A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia: Anthropological Insights from the Archipelago [1st ed. 2020] 9811518343, 9789811518348

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Zulyani Hidayah

A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia Anthropological Insights from the Archipelago

A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia

Zulyani Hidayah

A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia Anthropological Insights from the Archipelago

Foreword by J. Emmed M. Prioharyono

123

Zulyani Hidayah Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia

ISBN 978-981-15-1834-8 ISBN 978-981-15-1835-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1835-5

(eBook)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

The diversity of tribes composing the Indonesian people is the incomparable nation’s cultural asset found nowhere else in the world. Hundreds of these tribes live in thousands of atolls, from Sabang to Merauke, along the equator line, from Mangas Island to Rote Island along the North to South meridian. This certainly affects the cultural diversity among the multitude of national tribes. Therefore, the national motto of Unity in Diversity serves right as the unifying foundation of the nation. Understanding the information on various Indonesian tribes’ cultures is something every Indonesian citizen needs to have to enhance tolerance and appreciation of cultural differences within the multicultural nature of Indonesian people. In a diverse society, multiculturalism is required to prevent discrimination which could obstruct national integration. Anthropology studies which generate Indonesian tribes’ ethnographic works so far have never been able to provide thorough and complete information on the cultural diversity of hundreds of tribes in Indonesia. The late Dr. Zulyani Hidayah’s Encyclopedia of Indonesian Tribes provides detailed information on tradition, customs, filial relations, and tangible cultural aspects of Indonesian tribes written eloquently and eligibly. Illustrations made by its own author are self-explanatory and alluring. Initially, the book was published in 1997 by Pustaka LP3ES, Jakarta. Now Pustaka Obor Indonesia Foundation Publisher republishes the revised version of Dr. Zulyani Hidayah prior to his passing in early 2014. To conclude, I hope the book can contribute significantly to the understanding of Indonesian tribal culture and in doing so, contribute to the multiculturalism required by every Indonesian citizen. The intention is to enhance and fortify the national integration of the Indonesian Republic. Depok, Indonesia September 2014

Dr. J. Emmed M. Prioharyono, M.A., M.Sc.

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Preface: The Diversity That Reflects Unity in Diversity Within Indonesia

Indonesians can proudly state the country is a diverse (plural) country. However, the plurality itself has never been stated, told, described, or explained as it is. The diversity of Indonesia is epitomized through the phrase Unity in Diversity, diverse yet united in the same nationality, country, nationalism and language. Furthermore, if analyzed based on physiological and physical origins, Indonesians are heterogeneous. If scrutinized by racial characteristics, skin tones, cheekbones, hair nature and skulls of modern Indonesian humans, it appears that Indonesian humans are the combination of all races throughout the world. Culturally speaking, based on common sense ideology of Unity in Diversity Indonesia is a representation of official world faiths. Anthropology developed by experts on Indonesia origin has thrived for at least 35 years. Yet, apparently, there is not any piece of literature written on the Indonesian culture. Human Relations Area Files Institution at Yale University that has data on human beings and their cultures from all over the world recorded at most only one-third of all existing tribes in the country. In the meantime, the undertaking of recording tribal cultures carried out by has not yet described the entirety of Indonesian nation nowadays. Even after took over the project. Meanwhile, the Father of Anthropology in Indonesia Koentjaraningrat (1969) introduced the diversity of tribes in Indonesia and all over the world in his book Atlas Etnografi Sedunia (The World’s Ethnography Atlas) published in early 1960s. Unluckily, it was too simple to satiate our curiosity about national diversity and the distinctiveness of cultures in Indonesia. He, however, relentlessly kept on writing, editing, and finally publishing a book on the general description of a number of tribes in Indonesia, titled Manusia dan Kebudayaan di Indonesia (Men and Cultures in Indonesia, 1971). Armed with this book, it started to dawn on us the diversity and distinctness of cultures in Indonesia. Our knowledge of the Indonesian people and cultures were made clear by the confines of modern administrative application throughout Indonesia. Not only do the administrative boundaries emphasize the uniformity of local culture but they also support the sponsorship campaign of each distinct culture.

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Preface: The Diversity That Reflects Unity in Diversity Within Indonesia

The nature of Indonesia itself is an archipelago situated along the equator. Stretched across the tropical region, Indonesia only has two seasons: rainy and dry season. These two seasons shape the physical and cultural behaviors of Indonesian humans as well as the natural world. Climate and nature even impact cultural output and distribution. To the scientists, such diversity is an infinite object of study. Indonesia has multitudes of tribes living in modest exoticism because it offers distinct cultural diversity no developed nations have and many other tribes are known to be hyper metropolitan as they always choose to live in metropolitan cities. Because of the diversity and plurality of Indonesian people, it fits perfectly as the object of research of scientists focusing on nations. At the same time, there are tribes in Indonesia that persistently prevent external influences from intruding, which otherwise may assist and boost their progress, equaling or even surpassing other nations in terms of tangible unique tribes. These tribes of Indonesia fall into rural and urban categories. Some are marginalized folks and isolated owing to various classes and new categories created by modern Indonesians themselves. Thus, the study of these groups contributes to the diversity of sociological and anthropological interest at the national and international scale. Many numbers of Indonesian local tribes or groups of people are usually called “suku bangsa” (national tribe) or “kelompok etniktribal group”. The latter is the literal English translation of “ethnic group” that refers to racial clusters, or parts of a nation, each of which has its own discrete culture. The word “suku” (tribe) itself was derived from Malay which means “part”, “bangsa” (nation) was also derived from Malay, referring to people inhabiting a country. Contemporarily, a tribe must be defined as a part or a group of nations that possesses its own distinct culture. These days, it is easy to identify hundreds of tribes inhabiting Indonesia by means of administrative borders that put more emphasis on the “regional” similarity. Therefore, the people and culture of Aceh Province, for instance, are always deemed as a mixture of local native culture in Aceh Province. It does not necessarily mean to represent the dominant people in the province. In Aceh, in fact, reside a number of tribes having different languages and cultures such as Aceh, Gayo, Alas, Tamiang, Aneuk Jamek, Simeuleu, Kluet, and isolated minorities called Gumbak Cadek. North Sumatra Province is another example. It is not only inhabited by the Palembangese but also by more than 30 tribes, each of which has its unique language and culture. Let us take East Java Province as another example. It is not only inhabited by the Javanese tribe but also by the Madura, Tengger, and Osing tribe. The diversity is increasing even more due to blending and amalgamation after there was freedom to live and reside for everyone in Indonesia. And this phenomenon of mobility has been getting increasingly prevalent. The fusion would enhance more plurality in Indonesia if only Timor Leste were still part of Indonesia now. In the first edition, the encyclopedia still covered the tribes living in Timor Leste Province (now Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste).

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The Concept of Tribes in Indonesia The terminology of tribe or ethnic group, according to the author, can replace each other as both carry the same basic concepts. In the encyclopedia, “tribe” fits more perfectly in order to view the nation of Indonesia from the perspective of national historical process, which was the backdrop of the formation of the country and Indonesian culture. In the meantime, “ethnic group” was more widely used among scholars, probably because academics around the globe more frequently employ this term. In Indonesia, it started to gain wide attention from the 1960s. It was used along with “suku” (tribe), which was considered controversial. This word had been widely used as the replacement of “klan” (clan) by the people of Minangkabau. By merging both into “suku bangsa” (tribe), the word carries a wider meaning than a substitute of “extended families” but has more profound meaning to refer to a living unity with an identity as well as exclusive social and cultural elements. The term “tribe” has a more significant meaning to replace the vacant space left by living unities, which were formerly known to be “nation”. When Indonesia gained independence and united itself as an entirety of archipelago consisting of thousands of islands, hundreds of hectares of sea, rivers, straits, and lakes; a nation with a country, a sovereign government, having similar objectives and national philosophy; one official language which can be used to communicate thoughts and emotions, then the separate nations vowed to be parts of the Indonesian nation. In consequence, the status of a “nation” which was previously held by the people of Aceh, Batak, Java, Sunda, Bali, Bugis, Ambon, and various other living unities, united themselves within the nation of Indonesia, Unity in Diversity! In the nation of Indonesia. The formation of Country and nation of Indonesia did not cause an extinction of those tribes, as each of them has maintained their traditional identity and cultural uniqueness even in their interactions within broader living unities. Since the founding father strived to form, build, and shape the nation, from the onset he already arrived at an understanding that the nation under guidance to give birth to and grow larger was a plural big nation, one that reflects “Unity in Diversity”, being plural yet thriving still in one unity of identity. Frederick Barth suggests that a tribe or ethnic group must be viewed as a social organization because by doing so, the most vital characteristic of it is visible, i.e., characteristics molded by “self knowledge and admission from others.” That being said, what we actually now need is an understanding of how the “admission” procedure applies in the relations between ethnic groups in the context of a multiethnic nation like Indonesia. In the writing of the encyclopedia, it is deemed necessary to find the key to the realization of the acknowledgment. To the author, the concept of Indonesian tribes took shape in parallel to the formation of Indonesian people. Vice versa, the Indonesian nation contains all its variations and diversity. Jakarta, Indonesia

Dr. Zulyani Hidayah

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Preface: The Diversity That Reflects Unity in Diversity Within Indonesia

Reference Koentjaraningrat (1969) Atlas Etnografi Sedunia (World Ethnographical Atlas). Jakarta: Dian Rakyat Publisher.

Introduction: The Maps of Indonesian Tribes

A map is a simplified description of space, i.e., a navigational assistance that focuses on the relations of objects in a certain space. Most of the maps we know are twodimensional descriptions or accurate geometric descriptions of a three-dimensional space. The study and art of map-making is called cartography. A tribe is a group or part of a nation which in this modern age is represented by a nation. Prior to joining in a nation state, when a living entity was still independent, each could be called a separate “nation”. An existing tribe must have acknowledgment from its members, and the acknowledgment from other tribes around it. The most prominent and distinct characteristics are usually a language, customs, and certain cultural patterns frequently used as a given tribe’s symbol of identity. These days there is a tendency for some people to use “custom society” to refer to the entirety or part of a tribe. Despite the fact that custom issues are not only related to communal land ownership, the term itself began to appear as customary rights versus state-owned land. Those who claimed they were victimized strived for their rights by employing Agrarian Main Laws No. 15 year 1960 and Laws No 41/1999 on Forestry which “somewhat” play loose on Customary Rights. A map of Indonesia is ideally supposed to be a combination of information on the existence of tribes (ethnic groups) in Indonesia and geographical “space” they inhabit. Geographical space of a tribe most commonly represented is a region of origin or area of settlement of a given tribe’s custom community cartographically depicted in a two-dimensional map. A particular place of origin or settlement of a community is generally known only by oral recounts or by ethnographic notes containing such information. Along with the advancement of science and technology, the description of two-dimensional tribal spaces cannot be simplified cartographically. Computing technology has enabled us to create three-dimensional descriptions by means of multilayer and multi-window techniques. The three-dimensional effect can be created by adding supporting information about the description of a given tribe’s characteristics. Thus, the generally used an approach to describe two vital points of information ought to be the geo-cultural one. By applying such an approach and the use of computerized cartography picture techniques, the existence and traditional xi

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Introduction: The Maps of Indonesian Tribes

settlement area of a particular tribe is described together with its unique cultural characteristics (ethnographic). Many realize that the diversity of Indonesian people and culture ought to be described in a simple fashion in the form of tribal cartographic description. Therefore, efforts taken to create distribution or location of origin maps or traditional settlement areas of Indonesian tribes are not new at all. The first map of Indonesian tribes was created by adding Indonesia page to “Atlas of the World’s Ethnography”, which was generated by the project of Human Relation Area File (HRAF) of Yale University. Nonetheless, the map was still rough by nature and merely mentioned a number of most widely known tribes. The more detailed mapping project of Indonesian tribes was conducted by The General Directorate of Culture from the year 1985–1987. It endeavored to describe the distribution of each tribe’s populace to the subdistrict level throughout the country. The project was halted owing to the lack of funds and the absence of data management and presentation system based on the incoming data complexity. In fact, the project itself was promising because The General Directorate of Culture employed cultural supervisors (in addition to school supervisors) at subdistrict level. Failure occurred due to the lack of a strong concept as well as the absence of a separate study operation management. For a project as massive as tribe mappings, they needed an operating institution backed with a number of anthropologists and cultural geographers. The tribe map that more accurately represents the existence of Indonesian tribes based on their traditional places of origin was published in 1997 when Zulyani Hidayah created it as the supplement to “Ensiklopedi Suku bangsa di Indonesia” (Encyclopedia of Indonesian Tribes, LP3ES, 1997). The map of tribe territories was made possible because there was data of “administrative” areas of most tribes found in many sources. Examples include ethnographic data, field research reports, and Isolated Tribes Settlement Project implementation reports created by The Social Department. On the large-scale map, the names of tribes are not mentioned in their entirety but were replaced by three-digit code numbers so readers must match names and code numbers to find which tribe settles in which area. The shortcoming is that, of course, readers cannot easily find a tribe’s location on the map as they need to match names first with symbol names (three-digit numbers). The tribe map-making project was also carried out in the State Ministry of Environment in 1999, National Development Planning Body (BAPPENAS) in 2000, and the Ministry of Tourism and Culture in 2003. However, apparently, there was not any publishable result yet. Perhaps it was because there were some issues. As a vast country having a diverse people, Indonesia requires data and information on its national diversity as it is vital for the sake of development of socioculture-based tourism and development of nation and country with more justice, solidarity, democracy, and integrity. The map of tribe “origin” places may help improve general understanding of the diversity as a dynamic system of independent sociocultural life (unique or traditional) compared to the one of societal life in general which is more linear, rigid, and seemingly uniform, similar to each other. Hence, the tribes’ existence and origin (or their traditional “customary”

Introduction: The Maps of Indonesian Tribes

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territories) description is part of a realization that there are differences in one single similarity (Unity in Diversity). The Indonesian culture and people diversity description through the tribe map is supposed to be under the paradigm umbrella of “cultural integration”, which is a view that a nation is an owner of a huge culture composed of various cultures belonging to tribes that form it. The tribe map under such a paradigm will uphold the nation against any globalization impact that may erode nationalism. According to the above proposition, the tribe map needed by the Indonesian nation at the present and in the future is the cultural and societal diversity description backed with recursive, holistic, integrative virtual data by means of a special cartographic program widely applied on personal computers. The virtual description for today is made possible thanks to the data management and digitally visual presentation of technological advancement. The computerized mapping system combines ethnographic, geographic, demographic, and administrative (territorial) data every tribe in Indonesia. The Issues The most crucial issue in every study and making of tribe maps is the existence depiction of a tribe and its cultural characteristics, which might support it as a dynamic living entity. Not only do such maps describe the existence of communities but also explain the dynamics of their way of living. Such aspects arise due to cultural changes and one resulting from movements and populace distribution. As a description technique of objects in given locations, maps themselves are temporary in the sense that they are made by using context of geophysical area and are regarded valid in a certain period of time. A modern map should contain a credit title showing its maker, publisher, year of making, category or topic, and meanings of virtual icons and symbols used to show relations of something to a certain location or legend. At the same time, tribe mapping must be seen as a description technique of tribe existence and location in the context of time. Interests and topics supported by ethnographic data and information are conveyed through easily understood virtual icons. The key criticism toward the school of geo-culture, however, is the approach which is regarded as too “photographic” (still photographs) as the description of people and culture, because of its static nature. An object is described as an established entity. The sociocultural dynamics of people in question are depicted at one point in time, when an ethnographer comes along to record them. Readers or audience are presented with a people and culture that remains unchanged forever. If the description of a people was carried out in the period of X, then after a few decades, the description of the same people in the readers or audience’s perception would stay the same, i.e., under the X circumstances. In the meantime, a current approach deemed more suitable for a study or tribe mapping is human ecology. It is the advanced progress of the culture area approach,

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stressing more cultural connectedness of a community with its living environment by contextually adding the cultural change and time element to its studies. The Basic Drawbacks of Tribe Maps The first drawback of an ethnographic map is the validity and existence of a tribe itself, especially the one related to ethnic identity characteristics as well as self and external acknowledgment of a given tribe. The second drawback is that it is not feasible to describe cartographically the “diversity” of a tribe and to summarize the culture of these tribes. Today, not only do the tribes settle in their own custom territory but they also mingle with many other tribes. It is also the same challenge that we deal with in the cartographic description of the distribution of population by tribe in a particular town or city. Let us take Jakarta as an example. Although Betawi people have been recognized as natives of the territory for some time before Jakarta was the capital of Indonesia, nowadays their settlement pattern no longer follows that described 50 years ago. In addition to mingling with other tribes, their settlement has now moved to different areas which formerly were not deemed typically Betawi areas. Borders of custom territories or settlement areas have become blurred. A certain geographical area is not necessarily owned by a given tribe or society as its customary land in its entirety. Generally, a tribe only claims pieces of land that provide vital support to survival of its members. Some unclaimed land other than Customary Rights of a tribe is now declared the state’s property. A tribe map ideally does not disregard any possibility of a geographic area’s functionality outside of a custom society or tribe’s ownership. As a matter of fact, these days millions of hectares of customary land have been acquired by big plantation, mining, real estate companies as well as the tourism industry to turn into tourist destinations. That is not to mention some other land which has been converted by the government into National Parks or Conservation Areas (Game Preserve, Wildlife Preserve). The rest have been owned by trans-migrants and spontaneous new settlers. Therefore, dividing clearly an administrative area to describe a territory of a given tribe will collide with many other interests, for instance, legal acknowledgement over land ownership and recognition of Customary Rights by any Peoples. Jakarta, Indonesia May 2006

Dr. Zulyani Hidayah

The Guidance to Using Entry, Number, and Map

For easier search, all the tribes in the encyclopedia are listed in alphabetical order. To find out each tribe’s distribution, follow the guidance in Tribe Index showing other names of tribe (if any), entry code number, and location on map. Entry numbers enable readers to discover area(s) where a certain tribe settles down. There are seven location maps, i.e., Sumatra, Java-Bali, Borneo, Sulawesi, Molucca Islands, Nusa Tenggara, and Irian Jaya (Papua). Examples of how to find out a tribe’s location:

Tribe name

Index number

Map of origin place

Irian Jaya

Direction

471 Irian Jaya

border area between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, mainly along the upper part of the Sepik area belongs to Jayapura Regency, Papua province. Its population is estimated at 3,000 inhabitants.

See also: Usman

471

Source Grimes 1984

Cross references Reading material reference

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Contents

Encyclopedia of Indonesian Tribes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix: Maps of Tribes in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

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About the Author

Dr. Zulyani Hidayah was born in Bukittinggi in 1956. He finished his doctoral study of Anthropology at University of Indonesia in 2002 concentrating on Culinary Culture Anthropology. He worked for the Tourism and Culture Ministry of Indonesia and moved to the Technology and Research Ministry. He conducted varied research and field sociocultural activities in many locations. Hidayah participated in numerous seminars and was a keynote speaker for guiding and counseling programs of cultural workers in many parts of Indonesia. Skills and Study Refinement Discipline Field: Relations of cultures, cross-ethnical conflicts, study of tribes, Indonesian ethnography, urban ethnography, human ecology, forest people culture, coastal folk culture, culinary culture anthropology, ethnoarchaeology, and drawing. He wrote several books on anthropology. Books/Published Works – 1994—The Traditional Leadership System of Asmat Tribe, Irian Jaya, Directorate of Traditional Values and History, Cultural General Directorate (Ditjenbud), Ministry of Education and Culture. – 1994—Social Science on Timor Timur, book, collaborative work, Center of Book Affairs (Pusat Perbukuan), Ministry of Education and Culture. – 1994—The Traditional Leadership of Lahat, book, collaborative work, Directorate of Traditional Values and History, Cultural General Directorate (Ditjenbud), Ministry of Education and Culture. xix

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About the Author

– 1994—Discipline Culture in the Urban Societies: A Case Study of Yogyakarta, book, collaboration work, Cultural General Directorate (Ditjenbud), Ministry of Education and Culture. – 1995—Polygeny Families in Subang, book, collaborative work, Directorate of Traditional Values and History, Ministry of Education and Culture. – 1996—Islam and Environment, book, collaborative work, State Minister for the Environment. – 1997—Encyclopedia of Tribes in Indonesia, book, LP3ES, Jakarta. – 1998—“The Foods of Malay Since Sriwijaya Era”, article, in Budaya Magazine, Cultural General Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture. – 2001—“Ethnicity and Political Process: (Re) Construction of Malayness in Riau”, a collaborative piece with Dr. Achmad Fedyani Syaifuddin, in anthology “Cultural Policies in the New Order”, PMB LIPI and The Ford Foundation. – 2004—The Use of Art Media and Information in the Presidential Election of 2004, book, as chief editor, State Ministry for Research and Technology. – 2005—Miscellaneous Energy Sources and the Relations with Wisdom of Rural Society Environment, book, chief editor, State Ministry for Research and Technology. – 2006—Claim, Contestancy and Identity Conflict: Local vis-a-vis Nationality, book, collaborative work, Jakarta, LIPI. – 2006—The Anthology of “Building a Research and Technology Minded Society”, book, author and cheif editor, State Ministry for Research and Technology. – 2008—“Building the Nation’s Characters in Globalization Era: A Science and TechnologyBased Economic Review”, article, collaborative work of Zulyani Hidayah and Carunia Mulya Firdausy in Reflection of the Nation’s Characters, Achmad Fedyani Saifuddin and Mulyawan Karim (eds.), the Indonesian Anthropology Studies Forum (Forum Kajian Antropologi Indonesia/FKAI).

Encyclopedia of Indonesian Tribes

A ABAU 471 Papua The Abau people live around Indonesia’s eastern border with Papua New Guinea, specifically along the headwater of Green River (also known as Sepik River). The area is located in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was estimated to be about 3,000 people. Source: Grimes (1984). ABUI (Barue, Barawahing, Namatalaki) 411 Nusa Tenggara The Abui people spread in a few districts in Alor Regency, including South Alor, East Alor, and Northwest Alor Districts. The area is located in Alor Island, in a chain of islands in East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language of Abui is divided into several dialects, such as dialect of Abui, Makadai, Kaluiwa, and Laral. According to several sources, Abui is also called Barue, Barawahing, Namatalaki. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969), Grimes (1984). ABUNG (Abung Bunga Mayang) 061 Sumatra The tribe is also referred to as Abung Bunga Mayang. The population is approximately 30,000. They reside around Kayu Agung and Mesuji District in the © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 Z. Hidayah, A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1835-5_1

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Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. The rest of it is scattered in Lampung Province, i.e., surrounding Tulang Bawang River and Ranau Lake. The language of Abung falls into the language family of Malay with its unique dialect. Funke (e.f. Lebar 1964) classifies the tribe as part of the Lampung tribe, in which they are seen as a group of people embracing Abung custom. Funke reckons that the Lampung, Abung, Peminggir, and Pubian tribe shared the same place of origin: the western part of Bukit Barisan Mountain Range. Earlier than that, they were allegedly thought to be from Minangkabau. The Abung people themselves assume that they were from the country of Sekala Berak, in the Lampung Highlands. Group segregation began occurring circa the thirteenth century. During the migration period, each tribe had acculturate with Malay culture and synchronized with Islam. The language of Abung can be categorized into one of the dialects of Malay. In ancient times, they had their own alphabets which resembled Batak alphabets in many ways, or Rejang, Pasemah, and Lebong alphabets which were known to be the ulu writing system. The main occupation of the tribe is planting rice in fields. Besides rice, they also plant pepper and vegetables. Traditionally, they make a living by making pottery, rattan pleat, pandan, and so forth. The Abung people’s settlement is divided into two types. The first is a permanent compound called tiuh for every clan (suku or buwei). Each has its clan custom house and a traditional house (rumah sesat) to perform ceremonies. The second is a temporary one, scattered near their rice fields. This temporary settlement is called umbu or umbulan. The familial relationship principle of the Abung people is paternal as genealogical rights and liabilities are passed on through the male line. The newlywed couples, however, initially live in the vicinity of wife’s family (uxorilocal). After their first child is born, spouses are then allowed to build a house in a neighborhood of the husband’s family (virilocal). Each nuclear family joins in a paternal family of origin and together they form a clan led by a chief called punyimbang. Traditionally the life of Abung people in old times very much depended upon the role of a tribal leader (punyimbang suku). These punyimbang found a village organization led by proatin tiuh. Several villages form again a union of custom called marga. A leader of marga is pasirah assisted by several proatin. According to many traditional governance system experts, this was derived from the custom rules of Simbur Cahaya from the era of Palembang Sultanate. The system was subsequently passed on to their descendants in the Dutch Colonial era to the early days of Indonesian national independence. The tribe members in general embrace Islam. Through arts, they express themselves in the form of Panguron and Randai dance. In the ancient times, they also crafted a war dance called Tigel. Abungese vocal art is called gardah, which is poem recital accompanied by rebana music. They once developed folk theatrical art called dumuluk.

A

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Abungese unique foods among other things are seruit—fried fish dish or grilled fish mixed with “sambal terasi” (fermented shrimp condiment and chili); tempoyak (processed durian food); or mango. The types of fish commonly consumed are belida, baung, layis, and so forth. All are usually mixed with sambal (ground chili and other ingredients) and fresh, newly picked vegetables. Meanwhile, the distinct drink of Abung is serbat, which is made of mango kuwini juice. At any food stalls and souvenir stores, one may find sambal lampung, lempok (dodol/ soft-textured snack made of durian), banana chips, kemplang crackers, manias, and so on. Source: Lebar (1979), Depdikbud (1989). ACEH (Lam Muri, Lambri, Akhir, Achin, Asji, A-tse, Atse) 001 Sumatra This tribe goes by the name of Lam Muri in the Malay History (Sejarah Melayu) book. Meanwhile, Marcopolo who dropped by in Aceh in 1292 called them Lambri tribe. The Portuguese explorers called them Akhir. Other foreign authors refer to them as Achinese, Achehnese, Atchinese, Achin, Asji, A-tse, Atjeher. The people call themselves Ureung Aceh. The Aceh tribe is a mixed result of several foreign tribes with the native folks of Sumatra, which include Arabic, Indian, Persian, Turkish, Malay, Minangkabau, Batak, Nias, and Javanese to name a few. The assimilation of the Acehnese with other tribes, in fact, resulted in a new tribe, Aneuk Jame, which was the assimilation product of Minangkabau, Aceh, and Singkil tribe (Singkil itself was derived from the assimilation process of Batak Dairi and Aceh tribe). The territory of Aceh is commonly dubbed “The Porch of Mecca” (Serambi Mekah), “Rencong Land” (Tanah Rencong), and the Land of Iskandar Muda (Bumi Iskandar Muda). The status of “Special Region” was bestowed on the province in 1959 but now it is no longer used. The Aceh tribe may be proud of the fact that their region is where the Islamic culture first arrived in Indonesia around the twelfth and fourteenth century AD. Back then Aceh served as the transit of Indonesian hajj participants prior to and after sea voyage to and from Mecca, which explained why it was labeled “the Porch of Mecca”. In the old times, the people of Aceh were divided into several small kingdoms, such as Indrajaya, Indrapuri, Indrapatra, Pasei, Benua, Daya, Peureulak, Idi, Pidie, Meulaboh, Linge, and so on. All these kingdoms were finally united by the Sultanate of Aceh Darussalam. The tribe of Aceh is also known for its perseverance of struggling against the Dutch Colonial troops during long, agonizing, and energy-consuming warfare. The War of Aceh, lasted for 30 years (1873–1904).

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The tribe mostly inhabits Aceh Besar, Pidie, North Aceh Regency, and parts of East Aceh, South Aceh, and West Aceh Regency. Lebar (1964) divides it into the people of mountain Aceh (ureueng gunong) and the people of lowland Aceh (ureueng baroh). The populace of Acehnese according to the 1930 census was around 775,760. Today the number may have doubled. They mostly make a living by farming in rice fields and dry land. Some own and run coconut, clove, coffee, pepper, palm oil plantations, and so forth. Those who occupy the coastal and riverbank areas normally earn a living as fishermen. These occupations only use simple tools like cangkoi (hoes), langai (plows pulled by a bull or cow), creuh (a brush to flatten rice fields), sadeub (sickles), and gleem (a small palm-held reaping knife to cut rice stalks). Back then they were known as formidable fighters armed with Acehnese rencong, ruduh (a short sword with a tip wider than its handle), keumeurah paneuk (a pistol), peudang (a sword), and tameung (a shield). These weapons in general are made by themselves. The Acehnese language is categorized into the family of Austronesian languages, specifically the subfamily of Hesperonesia languages. The speakers of the language were estimated to number around 2.5 million distributed in five regencies in the Special Region of Aceh. The tribe’s language is divided into several dialects such as Pidie, Meulaboh, Matang, Aceh Besar, and Tunong. The alphabet once used by the people was Jawoi. The main familial relation group in the Acehnese tribe is the nuclear family, because typical household members are father, mother, and their offspring(s). The principle of the familial line is bilinear or bilateral. Paternal relatives are called wali or biek; whereas, maternal relatives are called karong or koy. However, paternal relatives’ role is quite significant, among other things are the role of marital witness and if a biological father passes away, then a chosen surrogate of him is an elder brother of father (ayah we) or a younger brother of father (ayah cut). Most

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prominent relatives are uxorilocal extended family, which means family grouping of a maternal line. This is because after a marriage, a child is expected to stay with his/ her parents’ house. Nevertheless, usually they will form another home for his family as soon as possible in the vicinity of a wife’s relative’s neighborhood. Settlement formation as foundation of communal living unity is called gampong (village or kampong) which is generally located in coastal areas and riverbanks. The rest is scattered over hilly areas, valleys, and outskirts of jungles. Near to gampong, there are interspersed fields. In each gampong, one can find a meunasah (madrasah), dayah (Islamic dormitory), and meusegit (mosque). Gampong is led by a geucik or kecik. A group of several gampong is called mukim, which is led by a head of mukim. In addition to that, there are compound areas consisting of several mukims governed under an uleebalang, a high-rank commander with valuable contributions to a reigning sultan. The social and religious life of each gampong is led by informal leaders such as imeum, meunasah, teungku khatib, teungku bile, and tuha peut (custom advisor). The traditional governance system based on areas of gampong, mukim, or uleebalang has now become obscure since the village government uniformity was brought into effect. In former times, the tribe recognized several social strata. Among others still identifiable now are four: the sultanate family stratum, the class of uleebalang, the ulemas, and ordinary people. The noblemen related to a sultan are called ampon and the females are cut. The uleebalang class comprises the descendants of a sultan’s subordinates’ called teuku. The Acehnese strictly observe and practice Islamic teachings. Despite that, some still practice animism and dynamism. There are some Acehnese able to practice black magic and a group of people who practice several traditional rituals which were not originally derived from the Islamic teachings, such as kenduri blang and kenduri laut. Kenduri Blang is a fertility ceremony routinely held every year by the people of Aceh and Gayo. Meanwhile, kenduri laut or the ceremony of going offshore is carried out in order to seek blessings from the “Ruler of the Ocean”. The ceremony can still be found in the people of Ujong Pusong and Ujong Blang village in West Aceh Regency. A bull is usually sacrificed, its decapitated head is thrown at the sea, while the bull’s meat is cooked for a kenduri after the ritual is over. Acehnese art is heavily influenced by Islamic culture but the people had developed their own version and made necessary adaptation to the existing sociocultural environment. Arabic calligraphy art also thrived in the area, in the form of various carvings and reliefs in their mosques, houses, and surau (smaller mosques). Simultaneously, the well-known Acehnese dance arts are Seudati, Seudati Inong, and Seudati Tunang. Meanwhile, Saman dance which has gained global fame is also from the Aceh Province. It was from Gayo tribe living in Central Aceh Regency, around Laut Tawar Lake. Like Acehnese art which flourished thanks to its contact with many other nations and cultures, Acehnese foods have developed variedly but also share one thing in common: the orientation of Islamic culinary culture with the rigid dichotomy

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between halal (permitted) and haram (not permitted) foods. Distinct Acehnese foods have been the benchmark of many other culinary cultures in Sumatra and Indonesia in general. The Acehnese foods are timphan—a typical Acehnese cake customarily served on the special day of lebaran (Hari Raya) Idul Fitri and Idul Adha. Timphan is made a day or two days before lebaran as it expires within less than a week. Timphan is the main menu for guests coming over lebaran. All the Acehnese know timphan as the cake is passed on from generation to generation. It is wrapped with young banana leaves, and the most famous one is the srikaya-flavored timphan. Gulee Itek (Curry/ duck gulai) is the signature duck gulai dish of Aceh, basically made of kampong ducks cooked in such a way resulting soft texture of meat combined with an assorted selection of complex and complete Acehnese seasonings, generating specific taste. The duck gulai famous among the natives for its thick coconut milk juice is one locally made from Bireun. Gulee Sie Kameng (goat curry)—or frequently dubbed as Beulangong is made of goat meat and young jackfruit (the Acehnese call it boh panah) and kepok banana chunks. Combined with Acehnese seasonings like capli kleng (dried chili), u neu lheu (stir-fried shredded coconut), kayu mameh (cinnamon), it is delicious. The aroma is very distinct. It was told that the Acehnese keep a secret ingredient to soften and flavor any cooked meat. The flavor of gulee sie kameng does not change regardless of the temperature when it is eaten. Any tourists visiting Aceh need to try this signature dish. Kuah Pliek U—Pliek ‘u or in Indonesian is a byproduct of old coconut oil juice which has a unique sensation and aroma that successfully boosts anyone’s appetite. The main ingredient is plik ‘u (oilcake of coconut is shredded to remove its oil) added with leaves and fruits of melinjo and chu (a type of snail found mostly in rivers). Though, some people add other vegetables such as string bean, young papaya, and young jackfruit to this dish. Asam sunti (belimbing wuluh dried and steamed with salt) is the unique ingredient. Eungkot Keumamah (Kayu fish) or keumamah fish—was the culinary tradition of Acehnese fighters since the warfare against the Dutch troops and in all other wars, this fish has been the most favorite. Kayu fish, in Acehnese is called eungkot keumamah, meaning tongkol fish sliced as thick as 2 fingers before drying under sunlight. The natural drying method may be done for a week or longer to give more texture. To preserve it for future consumption, keumamah is then blanketed with tapioca flour or fried. After a year, it can be fried again. There are two ways of cooking keumamah: keumamah tumeh (stir-frying) and keumamah leumak (fat). Both present a different taste and shelf life. Aceh noodle (Mie Aceh)—is an Acehnese spicy noodle. It looks yellow and thick, mixed with slices of cow, goat meat, or seafood (shrimps, crabs, and squid) and served in a spicy and savory curry soup. There are two types of Mie Aceh; fried Mie Aceh (fried and dry) and soup Mie Aceh (with soup). It is usually sprinkled with fried onion and served with emping (fried melinjo chips), slices of fresh onion, cucumber, and lime.

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Gulee Ungkoet Yee (shark gulai)—eungkot yee or shark in Acehnese—is a very special and delicious food. To the Acehnese in several regions, especially the western Acehnese people, sharks can be cooked as a delicious curry soup. The seasonings are spices which cannot be found elsewhere, such as teumurui and kruet leaves, making the gulai one-of-its-kind. Geluee Asam Keu’eung—One of the culinary icons of Aceh is eungkot asam keueung (ikan masak masam/ sour cooked fish). Most of the fish used in the dish are kakap, rambeu (bawal), sisek (tuna), kapok, manyung, and so forth. However, it can also be freshwater fish, like gabus, golden fish, and so on. “Masam” means sour; whereas, “keu’eung” means spicy. That means any dish named “masam keu’eung” is a sour and spicy dish. Sour and spicy are two characteristics of Malay dishes. In Aceh, sour flavor can be obtained from various ingredients: asam sunti (dried cucumber tree) asam potong (asam glugur), tamarind, jeruk purut and jeruk nipis (two types of lime). The mixture of various sour ingredients adds more aroma to the food. Eungkot (fish) cooked as asam keu’eung look like pindang Palembang. Its color is a little bit yellow after the addition of turmeric as part of the seasonings and chili makes the food reddish. Sambal Asam Udeung (sambal ganja)—It is a dish not to miss here. Asam udeung is boiled, chopped shrimp with sour and spicy seasonings. In one Acehnese restaurant in Jakarta, asam udeung is popularly dubbed “sambal ganja”. This is not because the dish contains marijuana (ganja means marijuana in Indonesian). Instead, this is because it makes people keep eating it. In addition to condiment as the accompaniment of rice, asam udeung is also a good companion of sie reuboh (boiled meat) which is made of goat meat or cow meat. The meat is boiled with vinegar, dried and deep fried. It looks like dendeng, but what makes it different is that it is still moist inside, coupled with vinegar, it tastes temptingly palatable. Consumed with asam udeung, sie reuboh’s sourness strengthen. Ayam Tangkap—The habit of eating ayam tangkap has been the norm in the Acehnese culinary culture. Cooking ayam tangkap is relatively easy. One only needs to season (to add savories) and fry the chicken. All the seasonings added are garlic, pepper, candlenut, salt, and ginger. After seasoning, chicken is fried for 5– 10 min. At the same time, add several leaves which will be served with the chicken. This way, the spices flavor will seep through the chicken meat. Leaves used here are pandan, kari, and koja. Those leaves cover chicken tangkap in a pair of plates closing with each other. The leaves’ aromatic scents mix with one another. After chicken is well done, leaves are still served covering the chicken. Therefore, this chicken is deliberately placed beneath a heap of leaves. Here, leaves make the dish even more attractive and it serves as edible, dried garnish to accompany the served chicken. Consumed right after cooking, they may taste dry and crunchy, like crackers. Acehnese egg martabak—At a glance, it looks like ordinary omelet. The making of it, nonetheless, starts with frying its crust and shaping it into rectangular, resembling of roti canai. Afterward, add scrambled raw eggs mixed with slices of onion and leek. Next, it is fried like a fried scrambled egg or omelet, with the

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rectangular crust as its center. As addition to the flavor, Acehnese egg martabak is served with pickled onion and cayenne. Adee Cake—After the 2004 Tsunami Disaster, practically all Acehnese started their lives from scratch. Because the potential and knack for making Adee cake is more dominant, they later established businesses selling this cake. This way, they began to revive the grassroots economy. In Merauke, there is an Adee cake businessman employing many dropout young girls to make the cake at a mass scale. In the capital of the province, Banda Aceh, alone Adee cake is now easily found. The cake with savory, sweet taste, tender texture, and fried onion scent is a popular snack eaten while sipping coffee at a local coffee house. Making Adee cake is not difficult. What matters most is mixing dough proportionally and then baking it in an oven. Back then usually people baked dough in an iron pan (neuleuk), that is to say a baking tool made from a fireproof pan. Other signature foods of Aceh are gulee pliek; gulee rampoe; chicken or meat gulee; fish head gulee; shark gulee; fish egg gulee; paeh engkout bileh (steamed anchovy wrapped in leaves); anchovy ground chili; sambal on peugaga; Acehnese noodle; Acehnese martabak. Acehnese snacks: boh rom-rom (onde-onde); pulut panggang cake; jala bread; meuseukat; melinjo chips; bolu peukan bada; kanji rumbi; dodol. Sources: Kennedy (1935, 1943), Lebar (1964), Sjamsuddin (1971), Loeb (1972), Hurgronje (1906), Zentgraf (1982), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989), van Vollenhoven (1970). Also see: Cayo. AIKWAKAI (Tori, Sikari, Eritai, Araikurioko) 472 Papua The tribe of Aikwakai lives around lakes that serve as headwaters of Tariku River (Idenburg) and Taritatu (Rauffaer). Both meet each other to form the giant river of Memberamo in Papua Province. The population was around 400, scattered in villages of Sikari, Haya Kausa, Iri, Biri, and Papasena in Memberamo Hulu and Pantai Timur Sub-district, Jayapura Regency. The other names of the tribe are Sikari, Tori, Eritai, Araikurioko. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). AIRORAN (Adora, Iriemkena) 473 Papua The tribe now lives in several villages in the western parts of Apawar River, around the coastal areas of northern Papua, which are in the following villages: Subu, Matabiak, Isirania, Kabeso, Nivau, Tamajine, Waiter, and Kwesar. All of these

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belong to the territory of Memberamo Hilir Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 400. It is called also Adora, Iriemkena. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). AKIT (Akik) 021 Sumatra The tribe is also called orang Akik. This may have been derived from the word “rakik” or “rakit”, which means a raft because they live mostly on the sea and estuaries. In the earlier times, they built houses on rafts moving from one riverbank to another. These days, they stay around Hutan Panjang, Rupat sub-district in Rupat Island, Bengkalis Regency. In 1984, the populace was around 3,500, scattered on the damp Rupat Island with many rivers and straits.

As told by their parents, Akit people’s ancestors were from the Peninsula of Malaka (now Malaysia). Initially, they were the tribe of Kit that lived in the inner part of Asia. Either because of warfare, disaster, or plague, they went south, “reaching to where the edge of splashing waves, where crabs crawl and turtles laid eggs.” The condition compelled them to get to know sea waves and salty seawater as well as the freedom of moving on rafts and boats. For this reason, they started to develop their adaptive life in Riau Islands. Akit people mostly make a living by hunting, fishing, and processing sago (Malay: Rumbia—Metroxilon Sago) commonly found in Rupat Island as wild vegetation. They hunt boars, deer, or mouse deer with speared sticks, arrows, and sometimes snares. Speared sticks are used to shoot at birds, bats, and as self-defense weapons. Their loyal friends during hunting are dogs. Once a year they harvest durians. Besides that, they excel at making tuak (traditional liquor) from enau (a type of palm tree) or coconut water. They are of sturdy and taller build than the most Malay living around them. Though they actually have light skin, their skin tone is dark chocolate burned by the sunlight and coastal weather. Foreheads and

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cheekbones of these Akit people are tall like any other Mongoloid people. Nonetheless, their eyes are slanted and their hair tends to be curly. Akitian daughters are married after 1 year old and boys after 1 year old. The Akikian boys have to undergo circumcision ritual at the age of 1 the circumcision was not Islam influence. A newlywed woman is immediately brought by her husband to their own new house or stay temporarily in ahouse of husbands’ parents. Male’s parents provide a “purchase fund”, currently Malaysian Dollars to a girl’s parents. For a girl, a man provides dowries in the form of a pair of rings, attire cloth, and household utensils. For a wedding party, they have pigs as a dish, drink tuak, and then sing and dance until the dawn breaks. In the reign of Siak Sultanate, the tribe was also respectable for their ability to survive in the sea with courage and poisonous sticks. Therefore, they were asked to be involved in the warfare against Dutch Colonial troops, who in the era caught Akit people to be sold as slaves. Akit people with their disturbance in the Colonial era were recorded by the Dutch as sea pirates that caused much trouble and were hard to conquer. In the Sultanate of Siak itself, they had their own batin (a leader of Aki people acknowledged by a sultan of Siak). Even though the tribe once had close relations with Siak Sultanate, they were not very much influenced by the culture of Malay. Except that they were observant of the reigning Siak Sultanate which held so much authority at the time and used the Malayan language to communicate, Akit people retain their own orginal identity. They call the Malay people Selam, which means “orang Islam” (Muslims). Their original belief system worshipped ancestors and is derived from the moral teachings of Buddhism. Nowadays many Akit women are married to Chinese descent men whose economic status is relatively similar to them. The Chinese descendants apparently prefer being Aki people’s in-laws, especially because they want to stay on the island. Because many durian trees grow in Rupat Island, many people go there when the durian season comes. It is no wonder that one of the distinct foods of Akit people is lempok durian. Meanwhile, the most favorite foods made of their game are grilled pelanduk or “gulai pelanduk” (pelanduk cooked in milk coconut soup). Source: Hidayah (1987a). ALAS 002 Sumatra The word alas was derived from the language of Gayo which means “tikar” (mat). Perhaps the name is related to the tribe’s landscape of settlement, which stretches vast like an unfolded mat. The populace was 13,621 (based on the 1930 census), now it is around 90,000. They spread in around 5 sub-districts in Southeast Aceh Regency, i.e., Babussalam, Bambel, Lawe Alas, Badar, and Lawe Sigala-gala sub-district. Their settlement is also called Tanah Alas or Lembah Alas (the Land of Alas or the Valley of Alas). These days the tribe generally embraces Islam as their faith.

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The language of Alas falls into the category of Austronesian language or Malayan language family, which is divided into several dialects, for example, Alas Hulu, Alas Tengah, Alas Hilir dialect. Their main occupation is field cultivation, in addition to raising cattle and catching fish. Some others make a living by collecting natural resources found in woods, coffee, clove, coconut, rubber planting, and so forth. The tribe calls their nuclear family indung jabu. Usually they live together, forming an extended family residing in a long house in which a nuclear family has its own kitchen. An extended family is called merge or marga (a small clan). An entire extended family (a clan) is called tumpuk. Afterward, several tumpuks form a customary federation called jabu or belah (a subgroup of society). Therefore, we recognize belah from a merging of Pinem, Sebayang, Selian, and so on. The familial principle of the tribe is patrilineal. The ideal form of marriage back then was one with a cross-familial cousin. A settlement (kute) in Tanah Alas is led by a village chief named penghulu. Informal leaders in kampong usually are assigned from tuha peut (scholars) and imeum (ulemas). The democracy system of Alas traditional villages is expressed in the slogan of “sepakat segenap”(all agree). Every kute is usually a home to some merges (patrilineal clan). Each merge has a customary meeting hall called mersah. In the past, all kutes in Alas were divided into two traditional authorities called kejerun: Kejerun Batu Mbulan and Kejerun Bambel. One of the interesting ceremonies in the people of Alas is antat taruh, which is a circumcision ceremony. Here a young boy aged 7–12 years old is picked up by his uncle to be circumcized at his house. The goal of antat taruh at an uncle’s house is to match a boy with an uncle’s girl (cross-cousin marriage). The tribe of Alas has developed their own vocal art such as tangis, langgam, rende, and pantun as well as the art of storytelling (oral tradition) such as sukuten story and ngerane (custom speeches). Their art of dance has pelebat, landok alun, meusekat, meut kuang, and war dance. The musical instruments consist of bangsi, ketuk layar, kecapi, and genggong. The Alas people’s traditional foods are ndewan, a shoot of a type of talas growing on land. Do not be fooled, however, as this is not taro or “sukat” in the Alasian language. The food is usually made by boiling or steaming it after washing all the ingredients clean. There is no need to peel after cooking as it tastes better if its skin naturally leaves on its own. Sulukh Kosap—The food may not be commonplace for some people. In the Alasian language, it is called “Sulur Kosap” or in Indonesian, “root of talas or keladi” as a shoot of bulb. Kosap alone means “keladi” (taro), a type of plant that is frequently cooked in Tanah Alas. Usually kosap is cooked with asam sunti (kemie) or young mangoes. Sulukh kosap is often consumed in Tanah Alas. Yet, it is advisable that we do not consume it without a prior proper process as it may cause itchiness in mouth and tongue. To cook kosap properly, one must be accompanied by a native who is already skillful at cooking kosap.

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The second freshly picked, raw vegetable-based dish is young mutik mbacang (pentil bacang). This unique food is served with sambal belacan (fermented shrimp mixed with mortared chili and other ingredients). Sambal belacan for this very dish has unique ingredients, i.e., cayenne, lemongrass, fermented shrimp, lime juice. The combination of spicy, bitter, sour taste generates tempting aroma. Mie lontong a la Kutacane—the food is often called lontong lidi (stick steamed rice). The food may be found anywhere in Indonesia but this mie lontong in Tanoh Alas is one we cannot find anywhere else but in North Sumatra. So never hope people in Lampung and Palembang ask for mie lidi (stick noodle) from Medan. Njekhuk sambal—njekhuk is one of the most popular foods in Kutacane, especially during durian season because the culinary product is made from the fruit. Njekhuk is also known as “tempoyak” to other people and a food that belongs to some people of Batak and Palembang. To make njekhuk, peel a durian and save its flesh (leave all seeds). Keep it in a closed container for two days so it turns sour. This is what we call njekhuk or tempoyak. Raw njekhuk or tempoyak—in Tanoh Alas, njekhuk is often used as additional ingredient of cooking gulai ikan (fish gulai), steamed fish wrapped in leaves (pepes ikan), sambal teri (anchovy and mortared chili) or for sambal only. To make sambal njekhuk, get some red chili, onion, and salt. Grind onion and chili by adding enough salt. Once it is refined, put some njekhuk and stir evenly and wait until it looks reddish. Prepare a frying pan and pour 10 tablespoons of cooking oil. Once the oil is heated, fry njekhuk dough mixed with chili. Stir sambal continuously on a small flame. Once sambal looks brownish around 10–15 min later, serve it. For anchovy sambal, simply add fried anchovy to sambal njekhuk dough right before it is ready to lift from the pan and then stir evenly and it is now ready to serve.

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Kendiling—it is one of the side dishes commonly found in households in Tanoh Alas kampongs. This recipe is also found in other regions with some differences of process, names, and serving methods. The Javanese people call it sambal tuk-tuk even though they add curcumin to it. Kendiling itself consists of various main ingredients. There are some who use anchovy or other freshwater fish such as gabus, mujair, or goldfish but how to cook it remains the same. Kendiling ikan teri (anchovy kendiling)—anchovy which is already washed clean, fried on a pan without any oil added and then stir until it turns brownish and dry. Kendiling ikan mujair (mujair kendiling)—mujair fish already cleaned is then grilled on flame after being salted and sprinkled with lime juice at first. The only ingredients added before grilling are salt and asam. After it is perfectly grilled, remove the fish bones. This is what we do with gabus fish, catfish, and goldfish. Itik sahuk—it is one of the traditional dishes of Tanoh Alas that maybe at a glance resembles rendang (beef sauce) but its taste is very different from rendang in general. Itik in Indonesian means duck, and sahuk in Indonesian means stir-fry, so in Indonesian the dish may mean “Stir-fried Duck”. After cleaning, duck meat is grilled first to remove oil inside as well as to remove unpleasant odor of meat or ngelulus in the language of Alas. After grilling evenly for 10–15 min, the duck meat is sliced as desired and cleaned perfectly. Afterward, take one coconut, shred it, and stir-fry on a pan with small flame and keep on stirring until shredded coconut meat turns brownish and reddish. After that, take it out of the pan and grind it well. Grind stir-fry shredded coconut while it is hot so it is easier to do it. Source: Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). ALOR 412 Nusa Tenggara The tribe of Alor inhabits the island of Alor, Pantar, and smaller neighboring islands. Their territory now belongs to Alor Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. They mostly live on Northwest Alor, Southwest Alor, East Alor, South Alor, Pantar, and Kalabahi sub-districts.

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The Alor name was possibly derived from outsiders to call a group of people living in the land. They consist of sub-tribes, such as Abui, Alor, Belagar, Deing, Kabola, Kawel, Kelong, Kemang, Kramang, Kui, Lemma, Maneta, Mauta, Lemma, Seboda, Wersin, and Wuwuli. In the 1930 census, they fell into the populace of Alor-Solor which reached 150,000. In the past, these sub-tribes lived in an isolated manner in hilly and mountainous areas especially to elude wars and external pressures. There they built round, tall wooden pillars with a round-shaped reed or ijuk roof, its walls are made of pleats of bamboo, lontar leaves, or board. Because of the lack of communication among them, they developed various dialects that differentiate one group from another. They mostly make a living by nomadic cultivation, which means they cut trees in woods and burn it down before settling down. Main plants grown are corn, paddy, cassava, sorghum, and nuts. Aside from that, they still have other traditional side jobs such as hunting, fishing, picking, and processing natural resources in woods, and making pleats to be traded with other goods. Like every other activity, these activities are regulated by custom law. The Alor lineagefischer principle is patrilineal. A nuclear family is called kukkus. A combination of some kukkus is a bala or small clan. A compound of several balla is a laing or big clan. In the marriage, the people practice exogamic clan tradition. A male’s family is expected to pay some dowries called belis in cash to a female’s family. Belis may consist of a sum of money, gong, blankets (a type of belt), and moko (a type of drum to accompany a procession). In addition to that, a marriage may be allowed to happen without any belis (dowries) paid. For that to occur, a husband must dedicate himself for quite a while to his wife’s family. There is also a girl-exchanging marriage, in which a man who cannot afford to pay beli can let his female sibling be married by a male of his

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wife’s family. A shortcut taken by men to avoid the liability of providing dowry is elopement. But all these shortcuts have sanctions. Nowadays, the people of Alor already embrace Islam and Christianity. Islam entered Pantar and Labahai in the era of Sultan Baabullah of Ternate. The original faith of theirs is still embraced by some of the sub-tribes. They believe in the Most Supreme character called Lahatala. This character can only be reached through the mediation of gods such as Mouh Maha-maha (earth god), Fred (sun god), Ul (moon god). The highest god concept is possibly developed thanks to the influence of monotheistic faiths coming afterward. The most sought-after distinct foods of Alor tribe are walnut, titi corn, hair cake (kue rambut), tembak corn (jagung tembak), gulai jantung pisang kepok. Sources: Koentjaraningrat (1969), Dubois (1944), Depdikbud (t.t.) ALUNE 361 Maluku The people of Alune are considered one of the oldest tribes in Seram Island and descended from tribes living in Central Maluku. These days they are grouped into one of the peoples living in a culturally isolated way. They live around the mountains of central Seram Island, Kairatu sub-district, Maluku Tengah Regency, Maluku Province. The populace was around 550. They still make a living by gathering and processing natural resources found in woods such as processing sago, collecting keladi (taro/a type of edible root plant). Some of them live by planting bananas, cassava, and sweet potatoes in a simple way. The other occupations are hunting birds, boars, and deer fishing, and so on. Source: Rusmaniar (1988). AMAHAI 362 Maluku The people of Amahai live on Amahai sub-district in the western part of southern Seram Island, near Masohi, the capital of Central Maluku Province. The populace was around 10,000. Generally, they share the same culture with the tribe of Ambon. The language used is called the Amahaian language, which belongs to a family of Nunusaku languages (a family of original languages in Seram Island and its surroundings). Source: Subiyakto (1983). Also see: AMBON.

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AMANAB 474 Papua The tribe of Amanab lives in Papua Province, near the border of Indonesia with Papua New Guinea. The populace was around 3,000 in Indonesia territory and 4,000 in Papua New Guinea. Their settlement is located in the Waris District, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Source: Grimes (1984). AMBAI 475 Papua The tribe of Ambai lives in Ambai Island located in the southern part of Yapen Island, Papua. The populace was around 7,500 spread across 10 villages. Their language belongs to the Austronesian language family such as Wadapi Laut, Manawi, and Rondawaya dialect. Their villages are Ambai, Rondepi, Adiwipi, Randawaipi, Menawi, Wadapi-Laut, Randawaya, WariRoni, Sumberbaba, and Dawai. All of these are located in South Yapen and East Yapen District, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua. The tribe is considered familiar with “outsiders” as they have known paddy growing and “east cloth” trading. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). AMBELAU 363 Maluku The tribe of Ambelau lives in Ambelau Island, which is a small island in the south of Buru Island, in Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. They make a living by processing sago, hunting, and fishing. The language of Ambelua belongs to the language family of Austronesia. Source: Grimes (1984). AMBERBAKEN 476 Papua The tribe of Amberbakens lives in the northern coastal area of the Bird Head of Papua Island, the west of Manokwari, in Amberbaken and Kebar District, Papua Province. The populace was around 5,500. Their villages are Waibem, Imbuan, Wekari, Arupi, Wesui, Kasi, Warsenemburi, Anjai, Imbuanari, Inam, Wangkori, Asimi, Eundini, and Mubrani. Source: Silzer and Heikkenen (1984).

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AMBON 364 Maluku The tribe of Ambon lives in Ambon, Hitu, and Saparua Island, in Maluku Province. In fact, they were from Seram Island like any other tribe inhabiting islands in Central Maluku. Ambonese itself is the hybrid of the local language and Malay. For this reason, some call the language of Ambon “Ambonese Malay” or Nusalaut (in particular Seram Island). The approximate number of speakers of the language these days is 100,000. That number excludes those living in the Netherlands. By the distribution of speakers, the language can be divided into several dialects such as Nusalaut, Saparua, Haruku, Hila, Asilulu, Hatu, Wakasihu, and so forth. Now it has become the lingua franca of various peoples in Maluku Province, especially in Central Maluku Regency. Basically, the occupations of the tribe are land cultivation with paddy, corn, sweet potato, cassava (kasbi), vegetables, nuts, coconut, coffee, clove, tobacco, and fruits. Meanwhile, sago is also considered a staple food type. It used to be easy to get back then as it grew as prevalent vegetation in the region. Nowadays, sago is cultivated by planting regularly like coconuts. Besides land cultivation, the people of Ambon like to fish in waters around neighboring islands, which are rich with maritime resources. In the case of formal education, as of the Dutch Colonial era they already went to school and chose to work as government civil servants and soldiers. Their kindred relations nature is patrilineal and the settlement pattern after marriage is patrilocal (newlywed couples live around a husband’s family’ house). The most important kindred unity is matarumah (a nuclear family), a unity of families which consists of a senior nuclear family and several other junior nuclear families in the male lines. At the larger scale, they recognize the form of kindred unity which takes form as a restricted extended family called soa. These days, the terminology of soa is often confused with fam (“family”, derived from the Dutch language). The people call villages; negeri. The local living unity is led by a head of negeri often dubbed bapa raja. Coincidentally this position is passed on to matarumah from a most senior soa in a certain village. In the post, a bapa raja is assisted by a custom institution called saniri negeri. This institution has several types. The first one is saniri raja patih, which consists of a king and some heads of soa only. The second is saniri negeri lengkap which consists of a king, several heads of soa, a custom leader, and matarumah heads or adults in the society. The third is saniri negeri besar which consists of a king, some heads of soa, a custom leader, and matarumah heads and adults in the society. Bapa Raja has several trusted people called marinyo (helpers). Back then, some negeris were united into a customary tie called pela in which they were not allowed to attack each other. Instead, they have to help each other when enemies are around. Nowadays, pela is organized into social cooperatives amongst villages.

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Currently, the people of Ambon embrace Islam and Christianity. Ambonese Muslims are generally more skillful at trading and other economic fields. The Ambonese Christians who embrace Christianity mostly prefer working as government civil servants, teachers, and soldiers. However, in daily life, they often practice old cultural rituals and this has become their prominent tribal identity. Rituals like the ceremony of Nae Baileu or Cuci Negeri is their ancestral legacy. In holding a death ceremony and processions, they work together in a customary social unity called muhabet. Nae Baileu is a ceremony which is “cuci negeri” by nature, found in a traditional society in Ambonese countries in general. The ceremony is centralized in a custom hall, which they call baileu. In the old times, the hall was used as a place of custom meetings and religious ceremonies. The aim of Nae Baileu ceremony is, besides driving away bad elements from the country, to ask for blessings and protection to their ancestral spirits as well as to restrengthen social ties and peace between all soas in the country. According to the formation of a negeri community, a negeri was founded for the first time by a number of soas who were then classified into a group named soa hitam. Usually, these people are considered to be entitled to be enthroned as raja (king), as well as tuan tanah (landlords). Deciding which part of land is allowed to be cultivated by soas which later on come. Receiving new soa as a new member in the ancient times was needed especially to fortify troops in the event of warfare between kingdoms which usually happened in the past. Now Nae Baileu ceremony is heavily influenced by a religion embraced by the majority of negeri’s inhabitants. During the Dutch Colonial occupation, the city of Ambon was packed with various tribes and nations so appeared several terms to refer to immigrants or new settlers, such as Tuni, Moni, Mahu, and Wahan. Tuni is a term to call tribes from Seram Island (Nunusaku). Seram Island is often called “Nusa Ina” as the majority of tribes spread throughout Maluku Tengah Islands are considered to be from this island. Moni is a term to refer to tribes from regions of the Pacific Ocean (Papuan or Melanesian ones). Mahu is used to call tribes from western parts of Indonesia such as Bugis, Makassar, Buton, Minangkabau, and Javanese tribe. Meanwhile, Wahan is used to call tribes from islands around Ambon such as Ternate, Banda, and Buru Island. The distinct foods of Ambon often sought by people as gifts are bagea, papeda, lempeng sagu bakar, asar fish, and Asida. Pepeda is sago flour mixed with hot water and eaten with yellow gulai made of mubara fish (snapper). Now these foods are available in restaurants in every corner of Maluku. Bagea—a cake made of sago flour mixed with brown sugar (coconut sugar covered with rumbia leaves and burned). Now this cake is shaped with wheat cake molds and sprinkled with canary granules. Ikan Asar or grilled fish—the food is made of sliced fresh fish and then dried under the sunlight or grilled on fire. Ikan asar tastes better if eaten with steamed rice and colo colo (a mixture of mortared cayenne and onion).

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Asida—it is made of wheat flour, brown sugar (aren sugar), butter, and ground cinnamon mixed with a bit cardamom. Asida is usually served on special occasions but now it is available as Ambonese gifts. Sources: Subyakto (1983), Hidayah (1987b), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Kennedy (1950). AMMATOWA (Kajang) 301 Sulawesi Amma-towa is one of many parts of the Bugis tribe living in Kajang sub-district, Bulukumba Regency, South Sulawesi Province. Outsiders often call them Orang Kajang. They are seen as a community that still continues to retain their religious belief system of animism. Ammatowa tribe which is also called orang Kajang lives in Kajang sub-district, in Bulukumba Regency, South Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. It is located approximately 40 km from the eastern Bulukumba Regency. The culture of Kajang is unique because it still preserves their own original belief and custom, legacy of their ancestors. Orang Kajang or Ammatowa are considered to hold faithfully the content of a lontar book titled “Pasang ri Kajang”. The ancient script contains wisdom messages, i.e., the people of Tana Toa must always remember God, must prioritize solidarity, and appreciate one another. The people of Ammatowa are taught to act firmly, patiently, and piously. Pasang ri Kajang also persuades to obey rules and follow them as well as they can. The people of Ammatowa live in groups in a forest area which is only 50 km2. They shun everything related to modernity, economy and the government of Bulukumba. Perhaps it is because of the ties they have with the forest and their strong belief in their own life perspectives. Black is a color of tradition that earnestly symbolizes sacredness. And once we enter the territory of Ammatowa, our attire must be black, too. Black carries a meaning to the people of Ammatowa as it shows equality in every aspect of life, including similarity in modesty. There is no other black color which is better than others. All types of black colors are similar. Black shows strength and equality for everyone before the Creator. Similarity in the physical form, in responding to the surroundings, the people are especially concerned with forest preservation as forest originality needs to be retained due to its role as a life source. The tribe of Kajang Dalam more sternly holds their ancestral custom and traditions compared to Kajang Luar, which live outside settlement areas. In Kajang Dalam, the people live in rumah panggung facing the west and neatly positioned, especially those in Dusun Benteng where rumah Amma towa is located. Some houses stand in a neat row from the north to the south. In front of the house row, there is a single-meter-high fence made of river stones. The language used is called the language of Bugis Konjo, which is the communication medium between members of Kajang society.

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Seen from the outside, the traditional house of Kajang Tribe is physically similar to ones of Bugis and Makassar people that apply high structures and still use the surrounding forest to build. The very modest life can be seen through kitchens. This house model does not have a terrace or verandah and there is no bedroom inside. The typical attires usually worn by Kajangese men are head covers called Passapu and sarong usually called Tope Lelleng (black sarong). Typical attire usually worn by Kajangese women is usually black in color. On the one hand, the community of Ammatowa has connections with Islam. They are sure that God has revealed Al Qur’an in 40 juz, instead of 0 juz which the majority of Muslims believe. Because they are not considered good Muslims for being different, they are exiled and oppressed by the majority. If Islamic Regional Regulation (Perda), South Sulawesi, is applied and set to be a benchmark, the people of Ammatowa Kajang cannot be called Muslims. They do not know Arabic letters. Furthermore, they have their own understanding of the Holy Scripture. They have Pasang ri Kajang consisting of 10 juz. “Allah actually revealed holy verses to human kind in 40 juz. Allah’s revelation divided into 30 juz in Al Quran is a scripture for others. In the meantime, for Ammatowa there are only 10 juz contained in the holy book of Parang ri Kajang.” They observe all the teachings of the holy book tightly. Pasang ri Kajang contains messages from their ancestors, especially a message that the people of Tana Toa must always remember God. They also have to nurture solidarity and appreciation for each other. Ammatowan people are also taught to act firmly, patiently, and piously. Pasang ri Kajang tells them to obey rules and observe them well. Source: Depdikbud (1989). AMUNGME (Amui, Hamung) 477 Papua The tribe of Amungme is also called Amui or Hamung. They live on western parts of Jayawijaya Mountains, in the west of Dani Barat tribe’s territory, in the east of Ekagi tribe’s territory. Their settlement area is located in Mimika Timur sub-district, Fakfak Regency. Some others spread near the border territory between Paniai and Jayawijaya Regency. The population was 3,500. Their language is called the language of Uhunduni, which is divided into several dialects, i.e., Amung, Damal, and Enggipilu. Amungme people live in houses built on top of wooden poles with dried reed or sago leaves (rumbia) as a roof. They live in randomly scattered settlement groups. Every group consists of 5–10 households (marked by their houses). Women’s traditional clothes are pairs of loincloth or skirts made of tree fibers. Men’s traditional clothes are koteka made of dried pumpkin skin. Their contact with the outer civilization is particularly thanks to missionary presence. They taught Christianity

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and Indonesian at the same time. In Kwamki Village, East Mimika Sub-district, there is a State Elementary School for their young children. Sources: Nurmada (1988), Grimes (1984). ANAK DALAM 062 Sumatra The tribe is often called Kubu people by other tribes. They live around the border between Jambi Province and South Sumatra. The rest on the border between Jambi and Riau. They are nomadic by nature so they are deemed an “exiled” society in a cultural and transportational perspective. At the moment, some already start to settle down and start to cultivate lands like the neighboring tribes. Most of them still lead a melangon or melangun (nomadic) life in the surroundings of Musi, Rawas, and Tembesi River. The population is hard to estimate but according to a 1907 record, it was 7,950. The latest one showed that in Jambi Province alone there were around 12,000 (1993) scattered in 43 locations, i.e., Batanghari, Bungoteboo, and Sarolangun Bangko Regency. Besides “Anak Dalam” or “Kubu”, they are also referred to as Ulu or Lubu. The word “Anak Dalam” was popularized by the provincial government of Jambi after the tribe complained that the nicknames (Kubu, Luwu, or Ulu) were regarded derogatory. Even though some of them have opted to settle and begin learning how to cultivate land and grow plants, their main occupations are still processing natural resources, hunting game, and fishing. Some settle for work as loggers or rubber harvesters in other people’s plantations. Their living unity in a nuclear family is quite important but the nomadic people prefer living in groups in their parents’ neighborhood. Their kinship principle possibly tends to be bilateral. Every group is led by a senior man considered wise and experienced. The tribe in general still practice the group endogamous marriage system (choosing spouses from their own group), but they are prohibited to be married to siblings and maternal cousins. Those who have settled for a long time and been influenced by Malay culture usually elect a local leader call depati. Besides that, they still see besale (a shaman) as a respected spiritual leader. There are also expert figures in the domain of tradition and society and mastery of esoteric ancestral knowledge. These people are called malim but their role can be performed by besale. Anak Dalam people who live near the settlement of Malay people even embrace Islam. Meanwhile, the rest normally still believe in their original faith of animism and dynamism. A few others embrace Christianity introduced by Christian educators. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Loeb (1972), Sandbukt (1989). Also see: KUBU.

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ANEUK JAMEE 003 Sumatra The tribe of Anaek Jamee or Anak Jame lives in Tapak Tuan, Samadua, and Manggeng Sub-district, South Aceh Regency, Aceh Special Region. Currently, the estimated population is around 14,000, spread in four kemukiman (a unity of several kampongs based on custom laws), which is to say Kemukiman of Suaq, Kasiek Putieh, Panton Laweh, and Sedar. Aneuk Jamee in Acehnese means “a guest’s child” or an immigrant. They were allegedly from the people of Sao and Pariaman in Minangkabau, West Sumatra, who had migrated to the western coast of Aceh in the seventeenth century. It is no wonder that the language of Aneuk Jamee tribe is very much similar to one of Minangkabau. However, due to time change and effect of surroundings, the language also developed some dialects such as dialect of Samadua, Tapak Tuan. They are Muslims. They cultivate in dry land and rice fields in swamps, growing palawija, and productive plants such as clove, coffee, rubber, coconut, and so on. A few of them grow paddy in mountains and some others are fishermen in coastal areas. Their smallest kindred unity is called tanggo (household). They practice settlement systems after marriage which is matrilocal like Minangkabau tribe. Yet, kindred relations and descendant lines tend to be bilateral, otherwise patrilineal. The role of the extended family is still huge upon an individual life. This fact is revealed in the kindred principle of saampek kaum, i.e., the principle of relatives’ involvement on both sides (father and mother). Their local living unity is called kampuang, which is led by a kecik chosen by people. In every kampong, there is a religious leader called tuangku manasah, or imam manasah. Several kampongs join and form a kemukiman led by one mukim leader (Kepala Mukim). At this level, a religious leader is called tuangku sagi. Another informal leader is a local scholar. In the social structure, some remnants of the old social stratification system still exist. For instance, a person belonging to the noblemen stratum is usually called datuk. In the meantime, a group of ulemas have their own title, tuangku. Then there is urang barado or the rich people group and the ordinary men. Aneuk Jamee develops art such as Pho dance which resembles Seudati dance of Aceh and Rateb Mausekat dance. While Seudati dancers pat on chest, Pho dancers pat on hips as they are all females. Source: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989). ANGKOLA-MANDAILING 011 Sumatra Angkola or Mandailing people are one of the groups of Batak sub-tribe living in Angkola, Padang Lawas, Batang Toru area, some area of Sibolga, Mandailing, Ulu Pakantan, and the northern part of Padang Lawas. Nowadays, the area belongs to

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the territory of South Tapanuli Regency. The population is estimated to reach around 700,000 (based on the 1975 census, around 674,800). Besides that, they also spread in various other regions in Indonesia. Sources: Bangun (1983), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). Lihat juga: BATAK. AOHENG 206 Kalimantan According to the classification of experts such as Sellato (1989), the tribe is classified into one of the Dayak subgroup living nomadically around Muller-Schwaner Mountains, Central Kalimantan. According to Rousseau (1990), Aoheng is a name they use to refer to themselves.

Source: King (1993), Sellato (1989), Rousseau (1990). ARAB General Indonesia Nowadays, the Arabic people who can be distinguished physically and culturally from the native tribes are getting harder to find. This includes distinguishing those who are foreigners and those who are Indonesian due to the fact that they have mingled so well with other tribes. Identifying Arabic people only by skin tone proves to be inaccurate as some show darker skin tone but some others lighter. Even a number of them also resemble physically the natives. In several regions in Indonesia (such as Aceh, Ambon, Java, Gorontalo, Ternate, and so on), children of

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mix marriages between the people of Arab with local tribes often identify themselves as natives. Even so, the majority of the Arabic people naturalized as Indonesian still retain their own customs and traditions which make them unique. From a public perspective, “Arab is Islam” and the understanding of Muslims on Arab and Islam also vary. Indonesian Muslims may learn Islamic teachings much but their knowledge of the Arabic people and their culture is close to none. For that reason, this special entry is deliberately written to enrich our comprehension of the Arabic people in Indonesia. According to many experts, the Arabic people who live in Indonesia were generally from Hadramaut, a coastal region in the most southern part of the Arabic Land, which is located in current Yemen. Their arrival objective to Indonesia was mostly a commercial one. They sold goods and bought spices from Indonesia. The commercial ties have been for some time, before the arrival of European nations in the archipelago. These people’s commercial voyages were not directly headed to Indonesia. Some transited in Gujarat (the western coast of India) first. Some even had stayed for several generations in Bombay before heading to Indonesia. In their places of origin, they actually were divided into various tribes, (qabilah) and perkauman, and divided into several social strata. The tribal identity and social stratification are easier to identify by the name of group or hamula (kindred groups). Therefore, names really matter to them. Kindred groups can be used to trace back an ancestor. Hence, it is possible for the Arabic people to trace their lineage by descendants, hamula, qabilah, subqabilah, and clan/family. According to their culture, someone’s name is chosen based on the patrilineal concept. The Hadramautian Arabic people recognize several social layers. The first is the stratum of Ba alwe or Al alwe consisting of sayid (masters/ lords) and syarif (respected gentlemen). The Sayid title is usually bestowed on people who think they are descendants of Husin; whereas, the Syarif title is the ones of Hasan. Daughters of this first group are titled Syarifah. Husin and Hasan were Prophet Muhammad’s grandsons from his daughter Fatimah. This group generally takes many roles in religious, trading, and political affairs. In Indonesia, those who fall into this layer are the descendants of Sekh Abubakar, Al Idrus, Al Atas, Al Ahbsyi, Al Haddad, and so forth. The second is the group of Al Qabail (those who have arms and weaponry). They are the layer comprising qabilah leaders, rulers, and sultans. Because of their authority, this very group shows more prominence than the first group does. The third is the Masyaik or Masaikh group which consists of those with scientific expertise, especially in the domain of religion. In Indonesia, some of these Masyaik people are the descendants of Al Bafathol, Al Bawazir, Al Amudi, Al Ishak, Al Bajabir, and the Bin Afif family. The fourth is the group of Al Qerwan, which usually consists of a number of families with special skills such as leather artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, goldsmiths, and so forth. The fifth group is Al Khertan or farmers and peasants. In Indonesia, this grouping among the Arabic people is determined more by adaptation, which means there are some who think their lineage is still “pure” and

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some others are offspring of mixed marriages of Arabic men and local women. Back then, these Arabic traders had no wives from their homeland. The first group was called walaiti, and the later was called muwallad. The second is often looked down upon by the first for their being mixed blood. However, the second group proved to become those who willingly mingled with the natives so their existence as foreigners was more welcome compared to any other foreign tribes. The social progress of Indonesian people alone also affects the self-identity of Arabic descendants. The rigid social stratification in Hadramaut cannot be applied here. One result of the movement and resurgence of Indonesian Arabic modernization is the grouping of Arabic descendants into two large categories, i.e., the group of Ba alwe or Al alwe and the group of Irsyad calling themselves Irsyadin. To be truthful, the two groups still reflect the classification based on lineage, in which the first group thinks they are the descendants of Prophet Muhammad, while the second regard themselves as the more open-minded and moderate Arabic descendants. In everyday life, the interactions and ties between both groups cannot be called harmonious as there is an attitude that being purebred is extremely rigid. It can be inferred later that the merging between the two is not easily occurring. Because the kindred relations really matter to the Arabic people, they still prefer a restricted extended family in which a junior nuclear family (called ahlel) opts to stay inside a senior nuclear family (ahlel bet). Among the Arabic descendants in Pekalongan, for instance, the definition of ahlel may include a nuclear family (consisting of a father, a mother, and single children). It also may mean an extended family or family or a unity of close relatives. Those considered close relatives are anyone descended by one similar male ancestor and still recognizing each other in the male line only. However, in many cases, the descendants of female ancestors until two younger generations also can fit into this definition of “family”. According to the custom and tradition of the Arabic people in Indonesia, an ideal marriage is one between a man and a girl of a female sibling of his biological father (cross-cousin marriage) so it tends to be an endogamous clan (marriages between members of extended families). Nonetheless, some of the Arabic people are now inclined to develop kindred relations through exogamous clan marriages, which in turn strengthen solidarity among Arabic descendants. The Arabic people in Indonesia generally are known for their occupation as traders but they are not as expansive as the Chinese people. They are more known for being traders or businessmen selling textiles, spices, logs, and diamonds. Thanks to their great knack for mingling, the current Arabic descendants are now getting more diverse so they can branch out in many other fields such as politics, technocracy, and bureaucracy. Sources: Achmad (1977), Shahab (1975), Noer (1973).

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ARANDAI 478 Papua The tribe of Arandai or Yaban lives in the southeast part of the Bird Head of Papua Island, which is located in the western part of Wariaga River and near Sebyar (Timoforo) River. The area is located in Teluk Bintuni sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The estimated population was around 900. Their villages are Arandai, Irira, Kiambo, Yakora, Sakauni, Botare, and Tomu. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). ARFAK 479 Papua The people of Arfak live in the Bird Head of Papua Island, in several villages in Warmare Sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. Their territory is located approximately in the northwest part of Manokwari City. The populace was around 700. Source: Depsos (1989). ARGUINI 480 Papua The tribe lives in the northwest shore of Bomberai Peninsula and in a small island in Berau Bay, in Kokas sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The populace was around 200. The language of Arguni is classified into the group of Austronesian languages. Source: Silzer and Heikkenen (1984). ARU 365 Maluku The people of Aru live on the Islands of Aru in Southeast Maluku Regency. Some experts actually assumed that they are still part of Kei tribe of Kei Islands, which physically belongs to the Papuan group. The population was around 14,000. They make a living by temporary land cultivation, and simultaneously processing natural resources and hunting game in woods. Their staple food is sago that grows in the wilderness. They hunt wild boar, deer, and paradise birds (cendrawasih birds). In the sea, they fish and collect sea cucumbers, and pearls. All these are later on sold.

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The relatively crowded place in Aru Islands is around Dobo, where the Dutch people built a loji (a commercial fort) to retain their monopoly of spices mostly obtained from this place. The traditional settlement takes the form of kampong they call negeri. Their houses stand tall under relatively long poles. Usually every house holds a restricted extended family. These restricted extended families are from the same ancestors and they are gathered in a soa headed by a chief of soa. Now kampongs are combined together as a village led by a village chief commonly called orang kaya. In the ancient times, leadership of a village was held by anyone, who settled at the first time there. They now embrace Islam and Christianity. Their old belief is called suanggi (which actually means “black magic”). Source: Lebar (1964). ASERAWANUA 341 Sulawesi The people of Aserawanua belong to a big group of Tolaki tribe, who lives in several villages in Kendari and Kolaka Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1964). Also see: TOLAKI. ASMAT 481 Papua The people of Asmat live in south Papua, i.e., around big rivers such as Aswets, Pomats, Undir, Bets, Sirets, and Brazza River, all of which lead to Irian Bay (Arafuru Sea). These rivers can be sailed far to the inner regions, about 50 km when the tide covers them. Because the area is covered by many rivers, their territory is mostly vast swamp. This kind of land is not useful for farming or cultivation and also isolates them to a certain extent from the outer civilization. However, there they can obtain enough food especially sago which grows in the wilderness in abundance, and their hunting game supplies animal protein. This includes boar, cassowaries, kuskus, various birds, and many types of fish and shrimp in rivers.

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They found settlement and kampongs by riverbanks because rivers are the most essential means of transportation and enable them to know any strangers’ arrival. Every kampong is marked by ye, je, or yeu houses which are built for males. Around it, there are houses inhabited by nuclear families’ houses for women and young children under their mothers’ care. Yeu houses are set to be the center of religious and social activities of Asmat people because here they assemble on every social occasion that requires mutual talks and religious activities involving the entire kampong inhabitants. These yeu houses are built only for adult males and teenage boys entering puberty phase. Women can enter if there is any important event that allows them to get in. In years past, males designed the defense strategy of kampong and attack strategy in a yeu house. Formerly the people lived nomadically around sago woods that belong to their territory. Nowadays Asmat villages are relatively the same and their territory is divided into several sub-districts, such as Agats, SawaErma, Atsy, and Pantai Kasuari (Cassowary Coast/Pirimapun) Sub-district. All of these are located in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 70,000. The Asmat tribe has become more open thanks to their alluring arts, which captivate the world’s attention. Their art of statue carving and wooden panels is considered part of ancient, primitive art form that still survives. They are actually divided into several subgroups formed due to rural federations during the warfare era among kampongs and former groups. Custom federations sometimes are marked by similarity of dialects and mythological social unity symbols. These subgroups are Unisirau, Bismam, Simai, EmariDucur, BetchMbup, kaimo, Safan, Brazza, and Joerat. Asmat families usually live in groups of nuclear family, in which a combination of a senior nuclear family and several junior nuclear families live in a family house

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(cem). However, every nuclear family has its own furnace or kitchen (yousa) where wives cook food for husbands and children. The Asmat tribe practices the patrilineal kindred relations principle. Nonetheless, in the pattern of settlement it is possible that a husband lives with a nuclear family of his wife. These nuclear families then are under a patrilineal extended family group and even more senior generations. An extended family group is called yeu and with another yeu forges a federation communal house which is also called yeu as mentioned above. Instead of spending time at a cem (a family house), an Asmat man spends more time at a yeu house, except when he has to or go hunting or waging war. In a location, sometimes there are two or more yeu villages, which indicate there are two or more federations together, which forge pankampong territorial confederation. The leadership system of the Asmat tribe has more emphasis on the ability and charisma of a man with a robust physical body and many experiences in warfare. Nevertheless, in everyday social and politic affairs, every kampong usually has a custom leader called yeu iwir and each federation of yeu appoints someone their leader called tese wu. All these custom leaders are assisted by a number of advisors called arakamse wir, wise old men with a lot of life experience. Though every man is considered to be capable of communicating with the spirit world of their belief, they also have a ritual leader called arapak tor. The Asmat social stratification system is determined more by the seniority of a respected figure because of his contribution and virility. However, they also respect people who excel at carving (wow ipits), sacred story telling (pirmer wur), playing tifa, and singing (eme wu), and diplomacy often needed as a intertribal mediator (emak fakau). Experts call the Asmat culture “wooden culture” as they really make use of any woods to survive amid ruthless wilderness. That also encourages them to realize their thoughts and ideas of their religious life onto two-dimensional or three-dimensional wooden carvings. Thus, these carvings are regarded as symbols of thoughts on their religious belief aiming to worship spirits, both ancestral ones and nature and other creatures’ ones considered to participate in human beings’ life. They see “wood is Asmat and Asmat is wood,” because trees are like human beings. Their roots are like human feet; their trunks are like human bodies; their bows and twigs are like hands and fingers of humans; fruits are like heads of humans. Plants and wildlife also have spirits like human beings. Birds eating fruits are like someone beheading another human being’s head. However, nowadays the people of Asmat have been influenced by other cultures. Some of them are even Catholics. Their wooden culture is now undergoing transformation. Sources: Budhisantoso (1980), Gerbrands (1961), Sowada (1971), Zegward (1955, 1959).

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ATAM 482 Papua The tribe of Atam or Hattam lives in the southwest of Manokwari City, the northeast of Manikion territory. Their territory is located in Wermare and Ransiki sub-district, in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 12,000. Their villages are Tinam, Mirie, Adihup, Uran, Moi, Warkwandi, and Warnapi. Their aliases are Tinam, Mire. Sources: Silzer and Heikkenen (1984), Grimes (1984). ATINGGOLA 211 Sulawesi The tribe of Atinggola is perhaps still a part of Gorontalo tribe. They, however, have a different language and several distinct customs. They live in several villages in Atinggola sub-district, Gorontalo regency, North Sulawesi Province. The population was around 8,000. The language is under the Gorontalic languages family belonging to the Austronesian languages group. Sources: Grimes (1984), Depdikbud (1989). ATOGOIM 483 Papua The tribe of Atogoim or Autohwaim lives in the southern part of Papua, i.e., between the territory of Asmat tribe and Sawui and Kaigir tribe in the south coast. Their settlement is located around Cook and Kronkel River, the east of Pirimapun, Pantai Kasuari sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was 1,200. The other name of the tribe is perhaps Kaugat. The villages they live in are Sanem, Sinepit, Aykut, Kaypom, Yohwi, Yakamit, Hainam, Yahamgit, Isep, Aiyogit, Haimawi, and Singaet. Sources: Grimes (1984), Silzer and Heikkenen (1984). ATONI 413 Nusa Tenggara The tribe of Atoni lives in the inner western parts of Timor Island, which is a mostly dry and barren landscape such as AMarasi, Fatu Leu, Amfoan, Mollo, Amanuban, Amanatun, Miomafo, Insana, and Beboki keffetoran (sub-district). The population was around 300,000. Their territory is located in Timor Tengah Utara and Timor Tengah Selatan Regency. Some of it is also located in Kupang and Belu Regency. The tribe has many nicknames. The people of Tetun call them Dawan, the people

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of Bunak call them Rawan, while people in the city of Kupang call them Orang Gunung.

