s ome a spects o f R omano-
B ritish a nimal b one r eports. o f which was
o f R oman B ritain
H e c ame
t hat s heep b ecame l ess
t o a number o f c onclusions o ne
i mportant d uring t he R oman p eriod,
while c attle a nd p ig b ecame m ore i mportant. l ocation o f n ew s ites,
m ore
s uitable
1 36
t o
T his was r elated t o t he
t he r aising o f c attle a nd p igs.
I n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27, t he a uthor h as i ncluded 1 8 n ew s ites. S he h as omitted f rom K ing's p aper b one r eports which a ppeared u nrelia ble,
f or e xample,
W estley s tates
t he r eport o n t he B radwell R oman v illa, w here
t hat a ll
t he b ones w ere d erived f rom s uperficial c on-
t exts ( Westley 1 975, 5 ). A s i n C hapter O ne, s ites h ave b een c ompared v ia t he N umber o f B one F ragments m ethod. I n s ome b one r eports w here M IN i s u sed t he t otal n umber o f b one f ragments i nvolved i n t he a nalysis i s n ot a lways n oted. T hus i t i s i mpossible t o a ssess whether o ne i s d ealing w ith a r easonably l arge s ample. A lso, t he a uthor d oes n ot a gree w ith K ing ( 1978, 2 27) t hat t he t wo m ethods a re d irectly, c onditionally, c omparable ( section 1 .2.4).
i f
l he d ata i n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 g ives d irect e vidence o f t he d iet o f t he i nhabitants a nd i ndirect e vidence o f t heir h usbandry p ractices. M any b iasses a re i nvolved i n i nterpreting t he f aunal r emains ( Chapter O ne) a nd t hat o f b utchery t echnique ( section 1 .2.4) h as b een n oted a nd e mphasised b y t he a uthor.
A s b one r eports
f or l arge a reas o f
c ountry, f or e xample, W ales a nd " N orthern E ngland a re l acking, d istributions must t ake t his i nto a ccount.
t he
a ny
I n o rder t o d etermine w hether c attle b ecame m ore i mportant i n t he l ate R oman p eriod i t i s e ssential t o s tudy t he s ame s ites t hrough t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation. T his w as a ccomplished w ith t he l imited a mount o f material i n T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27. N ineteen o ut o f 2 1 s ites s howed a d efinite i ncrease i n c attle i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd 1 6 o ut o f 2 1 s ites r eveal a c orresponding d ecrease o f s heep/goat. O nly 8 o ut o f t he 2 1 s ites p roduced a d efinite i ncrease o f p ig. A lthough s ites l abelled ' Roman' s eem u nhelpful f or t he t rends b eing f ollowed, t hey a re i mportant i f p re-Roman d ata i s a vailable. F or i nstance, B ishopstone, a n ative f arming s ettlement, w as o ccupied f rom t he B ronze A ge t o S axon t imes a nd i ts f arming p ractice w as h ardly i nfluenced b y t he R oman o ccupation. I ron A ge N azeingbury a nd S lonk H ill while s howing a n i ncrease i n p ig, d emonstrated a d ecrease i n c attle. I n s ection 3 .16.2 t he l argest t ypes o f s heep w ere f ound a t G odmanchester, C olchester, T histleton, G adebridge P ark v illa , H igham F errers a nd W oodyates. F rom T able 3 :25, G adebridge P ark v illa s hows s heep w ere i mportant i n t he f irst t o s econd c entury b ut l ess i mportant i n t he f ourth c entury. A t T histleton t hey a ppeared d ominant i n t he s ample. O f t he r emaining s ites, o nly W oodyates e xhibits a r easonably h igh p ercentage o f s heep r emains, 4 6%. H owever, s ince t he b one s ample w as d ated f irst t o t he f ourth c entury i ts i mportance a t a ny p articular p eriod c annot b e d etermined. I f d ata f rom T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 i s c onsidered, t hen s ome o f t he s ites w ith o ver 5 0% s heep a lso b red s ome o f t he s mallest s heep, f or e xample, R otherley a nd R udston. K ing ( 1978, 2 12) s howed t hat a ssemblages w ith 3 0% o r m ore s heep b ones w ere m ainly c onfined t o t he d ry
l ight s oils o f
t he l owlands.
O ne m ajor p oint t o b e e mphasised i n t his s ection i s t hat a bsence o f s heep b ones i n l ater R oman d eposits ( which a re p rimarily f ood r efuse d eposits)
d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean s heep b ecome l ess i mportant i n t he
l ater E mpire. F rere p oints o ut t hat w oollen g oods w ere i mportant i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, p articularly f or e xport, D iocletian 's
1 37
P rice E dict m entions t wo B ritish p roducts a nimals b red f or w ool T he i ncrease
( Frere 1 978,
3 37).
T hus
s hould n ot b e e xpected i n t hese l ater d eposits.
i n n umbers o f c attle b ones i n t he t hird a nd f ourth
c enturies c ould b e l inked t o a p roposition m ade b y P ercival ( 1976, 1 16). H e s tated t hat i f h eavier c lays a nd f allowland w ere b eing p loughed b y t he
f ourth c entury,
l arger p lough t eams w ould h ave b een n ecessary t o
p ull t he h eavier p loughs w ith c oulter a nd m ouldboard. A lso, l arger m ore r obust a nimals w ould b e a n i mprovement i n t his d irection a nd t here a re h ints o f t his i n s ection 3 .16.1. A t F rocester t hrough t he c enturies, t he m ature p ercentage o f a nimals r ises t hroughout, s uggesting i ncreasing u se o f s heep f or w ool a nd c attle f or t raction ( Noddle 1 979). O n t he m ajority o f s ites f rom T ables 3 :24 t o 3 :27 t here w as a h igher p ercentage o f c attle s laughtered w ith a f ully e rupted b ut n ot h eavily w orn d entition. T hus m any a nimals w ere k illed o ff a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight. S heep w ere s laughtered a t a v ariety o f a ges, 2 t o 4y ears b eing q uite c ommon a nd a s w ith c attle, t he a nimals w ere a t t heir o ptimum b ody w eight. A t A shville t here w as a m uch s maller p roportion o f y oung m andibles i n t he R oman p eriod a nd s imilarly a t B arton C ourt F arm v illa. W ilson s uggests t hat t his c ould e ither r epresent s heep b eing k ept t o a g reater a ge i n t he R oman p eriod o r t hat t he y oung s heep w ere b eing m arketed e lsewhere. I t i s a bundantly c lear t hat t his d ilemma c an o nly b e s olved b y s tudying t he b ones f rom a v ariety o f d ifferent t ypes o f s ite c hronologically r elated a nd w ithin a c lose g eographical a rea. I f t he y oung s heep w ere b eing m arketed e lsewhere, i t i s v ery l ikely t hat t hey w ould b e f ound i n t own d eposits. A t R oman E xeter t he m ain p eak o f s laughter w as 1 5 t o 2 6 m onths; a t G odmanchester s heep w ere s laughtered a t c . 2 y ears i n t he m id f irst t o e arly s econd c entury l evels; a t l ate R oman C irenc ester t he a nimals w ere k illed a t c . 1 5 m onths. E vidence o f l amb s laughter i s s parse a nd i ts o ccurrence i n t he s emi-military l evels a t S heepen a nd t he m ilitary l evels o f C helmsford ( section 4 .3.1) i s t hus s ignificant. S exing c attle b ones i s a d ifficult p rocedure
( section 1 .2.6)
a nd
h ardly a ny s ites h ave g iven c onvincing e vidence f or a s atisfactory s eparation. M altby ( 1977, 1 63) h as r emarked o n t he d ifficulties o f t ransporting m ilk f rom t he f arm t o t he t own. H owever t here i s n o r eason w hy c ows c ould n ot h ave b een k ept t o g raze o n t he t own t erritoria. B efore t he c oming o f t he r ailway, m ilk w as m ade i nto b utter a nd c heese o r f ed t o l ivestock. M ilk f or l iquid c onsumption w as p roduced i n t own d airies, i n a nd a round t he t owns. P ossibly t his w as p ractised o n a m odest s cale i n R omano-British t owns. T he s ame r emarks c ould b e a pplied t o f orts a s w ell. V ery f ew r emains o f d og a nd c at h ave b een f ound, w ith o ne e xcept ion a t P ortchester where t here w as a h igh p roportion o f d og a nd c at. I t i s n otable t hat s everal t own s ites h ave v ery f ew f ragments, e .g. E xeter, G odmanchester, C helmsford a nd C olchester. T his s uggests t hat t he a nimals w ere a ccorded s eparate b urial.
1 38
CV
+C o C C /
r 4
• 4 "
r-I
r 4
c v
i n c ' )
1 1
CV
CI
In
C / 1
CV
r I
1 s s
N r 4
se
C s 1 r I r I
▪ 4 / 1 . 0
•
‘ . 0
c . )
C O
0
C r ,
N
C ri
c o
C I N.
CO
c 0
‘ .0
C l )
r I
C O
‘ .0
0
c v
r 1
1 1
r I
C T ,
C V
N -
C O
r 1
C l )
c v
CO
." . . ,. / J
r 4
V0
1 `,
C l )
r 4
in
c .
01
0
r I •
L C D e I
N
r 4 ▪
1 39
CV
Cl )
1 -
4 -
i f )
t hird-fourth c entury
▪
s econd-third
CV
7 5 - e arly s econd c entury
N , e
5 0 - 6 0/61
B one F ragment C ount o f t he M ain D omestic S pecies - B alkerne L ane,
C olchester
3 ▪' r 4
•
( 3 u pper m olars)
0
T able 3 :2
B ONE
C olchester B utchery C harts
B UTCHERY U NIT
M andible
3 0
4 7.6
2
1 2
1 9
3
1 5
2 3.8
6
t otal
1
7 0
6 8 .0
2
2 0
1 9.4
4 t otal
8 .7
4
3 .9
2
5 0
2 6.6
3
1 4
7 .4
5
1 9
1 0 .1
7
2 8
1 4 .9
8
4 0
2 1.2
3 7
1 9.7
9
1 88
1
1 9
1 1.5
3
1 6
9 .7
4
3 8
2 3.0
5
5 2
3 1.5
2
4 0
2 4 .2
t otal
M etacarpal
9
1 03
t otal
R adius
9 .5
6 3
3
H umerus
N UMBER O F B ONES
1
4
S capula
( BKC 1 /2)
1 65
1
5 0
3 7.6
1- 2
2 8
2 1.0
3
3 9
2 9.3
5
4
3 .0
6
6
4 .5
7
3
2 .2
2
2
1 .5
5
1
0 .8
t otal
1 33
1 40
T able 3 :2
( continued)
B ONE
B UTCHERY U NIT
P elvis
1
1 5
2 8.8
2
3 0
5 7.7
3 4 t otal
F emur
5 .8
4
7 .7
1
1 5
1 7.9
2
4 0
4 7.6
3
1 4
1 6.7
2 - 3
1 5
1 7.8
8 4
1
1 5
1 4 .4
2
1 0
9 .6
5
4 8
4 6.2
3
1 1
1 0.6
7
2 0
1 9.2
1 04
t otal
M etatarsal
3
5 2
t otal
T ibia
N UMBER O F B ONES
1
4 0
3 4.5
1- 2
1 0
8 .6
2 - 2
1 1
9 .5
2
4
3
3 8
4
3
6
1 0 1 16
t otal
1 41
3 .4 3 2.8 2 .6 8 .6
h . C D N i L n
l
r
•
g l ) r t 1 ) h . M c n h i u ) 0 1 •
' '
r l
r•( 1 ) r ) C l ) M . I » c n r g e M r +
o e l o
C l )
0
r •h . M . • r . r . c f 1 — • 0 g l ) h . f 1 3 o M M M
E :E a lgal
2 gVe2> c V, > ' ,2e CP% )ez2 2T r u D : 7• @ Z 4 1r g , Z T , 2 : 24 )2 . J .
f H D (e 1 ) t > 3c 1 ) h A l nt 4 1 3c( " )> > . ; n c M D X , f D r t r t r . r ) 5 c ) , Im . •I . r t f D e t r ) i C i . • r t < u ) ( » m' • Z ". h . M • Z • • • E n P . ) P -1 C M 0 < A ) • < C D < X e • 1 C I ) (D r t M L O N J m . f D r e ( 7 ' M
e l c r p ) P i f D
( 3 . 1 C D
aE
2E
H 0 H > L -" I
m + r + N J h . h . h . C h 4, m . h . h . m . L o V D C h , 4 h o 4, . 4 . . 4 4, L o , . . 0 t. . , N J h . 0 N i m D N i 0 L n C O L n C O V D m . L o C A C h N i 4, L a N i h . . 4 , L o ,4 M D l n L o L . ) m . L 4
h . C D h . r + C D C D t . C m m . h . C D F . h . C ) m D C h C D N i 4, , 4 , 4 4, L o h . C D u p m + • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • N J 1 40 N / i L o ,o L n C O m D M . L o C h L n N i h . N ) L o L n 4, L a L o C O L O
N J N J r +
L n
N a 0
U . ) C O L o L O
( . ) •
c c
•
•
o •
N i
•
•
•
C o . P • C o 4 >
Ch
L n L o
L a
m .
h .
M . N i
C D C D
h . C o L n •
•
•
•
L n L n
•
l n 4 " . C O C D 0 L o L n • • • • • • m . C A 4, 4, C M 4,
h j h . m . N i N i h . C ) C h ,4 c h , 4
M . t o
h . h . C O N J N i c o
c m
•
V D L n m .
•
•
•
C h
I —
a t i ? a l q u t z a i n N d p u
C O C h
N J
C O
m . N i N i 4-- V h . N i L A
N . ) N i N i L ni .n .z, 0 0 ", c c 4
h . m . C m 0
t a l
O 0 0 0 - 4 > L O C D h . C D I . N i •J • • • • • • L o L n L I, r . C m L n L o h . C O m . l n C m N a
4> N i • •
•
h . L o
m .
m .
h . m . C h L o
h . N i
M . L o
N i h .
M .
h .
•
•
•
•
•
N i
N J
N i m .
•
L o
,4
m .
L O
N i
,a
N i
M .
4 >
C O
Z * -
N i
N i V D • • C o
•
•
M . C D m . L n
L O
l n 4 > N i
•
( J . r . C T, L . )
•
•
,4
L O L o C O
N i V D h . L n 4 > l n C D N i
L n
N i
0
r + h . I M . V L O N i C D L n C D L n
•
C O
40 / 1
•
L n •
•
N i •
•
. 4 " -
N i
4, C O
•
•
L n N i C o .4 C o N i L o
C A
M . C D C m 0, L o C o N i
4 >
M . L n N i V J L o C o C o 4 > • • • • • • • C h C O . 4 1 40 / . R * - N J
•
h . m + N i • • m . c o
L n C h
•
h . C D
U ) L a
r t r t
r )
L n V D
z •
r, h . r + 4 > C O h . m D
•
•
L o h . m . m . e . m . N i 0 N i m . M D m D h . M . C o N J
h . C h C D C m LP •
•
N ) N i
h . N i m + m . L n L o L n N 2
te.
CV
0
, • 4
a ) c n L n N 4 L t / 4 1 . 0
4 . )
L f )
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cn
. 7 i f ) V) CV 41 / 1 - 0
CV
t — I C T N CO e . 4 CV CV
ri
t oo
g ,e
0
0
v 1
r -
C V C ' )
r 4 C V
c n
C • I • 2 '
V) CV CV
1L t 1
c o
C V r 1 0
C V C V . 7
i n , J D
0
r — i CV • •
C T , C O . 7 0 0 r l
i n
) 4
o c . )
•
4t / 1 )
.
0 L t ) •
r4
r s . Cn CI r . 1 P 4
•
•
•
4o / 1
1 CV CV
C r ,
•
C V e l 1 1
C I r I
V ) ( X ) • •
0 . 1
r I
, r )
c m
< : ;
r " )
r I r 4
Lf l r . ) C . ) . 1 > c s 4 N I c s 4 • • • • • • • • • • • •
1 1 , £ ) / 4C 1 , C r ,
• • • • • i t 1 c r .
i n c o L C s i
c o c n
•
C V
C V C V • 7 • N D • • • 1 I 1 -1C V c n c n
0
• 1 1
C V V D • . 1 -4 r-I
v . )
•
c 4i r / 1 -4
C-
• • • • • • 0 c o
o c s 4 c o 0
L i)
0
0
C ' )
r . . 4
c s . ) 4 i n c t l i 4 c o
a )
c oi . c l c o i i . 0 i 4 i t )
r — I li , —I . 1 4 •r I . " C ;
) 4
U
M. . .4
, • 4 C L I
W
C O
r — f
c o I i c n X c di 4
4
C I . Q ) • e I
c d
c t i
c z >
Z. r 4
0
c d
5J D4 )
1 43
c n
.4
1 " . 1 • 0 0 0 0
c n L O
c n
Ln cn C.1
c o c o ,. c o EL I 4 ) g .. . c u O. 2 > , c d c d u c i fi 1 a ) c e a ) a ), 4 a ) = cn a . : Z Zcn = c4 Z E O c t + . .E -.ZE-iP 1 •
L r l
v ertebrae v ertebrae
•
c ) 4 . )
C )
4C V C V C V C N
C 7 ,
r • -
a ) a ) c d 1 . 4. ) 2 ( 1
4 . )
4 . 1 14
1 4 a ) c u
• ••
•
C . 1
•
• lj
N . 1
•
c i
. C c i t O 1 . 4
, C
c i ) 4 )
N . 4 0 1 c . )- 4 ) 4 ) a ) •. C c i c y l c ic n c a c l ) 0 0
< E -
N i
e J c-3 x f D 1 3 M m . r i r t
0 3
M. 0 3 0 c o 1 . C i 3 t ; . 1 : 3 1 3 ) t — .
f l 3
r r
X
0 3
r i c n M t . .
t — .
h . ( A h . 0 0 • • • • • l n 4. / 1 0 1 40 /
H › i i m•C D Oa E l
g 3
La N ) t . . .
N J
X C D r r
r i
40 / 1
N 2
V D
V
0 •
C T ,
c o
F .
N i M . ‘ . 0 C D 0 3
I v
K J LJ U I C ) c o
G
0 • /0 4 1
Z = C i , G ` . < XX 0 G
1 -1
G
M. I — 'G
r n
I »
m i P 3 M
N i N i C O C D N i
-
h .
C h
C po = C / 2 Z m . 1 3 G M 0 3 G G 5 1 3 ) G
1 —‚ V
•
, c e
LO
• V
E :E nquI
•
' 1 1 H z " c u 0 3 t i
11011
u uni
1 .1 G • E l
> . > t . X M. I — . r n s u 0 3
m .
9103
P 3
M • •
( ) ( D t l < .
a rac taliat t
0 3
n cs 3 c -3 • 1 3
» aol il
r r
> G r t
a nic ialiat t
0 3
a ri c ialian
t l
( 0
a eac ialiat t .
H 0 H
N i L a
0 0 • / 4 1 0
CM
U 3 1— . 1, 3 C )
. g %
h .
L a N i ( . › C h
0
C o ( . 0
•
•
N i •
N i C D
C D
4 >
•
•
•
•
4> CM C . )
N i N J C O
1 -1 C D L a ( A •
•
•
4 C D Z •
•
•
•
U . ) N i
C . ) C D C h L n
L n C o
•
•
•
N i N i C h N i L 0
h . •
•
N J . P s .
•
l n C M C O V D L O
N i
N i •
U J
•
L n Ln C h N i C M h . VD
l n
h . N i h .
•
•
•
C. ) C M L. )
L. ) LO
h .
N i N i • • ln L n
C O
L. ) C M L a
N i 4 > N i 4. / 1 0
1 44
L n
•
•
CA ) L. ) C O L . )
h .
L . ) •
•
•
C ) •
M . 0 0 C h
L . ) h . h . N i h . N i L n C h l n N i L a 1 40 U / . 3
V N i U . O D V • • • • • p • N . ) c o
h . h . ,J h . N i
h . 4 › C D m . • • 0 0 C h
h .
F . e • . N J • • • • L a L a
C I D
h . r . L n , j • • • • C T, C O C O
N i C M
N i l n
c r o
C olchester
r I • 00 \
i f )
B alkerne L ane,
rl
C11
CI CN
C Y )
r 4
C r )
4 )
M inimum N umber o f
al N.
CO 1 1
r I
c . ) C f )
r 1 CI
c
0
i n
r i r I
0 C • 1
( 1 )
t hird-fourth
( mandible)47.4
t he M ain D omestic S pecies
01
C Y )
r 4 C Y )
\ SD 0 \ -0
0 L . r )
r i
C s4
U
4 1
\ SD
4 _ )
T able 3 :5 A .
M eat W eight P otential
T he N umber o f B one F ragments
S ITE E
G roup
D ate
C attle
%
S heep/Goat
1
4 3 - 5 0
7 380
9 2.9
2 21
2
5 0 - 6 0/61
2 635.2
9 2.9
8 6
5 724
9 3.5
8 28
9 6.4 9 1.7
3
6 0/61 - 7 5
5
e arly s econdt hird c entury
6
t hird-fourth c entury
B .
4 636.8
T he M inimum N umber o f A nimals
%
P ig
2 .8
3 39.2
0 .4
3
1 15.2
4 .1
1 64
2 .7
2 35.2
1 3
1 .5
1 7.6
2 28
4 .5
1 93.6
3 .8 2 3 .8
( MIN)
S ITE E
G roup
D ate
C attle
%
S heep/Goat
%
P ig
1
4 3 - 5 0
1 29.6
8 4.7
9
5 .9
1 4.4
9 .4
2
5 0 - 6 0/61
2 23.2
9 2.5
7
2 .9
1 1.2
4 .6
3
6 0/61 - 7 5
5
e arly s econd-
1 44
9 3.3
4
2 .6
6 .4
4 .1
9 1.4
1
1 .2
6 .4
7 .4
7 .8
9 .6
5 .8
7 9.2
t hird c entury 6
t hird-fourth
1 44
8 6.4
c entury
1 46
1 3
T able
3 :6
H owards I ndices
f or C attle M etapodials
M etacarpal
D istal b readth l ength
B KC E 1 /2
B KC E 6
x 1 00
M id-shaft b readth l ength
x 1 00
A
2 8.8
F emale
1 5.4
F emale/castrate
B
2 8.5
F emale
1 5.5
t
C
3 0 .3
F emale/castrate
1 6.8
i t
A
2 3.3
B
2 7.8
A
2 1.6
1 0.6
B
2 2.2 F emale
1 1.1
C
2 4.1
"
D
2 3.9
"
1 1.6
F emale
E
2 4.1
"
1 1.7
F emale
F
2 2.7
"
1 0.6
1 0.5 F emale
1 5.7
F emale/castrate
M etatarsal
B KC E 1 /2
B KC E 6
A
2 3.5
F emale
1 1.6
F emale
2 5
F emale/castrate/male
1 4
F emale/castrate
1 47
• r t
C Z N
G m u )
( D
c r ? r t
N i
q u 2Tag s a a t i gTm • ( 1 ) • c n r t H a f D
f i Q
r t
Ni
0 0 I -1
‘ •
1 48 H a
N i X I
N N i i
C f )
u oTlrmIlsH 1 q2TaH s aa t ilTm pur 2 oG j o s lua lmainsraw a uog 2uoi
t r i
l eTaq s zat ilTm
o n ! h C D
l anopirl l i aljr)
• ( D H• C l )
1 g2Tat i s iatpTm
C D
a alsa l lo up -
1 q2Tat i
O C 3
T able 3 :8
N umber o f B one F ragments a nd M inimum N umber o f A nimals p er s pecies - C olchester,
S pecies
N o.
B KC S ite E 6
o f b one f ragments
M IN
C hicken
G allus
5 9
M allard
A r ias
3 7
6
1 1
3
G rey l ag g oose W oodcock T eal
A nser
S colopax r usticola
8
2
2
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
P luvialis a pricaria 6
1
A nas c recca
T ufted d uck W himbrel L apwing
s p.
A ythya F uligula N umenius p haeopus
V anellus v anellus
B lacktailed G odwit G olden P lover
1 3
L imosa l imosa
1 49
( MIN)
T able 3 :9
G reatest L ength o f F owl b ones
( GL ) mm
S ite
H umerus W oodcuts
2
7 4 - 7 4
7 4
L ongthorpe
3
6 7.5-74
7 1.8
3 .8
6 0.5-75.3
6 9
4 .9
3
6 8-74.1
7 3
4 .5
2
6 8.6-74.1
7 1.4
3 .9
6 7.9-88
7 6.8
6 .3
E xeter C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)
1 4
F emur C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6) E xeter
1 1
L ongthorpe
8 0.5
U lna C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)
4
6 3.1-74.9
6 8.3
5 .8
L ongthorpe
2
7 1-73.5
7 2.2
1 .8
E xeter
8
5 9.9-76.7
6 7.2
5 .5
T arsometatarsus - m ale C olchester ( BKC S ite E 6)
2
8 1.7-85.4
8 3.6
2 .6
L ongthorpe
2
7 9.5-82.5
8 1
2 .1
E xeter
5
6 3.8-89.2
7 7.6
M anching
3
6 9-75.5
7 2.8
T arsometatarsus - f emale L ongthorpe
3
6 6-71
6 7.7
2 .9
E xeter
8
6 6.2-79.1
7 2
5 .3
1 50
T able 3 :10
G roup
B one F ragment C ount o f t he W ild S pecies
D ate
R ed D eer
R oe D eer
H are
F ox
1
1
S ITE E 1
4 3 - 5 0
1
2
5 0 - 6 0/61
1
1 /2
1
2 /3
1
3
6 0/61 - 7 5
1
6
t hird-fourth c entury
2
1
1 51
T able 3 :11
G reatest L ength o f C attle M etatarsal B ones
( GL ) m m
S ite W itcombe
1
S heepen
1 1
C oygan
5
G ussage A ll S aints
1 8
2 16 1 90 .5-220
2 02
8 .2
1 95-209
2 01.8
6 .8
1 98
5 .4
1 89-206
V indolanda
1
2 03
C olchester ( BKC E 1 /2)
7
1 95-213
2 01.3
6 .4 1 8 .7
( BKC E 6 )
2
2 06.5-233
2 19.8
1C .
3
1 72-200
1 90.7
4C .
4
2 03-217
2 09
F rocester
4 -5
C .
1
2 15
G odmanchester ( early 2 t o e nd t hird C . )
4
2 07-226
2 13.8
8 .4
G odmanchester ( mid 1 C . t o e arly 2 C .)
2
2 01-222
2 11.5
1 4.8
1 81-244
2 07.2
R udston
4C .
C orstopitum R awreth
1 6 5
4 -5 C .
2 14 1 0.3
1
2 25
D urrington W alls
1
2 18
T ripontium ( late 3 C . - 4C .)