Most of the Antonian people earn a living by land cultivation and raising cattle traditionally. The influence of formal education at schools is relatively new to them, which explains why there are hardly any of them seen working in bureaucracy, education, religious service, police, or military force. The density of inhabitants in villages causes many of them to move to the City of Kupang and work as manual laborers there. Every time they are about to cultivate land, the people of Atoni must clear up a piece of land on jungle, build fences around it, cultivate it for several harvests, and then leave it to seek a new piece of land. To help with the dry condition of land, they often grow lamtoro trees. In cultivating their po (land), the people of Atoni prefer to work on their own instead of working as a group. Their main crops are corn and rice alternately grown in arid land lacking rainfall. In addition to that, they also like to grow onions, soybeans, tomatoes, bananas, chili, and so on. Perennial trees they often grow are areca nut, coconut, lontar, and several trees of fruits. Meanwhile, the cattle they have are pigs, goats, sheep, cows, horses, and buffaloes. Other than spending time for planting and taking care of cattle, Atonian women do weaving and plaits. Meanwhile, the Atonian men like wooden simply carved things. It seems that the art of statue making does not develop here. They waive to make regular everyday clothes (tais) and ones worn during special ceremonies or rituals. Plaited products such as mats and containers are made from a type of pandan and lontar leaves. However, both women and men like to wear jewelry made of metal, silver or gold, beads, and diamond. Ideally, a typical Atonian household consists of a father, a mother, and unmarried children. Households without children usually foster their own siblings’ children. Although they practice a patrilineal system, an Antonian newlywed couple

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normally stays around a wife’s family neighborhood (uxorilocal) during several first years of marriage and then move to settle in a husband’s family neighborhood. A family of a girl is called antoni and a man’s family is called obifel. The marriage form considered ideal according to them is one between two clans whose members before this have already forged marital relationships. The farther an interclan marital relation is, the more expensive a dowry is to revitalize the relations. Every Atonian is a member of a patrilineal clan with so many numbers of members. Those clans are usually named after names of sacred things (nono) which become their heirlooms. A wife is acknowledged as her husband’s clan member her position in a clan can be gained through adoption and she may take a mother’s clan as her offspring. A father’s clan is called nono mnuki (young nono) and a mother’s clan is called nono mnasi (old nono). Inhabitants of an ordinary village can be grouped into three types of clan. The first is kautuaf, which consists of clans considered to be owners of a village or owners of land. They are seen as the first people to clear the land. The second is atoin asaot, which refers to inhabitants who came later due to marriage or as new comers and lone settlers. The third is atoin anaot, which means people who come to seek asylum in a village either because of the status of wanderers or fugitives from other villages. Meanwhile, existing clans are also divided into several social strata, i.e., usif (noblemen group), tog (laymen group), and ate (slave group). Currently, ate group no longer exists because slavery was banned by the Dutch Colonial government in the middle of nineteenth century. Usif group that we may now see is a group of descendants of kings (raja or fettor, local rulers in the past). The original religion of Antonian people is based on the belief of one heaven god they call Uis Neno. Besides that, they also believe in the earth goddess they call Uis Afu, who is the wife of the heaven god. They also believe in spiritual beings (in tuan) that reside in certain places, in bodies of given animals and plants. Then they also believe in the existence of ancestral spirits (nitu). Religious rituals are meant for the worshipping of Uis Eno, Uis Afu, and nitu. In the event of any disturbance from in tuan, they ask for assistance of a shaman called mnane or meo to dispel evil spiritual beings. One ritual in this old belief is staying away from pemali (taboo) or certain prohibitions called nuni. These prohibitions depend on messages by someone through his or her dream(s). It may be because of meo’s clues or prohibitions passed on from a previous generation of a clan to a younger one. After Protestantism and Catholicism spread in Timor Island, the old belief system was gradually replaced, for instance, the burning of nono things by each family declaring themselves Christians, combination of customary rituals and Christian ceremonies and then the use of Uis Neno as the translation of God in the Bible. Sources: Lebar (1964), Cunningham (1964), Suparlan (1983).

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ATORI 484 West Papua The people of Atori live in the inner region of Irian Bird Head, along the River of Kais flowing southward to the estuary. The area belongs to Inanwatan Sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Barat. Their populace was around 800. Their villages are Kais, Kampung Baru, Rinde, Kauting, and Danin. The other nicknames of Atori are Aiso, Kais, Mintamani. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). AWYI 485 Papua The people of Awyi or Awye live in the northeast of Papua Island, in the vicinity of the border between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, approximately in the south of Jayapura City. The language belongs to the group of Papuan languages. Their territory is located in Abepura and Arso Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Nyao, Yosko, Sowyo, and Busikom. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). AWYU 486 Papua The tribe of Awyu or Awya lives in the coastal area of South Papua, especially near Digul River. In its south part of the area, there is Yahrai tribe, in its western border there is Muyu tribe. The territory is located in the west part of Tanah Merah, Merauke Regency, Irian Jaya Province. The population was around 20,000. This tribe usually makes a living as gatherers and hunters. Their staple foods are sago, fish, and shrimps caught in rivers. The language of Awyu fall into the family of Papuan languages divided at least into nine dialects. They live in several villages in Edera, Pantai Kasuari (Primapun), Kouh, and Mandobo Sub-district. Their villages are Boa, Ikisi, Khonya, Getentiri, Ujung Kita, and Meto. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Depsos (1989). AYFAT 657 Papua The tribe lives in Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The region is also known as “the Head of Bird”. They live near Kamundan River and around Ayamaru Lake. They are allegedly under the same group with Meybrat and Ayamaru tribe. This is marked by their almost similar language, i.e., the Meybrat language group. Another

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distinct characteristic is the culture of exchanging kain timur (literally translated into “eastern fabrics”) among them. These fabrics have many similarities with ones from Nusa Tenggara Timur. The only difference is the motifs that look more ancient. Their settlement is often called “the Region of Bird Head” by experts. A nuclear family here lives in a house on a high platform supported by tall poles, usually built in the middle of fields. Such houses are inhabited by one nuclear family and sometimes other members of family such as foster children, a widow, or widower from a close family. These nuclear families live close to each other in a kindred group like a clan. Such kindred groups are usually counted from a patrilineal line even though the settlement patter after marriage can be uxorilocal (a nuclear family lives near a wife’s family house). Their occupations are mostly cultivating land but they also have other side jobs, for example, gathering natural resources, hunting and catching fish. Their staple foods are sago, added with tubers or bananas and coconuts from their own land. Their economic activities started to change after Protestant missionaries (Zending) went into their settlement in 1911, followed by Catholic missionaries in 1949 and the Indonesian government followed suit in the 1960s. Some of the people choose to work at oil companies founded there in 1957. They have already been accustomed to commercial cooperation with coastal inhabitants by trading fabrics, snail shells bracelets, pigs, crocodile’s teeth necklaces, and belts decorated with beads, including cendrawasih birds and so on. Source: Boelaars (1986). AYAMARU 487 West Papua The tribe lives in the west and south parts of Ayamaru lake, around small lakes of Maru Yow, Semetu, and Maru Yate in West Papua, Bird Head region. The population was 25,000 scattered in around 40 villages. They speak the language of Meibrat, which is why they are often called Meibrat tribe. The word “mei” means a language and “brat” means “people”. The language is apparently divided into several dialects, such as Meituf, Meimaka, Meimaru, Meiyamon, and Mesawit dialect. They earn a living from the tribe’s relatively fertile land cultivation. Besides that, Ayamaru lakes provide them a lot of fish and hunting game such as wild geese, cranes, frogs, snakes, boars, and so on. The people also like to trade, especially trading their hunting game such as cendrawasih birds with fabrics brought by traders of other tribes. The economic activity of Ayamaruan people is much better than their fellow local tribes. Their main kindred group is a nuclear family, in which a newlywed couple builds their own house right after marriage. Their kindred relations principle is bilateral. These days, most of them have embraced Christianity. Source: Depdikbud (1988).

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B BABURUA (Barua, Baburiwa, Babirua) 488 Papua The people of Baburua settled in the western part of Memberamo River, meadow located in the north of Holmes Lake, near Kustera. Their villages are Eri, Kustera, Haya, and Seutai. Their territory is located in Memberamo Hulu Sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency. The population is around 350. The other nicknames of Baburua tribe are Baburiwa, Barua, Babirua. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). BACAN 366 Maluku The tribe of Bacan live on Bacan Islands (around 80 islets) located in the southwest of Halmahera Island. The language of Bacan belongs to the Austronesian languages family, which apparently is also influenced heavily by other tribal languages living on the island. The population is around 3,500, who are mostly Muslims. Before being united by the Sultanate of Bacan, the tribe consisted of several groups every of which was led by an ambasaya or datu. Once they were under the Sultanate of Bacan, the old leader title was replaced with sangaji and kumelaha. Source: Lebar (1964). BADANG 207 Kalimantan The tribe is classified by Whittier (1978) into Kenyah tribal group living in Central Borneo. Source: Whittier (1978). BADUY 101 Java-Bali The people of Baduy are also considered as a part of the Sundanese tribe because the majority of their cultural elements and their language carry much similarity with ones of Sundanese tribe. They are divided into two groups, i.e., the group of Baduy Dalam also called Urang Kejeroan and the group of Baduy Luar or also dubbed as Urang Kaluaran or Urang Panamping. The villages of Baduy Dalam people are only three, all of which are located in their custom land called taneuh larangan (land of prohibition), which comprises Kampung Cikeusik, Cikartawana, and

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Cibeo. While the Kaluaran group settled in villages outside of prohibition land such as Cibengkung, Kaduketug, and Curugseor. Their territory is located in Kanekes Village, Leuwidamar sub-district, Rangkasbitung, West Java Province. The population of Baduy people in 1984 was 4,582, composed of 2,249 males and 2,333 females. They speak Sundanese with Rangkas dialect, considered lowly Sundanese because it does not apply undak-usuk bahasa (language variants to differentiate an interlocutor’s level) but there is pressure of pronunciation to differentiate meanings. Aside from that, in this language, the Baduy people earnestly obey the prohibition of using buyut (taboo) words. The settlement of Baduy Dalam people is regarded as the prototype of ancient Sundanese people village clusters, which stretches long on both sides of a course and then at both ends of the course there are two main buildings facing each other. One of them is a bale (a big building for guest reception), and a house of pu’un (a spiritual leader of Baduy people).

The main occupation of Baduy people is temporarily cultivating land, moving from one spot to another to grow paddy. This is called pahumaan (growing paddy in huma or field). A field management working unity is a nuclear family. Their side occupation is gathering wood and other natural resources in jungles. Their kinship is bilateral even though the patrilineal liniage sometimes is more dominant marked by the mention of a father’s name after someone’s name. An extended family such as clans or marga in other societies is nonexistent. A nuclear family lives in a separate house although in early days of their marriage they stay in a house of a wife’s parents. The traditional marriage of Baduy Kajeroan (Dalam) people is carried out before a pu’iun so it is also called dijampe pu’un ceremony. The people of Baduy Panamping (Outer) who are mostly Muslims state their martial vows before an Islamic penghulu (headman). An ideal marriage of Baduy people is one between cousins, but with one condition that a bridegroom must be a son of the eldest male sibling. This condition is

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called ngorakeun kolot. As a consequence, there is a woman who cannot be married as her mother is the eldest daughter in a family. Spiritually and traditionally, a leader of Baduy people is a pu’un whose position in kajeroan region is often called tangtu or Baduy Dalam. Here there are three villages whose inhabitants still observe the old original living patterns. Each village is led by a leader called kolot. The territory of Baduy Luar or panamping comprises 39 villages or babakan (settlement groups), each of which is led by a kolot or kokolot. Besides Kajeroan and Panamping, there are also regions that Baduy people assumed as theirs, which are called dangka. Inhabitants of dangka are regarded as those who have abandoned Baduy way of living and have often committed religious offense. There are two dangkas in Panamping territory and seven outside of it. The inhabitants of dangka are also called kaum dangka. All of them observe the leadership of pu’un in kajeroan. Pu’un is assisted by several helpers called seurat in his job. There is a girang seurat or jaro tangtu assigned to maintain the security of the village, taking care of marriages and deaths. There is a baresan, a type of advisory council or advisors of pu’un. There is a parawari, an official assigned to convey direct instructions to the entire inhabitants of the village. There is also a tangkesan who helps pu’un heal and hold any other magical activities. Pu’un can only be replaced if he passes away or cannot work well due to old age, sickness, and so on. His successor is chosen from Baduy Dalam people. He must be a descendant of a former pu’un and be already married and have gathered supports from ancestors as forecast by tangkesan (a paranormal). However, in the Indonesia bureaucracy system the Baduy people live in a village called Kanekes Village. This village is led by a chief appointed by a government in accordance with advice of pu’un. The Baduy people call it jaro pamarentah. The Baduy people seem to have a social stratification as described here. The first is the group of pu’un and his relatives; the second is one of pu’un assistants such as baeresan, tangkesan, jaro tangtu, jaro dangka, and palawari; the third is one of formal leaders such as lurah and all his assistants, jaro pareman (a former chief of kampong) and shamans; and then Baduy Pinamping people and the last is Baduy Dangka. The people of Baduy are believers of Sunda Wiwitan (a religious faith that declares itself Islam but does not condone the practice of Islamic teachings and on the contrary practices constantly the original traditions and belief. They worship Batara Tujuh and spirits of male ancestors they call karuhun or wangatua or paramunggu. In addition to that, they worship a paddy goddess (Pohaci Sanghyang Asri). Sources: Lebar (1964), Garna (1987), Kusnaka (1986), Subagyo (1976), Depdikbud (1986). BAHAM 489 Papua The people of Baham or Pattimuni live in the southern part of Bomberai Peninsula, the south of FakFak City, Papua Province. Their villages are Weri, Wabar,

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BahamDendara, and Horabena. The population is around 600, making a living by growing tubers, keladi (a type of taro) vegetables, fruits. Now there are also many who grow cloves, coffee, and tobacco. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). BAHAU 201 Borneo The people of Bahau are one of many tribes in the inner regions of Borneo that to date is still considered to be living nomadically in woods. They often move according to occupations as temporary peasants and natural resource gatherers. Now most of them settle around the headwaters of Mahakam River in East Borneo and South Borneo. The tribe of Bahau by King (1985) is considered part of Dayak tribe and can still be divided into several subgroups such as Penihing, Long Gelat, Ma Suling, Huang Sirau, Long Wai, Huang Tering, Modang, and so forth. Frank Lebar (1964) on the contrary classifies the tribe into the group of Kenyah-Kayan-Kajang. Sources: Lebar (1964), Koentjaraningrat (1969), King (1985), Rousseau (1990). BAJAU 231 Sulawesi The tribe is so smart at adapting themselves to life in the archipelago waters that they can live on the southern sea of the Philippines Islands. They live nomadically in the sea and bays around Sulawesi, Borneo, eastern parts of Sumatra, southern part of Maluku Islands, and Nusa Tenggara Islands. The population of Bajau tribe throughout Indonesia is around 50,000. The group with the most number around Central Sulawesi is about 25,000. In South Sulawesi, the number is about 8,000–10,000. In North Maluku, there are about 5,000 scattered in Obi, Bacan, Layoa, and Sula Island. Some are found on the northern coast of Lombok, Sumba, Sumbawa Island, and many other islets. There are also some who live in several coastal areas and bays in South Borneo, West Borneo, Riau, and Jambi. It is assumed that the tribe is similar to Orang Laut in Riau Islands. However, there are some people who think both are different because the language of Orang Laut in Riau and one of Bajau tribe are different. This is due to the fact Orang Laut speak a language with a Malay Island dialect. The foreign researchers in Borneo reported that the tribe of Bajau earns a living by working as distributors of natural resources in woods gathered by inhabitants of hinterland areas. The Western authors assumed that they were often asked by Malay sultans to plunder European traders’ ships. The Makassar people call them the people of Bayo or Turije’ne’ (read: turijeknek). The people of Bugis call them the people of Bajo. The tribes in Central Sulawesi generally call them the people of Bajau. Around the sea of Malaysia, they

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are called Bajaw. Around the southern sea of the Philippines, they are called the Sama people. In the modern literature, they are called The Sea Gypsy. Comprehensive research in the tribe has never been done before. There were only some restricted studies on their sub-tribes. The language of Bajau found in Indonesian sea shows the same linguistic features and only indicates a different dialect from one spoken in the sea territory of Malaysia and the southern Philippines. There are assumptions that their language is actually similar because they always interact with each other seasonally at a regular interval. Besides that, foreign languages have very little impact on the language of Bajau because they isolate themselves economically from any other tribes, although they still trade with Bugis and Makassar people. Maybe the majority of them are Muslims but their faith is heavily influenced by sea animism, which explains why it has become their distinct cultural characteristic. The influence of Islam was perhaps coming through the interactions with Bugis sailors who also roamed the archipelago sea. The difference is that these Bugis sailors still settle somewhere and are open to more intense interactions with other tribes. Their marital system follows especially Islamic marital laws added with their own customary wedding ceremony, which unfortunately is very little documented. A bride normally lives on a boat of her husband’s family right after a wedding ceremony is done. There are also couples who live on their own boats or boats they have as gifts from their relatives. There are newlywed spouses who prefer living together on a boat of a husband’s family. It is not known precisely whether they practice polygamy. They do not sail all year long as in certain seasons they settle on shores with calm water while fixing their boats and other tools of fishing and other sea resources. During this time, they also hold social events such as weddings, circumcision rituals, and other ceremonies. Several groups in Central Sulawesi and North Maluku have already settled and built schools for their children. Other inhabitants around the sea of Central Sulawesi and North Maluku apparently really admire and acknowledge the people of Bajau to survive in the sea. They are known for their remarkable ability of diving. They can hold their breath 1020 m under water to catch fish with their hooked spears and self-made harpoons or seek pearls to sell to wholesalers selling it to Japanese traders. In addition to fish and pearls, they also gather seaweed, sea cucumbers, and shark fins that can sell at high prices. Their cultural characteristics are still not much known but it is no doubt they have developed an advanced maritime and astronomical knowledge system, particularly one of Indonesian seas. Supporting sources: Grimes (1984), King (1993).

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BAJAWA 461 Nusa Tenggara The people of Bajawa live in Ngada Regency, Central Flores Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur. They live especially in Aimere, Bajawa, Mauponggo, Mangulewa, Kopeta, and Galowa Sub-district. Source: Depdikbud (t.t.) BAKUMPAI 202 Borneo The people of Bakumpai live in Marabah Sub-district in Barito Kuala Regency, South Borneo. The tribe may be a part of Dayak Ngaju tribe as their language shares a lot of similarities with one of Dayak Ngaju. The estimated population is now around 15,000. Their occupation is generally cultivating land and seawater irrigated fields. Some others work as craftsmen of wooden goods, making wickerwork from rattan and pandan leaves, catching fish, rent boats, and so on. They are now generally Muslims. The everyday life of Bakumpai people is a lot like one of the Banjar tribe so there are experts classifying them into a group named banjar arkais, meaning that these tribes are heavily influenced by elements of Banjar culture. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989). Also see: NGAJU, BANJAR. BALAESANG 232 Sulawesi The people of Balaesang are classified as one of the sub-tribes of Tomini. However, Kennedy classifies them into the subgroup of Toraja people. They live in five villages in Balaesang Sub-district, Donggala Regency, Sulawesi Tengah Province. The population in 1979 was around 4,000 and generally they are Muslims. Source: Kennedy (1935). Also see: TOMINI. BALANGAN 203 Borneo The tribe of Balangan lives in the hinterland of South Borneo, especially Tapin Regency and the headwaters of Tengah River. Source: Depdikbud (1985).

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BALANTAK 233 Sulawesi The people of Balantak are often written as Mian Balantak in old ethnographic books. According to A. C. Kruyt (1932), the tribe consists of two sub-tribes: Tanoturan and Dale Dale. They live in Balantak, Lamala, Luwuk, and Tinankung sub-district, Luwu Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi. The population in 1930 was around 11,000. Nowadays, it is around 30,000. Balantaknese belongs to the language group of Loinang, i.e., the language group of ingkar. The language is characterized by sian (tidak, meaning “no”) linguistic structures. The main occupation of the Balantak people is planting rice in fields with the land clearing, burn, and nomadic method. In addition to rice, they also grow yams. The main commodity plant is coconut. Gathering natural resources in jungles, fishing, and hunting wildlife are their secondary occupations. The kindred characteristic in the people of Balantak is bilateral. Their nuclear families join restricted extended families called bense. A village usually holds two or three benses. It joins a larger social settlement unity called bosano (village) practicing an endogamous marital system. Also, Bosano is used as a title for a village or kampong leader in question. In the older times, they were part of Banggai Kingdom so every bosano was reporting to the King of Banggai. These days, the influence of such social stratification system has gone. They are now Muslims or Christians. However, the remnants of original religious belief are still apparent. The worship of ancestral spirits is still apparent, and includes worship of deities such as the sun god called Mola, and the earth god called Kere. Sources: Kruyt (1933), Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1964). BALAU 111 Borneo The tribe of Balau is one sub-tribes of Iban (also known as “Dayak Laut” Sea Dayak). They live around Batang Lupar. Because of that, they are also called the people of Batang Lupar. The dialect is different from other sub-tribes of Iban. Sources: Uchibori (1978), Freeman (1970). See also: IBAN.

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BALI 108 Jawa-Bali The tribe of Bali or Bali Hindu live in Bali Island, which is now a province comprising eight regencies. The island itself is composed of lowlands around the coastal areas and hilly and mountainous landscapes in the center. The mountainous parts are called by them kaja and the lowlands stretching toward the sea are called kelot. This natural landscape is paired with a slight difference between inhabitants of highlands and lowlands. The former are lower in number and less influenced by other cultures. In addition to that, their language is slightly different from one spoken by the rest of the Balinese folks in general. These highland inhabitants prefer to be called the people of Aga or Bali Aga, while those influenced more heavily by Hinduism are called Bali Hindu. The total population of the tribe in 1982 was around 2.6 million. The people of Bali Hindu can be found in almost every corner of Bali Island. The language is divided into several dialects: Buleleng, Karangasem, Klungkung, Bangli, Gianyar, Badung, Tabanan, and Jembrana dialect. The language of Bali Hindu shows three levels of language usage, i.e., the alus, lumrah (madia), and kasar language. This is different from the language of Bali Aga, which does not have any such levels. Nonetheless, now the language of Bali alus is used officially by almost every social group in Bali. The language of Bali has its own alphabets which are apparently the development of Sanskrit writing system. The Balinese alphabets were initially written on lontar leaves or bamboo blades. The Balinese economy depends on agriculture, especially growing paddy in irrigated rice fields developed many years ago, completed with units of farmers in irrigated fields, called subak. Besides that, the other rustic occupations of Balinese include raising cattle (cows, bulls, chickens, pigs, goats, dogs, and so on). Bulls as cattle are used to pull plows on rice fields. Chickens back then were raised for men’s enjoyment. These animals were made to fight against each other with iron spurs on an arena. The work spirit of Balinese people grows in almost every field and includes development of architectural work in the form of housing, shrines, palaces, and village buildings. They are very skillful at carving wood, gold, copper, stones, and so on. They have also developed a weaving skill with unique techniques and motifs. All of these are closely related with their very religious social and cultural life attitudes and patterns. The cycles of individual, society, and rural life are full of complete and intricate ceremonies accompanied with all the offerings.

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The people of Bali live in a local living unity form called pawongan or a village divided into two types, desa adat and desa dinas. The first is a traditional village formed based on legacy custom regulations bound religiously into each ceremony. This custom village is led by a traditional leader called kelian adat or bandesa adat. Such a figure is appointed by members of village custom assembly called kerama desa for an unspecified period of time. Desa dinas is a form of village influenced by a national administration system because it is a part of a sub-district and under a regency and province. Desa dinas is led by a village head called perbekel or bandesa. In addition to these two, the Balinese tribe also recognizes a religious local living unity. A village like this is called kahyangan tias, i.e., a unity of village shrines such as pura puseh, pura desa dan pura dalem. Houses (uma) in every village are built according to a certain religious rule. A part of house heading to upstream (kaja) is called utama mandala, i.e., familial ritual spot. Here there is a small shrine called sanggah or pamerajaan. The central part of house neighborhood is a place of family members. A downstream part is called nistha mandala area, i.e., an area where cattle cages and sewerage are located. A village is divided into several banjars, which are a living unity oriented to socioeconomic activities and its connections with religious and customary rituals. Every banjar is then divided into several tempekan (village). Afterward, every tempekan is divided into several pekurenan. A perbekel leads a village and a klian banjar leads a banjar. He is assisted by several juru arah or kesinoman. The lineage system and kinship relationship of the Balinese tribe are patrilineal principle (purusa) heavily influenced by patrilineal extended family system they call dadia and social stratification system called wangsa (caste). Therefore, they are bound to a dadaia endogamous and/ or endogamous caste marriage. Those who share the same stratum (tunggal kawitan, tunggal dadia, and tunggal sanggah) also have equally high level. In an ideal clan and endogamous marriage is one of two male siblings’ off springs.

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Hindu Bali people are divided into a social stratification influenced by the three value systems, i.e., utama, madia, and nista. The utama caste is brahmana class, the madia caste is ksatria class the nista caste is waisya class. In addition to that, there is a class considered the lowest of all or having no class in the system, i.e., sudra class, often they are called jaba wangsa (without caste). Based on their social and kinship power, we may identify the Balinese as the clan of pande, pasek, bujangga, and so forth. The Balinese sociocultural life is mostly influenced by the faith of Hindu Dharma they began to embrace several centuries ago. Accordingly, the study on people and culture of Bali cannot be separated from Hindu religious influence. Hindu Dharma or Hindu-Java faith they practice involves the tri murti concept, i.e., God having three forms: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (protector), and Shiva (destroyer of all). Aside from that, there are also several lower deities. All of these deities need to be respected by performing rituals and providing offerings. They also highly respect the concept of Eternal Soul called athman, results of all deeds (karmapal), rebirth of soul (purnabawa), and soul freedom from rebirth (moksa). In holding family member funerals, the Balinese people always go through three stages of death ceremony. The first one is cremation (ngaben), the second one is purification (nyekah), and the third is ngelinggihang ceremony. Hindu Dharma faith teachings are written in a scripture called Veda. Sources: Bagus (1983), Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1978). See also: BALI AGA. BALI AGA 109 Java-Bali The Bali Aga tribe inhabits the mountainous area in the hinterland of Bali Island, which includes inter alia, Sembiran, Cempaga, Sidatapa, Pedawa, and Tigawasa village in Buleleng Regency; Tenganan Pegrinsingan village in Karangasem village; and Trunyan village in Bangli Regency. They also live in some of the Badung Regency and Tabanan territory. The population is around 900,000. The language is divided into several dialects such as Tenganan, Kedisan, Sembiran, Seminyak Bantinan, and Sepang dialect. In many aspects, the Bali Aga tribe’s sociocultural life shows no significant difference from one of the Bali Hindu tribe. What makes them different is the less rigid social stratification, which distinguishes the people warga according to caste (wangsa) or family (dadia). In the religious aspect, they also embrace Tri Murti concept yet they worship more ancestral and natural spirits and perform their own customary and religious ceremonies. See also: BALI.

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BANCEA 234 Sulawesi The Bancea people are classified as one of the Pamona sub tribes. They live in the region of Poso Lake coastal area, in Poso Regency, Sulawesi Tengah (Central Sulawesi) Province. Sources: Kennedy (1935). See also: PAMONA. BANDA 367 Maluku The word “Banda” is given by outsiders. They call themselves Eli Elat people. The Banda people live in the Banda Islands and some of the western zone of Key Islands. The area is in the territory of Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population is around 5,000. They make a living from the plantation of nutmeg, clove, eucalyptus oil, copra, and growing cassava, sweet potato, taro, and processing sago. The other occupations are pearls, sea cucumbers, and fish, easily found in the region. The majority are Muslims, while the rest are Protestants.

Source: Grimes (1984), Ditjarahnitra (1989).

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BANGGAI 235 Sulawesi According to Kaudern (1937), the two subgroups are Mian Banggai and Mian Sea-sea people. The later is characterized by the anatomical shape closely resembling vedoid or australoid race. They live Banggai Regency in Central Sulawesi Province, i.e., in Liang, Bangkurung, Bulagi, Tinankung, Buko, and Talikum sub-district. All of them are located in Banggai Islands. The population in 1930 was around 49,800 and in 1977 it was 227,900. The Banggaian language is grouped into the Loinangese language group, which is an ingkar language group. The ingkar language of Banggai is characterized by the language structure of aki (tidak, meaning “no”). The ingkar language is divided into the Mian Banggai and Mian Sea-sea dialect. The main occupations of Banggaian people consist of growing yams, besides gathering sago, hunting wild beasts, and gathering forest products such as rattan, resin, and honey. At the onset of the century, they started to grow rice, corn, and other plants. They also grow commodity plants such as tobacco, coconut, and cloves. The Banggaian kinship system is influenced by a social unity they call basalo, i.e., a bilateral kinship group with its mutual custom territory, religious ceremonies, and ancestral inheritance. Formerly, in this area there was a small kingdom which was from Java Island. These days, the remains of such ancient social stratification no longer exist. Nowadays the Banggaian people embrace Islam or Christianity. Despite that, some still practice old faith inherited from the ancestors. The local faith revolves around a belief of ancestral spirits and supernatural powers around them. The almighty power is called batanas, i.e., a power from deceased relatives’ spirits; pali, i.e., a power from placenta spirits of relatives or children; mboali, a power from craters or bowel of the earth; bapani, which is a power of menstrual blood to cope with witchcraft. Source: Lebar (1964), Kaudern (1944), Depdikbud (1989). BANGGAKORO 236 Sulawesi The people of Banggakoro mountain area in the west Mamuju tribe that lives in where the tribe lives is in Province. Source: Mattulada (1989).

are one of the Kaili sub-tribes. They inhabit a remote of Kulawi and intensely interact with the culture of the west coastal region of Sulawesi Island. The area the territory of Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi

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BANGKA 063 Sumatra The Bangkanese people in this discussion are a tribe that shows a sociocultural life, which is slightly different from the one of Malayan immigrants from Riau Islands and the Malaysian Peninsula. Besides the Bangkanese people who started to inhabit the island first, there were Malay and Chinese people who settled here during the era of the Palembang Sultanate. These immigrants usually worked in tin mining areas. Because the language and customs of the Bangkanese people are still related to the Malay culture in general, the tribe is also called Malay Bangka people. The Bangkanese people mostly live in the south part of Bangka Island. The population is around 100,000. Most of them make a living by working as peasants growing export commodity plants such as rubber, pepper, and coconut. Some others work as fishermen, tin mining workers, carpenters, potters, plait makers, and so on. The Bangkanese language is closely related to the Malay language. The name “Bangka” itself might be originated from the word “wangsa”, meaning tin. The Malayan Bangkanese people kinship system is basically bilateral. However, the settlement pattern after marriage tends to be uxorilocal or matrilocal, i.e., living in a wife’s family neighborhood. The people frequently perform massive, traditional ceremonies such as wedding ceremonies and village cleaning ceremonies. The traditional leadership and governance system are influenced by “Simbur Cahaya” custom, i.e., custom rules developed during the ear of Palembang Sultanate. They commonly embrace Islam nowadays. The original widely known dance is Taber dance. The other arts they create are vocal arts such as poetry and pantun accompanied with rebana music and gendang. In terms of the culinary aspect, the tribe is quite creative. The assimilation of the tribe with China Kek or Haka descendants along with the rich natural resources supply gave rise to the distinct local signature foods such as: lempah, a sauced dish commonly made of seafood or cow meat with strong spice flavor as its main ingredients. In Belitung, lempah is called gangan. Lempah kuning is a dish of gangan consisting of red carper or mackerel with turmeric, red chili, onion, garlic, galangal, and belacan. Lempah or gangan has yellow sauce and usually is added with slices of pineapple so it is sometimes called lempah nanas. The Belitungnese people call it gangan ketarap. Carper can replace cow meat. Lempah Darat is a lempah dish containing substances such as stalks of keladi or talas, vegetables and sauce with spiced flavor. Lempah kulat is a dish made of kulat/ mushroom typically found in Bangka usually cooked with coconut milk. Rusip is a dish made of anchovy fermented in a pot or vase added with salt and added with tamarind as flavoring. Rusip rather resembles jeot (a Korean dish). Kecalo or calok is rebon (a type of small-sized shrimp) fermented in a closely sealed pot or another container. It may be consumed directly with vegetables as a side dish. Kecalok has a relatively salty flavor. It can be added to a scrambled egg. Rusip, calok, and belacan are also known in the culinary tradition of Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, and Brunei.

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Belacan is a type of fermented fish or shrimp paste compacted and has a distinct sharp smell. Belacan serves as a multipurpose ingredient for other dishes. Bakmi Bangka is also called ja-mien/ya-mien/ or ja-mian/sui-mian, i.e., bakmi (noodle) with bone broth containing vegetables, chicken, beef, and seafood. Hamchoi or salted vegetable is a salted vegetable, usually called bokchoi. Sembelingkung is dried and shredded fish or shrimp (abon). Singsui is a type of a sauced dish consisting of choi sim (caisim), ba meat, engjan (fish meatball), other seafood such as shrimp and squid. Tahu Kok or tewfu kok is fried tofu containing fish paste and usually cooked as broth with other meats. Chap choi (cap cai/mixed vegetables); cap cai bangka is a little different from other cap cai because its sauce is red thanks to its tomato sauce. Bakwan (which is different from corn bakwan in other regions) looks like boiled empek-empek cooked with special sauce and spices. Thew Fu Sui is tofu broth, but unlike in other regions, thew fu sui in Bangka is served warm. Fu Yung Hai in Bangka, unlike in other regions, is made of egg (instead of flour), its filling is made of vegetables, meat, seafood with peas, and tomato sauce as topping. Saucu is a type of Bangkanese-Chinese roasted pork with a special technique and spices. Thewfu cau is a type of pong tofu or dried tofu, in which there is no filling and usually served with thew ciong sauce. Teritip is type of sea creature living on the reef, usually made as sambal teritip and served with fresh vegetables (lalapan). Lokan—is a type of seashell cooked with sauce and lemongrass. Hoisem or wak-awak is a type of large sea worm and usually cooked as soup ingredient. Eng Phiau—is a dish made of dried innards of fish and sea cucumbers, commonly served with soup. Bujan—is a kind of snack made of taro cooked and consumed with sambal thew chiong or a secondary ingredient for sambal belacan (fermented shrimp paste). Empek-empek tekwan or bakwan Bangka is different from one we find in Palembang in that empek-empek Bangka is made from sea fish, while empek-empek Palembang is usually made from freshwater fish. Bangka has its own distinct spices and ingredients, especially when it comes to its Chinese dishes. Tauco in Hakka dialect is called Thew Ciong, with a different flavor from ones in other regions. Thew chiong may taste salty or sweet. Meanwhile, soy sauce (si jiw) and tofu (thew fu) are produced from soybean. Bangka soy sauce is different from ones in other areas. Salty soy sauce here is darker and thicker in Bangka, compared to soy sauce made in other regions. This kecap Bangka makes the taste of Bangka noodle with pork (jam mian/ yamin) different from other regions’ noodles. Kecap Bangka is usually produced by a family company for generations in a traditional, authentically Chinese way. The majority of snacks that the people of Bangka have are mostly made of seafood. Some of them are kemplang or kerupuk (cracker) made of shrimp, squid, or fish mixed with sahu flour (Metroxilon sago or rumbia flour) and mixed with spices, initially made as empek, boiled, and then dried, cut, sun baked, and finally fried. There is also baked kemplang. Aside from that, there is also kemplang fried with sand (in fact, it is fine-sized pebbles) and consumed with sambal belacan (fermented shrimp paste of Bangka). Getas/ kretek is fish or shrimp cracker made in a round shape. Sweet martabak (sweet pancake) is a signature martabak of Bangka

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and Belitong called Hoklo-pan (literal meaning: a cake from Hok-lo). Lempuk—is a kind of dodol (a sweet toffee-like sugar palm-based confection) made of kabung sugar and durian or wild cempedak. Siput gung gung/ siput gon gong—is a type of snack made of a snail with horns commonly found in the water of Belinyu Bay, North Bangka Regency. The snail meat is usually fried until it is dry and added with a little salt. Dodol/ jelinak—is a dodol of Bangka, different from other regions’ dodols as it has darker color and stickier texture. Meanwhile, jelinak is a type of dodol but it has a spicier and warmer flavor. Kue Citak Satu—is a Bangka signature cake, which is difficult to make. It is white, sweet, and usually has intricate cake molds. The cake is made of soybeans. Kue Jungkong—is a cake with fine and soft fibers such as pudding consisting of a white-colored layer, a green-colored middle layer (pandanus), the next layer is kabung sugar (palm sugar), and usually is molded in a small glass or bowl. BANJAR Kalimantan The people of Banjar are a tribe which predominates in South Kalimantan Province. There are many views on the origins of the word “banjar”. Western experts assume that the people may have been influenced by the Javanese tribe in the seventeenth century. After the establishment of the sultanate, such influence spread to people of hinterland also. The people of Banjar might be described as a part of Malay tribal groups, especially based on their linguistic features and cultures. The native tribe living the Kalimantan hinterland is more widely known as Orang Dayak or Oloh Masih (Malay people) and their leader is named as Patih Masih. When the region developed as Banjarmasin Sultanate (and turned into Banjarmasin) then all the inhabitants are called Urang Banjar. The term started to be used widely and applied to every person who embraced Islam. For this reason, Orang Dayak who are Muslims finally call themselves Urang Banjar, like some Bukit people. The population of Banjar people is now around 150,000. The language belongs to the Malayan language for interactions among tribes in South Kalimantan. The culture of Banjar people itself is heavily influenced by the Javanese culture, such as what is seen in the language of Banjar. Sources: Depdikbud (1978), Radam (1971, 1987), King (1993), Hudson (1967). BANLOL 490 Papua The tribe lives in Salawati Island in the western area of the head of bird, Papua. The area is in the territory of Slawati Sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 400. Source: Depsos (1986).

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BANTIK 212 North Sulawesi The people of Bantik are one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa tribe. They live around the southwestern and southern part of Menado Municipality, North Sulawesi Province. Sources: Kalangie (1983); Kennedy (1935); Adam (1976). BARAS 302 Sulawesi Having the language of Baras, the tribe lives in the southern part of Pasangkayu Sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi, between Lariang and Karossa River. The language is classified under the group of Kaili–Pamona language. Source: Grimes (1984). BARAU 491 Papua The population of Barau people was only 150 in 1977. They live in some coastal parts of Teluk Bintuni in the Peninsula of Bomberai, in the east of Mor tribe’s territory. Their territory belongs to the Kokas Sub-district in Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. Source: Grimes (1984), Silzer and Heikkenen (1984), Depsos (1986). BASAP 171 Kalimantan The tribe lives in the headwaters and estuary of Sembakung and Sesayap River in the northeast of East Borneo Province, i.e., in Nunukan, Bulungan, and Sangkurilang sub-district in Bulungan Regency, and in Kutai sub-district in Kutai Regency. Their language belongs to the family of the Punan language. The populace is around 10,000. Western researchers categorized them into a part of Dayak Punan tribe, a nomadic tribe in the more isolated parts of Borneo. One of their occupations is collecting bird nests. Source: Department of Education and Culture (1989), Coomans (1987).

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BASO 492 Papua The tribe of Baso lives in a certain area around Lake Plains, i.e., in the vicinity of a small stream in the north of Idenburg River. This area is included in Memberamo Sub-district, Hulu, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 175. Source: Grimes (1984). BATAK 010 Sumatra The people of Batak actually prefer calling themselves “orang Tapanuli”; meanwhile, the word “Batak” itself is reckoned as a label from outsiders. To be frank, the tribe consists of several sub-tribes which are differentiated by dialects they use. Their original cultural elements are basically similar but after the intrusion of foreign cultures, some elements grew even more prominent the rest. These sub-tribes of Batak are Toba, Karo, Dairi, Pak-pak, Simalungun, and Angkola-Mandailing. In ancient times, the tribe lived in an isolated manner on the Toba and Karo Highlands. The cultural contact with other tribes does not occur very often. If any contact, it does not leave too much effect on their previous way of life. They recently left their old faith and cultural patterns after they opened themselves to the influence of Islam and Christianity. The smallest living unity of Batak tribe is a monogamous nuclear family. This is referred to by the people of Toba as saama (one father) and saripe (one family). The people of Simalungun call it seamang (one father) or sepanganan (one family). The people of karo call it sada bapa (one father). However, they are very strongly loyal to the form of a restricted extended family consisting of one senior nuclear family and a son’s nuclear family so the settlement pattern of a restricted extended family is virilocal. The kindred relations like this are also called saompu (one grandfather). A son and his family live together with his original nuclear family as long as he cannot support himself (independent). After he manages to support himself and his new family, he can build his own house near his father’s house. The Bataknese kindred relations principle is regulated by custom ties called dalihan na tolu (the third essence). The community is at least divided into three groups of kindred, every member group of which must find a spouse outside his or her own tribe. Ones in a similar group call each other sabutuha (siblings). Other groups receiving girls to marry is called hula-hula. The group giving a girl is called boru. For this to go on, it takes at least three kindred groups. The role of hula-hula or boru to each other cannot change. This kindred principle function looks prominent in various traditional ceremonies, such as a ceremony of building a new house, of birth, of death, of marriage, of cleaning ancestral bones and so forth.

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A large patrilineal group (a patrilineal extended family) is called marga, by the people of Karo merga. However, the terminology carries several meanings. To the people of Karo, merga means a patrilineal large clan such as Ginting, Sembiring, Tarigan, Perangin-angin merga and it may mean part of a large patrilineal clan such as Barus Suka, Pandia, Singarumbun, Tambun merga. To the people of Toba, marga may also mean a patrilineal clan such as Simatupang, Siregar, Silo, Nababan, Lumban Toruan. However, it may mean a collection of clans or fraternities, for instance, Lontiung, Sumba, Borbor, and so on. To the people of Karo, merga is a collective name irrespective of the origin of ancestors. Meanwhile, to the people of Toba, marga is always related to one same ancestor. A rigid and layered social stratification in the people of Batak is not quite clear, except that there is a difference of roles due to dalihan na tolus principle. In everyday life, the social roles’ difference is because of age discrepancy. Its order is dakdanak (children), naposo bulung (teenagers or young boys and girls), and natua-tua (parents). In the ancient times, there were some strata, such as kuria (descendants of kings), tunggane huta (a head of village), datu-datu (wise elderly), pargonci (experts), and hatoban (slaves). A large clan usually lives in a communal settlement they call kuta or huta (village). Several huta can merge into a unity called bius (Toba) or partahian (Mandailing) or patumpukan (Simalungun) or urung (Karo). To the people of Toba, kuta is also called lumban. A cluster of villages is usually founded on a mountain’s ridge/ slope and is circled with stones and barbed wire. Houses founded in a kuta are of three different types, i.e., family houses (jabu, bagas, ruma), custom house (ruma ada), and sopo (paddy barn). The religious system considered the oldest in Batak is one practiced by past kings, which is called permalim or perbaringin or pelbegu. They believe that the entire universe was created by Ompu Mulajadi Nabolon that resides in the seventh heaven. The nature is divided into upper banua that is governed by Batara Guru (Tuan Pane Na Bolon) and then middle banua governed by Batara Sori (Tuan Silaon Na Bolon), and lower banua governed by Mangala Bulan (Tuan Bumi Na Bolon). These days most Batak embrace Christianity and Islam. However, there are some who believe still in the old belief system called the faith of Permalim, Perbaringin, or Palbegu, for instance, one that believes in tondi (souls) and begu (spirits). The Batak tribe’s distinct foods are quite various, for example: ayam gota (the language of Batak Toba) which means chicken blood. Generally, ayam gota is cooked with different ways of cooking in South Tapanuli Batak and Batak Toba. For chicken blood to thicken perfectly and fresh, salt, and lime juice must be added. Ayam gota cannot be consumed separately from andaliman ingredients because it creates a unique taste only found in Batak Toba dishes. Yet, for those who find it difficult to find andaliman, such as places abroad may use sichuan pepper. Andaliman is a distinct seasoning made from peels of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium.

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The seasoning is well known in Bataknese dishes so outsiders call it “Bataknese pepper”. Other Bataknese foods like arsik and saksang (pork gulai) need andaliman as seasoning. Andaliman has soft lime aroma yet “bites” which produces the sensation of numbness on tongue surface though it does not taste as chili or pepper. The numb sensation on tongue is caused by hydroxy-alpha-sanshool contained in andaliman. Besides Bataknese foods, East Asian and South Asian foods also use andaliman. Ayam panggang (grilled chicken)—this tastes spicy so it is deemed suitable for diners with runny nose. For those who dislike spiciness, amount of chili may be reduced; mortared cassava leaves soup—which is basically a food made of cassava leaves mixed with coconut milk. What makes it unique is all cassava leaves are ground, together with kecombrang flowers, anchovy, and a type of tekokak; goldfish gulai—which is everyone’s favorite. This may be found in restaurants, lapo, even in wedding parties. Naniura is fresh uncooked fish but it is marinated in asam jungga, which chemically changes fish’ smell and ready to serve; deke laen is a Bataknese distinct food; dali or bagot no horbo is oxen’s milk processed traditionally only found in Tapanuli. The tradition of processing oxen’s milk into dali had started since a long time ago by their ancestors (also see Dadiah in Minangkabau); coffee, coffee added with white sugar tastes good in the morning, afternoon, and evening, even better is to drink coffee in a cool region such as Parapat, Toba Lake; coffee milk, drinking coffee and milk in the morning, afternoon, and evening is unbeatable especially in Parapat, Toba Lake. Mie Ggamak is a dish of noodles with slices of chayote, shredded dried half-old shredded coconut. Boil a chicken breast down and leave the broth as much as

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1,250 ml. After it cools down, shred the meat and add to the broth. Keep it for a while. Grind big red chili, garlic, and onion. Turn on the stove and heat some oil on a pan, stir-fry the ground ingredients. Add lemongrass, lime leaves, and cook. Add chayote and tomatoes, let it boil. Serving: drain mie lidi throughly and add them into a bowl. Pour broth in, sprinkle leek, shredded and dried shredded coconut, and lime juice; Saksang, resembling pork rica-rica of Manado. Usually these dishes are cooked and served on special traditional occasions but now in lapo-lapo, they are available and easy to find. Arsik is a typical dish of fish. There is a fine line that separates arsik Karo and South Tapanuli. Usually arsik Karo is dried; whereas, arsik South Tapanuli has more water and very liquid. The seasoning variation is also different slightly. Most arsik is made of pork, cow, bull, fish. Arsik with fish is usually made of boiled goldfish or steamed in a yellow seasonings soup. Sources: Bangun (1983), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Lebar (1964), Sihombing (1986). See also: TOBA, ANGKOLA, MANDAILING, KARO, SIMALUNGUN, DAIRI, PAK- PAK. BATIN 041 Sumatra The tribe of Batin live in several sub-districts in Sarolangun Bangko Regency, Jambi Province. These include Jangkat, Pauh, Muara Siau, Bangko, Tabir, and Muara Bungo sub-district. Some others reside in the Regency of Bungo Tebo, such as in Tebo Ulu and Tebo Ilir sub-district. Their settlement is usually located near rivers, such as Tembesi, Batang Merangin, Batang Bungo, and Batang Masumai River. Based on the 1976 census, the population was around 90,000. The group was estimated to be from Kerinci tribe which relocated sometime ago due to a certain reason. Like Kerinci people, the Batin culture also shows much influence of Minangkabau. The social structure and attitude toward life is expressed as: “Adat dari Minangkabau, teliti mudik dari Jambi,” meaning that in terms of culture, they orient themselves to Minangkabau but politically they are devout followers of Jambi Sultanate. In this context, the word “teliti” refers to “government rules”. The main occupation of Batin people is farming in fields. Their fields are commonly located faraway from the settlement and called umo talang. Once the fields are not as fertile as they used to be to grow rice, they plant perennial plants such as rubber, coffee, fruits (duku, durian, jackfruit, orange, and so on). As a side job, they also still hunt and catch fish in streams and rivers. Batin people live in groups in villages which they call dusun. Every dusun is headed by a rio who is elected by people. Rio leadership requires consideration and agreement of “ninik mamak” group, i.e., respected men from all extended families living in a specific dusun. In the ancient times, several dusuns formed a single clan

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led by a depati, who is an official appointed by the Sultan of Jambi. Nowadays, the dusun status is equal to a village and is under a sub-district according to the regulation of Indonesia administrative hierarchy. Batin people adopt a matrilineal familial system, meaning it is based on the matrilineal system. Despite that, the system is now inclined to a bilateral one, as seen in the pattern of settlement after marriage. Newlyweds usually settle according to a premarital agreement which can be matrilocal, patrilocal, or neolocal. However, the familial line is still based on the mother/ female side. In former times, nuclear families live together in a large house, forming an extended family they call piak. Several piaks are from one similar ancestor and grouped into a tribe. The language of the Batin tribe is categorized into the Malay family group with its own dialect. They pronounce the Malay word “membuat” (to make) “mbuek”, darat” “darek”, and “lepas” “lapeh”, “deras” “dareh”, and so forth. The people embrace Islam as their faith, but the remnants of the original ancestral faith can still be found in the daily life. Source: Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1989). See also: KERINCI, MINANGKABAU. BAUZI (Baudi, Bauri, Bauji) 493 Papua The people of Bauzi or Bauji live in the kampongs around the meanders of Lake Plains in Papua, in the western area of Memberamo River. Their area belongs to Memberamo Hilir and Memberamo Tengah Sub-district, in Jayapura Regency, Irian Jaya Province. The villages are Aiya, Sorembuti, Dundu, Bayadi, Wakiadi, Agoiogoa, and Gesu. The population is around 1,500. They live as hunters and gatherers of forest stuff. The descendant line is patrilineal and settlement pattern after marriage is patrilocal. The language of Bauzi belongs to the language group of Papua from the East Cenderawasih Bay stock. The other names of the tribe are Baudi, Bauri. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). BAWEAN (Boyan, Babian) 104 Java-Bali The people of Bawean live in Bawean Island in the Java Sea, the north of Madura Island. According to the note of Lebar (164), another name of the tribe is Babian or Boyan. They are a tribe formed from the mixture of Bugis, Makassar, Banjar, Madura, and Java along hundreds of years. The language is classified into the Madura dialect but they strictly distinguish themselves from Madura tribe. The hinterland sea and trade culture is more strongly reflected in the tribe; whereas, the applied method of agriculture is a forest-clearing and nomadic one. Bawean Island is now the part of the territory of Bawean Sub-district, Bangkalan Regency, East Java Province. Vredenbregt (1964) even once recorded the Bawean population, was

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48,000. The very volatile population number is partly thanks to the mobility especially the one of males, which is relatively high. This is especially because Bawean men prefer to travel to Malaysia. Source: Lebar (1964), Koentjaraningrat (1969), Vredebregt (1964). BAWO 172 Kalimantan Bawo or Dayak Bawo people live in several settlements in the territory of Bongan Sub-district in the Regency of Kutai, East Kalimantan province. The population is around 300. Source: Ditjarahnitra (1989). BEDOANAS 494 Papua Bedoanas tribe lives in the land of Bomberai Peninsula facing Berau Bay. Their villages are located in the west of Bomberai River. The villages are in Kokas Sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The villages are Adamata, Fior, and Forir. In the south of the area is Baham tribe’s in the southwest of Arguni tribe. The population is about 250. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). BELALAU 091 Sumatra The people of Belau are perhaps a part of Lampung tribe group. They settle in most of Lampung North Regency, such as in Kenali, Belalau, Liwa, Pesisir North, and Pesisir South sub-district, Lampung Province. They speak Lampungnese with a certain dialect called Belalau. The population is around 100,000. Source: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). See also: LAMPUNG. BELITUNG 064 Sumatra According to the linguistic features, origins, and customs, the people of Belitung can be grouped into the large group of Malay tribe so that their identity is more of Melayu Belitung. The people live in Belitung Island, in the Regency of Belitung, South Sumatera Province. The 4,912-km2 island consists of four sub-districts and

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three sub-district representatives, i.e., Tanjung Pandan, Membalong, Manggar, and Gantung sub-district, and Selat Nasik, Simpang Pesak and Kelapa Kampit sub-district representatives. Melayu Belitung calls themselves Urang Belitong. Meanwhile, the origin of the island name has several versions. The first version mentions that Belitong is from the name of Javanese king, i.e., Belitung Uttunggade or Rake Watakura Dyah Belitung. Another version mentions that the name was derived from the word “Bali tong” (the split Bali). It was said that Bali Island was split because of the divine curse. Bali Island was then drifted and anchored by a fisherman. The rock at which the chunk of Bali Island was anchored can still be found in Membalong Regency, known as Batu Baginda. In addition to working in tin and kaolin mining, Belitong people living in the urban areas usually work as employees in offices. Their common occupations are growing rubber trees, pepper, clove, and coconut. Growing rice usually requires them to clear the woods. Aside from producing rice, the inhabitants of the area also grow corn, cassava, sweet potato, and banana. Some of them also develop a handicraft industry producing woven pandanus or rattan. Another occupation is blacksmith. Those who live in the coastal area mostly make a living by working as fishermen and develop skills of making boats. The trading job is usually done by Belitung people of Chinese descendants. The population was estimated to be around 30,000. On this island, also lives Sekak tribe also known as Sawang people and often grouped into Laut tribe. The other inhabitants are immigrants who work in the tin or kaolin minings and traders or businessmen of Chinese descendants. The Melayu Belitung dialect is marked by the absence of “h” sound in certain words and the usage of “e pepet” at the end of word. For instance, the word “haus” is pronounced as “aus”, “hujan” as “ujan”, “apa as “ape”, “putih” as “putei”, and so forth. They also like to shorten sounds of several words by combining them into one word, such as “hendak ke mana” is shortened to “nakmane”. Normally, the language of Belitung is divided into eight dialects, i.e., Badau, Dendang, Gantung, Sijuk, Manggar, Kelapa Kampit, Membalong, and Pulai Seiliu dialect. According to several historical notes, Belitung Island was visited by Chinese fleets in 1293. In the seventh–twelfth century the island was a part of the annexed territory of Sriwijaya. In the thirteenth–fourteenth century, it was occupied by Majapahit. Two centuries later, it was taken over by the Sultanate of Palembang. In the 18th century, the Dutch began to colonize the island. Traditionally, Belitung people prefer building settlements in areas far away from streets or coasts, especially in order to avoid attacks of pirates (lanun) which usually come from the coastal direction. The traditional house is on a platform with walls made of bark and rumbia leaves plait. The space inside the house is divided into three rooms, namely a living room, a bedroom, and a kitchen. Usually between rooms, there is insulation. The inhabitants who clear land for fields quite far from villages build temporary houses there. Fields, where they grow fruits and build a hut to take care of them, are called “keleka”. Temporary settlements built in the outskirt

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of woods are commonly occupied when they have to take care of the fields. They will go back to their villages right after harvest. The kinship system is bilateral, meaning that it is based on the male and female lines. Extended families live in certain parts of villages and have certain rules. A village is led by a custom leader with all assistants. One who leads a ritual is a shaman. Various influences of kingdom governments in the past caused the division of people into two social classes. The first group is the descendant of a noble family called the group of Raja Balok. They are recognizable from the titles, for instance, Kiai Agus for males and Kiai Ayu for females. The second classes are laymen. Islam came to this place around the seventeenth century. Despite that, the original faith of animism is still prevalent among the people. They even still practice various ceremonies derived from the original faith. For instance, a ritual of clearing up land (maras taun), and catching fish from the sea (buang jong), of marriage celebration, and so on. Forms of art from these people are mostly related to original religious ceremonies. For example, Ancak, Kayu Ayan, Nirok Tanggok, and Pak Long Tumbak dance, all of which are performed in certain ceremonies. Source: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). BELU (Tetun, Tettum, Teto) 443 Nusa Tenggara Belu tribe is also commonly known as people of Tetun, Tettum, or Teto. Belu is a name given by people of Atoni, while Teto is a name given by Portuguese. They prefer calling themselves Tetun people. This tribe inhabits the central part of Timor Island. They live both in the territory of Indonesia and Timor Leste. In Timor Leste they live in a district which shares a borderline with Western Timor Province, which is around Suai, Ermera, Dili, and some of Wekeke (Vequeque) District in the central-southern part of Timor Leste. In the Portuguese Colonial times, the Tetunese language was spoken as the second official language after Portuguese. The population now is around 300,000. Tetunese speakers in Timor Leste currently number about 600,000. Belu settlements are commonly inhabited by people from at least two patrilineal clans. The villages usually lie in the neighborhood of a kingdom formerly called fukun or tribe. The social groups are divided into at least two levels, called dassi or dato, and laymen called ahi matan or ema. The noblemen who are kings (who served as village heads when the area used to be in Indonesia’s territory) are called liurai. In ancient times, there was a slave group called ata. A village consists of a number of households called knua (cnua). Knua is led by one uma ulun. In spite of that, a nuclear family called uma (the same word for a house) usually prefers to build its own house in the neighborhood of a male’s family. A village is inhabited by a group of patrilineal kinship (uma knua) led by a dato uain, who plays a role of an assistant to liurai (king). Every uma knua has his custom hall called uma bo’o. As people like to farm, here they also build houses

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called uma to’os. Commonly, these houses are built above poles, with thatched roofs, lontar plait walls, or bamboo plait and without any windows.

The people’s main occupation is growing rice and corn. They will plant in rice fields if the land is suitable for it but if there is a lack of water, they treat the land as a field. There are two common plants they grow, paddy, and corn. The daily foods they eat include generally corn; while, rice is only cooked on certain occasions, such as ceremony times. They also prefer traditional farming of swine, buffalo, and horse husbandry. Buffaloes are especially used as a field plow drawer in rice fields and as hafoli (dowries). Despite the patrilineal kinship system, thanks to a prenuptial agreement requiring a man to stay in a female’s family neighborhood and thus the tribe show a streak of matrilineal kinship. A restricted extended family unity they call uma kain is later divided again into feto fuan group (father’s relatives) and mane fuan (mother’s relatives). Every uma kain is led by a katuas (for worldly affairs) and a katuas lulik (for sacred ritulas). Nuclear families (household unit or knua) are led by a bahen. A nuclear family head is called umaulun. Belu or Tetun tribe acknowledges four types of marriage. The first is hafoli, in which a man’s family must hand a number of dowry with an amount determined based on both sides’ social strata. The second is habani, in which a husband lives with his wife’s family and his children become part of his wife’s clan. It is because a man does not pay a full amount of dowry at the wedding. The third is fetosa umane which is usually done by noble families or queens in which they have to marry their children. In this case, a female’s line is called umane and a male’s line is called feto oan. The fourth is a marriage called hafen, in which a woman follows a

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man she loves without observing the procedure of marriage and kinship. This might as well be regarded as an elopement. The Belu local religion is oriented toward the sun and moon (maromak) and spirit worshipping. Human spirit is called bian. Ancestor spirits are nitu. Spirits that stay in sacred places are called rai na’in. There are evil spirits staying in jungles called buan, and evil person spirits are always roaming to devour humans. These are called suanggi (evil spirits). They believe in dukun buan or matan do’ok ability. Meanwhile, authentic religious rites in every village are led by a priest they call makair lulik. The duty is to guarantee good relationships among people with powerful spirits around them. In the present time, most of the Belu people have embraced Catholicism introduced by Portuguese Jesuit priests with the Portuguese colonial era in Indonesia. Only a small number of them embrace Protestantism and Islam. Sumber: Lapian dan Chaniago (1988), Hicks (1976), Suparlan (1983), Lebar (1964). BENGGAULU 303 Sulawesi The people of Benggaulu live in some parts of northern part of Budong-Budong Regency, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The language perhaps belongs to the language stock of Kaili-Pamona of the language group of Austronesia. Most of them make a living as fishermen and peasants. They embrace Islam. The population is around 5,000. Source: Grimes (1984). BENGKULU 051 Sumatra The people of Malay Bengkulu live the area around Bengkulu Municipality, North Bengkulu, and South Bengkulu Regency coastal areas. The characteristics of the people and their culture indicate that they fall into the large group of Malay tribe. For this reason, they are often called Bengkulu Malay. The tribe lives around Bengkulu Municipality, the coastal area of North Bengkulu and South Bengkulu Regency, in Bengkulu Province. According to experts, Bengkulunese people are, in fact, mixed descendants of various migrating tribes settling and forming small kingdoms in the region. In addition to the neighboring areas, these migrants are from Jambi, Riau, Palembang, Minangkabau, Aceh, Bugis, Banten, and Java. The influence of Indian descendants’ culture is also identified in the culture. The assimilation process of various tribes finally gave birth to a distinct Bengkulu Malay culture. Their first settlement area was probably in Pondok Kelapa and Pasar pedati, in the north of what we know as

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Bengkulu nowadays. The population according to the 1930 census was 13,418 and according to the 1971 census is was 31,000. The Bengkulu dialect shares a lot of similarity with the Minangkabau dialect, especially in terms of sound system or words. Due to this similarity, some people call Bengkulu people “Minangkabau-Bengkulu”. Cultural contact between Minangkabau and Mengkulu might have occurred during the Islam promotion era. At the time, the people in this region also wrote with Arabic-Malay alphabets in their writing system. The Bengkulu people’s occupations vary. Aside from working as farmers, some of them are also traders and government civil servants since the Dutch Colonial Era. These Bengkulu farmers recognize various ceremonies related to farming, such as seed planting, paddy binding, and first rice plucking ritual. There are also some who manage coconut plantations as an additional income source. The Bengkulu tribe calls their settlement unit as dusun. Traditionally, every dusun is led by a head called depati and his assistant depati pemangku. In the past, some dusuns are merged under an administration area called marga. A head of marga is called pasirah, and his assistant is called pembarab. In addition to acting as a head of marga administration, a pasirah also serves as customary head. For that reason, he is also called Raja Penghulu. In a dusun, there are also senior figures often asked for advice when it comes to custom affairs. These people are called tuadusun. The Islamic people also have a religious ritual leader called penghulu or khatib and bilal. The kinship relation principle is marked by a bilateral lineage. Bengkulu people households are normally a father, mother, and their offspring and a grandmother. Married children usually build their own separate houses. The most significant kinship form is an extended family called rumah tangga sebubungan, consisting of a senior nuclear family with a married child’s nuclear family. A male sibling is called meghanai, and a female sibling is kelawai. In each extended family, there is a group called ninik mamak, acting as a leader of family. Members of extended family are responsible for organizing family activities called sepangka. Meanwhile, bonded members of sepangka due to marital ties are called tiang garang. There are a number of settlement patterns after marriage in Malay Bengkulu people. The first is called semendo bleket, in which a married woman lives in her husband’s neighborhood. In such a marriage, a woman is treated as if she were bought by a man. Since Islam started to be adopted, such a martial custom is already rarely practiced. The second is semendo tak abik anak, in which a man lives in his wife’s family house and is considered one of the children in his wife’s family side. The third is semendo menangkap burung terbang, which means a man is considered to be bound and given to his wife’s family. Such a marriage usually occurs if a man lived on his own previously and has no property or assets at all or has no capacity of providing for his wife. The fourth is semendo rajo-rajo or semendo samo-samo suko, in which a man and a woman share the same rights and liabilities in a marriage and usually they are free to decide a domicile. These days, this type of marriage is mostly preferred.

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In the past, a social stratification in the Bengkulu tribe was quite rigid. There was a group of noblemen with titles such as raden, sutan, and rajo. There was also a ninik mamak group, who were a number of senior men respected and looked up by their kindred group. There is also a group of scholars respected thanks to their wisdom and intellect, named menengkalak. Bengkulu signature foods are getuk pisang—a food made of banana with delicious flavor. Pokak is honey typically found in Bengkulu. Rengginang is a food made of sticky rice (ketan) boiled and dried. Ikan pais is Bengkulu typical dish. Emping melinjo is a type of cracker made of melinjo fruit, making its flavor distinct. Tempoyak is another signature dish of Bengkulu made of fermented durian. Gulai rebung asam ikan laut is made of bamboo shoots (rebung) cooked in coconut milk. Gulai tempuyak or gulai tempoyak is a food depending on durian season. Bengkulu, like other regions in Sumatra and Kalimantan, has its own durian season and tempoyak is its signature dish. Different from ones in other regions, tempuyak in Bengkulu is made of fresh durian (instead of rotten durian), fermented for one or two days (according to consumption), added with some salt and ground chili. In Bengkulu, tempoyak is combined with shrimp yet in other regions it is cooked with fish. It is served hot and spicy, adding more flavor to the dish. Bagar hiu—is punai and shark is the main ingredient of this dish. The other ingredients are finely ground red chili, finely ground cayenne pepper; clove, 1 nutmeg, cinnamon, fried coconut, cardamom, coriander, tamarind, ground ginger, ground galingale, turmeric, onion, garlic, lemongrass. First, stir all ingredients with fish (except tamarind, lemongrass, onion, and garlic). Stir-fry onion and garlic. Add the previously made fish and ingredients concoction; add more water (around 3 glasses). Add crushed lemongrass and flavoring. After it boils, add tamarind juice into it. Bagar Kambing—goat is the main ingredient of the dish. Ingredients needed for it are similar to bagar hiu recipe, which are: a kilogram of goat meat, one-fourth kilogram of finely ground red chili (as needed), an ounce of ground cayenne chili, a tablespoonful of clove, a nutmeg, a tablespoonful of cinnamon powder, half kilogram of fried and shredded coconut, a tablespoonful of cardamom, a tablespoonful of coriander, 2 chunks of tamarind, half ounce of ginger powder, an ounce of ground galingale, a teaspoonful of ground turmeric, an ounce of onion (sliced), an ounce of garlic (sliced), and a segment of lemongrass. Mix all ingredients with goat meat except tamarind, lemongrass, onion, garlic. Stir-fry onion and garlic until it smells good, and add into it the previously made meat mixture. Pour water as needed (around 3 glasses). Add some crushed lemongrass and after it boils, add some tamarind juice. Old arts that still survive among other things are dendang Melayu, music opera (sendratari) called Randai, Saputangan (handkerchief) dance, Payung (umbrella) dance, Lilin (candle) dance. Traditional music instruments are the rebab, terbang, gendang, seruling, gong, kulintang, and so forth. Sumber: Depdikbud (1989).

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BENTONG (Tobentong) 334 Sulawesi The tribe is also known as Tobentong. They live in the region of Bulo-Bulo, in the territory of Tanete Riaja sub-district, Barru, South Sulawesi Regency. The hilly landscape covered with lush vegetation and fields as well as the absence of streets makes it quite remote and “exiled” from the outer world. The population is around consisting of 123 families. They are scattered in six (6) small villages, namely Kamboti, Tabalaka, Panggalungan, Rumbia, Ketopok, and Taipabalarasa. The distance between one village and another is about 3–4 h by walk. According to the oral tradition they narrate, the Bentong tribe ancestors were the descendants of the son of the King of Bone and the daughter of the king of Tanete. In the meantime, the language they speak is the creole of the language of Bugis and Makassar. They tend to live nomadically which is in line with the wood-clearing agricultural method they practice. They grow rice, corn, yam, sweet potato, mung beans, and vegetables. In addition, they also hunt and catch fish, and gather forest produce. Their stilted houses are also very simple, at around one-meter height off the ground. The walls are made of bamboo plants, flooring made from logs or bamboo, and roof made from nipah leaves. Houses are usually made as such without any rooms, and a house only has a single door, without any single windows. Traditional tools they have are keris, shields, plates made from coconut shells, plates made from bamboo plaits, jars made from clay, mortars, and pestles to pound rice, wooden spoons, yam slicer knives, spears to catch fish, entrapment (bubu) made from bamboo. The musical instruments are very simple, i.e., bamboo flutes and a kind of wooden lute. In marriage, they adopt group endogamous concept. However, before a bachelor wants to marry a girl outside his group, he must marry a girl inside his own group. For a dowry, a male provides a female, usually a piece of land or fabrics. The custom of settling down after marriage is inclined to be freedom to stay after marriage, meaning that a newlywed couple can settle down in a husband’s side or in a wife’s settlement neighborhood. The authentic local faith of Bentong people is marked by ancestral spirit worship and sacred objects. They believe that ancestral curses can only be avoided through diligently performing worship rituals (arajang). These ceremonial objects consist of keris, spears, shields, umbrellas, and so forth. Sacred objects may be showcased in the event of a leader’s initiation ceremony. Wedding ceremony, natural disasters, and other natural, significant events also contain these objects. These days, the people of Bentong, in general, are Muslims. Source: Depsos (1975).

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BENUAK (Benuaq) 173 Kalimantan Sometimes written as Benuaq, the Benuak tribe lives along the Mahakam River, in the territory of Kutai and Berau, in East Kutai Regency. In Kutai Regency, they live throughout Muara Lawa, Bentian Besar, Damai, Jempang, Muara Muntai, Muara Wahau, Sebulu Sub-district, and around Tenggarong town. Meanwhile, in Berau Regency, they may be found in the territory of Sambaliung, Kelai, and Segah sub-district. Weinstock (1983) groups the tribe into the Lawangan group. The language belongs to the Barito language group. According to the oral storytelling tradition, the people of Benuaq are from a place which shares a borderline with Serawak (Malaysia). As warfare and pressure from the tribe of Iban, they finally moved to East Kalimantan and settled in a place called Benuaq. They picked the place name as their tribe’s name. From here, they spread to areas such as the aforementioned. Their main occupation is growing rice in fields with the nomadic, woods-clearing system. Other extra occupations are gathering forest produce such as resin, rattan, catching fish in rivers, hunting, making plaits, weaving. Their handicrafts are plaits, and ulap doyo woven fabrics. The fabrics are long fabrics made of doyo (Curculigo latifliolin) leaves as its material. The people have also a culture of preserving and maintaining physical beauty. They are known to be avid users of leaves, roots, and barks as traditional cosmetic recipes which continue till the present time. To take care of their pitch-black hair, they wash their hair with brem puyut tree roots or langir wakai roots. For a similar purpose, a natural shampoo can be made from coconut oil and roasted candlenut. To prevent pimples, they always cleanse their facial skin with bekangin leaves which produces soapy foam. Pimples may also be cured by applying crushed selekap and banana leaves onto the skin. Benuaq women are adept at taking care of their physique by consuming their own traditional herbal concoctions. In their original religious system, the tribe firmly believes in the intervention of spirits in life. Because of that, a death ceremony (kwangkai) is very crucial in the religion. They are certain that relatives’ spirits they pay homage to in rituals will reside safely in the borderline of East and Central Kalimantan. In the ceremony, there is usually a buffalo to sacrifice. In Central Kalimantan, such a ceremony is usually called tiwah. Source: Rousseau (1990), Weinstock (1983), King (1993), Depdikbud (1981). BERAU (Merau, Dayak Sakban) 174 Kalimantan The people of Berau are also called Merau, Dayak Sakban, or Dayak Sa’ban, is one of the small tribes living in the area of Berau Regency in Kalimantan Timur (East

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Kalimantan) Province. There are also experts classifying the tribe into the tribal group of Kelabit (Kelabitic group). Source: Rousseau (1990), King (1993). BERIK 495 Papua The people of Berik live in the northern coastal area of Tor River (along its upstream and meanders), or in the hinterland of Sarmi direction. Their villages among other things are Borabora, Waf, Doronta, Beu, Togonfo, Dangken, Kodirian, Somamente, Tenwer, Sewan, Safrontani, and Taminambor. The region belongs to the territory of Tor Atas Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population is about 1,100. The language of Berik falls into the category Papua language family having several dialects such as Berik, Safrontani, Beo, Sewan, Waf, Gua-mer, and Daranto; in which the language of the tribe functions as a trans-tribal lingua franca. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). BERUSU 175 Kalimantan The people of Berusu tribe or Dayak Berusu are one of many tribes living in East Kalimantan Province. Western authors classify the tribe into the group of Punan because they prefer living a nomadic life in jungles. Source: Rousseau (1990). BESOA 237 Sulawesi The tribe of Besoa or Behoa lives in the region of southwest Central Sulawesi, in Lore Utara sub-district, Lore Selatan, and South Pamona in Donggala Regency. Some of them live in Poso Pesisir and Parigi sub-district in Poso Regency. The language falls into the language stock of Kaili-Pamona from the Austronesian language group. The population is around 12,000. Source: Grimes (1984). BETAWI 100 Java-Bali The name of Betawi is, in fact, derived from the word Batavia, the name of Jakarta city in the Dutch Colonial Era. The Betawinese people, as a matter of fact, are a new

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tribe formed by the amalgamation of mixture of various other tribes since the time when the region was called Sunda Kelapa, and then changed into Batavia by the Dutch. The tribe might formerly have been derived from the people of Malay, Sunda, Java, Bugis, Makassar, Bali, Ambon, and other races such as Arab, Chinese, Portuguese as well as others.

Nowadays the people can still be found in several places in Jakarta, yet most of them have been displaced and chose to settle in the outskirts of Jakarta, such as in Cisalak, Tambun, Bekasi, Tangerang, and so on. The total population is hard to count. The last data from the 1930 census mentioned that they were around 778,953. It may have doubled by now. These days, the people of Betawi generally make a living as fruit farmers (for those who still have large pieces of land). Meanwhile, the others work as small vendors, fruit or food sellers, run food stalls, work as carpenters, bricklayers, land and property brokers, tailors, manual workers, civil servants, and so on. The lineage principle of Betawi tribe is bilateral, in which nuclear families prefer mixing with their families of origin to form a restricted extended family which is virilocal by nature, sometimes uxorilocal for post-wedding marriages. They generally embrace Islam and are known to be devout followers. Formerly, the settlement of Betawi people was divided into kemandoran led by a mandor, assisted by a marinyo (a leader of kemandoran territory), pencalang (an

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officer of public relations), amil (an officer in charge of religious affairs), and upas (opas = a security officer). In the Dutch Colonial Era, a formal leader was generally a landlord (a wealthy person) and ulema group. Currently, the people live in the social hierarchy of a “kelurahan” or “desa”. The rigid social stratification is , in fact, nonexistent in the tribe, yet some of the respected members of society are wealthy people and ulemas. Nowadays, the people of Betawi embrace Islam though some others still preserve the old ancient faith, which entails a belief of supernatural power—either good or evil—in certain objects and places such as large stones, banyan trees, graveyards, and so on. The Betawinese arts that still survive and develop to date among other things are: ondel-ondel, i.e., a large-sized humanoid doll made of bamboo, with typical attires and worn to dance. The musical arts include gambang kromong, gambang muncak, and sambrah. The widely known traditional performance art is lenong Betawi. Source: Depdikbud (1980). BETCH-MBUP 496 Papua The tribe of Betch-Mbup is one of Asmat sub-tribes living in Atsy sub-district in the territory of Merauke Regency, Irian Jaya Province. See also: ASMAT. BGU (Bonggo) 497 Papua The people of Bgu are also called Bonggo, living in the area adjacent to the estuary of Wiruwai River, more or less 120 km in the west of Jayapura city, Papua Province. The area is swampy and divided by small streams from the Mountains of Irier and Siduarsi. Their territory lies in the east part of Sarmi tribe’s territory and the western area of Demta-Betaf tribe’s territory. The population was around 4, 00 (1966). The name of Bonggo was given by outsiders but they call themselves the people of Bgu. They live in four villages in Bonggo sub-district, Jayapura Regency, i.e., Taronta, Tarawani, Armopa Lama (Bonggo), and Armopa Baru. The tribe survives by processing sago that grows in the wilderness in the surrounding swamps. For that reason, their villages were established around sago woods. The side dishes are fish, shrimp, other seafood, pork, birds, and vegetables. In the relatively arid land, they grow taro, sugarcane, and banana. Coconut is grown after copra price in the global market gained momentum. The kinship system of the tribe is marked by the significance of nuclear family status which tends to choose an utrolocal settlement pattern. The extended family

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pattern is hardly known. The customs allow a man to marry several women but as Christianity spread its influence here, the marriage is inclined to be monogamous. Dowry, which they call “krae”, plays a crucial role in the kinship ties, consisting of various jewelry such as rings made of seashells (sebkos), necklaces made of coral beads (mote), necklaces made of canine teeth (kdarf), belts made of coral beads (bitem), bracelets made of coral beads (mak), anklets made of strands (weikoki). In addition to those, there must be clothes, clothing materials, cooking utensils, and containers. Once a child is born and dowry is not fully provided yet, the child is adopted by a mother’s family. This is called teiya-mekyo, and its ceremony is called wen-dedka. In the former times, they apparently used to apply the relatively clandestine virilocal kinship system. This virilocal kinship group is called auwet. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1986). BIAK NUMFOR (Nufur, Mafur, Mafoorsch) 498 Papua The tribe inhabits the islands of Biak located in the northern part of Cenderawasih Bay, Papua. European explorers used to call the islands Schouten Islands. These consist of two big islands, namely Biak and Numfor Island, as well as many other islets around them. Some others also call the tribe the people of Nufur or Mafur (Mafoosch). The population is around 100,000. The language falls into the language of Papua, and is divided into several dialects, such as Dialect of Ariom, Bo’o, Dwar, Fairi, Korim, Mandusir, Mofu, Opif, Padoa, Penasifu, Samberi, Sor, Sorendidori, Sundei, Wari, Wadibu, and so on. The land of these islands is very infertile and unsuitable for agriculture. For this reason, the majority relies on catching fish in sea and rivers. They can only grow vegetables, bananas, and other fruits in several places. They also develop the traditional trading ties with people in Papua. They trade fish, salt, sago, yams, taro, tobacco, resin, ironwood, rattan, groceries, rice, and so forth. A typical Biak-Numfor house is a stilted one with roof resembling a turtle’s shell. Their boats are moored to space beneath the houses. Every house is usually occupied by a nuclear family consisting of several smaller nuclear families from a senior male’s descendants in a certain house. Their kinship relations principle is patrilineal. These nuclear families form a limited extended family and then establish a patrilineal clan called keret. On the contrary, in such a ritual such as initiation, the role of a mother’s male sibling is important in bringing a young man to the threshold of adulthood. These days, the people are mostly Christians. Sources: Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (1963), Kamma (1954).

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BIDAYUH (Biatah) 112 Kalimantan The tribe of Bidayuh or Biatah is , in fact, one of many Dayak Darat (Land Dayak) groups living in the upstream of large rivers in West Kalimantan and East Kalimantan, especially around Muller Mountain Range to Sarawak, Malaysia. The population is around 10,000. Source: King (1985).

BIKSI 499 Papua The people of Biksi live in the upstream of Sepik River which ends in the northern coast of Papua New Guinea territory, which is around the borderline with Indonesia. The population is around 400. The territory is in Kurima Sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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BIMA 401 Nusa Tenggara The tribe of Bima inhabits Bima Regency in Sumbawa Island. Some of them live in Dompu Regency, and in Sangiang Island, in Nusa Tenggara Barat Province. The population is around 350,000. The language consists of several dialects, namely Bima, Bima Donggo, and Sangiang. In the daily life, they speak a polite and colloquial language.

Their main occupations are farming in fields, and shifting cultivation (ngoho). Some others make a living by gathering forest crop (ngupalade’de) and catching fish. The kinship line system is patrilineal. A nuclear family lives with a limited extended family in an uma panggung (a large stilted house). Every village called kampo or kampe is headed by a Village Head called ncuhi or ompu or ghelarang. On duty, a village head is accompanied by several dou matua, i.e., counselors consisting of kinship groups’ leaders in a village. A village head is usually selected from village first settlers’ descendants. The people of Bima consist of nobility, laymen, and slaves. The first class usually consists of traditional ancient kings and custom leaders, who are commonly called datu. The nobility class members who are bachelors are called lalu. Once they are married and have offspring, they are called ruma. The female nobility members who are unmarried are called lala and once they are married, they are called dae.

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The people in general embrace Islam. A small number of them still worship ancestral spirits and preserve ancient belief system called pare no bongi. In the agricultural activities, they have weharima, a mutual help in a life cycle ceremony. Meanwhile, such solidarity in life cycle ceremonies is called hankombu. Sources: Depdikbud (1978, 1989), Lebar (1979), Kennedy (1943). BINGI (Tobingi) 304 Sulawesi The people of Bingi are considered one of the culturally exiled peoples living in remote places in the hinterland of South Sulawesi. They inhabit several villages in Pasangkayu Sub-district, Mamuju Regency. They are also known as the people of Tobingi. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BINTAUNA 213 Sulawesi The tribe is classified into one of the Mongondow sub-tribes. They generally live in Bintauna sub-district, Bolaang Mongondow Regency, in the vicinity of the northern coast of North Sulawesi Province. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: MONGONDOW. BIPIM 500 Papua Bipim is one of the tribes living in southern Papua. They live in the eastern part of Asmat tribe’s territory and in the western part of Sawi tribe’s territory, which belongs to the Asue sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 300. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). BIRUMARU (Tobirumaru) 238 Sulawesi The people of Birimaru or Tobirumaru are a part of Kaili tribal group. They live in the southern part of Palu River valley, especially in the hinterland of the valley. They speak the language of Kaili with the Kaili-Ledo dialect. Source: Mattulada (1989). See also: KAILI.

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BISMAM 501 vPapua The people is one of the Asmat sub-tribes living in most of the territory of Agats sub-district in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The group is marked by a dialect called Bismam dialect. See also: ASMAT. BOANO (1) 239 Sulawesi The people of Boano are classified by Kennedy into the Tomini tribal group. They live in some part of Tomini and Ampibabo sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Some others live in Boano Village, Montong Sub-district, Toli-Toli Regency, Central Sulawesi. The population was around 1,700. They still live as moving farmers. The language falls into the language group of Austronesia, close to Tominian. Sources: Kennedy (1943), Grimes (1984). See also: TOMINI. BOANO (2) 368 Maluku They live in an islet called Boana Island, in the western part of Seram Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population is around 1,500. The people mostly make a living by working as fishermen and some others grow yams and rice. Sago is the staple food. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BOLAANG ITANG 214 Sulawesi The people of Bolaang Itang fall into one of the sub-tribes of Mongondow group. Most of them live in Bolaang Itang and Sangtonglombang Sub-district, North Sulawesi. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: MONGONDOW.