6
2 05-217
2 10.7
4 .6
H ucclecote
3
2 11.5-237
2 20.5
1 4.3
G adebridge
3
2 08-254
2 27.3
2 3.9
T histleton
2 05-231
2 15.8
8
S hakenoak
1 3 2
2 08-210
2 09
1 .4
G reat C hesterford
2
2 19-223
2 21
2 .8
1 95-231
2 08.8
1 0 .7
2 00-209
2 03.3
4 .6
1 96-233
2 11.2
8 .6
2 26-233
2 29.5
W oodcuts
1 4
R otherley
6
W oodyates
1 7
A ppleton
2
P ortchester B arton C ourt F m 3 -5C. L ittle W altham 4 5-60AD c .300 A .D . E xeter 5 0-300 A .D . 3 00+ L ongthorpe
1 08
1 83-240
2 6
2 00-238
1
2 11
1
2 25
5
1 st C .
1 1.96
1 90-205
1 99
5 .51
1 91-219
2 04.4
9 .24
2
1 91-228
2 09.5
2
2 12-212
1 0
K erry c ow ( P-R )
2 20.5
1 52
2 6.2
T able 3 :12
G reatest L ength o f C attle M etacarpal B ones
( GL) m m
S ite
L ongthorpe
6
E xeter 3 00+
1 3
5 0-300
5
B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .
1 8
1 65-183.5
1 74.4
8 .9
1 59-183
1 74.3
6 .6
1 66-194
1 74.8
1 0 .0
1 60-211
1 92.7
1 0 .4
1 89-192
1 90 .5
F armoor R -B
2
T ripontium
1
1 92
C olchester
1
2 10
G adebridge P ark
3
1 92-204
1 96.3
6 .6
T histleton
9
1 79-191
1 86
3 .5
S hakenoak
8
1 74-190
1 84.1
4 .7
G reat C hesterford
2
1 99-222
2 10.5
1 6.3
C olchester B K0
2
2 03 .5-207
2 05.2
2 .4
1 4
1 62-188 .5
1 76
7 .9
1 0
1 65-182
1 72 .5
5 .6
1 71-187
1 79.2
6 .6
E 6
S heepen C oygan C olchester B KC F rocester
1
E
1 /2
4
C .
1
2 -3 C .
3
1 68 1 72-184
1 78.7
6 .1
4 C .
3
1 82-200
1 91.3
9 .0
4 -5 C .
2
1 82-192
1 87
7 .1
M odern S horthorn
2 80
G odmanchester 2 -end 3 C m id 1 -early 2 C L ynch F arm
9
1 78-199
1 94
1 4.7
6
1 68-192
1 82
7 .9
1
1 97
C orstopitum
8 7
1 57-203
1 82.6
1 0.2
W oodcuts
1 3
1 68-199
1 84.5
1 0.2
1 70-178
1 74
4 .0
R otherley
3
W oodyates
1 2
D urrington W alls A shville
R -B
R -B
1 70-191
1 82
6 .4
2
1 86-188
1 87
1 .4
2
1 83-192
1 87 .5
2
1 68-187
K erry C ow ( P-R ) W itcombe
1 82-183
1 53
1 77.5
1 3.4
Table 3:13
Cattle Metatarsal Distal Width (Bd) Measurements (mm)
Site
r
n
Little Waltham
X
45-60
1
49
300+
1
54.5
s
Colchester BKC , E6
35
47.7-64.2
53.1
3.9
Sheepen
52
43-58.7
47.6
3.5
Vindolanda
30
45 -· 55
50
Colchester BKG, El
20
44.9-55.8
47.9
3.1
11
44.7-50.4
48.4
2.9
3
45.1-49.2
47.3
2.0
50.3
5
BKC, E3/4 BKC, ES
127
Carstopitum
59.3
Rawreth Tripontium
6
43.5-52
46.6
3.5
Gade bridge Park
3
58 - 68
62
5.3
Thistleton
13
49 - 62
53.3
4.6
Shakenoak
4
51 - 67
58.8
6.6
Hoc kwold
1
Bainbridge 3
c.
1-2
c.
46
4
46.8-54.4
50.7
4.03
4
45.9-56.8
49.5
4.9
154
T able 3 :14
C attle M etacarpal D istal W idth ( Bd) M easurements
( mm )
S ite T ripontium
2
5 0-55.5
5 2.8
3 .9
G adebridge P ark
3
6 0 - 6 7
6 4.3
3 .8
T histleton
9
5 0 - 6 1
5 5.9
4 .2
S hakenoak
8
5 0 - 7 0
5 8.9
8 .5 3 .5
C olchester B KC, E 6
2 8
4 7.2-62.5
5 6.8
V indolanda
3 3
4 9 - 6 2
5 4
C olchester B KC,E3
2
5 2.3-54.4
5 3.4
1 .5
B KC,E5
3
5 0 .2-58.6
5 3.4
4 .5
B KC,E3/4
3
5 2-60.8
5 5.4
4 .7
4 8.4-60 .7
5 2.8
4 .2
B KC,E1/2 F rocester 1 C . S heepen
1 2 1 4 0
5 3 4 5.6-58 .6
5 1.1
5 1 - 6 1
5 6.7
1 55
4 5 - 7 3
5 4.4
5 .6
B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .
3 0
4 6 - 7 0
6 2.1
6 .2
E xeter
5 0-300
3 0
4 4.5-60.6
4 8 .6
4 .69
3 00+
1 9
4 4.3-55
5 0
2 .4
R udston 4 C . C orstopitum
7
1 55
2 .7
T able 3 :15
C attle W ithers H eight
( cm )
a fter F ock ( 1966), u sing t he
M etacarpal a nd M etatarsal
M etacarpal
S ite
M etatarsal
G t.Chesterford
1 21.4-135.4
1 28.4
1 18.3-120.4
1 19.3
C olchester B KC, E 6
1 24.1-126.3
1 25.2
1 11.5-125.8
1 18 .6
R awreth 4 -5C.
1 21.5 1 20 .2
L ynch F arm 1 17.1-124.4
G adebridge
1 19.7
A ppleton
1 12.3-137.2
1 22.7
1 22-125.8
1 23.9
1 08-128.5
1 19.1
1 70 .8
M odern S horthorn 9 7.6-128.7
1 17.5
D urrington W alls
1 13.5-114.7
1 14.1
T histleton
1 09.2-116.5
1 13.5
B arton C ourt 3 -5C.
1 17.7 1 10.7-124.7
1 16.6 1 13.9
L t.Waltham 4 5-60
1 21.5
c 3 00 A D 1 17.1
T ripontium G odmanchester e arly 2 - e nd 3 C . m id 1 -early 2 C .
1 11.8-122 1 08.5-119.9
1 15.4 1 14.2
1 08.6-121.4 1 02.5-117.1
1 18.3 1 11
1 13.9-128
1 19.1
L ongthorpe
1 00.6-111.9
1 06.4
1 03.1-123.1
1 13.1
E xeter 5 0-300 3 00+
1 01.3-118.3 9 7 - 1 11.6
1 06.6 1 06.3
1 02.6-110.7 1 03.1-118.3
1 07.5 1 10.4
S heepen
9 8.5-115
1 07.4
1 02.9-118.8
1 09.1
C oygan
1 00 .6-109.8
1 05.2
1 05.3-112.9
1 09
1 02.1-111.2
1 06.9
H ucclecote
G ussage A ll S aints
1 09.6
V indolanda C olchester B KC,1 B KC,1/2 F rocester
1C . 2 -3 C . 4C . 4 -5 C .
R udston C orstopitum
.
1 04.3-114.1
1 04.9-112.2 1 11-122 1 11-117.1
1 09.3
1 02.5 1 09 1 16.7 1 14.1
1 05.3-115
1 08.7
9 2.9-108
1 03
1 09.6-117.2
1 12.9 1 16.1 1 15.6
4C . 9 5.8-123.8
1 56
1 11.4
9 7.7-131.8
1 11.9
T able 3 :15
( Continued )
S ite
M etacarpal r
M etatarsal X
r
7
S hakenoak
1 06.1-115.9
1 12.3
1 12.3-113.4
1 12.9
W oodcuts
1 02.5-121.4
1 12.5
1 05.3-124.7
1 12.8
R otherley
1 03.7-108. ,6
1 06.1
1 08-112.9
1 09.8
W oodyates
1 03.7-116.5
1 11
1 05.8-125.8
1 14
A ppleton
1 22-125.8
1 23.9
P ortchester
9 8.8-129.6
K erry c ow
1 14.5
F armoor
1 15.3-117.1
1 16.2
A shville
1 11.6-117.1
1 14.4
R oman C olchester
1 28.1
1 57
T able 3 :16
S heep/Goat M etacarpal L ength M easurements ( GL) m m
S ite
n
B ainbridge 1 -2 C . 2 nd C .
1 1
D urrington W alls
2
1 21-127
1 24
E xeter
3
1 12-127
1 19
H igham F errers
1
1 41
E ast M ailing V illa
1
1 37
G adebridge P ark
3
T histleton
2 7
S hakenoak
r
G ussage A ll S aints C olchester B KC, B KC, B KC, B KC,
E 6 E 3 E l E 4
1 26-133
1 30 .7
V
4 .2
3 .4
4 .04
3 .1
6 .1
5 .1
1 15-143 1 24
1 2
1 11-122 .5
1 18.4
3 3
1 04-122
1 14
1 07.5-146
1 33.2 1 11.5 1 20 .8 1 17
4 1 6 1
s
1 23.5 1 13.0
1
S heepen
X
1 13-130
4 .6
4 .1
1 8.1
1 3.6
8 .04
6 .6
F rocester 1 C . 2 -3 C .
1 3
1 14-122
1 25 1 16.7
4 .6
3 .9
G odmanchester m id 1 -2 C . e arly 2 - e nd 3 C .
2 2
1 31-138 1 39-147
1 34.5 1 43
4 .9 5 .6
3 .6 3 .9
H adrians W all T urrets
1
R udston 4 C . C orstopitum
2 -4 C .
C hew P ark V illa
1 15
1 9
1 06-118
1 13
3 .7
3 .3
1 1
1 06-135
1 20
9 .1
7 .6
1 05-119
1 11.8
5
4 .5
5
W oodcuts
2 5
9 9-137
1 22.1
R otherley
1 2
1 11-137
1 15.3
7 .5
6 .5
W oodyates
5
1 07-122
1 14.6
6
5 .2
L ongthorpe 1 C .
9
1 09-128.5
1 19
7 .1
6
D orset H orned R am ( P-R )
1 34-136
S t. K ilda R am ( P-R )
1 10-112
S t. K ilda E we
( P-R )
H ighland H orned E we B ishopstone
1 07-107 ( P-R )
1 18-119 2
1 22
T ripontium
3
1 22-123
1 22.7
5 .8
G reat C hesterford
2
1 21-134
1 27.5
9 .2
H ockwold
1 20.5
1 58
T able 3 :17
S heep/Goat M etacarpal D istal W idth ( Bd) M easurements
S ite
X
S heepen
1 8
C olchester B KC,E, 6 B KC,E, 4 /5
1
B KC,E,
9
1 /2
B KC,E, 3 F rocester
R udston
3
1 11-132
2 1.8
1 .4
2 5.8-27.3
2 6.8
0 .8
2 1.8 2 1.1-26.3
2 3.6
1
2 1
1C .
1
2 5
2 -3 C .
2
4C .
B arton C ourt 1 -2 C . 3 -5 C . C hew P ark V illa
1 4
1 8 - 1 9
1 8.5
0 .7
2 0 - 2 4
2 1.8
1 .2
1 1 3 5
2
2 2 2 1 - 3 0
2 4
2 .3
2 1 - 2 2
2 1.8
0 .4
1 59
( mn)
T able 3 :18
S heep/Goat M etatarsal L ength M easurements
S ite
n
r
E xeter
9
1 20-143
X
s
V
6 .6
5 .2
1 .4
1 .2
1 23.3
8 .8
7 .1
1 26.2
A ppleton
1 34
A shville R .B .
1 39
B ainbridge 1 C . l ate 2 C . 3C .
1 2
1 20-122
1 14 1 25 1 21
H ockwold
1
1 30
F armoor
1
1 47
S heepen
6
G ussage A ll S ainst I A
1 15-137
1 23
5 .5
4 .5
2 1 1 1
1 18-120
1 19 1 42.5 1 32 1 49
1 .4
1 .2
F rocester 2 -3 C . 4C .
4 1
1 21-145
1 31 1 40
G odmanchester 2 -early 3 C.
1
1 43
H adrians W all 6 T urrets
1
1 27
C olchester B KC, B KC, B KC, B KC,
E 2 E 3/4 E 3 E 6
2 9
1 09-128
( GL) m m
R udston 4 C .
1 8
1 15-130
C orstopitum
1 0
1 23.7
1 1.6
4 .6
3 .7
1 08-128
1 20
6 .2
5 .2
C hew P ark V illa
8
1 14-130
1 19.9
4 .6
3 .8
T ripontium
6
1 25-137
1 31.7
5
3 .8
7 .4
5 .5
F indon W ell
1
G adebridge P ark
6
, Thistleton
2 1
S hakenoak
1 49 1 28-144 1 27-142
1
W oodcuts
1 7
1 35
1 35 1 14-139
1 25
7 .4
5 .9
R otherley
6
1 19-126
1 23.3
2 .9
2 .4
W oodyates
4
1 30-137
1 34.8
3 .3
2 .4
D orset H orned R am ( P-R)
1 47-147
S t . K ilda R am ( P-R )
1 22-124
S t . K ilda E we
( P-R )
H ighland H orned E we
1 15-116 ( P-R )
1 27-128
1 60
T able 3 :19
S heep/Goat M etatarsal D istal W idth
( Bd) M easurements
X
S ite
S heepen C olchester B KC,
E 6
B KC,
E l
8
1 8.8-21.7
2 0.1
1
2
2 2.6-24.3
2 3.4
1 .2
2 1.8
B KC, E 3/4
2
2 0.6-23.8
2 2.2
2 .3
B KC,
4
2 0 .5-22.1
2 1.2
0 .8
E 1/2
R udston 4 C .
1 8
1 9.2-22.8
2 0.4
0 .9
C orstopitum
1 0
1 7 - 2 0
1 9.6
1 .1
C hew P ark V illa
6
1 9 - 2 1
2 0.2
0 .8
T ripontium
6
2 0.3-24
2 1.7
1 .3
G adebridge P ark
3
2 1 - 2 3
2 2.3
1 .2
H ockwold
1
B ainbridge F ort 3 C .
2
B ainbridge
2 3 2 0.1-24.1
2 2.1
l ate 2 C .
2 0.8
F lay .Traj
2 3.4
B arton C ourt 3 -5 C .
9
2 0 - 2 8
1 61
2 2.9
2 .8
( m om )
T able 3 :20
S heep/Goat T ibia D istal W idth
( Bd) M easurements
S ite
n
r
X
T ripontium
5
2 4 - 2 6
1 2 3 3
C olchester B KC,
E 6
S heepen
( mm )
S
V
2 5.4
0 .9
3 .5
2 3.6-28 .3
2 6.6
1 .6
6
2 0 .5-25.6
2 2.8
1 .4
6 .1
V indolanda
4
2 6 - 2 7
2 6.8
0 .5
1 .9
C olchester B KC, E l
4
2 2.1-23.4
2 2.9
0 .6
2 .4
F rocester 4 C .
2
2 3 - 2 3
2 3
1C .
6
2 1 - 2 4
2 2.8
1 .3
5 .7
2 0 - 2 5
2 2.8
1 .6
7
2 -3 C .
1 2
H adrians W all T urrets 2 b
4
2 1 - 2 4
2 2.6
1 .4
6 .2
2 c
2
2 4 - 2 5
2 4.5
0 .7
2 .8
2 4 - 2 7
2 5
1
4
S hakenoak
1 1
R udston 1 -mid 2 C .
5
2 2.9-23.8
2 3 .7
0 .9
3 .8
2 -4 C .
3
2 2 - 2 4
2 3
1
4 .3
B arton C ourt 1 -2 C . 3 -5 C . E xeter
1
2 0
3 8
2 0 - 3 1
2 4.5
2 .1
8 .6
5 0-100
2 1
2 1.3-29.2
2 3.1
1 .5
6 .5
1 00-300
3 0
2 1.4-25.9
2 3.3
1 .2
5 .2
3 00+
1 5
2 2.3-27
2 3 .9
1 .2
5
1 62
T able 3 :21
S heep/Goat W ithers H eight ( cm )
a fter T eichert
( 1975 ), u sing
t he M etacarpal a nd M etatarsal
S ite
M etacarpal
E xeter
5 4.7-62.1
M etatarsal
5 8.2
5 4.5-64.9
5 7.3
A ppleton
6 0.8
A shville R B .
6 3.1
B ainbridge 1 -2 C . l ate 2 C.
6 0.4 5 4.5-55.4
3C . H ockwold
5 1.8 5 6.8 5 4.9 5 9
F armoor
6 6.7
S heepen
5 4.3-59.9
5 7.9
4 9.5-58.1
5 6
G ussage A ll S aints
5 0 .8-59.6
5 5.7
5 2.2-62.2
5 5.8
C olchester B KC,E,1 B KC,E,2 B KC,E,3/4 B KC,E,3 B KC,E,4 B KC,E,6
5 5.2-63.6
5 9.1 5 3.6-54.5
5 4 6 4.7 5 9.9
5 2.6-71.4
5 4.5 5 7.2 6 5.1
5 5.7-59.6
6 1.1 5 7.1
6 4 - 6 7.5 6 8 - 7 1.9
6 5.8 6 9.9
6 4.9
H adrians W all T urrets
5 6.2
5 7.6
R udston
5 1.8-57.7
5 5.2
5 2.2- 5 9
5 6.2
C orstopitum
5 1.8-66
5 8.7
4 9 - 5 8.1
5 4.5
C hew P ark V illa
5 1.3-58.2
5 4.7
5 1.8-59
5 4.4
5 6.8-62.2
5 9.8
F rocester
1C . 2 -3 C . 4 C ,
G odmanchester m id.1 e arly 2 C . 2 -3 C .
4C .
T ripontium
6 7.6 5 4.9-65.8
6 7.6
F indon W ell G adebridge P ark T histleton
5 9.5 6 3.6
6 1.6-65
6 3.9
5 8.1-65.4
6 1.3
5 7.6-64.5
5 6.2-69.9
6 1.3
6 0.6
S hakenoak W oodcuts
4 8 .4-67
5 9.7
5 1.8-63.1
5 6.8
R otherley
5 4.3-67
5 6 .4
5 4-57.2
5 6
W oodyates
5 2.3-59.6
5 6
5 9 - 6 2.2
6 1.2
1 63
T able 3 :21
( Continued)
S ite
M etacarpal
M etatarsal
7
r
r
D orset H orned r am ( P-R )65.5-65.5
6 6.7-66.7
S t.Kilda R am ( P-R )
5 3.8-54.8
5 5.4-56.3
S t.Kilda E we
5 2.3-52.3
5 2.2-52.7
( P-R )
H ighland H orned E we ( P-R ) D urrington W alls
5 7.7-58.2 5 9.2-62.1
H igham F errers
6 8.9
E ast M alling V illa L ongthorpe
5 7.6-58.1 6 0.6
6 7 5 3.3-62.8
1 64
5 8.2
i
T able
3 :22
H orse M etacarpal L ength M easurements
S ite
n
T ripontium
7
r
2 05-217
H ockwold
( GL) mm
7 2 10.2
s 5 .4
1 88
T histleton F rocester
2C .
L ynch F arm C olchester,
B KC E 2
C aerleon C orstopitum
7
2 20-236
2 25.1
5 .4
2
2 10-220
2 15
7 .1
1
2 20
1
2 36
1
2 40
1 0
2 17-235
2 26.4
5 .9
C olchester B KC, E 6
3
2 11-224
2 18.7
6 .8
W oodcuts
8
1 91-229
2 05.2
1 3.4
R otherley
1 4
1 80-220
1 98.6
1 0.9
W oodyates
1 7
1 98-240
2 21.5
1 1.1
A shville
R .B.
1
2 27
A ppleton
R .B.
1
2 06
I .A.
1
1 96
n
1 -2 C .
2
i t
3 -5 C .
B arton C ourt
1 98-200
1 99
2 01-227
2 14.3
1 65
T able 3 :23
H orse M etatarsal L ength M easurements
S ite
( GL) m m
X
G odmanchester m id 1 - e arly 2 C .
1
2 57
L ynch F arm
1
2 80
R udston
1
2 50
C orstopitum
4
2 26-290
2 53.3
2 9.7
T ripontium
8
2 45-260
2 52.2
6 .8
T histleton
5
2 48-272
2 60.2
1 1.1
G adebridge
2
2 52-280
2 66
1 9.8
G odmanchester
1
2 47
H ockwold
1
2 51
S hakenoak
1
2 42
C olchester
1
2 48
W oodcuts
7
2 13-285
2 40
2 8.6
R otherley
1 4
2 21-250
2 43.1
1 3.6
W oodyates
1 3
2 37-280
2 62.8
1 4.2
A shville
R .B.
1
F armoor
R .B.
4
2 38-286
2 58.9
I .A .
2
2 42-276
2 59
I t
1 -2 C .
2
2 32-238
2 35
I
3 -5 C .
6
2 60-282
2 66.7
B arton C ourt
L ittle W altham N ewstead
3 00+
2 70
2 1 1
2 41 2 55-287
1 66
2 75.2
1 0.6
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1 4 4
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C HAPTER F OUR
CHELMSFORD - T he f irst t o f ourth c enturies A .D.
' Small
t owns m ust b e s tudied i n c lose r elation t o
t heir r ural e nviron-
m ent . T hese s ites a re c ommonly t reated a s t hough t hey w ere a ll m inor u rban s ettlements. I n a f ew c ases t here i s a mple j ustification f or t his v iew b ut t his s hould n ot b lind u s t o t he f act t hat i n a ll i nstanc es t here w ere 1 976, 9 9). 4 .1
t he s trongest p ossible l inks w ith t he l and.'
( Todd
I ntroduction
C helmsford i s s ituated o n t he m ain R oman r oad b etween L ondon a nd C olchester, i n t he c entral p art o f E ssex, a nd c ommands t he c rossing o f t he R ivers C an a nd C helmer n ear t heir c onfluence ( Fig. 1 .1). T he s ite i tself s tands o n t he s outhern s lope o f t he C an v alley. B oth t he R ivers C an a nd C helmer h ave w ell d eveloped f lood p lains, e specially t o t he e ast o f t he c onfluence a nd i n e arly t imes t hese w ould h ave b een e xposed t o r egular w inter o r s pring f looding. N orth o f C helmsford l ies
t he B oulder C lay P lateau o f H igh E ssex.
T his s lopes g ently s outhwards a nd l ies b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 f t O .D. a nd i s d rained b y t he R ivers B rain, T er, C helmer, C an a nd R oxwell B rook. T o t he s outh a cross t he C helmer v alley t he l and a gain r ises t o a g ene ral l evel o f b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 f eet b ut t he l andscape i s m arked b y s everal p ronounced r ises a ttaining a pproximately 3 00 f eet. T he t wo r egions a re d istinct g eologically, t he n orthern p lateau b eing c overed b y a t hick s equence o f g lacial d eposits w hile t he s outhern a rea i s c haracterised b y T ertiary s trata, o nly l ocally c apped w ith g lacial d eposits. R ecent m apping i ndicates t hat L ondon C lay f orms t he b ase o f t he d istrict, a s i ndeed i t d oes f or m ost o f c entral a nd s outhe rn E ssex . T errace d eposits a but o nto t he a lluvium i n s everal p laces a nd f orm a b ench a l ittle a bove f lood l evel. T hese a re c omposed o f f luvial s ands a nd g ravels a nd a re u sually c apped w ith s tony l oam d eposits. G lacial s ands a nd g ravels c rop o ut o n t he s lopes a bove t he t erraces. A lthough a c omplete s oil s urvey i s n ot y et a vailable f or E ssex, t he p rincipal f eatures o f t he c ounty a re l arge t racts o f b oulder c lay t o t he n orth a nd a n e xtensive a rea o f L ondon c lay t o t he s outh, t he f ormer b eing u nder t he p lough a nd t he l atter m ainly d evoted t o d airy f arming. I n 1 795, V ancouver d escribed t he l and a round C helmsford a s c onsisting o f a d eep r ich t ender l oam i ntermixed w ith s ome v eins o f g ravel. 1 75
A t otal o f 6 ,978 a nimal b one f ragments w as a nalysed f rom a ll t he C helmsford s ites, i .e. s ites AA, S , A R , Z , AK a nd T . O f t his t otal 3 418 f ragments c ould b e i dentified a s c attle, h orses, s heep/goats, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, f oxes, c ats, d ogs, h ares a nd b irds. N one o f t he C helmsford s amples w as s oil s ieved s o i n o rder t o a scertain t he q uality o f b one r ecovered a f ragmentation a nalysis w as p erformed ( Watson 1 972); t hat i s t o s ay, s amples o f u nidentified b one f ragments w ere m easured f or l ength, l ength a nd f requency t hen b eing p lotted. O nly b ones w ith o ld b reaks w ere u sed. A r easonably g ood l evel o f r ecovery w as d educed ( Fig. 4 .1). T he e xceptionally h igh n umber o f f ragments i n t he 0 -3 c m c ategory i s d ue p artly t o m aterial f rom s ite AR, w here a g reat d eal o f b one h ad b een s mashed i nto v ery s mall p ieces 4 .2
( Section 4 .2).
R itual b one d eposits
I n t his s ection t here i s a d escription o f t he ' votive' w ell d eposit f rom s ite AR o f t he C helmsford Mansio c omplex . I n t he c urrent l iterature, m uch c onfusion h as a risen c oncerning t he d istinction o f r itual, a s o pposed t o n on-ritual d eposits. I ndeed t he i mportance o f u nderstanding a ny d ifferences h as b een c ommented o n b y o ne p rehistorian, " Two i mmediate p roblems s tand b etween t his e vidence ( animal b ones) a nd t he p rehistoric e conomy. T he f irst i s t he i mportance o f R itual. A n e arly s uggestion o f t his k ind w as m ade b y M ortimer w ho o bserved t hat I ron Age b urials i n Y orkshire c ould b e a ccompanied b y c omplete g oat s keletons b ut b y o nly t he l ong b ones o f t he p ig." ( Bradley 1 978, 3 5). T herefore, i t i s e ssential t o c ompare a nd c ontrast t he C helmsford f ind w ith s imilar e xamples f rom t he p re-Roman a nd R oman I ron A ge. I n a ddit ion, s ome e xamples o f ' odd' d eposits i n g eneral, b oth i n B ritain a nd o n t he c ontinent a re m entioned. 4 .2.1 G rant
T he C helmsford ( 1975,
3 98)
' votive'
w ell d eposit
h as n oted t hat
( site AR, F 31) F ig.4:2
' It i s c lear s ome p its a nd e spec-
i ally w ells c ontain a nimal b ones w hich d o n ot s eem t o b e t he r esult o f h aphazard r ubbish d isposal. T hese a re t he p its w ith y oung a nimal c arc asses, w hole o x s kulls, c omplete d og a nd c at s keletons a nd h uman i nf ant b ones. I t w ould a ppear t hat s ome s ignificance w as a ttached t o t he d eposits t hrown i nto w ells a nd t he h igh p ercentage o f y oung s heep f ound t here m ight r eflect t his.' T he w ell o n S ite AR ,
d ated 1 50 t o 2 00 A .D.
a nd 6 .5 m etres d eep,
h ad b een r e-cut a t l east s ix t imes o ver a p eriod o f 5 0 y ears. T he c ontents o f e ach s haft w ere a s f ollows ( unless s pecifically m entioned, b ones o f s heep a nd g oat h ave n ot b een d ifferentiated): S haft 1 ( bottom o f w ell) E xcellently p reserved h orse s kull
( AR
2 96, P lates 9 -11), 1 3-15 y rs, m ale; mandible f ragment, 2 1 y r a nd d eciduous m olar o f y oung h orse; s heep m andible, 9 -12 m ths; 4 g oose b ones c .