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BOLAANG UKI 215 Sulawesi The people are one of the sub-tribes of Mongondow ethnic group. They generally live in Bolaang Uki sub-district, Bolaang Mongondow Regency, near the southern coast of Tomini Bay, in the west borderline of Gorontalo Regency. The language of Bolaang Uki is known to be the dialect of Bolango. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Depdikbud (1989). See also: MONGONDOW. BONAI 022 Sumatra They are one of the exiled peoples to have been mentored by the Social Department for more than a decade. Nowadays, they live in mentored villages such as Bonai, Sekapas, and Rantau Kapur, in Tanah Putih sub-district, Bengkalis Regency, Riau. The name “Bonai” was allegedly to be derived from the word “Borneo” (Kalimantan) but culturally the tribe has nothing to do with Dayak tribe. Other experts opine that the tribe is still a part of Kubu tribe living in jungles throughout Jambi and South Semalatan Province. The people of Bonai live in groups around the riverbanks of Rokan Kiri dan Rokan Kanan River, both in the territory of Tanah Putih Sub-district and Rokan IV Koto Sub-district, especially in Ulak Kemahang and Kasimang. The population is estimated to reach less than 5,000. The Bonai people living in Bonai foster village live along with the Sakai tribe that is already mentored to settle down. The main occupations are hunting, gathering forest crops, occasional farming, and catching fish along the Batang Rokan River and its smaller branches. Its kinship system is bilateral. In Riau Province, its local group leader is called batin. Generally they still practice the old animistic belief yet some already embrace Islam. The language of Bonai is under the same language family of Malay with differences in dialects and some vocabularies. Different from the people of Sakai that live nomadically in jungles, this tribe prefers living in Rokan River. The tribe itself firmly states that they are different from the people of Sakai. Compared to the people of Sakai, the tribe is more heavily influenced by the Malayan tribe. For a long time, they have been traveling often to sell fish or wood and forest crops to Bagan Siapiapi, a fishery town in the estuary of Rokan River. From the religious point of view, both the people of Bonai and Sakai indicate the original Malayan cultural characteristics. For instance, the shamanism medical system was applied by means of ancestral spirit assistance and divine power to cure illnesses and mental disorders. The medical system is marked by a ceremony led by a shaman dancing along with the drumbeats until trance phase is reached. The people of Bonai and Sakai equally call the dance Dewa or Dewo dance, the people of Riau Melayu call it Bedomo.

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BONERAF 502 Papua The tribe inhabits the eastern riverbanks of Tor River, i.e., the southern part of Berik and Kwesten tribe’s territory. The small tribe’s villages (the population is around 100) are Boneraf and Urbefare. Their territory includes Tor Atas sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). BONERATE 305 Sulawesi The people of Bonerate inhabit an islet named Bonerate in the south of Selayar Island, Kalao sub-district, Selayar Regency, South Sulawesi Province. Some others live in Karompa Island. The language is classified into the language stock of Muna-Button from the Austronesian language group, and divided into two dialects, i.e., Bonerate and Karompa. The people these days embrace Islam. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BORTO 503 Papua The tribe lives in the north of Papua, in the east of Tor River, to the hinterland where the borderline between western tribe’s territory and Papua New Guinea lies. The language is called the language of Ittik or Itik classified into the language group of Papua, divided into the dialect of Ittik and Ittik-Tor. Their territory lies in Pantai Timur sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Biridua and Mekwer. Sources: Grimes (1984), Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). BRAZZA 504 Papua Brazza is one of the sub-tribes of Asmat which inhabits Citak Mitak (Senggo) Sub-district along the meanders of Brazza River in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. See also: ASMAT.

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BUGIS (Ugi) 306 Sulawesi The people of Bugis are often called the Ugi tribe. The tribe inhabits several regencies in South Sulawesi Province, such as Bulukumba, Sinjai, Bone, Soppeng, Wajo, Sidenreng-Rappang, Pinrang, Polewali-Mamasa, Enrekang, Pare-Pare, Barru, Maros Regency, and Pangkajene Islands. In addition to that, the tribe also likes to roam and settle down in other regions of Indonesia. They are known to be tough sailors and adventurers. They are around 3,500,000 in their region of origin. The language of Bugis is also called the language of Ugi or Bugi. According to classic ethnolinguistic expert, Esser (1938), the language of Bugis falls into the same group of languages of Luwu, Sa’dan, Mandar, Pitu Ulunna Sallu, Makassar, and Seko tribe. The language consists of several dialects such as Bone, Soppeng, Luwuk, Wajo, Bulukumba, Sidenreng, Pare-Pare, and so on. Many years ago, they created their own alphabets called lontarak alphabets, i.e., traditional alphabets allegedly derived from Sanskrit alphabets written on lontar leaves (lontar is a type of palm tree). The Bugis kinship system is bilateral or parental, in which kinship is organized based on two lines, namely consanguinity relations called seajing or sampunglolo and affinal relations (ties of marriage) called siteppa-teppa. Seajing relatives play a big role in daily life, in addition to taking care of marital and relational issues, they are also required to take care of defence and preserve sirik or siri, i.e., dignity or esteem of an extended family. Siteppa-teppa relatives take a role when an extended family holds ceremonies concerning living environment, such as wedding ceremonies, birth ceremonies, death ceremonies, new house construction ceremonies, and so on.

Basically, their main occupation is farming. Their main plant to grow and staple food is rice in addition to growing corn, yams, nuts, vegetables, and other crops. Their commercial plants are tobacco, clove, coconut, and fruits. The farmers are

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known to be persistent, so are the sailors. Their traditional marine knowledge system makes them a respected tribe among others. They are very adept at making streamlined yet strong wooden boats. Meanwhile, the women are known for their bugis sarong handcraft. Formerly, the people had once powerful kingdoms such as Sultanate of Bone, Bugis-Luwuk, and Soppeng. At the time, the people were divided into several rigid social strata. The class of royal relatives and descendants is called tomaradika. Then there was a slave class called ata. The slave class was generally from the prisoners-of-war group and those who violate customary rules. The three strata are, in fact, divided more into strata. In ancient times, in South Sulawesi there were at least six kingdoms of Bugis, i.e., Kingdom of Luwuk, Bone, Soppeng, Ajjatappareng, Sidenreng, and Wajo. According to mythology (except Wajo), these kingdoms were founded by a cultural hero character named Sawerigading, a son of Tomanurung, a character descending from heaven. Of all these kingdoms, Luwuk Kingdom is considered the oldest. The Wajo Kingdom is considered to have been founded the last and has nothing to do with Sawerigading role.

These kingdoms are led by a king usually titled mangkau’e ri tana, assisted by ministers such as mangkubumi, governance affairs ministry, safety, justice, religious affairs, and treasurer, and so on. Kingdoms are divided into customary territorial regions called wanua (resembling a village), led by a wanua head called arung palili. Every wanua consists of several villages. Nowadays, the people of Bugis generally embrace Islam. In the ancient times, their religious belief revolved around the highest deity with several nicknames: Patotto’e E (That Decides Fate), Dewata Seuwa’e (the Sole God). Bugis traditional culture gave birth to various artistic forms, various dances, oral tradition art (sinrilik), stringed musical instruments (keso-keso), lyrics and classical pantun (kelong).

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The Bugis signature foods share many things in common with signature foods of Makassar City, aside from Cotto Makassar and konro, named “pallubasa” which resembles soto Makassar with cow meat and innards as fillings (optional). There were also Barongko and Buronggo, some Bugis signature foods. Barongko is easily found in traditional ceremonies, dinning, and other rituals in Bugis, such as wedding ceremonies, Mappanre Temme (the finalization of Qur’an recitation and memorization), circumcision, religious discussions, and so forth. Usually Barongko cakes which are also called Buronggo are served as dessert after staple foods are served. The food is made of ripe kepok banana steamed and wrapped inside banana leaves. Sources: Lebar (1964), Koentjaraningrat (1969), Hamid (1985), Mattulada (1983), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). BUKAT 113 Kalimantan In other literature, the tribe of Bukat is also called the people of Ukit. They are one of the Dayak Bukat-Bukitan sub-tribes living in some parts of Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province, especially around the riverbanks of central Kapuas River, until the upstream of Mahakam River. In the north lives the tribe of Iban. This lies to the east of Maloh tribe territory, and south of Kantu’ tribal territory. The tribe falls into the nomadic farmers who still preserve their tradition of tattooing their bodily parts, especially chest and shoulders. See also: DAYAK. Source: King (1985), Rousseau (1990). BUKIT 205 Kalimantan The people of Bukit or Dayak Bukit live in Hulu Sungai Utara Regency, i.e., in Halong and Awayan sub-district. Some others live in Tabalong Regency, Haruai Sub-district, and Muara Uya Sub-district, South Kalimantan Province. In fact, the tribe also spread in five other regencies, yet most of them use their own tribal identities so the tribe of Bukit can be divided into several sub-tribes. The total population is around 25,000. The sub-tribes falling into the Bukit tribe are Iyam tribe living in the hinterland of Hulu Sungai Utara Regency; Pambahaluan, Hinas Kiri, Hinas Kanan and Haruyan tribe Hulu Sungai Tengah Regency; Hulu Banyu tribe in Huu Sungai Selatan Regency; Pincuran Darah tribe in Tapin Regency; Peramasan tribe in Banjar RegencyRiam Adungan tribe in Tanah laut Regency; Balangan, Harakit, Gunung Riut, Buntu Pelanduk, and other tribes. The names are generally from their own places of origin.

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The language of Bukit is heavily influenced by the language of Banjar which falls into the language family of Malay. Therefore, the language they speak is also called the language group of “Banjar Archais”. A Bukit tribe settlement is marked by an establishment of kampong communal houses they call balai. Their villages are a combination of several kampongs. This is marked by several balais. Between a balai to another, there is a distance of 1–3 h by walk. A balai is occupied by 10–20 nuclear families they call umbun. Every balai is led by a custom head who also serves as religious head called balian. The number of umbun inside a balai is counted based on a number of furnaces in a large house. A balai is used as a home and a place for religious ceremonies (bawanang) and wedding ceremonies. Their main occupations are nomadic farming, they call bahuma. Such a moving farming system is closely related to their belief system. This explains why bahuma activities are always accompanied with religious ceremonies such as offering serving and so on. Sources: Radam (1977, 1989), King (1993). BULI 369 Maluku The people of Buli live in the coastal area of Halmahera Island, i.e., around Weda Bay, between southwest and southeast peninsula. They live next to the Sawai and Weda tribe. Usually they live in the hinterland and make a living as farmers in fields, hunters, and gatherers. The region is in Halmahera South sub-district, Maluku Utara Regency, Maluku Province. The 2,000-people tribe now embraces Islam; whereas, some others are Christians. They rely most on selling export commodities such as coconuts and tobacco. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BULO (Tapango, Pannei) 291c Sulawesi The population is perhaps around 9,000 (1986 SIL). The tribe lives in several villages in Wonomulyo Sub-district, Polewali-Mamasa Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized as Austronesian, Malayan-West Polinesian, Sulawesi, language family, and the language group of Pitu Ulunna Salu (Bugis-Makassar). The dialects are Tapango and Bulo. They are Muslims. Further research is required.

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BULUNGAN 194 Kalimantan The Bulunganese people live in most of Bulungan Sub-district in East Kalimantan Province. They perhaps still inhabit some of the Murut tribe’s territory. They settle down around the central part of Bahau River meanders. Source: Coomans (1987). BUNAK 444 Nusa Tenggara The people of Bunak or Marae live in the borderline of East Timor and Nusa Tenggara Timur Province in Timor Island. In East Timor, they live in the north of Kovalima District and the south of Bobonaro District. In western Timor, they live in some parts of Belu Regency. The population is around 50,000. The language of Bunak falls into the language stock of Timor Alor from the Papuan language group. Sources: Suparlan (1980a, b), Lapian and Chaniago (1989). BUNGKU (Tobungku) 240 Sulawesi The people of Bungku are often called Tobungku. Kennedy (1935) makes a mention that there are sub-tribes of Bungku, i.e., Lambatu, Epe, Reta, Ro’tua, and Wowoni. They settle down in Bungku Utara, Bungku Tengah, Bungku South sub-district, and Menui Islands. Some others live in Wowoni Island in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. In 1930, the population was around 14,000, and currently they are about 35,000. The language is categorized under the language of Tomori and Tolaki related with languages in south of the Philippines. Most of them work as farmers in fields and grow rice. In addition to that, they also grow corn, yams, coconut, and clove. Another staple food of theirs is sago. Currently, they embrace Islam. Source: Kennedy (1935, 1943). BUOL 241 Sulawesi The tribe lives in Biau, Bokat, Bunobugu, Momunu, and Paleleh sub-district. They live in 68 villages. The population was around 63,000 in 1979 (Barr). The language of Buol is closely related to the language of Toli-Toli and Gorontalo.

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The main occupations of theirs are farming. In fields, they grow clove, nutmeg, coconut, coffee, and other crops. Even though the kinship relations tend to be bilateral, yet thanks to Islam influence, it is often drawn patrilineally. In the ancient times, they applied a governance system of small kingdoms and there is little influence on the current social stratification system. In the past, they acknowledge a group of tau poyog-diya, i.e., the kings and their families; tau wayu, i.e., the nobility consisting of kings’ assistants and officials; tau wanom, the lower nobility group; tau pat, the laymen group; and in the lowest layer is the budak group. In general, the people embrace Islam. Their original religion teaches worship of Pogugul Mountain, considered as the place of ancestral origin. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989), Barr (1984). BURATMATO 176 Kalimantan The tribe lives in several villages in Batu and Sopang sub-district in Pasir Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population is around 300. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BURU 370 Maluku The people of Buru live in Buru Island in the west of Halmahera Island, in Central Maluku, Maluku Province. The population is around 7,000. In fact, the tribe is still categorized into the Alfuru group, i.e., names used by Dutch experts to mention physical characteristics of the people dominant in Seram Island and Maluku Tengah in general. The language of Buru falls into the Austronesian language group. They make a living by gathering sago living in the wilderness of Buru Island. Aside from that, they like hunting deer and boar. Some of them clear up, burn down jungles and open fields. The plants grown in their fields are rice, corn, yam, sweet potato, banana, and so forth. They hunt with dogs, nooses, and weapons such as spears and daggers. The most significant kinship unity in the Buru tribe is a patrilineal nuclear family they call etnate, i.e., a unity if several junior nuclear families oriented toward one senior nuclear family according to patrilineal lineage. A number of etnates form a fena, i.e., a kinship unity oriented to one similar ancestor. For the sake of security and social power, several fenas form a village territorial federation is called feuloli or feugmolin. A fena (an extended patrilineal family) is led by a matle or gebha assisted by an advisor who is considered outstanding in his own fena. This advisor is called perwis. Meanwhile, feulolin territorial federation is led by a jabu head, who is a

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warlord and confederation territorial head. A jabu head is assisted by a hermolon, a trusted aide. In making decisions, a jabu head must have the approval of feulolin customary convention. In the golden age of Ternate Sultanate, the Buru tribe must pay local tax to their jabu head. These days, most of them have adopted Islam, especially those living in the coastal area. Those who live in hinterland still practice the original religion. It is oriented to the Almighty they call Opogeba Snulat or Opo Lahalata. Besides that, they believe in spirits they call emangin. If a human being dies, his spirit turns into a spirit called nituro. At times nituro still lingers to disturb or help human beings. In addition, there are still natural spirits that can still disturb or help human beings. These spirits are called sanane. According to the ancient Buru religion, their social life is in correct order thanks to “12 Commandments”, which Naliata reveals. Naliata is a legendary character dispatched by Opogeba Snulat.` Source: Wilken (1849), Kennedy (1943). BURUWAI (Karufa, Asienara, Madidwana) 505 Papua The people of Buruwai or Karufa live in the south of Bomberai Peninsula, i.e., in the west of Kamrau Bay. The territory encompasses Kaimana sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Guriasa, Tairi, Hia, Gaka, Yarona, Kuna, Esania, and Marobia. The population is around 700. The other names of the tribe are Asienara, Madidwana. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). BUSAMI 506 Papua The tribe lives in the northern coast of Irian Jaya and some part of Yapen Island coast, the east of Cenderawasih Bay estuary. Their villages are Kamanap, Masiaroti, and Kaonda. The language falls into the language family of Papua and is divided into several dialects. The population is around 600. The territory is in Yapen Barat and Yapen Selatan sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. BUTON (Butung) 342 Sulawesi The Buton or Butung tribe inhabits Buton Island or Butung Island in the south of southeast part of Sulawesi peninsula. In terms of administration, they are in Buton Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The people of Buton are known to be one of the adventurous tribes. Many of them venture to Sabah (Malaysia), Seram Island,

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and North Maluku. They are known to be resilient sailors and persistent traders. The population is around 300,000. The Butonese language is classified by classic ethnolinguistic expert Esser into Muna-Butung group. The language is divided into several dialects such as Butung, Wolio, Wapacana, Cia-Cia and Wakatobi. Afterward, all these dialects are divided into about 22 sub-dialects. Most of the people of Buton earn a living by working as farmers in fields, growing staple plants such as corn and yams. They also grow rice to a lesser degree. Commercial plants they grow are oranges, kapok, and coconut. They are, in fact, known to be brass handcrafters. Other skills include wooden boat carpentry, rattan and pandanus pleats, and traditional weaving. In the ancient times, Buton Island was under the Wolio-Buton Sultanate. The territory included Muna, Tukang besi, Selayar, Kabaena, and Womui Island. It was divided into some traditional districts led by a bonto or bobato. Under a district, there were villages led by a village head and assisted by a traditional council. Back then, there was a group consisting of the royal descendants called kaomoe group. There was also a group consisting of royal nobility serving a king called walak. Laymen were called maradika. The people embrace Islam. The social life rules generally refer to Islamic laws, including marriage. The Butonese people lineage system is patrilineal. A male side provides a number of dowries to a female’s family according to female side social degree. They apply a marital prohibition to one-level, direct cousins. After a wedding ceremony, a newlywed couple settles down in an uxorilocal way. After their firstborn child is born, they settle down in a new place. The Butonese tribe resides in Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi Province. They consumed processed cassava, red beans, and corn as staple foods. Non-rice foods are even delicious when eaten without any side dishes or vegetables. There are three types of dish served to replace rice. Two of them are made of cassava, i.e., kasuami and hugu-hugu as well as kapussu nassu made of corn. Kasuami is made of shredded, extracted, and fermented (for three days) cassava. Added with red beans and coconut and then cooked by steaming, kasuami looks like getuk but it tastes bland with a streak of savory flavor. Hugu-hugu is a food also made of steamed cassava added with shredded coconut, resembling cassava “urap”. However, this food offers its own distinction for its dark cassava. The color appears after roughly minced cassava is baked under the sun for days until it turns darker. Red bean—in addition to yams, are staple foods of Butonese people. Food such as kasuami, kapussu nassu is added with red beans and corn. With coconut milk, the food which resembles porridge also tastes savory. There are types of side dish to serve, one of which is anchovy fish “balado” named “Koholeo”. Before being mixed with palm sugar, tamarind juice, and chili, the anchovy fish caught in Butonese waters must be smoked at first. Another menu is ayam nasu wolio—which has close resemblance with chicken opor both in terms of appearance and flavor. The main ingredient is a roasted village chicken before it is cooked with coconut milk, onion, and lemongrass.

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In Buton, at least there are 77 carbohydrate sources besides rice. These carbohydrate sources should be optimized as rice substitution. Sources: Lebar (1964), Esser (1938), Depdikbud (1985), Koentjaraningrat (1969), Grimes (1984), Depdikbud (1989). BUTONG 307 Sulawesi The Butongese people are considered as one of the exiled peoples in terms of culture and transportation in Tanetariaja sub-district, Barru Regency, and South Sulawesi Province. The population is around 750. Source: Depdikbud (1989). BUYU 242 Sulawesi The people of Buyu are classified by classic ethnographic experts into Pamona tribal group. They generally live around Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA.

C China General Indonesia The native tribes in Indonesia rarely learn that the Chinese descendants among them came from various tribes back in their country of origin. They arrived in Indonesia through many stages and due to many causes. The historical records on the first Chinese immigrants settling down in Indonesia among others are in the Sriwijaya history and Malayan sultans’ history. However, the Chinese who currently live in Indonesia are the descendants of the Chinese immigrants during the Dutch Colonial Era. Despite their largely diverse cultural background, in Indonesia they are considered as one ethnic group by native tribes. In Indonesia’s national contemporary landscape nowadays, they are considered foreign citizens, or foreign Indonesian citizens like other foreign descendants (such as Arabic, Indian, Japanese, European, and others). The classification was allegedly due to the fact that their arrival was quite recent and their ties with the country of

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origin are still existent. In addition, such an ethnic group does not integrate with one of the native tribes’ culture. They are difficult to adjust and there is no acknowledgment in their place of origin in Indonesia. Their economic role in Indonesia’s economy is relatively prominent so that their existence is significant in this developing nation. The relations of native tribes in Indonesia with the Chinese nation and civilization , in fact, had begun many years ago, even since the prehistoric age. Anthropologically, this is shown by various influences of Chinese culture on diverse local cultural elements. For example, the influence on languages, cultural objects, arts, architecture, traditional attire, and so on. The Chinese immigrants arrival motive to Indonesia at first was to look for various types of objects and spices in the tropical region, gaharu sap, nests of swallows (Collocalia nidifia), bezoar stone or “monkey stone”, elephant tusks, camphor extracted from Dybalanops aromatika trees, gold, silver, and the best woods such as ironwood, teak, kulim, sandalwood. These commodities and spices were traded with silk and porcelain. In fact, not all of the Chinese people came to Indonesia as traders. Most of them during the Dutch Colonial Era were brought here as workers in plantations, manual workers in mines and ports. The Chinese descendants in Indonesia were also from various Chinese tribes, but most of them were from Fukien and Kwangtung Province. These immigrants brought with them their own culture and languages. The Chinese language we know in Indonesia at least is divided into four language groups: Hokkien (Hokkian), Tiu-Chiu (Teo-Chiu), Hakka (Khek), and Kanton (Kwong Fu), each of which is a distinct ethnic language. The biggest Chinese immigrant wave occurred in the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century, especially those Hokkien-speaking tribes from the south of Fukien Province. These immigrants had mercantile skills thanks to seafaring for centuries. Generally, they highly condone diligence, thriftiness, independence, and entrepreneurship. That is why most of them are successful in economic sector in the countries with rich natural resources. The tribe of Tiu-Chiu and Hakka (Khek) are from Kwangtung Province. In China, Tiu-Chiu people live in the infertile region in the poverty-stricken hinterland. In Indonesia, they were employed by the Dutch as workers in plantations and mines, such as East Sumatra, Bangka, Belitung, and West Kalimantan. Meanwhile, the Hakka people prefer making a living in the trading sector. Most of them have lived in West Java and Jakarta to trade since the nineteenth century. The Cantonese tribe initially worked in tin mines in Bangka Island. However, their skills as carpenters and blacksmiths enabled them to spread anywhere else. These days, they usually make a living as owners of stores which sell carpentry and iron utensils or as small business owners. These traders generally find it difficult to mingle with native tribes, both in terms of society and amalgamation. They usually find it hard to speak a local language, hard to accept local traditions and are inclined to live in groups of the similar tribe. They are called “Cina Totok”, a term to distinguish them from “Cina Peranakan” (Assimilated Chinese) who have adapted. In Central Java, some of these Chinese

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immigrants settled down and married local women, giving birth to a new generation of Cina Peranakan that adapted socially and culturally more easily to the local people. Most of their life almost resembles one of the local people. In places other than Java, there are assimilations among Chinese people and local people. For instance, in the northeast of Bangka Island or around Sungailiat town, in which assimilation atmosphere is more noticeable through marriages, diversification of Bangka signature foods, and language usage. The people of Malay Bangka in this place use some Chinese vocabulary. On the contrary, the Chinese descendants also speak Hakka dialect with some influence of Malayan-Bangkanese language. Apparently, the Chinese descendants in this area are willing to accept the dominance of Malayan-Bangkanese culture by adapting themselves to the surrounding, without them losing their own identity. An interesting assimilation process occurs when a number of Chinese single traders married a number of Talang mamak women in Bukittigapuluh Mountains in the borderline of Riau and Jambi. These Chinese traders married women from a matrilineal tribe. As a result, their offspring had the chance to be local traditional group leaders. To the people of Talang mamak, this was hardly a problem because they immersed themselves in the local culture. A new problem arose after the government and missionaries and the impact of environmental changes appeared owing to forest clearing for transmigration, plantation, and mining. Nonetheless, in most of Indonesia such assimilation processes have not occurred. In West Kalimantan and West Java, for example, even though there are some Chinese people living in the countryside, they live separately from the native people’s settlements and retain their original characteristics. Meanwhile, some of them do not speak Indonesian because they only communicate with each other. In Bagansiapiapi, a fishery town in eastern part of Sumatra, the more dominant culture is of Hokkien than of Malay. The reluctance to mingle with others, in fact, has long appeared owing to several causes. First of all, because in the Dutch Colonial Era they were not willing to be treated like the natives and thus maintained their Chinese identity all way through. This attitude was condoned by the Chinese nationalist faction’s propaganda, advising Chinese immigrants to stay oriented to the Chinese cultural grandeur. For some reason, the Dutch Colonial Government treated them differently. The Dutch Government itself founded settlements and Chinese-Dutch schools (Holland’s Chinese School) to isolate “Cina Peranakan” children (ones from interethnic marriages) from local children. From the legal perspective, they were subject to different private laws from the natives. They once had double citizenship: Chinese and Indonesian citizenship. Since 1955, the regulation has required them to have only one citizenship. In the middle of the nineteenth century, most of the Chinese people lived in Java, i.e., around 150,000. Afterward, the number of Chinese people outside Java started to increase, after tin mines were opened colossally in Bangka and Belitung and large plantations in eastern Sumatra. The 1930 census showed that their number already increased to 1,233,214 or 2% of the total population of Indonesia. In 1961, the Chinese people in Indonesia was 2,505,000 or 2.5% of the total population of Indonesia (which reached 96,327,000), in which most of them (1,230,000) lived in

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Java and Madura, while the rest in Sumatra (690,000), Kalimantan (370,000), and other regions (215,000). In Java Island, most of them live in cities (58.4%) and the rest in smaller towns. This was partly because of the Dutch policy in the 19th century. During this time, the Chinese people had to live in a certain part of city as stipulated by the Colonial Government, which was why a segregated cluster of Chinese settlements appeared. This part of the city was then more widely known as Pecinan (China Town). Most of the Chinese people make a living by trading, organized their businesses based on the kinship system. Their small-scale businesses are already well-managed by their own family members without employing outsiders. Such businesses may vary, from trading firms, shops, or a warehouse which also functions as a house. After a business developed, they opened a new branch in another town in a similar form, taken care of by a relative. These days, their occupations are more diverse. In addition to the business sector, they prefer vocational fields, administration, or large corporation staffers. Today’s Chinese generation appreciate and enjoy life, spare time, social position, and life security more than ever. Chinese are considered someone in the society after they are married. In the former times, someone’s marriage was arranged and regulated by his or her family. Nowadays, such a pattern has altered. According to general Chinese tradition, a forbidden marriage is one between two people who share the same clan. Aside from that, a woman cannot marry before her elder sister is married. On the contrary, a younger sister may marry before her elder brother, or a younger brother may marry before even his elder sister is. The settlement regulation after wedding is patrilocal. This especially applies to a firstborn son because he has to preserve the worship rituals of ancestors. Other sons are allowed to select as to where they will settle down after wedding, whether it is in a husband’s or wife’s relative neighborhood. The Chinese people’s custom does not prohibit polygamy because usually a man marries again if his first wife does not give birth to any son. This is because sons should succeed their fathers to continue the ancestral worship. Currently, various cultural changes have occurred to the majority of Chinese people. Today’s Chinese generation tend to form monogamous nuclear families. Also, the kinship characteristic is also bilateral. Power, asset ownership as well as social position between men and women have reached equality. Such social changes are even occurring at a faster pace in the Chinese people than in other tribes. The Chinese descendants in Indonesia apparently have the freedom to adopt various religions because in addition to Buddhism, they are free to embrace Kong Hu-Cu, Taoism, Christianity, Catholicism, and Islam. Kong Hu-Cu is , in fact, a philosophical teaching to lead a good life, which is why there are many Chinese people adopting other religions while also still practicing the teaching of Kong Hu-Cu, especially in terms of social life. In this teaching, included is the obligation of preserving traditions and customs, among other by worshipping ancestors and taking care of their ashes. Ancestral worship is doable inside a house or temple. For this purpose, they provide an altar (a long and tall desk). On an altar, there is a space for incense (hio) with candles lit in the right and left side. An ancestral worship

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ceremony is led by a father in a family. This is passed on to a firstborn son and so forth. The majority of Chinese people in Indonesia still celebrate the Chinese New Year known as Imlek. The New Year celebration is commemorated by a ceremony in a temple or in front of ash desk. The ceremony is performed in a clean physical and spiritual condition. During New Year celebration, there must be no profanity uttered and they must not sweep in three days. This prohibition is meant to preserve fortune. Besides that, there is Cheng Beng Holiday, i.e., a pilgrimage trip to ancestors’ graveyards, bringing with them incense, candles, ritual paper, and a little offering. Sources: Hidayah (1993), Skinner (1963), Tan (1981), Vasanty (1983). CITAK MITAK 507 Papua The tribe of Citak Mitak lives in some part of south Papua, i.e., in the upstream of Brazza River, and the west of Digul River upstream. In the west of the area, there is the territory of Asmat tribe, while in the south there is the territory of Awyu tribe. The language shares many things in common with the language of Asmat so that some experts classify it into one sub-tribe of Asmat. Their villages are Abaw, Komasma, Daikut, Samnak, Tiau, Amazu, Vomu, Bidnew, Binamzain, Durpas, Votu, Sipanap. The tribe lives in Citak Mitak sub-district (Senggo), Jayapura Regency, Papua. The population is around 8,000. The other names are Cicak, Kaunak. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

D DAIRI PAKPAK 012 Sumatra The tribe perhaps consists of two groups, the people of Dairi and Pak-pak. However, to outsiders they prefer to admit as one single unity. Hence, they are more widely known as the people of Batak Dairi Pakpak, one of the sub-tribes of Batak tribe. The people inhabit the region of Dairi or Dairi Regency nowadays, in North Sumatra Province. The population was around 200,000 (based on the 1975 census, it was around 199,000). Sources: Bangun (1983), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1989). See also: BATAK.

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DALE-DALE 243 Sulawesi The tribe of Dale-Dale is one of the sub-tribes of the Balantak tribe. They inhabit Balantak sub-district, Luwuk, Tinangkung, and Lamola, in Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi. Source: Adriani and Kruyt (1912). See also: BALANTAK. DAMAR 371 Maluku The tribe of Damar lives in Damar Islands located in the south of Banda Islands especially in Damar, Teun Nila, and Sirua Island. All are included in Southeast Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The language belongs to the language group of Austronesia. Source: Grimes (1989). DAMPELAS 244 Sulawesi The people of Dampelas are categorized into one of the sub-tribes of Tomini. They inhabit eight villages in Dampelas Sojol Sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The population in 1979 was around 9,500. Source: Kennedy (1943). See also: TOMINI. DANI (Ndani) 508 Papua The people of Dani or Ndani live in the hinterland of Papua, in the plateau of central Jayawijaya Mountains. The capital is Wamena, which is quite hectic with many new settlers from other regions in Indonesia. Their settlement is commonly around the upstream of large rivers such as Memberamo River leading to the northern coast of Papua. The lakes in the central mountains serve as a water spring for two meanders of Memberamo River, namely Idenburg River with a branch named Hablifoeri River. In the upstream, there are villages of Dani tribe such as Bokondini and Kelila inhabited by around 15,000. The second branch of Memberamo River is Rauffaer River with its branch Toli Rover. Their villages such as Karubaga, Mamit, Kanggine, and so on are inhabited by about 40,000 people. The second branch of Rauffer River is Ilaga River, around

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which lived 4,000 people. The third branch is Yamo River or Nogolo River. Their villages are Ilu, Mulia, and Sinak, in which lived around 25,000 people. In the slope of southern Jayawijaya Mountains, there is the famous Valley of Baliem. From here, Baliem River leads to the southern coast. The main villages here are Kwiyawagwi, Tiom, Pit, Makki, and Pyramid, in which around 50,000 people lived. The settlement of Dani people can be found between 800 and 3,000 m above sea level. The village at the highest altitude is Kwiyawagwi. In terms of administration, the Dani tribe’s settlement area is located in Jayawijaya Regency, with Wamena as its capital. The origin of Dani tribe is still unclear. There was an assumption that the people are proof of a wave of human migration from Asian land thousands of years ago. Even though they were estimated to have come as a people of pre-agriculture, nowadays they have applied an agricultural system in fields with yam as its staple plant. The language is classified into one of Non-Austronesia or Papua. It is perhaps more closely related to the language group of Melanesia and Pacific in general. The large group of Danian language falls into the language group of western mountainous language. The language of the tribe is also divided into two dialects, i.e., West Dani dialect more known as the language of Laany or Lani, with around 134,000 speakers, and Large Valley Dani dialect or Dani Baliem, with around 50,000 speakers. The life tools of Dani tribe to date are generally made of wood, stones, plant fibers, bamboo, animal bones, and fangs. To cut things, they use stone axes as a tool, which also functions as an exchange tool to obtain other goods they need from peoples in the lowlands. For agricultural purposes, they use wooden spades. They are for scooping mud whenever they build a ditch to keep their fields dry. To plant seeds of yam, they use a wooden stick. For ease of cooking with hot stones, they use wooden tweezers. They bring along small objects with a net-shaped plaited basket called noken. On a trip, they bring fire-making tools. Their main weapons are bows and arrows and spears made of wood. In addition to being used during warfare, these weapons are used to hunt boar, birds, kuskus, and other animals. The authentic attire of Dani tribe is very minimal. Men cover their manhood with dried (water pumpkin) skins; whereas, females wear skirts made of grass-fiber. Koteka is a genital cover worn by Dani men. The types are many. While at work, men would wear shorter ones. On formal occasions, they would wear longer kotekas. Kotekas may have some ornaments on them. They may be in circular patterns and carved with certain motifs. Their houses are divided into two types. The first is one for adult men and teenage boys. The second is a family house for women, mothers, girls, and children. Shapes and sizes of both types of house are not very much different. The construction is round with about 4–5 m diameter, and roofs made of dried-grass in cone shapes. Walls are made of bark of trees or wood sheets. All of these are installed in such a way with ropes or rattan. Inside their house, the earth floor would be dug up a few inches and covered with the dried grasses. Fire stoves are placed in the center.

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Houses for men are usually a little bit larger than ones for families.

Around a house, they build wooden fences so that pigs do not escape. Cages for pigs are built like huts with dried-grass roofs. Their pigs are slaughtered unless there is a party. However, they may gain animal protein sources from boars and various other mammals. The one and only musical instrument they develop is genggong, which is made of bamboo. It is only played individually by adult males and teenage boys. The agriculture system of Dani tribe falls into the type of moving farming. They cut down trees in a chosen area and then burn trees down to ashes. After it cools down, women would make holes in the ground with wooden sticks and would plant sweet potatoes. Such fields in a few years would lose fertility so they are forced to clear up a new patch of land while the old area is abandoned to recover itself as jungle again. It is estimated that around 43 types of yam are planted by the tribe. In addition to that, they also grow taro, cucumber, pumpkin, and sugarcane, various types of legume, banana, corn, and tobacco. Now they have applied rice-growing methods. In Wamena, their rice fields have produced crops for the past five years. The people obtain salt from a few salt-water sources in the mountains. The salt is extracted in a simple way. Every community in a Danian village is divided into two parts (moiety), the first is called wida (wyda, wodo, wonda) and the second is called waiya (waya, weya). Marriages are commonly between these two parts of people. Each of the parts consists of patrilineal clans called anibenu. Because of that, the Danian marital system is exogamous and patrilocal and they prioritize an exogamous, trans-part clan. Despite the tribe of Dani preference of forming their nuclear families in a separate household, husbands and teenage boys will spend more time in houses for males. Young men are more influenced by their social relationships with their

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fathers’ male siblings. Every clan usually lives in a group neighborhood smaller than a village, marked by a house for men and several family houses. Political life of the Dani tribe is usually affected by the two most dominant anibenu (clan) of each part of the people. They would establish a confederation between parts of the tribe and among villages, especially in their endeavors of coping with threats from other confederation groups. Western Dani group leadership, for example, is divided into three layers. The first is a dukuh leader called nagawan, usually also known as a leader of anibenu. The second is a sub-confederation leader called ap nggowok (large people). The third is a confederation leader called ap endage mbogot (people titled by the heaven). Although, now people have embraced Christianity, Catholicism and Protestantism are both practiced. Some of them still practice the old animism and dynamism. In their old beliefs, the tribe believes in many spiritual beings, both those staying in the sky and the earth and underground. Source: Heider (1970, 1979), Hayward (1980). DARAI 114 Kalimantan The tribe lives in several villages in Ketungau Hilir Sub-district, Sintang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 5,650. Source: Depdikbud (1989). DAWAN (atoni Metto) 414 Nusa Tenggara The tribe is also called Atoni Metto tribe. Some liken them to the Atonian tribe in general. They live scattered throughout Kupang, North Amfuang, South Amfuang, Central Kupang, East Kupang, Central Timor, South Timor, North Timor, Belu, and Ambenu Regency, in Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The population was about 706,000 (1984). The people speak the language of Dawan consisting of several dialects, namely dialect of Kupang, Amarasi, Menufui, Manatun, Manuban, and Molo. A nuclear family called ume commonly joins a nuclear family household. A house is occupied by several nuclear families in a patrilineal lineage called puknes. A combination of pukneses form an extended family called kuanes. Patrilineal extended families with one similar ancestor join a single clan named kanaf and led by a senior member of society titled amaf. In every village, clans hold a customary council led by a temukung (a customary head). A nobility class in the people of Dawan is called usif; divided into usif naek (higher nobility), fetor (common nobility), and kato (tribal chiefs). In the lowest layer, there is a class called to or tob (laymen).

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The main occupation of Dawan tribe is nomadic farming and growing plants such as rice, corn, yam, and so on. The other quite significant occupations in the tribe are cow, buffalo, horse, and chicken husbandry. The other familial occupations are plaiting goods made of pandanus and bamboo, waiving traditional fabrics, making tools made of bamboo, wood, clay, and so on. The tribe generally embraces Protestantism. The old belief of the tribe worships deities such as Ilis Neneo (god of maintenance), Ilis Ae (god of water), Ilis Meto (god of earth), Likusaen (god of knowledge), Sautaf (god of death), and so on. Around the life of human beings, there are spiritual beings they call paf tuaf, and spiritual powers (manna) lying in various objects of their ancestral inheritance. Source: Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1964), Kennedy (1943), Cunningham (1964). See also: ATONI. DAYA 065 Sumatra The tribe in South Sumatra is estimated to be around 20,000. They live in smaller villages called “dusun” in Baturaja, Simpang, and Muara Dua Sub-district, in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. The tribe members mostly make a living as farmers in rice fields. They commonly embrace Islam. Source: Depdikbud (1989). DAYAK General Kalimantan The word “Dayak” was initially used to call the natives in the hinterland of Kalimantan Island, especially to differentiate them from any other coastal tribes in general, that mostly embrace Islam. Because of this, the term “Dayak” is not an ethnic group or tribe name but it emphasizes more upon the socio-religious aspects. “Dayak” is especially used by outsiders to call people in the Kalimantan hinterland who do not embrace Islam. The people in the hinterland themselves prefer being called Daya people. The word may have been derived from the Ibanese word, meaning “human being”. There are also some who translate the word into “hinterland” or “upstream”. In East Kalimantan, the natives who embrace Islam are heavily influenced by a kingdom government system and ancient sultanate, known as Halok or Halo’ or people of Kutai. In South Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan, the natives who are Muslims tend to unite with the Banjar tribe. According to experts, people in the hinterland of the island are from the Central Asian mainland around Yunnan. They came in several immigration waves during the glacial era (Ice Age) which spanned from around 3,000 to 1,500 years Before Christ. At the time, they crossed easily through Malaysia Peninsula, Sumatra Island, Java, the Philippines Islands, Hainan, and Taiwan (Formosa).

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According to the characteristics of language and culture, experts supposed that the Dayak people in South and Central Kalimantan were allegedly from Java, which was different from those who live in West and East Kalimantan. Meanwhile, one of the Dayak sub-tribes is the people of Murut, which might have come through the Philippines and have been influenced by the irrigation agricultural culture.

In addition to developing the original religious system that their ancestors passed on, the tribe was apparently once also influenced by Islam. These days, the Dayak people in the hinterland also start to embrace Christianity thanks to missionaries of both Catholicism and Protestant creed reaching into these remote areas. Besides that, there are assimilations among these Kalimantan native tribes, enabling amalgamation of blood and cultures. Sources: King (1985), Dove (1985), Coomans (1987), Danandjaja (1983), Riwut (1956, 1962). See also: BANJAR. DEM (Lem) 509 Papua The tribe of Dem or Lem lives in the western plateau of Jayawijaya Mountains, Papua. They live along the upstream of Ruffaer River (Damar or Tariku River), in the north of Damal, in the southwest of Dani Barat tribe’s territory. Their territory includes Sinak and Beog Sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 1,000. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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DEMTA 510 Papua The tribe inhabits the northern coast of Papua, in the west of Tanah Merah Bay. Their villages are Demta, Muris, Ambora, and Yangatsa. All these are in Demta Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Irian Jaya Province. The population is around 800. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). DERA 411 Papua The tribe lives in the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. In Indonesia’s territory, they inhabit in Amgoto, Komanda, Akerienda, and Abar Village, in Web Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Irian Jaya. The population in Indonesia is about 1,000 and in Papua New Guinea it is around 700. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). DESA 115 Kalimantan The tribe inhabits several villages in Tayan Hulu and Kayan Hilir Sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population is around 10,000. Source: King (1985).

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DOLO (Todolo) 246 Sulawesi The people of Dolo or Todolo are one of the sub-tribes of the Kaili large tribal group. They inhabit the northern slopes of Palu Valley. The area is in Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Source: Mattulada (1989). See also: KAILI. DOMPU 405 Nusa Tenggara The people of Dompu inhabits the eastern Sumbawa Island, i.e., in the northern Bima Regency, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province. Source: Depdikbud (1989). DONDO 247 Sulawesi The tribe of Dondo inhabits several villages in Galang, Baolan, and Dondo Sub-district, in Buol Toli-Toli Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The population was around 10,000. The language is perhaps a part of Tominian language group. Source: Grimes (1984). DOU (Dosobou Doufou) 512 Papua The people of Dou or Dosobou inhabit the area around the meeting point of Dou and Fou River which later forms Rouffaer River (Tariku River) which becomes a creek of Memberamo River. For this reason, they are also called Doufou tribe. Their territory is in Mulia Sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 250. Source: Grimes (1984).

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DUBU 513 Papua The people of Dubu inhabit an area near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the southern Jayapura city, in the south of Waris. It is in Web sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 150. Sources: Ailzer and Heikkinen (1984). DUNGGU (Toribinggi) 308 Sulawesi The people of Dunggu are called Toribinggi. They inhabit several villages in Pasangkayi Sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. Considered as an exiled tribe, the population was around 400. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

E EIPOMEK 514 Papua The tribe inhabits the plateau of eastern Papua, in the northern Jayawijaya Mountain. The population is around 3,000 scattered in villages of Eipomek, Obrup, and Yarup in Waris Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984), Barr and Barr (1987). EKAGI (Kapauku, Ekari, Me Mana, Tapiro, Awye, Simori, Yabi) 515 Papua The Ekagi or Kapauku tribe lives in the western Jayawijaya Mountains, which is around Paniai, Tigi, and Tage Lake, in Paniai Regency, Papua Province. Their territory is in Nabire, Tigi, Kamu, Mapia, Uwapa, Paniai Timur, and Paniar Barat sub-district. The population reaches around 100,000. Their villages are Magodi, Wanimani, Wagete, Tigi, Enarotoli, Obano, Kebo, Kamopa, and Kegata. Other names are Ekari, Me Mana, Tapiro Auwye, Simori and Yabi. Their villages combine to form a conglomerate. Neighboring villages (5–7 villages) form a territorial federation which especially works during the time of warfare between villages back then. A house in Ekagi kampong is usually occupied

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by a patrilineal family group consisting of several nuclear families. Familial groups such as this play a vital role in their agriculture and economic life. The people of Ekagi show a typically small posture yet they are very resilient while working on fields. Their plants are sweet potato, taro, breadfruit, vegetables, and fruits. In addition to that, they also hunt wild beasts and catch fish in lakes and streams. They also like to breed and take care of pigs. These pigs are a measure of prestige in the social life. The people are divided into some clans. They apply the clan exogamous lineage and marital customs. This tribe is also known for their knack for trading. They used to use bia-bia snail shells as medium of exchange. Sources: Boelaars (1985), Grimes (1984). EMARI DUCUR 516 Papua Emari Ducur is one of the sub-tribes of Asmat ethnic group living in the hinterland of Agats sub-district and some of Atsy sub-district in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The sub-tribe is distinguished especially by the dialect they speak. See also: ASMAT. EMPRAN (Ulu Batang Ali) 151 Kalimantan The people of Empran are some of the tribes in the large Iban tribe from Central Kalimantan. They generally live in the adjacent area of Leboyan Lake. There are also some calling the tribe “Ulu Batang Ali”, which refers to the place where they mostly settle down. Sources: King (1985), Uchibori (1978). See also: IBAN. EMUMU (Kiamorep, Imimkal) 517 Papua The people of Emumu inhabit the area near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, which is in the southern Jayapura. Their settlement encompasses eleven villages in Web Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 1,100. Their villages are Andibrip, Ubrup, Yuruf, Mofon, Amurwi, Wanda-brup, Iriabu, Tokop, Yafri, Yambrab, Wundbrab, Ubrap, and Wembi-nembu. Other names of the tribe are Kiamorep, Imimkal. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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ENGGANO 052 Sumatra The tribe lives in Enggano Island, an island in the western coast of Bengkulu Province. According to the 1977 census, the population of the tribe was 5,536. Meanwhile, the others are new settlers from the tribe of Batak, Minangkabau, and Java. According to Edwin M. Loeb (19 2), the word “Enggano” was derived from Portuguese, meaning “trick” or “disappointment”. A long time ago, some Portuguese sailors felt disappointed after they thought the island was Java Island. The people in Sumatra formerly called it “Pulau Telanjang” (Naked Island). The native people themselves call their homeland cefu kakuhia (the big island) and they call themselves E Lopeh. Enggano Island is a sub-district in Bengkulu Selatan Regency. The inhabitants built settlements by riverbanks and coasts. A village is called kaudara, in which there are 6–20 units of uba (houses). The houses are built in a circular shape, on some wooden poles as high as 1–2 m off the ground level. In each village, there is a kadiofe (a traditional assembly hall). The circular-shaped house of Enggano people is seen as the oldest construction in Sumatra. The staple foods of the tribe are yam, taro, banana, coconut and wild animals (game) such as fish, birds, and pigs. These days, they already know rice with which some immigrants brought. A typical Enggano household usually consists of nuclear families with the matrilocal settlement pattern after wedding ceremony and matrilineal lineage system. They prefer to marry people outside of their own clan. The tribe now at least consists of five clans called ijaha-auak, Kaambi, Kanno, Kaaehanao, Kaharuba, and Kuitara. The tradition of elopement also applies in the tribe. Leaders are chosen based in seniority, power, and experience as well as wisdom. Nowadays, they embrace Christianity and Islam. Some others still practice their own local faith. They believe in good power and evil power called kowek. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Loeb (1972). ENIM 066 Sumatra The agricultural people live along the riverbanks of Enim River in Muara Enim Regency, South Sumatra Province. The language is one of the dialects of Malay. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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ERAI 372 Maluku The people live in Wetar Island in the north Timor Island. Their territory is in Maluku Tenggara Regency, Maluku Province. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

F FAYU 519 Papua The people of Fayu live in the west hub of Dow and Fou River which flow to Rouffaer River (Tariku River) and then form Memberamo River. The area is in Mulia Sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The tribe consists of four groups with the tendency of nomadic way of living. The population itself was around 250. Source: Grimes (1984). FOAU 520 Papua The people live in the east of Lake Plains, approximately in the north downstream of Idenburg River (Nimboran River) and in Memberamo Hulu Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 250. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

G GAAT 152 Kalimantan The people of Gaat are one sub-tribe of the large Dayak Iban tribal group. They live around Hulu Embaluh area, Central Kalimantan Province. Sources: King (1985), Uchibori (1978). See also: IBAN.

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GALUMPANG (Kalumpang) 309 Sulawesi The people of Galumpang or Kalumpang live in the southeast area of Mamuju Regency in South Sulawesi Province. Perhaps they are closely related to Toraja Sa’dan people. They practice Christianity and the population is about 10,000. Their main occupation is growing rice in fields, besides breeding of buffaloes, pigs, and cows. Source: Depdikbud (1989). GANE (Gani) 373 Maluku The people of Gane or Gani live at the tip of southern peninsula of Halmahera Island, especially in the east, in the south of Sawai and Weda tribe’s settlements. The language belongs to the Austronesian language group. They apply the patrilineal kinship system. The occupations are ones related to rotational agriculture, especially growing rice in fields, corn, sweet potato, cassava, vegetables, nuts, fruits, clove, coffee, nutmeg, chocolate, and coconut. With a population of around 3,000, most of the people currently embrace Islam. Their old religion still exists only in religious traditional ceremonies. It is oriented toward the First Creator they call Kokiraba. The worship is called kobota. Every old religious ceremony is led by guru koseba (a local priest) with an approval of village head who is called nyara. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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GAURA 415 Nusa Tenggara

The tribe is the one still considered to be culturally exiled in Sumba Island. They inhabit some areas of Wakalaka sub-district, Sumba Barat Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The population was around 1,500. Source: Depsos (1980). GAYO 004 Sumatra The tribe lives in Aceh Tengah Regency. Some others live in Aceh Tenggara and Aceh Timur Regency, especially around Laut Tawar Lake, between Bukit Barisan Mountains and around the Upstream of Peureulak and Jamboayee River. The people of Gayo are divided into several groups, namely Gayo Lut, Gayo Deret, Gayo Lues, Gayo Belang, Gayo Serbejadi, and Gayo Kalul. The people of Gayo Lut and Gayo Deret are around 108,000, and live in Aceh Tengah Regency.

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Gayo Lues or Gayo Belang population is around 36,000 and inhabits Aceh Tenggara Regency. Gayo Serbejadi or Gayo Semamah and Gayo Kalul are around 6,000 and live in Aceh Timur Regency. The total population is around 120,000. The word “Gayo” itself was allegedly derived from “kayo” which refers to “afraid” or “escape”. According to some accounts, when Islam came, a number of people in coastal areas moved to the hinterland and joined the natives. After a while, they at last accepted Islam and the word “kayo” has become their nickname ever since. As time went by, it changed into Gayo. The language is under the category of Austronesian language group, of Hesperonesia language subgroup. It is also influenced by Acehnese, such as what happened to the language of Gayo Kalul and Serbejadi group. The language of Gayo consists of several dialects, such as Gayo Lut dialect which is divided into the sub-dialect of Lut, Deret, Gayo Lues, which is divided again into the sub-dialect of Lues and Serbejadi. The smallest local living unity is called kampong (nowadays is called a village) led by a “gecik”. A collection of several villages is called kemukiman led by a mukim. These days, several kemukimans are a part of sub-district. In each village, there is a leadership element called sarak opat. In the past, the elements are reje, pete, imeum, and rayat. Nowadays, it encompasses gecik, wakil gecik (vice “gecik”), imem, and cerdik pandai (intellectual group) representing laymen. The people of Gayo apply the belah (clan) exogamous marital system. The settlement pattern after wedding is virilocal. A female’s family calls a marriage juelen (jualan, meaning selling), while a male’s family calls it ango. A male’s family must pay a sum of unyuk or teniron (request) in addition to dowries which must be provided according to the Islamic teaching. Besides that, there is a virilocal settlement pattern (in the vicinity of a husband’s parents). The people also apply uxorilocal settlement tradition (in the neighborhood of a wife’s parents) which is called angkap. The smallest kinship group is called sara ine (nuclear family). Before moving to its own house, a nuclear family joins a restricted extended family called sara dapur. Formerly, several sara dapurs live together in a long-shaped house (“rumah panjang”) called sara umah. A number of long-shaped houses join one belah (clan). Now a nuclear family occupies its own house. The main occupation of the tribe is growing rice in fields. Despite that, farming has existed here for some time. They grow kepile (yam), gadung (cassava), penggele (pumpkin), eggplant, chili, corn, and banana. Other familiar plants to them are tobacco, coffee, sugarcane, potato, and cabbage. In the past, physical work was done together in alung-tulung (gotong royong, meaning mutual assistance). To cultivate these fields, they make use of plows drawn by horses. Daily utensils are mostly made of clay (pottery), in addition to developing plaits made of various pandanus leaves and bamboo material and making goods made of carved wood. These days, social stratification of the people is not clearly defined. In the old days, there were a number of social strata, namely the leader class consisting of reje, penghulu, and imem. Below it, there was rayat or suderee (laymen), and there was also the lowest class called temuluk (class of slaves).

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Nowadays, they are devout Muslims. However, some of them still also practice the old local religious rituals along with the Islamic teachings, such as what we may see in cemetery worship, spiritual practice, black magic, and so forth. The illustrated arts of Gayo are Saman dance and literary theatrical art called didong. Perhaps in the beginning, sama dance and didong were used to spread the Islamic teachings, yet in the subsequent development, didong began to be used as a tool to convey social and political criticism to authority. In learning about Gayo people, there are some key cultural values, one of which is mukenel (self-esteem) which motivates them to live bersikekemelen (being competitive) inside and outside of its tribe. Sources: Melalatoa (1982), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). GEBE 374 Maluku The people of Gebe or Gebi inhabit Gebe, Yu, and Gag Island in the eastern part of south peninsula of Halmahera Island, North Maluku. Gag Island , in fact, belongs to Sorong Regency, Irian Jaya Province. Usually people here embrace Islam. They make a living by catching fish in the sea and growing a little amount of crops from fields. The population is around 3,000 and they live in four villages. The language of Gebi is classified into the language group of Patani (Halmahera) of the Austronesian language family. Source: Grimes (1984). GORONTALO 216 Sulawesi The tribe inhabits most part of Gorontalo Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The population was around 300,000. The language of Gorontalo itself consists of several dialects such as dialect of Limboto, Tilamuta, Kwandang, Sumalata, and Suwawa. The language has become predominant because there was Gorontalo Kingdom here. According to the local Gorontalo mythology, they are descendants of Hulontalangi (people coming down from heaven) living in Tilongkabila Mountain. The other part of Gorontalo at the time was sea. The word hulontalangi afterward was changed into hulontalo, and finally gorontalo. Formerly, in the area thrived six kingdoms, namely Gorontalo, Limboto, Suwawa, Tapa, Atinggola, and Boalemo. The language of Gorontalo is divided into three dialects, Gorontalo, Bolanga, and Suwawa. Apparently, the dialect of Gorontalo is mostly spoken as the lingua franca. The language in the eastern part is divided into two dialects, Bolaang Uki and Kaidipang dialect. In the meantime, the language of Gorontalo in the west part

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is divided into three dialects, Gorontalo, Bone, and Buol. Meanwhile, the dialect of Gorontalo is divided more into accents of Gorontalo, Limboto, Tilamuta, Sumalata, and Kwandang. The people earn a living commonly by farming in rice fields. The common plants they grow are rice, corn, yam, vegetables, coconut, and fruits. The people inhabiting near Gorontalo River or on the coastal area prioritize their occupation of catching fish as fishermen. Meanwhile, many of the people of Gorontalo also work as traders, bureaucracy as government civil servants, and so on. A nuclear family consists of a father, a mother, and siblings called ngala’i. The most important kinship group in ancient times was an extended family called ungala’a. The role of an extended family was prominent in various life cycle ceremonies. Nuclear families being part of an ungala’a live in houses built in rows. The lineage principle of Gorontalo people is commonly parental and the kinship system is bilateral. Traditional villages in Gorontalo are called kambungu. Usually, farmers who are also villagers possess a house (bele) in a kambungu, and the other houses are in a field to live in during planting season. A house in a field is called a wombohe. Every kambungu has a traditional assembly hall called a bandayo. The Gorontalo traditional government structure is called Buatula Tuolongo. The system is divided into three sectors, the government sector (buatula-banta-yo), the security sector (buatulapabuewa), and the religion sector (buatula syara’). The government and security sector officials were usually designated by a king. Despite the fact that there is no such structure in the present, religious and traditional leaders are still required in the local village institution. In the epoch of Gorontalo Kingdom, there used to be a quite rigid social stratification in the society because there was a group of kings and their descendants called olongiva. There was also a class of royal assistants to kings called wali-wali. Also, there was a laymen group usually called tuwangolipu. And there was a slave group called wato. In the old times, in Gorontalo there were a number of small kingdoms such as Suwawa-Bone, Tapa or Bolango, Atinggola or Andagile, and Boalemo. These kingdoms often formed confederations to arrange marriages among their family members. The kings were assisted by several regional leaders called wuleya lo lipu. Under this group, there were a number of villages led according to traditional rules by tawuda’a. In addition to tradition, there were a number of Islamic leaders assigned to take care of syara’ affairs (religious rituals and laws). Islam entered the region from 1566 and became the official faith of these kingdoms at the time. To date, the people of Gorontalo commonly are Muslims. The signature foods of Gorontalo commonly are made of corn easily found here. Such foods are Binte Biluhita, usually called milu siram, because it is made of “milu” (meaning corn in the local language). The food is made of corn beads and easily found in Gorontalo. It is made of corn, shrimp, half-ripe coconut, Averrhoa bilimbi (belimbing sayur), shallot, basil leaves (kemangi), onion, and lime. Binthe Biluhuta—is a typical Gorontalo food with a long history of existence. It was passed on from generation to generation by prominent figures of the tribe. Here

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binthe bilihuta is better known as “milu siram”, a very distinct food. Binthe means corn, biluhuta means poured or pouring. Thus, it literally means poured corn or “milu siram”. The food is made of mostly corn and several spices as flavoring. Kue Sabongi—is, of course, no stranger to the people of Gorontalo as the cake is one of the inherited foods from ancestors. The traditional food has been known from the era of the ancient Gorontalo kings until today. The origin of “sabongi” will be explained below. What is most interesting from the cake is its local, unique flavor. Ayam Iloni—is one of the signature dishes. Seen from it shape, ayam Iloni is not different much from roasted chicken in general. It is cooked with various spices (onion, garlic, candlenut, ginger, curcumin, and so on), afterward it is cooked with coconut milk, and roasted. The difference in cooking methods and spices used are some that make it different from other roasted/grilled chicken dishes. Sashimi Tuna—Gorontalo is one of the biggest tuna producing regions in Indonesia. A tuna fish caught in the waters around Gorontalo may weigh 50-60 kg. Some seafood stalls near Gorotalo port provide this menu. However, we may not expect sashimi here to be served with shoyo sauce, wasabi, or chili powder we see in Japanese restaurants in Jakarta. Sashimi in Gorontalo is served only with “sambal dabu-dabu”, giving a distinct flavor to it. Sashimi lovers cannot miss this dish. Es Brenibon—is red bean ice served with serrated ice cubes and sweetened milk. Saraba—is a beverage resembling sorbet. It is a signature beverage we easily find in Sulawesi. Kokole—the food is divided into two types, namely corn poured with little shrimp as flavoring and corn poured with cakalang fish. The food is made of refinery-pounded young corn and then mixed with coconut milk, palm sugar and then all of them are steamed. Like any other neighboring areas, the people of Gorontalo also have a special tradition of cooking distinct seafood. When observed, we may discover the tradition of making Calok or Rusip in Bangka Belitung. It is called Bakasang, seafood especially cooked by the coastal Gorontalo tribe. Bakasang is made of tuna intestine, including heart, liver, spleen, and its eggs, without bile. All of these are stored in an air-and-water-sealed container such as jugs, vases, or potteries made of clay. They may also use glass or china bottles. Into these containers, they add little salt and store these containers in a safe place to let it decompose. After a few weeks, they open containers to find these ingredients are decomposed naturally. It looks like slimy and fishy paste. Despite that, the taste is amazingly delicious only if eaten with a little onion, cayenne chili, and tamarind juice. There is also an interesting natural phenomenon in Gorontalo. Almost every end of month in Qomariah (Lunar) Calendar in Gorontalo, especially in the estuary of Bone River, appears so many fish. These fish are smaller than anchovy and the people call them duwo or nike. The news of duwo appearance then spreads throughout the people around the estuary after someone blows “bambu a”, a seashell trumpet. In a short time, the villagers come by bringing tangguk and buckets to catch the small fishes. The food made of duwo tastes quite delicious and is very popular among Gorontalo people. Its nutritional content is quite high and some people believe it

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may bring more physical vitality. The fish is usually processed as nike crackers, nike “pergedel” (fried nike dough), “pepes duwo” (smashed and steamed duwo), stir-fried duwo, and yilepa o (duwo mixed with sago). Besides household consumption, the rest is sold in its dry and moist condition, stored in thermostats or iceboxes. Duwo sold in its moist condition is stored in thermoses or ice boxes. Some others are sent to other areas or even other countries. The duwo phenomenon in the estuaries of Gorontalo requires further research considering that it must be closely related to natural instinct and the supporting ecosystem preservation. Some fishermen tell that duwo is freshly hatched young fish living in freshwater, especially upstream. These young fish are blanketed with a thin membrane and flown along with the river stream to the ocean. The ocean membrane breaks once the fish bite it, enabling these young duwo or nike to spread. After a few days in the sea, the young fish swim to an estuary to be back upstream. Generally, all fishermen discover the signs of duwo appearance by observing intestines of fish they just catch, in which they may find out some young nike or duwo. Customarily freshly caught duwo is called nike baru or duwo baru. It is sold at a relatively high price, i.e., ranging from Rp7,500 to Rp10,000 per can. Despite that, people like to eat it as it offers savory taste. Harvest time of duwo or nike usually lasts for one to two weeks every month. According to observation of fishermen, these young fish at least consist of three types, namely “nike bilowa”, “nike piloheluta”, and “nike laut”. The differences are nike bilowa is finer in size than the other two. Meanwhile, “nike piloheluta” is thinner and considerably longer than other regular nike fish (possibly 7 times the length of nike fish average length). “Nike bilowa” and “nike piloheluta” are often called nike koala or nike sungai. In the meantime, nike laut is bigger and the number is more numerous but they taste less savory compared to nike koala (nike kuala or muara). Usually nike laut are headed back upstream to follow nike bilowa and piloheluta in the beginning of Qomariah or Lunar months (a calendar based on the lunar cycle). Therefore, the moon is not visible yet and the night is completely dark. For some elderly, the fish swimming back upstream indicates a new month. Thus, the appearance of duwo or nike is often associated with the first day of Ramadhan and 1 Syawal according to the Hijriyah Calendar. Sources: Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Kruyt (1912, 1933), Kennedy (1943), Kalangie (1983). GRESSI (Gressik) 521 Irian Jaya The tribe of Gressi or Gressik lives in the west Sentani Lake, Kemtuk Gressi sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Irian Jaya Province. Their villages are Hawe,

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Dekening, Demokau, Bring, Tabangwari, and Sekori. The population was around 2,500 people. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). GUMBAK CADEK (Gumbok, Muslim Gunung Kong) 005 Sumatra The tribe is considered to have come from a group of Acehnese and Gayo people who happened to segregate themselves to the hinterland for a certain reason. The tribe is also known as Muslim Gunung Kong or Orang Cumbok. They make a living as farmers with the rotational farming method in Aceh Barat Regency. Some of them have settled down in Gunung Kong village, Daril Makmur sub-district, and the rest are still scattered around Blang (land) Teripa and Krueng (river) Teripa. In 1979, it was estimated that they consisted of 96 families. The language they speak is the combination between Aceh and Gayo dialect. Their belief system is a mixture of Islam and animism. Many of them can write and read Malay-Arabic (Arab-Jawi) alphabets. They , in fact, separate themselves from the other tribes, which explain why there are some people thinking that they are an exiled society. They have a king (leader) called raja gunong. The people like to dress in black, accompanied with weapons such as rencong and badik. They are very adept at making plaited goods made of pandanus leaves and rattan. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

H HELONG 416 Nusa Tenggara The people of Helong mostly live in Kupang Regency, Kupang Barat, and Kupang Tengah sub-district and some part of Flores Island, East Nusa Tenggara. The population was around 29,000 (1974). The language is divided into two dialects, the dialect of Helong Semau and East Helong Daratan. The main occupations are farming in fields, hunting game (such as wild oxen, wild boars, deer, and so on). In addition to that, some of them earn a living by catching fish, gathering forest produce, weaving traditional fabrics, and making silver and golden goods. The smallest kinship group is a nuclear family, which together with others form a limited extended family called ngalo. Such extended family is headed by the eldest son, especially in religious and communal traditional affairs. Some restricted

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extended families join one clan called ingu. Members of it assume that they share the same ancestor. A leader of ingu is called koka ana. The people apply a social stratification system based on lineage. The first is a nobility class called usif. The second class is the majority called tob. And the third is the class of slaves called ata. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1964). HMANGGONA (Nalca, Kimyal, Hmonono) 522 Irian Jaya The people of Hmanggona inhabit the plateau of east Jayawijaya Mountains. The region is in Kurima Sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency. Their villages are Olsekla, Hen, Kan, and Hok. The population was around 8,000. The other names of the tribe are Nalca, Kimyal, Hmonono. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

I IBAN (Neban, Hivan, Dayak Laut) 116 Kalimantan The people of Iban are also known as Neban, Hivan, and Dayak Laut. They inhabit around Sanggau, SIntang, and Kapuas Hulu town. In Kapuas Hulu Regency, they live in Embaloh Hilir, Embaloh Hulu, Batang Lupar, Badau, Empanang, Nanga Kantuk, Lanjak, and Putusibau Sub-district. In Sintang Regency, they live in Ketungau Hulu, Ketungau Tengah, and Sepauk sub-istrict. In Sangau sub-district, they live in Sekayam sub-district. The tribe of Iban is divided more into several sub-tribes such as Balau, Skrang, Saribas, Undup, Kumpang, Sebuyau, Seru, Empran, Katibas, and Gaat. In fact, the people are divided into several sub-tribes with each distinct name and dialect. Some of them live in Serawak, Malaysia territory. The people of Iban also includes the large group of Dayak living in the upstream of Kapuas River with its branches (Embaloh and Lauh River), around Kapuas Lake, Nanga Badau, Selimbau, Bunut, Putusibau region, to the borderline and Serawak, Malaysia. According to some experts, the primary areas of their settlement are around Batang Lupar River, in Serawak and around the north upstream of Kapuas River. There is a settlement in Embaloh Hulu, Embaloh Hilir, and Lanjak Sub-district in Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Some others live in the Central Kalimantan. Their main occupation is crop farming. The plants they grow are rice, yams, vegetables, and fruits. Some of them make a living by gathering forest produce,

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such as rattan and resin, or cutting down trees and selling logs. Some of them also have been educated in universities, enabling them to work in government and private offices in big cities. The traditional settlement of Iban tribe was built along the large rivers. Their large and long houses are supported by tall wooden poles to avoid floods and tides. In it, there are rooms for each nuclear family. The number of such rooms called bilek is sometimes more than 50, which means a house may stretch as long as 150 m. Such a long house can be considered a village. This house is occupied by a number of families, forming a distinct traditional house community. Their kinship principle is patrilineal, but a husband usually lives in his wife’s family neighborhood. The Iban people’s kinship relationship principle is ambilineal, in which some of them draw the lineage through the patrilineal line and some through the matrilineal line. The settlement pattern after wedding ceremony is utrolocal, meaning that there are some newlywed couples who prefer living in a bilek belonging to a husband but there are also some others who prefer living in a bilek belonging to a wife. Preference of housing also brings the consequences, with all rights and liabilities. Someone is never a member of two bileks at the same time. Children are members of a bilek in which he or she was born. The people of Iban develop various oral tradition art forms. For instance, satirical “pantun” recited when a man proposes a girl. Songs of praise to deities or requests of blessings (ensemak) while they clear some land as a field or during a planting season. A spell cast in songs by a shaman to cure someone sick (mantra balian). There is an art of “pantun” for sheer fun (didi) among youths. Besides that, they still inherit oral tradition in the form of folk tales. These stories are told in ceremonies of birth, wedding, and death. Iban traditional attires and decoration arts are also known to be fascinating, such as head scarves or caps, necklaces, belts, shirts, cloths, both embroidered with beads and motifs full of colors. Currently, the people have already embraced Christianity. Their original faith is a belief of spirits and spiritual beings living in the universe which can affect human beings life. Ceremonies and rituals they perform are based on this belief. The local belief manifestation is also seen in the offerings they make in sacred places and objects they assume to have spiritual power, such as large logs and big stones. Sources: Uchibori (1978), King (1985), Riwut (1956, 1962), Rousseau (1990), Kamal (1982), Lontaan (1975), Freeman (1958). INANWATAN 658 West Papua The tribe lives in the region of Bird Head, in Inanwatan sub-district, Sorong Regency, West Papua Province. The language is also called the language of Suabo. The number of speakers is around 1,100. The culture of Inanwatan, such as generally in the region of Bird Head is marked by a tradition of exchanging eastern fabrics. The tradition affects various aspects of

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their life, ranging from economic and social to belief aspects. The eastern fabrics from outside Irian are employed as dowries and a symbol of status. IRAHUTU (Irarutu) 524 West Papua The people of Irahutu or Irarutu live in the east of Bomberai peninsula, in the Bird Head region of Irian, from southwest of Arguni Bay to the west of Bintuni Bay. Their settlement scatters across 40 villages with a 4,000 strong population. The language belongs to the Austronesian language family. The territory is in Babo sub-district, Manokwari Regency. Some others live in Arguni Bay in Fakfak Regency, West Papua Province. Their villages are Manggera, Kupriai, Warmenu, Egerwara, Wararoma, Temia, Warafuta, and Rauna. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). IRESIM 525 Papua The tribe lives in the southern coastal area of Cenderawasih Bay, namely in the west of Nabire town, and around Yamur Lake. The region is in Teluk Etna sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 100. The language is categorized into the language family of Wurm-Hatori (the language subgroup of Cenderawasih Bay) of the Papuan language family. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). ISIRAWA (Okwasar) 526 Papua The language of Isirawa or Okwasar belongs to the Papuan language family. The tribe inhabits the northern coastal area of Papua, between Sarmi and Apawar River in the west of Rabais. The territory is in Sarmi sub-district and apawar River in Jayapura Regency, Papua. The population is around 2,000. Their villages are Mararena, Kamenawari, Amsira, Siarata, Martewar, Arsania, Nientotori, Arabais, and Saberi. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). IWUR 527 The people of Iwur belong to one of tribes in Irian Jaya which live in the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, i.e., in the valley of Iwur River, Ok Riwur River, and Ok Denom River flowing to Fly River in Papua New Guinea. The region lies in the south of Jayawijaya Mountains, in Waropko sub-district, Merauke

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Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 1,000. The language is under the language group of Ngalum, Kauwol, Ninggerum, Yonggom, and Muyun. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

J JAIR (Aghu) 528 Papua The people of Jair live in the southern coast of Papua, which is around the upstream of Digul River. Their territory is in the east of Kaetian people’s territory and in the west if Awyuan people’s territory. The population is around 18,000. The territory lies in Jair sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Kenggi, Anggai, Sabakaghe, Susu, Bana, Waghabang, Kaliwin, Mutiriop, Mariang, Mariori, Ghesi, Yofon, Sikafio, Bigisa, Duba. The tribe is often named in the literature Aghu, based on their language name. Further research is still required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). JAMBI (Melayu Jambi) 043 Sumatra The people of Jambi or Melayu Jambi live around Jambi Municipality, Tanjung Jabung Regency, Batanghari Regency, and Bungo Tebo Regency. Based on the 1976 census, the tribe is estimated to be around 300,000. Considering the language and way of living, the people belong to the Malay ethnic group, yet they are different in the way that their language is slightly different from Indonesian. The words ending with /a/ vowel in Indonesian are pronounced with /o/ vowel in the Jambinese language, such as duga changes into dugo, mata into mato, ke mana into ke mano, permata into permato, and so on. The main occupation is farming which they divide into four categories, parelak, kabun mudo, umo rendah, and talang. Perelak is a field in the vicinity of a village where they grow chili, nuts, and vegetables. Kabun mudo is a field where they grow seeds and shoots of plant, such as banana, soybean, and peanuts. Umo rendah is a somewhat large field where they grow rice, and around it, one may find corn, sorgum, cucumber, and so on. Meanwhile, umo talang is a field located far away from the villages, especially ones where they grow rice and other secondary plants. The ethnic life of the tribe is currently found through the grouping of tribes (suku) or kalbu, a social grouping closely related to the former Sultanate of Jambi. The number of existing kalbu is twelve, Jebus, Pemayung, Maro Sebo, Awin, Petajin, Suku Tujuh Koto, Mentong, Panagan, Serdadu, Kebalen, Aur Hotam, and Pinokowan Tegah.

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Their smallest local living unity is called dusun. Every dusun has a name based on its physical characteristics. There is a dusun called Teluk Leban (literally meaning Leban Bay), because it is located in a bay where many leban trees grow. There is a dusun named Rantau Panjang because it is located in a rantau (land) which spans long. Its leader is called penghulu dusun. Afterward, each dusun is governed by a pesirah. Marga is a customary territory inhabited by people who believe that they are derived from the same ancestor or because they believe that there is a kinship relationship which stems from the past. In this society, there are still remnants of old social stratification, indicated by the fact that there is a nobility class from the past kings, some still retain titles such as Raden, Sayid, or Kemas. The middle class consists of large traders and plantation owners. The laymen are usually called orang kecik. The social stratification system like this gradually changes. They live in monogamous nuclear family households with a bilateral lineage principle. In the past, preference for choosing spouses tended to be endogamous inside a dusun. They have embraced Islam and generally follow the teachings of Imam Syafi’i. In daily life, there is still animism and dynamism, in which the role of shamans is the medium between the physical world and spiritual realm. These ancient beliefs diffuse and mix up with the belief that there are supernatural creatures with a knack for disturbing human beings and can be misused for the sake of human interests. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Loeb (1972). JANGGU (Tabu, Sawa, Morwap) 529 Papua The settlement of the people lies in the south of Jayapura, and in the southwest of Kaureh tribe’s territory. It is located in Arso and Abepura sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was about 300. Their villages are Yamas, Sawa, Kasso, Penemon, and Samsai. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). JANGKANG (Dayak Jongkang) 117 Kalimantan The Jangkangnese tribe lives in several villages in Jangkang and Balai Sebut sub-district in Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 3,000. The language is grouped into the language family of Austronesia, Malay-West Polynesia and Dayak Darat language family. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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JAUR (Yaur) 657 Papua The population is around 350 (1978 SIL). They live in the lower coast of Cenderawasih Bay, in the west territory of Iresim tribe, Papua. It falls into the language family of Malay-East Polynesia. Further research is required. JAWA (Wong Jowo, Tiang Jawi) 103 Java-Bali The Javanese people also often call themselves Wong Jowo or Tiang Jawi. The population is the largest compared to other tribes, and the original territory as well as its distribution range in Indonesia is also the widest. The transmigration program of the Javanese to other large islands had already started since the Dutch Colonial Era (eighteenth century), such as the Javanese transmigration to large plantations around Deli Serdang in North Sumatra and Lampung Province. In this century, there were Javanese people who brought too many plantations in Suriname (South America), to South Africa, and to Haiti. According to the 1930 census, the population in Central Java, East Java, and Madura was 30,321,000, in which around 80% were Javanese. Currently, the population is estimated to reach twofold. Nowadays, the population is around 75,200,000 in Indonesia or 42% of the total population of Indonesia (1989). The total population of Javanese people is approximately 75,600,000 throughout the globe. In addition to living in their original territory in the center and east of Java Island, they also settled down as transmigrants in Papua (formerly called Irian Jaya), Sulawesi, Maluku, Kalimantan, and Sumatra. Some of them live in Suriname, the Netherlands, Arabic countries, Malaysia, Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The Javanese cultural area includes the central and eastern parts of Java; whereas, the western part of Java belongs to the Sundanese tribe. Based on external influence and sociocultural life patterns, experts assume that the area with Javanese culture as the orientation are Banyumas, Kedu, Yogyakarta, Surakarta, Madiun, Malang, and Kediri. Meanwhile, Yogyakarta and Surakarta are considered the Javanese culture main center. Both are the former Islamic Mataram kingdoms which in 1755 dissolved. The people around the northern and eastern coast are more known as Coastal Javanese and East End Java. The Javanese language falls into the Austronesian language family, and the Malay-West Polynesian language group. The dialects are Polite Javanese, Cirebon, Tegal, Indramayu, Solo, Pasisir, Surabayaan, Malang-Pasuruan, Banten, Pemanukan. There are also some who divide the language into these dialects: western Java (such as dialect of Banten, Cirebon, Tegal), central Java (such as dialect of Semarang, Solo, and Yogyakarta), and eastern Java (such as dialect of Surabaya, Malang-Pasuruan). In its development, the Javanese language has formed a complex language system with social stratification. There are three most basic styles of Javanese, i.e., formal,

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half-formal, and informal style. The formal one is divided into three language levels, i.e., ngoko, madya, and krami (krama). Afterward, all the three combinations form another six styles. Ngoko language is spoken by people who know each other well and spoken by elder people to interact with younger ones or people of lower social classes (ngoko lugu or ngoko andap). Krami language is spoken by those who do not know each other well, younger people when talking with elder ones, or people of higher social status. Madya language was formed as a variation of ngoko and krami. In Surakarta and Yogyakarta, a language style called kedaton is also known to exist in the neighborhood of Sultanate and “Kesunanan” palaces. In villages, also develops a distinct official Javanese language called krama desa. A significant, local living unity of the Javanese people is a village headed by a lurah or village chief. Each village consists of several parts called dukuh (kampong), each of which is headed by a dukuh chief. Houses of inhabitants in a dukuh are completed with a barn, cattle cage, and a well. In each village, there is an assembly hall where a local administration meeting takes place, a mosque, several langgar (smaller mosques), schools, and markets which only appear once in a week. The traditional house shape of Javanese people is determined by its roof shape. Based on roof shapes, there are houses of limasan, serotong, joglo, panggangepe, daragepak, macan nyerum, klabang nyander, tajuk, kutuk ngambang, and sinom. The shape of limasan (pyramid-like shape) is the most commonly found. Usually the class of nobility builds houses in a joglo shape. Farming is the main occupation of most Javanese people in villages. Some others make a living by working as employees, manual workers, and traders. Their types of farming are irrigated rice fields and rain-irrigated fields, especially to grow rice. Rice is also grown on moors (tegalan), where they grow cassava, corn, sweet potato, soybean, peanut, cowpea, and so on. Not all farmers have their own fields. Most of them work as paid workers. They are paid by cultivating others’ fields. In their neighborhood, there are various simple farms.

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The kinship relationship principle in the Javanese people is bilateral, meaning that both lines of family (male and female line) are classified into one with the similar terms. For instance, siwa or uwa is an address form to call an older father or mother’s male sibling. And then “paman” to address a father or mother’s younger male sibling. The most significant kinship group in the tribe is a nuclear family they call somah or kuluwarga. A more extensive kinship group is sanak sedulur, i.e., relatives of male or female line or ancestors to the third level. The group plays a very important role in various ceremonies of someone’s life cycle. A more extended kinship group is alur waris (inheritance line) drawn along seven generations. Commonly, this inheritance line plays a vital role when it comes to ancestor worship. Usually Javanese wedding ceremonies are quite complex based on tradition. Wedding ceremonies are also celebrated more uproariously than death ceremonies. After wedding, Javanese newlywed couples do not think too much of settling down either in the neighborhood of a wife or a husband. Rather, they are more proud to have their own home once they get married. The Javanese people in rural areas are led by a village chief called lurah, often referred to as bekel, petinggi, or glondong. On duty, a lurah is assisted by a team of officials called perabot desa, consisting of kami tuwo (a vice village chief), carik (a secretary), kebayan (a general affairs assistant), jagabaya (a security officer), ulu-ulu (an irrigation officer), and a modin (a mosque keeper usually leading local religious ceremonies). To assist a lurah and perabot desa (all the above officials) while on duty, harvest crops of tanah bengkok (a piece of land for a village’s officials). Among Javanese people, there are a few social strata still apparent to date. The nobility group descended from kings is usually called bendoro or bendoro raden class. A class equal to this is priyayi class, which means a group of erudite, intellectual people usually descended from the noble families as well. The lowest class is called wong cilik, such as a farmer group in villages. However, wong cilik in rural areas categorize themselves into three different classes, i.e., wong baku (descendants of those who started building a village for the first time), kuli gandhok (a class of people without home or land), and jaka sinoman (a class consisting of bachelors with no fixed jobs yet live from assets of their parents). Islam is the common religion among these people despite the fact that there are also some Javanese who embrace other religions. Javanese Muslims are also influenced by many other religions, ranging from a local faith (Kejawen), Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The group of devout Javanese Muslims more heavily influenced by other elements is called santri and those who practice syncretism are referred to as abangan. Javanese people who embrace Islam but do not regularly practice the teaching are called kejawen. These are people who uphold their ancestral teachings and philosophy emphasizing on spirituality within themselves. The group is now acknowledged as one of the sects in Indonesia. Kejawen teaches the existence of kesakten, a divine power above humans, and the influential power of ancestral and natural spirits in human life, such as invisible creatures such as memedi, lelembut, tuyul, demit, jin. To live without the nuisance of these creatures or even be able to make them help humans, someone must take actions to control them, such as taking

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a very simple, modest way of life, fasting, holding a thanksgiving ritual, and providing offerings. Rituals by providing certain offerings are ways most often used to be seen in the Javanese people’s religious life. Despite that, a thanksgiving ritual is always led by a modin. A traditional celebration of Javanese people near Yogyakarta and Surakarta palace having Islamic religious influence is Gerebeg Maulud. It is often called Sekaten, Sekatenan, Garebeg, or Maulud only. The celebration is based on Prophet Muhammad’s birthday and the passing of him on Maulud or Rabiul’awal month, according to Hijri Calendar. The Gerebeg ceremony starts a week before the 12th of Maulud. It is marked by the showcase of Kiai or Nyai Sekati gamelan (a set of acoustic metal instruments— translator) from Yogyakarta and Surakarta place, and positioned in wards in the palace front yard. Gamelan is played every day throughout the week. During this, the square in front of the mosque changes into a market, food and beverage stalls, cloth and accessory sellers, and various public shows. The culmination of all is the night before the 12th of Maulud, when a Sultan along with his relatives, assistants, and workers headed to the mosque to pray and listen to a sermon. To most laymen, the climax of celebration is the moment when sacred foods called gunungan are brought to the square to be distributed to all people packing the place. Gunungan (giant cone-shaped 2-m-high rice) consists of 12 tumpengs. Javanese foods are commonly named based on region, city, or regency in which a food is typical, such as Soto Jepara, which is a soup typically found and cooked in Jepara. Soto Kudus is then a signature soup of Kudus. Chicken soup only found in Semarang is hence called Soto Ayam Semarang; Soto Ayam Blora is a soup typically found in Blora; Soto Tauco Pekalongan; Soto Sokaraja Purwokerto (often called also Sroto Sokaraja) or Soto Kriyik from Purbalingga. In addition, cultural development of Javanese cuisine is vast as it has been greatly influenced by massive civilizations, such as Chinese, Indian, Arabian, and European civilization. Therefore, Javanese culinary cultures are quite diverse, having a lot of uniqueness and highly dependent on natural resources in which a food is cooked. For example, tempong (blenyik), madu mongso, adon-adon coro, kopi dapur kuat, sutet es Gempol (es Pleret), horok-horok, rondo royal (fried fermented cassava), sate kikil (buffalo skin satay), klenyem (fried, shredded cassava filled with palm sugar), turuk bintol, kuluban (urap: young jackfruit, long beans and young leaves, raw mung bean sprouts, raw lead tree leaves, grilled sea fish “pecel”, Jepara fermented shrimp, Petruk durian, Jepara orange, roasted peanuts, Jepara peanuts. Areas, cities, or regencies in Java have their own signature foods and often these become their identity. For instance, Kudus Regency is not only known for its Chicken Soto but also buffalo satay, lentog—which is a mixture of lodeh and lontong. There is also dodol Kudus and jenang Kudus. Purwodadi is known for its distinct “swike” dish (made of green frog meat), “nasi becek”, soy sauce, banana “sale”. Banjarnegara is known for its “dawet ayu”, and “buntil”. Kendal is known for its “boneless milk fish”, “krupuk petis”, “krupuk

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rambak” (a type of cracker made of buffalo or cow skin), “momoh”, and “brongkos”. Semarang is known for its lumpia/ lunpia, “Soto Ayam Semarang”, cow satay, “bandeng presto” (steamed milk fish), “nasi goreng babat”, “ayam goreng kraton tulang lunak” (steamed, boneless, kraton fried chicken), pia cakes, soy sauced goat satay, “martabak Malabar”, “kue Bandung”, “tahu petis”, “tahu gimbal”, and “wingko babat”. Boyolali is known for signature foods such as “marning” (fried corn), “paru goreng” (fried lungs), “brem” branded Suling Gading, “krupuk rambak” (crackers made of buffalo or cow skin).

Blora is known for its signature dishes such as “sega pecel”, Blora chicken satay, Blora chicken soup, “tahu campur”. Brebes is known for salted eggs, goat satay (Brebes to date is known for being a center of onion production). Demak in Central Java is known for “nasi gorang asem”, “sambel belimbing wuluh”, kwaci (Demak was once known for being a center of watermelon production). Klaten is known for “ayam goreng Kalasan”, fried duck, and “emping melinjo”. Then Pati is known for its “nasi gandul” and chicken satay. Like Pekalongan known for “nasi gandul”, “soto tauco” (tauto), and “Nasi Megono”. Each region, city, or regency in Java develops its own unique flavor making them distinct and unforgettable. For instance, Pemalang is known for “Nasi Grombyang”, “lontong dekem”, and “Sate Loso”. Purwokerto is known for “tempe mendoan”, “gethuk goreng”, “Soto Sokaraja”, or “Sroto Sokaraja”, and “nopia” (made of flour dough filled with palm sugar, and then baked with clay stove and coconut dry branches as firewoods. Cilacap is known for its signature foods such as “ikan bandeng”, “kerupuk tengiri”, “sale pisang”, and salted and dried fish called “gesek”.

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Distance of cities with signature foods are sometimes not far away. For instance, Purworejo is known for “kue lompong”, “clorot” (a kind of dodol wrapped in spinned and coconut leaves), “gebleg”, “kue satu”, “dawet hitam”, and “lanthing”. Purbalingga is known for “rujak kangkung”, “tahu gecot”, “soto kriyik”, “es duren”, and “klanting”. Rembang is known for “bandeng duri lunak” (in Juwana) and kawista syrup. Salatiga is known for its “bakso urat”, “bakso babat”, “kripik paru”, “ting ting gepuk”. Solo is known for its “gudeg”, “sate kambing”, “thengkleng”, “srabi Solo”, “Nasi Liwet”, “timlo Solo”, “Racikan Salat”, “ krupuk karak/ gendar”, golf-ball-sized “Bakso Popular”, pickled tofu, and “sayur tumpang”. The authentic foods of Sragen are “garang asem”, “sate Sragen”, “brambang asem”. Sukaharjo is known for “welut goreng”. Tegal is known for “Teh Poci” (tea boiled in a small clay teapot and drank with sugar cubes), “sate Tegal” (Tegalese young goat satay), “sate bebek Majir”, “pilus”, “krupuk antor”, “Nasi Bogana” (Nasi Megono), “sauto” (chicken soto/ babat soto which is the signature food of Tegal, with tauco ingredients). Tegal to date is known for being a tea producer. Afterward, Wonogiri has “gaplek”, “tiwul”, “cabuk”. Wonosobo offers “mie ongklok”, “sagon”, “tempe kemul”, “geblek”, “wedang ronde”, “manisan carica”, “keripik jamur”, and “dendeng gepuk”. Ungaran provides “tahu bakso”, “sate kempleng”, and “krupuk bakar”. Sources: Kodiran (1983), Lebar (1964), Geertz (1981a, b, 1986), Koentjaraningrat (1984a, b). JELAI (Dayak Jelai) 118 The tribe of Jelai lives in several villages in Marau and Jelai Hulu sub-district, Ketapang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Their villages in Marau sub-district are Ketikal, Sekakat, Tanah Hitam, and Petimangan. Their villages in Jelai Hulu sub-district are Benatu, Mayam, Semantum, and Sungai Kiri. The population is around 1,600. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). JINAK (Zinak) 530 Papua The tribe of Jinak or Zinak lives in the north of Citak-Mitak sub-district, which is the hinterland of Papuan southern coast. In the east, lies the territory of Asmat tribe. Their territory is in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Tamnim, Epem, Zinak, and Wowi. Further research is required. See also: ASMAT.

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JOERAT (Jurat) 531 Papua Joerat is part of the Asmat tribe living in the Papuan southern coast area, in Sawa Erma and Agats sub-district in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. See also: ASMAT.

K KABOLA 460 Nusa Tenggara The tribe population was around 10,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). The Waima’a tribe lives in the northwest of Alor Island, in Nusa Tenggara Timur. The language belongs to the language family of Papua-Melanesia, Trans-New Guinea, and Makasai-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Hamap, Pintumbang, Adang, Aimoli (Aimoli), Tang’ala, Meibuil. Further research is required. KABURI 657 Papua The population was around 600 (1986 Gravelle SIL). Their territory is in the south part of Bird Head region, in the east of Kemberano and Arandai tribe’s territory, in the north of Kokoda and Fakak, Manokwari and Merdei Regency, Inanwatan sub-district. The language falls into the language group of Trans–New Guinea in the south of Bird Head region. Further research is required. KADAI 376 Maluku The people of Kadai live in some parts of Taliabu and Mangole Island in Sula Islands, especially in the mountainous area. The population, some of whom still practice animism, is around 500. The settlement is in Maluku Utara Regency, Maluku Province. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984).

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KADAMBUKU 248 Sulawesi The people of Kadambuku are classified by Kennedy (1935) under the tribal group of Pamona who still inhabit areas around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Adriani and Kruyt (1912). KAFOA (Jafoo, Ruilak, Aikoli, Fanating, Pailelang) 461 Nusa Tenggara The population is around 1,000 by ethnicity (1981 Wurm and Hattori). In Alor Island, the area encompasses the north of Aluben, between the territory of Abui and Kelong tribe. It falls into the language group of Trans–New Guinea, language family of Makasai-Alor-Pantar. The people prefer to call themselves people of Jafoo. Further research is required. KAHUMAMAHON 291 Sulawesi The people of Kahumamahon live in Batui and Bunta sub-district, Luwuk Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Some others live in Borone sub-district, Poso Regency. In the last mentioned territory, they share borders with the people of Wana. The “exiled” tribe makes a living by farming in fields with the rotational farming method in the hinterland of Poso. Activities of land clearing as fields start with a mawi ceremony. The ceremony is led by a shaman called polebiang. Their main plants to grow are rice, corn, cassava, yam, nuts. Some rice and corn crops are bartered with other necessities such as blades, axes, lamps, clothes, and salt. Other occupations are hunting wild boar, deer, and anoa. Some tribe members gather produce such as rattan, resin, and logs from the forest to be sold to middlemen. The people of Kahumamahon embrace the local religion they call Halarjik. Based on the concept, they believe in the existence of the Almighty they call Pu’ E. Besides that, they believe in spirits and spiritual beings living around them. Some of these spirits are evil and disturb humans. Yet, there are also some of them that are good and helpful by nature. Both spirit types must be respected by holding certain offerings. Currently, some of them are Muslims, while some others are Protestants or Catholics. Source: Depsos (1974).

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KAIDIPANG (Kaidipan, Dio) 217 Sulawesi The population is around 22,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). The tribe of Kaidipang is one of the sub-tribes of Mongondow tribe. They generally live in Kaidipang sub-district in Bolaang Mongondow Regency, near the borderline with Gorontalo Regency. The language belongs to the language group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language family of Mongondow-Gorontalo. The dialects are Kaidipan, Bolaang Itang. The tribe is Muslim. In the past, the people of Kaidipang were under the authority of Kaidipang Kingdom. In 1910, the kingdom joined Bolaang Utang Kingdom as a new kingdom, Kaidipang Besar. The merged kingdom finally vanished in 1950. Further research is required. Source: Kalangie (1983), Depdikbud (1989). See also: MONGONDOW. KAIGIR (Kayigi, Kayagar) 532 Papua The people of Kaigir live in the southern coast of Papua, in the east of Asmat tribe’s territory, near Pirimapun, and near Atogoim and Sawi tribe’s territory. Their territory lies in Cassowary Beach sub-district (Pirimapun), Merauke Regency, Papua Regency. The population is around 7,500. Their villages are Kawem, Amian, Amegas, Amkum, Amsume, Amkai, Gagare, Ayru, Wagesu, Amaru, Garuboob, Kaibu, Syairipm, Okor, Waragom, Asipm, Semtaipm, Gogogir, Gomberu, and Sene. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KAILI (Toraja Kaili, Toraja Sigi, Toraja Barat, Toraja Parigi) 249 Sulawesi According to some experts, the people of Kaili are people of Toraja Barat or Toraja Palu, Toraja Parigi, Toraja Sigi. They live in 11 sub-districts in Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province, i.e., Sindue, Sirenja, Tawaeli, Sigi Biromaru, Ampibabo, Damsol, Moravola, Parigi, Banawa, Dolo and Palu. Some others live in Una-Una sub-district, Coastal Poso, Lage, Tojo, and Ampana in Poso Regency. The population is around 300,000–350,000 (1980). The tribe , in fact, consists of many sub-tribes. In the central part of Sulawesi, every tribe name begins with prefix to, meaning “people”. The people of Kaili then

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are called Tokaili or To Kaili. Other sub-tribes are also subject to this rule, among others are Palu (Tori-Palu), Biromaru, Dolo, Sigi, Pakuli, Bangga, Baluase, Sibalaya, Sidondo, Lindu, Banggakoro, Tamungkolowi, Baku, Kulawi, Tawaeli (Payapi), Susu, Balinggi, Dolago, Petimpe, Raranggonau, and Parigi. In addition to these, there are also tribes considered as “exiled” ones as they rarely interact with people outside. Meanwhile, in these tribes there are more detailed classifications by settlement and kinship relationships. The language falls into the language family of Malay-West Polynesia and Kaili-Pamona. The Kailian language is categorized into the group of “bahasa tak” or ingkar language. Adriani and Kruyt (1912) call it Ta’a language (means “no”). It is divided into two groups. The first is the language of Kaili Da’a or Ta’a (meaning “no”). The dialects are Da’a (Pekawa, Pekava, Pakawa), Inde, Unde (Banawa, Banava). Second, the language of Kaili Ledo, is divided into the dialects of Ledo (Palu), Doi, Ado, Edo, Tado, Tara (Parigi), Rai (Tawaili-Sindue), Raio (Kori), Ija (Sigi), Ta’a. Ledo is the lingua franca and the official language of commerce in the West Toraja area. The main occupation of the Kailian people is farming. They usually grow rice, corn, and vegetables. In addition, nowadays they also grow clove, coffee, and coconut. From wood, they collect ebony, resin, and rattan which they can sell at expensive prices. Some of them catch fish around beaches and estuaries. They are also known as renowned traditional fabric weavers. This traditional fabric is called sarung Donggala (sarong of Donggala). The people use a bilateral kinship familial system. The matchmaking ties based on old tradition is endogamous and the big influence of parents in matchmaking. Despite functional nuclear families shape, the kinship group is a bilateral extended family they call ntina. This extended family is activated especially in every life cycle ceremonies. However, the tribe also acknowledges an inheritance system based on maternal lineage and an uxorilocal after-wedding settlement pattern. The Kailian people social structure in the past consisted of several strata. The first stratum is maradika, a group of nobility consisting of descendants of the kings of Kaili from ancestors they call to manuru. The second is togura-nungata stratum, which is a group of descendants of the kings’ assistants in the past. The third is to dea, the laymen group. The last stratum is batua or slaves. Kings are called magau. In the administration, every magau is usually assisted by several prominent figures. Among other prominent figures, there are madika malolo (young kings), madika matua (officials in charge of welfare), ponggawa (traditional leaders of society), galara (custom court law reinforcement apparatus), tadulako (admirals or officials in charge of security and defense), sabandara (a kingdom treasurer). In the present, such a social stratification is slowly fading.

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Currently, the majority of Kailian people embrace Islam. Prior to the coming of Islam in the seventeenth century, the old belief system they call Balia is a form of worshipping deities and ancestral spirits. They call the highest deity a lot of titles, such as Topetaru (the creator), Topebagi (the determinant), Topejadi (the creator). After Islam spread, those who believe in the old faith also acknowledge the existence of Alatala as one of the titles of their highest deity. The god of fertility is called Buriro. Spiritual creatures staying in valleys, mountains, and sacred objects are called tampilangi. Unseen powers of shamans and soothsayers are called doti. The Balia religious activities are held in a shrine called Lodo. The religious worship system is estimated to be one of the causes of why the people of Kaili are divided into religious groups often with closed and exiled characteristic. The solidarity activities of the people are especially seen in the fund-consuming traditional ceremonies. This solidarity is mandatory to every member of family and they call it sintuvu. Solidarity activities in various aspects of social and economic field in the tribe nowadays are mostly derived from sintuvu. The people of Kaili are one tribe of the peoples developing a type of soccer-like sport they call raego or dero. In wedding parties and public meetings, they like reciting poetry called waino, containing satirical “pantun” (local fun poetry) contests between young females and males. Sources: Mattulada (1989), Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1982, 1985, 1989). See also: DONGGALA, BALAESANG, DAMPELAS, TOMINI.

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KAIMBULAWA 294 Sulawesi By the tribal aspect, the population is around 1,500 (SIL 1991). They inhabit Siompu Island, Southeast Sulawesi. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, language group of Muna-Buton. The dialects are Lantoi, Kambe-Kambero. It is different from the language and dialect of Muna or Cia-Cia. They are Muslims. Further research is required. KAIMO 533 Papua Kaimo is one of the sub-tribes of the larger Asmat tribe. They live in several villages in Pantai Kasuari Sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. KAIRUI (Midiki, Cairui) 450 Nusa Tenggara The people of Kairui are maybe still a part of Waima’a tribe living in the northern coast of Baukau Regency, Timor Timur Province (now Timor Leste), and several villages in the hinterland. The population of the tribe was around 2,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in a narrow mountainous region surrounded by the territory of the tribe of Makasai, Waima’a, Tetun, and Galoli. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, language subgroup of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, and language group of Waima’a. KAIS (Aiso, Atori, Mintamani, Kampung Baru) 655 Papua The population was around 700 (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They inhabited eight villages in the south of the hinterland of Bird Head region, along the River of Kais. Their linguistics falls into the language group of Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. KAIY (Taori-Kaiy, Taori-Kei, Kai, Todi) 656 Papua The population was around 250 people (1991). They live in an area with a lot of lakes, around the airport of Kaiy in the downstream of Cenderawasih River (Tariku), in the village of Kaiy and Kokou, Papua Province. Further research is required.

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KAJANG (Dayak Kajang) 165 Kalimantan The people of Dayak Kajang are one of the tribes still inhabiting nomadically around the borderline of Indonesia and Sarawak, Malaysia. They live in both sides of the borderline. Experts tend to categorize them into the Kayan-Kenyah group. Further research is required. KALABRA (Beraur) 657 Papua The population was about 2,100 people (1975). They inhabit the west of Bird Head region, West Papua; in the south and people speak the Madiknese language and in the east people speak the language of Moi. The language is close to the language of Tehit. Further research is required. KALADENG 310 Sulawesi The people of Kaladeng are considered as one of the tribes still living in exile in terms of culture. They live in Tapalang sub-district, in Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KALAE 250 Sulawesi The people of Kalae are regarded by classic ethnographers as a part of the large group of Pamonatribe inhabiting valleys along the east of upstream of Lala River, in the east of Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. KALAOTOA (Kalao, Kalau) 311 Sulawesi The tribe of Kalatoa or Kalau lives in Kalau Island in Selayar Islands, Selayar Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 500 people (T. Friberg SIL 1988). They embrace Islam. The language is categorized into the language group of Muna-Buton, the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-Central Polynesia. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984).

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KALOWO 312 Sulawesi The people of Kalowo inhabit several villages in Wonomulyo Sub-district, Polewali Mamasa Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The number of people considered as a culturally exiled tribe was around 300 people. Further research is required. KALUMPANG (Galumpang, Makki, Mangki, Maki, Ma’ki, Mangkir) 657 Sulawesi The population number was around 12,000 (1991 SIL). They live in the southeast of mamuju Regency, Kalumpang sub-district, South Sulawesi Province. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and language group of Toraja-Sa’dan. The dialects are Karataun, Mablei, Mangki (E’da), Bone Hau (Ta’da). Their territory can be reached by passing through rivers, on foot, by motorbike as well. They make a living by working as peasants growing rice, coffee, and cocoa. Some are Christians and Muslims. Further research is required. KAMBERATARO (Dera, Mangguar, Dra) 658 Papua The population was around 1,000 people in Papua (1987 SIL); 687 in Papua New Guinea; 1,700 all over the country. They live in 13 villages in the south of Jayapura, near Waris, Papua Province. The language belongs to the language sub-group of North Central Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. KAMBRAU (Kamrau, Kamberau, Lambrau, Iria) 534 Papua The people of Kambrau or Kamberau atau Lambrau live in the southeast of Bomberai Peninsula, around Kamberau Bay. Their villages are Ubia Seramuku, Bahomia, Inari, Tanggaromi, Koi, Wamesa, and Coa in Kaimana sub-district and Arguni Bay, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 900 people. The language is a part of the language group of Kamoro and Asmat. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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KAMORO (Kamora, Mimika, Lakahia, Nagramadu, Umari, Maswena, Mukamuga, Neferipi, Nefarpi, Nafarpi, Kaokonau) 535 Papua There is an assumption that Kamoro is similar to Mimika. Some others state that the people of Kamoro are a subgroup of Mimika tribe. The third assumption states that Kamoro is a regional language unity. The second assumption argues that the people of Kamoro inhabit the swampy southern coastal area of Papua, in the northwest of Asmat tribe’s territory, in Mimika Timur and Mimika Barat sub-district and Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. As a part of Mimika tribe group, the people of Kamoro live from the west of Etna Bay to the Mukamuga River. Meanwhile the other Mimika people live around Cemara, Otakwa, and Mimika River estuary. The population of Kamoro people is around 8,000. Their territory is in Mimika Barat and Mimika Timur sub-district. Their villages are Tarja, Kamora, Wania, Mukumuga. The language falls into the language family of West Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Asmat-Kamoro. The dialects are Tarya and Yamur and for other dialects. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (1962), Grimes (1984). KANGEAN 105 Java-Bali They live in Kangean Island in the east of Madura Island. In terms of tribe, the people acknowledge that they are a part of Madura tribe. The language falls into the family language of Austronesia, language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Madura. The population was around 2,000 (1980). Further research is required. KANOWIT (Dayak Kanowit) 153 Kalimantan The people of Kanowit is a part of the Iban tribe living in the area around Kanowit and Hilir Leboyan River, Central Kalimantan. Currently, they have adopted Islam and thus are categorized into the group of Melanau people, the people of Dayak Muslims. For this reason, it is often categorized into the Melanau group, the people are Muslims and heavily influenced by the Malayan culture in Central Kalimantan. Their language is categorized into the language of Rejang Hilir of the language group of Rejang-Baram. Further research is required. Sources: King (1985), Uchibori (1978), Rousseau (1990).

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KANTU’ (Dayak Kantu’) 119 Kalimantan The people of Kantu’ live around the upstream and creek of Kapuas River, in West Kalimantan Province. The population is around 1,000–2,000 people. They scatter throughout Nanga Kantuk and Semitau sub-district, Sanggau Regency. Some others live in Sintang Regency, in the north of Kapuas river watershed area, to the borderline of Sarawak. Their main occupation is agriculture (growing rice and vegetables in fields). In addition to that, they grow rubber and pepper to sell and buy clothes, salt, fish, and tobacco. They often go hunting and catching fish. They usually hunt boar, deer, and mousedeer. They live in a village community, marked by communal houses called rumah panjang or rumah tegoh. These houses are structured in a permanent manner for many families located in the center of settlement areas. In addition to that, they build huts in fields as homes during planting seasons. Besides rumah tegoh, there is another type of rumah panjang called dampa. Dampa applies a simpler construction with smaller size and capacity for families. Every village is led by a chief and an assistant called kebayan. Besides that, there are informal leaders called puun rumah, which tend to be a family that holds the first pole when one rumah panjang was built, the eldest family (bilek tuai), and a shaman (nanang). The people of Kantu’ strongly uphold egalitarianism so one’s authority or a certain family’s authority is relatively low, what matters more is the authority of the entire people. Important matters usually are settled through discussions (pekat) in open space. All adult males are required to attend such a meeting and women are to remain in bilek. However, they can take part by shouting out opinions from bilek or appear for a moment in a porch. In the case of tradition violation, the rumah panjang court requires a guilty person to provide a pig or more as an offering to deities. In agricultural activities, they usually lend a hand to each other on occasions like cutting down trees, planting rice seeds, cleaning up weeds, harvesting and transporting crops. This cooperation is called berimpoh. There is cooperation called bedurok, meaning that manual workers are replaced strictly based on workdays. A more strict compensation is again found in the way of bekuli, as the rewards are rice or cash. Sources: Dove (1985), Riwut (1956, 1962), King (1985). KANUM (Enkelembu) 536 Papua The people of Kanum live in the south part of Papuan coastal area, near the Indonesian border with Papu New Guinea, in the east of Merauke. Their territory lies in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 350 people.

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Some others live in Papua New Guinea. The language falls into the Southern Central Trans–New Guinean language subgroup. Their villages are Yanggandur, Onggaya, Sota, Tomarau, Tuar, Yerew, Bawo, Semendir, and Kombo. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KAPAUKU (Ekari, Ekagi, Me Mana, Yabi, Tapiro, Simori) 537 Papua The people of Kapauku are also called the Ekari or Ekagi tribe. The name of Kapauku was given by the coastal people, while the name of Ekari was given by the Moor people living in the east of Kapauku Sea. The people call themselves Me, meaning “humans”. The other names given by outsiders are Me Mana, Yabi, Tapiro, and Simori. They live in western part of central mountains, around Wissel lakes surrounded by valleys. The population is around 110,000 people. The language of Kapauku is at least divided into dialect of Simori and Yabi. Their settlements conglomerate in a particular area and between villages (5–7 villages) the distance is small, forming a territorial federation especially to function during wars in the old times. Usually a house is occupied by a patrilineal nuclear family consisting of several nuclear families with one senior man. Such familial unity function is considered significant in terms of agricultural economic life. The common occupation of Kapuku people is growing yam, vegetables, and fruits. As side job, they hunt wild animals and catch fish in rivers. In addition, they also breed pigs mostly used as social assets, such as prestige and dowries. These people have forged traditional commercial ties by means of exchange tools in the form of seashells (kapaukumege) for many generations. Currently, it has already changed into rupiah. Commercial commodities are among others pigs, chickens, yams, dogs and houses. In addition, they also exchange services, such as working as a shaman, witch, tooth puller, and so forth. The lineage principle is patrilineal. They are descended from one ancestor of a clan with a certain “totem”. Finding a future spouse is done based on a clan exogamy principle and after the wedding day, a wife lives with her husband’s family. These days, they mostly embrace Christianity, but the inherited traditional ceremonies still remain, especially to activate the tribe’s solidarity functions and socio-religious integrity. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Boelaars (1986). KAPAUR (Iha) 538 Papua The tribe of Kapaut often called the people of Iha inhabits the northern most area of Bomberai Peninsula, which lies by Berau Bay, Fakfak Regency, Papua. In the

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south, the people of Baham live. The population is around 6,000 people. Their territory is in Kokas and Fakfak sub-district, i.e., in Wayati, Mabunibuni, Batafiafas, Sipatnanam, Sum, Degen, Danaweria, Nambuktep, Pikpik, Atiati, Merapi dan Wagon Village. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). KAPAURI (Kapori) 539 Papua The people of Kapauri live in Pagai Village, in the north, upstream of Idenburg (Taritatu) River. Their territory is in Kaureh sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 60 people only. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KARAS 540 Papua The people of Karas live in Karas Island in the southwest of Bomberai Peninsula, in the southeast of Fakfak. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of West Trans–New Guinea. The population was around 250 people (1978). Their territory is in Fakfak sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The language is under the language group of Bahan and Iha. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). KARERA 462 Nusa Tenggara The tribe inhabits several places in the east of Sumba Island. Their territory is in Sumba Timur Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. Their settlement lies in the ridges with infertile land and is full of reeds. The people are still a part of Sumba tribe. The language is called the dialect of Manggarikuna. The main occupation of theirs is rotational farming with corn and rice as staple crops. The fields are usually bordered with wooden or stone fences to mark ownership and prevent animals from trespassing. They also breed bulls and horses used later on as offerings in rituals and dowries. Every Karerian person is combined in a patrilineal clan led by a kabisu, a traditional leader. The people consist of three social strata, the nobility called umbu, a free commoner group called kabihu, and slave group called ata. The people of Karera believe that ancestral spirits (merapu) reside in the spiritual realm called Tanatara. There these spirits live just like in the world. Spirits are

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considered to have power to help or disturb humans. For this reason, periodically they must hold rituals for spirits. Noisy spirits are those failing to reach the spiritual world, called sarangi. In order for these spirits to stay away from humans they must be provided with offerings (foods) and they make them wooden statues. A ceremony taking the most time, fund, and physical energy is a death ritual for the nobility. Source: Depdikbud (1981). KARFASIA 541 Papua The Karfasia tribe lives in the hinterland of Papuan northern coast, in the east of Apawar River, in the west of Sarmi. Their territory is in Jayawijaya Regency. Their villages are Karfasia, Samarkena, Maseb, and Tamaya in Pantai Barat sub-district. The population was around 500 people (1980). Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KARO (Batak Karo) 013 Sumatra The people of Karo or Batak Karo are one of the sub-tribes of Batak. They live in Karo Plateau, Langkat Hulu, Deli Hulu and some parts of Dairi. Their current territory is in Karo Regency. They inhabit an area which spans 5,000 km square. Based on the 1930 census, the population was around 120,000. Based on the 1963 census, it was around 370,000. These days, it is estimated that the population is around 1 million people, which includes the people of Karo scattered in various regions. Their village is called kuta, a genealogical and territorial unity inhabited by several clans (merga). The traditional house is a stilted one with tilted walls. Its roof consists of three layers and triangular in shape. The division which always involves three symbolizes the bonds called sangkep sitelu (a complete three). A traditional house is usually occupied by 8 or more patrilineal nuclear families (jabu). Hence, the traditional house of Karo is also called siwaluh jabu (siwaluh: eight). Most houses here showcase lizard toys as decoration, which is believed to be a misfortune repellant. At the climax, they place a head of buffalo as a symbol of welfare for its inhabitants. The people of Karo make a living by working as farmers. Some others also grow tobacco, coffee, vegetables, and fruits. In husbandry, they breed buffaloes and pigs. Buffaloes are used to plow, while pigs are for festivities and traditional rituals. The Karo people lineage is based on patrilineal principle. The smallest kinship unit commonly found is called jabu or sada bapa (one father). The second one is the combination of several jabus called sada nini, i.e., a group descended from one similar grandfather or traceable ancestor. The biggest kinship group is merga or

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clan. There are large merga in Karo, i.e., Ginting, Karo-karo, Perangin-angin, Sembiring, and Tarigan. Also, there are Bangun, Munte, Sibero, and so on. The Karo village social structure is determined by the traditional principle called Sangkep Sitelu (the complete three) and the language of Batak Toba is called Dalihan Na Tolu. It means that every traditional relationship is determined by three kinship groups by familial and marital ties, which means one’s own kinship group (senina or dongan tubu), a group to provide girls (kalimbubu or hula-hula), and a group to receive girls (anakberu or boru). Kalimbubu always holds a higher position than one of anakberu which explains why one must respect his wife’s relatives. All of the three groups are to cooperate in various rituals such as weddings, deaths, and reconciliations. Such a social structure is derived from a clan exogamous marital tradition of the tribe to which they apply asymmetrical connubium relationship structure, a women exchange between kinship groups does not occur mutually. Rather, they move to other groups. This is because it takes at least three clans, the traditional principle determining Karo people leadership system. Kuta (village) is led by the eldest member from kuta founder descendants (bangsa taneh) merga. A vilage chief is called penghulu, i.e., an inherited position based on the eldest son line. A penghulu is assisted by an anakberu and senina. In case there are custom issues to be brought to court, one to lead is an oldest penghulu kesain based on the history of kesain establishment. A village hall (bale kuta) is built by the eldest kesain. These days, such traditional regulations have already been substituted by national governance regulations. The Karo native religion is called perbegu based on the worship of spirits (begu). Paternal and maternal relative spirits are considered protecting spirits. The relationship with spirits must be well maintained by holding rituals with offerings. In addition to begu, the people have two other main concepts, which are tondi (living human spirits) and sumangat (various unseen powers). Sumangat of a datu is for instance, greater and stronger than a sumangat of common person. Nowadays, most Karonese people are Protestants and Catholics. A long time ago, ancestors once developed an animism faith oriented to spirit worship (deceased people spirits) and polytheistic faith. The polytheistic faith believes in several gods. One of the most significant deities is one considered the highest called Dibata Kaci-kaci or Dibata Yang Satu. In addition, there are three deities considered to be three worldly layers. The first is called Guru Butara Atas or Dibata Atas reigning the upper layer. The second, Tuhan Paduka Ni Aji or Dibata Tengah, is the middle layer ruler. The third is Tuhan Banua Kaling or Dibata Bawah, the lower layer ruler. In addition, there is the sun ruler (Ninimataniari) and the ruler of the moon and rainbow (Beru Dayang). Worshipping rituals are led by a woman shaman called guru si baso. Sources: Bangun (1983), Singarimbun (1983), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1989). See also: BATAK.

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KARON (Karon Pantai, Madik) 542 Papua The people of Karon live in the central Bird Head region, from the coastal area to the hinterland, in the north of Meibrat (Brat) people’s territory, in the north of Amaru Lake (Ayamaru). The territory is in Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 9,000 people. The language of karon falls into the category of a (west) Papuan language subgroup and is divided into the dialect of Karon Dori in the south and Karon Pantai or Yimbun in the north. The sub-tribe of Karon Dori (Meiyach, Meon) inhabits Kebar sub-district, with Pef, Asses, Sunopi, and Siakwa as their villages. The Karon Pantai sub-tribe lives in Ayamaru, Sausakor, and Morait sub-district with Jokdroi, Sausapor, Kwor, Wau, Werur, Saubeba, Warmandi, Opmarye, Bikar, Siarduk, and Kwesfo as the villages. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). KASIMBAR 251 Sulawesi The people of Kasimbar are categorized into one of the sub-tribes of Tomini. They live in four villages in Ampibabo sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The population in 1979 was around 7,000. Further research is required. Sources: Lebar (1972), Kennedy (1935, 1943), Grimes (1984). See also: TOMINI KATIBAS (Dayak Katibas) 154 Kalimantan The people of Katibas is a part of the Dayak Iban tribe living around Katibas and Hulu Embaluh River, in Central Kalimantan Province. Further research is required. Sources: King (1985), Uchibori (1990). See also: IBAN. KATINGAN (Dayak Katingan) 156 Kalimantan The people of Katingan is perhaps a part of Ngaju tribe group in Central Kalimantan province. They live upstream of Katingan River. The population was around 45,000 (Wurm and Hattori 1981). Further research is required. Source: Rousseau (1990).

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KAU 377 Maluku The people of kau (read: ka u) lives in the coastal area around Kau Bay in Halmahera Island, around Kau River estuary. The settlement is in Central Halmahera Administrative Region, Maluku province. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). KAUGAT (Atohwaim) 688 Papua The population was around 1,000 (1987 SIL), in the southern coast between Cook and Kronkel River. They live in Pantai kasuari sub-district, Merauke Regency. The language is classified into the language family of Papua-Melanesia, and the language subgroup of Northern Central Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. KAUR (Ka’ur) 053 Sumatra The tribe of kaur lives around Kaur River, especially in Kaur Selatan sub-district, Bengkulu Selatan Regency. The population was around 21,000 (1980) with a very low mobility. The origin of the tribe and its name is unknown. The language of Kaur is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Malay. Their common occupation is farming, growing rice in fields and rain-fed fields. Besides that, they breed cattle, catch fish, and trade local crops. The kinship system is based on bilateral system. A traditional and religious leader is still strong in terms of influence. The people are mostly Muslims with some elements of a local belief. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KAURE (Kaureh) 668 Papua The population was estimated to be 450 people (1995 SIL). They live in the southwest of Sentani Lake, along the Nawa River, in these villages: Lereh, Harna, Wes, Masta, and Aurina, all of which are in Jayapura Regency. The language is classified into language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required.

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KAUWERAWEC (Kauweraweti) 669 Papua The population was estimated to be around 400 people (1987 SIL). They live near the riverbanks of Memberamo Tengah River, in the north of Kasonaweja. The language family of Papua-Melanesia, the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, and the language group of Kwerba. Their occupations are as hunters and gatherers, with a local faith. Further research is required. KAUWOL (Kaowor, Kawol, Kavwol) 543 Papua The people of Kauwol or Kaowor live in the valley of Kau (Kauwol) River near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, papua. They live in Waropka sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population is around 600 people. Perhaps they are a part of Ngalum tribe. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). KAWE 544 Papua The people of Kawe live in Kawe Island and in the western part of Waigeo Island in the western part of Irian Bird Head region. The villages are Salio, Selepele, Bianci, and Menyefun. Their settlement is in South Waigeo subdistrict, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 350 people (1980). The language falls into the language subgroup of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language group of Raja Ampat. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). KAYAN (Dayak Sungai, Dayak Kayan, Da’ Kayaan) 120 Kalimantan The population was around 2,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hatori). Most of them live around Mendalam, Rajang, and Baram River in West Kalimantan. Their area of origin is upstream Kahayan (Kayan) River in East Kalimantan. Because of one reason, they emigrated to the west and arrived in what is now the eastern part of Kapuas Hulu Regency. The settlement scatters to Putus Sibau and just like most of Dayaknese people, they assimilate with the other groups around them. Foreign anthropologists tend to classify the Kayan and Kenyah people as one entity, which is Kayan-Kenyah, because they share some characteristics. These

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people see one another as different. The Kayanese people apply a hierarchical societal system. They also adopt tattooing as part of tradition. Several hundred years ago, the large group of Kayan tribe was from Apo Kayan Plateau, upstream of Kayan River, now in Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan. The inhabitants formerly living in Apo Kayan plateau are the tribe of Kayan, Kenyah, and Bahau. Inhabitants arrived over the course of several centuries. The people of Kayan prefer to call themselves Da’ Kayaan. The tribe is divided more into several smaller groups, such as Umaq Pliau, Umaq Samuka, Umaq Puh, Umaq Paku, Umaq Bawang, Umaq Naving, Umaq Lasung, Umaq Daru, Umaq Juman, Umaq Leken, Umaq Aging, Umaq Suling, and Umaq Pugung. The word “umaq” or “umaa” means “kampong” (village) or “rumah panjang” (long house) because every village is always marked by a communal house. Hence, the name means also a long house in which they live. The names were allegedly derived from their places of origin in the Plateau of Apo Kayan. Because of its remoteness for centuries, each group developed its own dialect. The tribe’s main occupation is farming with a system of rotational agriculture (luma’ sa’an or luma’suu). Nowadays, their side occupation is as a rubber sappers or collectors of various other crops enabling them to make a living. Their staple plants are rice, corn, yam, cassava, vegetable, coconut, and banana. Some perennial trees they grow are rubber, coffee, tengkawang, and clove. Dayak tribes in West Kalimantan have known rubber trees since the beginning of the 1900s. It is no wonder that almost every family of Kayan now owns a rubber plantation. The Kayan tribe’s smallest kinship unit is a nuclear family called putung. Several putungs join together to form an extended family called pawaat and live in a household (amin). They have a bilateral lineage, connecting one’s familial relationship both to the paternal side and maternal side. An ideal or desired marriage according to the custom of Kayan tradition is between two cousins at the third degree (paharian ketelo’). On the contrary, a marriage between cousins at the first and second degree is considered forbidden/ taboo (tepang perah). A forbidden marriage is one which is trans-generation, such as one between a man and his aunt (ine). In case that occurs, they liken that to “a child breastfeeding his mother” (nuso’ hinan na’). Nowadays, the marriage of the tribe is heavily influenced by Catholicism, which most of them have adopted. Kayanese traditional regulations state that eldest sons or daughters obtain the first right to be a holder and caretaker of heirlooms (dayan pesaka), on condition that he or she is to stay in the mind of origin. An heirloom can be a gong, vases, canang, beads, and mandau swords (malaat una’). In case he or she is not able to do so or has to marry and live somewhere else, then right over heirloom is transferred to a younger son. In the event that this son is not able to do so either, such right can be transferred to one of his female siblings considered the most qualified.

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Physical work such as clearing up woods to open it as a field or to make a boat, looking for firewood, building a hut in fields, hunting, sapping rubber, or catching fish with nets is what males must do. Meanwhile, women are assigned to take care of all household affairs such as providing foods, harvesting, making plaits from rattan and pandanus leaves, and breeding livestock. In the past, the traditional local administration in Kayan villages was led by a temenggung. These days, a village head appointed by the government is also assisted by a temenggung, seen as an advisor in the local society and tradition affairs. He is appointed by people thanks to his capability and understanding of matters related to Kayan traditions. They have started to embrace Catholicism and formal education since the past nineteenth century. Sources: Rousseau (1990), Coomans (1987), Danandjaja (1983), Ave and King (1986), Ngo (1988), Lontaan (1975). See also: DAYAK. KAYGIR (Kayagar, Kajagar) 670 Papua The population was around 10,000 people (1993). They live in the coast of southern Papua, near Pirimapun and Sawi, Asmat Regency, Papua Province. The language is classified into the language family of Papua, the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, and the language group of Kayagar. Further research is required.

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KAYU AGUNG 067 Sumatra The Kayu Agung tribe was estimated to be around 4,500 people (1980). The settlement spreads in villages located in Meranjat and Tanjung Batu village, Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, Sumatra Selatan Province. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Malay. Most of them are farmers, fishermen, makers of crockery, traders, and so forth. The people’s lineage principle is bilateral, but due to certain factors, it may change into patrilineal or matrilineal. They are now Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KAYUNG (Dayak Kayung) 121 Kalimantan The people of Kayung or Dayak Kayung live in several villages in Nanga Tayap sub-district, Ketapang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The villages are Kebuai, Tanjung Beringin, Tanjung Bunga, and Riau Batu. The population is around 1,300. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KAYUPULAU (Kajupulau) 671 Papua The population was around 573 people (1978 SIL). They live in Kayubatu and Kayupulau village in Jayapura Port Bay. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Malay-East Central Polynesia, the language group of Teluk Jayapura. Maybe they are part of the Tobati (Yotafa) tribe. Further research is required. KEDANG (Dang, Kdang, Kédang, Kedangese) 463 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in villages in Omesuri and Buyasuri sub-district, Flores Timur Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. Both sub-districts are in Lomblem or Lembata Island dominated by hilly landscape. The population of the tribe speaking Kedangese was estimated to be around 12,000 people. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, language subgroup of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language group of Flores-Lembata. The occupation of the Kedangese people depends on dry land cultivation with corn and other staple plants. Tools they use are still simple, such as tofa (tugal) and machetes. The planting season only happens once a year and during the idle time,

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they usually catch fish. The other occupations are as makers of brown sugar (made of lontar fruit sap) or makers of plaits made of lontar leaves and weavers of fabrics with “ikat” technique commonly used amongst tribes in Flores. Source: Barnes (1967). KEDER 672 Papua The population was estimated to be around 200–600 people (1973 SIL). They inhabit the northern coast of Papua, in the east of Tor River estuary, Jayapura Regency. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of North Trans– New Guinea, the language group of Tor. Further research is required. KEI (Evav, Kayos) 378 Maluku The tribe lives in Kei Islands in Arafuru Sea, consisting of Nuhucut, Nuhurowa, Kaidullah, Toyandu, Walir Island, and some neighboring smaller islands. The islands are divided into two sub-districts, i.e., Kei Besar and Kei Kecil sub-district, Maluku Tenggara Regency, Maluku Province. They also inhabit some islands in Aru and Tanimbar Islands. The population is around 35,000 people, including those who live in various places in the coast of Irian Island and Maluku Tengah. The language is categorized into the language family of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Fordata spoken by Tanimbar people. The language of Kei is divided into two, the dialect of Kei Kecil and Kei Besar. Land in Kei Kecil sub-district is mostly lowland and the rest is hilly landscape at 100 m above sea level. On the contrary, land in Kei Besar sub-district is composed of hilly landscape and a little lowland at 500–800 m above sea level. The people call themselves Evav, meaning “pig island”. Another opinion states that “kei” is derived from Portuguese “kayos” meaning “hard”. Perhaps it is because these islands were formed by reef on which perennial trees grow. Prehistoric records show that Kei Islands in the past were often visited by foreign sailors. Prehistoric evidence indicates that these islands were once inhabited by people with the similar civilization as one in North Australia. There are also remnants of humans with transitional civilization from Asia’s main continent, among other things are bronze nekara and axes for rituals found in these islands. The influence of Austronesian culture is seen from the skills of the people, who are adept at making crockery with unique motifs from clay. In fact, such skills are rarely found in the east of Indonesia. Like any other eastern people, the tribe is also skillful at making refined pleated goods with colorful motifs. Their main and most significant occupation is rotational agriculture with embal (a type of yam), sweet potato, taro, nuts, and a little upland rice. Their staple foods are sago from coastal woods. In addition, they also make a living by catching fish, gathering sea cucumbers, shark fins, pearls, and managing coconut, coffee, cashew

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nut, and clove plantation. Another way of making money is making boats for fishermen. They start to plant when the rainfall in the east season is higher, while in the west season, they sail to catch fish. The smallest kinship unity in Key tribe is a nuclear family they call riin rahan or ub. The nuclear family combination, called rahayan or fam (a small clan) can be developed into a larger clan more known as soa. A village (ohoi) is usually inhabited by a soa. Several villages unite in a village called negeri. Soas in a negeri are classified into two groups, i.e., Ursiwa and Urlima. A traditional village leadership is usually held by people from soa, who inhabited the area for the very first time. The people of Kei adopt a patrilineal lineage (through both paternal and maternal line). In marriages, they seek a spouse in a similar social layer. The role of fam or rahayan determines more the position of someone and in kinship they apply primogeniture principle, in which a firstborn son or senior’s right is prioritized. Regulations of ancestral inheritance custom are called the law of Larvul Ngabel. In addition to regulating behavior of people, it also divides the people of Kei into two groups. The first is Ursiu or “alliance of nine”, who mostly live in Key Kecil sub-district. The second is Lorlim or “alliance of five” living in Kei Besar sub-district. The existence symbol of the two groups can be seen in the number of poles in a village hall (abua) in their villages. Poles of the village hall of Ursiu group are nine; while, there are five poles of the Lorlim group. According to the social structure, they are divided into three strata or social layers. The prominent group, consisting of leaders and riches is the highest stratum called mel-mel. The middle stratum consists of the laymen usually called ren-ren. In the past, there was also a group of iri-iri or hiri-hiri, the group of slaves having nothing. The social stratification system in the past still shows some of its influence on their current daily lives. For example, it is shown in how they choose spouses and leaders, not to mention everyday etiquette and involvement in certain rituals. Key people’s traditional villages tend to be in the form of small kingdoms, in which kings are called Rat or Ratu or Orang Kaya. Rat himself is assisted by a number of officials such as marinyo, kapitan, and mayor. Lower villages are led by soa leaders. Leaders from the eldest soa in a negeri are usually called Tuan Tanah or Tae Jan. A traditional charismatic leader in every negeri is usually someone senior with great wisdom called Tovoat. The respected status is also bestowed upon prominent figures called Mitu Duan, people considered gifted in terms of spirituality. Rat himself in his administration has assistance from a custom council, Badan Saniri Negeri consisting of the above elements of leadership. In the current years, the influence of Rat is quite large, especially in appointing a village head based in the national administration system. Despite the fact that the people of Kei are generally Muslims or Christians, some of them still believe in the conception of spirits and supernatural powers derived from the ancestral religion. Spirits (mitu) are considered to be able to bring happiness and also misery. A failed or successful harvest, a prosperous or miserly life may happen to people who are considered to be from mitu power. For this reason, in addition to holding small ceremonies in the familial circle, every year they hold

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special rituals to “cleanse” a negeri on a massive scale. Such ceremony is called sob-sob. Mitu can be misused by humans through supernatural skills they call suanggi. Sources: Depdibud (1980, 1989), Lebar (1972), Koentjaraningrat (1969). KEJIN 177 Kalimantan The people are a sub-tribe of the large group of Dayak Kenyah inhabiting several settlements in several regencies in East Kalimantan, such as Kutai and Bulungan Regency. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH, DAYAK. KELABIT (Dayak Kalabit, Kerabit) 122 Kalimantan The tribe is perhaps a part of Murut tribe so they are categorized into the Kelabitik-Murut group. Their center of settlement is maybe in the plateau of Kelabit-Kerayan in West Kalimantan. In the place of origin, they had not known what a boat was. The settlement is far away from rivers, unlike other Dayak tribes. Nowadays, some of them live in the borderline of Indonesia, Sarawak, and Sabah (Malaysia), and also in the territory of Brunei Darussalam. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Kelabit. The population is around 1,650 people throughout the country (1981 Wurm and Hattori). In West Kalimantan, they live in the upstream of Bahau River, in the east of Mentarang River, and in the northeast of Kemaloh River, Raya River, and Sesayap River. In Sarawak, they live near the upstream of Baram and Tutoh River, the middle part of Limbang River, around Trusan, Damit, and Lawas Valley. In Brunei Darussalam, they live along Temburong and Pandaraun River. In Sabah, they live in Ulu Padas and Megalong. The language of Kelabit has some dialects, but it is categorized into the language sub-group of Kelabitik-Murut. Like Kayan, Kajang, and Kenyah tribe, they also live with rotational agriculture. However, compared to other Dayak tribes, they already practice irrigated agriculture and husbandry of pigs and cows. Season of planting is determined by the understanding of bird migrating phenomena. They also produce salt from natural wells in their areas. Their quite isolated settlements are in Kelabit and Kerayan. This may be what causes them not to know ironwork. Iron tools must be obtained by barter from other neighboring tribes. The irrigated agriculture surplus and salt production make them more independent than other neighboring tribes.

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In the social life, there is also a stratification system. Everyone can be of a higher social status in certain conditions and substitute his or her name in every status change. They develop tattoos, and megalithic tradition. The women like to wear headscarves decorated with beads of various colors. Marriages with cousins until the third level are forbidden. The settling pattern after wedding is usually uxorilocal. Kinship ties are significant to them as it is useful when it comes to workforce empowerment. Sources: King (1985), Rousseau (1990), Talla (1979). KELINGI (Sindang Kelingi) 019 Sumatra The population was around 50,000 (1989). They live around Muaraklingi, Sumatra Selatan. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay. They are Muslims. Further research is required. KELONG (Kelon) 461 Nusa Tenggara The population was around 10,000 in terms of tribes (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the southwestern tip of Alor Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur. The language is categorized into the language family of Papua, the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Timor-Alor-Pantar, Makasai-AlorPantar, Alor. The dialects of their language are Buraga, Probur, Halerman, Gendok, Panggar. Further research is required. KEMAK 451 Nusa Tenggara The people of Kemak live in Maliana Regency, Timor Leste (formerly Timor Timur Province). The region is near the borderline with Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The physical characteristics of the people are dolichocephalic head, blackish brown skin tone, curly hair, and a taller figure than ones of other tribes in Timor Island. The language of Kemak is categorized by experts into the language family of Austronesia, Malay-Central Polynesia and the language group of Tetun-Atoni. The people make a living from agriculture (in fields and rain-fed fields) breeding buffaloes, horses, cows, pigs, and goats. Women here also like weaving quite popular Timor fabrics (tais). The population was around 50,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). In interacting with other tribes in Timor Timur, they speak Tetunese. In the western part of Timor Island, Nusa Tenggara Barat, the people of Kemak live in Tasifeto Barat and Tasifeto Timur sub-district in Belu Regency, Timor Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The inhabitants speaking the language of Kemak

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amounted to around 35,750 people (1984). Their occupations are generally breeding cows and horses, growing in fields, and also hunting and making pleated goods. Nuclear families of Kemak live in groups and form extended families or clans. People of the dominant leading group are called loro, the common people are called renu. In the past, there was also a group of slaves called ata. Their real religions are animism and dynamism. They respect ancestral spirits and believe in the highest deity called Maromak. This native faith acknowledges many ceremonies related to fertility and death. Sources: Koentjaraningrat (1969), Suparlan (1971, 1980a, b), Lapian and Chaniago v; Hidayat (1984). KEMBAYAN (Dayak Kembayan) 165 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 45,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the northwestern part of West Kalimantan, near the borderline of Sarawak, around Balai Karangan, near Kembayan and Landak River. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, the language group of Dayak Darat. Further research is required. KEMBERANO (Kalitami) 672 Papua The population was around 1,500 (1987 SIL). They live in the southern part of Bird Head region, along the eastern coast from Komundan River, in the south of Arandai tribe’s territory, Irian Jaya Barat Province. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea of southern Bird Head region, the language group of Timor-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Barau and Weriagar. Further research is required. KEMTUK (Kemtuik, Kamtuk) 445 Papua The tribe of Kemtuk or Kemtuik lives in the lowland of eastern part of Nimboran, approximately in the southwest of Sentani Lake, which is between Nimbu and Grime River. Their territory is in Kemtuk-Gresi and Nimboran sub-district. The population was around 2,500 people (1987 SIL), living in villages such as Mamdayan, Mamda, Meikari, Merem, Yanim, Brasso, Aip, Sabransamon, Saberap, Sekorup, Aimke, Sabron Yaru, and Sawiro, in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Nimboran. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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KENDAYAN (Kanayatn, Dayak Kendayan, Baicit, Kendayan-Ambawang) 123 Kalimantan The tribe lives in the vast upstream of Kapuas River, including in Kapuas Hulu Regency. Their territory is in the northeast of Bengkayang, around the area full of jungles in Ledo, Madi, and Papan. It is possibly a part of a large group called Dayak Darat (Land Dayak). The distribution of the tribe reaches various sub-districts in Pontianak, Sambas, Ketapang, and Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The name of Kendayan was perhaps given by outsiders as they call themselves Kanayatn, the name of a hill in Menyuke area on which they live. The population is around 300,000 people. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-Kalimantan West Polynesia, with Ambawang and Kendayan dialects. The tribe of Kendayan is divided into several small sub-tribes more often identifying as a separate group. Sub-tribes of Kendayan can be distinguished by the self-acknowledgment and dialect they speak. The lingua franca among these various sub-tribes such as Ngalampa, Ngabukit, Benyadu, Behe, and Benane’ tribe is the language of Kendayan. Like any other Dayak tribes, the tribe of Kendayan live in groups inside long houses they call rada’ng. It is a communal house built on tall poles with 200-m length and 27-m width. The building is divided into rows of rooms for nuclear families. In the front, there is a hallway spanning and connecting these rooms altogether. In the outer part of every room, there is an open veranda called pante, usually used as a spot to expose rice to the sunlight. The main occupation of Kendayan tribe is cultivation in fields with rotational agriculture system, meaning that they clear up woods by burning them down and move on after land fertility has subsided. The main plants are upland rice but they also make use of other foods sources, such as agu trees. Other occupations enabling them to make money are collecting jelutung sap, honey, resin, rattan, ironwood, or sapping down rubber. Other side jobs for men are going hunting and catching fish. Women are skillful at pleating mats and containers made of rattan and pandanus leaves. In the relationships of Kendayan people apply bilateral principle, meaning that lineage is drawn through both sides (male and female side). Traditional ceremonies are often joined by those who gamble and drink liquor. Such a tradition seems to have appeared from the influence of their contact with Chinese traders coming into their territory from several hundred years ago. Many among Chinese single men married Kendayan women and finally mingled as Kendayan people as well. Chinese descendant immigrants in West Kalimantan are certainly quite many and create wider interactions with the general Dayak people. Nowadays, the people embrace Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam, as well as other faiths. Although they have practiced these mainstream faiths, they also still believe in native religious concepts from the ancestors and conduct certain religious ceremonies pertaining to the native religion. For example, a ceremony after harvest

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on rice fields called naik dango ceremony. This ritual is intended to be a thanksgiving one aimed at Jubata (the Highest Deity) for having granted them harvest. In addition to that, there are also some other ceremonies related to life cycle ceremonies such as batalah nama (giving a name to a newly born baby), circumcision, wedding, death (nyaruk sumangat), sick people (baliatn), and so on. Sources: Grimes (1984), Depdikbud (1983, 1985), Untan (1983), Depsos (1975). KENYAH (Dayak Kenyah) 178 Kalimantan The people of Kenyah assume their land of origin is the plateau of Apau Kayan (Apo Kayan). Allegedly, this tribe migrated from the plateau near the borderline of Indonesia and Sarawak (Malaysia) several hundred years ago. Nowadays, they scatter and spread to the upstream of Bahau, Baram, Baluy, and Kayan River. In East Kalimantan Province, they settled in Bulungan and Kutai Regency, around the upstream in Mahakam River and its creeks. The tribe is divided more into sub-tribes that may be differentiated by the dialect and self-acknowledgment. The Kenyah tribal group includes Bauk, Lepo’ Tau, Lepo’ Mant, Lepo’ Payah, Lepo’ Buau, Umaq Kalap, Umaq Lokan, Umaq Jalan, Umaq Kulit, Nyibun Saban, Lepo Maut, Ma’ Lang, Umaq Alim, Lepo’ Ka’, Ma Badang, Ulun, Ulun Serau, Lepo Bam, Lepo Aga, Lepo Tukang, Lepo Bakung, Lepo Baka, Lepo Tepo, Lepo Lisan, Lepo Kayan, Ngure. The word “umaq”, “umak” or “uma” means a house and lepok, lepo’ or lepoq meaning a hut or a small house. Therefore, their group identity is often likened to the name of village or a long house from which they are from. The population is around 20,000–30,000 people. Experts assume that the cultural and historical connection of the people with Kayan tribe still exists. For this reason, they are also called a part of Kayan-Kenyah group. The language of kayan is categorized into the language subgroup of Kayan-Kenyah. The people of Kenyah are one of the village-house communities, as all community members of a village usually live in a large and long house they call lamin or amin. A nuclear family is joined in a patrilineal nuclear family (household) and lives in some part separated for settlement for these nuclear families. Such a life is useful to them in terms of a society of agriculture which formerly had to unite to deal with enemies’ attacks. The people are also known for being one of the resilient agricultural tribes in Kalimantan. The people , in fact, also apply quite a rigid social stratification system, especially in the ancient times. The group of nobility and kings’ descendants is called ipui. There are also some who were employed as slaves after having lost at war. This group is called anak dulu. Marriages are usually endogamous in a similar stratum/layer, meaning that they are expected to marry people of the similar social class. Marriages between different social classes may occur by equalizing status of both sides and this involves “purchasing”.

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The kinship principle is usually bilateral, while marriages tend to be endogamous in a similar stratum, meaning that choice of spouses should be of the same social class. Marriages between people of different social “levels” are allowed through the custom of “purchasing”. The main occupations of the tribe are ones of agriculture with rotational farming method. Cutting down trees and preparing fields are usually done by men; while, women are expected to spread seeds and take care of them. To take care of everything in fields, they set up a hut called lepo. Even though rice is a preferred food, it is assumed that sago was processed as a staple food among them. Side jobs are usually ones enabling them to make more money, such as gathering rattan, valuable woods, honey, resin, jelutung sap, and so forth. The people have already known Christianity since the arrival of missionaries around the 1920s. Since then, the culture of Kenyah had changed a lot from time to time. The native faith comprises a belief that ancestral spirits play a huge role in controlling life. Ancestral spirits are considered to be able to appear in the form of wild animals in jungles, especially enggang birds. That is why enggang birds are considered to be magical creatures with strong connection with ancestral spirits. Sources: Coomans (1987), Rousseau (1990). KENYAH BAHAU (Dayak Kenyah Bahau, Kenyah Wahau) 166 Kalimantan They are still a part of the large group of Dayak Kenyah-Kayan tribe. The population was perhaps around 1,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The tribe lives in the northeast and north of the estuary of Wahau River and Wahay Kayan River, East Kalimantan. The language is categorized into the language family of

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Austronesia, Malay-West Polynesia, Kenyah. The dialect is Uma Timai. Further research is required. KENYAH KELINYAU (Dayak Kenyah Kelinyau) 167 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 1,200 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the northeast of Kinjau River, around Long Laes, and Telen River, East Kalimantan. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Kenyah. The dialects are Uma Bem, Uma Tau, Lepo’ Kulit, and Uma Jalam. Further research is required. KENYAH MAHAKAM (Dayak Kenyah Sungai Mahakam) 168 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 7,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The territory is in the east of Bahau region, around Mahakam River meanders, East Kalimantan. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Kenyah. The dialects are Mahakam Kenyah and Boh. Further research is required. KENYAH SUNGAI KAYAN (Dayak Kenyah Sungai Kayan) 169 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 6,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the eastern part of East Kalimantan Province, in the northeast of the upstream of Kayan River, in the plateau of Apo Kayan from which Kaytan River and Iwan River originate. The language falls into the the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Kalimantan, and the language group of Kenyah. The dialects are Kenyah Hilir, Longbia, Kayaniyut Kenyah, Long Nawan, Loing Kelawit. Further research is required. KENYAH ULU BARAM (Dayak Kenyah Ulu Baram) 170 Kalimantan The population was perhaps about 2,660 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They inhabit the northern part of East Kalimantan, near the horderline of Indonesia and Sarawak, in the northwest of Longkemuat. There are also many of them living in Sarawak, Malaysia. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Kalimantan, and the language group of Kenyah. Further research is required.

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KERIAU (Dayak Keriau, Punan Keriau, Kereho-Uheng) 171 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around only 200 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the northern part of Central Kalimantan, near the borderline of Indonesia and Sarawak, in the south of the territory of Dayak Bukat and Hovongan tribe. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language sub-group of Punan Muller-Schwaner. Further research is required. KERINCI (Melayu Kerinci) 066 Sumatra The tribe lives in Kerinci Regency, Sungai Penuh City, Jambi Province. The regency lies in the borderline of West Sumatra Province. Their territory is fertile and the main occupation here is farming, rice, vegetables, fruits, and so on. Kerinci tribe settlement has an uneven landscape, with hills and valleys, in Bukit Barisan Mountains with Kerinci Mountain as its peak (3,805 m above sea level). Most of the land is covered by thick tropical forests but the earth is qualified for large plantations and subsistence farming. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay-Minangkabau. The population was now estimated to reach 300,000 people (1989). The fertile land enables them to develop occupations as farmers, both rice in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields. Some crops are often sold to the eastern coast of Sumatra having no fertile land. These days, rice barns are harder to find and the remaining barns are mostly unusable. In the meantime, some who live around the jungle tend to apply the rotational farming system, meaning that they clear up land and leave it once it is no longer fertile. For this reason, they build temporary houses in fields for their settlement during the season of planting. The farming they develop focuses on rice, corn, yam, vegetables, coffee, cinnamon, and clove. While waiting for harvest, some of them work to gather valuable jungle commodities such as rattan and resin. The people of Kerinci live in territorial genealogical villages. The villages or dusun they call larik are inhabited by one or two groups of people from one similar ancestor. Such a territorial genealogical unit is called lurah. Their houses stand in rows along large houses which run through a dusun (a small village), between a row and another is separated by a street. Between one dusun and another is separated by a vast stretch of field. The smallest kinship unit here is a nuclear family they call tumbi. The people apply the principle of limited extended maternal families they call perut. Several peruts unite in a matrilineal clan called kelebu. The group who think they are from similar ancestors is grouped into one lurah. Compare that to the kinship system of

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Minangkabau people. It is different from Minangkabau nuclear families, in the people of Kerinci, tumbi (a nuclear family) is marked by the big role of a father as a household leader. Despite the fact that an extended family live in a large house they call rumah gedang, but tumbi can build its own house near rumah gedang. Some experts state that the culture of Kerinci tribe is hugely influenced by one Minangkabau. Yet, the local traditional administration system is influenced by the Sultanate of Jambi, as seen in the use of marga concept in the sociopolitical system. Several dusuns consist of two or three lariks. These dusuns unite in a marga led by a Mendapo, so such a marga is also called kemendapoan. In Kerinci territory, there are around 15 kemedapoan. A dusun is led by a depati assisted by mangku, kadi, alingan, and debalang. Larik (village) inhabited by one kelebu also has a traditional leadership they call leadership of ninik mamak with rio, mengku, perementi, ngabi, datuk, sutan, rajo as its members. The language of Kerinci falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay-Minangkabau. Meanwhile, between a village and another there may be differences of dialects and certain vocabularies. Difference of dialects is especially seen in the final sound or pitch. Despite that, they can still understand each other and the dialect itself finally serves as a marker of one’s origin. They call sugarcane “tebeu”, cucumber “timaung”, a frog “lalak”, iron “besoi”, and so forth. As evidence that the tribe has interacted with the external world for many years, there are remnants of ancient alphabets called Tulisan Rencong (Rencong Writing) or Tulisan Paku (Nail Writing). This type of writing seems to share many things in common with one in Pasemah, Serawai, Rejang-Lebong, and Lampung, and maybe one of Minangkabau. Once Islam came in, the Arabic alphabets are also known in their culture. Like the Minangkabau tribe, the people of Kerinci also have a principle as a code of conduct saying: “Adat bersendi syarak, syarak bersendi kitabullah”, meaning that as we live this life, we must observe rules, while the source of the rules is Kitabullah (Al Qur’an). Next, it is said that “syarak mangato, adat memakai”, meaning that tradition always follows religion. This rule of life obviously applies after Islam was accepted by the entire Kerinci people. The traditional art of theirs is not very much different from one developed by the Malay Jambi people. In addition to dances for ceremonies and entertainment, several traditional musical instruments are also similar to ones belonging to the people of Malay Jambi, such as seruling, katipung buluh, gendang beduk, serunai. These days, they are Muslims. The remnants of old faith still exist as shown by the belief of spiritual creatures around human beings. On certain occasions, someone can tataman (encounter ghosts), tatampo (be slapped by ghosts) or tapijek anaok antau (be stepped on by a ghost child). Traditional ceremonies related to agriculture are preserved by them, such as asyik ngayun luci ceremony done once they find rice starts to turn yellowish gold. Sources: Depdikbud (1978–1979), Loeb (1972).

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KEROM (Waris) 546 Papua Kerom is a tribe speaking the language of Waris, living in Waris, Arso, Senggi, and Ubrub sub-district near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 3,000. Further research is required. KETENGBAN (Kupel, Oktengban, Upu, Hmanggoan, Omban, Oipomek, Kwine) 547 Papua The people of Ketengban or Oktengban live in the eastern part of Jayawijaya Mountains. They live in the east of Nalca, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The population is around 7,000 people scattered in Sape and Okbab village, Okbibab Sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Mek. The dialects are Okbap, Omban, Bime, and Onya. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KETUNGAU (Dayak Ketungau) 124 Kalimantan The tribe lives in several villages in Tempunak sub-district, Sintang Regency, and in Bengkayang sub-district, Sambas Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 5,750. The Dayak Ketungau group consists of 39 sub-tribes, among others are Bandur, Tabun, Begeleng, Demam, Peturan, Bangun, Marakai, Marak, Laman Tawa, Laman Tuha, Kaluas, Kandau, Kelata, Batu, Sandai, Bangkang, Lomandau, Delang, Batang Kawa, Bulik, Mamah Darat, Rukunu Guhung, Beah, Beginci, Krinu, Kayung, Lauh, Lesaguan, Jelai, Kendawangan, Tulak, Kecurapan, Kayu Bunga, Putatah, and Milanau. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KIKIM 068 Sumatra The tribe’s settlement is scattered around the riverbanks of Kikim River, in Kikim and Lahat sub-district, in Lahat Regency, Sumatra Selatan Province. The language of Kikim resembles and belongs to the same group with Malay. The kinship lineage is perhaps inclined to be bilateral. The people these days are generally Muslims.

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The tribe seems to be still in the similar group with the tribe of pasemah, Serawai, and Gumai living in the eastern part of Dempo Mountain. The language still falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Pasemah. The population was maybe around 50,000 people. The common occupations of the people are as farmers in rain-fed fields. The staple plant is rice, palawija, vegetables, and fruits. People living around the jungle usually live as rotational farmers and gatherers of natural resources to sell in markets. Today they are Muslims. Meanwhile, the animistic old faith’s remnants can be seen in their daily life. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KIMAGAMA (Kaladar, Teri-Kalwasch) 548 Papua The tribe lives in Kolepom Island (Yos Sudarso Island, formerly Frederik Hendrik Island) in the southern part of Papua, in the western part of Merauke. They live in Kimam Sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 3,000. The other name of this tribe is Kaladar. The villages are Kimagama, Yeobu, Woner, Teri, Kiworo, Kaloa, Tiavuda, Bamol, Tiakhe, Wanggamon, Kawe, Bire, Bundua, Sabon, Tor, and Kladar. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KIMKI (Aipki, Kimgi, Sukubatom, Sukubatong) 673 Papua The population was perhaps around 350 people or fewer (1978 UFM). They live in the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea around the riverbanks of Sepik River. The language perhaps belongs to the language group of Biksi. Further research is required. KIMYAL (Korapun, Korupun, Karopun) 674 Papua The population was around 8,000 (1996 E. Young). They inhabit the eastern area of Jayawijaya Mountains, near the upstream of Erok River, in the southwest of Nalca, in the east of where people speaking Yali and Ninia live, Yahukimo Regency. The language belongs to the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Nalca. The dialects are Korupun (Duram), Dagi, Sisibna (Gobug-dua), Deibula, Sela. Further research is required.

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KIOKO 292 Sulawesi The population was around 1,000 (1991 SIL). They live in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Kulisusu Sub-district in Buton Island. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Muna. The dialects are a Kioko and Kambowa. Further research is required. KIRIKIRI (Kirira) 675 Papua The population was perhaps around 250 (1982 SIL). They inhabit the western part of the meeting point of Tariku (Dou) River and Muyabu (Fou) River. The language belongs to the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of West Tariku. The dialects are Kirikiri and Faia. They are hunters and gatherers. Their staple food is sago. Further research is required. KISAM 069 Sumatra The tribe is considered as a new tribe appearing thanks to the amalgamation of Pasemah and Semendo tribe. The population is around 18,000. They live in small villages (dusun) in Muara Dua and Pulau Beringin Sub-district, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency, South Sumatra Province. The everyday language is the language of Pasemah, the dialect of Kisam. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Pasemah. Most of them make a living as farmers in fields or in rain-fed fields. The principle of kinship is maybe bilateral by nature. In social and political life and traditional administration, they are influenced by Simbur Cahaya traditional rules, custom law codification from the Sultanate of Palembang in the past. They are generally Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). KISAR 379 Maluku The tribe lives in Kisar Island in the east of Timor Island. Administratively speaking, the island belongs to Kisar Sub-district, Maluku Tenggara (Southeast Maluku) Regency, Maluku Province. The sub-district consisted of 41 villages with 2,903 inhabitants in 1986.

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There is an assumption that the island inhabitants are from Seram Island in Maluku Tengah Island. Seram Island is known as “nusa ina” (land of parent), as many of the inhabitants spread in the neighboring islets. For this reason, the language of Kisar is also categorized into the language group of Central Seram called the language of Siwalima. In their kinship system, they tend to apply patrilinealism, which means they draw a line from the male or father side. The people make a living by cultivating rain-fed fields. Another occupation is as fishermen especially catching tuna, gathering sea cucumber, pearls, hunting whales and so on. In addition to that, the culture also has a weaving tradition known for its refined quality and beautiful motifs. Sources: Koentjaraningrat (1969), Grimes (1984). KLUET 006 Sumatra The word “kluet” was derived from Acehnese meaning “wild”. Some assume that such word was derived from “kalut”, meaning “meditating” or exiling into the woods. According to a story in the golden age of Acehnese Sultanate, a long time ago this tribe used to be isolated. Currently they live in Aceh Selatan Regency, especially in Kluet Utara and Kluet Selatan Sub-district. According to the genealogical and territorial unity, they are divided into four kemukiman, i.e., kemukiman of Menggamat and Sejahtera in Kluet Utara Sub-district, and then in kemukiman Makmur and Perdamaian in Kluet Selatan Sub-district. Every kemukiman is led by a mukim (like in Aceh). The population was around 15,000. They are now Muslims. The language is divided into three dialects, the dialect of Paya Dapur, Menggamat and Krueng Kluet. The language of Kluet is also influenced by one of Aceh, Karo, Alas, Gayo and Minangkabau. Their main occupations are as farmers in rain-fed fields. Like any other tribes in Aceh Special Region, they also grow coffee, clove, coconut and rubber. Farming and other tools are also very simple. The Kluet village called gampong consists of several houses and other buildings, such as berangdang (a rice barn), meursah (a general assembly hall), deyah (a small praying place for women), rangkang (a house for bachelors), and a mosque. They call a nuclear family jabo or jabu, and develop a clan system called marga. As a household economic unit, jabo joins its extended family (a small clan) in various socioeconomic activities, such as cultivating rice fields or plantations. The kinship principle is inclined to be partilineal. Choosing a future spouse is exogamous in one’s own marga. The settlement pattern after wedding is uxorilocal, in which a husband lives in a house of his wife’s family. A person’s connection to his or her father is called perwalian, and to his or her mother is called pamamoan. Both kinship relationships are considered influential in one’s life from birth to death. The

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roles of both sides are expressed in words: “Pamamoan patok tiwow, pawalian tandok hutang.” It means “a maternal side is assigned to hold an event whilst a paternal side is one to pay debt.” They live in villages led by a keuciek. The religious life of the people is led by a teungku meursah. On top of that, in the tribe there are leaders such as kaujreun balang (a prominent figure), indung mudo (a young male leaders), and petua anak beru (a young female leader). These days, the social stratification between the nobility and the commoners is blurred. Source: Depdikbud (1978/1979). KODEOHA (Kondeha) 293 Sulawesi The population was around 1,500 (1991 SIL). They live in four villages, in Lasusua Sub-district, Kolaka Regency, Sulawesi Tenggara Province, near the western coast of Kolaka. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Tolaki. Further research is required. KODI (Kudi) 462 Nusa Tenggara The population was around 40,000 (1987, UBS). They live in Sumba Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur. They still belong to the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-Central Polynesia, the language group of Bimas-Sumba. The dialects are Kodi Bokol, Kodi Bangedo, and Mbukambero. They are Christians and the rest embrace a traditional faith. Further research is required. KOIWAI (Kaiwai, Kuiwai, Kowiai, Aiduma, Namatote, Kayumerah) 549 Papua The people of Kaoiwai or Namatote live in the southern coast of Papua, in the south of Irian Bird Head region. More precisely, it is located in the southwest of Kaimana to the southeast of Maimai. Some others live in Namatote Island and other islets in Kamrau Island. The villages are Keri, Namatota, Wikala, Namatote, Kayumerah and Maimai. This region is in Kaimana sub-district and Etna Bay in Fakfak Regency, Papua. The population is around 700 people. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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KOKODA (Samalek, Oderago, Komudago, Nebes) 675 Papua The population was around 3,700 (1991 SIL). They live in the West Papua Bird Head region, in the east of the Inanwatan tribe’s territory and in the west of people speaking the language of Tarof. The language falls into the language group of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Bird Head. The dialects are Kasuweri, Negeri Besar, and Udagaga. Further research is required. KOLANA (Kolana-Wersin) 463 Nusa Tenggara The population was around 50,000 (1989). Their territory lies in Alor Island, in the east and southeast of Kolana dan Silopa, and in tow enclaves in the north and in the vicinity of the northeastern coast of Alor Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea and the language group of Timor-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Kolana and Maneta. By culture and history, it is related to Liquisa in Timor Timur. They are mostly Christians and some others embrace a traditional faith. Further research is required. KOMBAI (Komboy, Wanggom) 550 Papua The tribe lives in the southern coast of Papua, which is more specifically in the east of the Asmat tribe territory, in the east of Senggo, in the northeast of Pirimapun. Their territory is Kouh sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,000. Their villages are among others Uni, Fifiro, Wanggemalo, and Karuwakhe. It is perhaps of the same group of origin with Muyu tribe, especially in terms of occupations, language accents, and customs. The people of Kombai are often considered nomadic. Due to that, they are never used to permanent settlements. To meet the food needs of the tribe, they work as sago gatherers found in jungles. However, they also started agricultural activities in dry fields. Their farming system is the rotational agricultural method, which means they move once the earth is no longer fertile. The staple crops are sweet potato, besides banana and sugarcane. Houses of Kombai people were erected amid in the middle of fields. For security reason, these fields are built in clusters. Houses are usually built on trees 2–4 m off the ground. To get to the houses, they build stairs made of a log with holes for feet to climb on. At night, these stairs are lifted and kept in the veranda. Besides being fishermen, the other occupations are as hunters of lizards, alligators, wild boar, kangaroo, and birds. Boars are also kept as valuable cattle symbolizing wealth and dowry. Adult boars are then set free into jungles after their

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ear lobes are marked. In case owners are in need of a boar, he may hunt into the jungle, but he has to pay attention to the fact that the boar he catches is one of his, not others. A young nuclear family prefers to live in a cluster in its original family neighborhood so that a small patrilineal clan is formed. Several small clans conglomerate and form a bigger clan called nuwabit. This genealogical–territorial unit has a leader and warlords or customary head called kajepak. The original religion of the tribe is oriented toward the faith involving existence of ancestral spirits and evil spirits influencing humans’ life. Afterward, there are spirits considered the first creature to descend from the heaven called Sanolare, a spirit reigning land or earth (Arebyryro). Spirits considered to be evil and scary are ones who died of unnatural causes, called kwai. There are also spiritual beings used by shamans to cause calamity over someone else, called mau-mau and suangdi. Sources: Depdikbud (198), Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KOMERING (Ogan Komering) 070 Sumatra The population was around 140,000 people. They live in Buay Madang, Belitung, Cempaka, Simpang, and Martapura Sub-district, in Ogan Komering Ulu Regency; and in Tanjuk Lubuk Sub-district in Ogan Komering Ilir Regency. The main occupation is farming. They grow rice and vegetables in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields. The lineage is patrilineal, but in a marital system a matrilineal case is often found, called ngakuk anak. If a family has no son, at a wedding ceremony there must be an agreement saying that a husband is to stay in the wife’s family residence and if later on a son is born in his new family, the son will be the heir of his wife’s family. The common settlement pattern after wedding is patrilocal they call ngalaki, in which a wife must live with her husband’s family. The marital forms of such a kind enable the formation of restricted extended families or clans. The communal system of Komering tribe is affected by Simbur Cahaya customs. In the past, every dusun (a smaller village) was led by a kerio, having to regulate and supervise the development of his dusun. Every update on dusun is spread to the entire people by a kermit (a kerio’s helper). The traditional social–political and leadership aspect of the tribe is affected by the custom of Simbur Cahaya. They are now generally Muslims. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Lampungnese. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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KOMODO 463 Nusa Tenggara They live in Komodo Island and the west coast of Flores. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bimas-Sumba. Further research is required. KONDA (Ogit) 676 Papua The population was perhaps around 500 or more (1988 SIL). They live in the southwest of Bird Head region, along the downstream of Waromge River, in the south of Teminabuan Town, Konda Village in Teminabuan Regency, West Papua. The language falls into the language subgroup of Bird Head Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. KONERAW 551 Papua The tribe lives in the south of Kolepom Island (Yos Sudarso Island), in the west of Merauke Town, in Kimam sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 300 people. Their villages are Wau, Koneraw, and Selemit. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KONJO (Tiro) 294 Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 250,000 people, including 50,000 Kajang people and 10,000 Tiro people (?) (1991 SIL). Their territory lies in the southeast tip of South Sulawesi. The settlement is in Sinjai, Bulukumba, and Bantaeng Regency. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Makassar language. The dialects are Konjo Pesisir (Ara, Bira), Konjo Pedalaman, Tana Toa (Kajang), Bantaeng (Bonthain). The access to where they live is good. They make a living as farmers, fishermen, traders, boat makers, and so on. They are Muslims, and some others still practice the traditional faith (ugama Tana Towa). Further research is required.

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KOPKA 676 Papua The population was perhaps around 250 people (1988 SIL). They live in the southern lowland of Papua, in the southeast of Sumo and Dekai negari, in the south of Langda and Bomela, Yahukimo Regency. The language belongs to the language family of eastern Central Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. KORAPUN (Kimyal) 552 Papua See: KIMYAL. KORONI 293 Sulawesi The population of the community of Koroni was perhaps around 500 people (1991 SIL). They live in Unsongi village, 12 km from Bungku Town, Bungku Tengah sub-district, Bungku Regency, Central Sulawesi. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Bungku language. Further research is required. KOROWAI 553 Papua The tribe lives in the upstream of Brazza River, in the southern part of Jayawijaya Mountains, which is in the northeast of the Asmat tribe’s territory, in the west of Senggo. The territory lies in Kouh and Citak Mitak (Senggo) sub-district, in Merauke Regency, Papua Regency. The population was perhaps 2,000 people. The tribe is allegedly under a large group where Asmat tribe lies. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of West Central Papua New Guinea, and it may belong to the language group of Asmat-Awyu. Further research is required. See also: ASMAT KOTA BANGUN (Melayu Kota Bangun, Melayu Kutai) 172 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 80,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the valley of Mahakam Tengah River, East Kalimantan. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, Malay-West Polynesia, Malay. Further research is required.

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KOTOGUT (Kotogut, Tsokwambo, Tsakwambo) 554 Papua The population was around 500 (1991 SIL). The language belongs to the language subgroup of Western Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Awyu-Dumut. The dialects are Mapi, Ederah, Kia, Digul Hulu-and Kaeme Hulu. The people inhabit the upstream of Digul River, in the north of Kaeti tribe’s territory. The territory is in Kouh sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 500 people. The villages are Ambigit, Niyop, Garutop, Amb, Dagolit, Rondoghoi, and Kasuwop. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). KRIAU 125 Kalimantan The people live in several villages in Sandai sub-district, Ketapang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Their villages are Riam Dadap, Aur Gading, Sekukum, Batu Lapis, Beginci Laut and Beginci Darat. The population was around 1,700. Further research is required. Source: Depsos (1987). KRUI (Kroe, Kru’i) 019a Sumatra The population was perhaps around 20,000–30,000 (1985). They live in the western coast of Lampung Province, near the borderline of Lampung and Bengkulu Province. The territory is in Krui, Sanggi and Kotajawa sub-district. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Lampung Pesisir (Coastal Lampung). The languages of Krui and Ranau have things in common. Further research is required. KUANGSU 555 Papua The tribe lives in the western area of Sentani Lake, around the northern part of Gresi tribe’s territory, near the northern coast of Papua. The territory is in Nimboran Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 400. The villages are Kwansu and Bongrang. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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KUBU (Lubu, Anak Dalam) 071 Sumatra The tribe living near the borderline of Jambi and South Sumatra Province is considered “exiled” culturally and often called Anak Dalam. They spread in various sub-districts in South Sumatra, such as Bayung Lincir and Babat Toman sub-district in Musi Banyuasin Regency, and also in Jadimulyo, Muara Lakitan, Rawas Ilir, Rawas Ulu and Bangkau Hulu sub-district, Musi Rawas Regency. They move from time to time as most of them are gatherers of valuable commodities in wood, hunters, and fishermen. Currently, most of them work as peasants or loggers for plywood manufacturing companies. These days they are mostly Muslims or Christians. Sources: Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1964), Sandbukt (1989) See also: ANAK DALAM. KUI (Lerabain) 464 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around 5,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They inhabit Alor Island, in the southern coast of Batu Iolong and two enclaves in the west. The language belongs to the language sub-roup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Makasai-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Kui and Kiramang. Further research is required. KULAWI (Toraja Barat, Tokulawi) 252 Sulawesi Old ethnographers classify the tribe into one of the parts of Toraja Barat (West Toraja) group. They call themselves Kulawi or Tokulawi people. They live in a southern area of Lindu Lake, which is situated in Kulawi sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. In 1977, the population was around 22,000 and now it is estimated to be around 40,000. According to legend, they were from Bora and Sigi region in Palu Valley. The legend has it that once upon a time there was a man from Bora who went hunting together with his followers. They went to jungles in Momi Mountain. After they felt tired of hunting, they took rest under a shade of tree called Kulawi. Seeing the fertility of the area, this man decided to stay there. After that, they called the new area “Kulawi”. The people of Kulawi speak the language of Kulawi with several dialects, such as the dialect of Kulawi-Lindu heavily influenced by the language of Kaili. The group lives in the area around Lindu Lake. The group speaking the dialect of Toboko-Umpa lives around Lariang River.

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The people generally make a living by cultivating irrigated and rain-fed fields. Staple plants grow there including rice, corn, and other staple plants. Perennial trees for export such as clove began to be grown in 1970. Prior to that, they already have grown coffee and coconut as export commodities. The business fields they generally operate in are buffalo, pig husbandry, and fishery. Also, some of them are gatherers of natural resources from woods and hunters of deer and boar or fishermen in rivers. The people apply a bilateral lineage system. Newlywed couples generally live in the neighborhood of a wife (uxorilocal or matrilocal) and after the firstborn child is born, they usually move to a husband’s neighborhood or to build their own new house. Formerly, the people of Kulawi established a small kingdom, whose king was called Magau or Sangkala. He was assisted by a government council whose members were from the higher stratum of social stratification in the people, the group of to tua ngata. Nowadays, the influence of such an old stratification system has already been diminishing. The highest layer in the old times was maradika consisting of kings and their families and the group of to tua ngata that work as a king’s officials. The commoners were called to dea, and the lowest layer was a group of slaves and helpers called batua. The old religion of kulawi believes in the existence of the highest deity called Karampoa I Langi and Karampoa I Tana (Creator of Earth and Sky). In addition to that, there are some deities considered to reign over certain parts of universe and life, such as the god of war called Taliwarani. This deity is worshipped by warriors and tadulako (admirals). The universe around them is believed to have powers in objects and certain creatures. Nowadays, most of them are Christians after Christianity came in 1913. The original attire of the tribe is made of bark called vuya. Men wear vuya as loin cloth and women wear it as a skirt. The traditional attire they wear on formal occasions is quite distinct. Women are expected to wear three-layered skirts with colorful, flower-shaped cuts as decoration. The upper attire is decorated with colored beads. They wear golden necklaces with traditional motifs called kamagi or enu. Males wear loose shirts with a modest model, cloth on one of the shoulders, a pair of short pants narrowing in the end, folded cloth in the head, belts with long swords hanging in the left side. Females’ skirt and male shorts seem to be derived from the clothing model of Portuguese people who happened to have been stranded here four centuries ago. Nowadays, they mostly embrace Christiniaty. In the original faith system, they believe in the good (karampua) and evil spirits (topule) often affecting humans’ life. These spirits can only be contacted through a shaman’s assistance. Illnesses caused by the spirits’ disturbance can only be cured by a shaman inviting spirits through dances (rego). Sources: Kruyt (1933), Lebar (1972), Kennedy (1942, 1943), Depdikbud (1976, 1989).