( leg); 6 c ockerel b ones ( leg). S haft 2 . E xcellently p reserved h orse s kull
9y rs, m ale a nd a ssociated p ost-cranial b ones,
l eft m etatarsal s acrum ,
I I,
p halanges I a nd I I,
l eft c alcaneum ,
l eft f emur,
( AR 2 78,
P lates 1 2-14)
l eft m etatarsal I II,
4 c ervical v ertebrae,
l eft a stragalus,
r ight a nd l eft o s i nnominata,
a xis f ragment,
a tlas,
l eft t ibia,
2 l umbar v ertebrae.
T he
w ithers h eight o f t his h orse w as 1 4.0 h ands ( Vitt 1 952). O ther f aunal r emains c omprised 7 f oetal l ambs ( complete s keletons); 2 y oung s heep m andibles, c . 9 -12 m ths; a dult s heep ( well w orn m axilla); r ight m and ible o f c at;
8 r aven b ones
( wing). 1 76
. •• • ••
C I
8 t ,1
a 1 1 ) XD U
1 77
. 0 n ba
in
GL
0
M ode rn
C h e lm s f o rd AR W e l l F 3 1
^
S andy b nckea r th
S ha f t 6
S ha f t 5 2 6 .00
P lan A
4e . P lan A
S ha f t 4• ‚k
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . .. .
°
( . 1 ) • z 2 . • -•
,
2 5 0 0 S ha f t 3
C a lca reous b nckea r th
2 66 2 65 P lan E l 2 4 0 0
P lan B
S ha f t 2
Wa te r t ab le 1 978
0, g
G rave l
r ee et m e t res lam
F ig .
4 :2
. 4 1 1 1P
C he lm sfo rd S i te AR : s e c t ion a nd p l an o ft h e w e l l ,S 31; r e p roduced b y c ou r te sy o fC he lm sfo rd A rchaeco log ica lT ru s t .
" 4 3
P late
9
H orse
s kull
C HAR
2 96.
D orsal v iew.
H orse s kull
C HAR 2 96.
L ateral v ie
C O $ 1 0
e • -i
C Z " r 1 g : 1 4
s kull C HAR 2 96.
V entral v iew .
-
H orse s kull
V entral v iew.
S haft 3 .
S heep m andible,
c .
6 m ths; p ig,
s kull f ragment.
S haft 4 . T wo h orse s kulls ( AR 2 09, m ale, c . 7y rs a nd A R 2 13, i mmature, c . 2 1 y rs); 2 c alf s kulls ( in 4 0 f ragments, 5 -9 m ths); 3 f oetal l ambs c ockerel b ones
( metacarpals); ( leg).
s heep
c .
6m ths
( whole s keleton);
3
S haft 5 . H uman t horacic v ertebra; m ature B os s kull ( AR 1 98, i n 9 0 f ragments); h orse s kull ( highly f ragmented c ranium , 4 0 f ragments); c alf m axilla, c . 1 5-18 m ths; 2 y oung s heep s kulls ( frontal/maxilla, 1 8-24 m ths). S haft 6 . H uman s kull ( one f ragment); B os s kull f ragments; y oung c alf mandible, 1 8 m ths; d og m andible; f owl b one ( leg). T he f oetal l ambs w ere i dentified f rom t he d entition a nd t he m etac arpal d iaphysial l engths f or which H abermehl ( 1975) g ives f igures. L ittle r esidual b one i s p resent, s ince n o l oose t eeth w ere f ound. I ndeed, t he i mmature s heep m andibles a nd l ong b ones w ere v ery w ell p reserved,
e .g.
t he f oetal
l ambs.
S ince t he s ite i s a djacent t o t he Mansio, t he r emains o f w orno ut h orses c ould h ave b een d isposed o f i n a d isused w ell. H owever, i n s hafts 1 a nd 4 t here a re t he r emains o f h orses which w ere c ertainly n ot o ld e nough f or l ight w ork. F urthermore, where a re t he p ost-cranial b ones o f t he o ther f our h orse s kulls a nd t he l imb b ones f rom t he h orse's r ight s ide i n s haft 2 ? D itch 6 7 o n s ite AR y ielded s ome h orse b ones, b ut t hese p redate t he w ell d eposit. N one o f t he h orse r emains s howed s igns o f b utchery. I t i s c urious t hat s hafts 2 a nd 4 c ontained s uch a l arge number o f f oetal s heep. P resent-day l ambing o ccurs i n t he e astern c ounties e ither b etween m id-January a nd t he e nd o f F ebruary o r b etween m id-March a nd m id-April. A l ate-lambing f lock a ppears t o b e m ore p rofitable t han a n e arly o ne f or a n umber o f r easons i ncluding a d eath r ate a s h igh a s 2 0% a mong y oung l ambs i n t he f ormer ( James 1 960). T hese l ambs c ould t hus r epresent c asualties f rom a n e arly l ambing, t heir o ccurrence i n t he t own emphasising t he r ural n ature o f C helmsford o r t hey c ould b e t he r emnants o f a s pringtime s acrifice. V arious b ird b ones o ccurred i n t he w ell, a ll t he s pecies h aving s ignif icance i n t he R omano-Celtic w orld. F or i nstance t he r aven w as t hought b y t he C elts
t o b e c apable o f p rophecy
( Ross 1 974,
3 68).
R avens a re
c ommonly f ound o n R omano-British s ites b ut i t i s e mphasised t hat i n c onnection w ith t he C helmsford w ell, o nly t he w ing b ones o f 4 r avens w ere f ound. S ome z ooarchaeological e vidence o f i ts u se i n a ' ritual' c onnection i s p rovided b y W inklebury I ron A ge H ill f ort ( R . J ones 1 977). A whole s keleton w as f ound s pread e agled o n t he b ottom o f p it 2 611. T he c arpometacarpus e xhibited p athological b one c hanges. T he g oose w ill b e m entioned i n t he n ext s ection t ogether w ith E pona. S haft I c ontained s ome c ockerel b ones w hich c ame f rom a v ery l arge b ird; t he t otal l ength o f t he f emur ( GL) w as 9 3.9 mm a nd t hat o f t he t ibiotarsus, 1 34.4 mm .
I n a c omparison o f f owl b one f rom t he R oman N orth-western
P rovinces ( Section 5 .8) t he C helmsford f emur b one i s t he l argest o f i ts k ind, e xceeding t hose o f L auriacum i n N oricum. T he p eculiarities o f s kulls,
t he d eposit,
f oetal a nd y oung l ambs,
p articularly t he i solated h orse
h uman b one,
r aven,
c ockerel a nd g oose
b ones s uggest t hat t his c ould p ossibly b e a ' votive'
d eposit.
B one f ound a round t he w ell w as a nalysed w ithin t he s even p eriods o f o ccupation p resent. T he w ell w as f illed d uring p eriod V I:3 ( Table 1 85
4 :1). A l arge a mount o f t he b one c onsisted o f m inute s kull f ragments ( 500) a nd w as d istributed a s f ollows: P eriod I V, 8 7; p eriod V , 2 00; p eriod V I :1, 2 13. P eriods I V, V a nd V I:2 a re c haracterised b y m any m ore p ost-cranial h orse f ragments.
T hese,
a long w ith V I:3 r evealed
l arge f ragments o f a h orse s kull. C omplete h orse s kulls, t o t hose i n t he w ell, w ere a s f ollows: I V V V I:2
AR 1 08A AR 6 6 AR 9 0
c . c . c .
7 .7 y r 8 .1 y r. 5 y r
V I:3
AR 1 85
c .
7y r.
i n a ddition
m ale m ale
A n eonatal b aby b urial ( AR 3 11) w as a ssociated w ith p eriod V I:1, a s w as p art o f t he c ranium o f a h ornless s heep ( AR 2 86). T he h orse b ones f rom I V a nd V m ainly c onsisted o f a tlases, a xes, v ertebrae, c arpal a nd t arsal b ones. P eriod V I:3 l evels a lso c ontained a l eft m andible f ragment o f H omo
( AR 2 89),
a l ower s econd m olar o f a c at
( AR 8 9), a nd 3 h orse m olars ( AR 1 6, 8 9). A t otal o f 2 1 s heep/goat mandible f ragments f rom p eriod V I:3 l evels w as a ssigned t o v arious a ge s tages, a fter P ayne ( 1973) ( see T able 4 :2). S lightly m ore s heep a ppeared t o h ave b een k illed o ff i n t he f irst t welve m onths b ut n ot a s m any a s i n t he s ite I V d eposits ( 69.2%).
( 38.1%)
T here i s n othing p articularly u nusual a bout t his k ill-off p attern. T he s keletal e lement d ebris p er s pecies i n p eriod V I:3 a nd a lso i n t he o ther p hases s hows a p reponderance t owards t he l ess m eat-bearing b ones, i .e. m etapodials, m andibles, s kull f ragments a nd v ertebrae. T hese p articular h orse s kulls a nd b ones f rom C helmsford d o n ot r epresent ' head a nd h oof' b urial s ince o ther b ones w ere p resent n or d id a ny o f t he s kulls s how s igns o f b eing n ailed u p. T his w as p ract ised w ith c ow s kulls, e .g. t he s tone c arvings o f c ow s kulls w ith g arlanded h orns d epicted o n t he N imes A rch .
A lso t his d eposit i s
u nique i n t hat s kulls o f h orses w ere f ound a round a s w ell a s i n t he w ell, p articularly i n t he a djacent d itch . 4 .2.2
T he s ignificance o f t he h orse s kulls a nd b ones f rom s ite AR
C unliffe ( 1975, 8 9) h as d rawn a ttention t o t he f act t hat o f t he n umerous d eities w orshipped i n t he R oman w orld, ' a s urprising number' w ere c onnected w ith w ater. A t S ilchester i n i nsula x xxiiB, a n a psidal b uilding a nd p ortico w ere e xcavated; b ehind t hese s tructures w as a s mall v alley s tream . B oon ( 1974, 1 56) h as d escribed t he b uildings a s N ymphaea o r s hrines o f w ater-deities. A w ell o nly 2 m etres b ehind t he b uildings c ontained 2 p ots a nd s kulls o f h orse,
s heep a nd o xen.
T he p ractice o f s acrificing a n a nimal i n a w ell i s d escribed b y H orace, ' Spring o f B andusia, b righter t han c rystal, w orthy o f r ich w ine, w orthy o f f lowers, t omorrow b rings y ou a g oat, o n w hose f orehead t he y oung h orns g row w ith p romise o f l ove a nd b attles. I t's n ot t o b e: y our c ool w aters w ill f low r ed w ith t he b lood o f t he p layful k id .' ( Horace,
1 86
O des 3 ,
1 3)
A part
f rom t he O ctober H orse F estival
e vidence f or R oman h orse s acrifice i s
( Ogilvie 1 974),
s cant.
d ocumentary
T he G reeks s acrificed
h orses t o P oseidon a nd X erxes p ropitiated t he r ivers which h e c rossed b y s acrificing white h orses t o t hem ( Herod, V II, 1 14). O ne o f t he p revious D isney P rofessors o f A rchaeology a t C ambridge wrote a marv ellous t he
t reatise o n t he h orse
I llyrians,
T acitus
( Ridgeway 1 905).
I n t his h e d escribes
P ersians a nd G reeks a s s acrificing w hite h orses.
( Germania,
1 0)
d escribes h ow white h orses w ere h eld i n e steem
by t he G ermans, ' Although t he f amiliar m ethod o f s eeking i nformation f rom t he c ries a nd t he f light o f b irds i s k nown t o t he G ermans, t hey h ave a lso a s pecial m ethod o f warnings f rom h orses. t he
t heir o wn - t o t ry t o o btain omens a nd
T hese h orses a re k ept a t t he p ublic e xpense i n
s acred woods a nd g roves
t hat I h ave m entioned;
a nd u ndefiled b y a ny t oil i n t he s ervice o f man. k ing,
o r t he
walk b eside
c hief o f t he s tate, t hem t aking n ote o f
y oke
t hey a re p ure white T he p riest a nd t he
t hem t o a s acred c hariot a nd
t heir n eighs
a nd s norts.
N o k ind o f
omen i nspires g reater t rust, n ot o nly a mong t he co l la t ion p eople, b ut e ven among t he n obles a nd p riests, who t hink t hat t hey t hemselves a re but t he s ervants o f g ods'
t he g ods, w hereas
t he h orses a re p rivy t o t he
c ouncels.'
O n p resent e vidence h orse s acrifice a ppears t o b e v ery much a S candinavian-Teutonic t radition. D eposits o f h orse s kulls a nd f oot b ones h ave b een f ound i n Danish,
S wedish a nd G erman b ogs,
( South Z ealand, D enmark), F erdinand
( 1961);
T eichert
S weden),
( 1974);
S kedemosse
K arpf a nd G ejvall
( 1968);
( Oland,
B arsbek
a lso i n S outh R ussia a s e arly a s ( 1962)
O berdorla,
K r.
B oessneck,
( North G erman P lain), t he
e .g.
v .d. N obis
f ourth c entury A .D.
R isley
Mühlhausen, D riesch( 1952);
P iggott
o bserved t hat t he t radition i s e videnced i n t he c emeteries o f
t he s ub-mesolithic c ommunities
o f
( e.g.
O storf a nd T angermunde o n t he E lbe;
Västerbjers,
i n G otland,
t he e arly s econd m illenium B .C.
O len I sland a nd t he K ola p eninsular i n N .W.
Russia a nd t he L ake B aikal
r egion o f S iberia). H orse d eposit.
s kulls a nd e xtremity b ones A t D onnstetten,
K r.
r evealed b ones
o f h orse,
H owever b y f ar
t he g reatest number o f bones b elonged t o t he h orse,
t here b eing 6 s kulls t he
c ow,
c an a lso o ccur i n o ther t ypes o f
M ünsinger a w ell was e xcavated w hich s heep/goat,
p ig,
d og a nd r ed d eer.
a nd t he a ssociated e xtremity b ones.
f ind i s Hadrianic-Antonine
( 117-161 A .D.)
i s a n i mportant f ind s ince i t s hows
t hat t his
i s n ot n ecessarily c onfined t o b ogs a nd s hould b e
l ooked f or e lsewhere.
c onnections b etween w ell,
c ult o fferings, A lcock
f eels
b etween t he
8 )
l atter t wo d eposits, b ogs
T his
t ype o f h orse s acrifice
T hus a lthough t here a re p ossible ( 1965,
T he d ate o f
( Zimmerman 1 970).
l ake a nd b og
t here i s a b asic d ifference ' inspiring s uperstitious a we a nd
t error'. I n h er p aper o n s hafts, p its a nd w ells a s s anctuaries o f t he B elgic B ritons, R oss ( 1968) m entions s everal s ites where ' votive' d eposits o f h orse s kulls a nd b ones, n ot j ust f eet, have b een f ound. I ndeed s he emphasises t hat t he d istribution o f s hafts, p its a nd w ells i s v ery much i n t he s outh e ast o f B ritain. H owever, t he a uthor p roposes t hat t he s pread c ould p ossibly b e much w ider i f o ther t ypes o f s ite w ere u sed f or
t he s ame r itual.
A s a t D onstetten, where a w ell was u sed
i nstead o f
a b og,
i n a reas where i t was d ifficult t o b ore s hafts,
r ivers a nd
l akes m ay h ave b een u sed. 1 87
e tc.
A t A rdleigh i n E ssex a h ollowed-out t ree
t runk,
p acked i nside
a nd o utside w ith c lay, w as f ound i n a 1 .5m d eep p it i n g ravel. Among t he b ones a nd R omano-British s herds i nside w as t he s kull o f a y oung h orse. I n " Where B eards W ag A ll: t he r elevance o f t he o ral t radition", G eorge E wart E vans r elates, ' While I w as d iscussing t he f ind ( Ardleigh) w ith D avid T .-D. C larke, C urator o f C olchester M useum, h e r emarked, " You 've r eminded m e o f s omething - a n i ncident when I w as a b oy. M y f amily f armed a t H emel F empstead, a t W ood L ane, L everstock G reen, o n t he s ite o f t he p resent N ew T own. W e w ere d eepening a w ell, a nd a n o ld f arm-worker who w as h elping s aid: " They m ay f ind a h orse's h ead d own t here. " ( Evans 1 977, 2 26). A lso S mith ( 1978) d escribes h ow a f arm n ear B armby M oor i n E ast R iding w as l osing c attle, ' ... a nd s o t he f armer c onsulted t he l ocal w ise m an G eorge W ales, k nown t o b e a r eligious man. W ales o rdered a ll t he f arm h ands o ut o f s ight a nd w ith t he f armer's h elp h e d ug a p it i n t he g ateway o f t he f arm a nd b uried a y oung f oal. T his w as f ollowed b y s ome k ind o f i ncantation a nd t he nailing u p o f h orseshoes.' S he g ives a s a r eference f or t his W .D. W ood-Rees, ' A H istory o f B armby M oor f rom P rehistoric T imes',
1 911,
D eposits o f p ossible ' votive' f ollowing s ites b y R oss ( 1968). A rmsley, H ampshire B ekesbourne, K ent B irchington, K ent H eywood, W iltshire N ewstead P its I , V II,
5 9-61. h orse b ones w ere n oted a t t he
X VII, X XII, X XIII,
X XIV,
L VI, L XXXIX,
X CII
N orthfleet, K ent R amsgate, K ent G reenhithe, K ent H ardham , S ussex S andwich, K ent S ome a dditional B ritish s ites w ere n oted b y t he a uthor. A t t he I ron A ge H ill F ort o f W inklebury, t hree w hole s kulls e merged f rom c ontexts 3 919 ( pit 3 916, 0 076/1366) o ne h orse s kull, a nd 2 137 ( pit 2 129,
0 836/1326)
t wo h orse s kulls.
A s ection a cross
t he F ulham P alace M oat,
L ondon r evealed a R oman
h orse a nd d og s kull buried t ogether i n a p it f acing e ast a nd s ealed o ver b y t he R oman r oad s urface ( Nat . H istory Museum , B .M.) T he h orse w as o ld, a ged a t l east 1 5 y ears. A t I ron A ge Appleford o n t he T hames f loodplain a h orse s kull o f c . 5 y ears o ld w as e xcavated f rom a p it ( in W ilson 1 979) a nd s everal p its a t S outh C adbury C astle c ontained d eliberately b uried s kulls o f c attle a nd h orses ( Alcock 1 969, 3 6). A l arge l ate R oman w ell a nd s urrounding a rea w as e xcavated a t A llen a nd H anburys, W are. T he w ell c ontained many c omplete s keletons o f p igs a nd d ogs a t t he b ottom .
A n a lmost i ntact h orse s kull c ame
f rom a p it w hich h ad b een c ut b y t he w ell.
T wo o ther h orse s kulls,
o ne c omplete a nd o ne b roken c ame f rom t he f oundation t renches o f a s mall n earby r oadside t emple. T here w as a s catter o f i nfant b urials t o t he w est o f t he t emple a nd t wo v otive t riple v ases t o t he e ast s ide b uried i n t he s urface o f t he s oft s andy s ide t rack t o E rmine S treet ( Clive P artridge,
p ers.
c omm .).
T wo a djoining p its a t B ishopstone i n
1 88
t he l ate R oman P eriod r evealed i n t he o ne p it t he v ertebrae, u nfused, o f a c ow a nd i n t he o ther a n i mmature h orse w ith f ragmented s kull a nd a rticulated v ertebral c olumn, w ith e piphyses u nfused . N o l imbs w ere p resent b ut t here w ere o ne p air o f s capulae a nd a m axilla 3 -4 y rs ( Gebbels 1 975). D eposition o f i solated h orse
l imbs i n p its h ave b een n oted a t
W alls, S taff. ( Ross, p ers. c oan .); B arton C ourt F arm , a n I ron A ge p it ( 397) w hich c ontained t he a rticulated b ack l egs o f a h orse a nd t he r ight b ack l eg f rom b elow t he f emur o f a c attle b east
( Wilson,
p ers.
c omm .); W inklebury w here c ontext 2 254 r evealed p art o f a t horax a nd a n a rticulated h ind l imb o f a h orse. T he C eltic g oddess E pona was p atroness o f h orses, a nd i s a ssociat ed w ith a nd o ften h as t he s ymbols o f t he M atres w ho w ere a lso r iver g oddesses. W orship o f E pona w as l argely c entred i n e astern G aul a t A leise-St.-Reine w here M agnen h as c atalogued o ver 2 53 i nscriptions a nd m onuments t o t he g oddess ( Magnen 1 953). E vidence o f t he c ult i s s carce i n B ritain. A l ife-sized h orse's h ead f rom a s tatue w as u ncove red o n t he s ite o f a t emple a t W roxeter ( Lewis 1 966), p erhaps i ndicat ive o f E pona w orship. R oss ( 1974, 4 01) d escribes a f unerary t ile f rom R oussas d ating t o t he f ourth c entury A .D. w hich s hows ' the h ag-like g oddess r iding s ide s addle o n t he b ack o f a g oose.' O ther a nimals a ssociated w ith E pona a re t he d og a nd t he r aven; a s tele f rom A ltrier s hows E pona w ith a d og a nd r aven ( Green 1 977, 3 14). T here a re m any o ther e xamples o f
' votive'
s hafts,
p its a nd w ells
l isted b y R oss ( 1968) t hough a f ew o f t hese c ould b e n ormal r ubbish d umps. D eposits o f d og r emains m erit s pecial a ttention s ince, a s w ith t he h orse i t w as n ot c ommonly e aten a nd h ence i ts b ones w ould n ot n ormally c onstitute f ood r efuse. T here a re r emains f rom a w ell a t A sthall, O xfordshire, 5 s keletons o f t errier-type d ogs, a h orse's j awb one a nd o ther a nimals; a nother w ell a t C aerwent r evealed 5 d og s kulls a nd i n a s haft a t E well t here w as a l arge b eheaded d og, p lus a c ock a nd h are ( Ross 1 968). D og c remations w ere d iscovered i n a r itual s haft a t W arbank, K eston ( Fox 1 967) a nd i n a 2 00ft s haft n ear t he M untham C ourt T emple t here w ere m any d og s keletons ( Worthing Museum ). O n t he N orth G erman P lain a t B arsbek,
a s acrificial b og,
d og w as
t he m ain a nimal s acrificed i n t he f irst c entury A .D. ( 73%). O ther a nimals i ncluded c attle, s heep, h orse, p ig, g oat a nd f ox ( Nobis 1 952). I n B ritain, o n t he U pchurch M arshes, s even p uppies w ere b uried i n u rns w ithin a n a rea o f 2 5 f eet d uring t he l ate s econd t o f ourth c enturies ( Hume 1 956). A s imilarity o f e nvironment i s a pparent b etween t hese t wo s ites. I n t he R oman-Celtic w orld t he d og w as c onnected w ith h ealing a nd d eath. P ossibly t he p revious e xamples h ad s ome s ort o f c onnection w ith t he u nderworld. 4 .2.3
H orse b urial
H orse b urials a re n ot u nknown i n t he R oman p eriod, b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he E mpire. I n E urope t here i s a c oncentration o f b urials i n t he m iddle o f t he D anube b asin, i .e. w est H ungary a nd e ast A ustria ( Müller-Wille 1 972, A bb. 3 8). N ot o nly d oes t his a rea e mbrace p arts 1 89
o f t he R oman p rovinces o f N oricum a nd P annonia b ut a lso S armatian t erritory. A n e xample o f h orse b urial i n G aul i s p rovided b y t he s ite o f S ogny-aux-Moulins ( Marne) w here 2 6 g rave-pits w ere e xcavated ( Schaefer 1 926; M üller-Wille 1 972). N o h uman i nterment w as r ecorded a nd t wo o f t he p its c ontained t wo h orses. T he f inds w ere d ated t o t he s econd c entury A .D. b y c oins b uried w ith t he a nimals. D ogs, g oats a nd o ther a nimals h ad b een d eposited i n t he p its, t ogether w ith v essels a nd o ther o bjects. Müller-Wille p oints o ut t hat t he p ainstaking l aying d own o f t he c adavers a nd t he g iving o f g ifts s hows t hat t he f unerals f ollowed d etermined r ites. T his i s b orne o ut b y t he b urial o f t he d onkey a t H eidelberg d escribed i n s ection 5 .9.1. T he o bvious p arallel o f p lacing t he c oin i n t he j aws, w ith t hat o f p lacing i t i n t he m outh o f h umans, i n o rder t o p ay t he f erryman C haron i n t he u nderworld i s s triking. T here i s n othing i nexplicable c oncerning t hese b urials; t hey a re s traightforward p et b urials a nd a re e xcellent e xamples o f R oman r egard f or a nimals. B urials h ave a lso b een f ound a t K refeld G ellep ( section 5 .3) w hich w as R omans a nd t he B atavians.
t he s cene o f a b attle b etween t he
B arton C ourt F arm v illa e xhibited a h orse b urial
( 298) b ut
u nfortunately m any o f t he b ones h ad b een p loughed a way. a s b eing p ost I ron A ge.
I t w as n oted
I n E ngland a d ouble h orse b urial w as f ound a t I ron A ge F armoor. T wo p artly d ismembered h orse s keletons w ere e xhumed, o ne l ying o n t op o f t he o ther ( F37, A rea 1 ) i n a s mall r ound b ottomed p it. T he f ront l imbs, c audal a nd s ome s acral v ertebrae w ere l acking f rom b oth s kelet ons, a nd a lso t he u pper s keleton h ad n o m andible. E vidence s uggests t he a nimals w ere s kinned L ambrick
( 1979)
t ion i s d oubtful.
( Wilson 1 979).
c laims t hat t he e vidence f or a ' ritual'
H owever h e d oes m ention,
c onnota-
q uoting C unliffe,
t hat
i solated h orse f orequarters h ave b een f ound i n p its. T hus a r itual b urial c annot b e e ntirely e liminated . W ilson e ndorses t his b y c omp aring t he F armoor h orse a ges ( 4 t o 5 4 y ears a nd 3 t o 4 4 y ears) w ith t he B lewburton h orses ( section 4 .2.4) ( two a t 5 y rs) s kull o f s imilar a ge, f ound buried i n a p it.
a nd t he A ppleford
P iggott m entioned t he o ccurrence o f a d ouble h orse b urial R omano-British) 1 962,
u nder a r ound b arrow a t E ast H endred,
B erks
( possibly
( Piggott
1 18). 4 .2.4
F oundation d eposits
M iranda G reen h as n oted t hat f oundation d eposits a nd b urials w ere f airly w idespread o ccurrences a nd w ere u sed t o a ppease t he g ods o r t o ward o ff e vil s pirits ( Green 1 976, 7 3). T he a uthor h as n oted t hat h orse b urials h ave b een f ound b eneath w alls a t t he R oman T heatre o f L enzburg ( Schmid 1 966c) a nd t he R omano-British s ite o f B inscombe G odalming
( Done 1 977).
A lso 7 0 y ards w est o f t he R omano-Celtic t emple
a t B ourton-on-Grounds i s a b asilical b uilding w here h orses w ere b uried u nder t he t hreshold t ogether w ith 2 00 o r m ore c oins ( late t hird t o f ifth c entury) ( Green 1 965). T hree a lmost c omplete s keletons o f y oung l ambs ( a f ew m onths o ld) w ere f ound i n a c onstruction t rench o f t he f ort w all a t W atercrook ( Fifield 1 979). A t C hew P ark v illa g roups o f a nimal b ones w ere f ound b uried i n s oil c lose t o t he w alls o f t he v illa.
1 90
T he p eculiarity o f t he d eposit h inted t hat t hey m ight b e f oundation b urials.
S eventeen a nimals w ere d istributed i n 1 0 g roups,
e ach g roup
c onsisting o f m ainly s eparate l egs a nd h eads w ith a p ortion o f n eck a ttached ( Harcourt 1 977). B ushe-Fox ( 1913), e xcavating a t emple a t W roxeter, u ncovered a p ot c ontaining o x b ones u nder t he f oundations o f t he s outh e ast c orner o f t he a mbulatory w all.
H ill,
I n t he U pper T hames V alley, a t t he I ron A ge f ort o f B lewburton 4 c omplete h orse s keletons w ere f ound i n t he e ntrance p assage
( after H arding 1 972, 7 0). T hese b urials a re f aintly r eminiscent o f t he f oal b urial a t B armby M oor i n s ection 4 .2.2. H arding a lso p oints o ut t hat s imilar b urials o f o x a nd h orse w ere f ound b y t he s outhern g ateway o f P imperne, D orset. 4 .2.5
T emple s acrifices
H ardly a ny r esearch h as b een u ndertaken o n t emple a nimal b ones. I n m any e xcavation r eports t hey a re o nly n oted f leetingly.
H owever,
o ne n otable e xception i s t he h uge d eposit o f b one f rom t he f ourth c entury U ley T emple. N inety-four p ercent o f t he r emains c ome f rom s heep/goat w ith a h igh p roportion b eing g oats. T here w ere t wo k inds o f g oat, o ne w ith s traight h orn c ores a nd t he o ther h ad h orn c ores d isplaying a d istinct t wist . M ature m ale g oats w ere p referred a nd t he d eliberate r emoval o f f rontals a nd h orn c ores w as a c haracteristic o f t he c ult. T he r emaining a nimals w ere c attle, 2 %, p ig, 0 .75%, h orse, 0 .03%,
d og,
1 % a nd f owl,
2 %.
T here w ere a lso d eer,
s mall m ammals,
b irds, a mphibians a nd s hellfish ( Levitan 1 977). T he g reat n umber o f g oat b ones a nd p resence o f c ockerels s uggests t he d eity w orshipped w as M ercury. A lthough t he a uthor has s till t o r eceive a f inalised d ating f or t he o ctagonal R oman T emple a t C helmsford, s ome p arallels a re e merging i n c omparison w ith U ley. A h igh p roportion o f s heep/goat i s a pparent w ith a p redominance o f s heep i n t he f orm o f r ams. A s a t U ley, t here w as a n i ntentional r emoval o f f rontals a nd h orn c ores. C ockerels w ere p resent a s w hole s keletons m inus h eads a nd a lso c attle, h orse, r ed d eer, r oe d eer, d og a nd h uman i nfants i n much s maller n umbers. P ossibly t he d eity b eing w orshipped w as M ercury. O ne p eculiarity, w hich a t p resent s eems u nique t o t his s ite, i s t he f airly h igh i ncidence o f d isease. O ut o f a ll t he s ites a nalysed a t C helmsford, t he t emple s ite ( CH/K) h as b y f ar t he g reatest p ercentage o f p athological b one. T he s heep w ere a m otley b unch, m any j aws s uffering t ooth o vercrowding a nd p eriodontal d isease. T here w ere a lso a s urprising n umber o f f ractured l eg b ones. A h orse m etatarsus h ad a s light t wist a bout i ts l ong a xis a nd e xhibited a n e xostosis. I t m ight b e a rgued t hat o nly t he b iggest a nd b est a nimals w ould h ave b een s acrificed; a fter a ll t here w ere s uch s tringent c onditions l aid d own f or t he s acrificial a ct i tself ( Ogilvie 1 974, 4 8-49). O n t he o ther h and i t a ppears e minently s ensible t o r id o neself o f w eak, s ickly a nimals. I ndeed t he c lassical a uthors c laim t his w as c ommon p ractice. ( Varro I I, 5 ). I n t his c onnection i t i s i nteresting t o n ote
t hat s ite A R P eriod
V I r evealed a n avicular b one o f a h orse s howing a dvanced n avicular d isease ( Dr C . C ollis, E quine R esearch S tation, N ewmarket).
1 91
S heep b urials w ere
f ound b eneath t he s lab f loor o n t hree s ides
o f t he R oman T emple a mbulatory a t H enley W ood, Y atton ( Wilson 1 964). T hey a re d ated c . 2 25-250 t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury A .D. I n a R omano-Celtic s hrine a t C aerwent a fter 2 65 A .D , a d og s kull, b ird a nd s nake b ones w ere f ound w hich m ay b e e vidence o f a h ealing c ult. O utside t he t own w alls, r itual p its w ere u ncovered n ear a p olyg onal R omano-Celtic t emple. O ne w ell c ontained h uman a nd o x s kulls, t wo c ontained t he s kulls o f 5 d ogs ( Ross 1 968). A 2 00 f oot d eep w ell, d ated t o t he f irst c entury A .D. a nd c ontaining d og s keletons w as l ocated a t t he R oman T emple, M untham C ourt. T wo s hallow p its i n t he t emple f loor c ontained o x s kulls, b ones a nd a j ug ( Holleyman a nd B urstow 1 957; L ewis 1 966). A n o x s kull h ad b een p laced b ehind t he a ltar i n a s pecial c avity a t t he T riangular T emple, V erulamium c . 3 00 A .D. T he T emples o f H ockwold a nd V erulamium b oth h ad d eposits o f p ig a nd b ird b ones; a t t he f ormer s ite t hey w ere e xcavated f rom t he b ases o f t he c ella c olumns ( late t hird t o f ourth c entury) w hile a t t he l atter s ite, t hey w ere f ound i n a s eries o f s mall p its i n t he T riangular T emple t ogether w ith s heep a nd o x b ones ( Lewis 1 966). A s a t C helmsford, d eposits o f f owl b ones o ccurred a t H ockwold. A lso i n f ront o f t he H ockwold T emple t wo e arly s econd c entury c remations h ad b een b uried, s ealed b y d eposits o f a ntlers. B oth t he p re-Roman a nd R oman l evels a t L ydney h ad d eer r epresented b y a ntlers, i n t he f ormer d eposits, f allow d eer, a nd i n t he l atter d eposits, r ed d eer w hich a lso h ad s awn o ff a ntlers ( Wheeler 1 932). T he p resence o f f allow d eer i n t he p re-Roman l evels i ndicates t he s anct ity o f t he s ite s ince t his s pecies w as r are i n b oth t he p re-Roman a nd R oman p eriod. I n S witzerland a nimal b ones f rom t he R oman T emple a t H üttenboschen s howed t hat t he s tag w as t he m ost i mportant a nimal s acr ificed ( via t he n umber o f b one f ragments) f ollowed b y t he h orse a nd t hen t he e lk ( 57 s tag, 3 0 h orse, 2 5 e lk, 2 o x, 1 r oe d eer, I b ear, 1e agle, 1 m an). T he b ones w ere s ituated a t t he t emple's s outheastern e dge o n t he s hore o f a l ake ( Schmid 1 966b). A t E lst, a R oman t emple i n H olland, c attle w ere t he a nimals m ainly s acrificed ( 654 c attle, 2 7 s heep/goat, I s heep, 1 g oat, 1 7 p ig, 2 h are a nd 1 d og; B ogaers 1 955). T he d eities w orshipped i n t hese t emples c an o nly b e g uessed, p articu larly w hen C eltic e lements a re i nvolved. B ones f rom r itual m eals c overed t he f loor o f t he a nteroom o f t he T emple t o M ithras a t C arrawburgh. P ig b ones w ere c ommon w ith s ome l amb/kid a nd v eal, c hicken l eg a nd w ing b ones w ere f ound o n t he n ave f loor.
A s kull o f a c hicken w as f ound i n a r itual d eposit b elow t he
a ltar o f M ithras,
C arrawburgh
( Fraser
1 951).
T he t hird t o f ourth c entury R omano-British s hrines a t B rigstock , N orthants a re u nique a mong t emple/shrine d eposits b ecause w hole a nimal ' carcasses h ad b een b uried i n t hem , e .g. y oung s heep/goat s keletons ( F14 o f t he c ircular s hrine a nd F 48 o f t he p olygonal s hrine). A lso a rticulated f orelegs a nd h indlegs o f o x w ere p ut o n t he f loor s urface o f t he c ircular s hrine ( King 1 963). T his i s r eminiscent o f t he i solat ed a rticulated h orse a nd c ow l imbs m entioned i n 4 .2.2. T he c ult f ollowed i s a t p resent u nknown b ut f our b ronze h orse f igurines, t wo w ith r iders, w ere f ound. 1 92
4 .2.6
P uits F unjraires
T he r itual i mportance o f s ome s hafts b ecame k nown i n F rance w ith t he ' Puits F un raires'. T hese a re r itual o r b urial p its f ound o n G allic a nd G allo-Roman s ites, p articularly i n A quitaine, a g reat n umb er d ating f rom 5 0 t o 3 0 B .C. T he p ractice c ontinued u ntil t he f ourth c entury A .D. T hey t end t o b e c haracterised b y n ot o nly c remations a nd f unerary o fferings, i ncluding p ottery a nd d omestic a nimal b ones, b ut a lso b y a nimals a nd f rogs. O ne a t t he v illa o f r epresented o ut
i n t he f orm o f i nsectivores a nd a mphibians, e .g. t oads e xample i llustrates t he t ype w ell; e .g. t he f our p its M ontmaurin, f ourth c entury, w here 9 1 a nimals w ere o f 5 50 f ragments ( Poulain-Josien 1 958). T here w ere
3 i nsectivores i ncluding t he g reater w hite-toothed s hrew , 1 6 r odents r epresented b y w ater, f ield a nd r ed-backed v oles a nd 7 2 a mphibian s pecies e mbracing t he t oad a nd f rog. 4 .2.7
' Odd '
d eposits
E xplanations f or t hese d eposits a re d ifficult t o f ind. a ) U nderneath B asel C athedral a R oman p it w as f ound c ontaining t he r emains o f a y oung b ear, c . 3 m ths, a k itten c . 21 2 m / ths, a p uppy c . 3m ths a nd a n a dult h en. L arge a mphora s herds c overed t he p it. S chmid ( 1966a) i nterpreted t his a s a s pringtime s acrifice. b ) A t L e S anctuaire d es B olards ä N uits S aint G eorges ( ate d 'Or), 4 95 f ragments o f b one w ere e xcavated o f w hich 4 67 w ere s houlder b lades ( Poulain 1 976). c )
I solated a nimal s kulls b uried w ith 3 i nfant i nhumations w ere f ound
a t B arton C ourt F arm ; e .g. a R omano-British s heep s kull a nd i nfant, ad og s kull a nd i nfant a nd a nother d og s kull a nd i nfant. O utside t he R oman t own o f B ath o n t he e ast b ank o f t he A von, t wo s tone c offins w ere f ound, o ne c ontaining a m ale ( ?) i nhumation a nd t he o ther a h orse s kull ( Scarth 1 876, 2 8; C unliffe 1 969, 2 16). S carth s tates h orse s kull h ad b een f ound i n a s tone c ist a t C ombe D own . d )
t hat a nother
A t t he N orth C ave, Humberside, w ere 4 b urials o f c omplete c ows.
I n o ne c ase, c arcass
a ll f our l imbs w ere c ut o ff a nd l aid s eparately,
o ver t he
( Mackay, A rchaelogical E xcavations 1 974).
e ) A g rave w ith a w hole c ow s keleton w as f ound a t R egensburg. T he g rave c ontained t he r emains o f numerous e ggs, t wo c lay v essels w ith e ggs, a c oin a nd a k nife. C opper c oins numbering 7 50 c overed t he g rave which d ates f rom 2 55 A .D. ( von E lbe 1 975, 3 25). I t i s k nown t hat r eal e ggs w ere o ften p ut i n burials o r v otive d eposits ( Arthur 1 977, 3 68) p resumably a s f ood o ffering t o s ustain t he d ead o n t he j ourney i nto t he a fterlife. I t i s b elieved t hat t he b urial o f t he R egensburg c ow w as c onnected w ith f ertility r ites
( von E lbe
1 975).
f ) D avies ( 1967) r ecords a t radition t hat a t R ibchester a s kull o f a n o x w as f ound c overed w ith l eather a nd s tudded w ith g old . H e s tated t hat t he s kull m ust h ave b een u sed f or s ome s acrificial p urpose a nd a f ew l ines f rom t he C hristian p oet P rudentius b rings t o l ife t his p ossibility,
1 93
' A l arge bull, w ith g rim ,
s haggy f eatures
a nd g arlands o f f lowers r ound h is n eck o r e ntangling h is h orns, T he v ictim 's h ead i s a nd
t he
s heen o f
i s e scorted
t o t he
s pot.
s himmering w ith g old
t he g old
l eaf
l ends c olour
T he a nimal d estined f or s acrifice
t o h is h air.
i s a t t he a ppointed p lace.'
( Prudentius P eristephanon 1 0, T he a uthor h as n ot p rovided a n e xhaustive d eposits.
T he a im w as
b one e vidence R oman.
t o
i n o rder
1 021)
l ist o f v otive b one
t ry t o c onnect v arious p ieces o f e nigmatic
t o r eveal
t he r eligious
s ide o f
t he P rovincial
E xtreme c aution must b e e xercised i n a n i nterpretation o f a ny
r eligious
i tem.
a ccount o f
D rury p rovides a s plendid e xample o f t his i n h is
t he L ittle W altham p ots.
' The b uried p ots 1 68 a nd 1 76 a re
e nigmatic. I f t hey a re c ontemporary w ith t he h uts i n which t hey w ere f ound, t hey s eem t oo s mall t o b e p ractical c ontainers s unk i nto t he f loor.
W hilst o ne m ight s uggest a v otive f unction,
a m ore p rosaic
s olution i s p ossible - w ere t hey, f or i nstance, m ouse t raps? T he p rofile o f 1 68 w ould c ertainly p revent a ny m ouse f rom c limbing o ut h aving o nce 4 .3
f allen i n.'
Chelmsford - t he
( Drury 1 978,
f irst f our c enturies A .D.
T he f ollowing i s a l ist o f i n
t he
t ext
( fig.
i ncluding t he
1 25).
4 :3).
t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite d iscussed
S ites AR,
AK a nd Z f orm t he Mansio
P hase
S ite AA
I V
f eatures a ssociated w ith t imber b uildings F 2.10
P hase V S ite S
P hase
6 0/65-80
P its F 2.9
c .
V I
P its F 1.8
c .
1 20/130-200/210
I V
P ost-Boudican F ort
c .
6 0/5-80
V
8 0-120/130 C ivilian buildings o n r oad f rontage
VI:2
F illing o f
V II:1
C ivilian buildings
c .
2 00/10-300
V II:2 V II:2
D itch f ill K ilns
c . c .
3 00-410 3 00-350
P hase V I
S ite T
t own d efences c .
1 20/130-160 1 60/75-200/10
C ivilian f eatures P its
s econd c entury t hird c entury
V II:2
C lay p its
f ourth c entury
V II:2
V otive d eposit
f ourth c entury
V II:1
A lthough a g reat d eal o f b one w as e xamined o f i t w as v ery
8 0-120/130
VI:1
c .
f rom t hese
f ragmentary a nd o f a r esidual n ature.
Irom r eliably d ated c ontexts w ere u sed a nd s ome o f v ery s mall.
c omplex,
' votive w ell'.
s ites,
much
O nly s amples
t hese
s amples a re
T hus a ny c onclusions d rawn f rom t his e vidence must b e
m ade w ith r eservation.
F ollowing t he m ethod o utlined i n s ection 1 .2.4
o nly s amples with t he number o f b one
f ragments g reater t han 9 0 c ould
b e c ompared v ia
4 :4).
t he M IN m ethod
( Fig.
1 94
f r om
t he
l a te
R oads ze ge re
f i rs t
c en tury
k nown
o nwards c on jec tured
D ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion b o ld s t ipp le
F ig.
4 :3
T he R omano-British s mall
t own a t C helmsford
( Caesaromagus) ;
r eproduced b y c ourtesy o f C helmsford A rchaeological T rust.
GRAPH
OF
mIN/E
AGAINST
E
FIG.
4 :4
6 0
MIN
50
of
= Minimum Number Animals
E = Number
40
of
Bone
Fragments
-
30
20
10
0 0
50
100
1 50
200
1 96
2 50
3 00
3 50
400
4 50
4 .3.1
A nimal b one r emains
f rom t he C helmsford s ites
S ites Z a nd AK S ites Z a nd A K a re c onsidered t ogether, s ince t here w as v ery l ittle b one f rom AK ( Table 4 :3). I n a ddition t o t he t abulated b one, Z P eriod V I:3 a lso p roduced a f ragment o f a f ox ( L115), 2 f ragments o f h are ( L115), a nd 5 f ragments o f c at ( Z15; a b urial). H ardly a ny r emains o f c at w ere p resent i n C helmsford, w here
t hey w ere p rofuse.
b ones o f a verage l arger.
s ize.
S ite
u nlike P ortchester
( Grant 1 975)
T he C helmsford p artial burial c ontained T hose a t G adebridge P ark v illa w ere much
T otal
l ength o f h umerus
( mm)
S mallest b readth o f d iaphysis
C helmsford
1 50-200 A .D.
9 7
G adebridge P ark
7
1 46
"
1 - 2C .
1 1
1 01
8
P eriod V l evels o n b oth s ites y ielded s imilar n umbers f ragments. m andible,
T he d og b urial p remolar 4 ,
( AK 2 9,
2 t ibiae
f ragments.
S ites
S ,
T he d og w as
P eriod V I:2,
3 )
2 u lnae
l ess
o f h orse
c onsisted o f
( proximal e piphyses,
( proximal e piphyses n ot f used), s kull
( mm )
( epiphyses n ot f used)
t han 1 1
a r ight
n ot f used),
2 f emora
a nd 3
y ears o ld a t d eath.
T a nd AA
T he f aunal r emains f rom t hese t hree s ites a re s ummarised i n T able 4 :4. I t must b e s tressed t hat t he e conomic p attern w hich emerges f rom t he f ollowing d iscussion m ay b e c onsiderably c hanged i n t he f uture a s a p rogressively l arger a mount o f m aterial b ecomes a vailable f rom C helmsford.
H owever,
s ince
t he b one d eposits
v otive t hey h ave b een e xcluded f rom t his I n m ents
t he
f irst c entury,
s uggests
e vidence f rom t he p ercentage number o f
s heep/goat i s m ore d ominant t han c attle.
t icularly e vident i n w here
f rom s ite A R a re p ossibly
c onsideration.
t he P eriod I V l evels o f
l amb w as v ery p opular.
f rag-
i s p ar-
t he p ost-Boudican f ort
T his c ontrasts w ith e vidence f rom t he
f irst c entury l evels o f S heepen a nd B alkerne L ane, c attle w as
T his
t he p redominant s pecies.
C olchester where
I n s ection 2 :14,
4 o ut o f 1 0
f irst c entury m ilitary s ites had s heep/goat i n p rimary o rder o f i mport ance, i n
e .g.
Margidunum,
t he c ivilian
L incoln, Waddon H ill a nd H od H ill.
l evels o f SV I:1
s heep/goat 2 7.4%;
t here i s
p ig 7 .3%) w hereas
a s wing
s ite AA V I
H owever,
t owards c attle
( F1.8)
h as
( 65.2%;
s imilar p er-
c entages o f s heep/goat ( 46%) a nd c attle ( 43.9%) w ith p ig a t 1 0.1%. D uring t he R oman p eriod, t he l evel o f p ig f luctuates b etween 2 .9% a nd 1 2.3% e xcept i n P eriod I V o f 2 7.8%.
t he p ost-Boudican F ort w hen i t r ose
T his p ercentage i s n ot a s l arge a s
S heepen b ut i s g reater t han t hose a t l ate R oman p eriod, SV II:1
7 8.9%
- AA V I
( F1.8),
t he p ercentages
t he B alkerne L ane s ite.
c attle a re c learly d ominant,
a nd a lso i n SV II:2,3 6 5.5%. S I V,
S V I:1,
I n
e .g. t he
t o
f ound a t
SV I:2,
I n t he 7 0.7%;
l arger b one
s amples
S V I:2 a nd S V II:2,3 - s heep/goat r anges
f rom 2 3.2% t o 4 7.9%. T he e vidence
f rom t he N umber o f F ragments M ethod i s
a r elative a ssessment o f M IN
s upported b y
( Table 4 :5), b earing i n m ind c omparisons 1 97
o f s amples b elow 9 0 f ragments w ill b e s ubject t o e rror.
I f t he m eat
w eight p otential i s c onsidered ( Table 4 :6) t hen a s w ith C olchester a nd S heepen t he m ost i mportant a nimal w as t he c ow ( for e xplanation o f t he m ethod, s ee s ection 2 .4). A lthough c attle p rovided t he b ulk o f t he m eat f or t he p ost-Boudican F ort, l amb a nd s uckling p ig w ere e vidently p opular. S heep m andibles f rom t his p hase, 2 6 i n number, w ere a ged b y P ayne's m ethod ( 1973). M ost o f t he a nimals w ere k illed i n t he f irst y ear ( 69.2%), i n m arked c ontrast t o t he s ituation i n t he f ourth c entury c ivil s ettlement ( S V II:2) where o ver 5 0% s urvived t wo w inters ( Table 4 :7). I t w ould b e r ash a t p resent t o d iscuss a gricultural e conomics i n d etail o n t he b asis o f s uch a f ew m andibles. H owever, i f t his e vidence i s c onsidered w ith t hat o f t he e piphysial f usion d ata t here a ppears t o b e a n i ncrease i n t he number o f mature s heep a fter t he s econd c entury ( Table 4 :8). I n s ection 3 .17 i t w as i ndicated t hat w ool b ecame m ore i mportant i n t he l ater R oman p eriod a nd e vidence f rom C helmsford s upports
t his.
N either c attle n or p ig p rovided e nough m andibles f or a geing. T he r atio o f f used t o u nfused p ig m etapodials f or t he p ost-Boudican f ort w as 1 :7. T hroughout t he f irst t o f ourth c enturies m ainly m ature c attle w ere e aten ( Table 4 :8). 4 .3.2
C attle s exing
T he f ourth c entury c attle b ones ( S V II:2) w ere s exed a fter t he m ethods o f H igham a nd M essage ( 1963). T he m etacarpal m aximum d istal d iaphysial w idth a nd m aximum d istal w idth m easurements w ere p lotted i n F ig. 4 .5. T he D BL a nd M BL i ndices o f H oward ( 1963) w ere u sed o n t he t hree c omplete b ones s o t hat t heir t ertiary s exual c haracter m ight b e r ealised. T his i s i ndicated i n F ig. 4 .5. I t i s t herefore l ikely t hat t he l arger g rouping i s t hat o f c ows a nd t he s maller o f c astrates, t he r atio b eing 1 1:3. A v ariety o f t he C helmsford h orn c ores f rom t he f irst t o f ourth c entury a re i llustrated i n P late 1 5. 4 .3.3
T he C helmsford b irds
F ish b ones w ere n ot f ound b ut a v ariety o f b irds c ontributed t o t he d iet, t he m ost p opular b eing f owl ( Table 4 :9). N o w aterfowl w ere r ecovered i n c ontrast t o S heepen a nd t he l ater R oman l evels o f B alkerne L ane,
C olchester.
M ost o f t he b one w as f ragmentary t hough a f ew i ntact
b ones w ere m easured ( Table 4 :10). I f t hese b ones a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom o ther R omano-British s ites ( Table 3 :9), t he t arsometatarsus a nd u lna d o n ot a ppear p articularly l arge. H owever, t he h umerus m ean m easurement i s l arger t han t hat o f B KC s ite E 6, C olchester, E xeter, L ongthorpe a nd W oodcuts. A q uotation f rom M artial f urther s upports t he e vidence i n 2 .11 t hat t he R omans g elded c ocks, ' That t he c ock m ight n ot g row t hin b y o ver i ndulgence, h e h as b een g elded' ( Martial X III, 6 3). 4 .3.4
T he C helmsford d ogs
A m ale d og burial f rom T 10,
P eriod V I c ontained a r easonably
i ntact s kull a nd much o f t he p ost-cranial s keleton. T he s kull w as m easured a fter H arcourt ( 1974) a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1976): 1 98
DISTAL WIDTH
L C .
• 0
MAXIMUM DISTAL WIDTH
EPIPHYSIAL WIDTH
AGAINST
r c i
•
04- 0
•
•
0 — L n
• •
I n
0
7
L n I n
0
w il
HJUIM
I VISÄHdIdH
1 99
L n
T LSI U
P late 1 5
C attle h orn c ores
f rom C helmsford.
T he m ost p osterior a spect o f
t he o ccipital
t uberance t o t he a nterior margin o f b etween t he c entral i ncisors I II
N asion t o a lveolare ( Harcourt 1 974) B asal l ength ( v.d. Driesch 1 976) S nout i ndex
g ives
( Harcourt 1 974)
t he m edial
6 8.8 1 16.9
( Harcourt 1 974)
5 7.2
M easurements I a nd I II a re w ell w ithin t he r ange o f f or R omano-British d ogs ( Harcourt 1 974, 1 65). E vidence o f a rthritis was
p ro-
i ncisor a lveoli 1 20.3 mm
f ound o n t he
s ize H arcourt
l eft d istal humerus.