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KULISUSU (Kalisusu, Kolinsusu, Kolensusu) 294 Sulawesi The population was around 22,000 (1995 SIL). They live in Southeast Sulawesi, Kulisusu, and Bonegunu sub-district in the eastern tip of Austronesian language, the language subgroup of Malay-Central West Polynesia, the language group of Bungku-Mori, Tolaki. Further research is required. KUMPANG (Dayak Kumpang, Oloh Kanto, Iban) 157 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of the large group of Iban living in the area around Kanto and Merakai Hulu River. The sub-tribe is also called Oloh Kanto. Further research is required. Sources: Uchibori (1978), Riwut (1956, 1962). See also: IBAN. KUPANG 417 Nusa Tenggara The people of Kupang live in the area around Kupang Municipality and Kupang Regency in the western part of Timor Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. Further research is required. KUPEL 556 Papua The tribe lives in several villages in Oksibil sub-district such as the village of Yapimakot, and Kabidig, in Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Some of them live in Abmisibil sub-district in the west. The population was perhaps around 3,000. They make a living from gathering natural resources found in woods and hunting wild animals. Now they mostly embrace Catholicism. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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KURUDU 557 Papua The tribe lives in Kurudu Island located between the eastern tip of Yapen Island and the northern land of Papua. Their villages are Kurudu, Kaipuri, and Poiwai, which are located in Yapen Timur and Waropen Atas sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,600. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). KUTAI (Melayu Kutai) 179 Kalimantan The people generally live in Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan Province. In fact, in old times they belonged to the Dayak group. They are allegedly from the same origin of Tunjung people. Nowadays, they are distinguished from other Dayak tribes because generally they are Muslims. They are often called Halok or Halo’ to distinguish them from the rest of Dayak tribes who are not Muslims. A long time ago, they once built a quite influential sultanate in eastern Kalimantan. The people were from the descendants of Proto the Malay race reaching East Kalimantan around 3,000 years ago. Along the course, they were influenced by other civilizations such as Hinduism brought by the Javanese migrants, and then Islam brought by Bugis migrants. The society consists of several sub-tribes they call puak. Examples of these puaks are Pantun, Punang, Pahau, Telur Dijangkit, Meranti, and so on. The population of the tribe was estimated to be around 400,000, including the people of Kutai living in other regencies in East Kalimantan, i.e., Pasir, Berau, and Bulungan Regency. The people speak Malay, which is divided more into the Dialect of Kutai Tenggarong living in Tengarog area: the dialect of Kutai Lama, Muara Kaman, Muara Pahu, Melak, Long Iram, Kutai Bangun living in Kota Bangun, Muara Muntai, Kembang Janggut, Long Beleh, Sebulu, Penyinggahan; Kutai Muara Ancalong living in Muara Ancalong, Kelinjau, Sebintulung; Kutai people live together with the tribe of Bugis, Banjar, Java, Benuaq, Bahau, Long Dusun, Kenyah, Tunjung, Punan, Bentian, Penihing, Ohong, Bukat, and Basap. In Kutai territory, there used to be the oldest Hindu kingdom in Indonesia. The historical remnants from the fourth century were proven by the existence of seven inscriptions called yupa written in Palawa letters in Muara Kaman sub-district now. Yupa is a stone monument functioning as a point to tether an animal as offering in a Hindu ritual. The language used in the inscriptions is Sanskrit. Now, the inscriptions are increasingly difficult to read and the condition is already different from when it was first found.

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The history of Kutai then appeared after Islam’s golden age, marked by the establishment of Kutai Kingdom after the sixteenth century. The sultanate government concluded in the reign of Aji Muhammad Parikesit (1920–1960). Until 1959, the area of Kutai was “a special territory”. Now the status is lowered to the status of regency. The palace of Kutai Sultan still survives in Tenggarong and now serves as Museum Negeri Kalimantan Timur (East Kalimantan Government Museum). The Sultanate of Kutai once developed Erau, a tradition of king coronation. The ceremony name was derived from the word “eroh” meaning “crowded”. This is related to the crowd during a coronation. Despite the fact that the kingdom is no longer existent, the Erau tradition is still preserved by the descendants of Kutai royalties by transferring to a cultural festival of Kutai people, as well as the festivity of Kutai anniversary as the capital of Tenggarong Regency. The people of Kutai make a living by cultivating drylands. In addition to that, some of them are fishermen catching fish in lakes, rivers, swamps, and ponds. The crops are rice, corn, cassava, sweet potato, peanut, and other vegetables. The vast jungles there produce various types of valuable tree, such as meranti, kruing, kapur, and bangkirai. Now there is also a wood processing industry. The people living in the town make a living by working in the service industry as employees and manual workers. Their lineage system is patrilineal, meaning that the lineage is drawn from the male side. In the past, they also acknowledged a social stratification system, consisting of the nobility, commoners, and slaves. The remaining Kutai nobility is identified by the titles they still preserve, such as Kiamas, Mas, Aji, Raden, Pangeran Datu. Now, the homage paid for someone in the society is no longer due to nationality but more based on educational background, government status, and wealth. In the art sector, the people created tarsulan, a lyric recited by singing. Usually, tarsulan is performed during a ceremony of wedding, circumcision, going to a cradle, and after a completion of reciting Al Qur’an. There is also betingkilan, the art of pantun contests between boys and girls recited in songs. These days, they commonly are Muslims. The remaining Hindu influence is still seen in various life cycle ceremonies, such as naik ayun (one when a baby goes to a cradle), a baby’s naming and traditional medication and so on. Sources: Coomans (1987), Depdikbud (1985). KWANDANG (Kuandang) 295 Sulawesi The people live in the northern peninsula of North Sulawesi, between the territory of Bolaang Mongondow and Toli-Toli tribe, near the territory of Gorontalo tribe. The tribe is allegedly a part of Gorontalo tribe. Further research is required.

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KWANSU (Kwansu-Bonggrang, Kuangsu-Bonggrang, Kwangsu-Bonggrang) 677 Papua The population was perhaps around 350 (1977 SIL). They live in the west of Sentani Lake, in the north of Gresi tribe’s territory. The language falls into the language sub-group of of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Nimboran-Kemtuik. Further research is required. KWERBA (Armati, Airmati, Nobuk, Tekutameso) 558 Papua The tribe lives in the upstream of Tor River, in the northeast of Apawar River in the hinterland of Sarmi. The villages are Aurime, Munukania, Kwerba, Tatswalem, and Wamrini in Sarmi Sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps around 1,500 people. The language falls into the language sub-group of Western Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Dani-Kwerba. The dialects are Serikenam, Sasawa, Nogukwabai. They are hunters and gatherers, some of them also start farming and settling down. The dominant faiths are a traditional local faith and Christianity. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). See also: ARMATI. KWESTEN 559 Papua The tribe lives around the downstream of Tor River, more specifically in the northern coast to the hinterland near Sarmi. The villages are Mefenfer, Arare, and Omte located in Sarmi sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps around 3,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984).

L LABEAU 344 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Tolaki tribe living in several places in Kendari and Kolaka Regency, in Southeast Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Kennedy (1943). See also: TOLAKI.

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LAGE 253 Sulawesi The Lage or Tolage tribe is classified by classical ethnographers into the Pamona tribe living in the area around Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province, Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1943), Kruyt (1938). See also: PAMONA. LAIWONU 254 Sulawesi The tribe is classified into one of the sub-tribes of the Pamona tribe inhabiting an area around the upstream of Kalaena River, in the south of Poso Lake, Poso Regency, in Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. LAIYOLO (Layolo, Lajolo, Da’ang) 292 Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 1,050 people or more (1988 SIL). They live in Laiyolo and Barang-Barang Village in the southern tip of Selayar Island, South Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Muna-Button. The dialects are corn, cassava, and coconut. They are Muslims, and some are Christians. Further research is required. LAKALEI 452 Nusa Tenggara The tribe inhabits several villages in the southern part of Manufahi Regency, more specifically in the southern coast of Timor Timur Province (now Timor Leste). The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Tetun. The population was around 300 people. Further research is required. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1989).

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LALAEO 255 Sulawesi The tribe is one part of the Pamona tribe. They live near the “neck” of northern peninsula of Central Sulawesi, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1943) Kruyt (1938). See also: PAMONA. LAMAHOLOT (Lamholot, Solor, Larantuka) 418 Nusa Tenggara Another name of the tribe is Lamkolot tribe. Some call them the people of Lamholot, Solor, or Larantuka. The population was around 100,000 (1975). They live in Flores Timur Regency, in Solor, Adonara, and Lembata Island. According to the 1982 census, the population was 260,651. The language is divided into three groups of dialect, i.e., the dialect of Lamaholot Barat (West Lamaholot), Lamaholot Tengah (Central Lamaholot), and Lamaholot Timur (East Lamaholot). The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia (Malay in general), the language sub-group of Malay-southern central Polynesia, and the language group of Flores-Lembata. Their common occupations are cultivating land, catching fish, and taking care of cattle. The Flores Timur Regency is a mountainous region. Some of the mountains are volcanoes, such as Mount Lewatobi, Gung Ile Boleng, and Ile Ape. Their nuclear family is called langeuma which usually joins a limited extended family called manuk one. The kinship group forms a clan more known as nue newa wungu. The people adopt a patrilineal kinship principle, especially in terms of religious life and inheritance of heirlooms. The villages conglomerate and form a rectangular pattern. The front part of a village faces east and the rear part lies in the west. The dominant kinship groups (clans) have generally held traditional leadership positions for many years. Significant clans are considered landlords such as Kabelen, Koten, Kelen, Hurint, and Marant. These leaders are considered descendants of a higher level than the rest. The high level social layer is called Ata Kabelen or Ata Raja Tuang. Commoners are called ata ribu (laymen) and the slave group is called aziana.

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Many of them have already adopted Christianity-Catholicism (90%), Protestantism, and Islam. However, there are still many of them who practice the old faith. The native faith involves worship of deities and ancestral spirits. The highest god is called Lera Wulan Tana Ekan. The god in charge of creation can only be contacted by means of the assistance of ancestral spirits peacefully taking a rest in another realm. The native religious ceremony is performed at a megalithic site called bnuba era and korke, a type of dolmen. In a korke, there is a wooden pole called rie lima wana (the right-hand pole), which is a worship symbol of Lera Wulan Tana Ekan. Animals to be sacrificed are bound to the pole right before they are slaughtered. The blood is always smeared onto the pole. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1972), Kaudern (t.t.), Hidayat (1984). LAMBOYA 465 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around 15,000 (1981). They live in the southwestern coast of Sumba Island, the southwest of Waikabubak town. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language subgroup of Bima-Sumba. The dialects are perhaps Lamboya and Nggaura. Further research is required. LAMMA (Lemma) 466 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around “10,000 people” by tribe. They inhabit the southwest of Pantar Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur. The language is categorized into the language family of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Makasai-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Kalondama, Tubal, and Biangwala. Further research is required.

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LAMPU (Tolampu) 256 Sulawesi This tribe is categorized as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe living in the area near the upstream of Kalaena River, in the south of Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. LAMPUNG (Lampong) 092 Sumatra Lampung people in the discussion refers to the native people inhabiting Lampung province long before transmigrants and other migrants set foot on the land. The current population is much lower than the population of transmigrants and other migrants. Despite that, they are evenly spread in all areas. In 1974, the population of Lampung Province was around 3.1 million and it is estimated that the tribe is now only around 800,000 people. Some of them also inhabit Bengkulu and the southern part of South Sumatra Province. On the contrary, there are also some tribes from Bengkulu and South Sumatra living in Lampung Province, such as Semendo, Ogan, and Pasemah tribe. Considering that the population of transmigrants from Java Island is increasing, the influence of Javanese culture these days is also increasing among the interactions of tribes in Lampung. According to the oral tradition, the tribe is considered to be from Skala Brak, a place in Belalau sub-district, West Lampung Regency. The name “lampung” itself is told to be derived from a folklore titled “Si Lampung Ratu Bulan”. In Chinese Chronicles in the seventeenth century, Lampung was known as to’lang-p’o-whang, a respected kingdom in the southern part of Sumatra. The prehistoric relics prove that in Lampung once Hindu and Buddhist culture thrived. There was allegedly a megalithic culture older that that and native to the land. This is because in the region, numerous inscriptions dating back from the Sriwijaya era, Buddhist statues, various Chinese ceramics made during Han Dynasty (200–220 AD), Tang Dynasty (607–908 AD), and Ming Dynasty (1368– 1643 AD) were discovered. Megalithic tradition different from the culture of Hindu–Buddhist material was also found here. From megalithic sites here, many menhirs, dolmens, leveled shrines, and sacred worship stones were unearthed. Islamic teachings came into the region approximately in the fifteenth century, when it was under the reign of Sunda Kelapa Kingdom. Afterward, it continued during the reign of Banten Sultanate. The area of concentration is Pugung, which later developed into Keratuan Pugung area.

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The Lampung people in the sociocultural life have developed their own rules deciding the roles of custom groups. The largest customary groups with the highest influence in their traditional social life are Adat Pepadun and Adat Peminggir or Pubiyan. Other groups that are quite considerable are Adat Semende (Semendo), Adat Ranau, Adat Belalau, Adat Pegagan, and Adat Ogan. The Adat Pepadun group usually inhabits the eastern and central part of Lampung, characterized by a quite complex royalty custom system called Kepunyimbangan. Peminggir Custom Group usually inhabits an area from the western part to the coast, characterized by its two-layered social stratification system called Sebatin or Seibatin. Lampung Pepadun sub-tribe is divided more into four sub-groups, Abung Siwo Megou (Abung Sembilan Marga), Megou Pak Tulang Bawang, Buay Limam and Pubian Telu Suku (Pubian Tiga Suku). Each group is divided more into a number of large clans living in a certain area, called buay or kebuwayan. Abung Siwa Megou is divided more into Buay Unyai in Kotabumi sub-district, Buay Unyi in Gunung Sugih sub-district, Buay Nuban in Sukadana sub-district, Buay Subing and Buay Beliuk (both in Terbanggi Besar sub-district), Buay Kunang and Buay Selagi (both in Abung Barat sub-district), and Buay Nyerupa in Gunung Sugih sub-district. Megou Pak Tulang Bawang group is divided more into four buays, Buay Bolan (in Menggala sub-district), Buay Umpu, Buay Tegamoan, and Buay Ali, three of which are in Tulang bawang Tengah sub-district. Buay Lime group is divided more into five buays, Buay Pemuka in Pakuaon Ratu sub-district, Buay Bahuga in Bumi Agung sub-district, Buay Semenguk in Belambangan Umpu sub-district, Buay Baradatu in Baradatu sub-district and Buay Barasakti in Barasakti sub-district. Pubian Telu Suku group is divided more intol three buays, Buay Manyarakat in Gedongtataan, Pagelaran, Kedaton Tanjungkarang sub-district; Buay Tamba Pupus in Pagelaran and Gedongtataan sub-district; Buay Buku Jadi in Natar sub-district. Lampung Peminggir sub-tribe is divided more into five groups, i.e., Peminggir Melinting Rajabasa in Labuhan Meringgai, and around Rajabasa Kalianda; Peminggir Teluk in Telukbetung; Peminggir Skala Brak in Liwa, Kenali, and Pesisir Tengah, Pesisir Utara and Pesisir Selatan; Peminggir Semangka in Cukuh Balak, Talang Padang, Kota Agung, and Wonosobo; Komering in Ranau, Komering and Kayu Agung (South Sumatra). According to Dutch ethnolinguist, van der Tuuk, the language is divided more into the dialect of Abung spoken by people adopting Pepadun custom and the dialect of Pubiyan spoken by people adopting Peminggir custom. Van Royen classifies the language of Lampung into two dialects: Nya and Api. Currently, Lampungnese can be divided more into several dialects based on each dialect’s characteristics, among others: Sungkai and Way Kanan dialect, Krui dialect, Belalau dialect, Pubian dialect, Komering dialect, Kayu Agung dialect, Abung dialect, Tulang Bawang dialect, and Pesisir (Peminggir) dialect.

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According to Indonesian linguists, Lampungnese called behasou Lampung or umung Lampung or cewo Lampung, which can be divided more into two dialects, the dialect of Lampung Belalau and Lampung Abung; each of which is distinguished by the pronunciation of a and o. Lampung Belalau dialect (a dialect) is still divided more into several sub-dialects, i.e., Jelma Doya (Sungkai), Pemanggilan Peminggir, Melinting Peminggir, and Pubian. Lampung Abung dialect (o dialect) is divided into two sub-dialects, Abung and Tulang Bawang. Lampung tribe has also its own alphabets, called surat Lampung or huruf Lampung. The alphabets are derived from Sanskrit of Dewa Nagari ones. Lampungnese has no levels of usage like Javanese. It is like Dutch, in the way that a different level of usage only requires changes of pronouns. There are pronouns to use whenever talking with older ones, peers, and younger ones. Different levels of usage are also marked by pitch in determining a direction of conversation. Lampungnese is a part of the language family of Malay. Because of the dialect difference, those speaking Indonesian find it difficult understanding it. Lampungnese also has ancient alphabets derived from ones belonging to Rejang, Serawai, and other related tribes possibly developing from Dewa Nagari alphabets from India. The first occupations of Lampung tribe were rotational farmers, meaning they cleared up a patch of land and burnt it down for cultivation and once it went unfertile, they left it for a more fertile part of land. They also gathered natural resources in woods. Thanks to the other peoples’ influence, they also started to develop an irrigation farming system in fields, breeding “wild” buffaloes, cows, goats and so on. In the eighteenth century, they began growing perennial trees such as coffee, rubber, clove, and spices such as pepper and nutmeg. Some of them also still hunt wild animals and collect natural resources in woods. To manage pepper, coffee, clove, and other plantations, they pay transmigrant workers. A small number

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of them begin to work as private employees and government civil servants in bigger cities. The settlements of the tribe are usually built along the main roads. They call their villages tiyuh, anek or pekon. Before the 1950s, those villages were under a marga. In the former times, several margas joined into one onderdistrik now called sub-district. Each tiyuh is divided more into several parts called bilik, a residence of buay or buway (patrilineal clans). Every bilik has a large clan house called nuwou balak or nuwou menyanak (relatives’ houses) or lamban gedung. The house becomes an orientation center of every kinship tie both the direct relationships and mewari (foster siblings), as it is always occupied by the eldest relatives inheriting familial leadership power (primogenitor). The Lampung culture has a patrilineal clan system in the form of small clans (suku) and large clans (kebuayan or buay-asal). The grouping of buay is based on familial ties or customary ties (mewari) and members usually have bonds with their home of origin (nuwou tuhou or nuwou balak tuhou). In Lampung Pepadun people, a tribal unity is an association of a number of nuclear or extended families (cangki), who still know each other and learn that they share the same ancestor. Small clan members are led by a penyimbang suku. A band of several small clans is a group of large clan (kebuayan) relatives whose members are becoming numerous, making it difficult to know each other. Among the Lampung Saibatin people, kinship grouping in a certain village (pekon) forms a small clan called sebatin. A sebatin group is formed based on marriage or descendant. Hence, in each pekon there is usually at least one sebatin group. Nuclear families’ houses are usually built around nuwou balak. In a group with Pepadun custom, every bilik or kelompok menyanak is led by a punyimbang suku. Every tiyuh (village) is led by a punyimbang bumi. Every marga is led by punyimbang marga. Every leadership forms its own councils. Every village has also its own communal agricultural fields they call ubul. In Peminggir group, every village is led by a batin (bandar). In addition to that, in every village there is always a mosque and an assembly hall they call sesat. In Lampung, they call a nuclear family segayoh or gayohsai (one pot) usually living together in a patrilineal nuclear family called senunow, meyanak, or sangalamban (meaning under the same roof). The people of Lampung adopt the matrilocal custom of post-wedding settlement. Because of this, a male having several wives and one of them is a member of nobility then he would stay in this wife’s residence. In the people with Pepadun custom, the eldest son is appointed the family leader, especially to the group of Punyimbang (nobility). For the people of Lampung, extended families are called sejurai or menyanak warei whose members include relatives based on blood ties (consanguinal) and marital ties (affinal). The nuclear group of an extended family is called adik warei. Usually the members are several male siblings from one father and their respective families. They live in a house called nuwou balak in the upper level. In such extended families, we can also draw a familial line to the former five generations. The lineage is a patrilineal clan they call buway asal.

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Despite the fact that the tribe has no rigid social stratification system, such as royalty and slaves, they have a social stratification system in a separate kinship by an inherited custom of conventions. These social stratifications are as follows: Firstly, the group of tuha raja (tuhou rajou) consisting of leaders of kepunyimbangan (clan leaders who are of the nobility), the group of sebatin (clan custom leaders), kebuwayan prominent leaders, marga leaders, tiyuh leaders, and so on. The nobility group is also called prowatin or perwatin. Secondly, the group of bebai mirul, that is the group of punyimbang’s wives. Meanwhile, those who are not the wives of punyimbangs are called mirul. The third is the group of adik warei, male younger siblings of punyimbang of a clan or buway. The fourth is the group of apak kemaman, the group of fathers and uncles of a punyimbang’s patrilineal line. The fifth is the group of lebuw kelambaw, the group of father’s mother’s male siblings (lebuw) and mother’s male siblings (kelambaw). The sixth is the group of mulei meghanai, the group of bujang (bachelors) and girls as a separate power of the tribe. Nowadays, they are Muslims. Prior to this, they were once influenced by Buddhist and Hindu culture. To date, they still practice the old faith called Adat Zaman Tumi. The animist faith involves worshipping of ancestral and natural spirits which may affect the life of humans. Such unseen creatures are called sailekom (dark ones), saihalus (soft ones), and sekedi (fairies). Spiritual creatures and certain spirits can enter one’s body, making them possessed. Sometimes they spark discord or illness among the people, sometimes they also help people. They feel they need to perform certain ceremonies to deal with these spiritual creatures. For this reason, they hold Bersih Desa, the earth fertility ceremony to respect the goddess of rice (Dewi Sri) and so on. Some deities to worship and respect are the God of Universe Creator (Sang Hiang Sakti), the Goddess of Beauty (Muli Putri or Bidadari), the God of Rice Creator and Preserver (Selang Sri). They also believe in spiritual creatures and antique objects with all the power. Regarding the belief, they perform various customary ceremonies with a multitude of offerings as a complement. They are known as traditional ikat textile (tapis) makers with beautiful decorative motifs. Other artistic forms show the influence of Hinduism and Islam. Also, they develop interesting local arts, such as traditional musical instruments called seghunai (a wooden flute), serdam (a wooden flute), sakhah (a flute made of buffalo horn), kerenceng (a type of small tambourine), berdah (a big tambourine), tala khakhumung or tala lunik or tala balak (a type of gamelan), losung patan (a musical instrument made of alau and lesung), gindang, and ketipung (a type of gendang). The traditional dances are sambai, serujung, bayin, ikhau, cangget pilangan, cangget meghanai, sidang belawan, sahui, and so on. The oral literature takes many forms such as bubandung, ngadio, warahan, and pisahan. The influence of Islam seems apparent in the zikir art and pantun exchanges (adi-adi lombang). Other vocal arts known in the tribe are muayak or ngantau from the region of Krui, pisaan and bebadung from Abung and Pubian. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1980/1981), Asmanedi (1988).

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LAMPUNG (Tolampung) 325 Sulawesi The tribe of Lampung or Tolampung is considered exiled culturally speaking. They inhabit several villages in Masamba, Luwu Regency. Some others live in Majene Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 700 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). LAMUSA 257 Sulawesi The tribe is classified by classical ethnographers into a part of the Pamona tribe living in the region around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kruyt (1938), Kennedy (1943). See also: PAMONA. LANGKAT (Melayu Langkat, Melayu Deli) 014 Sumatra The tribe lives along the eastern coast of Sumatra island, from Langkat in the north to Labuhan Batu in the south, from the coastal area to hilly region near the foothills of Bukit Barisan Mountains. They live in Medan, Binjai, Tebingtinggi, and Tanjang Balai Municipality. Some others live in Deli Serdang, Langkat, Asahan, and Labuhan Batu Regency, in North Sumatra Province. To distinguish themselves from other Malay tribes, they prefer calling themselves Melayu Deli or Melayu Langkat tribe. The population is hard to calculate, but they are estimated to be about more than 1.5 million. In these regions, their settlements are mixed with other tribes, such as Toba, Karo, Simalungun, Mandailing, Nias, Minangkabau, Aceh, Java, and so on. Most Malay people in the region of Langkat Hulu believe that their ancestor was from Tanah karo. Because of a long-time assimilation process, they began leaving the marga (clan) name and adopt Islam so they were accepted as Malay. The language is Malay, as it is spoken by most of the people throughout the eastern coast of Sumatra and the Malaysia Peninsula. In the former times, they once founded several kingdoms such as Langkat, Aru, Deli Tua, and Deli Baru, the last kingdom to survive but finally disappeared half a century ago. Melayu Langkat people speak Malay, Langkat dialect characterized by the final vowel /e/ in every word. In addition to that, the pitch in how they speak also shows a distinct feature of Malay spoken by people in the south, emphasizing more on the /a/ vowel. However, now the distinct dialect is less spoken and only the elderly speak it.

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After more large plantations were opened, most of the Malay people work as plantation workers, or process their own perennial trees with simple methods. Such industrial plantations produce crops for export, such as tobacco, coffee, rubber, clove, and palm oil. Only a small number of them still prefer growing rice in fields besides tobacco. In the Malay tribe, a nuclear family prefers to build its own household. In spite of the fact that newlywed generally live in the wife’s family home they leave as soon as the first child is born. A new house for a new family is usually built in the husbands’ family neighborhood. Perhaps because of this reason, there is an assumption that they are patrilineal. Only the Malay people living in Batubara region tend to apply a matrilineal lineage principle, perhaps because of the strong influence of Minangkabau in the old times. Villages in this region were known as lorong consisting of several dusuns located in clusters. Every dusun is led by a Head of Lorong (Kepala Lorong). In the Sultanate of Langkat, the people adopt a social stratification distinguishing the nobility and commoners’ descendants. The nobility are the descendants of kings known by certain titles, such as Tengku, Sultan and Datuk. The religion they embrace is Islam. However, pre-Islam religions are also still practiced by them. The pre-Islam religions are animism, dynamism, and Hinduism. Animism states that every thing in the universe has a similar spirit or soul. In addition to having souls, humans also have spirits. The deceased souls, spirits, can affect the life of living humans. Because of this, they must be worshipped so that they will not disturb us. In addition to the lingering spirits of the deceased, in this universe there are spiritual creatures such as gods and goddesses, ghosts, genies, and so on. In the dynamism faith they believe that in addition to humans, certain objects also have spirit, such as large trees, big stones, and perennial plants beneficial for humans, such as coconut and enau trees. Their faiths are influenced by Hinduism, which believe in the existence of the Highest God they call Dang Empu Hiang or Batara Guru. The remnants of old social stratification still exist in the tribe. For instance, there is still a group of nobility from the descendants of former sultans. They are usually called Tengku. Afterward, former sultanate officials and their descendants are usually called Datuk. Meanwhile, the descendants of tengku and datuk with the commoners are mostly called with the title of Wan. Source: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o). LARA’ (Luru, Dayak Lara’, Dayak Luru’) 173 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 1,200 (1981). They live in the upstream of Lundu and Sambas River, around the Bengkayang region in the east of Pendering Mount. Some others live in Sarawak, Malaysia. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Dayak Darat. They practice traditional faiths. Further research is required.

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LARANTUKA 419 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in several villages in the eastern most part of Flores Island. The territory is located in Flores Timur Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969). LASALIMU 293 Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 2,000 people (1979). They lived in the southeast on Buton Island, in Lasalimu Island, Buton Regency, Sulawesi Tenggara Province. The language fallas inti belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language sub-group of Muna-Buton. They are Muslims. Further research is required. LAUJE (Laudje, Tinombo, Ampibabo) 294 Sulawesi The population was around 4,500 (1991). They live around Tomini Bay, along the meanders of Sidoan River, in Dampelas Sojol, Dondo, Tinombo, Tomini, and Ampibobo Sub-district. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Tomini. They are Muslims, Christians, and some embrace traditional faiths. Further research is required. LAUT (Orang Laut, Anak Laut, Kuala, Mantang, Mapur, Kajang, Tambus, Barok, Orang Sampan, Anak Sampan) 023 Sumatra The tribe lives in several islands in Riau Islands, such as in the eastern part of Lingga, Bintan Timur, Bintan Utara, Galang, Kundur, Senayang, and Sindutan sub-district. All of the islands are located in Riau Kepulauan Regency. Some others live around coasts of islands near Batam Regency, such as Batam Timur, Batam Barat, and Belakang Padang sub-district. Based on an anthropology study of Lioba Lienhart (1988–1989), the population in Kepulauan Riau Regency was recorded to be 1,875 people or around 500 heads of household. Malay people around the coast often call them Kuala tribe (estuary), because they live in estuaries. They are called Sampan people as they live at sea with their boats because they themselves have several names of tribe. Laut People live around Batam, Bintan, Mantang, and Kelong Island call themselves Mantang tribe.

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Laut Tribe in the waters of Mapur, Kelong, and Toi Island, call themselves Mapur tribe (it seems different from the tribe of Mapur living in Bangka Island, Sumatra Selatan). Laut People living in Pancur and Lingga Island call themselves Barok tribe. There is also a mysterious nickname given by outsiders: Tambus tribe. It is said to be mysterious because such a nickname is rejected by Lau tribe. Some also call them Orang Sampan or Orang Kajang (because their boats use kajang roofs). In the Dutch Colonial Era, the tribe was known for a part of the sailor groups attacking Dutch trade ships sailing through the east of Sumatra Island, Malaka Strait, Karimata Strait, and South China Sea. Old sources cited that at the time, there were seafaring ethnic groups that often robbed Dutch ships. They were Bajau, Raya, and Lanun people. Raya tribe is now known as Orang Laut or Anak Laut. Other groups called Lanun were allegedly Illanon tribes from the southern Mindanao Island in the Philippines. They are nomadic. They prefer to move from one island to another with boats according to change of season in seas. Their typical boat size is 5  1.5 m, with kajang (a type of pandanus leaves) roof for its hut. A wooden boat they call pompong is only moved by two long roves. Some also live temporarily in a modest small house by the coast of remote islands. Because they spend more time in sea, outsiders call them Orang Laut (sea people) or Orang Sampan. However, experts assumed that they , in fact, also have certain places on land they use as their orientation center. They are to be back regularly in a certain period, especially when the Southern Wind season comes along, during which they cannot sail as their tools are much too simple and tiny. Places assumed to be the point of assembly are Padi and Boyan Island in the waters of Batam Island, and Lipan Island next to Lingga Island. In the temporary settlement, they built buildings they call sapao, i.e., a hut of very modest shape and materials. In such a settlement, they perform all social events, such as reintegration and socialization, religious ceremonies, wedding ceremonies, art development, handicraft making, and various tools for their survival at sea. In the New Order era, some of the Laut people were set to stay permanently by Dinas Sosial (Social Bureau) of Riau Province. Some of the places they settled were Penuba Village in Lipan Island, Lingga sub-district. In this settlement, there are 80 semi-permanent houses built for 80 families or around 200 people. The size of such a simple house is 5  8 m, with earth floor, wooden wall, and metal roof. Some of the inhabitants added a kitchen (2  3 m) near each house. The kitchen generally was completed with a simple wall made of metal (zinc), second triplex or board; its roof is made of sago palm leaves or second zinc. Every nuclear family has its own boat, which is not only used for catching fish but also a means of transportation around the waters. The language is mostly still the part of Malay but with its own dialect so that they are considered a tribe with a different language. Leaders of each settlement cluster in the former times were called batin, but nowadays they are commonly called ketua. A ketua is usually appointed by the eldest group in each cluster. The reason is that the elderly have wisdom and

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knowledge and experience on natural phenomena, customs, and religion. Meanwhile, leaders of seafaring groups are called penghulu laut. They generally are Muslims but now some are also Protestants, especially after a GPIB church was founded in Boyan Island. Commonly they make a living by catching fish and gathering other natural sea resources such as jellyfish, seaweed, sea cucumber, gamat, sea slugs, and barnacles. In the season of Southern Wind, they do not go to the sea but only catch fish at the beach. During the “recess” period, they go to sand dunes around the settlements to catch sea snakes using a very simple method. If a hole is found on a shelf, they thrust a 50-cm-long rattan stick into it to find out if there is a sea snake in it. If there is a sign that a sea snake is in it, they dig down the earth around the hole with hands and any tools they have in hand to dig. A snake in sight would be directly captured by hands at the neck and tail. After that, they draw the neck and tail to opposite directions to paralyze it. Then the thumb-sized snake is dried under the sun. They bind the dead dried sea snakes and then sell them. Each sale consists of 100 snakes (Galba 2000). A kinship system is inclined to be bilateral and their lineage is ambilineal but their households are usually formed from neolocal nuclear families. In finding spouses, they apply an exogamous clan concept. New spouses tend to stay near a wife’s family neighborhood but then after they are more independent, they are free to join other groups. Despite the fact that people choose spouses from their own tribe, there are also cases when Laut women are married to Chinese-descendent men. Although they are geographically surrounded by Malay people, marriages with Malay are very rare. This is maybe because Chinese single men are more acceptable to them as they have less barriers compared to Malay men. By religion, they also can accept the Laut belief like their own original culture. Chinese people themselves basically look down on those who are married to local tribes. Chinese men marrying Sampan females and their descendants are called pua cai nang (half-sampan people) by other Chinese people. Tools they use to catch fish are considered simple, namely nets, fishing line, and various types and sizes of hook, and serampang. The last mentioned is a type of harpoon-like spear, often called tempuling or ibul. An iron hook is tied to a nylon rope and then stuck to the tip of 1.5–2-m-long spear. Once the hook hits a large fish, the tool would fall off the shaft and be stuck in a fish’s body. Afterward, such a large fish can never escape again because it is hooked in the nylon rope held by a hunter. Other tools are light (torch), a pair of glasses to dive made of wooden frames and glass made by themselves. There are two types of boat that Laut or Sampan people use. The large is jongkong, and the small one is kolek. A jongkong is as long as 8–12 m, and as wide as 2–2.5 m. Meanwhile, a kolek is as long as 2–4 m and as wide as 0.5–0.8 m. A jongkong boat is used to make a long voyage into the sea, while a kolek boat is used to explore shallow waters around bays and beaches. Types of wood used for materials of both boats is generally resak, kamper, and meranti wood. These boats are made by getting rid of the inner parts of log with a pickaxe. Afterward, it

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proceeds to form the bow, stern, and hull. A jongkong boat is divided into two floors. The lowest part is for storing stock and freshwater, and the upper floor is for the living room protected with kajang, a type of roof made of nipah leaves. A stove they cook with is put at the stern. A jongkong boat is generally moved with a rove and wind power caught by a sail or kajang. A kolek boat is moved with rows in standing position. However, nowadays there are many of them using a motor machine to push forward. Dances of Laut people are generally performed in their religious ceremonies, such as the dance of Dolong and Merawang. Both dances are played joyfully but behind that there is a gratitude aimed at the God of Sea having protected them. Sources: Lienhart (1990), Shindu Galba (2001) “Kearifan Traditional Orang Laut”; Sudirman Sembiring (1993) “Orang Laut di Wilayah Kepulauan Riau-Lingga”; in the Exiled Tribes in Indonesia, Jakarta. LAWANGAN (Dayak Lawangan, Dayak Luwangan, Dayak Barito Utara) 206 Kalimantan The tribe lives in the mountainous areas between Barito Riverto to the west of Kapuas River. The region is in Hulu Sungai Utara, Hulu Sungai Selatan, and Tapin Regency, in Kalimantan Tengah Province. In Kalimantan Tengah Province, they live in Barito Selatan, Barito Utara and Barito Timur Regency. The sub-districts where they live are Dusun Tengah, Pematang Karau, GunungPure, Gunug Timang, Teweh Timur and Teweh Tengah. The other name is Luangan. The population was perhaps around 100,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Maanyan. The dialects are Tabuyan (Taboyan), Ajuh, Bakoi (Lampung), Bantian (Bentian), Banuwang, Bawu, Kali, Karau (Beloh), Lawa, Lolang, Mantararen, Njumit, Purai, Purung, Tuwang, Pasir, Benua. Lawangan tribe is maybe of a similar group with Ngaju tribe. The tribe is divided more into around 20 small tribes such as Karau, Singa Rasi, Paku, Ayus, Bawu, Tabuyan Mantararan, Malang, Tabuyan Teweh, Mangku Anam, Nyumit, Bantian, Purui, Tudung, Bukit, Leo Arak, Mungku, Benuwa, Bayan, Lemper, Tungku, and Pauk. They generally make a living by rotational farming. Traditional farming is also accompanied by a tradition reflecting environmental wisdom in which crops are divided into four portions. The first portion is for a farmer and his family members, the second is for rituals/ ceremonies, the third is for wild animals in jungles (which is why this portion does not have to be harvested), and the fourth is to be let fallen onto the ground. In addition to that, they also gather natural resources in jungles, such as honey, wax, resin, rattan, jelutung sap, rubber sap, woods, and making boats. This relatively nomadic, mobile tribe cultivates land and they were from the upstream of Mahakam River in East Kalimantan. Their first settlement is called bantai, and then after it became more permanent and crowded, they called it

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pedukuhan. Some pedukuhans join together as a village. Their kinship is inclined to be matrilineal, maybe because of the influence of matrilocal system (a husband lives with his wife’s parents). They also apply the custom of mat changing (sosorat), meaning that if a wife passes away, her husband should marry the sister in-law. The custom aims to retain the ownership of assets to the female side. The folk religion involves the belief of reincarnation of the dead spirits. The worship is oriented to spirits and deities considered to reside in a mountain they call Mount Lemeut. Back then, the original religious system was associated with a beheading custom. The original religious remnants are still apparent in the mesianic movement they call nyuli. Source: Depdikbud (1989), King (1993). LEBONG (Dayak Lebong) 126 Kalimantan The tribe lives in several villages in Ketungau Hulu sub-district, Sintang Regency, Kalimantan Barat Province. The population was around 5,000. Source: Depdikbud (1989). LEGENYEM (Laganyan) 678 Papua The population was estimated to be around 300 (1993). They live in several villages in the south of Waigeo Island, Raja Ampat Islands, West Irian Jaya, namely in Beo, Lempintol, and Wawiai Village. The language falls into the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Raja Ampat. Further research is required. LEMATANG 072 Sumatra The people of Lematang in general work as farmers and fishermen and they live around Lematang River, from Lahat Town in Lahay Regency, to Muara Enim in Lematang Ilir Ogan Tengah Regency, South Sumatra Province. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay, Sumatra Selatan. The population was around 150,000 (1989). They are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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LEMBAK (Linggau) 054 Sumatra The tribe lives in Talang Empat sub-district, North Bengkulu Regency, in Padang Ulak Tanding sub-district, Rejang Lebong Regency, in Curup sub-district, Bengkulu Tengah Regency and in Gading Cempaka sub-district, Bengkulu Municipality. The population was around more than 100,000 (1980). The word “lembak” has several meanings. Some interpret it as “valley”; some “lebak” (land along meander); and some “belakang” (rear). The people themselves live in the hinterland of Bengkulu Province, in Bukit Barisan Mountains as the borderline with Sumatra Selatan Province, from which Musi River exists along with its creeks springs. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay. The dialects are Lembak Bliti and Lembak Sindang. They are Muslims. They call their language Bulang, which is under the Malay language subgroup. The prominent characteristic of Bulang is the use of vowel /e/ to replace vowel /a/ at the end of a word. For example, “apa” is pronounced “ape”, “ke mana” “ke mane”, “siapa” “siape”, and so forth. Back then, they wrote with the alphabets of Rejang and Serawai tribe. The alphabets are called surat ulu. The main occupations are growing rice, vegetables, and fruits in fields. Fertile land is perfect for coffee, clove, and pepper plantation. Some others work as traders, carpenters, and so on. Generally farming is still performed together based on seasons. The settlement pattern shows conglomeration both on the right and left side of main roads or rivers. Such a settlement is called dusun. Their houses are built on tall poles and yards are fenceless. Space under a house is used to store firewood. Every dusun is led by a depati. Several dusuns are grouped into a marga led by a pesirah. In executing its duties, pesirah is assisted by two or three pemangku, an official in charge of several dusuns joining in a kepemangkuan. Every pemangku is assisted by a penggawa. A clerical leadership is quite respected in the society. The form of kinship in the tribe back then was a bilateral extended family but a neolocal residence. A virilocal residence also applies due to a customary agreement called bejojoh, in which a wife is considered to be bought by her husband’s family. The uxorilocal residence is also found due to kesemendoan tradition, in which a husband called semendo lives in his wife’s family home. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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LEMBO 258 Sulawesi They are classified as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe living in several places around the upstream of Kalaena River, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. LEMOLANG (Baebunta) 295 Sulawesi The population was estimated to be around 2,000 (1995 SIL). They live in two villages (Sassa and Salassa) in the hinterland of Luwuk Regency, South Sulawesi. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Luwu-Bungku. They are Muslims. Further research is required. LEPO BAKUNG (Kenyah Bakung) 180 Kalimantan Lepo Bakung is one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah tribe. They inhabit Long Payau, Long Metulang, Leng Dumo, Tebuan, and Lebusan village. All of them are in Kayan Hulu sub-district, Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan Province. Some live in Long Metun Village and Ana River in Kayan Hilir sub-district. The population was around 2,000. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH. LEPO JALAN (Kenyah Jalan) 181 Kalimantan Lepo Jalan is also one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah tribe living in several villages in Kayan Hulu sub-district, Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan Province. Their village is Long Ampung, with the approximately 100 strong population. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH.

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LEPO MANT (Kenyah Mant) 182 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah living in several sub-districts in Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan Province. Further research is required. Source: Coomans (1987). See also: KENYAH. LEPO TAU (Kenyah Tau) 183 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah living in several villages in Bulungan and Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan Province. The villages they live in are Long Nawang, Nawang Baru, Long Temunyat, Long Uro, and Long Lidung. All of them are in Kayan Hulu sub-district. The population was around 3,000. Further research is required. Sources: Coomans (1987), Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH. LEPO TEPU (Kenyah Tepu) 184 Kalimantan Lepo Tepu is one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah tribe. They live in Long Kemiliu, Long Sugau, and Long Kelawit Village, in Kayan Hilir sub-district, Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan Province. The population was around 1,500. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH. LEPO TUKUNG (Kenyah Tukung) 185 Kalimantan Lepo Tukung is one of the sub-tribes of Kenyah tribe. They live in Lulau Adau and Sungai Barang Village, in Kayan Hulu sub-district, Bulungan Regency, East Kalimantan Province. The population was estimated to be around 1,500. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: KENYAH.

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LI’O (Lio, Aku, Tanah Kunu) 420 Nusa Tenggara The population was estimated to be around 130,000 (1981). They live in the hinterland of Flores Island, in the west of Sikka, around Paga and Dondo. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-Polynesia, the language group of Ende-Lio. They are Christians. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969). LIABUKU 295 Sulawesi The population was estimated to be around 500–1,500 people (1991 SIL). They live in a village in Bungi and Kapontori sub-district, Buton Regency, Southeast Sulawesi. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Muna-Buton. They are Muslims. Further research is required. LINDU (Linduan, Tado) 259 Sulawesi The tribe is a part of Kaili tribal group. Formerly, they migrated from Sigi. The population was estimated to be around 2,000 (1990 SIL). They inhabit Anca, Tomado, and Langko Village near Lindu Lake, Kulawi sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of kaili-Pamona. They are Christians. Further research is required. Source: Mattulada (1989). See also: KAILI, SIGI. LINTANG 073 Sumatra The tribe lives in several villages in Muara Pinang and Pendopo sub-district, Lahat Regency, South Sumatra Province. The main occupation is farming. The population was estimated to be around 70,000 (1989). The language is called the language of Lintang. They are generally Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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LOLODA (Laloda) 380 Maluku The people of Loloda or Laloda live in the southwestern coast of the northern land of Halmahera Island, in Laloda sub-district, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, with two types of dialect: North Loloda and South Loloda. They make a living from cultivating fields and growing rice as the staple food, as well as yam. Nuts, vegetables, and perennial trees such as cloves, nutmeg, coconut, coffee, and so on. They also catch fish in sea. The lineage is patrilineal. They are generally Muslims and the population recently was estimated to be around 14,000. Source: Depdikbud (1989). LOM (Belom, Mapor, Mapur) 021b Sumatra The population was estimated to be around 200 people. They live in the northeast of Bangka Island, Belinyu Sub-district, North Bangka Regency. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Lom. Further research is required. LOMBLEN 421 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in Lomblen Island, in Flores Timur Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1989). LONCONG (Orang Laut) 020a Sumatra They live around the estuary of Kampar and Inderagiri River, the coasts of islands in Bangka Belitung waters. Perhaps the tribe is a part of Laut tribe in Batam. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of local Malay. Further research is required.

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LONGKEA 260 Sulawesi The tribe is classified by classical ethnographers as a part of Pamona tribe living in the area around Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Kruyt (1938), Kennedy (1943). See also: PAMONA. LORE (Napu, Bada) 261 Sulawesi In the old literature, the people of Lore are clustered into the large group of Toraja Timur (East Toraja) people. The people of Lore are often called Napu or Bada people. They live in two sub-districts in Poso Regency, Lore, and South Lore sub-district, in Central Sulawesi Province. The population was around 13,000. The language is differentiated into two dialects. The dialect of Napu or Twaelia is now spoken in North Lore sub-district. The dialect of Bada is now spoken in South Lore sub-district.

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Some of Lore people still live by cultivating fields with rotational farming method. Their staple crops are rice, corn, and others. They also grow coffee, clove, and coconut. The side occupations are gathering natural resources in jungles (ebony, resin and rattan) and hunting wild animals. Some others already start animal husbandry with buffaloes and pigs bred as animals to sacrifice at religious ceremonies. Settling down has enabled them to develop fishery businesses at sea and fresh water ponds. They are known as blacksmiths, saber and hoe makers, and so on. The kinship system is bilateral. In the former times, they were under the governance of some small kingdoms so there was a rigid social stratification. Nowadays, the influence is still slightly apparent. The highest layer is tuana, namely the group of kings’ descendants. And then the group of kabilaha, former nobility serving as kings’ assistants; pabisara, i.e., traditional leaders; tuana moroa, i.e., the commoners; the last was hawik (slaves and helpers). The original folk religion of the tribe was animism. Nowadays, most of them are Protestants. Sources: Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1989), Kruyt (1933), Kennedy (1943). LUMOLI 381 Maluku The people living in Central Maluku Islands are usually called by the classical ethnographers as a part of Alfuru people. They live in Lumoli Village, Piru sub-district, in the western hinterland of Seram Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 650 people. The main occupations are farmers of rice and yam. Their staple food is actually sago gathered from the woods. Some of the males hunt wild animals. Nuclear families join a patrilineal nuclear family called mataruma. The role of mataruma is more crucial than one of nuclear family. Mataruma is still a part of a limited extended family unit (clan) called soa. They are divided into several soas that form a soa federation and their settlement area is called hen or negeri (village). They are led by a kapitang commonly called raja, and usually it is hereditary. The spiritual life is led by a mauweng (priest) directing ceremonies in a baileo (a traditional assembly hall as well as an ancestral spirit house) and kakehan house (a youth initiation hall). These days, Negeri Lumoli has four soas, Makalai, Sasake, Matital, and Lumapai. A mataruma considered the eldest from soa Makalai is appointed a king. They practice a belief that worships the Almighty Creator called Kabasa Elake. In addition, they worship ancestral spirits called upu ama, and believe in the existence of spiritual creatures (which can be evil and good) around them. These spirits are called nitu and halita. These days, they are mostly Protestants. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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LUNDAYEH (Dayak Lun Dayeh, Lun Dayah, Lun Daya, Lun Dayoh, Lundaya) 174 Kalimantan The population was estimated to be around 25,000 in Kalimantan Tengah (1987); 10,000 in Sarawak, Malaysia (1987); 2,800 in Sabah, Malaysia (1982 SIL); 450 in Brunei (1987). They live in the hinterland of Kalimantan Central, in the upstream of Baram and Sesayap River. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Kelabit. The dialects are Lun Daye, Papadi, Lun Bawang (Long Bawan, Sarawak Murutt). They are now mostly Christians, and believers of the traditional faith. Further research is required.

M MA’YA (Maya, Salawati, Samate, Sailolof) 684 Papua The population was perhaps around 1,600 people (1991 SIL). They live in Salwati Island and some others in Waigeo Island, Raja Ampat Islands, Raja Ampat Regency. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Malay-Eastern Central Polynesia, the language group of Raja Ampat. The dialects are Ma’ya, Kawit, Banlol, and Batanta. MAANYAN (Dayak Ma’anyan, Maanyak, Dayak Siang) 158 Kalimantan They live in the downstream of Barito River and the creeks, such as Patai, Telang, Karau, and Dayau River; starting from Central Kalimantan Province to South Kalimantan Province. In South Kalimantan, they live in Banua Lima, Patengkep Tutui, Awang Hayaping and East Dusun sub-district, East Barito and South Barito Regency. Banjar tribe lives in the east, Bakumpai tribe in the west, and Bukit and Lawangan tribe in the north of the territory. The population was around 50,000 people. The tribe was perhaps from the southern coast of Kalimantan. There are experts assuming that they are a part of Danum and Ngaju people. There are also other experts categorizing them into the group of Dayak Siang or Dayak Dusun as the language resembles one of Dusun. Another reason is that they have several traditions of Dayak Dusun people, i.e., the tradition of keeping fish in a vase until it turns softer (pakasam), the tradition of piercing earlobes, cock fighting after every death ceremony, a matrilocal residence, and skills of making boats. Some of them live in South Kalimantan Province, around Tamiang Layang and Sungai Patai.

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The main occupation is cultivating fields. Usually they grow rice, yams, fruits, and vegetables. Besides hunting and catching fish, some work as gatherers of natural resources such as rattan, wood and resin. They also often grow and sap rubber trees. Many of them are educated at universities and generally they work as employees in the center of the sub-district and the capital of the province. The Manyaan people traditional settlement pattern seems to be affected by their occupations as well. Their temporary settlements called batang rawi are located near fields. The group of more permanent but fewer home clusters are called tumpungan (dusun). A combination of several tumpungans forms a settlement they call tumpuk. Every tumpuk is marked by lewu parei (a barn) as their house compliment. The people actually consist of several sub-tribes, which possibly formed from the extension of the prior clans, among others are Maanyan Patai, Maanyan Jangkung, Maanyan Paku, and Maanyan Banua Lima. The kinship principle is ambilineal, in which for some people the lineage is drawn from the male side, and for some others the female side. An ideal marriage is one between two cousins whose grandfathers are siblings. Meanwhile, cousins whose fathers are siblings are considered forbidden (taboo).

These days most of them are already Protestants. The old belief system is still preserved and practiced by some social groups. Some others embrace Islam and mingle with Banjar people. Those who have embraced Islam are called matabu or magantis. Those who strongly practice the old ancestral belief still perform the cremation of the deceased bones. Such a ceremony is called ijambe. Death ceremonies celebrated by holding a party sacrificing a buffalo and making a spirit statue is called the ceremony of tiwah. Sources: Danandjaja (1980), Depdikbud (1989), Riwut (1956, 1962), Ave (1986).

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MABA 382 Maluku They live in the northern part of Southeast Halmahera peninsula, which among others are in Bicoli, Gotowasi, and Soa Kimalaha Village, in the eastern part of Halmahera Island, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. They are generally Muslims, with the population of around 5,000 people. They mostly make a living by cultivating fields, catching fish in sea, and gathering natural resources in woods. Source: Grimes (1984). MADEN (Sapran, Maya) 679 Papua The population is perhaps around 400 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the western part of Salawati Island, Raja Ampat Island. It belongs to the language sub-group of Malay-east Central Polynesia, the language group of Raja Ampat. MADIK 560 Papua The tribe lives in the western part of the Irian Bird Head region, in the eastern part of Sorong. The territory is in Ayamaru sub-district, Sorong Regency, West Papua Province. The population was around 11,000. The villages are Swailbe, Sainkeduk, Salem, Sejut, Ases, Sosian, Temel, Suswa, and Luwela. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MADURA 105 Java-Bali The tribe lives in Madura Island and some coastal areas in the east of Java Island. The population was around 2,500,000 in Madura Island alone. Some others live in other big cities in Indonesia. The language is Maduranese with the dialect of Kangean, Sumenep, Pamekasan, Sapudi, Sampang, Bangkalan, Probolinggo, Bondowoso, and Situbondo. The language also applies levels of usage: informal, middle, and polite. The informal language is spoken every day by commoners. They mainly make a living by growing cassava, corn, mung bean, and peanut. Other occupations are fishermen in rivers and seas. The sailors of the tribe are known for their perseverance and skills. In Madura Island, animal husbandry also has developed, such as cows both for consumption and kerapan (race), horse, goat and chicken.

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The kinship principle of Maduranese people is bilateral, especially priyayi (the nobility). Some others still prefer a patrilineal kinship principle, particularly when it comes to inheritance called pancer (males only). The feudalism element is still discovered in Madura Island. Nuclear families in a single lineage usually live in a cluster in a certain area they call koren. Usually they are not more than ten families. Such genealogical–territorial groups are located in a remota area and inhabited by at most twenty households from around five generations called kampong meji. A village inhabited by three generations with a number of houses at most around 5 units is called pemengkang. Then a village inhabited by around 4 generations and the number of families may be more than 20 is called tanean lanjeng. Every village is led by an apel. Several villages join together, forming a larger village, and is led by a kalebun (a head of village). He is assisted by a carek (a secretary). Because the people generally embrace Islam, clerics are also respected here. Religious figures usually have strong influence in social–political, economic, and cultural spheres. Kyai (clerics) even hold the highest level in the society after bapak (the elderly males) and ratu (a reigning government). Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989), Lebar (1964). MAI BRAT (Ayamaru, Brat) 680 Papua See: AYAMARU. MAIRASI (Faranyao, Kaniran) 561 Papua The tribe lives in the area around Arguni Bay, to Triton (Etna) and northeastern part of Wandamen Bay. The territory is in Kaimana, and Teluk Etna sub-district, Fakfak Regency, and Wasior sub-district, in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 154,000 people. The word “Mairasi” means “original”. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Papua. The villages are Morano, Faranyao, Sisir, Lobo, Susunu, Warika, Kokoroba, Barari, Urisa, and Maimai. Sources: Silzer and Heikkine (1984), Grimes (1984). MAIWA (Masenrempulu) 296 Sulawesi The population was perhaps about 50,000 (1990 SIL). They live in the hinterland of Enrekang and Sidenreng Rappang Regency, South Sulawesi. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West

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Polynesia, and the language group of Masenrempulu. They live in the lowland and make a living as farmers, breeders, fruit growers, palm sugar makers. They are Muslims. MAKASSAR (Makasar, Mangasara, Mengkasara, Taena, Tena, Gowa) 313 Sulawesi The tribe prefers calling themselves the people of Mangasara. Most of them live in Gowa, Takalar, Jeneponto, Bantaneng, Baros, and Pangkajene Regency in South Sulawesi. Like the tribe of Bugis, they also like to roam the sea. Some of them explore other regions in Indonesia and are known for being sailors and trans-island traders. The population was around 1,750,000 people. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Bugis-Makassar. The language is divided into some dialects, the dialect of Lakiung (Gowa), Turatea (Jeneponto), Bantaeng, Maros-Pangkep, Konjo, and Selayar. Like Bugisian, the language of Makassar also undergoes development in the written literature known as the alphabets of lontarak, an alphabetical system derived from the Sanskrit alphabets. One of the most important manuscripts is Sure Galigo or La Galigo, i.e., a collection of mythology on the origin of the Bugis tribe and culture. In addition to that, the language of Makassar also develops in various forms of classical poems, such as kelong (pantun) and sinrili (lyrical prose recited in songs). Basically the main occupation of Makassar tribe is growing rice in fields with a traditional irrigation system. Besides that, they grow vegetables, fruits, and perennial trees. However, other tribes know the people more as sailors, fishermen, and traders. They also develop an admirable tradition and body of maritime knowledge. The Makassar type of boat called pinisi which is known for its strength and streamline shape and capability of floating in the sea for months. Because of such cultural characteristics, they are often associated with Bugis people. It is no wonder that both names are often written by old writers in the phrase Bugis-Makassar. The kinship system of the tribe is bilateral, because a paternal and maternal extended family is considered equally important in terms of one’s social life. However, they organize such kinship ties based on familiarity and distance. Relatives considered “close” are called bija. Close relatives can be divided more into bija pammanaka, close relatives based on genealogical ties and bija panrengrengan, i.e., close relatives based on marital ties. The traditional form of choosing spouses tends to be endogamous within an extended family, especially cross-cousin marriages. Despite that, this type of ideal marriage is hard to preserve nowadays. Meanwhile, the residence pattern is virilocal, meaning that a new family lives in a husband’s family neighborhood. The social stratification of Makassar people is affected by the remaining old social system in the era of Tana (Buta) ri Gowa Kingdom and Makassar Sultanate a from a long time ago. In the old times, the Kingdom of Gowa was divided into

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several regions called bate. Each bate was governed by a head of negeri called karaeng or gollarang. These days, the descendants of Gowa kings are called ana’ karaeng ri gowa. Afterward, the descendants of kings’ assistants are called ana’ Karaeng Maraenganaya. The layer of commoners—which is also the majority—is called maradeka. In the old times, there was also the lowest layer, slaves, called ata. The people of Makassar have for a long time embraced Islam. Even though they are Muslims, some of them still preserve the remaining religious teachings of the pre-Islam era. Prior to the arrival of Islam, they used to believe in deities and ancestral spirits and other spiritual beings. The highest deity in the belief system was called Patotoe or Dewata Seuae (The Sole God). The old belief is still apparent in local ceremonies, especially those related to life cycles and farming, and maintenance of sacred places (saukang). Sources: Mattulada (1983), Lebar (1964). MAKIAN 383 Maluku The tribe lives in Makian Island and some areas in Kayoa Island in the southern part of Halmahera Island. The territory is in North Maluku Regency. The population was around 20,000 people. Apparently, they are divided more into two sub-tribes, West Makian speaking Jitine dialect and East Makian speaking Tabayama dialect. Jitine group calls Makian Island Moi Island. Meanwhile, Tabayama group calls Makian island Taba. Many of them venture to other regions. Some moved to Halmahera Island due to the threat of Kie Besi Mountain which was predicted to erupt between 1975 and 1983. Even though the mountain did not erupt, some inhabitants already moved to Malifut, in Kao sub-district, North Maluku. The new settlement is located near kao Bay, Halmahera Island, and generally occupied by transmigrants of East Makian. The people generally make a living from agriculture; some cultivate land permanently by growing banana, corn, sweet potato, and cassava. Some others cultivate land in a rotational way by growing rice. Some others catch fish and gather other natural sea resources. For many years, Makian Island has been known for being one of the clove and nutmeg producing islands, besides tobacco which sold in traditional markets in North Maluku. Nuclear families of Makian people are seldom found to stand alone, yet they always join a senior nuclear patrilocal family. Families from the same ancestors form a patrilineal clan called soa. Generally, members of a soa live together in a village so the village is often named based on its soa. Head of villages is called kepala kampong or lailoyo. Tasks requiring massive labor are completed with a solidarity system called makayaklo. Years ago Makian Island was under the Ternate Sultanate governance, and was divided into four negeris (a type of territorial power headed by a sangaji). In the era of Ternate Sultanate, they were led by a sangaji mayor. There were some social

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institutions under a sangaji, such as bobato ukhrani (a religious affair institution), bobato dunya (a worldly legal affair institution). Also, there is a people council called gamraha, in which members are heads of soa and vice heads of soa of every village. By the end of the past century, they still applied a social stratification. The first layer was the nobility called joudano. The second is the commoners called bala group. Even long before that, there was a slave group. Because of such a social stratification, its soas also varied; some were of the nobility and others were of the commoners. Nowadays, they are generally Muslims. Sources: Depdikbud (1990/1991), Mateosz (1989), Lucardi (1980). See also: TERNATE. MAKUA 454 Nusa Tenggara With a population of only 50 people (1981), the tribe inhabits the tip of Timor Timor Leste State, Tutuala region, Lautem (Lospalos) District. The language is also called Makua or Maku’a, classified by linguists into the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea. They make a living by growing corn, and breed livestock such as buffalo and horses. Some of them also hunt deer living in the savanna around where they live. The tribe is estimated to have been assimilated with Fataluku (Dagada) tribe. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1989). MALANG (Dayak Dusun Malang) 174 Kalimantan The population was estimated to be around 5,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the central part of West Kalimantan, the west of Muara Inu, the northeast of Muara Teweh. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo. They live near the territory of Dayak Dusun tribe. MALIMPUNG 297 Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 1,000 (1995). They live in Malimpung region, Patampanua sub-district, Pinrang Regency, South Sulawesi. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Masenrempulu. They are Muslims.

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MALOH (Dayak Maloh, Embaloh, Memaloh, Sanggau) 127 Kalimantan The tribe of Maloh or Embaloh lives in the area around the upstream of Kapuas River, such as the area around Ulu, Lauh, Palin, Mandai, Nyabau and Leboyan River. The villages are Siut, Belimbis, Keram, Leboyan, Benua Martinus, Bunut, and Putus Sibau. The areas are in Embaloh Hilir, Lanjak, Putusibau and Mandai sub-district in Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The region is near the borderline of Indonesia and Serawak, Malaysia. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Mbaloh. The population was around 4,750. They are perhaps from the same group with Taman and Kalis tribe. The people especially make a living by growing staple crops such as rice, corn, peanut, cucumber, cassava, sweet potato, chili, vegetables, and fruits such as durian, rambutan, jackfruit, pineapple, banana, and so on. They usually grow sugarcane after harvesting rice in fields. The other foods are sago grown in the jungle wilderness. The animal protein sources are fish caught in rivers with nets, tangguk (a type of tool to catch fish), hook or tuba (a type of poison). Besides that, they also breed livestock such as pigs, cows, goats, and chickens. In addition to that, they also breed buffaloes. Besides meat for consumption, they breed cattle and wild animals such as boars, monkeys, bears, and foxes. Other financial sources are the activity of collecting sap of rubber trees they manage themselves. These days, the other incomes also come from logging and rattan processing businesses. They live in villages by the river they call banua. Every banua has one sau or more (sau: a long-shaped house). A village territory is marked by their uma (agricultural fields) and natural boundaries acknowledged by other tribes. Every village is led by a leader they call samagat, usually elected from the nobility group and it is passed on from generation to generation. In the role, a samagat has to obtain authority from the council of elderly they call tamatoa. The people apparently also apply a social stratification system. The first layer is samagat, a respected and noble group consisting of families settling down and building a long house for the first time in a certain village. The second layer is the group of pabiring, i.e., the middle class commonly holding a good social position, for example, in intellectuality or wealth. The lower layer is the commoners in a village, called banua. In the former times, there was also a group of slaves called pangkam or ulun. Every family (kaiyan) lives in a part of a sau (a long-shaped house) called tindoan. Families living in tindoan are usually a combination of a senior nuclear family and several junior nuclear families of the patrilineal side. The martial system is usually endogamous by social rankings.

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These days, most of them are already Catholics and Muslims. Despite that, the existing tradition still supports the original folk faith among some of them. Meanwhile, those who are Muslims are inclined to mingle with Muslims from other tribes because they are a minority group in the tribe. Source: King (1985). See also: DAYAK. MAMASA 298 Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 100,000 (1991 SIL). The people live along the meanders of Mamasa River, Mamasa sub-district, Polewali Mamasa Regency, South Sulawesi. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Toraja-Sa’dan. The dialects are North Mamasa, Central Mamasa, and Pattae’ South Mamasa. The people make a living from growing rice, coffee, cacao, and vegetables. They are Muslims (Pattae’) and some still practice the traditional belief. MAMBAI (Mambae, Manbae) 455 Nusa Tenggara They live in some central and eastern parts of Ermera Regency, and the northern part of Ainaro Regency, in Timor Timur Province (now Timor Leste state). The language is classified into the language sub-group of Malay-South West Polynesia. It is divided more into several dialects, such as Damata, Mamua, Mambai, and Lolei. The population was around 10,000. They are Christians. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1989). MAMBI (Tabulahan) 299 Sulawesi The population was around 12,000 (1984 SIL). They live between the territory of Mandar and Kalumpang tribe, Mambi sub-district, South Sulawesi. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, and the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Bugis-Makassar. The dialects are Aralle, Tabulahan, and Mambi. They are Christians, Muslims, and some others embrace the traditional faith. Further research is required.

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MAMBORU (Memboro) 467 Nusa Tenggara The population was maybe around 2,000 (1981). They live on the northwestern coast of Sumba Island, Sumba Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The language falls into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bima-Sumba. MAMUJU (Mamudju, Udai) 298 Sulawesi The tribe mostly lives in Mamuju, Kalukku, and Budong-Budong sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The Mamuju territory is in neighbourhood with Mandar tribe, that is why people often think that Mandar tribe is similar to Mamuju tribe. The population was around 60,000. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi. The dialects are Talumpa, Mamuju, Sumare, Tangas, Padang, Sinyonyoi, Sondoang, Budong-Budong, Tappalang and Botteng. The people make a living by cultivating land (irrigated fields and rain-fed fields), in addition to processing copra and sea fishing.

Sources: Grimes (1984), Depdikbud (1989). See also: MANDAR. MANDAILING (Batak Mandailing) 021a Sumatra The population was maybe around 400,000 (1989). They live in Angkola and Mandailing Regency, North Sumatra Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sumatra, and the language group of Batak.

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MANDAR 315 Sulawesi Most of them live in Majene and Mamuju Regency in South Sulawesi Province. In fact, those who more often admit they are Mandar people are the people of Majene Regency. On the contrary, the people of Mamuju Regency prefer calling themselves the people of Mamuju. Both tribes show similar external social and cultural characteristics to outsiders. Besides living in both regencies, Mandar people also live in some parts of Polewali-Mamasa Regency. The population was recently around 300,000. The Mandar language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, consisting of several dialects, such as Majene, Awok Sumakuyu, Balanipa (Napo Tinambung), Pamboang, and Cendana. The language is different from Mandar language. They mainly make a living by growing rice, besides growing various other crops and perennial trees in fields and plantations. They are also known for being adventurous traders like other tribes in South Sulawesi. Mandar woven sarong is also known among sarongs of Bugis and Makassar. Their kinship system is bilateral, meaning they draw the line from the maternal and paternal side. In the former times, Mandar had some small kingdoms, such as Balanipa, Majene, Cenrana, Binuang, and Mamuju. Each was governed by maradia accompanied by a custom council called dewan hadat. The old social structure is still reflected a little in the current Mandar social stratification. The nobility layer is called todiang layana or arajang. The commoners’ group was called tomaradeka, and a group of slaves was called batuwa. Certainly, slavery has now been abandoned. The people of Mandar have embraced Islam even though the remnants of old religion are still manifested in religious ceremonies related to agriculture and human life cycle. Have you once heard of people calling jepa as Mandar-style pizza? The difference is jepa is made of cassava, even though there is also sago, although the latter is rarer. Meanwhile, pizza is made of wheat flour. What separates jepa from pizza is the assumption by Mandar people that jepa is more delicious than pizza. It is even more delicious when served with tuin tuing (grilled flying fish). Like pizza, jepa also offers various tastes. There are jepa-jepa ni gollai, jepa ni anjoroi, and there is jepa made of sago. To make cassava jepa, firstly cassava is shredded. After that, it is wrapped with sacks and then squeezed with pangepean (a squeezer with a lever ala Mandar). In addition to making jepa, pangepean is also used to make traditional coconut oil. After cassava is dried completely by squeezing, the cassava is separated from the bigger cassava with soro-soro’ (a type of filter made of bamboo). To cook jepa, it requires several special cooking utensils, i.e., a pair of panjepangan (made of clay, resembling a plate or a wide bowl). There are two sizes of panjepangan, the large and small size. However, in general they use the small size, as the large one is only used to make jepa-jepa (jepa made crusty and dried so it resembles crackers).

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In addition to panjepangan, the tool usually used is sekor, a type of spoon made of coconut’s hardshell with a shaft made of bamboo. Such a tool is used to measure lameayu to cook and spread evenly on panjepangan. First of all, a pair of panjepangan is heated (ideally with firewood). Afterward, lameayu is measured with a sekor and spread onto a heated panjepangan, and then is pressed with another heated panjepangan. Wait until lameayu sticks together (no longer scrambled). The cooking process is then finished. Sometimes, Mandar people make jepa with coconut shreds on top of it. Jepa ni gollai tastes the best. It is jepa with thick sugar in the center of it. Baye or golla kambu. Baye is made of brown sugar, sticky rice, and coconut combined with a certain flavor to add appetite-arousing aroma. It is simple in flavor and affordable as well for any visitors. To maintain its distinct flavor, baye is still made with traditional methods. The basic ingredients such as nira, coconut, sticky rice, peanut, and durian are not difficult to find in Polewali Mandar. The thing is its packaging is hard to find as well as its distribution to other areas. In Polewali Mandar, golla kambu or baye, loka anjoroi or bau peapi are iconic foods in the region. Of the three foods, golla kambu has been well developed in terms of flavor and packaging. This iconic food is made of sticky rice and shredded coconut. Thanks to its sweetness, it makes a good breakfast. The distinct characteristic makes it sold and distributed in markets or kiosks just opposite the Campalagian sub-district Office. Here, people in cars or motorbikes stop for a while to buy golla kambu. Meanwhile, loka anjoroi (banana with coconut milk) and bau peapi (fish cooked with spices ala Mandar) can be savored during spare time. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: MAMUJU. MANDER 562 Papua The tribe living nomadically lives around the upstream of Tor and Bu River, in the northern coast of Papua. Their settlement is in Pantai Timur and Tor Atas sub-district, in the eastern part of Berik tribe’s territory. The population was around 0 (1989). Perhaps now they have been assimilated with other tribes. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MANDOBO (Nub, Dumut, Kaeti) 563 Papua The tribe lives in several villages around Mandobo River, specifically between the upstream of Digul River and Kao River ending in the southern coast of Papua. They live in Merauke, Waropoko, and Mindiptana sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province.

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A nickname for them is, in fact, Wandub Wambon. Those who live in the left side of Kao River call themselves Wandub, whereas people on the other side call themselves Wambon. Outsiders call them Mandobo, based on the name of the river around which they live. Their territory of origin is located in the land of Awyu and Muyu people. By language, they have a lot in common with Awy tribe. While Muyu people develop an agricultural habit, Awyu people develop a gathering culture, and Mandobo people tend to be a transitory people from the gathering cultured tribe to the farming cultured one. Some still prefer living nomadically. However, now most of them come to Merauke to go to school and work in offices or teach in schools. The population was around 1,000 people. The agriculture of Mandobo people is still in the form of a rotational system with plants such as sweet potato, cassava, taro, and vegetables. For that, a tool used here is only a tugal (a wooden tool to dig up the earth). Those living in Tambak village, Merauke sub-district, already start to learn how to grow rice in rice fields from transmigrants living around them. Hunting is still done with a spear, archery, or noose and assisted by some dogs. Their game is deer, boars, cassowaries, and birds such as cockatoos, parrots, and parakeets. In a living environment with rivers, they still can catch fish or other water animals to eat. Because most of them still live in small groups, such a group leadership is what they require. Usually, a group leader is a strong, and experienced adult male with the support of wise old men. In the new village and sub-district administration system these days, such a leadership is acknowledged as an informal one. Nuclear families of Mandobo live in a limited extended family, in which someone must choose to marry someone else from other nuclear families. A wife must live together with her husband once they are married. Hence, a male’s proposal is accepted by a female’s family with a number of dowries, such as several pigs, dozens of seashells, and a set of bow and arrows. They are Christians. Sources: Boelaars (1986), Depdikbud (1989), Depsos (1990). MANEM (Yeti, Wembi, Skofro) 564 Papua They live in the northeastern part of Papua, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the south of Jayapura. The villages are Yeti, Wembi, Kibai, Uskuar, Griku, Skotiaho, and Skofro, in Arso sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua. The population was around 500 people. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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MANGGARAI 422 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in Manggarai Regency in Flores Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The population was around 347,000 people (1975). The language seems to consist of several dialects, such as the dialect of Pae, Mabai, Rejong, Mbaen, Pota, Manggarai Tengah (Central Manggarai), Manggarai Timur (East Manggarai), and Manggarai Barat (West Manggarai). The four first-mentioned dialects are perhaps the language of the independent tribal groups under the power of Manggarai people in the old times. A long time ago, in Manggarai there was a kingdom. Nowadays, the relics are still existent, in the form of the traditional division of territory called dalu. Back then, the number of dalu reached 39 units. Every dalu was governed by a certain clan or wau. In each dalu, there were several glarangs and a glarang consisted of villages called beo. The people from a dominant wau governing a dalu considered themselves nobility. Some dalus sometimes formed an alliance of marriage in the system they call tungku marriage (a type of marriage between cross-cousins). There were marriages between dalu and glarang because a glarang was usually governed by a dominant wau. Dalu is a subordinate kingdom led by a kraeng, usually called Kraeng Adak. Kraeng with outstanding merit was awarded a title of Sangaji from a king. Meanwhile, the dominant wau helped form the quite evident social stratification. The first was the group considering themselves as the nobility, usually using a title of kraeng. The second was the commoners called ata lahe. The third group was mendi or slaves. Definitely, nowadays such a social stratification has been less clear. Most of them make a living by farming in rain-fed fields and irrigated fields. In general, they grow rice, corn, cassava, and vegetables. The most important livestock here is horse. A nuclear family is called cak kilo. These nuclear families join a patrilineal nuclear family (a restricted extended family) called kilo. A number of kilos from one same ancestor join a clan called panga. Nowadays, it seems that pangas function more as a source of kinship naming. In the old times, such panga was still a part of a larger clan (wau). These days, they already embrace mainstream religions. The people in the eastern part of territory of Kedaluan are now mostly Catholics. Those in the northern, western and southern parts of Kedaluan are mostly Muslims. A few of them are Protestants. Meanwhile, the remnants of old religion are still evident in several places. In the old times, they worshipped ancestral spirits (empo or andung) and were very cautious when it comes to spiritual beings’ nuisance they call golo, ata pelesina, naga, and so on. They also worship the highest deity called Mori Karaeng. One of the distinct foods of Manggarai tribe is rebok. Like biscuits, rebok is a powder with delicious flavor. What makes it unique is usually it is fried without

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cooking oil, making it healthier. It makes an ideal snack in the afternoon, enjoyed with thick black coffee. The ingredients are rice flour, shredded coconut, eggs, vanilla, white sugar (added at the end). How to cook: add some rice flour, shredded coconut, eggs, and vanilla into a container. Mix them all evenly, and squeeze the dough in such a way until it turns less sticky and can be shaped into small chunks. Prepare a frying pan, without cooking oil, and fry the dough. Fry without oil until it turns light brown. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Lebar (1964). MANGOLE 384 Maluku The Mangole live in Mangole Island in Sula Islands, in North Maluku Regency. The population was around 4,000–7,000 people. They are now Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). MANIKION (Mantion, Sougb, Sogh) 565 Papua They live in the Irian Bird Head region, in the southern part of Manokwari, in the eastern part of the territory of Meyak tribe. The territory is in Bintuni, Anggi, Merdei, and Ransiki sub-district. The population was around 12,500. They call themselves Sough people. The villages are Hoktu, Ira, Siwi, Aromi, Kofo, Testega, Ugarameta, Tuhoko, Mioguda, Timoforo, Maruru, Mesi, Hukbya, and Taigehi. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MANIPA 385 Maluku They live in Manipa Island, in North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 3,500. Further research is required.

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MANSIM 566 Papua They live on the eastern coast of Papua Bird Head region, around Manokwari. The population was around 1,000. The tribe speaks Borainese classified into the language family of Papua. Their territory is in Manokwari sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The villages are Andai, Maruni, and Maripi. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes. MAPI 567 Papua They live in the southern part of Papua, in the north of Odamun River, and around Miwamon River, in the southeast of Sawuy (Sawi) and Kagir tribe’s territory, in the east of Asmat tribe’s territory, in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 11,000. They speak Yakainese. Source: Grimes (1984). MARAU 568 Papua The tribe lives in the southern coast of Yapen Island next to Cenderawasih Bay, in the west of Ansus. The territory is in West Yapen sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 2,000. The villages are Webi, Natabui, Warobori, Makiroan, and Hohar. Further reserach is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen. MARENGGE 569 Papua The people of Marengge or Maremgi live in the hinterland of the northern Irian Jaya, in the southwest of Sarmi, in the south of Bonggro tribe’s territory. The territory is in the East Pantai sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was only around 70. Further research is required. Source: Grimes.

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MARIND (Marind-Anim, Marindanim, Gawir, Tugeri) 570 Papua The people of Marengge or Maremgi inhabit vast lowland in the south of Papua, from Muli Strait (Marianne Strait) to the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Some of them have also spread around the meanders of Buraka, Bian, Eli, Kumbe, and Maro River. The territory is in Okaba sub-district, Merauke, some part of Kimam and Muting sub-district in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The territory is a lowland area with savanna and Australian-like flora and swampy land where sago tres grow in rivers. The population was around 5,000-7,000 people. In the nineteenth century, the population was allegedly more than now. The word “anim” means man (anem for men, anum for women). The tribe has a number of sub-tribes, such as Kanum-Anim, Yei-Anim people or Yei-Nan, Yab-Anim, Maklew-Anim, and Kurkari-Anim (in Papua New Guinea). Meanwhile, the neighboring tribes among others are Yelmek tribe in the northwest, Manikor (Mani) and Kurhari tribe in the east, Manggrat-Rik tribe in the downstream of Maro River, Boazi tribe near Fly and Murray Lake whose streams flow to Papua New Guinea. The people mainly make a living by growing plants such as sweet potato, cassava, and kava (a type of plant for liquor). Sago is one of the staple foods, besides catching fish and other water creatures in rivers and beaches. The men like hunting wild animals such as boars, kuskuses, wallabis (a small kangaroo), cassowaries, mice, lizards, and various birds. To fulfill the needs of tobacco, they also grow a type of plant they call tumuku or detak. At the beginning of this century, they were known as a tribe that practices beheading tradition. Males hold a very strong role in everyday life, compared to Asmat tribe living far in the northwest of their territory. In the old civilization, they developed weapons for warfare and hunting, such as bamboo bows, arrows made of reed, wooden spears and cudgels, stone axes, and long boats (about 15 m) rowed in standing position, tools of stabbing and cutting made of bones or seashells. They cook with bamboo tubes or by making use of heat produced by stones. The house architecture and carving art are very modest. Houses are built with earth flooring, strong wooden beams, with nipah leaves or dried weeds as roof. Carving is only made to decorate beams of sacred buildings. However, clothing art of Marind-Anim is known to be the most interesting and lively, especially their clothes of soldiers and dancers. Art of Marind is known as art of show and ostentation (Van Baal 1966). They live in kampongs usually with at least one house for bachelors called gotad. Males live in this house from their teenage years. Meanwhile, around gotad there are family houses (oram aha) or female houses with a smaller size. A village is usually formed by a kinship tie (patrilineal clan) or in the form of exogamous totemistic territorial ties as they prioritize the role in an extended family. The formation of a village or village federation by a totemism clan system renders the existence of a totem moiety group in a village settlement.

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They apply an exogamous principle in marriages and the kinship system is patrilineal, in which a wife must live and join her husband’s female relatives. A wife initially lives at her husband’s nuclear family. Once the house is too full, she may ask for an oram aha to her husband and his male relatives. She moves to the new house and prepares to accept her female daughters’ in-law.

The first missionaries came into Okaba in 1910. The native religion of Marind is more oriented to the existence of spirits they perceive in a special concept called dema. Dema is a spiritual power in the universe, spirits of the deceased. All of these are related to their concept of totemism. Because of this, there are natural demas that they also worship in addition to demas of the totem. There are demas showing themselves before the eyes of humans, in the form of animals or humans. There are demas called yorma (sea dema), wonatai (crocodile totem), yawi (coconut dema), and so forth. Sources: Van Baal (1966), Boelaars (1986). MAROBO (Kemak Marobo) 456 Nusa Tenggara They are still a part of Kemak tribe. They live in several villages in Bobonaro, Maliana District, Timor Timur Province (now Timor Leste state), such as Ilatlaun, Atuaben, and Soileso Village. The population was around 3,000 people. Because they speak Kemaknese, they are also called Kemak Marobo people. In interactions with other tribes, they speak Bunaknese or Tetun Terik as the lingua franca. Source: Depdikbud (1990). See also: KEMAK.

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MASAMA (Bobongko) 262 Sulawesi They live in several villages in Lamala sub-district, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province, such as Taugi and Tengeban Village. Perhaps they are a part of Saluan tribe. They are also called by outsiders Bobongko tribe. They now embrace Islam, and earn a living by cultivating land and catching fish. The language of Masama or Bobongko is classified into the language stock of Saluan, the language group of Austronesia. The population was around 1,800. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). See also: SALUAN. MASENREMPULU (Enrekang) 316 Sulawesi They are often called as Enrekang people. They live in some parts of Enrekang Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 15,000 people and most of them are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). See also: ENREKANG. MASIMASI 683 Papua The population was around 200 people (1973 SIL). They live in an islet in the north of the western part of Tor River estuary. The territory lies in the East Pantai sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language falls into the language family of Malay-east Central Polynesia. Further research is required. MASSEP (Masep) 681 Papua The population was perhaps around 40 people (1978 SIL). They live in the northern coast of the east estuary of Mamberamo River, in the west of Sarmi tribe’s territory, near Apawar River. The language falls into the language family of Central Trans– New Guinea. Further research is required.