A nother d og burial was f ound a t s ite S 3 68(2) V 11:2, c onsisting o f 1 8 f ragments. A l eft f emur e xhibited a c hop t hrough t he d istal l ateral c ondyle. S ome l ong b one m easurements a re r ecorded i n T able 4 :11. w ithers h eights w ere e stimated a fter H arcourt m easurement f or S heepen
t he h umerus
( Table 2 :10).
( 1974).
T he
T he
l ength
f its w ell w ithin t he r ange g iven f or
H owever,
t he
l ength o f
t he C helmsford r adius
i s much g reater t han t hose o f S heepen a nd c ompares w ell w ith a r adius o f 2 32 mm f rom C olchester, B KC s ite E 6 ( Table 3 :7). B oth t he C helmsford a nd C olchester r adii c ome f rom v ery l arge d ogs, p ossibly h unting o r g uard a nimals, a nd a re o utside t he r ange o f R omano-British m easurem ents t hat Harcourt g ives ( 1974, 1 66). 4 .3.5
B utchery
T he b utchery m ethod d evised i n s ection 1 .2.4 h ad n ot b een d evised w hen t he C helmsford s amples w ere b eing a nalysed.
T herefore n o n umerical
d escriptions o f b utchery p atterns a re a vailable.
I ndeed s ome o f t he
d eposits e xhibited m uch f resh b reakage a nd w ould h ave b een u nfit f or s uch a n a nalysis. T he s keletal e lement p ercentages p er s pecies h ave b een c alculated i n T able 4 :12 V I,S I V ,
a nd f ig.
f or AA F 1.8 VI, o f mandibles w here T his
4 :6 a nd 4 :7
SV I:2 a nd S VII:2. S I V
f ewer m etapodials, a d istinct
H owever i n t he o n t he
f or t he main p eriods,
i .e. AA F 1.8
c attle butchery was b roadly s imilar
S V 1:2 and S VII:2,
i n SV 1:2;
s uggests
T he
e xcept f or
t he g reater p ercentage
e xhibited q uite a d ifferent p attern,
but m ore
s capulae a nd h umeri w ere u tilised.
t endency
t owards
t he m ore m eat b earing b ones.
f irst t hree p eriods g enerally,
l ess m eat b earing b ones,
t here w as a c oncentration
m etapodials a nd p halanges.
A s imilar p attern w as o bserved i n s heep/goat butchery i n A A F 1.8 V I, SV 1:2 a nd S V II:2 a lthough A A F 1.8 d id n ot h ave a s m any m andibles. O verall
t here w as a p reponderance o f m etapodials.
f ew m etapodials, S amples
b ut m ore m eat-bearing b ones
o f p ig butchery w ere
m etapodials, 4 .3.6 T here
I n c ontrast S I V h ad
( humeri,
l ow e xcept f or S I V ,
r adii a nd f emorae).
w here
t here w ere m any
humeri a nd r adii. T he
s ize o f
t he C helmsford d omestic a nimals
i s a d istinct d ifference i n s ize b etween t he m etacarpals o f
f ourth c entury C helmsford a nd B alkerne L ane, s amples w ere
t oo s mall
E 6,
C olchester.
f or a s tatistical a nalysis.
2 01
T he
A lthough t he
p . )
0
r i- 0 H
( 1 )
0
: 1 )
2 0
i 5 f i < x < <
>
Z 1 4 4 ) r ö 0 ( W , rH O U 4 J r ö
C olchester b ones w ere l arger, t hose f rom S heepen w ere a g reat d eal s maller t han t he C helmsford o nes. D istal w idth m easurements, p artic ularly o f t he t hird c entury, w ere a kin t o t he C olchester s pecimens ( Table 4 :13).
T here a ppeared n o r eal i mprovement i n s ize o f t he
C helmsford c attle t hroughout
t he f our c enturies o f o ccupation.
U sing t he f actors o f F ock
( 1966),
s houlder h eights w ere e stimated
f or male a nd f emale b ones ( Table 4 :13 a nd 2 :16). I n t he l ate R oman p eriod a t C olchester, B KC, E , s ix c ows w ere p resent t hat w ere a s s mall a s t he s mallest c ows a t S heepen, i .e. 1 .03 m . A lso l arger a nimals e xisted a s d escribed i n s ection 3 .16.1.
T he C helmsford c ows w ere
l arger t han S heepen but n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t hose f rom C olchester. U nfortunately t here w ere n o m easurements a vailable f rom male a nimals. I f t he s heep/goat m etacarpal l engths i n T able 4 :14 a re c ompared w ith t hose i n T able 3 :16 t hen t he s heep o f t he m iddle t o l ate s econd c entury a ppear i n t he u pper e nd o f t he s ize s cale. T he s ingle f irst t o s econd c entury C helmsford m etacarpal m easurement c ompares w ell w ith t he S heepen m ean. D istal t ibia w idths f rom C helmsford ( Table 4 :15) w ere a nalysed i n c onnection w ith t hose f rom o ther R omano-British s ites ( see T able 3 :20). F irst c entury b ones a ppear l arger a t C helmsford t han a t C olchester a lthough t he s amples a re v ery s mall. W ith r egard t o t he t hird a nd f ourth c entury b ones t hose o f C helmsford a nd C olchester a re v ery s imilar i n s ize. I t s hould b e n oted t hat s ome o f t he l argest s heep/goat o ccurred a t C olchester i n t he l ate R oman p eriod. 4 .3.7
T he C helmsford h orses
P onies o f 1 0, 1 1 a nd 1 2 h ands w ere c ommonly k ept i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge t ogether w ith a f ew l arger h orses ( section 2 .14.2). P rel iminary e vidence f rom W ickford s uggests t hat t he i nhabitants c ontinued a long e arly I ron A ge l ines, t he h orses h aving a w ithers h eight o f 1 2.6 a nd 1 2.2 h ands ( Luff, u npublished). A t C helmsford ( Table 4 :16) t he h orses a ppear t o h ave i ncreased i n s ize o ver t he f our c enturies, t he l argest b eing 1 4.4 h ands. W hether t his was d ue t o g elding, b etter b reeding o r i mports c annot b e d etermined a t p resent. S t. J erome ( a.d .
Z ech .
I X,
9 ) w riting i n t he f ourth c entury, A .D.,
i ndicates t he
h igh v alue s et b y w orldly m en o n G allic g eldings. A part f rom t he s ite A R w ell d eposit,
r emains o f h orses w ere s cant.
O nly o ne b utchered h orse b one h as b een p ositively i dentified a t C helmsford ( T F 2A, P eriod V II:2, h umerus). I t c annot b e c ertain i f h umans a te t he m eat a lthough P liny ( XXVIII, 2 65) r ecommended i t a gainst s wine s ickness. T he C helmsford h orse s kulls a re c ompared w ith t hose f rom W ickford, N ewstead ( Luff, u npublished), W oodcuts, W oodyates ( Pitt-Rivers 1 892), a nd C amulodunum ( Jackson 1 947). I ntact a rchaeological h orse s kulls a re r are f inds a nd a part f rom E wart's w ork o n t he N ewstead h orse s kulls " (Ewart 1 907), v ery l ittle r esearch h as b een d one . T here i s a lso a l ack o f d ata f rom m odern h orses. I n c omparing S wiss C eltic h orse s kulls w ith S cythian o nes, M arek ( 1898) c laimed t hat a lthough t he c erebral p ortion o f t he s kull w as e qual i n t he t wo g roups, t he f acial p art was s horter i n t he S wiss C eltic h orses.
B 8k8nyi
( 1974,
2 73)
2 04
i n h is a nalysis o f G erman, A var
a nd H ungarian h orses f ound t here was a d ifference i n t he r elationship b etween f rontal b readth a nd b asal l ength a s e xpressed b y t he F rontal I ndex f rontal w idth x 1 00) b asilar l ength H owever, h e d erived n o s ignificant d ifferences i n t he h orse p opulat ions b y c omparing o ther p arts o f t he s kull a nd s kull p roportions, e .g. c omparisons o f t he l ength o f t ooth r ows, d ifferences b etween t he f acial a nd c erebral p arts o f t he s kull, t he p attern o f t he m olars, o r s hape o f t he o rbits. I n 1 912, O sborne p ublished a n a rticle, C raniometry o f t he E quidae, i n which h e s ummarised a nd c riticised t he m any d iverse m ethods o f m easuring a nd a nalysing s kulls, i ncluding E wart 's ( 1907) s ystem f or t he N ewstead s kulls. H e p ointed o ut t hat E wart 's F rontal I ndex f rontal w idth l ength x 1 00)
(f acial
w as n ot a s a ccurate a s t he C ephalic I ndex f rontal w idth x 1 00) (b asilar l ength i n d escribing t he w idth a nd l ength o f s kulls. T he r elative w idth o f h orse s kulls i s a n i mportant i ndicator o f t heir e astern o r w estern o rigin, t he e astern r aces b eing b roadfronted a nd t he w estern f aces n arrow ( Nehring 1 884). V arious s chemes o f s eparation h ave b een p rop osed,
p erhaps
t he m ost p opular a nd u seful b eing t he F rontal I ndex
( 1 38k8nyi 1 974), w hich i s t he s ame a s t he C ephalic I ndex o f O sborne ( 1912).
t o
T able 4 :17 s hows t he h orse s kulls g rouped i nto t ypes a ccording t he v alue o f t he F rontal I ndex . T he g rouping w as b ased o n v alues
g iven b y N obis
( 1962) w hen h e i nvestigated e arly h istorical h orses.
T he p roblem o f i nterpreting R oman h orse s kulls i s v ery d ifficult s ince o ne i s d ealing w ith a v ery m ixed h orse p opulation ( i.e. I talian, C eltic, G reek, I llyrian, T hracian, S cythian, n ear-Eastern a nd S panish). I t i s n ot s urprising t hat a w ide d iversity i n s ize a nd s kull s hape i s f ound n ot t o m ention t he t ransitional f orms b etween e astern a nd w estern h orse t ypes. T here i s a l arge v ariation i n t he F rontal I ndex ( 40.08 - 4 6.2)
i .e.
a nd a lso t he b asal l ength
( 403-505 mm ).
F igure 4 .8 d emonstrates t he r ange i n s ize o f t he h orse s kulls, t he g reatest s kull w idth h as b een p lotted a gainst b asal l ength.
T he t wo C helmsford s kulls a re i n t he u pper r ight p art o f t he f igure, b oth b eing d efined a s o f a verage s ize. H owever C helmsford 2 96 h as a n arrow f orehead w ith a c onvex p rofile a nd C helmsford 2 78 h as a n a vera ge b road f orehead w ith a d ished p rofile ( Plates 1 0 a nd 1 3). T he W ickford s kulls a re s maller t han a verage, t he s maller h aving a n a verage b road f orehead w ith d ished p rofile a nd t he o ther a n arrow f orehead w ith s traight p rofile ( Plates 1 6 - 2 1). I t i s i mportant t o e mphasise O sborne's c omments t hat v ariation i n s ize d ue t o a ge, s ex, f avourable o r u nfavourable e nvironments v itiate a ny s ystem o f a bsolute m easurem ents. T hus F ig. 4 .9, w hich u tilises t he F rontal I ndex, g ives a much c learer p icture o f t he t ypes o f s kull p resent, i .e. t hose w ith n arrow , a verage a nd b road f oreheads.
2 05
GRAPH
OF
GREATEST
SKULL WIDTH AGAINST
BASAL
LENGTH FIG.
4 :8
IRON AGE/ROMAN HORSES
230
-
ON3
2 20 _
N40
ON9
• ;CH 2 78
2 10
WY N6. OC H 2 96 • •N 1 N80 1 4/ NE ON7
•
x
200 _ r t i C
M
ONF (P -R )1
ONE
' 4 1 90 c n E 1
IE (P -R )WF N5 1 0. •
E 180 -
I
i 1
•NE
I •WF
N2*
1 70-
*WC 1 60 3 75
A00
DWARF ( PONY)
425
VERY
4 50
SMALL
SMALL
4 75
SMALLER1AVERAGE
LARGER
THAN
THAN
S IZE
AVERAGE
BASAL C
CH
LENGTH
( mm )
( SITE
AR)
P -R PITT-RIVERS
E EXMOOR
WC WOODCUTS
N NEWSTEAD
WF WICKFORD
NE
NEKKERSPOEL
AVERAGE
NF NEW FOREST
CAMULODUNUM CHELMSFORD
500
( BELGIUM )
2 06
M N WOODYATES
G )
z
rI C t i ( 0 1 . 4 0
A
r i
r I 1 4
t )
P late 1 7
7 2 .
a ) •
4 . 3
•
r 2 : 1 e 4 r i • • C O
$ . 4
CO r 1
4 )
s kull BW 1 49,
D orsal v iew .
H orse s kull B W 1 49,
CV.
CD
4 . 1 C L I r I r : 1 4
L E
L ateral v iew.
0 c u
GRAPH
OF
SKULL
FRONTAL
INDEX AGAINST
BASAL LENGTH
FIG.
4 :9
IRON AGE/ROMAN
HORSES
4 9 BROAD
FORE—HEAD
4 8
0 X z46 E 1 9
•N I D
eN5 •E(P -R )
4
•C
445 c rJ -
AVERAGE
•N3
FORE—HEAD
0 N9
Es 4 4
°
N4
•WF Z 4 3 0
2
W C
CH 2 7 8
• N 2
N 8 o
' NARROW
a
N 7 •
e WF
FORE—HEAD
E 4 z 4 1 0
° N 6
NF ( P-R) 4 1
• C H2 9 6 •N I
4 0 3 85
405
4 25
4 45
BASAL
LENGTH
2 13
4 65
mm
485
5 05
T he a uthor was u nable t o t race a ll t he N ewstead h orse s kulls, t hough s he m easured 1 5 o f w hich 1 0 o ccur i n T able 4 :17 a nd F ig. 4 .9. T hese h orses s how a w ide v ariation i n s ize w ith b asal l engths 4 03 t o 5 05 mm i ncluding o ne s kull l arger t han a verage. E wart c laimed t he N ewstead c ollection c onsisted o f 3 t ypes o f a nimal:- ( i) t hose c haract erised b y a v ery n arrow f acial r egion, ( ii) t hose c haracterised b y a s hort b road f ace, a nd ( iii) t hose h aving a v ery l ong f ace b ent d ownw ards s o a s t o f orm a d istinct a ngle w ith t he c ranium. O sborne p ointed o ut t hat t he F acio-Cranial I ndex c hanges r apidly a s t he h orse m atures. F urther t he a ngle b etween t he f ace a nd c ranium a lters g reatly d uring g rowth. I ndeed T able 4 :17 s hows t hat t he N ewstead h orses e mbraced b oth t hose w ith v ery n arrow a nd v ery b road f oreheads t ogether w ith s ome i ntermediate t ypes. A lso t here w as a f airly w ide r ange o f v ariat ion w ith t he C ranio-Facial I ndex ( Table 4 :18 a nd F ig. 4 .10) o f 4 4.1 t o 6 0.5. T he C helmsford a nd W ickford h orses l ay w ithin t his r ange. N ewstead h orse 3 p roved t o h ave a l ong f ace w ith f airly b road f orehead, w hile N ewstead h orse 2 h ad a m uch s horter f ace i n r elation t o t he c ranium b ut a lso h ad a r easonably b road f orehead. T he f ollowing s kulls e xhibited
' wolf t eeth':
C amulodunum , N ewstead
1 929/40/7, 1 929/40/5, 1 929/40/6, 1 929/40/12. W olf t eeth a re s mall f unctionless t eeth w hich h ave n o d eciduous p redecessors a nd a re t he r emnants o f t eeth w hich w ere f airly l arge a nd f unctional i n s ome o f t he e xtinct a ncestors o f t he h orse ( Lydekker 1 912). T he p rofiles o f t he C helmsford, W ickford a nd N ewstead h orse s kulls a re e xhibited i n P lates, 1 0, 1 3, 1 7 a nd 2 0 a nd F ig. 4 .11 r espectively. W ickford ( BW 1 49, 4 , 1 ) a nd C helmsford 2 78 s how c oncave o r d ished p rofiles, C helmsford 2 96 s hows a c onvex o utline a nd W ickford ( BW 1 49, 4 ,2) s hows a m ore o r l ess s traight o utline. T he 1 0 N ewstead s kull p rofiles d rawn f rom t he a uthor's p hotographs i n F ig. 4 .11 r ange f rom d ished ( Newstead 2 ,5,7,8), s traight ( Newstead, 1 ,4,6,9) t o c onvex ( Newstead 3 ). H orse
t eeth
A s tudy o f t eeth i s i mportant, b ecause i t c an r eveal t he a ge, h ealth a nd b reeding o f t he h orse. X -ray e xamination s howed d eep j aws p roviding i mplantation f or l arge s trong t eeth w hich w ere g enerally i n v ery g ood c ondition ( Plate 2 2). T he W ickford h orse s kull h ad t he r ight s econd m olar r otated t hrough 9 0° ( Plate 1 8). I n s ome s trains o f H ighland, S hetland a nd W elsh p onies t his i s q uite a c ommon c ondition. N o o ther d ental i rregularities f or e xample, s mall i ncisors a nd l arge m olars w hich m ight i ndicate i ntensive c ross-breeding, w ere n oticed. T he C helmsford h orse l ifespans w ere e stimated u sing M erillat ( 1905) a nd t he American E quine A ssociation o f P ractitioners O fficial G uide ( 1966) f or t he i ncisors, a nd L evine ( 1979) f or p remolars a nd m olars. T he l atter m ethod i nvolves m easuring t he h eight o f t he t ooth f rom t he d ivision o f t he r oots t o t he t op o f t he e namel s urface. I n t he c ase .o f
c omplete s kulls,
t hese t eeth c ould n ot b e m easured d irectly a nd h ad
t o b e X -rayed, t hus i ntroducing s ome d istortion . T he r esults a re p resented i n T able 4 :19 w here i t w ill b e s een t hat t he i ncisors a nd t he p remolar/molar m ethods p roduced s imilar r esults. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he h orse i s n ot u seful u ntil o ver t hree y ears o ld a nd m any o f t he C helmsford a nimals d ied b efore t en y ears.
2 14
L n
INDEX
FACIAL
CRANIO-FACIAL
AGAINST
•
0
L C )
I n
XHUNI
2 15
L 0 I )
0 e n
e n 0
L I )
• e r
r I VIDVI —OINVhD
0
LENGTH
m
FACIAL
INDEX
= LENGTH
OF
CRANIUM
ROMANO-BRITISH
0 e n
0
» e n
0
0
x 100
NEWSTEAD
HORSE
SKULL
PROFILES
F IG. 4 :11
Nasal bone Akrokranion
STRAIGHT
DISHED
PROFILE
PROFILE
CONVEX PROFILE
STRAIGHT
PROFILE
DISHED PROFILE
STRAIGHT
PROFILE
DISHED PROFILE
DISHED
PROFILE
STRAIGHT PROFILE
DISHED PROFILE
2 16
X -ray p hotograph o f C helmsford h orse m andible.
S exing o f
t he h orses w as n ot c ompletely r esolved d ue t o l ack o f
s pecific c riteria. W ell d eveloped c anines w ere t aken t o s ignify m ale a nimals a lthough 2 2% o f f emales h ave t hem ( Habermehl 1 975). A ll t he N ewstead h orses d isplayed c anines, s ome b etter d eveloped t han o thers. T he p ossibility o f g eldings c annot b e d ismissed a lthough V arro s tates t hat w hole h orses w ere p referred f or t he a rmy, s ervice ( II, 7 ,14). P lates
1 1,
a nd g eldings f or r oad
1 4 a nd 2 1 s how t hat C helmsford 2 96,
W ickford B W 1 49(4),2
a nd C helmsford 2 78 e xhibit w ell d eveloped c anines a nd a re m ost l ikely m ales.
2 18
1
4 4
2 0
o f b one
C ' ,
4 4
4 4 r n
C 91
4 4
0
r — I
N o.
( MIN)
o f t he M ain D omestic S
c . )
C V
C V
7 2 4
o f b one
C V
C O
C V
Z r
c 0
c s , • 41
N o.
S HEEP/GOAT
N umber o f B one F ra m ents a nd M inimum N umber o f
r . 4
t n
E — f H U
4 -4
c t )
c r 1 0 4 4 4 C C a 4 4 0
c o
C O
t r-1
r d
T able 4 :1.
0
C O I 0
0 CV
. 4 I 0 c 0
L f)
0
0
CV 1 -1
t f) r . I
C V
oI
I 4 n C V H I
I 0 4 1 1 H I
C V H I
0
4 ,1
2 19
V II:1 2 00-300
• 0 4 1
L x . ) I . 4-• N i I ( A )
. .— ., . .. . ' ' , . . ./ • •—, ,— ,
, . . ... ., , .... .
2 20 . . ."
r D
•Z :t 7
a lq -ei
s aT upuvw 3 0
a a t is . 3 0 a 2y
s t Ilm 9 -Z
s . . . j
C M
r t
aicupurb i £ :IA XV a l -F s m oij s
P • I (S C : ›
X ouanbaij %
N i
/ zuanbazg % a A prin t unD
N i
Z I-9
Li
n 0
S ites Z a nd
N o
N umber o f B one F ra
N o.
o f b one N o.
o f b one
n ts a nd M inimum N umber o f A nimals o f t he M ain D omestic S •
a )
CV
C *1
0 •r 4 1 4
a ) C f ) .7
r •4 In
CV
4 . 4
2 21
. 4
r -4
1 -4
4 4
U Z I 3 4
CV
C -7
01
I f )
1 -4
r 4
•
. 4 0 ,
' 0 h • • f t C l )
0 • ö ) • m ' .
v 4
r I
1 1
1 1
T i e
T i c a
c r )
c o
0 )
G
0
CI
C O
.
0
c o a )
4 i 4 . 0 C . )
T i c o a )
c l
4 ) c r )
>
C . )
z
C U 4 4 c o
z
a ) z
( 1 ) 4 . ) C O >
0 1 z
C r ,
C helmsford
• , : 7
0,
W ickford 1 49
CO
z
e 1 C U
. 0
v 4
c e
t 4
( Pitt R ivers)
. • • • ••
2 33
N ew F orest p ony
N ewstead
N arrow f orehead
o
. • • ••
C helmsford 2 96
C O
W ickford B W 1 49
e • -•
W ESTERN G ROUP
0 C U
. 1 .s . . . .,
N ewstead
A verage - b road f orehead
N arrow F orehead
I ron A ge a nd R omano-British H orse F rontal I ndices
C ' )
c a
9 4 C O
U 0 0 0 3
" 0 0 0 3
r d
> , 0 0 0 3
T he n umbers o ccurring a fter t he b rackets f or t he N ewstead H orses r efer t o t hose i n F ig . 4 :8-4:10.
7-
T able 4 :18
R omano-British H orse C ranio-Facial I ndices
C ranio-Facial I ndex
l ength o f c ranium l ength o f f ace
C helmsford 2 78
4 9.2
C helmsford 2 96
4 6.9
W ickford 1 49
( 4)
( 1)
5 0.2
W ickford 1 49
( 4)
( 2)
4 9.2
1 929/40/5
4 4.4
1 929/40/12
6 0.5
1 929/40/7
4 4.1
1 929/40/10
4 8.7
1 929/40/9
4 7.8
1 929/40/4
4 9.0
1 934/48
5 0.0
1 929/40/8
4 7.0
1 929/40/3
4 9.0
1 934/48
4 7.2
2 34
x100
N -
r -i
$ . 4
r . •
( Incisors c .
( Incisors 9 y r)
S tandard d eviation
( Incisors 5 y r)
tr )
0 ▪ 1 ▪
N .
,0
s . 0 0
e n 4 '
O N
C O
• C o
C c
I
a ,
N .
, o
. 4 H
V ) • C O
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. 1 1
1
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c a c t )
C D , 1
C o
I
I
c ‘ i
N .
O D
H
I
N
•
r • • c x ) • • • • •
c • 1
1 . 1
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1
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e n
-
M I
1 ,
L n
1
1
i f )
• v z .
•
r • •
1
c n 0
. n
C • . I • C o
I 0 •
1 1
0
c n
c . 4
C o
a
I
1 N-
•
c n C O
1
c . )
c 4
r •
c o r • •
c o
1 20/130-160/75
C O
. r . , , r )
1 20/130-160/75
c q • t r $
. 0 ,
E 4
e •
4 1
c v
0
0
0
C '
0
C q
c I
1 i n
0
0
•
r 4
1j
L t
C V
C I
c s .
I
0
0 I
I
l ete s kulls
1 0
0 C O 1 0
0 0 3 1 0
0 C O 1 0
> 1 1
> 1 4
>
>
O D
c o
g 4
< 4
< 4
c o
v o
0 c v
0 r s i
0 r s t
0
1 0
1 ▪ 0
-1 0
1 0
c o
c o
c o
c o
1 20/130-160/75
P eriod a nd d ate
L n
0 l I
• -• 4
I •
1 . i
S ite a nd f eature
T able 4 :19
C helmsford H orse L ife S
o
r 4
1 1
N
C • 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 C 7▪ , 4 ' ‚ 4
▪ 0" , a-
1 4
0
C S ,
C O
\ C D
C V
C V
N .
c r ,
0
0
2 35
c n
C . 1
l t 1 ▪
▪ H
H • 0
0 c r i
c 4
C / 3
H
H
U i
Ni H
Ni > ,
• -•
e — . w
1 —, oo N i
< 1 1 H
N i s-. 4 . . )
N i 0 V D
< H ••
< H
O D L P
•
L . J 0 0 1 N
4 . J 0 0 1
0
0
< 1 1
< H
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• •
1 , . J 0 1 Z • • • 0 •
Q 0 1 0
< 1 4 H • N i
< 1 1 H • N i
< H H • N i
▪ r t
r ▪ t
0 0
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•• N i
o T eoo £
< H
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Ni
I -,
1 -4
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H
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1
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r t r t ) C D r t
1 -‚
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C Y, •
1 44 •
C D P a
• U I
OD
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1 C r O ( 1 )
1
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( 1)
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a 2ura a 2y
H
0
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( Iriom s nonp paa)
< 1 4 4 1 •• N i
ü Z:IIA
I II
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2 36
6 1: 47 a Ic r el ,
H C-
a aroraj p ur a lTs
( . . ) 0
a lrp p ur p o pad
4 . J 0
u oTlr y lap p arpurls
V H
C HAPTER F IVE
T HE R OMAN N ORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES,
EXCLUDING B RITANNIA
" Wherever R oman c olonization c ontinued f or a c onsiderable t ributed s ignificantly t o r aising t he
i mprovement o f t he
t ime i t c on-
t he s tandard o f a griculture.
l ocal s tock a nd
t he
B y
i mportation o f n ew b reeds,
l ivestock b reeding e xperienced a v igorous u pswing. I n t he C eltic p rov inces t his i s m ost c onspicuous i n t he b reeding o f c attle." ( Keller 1 919, 4 8). 5 .1
I ntroduction R egarding f aunal r emains,
s ites
t here i s a d earth o f w ell s tratified
i n N orth-western E urope,
R hineland),
a nd s o
C entral Europe
( France,
B elgium, H olland a nd t he
i t w as n ecessary t o i nvestigate material f rom
( Switzerland a nd Austria)
t o u nderstand t he s ituation w ithin
a s w ell.
t he E mpire,
F urther,
i n o rder
e vidence must b e
s tudied
i n c onjunction w ith t hat f rom w ithout t he Empire; t hus s ome s ites t he f ree p arts o f G ermany a nd H olland have b een i ncluded. I n 1 958,
B oessneck,
i n a c lassic p aper,
d escribed t he o rigin a nd
e arly h istory o f C entral E uropean d omestic a nd w ild a nimals. B 8kBnyi
( 1974)
L ater
p roduced a n excellent v olume e ntitled " History o f
D omestic Mammals i n C entral a nd E astern Europe". ( 1977a)
f rom
R ecently C lason
r eviewed t he European e vidence f or h unting a nd c attle b reeding
f rom t he N eolithic
t o
t he M iddle Ages.
s he o nly i ncluded a f ew s ites h as emerged,
h ence
S ince
t he
t ime s pan i s
f rom t he R oman P eriod.
t he n eed f or a n u p-to-date
s ummary .
l arge,
Much n ew d ata T he a uthor
e mphasises
t hat s he i s u sing t he r aw d ata f rom t he
s ites m entioned i n
T ables
t o 5 :10.
t he i nterpretation
5 :1
U nless s pecifically m entioned
i s purely h er o wn w ork.