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MATBAT (Me, Biga) 682 Papua The population was around 550 (1991 SIL). They live in Raja Ampat Islands, specifically in Misool and Segaf Island. The language is classified into the language family of Malay-East Central Polynesia. Further research is required. MAWES 571 Papua They live on the northern coast of Papua, in the east, downstream of Wiruwai River. The villages are Mawesweres, Mawes, and Mawesdai. All of them are in Bonggo sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 750. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). MBOJA 402 Nusa Tenggara They are often called Bajo people. They live in the southern part of Bima and Dompu Regency in Sumbawa Island, and also on Buangin Island formed from an atoll in West Nusa Tenggara Province. They are perhaps from Selayar Island in South Sulawesi. Some of them live in Nage, Bajorai, Bolo and Labu Sawak in Sumbawa Island. The population was around 10,000 (1986). The language is called the language of Baju. They mainly earn a living by catching fish and gathering natural sea resources. Some of them are successful palele, traders of fish and boat owners. Sea has a significant role for them. Because of this, they hold many ceremonies related to the occupation. Despite the fact that they are Muslims, they still worship creatures considered to be sea rulers. Sea ceremonies are usually led by a shaman or a whisperer they call sandro, such as nampo tawar ritual (letting boats to go to the sea); tolak bala and syukuran ritual usually held by a family at home in case the climate has gone awry; tiba pisah to mark the departure of someone; ancak or bebalan to repel plagues in kampongs; tiba rakik to cure an ailing fisherman. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Lebar (1964).

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MEDANG 158 Kalimantan The people of Medang are also called Dayak Modang by outsiders. They live around Segah, Kelinyau, and Belayan River, Central Kalimantan Province. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Riwut (1956). MEKONGGA 345 Sulawesi They are one of the sub-tribes of Tolaki tribe living in Mekongga sub-district, Kendari Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Source: Kennedy (1943). See also: TOLAKI. MEKWAI (Mekwei, Menggei, Munggai, Mungge, Menggwei, Munkei, Mooi, Moi) 572 Papua The tribe of Mekwei lives in the west of Sentani Lake, in the north of Tanah Merah. Their territory is in Sentani sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,200. Their villages are Kendate, Wandadaya, Buyanggana, Kwnatemei, Waibron, Dozei, Weisamen, Maribu, Demenggong, Sabron, and Sabeyao Besar. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). MENDALAM (Dayak Kayan Mendalam) 174a Kalimantan The population was around 1,500 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the northeast of Putus Sibau, Mendalam River. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, the language group of Kayan-Murik, Kayan. Further research is required. MENINGGO 573 Papua The tribe lives in the southeast part of Papua Bird Head region, in the west of Manikion or Sough tribe’s territory and in the upstream of Wariori River. Their area of distribution is Merdei sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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MENTAWAI (Mantawai) 030 Sumatra They live in Mentawai Island, consisting of Siberut, Sipora, North Pagai, and South Pagai Island. In terms of administration, the islands are a part of West Sumatra Province. The population was 7,090 people (1853). According to the 1930 census, the population was 9,268. Meanwhile, according to the 1980 census, it was 18,554, in which some 15% are immigrants, Bataknese, Javanese, and Minangkabau people, and a few Caucasians. The language of Mentawai is a part of the language family of Austronesia, divided more into several dialects, such as Simalegi, Sekudai, Sikalagan, Silabu, Taikaku, Sumanganya, and so on. Before the arrival of external cultures in the past half century, Mentawai people still lived in the Neolithic civilization phase. They mostly earned a living by gathering sago and hunting. The tools they used to work were made of stones, bought from traders from other regions coming to the islands to obtain their natural resources from jungles. After the new immigrants were increasing in number, they started to make iron wares. Their clothes were very modest. Males wore kambi (a loincloth made of bark) and females wore a skirt made of banana tree fibers. However, they have already developed a distinct tattoo tradition. Yet, these days such tradition has almost faded away. The staple foods of Mentawai people are sago, taro, and recently, rice, with fish, various birds and boars as side dishes. For their daily needs, such as clothes, fuel, tobacco, iron wares, building materials, rice, salt, and other daily necessities are mostly obtained by buying from outsiders (traders coming from Padang). Such necessities are swapped with natural resources they gather from woods such as rattan, manau, logs, clove, copra, and so forth.

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In their original state, the people live in a simple economic social unity based on equality. There is no dominant or oppressed group as leaders or slaves here. The land is quite fertile and rich. Their staple foods are easily found in swampy jungles around them. They live in group settlements called uma, which is a term to refer to a group of settlers and the place itself. An uma usually takes shape of a large traditional house and can hold several paternal nuclear families. Near an uma, there are a few laleps, a family house for those whose marriages are not yet official. Every male marries a female of his neighboring uma. Once a husband passes away, his widow returns to her original uma. Every uma is led by a senior figure called rimata. Usually, he is appointed from a group of adult males considered wise and experienced. However, there are also rimatas appointed because of their lineage. Rimata is actually a customary leader. The relationships between umas are maintained by marital ties. In case a figure considered a pioneer, he is usually an expert in his field of work, and he does not necessarily have to be an older man with more experience. The more evident leadership can be found in their religious life. Traditional rituals are quite various and all of them are led by a kerei or sikerei (a shaman). Mentawai people believe that all objects in the universe have sumangat (spirit), and natural power embedded in its entirety is called kina ulau. Every spirit interacts with each other and affects one another as well. This hidden power in an object which potentially may disturb humans is called bajao. For this reason, during specific times, they have to hold cleaning rituals of uma, called pulaijat. Such ritual lasts for an entire week or more. During the ritual, they must obey punen, a rule that prevents them from doing taboos related to pulaijat. As a religious leader, a sikerei is not bound to his original uma, but he can be summoned to cure people in another uma. Rewards he receives from healing others would be distributed to people in his uma. They like dancing. To them, dances are symbols of natural moves. Accompanying music is produced by several drums and gongs which they obtain from outsiders. Sources: Persoon and Schefold (1985), Depdikbud (1989), Loeb (1972), Lebar (1964). MENYUKE (Dayak Menyuke) 128 Kalimantan The tribe of Menyuke or Dayak Menyuke lives in several villages in Ngabang sub-district, Pontianak Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 7,600 people. Source: Depsos (1987).

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MEOSWAR (Maswar) 574 Papua They live in Meoswar or Maswar Island in the west of Cenderawasih Bay. The territory is in Rensiki sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps around 250 people. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MER (Muri, Miere) 575 Papua They live in the central part of Irian Bird Head region, around Wosimi spring and the upstream of Uremo River. The region is in Etna Bay in Fakfak Regency and Wasior sub-district in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 200 people. Their villages are Ure or Muri and Javor. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). MERANJAT 074 Sumatra These days the population of Meranjat people is estimated to be around 4,000. They live in Meranjat and Tanjung Batu sub-district, Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. The language is classified into the language group of Malay with its own dialect. They make a living by farming, catching fish, working as carpenters, trading, and so on. It is estimated that they apply a matrilineal kinship system. They are Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989). MEYAH (Meaks, Meyach, Meah) 576 Papua The number of Meyah or Meyak people was around 8,000–10,000 people. They live in the western part of Manokwari, on the northern coast of Bird Head region. The territory lies in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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MIAN BANGGAI 263 Sulawesi Mian Banggai is one of the sub-tribes of Banggai tribe. They live in Banggai Island, in Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. They speak a distinct dialect called Mian Banggai dialect. Sources: Kauden (1937), Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Lebar (1964). MIAN SEA-SEA 264 Sulawesi They are also classified as one of the sub-tribes of Banggai tribe. Their physical characteristics are ones of Vedoid or Australoid. They live in Peleng Island, in Banggai Islands, Bangga Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Sources: Kaudern (1937), Kruyt (1933), Lebar (1964). See also: BANGGAI. MIMIKA (Kamoro, Mukamuga, Lakahia, Nefarpi) 578 Papua The people have other names usually given by outsiders around them, such as Nefarpi, Kamoro, Lakahia, and Mukamuga. They live on the southern coast of Papua, from Etna Bay to Mukamuga River, in Timika sub-district, Mimika Regency, Papua. The territory is in vast swampy lowlands with dozens of rivers so it is heavily influenced by seasons. The population was around 10,000. The language is also called the language of Kamoro or Nefarpi. It is divided more into several dialects, Tarya, Yamur, Mukamuga, Wania with West Mimika, and East Mimika dialect. They generally build villages by rivers because rivers provide them a lot of foods such as fish, shrimps, turtles, and clamps. Meanwhile, the plant-based food they can get is sago flour. Sago trees naturally grow in abundance around them in swampy jungles. In addition to that, males hunt boar, kuskuses, and various birds as their side dishes. In a dry land some of them open land and grow yams, pumpkins, papayas, breadfruits, sugarcanes, bananas, peanuts, and tobacco. Their kinship system is bilateral. Despite that, in terms of inheritance, they tend to apply the matrilineal system, such as sago forest inheritance and fish catching region. On the contrary, in various religious rituals the role of paternal relatives is more prominent. The native religion involves worshipping deities they consider rulers of life sources. There are good and evil spirits which can still affect the life of human beings. Nowadays, they are Christians. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (1963).

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MINAHASA (Manado, Kawanua) 218 Sulawesi They are often called Manado people. They call themselves Kawanua people. They mostly inhabit the northeastern part of North Sulawesi peninsula, North Sulawesi Province. In fact, the tribe is divided into eight sub-tribes, Tonsea, Tombulu, Tonsawang, Ratahan, Ponosakan, Totembuan, Toulour, and Bantik. The territory is now in Minahasa Regency and Menado Municipality. The population was estimated to be around 790,000, excluding those living in other areas. The language generally spoken by them is the language of “Melayu Menado”. Meanwhile, the original language is the derivative language or dialect of each sub-tribe of the existing tribe. Compared to other tribes in Indonesia, they have started to absorb the Western influence earlier after the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors several hundred years ago. The territory is the center of Christianity in North Sulawesi. The prolonged influence has caused the loss of much of their native culture. For many years, the place has been known for being the center of copra production and for several decades, it has also been known as a clove producer. They mainly earn a living by farming in fields (growing corn, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, and a little rice). Those living near seas and lakes,, for example, by Tondano Lake, make a living as a fisherman. Some of them hunt and gather things as side jobs. Nowadays, most of them work as teachers, merchants, businessmen, and private enterprise and government officials. The smallest and most significant in the tribe is a monogamous nuclear family they call seme’urang. Every person uses a patrilineal kinship group called fam. However, they also adopt a more extended bilateral kinship relationship, called patuari. The patuari kinship especially works when it is the time of customary solidarity work called mapalus, encompassing affairs of marriage, deaths, socioeconomic cooperation, and so on. In the former times, they applied several classifications in the tribe. There were groups in charge of religious affairs (the old religion) called makarua siow or walian tonaas. There was also a group of sociopolitical leaders called makatelupitu, consisting of warlords and respected soldiers. The lower group was the commoners. In the old times, the Minahasa traditional village system was called wanua, consisting of several smaller settlements called ro’ong. A leader of wanua was called hukum tua or paedon tua. Wanuas were oriented to a parent village from which someone was from. A unity of place of origin was called walak, and its leader was called tua um walak. Several walaks join and form a confederation called pakasa’an. In the sixteenth century there were 17 walaks and 4 pakasa’ans. Nowadays, the majority of Minahasa people embrace Protestantism. Their native religion is basically animism which involved the worship of ancestral spirits called opo or datu and of magical power called doti. In the old times, rituals in the native religion were led by a religious leader called walian tonaas.

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“Cabai rawit” is a nickname that Minahasa people use to refer to a dish made of dog meat. Another term to call such a dish is RW (“Rintek Wuuk”, in Tombulunese, meaning soft fur). They always add “cabai rawit”, a type of extra hot local chili, to the dish. The nickname suits it perfectly, making it more popular. However, now more culinary adventurers like to eat this Minahasa food. Now more people start to know that the food is actually healthy. In addition to that, the Manadonese dishes are mostly delicious as they contain a lot of fresh ingredients such as basil, lime leaves, lemongrass, leek, gedi leaves, bulat leaves, selasih leaves, clove leaves, pandanus, chili, lime, cui lemon, ginger, and so on. In general, they cook in a traditional way as they have done for many years. They rarely add any flavor enhancer. Saguer and Cap Tikus is a type of alcoholic liquid (with alcohol level of 40% on average) produced through the distillation of saguer (white liquid coming out of enau or seho trees in the language of Minahasa). Meanwhile, saguer is a type of alcoholic drink produced from “mayang” in enau trees. According to local farmers, the alcohol level in saguer also depends on how it is harvested and the bamboo in which it is kept. For sugary and sweet saguer, one has to clean the bamboo container and its filter made of enak leaves perfectly. The cleaner it is the sweeter saguer will be. The cleaner saguer is, the better quality “cap tikus” it produces becomes. Why is it named “cap tikus”? There is no clear answer to the question. Allegedly, the term is used because the process is done between trees, where “tikus hutan” (rats) usually live. Some quite well-known Manadonese or Minahasa signature dishes are Tinutuan, made of various vegetables. Tinutuan is different from porridge even though people call it “bubur Manado” (Manadonese porridge). Cakalang fufu is smoked cakalang fish, roa fish. Paniki is a dish made of bats. RW is a dish made of dog meat. Babi putar is a pig roasted in such a way, usually served at parties. Babi isi bulu is made of pork with Manadonese spices and roasted in bamboo. There is also a signature drink called “saguer”. Another relatively well-known distinct Manadonese food is “nasi kuning” (yellow rice), which has its own unique flavor compared to the same food made in other regions in Indonesia. In addition to that, there is also grilled snapper. Dabu-dabu is a very popular Manadonese sambal (condiment), made of a mix of red chili, cayenne, slices of onion, and dice-shaped fresh tomatoes added with soybean sauce. Speaking of snacks, Manado offers gohu and es kacang. Gohu is made of papaya slices marinated in a solution of vinegar, sugar, salt, ginger, and chili. In addition to that, there is also a cake like lalampa (like a lemper—sticky rice wrapped in banana leaves—filled with snapper). Panada is a kind of fried bread filled with snapper with twisted edges. Some other signature foods are also apang, dodol Manado, kueku, pinende, biapong (pork), sesame seeds, “unti” (made of coconut). What should not miss is nasi jaha made of sticky rice mixed with coconut milk, ginger, onion, and other ingredients, and then put into a bamboo and grilled.

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Sources: Kruyt (1923–1933), Kaudern (1937), Kennedy (1935, 1943), Kalangie (1983), Adam (1976), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989). See also: TONSEA, TONSA-WANG, TOMBULU, TOTEM-BUAN, TOULOUR, RATAHAN, PONOSAKAN, BANTIK. MINANGKABAU (Orang Minang, Urang Awak) 031 Sumatra The tribe inhabits the central part of western Sumatra, now called West Sumatra Province. The original territory of Minangkabau people is a unity of three customary areas they call luhak nan tigo (three regions). These regions are Luhak Agam (now Kabupaten Agam), Luhak Limapuluh Koto (now Limapuluh Kota Regency), and Luhak Tanah Datar (now Tanah Datar Regency). With all these luhaks as the epicentrum, the Minangkabau culture spreads throughout the island. The origin of the word “Minangkabau” is quite diverse. Yet, mostly people assume that the name appeared after they won over stronger newcomers in a bullfight. The word “Minangkabau” may have been derived from manang kabau (menang kerbau meaning “win bulls”), possibly the word “minang kabau” (a type of weapon set in a bull’s head). Some rebut that the word was derived from bullfight but it has existed for some time. What is certain is that a Minangkabau traditional house resembles a horn of bull and bulls are , in fact, bred to plow rice fields and slaughtered to be sacrificed at rituals. However, the tribe prefers calling their territory Ranah Minang (the land of Minang), instead of Ranah Kabau (the land of bulls). Meanwhile, in the internal interactions of Minangkabau people, they call themselves Urang Awak (our people). The language of Minangkabau is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Austronesia, the language group of Malay, Sumatra. The language of Minangkabau is close to the language of Malay Riau, which means its grammar is also close to one of Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian). Sounds of Indonesian words in the language of Minangkabau change, for example, “tiga” (three) changes into “tigo”, “lurus” (straight) changes into “luruih”, “bulat” changes into “bulek”, “empat” changes into “ampek”, and so on. The dialects are Agam, Payokumbuah, Tanah Data (Batusangka), Sawah Lunto (Si Junjuang), Bangkinang, Taluak Kuantan, Talang Mamak, Karinci (Kerinci), Pasaman, Pariaman (Padang), Muko-Muko. They earn a living by growing rice in terraced fields with the traditional irrigation system or rain-fed system. Some also grow rice in rain-fed fields. Other crops they also grow are vegetables, coffee, clove, cinnamon, coconut, fruits, and so on. Some work as fishermen in rivers and sea or farmers breeding various cattle. Nowadays, most of them work as traders, employees, and experts in various fields. The population is hard to calculate, because they are scattered in various regions throughout Indonesia. However, there are at least around 6 million of them.

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The smallest kinship group in Minangkabau tribe is called saparinduan (one mother), but previously there was no clear limit. First of all, they adopt a matrilineal kinship system, in which the role of a father in household is very small. On the contrary, in this tribe, a wife’s male siblings play a bigger role. A husband in his wife’s family is called sumando, in his mother’s family is called tungganai, a person in charge of his female siblings and nephews and nieces. Secondly, because a nuclear family joins a wife’s senior family, together they live in a rumah gadang (a communal house). In Minangkabau, there used to a more popular matrilineal extended family. Minang people’s marriage system is exogamous in the tribe (a matrilineal clan). The male-giving side to a child is called bako, while the male-accepting side (because the tribe adopts a matrilocal residence) is called anak pisang. The kinship tie between the side of bako and anak pisang according to custom is called pasumandan. Kepenghuluan titles are inherited from mamak (a mother’s male siblings) to kemanakan (men’s ego). However, there are also titles for men who are not a penghulu or datuk, i.e., a title of sutan. It is the custom of Minang that they substitute a young man’s name with a title from a bako side whenever he reaches adulthood or is married. The sutan title shows that a young man has been accepted at one further phase in his nagari. Usually, the title of sutan is complemented with another name such as Sutan Pamenan, Sutan Tanbijo, Sutan Alamsyah, and so on. Their restricted extended family is based on a female lineage, called paruik or saparuik (one stomach). It is also called kaum. A group of paruiks considering themselves from one same ancestor is called a suku (clan). For this reason, there is a prohibition of marriage for those in the same clan. The above kinship principle does not mean that it causes a smaller role of men. On the contrary he is assigned to serve as a tungganai at his mother’s house. For this, a Minangkabau man is authorized to maintain and regulate heirloom and entitled to inherit a title from mamak. A chosen man is appointed penghulu (a clan or suku leader) is entitled to having the title of Datuk. The term “suku” in Minangkabau tribe is different from “suku bangsa” (tribe). “Suku” here is equal to marga (clan) in Batak people. The difference is that suku is drawn based on the matrilineal principle. There are four sukus considered to have existed for many years, namely: Bodi, Caniago, Koto, and Piliang. Next, they developed new tribes such as Malayu, Jambak, Kotoanyi, Payobada, Kurai, Bendang, Sikumbang, Mandailing, and so on. The local living unit in Ranah Minang is nagari. Previously, every nagari had its own autonomy one regulating the people was a forum of penghulu suku. In terms of democracy, they appoint a kapalo nagari (a head of village). In the Dutch colonial era, kapalo nagari was changed into wali nagari. Every nagari consisted of several villages or jorong usually inhabited by a certain suku. It is safe to say that a rigid social classification in the tribe is nonexistent, although, a rigid classification system does remain palpable at the leadership level. In addition to a penghulu kaum, there is also a penghulu suku. At the level of nagari, there is also a penghulu andiko (a main penghulu). Custom decisions are usually made by these penghulus but they must obtain support from tungku tigo

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sajarangan (tungku tiga sejerangan), namely a group of advisors consisting of ninik mamak (wise old men), cadiak pandai (intellectuals), and alim ulama. Nowadays, such a custom leadership system has already been changed by the national administration system.

These days, it is safe to say that Minangkabau people are Muslims but the old religious animism and dynamism remnants can stil be seen in several places. Some still believe in the sacredness (keramat: sacred) of a certain place or object, they believe in the existence of hantu (ghosts), kuntianak, sijundai, orang bunian (spiritual beings), and so on. Minangkabau arts take a lot of inspiration from the nature around it. They develop carving motifs on walls of rumah gadang from the shapes of plants. Motifs of animals and human beings almost cannot be discovered any longer, which is probably because of Islam’s influence. Their dance art also takes inspiration from the surrounding nature dynamics, also affecting the movements of its martial arts (silat). They develop a folk theater called randai and a dance showcasing outstanding strength (dabus). The musical art is also quite various, such as denadang, dikia (zikir—repeatedly reciting praises for God the Almighty), indang, salawat, berzanji, and ratok. The traditional musical instruments are also inspired by nature,

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such as saluang (a bamboo flute), pupuik (a flute made of rice stalk and enau leaves), rebana, gendang, adok, doal, and so forth. Minangkabau is known for the distinct culinary diversity. Such dishes are not always entirely available in Minang restaurants. Yet, they usually are served on certain occasions, especially Idul Fitri. The following are the main dishes eaten with rice, including rendang or randang (a kind of gulai or thick soup cooked until it turns thicker and darker). This side dish is safe to be eaten for several hours after cooking, which is why it is brought along on a long-distance trip. Half-cooked rendang is called kalio. Kalio or randang are made of beef, buffalo, chicken, eel and seashell. Dendeng balado is a type of dendeng made of beef or buffalo fried until it gets dry and then poured by sambalado goreng. Dendeng batokok is beef jerky fried half-done and then beaten with a mortar, and fried again until it turns crispy. Gulai tunjang is coconut milk gulai made of kikil (a part of ankle) of cow or bull. Gulai paku is a coconut milk gulai with fern as its main ingredient. Gulai banak is coconut milk with bull or cow brain. Gulai itiak is thick coconut milk gulai with duck as the main ingredient. Gulai kambiang is coconut milk with goat as its main ingredient. Gulai manih is coconut milk with goldfish or gurame as its main ingredient. It is called manih because there is no chili and only a little salt added to it. Gulai pucuak ubi is coconut milk gulai with stubs of cassava leaves as its main ingredient. Gulai asam padeh is gulai without coconut milk, with a lot of curly pepper and tamarind with beef and bull as its main ingredients.

Other common side dishes eaten with rice in the Minang culinary tradition among others are Pangek masin—a type of side dish with boiled beef or bull or fish as its main ingredient without coconut milk. Into it, there is much salt and spices added. Kalio dangiang is coconut milk gulai with jengkol as its main ingredient (Minang: jariangi).

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Sambalado tanak. Sambalado tanak is chopped curly pepper (Minang: lado) boiled down with a little water, added with slices of onion and garlic (Minang: dasun), coriander, and anchovy. Sambalado matah is curly pepper (Minang: lado) roughly chopped, cooked with a little coconut oil and slices of onion and garlic (Minang: dasun), coriander, and anchovy. Gulai cincang is coconut milk gulai with minced fatty (lamur) beef or bull. Ikan balado is fried goldfish or karper (Minang: kaluih) poured with sambalado goreng (fried sambalado). Ikan baka is a fried fish with Minang spices. Soto Padang is Minang-styled soup with slices of fried dendeng, bihun (rice noodles), perkedel sambalado, and red crackers. Goreng baluik is a fried eel poured with finely mortared sambalado. Snacks are usually served without rice but with sticky rice or ketupat (steamed rice wrapped in palm leaves) such as sate Padang which is a beef or buffalo satay cooked and served in sticks made of coconut leaves before it is grilled and poured with flavored yellow sauce made of rice flour. The variants are numerous, such as sate Pariaman, sate Tabek Panjang, sate Bukittinggi, sate Tabek Patah, sate Pikumbuah, and so on. Pical is a Minangkabau pecal (salad-like local dish made of various vegetables). Vegetables are boiled and its peanut sauce is cooked first before all of them are mixed. Ampiang dadiah is a type of cracker made of sticky rice refined in such a way with hot water and then poured with dadiah (Minang: frozen buffalo milk and sprinkled with shredded coconut and poured with tengguli (Minang: liquid brown sugar). Lamang tapai is sticky rice added with coconut milk and a little salt and then put into a bamboo covered with banana leaves, burned above a fire until it is ready to serve. Usually it is eaten with tapai ketan hitam or ketan merah. During durian season, it is also eaten with durian (Minang: Lamang Durian). Katupek pitalah is a ketupat (steamed rice wrapped in coconut leaves) eaten with coconut milk gulai and young cempedak and slices of fried onion and red crackers. Other equally delicious snacks are katan durian (sticky rice cooked with coconut milk and a little salt, served on a plate and eaten with durian. Katan Sarikayo is sticky rice eaten with serikaya (porridge made of egg dough, flour, and brown sugar). Bubur kampiun is a mix of bubur sumsum, bubur kacang hijau (mung bean porridge), kolak pisang (banana slices in coconut milk), kolak kundur (Indonesian: pumpkin), serikaya, and sticky rice. Bubur kacang adi is mung bean porridge. Snacks are usually sold during Ramadan (fasting month). During the other months, snacks like these are sold only in food stalls known as bupet, bopet, or bofet (derived from French: buffet). Minangkabau signature beverages are almost the same with ones in other coffee-producing areas. Kopi tumbruk is coffee powder mixed with a little cane sugar, brewed with boiling water, and then filtered with a piece of clean white cloth. There is also teh talua, sweet tea mixed with yolk and then stirred until it expands and produces foam. Teh daun kawa is coffee leave (Minang: daun kawa—Arabic: “kahwa”) tea brewed with boiling water and added with gula kabung (sugar produced from aren trees), and then served in a glass made of coconut shell (Minang: sayak). One may also add ginger into it. The distinct beverage can be found in Tabek Patah and Sungai Tarab sub-district, Tanah Datar Regency.

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Signature cakes of Minangkabau are many, such as galamai or kalamai (sticky rice flour mixed made into dough and cooked while being stirred and added with brown sugar and coconut milk). Kipang kacang is peanut fried without oil and added with brown sugar. Rakik maco is rice flour dough with fried crispy maco salted fish shreds. Karupuak balado is cassava boiled, sliced, dried under the sun and then fried, sprinkled with sambalado goreng (differentiating it from karupuak balado manih in Kota Padang developed and adjusted to the Chinese descendants’ taste of the town). Karupuak jangek is a type of cracker made of buffalo skin. The process of making karupuak jangek is as follows: buffalo skin is boiled down to get rid of all the hair. Afterward, slice and dry the skin under the sun. Next, fry it until it expands and dries. Karupuak sanjai is cassava sliced into thin plies, dry under the sun, and then fried until turns crispy. This karupuak is the signature snack of Bukittinggi. Karak kaliang is a mixture of maizena flour shaped with an eight-shaped semprit (a special tool) and then dried under the sun and fried. Palai rinuak is a snack served in certain months when rinuak fish (an endemic fish of the area) eggs in Singkarak Lake which have newly hatched. Fishermen gather these freshly hatched small fish with scoops and dry them under the sun on banana leaves. It is usually fried before being consumed. Pergedel jaguang is made of mostly corn mashed with a little salt and yolk and then fried. Pensi is boiled clamshell and then sold by portion at market. Such a side dish is cooked as gulai or fried by consumers. Other signature foods of Minangkabau are kue sarabi, kue putu, bika, sarang balam, lamang limo kaum, dakak-dakak simabua, kue sapik, pinyaram, lapek bugih, lamang baluluik magek, and batiah puluik. Sources: Junus (1980), Loeb (1972), Jong (1973). MODANG (Dayak Modang, Dayak Medang) 175a Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 15,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live around Segah, Kelinjau, and Belayan River in the northern part of Central Kalimantan. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, the language group of Kayan-Murut. The dialects are Kelingan (Long Wai, Long We), Long Glat, Long Bento’, Benahes, Liah Bing. MOI (Mosana) 579 Papua The tribe of Moi mostly inhabits the east of Salawati Island and some more parts around Sorong, in the western tip of the Bird Head region. The territory is in Salawati, Makbon, and Sorong sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The villages are Aimas, Fafanlap, Klasmamamn, Klaylili, Makbon, Salo, Sayosa, and Selala. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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MOLOF (Ampas) 469 Papua The people live on the south of Jayapura, in the west of Waris tribe’s territory. The territory is in Senggi sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 250. They are allegedly extinct by now. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). MONBUM (Kemelom, Komolom) 468 Papua They live in Komelom (Komolom) Island in the southeast of Kelepom (Yos Sudarso) Island, in the south of Papua. Their territory is in Kimam sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 300. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). MOMUNA (Somahai, Somage, Sumohai) 409 Papua They live in the southern plateau of Jayawijaya Mountains (the Central Mountains), in the west of Wamena. The territory lies in the east of Silimo tribe’s territory and in the south of Una tribe’s territory. The territory is in Kurima sub-district, Yahukimo Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,200. Other tribes call them the people of Somage of Somahai. The villages are Sumo, Dekai, Moruku, Indama, and Tuwo. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1985). MONGONDOW 207 Sulawesi Most of them live in Bolaang Mongondow Regency, in North Sulawesi Province, in the southwest of Minahasa tribe. The regency comprising fifteen sub-districts is inhabited by several sub-tribes. The population was around 58,800 (1930). Recently it is estimated to reach more than 400,000. The sub-tribes are Mongondow, Bintauna, Bolaang Itang, Kaidipang, and Bolaang Uki. In the old times, all the five sub-tribes were small kingdoms. The language of Mongondow is divided into five dialects, which belong to every sub-tribe above. The language serves as a lingua franca among the tribes in the region. Their settlement scatters in lowlands and hilly regions. Their houses are generally built in rows, along streets. Houses of commoners are called baloi, houses of the nobility and wealthy people are larger and bigger, called ikomaliq. In fields,

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they build temporary huts called laiq or lurung. To store crops they build a special building called langkeang. They mostly make a living by growing in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields on which they plant rice, corn, vegetables, yams, fruits, banana, clove, nutmeg, and coconut. In addition to that, some of them also prefer hunting and gathering natural resources in woods. In cities, they also work as traders of natural resources, groceries, and food besides working as government civil servants and private employees. A nuclear family consists of a father, a mother, and children, known as tongkolaki. The kinship group is a limited extended family they call tonggobuan, and a more extended family (patrilineal clan) is called motoadi. The current kinship system in the tribe is patrilineal. The influence of old social system upon the current Mongondow system is still existent, indicated by kinalang (a group of nobility) and paloko (a group of commoners). The kinalang groups, consisting of the kings’ descendants are called mododatu, and those of royal nobility are called kohongian. The group of paloko is often called simpal. ALong time ago, the lowest layer was called the group of tahiq or yobuat, they were slaves or helpers. In the era of kingdoms, the highest authority was held by a king called dato or datu. His assistants were called jogugu. A treasurer was called sahada. These kingdoms were divided into several regions led by a panghulu or marsaole. A village was led by village head based on people’s agreement by seniority, expertise in the custom and tradition, charisma, and experience. Nowadays, most of them are Christians. Despite that, some others still practicing the old religion inherited by ancestors. Sources: Kruyt (1933), Kaudern (1937), Kalangie (1983), Depdikbud (1977, 1989); Lebar (1964). See also: MONGONDOW, BINTAUNA, BOLAANG ITANG, KAIDIPANG, BOLAANG UKI. MONI (Migani, Djonggunu, Jonggunu) 120 Papua They live in the plateau of central Papua, in the northeast area of Paniai Lake, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Trans Central New Guinea, the language group of Ekari-Wolani-Moni. The population was around 20,000. They make a living by growing sweet potato, taro, cassava, banana, hunting, and catching fish. Sago is still the staple food of the tribe. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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MOR (1) 390 Papua The small tribe inhabits the northeast part of Bomberai Peninsula, on the southern coast of Bintuni Bay. The territory is in Kaimana sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps only around 100 (almost extinct). The village is Tomage. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). MOR (2) 391 Papua The tribe inhabits Mor Islands in Cenderawasih Bay, in the northwest of Nabire. The territory is in Nabire sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,100. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MORAID 586 Papua They inhabit the Irian Bird Head region, i.e., in the east of Moi tribe’s territory, in the south of Madiktribe’s territory. The villages are Sailala, Makbon, Luwelala, Seni, Saloh, Sayosa, Kelatim, Bli Kalaos, Selenek, and Serkabo. All are located in Moraid sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population was estimated to be around 1,000. MORAORI (Morari, Moaraeri) 690 Papua The population was perhaps only 50 people (it is allegedly extinct now). They lived on the southern coast of Papua, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in the east of Merauke. The language was the language subgroup of Trans– New Guinea, the language group of Fly–Bulaka River. MORI 265 Sulawesi The tribe is grouped by Kruyt into two sub-tribes, the people of Mori Atas and Mori Bawah. They generally live in Mori Atas, Petasia, and Lembo sub-district, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi. The people of Mori live along the meanders of La’a, Molioa, Molong Kuni, and Ulu Woi River. Meanwhile, the Mori Bawah

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people live around the downstream of La’a River, Woku and Moiki River. In fact, there is a third sub-tribe of Mori, Mori Malili tribe. They live by Matana Lake, along the upstream of Matana, Tamba’e, Pado’e, and Karunsi’e River. In 1930, the population was around 12,000. Recently, it is maybe around 50,000. The language of Mori is classified into the language sub-group of Bungku-Lak, considered to belong to the same language family with languages found in the southern Philippines. They make a living from agricultural activities in fields. Some others still apply the rotational farming method. Staple plants are rice, corn, vegetables and other crops. They also grow tobacco, clove, coconut, coffee, and yams. Some of them also gather ebony, resin, and rattan, as well as huntwild animals and catch fish in rivers or lakes. Some of them also develop skills of making farming iron tools, pleats, crockery, and brass. In the old times, they were known as a tribe skillful at processing bark into attractive attires, called vuya. The Mori tribe’s kinship system is bilateral. Newlyweds would live for several years in a wife’s family house until they have children or they are already able to build their own house. In previous years, they built their own administration system. It is no wonder that the social stratification system is feudalism and it remains to date. The first social layer is mokole, people who are descendants of the King of Mori (Rat Ri Tana). The second is bonto (wealthy people). The last is palili, commoners. Definitely, along with the social progress of the society, such a traditional social stratification has diminished gradually. These days, they are Muslims. However, the original religion elements are still found in their life. Sources: Lebar (1972), Kennedy (1943, 1953); Kruyt (1900), Depkdibud (1989). MORONENE (Maronene, Kabaena) 346 Sulawesi They are often called the people of Kabaena. The origin is perhaps that they were a part of Tolaki tribe, but the separation occured many years ago. They mainly live in the western coast of Buton Island, in the south of Southeast Sulawesi peninsula. The territory is in Muna Regency, Sulawesi Tenggara Province. The population was around 20,000. The language is classified into the language sub-group of Bungku-Mori-Tolaki. They generally are Muslims. The staple food of the tribe is, in fact, sago, but they also start growing rice more than ever before as the population soars and the number of sago trees diminishes around them. In addition to growing rice, they also grow vegetables, fruits, and other crops. Moronene men hunt deer or wild buffaloes, or gather natural resources from jungles such as rattan, resin, honey, and various precious trees. Sources: Lebar (1972); Depdikbud (1989).

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MORWAP (Janggu, Elseng, Tabu, Sawa) 686 Papua The population was estimated to be only about 300 people (1991 SIL). They live in the northeast of Kaureh area, Senggi, Kemtuk Gresi, and Arso sub-district, Jayapura Regency. The language belongs to the language sub-group of North Central Trans– New Guinea. MOSKONA (Sabena, Meninggo, Meningo) 684 Papua The population was perhaps around 8,000 people (1996 SIL). They inhabit the southeastern region of Irian Bird Head, in the south of Meyah tribe’s territory and in the west of Manikion. The territory lies in Sorong Regency, Papua Barat (West Papua) Province. MOUTONG 266 Sulawesi The people are classified into one part of the Tomini tribe. They live in Moutong sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. MOWEWE 347 Sulawesi They are classified as a part of Tolaki tribe. They live in Kendari and Kolaka Regency in Southeast Sulawesi Province. MPUR (Kebar, Amberbaken, Ekware, Dekwambre) The population was around 7,000 people (1993). They inhabit the coast of Irian Bird Head region, in the west of Manokwari, around the Valley of Kelar. The language is perhaps a part of the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia. MUALANG (Dayak Mualang) 129 Kalimantan The people inhabit several villages in Sungai Ayak and Belitang Hulu sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 5,500 people. Source: Rousseau (1990).

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MUARA (Dayak Muara) 208 Kalimantan They live in several villages in Kembayan sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 8,000 people. Source: Depdikbud (1989). MUKO-MUKO 016 Sumatra The tribe lives in North Muko-Muko and South Muko-Muko sub-district, in North Bengkulu Regency. The population was around 60,000 people (1980) with a low mobility level. The origin of Muko-Muko is not known. The language belongs to the language family of Malay, but it has undergone special changes. Some of the characteristics are the usage of nasal sound “ng” at the end of all words ended with a vowel. For instance, “kunci” turns into “”kuncing”, “kopi” into “koping”. On the contrary, “telinga” turns into “telingow”, “pintu” into “pintung”, and so on. The language is allegedly a dialect of Minangkabaunese. They primarily make a living by growing rice in fields with plows and hoes. They produce pleats of rattan and pandanus leaves and it is quite developed. They have embraced Islam influenced by some elements of the native religion. The kinship system is bilateral. Source: Depdikbud (1978–1979). MUNA (Wuna, Mounan) 271 Sulawesi The tribe of Muna inhabits Muna Island, in Muna Regency, located in the southern part of the southeast of Sulawesi Island. In the old times, the tribe was in the territory of Butung Sultanate. Classical ethnolinguist Esser classifies the language of Muna into the language sub-group of Muna-Butung. The language is divided into several dialects, such as the Dialect of Tiworo, Mawasangka, Gu, Kotobengke, Silompu, and Kadatua. In 1930, the population was around 16,000. Recently, it was around 200,000. Most of them work as peasants in fields, with corn as the staple crop. In addition to that, they also grow yams, sugarcanes, coconuts, and vegetables. Their export commodity crops are coffee, tobacco, clove, and kapuk (cotton-like substance).

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In the Butung Sultanate era, the people already adopted a quite rigid social stratification. Kings’ descendants were called betenone tombula. The group of nobility and officials were called meino Wamelai. The rest were commoners and then the lowest group was slaves. The kinship system is perhaps bilateral or perantal. They are generally Muslims. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1964), Koentjaraningrat (1967), Esser (1943). MUNGGUI (Natabui) 471 Papua They inhabit the northern part of Yapen Island. The villages are Munggui, Windesi, Murui, Asei, and Puramati. Their territory is in Yapen Barat sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Serui-Yapen. The population was around 900 people. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). MUROP 579 Papua They inhabit the southern part of Oksibil, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. Their territory is near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The villages are Iwur, Walapkubun, and Kurumkin. The population was around 2,000 people. They make a living by growing sweet potatoes (batatas), taro, and other vegetables. Their livestock are pigs which they also use to pay dowry. Now, most of them are Catholics. Source: Depdikbud (1989). MURUT (Dayak Murut) 160 Kalimantan The tribe lives in the northern part of South Kalimantan and East Kalimantan Province. Some of them adopt agriculture by growing crops in irrigated fields. Because of this, experts assume that they may have arrived in Kalimantan through the Philippines and learned irrigation there.

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Source: Depdikbud (1989).

MUSI (Musi Sekayu) 076 Sumatra The people of Musi are usually called the people of Musi Sekayu. They live around the meanders of Musi River, especially around Sekayu sub-district, some live in Babat, Sungai Lilin, Talang Kelapa sub-district, in Musi Banyuasin Regency. Some others live in Muara Kelingi and Muara Lakitan sub-district in Musi Rawas Regency. The population was around 350,000. The language is categorized into the language subgroup of Malay, with Sekayu dialect. They mostly make a living by farming in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields. Some others catch fish in rivers, make plaits of pandanus leaves, and so on. The kinship system is patrilineal. Nuclear families build houses around a husband’s extended family’s neighborhood. The social stratification follows one of Simbur Cahaya. They are Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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MUYU 376 Papua The settlement of the tribe is located in the southern part of Papua, in the east, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, i.e., around Kao, Muyu, and Digul River. The tribe is divided into two groups, Kati Ninati living in the north and Kati Metomka living in the south. The language is called the language of kati. The population was around 15,000, scattered in lowlands and some others in the southern hilly region. Those who live in the plateau make a living by farming with sweet potato, taro, banana, breadfruit, and fruits as the staple crops. Meanwhile, besides farming, those who live in the lowlands also shred sago to produce additional food. Sago is one of the staple foods at parties for those who live in the lowlands. Significant livestock are pigs they slaughter only on important occasions such as religious ceremonies and custimary parties. To fulfill the needs of other side dishes, they prefer hunting wild animals and catching fish in rivers. Types of game they hunt include boar, cassowaries, deer, snakes, kuskuses, lizards, various birds, and bats. They live in stilted houses large enough to house several nuclear families. Every house is inhabited by a patrilineal large family, consisting of a senior nuclear family and several junior nuclear families. In the kinship system, they apply a patrilineal kinship principle. A settlement commonly consists of 8–10 stilted houses. Often it is discovered that there are familial ties between these people in a settlement, both because of genealogical and marital ties. Every nuclear family forms a household even though it stays under the same roof with other nuclear families from a husband’s family. Such a nuclear family is called namaretna, in which a room in Muyu traditional house is marked by a separate fire stove. Meanwhile, an extended family group living together is called nuwabib. In addition to that, they are also bound to a limited extended family or patrilineal clan tie. In various certain religious–social events, they also activate bilateral kinship ties. How they select a spouse is clan exogamous. Their residence custom is patrilocal. Now many of them are Christians. Meanwhile, the native religion still survives even though some certain elements are already eliminated. The native religion worships ancestral spirits and natural spirits considered to inhabit cerain places around human settlements. Every settlement usually builds a sacred place, called ketpom which is forbidden for outsiders to enter. Ketpom may take shape in jungles and shrines or certain objects in the nature considered to be inhabited by spiritual creatures, spirits called tanggitmon or tataman. Such spirits would be agitated and punish people who destroy their houses. Sometimes these spirits appear in the form of certain animals such as a large boar (awankop), a large serpent (ninari), a larga kangaroo (bambati), a large lizard (jawat). To prevent these spirits from being angry, they devise a number of prohibitions (amop) in the native religion. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (1963).

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N NABI (Modan, Kuri) 472 Papua The tribe inhabits the area along the meanders of Kuri River running through the northeast of Bomberai Peninsula, inside Bintuni Bay. The territory of the tribe lies in Babo and Wasior sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. THe population was around 600 people. The villages are Waguram, Sarebe, Naramasa, Taramanate and Nabi. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). NAFRI 379 Papua The small tribe lives in Nafri Village in the southeastern tip of Yatafa Bay, near Jayapura. The territory lies in Abepura sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Irian Jaya Province. The population was about 1,800. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). NAGE KEO (Nage, Keo) 622 Nusa Tenggara The tribe of Nage or Nage Keo lives in the central part of Flores Island, in the east of Riun and Ngada tribe’s territory. Their territory lies in Ngada and Ende Regency, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The population was around 83,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language group of Ngada. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1979) See also: NGADA NALCA (hmanggona, Kimyal, Hmonono) 687 Papua The population was estimated to be around 8,000–10,000 (1987 SIL). They live in the east of Pegunungan Tengah (Jayawijaya Mountains), in the northeast of Korupun Sea and the southeast of Nipsan. The language is categorized into the

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language sub-group of Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Mek. The tribe is possibly different from Kimyal tribe. Further research is required. NAPU (Pekurehua) 290a Sulawesi The population was estimated to be around 6,000 (1995). They live in ten villages in Napu Valley, Lore Utara sub-district, Central Sulawesi. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Kaili-Pamona. The language is close to the language of Besoa. They make a living as rice farmers in fields and rain-fed fields. They are Christians and some are Muslims. Further research is required. NAUETI (Nuhete) 541 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives on a narrow part of the southern coast of Lautem Regency, near the borderline of Wekeke (Viqueque) Regency. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, and is divided into the dialect of Naumik and Oso Moko. The population was around 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hatoori). Further research is required. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1990). NDAO (Ndaonese, Ndaundau) 468 Nusa Tenggara The population was estimated to be around 3,500 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in Ndao Island, offshore of west Roti Island. Some others live on the coast of Sumba Island, Roti Island, and Timor Island. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia. It is close to Sabunese. Further research is required. NDOM 473 Papua The tribe of Ndom or Dom lives in Kolepom Island (Yos Sudarso Island) in the south of Papua. The region is in Kimam sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 2,500. The villages are Sibenda, Kalilam-Muruba, Pemboro, and Wetau-Kamburuda. Further research is required.

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NDUGWA (Nduga, Ndauwa, Dauwa, Dawa, Pesechem, Pesecham, Pesegem) 405 Papua The other name of the tribe is Nduga. They live on the plateau in the central part of Jayawijaya Mountains, specifically in the south part of Dani barat tribal territory and in the north of Asmat tribal territory. The villages are Akimuga, Mapnduma, and Tanga. All are located in Tiom sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 10,000. Nduganese are divided into several dialects, Sinak Nduga and Hitadipa Nduga. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). NGADA (Ngadha, Ngada, Nad’a, Nga’da, Bajawa, Rokka) 356 Nusa Tenggara They , in fact, are divided into several sub-tribes, Ngada, Maung, Riung, Rongga, Nage Keo, Bajawa and Palue. The sub-tribes are in general marked by difference of dialects. Despite that, their cultural characteristics show resemblance. The tribe lives in Flores Island, specifically in Ngada Regency, Nusa tenggara Timur Province. The population was around 155,000 (1975). They make a living by farming. Some cultivale fields, while others breed livestock such as cows and buffaloes, and horses. A house of Ngada tribe is called nua. Traditional houses are built in an oval or rectangular pattern with a square in the center for gatherings or rituals. In the center of the field, there is a stone stage called terse to complete a ceremony. On top of terse, there is an altar called watu lewa. In previous years in the front part of the villages there was a pole of worship made of stone called ngadhu, and a sacred small house for spirit worshipping. A nuclear family is called se sao. Several se sao form an extended patrilineal family called sipopali. Several sipopalis considering they are descended from the same ancestor with another sipopali joining them, form a small clan called ilibhou. Several ilibhous are bound to a genealogical–territorial unity called woe. Each woe has a symbol of “totem” they highly respect. A social stratification generally appears from dominant woe groups who consider themselves nobility. Such a social stratification is called gae meze. A lower layer is occupied by a commoners group called gae Kisa. The lowest one is the group of slaves or former slaves called azi ana or ho’o. These days, some of them are Catholics and a few are Muslims. Their native religion is animism and dynamism, which some of them still practice the old faiths. Sources: Daeng (1979), Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1964).

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NGAJU (Dayak Ngaju, Ngajuk, Dayak Biadju, Dayak Barito) 144 Kalimantan The population was estimated to be around 250,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live along the meanders of Kapuas, Kahayan, Katingan, and Mentaya River, especially in North Kahayan Hulu sub-district, Central Kalimantan. There are 27 villages of Ngaju tribe in the sub-district. They call themselves the people of Ngaju, or Ta Ngajuk. The language is called Bahasa Kadori or Dohoi and is considered to be of the same language family (Ot Danum—languages of upstream folks). The villages are always built by the river, maybe because the fastest trans-village transportation access is through river. In previous years, these villages were marked by a communal house called a betang house, a long house occupied by several dozen families. Nowadays, the relics of betang houses can still be found in Tumbang Korik Village. The remaining betang houses are only three units and were modified by Central Kalimantan Tourism Board to serve as a museum and guest houses for tourists. The native people now prefer building small houses for their nuclear families. The kinship system is bilateral. According to several informants, the existing villages are now generally new settlements. For example, inhabitants of Tumbang Sian Village were formerly from Tumbang Musang Village located in the upstream of Miri River. Tumbang Sian started to inhabit the area in 1906 after the Dutch Colonial government told them to move there. Tumbang Tajungan Village was also founded only in the 1920s. Dusun Takawai, for example, is a part of Tumbang Korik Village after some of the inhabitants moved upstream of Hamputung River. During the Dutch Colonial Era, there was allegedly a unification of traditional administration system and customary regulations oriented to a ruler called demang or damang. Back then the authority of demang is maybe at the level of a camat and under a kawedanan (led by a resident assistant). The last demangs in Hulu Kahayan were located in Tewah, Tumbang Mahuroi, Basarang, Kuala Kurun, Bukit Rawi, Tumbang Bahandut, Tumbang Jutuh Rungan, Puruk Cahu, and Kuala Kapuas. In every village ruled by a demang, there is a village ruler called pembekal. In executing his authority, a demang is assisted by a number of mantirs, such as a tax mantir, security mantir, customs mantir, and so on. According to the most recent information, a demang’s position is equaled to a camat assistant in charge of social affairs. It is said that they wear sub-district employee uniforms and are entitled to having an honor. After the last demang passed away, the local government does not seem willing to activate the traditional institution as it financially burdens the sub-district administration office. Furthermore, the traditional leadership system seems to be much affected by the Melayu Banjarmasin feudal administration system that had existed long before the Dutch people came. One of the reasons was there was temenggung, whose position was higher than a demang. The temenggung, in fact, is a representative of a sultan posted in annexed territories.

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The impact of feudal administration system on the local people is the existence of social stratification, dividing the tribe into several layers. The nobility (princes’ or temenggungs’ family members, demangs or damungs, and other royalty) is called Kiyahi group. After the highest layer, there is a group of commoners. Some of them who are prominent and show outstanding merit are awarded the title of Singa. There is also a group of slaves called Jipen. These people are, in fact, those who are forced to work for the nobility because the have no financial assets to pay customary fines charged on them. Nowadays, the term “Jipen” is also used to refer to a customary fine system. Unhappily, there is no informant able to tell clearly how the region was affected by the Banjarmasin Sultanate. Perhaps the impact is not acknowledged as it may ruin the tribe’s esteem. These days, the role of custom leaders is almost nonexistent. The last demang finally passed away in 1996 and there was no one to succeed. Meanwhile, the customary administration of villages has also been replaced by the village head authority. In all of the surveyed villages, the position of local leaders, i.e., pembekal, has now been filled by a village head. The traditional law which still applies but has become less rigid is the customary fine called Sahiring and Jipen. Sahiring is a type of fine set in the local custom, intending to “replace one self”, after one’s self esteem is violated. For example, one is fined to pay with guci hahobot (a type of antique and expensive vase). Meanwhile, jipen is a fine for people who commit violations of interactions between males and females, who are married and unmarried based on the local custom. Fines are usually in a form of precious objects and an amount increases according to a number series, in line with the scale of violation committed. A jipen custom decision alone now lies in the hand of a village head. The kinship principle of Ngaju tribe is ambilineal as the lineage is not only connected to the paternal origin but also the maternal one. For that reason, they really respect ancestral spirits from both sides. An ideal marriage form is one between a bachelor and a young woman who are cousins at the second level (hajenan), i.e., cousins from one’s grandfather’s sibling. According to an informant in Tumbang Sian Village Protestants have been coming into and settling in the area since 1885, and were encouraged by German missionaries. During this period, most of Ngaju people admitted they were Christians. They only have different church groups. In a small village, there may be two masses of different churches. There is also a group of native people practicing the native religion called Kaharingan. In the daily life, old traditional rules have been replaced by Christian rules, including wedding and death ceremonies which were initialy the manifestation of the acme of the Ngaju culture. The scale of Protestantism impact on the people’s life is seen from the developed church social organization, even in the hinterland of Kahayan River there is a large and expensive private/ religious hospital complex, in Tumbang Mohuroi. These missionaries have opened an aviation court in several villages, and hold flights with amphibi flying planes to certain regions. Kaharingan religious activities , in fact, are not yet abandoned completely. Some of them still practice death traditional rituals. The death ceremonies are held by a

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family called nyorat, and death ceremonies conducted together by an entire village is called tewah or tiwah. A main activity in the ceremony is digging out and collecting all close relative’s bones to be cleaned and put into a better place. In the old times, tewah grave is closed with a coffin with carvings. Nowadays, tewah graveyard has been cemented into walls, painted in many colors, and decorated with ceramics. The ceremony involves buffaloes or pigs as offerings and also carved poles (pantar) and wooden statues (sandung). Based on gathered information, every village still holds tiwah but according to them, the ceremony is performed only to fulfill their deceased parents’ requests as Kaharingan practitioner. Among Ngaju youths, there is a stigma that they are ashamed if people still think they practice Kaharingan as they are deemed to be worshippers of idols and spirits. The chjange of attitude is not only due to Christianities influence but also due to their social life changes. Basically, Kaharingan are oriented toward the worshipping of ancestral spirits (anyang) and of natural spirits considered as supernatural creatures reigning over certain places. For this, the practitioners of Kaharingan would hold ceremonies to connect to these spirits, such as water spirits (jatuk), underground spirits (patahu), and sky spirits (antang). Ceremonies around agricultural activities have become significant because the people rely for their living on rice grown in their rain-fed fields. Phases of cultivating fields are always performed by holding ceremonies and customary parties, from a manejek petak ceremony, held in opening and stepping on a field once it is cleared to plant on. Afterward, there is a Makal ceremony, which involves burning down the cleared part of jungle. There is also a ceremony held to accompany a communal work in fields (Handep: communal work) during a period of seed planting with tugal (nugal) and harvesting rice (Ngetam). According to informants, in cultivating land, there are at least five ceremonies and parties. The land ownership system by customs in the Ngaju tribe is based on cultivation and signs of cultivation. It means that a cleared patch of land in woods belongs to someone who clears it up and parts of jungle showing a sign of manufacturing such as perennial trees grown to be harvested. Perennial trees commonly grown in the land where they have cultivated include durian, jackfruit, and mango. Since the beginning of the century, the lands on which they grew edible crops now also contain rubber trees. Many rely on rubber as a source of income. Another sign that a certain part of jungle belongs to a community or an individual is an abandoned house, cemetery and poles of anyang (pantar). Meanwhile, communal and individual owned land boundaries can only be recognized based on natural restrictions orally stated in gatherings. Knowledge on land boundaries is one of the aspects that a custom leader such as pembekal or mantir has to master. However, with the diminishing role of custom leaders, land ownership and boundaries have been taken over by a village head who is also in charge of responsibilities which formerly belonged to a custom leader. In general, Naju people make a living from agriculture. They grow edible plants to eat and commodity plants, especially rubber trees. Rice remains a staple crop in rotational fields. However, the fallowing system they adopt is already very short, because most of fields are opened from a bush jungle with a 5-to-6-year fallowing

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period. Their additional occupations are catching fish in rivers, occasionally hunting wild animals with nooses or traps. Some young men in Ngaju villages around the meanders of Kahayan River work as gold miners. They work by using rafts and pumps with diesel power to suck sand containing gold from the riverbed. Meanwhile, some young men and women from villages around the HPH business area also work as wood clearers and loggers. In terms of handicraft, like other Dayak tribes, they are skillful at pleating to make their own household utensils to support their work form bamboo. Products include mats and baskets. Their pleat products look refined, carefully made and decorated with traditional motifs with local colorants. As peasants with the rotational farming method and occasional hunters, they also make their own tools to cut down trees such as pickaxes, machetes, spears as well as chopsticks. Because of the changes of occupation, spears and chopsticks are now rarely made, while there are many spears and chopsticks, they are sold to foreign and domestic tourists. In fact, the tribe also has art elements originating from their native culture, especially one of Kaharingan faith, such as what is seen in the relics of wooden statues, tiwah ceremony poles, and art dances and music. Sources: Hidayah (1997), Danandjaja (1979), King (1985, 1993). YALI (Yalik, Ngalik) 474 Papua The tribe is also called Yalik or Ngalik. They live in the plateau of Jayawijaya Mountains, in the northwest of the Big Valley of Dani. The territory lies in Kurima District, Yahukimo, Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 40,000 people. Their villages are Uwam, Yahuruk, Moholukono, Jalisili, Pronggoli, Apohapsili, and Panggime. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). NGALUM (Sibil) 595 Papua The tribe lives in Oksibil Valley in the south of Jayawijaya Mountains which in the Dutch Colonial Era was called Steren Geberte (the Mountains of Stars). Mandala Peak (4,700 m) is located in the northwest of the valley. Their territory is located in Oksibil sub-district, Pegunungan Bintang Regency, Papua Province, near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The language is categorized into the language family of Papua-Melanesia, the language sub-group of Central Trans– New Guinea. The population was around 5,000. The tribe usually builds their settlement in the highest hill peaks, in order to avoid enemies’ attacks. Their houses in the villages are designed in a circular pattern with a house of bachelors (bokam iwoli) in the center of it. These days, they

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begin building their houses on the lowlands, on the left and right of paths in villages. They build houses on wooden poles, the walls are made of pine trees, the roofs are made of pandanus leaves, and all the joints are bound with rattan. These houses are cylindrical, without windows, and there are only two doors with a pendulum as high as half a meter. A stove to cook and heat the house is placed in the center of the house. A family house called abib is occupied by a husband and a wife and their young son and daughter. Adult men and teenage boys spend more time in bokam iwol. A house door in the front is meant for males and the rear one is for females. They make a living by farming in fields they open on ridges of hills and mountains. The farming still applies a rotational method in each village land. Their plants are sweet potato, or batatas (Ipomea batatas) in the local language called boneng and taro. Other foods eaten with sweet potato and taro are sayur gedi (Hibiscus manihot), sayur lilin (Sacaru medulo), red pandanus fruits, carrot, spinach, cabbage, potato, and nuts introduced by the government and Catholic missionaries. In previous years, Ngalum men only wore a type of dried pumpkin (bong) to cover their manhood and skirts made of straw fibers (unom). Self-defense, hunting tools, and household utensils are very simple because they are made of wood, bamboo, rattan, seashell, and stone. Basically the kinship principle of Ngalum tribe is patrilineal, especially one related to family economic activities, ceremonies, and rights over parental inheritance. However, they also develop quite close bilateral kinship ties between a father’s relatives and a mother’s relatives, especially with male siblings of a mother. A nuclear family is called tenabun. In the wider scope of polictical–social relations, the role of patrilineal clan is very important. The term they use to refer to “clan” is iwol-mai, and a leader of a clan is called iwol ngolki. Every village is led by a custom leader they call kakaalut. However, a power of a warlord called arah ngolki is sometimes higher than a power of a kakaalut because of bravery and merits. In addition to that, another quite significant figure is a leader of rumah bujang called with a title of bokam ngolki, because such a figure also serves as a leader of every religious ritual. Nowadays, they generally are Catholics. The native religion which is inclined to be animism believes that the dead human spirits, natural spirits, and deities play a big role in human’s life. A deity they deem a creator of human being as Atangki or Awi with its offspring called Seramki. Atangki created a worm which later on altered its shape into a human being. He also creates the earth, plants, animals, and everything in the universe. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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NGGEM 691 Papua The population was maybe around 3,000 people (1991 SIL). They live along the meanders of central Haflifoeri River, the north of Wamena. The language is categorized into the language family of western Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Dani-Kwerba. It is close to the language of Walak. Further research is required. NIAS (Niha, Ono Niha) 015 Sumatra The tribe inhabits Nias Island in the western part of Sumatra Island. Together with several islets, the area is now in Nias Regency, North Sumatra Province. The native people of the island are called Ono Niha, meaning “human offsprings”, and call their island Tano Niha, meaning “the land of human beings”. If the number of Nias Regency inhabitants in 1975 was 416,046 people, then around 410,000 of them were the people of Nias. In 1983, the population of Nias tribe was estimated to be around 480,000 people. Meanwhile, the other tribes are immigrants, such as Bataknese, Acehnese, Minangkabau, and Chinese people. The language of Nias is categorized into the language family of Austronesia. The language spreads to the hinterland of Batu Islands in the south of Nias Island. There are four dialects, the dialect of Central Nias, North Nias (Gomo), South Nias (Teluk Dalam) and Batu. The smallest family group or nuclear family in the local language is called sangambato. Several nuclear families form a limited extended family called sangambato zebua. The kinship principle is patrilineal and usually an extended family lives together in an omo (a house). Several sangambato zebuas from a similar ancestor join a mado (in North Nias and Central Nias). A child would add a name mado of his father at the end of his small name. People from a mado can marry each other, so long as their kinship tie is at least 10 levels removed. They live in settlement groups they built on hills and fenced by stones or barbed fences. Such a village is called banua, led by a siulu (a noble person) they call Tuhenori or Salawa (a king).

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In the old days, they adopted quite a rigid social stratification. In South Nias, for example, there was a social class, such as siulu (the nobility), ere (the native religion priest), ono mbanua (native people or commoners), and sawuyu (slaves). The governing siulu group is, for example, appointed to work as a village head as balo siulu. Meanwhile, native people can be divided into a group of siila (intellectuals) and sato (commoners). The group of sawuyu is divided into three smaller groups, binu (slaves as prisoners of war, they lose a war and sacrificed for rituals), sondrara hare (slaves after they fail to repay debts), and holito (slaves who are saved from capital punishment). The impact of such a social stratification is still apparent to date, because siulu group, for example, may not marry people from sato group. Meanwhile, sawuyu group is now extinct. The Nias tribe main occupations are agriculture with produce of sweet potato, cassava, sweet potato, and a little rice. The additional occupations are hunting and gathering. Nowadays, in this island, they grow clove and patchouli shrubs for the oil to be extracted. Besides that, there are many others manage plantations of coconut in large fields. In previous years Nias was a center of an advanced megalithic civilization. The stone culture works are still intact to date, such as desks and chairs made of stone,

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monuments, and statues of spirits and omo hada (a traditional house) built in flat large stones and on large wooden poles, with ancient carvings. Nowadays, most of them are Christians and a few are Muslims. Their native religion is called malohe adu (spirit worshippers) in which there many deities, some of which deemed the highest is Lowalangi. They worship spirits by building statues made of stine and woods. Their spirit worshipping shrine is called ere. Now the name “Lowalangi” is borrowed to refer to “Tuhan Allah” and “osali” to refer to “a church” in the Christian concept. Sources: Lebar (1972), Danandjaja (1983), Suzuki (1959), Schroeder (1921). NIMBORAN 596 Papua The people of Nimboran or Nambrung or Nambrong live in the valley of Sermowai, Moaif, and Nimboran River in the north of Papua New Guinea, near the borderline of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. The villages are Genyem, Ambrop, Warombai, Imeno, Sermai and Berap. The population was around 4,000 people. The name “Nimboran” is perhaps derived from the name of one of Nimbu creeks. Known for their diligence, they make a living by farming. Their fields are fenced to prevent any attack of wild animals such as boar. Their staple crops are sweet potato, cassava, taro, corn, vegetables, and fruits. Chores in fields are generally done by members of a nuclear family. In the old times, they applied a rotational farming method and to get new fertile land, now they start to adopt an intensive farming method. In addition to that, they can also catch fish in rivers flowing to their territory. Animals they hunt are boars, cassowaries, rats, and brids. They live in villages built generally on ridges of hills. The most significant kinship group is a nuclear family, a combination of several junior and senior nuclear families. The kinship system is patrilineal. Source: Boelars (1986). NINGGRUM (Ninggerum, Ninggirum, Kativa, Kasiwa, Obgwo, Muyu) 692 Papua The population was perhaps around 1,000 people in Papua and 3,000 in Papua New Guinea. They live in the borderline of Papua New Guinea, between the valley of Ok Birim and Ok Tedi River. The language is categorized into the language family of south-Central Trans–New Guinea. They call themselves Muyu people. Further research is required.

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NISA (Bonefa, Kerema) 597 Papua The tribe lives in the hinterland of Papua, in the east of Nisa Lake. The territory is in Waropen Bawah sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 270 people. Further research is required. NOBUK (Nopuk) 693 Papua The population was perhaps only 300 people (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They live in the east of Mamberamo River, in the mountainous area between Kwerba and Kasonaweja Village, Jayawijaya Regency. The language is categorized into the language family of Central-Western Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Dani-Kwerba. They are hunters and gatherers. They practice a native religion. Further research is required. NUAULU (Naulu, Nunuhai) 386 Maluku The tribe is often called Naulu or Nuahunai people, meaning people living upstream of Nua River, the area where they were from before they finally settled in the current territory. Now they live in some part of Amahai sub-district, in the south of Seram Island, Maluku Tengah Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 1,000 people living in four villages they call negeri, namely Negeri Lama, Rahua, Aisuru, and Hawalan. The settlement pattern they usually prefer is a row of houses along the main street of a village. Every household having a daughter ready to be married builds a small shrine called posuno. Meanwhile, to fulfill spiritual needs, they build a shrine to worship ancestral spirits. Such a shrine is called suwane. In addition to that, they also have an assembly hall used to hold a meeting they call baileo. The kinship system is patrilineal, in which nuclear families join a senior nuclear family to form a family they call matarumah. A number of matarumahs with the same ancestor form a limited extended family (clan) they call soa. The people are led by a tribal head they usually call kapitan elected from some descendants of the most senior and dominant matarumahs. The native religious activities are performed under the direction of a custom leader called mauweng. An assembly is usually attended by soa leaders. To date, there are only four soas recorded, Bunara, Latane, Rohua and Yasihuru. They believe in the existence of a creator called Upu Kuanahatana. This faith is, in fact, a part of their belief system which is oriented to deities and ancestral spirits influential to humans’ life. Spirits they worship are mainly the spirits of

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kapitan. For this reason, they build an altar to worship them in a baileo. Evil spirits are called nitu. They also believe in the magical power that humans can take advantage of for good or bad intentions. Such a magical power is called matakau. Source: Depdikbud (1989). NYADU (Dayak Nyadu, Balantiang, Balantian) 175b Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 9,000 people. They live around the meanders of Landak River, one of its creeks Sambars River, West Kalimantan. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, the language group of Dayak Darat. Further research is required.

O OBOKUITAI (Obogwitai, Ati, Aliki) 694 Papua The population was perhaps around 130 people (1996 SIL). They live in the area with many lakes, in the north of central part of Tariku River, Obogwi Village, Jayapura Regency. Further research is required. OGAN 076 Sumatra Nowadays, they are estimated to be around 190,000, they live in Baturaja, Pangandonan, Peninjauan, and Pegagan Ilir Suku II sub-district, Ogan Komering Ulu and Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay. The language of Ogan belongs to Malay, with two special dialects, i.e., Ogan Ilir and Ogan Ulu. They make a living by cultivating land. The kinship system is patrilineal but in marriages, they may be matrilineal, depending on the agreement of both sides. They are mostly Muslims. The system and society structure is affected by the custom rules of Simbur Cahaya, the codification of legal rules of the Palembang Sultanate era. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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OKOLOD (Dayak Kolod, Dayak Murut) 175c Kalimantan The population was around 2,000–3,500 in Kalimantan (Sabah and Sarawak, Malaysia are included). They live in the borderline of the north of the territory of Dayak Lundayeh tribe. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Kalimantan, and the language group of Murut. They are mostly Christian and some also practice the traditonal religion. Further research is required. ONIN 598 Papua The tribe of Onin lives in some part of northern and northwestern Bomberai Peninsula. Their villages are Sum, Patipi, Salakiti, Tawar and Rumbati, in Fakfak and Kokas sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 700 people. The language of Onin is perhaps divided into several dialects such as Nikuda, Ogar, Patipi, and Sepa. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). ORIA (Orya, Warpu, Warpok, Bundru, Saweh) 599 Papua The population was around 1,600. They live in Bundru, Bemesre, Yapsi, Taja, Ninggihe, Jabam, Dore, Jarad, Keratery, Membunyu, Sumasaui, Unurum, Bauye, and Guay Village. The area is located in the west upstream of Wiruta River. Most of them live in Kaure sub-district, and some others in Unurumguai sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). ORMU 695 Papua The population of the tribe was around 600 peope (1995 SIL). They live in the northern coast of the west Jayapura, in Ormu Besar and Ormu Kecil Village, the north of Siklop Mountains. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia. Further research is required.

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OSING (Using) 107 Java-Bali The population was perhaps around 200,000 (1981 C. and B. Grimes SIL). The tribe of Osing or Using is scattered in Giri, Glagah, Kabat, Rogojampi, Banyuwangi, Singojuruh, Genteng, and Srono Sub-district, Banyuwangi Regency, East Java Province. They consider themselves the native inhabitants of the area. Originally, they are descendants of Blambangan Kingdom people who exiled in the era of Majapahit Kingdom. It may be said that they are a part of the Javanese tribe. The name “Osing” was given by immigrants settling down in the area in the 19th century. The word “osing” or “using” means “no”. This shows their attitude of rejection toward external influence a long time ago. They speak Javanese with their own dialect, the Osing dialect. The dialect resembles Jawa Kuno language (Ancient Javanese), for example, the word “isun” (I), “paran” (what), and so on. They live from agriculture, carpentry, and handicraft. The kinship system is bilateral, but there is also an inclination toward patrilineal system. The main kinship unity is a nuclear family. In its social life, there seems to be a social stratification, dividing them into three classes. The first class is the highest layer consisting of leaders of village, clerics, and spiritual teachers. The second class is the kiddle class consisting of employees, traders, and wealthy farmers. And then the lowest are commoners and peasants. Despite the arrival of Islam, they still believe and practice the old religion of the ancestors, which is animism. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). OT DANUM (Uut Danum, Uud Danum) 131 Kalimantan The people live around the meanders of Melawi, Silat, Meateh River in Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province are Ot Danum. Some of them live in Central Kalimantan, around the meanders of Kahayan, Rungan, Barito, and the upstream of Kapuas River. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Kalimantan, the language group of Barito. The population was around 6,000 people. The people of Ot Danum build settlements by the riverbanks. The houses are in line with streets perpendicular to rivers, and built on 2-m-high wooden poles. The stilted houses they usually build are called betang. Every village has a betang with rooms for nuclear families, which number around 50. They mainly make a living by farming with a rotational method. Their staple crops are rice, cassava, yams, taro, eggplant, pineapple, banana, sugarcane, chili, and fruits (such as durian, cempedak, betel, and areca nut). They also make a living by gathering natural resources in jungles such as rattan, resin, iron wood, rubber, gold ores, catching fish, and hunting wild animals.

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The kinship system is ambilineal, meaning that some of them draw the lineage from the male side and some others from the female side. In previous years, a small betang was developed from a small ambilineal family. Today, a virilocal extended family form is more prevalent. A village formally is led by a pembekal acting as an administration leader (a village head) and a penghulu serving as a custom leader. The position of penghulu is often filled by a figure later awarded the title of patih. The social stratification in the tribe is not rigid even though there is a group claiming themselves to be descendants of important and honred people. The native religion of Ot Danum is also called Kaharingan, a term used by Dayak tribes to differentiate the native religion from other religions. Kaharingan believers are convinced that the surrounding nature is full of spirits living in trees, stones, and large rivers. Some of these spirits are evil and good. Souls of the newly deceased people linger around living humans until living humans perform a ritual for them. After that, a spirit would leave for the realm of spirits. For this reason, corpses are kept for a while in coffins in a massive ceremony called daro. A second burial ceremony is led by some balians, i.e., Kaharingan clerics. Sources: Danandjaja (1983), King (1985), Rousseau (1990).

P PADA 268 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the groups’ of Pamona tribe living in an area around the valley upstream of Laa River, in the east of Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. PADO’E (Padoé, Alalao) 290b Sulawesi The population was around 6,000 people (1991 D. Andersen). They live in Nuha, Malili, and Mangkutana sub-district, Luwu Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Mori. They are Christians and Muslims. Further research is required.

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PAGU 387 Maluku The tribe is one small tribe living in the hinterland of the northern land of Halmahera Island, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 2,000 people. They generally live around the upstream of Kau River flowing to Kau Bay. They make a living by farming and gathering natural resources in jungles and hunting wild animals. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). PAKAMBIA 269 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as a group of Pamona tribe. They live in the valley area upstream of Laa River, east of Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. PALEMBANG (Melayu Palembang) 077 Sumatra The tribe was, in fact, formed from the amalgamation of Javanese people in the era of Sriwijaya Kingdom with Malay people, Chinese, and other tribes living around the area. Because nowadays the elements of culture and language resemble ones of other Malay people, some experts call them Melayu Palembang. They live in Palembang city and the neighboring areas, especially along Musi River, Tangga Buntung, Sungai Tawar, Bukit Seguntang, Plaju Jalan Darat, and Kertapati area. The word “palembang” is perhaps derived from the word “palimbangan”, referring to an activity of gold mining in rivers. In the era of Palembang Sultanate, they mostly worked as gold panners in the estuary of Ogan River. Others opine that “palembang” is derived from the word “pa lemba”, meaning the unfolded land. According to historians, Palembang was located in a coastal area, instead of the hinterland like what we find now. They make a living now by working as traders, blacksmiths and goldsmiths, weaving, catching fish, making fishery tools, and occasionally gardening. The kinship system of the tribe is bilateral. Despite that, the residence pattern is uxorilocal because newlyweds usually build their houses near a wife’s extended family settlement. Their social stratification nowadays shows some influence of Palembang Sultanate. In the tribe, there is a nobility group marked by the titles they use such as Pangeran, Raden, Raden Ayu, Mas Agus dan Mas Ayu. The nobility descendants already mixed with the commoners are allowed to use titles such as Kiayi

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Mas, Kemas, Kiayi Bagus, and Kiagus for males; and Nyimas or Nyanyu for females. The other most populous group is the group of the commoners. Nowadays they are Muslims and developing art forms with Islamic elements such as rodat saropal anam and dulmuluk folk theater. The remaining influence of Sriwijaya Kingdom is closely related to Kediri Kingdom in Java and is still apparent in the art of Palembang puppet. In Palembang City, the Chinese community is quite large. Foods such as pempek or tekwan made of fish show an impression of “Indonesian-Chinese taste” closely associated with the people of Palembang. A number of Palembang foods show the assimilation of both culinary cultures, as mentioned below. Pempek is a distinct food of Palembang known widely throughout Indonesia. Fish and sago flour are the main ingredients considering that there have been many sago trees growing in the east of Sumatra since the era of Sriwijaya. Thanks to the Mainland Chinese cultural influence, the people of Palembang managed to process these main ingredients into various types of pempek by making many variants of fillings and other additional ingredients such as chicken eggs, fish skin, and tofu to the main ingredients. Variants of pempek found in Palembang among others are pempek kapal selam (pempek formed like a submarine), pempek lenjer, pempek keriting pempek adaan, pempek kulit, pempek tahu, pempek pistel, pempek udang, pempek lenggang, pempek panggang, pempek belah and pempek otak-otak. As a side dish of pempek, Palembang people usually add thick dark sauce made of boiled brown sugar, chili, and dried shrimps people call saus cuka or cuko, meaning vinegar sauce. Tekwan is a Palembang signature food looking like fish soup made of fish and sago shaped into small meatballs to which is then added shrimp broth as soup, and soun (rice noodles) and table mushroom as complementary ingredients. Pindang ikan patin is a Palembang signature food, which tastes hot, sour, and savory. Model looks like tekwan but the basic ingredients are fish and sago, shaped into something looking like pempek tahu. Afterward, it is cut into small sizes and shrimp broth is added into it as soup and soun as complementary ingredients, namely model ikan or model iwak (fish model) and model gandum or model gendum (wheat model). Laksan is made of pempek lenjer tebal, cut laterally and then poured with hot coconut milk soup. Celimpungan is like laksan. Only that it is pempek dough shaped into tekwan-like chunks but it is bigger and poured with coconut milk. Mie Celor is made of yellow noodles with a larger size (like Japanese soba noodles), poured with thick shrimp broth soup and shrimp. Burgo is made of rice flour and sago flour shaped like omelet rolls, which later can be sliced and eaten with coconut milk soup. Lakso is made of rice flour, like burgo, with noodle texture. Martabak India (Indian martabak) is an Indian signature dish developed in Palembang by Haji Abdul Razak (HAR). It is made of wheat flour, added with duck eggs and chicken eggs. Its soup is mixed with goat curry and potatoes.

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Pindang patin is one of the signature dishes of Palembang with patin fish as the basic ingredient. The fish at first is boiled with hot spices and usually added with slices of pineapple to give freshness. It is best consumed with white rice as it tastes savory, hot, and fresh. Pindang tulang is made of cow bones with a little meat on them and bone marrow inside. All of these are boiled with hot spices, just like pindang patin. The food is delicious to be eaten as a side dish with warm white rice. Malbi is like rendang Minangkabau. It tastes somewhat sweet, soupy, and savory. Tempoyak is a signature dish of Palembang with durian as its main ingredient. All these are fried with slices of chili and onion. It looks like sauce and usually eaten as a side dish. Its taste is unique and savory. Otak-otak is a variant of pempek spread throughout Indonesia, with basic ingredients of pempek. It is eaten by adding some coconut milk and wrapped in banana leaves. It is cooked by grilling above firewood and usually is eaten with chili/peanut sauce. Kemplang is made of basic ingredients of pempek lenjer, sliced thinly, and then dried under the sun. Once it is completely dried, kemplang can be fried or grilled until it inflates. Kerupuk Palembang is like kemplang. The difference is that kemplang dough is shaped into circles, dried under the sun and then fried. Kue maksubah is a signature cake of Palembang made of duck eggs and sweetened milk. The number of duck eggs needed in the process may be around 28. The dough is later processed like kue lapis dough. The taste is good and sweet. The cake is believed to be one of royal dishes of Palembang Sultanate often served for honorary guests. However, these days kue maksubah can be found throughout Palembang and often served on Idul Fitri. Kue delapan jam is like kue maksubah. This cake is named that way because it takes eight hours to make it. The signature cake of Palembang is often served for guests of honor and also served on Idul Fitri. Kue srikayo is made of eggs and pandanus leaves as the main ingredients. It looks like pudding. The green-colored cake is usually eaten with sticky rice and tastes sweet and sticky. Source: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, 1989). PALENDE 274 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. They live in the area around the valley upstream of Laa River, in the east of Poso Lake, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud.

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PALU’E (Palue) 469 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around 300 (1981), they live in Palu Island, in the north of Central Flores. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language group of Bima-Sumba. It shares things in common with the language of Ende-Lio. Further research is required. PAMONA (Bare’e, Baree, Poso, Taa, Wana) 270 Sulawesi Dutch classical ethnographers like Kruyt and linguist Adriani call the tribe Tiraja Poso-Tojo or Toraja Bare’e, and classified it into East Toraja tribe. The name “Pamona” has been used by researchers from Central Sulawesi since the 1970s as the substitute of Toraja Poso or Toraja Bare’e. The tribe inhabits Poso Regency in Central Sulawesi Province, in Poso Kota, Poso Pesisir, Una-Una, Walea, Lage, North Pamona, South Pamona, South Ampana Kota Pamona, Ampana Kota, Ampanan Barone, Ulubongka, and Tojo sub-district. The population was around 30,000 in 1930. In 1961 it was around 100,000 and recently it was around 125,000. Kennedy (1935) divides Pamona (East Toraja) tribe into four groups. The first group lives around Tomini Bay and the neck of eastern peninsula of Central Sulawesi. It consists of several tribes such as the tribe of Lalaeo, Ra’u, Poso, and Wana. The second group is the tribe of Pebato, Lamusam, Longken, Buyu, Pu’umboto, Wotu, and Bancea. The third inhabits the valley of the upstream of La’a River and the east of Poso Lake. The third group consists of the tribe of Palende, Kalae, Tanandoa, Pada, Pakambia, and Pu’umnana. The fourth is those who live in the upstream of Kalaena River and the south of Posos Lake, i.e., Lampu, Tawi, Laiwono, and Lembo tribe. Ethnolinguists such as Adriani categorize Pamona tribe into a language subgroup of Bare’e (ingkar, no), the language is more commonly known as the language of Pamona. They mainly make a living by farming in temporary fields they clear out from jungles. Some also have tried farming permanently in fields and plantations. The staple plants to grow here are rice, corn, vegetables, and other common plants. These days, they are more interested in growing commodity plants such as clove and coffee. Some of them also still work as gatherers of natural resources in jungles and hunters of wild animals. The kinship system of the tribe is basically bilateral. A newlywed couple usually stays in a wife’s family neighborhood. They move out once they have a first-born child and are capable of living separately.

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Nowadays, the people have already embraced Islam and Christianity. The native religion is animism. They also believe in deities (pue) affecting the nature and life. A character of god they respect most is Pue N’Palaburu, creator of the universe living where the sun rises and sets. Because of this, it is also known as the God of Sun. A god they often worship on various religious rituals is Wurake. Besides deities, other supernatural powers are ones they think come from ancestral spirits. Such unseen creatures can only be made visible through the assistance of shamans. Ancestral spirits need offerings at every phase of the life cycle. They also seek protection from tau mepongko, a type of evil creature. Sources: Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Berzina (1963), Kennedy (1935), Kaudern (1937). PANASUAN (To Panasean, To Pamosean) 291a Sulawesi The population was perhaps more than 900 (1988). They live in two villages, in Kalumpang sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province, in the northeast of Kalumpang tribe’s territory. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi. They are Christians. Further research is required. PANCANA (Pantjana) 291b Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 1,500 people (1979 Bhurhanuddin). They live near Muna city, Central Buton Islan, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Muna. The dialects are Kapontori, Kalende (Lawele), Labuandiri. They are Muslims. Further research is required. PANTAR 425 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in Pantar Island. The area belongs to Central Flores Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969).

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PAPASENA 696 Papua The tribe lives in an area with many lakes (Lakes Plain) upstream of Tariku River (Rouffaer). It is approximately located in the west branching of Taritatu (Idenburg) River. The territory is in Memberamo Hulu and Tor Atas sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 450. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). PAPUA General Papua is a province in Indonesia. It is located in the west part of Irian. The east part of Irian is where an independent state called Papua New Guinea is located. Irian Island or New Guinea stretches 1,500 miles (length) and 500 miles (width). It is stated that the island is the second largest island in the world after Greenland. The 1,500-mile length is from the tip of head to the tip of tail and it is 299,310 square miles. The shape looks like an ancient bird hovering over Australia headed to Asia. A long time ago, the island was called Papua. The recorded history of the island is shown by the history of Sriwijaya Kingdom, which was considered to have expanded its hegemony to western Irian. After the kingdom lost its power, the hegemony was succeeded by Tidore and Ternate Sultans from Maluku Islands. Meanwhile, the European explorers had started to explore the island since the sixteenth century. According to the official record of Western explorers, the island was discovered by two Portuguese sailors, named d’Abreu dan Serrano in 1511. The explorers looking for spices apparently never knew that in several places of the island there were spices. In 1545, along came Spanish sailor Inigo Ortis de Retes from the east. Witnessing the quite interesting island, the sailor set his national flag on the land, specifically in the east of Memberamo River estuary. Then the island was named Nova Guinea (New Guinea). However, apparently the Kingdom of Spain was not interested in owning the island. The first Dutchman to set foot in the island was William Janz (1606). Followed by several other expeditions, until the middle of the seventeenth century, there was a military post built for security of trading activities which began thriving on the island. Once the German and French explorers had showed interest in Irian, the Dutch explorers hastily proclaimed that the western part of the island was a part of the Netherlands (1828). The western part of Irian was controlled by the Dutch from Ambon. Meanwhile, the English sailors also set foot on the eastern part of the island, where Port Moresby is now located (1833). The first hinterland of Papua uncovered by outsiders was when the Dutch launched an expedition led by Dr. H. A. Lorentz in 1909. Seventeen years later, another expedition by the Dutch and Americans was also launched and it was led by

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Dr. M. Stirling. This expedition was one that for the first time had contact with the native inhabitants in Baliem Valley in the Central Mountains. The native people calling themselves Ndani were called Dani by the newcomers. Afterward, a new expedition was led by Richard Arcbold from the American Museum of Natural History in 1938. Before the Japanese reigned during the Second World War, there were a number of missionaries starting to spread the teachings of the Bible in 1938. The Japanese occupation was only centered in the west and north part of Irian. Two years after the occupation the island was freed by General Douglas Mac Arthur who built a base near Sentani Lake. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945 and the Dutch acknowledgment during four subsequent years, the west part of Irian was demanded by Indonesia as it was also a part of Dutch colonial territory. The Dutch tried to refuse the demand but Indonesia launched a military expedition coded Komando Mandala in January 1962. The UN intervened from October 1962 to Mei 1963. After giving the opportunity for Irians to vote for or against joining Indonesia in April 9, 1969, western Irian officially became a part of Indonesia’s territory. Papua became the 17th province of Indonesia in 1969. The other names of Irian Jaya back then were Papua, Netherland New Guinea, Dutch New Guinea, and West New Guinea. At first, Indonesia mentioned the “west” (Irian Barat—“barat” means “west”) in its official name. The word “irian: was derived from Biaknese to refer to the land of Irian, meaning “the hot-weathered region”. After it was officially acknowledged as a part of Indonesia, the word “jaya” (meaning “glorious”) was added. It turned into Papua (1973). The capital of the province during the Dutch Occupation was named Kota Baru (New City). After joining Indonesia, the capital was named Soekarnapura. In 1973, it was renamed Jayapura. At the time, the population of Jayapura was only around 75,000 and the inhabitants in other Irian regions were only around 140,000. Experts divide the native people of Papua into two racial groups. The first group is Melanesia, which mostly live in the coast and the second is Papua, living in the hinterland and mountains. The inhabitants of hinterland are considered to be living in the neolithic culture. In the meantime, the coastal inhabitants mostly develop a mesolithic culture. Today, such differences are no longer apparent. The inhabitants of Papua, in fact, consist of hundreds of ethnic groups or tribes which live separately or exiled from each other. They are likely to live in living unities, which sometimes are very small in number.