S ite r eferences n ot m entioned i n T ables 5 :1
t o 5 :5 h ave b een l isted a t t he e nd o f O ne o f i s,
a s
t he m ost i mportant p oints
s tressed i n C hapter O ne,
t he
t his C hapter. t o h ave emerged
b etween r esearchers i n d ifferent c ountries; d ifficult
f rom t his s tudy
l ack o f a s tandard m ethodology c onsequently i t h as p roved
t o g ive a b alanced p icture o f a nimal h usbandry a cross
t he
P rovinces. F or i nstance, t he F rench f aunal r eports v ery r arely m ention t he s ex o f c attle while G erman p apers f requently s ex u sing m etapodials. S ome G ermans h ave a ccepted t hat s exing i s n ot a c lear-cut m atter. e xample, P iehler
S wegat ( 1976)
( 1976)
w ith
F or
t he K l inzing-Quintana m aterial a nd a lso
w ith t he V emania material, who p ointed o ut t hat
2 37
t here
i s a b order l ine a rea b etween s mall n ative b red m ales a nd l arger b red f emales w here d etermination o f s ex i s n ot p ossible. W hen o ne o f t he i ndices o f t he E nglish s cientist H oward ( 1963), i .e. D B/L, d istal b readth d ivided b y l ength, i s a pplied t o t he s exed m etapodials ( metac arpals)
f rom t he G erman s ites
t hen o nly a 6 4% c oincidence i s o btained,
t hat i s o nly 4 7 o ut o f 7 4 m etapodials a greed w ith b oth t he E nglish a nd G erman m ethods. T he G ermans s eparate c attle m etapodials s exually v ia w idth-to-length i ndices, o n t he b asis o f r esearch b y Z alkin ( 1960). W ith t he A ltenstadt m aterial, S neider ( 1958):i ndex 1 i ndex 2 -
H abermehl
( 1967)
u sed t he i ndices o f
s mallest b readth o f d iaphysis x 1 00 g reatest l ength g reatest p roximal b readth x 1 00 g reatest l ength
R egarding I ndex 1 , v alues o f a bove 1 7 r endered t he b one m ale a nd b elow 1 7 f emale. H oward's r esearch ( 1963) h as s hown t hat t his i s n ot a r eliable w ay t o d istinguish t he s exes s ince t here i s s o much o verlapping b etween m ale, f emale a nd c astrate. I ndex 2 a nd a s imilar i ndex s ubs tituting d istal b readth f or p roximal b readth d oes a ppear t o a llow s ome s eparation i n m ost o f t he f aunal r eports t he a uthor h as s tudied. H owever t here i s m uch a mbiguity i n t he m iddle, a s m entioned b y P iehler a bove; t hus c aution i s n ecessary i n a ny a ssessment o f s ex m entioned i n t he f ollowing r eport. R eichstein ( private c omm ., K iel) h as h ad l ittle s uccess w ith a m ultivariate a nalysis o f c ow b ones. T he G ermans u se t wo o ther m ethods o f d etermining s ex, i .e. u se o f t he h orn c ores a nd p elvic g irdle. T he f ormer G erman t echnique i s k nown t o b e t he l east r eliable f ollowing t he w ork o f A rmitage a nd C lutton-Brock
( 1976).
T ables 5 :1 t o 5 :5 s how t he number o f b one f ragments p er d omestic s pecies f or t he f ollowing t ypes o f s ite:R oman F orts a nd M ilitary I nstallations R oman T owns a nd C ivil S ettlements R oman V illas a nd N ative F armsteads R oman P eriod S ettlements o utside t he Empire L a T ene P eriod s ites
-
T able T able T able T able
5 .1 5 .2 5 .3 5 .4
- T able 5 .5
T ables 5 :6 t o 5 :10 s how t he number o f b one f ragments o f w ild s pecies f or s imilar s ites. T he n umber-of-bone-fragments m ethod w as u sed s ince i t i s t he o ldest m ethod a nd t he m ajority o f s ites u tilised i t . H owever, o ne s ite, t hat o f t he f irst t o f ifth c entury l evels o f M arseilles, e mp l oyed t he M IN m ethod o nly . S ome o f t he f igures f rom t he o riginal r eports h ave b een m odified t o g ive a m ore r ealistic p icture, e .g. a ntler f ragments h ave n ot b een i ncluded i n ü one f ragment n umbers. M aps 5 :1
t o 5 :5 i llustrate
t he d istribution o f d ifferent t ypes
o f s ite. I t i s e vident f rom t hese s preads t hat s ome a reas h ave c on.t ributed n o e vidence; e .g. i n F rance t he f ollowing r egions h ave n ot b een s tudied b y t heir r esearch w orkers,
B ritanny,
t he A lps,
t he M assif
C entral a nd t he E ast ( Poulain 1 976). G autier's r emarks c oncerning B elgium a re s ignificant i n t his r espect ( section 1 .1). T he a gricult urally r ich a reas a round T ongres a nd B avai o f t he C ivitas N erviorum a nd T rier o f t he C ivitas T reverorum h ave n ot y ielded a ny s ubstantial b one e vidence. S ome a reas h ave s oils n ot c onducive t o t he p reservation o f b one. 2 38
DISTRIBUTION OF
IRON AGE
SETTLEMENTS
2 39
\ ( LA TENE)
MAP 5 .1
i
1
G UNZBURG
2 8
2
XANTEN
3
B ASLE
4
P FAFFENHOFEN
5
LAURIACUM
6
OVILAVA
7
MAGDALENSBERG
8
H UFINGEN
9
N IJMEGEN
I
1 0
CAMBODUNUM
1 1
MARSEILLES
1 2
B UTZBACH
1 3
LUSIGNY
1 4
L E T UC D E MOURLON
1 5
AUTERIVE
1 6
S T.
1 7
FONTAINES
1 8
PARIS
1 9
E PFACH
2 0
R EGENSBERG
2 1
S T.
2 2
A UGST
2 3
ENGEHALBINSEL B EI B ERN
2 4
LA GRAUFESENQUE
2 5
POCKING
2 6
H ETEREN
2 7
V LAARDINGEN
R OMAIN S ALEES
HARD
2 40
LA CONDAMINE
DISTRIBUTION OF
ROMAN
PROVINCIAL TOWNS AND CIVIL
2 41
MAP 5 .2 SETTLEMENTS
1
FROITZHEIM
2
L IGARDES
3
W EHRINGEN
4
MARZOLL
5
C ALISSANNE
6
MONTMAURIN
7
CANTALONNE
8
LE MESNIL D E B ARON
9
P UYSEGUR
1 0
P IECE D E RANCE
1 1
R IJSWIJK
1 2
B ERG
1 3
B ELLIKON
1 4
ALPNACHDORF
1 5
G ORBELHOF
1 6
ERSINGEN-MURAIN
2 42
DISTRIBUTION
OF
ROMAN
PROVINCIAL VILLAS
2 43
MAP
5 .3
1
V ELZEN
2
S NEEK
3
P ADDE PO EL
4
F EDDERSEN W IERDE
5
T OFTING
6
WULF S HOF
7
H ODORF
8
B ARNKRUG
9
T RIT S UM
1 0
EI NS WARDEN
1 1
J EMGUMKLO S TE R
1 2
B ENTUMERS I EL
1 3
S TILLFRIED
1 4
H ES SENS
1 5
i t GROS SO RNER-MOLMECK
' 2 44
DISTRIBUTION
OF
SETTLEMENTS
OUTSIDE THE
2 45
ROMAN
EMPIRE
MAP
5 .4
1
VALKENBURG
2
Z WAMMERDAM
3
D ORMAGEN
4
i t KUNZ I NG QUINTANA
5
B OIDURUM
6
SC HAAN
7
V EMANIA
8
VI NDONI S SA
9
DANGSTETTEN
1 0
R ODGEN
1 1
LAURIACUM
1 2
G ELLEP
1 3
A LTENSTADT
1 4
A SC IBURGIUM
2 46
DISTRIBUTION OF
ROMAN
PROVINCIAL FORTS
2 47
MAP
5 .5
5 .2
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial d iet T he p ercentage f requency o f o ccurrence o f
f or f ood h ave b een c alculated s heep/goat,
a nd p ig.
s ince
i s v ery l ittle
t here
o n a m oderate V emania,
H orse h as n ot b een i ncluded
s cale.
D ormagen,
Q uintana,
t he main d omesticates
( Tables 5 :1 t o 5 :5),
c onclusive e vidence
i .e.
c attle,
i n t his e stimate
t hat i t w as e aten e ven
A f ew butchered h orse b ones h ave b een f ound a t
G ellep,
F roitzheim , Mainz, Magdalensberg,
L auriacum , M arseilles
a nd R ijswijk.
S ome o f
K ünzing-
t he h orse b ones
h ad b een g nawed b y d ogs a t R ijswijk a nd m any m ore a t Marseilles
( Jourdan
1 976b) w here i t w as p roven t o b e a s tandard m ethod o f d isposal. A n umber o f h orse s keletons w ere r ecovered f rom t he R hine b ed o utside t he f ort o f Z wammerdam t hus i ndicating t hey w ere n ot u sed f or f ood. B y c omparison a knackers y ard f or h orses w as d iscovered o utside R omano-British f ort o f
S tanwix which w as
t he A la P etriana M illiaria
( Birley 1 961).
w as o nly e aten i n emergencies, i n t he N orth S ea, c ast o nto r emote w ashed u p w ith
' Some
e .g.
I t w ould a ppear
t hat h orse f leet
O thers m ore numerous,
where m en w ere o bliged
o r s tarved
t o d eath.'
t o e at
w ere
t he h orses
( Tacitus, A nnals
a nd t he r evolt o f C ivilis ( Tacitus, H istories I V, 6 0) emergency r ations g ave o ut. T hey h ad b y n ow c onsumed
t he
t he b ase o f
t he w recking o f G ermanicus'
s hips w ent d own.
i slands,
t hem ,
f or c enturies
I I,
2 4),
' all n ormal a nd t he mules,
h orses a nd o ther a nimals which a d esperate p light c ompels m en t o u se a s
f ood,
h owever u nclean a nd r evolting.'
T he e vidence o f butchered h orse b ones d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat t he h uman p opulation w as e ating h orse m eat, b een s tripped o ff t he b one a nd f ed t o t he d ogs.
i t c ould w ell h ave
H aving a pplied t he number-of-bone-fragments m ethod t o Dutch material,
C lason
( 1978,
4 31) made
t he
i mportant o bservation t hat
' Pig
r emains c ome i n t he s econd p lace i n t he R oman c astella a nd t owns w ith a d ominating i nfluence. p opulation,
I n t he v illages a nd f arms o f t he a utochthonous
s heep/goat r emains
c ome s econd,
j ust a s i n t he s ettlements
f rom t he p receding p re-Roman I ron Age a nd i n t he u noccupied n orthern p art o f I t
t he N etherlands.' i s n ecessary t o e xercise c aution b efore a ccepting t his s tate-
ment s ince
t he e nvironment would h ave b een a m ajor f actor i n c hoosing
t he a ppropriate a nimals.
A lso
t he l arge L a T ene O ppidum o f M anching
h ad t he s ame o rder o f p reference ( Table 5 :5) a lthough R oman i nfluence w as a lready a pparent w ith r eference t o t he p ossible i mport o f h orses ( section 5 .3).
O n t he N orth G erman P lain,
t he m ajority o f
s ites h ave
c attle p redominating f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig b ut t wo B arnkrug a nd H odorf h ave p ig i n s econd o rder o f i mportance.
s ites,
T odd
( 1975, 1 20) u sing o nly t he N obis s ites o f T able 5 :4 p ointed o ut t hat t his w as d ue t o t he s urrounding e nvironment, ' In t he c oastal marshland ( i.e.
a t E inswarden,
p astures b ut n o .r iverine
m arshes
T ofting a nd H essens) w here
t rees,
t here w ere e xtensive
s heep r earing f ollowed t hat o f c attle.
( Barnkrug a nd H odorf)
l ay c lose
t o
t here w as m ixed w oodland p roviding a mple m ast f or p igs s wine h usbandry t ook p recedence o ver
T he
t he G eest w here s o t hat h ere
s heep r earing.'
S imilarly, t he F eddersen W ierde t erp i s a c oastal m arsh s ite s ituated o n t he r ight b ank o f t he W eser e stuary n ear B remerhaven, h ence
t he p redominance o f c attle f ollowed b y s heep/goat.
2 48
B oth
B entumersiel a nd J emgumkloster a re r iver m arsh s ites o n t he l ower r eaches o f
t he Ems; B entumersiel i s a ' Flachsiedlung'
( settlement o n
l evel g round) a nd J emgumkloster i s a ' Terp' ( settlement o n a rtificial m ound). I n c ontrast t o t he F eddersen W ierde, J emgumkloster h as p igs i n s econd o rder o f i mportance t o c attle w hile a t B entumersiel a re a lmost o f e qual i mportance.
t hey
T he r elative p roportions o f c attle, s heep/goat a nd p ig a t E ins w arden d uring t he t hree p eriods d oes n ot c hange r adically. S ome o f t he t erpen s ites o f N orth H olland s how a p redominance o f c attle f ollowed b y s heep/goat, s imilar t o t he N orth G erman c oastal s ites, e .g.Paddepoel a nd T ritsum .
T his i s p robably d ue t o t he s imilar e n-
v ironmental c onditions. H owever, a lthough o ther D utch n ative s ites, e .g. H eteren a nd V laardingen, b oth n ative v illages w ithin t he R hine a rea, h ave a s imilar r atio o f p ercentages t o P addepoel a nd T ritsum, t hey d iffer f rom t he n earby R oman s ites o f Valkenburg, Z wammerdam a nd N ijmegen where p ig i s m ore i mportant . R ijswijk,
an ative f armstead i n t he R oman o ccupied p art o f S outh
H olland ( both p eriods) h as a gain s imilar p ercentages t o t he o ther n ative s ites, i n t hat c attle p redominate, f ollowed b y s heep/goat a nd t hen p ig ( Table 5 :3). T hus C lason 's r emarks
( ibid)
d o h ave s ome s ignificance.
D ocumen-
t ary e vidence i ndicates t hat t he R omans w ere v ery f ond o f e ating p ork. G autier ( private c omm.) i n h is r esearch o n t he a nimal r emains i n t he c emetery n ear t he O udenburg R oman F ort i n B elgium , f ound t hat t he m ain o fferings w ere c hicken, p iglets a nd h alf-heads o f p ork. H e m aint ained t hat t he g reat f requency o f p iglets s uggested t hat t he g raves w ere t hose o f s oldiers. S heep a nd p ig w ere r aised i n l arge n umbers b y t he B elgae w ho e xported w oollen g oods a nd s alted p ork i n g reat q uantities t o R ome a nd a ll I taly ( Strabo I V, 1 97). H igh n umbers o f h orse r emains w ere f ound i n b oth p eriods a t R ijswijk, ( 27.3% a nd 1 4.1%), t he F eddersen W ierde ( 14.1%), J emgumkloster ( 10.4%) a nd B entumersiel ( 16.6%). T he a ge s tructure o f t he l ast t hree s ites s uggest h orse k eeping o n a c onsiderable s cale. T hese p ercentages were b ased o n t he n umber o f h orse f ragments p er t otal n umber o f d ome stic b one f ragments. R egarding t he m ilitary s ites i n T ables 5 :1, 1 4 o ut o f t he 1 7 s ites h ad t he o rder o f p reference c attle, p ig a nd s heep/goat, t he e xceptions b eing V indonissa where s heep w ere s econd i n i mportance a nd B oiodurum ( Passau, G ermany) a nd Dangstetten - where p ig was p redominant. B oiodurum i s u nusual i n t hat n o r emains o f w ild a nimals w ere f ound a s a lso a t A sciburgium . D angstetten i s o ne o f t he o ldest L egionary C amps i n S outh G ermany p erhaps built i n c onnection w ith t he c ampaigns o f D rusus a nd T iberius i n 1 5 B .C. f or c onquest o f t he l and b etween t he A lps a nd t he D anube o r a s p art o f t he p rojected i nvasion o f C entral G ermany . T he p ercentage o ccurrence o f h orse o ut o f a ll t he d omestic a nimals r anged f rom 0 % a t t he V alkenburg F ort 2 t o 2 9.4% a t A sciburgium . T he a ss w as i dentified f rom o nly o ne s ite, K l inzing-Quintana U erpmann c laimed
( 1977)
t o h ave
( 1 b one).
i dentified 1 07 mule a t D angstetten
w hich m ade u p 0 .6% o f t he t otal s ample; h orse m ade u p 0 .6% a lso.
2 49
O nly a f ew f ragments a nd h ardly a ny d og, I n c ontrast, o f
3 4
t he
o f c at w ere p resent among
l atter r anging f rom 0 .02%
t he c ivilian s ettlements
( Table 5 :2)
s ites w ith t he o rder o f p reference c attle,
3w ith c attle,
s heep/goat,
p ig.
t he m ilitary s ites
t o 2 .6%.
p ig,
h ave
1 9 o ut
s heep/goat a nd
S heep/goat d ominated s ites a re f ound
a t:O rder o f i mportance L a G raufesenque L a C ondamine R ogues
( Gard)
( Gard)
Marseilles L usigny S t .
( Gard)
( Provence)
S heep/goat
P ig
C attle
S heep/goat
P ig
C attle
S heep/goat
C attle
P ig
S heep/goat
P ig
C attle
( Cöte d 'Or)
S heep/goat
P ig
C attle
( Belgium)
S heep/goat
C attle
P ig
M ard
W ith t he S t. o f s heep
t o
M ard v icus,
t he nature o f
G autier a ttributes
t he s oil,
t he h igher p ercentage
t he p oor c alcareous
t he B as-Luxembourg g iving a d eficiency o f w ater, f or
t he r aising o f s heep.
La G raufesenque,
a re s ituated i n Languedoc,
t he
s andstone o f
t raditionally g ood
L a C ondamine a nd R ogues
s urface o f w hich c onsists a lmost
e ntirely o f T ertiary l imestone.
T his f orms h ills a long t he f oot o f
t he e scarpment o f
T he v egetation i s o f a p oor M editer-
t he C evennes.
r anean t ype a nd i s c urrently o nly u sed f or g razing s heep i n w inter w ith s ome c ultivation o f o lives. T he f ollowing c ivilian s ites p lace p ig f irst i n o rder o f d ominance:S t.
O rder o f i mportance P ig S heep/goat
R omain
Auterive Augusta R aurica
( Mansio)
Augusta R aurica
( floor I nsula 3 0)
L orenzberg,
e arly R oman
( 0-50 A D)
H owever i n l ate R oman
t imes,
S heep/goat
P ig
C attle
S heep/goat
P ig P ig
C attle C attle
S heep/goat S heep/goat
t hat i s
p ig,
s heep/goat.
C attle
t he f ourth c entury A .D.,
c attle b ecome m ore i mportant a t L orenzberg a nd t o c attle,
C attle
P ig
t he p roportions
c hanged
T uc d e Mourlon h ad c attle f ollowed b y
p ig a nd s heep/goat e qually. T here ( Augst)
i s n o d oubt
e njoyed p igs
t hat t he a ffluent i nhabitants o f Augusta R aurica
i n
t he
f orm o f b oiled o r r oasted p ig t rotters,
p ork c utlets a nd s ucking p ig
( Schmid 1 967).
H orse a s a p ercentage o f r anges
f rom 0 .3%
t o 9 0.4%.
t he
T he
t otal number o f d omestic a nimals
l atter o riginated f rom a k nackers
y ard i n P aris a nd s o d oes n ot r eflect a n a ccurate f igure
( Table 5 :2).
T hus t he h ighest f igure o btained i s 1 2.9% f rom B urgstall. A gain a s w ith t he f orts, c at o nly o ccurred i nfrequently; d og a ppeared s lightly m ore f requently When
t han i n
t he f orts
( 0.06%
t o 6 .4%).
t he v illa a nd f armstead s ites w ere i nvestigated 8 o ut o f
1 9 v illas w ere p ig d ominated, c ivilian s ettlements; ( Table 5 :3).
O ut o f
f erence p ig,
c attle,
8w ere c attle d ominated a nd t he
t he
a c ontrast w ith b oth t he f orts a nd
8 p ig d ominated s ites,
s heep/goat w hile 2 h ad p ig,
2 50
3 s heep/goat d ominated
6 h ad t he o rder o f p res heep/goat,
c attle.
I n a ll o f t he 8 c attle d ominated s ites, 6 h ad t he o rder o f p ref erence c attle, p ig , s heep/goat w hile 2 h ad c attle, s heep/goat, p ig. O ut o f
t he r emaining 3 s heep/goat d ominated s ites,
s heep/goat,
2 h ad t he o rder
c attle p ig, while o ne h ad t he o rder s heep/goat,
p ig,
c attle.
H orse r anged f rom 0 .2 t o 6 .6%, c at w as a gain v ery s parse a nd d og 0 .3 t o 4 .1%. T he t rue p osition o f t he h orse i n t he e conomy o f a ll t hese t ypes o f s ites i s d ifficult t o d etermine s ince i t w as n ot a n i ntegral p art o f t he d iet; n either w ere t he c at a nd d og a nd p ossibly t he a nimals w ere a ccorded s eparate b urial. I n T able 5 :3 o ne v illage i n S outh H olland;
f armstead i s r ecorded,
d ifferent f rom t hose o f t he v illas, c attle, s heep/goat, p ig . A ll
t hat o f R ijswijk
t he a nimal p roportions i n b oth p eriods a re q uite i .e.
t he o rder o f i mportance i s
t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite e xhibited o nly a s mall p ercentage
o f p oultry,
t he m ost p opular b eing t he c hicken ,
G allus g allus.
P roblems
o f p reservation c ould p artially a ccount f or t his. T he u nique e xcavat ion o f t he k itchen a t A ugusta R aurica p roduced a p rofusion o f b ird b one f or t he t able ( Schmid 1 972). F or e xample:6 44 f ragments c hicken 3 1 g oose 5 3
d uck p igeon
5 4 8 8 2
p artridge b lackbird t hrush
T he f ollowing s pecies w ere r epresented b y s ingle b ones: c herry-finch , c haffinch, s hrike, n ightingale, g arganey, w oodcock, h azelhen a nd p heasant.
s tarling, g oosander,
C ertain t rends c an b e s een t o b e o perating b etween t he d ifferent t ypes o f s ite. I t w ould b e v aluable t o u nderstand a ny c hronological d ifferences b etween s ites. F or i nstance, L orenzberg a s a lready m ent ioned i ndicated t he i mportance o f c attle i n t he f ourth c entury. H owever f or t he m ajority o f s ites m entioned i n T ables 5 :1 - 5 :10 o nly o ne d ate h as b een g iven a nd i n s ome c ases t he d eposit h as j ust b een l abelled ' Roman '. A l ogical s tarting p oint w ould b e t o e xamine s pecific g eographical a reas e ncompassing d issimilar s ites o f v arying c hronologies. I n t his w ay t he a rea c an b e s tudied a gainst i ts g eological a nd t opog raphical b ackground a nd l ater t he a reas c an b e c ompared w ith e ach o ther. I t w as f elt n ecessary t o s ummarize t he w ork a lready a ccomplished o n E uropean m aterial w ith t he v iew t o p ointing o ut p ossible i mprovem ents. T able 5 :11 i llustrates t he p ercentage r atio o f d omestic t o w ild s pecies. H unting w as n ot a m ajor o ccupation o f s oldiers, f armers a nd s ettlers i n g eneral, e ven o utside t he E mpire; s ome s ites d id p rove t o b e e xceptions, S chaan O vilava
t hat i s b elow 9 0% d omestic a nimals. 8 1.8% 7 5.1%
M ontmaurin 6 9.6% A lpnachdorf 8 7.8% B ellikon
7 9.5%
D omestic s pecies i t I I I
I
t
I t
( small s ample)
2 51
:1 8.2% :2 4.9% :3 0.4% :1 2.2% :2 0.5%
F or e xample:W ild s pecies T I
I t
I t
T he l ast t hree s ites a re v illa s ites a nd p erhaps i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t hese r ural s ites s how h igher p ercentages o f w ild s pecies. T ables 5 :6 t o 5 :10 i llustrate
t he d ifferent s pecies p resent o n e ach
s ite. T he E uropean w ild b oar, r ed a nd r oe d eer w ere b y f ar t he m ost p opular. A ntler f ragments w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he f inal c ounts. Unfortunately t he a uthors o f s ome o f t he F rench s ites h ave n ot m ent ioned h ow g reat a p art h unting p layed i n t he e conomy, e .g. L e M esnil d e B aron , C alissanne I I, C antalonne, P uysegur a nd ' Piece d e R ance'. W ith r eference t o a utumn s laughter, n o c onclusive e vidence h as b een f ound b y t he a uthor o n a ny o f t he E uropean s ites. O ne p eculiarity w orth m entioning,
a re t he c urious h oles f ound i n
t he c attle s houlder b lades, p ossibly d ue t o c onservation o f b eef b y s moking . T his h as b een f ound a t t he V alkenburg, Z wammerdam ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977a), A ugusta R aurica ( Schmid 1 967), n ative s ettlements b oth w ithin a nd o utside t he Empire i ncluding t he F eddersen W ierde ( Reichstein 1 972), a nd t he l ate B ronze A ge s ettlement o f A ndijk ( van M ensch a nd I jzereef 1 977b). A t t he F eddersen W ierde, R eichstein a lso f ound h orse s capulae e xhibiting t his p henomenon. V an M ensch a nd I jzereef w ere c onvinced t hat s cratch m arks f ound o n t he e dges o f t he s capulae h ad r esulted f rom s craping a way t he f irmly a ttached m eat a fter s moking . A s patial a nalysis o f t he b one d istribution ( van M ensch 1 974) r evealed t hat t he i nteriors o f t he f orts o f t he V alkenburg a nd Z wammerd am h ad h igh p ercentages o f s capulae b ut l ow p ercentages o f t he p elvis a nd s pine w hich r epresented o ffal f rom s laughter. F urther, a t Z wammerdam l ong b one f ragments w ere a bsent f rom t he f ort a nd t he R hine C hannel w here t he m ajority o f o ffal w as d eposited; i nstead t he v icus o utside t he f ort r evealed t hat t hey h ad b een u tilised f or s oup.