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PAPUMA 697 Papua The tribe lives in a village in the southern coast of Yapen Island in Cenderawasih Bay, Papua Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Malay-East Polynesia. The population was around 650 people. The territory lies in Yapen Barat Sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Irian Jaya Province. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). PASEMAH (Basemah) 060 Sumatra The tribe is often called Basemah. Possibly the name was derived from the word be (exist) and semah (fresh water fish). Therefore, the word “basemah” shows a region with many river fish. They live around Mount Dempo, in Pagar Alam sub-district, Tanjung Sakti sub-district, Kota Agung sub-district, Ulu Musi sub-district, and Jarai sub-district, in Lahat Regency, South Sumatra Province. The population perhaps included several small tribes categorized as Pasemah tribe, such as Lintang, Kikim, Lematang, Semendo, and Serawai tribe. The tribe itself , in fact, consists of three sub-tribes, i.e., Gumai, Semidang, and Pasemah. According to a local folklore, the three sub-tribes were from one land. They came and lived upstream of Lematang Island and Dempo Valley in waves of arrival during different periods. The first wave of arrival and considered the oldest was Gumai, and followed by Semidang and Pasemah. Nowadays, the three sub-tribes are called Pasemah. The fertile territory enables them to improve livelihood as farmers of rice in fields and plantations, such as coffee, tea, fruits, and vegetables. In previous years, they lived as farmers with the rotational farming method. Such temporary fields are called talang or petalangan. Usually, a talang is located near their smallest living unity, i.e., dusun. Nowadays, they grow rice in irrigated fields, and breed cattle, catch fish, make plaits, grow vegetables and fruits, grow coffee, clove, and pepper. In Bengkulu Province, they live in Manna sub-district, Central Kaur sub-district, and North Kaur sub-district, South Bengkulu Regency. The group of Pasemah in Bengkulu is divided into two sub-groups, Kedurang and Padang Guci. The people of Pasemah Kedurang were from Paemah Lebar region, South Sumatra. The population was around 3,000 people. The people of Pasemah Padang Guci were from Lahat and Tanjung Enim in South Sumatra, too. The name of the tribal group was from the history. Their ancestors buried a vase once they landed on an area they now inhabit as a mark of their occupancy.

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The language of Pasemah still belongs to the language family of Malay. The characteristics are as follows: “ke mana” (where) is pronounced as “ke mane”, “apa” (what) is pronounced as “ape”, “tidak” (no) is pronounced as “dide”. The kinship system of the tribe can be divided into three types. The first is matrilineal. The tribe practices ambil anak, a type of marriage in which a husband lives with his wife’s family, causing him to be free from the liability to pay uang jujur (dowry). In addition to that, there is ambil anak penantian, in which a husband lives with his wife’s family but once their son is born, they soon leave. Both types of marriage of ambil anak require husbands to let his son inherit his wife’s family lineage. The second is a marriage they call belaki, in which a wife lives with her husband’s family. In addition to the fact that a wife must have uang jujur (dowry), a husband must pay all of the wedding expenses. Children born in this type of marriage directly inherit their father’s family lineage. The third is a bilateral type of marriage, called semendean or jarai sesame, in which rights and responsibilities of a husband and wife are equal. The residence pattern is usually neolocal, meaning that a wife does not receive uang jujur at a wedding, and expenses of wedding ceremony is paid by both sides. The traditional leadership and administration system of Pasemah tribe is also affected by Simbur Cahaya custom, the codification of legal rules made in the era of Palembang Sultanate, was revised and continued by the Dutch. They are mostly Muslims. Art forms they develop are various dances and vocal arts such as tembang, rejung, ringit, guritan, ginggong, serdam, and pantun. Sources: Lebar (1972), Depdikbud (1989). PASIR (Melayu Pasir) 186 Kalimantan The tribe of Pasir or Dayak Pasir is one of the tribes living in East Kalimantan Province, especially in Pasir Regency. According to King (1993), the tribe is a group of Dayak speaking Baritonese. They are also Muslims. For this reason, they are called Melayu Pasir. Further research is required. Sources: Coomans (1985), King (1993).

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PATANI 388 Maluku They live in the southeastern peninsula of Halmahera Island. They live in Patani, Peniti, Tapeleum Gemiyam Kipai, Weilegi, Yeisowo, Benemo, Moreala, and Sibenpopu village. The people currently are Muslims. They make a living by farming in temporary fields with upland rice, nuts, corn, banana, watermelon, clove, nutmeg, and tobacco as the main crops. The population was estimated to be around 9,000. The territory is in Patani sub-district, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PATAPA 271 Sulawesi They are often categorized as one of the groups of Tomini tribe. They live in Tomini sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: TOMINI. PATTAE 317 Sulawesi They are considered to be one of the exiled tribes living in jungles. Some of them now are settled down in Sulai Village after moving out of Sambabo Kampong, Malunda sub-district, Majene Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 150 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PAYAPI 272 Sulawesi They are classified as one of the groups of Pamona tribe living around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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PEBATO 273 Sulawesi Experts classify the tribe into Pamona tribe living around Poso Lake, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Kruyt (1933). PEDAMARAN 078 Sumatra They are estimated to be around 5,000–10,000. They inhabit Pedamaran dusun (an area smaller than a village), Pedamaran sub-district, Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. They make a living mainly by farming and cultivating land. The kinship system is bilateral. They are now mostly Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PEGAGAN 079 Sumatra They are estimated to be around 180,000. They live in Tanjungraya, Pemulutan, Kayuagung, Tanjung Lubuk, Indralaya, Sirah Pulau Padang, and Mesuji sub-district, in Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. They mostly make a living by farming in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields, besides carpentry and making berunang or bengkuang mats, and so on. Their kinship system is bilateral. They are mostly Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PEKAL (Kataun, Seblat, Mekea, Ipuh, Anak Sungai) 056 Sumatra The tribe lives in Ketahun sub-district, North Bengkulu Regency, Bengkulu Province. The population in 1930 was 13,524 people. Recently, the population was more than 40,000. The origin and meaning of the word “Pekal” is not known. However, according to the records of Lebar (1972), the tribe is also called Anak Sungai, Orang Kataun, Orang Seblat, Mekea, or Orang Ipuh. Experts assume that the tribe was an assimilation result of immigrants of Minangkabau Kerinci and Rejang. The language belongs to the language family of Malay with the characteristics as follows: “apa kabar” is pronounced “apo kabah”, “rumah” “umak”, “buku” “bukui”, “nasi” “emai”.

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The most prominent kinship unity is a nuclear family with bilateral lineage principle. The roles of traditional and religious leaders are still well preserved. They are Muslims but also still practice some elements of their native religion. Further research is required. Sources: Lebar (1972), Depdikbud (1989). PELAUW 589 Maluku The tribe lives in several negeris (villages) in Haruku sub-district, Haruku Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. Their villages are Pelauw, Rohomoni, Kabau, Kailolo, and Hulaliuw. The population was around 6,500. Between Negeri, there is an alliance called uli hatuhaha. They make a living by farming and processing sago, catching fish, and gathering natural resources from jungles. Each negeri is led by a raja, a title for a head of negeri appointed by inheritance from a soa considered to be the oldest in a Negeri. Soa is a restricted extended family (clan) formed from several matarumahs (nuclear families) of a similar ancestor joining together. The kinship system is patrilineal. Because they are still families, everyone in a soa has to find a spouse outside his or her soa (exogamous). Nowadays, generally they are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PENDAU (Ndau, Ndaoe, Umalasa) 291c Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 2,000–5,000 people. They live in Walandani, Simatang, and Sibayu Village, Balaesang sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Tomini. They are Muslims and Christians. Further research is required. PENESAK (Penasak) 045 Sumatra The population was perhaps around 20,000 people (1989). They live around Prabumulih sub-district, South Sumatra Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia. They are Muslims. Further research is required.

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PENGHULU 044 Sumatra The tribe lives around the meanders in Jambi, such as Batang Asai, Pangkalan Jambu, Limun, Tinting, Nibung, and Ulu Tabir River. All of them are in Sarolangun Bangko Regency, especially in Sarolangun sub-district. There is an assumption that the tribe was from the descendants of Minangkabau people coming to the area around the fifteenth century in order to discover gold in the upstream of Batanghari River. The population was around 70,000 people. The gold searching activity is no longer seen. Perhaps it is because the deposit has already run out. They make a living by farming and cultivating land. In fields, they grow rubber trees managed by men. Women usually prefer working in rice fields. The kinship system of the tribe is matrilineal, like Minangkabau tribe. A nuclear family belongs to a limited extended family living in a large house. A newlywed couple lives with a wife’s family. In the kinship circle, the role of husband is less prominent than ones of male siblings of a mother or a grandmother. Conversely, a husband has a more prominent role in his family of origin. The people live in a settled living unity called dusun. A head of dusun is assisted by a group consisting of penghulu suku and ninik mamak of each kalbu (clan) in a given dusun. Every dusun consists of several villages led by a tuo kampung. The people are now Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PESAGUAN (Dayak Pesaguan) 132 Kalimantan Pesaguan or Dayak Pesaguan tribe lives in several villages in Tumbang Titi sub-district, Ketapang regency, West Kalimantan Province. The villages are Beringin, Pengatapan, Sungai Melayu, Tangas, Punuk, Mahawa, and Sepahan. The population was around 2,650 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PESEKHEM 601 Papua Pesekhem is a small tribe living in the south of Timorini tribe’s territory, on the plateau of Jayawijaya Mountains, Papua Province. They make a living by growing sweet potato, taro, pumpkin, and breeding pigs. The population was around 300 people. Further research is required. Source: Depsos (1985).

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PINDAH 045 Sumatra The people of Pindah are one of the tribes living in Pauh and Mandiangin sub-district, Batanghari Regency, and in Sarolangun sub-district, in Sarolangun Bangko regency, Jambi Province. The population was around 15,000 people. The tribe is considered to have moved to the region from South Sumatra Province around the eighteenth or nineteenth century because of a certain reason. They mainly make a living by farming in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields, or growing rubber trees and coffee in plantations. Some of them also earn a living as workers of plantation companies, logging companies, small traders, and so on. The social and cultural life of the tribe is almost like Palembang tribe, as seen in the custom administration and marital system. They are Muslims. The language is like Palembangnese but it has its own dialect. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PALEMBANG. PISA 602 Papua They live in the southern coast of Papua, specifically in the southeast of Bets River, in the south of Senggo Village, to the hinterland from the direction of Primapun. The territory is in Pantai Kasuari sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Their territory is in the west of Asmat tribe’s, in the north of Citak Mitak and Korowai tribe’s territory. The population was around 4,000. The villages are Wagenu, Ganeni, Keiru, Kiki, Asarin, Dufo, Sagharin, Etsi, Isage, Aboge, Sepo, Kokoba, Kiaboi, and Oko. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). PETAPA (Taje) 292a Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 400 (1981 R. McKenzie). The tribe lives in several villages, such as Tanampedagi Village, Ampibabo sub-district, Sindue Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Tomini. Further research is required.

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PODENA 685 Papua The population was perhaps around 200 (1954). They live in an island in the north of the estuary of Biri River, Bonggo sub-district, Jayapura Regency. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Sarmi. Further research is required. POM 604 Papua The tribe lives in the west of Yapen Island located in Cenderawasih Bay. The villages are Pom, Serewen, Mias, and Endi. Some others live in Miosnum Island, in the west of Yapen Island. The territory lies in Yapen Barat sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Irian Jaya Province. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Yapen-Serui. The population was around 2,000. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). PONOSAKAN (Ponasakan) 221 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the groups of Minahasa tribe living in the southeast area of Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Gorontalo-Mongondow. They speak Ponosakan dialect which is a part of the language of Minahasa. The population was around 3,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They are Muslims. Further research is required. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Adam (1976), Kennedy (1935). See also: MINAHASA. PONTI 133 Kalimantan They live in several villages in Perindu sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 8,500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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POSO 275 Sulawesi Experts classify the tribe as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. They live around the eastern part of Poso Lake to Tomini Bay, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. The foods are, in fact, quite diverse among others and they include Tosu-Tosu Katue which is a signature food of Poso. It is shellfish satay. In Indonesian, tosutosu katue means sate kerang (shellfish satay). Wayawo Masapi (Woku Sogili) is made of sogili or—in Indonesian—moa or sidat (an eel with ears) cooked in such a way, resulting in distinct taste. Ituwu manu is a chicken cooked with spices and a recipe of ancestors. A chicken is cooked in such a way in a mixture of various spices. After it is ready to serve, pour it into a big bowl. Winagoe is, in fact, rice wrapped with special leaves (winalu leaves). Unfortunately, today such leaves are hard to find. Winagoe is very delicious to eat with tosu-tosu katue, wayawo masapi, or ituwu manu. Inau tarente Sulewana is a dish made of various vegetables with little spices. Inau terante means urap sayur (vegetable salad). Meanwhile, sulewana is a local name for this dish. Usually Inau terante Sulewana is eaten with woku sogili. Kukisi jongi is pudding made of yongi fruit. Yongi fruit is a sour fruit, yet with a certain processing technique, it can create kukisi jongi which tastes sweet and fresh. See also: PAMONA. PU’UMBOTO 276 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as a part of Pamona tribe living around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). PU’UMNANA 277 Sulawesi They are categorized as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe living in an area around the valley, upstream of Laa River, approximately in the east of Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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PUNAN 134 Kalimantan They are considered to be a tribe living nomadically in the hinterland of West Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, and South Kalimantan Province. They live in West Kalimantan Province, especially those who live around the upstream of Kapuas River and in the south of Kapuas River meanders, for example, around the meanders of Bungan River, in Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The tribe is classified by Dutch experts into a large group of Dayak, which is a group of non-Muslim Kalimantan native tribes. Another assumption is that Punan is a nickname for groups of Dayak tribe living nomadically in the hinterland of Kalimantan, especially around the upstream of large rivers. Their adventure is closely related to their occupations (hunting and gathering natural resources in jungles). There was an assumption that the tribe only wanted to roam and “visit as guests” for a certain period of time in another tribe’s territory and these tribes must have a linguistic similarity with their language. It is no wonder that they are “wings” or part of other tribes.

In East Kalimantan, they especially live in Bulungan Regency, such as in Mainau, Kabang Janggut, Long Bangun, Long Iram, and Lumbis sub-district. Besides, they also live in Kutai Regency, such as in Tabang sub-district.

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Sources: King (1985), Riwut (1956, 1962), Ave and King (1986), Rousseau (1990), Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1972), Depdikbud (1989), Hoffman (1985). See also: DAYAK. PURAGI (Mogao) 686 Papua The population was perhaps around 700 people (1991 SIL). They live in the southwest of the Bird Head region of Irian, along Maccluer Bay, in the hinterland around the meanders of Matamani River. The language is categorized into the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea, the Bird Head. Further research is required. PYU 605 Papua They live around the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in Jayawijaya Mountains, an area near the upstream of Sepik River flowing to Papua New Guinea territory. The population was around 150 people. The rest live in Papua New Guinea. The territory lies in Kurima sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. Their villages are Bluriap, Yibu, and Biake. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

R RA’U 279 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe living around Tomini Bay and the neck of Central Sulawesi land, in Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. RAHAMBUU (Wiau, Wiaoe) 296a Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 5,000 people (1991 SIL). They live in the western coast of Kodeha, Kodeoha sub-district, Kolaka Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Tolaki. They are Muslims. Further research is required.

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RAMBANG 080 Sumatra The tribe is often called Rambang Senuling. They live in Pedamaran and Mesuji sub-district in Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. The population was around 40,000. The language of Rambang is categorized into a language sub-group of Malay. They make a living mostly by farming in irrigated rice fields and rain-fed fields. The lineage principle is bilateral. They are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). RAMPI (Leboni, Rampi-Leboni, Ha’uwa) 296b Sulawesi The population was possibly around 2,300 people (in South Sulawesi) and 5,700 people (in Central Sulawesi) (1991 SIL). In South Sulawesi, they live in six isolated villages in the mountainous area of Masamba sub-district, Luwu Regency; and in around 15 villages in Poso and Donggala Regency in Central Sulawesi. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Pamona. The dialects are Rampi (Lambu), and Rato. Their cultural territory can only be accessed by walk or by horse. They make a living by rotational farming. They are Christians and a few are Muslims. Further research is required. RANA 390 Maluku Rana tribe lives in Buru Island located in the west of Seram Island. Their territory is in Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. Their settlement is around Rana Lake, along the meanders of Waigeren and Wainabe Rivers. Some of them also spread to Selvadu, Maheteruanusan, Walingat Baru, and Kayeli, the west of North Buru sub-district. The population was around 3,000 people. They speak the language of Lipa-Liam in the daily life. But especially for religious rituals, they speak the language of Liam-Garam. Their language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia. Their main occupations are farming with the rotational farming method. Their staple crops are upland rice, corn, cassava, sweet potato, nuts, and gathering natural resources from jungles and hunting wild animals. The gathered natural resources are resin, rattan, and ebony. The kinship system is patrilineal. Patrilineal nuclear families (a combination of some nuclear families) join together to form a kinship unity based on the similarity of ancestor. Such a limited extended family (clan) is called soa. Choosing a spouse

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to marry is usually exogamous (out of a soa). A male’s family must provide a kupang (dowry) to a female’s family. Kupang may take shape in a gong, white cloth which spans a few meters, a few sheets of sarong fabric, machetes, a number of plates, cups, and several pigs. Dowries given depend on a previous agreement. A marriage observing the ideal procedures is called himlao. However, there are also some who elope (haka fina) because males cannot pay kupang. There is also barita, a type of marriage in which a man dedicates himself to his wife’s parents as the consequence of inability of paying out kupang. To maintain balance, Rana people also prefer a type of marriage which involves swapping brides. This is called matukar. There is also a case of marriage in which a female’s family requiring that a male wanting to marry their daughter to switch to their soa. This is called folo. Rana tribe in its entirety acknowledges the existence of a custom leader based on lineage. A custom leader is called raja. A close assistant is called hinolong who is basically a leader of all soa leaders. They still practice the native religion which is animism despite the fact that Islam and Christianity are known by the majority of those who live in the coasts. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Grimes (1984), Wilken (1849). RANAU 086 Sumatra The tribe was estimated to be around 33,000 people. They live in dusuns (a smaller part of a village) in Banding Agung sub-district, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency, South Sumatra Province. Some others live in Lampung Province, specifically in North Lampung Regency. There they are known as Beradat Ranau people. The language of Ranau is considered to be similar with the language of Lampung and is classified as a part of the language sub-group of Malay-Polynesia, the language group of Lampung with Ranau dialect. Most of the inhabitants make a living by farming in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields besides working as traders, carpenters, household utensil makers, and so on. The kinship system tends to be bilateral. They may be divided into groups called suku (a social group based on genealogy). There is also suku balak and suku lunik. In their traditional social life, there is a custom leader called raja adat. They are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). RASAWA 687 Papua The population was perhaps around 200 people or more (1987 SIL). They live in two villages in the southern coast of Waropen Bawah Regency. Further research is required.

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RATAHAN (Bentenan, Pasan) 222 Sulawesi Ratahan or Pasan or Bentenan tribe is one group of the Minahasa tribe. They live in the southeast area of Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Sangir-Minahasa-Gorontalo. They speak the dialect of Ratahan, which is still a part of the language of Minahasa. The population was around 30,000 (1989). They are Christians. Further research is required. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Kennedy (1935), Adam (1976). See also: MINAHASA. RAWAS 081 Sumatra They live in Rupit, Rawas Ulu, and Rawas Ilir sub-district, in Musi Rawas Regency, South Sumatra Province. The population was around 90,000. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Malay divided into three dialects, i.e., Rupit, Rawas Ulu, and Rawas Ilir dialect. They generally work as farmers in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields. Some others work as makers of plaited goods made of rattan and pandanus leaves, carpenters, small traders, and so on. The lineage form in the tribe is divided into three. The first is through a marital system called ambik anak (ambil anak/taking a child) because after a marriage, a husband stays in his wife’s family and children born directly inherit the wife’s lineage. In such a marriage, a husband does not need to pay uang jojor (dowry). The second is a patrilineal marriage type as a wife lives with her husband’s family and their children directly inherit the father’s lineage. In such a marriage, a husband must pay uang jojor. That is why it is called perkawinan jojor (jojor marriage). The third is what is called perkawinan rajo-rajo, which is bilateral. The residence pattern is neolocal. The Rawas traditional administration and leadership is affected by the tradition of Simbur Cahaya, a codification of custom rules from the era of Palembang Sultanate. They are Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989). REJANG (Rejang-Lebong, Jang, Tun Jang, Jang Bele Tebo, Rejang Empat Petulai) 057 Sumatra The population of the tribe was maybe around 300,000 (1981). They live in Bukit Barisan Mountains, in the north of Bengkulu City, around Argamakmur, Muara Aman, Curup, and Kapahiang. The language is categorized into the language family

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of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Malay. The tribe is traditionally divided into four petulai (groups), namely (Jang) Lebong (Jang) Musai, (Jang) Lai, (Jang) Bekulau. They are Muslims. The tribe is also called Jang, Tun Jang, or Rejang Empat Petulai. They call themselves keme tun jang, “we are Jang people”, the name of a monk they consider to be their ancestor. They assume that their ancestor was from Java brought by four princes. These four princes later descended four petulai, the main patrilineal clans of Rejang people. The tribe lives in Rejang Lebong Regency in the eastern part of Bengkulu Province. The area includes some part of Bukit Barisan Mountains. They like to call themselves Lebong people. It is derived from “telebong” (gathering). According to tambo (oral history), they were from Bandar Cina (Palembang) coming to Pagaruyung, Sumatra Barat and they become Minangkabau people. Some others went to Ranah Sikelawi valley in Bukit Barisan Mountains, and live there as Rejang people. Some other live in South Sumatra Province, specifically in the borderline of South Sumatra and Bengkulu Province, Lahat Regency.

They make a living working as farmers in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields where they grow rice, vegetables, and fruits. Their land is also fertile for coffee, tea, pepper, and so on. In previous years, they preferred rotational farming. Their kinship system is bilateral even though their lineage system tends to be patrilineal. The residence pattern is called duduk letok (determining home) decided based on asen (agreement) by both sides. This asen is divided into several types. The old form of kinship is an extended family called tumbang. Between a tumbang with another tumbang there is a relation of petulai (brotherhood) and called as one group of ketumbai or sukau (such as tribes in Minangkabau, but here it is patrilineal). Several ketumbais or sukais live in a sadei (dusun or a smaller part of village).

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In the tribe, a territorial and social unity is called mego or marga or bang mego. A social unity is from the descendant group of Sutan Sriduni, their ancestor. The original Bang Mego is divided into four, Tubai, Bermani, Jekalang, and Selupuak. Nowadays, the number of bang mego adds but the original influence is still strong. They are called yang tiang empat, limo dengan rajo. In previous years, they chose and appointed a king. In the old times, the people applied a social stratification. The first was the nobility group consisting of kings and marga leaders. The second group was dusun leaders called potai, and the third was the tun dawyo group (the commoners). The respected group is pedito (religious leaders) and labgea (shamans). Based on the genealogical and territorial unity above, the tribe has four marga or mego administrations. Each is led by a leader called ajai. Every marga consists of 8–32 villages called sadeu or sadei. Every sadei is formed by at least four patrilineal extended families they call jurai, jugai, ketumbai, petulai, or sukau. Every jurai has a petalangan or land for farming. Nowadays they are generally Muslims. However, there is some animism remaining. Many of them still believe that there are spiritual beings such as semat living just like human beings, diwa descending to the earth through guniak (rainbow), sebei sebekew which is a spiritual creature appearing to annoy humans. Such spiritual beings can only be dealt with by a dukun (shaman) and pedito by performing kedurai (a simple banquet with some offerings). The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Pasemah. The language of Rejang is called baso jang with its own alphabets called kogongo. A quite original form of the local language can be found in Ranah Sikelawi and Ranah Lebong. Meanwhile, others have been greatly influenced by Malay. The original arts once they developed are storytelling arts, such as geritan, mengiben, menyambei, and berejong. Sources: Sani (t.t.), Lebar (1972), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1989). REMBONG 409 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in the north of central Flores Island, surrounded by Manggarai tribe, in Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language group of Bima-Sumba. The dialects are Rembong, Wangka, and Namu. Further research is required.

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RIANTANA 606 Papua The tribe lives in some part of Kolepom (Yos Sudarso) Island in the south of Papua. The territory is in Kimam sub-district, Merauke Regency, Irian Jaya Province. Their villages are Suam, Yaumuka, Iramoro, Konjobando, Kava, and Yeraha. The population was around 1,300. The language is under the language group of Kimagama and Ndom. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). RIAU (Melayu Riau) 024 Sumatra The Malay race came for the first time to Riau circa 2,500 BC. They came from the central part of Asia and crossed from Malaysia Peninsula. The second wave of their migration occured in 1,500 BC and the third was circa 300 BC. In its cultural history, they are also influenced by several civilizations, such as Hindu, Islam, and also Chinese and Western cultures (the Dutch, English, and Portuguese). In the past centuries, they once had several kingdoms, such as the Sultanate of Bintan or Tumasik, Kandis or Kuantan, Gasib or Siak, Kriteng or Inderagiri, Lingga, Malaka, Rokan, Siak Sri Inderapura, Kampar, Pelalawan, and Singingi. Nowadays, the population is estimated to be around 1 million, scattered especially in Riau Kepulauan Regency and around the meanders of large rivers in the eastern part of Sumatra. Malay is not much different from Indonesian now. It is considered to be a fundamental element of Indonesian. It is also called Melayu Tinggi (High Malay) because at first it was used as the literary language by Indonesians in the last century. Prior to learning the Latin alphabets, they wrote their thoughts in Arabic-Malay alphabets also called Arab gundul. Malays in Riau rarely farm in fields as the geographical condition does not allow that. However, there are a few of them cultivating rain-fed fields. In previous years, they may have relied on gathering sago, natural resources in jungles, catching fish, cultivating fields, and trading. Their common crops are upland rice, yams, vegetables, and fruits. Nowadays, they also grow perennial trees with higher prices, such as rubber. As a society living in waters, they also develop marine transportation means such as lancang (a sailboat with two masts and a hut on it), penjajab (a type of wooden cruiser), jung (a small sailboat), sampan balang (a small sailboat to catch fish). To sail through rivers, they use sampan kolek, sampan kotak, and belukang. All of them are classified into a canoe type with a streamlined shape. There is also perahu jalur, which is a long boat used to participate in river races. Every nuclear family lives in its own house, with a newlywed couple (who usually prefer to live with a wife’s family house until their first child is born) as the

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exception. For this reason, their residence pattern is neolocal. A nuclear family they call kelamin, generally builds a house in a neighborhood of a wife’s family. The lineage or kinship system of the tribe is inclined to be parental or bilateral. The kinship relation is indicated by a distinct term of address. A firstborn child is called long, a second-born child is called ngah, the next is cik, the last is called cu or ucu. Usually, such terms of address are added with some physical characteristics such as “cik itam” (meaning a Cik who is dark-skinned), ngah utih (an Ngah who is fair-skinned), cu andak (an Ucu who is short), cik unggal (a single child in a family), and so on. In the old times, they also lived in groups according to their suku (lineage). Such genealogical groups apply a patrilineal lineage system. However, some who live in Sumatra and near Minangkabau adopt a matrilineal suku system. Some also call suku hinduk (mother or parent). Every suku is led by a penghulu. Once a suku lives in a village, a penghulu is directly appointed Datuk Penghulu Kampung (a village leader). Every penghulu is assisted by several figures such as batin, jenang, tua-tua, and monti. In the religious affairs, there is an imam (a spiritual leader) and khotib (a preacher). They have embraced Islam since the eleventh century CE. However, in the tribe we can still find some figures mastering spiritual knowledge and animistic belief called bomo (a shaman). They believe that there are spiritual creatures able to change shapes into white crocodiles, elephants, bidai snakes, tengkis tigers, and so on. The arts of Malay Riau are mostly Islamic. They develop religious literary art song accompanied by tambourine, berdah, kerompang or kompang, and so on. Malay dances were once popular during the beginning of independence. In the tribe, there was once a type of folk theater such as mak yong, dul muluk, and mendu. Malay music is even considered to be the origin of the currently popular dangdut music. The social stratification of the tribe is no longer as rigid as it was in the era of sultanate. Despite that, there are certain groups considered to have their own descended characteristics. For example, the nobility consisting of the descendants of sultans and kings are the groups of datuk leading suku, or penghulu leading village. There is also a group of prominent figures called cerdik pandai, old men, clerics, and wealthy people. Riau has a wide variety of signature foods. These are some of them: Bolu Kemojo is a Pekanbaru signature food, starting to be widely known in 1998. The cake was back then made for household consumption. It is not made commercially or sold as the signature food of Pekanbaru. Roti jala and roti canai are from India and adopted by Indonesia. Usually they are served with curry. Asidah is a cake with soft texture and sweet taste. There is a combination of spices here, such as clove, cinnamon, and pandanus leaves. Strangely, the cake is eaten with fried onion. It can be shaped as we like. Kue bangkit is a type of local pastry with flour as its main ingredient. The taste is sweet, crunchy, and delicious. The taste is sweet and savory, with soft texture.

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Cencalok is a type of Malay traditional side dish. It is made of refined shrimp. It contains a lot of protein. Lempuk durian is one of the signature foods made of durian. Lempuk is shaped like dodol. Besides in Riau, lempuk can also be found in other regions in Sumatra. Everyone knows lempuk durian, “the Signature Food of Riau” from Bengkalis Regency. Lempuk has already become the icon of Bengkalis. Every time we visit Bengkalis, we cannot miss having lempuk durian to bring home with us. Laksamana mengamuk is a kind of iced beverage with kuweni fruit as its main ingredient. It is said that the beverage originated from an admiral in a plantation of kuweni trees. The admiral was enraged after learning that his wife was brought with force by the owner of kuweni plantation. He then swayed his machete to all possible directions, destroying all the plants. After he let his rage out and went home, people around the kuweni plantation grabbed all the chopped kuweni on grass. At first, they were confused as to what to do with all the fruits. Then a woman appeared and added chunks of the fruits into coconut milk and brown sugar. It resulted in a fresh drink for the entire village to enjoy. Air Mata Pengantin is a cold drink made of various colored jelly. It is also complemented with basil seeds, nata de coco, and cantaloupe as well as shredded ice. Sources: Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Loeb (1972). RIUNG 426 Nusa Tenggara The tribe lives in the central part of Flores Island, specifically in the north of Ngada tribe’s territory, in Riung sub-district, Ngada Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, the language group of Bima-Sumba. It is close to the language of Manggarai. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969). RONDUK (Dayak Ronduk) 135 Kalimantan They live in several villages in North Matan Hilir, South Matan Hilir, and Kendawangan sub-district, in Ketapang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Their villages are Laman Satong, Laman Ronduk, Laman Nek Doyang, Biutak, Badak Berendam, Lanjut, and Kelompat. The population was around 1,900 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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RONGGA 410 Nusa Tenggara The tribe inhabits the southern part of central Flores Island, between the custom territory of Maggarai and Ngada tribe, in the south of Wae Rana. The language is categorized into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-south-central Polynesia, the language group of Bima-Sumba. Further research is required. ROON 607 Papua The population was perhaps around 1,100 people (1993). The tribe lives in Roon Island located in the west of Cenderawasih Bay (Gelvink Bay), in the tip of Tanjung Mangguar (Wandamen). The area lies in Wasiro sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. It belongs to the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Yapen-Serui. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1989). ROTE (Roti, Rotti) 427 Nusa Tenggara Rote or Roti tribe lives in Roti, Dao Island, and some area in the western coast of Timor Island, in East Nusa Tenggara Province. Their territory lies in Kupang Regency. There is an assumption of experts that the inhabitants of these islands , in fact, are from Seram Island, in Central Maluku. The population was around 88,000 people. Rotinese is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South West Polynesia, and divided into several dialects, such as Unale, Ti, Termanu, Ringgou, Dengka, Ba’a, Bilba, Kolbaffo, Dela, Lole, Keka, Diu, Lelenuk, Talae, and Landu. Other experts divide their language into the dialect of Southwest Rote, Northwest Rote, Lobalain, Central Rote, East Rote, and Pantai Baru. Their primary living is by farming in fields, with corn, upland rice, and cassava as the staple crops. Besides that, many of them earn a living by gathering sap of lontar trees as well as breeding buffaloes, cows, horses, and chickens. Women are adept at weaving fabrics with traditional motifs, making pleated goods made of pandanus leaves and so forth. Nuclear families of Rote tribe live under the same roof. Usually a house where they live together is located near a male’s family house. In terms of kinship, they belong to clans called leo. Every patrilineal leo is led by a senior male called manek or mane leo.

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A settlement unit or settlement they call nggolok is located on a quite fertile plain and near a source of clean water. Every settlement is led by a leader they call temukung. A temukung is assisted by several figures called manaholo, manek and fetor. The old religion of Rote tribe is built around the belief of the existence of the Creator called Lamatuan or Lamatuak. Humans see Lamatuan as Manadu (the Creator), Mansula (the Regulator or Organizer), and Manfe (the Bless Giver). The three forms of Lamatuan are signified by a pole with three branches placed inside a house, in the right side of its entrance. Everything in life is connected to this belief system. Nowadays, many of them also convert to Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1972), Koentjaraningrat (1969), Grimes (1984). RUMA (Roma, Romang) 428 Nusa Tenggara Ruma or Roma tribe lives in Roma Island, in Southeast Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The other name is perhaps Romang. Further research is required. Sources: Koentajaraningrat (1969), Grimes (1984).

S SA’BAN (Dayak Sa’ban) 136 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 1,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the borderline of West Kalimantan and Sarawak, Malaysia. Their territory lies in the south of Lundayeh. The tribe is possibly a sub-tribe of Dayak Kelabit. Further research is required. SADONG (Dayak Sadong, Tebakang, Buka, Bukar, Serian, Sabutan) 137 Kalimantan They live in the northern part of West Kalimantan. The population was perhaps around 34,600 people throughout the country (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They also live in Sarawak, Malaysia. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Dayak Bidayuh. Further research is required.

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SAFAN 608 Papua The tribe lives in several villages in Pantai Kasuari (Pirimapun) sub-district, in the east of Asmat tribe’s territory. Their territory lies in Asmat tribe’s territory, Papua Province. The tribe is perhaps one of the sub-tribes of Asmat. Further research is required. See also: ASMAT. SAHU (Sa’u) 391 Maluku Sahu or Sa’u tribe lives in the southwest of Halmahera Island, Sahu sub-district, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The language is classified into the language of Papua and divided more into Pa’disua and Tala’i dialect. Their villages are Akelamo, Okusu, Ewer, Kamomeng, Bibobo, Idam, Gamlamo, Hoku-Hoku Gam, Loce, Gamnyial, Golo, Worat-Worat, Balisoan, Tacici, Taraudu, Cempaka, Ngaon, Gamsungi, and Todahe. They are generally Protestants, and now the population reaches about 11,000. They mostly make a living by farming and catching fish. Further research is required. Sources: Grimes (1984), Depdikbud (1989). SAJAU (Dayak Sujau) 138 Kalimantan The population of the tribe was perhaps around 600 people. They live in the northeast of Muara Malinau, the northern part of Central Kalimantan. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Dayak Basap (Punan Basap). Further research is required. SAKAI 025 Sumatra The name of Sakai was given by outsiders to offend them. The tribe is considered one of the exiled tribes in Riau Province, meaning that they have no access to cultural development and progress like other tribes. They live in several resettlements around Bengkalis Regency, such as Kandis, Balai Pungut, Kota Kapur, Minas, Duri, Sungai Siak, and the upstream of Sungai Apit. In 1984, the population was estimated to be around 6,500 or around 1,400 families. The tribe is allegedly the remaining Malay racial group who first arrived in the land and was then pushed away by a later wave of Malay migration. The language they speak can be classified under the Malay language sub-group but it shows several distinct characteristics.

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They are commonly hunters, gatherers, and fishermen in the nearby jungles. A few of them started to farm in fields. Besides that, there are some natural resources from jungle folliage such as rattan, resin, and logging to be bartered with daily needs from traders. They live in simple and stilted huts, which are easy to dismantle as the tribe may move to another place at any time. Containers for daily needs are mostly made of plaited rattan and pandanus leaves. They drink with containers made of dried pumpkin and bamboo. They have not made or used clay containers unless they get them from some more advanced people. Iron tools such as spear tips and machetes obtained from Malay traders. Prior to that, they made it from hard and strong wood. Their kinship system is unclear but it is inclined to be parental or bilateral. A household is formed by a unity of several neolocal nuclear families. The settlements are formed by several nuclear families, usually led by a senior figure called batin. Every problem in a community is solved by deliberation and mutual consensus. According to the records of the Provincial Government, today some of them are believers of new religions. In 1985, around 400 of them converted to Islam and around 600 more converted to Christianity spread by Bataknese immigrants. The rest still practice the animistic native religion. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Suparlan (1985). SALING 082 Sumatra They live around the meanders of Saling River. Their custom territory is called Marga Saling, located in Tebing Tinggi Sub-district, Lahat Regency, South Sumatra Province. There is no record of the population size. The language of Saling falls into the language sub-group of Malay but it has a distinct dialect and characteristics. Today they are farmers and Muslims. Further research is required. Sources: Depdikbud (1989). SALUAN 279 Sulawesi They live in Lawuk, Kintom, Batui, Lamala, Pagimana, and Bunta sub-district, Luwu-Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is still under the same language sub-group with Loinangnese, the language sub-group of Ingkar (meaning “no”). Hence, it is estimated that the tribe is under the same family with Loinang people (the people of mountains, or Sulawesi Hinterland). The population was uncertain but there were at least 74,000 people.

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In the past, they once were governed by a traditional kingdom. Such a social stratification is no longer existent. There used to be tuutu. The soldiers were called penggawa and the custom leaders talenga. They are now Muslims or Protestants. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1972). SAMORO 458 Nusa Tenggara They live in several villages in Manatuto District, Timor Leste (formerly it was part of Indonesia, called Timor Timur Province), in Uma Kerek, Manlala, Leo Hat, Manufahe, and Mane Hat Village. The population was around 1,000 (1980). In the old days, they built a kingdom called Samoro. The settlement area is located in the plateau between Mount Dia and Aitara Hill. They make a living by growing corn, rice, yam, and coffee. They hunt deer and boar to obtain more foods. The language they speak is Tetun Terik, a language spoken as a lingua franca in the east of Timor Leste. Indonesian researchers recorded that a smallest social unit of the tribe is called uma kain (a household) led by a senior male as a husband and father of his family members. A larger social unit they have is a patrilineal kinship unit between people of the same ancestor, called uma leo (a type of clan). Every uma leo has a traditional house to perform rituals and serves as a place of assembly. Every uma leo usually stays in a dusun (a smaller area than a village) and all of them are divided into three regions called kedatoan, i.e., kedatoan of Manufahi, Leohat, and Manlala. Each kedatoan has a shrine called uma lulik (a house of spirits), where they keep sacred heirlooms and perform rituals. The general kinship system is patrilineal, in which a male’s family must pay dowry called barlaki to a female’s family. Barlaki consists of a bracelet, a golden necklace, several buffaloes, and horses which may vary according to the level of both sides. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SANGIR (Sangihé, Sangirese, Sangi, Sangih) 223 Sulawesi The tribe lives in Sangihe Islands of Sangir Talaud Islands, Sangir Talaud Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The islands they live in are Sangir Besar, Tagulandanga, Makalehi, Kuang, Kawio, Kawaluso, Lupang, Toade, Karakitang, Kalawa, andMahengetang. All of these villages are located in 10 sub-districts in Sangir Talaud Regency. In 1930, the population was around 130,000 people and recently it was around 180,000.

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The language of Sangir has several dialects, namely Sangir, Siau, Tagulandang, Kendahe, Tahuna, Manganitu, Tamako, North Tabukan, Tabukan Tengah, South Tabukan, East Siau, and West Siau. For daily interaction the the language of Melayu Manado is spoken. The language is divided into several levels. The refined/ high level is spoken when they have to speak with the elderly, especially during rituals. They also speak a figurative language named sasahara, which was a language spoken by fishermen. The people build their settlements by the sea near an estuary of river. Some prefer living in ridges of hills and mounatins. Most of them work as fishermen, some work as farmers in fields. A nuclear family in Sangirnese is called gaghurang. This nuclear family forms a limited extended family called ruangana. Despite the fact that the tribes sometimes apply patrilinealism, they more often adopt the bilateral kinship system. In the old times, they once formed a social–political power in the form of small kingdoms, nowadays this influence is still seen (in dimmished form) in their social stratification. The group of kings’ descendants is called hokowa-lumpolo, the middle-level nobility is called bhokolimampulo, the commoners groups are called hokotalumpulo, and the slave group is called allangga. These days, such a social stratification is already gone except when it comes to choosing future spouses. Sources: Kruyt (1933), Depdikbud (1989). SANGKE 609 Papua They live in the borderline between Papua and Papua New Guinea, in the southeast of Jayapura. Their territory lies in Waris sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 200 people. Their villages are Nyaonyao, Kofro, and Sangke (Cowan). The tribe is perhaps closely related to Sko tribe. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). SANGSANGLUANG 318 Sulawesi They live in several villages in Lembang sub-district, Pinrang Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 450 people. Further research is required. Source: Depsos (1985).

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SARBAS (Saribas, Dayak Sarbas) 161 Kalimantan Sarbas or Saribas tribe is one of the sub-tribes of the Iban tribe living around Saribas, Kalimantan Tengah. Further research is required. Sources: Uchibori (1978), Riwut (1956), King (1993). See also: IBAN SARIUNG 319 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the exiled tribes in Sumaorang sub-district, Polewali Mamasa Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 250 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SARUDU (Doda’) 296c Sulawesi The population was about 1,000 people (1990). The exiled tribe lives in Pasangkayu sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The language is classified under the family language of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language sub-group of Kaili-Pamona. The dialects are Nunun’ and Lariang. The territory lies in the swampy coastal lowland. They make a living by processing sago and working as fishermen. They are Muslims. Further research is required. SASAK (Lombok) 403 Nusa Tenggara They live in Lombok Island, in the rows of Nusa Tenggara (Sunda Kecil) islands. The population was about 1.8 million people (1980). The language of Sasak is classified under the language family of Austronesia, the language group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language sub-group of Bali-Sasak. The language consists of several dialects, such as Sasak Pejanggi, Sasak Selaparang, Sasak Bayan, Sasak Tanjong, Sasak Pujut, Sasak Sembalun, Sasak Tebango, and Sasak Pengantap. The language also applies levels of usage, i.e., halus dalem (refined and polit!e form), halus biasa (normal, polite form), and kasar (informal, everyday form).

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They mainly make a living by farming in rain-fed fields (lendang) or in irrigated fields (subak). In addition to that, some of them rely on deer, pig, and other wild animals. Searching for yams and fish are also important. The other occupations are making plaited goods, metal carvings, weaving cloth, rattan goods, clay materials, ans so forth. A nuclear family in the tribe is called koren or kurenan. These nuclear families join a limited extended family called sorohan or kadang waris. Their kinship system is patrilineal adopting a patrilineal lineage to the top (papu balo) and to the bottom (papu bai), and then to the side (semeton jari). The residence pattern is virilocal even though some also prefer building new houses. In labor-intensive familial activities, they work together under a system called basiru. Every sorohan is led by a head called turas and titled Datu. In a village (dusun or gubuk) currently besides a village head, there is alsi a customary leader called mangkubumi or pemangku adat or jintaka. A village head himself every day is assisted by krama desa, prominent figures from each soroan group in a village. A permanent assistant of a village head is jaksa (a secretary), keliang (a mediator), langlang (a security head), and a vice keliang (juarah). Every village head is entitled to compensation from his people, such as labor assistance to get the manual work done in irrigated fields or rain-fed fields of a village head, called najen. Nowadays, in the tribe there are some elements of old social stratification, namely the existence of menak (the nobility) titled Datu, Raden, and Mamiq. The second is the group of prominent figures from the descendants of village leaders from the non-nobility group, called parawangsa.

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The third is the group of kaula or the commoners. Those that already have children are called amaq, while those who do not have any are called loq. Meanwhile, women without husbands are called la, and those with husbands are called inaq. In general, they embrace Islam but in practice, they divide themselves into two groups: Islam Waktu Lima and Islam Waktu Telu. The first group practices the Islamic teachings very observantly. The second one is those who acknowledge Allah and Muhammad as the last prophet but preserve spiritual cleanliness and behaviors based on ancestor teaching. Besides that, they often perform rituals at places considered to be occupied by ancestral spirits (kemali). The second group strongly believes in their surroundings where spiritual beings live, such as batara guru, bidadari, bedodo, bake (ghosts), belata, bebai, gegendu, and various types of leya (demons). They do things related to magical and spiritual acts with the assistance of a belian (a shaman). Sources: Depdikbud (1978), Achadiyat et al. (1989); Lebar (1972). SASAWA 611 Papua The tribe lives in the meanders of the central part of Apawar River, in the north of Papua, in the southeast of Sarmi. The population was possibly around 200 people living in a village, Sasawa. The area is located in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). SAURI 688 Papua The population was perhaps only around 100 people (1987 SIL). They live in the eastern coast of Cenderawasih Bay, near Waropen. Their village is Sauri-Sirami, near Sirami River. Further research is required. SAUSE (Seuce) 612 Papua They live in the southwest of Sentani Lake, in the northwest of Lereh, specifically in Ures, Mubaron, Bokoko, Witti Yadow, Lidi, and Puaral Village. The population was around 600 people. The area is located in Kaureh sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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SAWAI 392 Maluku They live in the western coast of Halmahera Island, around Weda Bay, between the southwestern and southeastern part of the peninsula. The villages are Kobe, Gema, and Sepo. The territory is located in South Halmahera sub-district, North Maluku Province. The population was around 1,500. They are Muslims. Further research is required. Sources: Grimes (1984). SAWANG (Sekak, Bajau, Sewang, Orang Laut) 083 Sumatra The tribe is maybe a sub-tribe of Laut tribe living in waters of several provinces (Riau, Jambi, and its neighboring areas). The settlement can also be found in several places in Belitung and Bangka Island. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: ORANG LAUT, BAJAU, SEKAK. SAWERU 689 Papua The population was perhaps only around 300 people (1991 SIL). They live in several villages in the central part of Serui Island, South Yapen sub-district, Waropen Regency, Papua Barat Province. Further research is required. SAWI 613 Papua The tribe lives in the southern Papua, upstream of Fayit River. Their territory is located in Pantai Kasuari (Pirimapun) and Atsy sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Some of their residence is in the settlement of Asmat tribe. The villages are Bawor, Kagami, Tambor, Ero-Sato, Uyar-Kagas, Sanepay, Isaip, Esobor, Wiagas, Minahai, Comoro, Saremit, Kamur, and Kainum. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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SAWU (Sabu, Savu, Hawu) 429 Nusa Tenggara The tribe of Sabu or Savu lives in Sawu and Raijua Island in East Nusa Tenggara Province in East Sawu and West Sawu sub-district. The population in 1971 was 51,608. Recently, the population was perhaps around 100,000 people. They call their territory Rai Hawu, from the name of mythological figure Hawu Ga. The word “rai” itself means land or custk land. The tribe is divided into four rais, i.e., Haba, Dimu, Mahara, and Liae. The language is under the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bima-Sumba. The dialects are Seba (Heba), Timu (Dimu), Liae, Mesara (Mehara), and Raijua. They mostly make a living by growing rice in irrigated fields and rain-fed fields, especially in rainy season. Meanwhile, in dry season, they work as gatherers of nira lontar (sweet liquid produced by lontar trees) and process it into sugar (between March and November). In addition to growing rice, they grow coconut and lontar trees. Cattles they prefer to be bred there are buffaloes and horses. The village called rae kowa was built on a ridge and fenced by corals or river stones. The settlement pattern is oval or rectangular with curvy corners. In both tips of the village, a gate was built. Stilted houses stand in rows by a court in the middle of the settlement. In the middle of the court, usually there is a banyan or bidara cina tree, sheltering an altar for rituals. The people do not always stay in these houses. They often live in huts built in fields. These huts are called liha pada. The kinship system is patrilineal, with an ideal marriage called ana mahamone, i.e., a daughter of one’s mother male sibling. In a marital agreement, mone amu (a female family) demands kebue (a girl’s compensating sum of money) from mone ami (a male’s family). They avoid a forbidden cross marriage, one between a husband’s sibling and a wife’s sibling, or vice versa. Nuclear families join in a limited extended family called dara amu. Several dara tamus join in an udu (a patrilineal clan) led by a leader called bangu udu.

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Most of them still practice the old belief. They worship deo (gods), in which the highest one is Deo Mone Ae (god the mighty). In the life cycle, they perform many religious ceremonies, especially ceremonies of bersih desa (village cleaning) and death ceremonies (haga). Ceremonies are led by ratu mone pitu (seven spiritual leaders). They believe that in death, spirits travel from the physical world to the spiritual world by means of ama piga laga (spirit boats). Certain illnesses are considered to appear because of suanggi or wango disturbance caused by spiritual beings. Illnesses caused by spiritual beings can only be cured by the assistance of mone melare (a shaman). In addition to death ceremonies, they often hold rituals

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related to their occupations, such as ceremonies of calling out nira, processing nira, tolak bala (dispelling misfortunes), bersih ladang (field cleansing), cultivating fields, and so forth. Sources: Kana (1983), Lebar (1972), Depdikbud (1989). SEBARUK (Dayak Sebaruk) 136 Kalimantan They live in Sintang sub-district, Sintang Regency, and in Tayan Hilir sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 34,000 people. Further research is required. Spurce: Depdikbud (1989). SEBAYAU (Dayak Sebayau) 162 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Iban tribe living around the meanders of Lundu River, in Central Kalimantan Province. Further research is required. Sources: King (1985), Uchibori (1978), Riwut (1956). See also: IBAN. SEBERUANG (Dayak Seberuang) 137 Kalimantan They live in several villages in Sepauk sub-district, Sintang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Dayak Iban tribe. They population was perhaps around 5,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SEKA (Seko, Seko, Sumawo) 616 Papua Seka, Seko, or Sko tribe inhabits the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, approximately in the northeastern coast of the estuary of Tami River. The villages are Sko-Yambe, Sko-Mabo, and Sko-Sai, in Abepura sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 500 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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SEKADAU (Dayak Sekadau) 138 Kalimantan They live in the hinterland area of West Kalimantan Province, in the central part of the north of Kapuas River, in Sanggau Regency. Further research is required. Source: Koentjaraningrat (1969). SEKAK (Mapur, Lom, Belom, Ameng Sewang) 084 Sumatra The tribe is often called Mapur, Lom, or Belom. They prefer calling themselves Ameng Sewang, meaning “orang laut” (seamen). The name “sekak” itself was given by the surrounding Malays. According to their definition, the word “sekak” means “unwilling to interact” and sounds derogatory by nature. The tribe is classified as one of the exiled tribes, living somewhat separated from other tribes. They inhabit several places in the coast of Belitung Island and the northern coast of Bangka Island, Bangka Belitung Province. The population was around 1,000 (1986). In the coast of Bangka, they commonly live as farmers with the rotational farming method. They also catch fish and gather natural resources in woods. The language is similar to one of Melayu Bangka living in the neighboring areas. Groups in the tribe are led by local custom leaders. They mostly still practice animism and dynamism. Information and data on the tribe and culture are still rare to find. These days, those living in the coast of Belitung have settled down in villages built by the local Social Nureau. However, most of them prefer spending most of their time in the sea to catch fish, crabs, seashells, gamat (sea cucumbers), shrimps, and siput gonggong (a type of snail). Their life depends on the ocean’s natural resources produces various traditions stuff with certain religious beliefs. Such traditions reflect the attitude classified as local wisdom. For example, they never throw away garbage or dirt into the sea, they do not wash pans or other kitchen utensils in the sea, they do not put out cigarettes in the sea or throw away any ashes into the sea, they do not take coral reefs or disturb places where fish gather and reproduce, they take any trash floating on the sea surface. According to their belief, violations of the above prohibitions may result in bad incidents whenever they work offshore. Sea spiritual beings can be offended once these prohibitions are violated, causing huge waves or storms which may all of a sudden hinder their voyages. Sources: Depsos (1985), Depdikbud (1989).

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SEKAR (Seka) 696 Papua Sekar is one of the small tribes living in the northwestern coast of Bomberai Peninsula and in a nearby islet. Their territory is located in Kokas sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 500 people. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). SEKAYU 021a Sumatra The population was perhaps around 400,000 (1989). They may be a sub-tribe of Lampug or Semendo tribe, in South Sumatra Province, in the borderline of South Sumatra and Lampung Province. The language is classified under the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, and the language group of Lampung. They are Muslims. Further research is required. SEKO (Wono, Seko Padang, Anak Suku Seko, Sua Tu Padang) 320 Sulawesi Seko or Anak Suku Seko tribe is considered to be one of the small tribes living in Seko region, Limbong sub-district, Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was perhaps around 2,000 people. Based on reports, they call themselves Sua Tu Padang. They make a living by growing rice, corn, coffee, and cassava in the plateau of Luwu. They are Muslim and Christians. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SELA 617 Papua The tribe lives in the south and southeast of Korapun tribe’s territory, Yahukimo Regency, (formerly it used to be a part of Jayawijaya Regency), Papua Province. The population was around 1,000. The tribe is still under the same group with Kimyal (Koropun) tribe. Further research is required. Source: Depsos (1985).

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SELAKO (Dayak Selako, Salakau, Silakau) 140 Kalimantan The population was around 10,000 people in Central Kalimantan and 3,800 people in Sarawak, Malaysia (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They inhabit the area around Pemangkat. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Kalimantan. Their way of life is still traditional. Further research is required. SELAYAR (Salayar, Salajar, Salayer, Silajara, Siladja, Saleier) 297a Sulawesi The population of the tribe was around 90,000 (1983 SIL). They live in Selayar Island, in South Sulawesi Province. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi and the language group of Bugis-Makassar. They earn a living by working in coconut plantations, growing corn and cassava, and catching fish in the surrounding sea. They are Muslims and a few are Protestants. Further research is required. SELUNGAI (Dayak Selungai) 297b Kalimantan The population of the tribe was around 800 people throughout the country. In Sabah, Malaysia, the population was 300 people (1990 SIL). They live around the upstream of Sembakung River, the east of Lumbis. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Murut (Dayak Murut). Further research is required. SEMANDANG 141 Kalimantan The population of the tribe was around 3,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They inhabit the central part of West Kalimantan Province, around Balai Berkuwak region, in the north of Sandai. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Dayak Darat. The dialects are Semandang, Gerai, Beginci, Bihak. They are Christians and some practice their traditional belief. Further research is required.

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SEMANG (Orang Benua) 046 Sumatra The population was around 3,000 people (1989). They inhabit the coastal area of Bintan Island, in Riau Kepulauan Province the southeast of Batam Island. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia-Asia, with some similarities with the language of Mon-Khmer in Mainland Asia. It is estimated that the tribe is divided into two or three groups in different areas. Further research is required. SEMBAKUNG (Dayak Simbakong, Sembakung, Sembakong, Tinggalan, Tinggalum, Tingalun) 146 Kalimantan The population was around 5,000 people throughout the country (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live along the meanders of Sembakung River in the north of Central Kalimantan Province to the estuary in Sabah, Malaysia. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Dayak Murut tribe from the branch of Dayak Tidong (Tidung). Further research is required. SEMENDO (Semende) 087 Sumatra The tribe often calls itself Semende tribe. The name is perhaps derived from the word “se” (one) and “ende” or “mende” (mother or principal), roughly meaning “people born from the same mother” or “people from the same ancestor”. The tribe is divided into two groups, Semende Darat and Semende Lembak. The first group lives in Panggung Island and Muara Enim sub-district, Lematang Ilir Ogan Tengah Regency. The second group inhabits the area around Baturaja sub-district, Ogan Komering Ulu Regency, especially the cool area in South Sumatra Province. The kinship principle is matrilineal, indicated by a type of marriage called tunggu tumbang, in which a man must pay a sum of uang jujur (some money as dowry) to his future wife’s family. Afterward, he has to participate as his wife’s family member. However, such a marriage only applies to the oldest daughter in a family because after her parents, the oldest daughter is held responsible for taking care of her family (her younger siblings). Heirlooms are passed on to the oldest daughter, especially a large house and a patch of field. Other types of heirloom are passed on based on Islamic laws they adopt. The leadership system is heavily affected by the customs of Simbur Cahaya, the codification of custom rules from the era of Palembang Sultanate. They mainly make a living by growing rice and other crops in irrigated and rain-fed fields. The language of Semendo is classified into the language sub-group of Malay with its own dialect. The population was around 50,000 people. They are Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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SEMERI (Tanahmerah, Sumeri) 691 Papua The population was perhaps around 500 people (1978 SIL). They live in the northern part of Bomberai Peninsula, along the meanders of Gondu and Bapai River. The language is classified into the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea, West Central, the language group of Mairasi. Further research is required. The tribe is differentiated from Tanahmerah (Tabla) from Sentani tribe. SEMIMI 618 Papua They live in the southern area of Papua “Bird Neck”, specifically around Etna Bay, to the direction of Triton Bay in the east. The territory lies in Teluk Etna sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Barat Province. They population was around 300 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). SEMPAN (Nararapi, Senopanowe) 619 Papua They inhabit Mimika area, the southern coast of central Papua, between Kokonao and Agats town, namely to the west of where people speak Kamoro and to the east of Asmat tribe. In previous years, Sempan and Kamoro people were considered the same. They were considered Mimika people. The word “Sempan” was derived from the word “semopanowe” meaning hinterland people. According to Manembu’s research, Sempan people are divided into three sub-tribes: Inawkan, Omawkan, and Otakwan people. The population in 1980 was more than 1,000 people. Onawkan were 554, Omawkan were around 200, Otakwan were around 184 people. Recently some of them have settled down in Timika, and some others have moved to Karaka Island. Their villages are Sumapero, Ipem, Wapu, Omawka, Moparawapi, Nateaymi, Farmapi, and Otokwa. According to Amnembu (1991), Sempan people are divided into three sub-tribes: Inawkan, Omawkan, and Otakwan. Inawkan people call themselves Inafata-Owe, meaning people from Inafata River. Omawkan people call themselves Omawkan-Owe, meaning people from Omawka River. Otakwan people call themselves Ahotia-Owe, meaning people from Ahotia River. The area where they live is called Manesari by the people and also by the military. The name was derived from “mane”, i.e., the ancestor of Sempan people, and “sari” means “center”.

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These days their settlements are included in a village system, namely in Sempan Village in Mimika Timur Sub-district, Mimika Regency, in Jita Village, Akimuga Sub-district, Fak-Fak Regency; and in Sumapero Village in Sawa Erma sub-district, Asmat Regency. The language is classified into the language family of Papua, the language group of Trans Irian, and the language sub-group of Asmat-Kamoro. Some of them speak Indonesian thanks to schools, government administrators, and missionaries speaking Indonesian. With peers, they speak their own language but in the trans-tribe interactions, they speak Indonesian. The history of Sempan tribe was once written by a priest, Coenen, in 1958. Based on the historical account, their ancestors of Sempan tribe living in the coast of Mimika were from the swampy region of Jita and Pece in the hinterland. They moved to the coastal area as there were very few sago trees in their area and because of incessant warfare among tribes. The classification into three sub-tribes above occurs as there is difference between waves of migration from the hinterland of Papua. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). SENGGI 692 Papua The population of the tribe was around 120 people (1978 SIL). They live near the borderline of Papua and Papua New Guinea, in the south of Jayapura, in Senggi and Tomfor Village, Jayapura Regency. The language is classified into the language sub-group of Central-North Trans–New Guinea. It is allegedly under the language group of Waris. Further research is required. SENTANI (Buyaka) 620 Papua The tribe lives in Sentani sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Their territory lies around Sentani Lake and some part of Jayapura Municipality. The population was around 30,000 people (SIL 1996). These days, the settlement of the tribe is centered in three geographical areas. The first is the west group concentrated in Yonokon Island. In this island, there are several villages, such as Doyo, Sosiri, Yakonde, and Dodai. In the western part of the island, Moy tribe lives in settlements such as Sabron Yatu, Dosai, Waibron, and Maribu. They speak their own dialect. Secondly the east group is concentrated in Asei Island. The group spreads in four villages, namely Ayapo, Asei Kecil, Waena and Yoka. Thirdly, the central group is concentrated in Ifar Island. Their settlements are Kabetrow, Ifar Besar, Ifar Kecil, and Siboiboi. They make a living as farmers, sago gatherers, hunters, and fishermen. Farming style they develop is classified as the rotational one. Plants they grow in fields are

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yams, corn, vegetables, and fruits. They catch fish in Sentani Lake. They gather sago in land owned by clans. Those who are not members of clan must obtain license of logging and gathering sago from an ondofolo (a local custom leader). They hunt in hilly jungles around Sentani Lake. Their game includes boar, cassowaries, kangaroos, and large lizards. Their tools of hunting are arrows (fela), nooses (khee), and spears (mendu) made of rattan. Some others work as employees, traders, and priests. In fact, nowadays they have changed their lifestyle and social–cultural development a lot thanks to modernization. The causes are among other things the vicinity of their territory to Jayapura, the provincial capital, which is also the biggest center and transcultural hub in the province. They still live under traditions. Custom leaders in the tribe are called ondofolo. Every village has its own ondofolo called yo (village ondofolo) but above them all there is a superior ondofolo. Each clan in every village is led by a head of clan (khoselo). Every ondofolo of village has an assistant or representative called abu akho or uwfoi. Both a village ondofolo and superior ondofolo ought to seek advice from prominent figures in the tribe, called abu afa, whenever they make decisions. Ownership and use of land and jungles in their custom lands are in the hands of a superior ondofolo because he is considered to be the first person to open the area of Sentani. Nowadays, an ondolofo is a position filled by those from the lineage of “landowners”. He should be the eldest son, fit perfectly the position physically and spiritually, show capability of protecting the people and have an abundant amount of wealth and even better, have a high education. For example, “landowners” in Sereh Village are Elluay clan. In Nolokla Village, the landowners are Ohee clan.

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These days, they are generally Christians. Even though most of them still believe in the old religion, rituals related to it are getting rare and rare to witness. In the past, there were a number of rituals closely related to animis, such as liele rahuipo rituals (to hold before opening cultivation land), hunting rituals, death rituals, wedding rituals, medication rituals caused by spirit nuisance and so forth. In the old times, the animis belief was brought to life through art-religious creations in the shape of wooden carvings with spirit motifs (khomo). Spirit manifestations are usually certain animals, such as fonday (lizards), kha (fish), aye (birds), khamander (alligators). Commonly such religious carvings are made on poles of traditional houses or on a walking stick of a clan leader. Sentani wooden carving art is as equally exotic as Asmat craving art. However, it seems that Sentani’s carving art was abandoned when the external culture entered the territory. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SERAWAI (Seraway, Serawi) 059 Sumatra Most of the tribe members live in Seluma, Talo, Pino, and Manna sub-district in South Bengkulu Regency, Bengkulu Province. Back in the old days, their territory included Marga Semidang Alas, Pasar Manna, Ilir Tallo, Ulu Tallo, Ulu Manna, and Ilir Manna. Based on the 1978 census, the population was estimated to be around 225,460 people. Their territorial land is quite fertile, which is why they make a living by farming in irrigated and rain-fed fields. In addition to growing rice, they also manage plantations of coffee and clove. Rivers and seas provide a lot of fish for them. Likewise, the natural resources in jungles are also gathered by them. They gather logs, rattan, resin, as well as other products, which enable them to make a living. The language of Serawai is classified under the family language of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-Polynesia. It seems that the language is close to the language of Pasemah. The language comprises two dialects: Manna and Serawai dialect. Back then, they once developed a set of alphabets called tulisan ulu or tulisan rencong. The old kinship form of the tribe is a bilateral extended family (clan), consisting of a senior nuclear family added with several junior nuclear families of its descendants. The residence pattern is called kulo, a prenuptial agreement to determine where they settle down. The bilateral characteristics are only visible in terms of regulating marriages but the lineage is inclined to be patrilineal. An extended family is formed thanks to a genealogical tie from a similar grandfather (puyang). This from of kinship is called jughai or sepuyang. Several jughais may join together because of a similar origin of puyang. This group is called jungku or kepuyangan. Every jughai is led by a jughai tuo appointed by a jughai tuo. A village is usually occupied by several jungkus. A leader of it is called jughangau dusun. His power from the old days encompassed the affairs of customs and religion.

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Dusuns (a smaller part of a village) are grouped into several margas. A head of marga is called pasirah and awarded with a title of Khalifah. To govern dusuns in its territory, a pasirah is assisted by several depatis. One of them is appointed mangku or depati utama. The social stratification of the tribe was quite rigid in the past. They had a high class of society consisting of pasirah, mangku, depati, penghulu, and their offsprings. The second group is the clerics, intellectuals, and large traders. Then there was also a group of commoners. Now they have adopted Islam. However, there is still some animism left, as seen from several preserved animistic rituals, such as “membasua dusun” rituals (to clean up a village) led by Jeghangau Dusun. Traditional musical instruments they have are kelintang (wooden xylophones), suling (bamboo flutes), gendang (drums), and so on. These instruments are played to accompany dances such as Lelawan, Kebanyakkan, Dang Kumbang, Ari Mabuk, Lagu Duo, and Tari Pedang among others. In addition to that, they also develop an art of storytelling called berejung, an event where youths can participate in exchanges of pantun (a Malay verse form). Source: Depdikbud (1978). SERU (Sru, Dayak Seru) 163 Kalimantan Seru or Sru tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Iban tribe living around Kalaka area, Central Kalimantan Province, and some others live in Sarawak, Malaysia. Further research is required. Sources: Uchibori (1978), King (1985), Rousseau (1990). See also: IBAN. SERUI (Serui laut, Arui) 621 Papua Serui or Serui Laut or Arui tribe live in the central part of Yapen Island, in Nau Island in the southern part of Yapen Island, and in Cenderawasih Bay, South Yapen, Yapen Barat, and Yapen Bawah Sub-district. Their territory is located in Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua. The population was around 1,300 people. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Serui-Yapen. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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SIAGHA-YENIMU (Siagha, Syiagha, Sjiagha, Sijagha, Oserm Yenimu, Jenimu) 693 Papua The population was around 3,000 people (1987 SIL). They live in the southeastern coast of Papua, in north of the downstream of Digul River, Merauke Regency. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Central-Southern Trans–New Guinea, and perhaps the language group of Awyu-Dumut. Further research is required. SIANG (Ot Siang, Dayak Siang) 144 Kalimantan The population of the tribe was around 6,000 (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in Central Kalimantan, in the east of Dohoi. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Barito. The dialects are Siang and Murung. Further research is required. SIKARITAI (Aikwakai, Tori Aikwakai, Sikari) 694 Papua The population of the tribe was around 800 people (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They live in the area with many lakes in the north of the meeting point of Taritatu and Tariku River, and in some meanders of Memberamo River. Their villages are Sikari, Haya, and Iri. Further research is required. SIKKA (Ata Sikka, Ata Krowe, Ata Iwang) 430 Nusa Tenggara Sikka tribe lives in the area between Lio and Larantuka, in Sikka Regency. The territory is located in Flores Island, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province. The name “sikka” itself is allegedly derived from the name of Sikka Kingdom which was once founded there. The supporters of the culture call themselves Ata Sikka (Sikka people). Prior to converting to Christianity, they differentiated from other tribes by calling themselves Ata Krowe or Ata Iwang. The language is close to the language class of Ambon-Timur from the language sub-group of Papua. In 1930, the population was around 100,000 people. Recently, it might be around 175,000 (1990 E. D. Lewis). Their economy very much depends on agriculture with rice, corn, cassava, sorghum, and sweet potato as the staple crops. A few of them also breed cows, goats, horses, ducks, and chickens. Those who live by the beach can also catch fish, but still they are not a fishery community depending their living on sea resources.

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Their traditional settlement pattern makes use of hilly areas and valleys, which are strategic for security, besides the fact that the area is near their fields. A traditional settlement is centered in an offering altar stone they call mahe. In every village, there is also a traditional house called woga, i.e., a type of bachelor house where customary and religious rituals are held, such as the tradition of circumcision. Nowadays, some of the tribe builds settlements along streets with a church as its center. They tend to apply a patrilineal kinship system. Meanwhile, Sikka Timur people are more flexible with their ambilineal pattern, in which a lineage is drawn from an extended family to whichever family their parents settle down. Despite that, an extended family unit is equally prioritized. Sikka Barat people are called an extended family (clan) ku’at or ku’at wungung. On the contrary, in Sikka Timur an extended family unit is called suku. To the 1950s, Sikka Kingdom still survived, with the last king residing in Maumere. A king was called puang with 16 assistants called kapitan. Each kapitan led a number of kepala kampong (leaders of villages) from villages under his authority. Despite the fact that Sikka Kingdom no longer exists, its old social stratification leave its influence on the tribe. In Sikka Barat, for instance, there is a group named ata moang or the nobility or descendants of kings in the past and the second group called ata riwung or the commoners. Back in the days of the kingdom there was also a group of slaves called ata maha. Catholicism was already introduced to the tribe from the era of Sikka kings so the ceremonies have been influenced by Catholicism since a long time ago. Meanwhile, the old religion revolves around the belief of deities. The main deity is Lero Wulang and Niang Tana, both of whom are symbols of the moon, the sun, and the earth. In addition to them, there are deities related to daily life and death. The old religious ritual requiring every teenage boy to be circumcized is no longer practiced since Catholicism was adopted. Sources: Lebar (1964), Depdikbud (1989). SIKULE (Sikhule, Wali Banuah) 047 Sumatra The population was perhaps around 200 people. They live in the hinterland of Simeulue Island, Simeulue, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD). The language is perhaps under the same language group with the language of Nias. Further research is required.

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SILADANG 016 Sumatra The tribe is one of the rather exiled small tribes in terms of culture and location as they live in the hinterland of South Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatra Province. They live as nomadic farmers around Sihite Hill and they rarely interact with other tribes around the area. The population was around 200 people (1989). Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SILATON 321 Sumatra The tribe is one of sub-tribes of Batak tribe (Tapanuli). They live in Simalungun which is now a part of Simalungun Regency, and some others live in Pematangsiantar Municipality, North Sumatra Province. The population was around 891,000 people. Recently the population was estimated to reach approximately 1 million people. Sources: Bangun (1983), Loeb (1972), Depdikbud (1978, 1989). See also: BATAK. SIMEULU (Simalur, Simalul, Smelu, Long Bano) 007 Sumatra The tribe lives in five sub-districts in Aceh Barat Regency, specifically in East Simeulu, West Simeulu, Central Simeulu, Salang and South Teupah sub-district. In 1999, these sub-districts were declared as Simeulu Regency. Geographically, the area includes Simeulu Island located in the west of Sumatra Island. The population was around 1,300,000 people. In the eighteenth century, Simeulu Island was known as Ue Island (the island of coconut), because the island produced coconuts in abundance. The word “Simeulu” itself means “beautiful” in Acehnese. The legend has it that when an Islamic cleric from Aceh came to the island on the command of his sultan. On his way, the cleric married a beautiful girl who was a daughter of a local leader. Because of this, the influence of Acehnse culture is very dominant in the tribe. Simeulu Island is also known as Simalur or Simalul. The people were from Sumatra Island and it seems that they are results of amalgamation between several different tribes. According to Sufi et al., there are two groups of immigrants’ coming to the island. The first was a group led by a man named Lasenga. The descendants of the first group inhabit Teupah, Simeulu Tengah, and they are called Orang Lasali (Lasali People). The second group was one led by a man named Lamborek, living in Salang, Sigurai, and Leukon area in West Simeulu.

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The descendants of the second group name themselves Orang Lafung Asal (Lafung Asal People). After some period, Bugis immigrants came along and settled down in several places in West Simeulu and Simeulu Central Simeulu. The descendants of Bugis people adjusting themselves to the local social and cultural environment are known as Orang Lamteng (in Simeulu Barat) or Orang Cabu (in Simeulu Tengah). After that, immigrants from Aceh and Pidie also came to the island and they were known as a group of merchants. After the Republic of Indonesia’s independence, Simeulu had also attracted many immigrants from other tribes such as Minangkabau, Java and so on (Sufi et al., 1999: 23). The language is considered to be one of the dialects of Acehnese. Some experts state this is because of the strong influence of Aceh, although they already speak their own language (the language of Ulau (“pulau” or island)) which is divided into two dialects. The first is the language of Sigulai spoken by people in Simeulue Barat and Salang sub-district. The second is the language of Defayan spoken by people in East Simeulu, Central and South Tepang. The language of Sigulai is considered the oldest. There are also some experts stating that they discovered some other variations of dialect in the language. They commonly earn a living by cultivating fields or growing plants in plantations. Their staple crops are coconut, coffee, clove. Some others grow rice in irrigated fields or rain-fed fields. Some others breed buffaloes, catch fish, sell goods, and gather natural resources. They use simple farming tools such as hoes, dikeh (plows), machetes, tuai (ani-ani, a type of rice harvesting tool), tembilang and endok (lesung, or a large wooden canoe-like container where rice is battered). Likewise, the other occupations are commonly ones which use modest types of tool. Their main export commodities are clove and coconut as the land and climate perfectly suit the ideal condition to grow both plants. This is also what attracts traveling traders who came to the island, especially during a period of clove harvesting. They come to sell their goods (daily household utensils) and secondary goods, and then they buy clove or copra to be sold again to large traders in Banda Aceh. After the clove harvest season is over, they come back to their places of origin and will come again in the next clove harvest season. Native people’s traditional houses generally concentrate in narrowly spaced settlements. These villages scatter sparsely around the coastal area and in the fertile land of the hinterland. In Central Simeulu and Salang, their settlement pattern is sparse because their houses are built amid clove and coconut plantations. They live in stilted houses built on tall and strong wooden poles. However, nowadays there are many of them who also build brick houses for the sake of “progress”. In fact, the reason behind it is because the supply of wood has already diminished a lot in their jungles and therefore costs of building stilted wooden houses are much higher than building brick houses. Their households usually consist of only one nuclear family as well as a patrilineal principle orientation. A newlywed couple would stay in a wife’s family house at least for a year or after a first child is born, they build their own household. The local uxorilocal custom is called mengeneng adat.

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The local communal living unit is a village, led by a keucik. In the old times, a village leader was called Datuk. Another traditional leader is imeum meunasah (celrics) and tuha peut (intellectuals). Several villages join together in a kemukiman led by a kepala mukim. Every kemukiman also has another type of leader such as imeum ciek or imeum masihit (leaders of mosque). Although nowadays there is a less rigid social stratification, the remnants of old systems are still visible in their current social stratification. There is still a group of kings or nobility that the people respect. In addition, the role of clerics and intellectuals are also still dominant. These days, there is also a group of ata kayo (wealthy people). Simeulu people nowadays are Muslims. However, in their culture, they still practice animistic ceremonies, such as old mantras with burned kemenyan, such as for agricultural activities called kenduri blang ceremony. The art of Simeulu is greatly influenced by the culture of people in Sumatra, such as Aceh and Minangkabau. Nandong and kumendang art forms, for example, are lyrical dances influenced by Minangkabau art. The art forms with Aceh influence are nanga-nanga, for example, and dances such as rapai dabus, tonjou, angguk, mincar, saramo, and angkun. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Rusdi et al. (1999) “Keanekaragaman Suku Bangsa dan Budaya di Aceh” (Diversity of Tribes and Cultures in Aceh). Balai Kajian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional Banda Aceh. SINGKIL 048 Sumatra The tribe lives in South Aceh Regency, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) Province. They live in four sub-districts: Singkil, Simpang Kiri, Simpang Kanan, and Pulau Banyak. The population of Orang Singkil was around 50,000. It is estimated that the tribe is the assimilation result of Mandailing, Aceh, Minangkabau, and Nias tribe. The territory of Singkil tribe shares the same borderline with one of North Sumatra Province. They mainly make a living by farming and catching fish. SKRANG (Dayak Skrang) 166 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Iban tribe living around the meanders of Skrang River, Central Kalimantan Province. Further research is required. Sources: Riwut (1956, 1962). See also: IBAN.

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SO’A (Soa) 298a Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 10,000 (SIL 1994). They live in Central Flores, between the territory of Ngada and Riung tribes, Ngada Regency. The language is perhaps classified into the language group of Bima-Sumba. They are possibly a part of Ngada tribe. They are Christians. Further research is required. SOBEI (Sarmi, Sawar, Biga, Imasi) 623 Papua The tribe lives in four villages in Sarmi sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Sarmo, Sawar, Bageserwar Village. The population was at least around 2,100 people (Hidayah, 1997). The number did not include Sobei people living in villages in East Pantai sub-district, such as in Wakde, Masimasi, Yamna, Podena, Anus, and Liki Village. In some other writings, the tribe is called Sawar or Sarmi tribe, maybe because this tribe is what was known as Sarmi coastal inhabitants. Several informants state that Sobei tribe does not contain the native people of coastal areas as in previous years the coast was not a place to live decently. At first, they lived around the meander of Waske River as sago gatherers and fishermen. They moved to the coast from the meander of Tor River after being forced by the Dutch Colonial Government in the nineteenth century. In this new place, it was said that immigrants interacted and finally they joined Sobei tribe. After some generations in the coast of Sarmi, Sobei people then state that the land around where they gathered sago and hunted wild animals belongs to the tribe. The statement is acknowledged traditionally by other tribes such as Isirawa, Manyere, and Armati tribe as according to traditonal laws what is acknowledged as land owned by a group is an area where a tribe seeks food sources. The consequence of this territorial violation back then was warfare. Because a new group feels safe to obtain food at the distance of one day’s walk. Hence, the tribe is entitled to the land which can be journeyed a day for a round trip. It is no wonder that they claim the distance of the territory stretches 6 km to the beach because they only can travel that far in a single day. The borderline of their custom territory in the west is marked by Niti River (located in Pantai Barat sub-district), and Waske River in the east. In the north, the border is beach and they share a borderline with Isirawa tribe, spanning 6 km from the beach. All of these are determined by the traditional calculation above. Most of the tribe make a living by farming in fields where they grow various crops, such as sweet potato (usa pusa), spinach, kangkung (a type of vegetable), gedi (wabinya), banana (firo), taro (menokwar), nuts, breadfruit (naa), gnemo, gambas, tomatoes, rica (cabai rawit or cayenne), corn, mango, rambutan, jackfruit, zalacca, coconut, clove, nutmeg, cocoa, and so on. Some men also catch fish in the sea by boat and with hooks, especially during March and July, when the wind is weaker.

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Some women still gather natural resources from woods, especially for consumption, such as sago, fern (pakis), gnemo, gayang fruit. Meanwhile, adult men hunt (etmatento) animals like boars (pado), cassowaries (swodi), mambruk birds (murisa), bats (wendamo), soa-soa (sdema). Such hunting is done by groups of men. Some of them also begin to work as government civil servants or manual workers in logging companies. Women sell things. Usually the things they sell are foods, both the fresh, unprocessed ones and the cooked ones. Sobei tribe’s social system seems to be similar with one of Isirawa tribe as nuclear families are parts of kinship units according to paternal lineage or a patrilineal extended family usually called keret. A settlement in a village usually is formed after a unification of several kerets for security and barter reasons. The first kerets to settle down are considered to be the oldest and deserve to be leaders. From the leading kerets, usually there is a Setemtu (a nickname for Ondoafi in Sobeian), a person who understands kinship nuts and bolts or the family tree of keret in his villages, and is able to explain borders of their Custom Territory and other tribes’ territory. Such knowledge is closely related to the origin of ancestors and legends of certain places. If there are three kerets in a village to be the first to come, all of them are appointed Satemtu. For example, in Sawar Village there are three main kerets considered to be entitled to the position of Satemtu, Senis, Bers, and Iroti keret. Those appointed Satemtu must be oldest sons of former Satemtu. Like Isirawa tribe, they also respect very much the elderly. A marriage is usually between kerets in a village (endogamous in a village). The role of a mother’s male sibling (wawa) is crucial in arranging a marriage as he is the one who is considered to have the right to find a spouse for his nephew. For social purposes, an uncle prefers arranging a marriage between his nephew and his own daughter, instead of a girl of another keret. A marriage with someone of different village may occur in preserving peace among groups. Back in the old days, a woman was gifted to settle a conflict and was considered common because both sides (one giving and receiving) are connected and respect each other. In the native religious system, they seem to believe in the existence of various spiritual beings in various places and objects around humans. These unseen creatures are considered to live on the ground or in the sky, in high places, such as Mebi Mountain, Macos Mountain, and Seimkaipuar Mountain. Evil spiritual beings such as Satan and ghosts are considered to live underground or in caves. Human spirits are thought to stay in jungles, springs, rivers, sea, large trees, and tend to change forms to resemble shapes of humans, crocodiles, snakes, birds, and large fish as well as other natural creatures. To avoid disturbance from these spiritual creatures, they build communal traditional houses as shrines and a place of discussion. Such traditional houses called karwari no longer exist now after they started to convert to Christianity.