M ore w ork o f
t his n ature i s n eeded. 5 .3
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial h orse S everal r esearchers h ave u ndertaken s pecialist s tudies c oncerning
I ron A ge h orses, o ne o f t he e arliest b eing M arek ( 1898) w ho e xamined t he H elvetian G allic h orses o f S witzerland a nd c laimed t hey b elonged t o t he e astern g roup o f b reeds, r esembling, a part f rom s ize, A rab h orses. L ater S chwerz ( 1918) h ave b een o f e astern o rigin.
a lso c onsidered t he C eltic h orses
t o
B 8k8nyi ( 1968) i nvestigated m any b one s amples f rom t he e arly a nd l ate I ron A ge i n C entral a nd E astern E urope. H e d ifferentiated t wo g roups:
a )
e ast g roup, w ithers h eight 1 21.1 - 1 49.4 c m ( 11.9 t o 1 4.7
h ands) w ith a verage 1 36.15 c m ( 13.4 h ands); b ) w est g roup, w ithers h eight 1 09.9 - 1 49.4 c m ( 10.8 t o 1 4.7 h ands) w ith a verage 1 26.07 c m ( 12.4 h ands). T he s lenderness i ndex o f t he m etapodials f or t he e astern g roup i s r elatively a lthough n ot s ignificantly t hicker t han t hose o f t he w est g roup. I n h is b ook
' History o f D omestic M ammals i n C entral a nd E astern
E urope', B 8k8nyi ( 1974, 2 55) m ade t he c hallenging r emark: ' Celtic h orses w ere t he m ost t ypical r epresentatives o f t he w estern g roup. I n t his c onnexion w e h ave t o d estroy t he r omantic s upposition c reated b y t he e nd o f t he p ast c entury a nd a live i n s ome p laces e ven t oday
2 52
t hat t he C elts w ere h orses
t he b est h orse b reeders o f t he I ron A ge,
t he b est i ndividuals o f t he p eriod.'
B Bk8nyi h imself a cknowledges, m ade u p o f M anching m aterial.
a nd t heir
I t m ust b e e mphasised a s
t he w estern s ample w as
t o a g reat e xtent
T he C elts w ere o bviously i nterested i n h orse b reeding s ince C aesar p ointed o ut t hat t hey ( the G auls) i mported f oreign h orses, ' And w hereas t he G auls a re p articularly f ond o f h orses a nd p ay h uge p rices f or t hem , t he G ermans d o n ot i mport t hem a t a ll. T hey u se o nly t heir h omebred a nimals, w hich, t hough s mall a nd u gly, a re m ade r emarkably s trong a nd e fficient t hrough d aily t raining.' ( B.G. I V, 2 ). T his d oes s uggest t hat t he h orses w ere b eing t ransported f rom s outh o f t he A lps a nd P yren2es. F urther L ivy ( xliii, 5 ,5) d escribes h ow C . L aelius a nd M . A emilius L epidus, c onsular e nvoys t o C incibilis, a t ransalpine G allic K ing,
b rought g ifts a nd g ranted h is r equest t o b uy h orses i n I taly.
S everal I ron A ge s ites h ave r evealed e vidence o f s uch p ossible i mports i n t he f orm o f l arger i ndividuals. M anching - B oessneck e t a l. ( 1971) t hought t he l arger i ndividuals, t hat i s 1 50 c m w ithers h eight, w ere R oman i mports, w hile B 8k8nyi s aid t hey w ere r epresentatives o f t he e astern g roup a nd i ndicated c ommercial e xchange w ith t he S cythians. M ost o f t he b ones h ad c ome f rom a nimals o f w ithers h eight b etween 1 10 a nd 1 37 c m . N ekkerspoel - G autier
( 1968)
c laimed t hat s ome o f t he h orses a t
N ekkerspoel w ere R oman i mports,
i .e.
1 46 c m w ithers h eight; h e b ased
h is a ssumption o n t he f act t hat t he h orses d id n ot s how t he b road f orehead e xhibited b y t he e astern t ype o f h orse. A t E prave a n I ron A ge c ave i n B elgium ( Gautier 1 970b) t he h orses r anged i n s ize f rom 1 13 t o 1 20 c m. H allstatt, S t. R omain a nd V ix - I n t he H allstatt p eriod t he a nimals w ere l ittle d ifferent f rom t he p receding B ronze A ge b ut i n t he L a T ene p eriod m uch b igger h orses h ave b een f ound f rom t he p its o f V ieille T oulouse, L arina, M ont-Joly, C hgrence, E starac a nd V idelles ( PoulainJ osien 1 964). C eltic h orses m ust h ave b een r easonably g ood s ince G ermanicus r eceived a s upply o f t hem i n A .D. 1 5 w hile h e was c ampaigning a gainst t he G ermans ( Tacitus, A nnals I I, 5 ). A lso t here i s t he e vidence t hat G allic h orses w ere e xported t o R ome ( Horace, O des B ook I , O de 8 , T o L ydia). I ndeed t he R oman C avalry w as n ot R oman i n t he t rue s ense b ut S panish,
G allic a nd G erman
( Pauly/Wissowa/Kroll
1 9 s .
1 440).
T here
w ere n o L atin words f or m any o f t he t echnical e xpressions r egarding t he c avalry, e specially f or v arious f ormations a nd m anoeuvres. D rill o rders w ere g iven i n G allic o r I bero-Celtic t hroughout s ervice. T he l arger h orses m entioned e arlier c ould p ossibly b e g eldings; t he R omans w ere a ware o f g elding.
S trabo
( III,
2 49)
i nforms,
' All
t he S cythians a nd S armation t ribes h ave t he p eculiar c ustom o f g elding t heir h orses
t o m ake
t hem d ocile.
F or t heir h orses t hough s mall a re
v ery s pirited a nd d ifficult t o manage.'
G elding d elays f usion o f t he
l ong b one e piphyses t hus t he b one g rows l onger a nd t he a nimal t aller. F rank ( 1962) t hought t he l arger h orses a t M anching c ould h ave r esulted f rom g elding .
A lso o ther r esearchers t hink i t p ossible t hat t he l arger 2 53
h orses a rose f rom t he c astration o f t he n ative a utochthonous h orse p opulation ( Clason 1 967; v an W ijngaarden-Bakker 1 970; G autier 1 968, 1 970, 1 972). V ery l ittle r esearch a ppears t o h ave b een d one o n t he s ubject o f g elding. T hree s izes o f h orse m ade u p t he Manching m aterial, s mall, m iddle a nd l arge. B oessneck ( 1971) t hought t he m iddle g roup h ad b een d erived f rom t he s mall p re-Roman n ative b reeds a nd t he l arge g roup r epresented R oman i mports. N obis ( 1955a) i dentified t he m iddle s ized h orse a mong t he N orth-west G erman f aunal r emains a nd s imilarly c laimed a d escent f rom t he G erman n ative h orse. C lason a nalysed t he t hree g roups w ithin t he V alkenburg f aunal m aterial. T ables 5 :12 t o 5 :17 s how t he l ong b one m easurements f or t he N orth-western P rovincial h orse. W ithers h eight h as b een e stimated a fter V itt ( 1952) a s d escribed b y B oessneck a nd v on d en D riesch ( 1974). T he l argest m etacarpal l engthwise a pparently c omes f rom t he R oman f ort o f t he V alkenburg i n S outh H olland, 2 77.5 m m ( 16.4 h ands). H owever t his b one o riginated f rom material C lason d escribed i n 1 967; i n t he r eport s he m entioned t hat a lthough t he bulk o f t he m aterial w as R oman t here m ight b e a s mall a dmixture o f m edieval m aterial. T he n ext l argest a nimals c ame f rom H enri Barbusse ( Paris) a nd S tillfried ( Austria), b oth 2 54 mm ( 15 h ands) a nd C ambodunum 2 50 mm ( 14.8 h ands). T he m eans f or t he V alkenburg a nd C ambodunum w ere 2 53 mm ( 14.9 h ands), a nd 2 37 mm ( 14 h ands) r espectively. T he f ollowing t able i s a l ist o f t he r emaining l argest m etacarpals t ogether w ith t he m ean s izes f or t he s ame b one t ypes. S ite
L argest b one
X anten L orenzberg K refeld G ellep P faffenhofen ( 1969 E xc)
2 48.5 2 43 2 42
M ontmaurin
2 40 .5 2 40
( 14.7 ( 14.4 ( 14.3 ( 14.2 ( 14.2
( m u )) h ands) h ands) h ands) h ands) h ands)
M ean m easurement
( mm )
2 29 2 18.2 2 26.2 2 31.2
( 13.2 h ands) ( 12.9 h ands) ( 13.4 h ands) ( 13.7 h ands)
2 01.1 2 16.8 1 97.5
( 11.9 h ands) ( 12.8 h ands) ( 11.7 h ands)
P re-Roman s ites M anching H euneburg L a T ene
O utside t he P rovinces, B entumersiel e xhibited X o f 2 13.7 mm ( 12.6 h ands), B arsbek ( a s acrificial s ite) 2 11 mm ( 12.5 h ands) a nd W urten 2 09.2 mm ( 12.4 h ands). H owever S tillfried i s a lso s ituated o utside t he P rovinces b eing a cross t he D anubian L imes ( Map 5 :4) n ear G änsernd orf, N iederösterreich . W hen t he m etatarsal i s c onsidered n ot o nly f ound a t:-
2 54
( Table 5 :14)
l arge b ones w ere
S ite
L argest b one
( mm)
M ean m easurement
( mm )
X S tillfried L orenzberg
2 96.5
( 15.3 h ands)
2 94
2 96.2
( 15 h ands)
2 64.6
K refeld G ellep
2 88 P faffenhofen ( 1967/9 E xc)285 H enri Barbusse 2 85
( 14.9 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands
2 73.5 2 71.7
( 14.1 h ands) ( 14 h ands)
C ambodunum V alkenburg
2 85 2 84.5
( 14.7 h ands) ( 14.7 h ands)
2 86.6
( 13.9 h ands)
2 88
( 14.9 h ands)
2 69.8
( 14 h ands)
2 88
( 14.9 h ands)
2 74
( 14.2 h ands)
b ut a lso:K l inzing-Quintana L auriacum ( milit.)
T he l argest b one c omes f rom B utzbach v illage, 3 03 mm ( 15.7 h ands), w ith X o f 2 80.8 ( 14.5 h ands). I ts s lenderness i ndex i s t he t hird h ighest i n t he t able. R egarding t he m etacarpal
s lenderness i ndex,
D ormagen e xceeds
a ll o ther k nown R oman s ites w ith a n i ndex o f 1 7.5, a pproximately t hat o f m odern c old b looded h orses. T his f ind i s v ery i mportant s ince i t s hows h eavy h orses d o n ot o nly o ccur a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration p eriod b ut a lso o ccur e arlier i n f avourable b iotopes. T he n ext h ighe st v alue o ccurs a t X anten w ith 1 6.7, t hen B arsbek, a s acrificial s ite, 1 6.4 a nd t hen B utzbach w ith 1 6.2 ( Table 5 :15). B entumersiel h as t he h ighest m etatarsal s lenderness i ndex 1 3.8 f ollowed b y B utzbach w ith 1 2.8 ( Table 5 :13). T he l argest r adius b y f ar e manated f rom S tillfried, 3 79 m i l t ( 15.2 h ands), t he n ext l argest c ame f rom t he c ivilian s ettlement o f P faffenh ofen,364 a i m ( 14.7 h ands) a nd f ollowing t hat t he b attlefield o f K refeld G ellep, 3 60 mm ( 14.5 h ands) a nd t he R oman v illa o f W ehringen 3 59 m i a ( 14.5 h ands). T he L a i ene s ites o f M anching a nd L a T ene g ave m ean m easurements o f 3 00.4 mm ( 12.1 h ands) a nd 3 08.5 mm ( 12.4 h ands) r espectively ( see T able 5 :16). A t O pmerkingen, G autier ( private c omm .) d iscovered t he r emains o f l arger h orses b rought b y t he R oman m ilitary - t he s maller h orses h e t hought b elonged t o t he a utochthonous p opulation. I n H olland, P rummel ( private c omm .) h as d istinguished b y a s eries o f s tatistical t ests b etween t he h orses o f t he m ilitary a nd n ative p opulations. T he h orses o f t he native p opulation i n t he R oman I ron A ge a re s ignificantly l ower a t t he w ithers t han t he h orses o f t he R oman m ilitary o ccupation. W ithers h eight
( cm)
H olland
c omparison o f n ative a nd R oman m ilitary h orses ( from P rummel,
X ( cm )
S ite R ijswijk - n ative
f arm
i n
p rivate c on l i aunication)
r ange
( cm )
s tandard d eviation
2 2
1 31.4(12.9)
1 23.6(12.2)-144(14.2)
4 .63
V alkenburg)military i n- 1 9 K esteren ) stallations 2 0
1 40.6(13.8) 1 42.3(14)
1 30.7(12.9)-152(15) 1 34.4(13.2)-148.8(14.6)
5 .88 3 .29
2 55
T he f igures i n b rackets r epresent t he w ithers h eight i n h ands.
T he
Valkenburg d ata h as b een e xtracted f rom t he l ater e xcavations. W hen t he c oefficient o f v ariation ( V) i s c onsidered ( Table 5 :12), L orenzberg, V alkenburg, B utzbach a nd K refeld G ellep s how h igh v alues, a c haracteristic o f t he R oman P eriod i n g eneral. M anching g ives a f airly h igh v alue t hough n ot n early a s h igh a s t he a forementioned s ites; i t d oes s urpass s ome R oman s ites b ut t his i s p robably b ecause o f t heir r ather l ow n umbers. T he m ajority o f R oman s ites h ad r emains o f a verage s ized h orses. Marseilles, P faffenhofen, K refeld G ellep, M ainz, S tillfried, M ontmaurin, A sciburgium, V alkenburg a nd L orenzberg a lso h ad h orses o f l arger t han a verage s ize. U nfortunately, v ery f ew s kulls h ave b een p reserved f rom t he R oman I ron A ge ( Table 5 :17). F ig. 5 .1 s hows t he s pread o f d ata w ith m ost o f t he p oints c lustering o n t he l eft h and s ide o f t he g raph b eing o f a verage a nd l ess t han a verage b asal l ength.
T he l argest s kull f ound
a t M arseilles i s i n a c lass o f i ts o wn a nd h as a b asal l ength o f 5 70 mm . T he s mallest M arseilles s kull f alls w ithin t he r ange o f t he r emaining s kulls. T he c hronologically l ater G ross8rner M olmeck s kulls ( 5 - 6 C . A .D.) h ave b een i ncluded t o s well t he n umbers. W hen c ompared w ith t he B ritish R oman I ron A ge s kulls
( section
4 .3.7) i t c an b e s een t hat t he g reatest M arseilles s kull i s m uch l arger t han t he C helmsford/Newstead s kulls, t he b asal l engths o f which d o n ot s urpass 5 25 mm . T he m ajority o f h orses i n T able 5 :17 w ere o f t he n arrow f orehead ( Western) v ariety; w ere c alculated a ccording t o N obis ( 1962).
t he f rontal i ndices
O ne s ite s tands o ut a s o f p rimary i mportance;
t hat o f K refeld
G ellep. I t i s i mportant b ecause o f t he l ight i t s heds o n t he a ge a nd s ex o f battle h orses. A t K refeld G ellep, N obis ( 1973) d escribed h ow 3 1 R oman h orses w ere b uried a s a r esult o f a b attle w ith t he B atavians, c .
6 9 A .D.
H ardly a ny a nimals w ere o lder t han 7 y ears;
4 t o 5 y ears
was t he p referred a ge o f t he b attle h orses a nd m ore t han h alf w ere male, m ost p robably s tallions. T wo g raves c ontained a nimals w ith s houlder h eights o f 1 17 c m ( 11.5 h ands) a nd 1 26.5 c m ( 12.5 h ands) w hile o ther h orses v aried i n h eight b etween 1 38 c m ( 13.6 h ands) t o 1 54 c m ( 15.3 h ands), ( X 1 46 c m , 1 4.4 h ands). T he s maller h orses f rom G ellep w ere t hinner t han t he l arger o nes. N obis a nswered t he q uestion o f w hether t he l arger h orses w ere i mported o r s elected f rom l ocal b reeds by a s tudy o f t he e namel f old p icture o f t he u pper a nd l ower t eeth . H e f ound a g reat d eal o f s imilarity b etween t he s maller a nd l arger h orses a nd c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he l arger o nes h ad b een b red f rom a s pecialised s election o f C oncluding,
t he s maller o nes.
t he m ean w ithers h eight o f R oman m ilitary s ites
v aried b etween 1 2.7 t o 1 4.9 h ands; t he v illas, 1 2.5 t o 1 4.5 h ands; . the c ivilian s ites 1 2.7 t o 1 5 h ands; t he R oman e x-Provincial s ites 1 2.4 t o 1 3.9 h ands a nd L a T ene s ites 1 1.7 t o 1 2.8 h ands, a nd e arly I ron A ge 1 3.2 h ands. T hus s ome R oman s ites e xhibited a t l east t wo s izes o f h orse; t he s mall n ative o ne 1 2 t o 1 3 h ands a nd a l arger v ariety o f m ore t han 1 4 h ands. T he c ivilian s ites t ended t o a dopt l arger h orses. T his i s v ery i nteresting a nd c ould p erhaps b e i nd irectly c onnected t o t he u se o f t he C ursus P ublicus, s ince e ntire h orses w ere p referred f or ( Varro V II,
1 4 a fter W hite
t he a rmy a nd g eldings f or r oad s ervice 1 970,
5 03). 2 56
GRAPH
OF
GREATEST
SKULL
WIDTH AGAINST
BASAL
LENGTH IRON AGE/ROMAN
c n 0
•
HORSES
B BARSBEK
NE NEKKERSPOEL
Mr MARSEILLES
=0
u nn HIC II I v l
2 57
c n 0
•
'M IMS
V V WURTEN
0
0
i n
-
•
_ J •
i n
i n
i n
L n
i n
N I N 7
r 1 N I
0 N 7
C 7 1 r 1
C O r 1
ISHIVH1 19
0 L n
r-)
0 C T 1 e t,
•
c o
0
r e ' )
0
A lso S ir Walter G ilbert B art ( 1900) i n ' Small H orses i n W arfare' p ointed o ut t hat a s maller c avalry h orse i s much m ore u seful i n m anoeuvres t han a l arger o ne, ' Everything i n t he c avalry h orse h as l ong b een s acrificed t o s ize.
T he n ew i mportance o f t he m ore m obile
i nfantry e mphasised t he n eed f or a s maller m ount f or t he s oldier - a c ob, o r p ony s ay o f 1 4.2 h ands.' 5 .4
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial c attle
T hroughout t he R oman N orth-western a nd C entral P rovinces c attle w ere t he m ost i mportant s pecies, r egarding m eat p otential. T he a urochs, B os P rimigenius i s t hought t o h ave b ecome e xtinct i n B ritain d uring t he B ronze A ge a nd t he s ite o f C harterhouse W arren F arm i n t he M endips r ecords i ts l atest e xistence, 3 245 ± 3 7 b p ( BM-731) ( Burleigh a nd C lutton-Brock 1 977). I t i s p robable t hat m ore i ntensified p ersecution b y m an i n t he B ronze A ge t ogether w ith l oss o f h abitat r esulted i n t he f atal d ecline o f t he s pecies. D espite i ts d emise i n B ritain t he a urochs c ontinued t o e xist o n t he c ontinent a lthough i ts n umbers w ere d windling. A f ew a urochs b ones h ave b een a ttested a t a number o f R oman s ites, f or i nstance, D angstetten, Z wammerdam , Magdalensberg, E ngehalbinsel, M anching, E rsingen-Murain a nd p ossibly H l ifingen, P faffenhofen, X anten a nd t he A ltenstadt f ort.
I n t he N etherlands
t he a urochs w as a bsent e ven i n
t he p re-Roman p eriod, ' The a bsence o f t he a urochs i n t he p rovinces o f N orth a nd S outh H olland must b e e xplained b y t he g eographical n ature o f t hese p rovinces. T he n arrow c oastal a rea w hich was h abitable f or m an w as s eparated f rom t he h igher s andy s oils i n t he e ast b y e xtensive b ogs t hat w ere u nfit f or h abitation .' ( Clason 1 967, 1 05). T he b one w all d ensity a nd s ize v ariability h elps t o d istinguish t he l arge d omestic a nimal f rom t he w ild o ne, b ut w ith f ragmentary b ones, d etermination i s d ifficult. U sing l arge a mounts o f m aterial f rom D enmark, D egerb f hl ( 1970) d emonstrated t he g reat v ariability w ithin t he a urochs o f t he s ame a rea b ut f rom d ifferent p eriods. H e c ommented u pon t he p roblems w hich a rise f rom t his i n d istinguishing w ild a nd d omestic f orms. T he f ollowing d ata h as b een t aken f rom D egerb01 ( 1970) a nd i llustrates t he r ange o f v ariation o f B os p rimigenius m etapodials. Aurochs - B os p rimigenius T otal l ength o f m etacarpal
2 44 - 2 78 m m 2 30 - 2 53 mm
male f emale
T otal
2 70 - 3 15 mm 2 68 - 2 83 mm
m ale f emale
l ength o f m etatarsal
M etacarpal S lenderness I ndex m id s haft w idth (t otal l ength x 1 00)
1 8.4 - 1 9.1 mm
m ale
1 5.6 - 1 7 mm
f emale
M etatarsal S lenderness I ndex
1 3.5 - 1 3.3 mm
m ale
m id s haft w idth otal l ength x 1 00) (t
1 1.6 - 1 2.5 mm
f emale
2 58
O n c urrent m orphological e vidence i t w ould a ppear t hat v ery l ittle a urochs b one i s p resent o n c ontinental R oman s ites. S ome o f t he m etac arpal b ones i n T able 5 :18 c oincide w ith t he l ower l imit D egerb01 g ives f or a urochs f emales, t hat i s, P faffenhofen a nd X anten w here i t w as t entatively i dentified a nd a lso a t B utzbach . T he s ize v ariation o f m ale a nd f emale a urochs h as b een c onsidered b ecause t here a ppears a c onsiderable s ize d ifferentiation b etween R omano-British a nd R omano-Gallic c attle b ones. F or i nstance t he l argest d omestic a nimal f rom B ritain g ives a w ithers h eight o f 1 44 c m ( see
3 .16.1) w hile o ne f rom P aris g ives a h eight o f 1 54.4 c m . I n a c onsideration o f s ize t he m etapodials g ave
b er o f c omparable r esults ( Tables 5 :18 t o 5 :21); r evealed o nly e ither m etacarpals o r m etatarsals,
t he g reatest n um-
s ince s ome s ites c omparisons w ere
a chieved b y e stimation o f t he w ithers h eight. A s m entioned p reviously, b one s exing i s n ot i nfallible; t hus t he m ean v alue o f t he f actors f or m ale a nd f emale w ere u sed a fter t he m ethod o f F ock ( 1966) a s d esc ribed b y B oessneck a nd v .d . D riesch ( 1974). I t m ust b e e mphasised t hat B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch 's r eview o f w ithers h eight e stimation p ointed o ut t he i naccuracy o f B oessneck's m ethod ( 1956) w hich g ives a s houlder h eight t hat i s t oo h igh. H ence a ny c alculation o f w ithers h eight m ade p rior t o 1 974 m ust b e r echecked. T able 5 :23 s hows c arpal a nd m etatarsal .
t he w ithers h eight a s e stimated f rom t he m etaT able 5 :24 s hows t he w ithers h eight a s e stima-
t ed f rom t he r adius u sing t he f actors o f M atolcsi ( 1970) a s d escribed b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). M easurements o f t he r adius ( total l ength) a re r ecorded i n T able 5 :22. T he s ites w ith t he l argest e stimated w ithers h eight a re g iven i n d escending o rder o f i mportance. S ite
E stimated w ithers h eight
H enri Barbusse W ehringen
1 54.4 1 51.8
X anten M ontmaurin L auriacum ( civil.) G ünzburg B utzbach
1 48.4 1 45.8 1 45.3 1 44.9 1 43.1
P faffenhofen
1 41.2
W hen
( 1967 E xc.)
( cm )
t he m ean m easurements o f s houlder h eight a re c ompared t he
f ollowing o rder i s o btained: W ehringen P faffenhofen
( 1967 E xc.)
L auriacum ( milit.) D ormagen L auriacum ( civil.) F roitzheim
1 42.2 1 38.3 1 33.7 1 33 1 28.4 1 28.1
A c ouple o f R hine v alley s ites c an t hus b e a dded t o t he l ist,
t hose
o f D ormagen a nd F roitzheim . T hese r esults r ather d estroy t he o ld n otion t hat t he n earer t he h eart o f t he E mpire t he l arger t he a nimals w ere.
I t must b e e mphasised t hat a lthough l arge b oned a nimals o ccur
a t W ehringen, H ouwald b ones w ere
( 1971)
c laimed t hey w ere n ot a urochs
t hin a nd l ight . 2 59
s ince
t he
W hen
t he
W ehringen
s lenderness
( 18),
R odgen
a nd Künzing-Quintana
i ndex o f t he m etacarpal w as i nvestigated,
( 18.1),
( 17.2)
F roitzheim ( 17.5),
g ave
D ormagen
t he b roadest r esults.
( 17.2)
S urprisingly
V emania p roduced v ery s lender l imbed c attle ( 13.8), m ore s lender t han t hose o utside t he P rovinces, t hat i s B entumersiel ( 15.5) a nd t he L a T ene p eriod s ite M anching i n m ind t hat
( 15.4),
A s imilar p icture i s
( 11.4)
T he
s mallest w ere
( Table 5 :19).
g iven b y t he m etatarsal w ith t he a ddition
o f P faffenhofen a nd W ehringen ( 12.5).
a lthough i t o bviously must b e b orne
t hese m ight j ust b e s exual d ifferences
( 13.5),
F roitzheim ( 12.8)
f ound a t B entumersiel
a nd D ormagen
( 11.2)
a nd V alkenburg
( see T able 5 :21).
M ennerich
( 1968)
t hought
l ength a nd b readth i ndices a nd G ellep,
w as d ue
t hat t he v aried d isplay i n metapodial
o f t he R hine s ites, D ormagen,
t o b reeding m ethods,
f eeding,
F roitzheim
c limate a nd a ge
when c astrated. T he n ew i nformation t hat a nd 5 :24 r einforces
t he a uthor has g athered i n T ables 5 :23
t he s parse i nformation o f T odd
( 1975,
1 18)
t hat
t here was ' no s ign o f a ny c hange i n s ize o f b reeding o f c attle i n marshland s ettlements d uring t he R oman P eriod.' I ndeed T acitus ( Germania,
5 )
l ivestock,
b ut t he a nimals a re m ostly u ndersized a nd e ven t he c attle
d escribes
t he G erman c attle,
l ack t he h andsome h eads At B entumersiel
t hat a re
o f
i n
t he f orm o f
t he e xport t rade.
t heir natural g lory.'
t here w as a n a bundance o f i mported g oods, p ar-
t icularly R oman c eramics; i mports
s ince
t here w as n o e vidence o f R oman
c attle p erhaps
t he n ative c attle f ormed p art
T acitus r elates
number o f t hem t hat t he G ermans
( Germania,
t ake p ride i n f or
w ealth t hey h ave a nd a re much p rized.' t he R oman L imes, ( Apagy,
e .g.
T iszavasvari,
a lready i ndicated l argest h orses 3 92)
' ...
( BBkönyi
t hat S tillfried a cross
t he c attle t he
5 ),
' It i s
t he m ere
t hese a re
t he o nly
S ome l arge a nimals d id c ross
t he D anubian L imes D erecske)
d uring t he R oman P eriod.
c oncerning
r elevant,
' It i s w ell p rovided w ith
i nto S armatian s ettlements 1 974).
A lso t he a uthor h as
t he D anubian L imes h as W aterbolk's r emarks
t he
( 1975,
s heds a t W ijster, N orth H olland a re m ost
s tall w idths w ere g enerally g reater
o ther c ontemporary s ettlements.
t han o n a ll
T hough s ituated o utside
t he R oman
L imes, t he a rchaeological r ecord s hows a s trong R oman i nfluence i n t his s ettlement a nd i t i s q uite p ossible t hat t his i nfluence a lso i ncluded t he r aising o f b etter q uality c attle.'
Waterbolk's c omments
a re i mportant s ince s o f ew b one r eports a re a vailable f or G erman s ites o f
t his p eriod . Native
I ron A ge c attle h ave b een c ompared t o
a nd K erry c attle. T ables
M easurements o f
3 :11 a nd 3 :12.
a nimals,
e .g.
t he s mall D exter
t he l atter h ave b een d escribed i n
S ome s ites a ppeared t o s pecialize i n l arger
L auriacum t own,
P faffenhofen, W ehringen, D ormagen,
G ellep a nd F roitzheim while o thers c ontinued r earing t he s maller n ative b reeds
t ogether w ith t he
l arger t ypes,
e .g.
V alkenburg,
R egensberg,
M ontmaurin, Auterive, Magdalensberg, X anten a nd L orenzberg. C ollis ( 1973) h as d rawn a ttention t o t he w ide r ange i n v ariation o f t he M anching c attle b one m easurements, a f act t hat l ed S chneider ( 1958) a nd Dürr ( 1961) t o s uggest t he l arger a nimals m ight b e R oman i mports. T his h as a lready b een p ostulated f or
2 60
t he h orse b ones b y B oessneck e t a l.
( 1971). a lkünyi ( 1974) d escribes R oman c attle o f C entral a nd E astern E urope a s h aving a w ithers h eight o f b etween 1 20 a nd 1 40 c m . I t i s p ossible t hat s ome o f B 8künyi's s houlder h eight v alues a re t oo h igh ( v .d . D riesch a nd B oessneck 1 974, 3 46). T he a uthor h as a lready s hown t hat i n W estern E urope much l arger b easts o ccurred f ar e xceeding t his u pper l imit. H ornless c attle h ave b een f ound a t t he V alkenburg a nd R ijswijk P eriod 2 a nd P eriod 3 . O n t he m ajority o f t he s ites i nvestigated, m ost o f t he a nimals w ere a ged 3 y ears o r o lder. C attle o lder t han 3 y ears o ccurred a t M arseilles, X anten a nd t he F eddersen W ierde ( 61.3%). M ainly o lder a nimals w ere d escribed f or A sciburgium, C ambodunum , B utzbach, L orenzberg a nd L auriacum w here t hey w ere s laughtered b etween 5 a nd 8 y ears. A t B entumersiel 7 2.7% o f t he c attle h ad m olar t hree i n w ear a nd w ere t hus a ged 3 y ears; 5 0% o f t he Magdalensberg c attle a ppeared o ver 3y ears w ith o nly 2 .5% u nder 6 m onths. A t A uterive 7 9.3% o f t he p opulation w ere a ged 2 1 t o 3y ears a nd a t V emania t wo t hirds o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered o ver 2 1 y ears. A t M anching 4 1.3% o f t he c attle w ere o lder t han 3 y ears. A lthough i mmature a nimals a re o bviously p resent i n t hese s amples, n o s ite h as p roduced e vidence o f a l arge number o f v ery y oung c alves ( veal) t hus r eleasing t he m other t o p roduce m ilk f or h uman c onsumption - a d airy e conomy p roper. H l ifingen w as q uite d ifferent f rom t he o ther s ites i n t hat t he m ajority o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered b et ween 9 a nd 1 2 m onths, i .e. 5 1% ( 45.7% o ver 3 y ears) s pecifically f or m eat. T his i s i n d irect c ontradiction t o White ( 1970) w ho m entioned t hat t here w as n o e vidence t hat l ivestock w as d eliberately b red f or e ating b ut w hether o r n ot t he R oman I talian t radition o f f arming c an l egitimately b e a pplied t o t he P rovinces i s am oot p oint. 5 .5
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial s heep/goat
A llowing f or t he d ifficulty o f d istinguishing s heep/goat, o nly a s mall p ercentage o f t he b one s ample f rom s ites c ould b e a ttributed t o g oat. W ehringen w ith a r atio o f 4 s heep t o 5 g oat w as t he e xcept ion. H ornless g oats w ere f ound a t L auriacum a nd t he M agdalensberg s ettlements; t hey w ere a lso k nown t o C olumella ( VII, 6 ). H ornless s heep w ere f ound a t C ambodunum , R ijswijk, V alkenburg, S t. M ard a nd O pmerkingen . I n t he N etherlands h ornless s heepskulls w ere f ound i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge l evels a t S panjaardsbergje ( Clason 1 977b). T he m ajority o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered a t a n a ge g reater t han 2 y ears, f or e xample L auriacum , A uterive, B utzbach, Magdalensberg, M ainz, F eddersen W ierde, B entumersiel a nd M arseilles. An e xception w as V emania w here o nly 3 0% o f t he a nimals w ere o lder t han 2 y ears. A t P faffenhofen i t w as s tated t hat t wo t hirds o f t he s heep/goat h ad n ot r eached 3 t o 4y ears while a t G ünzburg a nd M arzoll,
h alf t he
a nimals w ere s laughtered b efore 3 y ears. A ccording t o c lassical a uthors s heep a re i mportant i n t he f irst p lace b ecause o f t he v alue o f t he t heir w ool ( Varro I I, 2 ; C olumella V II, 3 ) a nd g oats b ecause o f m ilk
( Varro I I,
3 ,2; V ergil G eorgics I II,
2 61
3 94; G alen V I,
7 65).
T he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal w ere b oth u sed i n c alculating t he s heep w ithers h eight a fter t he m ethod o f T eichert ( 1975) a nd a lso t he g oat w ithers h eight a fter t he m ethod o f S chramm ( 1967), b oth m ethods c ited b y B oessneck a nd v .d. D riesch ( 1974). U nlike o ther l ong b ones, m etapodials a re e asier t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo s pecies. T he g reatest l ength o f t he m etapodials a re r ecorded i n T ables 5 :25 a nd 5 :26. S ites w ith t he l argest e stimated s heep w ithers h eight a re, d escending o rder o f i mportance, a s f ollows:- ( see T able 5 :27) L auriacum ( civil.)
7 4.1 c m
R egensberg X anten B utzbach W ehringen V indonissa
7 3 .1 7 2.1 7 0.9 7 0.4 6 9.9
i n
T he m ean m easurements o f s houlder h eight a re i n d escending o rder o f i mportance: W ehringen L auriacum ( civil.)
7 1.3 c m 6 9.2
X anten P faffenhofen
6 8.4 6 8
( 1967 E xc.)
R egensberg
6 7.1
A s w ith c attle t he l argest a nimals a re n ot c oncentrated j ust i n C entral E urope, t hat i s, f or e xample, t he R oman P rovince o f N oricum, b ut r ange a s
f ar a field a s X anten. I n C hapter O ne t he w ithers h eights o f t hree m odern-day S oay s heep
w ere g iven,
h aving b een m easured b y t he a uthor .
T he w ithers h eight
e stimated a ccording t o t he m etacarpal a nd m etatarsal u sing t he f actors o f T eichert r anged f rom 5 3.5 t o 5 7.9 c m . T he S oay i s b elieved t o b e a s urviving r elic o f t he s mall p rehistoric s heep h erded b y p re-Roman p eople. M ost o f t he m easurements i n T able 5 :27 p roved t o b e m uch l arger t han t his. H owever t hey w ere n ot a s l arge a s s ome o f t he s heep o ccurring o n R oman v illas i n H ungary w hich w ere 8 4 t o 8 8 c m w ithers h eight. B 8k8nyi ( 1974) t hought t hat t hey m ight b e w ethers ( castrates); but m ostly t he a verage w ithers h eight o f t he H ungarian s heep w as a l ittle a bove 6 9 c m t hus i ndicating t hat t hey w ere s lightly l arger t han t hose o f N orth-west E urope. I n s ome a reas t he s mall n ative s heep c ontinued t o b e b red a longs ide t he l arger v ariety, e .g. M arseilles, D ormagen, L auriacum ( military l evels), Auterive,
a nd B utzbach.
W hen t he m eans o f t he d istal t ibia w idth a re c ompared, P faffenhofen, L auriacum ( civilian l evels), h ighest v alues
P ocking, D ormagen a nd V emania h ave t he
( Table 5 :28).
N ot m any b ones w ere a vailable f or c alculation o f t he g oat w ithers h eight ( Table 5 :29). T he m eans r anged f rom 6 5.5 t o 7 1.9 c m . a gain, a s w ith s heep, h aving o ne o f t he h ighest v alues.
2 62
L auriacum
5 .6
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial p ig P ork f ormed a p opular p art o f t he R oman d iet, m any o f t he a nimals
b eing s laughtered b elow 2 1 y ears o f a ge, f or e xample a t V emania a nd K ünzing-Quintana t wo t hirds o f t he p opulation w ere s laughtered b efore t heir s econd y ear. A t P faffenhofen t wo t hirds o f t he p igs d id n ot s urvive t heir f irst y ear; t he A sciburgium p igs w ere k illed a t b etween 6m onths a nd 2 y ears o ld; a t t he M agdalensberg s ite, 9 2% o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered u nder 2 1 y ears a nd a t X anten t hey w ere butc hered b etween 3 t o 1 2 m onths. H owever Auterive w as a s urprising e xception; a pproximately t wo t hirds o f t he p igs w ere o lder t han 2 1 y ears. O utside t he p rovinces t he p icture w as d ifferent; a t t he F eddersen W ierde, t he m ajority o f a nimals w ere o lder t han 2 y ears a s a t B entumersiel a nd M anching. W here t he a nimals c ould b e s exed, u sually v ia a m andible, t he number o f m ales o utnumbered t he f emales g reatly ( Table 5 :30). S ince m any o f t he p igs w ere i mmature i t was t hought u nwise t o p ursue a ny s ize d ifferentiation v ia t he l ong b ones. O ccasionally t he R omans m ixed w ild a nd d omestic s wine t o i nvigorate t he s tock ( Pliny V III, 5 .7
7 9).
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial d og At t he p re-Roman s ite o f Manching o ne
c ut m arks o n t hem ;
t hird o f t he d og b ones h ad
b utchered d og b ones w ere a lso f ound a t S t. R omain
( in t he H allstatt P eriod), L a T ene 2 a nd 3 , L arina-Chatelans ( Poulain 1 960), t he o ppidum o f G eneva ( Revilliod 1 926) a nd t he S chlossberge ( Duerst 1 904). I n t he R oman P eriod d og w as e aten o nly v ery o ccasionally, p erhaps i n t imes o f emergency, f or e xample a t V emania a lthough P liny ( 29, 5 8) c laimed t hat i n R ome t he f lesh o f p uppies w as c onsidered t o b e s uch p ure a nd e xcellent f ood t hat i t o ften t ook t he p lace o f o ther s acrif ices. P uppies w ere f requently e aten a t d inners g iven i n h onour o f t he g ods a nd a t i naugural b anquets. T able 5 :31 s hows d og.
t he l ong b one m easurements
( total l ength)
f or
I n t he R oman P eriod t he d warf d og w as i ntroduced; b ent b ones
l ike t hose o f t he d achshund w ere f ound a t L auriacum , W ehringen, F roitzheim , G ellep a nd D ormagen. T he w ithers h eight o f t he b ones w ere e stimated a ccording t o t he f actors o f H arcourt ( 1974). A t t he f ollowing s ites t he l argest d ogs o ccurred:L orenzberg D ormagen, F roitzheim ,Gellep
7 1 c m ( withers h eight) i t e i 7 0 .3
V emania
6 7.4
R ijswijk
6 5
H arcourt
( 1974)
i n h is s urvey o f
i t
i t
' The D og i n P rehistoric a nd E arly
H istoric B ritain' c oncluded t hat t he h eight r ange o f t he R omano-British d og was b etween 2 3 a nd 7 2 c m , i ts m ain f eature b eing v ariability i n h eight,
b uild a nd s kull s hape;
t he N orth-western P rovincial d ogs
v aried i n s ize b etween 2 1.5 a nd 7 1 c m s o n o n otable d ifferences i n s ize a re a pparent . 2 63
S ince i t i s i mpossible t o d istinguish d og a nd w olf w ith t he l ong b ones a lone, H arcourt c laimed t hat s ome o f t he l arger b ones m ay b e w olf. 5 .8
T he R oman N orth-western P rovincial p oultry
T he o ldest r emains o f d omestic f owl k nown f rom E urope a re f ound a t t he H euneburg i n t he l ate H allstatt p eriod. I t w as a lso p resent i n t he p re-Roman I ron A ge s ettlement l ayers a t t he Amsterdam w aterw orks n ear B loemendaal ( Clason 1 967). G oose o ccurred i n E urope i n t he p re-Roman p eriod ( Boessneck 1 958). P liny d escribes t he G erman g oose ( Pliny I X, 2 7) a s s maller t han t he R oman a nd t ells o f g eese b eing d riven f rom B elgium t o I taly f or g ooseliver ( X, 5 3). A ccording t o G ustav K lein, q uoted b y C lark ( 1948, 1 26) t he b reeding o f t ame g eese a mong t he a ncient G ermans d eveloped t o m eet t he d emand f or f eathers f rom C lassical I taly . Z euner ( 1963) i nforms u s t hat t he G reeks a nd R omans r arely r eared d omestic d ucks; h owever a f air number o f d uck b ones w ere f ound a t R oman M agdalensberg ( Dräger 1 964). A s m entioned i n s ection 2 .11 f owl w ere c astrated b y t he R omans. N ot o nly w ere f owl b red f or t he t able but a lso f or c ock f ighting. T his w as p opular a nd i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury A .D., h eavy b ets w ere b eing m ade ( Columella V III, 2 ). T able 5 :32 i ndicates t hat L auriacum a nd t he V alkenburg h ad b y f ar t he l argest f owl. A t L auriacum t he g oose b ones w ere a lso l arger a nd s tronger t han a ny o thers. 5 .9
I ntroduced s pecies 5 .9.1
T he a ss - E quus a sinus L .
P oulain-Josien
( 1964) h as c laimed e vidence o f
t he a ss i n t he L a
T ene P eriod a t l a C roix-des S ables a M ainz ( Charente) a nd a lso V ieille T oulouse. I n t he R oman P eriod L auriacum a nd K l inzing-Quintana b oth p roduced a ss r emains b ut u nfortunately t he d ating i s n ot a bsolutely c ertain. A t C ambodunum b oth S chlosser ( 1888) a nd B oessneck ( 1957) f ound t he r emains o f a ss. N orth o f t he A lps i t h as b een f ound i n a R oman c emetery o utside H eidelberg ( Lüttschwager 1 966). O ne g rave c ontained t he p artial s keleton o f a d onkey ( mandibles a nd n eck v erteb rae) a nd b etween i ts j aws w as a c oin o f T rajan d ated t o 1 00 A .D. A t W urttemberg,
V ogel
( 1940)
i dentified a ss.
I n F rance r emains o f
t hree a sses w ere f ound i n t he R omano-Gallic l ayers o f P aris ( Poulain 1 962), L usigny, A uterive a nd M arseilles. A c remation c emetery a t S t. P allaye ( Yonne) d ug b y C arre P a nd D ousson ( unpublished) r evealed, i n g rave n umber 3 , -c arpal
p artially b urnt s heep f ragments a nd a v ery s mall m eta-
o f a n a ss.
T he a ss h as b een f ound a s f ar a field i n t he N orth W est a s a t t he R oman F ort o f N ewstead
( Ewart 1 911).
o f b urden b ut w ere o ccasionally e aten
2 64
A sses w ere m ainly u sed a s b easts ( Pliny V III,
1 70).
5 .9.2
T he d omestic c at - F elis c atus L .
I t i s
g enerally a cknowledged t hat t he d omestic c at o riginated
f rom t he A frican w ild c at,
F elis
s ilvestris
l ibyca.
C lason
( 1967)
c laimed t hat t he European w ild c at, F . s ilvestris s ilvestris was n ot o f t he r ight t emperament t o h ave p articipated. R ecent E uropean z oolog ical r esearch h as s upported C lason's v iew a nd s uggests F elis l ibyca i s
t he p robable a ncestor
H owever P ocock, e stic c at,
i n a n i nvestigation o f
t he o rigin o f t he E nglish d om-
s urmised t hat t he A frican w ild c at w as d omesticated f irst
a nd t hat l ater g enerations i nterbred w ith c laimed
t hat when F elis s .
t he y oung r esemble m ore
s ilvestris
( Kratochvil a nd K ratochvil 1 976).
H e
s .libyca
t he d omestic s triped t abby v ia p elage c haracteristics
t han e ither p arent
( Pocock 1 907).
s ame c ontext a s a h ouse m ouse a t t he S aints, E ngland
t he n orthern w ild c ats.
s ilvestris i s i nterbred w ith F elis
( Harcourt 1 979b).
t he European w ild c at
K ittens w ere f ound i n t he
I ron A ge
T hus
s ite o f G ussage A ll
t he g enetic c ontribution o f
t o o ur p resent d ay d omestic s pecies c annot b e
e ntirely r uled o ut. T he d omestic c at w as
s upposedly i ntroduced i nto E urope d uring
t he R oman I mperial P eriod ( Zeuner 1 963). T ables 5 :1 t o 5 :5 i ndicate t he s carcity o f c at i n g eneral o n R oman s ites a lthough t his c ould b e d ue t o s eparate b urial. t ion i n c ertain a reas l e M ont Auxois
C ertainly t he c at was
o f s ociety,
( Champ P laige),
l ooked o n w ith a ffec-
f or e xample t he d epiction f ound a t
c arved o n a t able
l ing a c at w ith a c ollar a nd b ell
l eg,
o f a b oy c rad-
( Esperandieu 1 937).
E xcavations a t P ompeii h ave p roduced n o e vidence o f d omestic c at b ones,
a lthough a m osaic d epicts a w ild c at d evouring a p artridge
( Naples M useum ). O utside
T his s uggests
t he P rovinces,
t hird c enturies, A .D.
i ts
t he c at w as ( Nobis
s carcity i n t he e arly R oman P eriod. f ound a t T ofting i n t he
s econd t o
1 955c).
I t s hould b e n oted t hat i t i s q uite d ifficult t o d istinguish t he b ones o f d omestic a nd w ild c ats. 5 .9.3
T he
c amel
T he r emains o f c amel h ave b een u ncovered a t V indonissa 1 910,
1 919;
H escheler-Kuhn 1 949),
V ienna
L orenzberg, V emania a nd Marseilles. t he c amel w as b rought t o Europe m ilitary u nits. h orses
( Berger-Thenius
B ök t inyi
( 1974)
t he R omans;
A part f rom i ts u se a s a p ack a nimal, 7 ;
i t w as
G eoponica X VI,
2 2).
i n t he a rena
( Suetonius,
N ero 2 ;
A lso c amel m ilk was d runk b y
t hought p leasant i f o ne p art o f m ilk w as d iluted
w ith t hree p arts o f w ater 5 .9.4
s uggested t hat
f rom W est A sia o r N orth A frica b y
a nd c amels w ere r aced a gainst e ach o ther
D io C assius LX,
( Keller
1 951),
( Pliny X I,
2 37;
X XVIII,
1 23).
T he p eacock - P avo p avo
T he p eacock w as i ntroduced b y t he R omans b erg a nd L auriacum
( civilian l ayer).
2 65
i nto W ehringen, M agdalens-
5 .9.5
1 927)
T he f allow d eer - D ama d ama
S ome w orked p ieces o f a ntler w ere r etrieved f rom T rier ( Hilzheimer a nd t he V alkenburg F ort P eriod 2 w here a m etatarsus h ad b een
w orked i nto a p en w ith a b ronze n ib ( Prummel, p rivate c omm .). T here i s a p ossibiltiy t hat a f ragment o f a ntler m ay h ave c ome f rom a t erp ( Van G iffen 1 913). A t A ugst ( Augusta R aurica), a f ew f allow d eer f oot b ones w ere f ound i n t he R oman l ayers d ated t o a bout 1 00 A .D. T he o ccurrence o f d eer p arks i n G aul h as b een m entioned ( Chapter O ne, s ummary). 5 .9.6
T he e lephant
A part f rom t he d iscovery o f a 1 2 f oot l ong c omplete e lephant s keleton, u ncovered i n 1 777 i n aM aillane h ouse c ellar a nd p ossibly a ttributed t o H annibal, n o a uthentic r eports o f e lephant i n t he R oman I mperial P eriod a re k nown t o t he a uthor. S cullard ( 1974) h as e nl ightened u s o n t he d ifficulties o f t ransporting e lephants i n b oats. D io C assius ( LX) w rites t hat C laudius i n A .D. 4 3 i ncluded a n e lephant f or t he c onquest o f B ritain. 5 .9.7
T he g uinea-fowl - N umidia m eleagris
G uinea f owl w as f ound i n t he S aalburg, t he R oman l imes c amp i n t he T aunus M ountains i n W . G ermany ( Zeuner 1 963). 5 .10
W ild a nimals
B os p rimigenius h as a lready b een d iscussed i n c onnection w ith t he d omestic c attle. B oth C ambodunum a nd t he M agdalensberg h ave r emains, p urporting t o b e t hose o f b ison; d ifferentiation o f b ison a nd a urochs h as b een i nvestigated b y t he f ollowing a uthors,
O lsen
( 1960), a nd S tampfli ( 1963). C lason ( 1977) c laimed t hat e lk r emains w ere s carce i n p rehistoric s ettlements i n m iddle E urope, ' Only f rom t he e arly e neolithic s ettlement o f P olling, B avaria a nd t hose o f E golzwil 3 , N iederwil a nd S eeberg B urgäschisee-Süd i n S witzerland a re e lk r emains k nown '. ( Clason 1 977c, 1 19). H owever s everal f ragm ents o f e lk w ere f ound i n t he R oman P eriod a t t he V alkenburg f ort, V emania, M agdalensberg a nd B utzbach . B eaver a nd o tter w ere n ot u nu sual f inds o n s ites a nd c ould p rovide f urs a nd m eat. A mphibians w ere o ccasionally c onsumed b y t he R omans, f or e xample f rogs l egs. T hi lry ( 1977) h as s ummarised t he e vidence f or t his p ract ice f rom t he s ites o f C ambodunum, A ugusta R aurica, P forzheim a nd E rsingen-Murain. A n i ndication o f R oman c uriosity i s r eflected i n t he r ecovery o f am ammoth t ooth f rom R oman l evels a t A ugusta R aurica ( Schmid 1 969). T here a re s ome b one d eposits o n t he c ontinent t hat c an o nly b e d escribed a s
' very o dd ';
s ome o f t hese h ave b een d iscussed i n c onjunction w ith
r itual R omano-British b one d eposits i n C hapter F our. I n c onclusion, t he i nhabitants o f t he N orth-western a nd C entral P rovinces m ainly a te o lder a nimals, t he m ost p opular b eing t he c ow, a lthough y oung p ig o ccurred f airly f requently .
2 66
P ossibly t he e ating o f
o lder a nimals i n t he l ater R oman p eriod c an b e p rice e dict where
p ound a nd l amb/kid a t 1 2 d enarii a p ound. l ittle
t o
t he g eneral
L arger a nimals s pecies
( ass)
l inked t o D iocletian's
s heep/goat a nd c ow f lesh was s old a t 8 d enarii a d iet a nd w as
H unting c ontributed v ery
l ooked o n m ore a s a s port.
( cattle a nd h orses)
a nd t he p resence o f i mported
i n t he L a T ene p eriod i n Europe s ignify R oman i nfluence
a lready a t w ork.
I n t he R oman P eriod
l arge a nimals
( cattle a nd s heep),
a re f ound i n t he N orth-west P rovinces e qualling t hose o f P rovinces, t hat i s, N oricum ( Lauriacum ).
t he C entral
T he major p roblem e ncountered b y t he a uthor h as b een t he l ack o f s ites,
l et a lone
s tratified s ites
i n s uch a v ast a rea
( Maps 5 .1
5 .5).
R eferences
t o a dditional s ites m entioned i n t he
t ext
S tillfried
K .
B auer a nd P .
G ielde
A .
v .d.
M ainz
H .
H emmer a nd R .
L enzburg
E .
S chmid 1 966c
G rossBrner-Molmeck
H .-H .
S chlossberge
J .U.
F eddersen W ierde
H .
2 67
W olff
1 974
D riesch-Karpf
1 969
J aeger
Muller 1 955 Duerst 1 904
R eichstein 1 973
1 969
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a
K ey t o R eferences
W aldmann 1 967.
Amschler 1 949.
S treitferdt 1 972.
B oessneck 1 964.
H ouwald 1 971.
J ourdan 1 976.
H ornberger 1 970.
B oessneck 1 958.
S auer-Neubert 1 968.
a '
D annheimer 1 964. C lason 1 977a . G autier 1 970a . B aas
1 966.
M uller 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 971. 1
S chmid 1 970. S chmid 1 967. S chmid 1 966a . S tampfli
1 959.
S tampfli 1 960. H abermehl 1 960. B oessneck 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 962. P oulain-Josien 1 967. P oulain-Josien 1 964. P oulain-Josien 1 955.
2 72
B oessneck 1 957.
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