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Christianity was estimated to have been introduced to the tribe eight decades ago. However, to date the native religion is still practiced and passed on to the next generation. Worship of spirits and certain spiritual creatures are still performed by most of them, as shown in various life cycle rituals, such as shamanism healing rituals, birth rituals, gantung sarung rituals, initiation rituals, wedding ceremonies, and death rituals. Sources: Hidayah (1997), Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). SOLOR (Holo, Solot, Ata Kiwan) 431 Nusa Tenggara The tribe is also called Holo, Solot, or Ata Kiwan. They live in Solor Island. The territory is located in the south of Adonara Island, in the east of Flores Island. The area is in East Flores Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language of Solor is classified as the language sub-group of Malay-Polynesia or Austronesia. The language is divided into three dialects, namely West Solor, Solor Pegunungan, and East Solor. In 1930, the population was around 131,000 people. The number possibly included smaller tribes such as Kedang and Alor. In previous years, they built villages in hilly regions. During the Dutch Colonial era, they were forced to live in the coastal lowland (Kennedy 1955b). Their settlement pattern is concentrated to a shrine belonging to a dominant patrilineal clan. Their traditional economy depends on cultivation. Besides that, they also hunt wild animals and catch fish to obtain more foods. The staple crops they grow are corn and rice. Other crops are sorghum, taro, cassava, cucumber, peanuts, banana, coconut, tobacco, cotton, as well as several other products. Every clan cultivates their communal land each year. Land is cleared and cultivated only twice in a year. After that, they move and open another land to cultivate. The old land is abandoned for at least six or seven years and then recultivated. Those who live by the beach mostly live through working as fishermen. If crops are not quite satisfactory, women of Solor tribe gather fresh vegetables, yams, and fruits from the jungle, sea snails, seashells, and crabs. Meanwhile, males go hunting deer, boar, monkey, and birds. Some others also breed goats, pigs, buffaloes, and chickens. The extended family kinship system is very influential on their social and individual life. They in general prioritize the patrilineal kinship ties even though there are sub-tribes that are no longer oriented to clans or extended families but are parental by nature. Ideal marital ties of the nobility usually involve two cross-cousins. In a wedding ceremony, a male must submit the most valuable dowry, elephant tusks. Men who cannot afford their wedding dowries must dedicate themselves to his wife’s family. In a marriage, commonly a bride is immediately brought to stay with her husband’s family house for at least one year before they build their own house. Most important leaders in a settlement neighborhood are descendants of landowners called tuan alat. Afterward, there are four levels of religious leaders

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(their old religion), namely koten, kelen, hurit, and marang. Of these four, a koten leader is considered to be a main leader. A kelen leader acts as an assistant and the other two act as advisors to a koten leader (Lebar 1972). In the Dutch Colonial era, they were divided into six small kingdoms, namely Larantuka, Adonara, Trong, Lamahala, Lawajong, and Lamakera. Afterward, all were united in the territory of King Larantuka. Sources: Koentjaraningrat (1969), Lebar (1972), Depdikbud (1989). SOW 698 Papua They live in Windesi sub-district, Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The word “sow” is given by neighboring tribes, meaning “hinterland”. The tribe is divided into four clans, namely Mokiri, Maskeni, Tohosta, and Kamunandewa. They are from the hinterland, Befu Valley, located in Central Mountains. The reason why they moved was warfare against Tsiaka tribe after a discord over women. Because they lost the war, they were made to leave Befu Valley. The first clan to move was Mokiri. They moved at the beginning of 1990s. The Mokiri clan consists of two sections, Mokiri Adik moving to an area now named Kampung Ambuar, and Mokiri Kakak moving to Kampung Kaprus in Ransiki sub-district. The migration finally was followed by Maskeni, Tohosta, and Kamunandewa tribe. All of these tribes moved to Kampung Ambuar. Contact with outsiders occured circa 1968, when they were christened by Zending missionaries. Ever since they converted and declared themselves as Protestants but the old religion still survives to date. It has the concept of good spiritual beings called ninimatene, and evil spiritual beings called biris kenyehak. A traditional leader is called Korano Mambaruk, while his vice man is called Kapissa. Of all the existing four clans, only Mokir men are allowed to be appointed Korani Mambaruk and Kapissa. Nowadays, both leaders also serve as Village Head and his assistant. They earn a living by gathering sago, other natural resources from jungles and hunting. There are two types of sago they consume, thorned anang gemo and thornless anang gase. The type of sago tree without thorn produces more sago flour. In addition to gathering sago, they also gather natural resources from jungles and sell them. The natural resources are, for example, ebony, bintangur, ketapang, melur, agatis, kedondong, mangrove, and non-wood natural resources from jungles (resin, swallow birds nests, gaharu, and rattan). Some of them cultivate land in a simple manner, growing crops such as sweet potato, banana, breadfruit, taro, and various vegetables.

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SOWANDA (Waina, Wina, Wanya, Wanja) 698 Papua The population was perhaps around 1,100 people throughout the country (1978 SIL) and around 1,000 people in Papua New Guinea. They live in the borderline of Papua and Papua New Guinea in the south of Jayapura. The tribe may be a sub-tribe of Waris tribe. Further research is required. SUABO (Suabau, Inanwatan) 624 Papua Suabo, or Suabau tribe speaking Inanwatanese live in the southern coast of Irian Bird Head region, in the top of Berau Bay. The region is located in Inanwatan sub-district, Sorong Regency. The population was around 1,300. Further research is required. Sources: Grimes (1984), SIL (1987). SUM (Dayak Sum, Dayak Sum-Daruk) 139 Kalimantan Dayak Sum or Daruk tribe lives in several villages in Bonti sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 2,500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SUMBA (Humba, Meiwewa, Kambera) 432 Nusa Tenggara The tribe’s name was possibly derived from the word “humba”, meaning “original”. They call themselves Tau Humba, or the natives living in Sumba Island. Their territory now covers West Sumba and East Sumba Regency. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Bima-Sumba. The language of Sumba is divided into two dialects, namely West Sumba dialect also called the language of Meiwewa, and East Sumba dialect called Kambera. The language of Meiwewa consists of several dialects (sub-dialects), namely Kodi, Wewewa Barat, Wewewa Timur, Waejewa, Laura, and Walakaka dialect. Meanwhile, the language of Kambera consists of several dialects (sub-dialects), namely Manggikina, Manggarikuna, and Kambera dialect. The population was around 250,000 (1960), 381,000 (1984), and now possibly around 500,000.

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They mainly make a living by growing crops in rain-fed and irrigated fields and breed cattle such as buffaloes, cows, and horses. They are known also for traditional weaving fabrics done as their side occupations. In addition to making plaited goods made of bamboo and pandanus leaves, they also make jewelry made of bones and buffalo horns, and various iron tools.

Sumba people settlements in general are built in hilly areas by choosing a patch of flat land as the ritual orientation center. Such land for rituals is called paraing and nearby there is a traditional house only occupied during dry season as it is during dry season, they are busy working in fields and stay in these temporary huts. A traditional hut called uma kabihu (a clan house) has a joglo-modeled roof (joglo means rectangular) which stands tall. At the highest level, under the roof there was a place to put marapu tools, from their original religion. The lineage system is patrilineal, in which a nuclear family is inclined to join its limited extended family which later forms a clan. The familial leadership system is still applied to date. Every clan has a leader called rato. Dominant clans consider themselves the nobility and they are usually called maramba group, they are called ata. The tribe is divided more into extended family groups (clans) called kabihu. A marriage must be exogamous of a clan. For this reason, there is also a marital alliance, in which there is a kabihu acting as a giver of women or jera, and kabihu

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acting as a receiver of women or laija. The status of jera is deemed to be higher than laija as shown in traditional ceremonies and rituals. Polygamy is allowed amongst the nobility. Despite the fact that today most of them are Christians and Muslims many still practice the native religion. The old religion is called marapu or marapu humba (the original ancestral religion). They perform many ceremonies of life cycle, especially ones related to death and fertility of land. Sources: Depdikbud (1978, 1989), Kapita (1976), Lebar (1972), Soelarto (t.t.) SUMBAWA (Semawa) 404 Nusa Tenggara Sumbawa or Semawa tribe lives in Sumbawa Regency, specifically in the west of Sumbawa Island, West Nusa Tenggara Province. The population was around 190,000 people (1980), 300,000 people (1989), and now it may be around 500,000 people. They speak the language of Semawa, consisting of several dialects, i.e., Semawa, Semawa Taliwang, Semawa Baturotok or Batulante, Ropang Suri, Selesek, Lebah, Dodo, Jeluar, Tanganam, Geranta, and Jeruweh. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bali-Sasak. The language spoken every day is divided into two: polite and informal forms. They mainly make a living by farming in irrigated and rain-fed fields. In addition to that, many of them hunt, catch fish, and gather natural resources in jungles. Other ways of living are making plaited goods made of pandanus and lontar leaves and weaving fabrics with traditional motifs. The lineage system is patrilineal. Several nuclear families join in a limited extended family and they live as a group in a virilocal unit, even though some of them also build houses in different places. In previous years, several nuclear families lived together inan uma panggu (a large stilted house). Their marital system tends to avoid an ambilineal extended family form. A boundary of kinship circle is a third degree kinship branch. Relatives included in this category are called mindoan. An ideal marriage is a marriage between cousins.

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These days, a village head (kepasa kampong) is assisted by advisors called loka karang. They consist of old men from each familial group in a village. Besides them, a village head is also assisted by a malar (a secretary and supervisor of village land) and a mandur (a connector). In their religious life (hukom) in every village there are leaders like penghulu, lebe, modon, ketib, marbot, and rura. A settlement consists of several kebans (an area smaller than a village). Each keban consists of one or two large yards with fences for four–seven villages. In such a neighborhood, Sumbawanese families live and use their yards to grow trees of fruit, sugarcanes, and plants for various household needs. A village settlement orientation center is a masiget (a mosque) where people perform Friday prayer and other religious activities. They have their own social stratification, because there are three layers, namely the group of nobility usually titled datu or dea; the group of free people called tan sanak, and a group of slaves called lindin. The young nobility group is titled Daeng, but those who already have children are called Datu. Children born in a marriage of a datu and a commoner are addressed by the title of Lalu for men and Lala for women.

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Generally, they are Muslims but some still practice the original religion that their ancestors passed on. They still believe that certain illnesses are caused by spiritual creatures, which can only be cured by a sanro (a shaman). Sources: Goethals (1959, 1960, 1967), Depdikbud (1978, 1989), Lebar (1972). SUNDA (Priangan, Pryangan, Prahiyangan) 102 Java-Bali The tribe is often called Orang Priangan. They live in most of the territory of West Java Province, from Bandung, Bogor, Sukabumi, Tasikmalaya, and surrounding villages. The settlement pattern is a dense concentration of dozens of houses. A group of houses in a settlement are called babakan. Afterward, several settlements with given historical boundaries form a village. The population of the tribe nowadays is hard to be estimated. However, it was predicted that the population is at least 20 million people. From a 1930 census, there were 4,600,000 people (or specifically 4,639,469 people). Nowadays, it is estimated to reach around 30 million people. The language applies levels of language use, Bahasa Lemes (polite, refined language) found in Ciamis, Tasikmalaya, Garut, Bandung, Sumedang, Sukabumi, and Cianjur Regency; Bahasa Sedang found in the northern coastal area in Banten, Karawang, Cirebon, and Bogor. Also there is Bahasa Kasar, divided more into Cohag (informal) and Cohag Pisan (very informal).

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They make a living by farming in irrigated and rain-fed fields. Their staple crop is rice, grown in terraced irrigated fields. In rain-fed fields, they grow vegetables, and crops to export such as tea, rubber, quinine, sugarcane, oil palm. Some also manage farming and fishery businesses, crockery, handicrafts, plaited goods, ceramics, and so on. Progress of education enables more of them to work as employees, educators, executives, large traders, businessmen, and so forth. The lineage principle or kinship system is bilateral. A nuclear family obtains social power in its unity with an extended family they call golongan. Some of them also apply the ambilineal kinship system because it only includes relatives around ego. Nonetheless, it is still oriented to ancestors, the system is called bondoroyot. For some time, Sundanese formal leaders have adopted the advanced bureaucracy system. Their formal leadership starts from the province, regency, sub-district, village to settlement. A village’s administrative officials are a village head, secretary, police officer, ulu-ulu, settlement head, and a neighborhood head. Existing informal leaders are probably remaining from the respected traditional leadership in certain regions, such as clerics, amil kolot, gangirang, sesepuh, and so on. The social stratification system in the Sundanese tribe is generally based on genealogy. Some are called menak, the nobility consisting of descendants of public officials during the Dutch Colonial era. They usually have Raden as an honorary title. There is also a group of cacah or somah. Based on wealth in the social stratification, there is also a group called jelema beunghar or jelegut (wealthy people) and the poor. Wealthy people with vast land as their property are usually called nu boga tanah (landowners) and those who have no land are clalled nu gagarap (cultivators). Most of them are now Muslims. However, some of them are also Catholics. Despite that, in daily life, there are also some retaining elements of the old ancestral religion. For example, they may show in an offering ceremony for spirits of keruhun (ancestors) to seek blessings before they begin important tasks. In addition to that, many of them still believe in the magical power of shamans and witches in making pelet, guna-guna, asihan, susuk, and so on. Some Sundanese art is influenced by Javanese culture but the original art of the tribe is also easy to find, such as wawacan (an Islamic religious oral tradition art) and beluk (a vocal art to accompany wawacan). Sundanese wayang golek (puppet dolls) are influenced by Javanese Mataram culture but they also develop Sundanese tastes. Many other well-known traditional arts are redeveloped.

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Sundanese foods are various. Some of the most well-known include eating vegetables, which make their skin look great. These are their favorite foods. Sayur asem or sayur asam is no stranger to Sundanese (Priyangan or Prahiyangan) people. Sayur asem has a distinct flavor mixed with spices such as onion and red chili and asem (tamarind). Sayur asem is usually eaten with ikan asin (salted fish) and sambal pedas (hot chili condiment), sambal petai goreng (fried petai mixed with chili condiment) or petai bakar (grilled petai). As a side dish, there are salted fish and fried tofu and tempeh. The taste is very delicious. Lalapan is raw vegetable eaten with rice and other foods. They really like lalapan as it has been their traditional food for many years. Nasi timbel or nasi timbal is usually served with side dishes, lalapan, and sambal cabai (chili condiment). To them, lalapan with sambal is a compulsory part of an everyday menu. Nasi timbal is served with fried chicken and fried fish, tempeh, tofu and fried salted fish. The rice itself is wrapped with banana leaves, giving a more rustic touch to the whole eating ambiance. Pepes ikan mas is a dish made of goldfish cooked and wrapped in banana leaves. Variants of pepes they often eat are pepes tahu, pepes oncom, and pepes ikan mas. Pepes tastes more delicious with basil leaves. Sundanese foods are not only the favorites of their own but also of many other people throughout the country and also people overseas. With various dishes they have, Sundanese foods remain the people’s favorite. Hayam bakakak is a chicken roasted above fire, after it is cleaned and added with special seasonings. Usually a chef uses a bamboo stick to grab a chicken to make it easy to grill. Usually it is served on wedding parties. Cumi hideung is a dish made of octopus cooked for 2–3 h with its black ink and special seasonings. It is served with rice (rencang sangu). Sambal goreng ati kentang is often considered a special food only served only on certain social occasions. Such as on Idul Fitri, wedding parties, circumcision parties, and so forth.

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Sambal goreng kentang Mustofa is made of potato finely chopped like matches. Afterward, it is added with sambal merah (red chili condiment). There is no certain evidence for the origin of the name. Mustofa is someone who popularized the dish. Kadedemes or oseng kulit sampeu is cassava skin boiled to get rid of its sap. Afterward, it is sautéed again with spices and sprinkled with green chili slices. After it is ready to serve, it looks like jackfruit gudeg (gudeg nangka). Kerupuk melarat is made of tapioca flour and then cooked with only heated sand, without cooking oil. Putri No’ong is made of flat, shredded cassava dough, filled with banana, and then rolled. The mixture is then steamed and punctured with sticks and served with sprinkles of coconut shreds. Gurandil is a type of dessert made of rice flour, black sticky rice, and tapioca. It is customarily served with shredded coconut, white sugar, or brown sugar. Nasi timbel is one food in a package from Priangan region, namely nasi timbel. It is warmed white rice wrapped in banana leaves with a certain aroma of banana leaves, which is appetite-arousing. Usually it is served with ikan gurame goreng (fried gurame) or ayam goreng kalasan (kalasan fried chicken), fried tempeh and various lalapan, added with sayur asam as soup. Sate maranggi is a type of satay served in Purwakarta, Jawa Barat (West Java. It is usually made of goat or beef. However, some people think that sate maranggi is from Cianjur. What distinguishes sate maranggi from other satay variants is the soybean ingredient made of sweet, sour, and hot flavored soybean. A tasty flavor combination appears thanks to its spices and ingredients (such as soybean, green chili condiment added with a little cuka lahang (vinegar made of sugarcane)). When served, these materials are completed with slices of onion and fresh tomatoes. Usually sate maranggi is served with ketan bakar (roasted sticky rice) and nasi timbel. Sources: Harsojo (1983), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Andreas (1984). SUNGKAI 021c Sumatra They live in the northeast of Krui, in the west of Abung people. The territory is near the borderline of Lampung-Bengkulu-South Sumatra. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Lampung Pesisir. Further research is required.

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SUNGKUNG (Dayak Sungkung) 140 Kalimantan They live in several villages in Kapuas and Sekayan sub-district in Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Some of them are also found in Sejangkung sub-district in Sambas Regency. The population was around 12,500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SURUK (Dayak Suruk) 141 Kalimantan They live in several settlements in Bunut Hilir sub-district, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was estimated to be around 4,000. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). SUWAWA 224 Sulawesi The tribe is perhaps one of the sub-tribes of Gorontalo tribe. They speak the language of Suwawa different from the dialects of the surrounding languages. They live in several villages in Suwawa sub-district, Gorontalo Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The population was estimated to be around 9,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). SYIAGA-YENIMU (Syagha, Oser, Yenimu) 625 Papua The tribe lives in the southeastern area of Papua, near the southern coast, in the north of downstream Digul River, in the north and northwest of Marind Anim tribe’s territory. The area is in Jair sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 3,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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T TABA (Dayak Taba, Dayak Perairan) 142 Kalimantan They live in the coastal area in Batang Tarang sub-district, Sanggau Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 2,500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TABLA (Tepera, Tanah Merah, Tabi) 626 Papua They live in the northern coast of Papua, from Yongsu Kecil settlement in the eastern most area to Bukisi settlement in the west. Their territory is in Depapre and Demta sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 4,500 people. The language of Tabla is classified under the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Sentani. It is divided further into several dialects, namely Yongsu, Yewena, Tepera, and Yokari. The language is often called the language of Tanah Merah, i.e., the name of a bay in their territory. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). TAGAL (Tagel, Dayak Tagal, Dayak Tagel) 188 Kalimantan They live in the hinterland of East Kalimantan, in the borderline of Indonesia and Sabah, Malaysia. Their villages are located in Alumbis sub-district, Bulungan Regency. The population in Indonesia was around 2,500 and in Sabah, Malaysia, it was about 30,000. Some also call the tribe Dayak Tagelan. Possibly the tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Murut (Dayak Murut) tribe. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: MURUT. TAIKAT (Taykat, Arso) 699 Papua The population was around 600 people (1978 SIL). They are natives in Arso sub-district, in the borderline of Papua and the northern Papua New Guinea, to the south of Jayapura. Nowadays, the region is also inhabited by Javanese transmigrants. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea and the language group of Awyi. Further research is required.

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TAJIO (Kasimbar, Takjio, Ta’adjio, Adjio) 280 Sulawesi Tajio or Takjio tribe is often called Kasimbar people. They live in four villages in Ampibabo, Sundue, and Tinombo sub-district in Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, the language group of Tomini. The population was around 7,000 people. Further research is required. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Grimes (1984). TALANG MAMAK 026 Sumatra Talang Mamak tribe lives in Inderagiri Hulu Regency, Riau Province, specifically around Siberida, Rengat, and Pasir Penyu sub-district. The language is categorized as the language family of Malay with its own dialect. The word “talang” means “ladang” (field), in line with their habits of rotational farmers in Bukittigapuluh Mountains. The word “mamak” itself means “mother”. Therefore, both words combined mean “the field belonging to a mother or a mother’s family”. It seems that the word is related to the matrilineal inheritance system like one of Minangkabau tribe. They prefer calling themselves Orang Adat. The population was around 5,000 people. They mainly make a living by growing rice, vegetables, and other crops in fields. Men of the tribe still often hunt wild animals and gather natural resources in the woods and catch fish in rivers. They live in simple stilted houses supported by wooden poles. They cannot produce some of their own daily tools and necessities, which is why they have them all by bartering with Malay traders. Nowadays, their economic field has been supported by the rubber sapping industry. Hence, once they finish harvesting rice in their fields, the money they make by sapping rubber can be spent on purchase of external commodities. Unfortunately, commodity crops grow in the wilderness, and only very few people grow them correctly. The tribe is divided into two groups by perspective on origins, leadership and local traditions. The first is Talang Mamak Sungai Limau group living around the meanders of Limau and Cenaku River. The second is Talang Mamak Sungai Gangsal group living in the meanders of Gangsal and Akar River in Bukittigapuluh Mountains. The first group considers itself the descendants of Datuk Mendarjati while the second one considers itself as the descendants of three siblings, namely Datuk Ria Belimbing, Datuk Ria Tanjung, and Datuk Ria Muncak. According to their oral history, the tribe was once influenced by Pagaruyung Kingdom, so that some of the customs resemble pre-Islamic Minangkabau culture. They tend to adopt the matrilineal kinship system, as shown by the fact that their leadership positions, such as batin, penghulu, mangku, and monti and heirloom inheritance can only be passed on to a son of a female sibling. A household is

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formed by a nuclear family with a separate house around a wife’s parents’ neighborhood. The highest living unit of the tribe is equal to a settlement, and every settlement is led by a batin or penghulu adat. In addition to that, they also have a charismatic leader called Datuk Patih. 4The majority of Talang Mamak people still practice the old religion of their ancestors. It is called Agama Adat, some also call it Langkah Lama religion. This religion is oriented toward the worshipping of ninik datuk (ancestors) spirits and spiritual beings living in jungles. Agama Adat requires them to perform five customary habits: circumcision and tooth filing, cock fighting, gambling, bekumantan (shamanism practice), and pesemahan (a sacred graveyard worshipping by sacrificing animals). Some of them are Muslims. Islam is called Langkah Baru to distinguish the older Agama Adat from the religion. Those who are Muslims usually prefer being called Malay people. Basically they are part of Melayu Inderagiri tribe. Their culture shows pre-Islamic Malay cultural influence. They alsi like to call themselves orang adat, and those who already convert to Islam are called orang syarak. Meanwhile, some of Talang Mamak people who already assimilate with the Chinese descendants adopt Catholicism, such as in Siambul Village, Hulu Gangsal sub-district. Source: Hidayah (1993). TALAUD (Talaut, Talodda) 225 Sulawesi They live in the Talaud Islands in Sangir-Talaud Island Regency, North Sulawesi Province. Their own region consists of three main islands, namely Karakelang, Salibabu, and Kabaruan Island. Another name of Talaud is Taloda, meaning “sea people”. There are also some who called them Porodisa. In 1930, the population was around 22,500 people. Recently, it was around 60,000 people. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Sangir-Minahasa. The language consists of several dialects, such as Salibabu, Karakelang, Essang, Nanusa, Miangas, and Kabaruang dialect. The language of talaud also applies some levels, for example, the polite and formal, middle and informal language. They speak Malay Menado as a lingua franca. They mostly make a living as ocean fishermen. Only a few of them work as farmers in fields. Farming is another way of living for some of them. Their staple foods are yams. Despite that, they also grow rice in rain-fed and irrigated fields. As they make a living more frequently at sea, they commonly build settlements by the beach, near estuaries. Their nuclear families are called gaghurang, living in semipermanent houses called bale. Nuclear families then form limited extended families called ruangana. Such a group lives in a large house called bale manandu. While they are working in fields or catching fish faraway from the settlements, they are forced to build a

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temporary house called sabua. A settlement is often occupied by a ruangana, but in general it consists of three or four ruangana. The people adopt a bilateral kinship system. In previous years, they developed a social political system in the form of small kingdoms. Nowadays, the influence is still visible in the people’ social stratification. The group of kings’ descendants is called papung. Under it, there was a commoner group. The group of slaves back then was called alangnga. Now the rigid social stratification above is already diminishing. In the former times, there was Talaud Kingdom governed by a ratu (queen) or raja (king). Authority under the king or queen is divided into several settlements (wanua). A settlement leader is called kapitan laut. In executing his tasks, a kapitan laut is assisted by a number of Dewan Adat (Custom Council) called Inanggu Wanua which are actually a group of extended family group leader called timadu ruangana. Sources: Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Kennedy (1935), Kaudern (1937), Temenggung, Depdikbud (1989). See also: SANGIR. TALOKI (Taluki) 292a Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 500 people (1995 SIL). They live in Maligano Village in Wakorumba sub-district, and in Wakalembe Village, in the northwestern coast of Buton Island, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Bungku-Mori-Tolaki. They are Muslims, further research is required. TALONDO’ 292b Sulawesi The population was maybe around 500 people (1986 SIL). They live in Talondo and Pedasi Village, Kalumpang sub-district, Mamuju Regency. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Toraja-Sa’dan. It shares many things in common with the language of Kalumpang. They are Christians and Muslims. Further research is required.

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TAMAGARIO (Buru, Tamaraw, Wagow) 656 Papua The population was around 3,500 people (1987 SIL). They live in the southern coast of Papua, between the meander of Gondu and Bapai River. It belongs to the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea, near the language of Kayagar. Further research is required. TAMAN (Dayak Taman) 143 Kalimantan Some experts perceive them as a sub-tribe of Maloh tribe. They live in Kembayan, Sekadau Hilir, Nanga Taman, and Nanga Mahap sub-district in Sanggau Regency, and in Bunut Hulu sub-district, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The popualtion was around 5,000–6,000 people. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Maloh. They are Christians and some also practice their own native religion. Further research is required. Source: King (1985). TAMBOKI 349 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Tolaki tribe living in several villages in Kendari and Kolaka Regency, in Southeast Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: TOLAKI. TAMIANG (Tumihang) 008 Sumatra They live in six sub-districts in East Aceh Regency, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD), namely Bendahara, Kejeruan Muda, Seruway, Karang Baru, Tamiang Hulu, and Kuala Simpang sub-district. During the Dutch Colonial era, their territory was under Kewedanaan Tamiang. Recently the population reached around 125,000 people. There is no further valid explanation on their origin. However, some assume that the tribe was from Melayu Raya Kingdom taking refuge from the attacks of Sriwijaya. In this new place, they founded several kingdoms, such as Bendahara, Sungai Iyu, Sutan Muda Seruway, Karang Baru, and Keujeren Muda. The name “Tamiang” itself was derived from Acehnese hitam mieng, meaning “pipi hitam”

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(dark cheek). The name was given by Sultan Muhammad Thahir Bahiansyah (1326–1350) to Raja Muda Setia (1330–1352), that is to say the first Tamiang king conquered by Aceh. According to the account, the king of Tamiang had a large mole on his cheek. In Nekagar Kertagama Scripture, it was written Tumihang. They make a living mainly by growing rice in rain-fed and irrigated fields, and dry land. They also earn a living by working as manual workers or employees in plantations, oil mining, logging companies, fishermen, government civil servants, and so on. Their farming tools are still simple, such as hoes and plows drawn by cows or buffaloes. In general their fields are rain-fed ones. Perennial trees such as coffee, rubber, clove, coconut, and fruits are also grown by most of them. The smallest kinship group in the tribe is a nuclear family with a separate household, which remains around the neighborhood of a family of origin. They still acknowledge the form of limited extended family called kaum biak. This limited extended family is divided into two, namely belah ayah and belah ibu. In their daily social life, they adopt the bilateral kinship principle. However, in the inheritance and lineage system, they adopt the patrilineal system. The eldest son has a large role in a family, as he is considered to act as the surrogate of his father to lead his family (primogenitor). In their kinship, they have terms of address according to the order of birth: a firstborn child is called ulung, a second child is ngah, a third child is alang, a fourth child is andak, a fifth child is uteh, and the last child is uncu. The kinship relationship in the tribe can be summarized in a motto: “Utang sama ditanggung, malu sama ditudung.” It means that both sides of male and female must bear the burden of kinship together equally. Therefore, in the tribe there is some ambivalence in terms of kinship system. Kinship relying on cooperation based on a male lineage is called wali adat or suku sakat group. However, sometimes they adopt the kinship system based on a female lineage. This group is called wali kurung, or kaum biak, which is matrilocal by nature. Besides that, they institutionalized homage to ancestors called ondatu, by connecting one’s family tree with a certain datu-ship, such as Datu Empat Suku, Datu Delapan Suku, Datu Delapan Suku, Dua Belas Pihak and Tiga Puluh Kerabat. The social stratification in the tribe is not quite rigid although some groups still consider themselves as the nobility, the ughang bangsawan group, marked by titles they have. Also, there is a respected group thanks to their thoughts and merits, called ughang patut. Meanwhile, the group of commoners is called ughang bepake. Another layer also appeared due to the rise of higher education and wealth, which in turn improved their esteem. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia. The dialect is marked with the pronunciation of /r/ sound to /gh/, for example, the word “orang” is pronounced “oghang”. Meanwhile, /t/ sound is often pronounced /c/, for example, “tiada” is pronounced “ciade”. The tribe adopts Islam but they also still practice the traditional ceremonies of pre-Islamic era, such as kenduri blang, turun bibit, tulak bala, and so on. Source: Depdikbud (1978, 1989).

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TANANDOA 281 Sulawesi The tribe is classified into Pamona tribe living in the valley of the upstream of Laa River, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: PAMONA. TANDIA 627 Papua They live in Irian Neck region in Papua, specifically in the south of Mangguar (Wandamen) Peninsula, or around Wosimi River, in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 400 people. Their villages are Webi, Kobei, and Uriemi, in Wasior sub-district. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). TANGLAPUI (Lantoka) 405 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around 2,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the western part of Alor Island, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea, Bird Head region of Papua. Further research is required. TANIMBAR (Numbar, Timur Laut) 393 Maluku They prefer calling themselves Numbar people. The word “Tanimbar” was first used by Western explorers. Some other tribes also call them Timur Laut people. They live in Yamdena, Selaru Island, and other islets in Tanimbar Islands. The territory is located in Yamdena sub-district, Maluku Tenggara Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 10,000 people. The tribe is divided into three sub-tribes, namely Tomata Yamdena, Tomata Laru, and Tomata Nember. Tomata Nember sub-tribe inhabits Fordata Island and islets in the north of Yamdena Island. Meanwhile, Tomata Yamdena sub-tribe inhabits most of Yamdena Island, and Tomata Laru sub-tribe lives in Selaru Island and other islets in the west of Yamdena Island. The language they speak is the language of Fordata heavily influenced by the language of Kei people. Some of them speak the language of Yamdena, especially those living in the eastern part of Yamdena and Selaru Island. The language is considered to belong to the same language family with the language of Tetun in Timor Island.

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They make a living by farming and catching fish. Their staple crops are sweet potato, cassava, corn. and rice. Animal protein sources are fish and other sea creatures. They adopt the patrilineal kinship system. A nuclear family is tabil dalam. However, they prefer conglomerating in a patrilineal nuclear family called das dalam. The kinship system is divided into awai merwan (close relatives) and awai babar (far relatives). In general, the patrilineal kinship system is called tojame matan. A kinship group that is a number of descendants of first inhabitants in this area is called mele, and often called tuan tanah (landlord). Meanwhile, those who came later are called famudi. The mele group is considered to secure a higher social positiion so that they can only marry with people of the same group. Their native religion is one worshipping the First Creator called Limnditi Fenreu (the Sun and the Moon), and worshipping of ancestral spirits and the belief of the existence of supernatural powers and natural spirits which destroying or protecting life of humans. Skills of influencing magical power for certain purposes are called an act of suanggi. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Koentjaraningrat in Lebar (1972). TANOTURAN 282 Sulawesi The tribe is possibly one of the sub-tribes of Balantak tribe. They live in several villages in Luwuk, Tinankung, Balatak, and Lamola sub-district, in Banggai Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Depdikbud (1989). See also: BALANTAK. TAORI (Taori Kei, Taori So) 628 Papua The tribe lives in a region with many lakes, near the Kaiy airport upstream of Roffaer (Tariku) River. The region is located in Ilu sub-district in Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps around 200 people (1984). It is possibly divided more into two sub-tribes and dialects, Taori Kei and Taori So. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984).

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TARFIA (Tarpia, Surai, Kaptiau) 629 Papua Tarfia or Tarpia tribe lives in the northern coast of Papua, near the territory of Demta, Kaure, Bonggo, Nimboran, and Gressi tribe. Their villages are Tarfia and Kaptiau, in Demta sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language is classified as the language subgroup of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language group of Sarmi. The population was around 650 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). TAROF (Nebes, Kokoda) 657 Papua The population was around 3,700 people (1993). They live in the southern coast of Irian Bird Head, along Bintuni Bay. The language is classified as the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea, Bird Head region. The dialects are Tarif and Tambani Migori. Further research is required. TAURAP 630 Papua They live in Burumaso Village and in several other villages in the nearby area. The territory is located in the northeastern part of a village where the airport lies near Holmes Lake, specifically in the west of the central meander of Memberamo River. The territory lies in Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 500. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). TAUSE (Doa, Darha) 658 Papua The population was around only 350 people (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They live around Deraposi, in the southwest of Bira Lake, the northeast of Fayu tribe’s territory, the northwest of Edopi tribe’s territory, west of Paniai Lake. The language belongs to the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea. The dialects are Tause, Weirate, and Deirate. They had contact with other tribes in 1982. Further research is required.

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TAUSUG (Tausug, Suku, Suluk, Tausog, Taosug, Moro Joloano, Joloano Sulu) 659 Kalimantan The tribe was perhaps from Sulu Islands, the South Philippines. There is no information on when they migrated to Kalimantan. Some of them inhabited the northeastern coast of East Kalimantan Province and Sabah (Malaysia). The population was around 12,000 people in Kalimantan (1981 Wurm and Hattori) and 110,000 people in Sabah (1982 SIL); 492,000 throughout the country (1981 Parshall). The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Meso Philippines, and the language group of Butuan-Tausug. In general, they make a living as fishermen. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TAWI 284 Sulawesi The tribe is perhaps one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe living around the upstream of Kalena River, in the south of Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TAWORTA (Taworta-Aero) 660 Papua The population was maybe around 150 (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They inhabit the area with many lakes, Paniai. The territory lies in the south side of Taritatu River in the east of Taiyeve. Further research is required. TEFARO (Demba) 661 Papua The population was perhaps around only 100 people (1987 SIL). They live in the east side of Cenderawasih Bay, in Tefaro and Demba Village. Further research is required.

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TEHID (Tehit, Tahiyid, Kaibus) 631 Papua Tehid or Tehit tribe lives in the peninsula of Irian Bird Head, specifically between the southwest and southwest area. The settlement is concentrated in 35 villages around Teminabuan sub-district, Papua Province. The population was around 25,000 people. The word “tehid” was from tahiyid, meaning “they are Tehid”, with its lexical meaning gone. They allegedly came to the region several hundred years ago and pushed away the earlier inhabitants (Safledrar people), an Irian native group classified as pigmy. Tehid people have a tall, robust bodily figure like people living in swampy areas in general. Tehid people living in swampy areas make a living by logging and gathering sago flour. Meanwhile, those living in dryland clear up lands to grow yams, taro, pumpkin, and so on. In the old times, Tehid people were governed by small kings ruling in four weris (bandar), namely Weri Ambuam (Teminabuan), Weri Sar, Weri Konda and Weri Kasrer (Seri-bau). A most dominant king ruled in Teminabuan, with a title of Kaibus or Woronemin. Tehid people consist of several patrilineal clans. Clan members were called wendla and his leader is called nakhohokh. The leadership system is especially seen in societal activities, such as ones of heirloom distribution, marital rules, violation of custom rules, and so on. A nakhohokh alone must lead a meeting (lelekh wamar) to make a decision on a case. A decision requires a consideration of a group of wise old men called nasemba (mediators). Back in previous years, lelekh wamar also functioned as a ritual institution, a mediator between nadkhoin (human beings) with Tali Nggameri (the Creator, God the Almighty) called Na Agow, Allah. Tehid people believe that wua (spirits) of the newly deceased head to mlfitain. There, wua would supervise their offspring still living on earth. In case of violations, wua would decend and take shape into various forms of disturbances. The real objective is , in fact, to prevent them from violating again. Wua can come in the form of illnesses, crop-destroying boars, or making it difficult for hunters to bring game home. Such disturbances of wua are khlembet ysimari (supervised by spirits). This can only be overcome by providing hea (offerings), or performing sambe (apology) with the assistance of mimit (a shaman). Wua known as evil is called khol. This spirit is only afraid of tali nggameri or Na Agow located in ik (the sky). Like any other native tribes in the Bird Head Peninsula, the esteemed exchange tool of Tehid people is not hokh (sacred fabrics) especially as dowries. In a Tehid marriage, a syolo (a male sibling) of a mother has a big role in deciding his nephew’s future spouse. For this reason their ideal marriage is one between cross cousins. The language of Tehid consists of 12 dialects, Tehid Tehiyit (in Teminabuan and the neighboring areas), Tehid Afsya or Mbolfle (in the south of Teminabuan, specifically in Weri Konda and Mbariat), Tehid Gemma (in the east of Teminabuan or in Kheyen and Wara), Tehid Sfaryere (in the north of Temniabuan, Wehali and

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Eles), Tehid Yemian (in Hana and Sanekh settlement), Tehid Sawiat (in Soroan settlement and its neighboring areas), Tehid Fkar (in the mountain area), Tehid Yatfle, Tehid Sayfi, Tehid Konyokh, and Tehid Salmeit. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (ed.) (1963), Depdikbud (1989). TELAGA 144 Kalimantan They live in Serimbau Village in Air Besar Sub-district, Pontianak Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was estimated to be around 4,500. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TELOKO 085 Sumatra The tribe was estimated to be around 7,000 people. They settled down in dusuns in Teloko marga, in Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, South Sumatra Province. Most of them make a living from agriculture. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TENGGARONG (Melayu Tenggarong, Melayu Kutai) 133 Kalimantan The population was around 210,000 people, including 100,000 in Tenggarong, 60,000 in Ancalong, and 50,000 in North Kutai (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live around Mahakam River valley, the central eastern coast, from Sepinang and Tanjung Mangkalihat in the north to Muarabadak and Samarinda in the south. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Melayu Kalimantan. The dialects are Tenggarong, Ancalong, and Kutai. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TENGGER 106 Java-Bali Tengger tribe lives in three villages in Sukapura sub-district, Probolinggo Regency, East Java Province, namely Jetak, Wonotoro, and Ngadisari Village. The origin of the tribe is perhaps like any other Javanese tribe in general. The language they speak is also Javanese of Tengger dialect. Thanks to the separation in former times,

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there are some cultural elements different from what the Javanese people nowadays practice. The religion they adopt now tends to be similar to Hindu Dharma (Balinese Hindu) these days but it is quite heavily influenced by their native religion which is oriented towards the environment. Their daily life pattern is quite different from Javanese people in general as they live in the cold Tengger Mountains with Bromo’s Mountain craters as their shrines. In the fertile mountainous land, they develop farming fields for vegetables as rice does not grow at the altitude of 2,000 m above sea level or higher. They sell crops in Surabaya and other cities in East Java. Each village is governed by a village head they call petinggi. He is assisted by a carik, a village secretary. A key figure in their social and religious life is a dhukun (a shaman), who are ritual leaders in Hindu Dharma religion they practice as well as each dukuh’s group customary leader. A dhukun is assisted by two main assistants, a wong sepuh (elderly) assigned to hold a death ceremony and provide various offerings and a legen assigned to hold a wedding ceremony and prepare all of its paraphernalia. A petinggi is also assisted by a number of apparatus, including police officers assigned to maintain security of a village. A kampung gawe serves as a mediator/ helper of village administration. A kampung cacar is assigned to work in the health sector and a kebayan latar works in the cleanliness of a village. The kinship system of Tengger tribe is bilateral. Nuclear families have a prominent role in daily life, but in the bigger scope of social life a bilateral kinship group has bigger meaning. Their inheritance tradition is like one of the Javanese tribe, meaning that they apply the same concept of seikul segendongan. Sepikul is for a son and segendongan is for a daughter, which means both genders equally contribute to the social betterment. In the social life, they do not apply any rigid social stratification. These days, they classify their religion as Hindu Dharma. Their local priests also learn in Bali or are also invited from Bali. In fact, their religion is more influenced by the local faith. They believe in Sang Hyang Agung, spirits of ancestors, karmic laws, reincarnation, and moksa. Their belief in spirits is personified among others as danyang (spiritual beings staying in a certain place or village) worshipped in a shrine called punden. It is usually located underneath a large tree or stone. Spirits of ancestors who founded a village deserve a more massive worshipping and in daily life, they worship at sanggar pemujaan (a shrine to worship). Every year, they hold a ceremony of ancestral spirit worshipping in Gunung Bromo crater. It is more known as Kasodo. The religious teachings of the belief are documented in a scripture called Primbon, which was at first written on lontar leaves. Throughout the year, they perform various rituals, some of which are public and the rest are private, such as Kasodo, Unan-unan, Pujan, Barikan, Nglukat, or Entas-entas. All rituals are performed based on the time set by their own traditional calendar. They divided a whole year into 12 months: Kasa, Karo, Katiga, Kapat, Kalima, Kanem, Kapitu, Kawolu, Kasanga, Kasepuluh, Kadesta, and Kasodo. Sources: Depdikbud (1978, 1985, 1989), Koentjaraningrat in Lebar (1972).

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TERNATE 394 Maluku It is difficult to determine the origin and sociocultural boundaries of the tribe as they have been developing since they founded a kingdom with a scope of influence to Seram Island in Central Maluku. Ternate people in general live in Ternate Island. Some of them live in Obi, Bacan, and Kayoa Island located in the west of Halmahera Island. These islands are located in North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was recently around 100,000 people. In the ancient times, Ternate was known to Europe as a production center of spices such as clove, nutmeg, copra, kulit manis (cassia vera), and so on. At the time, they preferred the rotational farming method, growing upland rice, yams, and vegetables. Nowadays, they prefer settling down and growing rice, corn, cassava, yams, nuts, and at the same time catch fish in rivers and sea around where they live. Their commodity crops are nutmeg, copra, clove, kulit manis (cassia vera), cocoa, and coffee. These commodities are still of high value to their economic sector. They had also already developed an art of pottery, making decorations, and pleated goods made of bamboo and pandanus leaves. The area is now the largest production center of mackarel fish after Ambon. The language of Ternate belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia. It is of the same language stock of languages in Raja Ampat Bird Head region. They converted to Islam before Europeans came. The religion was brought by spice traders from Sumatra and Java. In the era of Ternate Sultanate, the region was divided into several negeris (districts) governed by a kingdom official called sangaji. A negeri was divided into many villages or settlements usually governed by a kimelaha. These days, their social stratification is no longer this rigid. In terms of lineage, they adopt the patrilineal concept. However, in daily life one’s relationships with his or her relatives are more of a bilateral type. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1972). TEWA 405 Nusa Tenggara The population was perhaps around 5,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They inhabit the central part of Pantar Island, East Nusa tenggara Province. The language is classified as the language sub-group of West Trans–New Guinea, Borneo, and the language group of Makasai-Alor-Pantar. Further research is required. TIDONG (Melayu Tidung, Tedong, Tidoeng, Zedong) 193 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 25,000 people throughout the country (1981 Wurm and Hattori), of whom there were around 9,800 in Sabah, Malaysia. Their

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settlement is located mainly around the meander of Sembakung and Sibuka River, in East Kalimantan Province, among others in the coastal area of Tarakan and Nunukan to the hinterland near the meanders of Malinau River, near the borderline of Central Kalimantan Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Dayak Murut. The dialects are Nonukan (Nunukan), Penchangan, Sedalir (Salalir, Sadalir, Saralir, Selalir), Tidung, Tarakan (Terakan), Sesayap (Sesajap), Sibuku. Because they are in general Muslims, they consider themselves Malay people. Further research is required. TIDORE 395 Maluku They live in Tidore Island, located in the south of Ternate Island, or in the west of Halmahera Island. The territory is located in Ternate-Tidore Regency, North Maluku Province. Some others live in several places in Bacan and Obi Island, and the west of Halmahera Island. The population was around 45,000 people, who in general were Muslims. The language of Tidore is classified by experts under the language sub-group of Non-Austronesia, and more of the language sub-group of Papua. They mainly make a living by catching fish in sea. Their sea resources include the gathering of mackerel, squid, and sea cucumbers which they sell to Ternate to be exported to foreign markets. Some others live as farmers in rotational fields, growing rice, cassava, sweet potato, corn, clove, nutmeg, copra, and so forth. In terms of kinship, they apply the patrilineal system. Nevertheless, in daily life they tend to apply bilateral kinship system. There is no preference of choosing spouses but one may marry a first-degree cousin. Back then Tidore played a large role as a sultanate ruling over most of North Maluku region and considered a tribe with the most perseverance against the Dutch presence around them. At the time, a sultan was assisted by a number of sangaji, a type of governor ruling over a sultanate territory. Under the authority of a sangaji, there were also local leaders such as kimelaha and hukum. Sources: Masinambaw (1978), Depdikbud (1989), Lebar (1972). TIMORINI 632 Papua They live around three creeks in Jayawijaya Mountains, Papua Province, namely Dika, Panara and Donda River. Their territory is specifically located in valleys between Ngga Simbanggela Mountain and the large ridge of Mbot Beli. They built huts among woods and bushes near their fields. These fields are cleared together with other villagers, who are commonly of the same family, both by marriage and genealogical ties. Their staple crops are sweet potato, taro, pumpkin, and

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tobacco they call tavo. They also develop a habit of trading commodities such as tobacco, pigs (generally bred by every Timorini family), stone axes (now already substituted with metal ones), and various groceries in a traditional way. Their conglomerated settlement usually has a communal house often occupied as an assembly hall by the men. Family houses are built with high fences surrounding yards, in which they breed pigs. They adopt a polygamy marriage type. All wives live under the same roof in a large house, where junior families still live together with their parents’ families. Such a family form apparently means a lot to them as it enables them to have more labor working in fields to maintain a man’s esteem. Source: Koentjaraningrat and Bachtiar (1963). TINOMBO 284 Sulawesi The tribe is classified by classical ethnographer Kennedy under the large tribe of Tomini. They live in some areas of Ampibabo and Tomini sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Kennedy (1935). See also: TOMINI. TOALA’ (Toala, Toala-Palili, Luwu’, Toraja Timur, Sada, Toware, Sangangalla’) 292 Sulawesi The population was around 3,000 people (1983 SIL). They live in the western tip of Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The language is classified under the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Toraja-Sa’dan. The dialects are Toala’ and Palili’. The people make a living as rotational farmers, peasants, owners of coconut and cocoa plantations, and so on. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TOBA (Batak Toba) 018 Sumatra Toba or Batak Toba people live around Toba Lake, from Samosir Island, Toba Plateau, Silindung, Sekitar Barus and Sibolga to Bukit Barisan Mountains between Pahae and Habinsaran in North Sumatra Province. The area is now located in North Tapanuli Regency. The population was recently around 1 million people (according to the 1975 census, it was around 673,000 people). Some of them live in various other regions in Indonesia. Most of them are Protestants, while a few are Catholics and Muslims. In the old times, they used to practice animism with an orientation toward worshipping of

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pelbegu (spirits of the deceased) and polytheism believing the existence of a number of deities ruling over the universe. Three of these deities are considered the most significant. The first is called Tuan Bumi Na Bolon, serving as the god ruling over the highest level of world. The second is Ompu Silaon Na Bolon, as a god ruling over the middle universe, the Earth. The third is named Tuan Pane Na Bolon, ruling over the lowest level of the universe. Of all these deities, there is also one named Ompu Tuan Mula Jadi Na Bolon, considered to be the ancestor of all human beings.

Sources: Bangun (1983), Depdikbud (1977/1978a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o), Loeb (1972). See also: BATAK.

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TOBADA (Bada’, Tibada’) 322 Sulawesi Tobada or Bada’ people live around the upstream of Budong-Budong River, Budong-Budong Sub-district, South Sulawesi Province. The tribe also spreads to the upstream of Koro River, in the west of Poso Lake, Central Sulawesi Province. It seems that the tribe is still under Kaili tribe. The language also belongs to the language family of Austronesia, and the language group of Kaili-Pamona. The population was around 2,000 people. They mainly make a living by farming with the rotational method. They have converted to Islam and some others to Christianity. Further research is required. Sources: Lebar (1972), Grimes (1984), Depsos (1985), Depdikbud (1989). See also: KAILI. TOBALO’E 323 Sulawesi Tobalo’e or Balo’e people live in several villages in Taneteriaja sub-district, Barru Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population of the culturally exiled tribe was around 1,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TOBANA 235 Sulawesi The culturally exiled tribe lives in the borderline of the north of Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 500 people. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Kaili-Pamona group and possibly also a part of another tribe. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). TOBATI (Jotafa, Yotafa, Yautefa, Humboldt Jotafa, Jayapura) 662 Papua The population was around 1,500 people (1975 SIL). They live in villages named Tobati, Engros, Entrop, and Kota Raja. All of the villages are located in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language is classified as the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, Oceanic, and the language group of Jayapura. Further research is required.

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TOBELO 396 Maluku They live in the northern peninsula of Halmahera Island and in some parts of Morotai Island. Some live in the hinterland of Halmahera, such as in Patani, Weda, and Gane. There are also some of them staying in Raja Ampat Island in Papua. Their area of origin is located in Galela Sub-district in North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 30,000 people. In the old days the Tobelo were known for their reputation of being brave and gritty sailors. The language of Tobelo is under the language family of Austronesia, and also close to the language sub-group of Trans–New Guinea. The language is very close to one of the Galela and Toabru tribes. Basically they make a living by farming in fields with rice and corn as their staple crops. They also grow vegetables, nuts, bananas and sugarcanes. In addition to that, they catch fish in seas, or hunt wild animals with spears and the use of dogs. Prey includes deer and boar. They also gather natural resources in woods such as rattan and resin. They also manage clove, nutmeg, and coconut plantations. They adopt the patrilineal kinship system with the patrilocal residence pattern. Yet, nowadays they always apply the bilateral kinship system. This is why foreign experts assume that their kinship system is bilateral. In previous years they were governed by a Kimelaha and divided more into four social groups based on territorial and genealogical boundaries. Nowadays, they are Protestants. Their old religion is oriented to the worshipping of ancestral spirits (goma) and deities. A long time ago, a death ceremony (hukura) had the more attention than any other religious ceremony, Such a belief places a gomahate (a shaman) in the position of significance because he is the one connecting human beings and spiritual beings. Sources: Masinambaw (1978), Lebar (1972). TODOLO 246 Todolo or Dolo or Toridolo tribe by Mattulada is categorized as a sub-tribe of Kaili tribe. They live in the southern valley of Palu River. The tribe was perhaps from the northeastern area of the mountainous region. They speak the language of Kaili with Ija dialect. Further research is required. Source: Mattulada (1989).

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TOI ANAS 434 Nusa Tenggara The tribe is considered as one of the culturally exiled tribes as they live in the remote, hilly hinterland of Timor Island. The territory is located in North Amanatun sub-district, South East Central Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The population was around 2,500 people. They speak the language of Dawan with Amanatun dialect. In addition to that, they also speak a distinct language for a ceremony called the language of Natoni. The name of the tribe was derived from the word “toi” meaning a door and “anas” meaning “a mountain”. Therefore, “toi anas” means “the gate of mountain”. A small mountain is seen as a sacred one and a place where their ancestral spirits reside. According to the local mythology, their character of origin is Loit Nenometa who was married to Muit Nabu. Afterward, Sebo Nenometa and Luis Nenometa were born to the couple. The descendants were considered to be the ancestors of the tribe. Their descendants were divided into several kinship groups such as Kabu, Tanu, Lapsau, Kotto, Banunaek, Talelu, Pobas, Klaes, Sae, Mellu, Tualaka, Tfonat, Ta’ek, Ato, Mnane, Tiumlafu, Mafeo, Hete, Nenometa, and Tafuli. In previous years the territory was governed under a small kingdom called Nenometan. It later changed into Keffetoran No Ebokong. They mainly make a living by farming in fields with the rotational farming method, in which they grow corn, rice, cassava, banana, coconut, and various vegetables. Cattle are generally sacrificed for the purpose of rituals and dowry (belis) payment from a man’s family to a female’s. They adopt the patrilineal lineage system. Nuclear families called ume are not quite prominent when it comes to social life. On the contrary, a crucial kinship group in this tribe is a limited extended family they call nonot. A wife lives in her husband’s family neighborhood. For this reason, in a marriage, a male is required to pay belis to a woman’s family in the form of cattle or wealth. They also apply a traditional social stratification. The first group is traditional leaders, such as amaf (a clan’s leader), tobe (landlords), mafefa (a traditional spokesperson), manane (a priest or shaman). The second group was the commoners called too. The third was the group of slaves or former slaves, only existing in the old times, were called ate or abeat. These days, they have converted to Roman Catholicism or Protestantism. Despite that, some elements of the old belief still survive. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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TOJO 285 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. They live around Tomini Bay and the central part of Sulawesi, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Kruyt (1933). See also: PAMONA. TOKALOMPI 324 Sulawesi Tokalompi or Kalompi tribe is considered to be culturally exiled. They live in several villages in Barru sub-district, Barru Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TOKODEDE 459 Nusa Tenggara Most of them live in Likisa (Liquica) District in the northwest of East Timor Province (now Timor Leste). The language is classified under the language sub-group of Austronesia, and divided more into Tokodede and Keha dialect. The population was around 10,000–12,000 people. They mainly earn a living by growing corn and rice in rain-fed fields or in irrigated fields. They also breed livestock such as pigs, buffalo, horses, goats, and chickens. Further research is required. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1989). TOLAKI (Laki, Lolaki, Lalaki, To’olaki) 350 Sulawesi Tolaki or Laki tribe is often called Tokea. In foreign literature, some also call the tribe Lolaki or Lalaki. They live in Kendari and Kolaka Regency, in Southeast Sulawesi Province. According to Kennedy (1935), the tribe is divided more into several sub-tribes, namely Wiwirano, Labeau, Aserawanua, Mowewe, Mekongga, Konawe, and Tamboki. The population was estimated to be around 300,000 people. The language is classified under the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Bungku-Laki. The language has several dialects such as Mekongga, Konawe, Moronene, Nawoni, Kalisus, and Kabaena.

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They mainly earn a living by growing rice in irrigated and rain-fed fields. Sago is still consumed as a substitute for the staple food. Common cattle are buffalo. Other occupations include gathering natural resources from wood, hunters of wild animals with spears and fishermen, both river and ocean. They adopt the parental kinship system. A new family immediately forms a separate household not long after a wedding is performed. A male must prepare a dowry which suits a female’s social position. A dowry for the eldest daughter is also the largest in amount. In the old days, within their marital system there was also a tradition of providing services to parents-in-law (bride services) on certain occasions. Because of that, there is an impression that the residence pattern is matrilocal but soon it proceeds to the neolocal tradition. The influence of the old traditional kingdom administration system enabled the tribe to learn the rigid social stratification. The descendants of kings or public officials group were called anakia, the commoners were called maradika, and there was also the lowest group of prisoners of war and slaves. For some time, they have practiced Islam. However, the pre-Islamic religious relics still survive within several groups. The animism they practice also believes in spirits in every object called sanggelo. Spiritual beings they consider deity is called sangia. Both sanggelo and sangia can be good and evil. Good sanggelo is called sanggelo mbae and evil sangia is called sangia mbongae. Sources: Tarimana (1983), Lebar (1972), Kennedy (1935). TOLI-TOLI (Totoli, Tontoli) 286 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the sub-tribes of Tomini tribe. They live in North Toli-Toli, North Dampal, Baolan, and Galang sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The population was estimated to be around 20,000 people. The sub-tribe name was derived from the word “toli-toli”, meaning “three siblings”, which means ancestors considered to be the ancestors of the people. Further research is required. Source: Kennedy (1935). See also: TOMINI. TOLOTANG 326 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Bugis tribe. They live in Sidenreng-Rappang Regency, South Sulawesi Province. It is one of the peoples that still preserve animism as the religion. Further research is required. In a sub-district located in Sidrap Regency, many of them still practice Towani Tolotang, an old religion of Tolotang tribe. It was estimated that around 5,000 people practice the old religion in the area as they had for generations. The local

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religion has the second largest number of adopters after Islam with more than 200,000 people. The national government only acknowledges five religions, while religions other than that are categorized as “Aliran Kepercayaan” (Faiths on the God Almighty). Because the practitioners of Tolotang rejected the idea of their religion being classified as Faiths on the God Almighty, they preferred it being classified as Hinduism. That was why it is all called Hindu Tolotang now. The practitioners of Towani Tolotang also acknowledge the existence of God. They have Dewata SeuwaE (God the Almighty) titled PatotoE. PatotoE is acknowledged to have a higher power than one of human beings both in the upper and lower world. He is the one who created the universe and all creatures and objects in it. Tolotang practitioners believe that the first species of human being on the earth is now extinct. Human beings still surviving now are the second-period ones. Once upon a time, PatotoE (Dewata SeuwaE) fell asleep. Three of his followers assigned to take care of him, namely Rukkeleng, Rumma Makkapong and Sangiang Jung, went to another world. As they descended on earth, all of them saw an empty earth. Upon their return from the travel, the three followers ran into PatotoE, and then they told what they just saw. They proposed the idea that there was supposed to be a creature created on the earth. It seemed that PatotoE was interested in their report. PatotoE then discussed it with his wife Datu Palinge and all of the leaders in the land of deities. After his wife approved of this, he dispatched Batara Guru to the earth. People these days call Batara Guru “Tomanurung”. After a while on the earth, Batara Guru felt lonely. He demanded that there ought to be one more creature sent to the earth. Down came I Nyili Timo, a daughter of Riseleang. Batara Guru was then married to I Nyili Timo. After they tied a knot, their son named Batara Lettu was born. After Batara Lettu grew up, he married Datu Sengngeng, a daughter of Leurumpesai. The couple had twin children, a son and daughter. The son was named Sawerigading and the daughter was named I Tenriabeng. However, only Sawerigading was acknowledged as a super human being as he taught many lessons of heroism. Sawerigading then married I Cudai, one of the Chinese princesses. Sawerigading and I Cudai had a child named Lagaligo. In the era of Sawerigading, the country was increasingly secure and safe. People were obedient under his governance. After Sawerigading passed away, they became unruly. There were many discords, taking their toll. The upheaval then enraged Dewata SeuwaE. Dewata then commanded all human beings to come back to their place of origin, and the earth was empty once again. After a while, PatotoE sent human beings again to the earth as the first generation. Human beings that PatotoE sent later would preserve the religion that Sawerigading taught before PatotoE emptied the earth. These second-generation human beings sent down by Dewata PattooE did not understand well the religion Sawerigading taught. In the Tolototang teachings, it was told that the religion was passed on as Revelation. The divine revelation from Dewata was then passed onto La Panaungi. La Panaungi once again heard a voice from the kingdom of heaven: “Stop working, accept this command of mine. I am Dewata SeuwaE, who rules over everything. I shall bestow upon you the faith so

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that human beings are safe on the earth and in the after-life. I am your God, creating the universe and anything in it. The faith you are to embrace is Towani. Nonetheless, prior to granting you the revelation, clean up yourselves. After the revelation was accepted, spread it to your offspring.” Such a voice was heard three times in a row. To prove that, Dewata SeuwaE then brought La Panaungi to the seven-layered ground and the seven-layered sky to witness Dewata SeuwaE’s authority in two places, the teachings that La Panaungi received was disseminated so that La Panaungi gained many followers. Namely Lipu Bonga, which is a place for those who observe and violate the teachings of Toani, Tolotang key concepts are Dewata SeuwaE, the final day (Lino Paimeng), those who received revelation from Dewata SeuwaE and the Scripture (lontaraq). The afterlife will occur in Lipu Bonga as a place for those who observe the teachings of DewataE. The teaching of Tolotang does not acknowledge the concept of hell as the fate of human beings is fully dependent on Uwatta. In the teachings of Tolotang, the followers are demanded to acknowledge the existence of Molalaleng, which means responsibility as a follower. The responsibility here is Mapoianre Inanre, offerings of foods/rice provided on rituals/ ceremonies, handing betel and rice along with side dishes to houses of uwa and uwatta. Tudang Sipulung means sitting down together performing a ritual on certain occasions to ask for safety to Dewata (God the Almighty). Sipulung means gathering once a year to perform given rituals in the graveyard of I Pabbere in Perrinyameng. Usually, they perform such rituals after rain-fed fields’ harvest. Regarding human events, Tolotang also acknowledges four elements of human creation, which are earth, water, fire, and wind. On rituals, these four elements are symbolized by four types of food more known as the term of “Sokko Patanrupa” (four-type rice). Here white rice is likened to water, red rice to fire, yellow rice to wind, and black rice to earth. That is why on every ritual, Mappeanre or Mappano Bulu, offerings consist of Sokko Patanrupa. Prior to the death of La Panaungi, he once left a message to disseminate the teachings he received from Dewata SeuwaE and requested his followers to visit his graveyard once a year. That explains why the graveyard of La Panaungi has been visited by many of his followers. The Tolotang once spread fast but in the sixteenth century, when Islam was showing its influence in several kingdoms in South Sulawesi, the number of its followers was stagnant and even declined. In 1609, Addatuang Sidenreng, La Patiroi and his son-in-law La Pakallongi officially stated that they converted to Islam and thus it became the official religion of the kingdom. The influence of Islam kept growing, making many people in the tribe convert to Islam. To date, about 98% of Sidrap people who are Muslims. Source: Depdikbud (1989). See also: BUGIS.

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TOMADINO (Madino, Orang Madino) 293b Sulawesi The population was around 600 people (1991 D. Mead SIL). They live in Sakita Village, near the eastern coast, at the outskirt of Bungku, Central Bungku sub-district, Bungku Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Bungku-Mori-Tolaki. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TOMAPUNG 217 Sulawesi The tribe is considered to be a culturally exiled tribe. They inhabit several places in Tompo Bulu sub-district, Bantaeng Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 450 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TOMBELALA 293a Sulawesi The population was around 1,100 people (1995 SIL). The territory is located in four villages in Bungku Tengah sub-district, Central Sulawesi Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Kaili-Pamona. The tribe is perhaps a sub-tribe of Pamona tribe. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TOMBULU (Tombulu’, Tombula, Toumbulu, Tombalu) 226 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa tribe. They live around the northwestern area of Tondano Lake, in Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province. They speak Tombulu dialect which is still a sub-dialect of Minahasan, the language group of Sangir-Minahasa. In 1977, the population was around 40,000 people. Further research is required. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Adam (1976), Grimes (1984). See also: MINAHASA.

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TOMINI (Tiadje, Tialo) 287 Sulawesi The tribe is divided more into several sub-tribes according to Kennedy, namely Moutong, Dondo, Boanol Umalasa, Balaesang, Tinombo, Patapa, Dampelas, Kasimbar, and Toli-Toli people. They commonly live around Tomini Bay, around 40 villages in Moutong, Tomini, and Ampibabo sub-district in Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. The population was around 29,000 people (1930), around 50,000 people (1961), and recently it was estimated to be around 75,000 people. The language is classified under the language group of Kaili. Their staple food was at first sago, and then they started farming in fields where they grow rice and corn. They began to cultivate land as fields with an irrigation system during the 1900s. They grow and sell as commodities such as copra, in addition to growing cloves and coffee. Some of them make a living by gathering natural resources in woods and hunting wild animals. Their kinship system is bilateral and the lineage system is ambilineal. In the old days, there might have been quite a rigid social stratification due to the influence of small kingdom administration. Nowadays, the old social stratification is already obsolete and has been abandoned. They have converted to Islam but certain rituals based on the local religion are still performed by some of them. Sources: Lebar (1972), Kennedy 1935. TONDANO (Tondanou, Tolou, Tolour, Toulour) 293c Sulawesi The population was around 92,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live around Tondano Lake, and the northern coastal area of North Sulawesi Peninsula. The language is categorized under the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Sangir-Minahasa. The dialects are Tondano, Kakas (ka’kas), and Remboken. The territory is near one of the Tombulu and Tonsea tribes. Further research is required. TONSAWANG (Tombatu) 230 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa. They live in several villages in the southern part of Minahasa Regency. The population was around 5,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Sangir-Minahasa. They are Christians. Further research is required. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Adam (1976), Kennedy (1935). See also: MINAHASA.

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TONSEA 227 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa tribe. They live in several settlements in the northeast of Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The language belongs to the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Sangir-Minahasan. They speak Tonsea dialect which is a sub-dialect of Minahasan. The population was around 25,000 people. They are Christians. Further research is required. Sources: Kalangie (1983), Adam (1976), Grimes (1984). See also: MINAHASA. TONTEMBUAN (Tompakewa, Tountemboan, Pakewa) 228 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa tribe living in the area around the southwest of Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province. The territory is located in the northeast of North Sulawesi Peninsula, around Motoling and Tompaso Baru. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Sangir-Minahasa. The dialects are Langoan, Tompaso, (Makelai, Makela’i-Maotow), Sonder (Matanai, Matana’i-Maore’). The population was perhaps around 14,000 people. They are Christians. Further research is required. Sources: Adam (1976), Kalangie (1983), Grimes (1984). See also: MINAHASA. TOPAKKALOTONG (Pakkalotong) 328 Sulawesi Topakkalotong or Pakkalotong tribe is classified as a culturally exiled tribe. They live in several villages in Rinding Allo Sub-district, Tanah Toraja Regency. The language is still categorized as the language group of Toraja. Some of them live in Sidenreng Rappang Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 750 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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TOPEMBUNI (Tembuni, Tomembuni, Tomimbuni) 329 Sulawesi The tribe can be categorized as one of the culturally exiled tribes. They live in several villages in Budong-Budong sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 500 people. Some also call them Tomembuni or Tomimbuni people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TOPOIYO 294a Sulawesi The population was estimated to be around 1,000 people (1988). They live in the hinterland of Budong-Budong sub-district, Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Kaili-Pamona. They are rotational farmers, rubber and cocoa planters. They are Muslims. Further research is required. TORAJA (Sa’dan, Sa’dang, Toraja Tae) 330 Sulawesi The tribe lives in some northern part of South Sulawesi Peninsula. The word “Toraja” itself was used by the natives of Central Sulawesi to refer to an ethnic group living in hinterland and mountains. The word “to” means “people” and “ri aja” means “mountain”. The people of Toraja used to call their own group based on their home location, namely Sa’dan. It is the name of river running through their territory. For this reason, it is also called Toraja Sa’dan. The population was around 500,000 people (SIL 1989). Nowadays it may be almost 1 million people. Nowadays the people live in Tanah Toraja sub-district. Some others live in Mamuju Regency, such as in Suppiran sub-district. Some also live in Pantilang, Rongkong and Sekodi sub-district in Luwu Regency, and in Enrekang Regency. Meanwhile, some of them also roam other regions such as Kalimantan and Papua. The population was recently around 500,000 people. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Toraja-Sa’dan. The language of Toraja is also called “Bahasa Tae” (Taenese) by van der Veen. Other experts such as Adriani and Kruyt call it “Bahasa Sa’dan” (Sa’danese). The language consists of several dialects such as Tallulembangna (Makale), Kesu’ (Rantepao), and Mappapana (West Toraja).

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They make a living by growing rice in irrigated fields as well as from a few upland rain-fed fields. In addition to rice, they also grow corn, vegetables, cassava, sweet potato, coffee, clove, coconut, and markisa. In the old times, Toraja was known as a coffee production center. They breed livestock such as buffaloes and pigs required to be sacrificed on their rituals. For daily consumption, they breed fish in ponds, chicken, and ducks. The kinship system of Toraja tribe is dominated by a group named marapuan or pa’rapuan oriented to a male ancestor founding tongkonan (a communal house and a religious, social life, and familial center of members). A marapuan group consists of relatives of 3–5 generations. Because Torajan people apply the bilateral kinship pattern, someone can be a member of several tongkonans. In the old times, someone sought a spouse with the tendency of endogamous concept, meaning that they tended to look for a future spouse in his or her own marapuan or tongkonan. The residence pattern is usually virilocal and nowadays it turns to be neolocal. The tribe , in fact, is divided into three traditional territories, namely Kama’dikan, Pakamberan, and Kapuang. Kapuangan Traditional Territory has its own quite rigid social stratification thanks to the influence of Bugis and Makassar Kingdom a long time ago. The nobility group of Kapuangan is called ma’dika, the commoners’ group is called tomakaka, and then the slave group was called kaunan. Evidently, the last mentioned group is no longer existent.

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Prior to converting to Christianity or Islam, they practiced the belief system they call Aluk To Dolo, an old religion centered toward three aspects. The first aspect is the worship of The Creator called Puang Matua; the second is to deata-deata (gods of preserving) and the third is worship of ancestral spirits called Tomebali Puang considered to provide blessings and protection to all of his descendants. The old religious system is especially manifested in their concepts of death and death-related rituals. In the traditional Toraja society, familial ties are closely related to a social class. There are three social classes: the nobility, the commoners, and the slave group (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the East Indies government/ Dutch Colonial Government). Despite the fact that now they are Christians and Muslims, they still practice an old religion called Aluk To Dolo. “Aluk” means “road/ street” (sometimes interpreted as “laws”). In the Torajan myths, ancestors were believed to have been from the paradise which later was used by them as an interaction means with Puang Matua, the Creator of the universe. According to Aluk, the universe is divided into the upper world (heaven), the middle earth or the world of humans (the earth), and the lower world. The earth is a place where the human race lives, and heaven is located up above, covered with the saddle-shaped roof. Other Torajan deities are Pong Banggai in Rante (earth god), Indo’ Ongon-Ongon (earthquake goddess), Pong Lalondong (death god), Indo’ Belo Tumbang (healing goddess), and so forth. One’s authority in the earth is held through words and his acts must be in accordance with one’s words in farming and death rituals, through to minaa teachings (a priest of aluk to dolo). Aluk is not only a religious system but also a mixture of legal rules, religion, and traditions. Aluk regulates the social sector, farming practice, and religious rituals. The procedure of Aluk may vary from one village to another. Tongkonan is a traditional house of Toraja built on piles of wood and decorated with red, black, and yellow carvings. The word “tongkonan” itself was derived from a Torajan word “tongkon” (“sit”). Tongkonan is a center of the tribe’s social life. A ritual related to tongkonan is very important to the spiritual life of the tribe. Therefore, all of the tribe members are obliged to take part in tongkonan rituals because tongkonan symbolizes the relations of someone with his or her ancestors. According to the local folklore, the first tongkonan was built in paradise with four poles. As the ancestors of Toraja tribe descended to earth, they imitated the house and held a large ritual. Tongkonan is built with a lot of labor and usually such large work is done by an entire large family with mutual cooperation. There are three types of tongkonan. The first is Tongkonan layuk, where the highest power is, used as the center of “administration”. Tongkonan pekamberan belongs to a family member with a certain authority based on tradition and local rules. In the meantime, other common family members usually live in tongkonan batu (stone tongkonan). The exclusivity

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of the nobility over tongkonan is diminishing as more and more of the commoners are leaving for other regions in Indonesia. After obtaining enough money, the commoners are also able to build a large tongkonan. In Toraja tribe, a burial ceremony is a ritual considered to be the most significant and most expensive. The more wealthy and authoritative someone is, the higher the cost of one’s burial becomes. In Aluk religion, only families of nobility are entitled to hold a large burial party. A noble members’ burial party usually is attended by hundreds of people and occurs for a few days. A burial procession place called rante is usually prepared in a vast savanna. A rante serves as some space for those who attend a burial ceremony, and a rice barn and a place to keep various other burial tools made by family members of a deceased. Suling music (a bamboo flute), choirs, songs, and poems, weep and mourning are grief expressions of these people. However, not all of these apply to every burial. Burials of children, poor and lower class people are exceptions. A burial ceremony is sometimes held after weeks, months, or even years after deaths of the deceased, with an objective of giving enough time for family members to save money to cover a high cost of such a ritual. These people believe that death is not something that arrives suddenly. Instead, it is a gradual process toward Puya (a spirit world, or the afterlife realm). During the period of waiting, a corpse is wrapped with several sheets of fabric and kept under a tongkonan. They believe a deceased man/ woman’s spirit still lingers around a village until a death ceremony is completed. After that, a spirit will travel to Puya. Another part of a burial is buffalo slaughtering. The higher one’s authority is, the more buffaloes he or she can afford to slaughter. They slaughter buffaloes with machetes. A newly slaughtered buffalo or pig and its head are positioned in a row in open land, awaiting its owner in the “hibernation period”. Torajan people believe that spirits need buffaloes to travel and it can arrive there (in Puya) faster with a buffalo. A slaughtering of dozens of buffaloes and hundreds of pigs is considered as the climax of a burial ceremony, accompanied with music and dances performed by youths. Some meat is given to guests and recorded as a liability to a family in grief. In a burial ritual, a coffin may be kept in a cave, or inside a carved stone tomb or hung on cliffs. Wealthy people are sometimes buried in a carved stone tomb. Such a tomb is usually expensive and it takes several months to make it. In several areas, a stone cave is used as a place to keep their family members’ corpses. A wooden statue called tau tau is usually placed in a cave and heading outwards. A coffin of a child or baby is hung with a rope on a cliff. Such a rope can usually last for a year before it is finally rotten, making the coffin fall down on earth. The dialects of Torajan are Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae’, Talondo’, Toala’, and Toraja-Sa’dan. Torajan is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-Polynesia. After the official administration in Tana Toraja, several dialects are influenced by other languages through transmigration processes introduced since the Dutch Colonial era. This caused diversity in the language.

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The sole agricultural industry thriving in Toraja is a Kopi Toraja factory. Torajan economy has gradually shifted to tourism since 1984. Between 1984 and 1997, the people of Toraja had gained income by working in hotels, tour guides, and sellers of souvenirs. Sources: Pakan (t.t.), Nooy-Palm (1979), Tandilingting (1981), Mukhlis and Lucas (ed.) (1987), Adriani and Kruyt (1912), Kennedy (1935), Lebar (1972). TORAMPI 331 Sulawesi The tribe is categorized as culturally exiled tribe. They live in several villages in Sabbang sub-district, Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 500 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TOSIGI (Torisigi) 292 Sulawesi Tosigi or Torisigi is one of the sub-tribes of Kaili tribe. They inhabit the south valley of Palu River, next to the territory of Todolo tribe that also speaks the language of Kaili, Iha dialect. Further research is required. Source: Mattulada (1989). See also: KAILI. TOSUMUNYA 332 Sulawesi Tosumunya tribe is one of the culturally exiled tribes. They live in several villages in Kalukku sub-district in Mamuju Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 450 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989). TORAMANU (Taramanu, Totoramanu) 333 Sulawesi Toramanu tribe is classified as a culturally exiled tribe. They live in several villages in Campalagian sub-district, Polewali Mamasa Regency. Some others live in Barru Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 200 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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TOULOUR 229 Sulawesi The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Minahasa tribe. They live in the east coast of Tondano Lake, located in Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Adam (1976), Kalangie (1983). See also: MINAHASA. TOWEI (Towe) 663 Papua The population was perhaps only around 110 people (1975 SIL). They live in Towe Village, the borderline of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, the south of Jayapura, the south of Dubu, the west of Emumu. The language is categorized as the language sub-group of West Central Trans–New Guinea. TUBU (Dayak Tubu, Punan Tubu) 134 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 500 people (1981). They live in eight locations around the meander of Malinau, Mentarang and Sembakung River, in the north of Central Kalimantan Province. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Kenyah. Further research is required. TUGUTIL 397 Maluku They live in an area of Dodaga and Tutuling Jungle in Wasile sub-district, in the central part of Halmahera Island, North Maluku Province. The population was estimated to be around 600 people (1985). They build settlements by the river, and often move their location due to security and religious reasons. They are gatherers and hunters living as a culturally exiled people. They collect natural resources from jungles and process sago for daily consumption. Some also have settled down and started growing yams and upland rice.

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In such a tribe, the role of nuclear families is crucial because a newlywed couple is directly regarded as a separate, independent household. Nevertheless, they still prefer to live in a neighborhood, either in a husband or wife’s neighborhood. The current leadership of the tribe is a group leader they call Dimono. He is usually a strong, experienced, and wise senior man. He is also expected to have a good grasp of the traditional rules and history of the tribe. Thanks to the influence of the surrounding society, there is also a figure of Kapitan (a warlord to defend the territory in case of enemy attacks). Their native religion revolves around the supernatural beings and powers within their environment. Supernatural beings they call ohitana are considered to be able to commit good deeds and can also annoy humans. To control behaviors of supernatural beings, they are given some offerings on certain rituals, such as Gomanga ceremony performed individually or collectively. Source: Martodirdjo (1985). TUMBIT (Dayak Tumbit) 189 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Dayar Murut tribe in the hinterland of East Kalimantan Province. They are Christians. Further research is required. Source: Depkdikbud (1989). TUNGGARE (Tarunggare, Turunggare) 664 Papua The population was perhaps only around 500 people (1993). They live in the central part of Northern Papua, in Waropen hinterland, in the west of Mamberamo River, in the east of Cenderawasih Bay, near Nabire. Perhaps they are closely related to Bazi tribe. Further research is required.

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TUNJUNG 190 Kalimantan Tunjung or Melayu Tunjung tribe lives in the upstream of Mahakam River, around Muara Paku, in East Kalimantan Province. Nowadays most of them have converted to Islam so they generally prefer being called Melayu people. Further research is required. Source: Coomans (1987).

U ULU AI’ 145 Kalimantan The tribe is perhaps one of the sub-tribes of Dayak Punan tribe living in some parts of the upstream of Kapuas River, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan Province. Further research is required. Source: King (1985). ULUMANDA’ (Ulumandak, Awo-Sumakuyu, Kado) 294b Sulawesi

Ulunda,

Tubbi,

Botteng-Tappalang,

The population was perhaps around 5,000 people including 1,800 people, spread in the hinterland of Polewali Mamasa and Majene Regency, South Sulawesi Regency. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Pitu Ulunna Salu. The dialects are Sondoan, Tappalang, and Botteng. They are Muslims. Further research is required. UMA (Pipikoro, Uma Aria, Oema) 294c Sulawesi The population was around 500 people in Benggauu (1990 SIL). They live in 32 villages in Koro Lariang River Valley in Central Sulawesi, Kulawi sub-district. In South Sulawesi Province, they live in Pasangkuyu sub-district, Mamuju Regency. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of

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Kaili-Pamona. The dialects are Banahu, Kantewu, Peana, Tolee’, Winantu-Gimpu, and Tobaku. They generally make a living by working as rotational farmers. They are Christians and Muslims (Benggaulu). Further research is required. UMALASA 288 Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the sub-tribes of Tomini tribe. They live in several settlements in Ampibabo sub-district, Donggala Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935). See also: TOMINI. UNA 633 Papua The people live in the east of Jayawijaya Mountains, specifically in the southern ridge, in the west if Ngalum tribe’s territory. Their territory is located in Kurima sub-district, Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. The language is categorized as the language sub-group of Central Trans–New Guinea, and close to the language of Mek. The population was around 4,000 people. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). UNDA’E 289 Sulawesi The tribe is classified by classical ethnographers as one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. They live around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Kruyt (1933). See also: PAMONA. UNDANG SANANG 146 Kalimantan Undang Sanang or Dayak Undang tribe lives in several villgaes in Ketungau Tengah sub-district, Sintang Regency, West Kalimantan Province. The population was around 7,750 people. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1989).

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UNDUP 164 Kalimantan The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Iban tribe. They inhabit the area around the meander of Kantu’ River. Their dialect distinguishes them from the other sub-tribes. According to Rousseau, the sub-tribe lives in the borderline of Indonesia and Serawak, Malaysia, They are Muslims. Further research is required. Sources: Uchibori (1978), Rousseau (1990). See also: IBAN. UNISIRAU 634 Papua Unisirau is one of the sub-tribes of Asmat tribe. They live in the swampy southern coast of Papua. The territory is located in Sawa Erma sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. See also: ASMAT UNURUM (Unurumguai) 635 Papua The tribe inhabits the hinterland of the northern part of Papuan hinterland, specifically in Uurumguai sub-district, Jayapura Regency. Their villages are Buasom, Guai, Santosa, Nimbotom, Sebun, Yadau, and Lere. The population was estimated to be around 2,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). URIA (Saweh) 636 Papua Uria or Saweh tribe lives in the southwest of Nimboran tribe’s territory, in the north of Lere. Their villages are Nombotong, Unurum, Tambang, Buasom, Beboteke, Guay, Tratra, Jabam, Bengkareng, and Dore. The territory is located in Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. The population was possibly around 1,200 people. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984).

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URUANGMIRIN (Faur, Tubiruasa) 637 Papua They live in two islands located between Karas and Irian Island, specifically in the southwest of Bomberai Peninsula. The area is located in Fakfak sub-district, Fakfak Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 250 people. Their village is Tubirwarsa. The language is possibly classified under the language family of Austronesia-Oceania. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). URUNDI (Turu, Ururi, Iau, Foi) 638 Papua They live in the area with many lakes, located between Raouffaer (Tariku) River and upstream of Van Daalen River. Their villages are Barere and Taiyal located in Ilu and Mulia sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 850 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). USKU 639 Papua Usku tribe inhabits Usku Village in the east of Jayapura, in the south of Pauwasi River. The village is located in Senggi sub-district, Jayapura regency, Papua Province. The population was around 150 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

W WABO (Woriasi, Nusari) 665 Papua The population was around 1,500 people (1987 SIL). They live in the north and south of the eastern coast of Serui Island, in six villages. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language group of Serui-Yapen. Further research is required.

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WAERANA (Wae Rana) 292 Sulawesi They live in the southern part of Central Flores, located between Manggarai and Ngada tribe’s territory. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of South-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bima-Sumba. Further research is required. WAHAU (Dayak Wahau) 165 Kalimantan The population was perhaps around 500 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the northeast of Kalimantan, the north of Muara Wahau. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language subgroup of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and the language group of Kayan-Murik. Further research is required. WAIGEO (Amber, Amberi, Waigiu) 640 Papua The tribe inhabits the hinterland of Aiageo Island located in the west of Irian Bird Head region. Their villages are Warsabin, Selegop, Waifoi, Go, Kabilol, Kabare, and Nyandesawai. All of these villages are located in Waigeo sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population was perhaps around 300 people. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, and divided more into Amber and Saonek dialect. Further research is required. Source: Depdikbud (1984). WAIMA’A (Uai Ma’a, Waimaha, Waimoa) 460 Nusa Tenggara They live in the north area of Baukau (Baucau) District, near the northern coast of east Timor Leste, in the north of Makasai tribe’s territory, or in the east of Galoli tribe’s territory. The language of Waima’a is categorized as the language family of Austronesia. It is divided more into several dialects, such as Waima’a, Kairui, Midiki, and Habu dialect. Further research is required. Source: Lapian and Chaniago (1989).

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WAINA 641 Papua The tribe inhabits the area near the borderline of Papua Province and Papua New Guinea. Only a small number of them (around 100 people) live in Indonesia (in Papua New Guinea there are around 1,000 people). Those who live in Indonesia settle down in Senggi and Manem village in Waris sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). WAKATOBI (Tukangbesi) 390a Maluku The population was perhaps around 50,000 people (1995 SIL). The tribe lives in Tukang Besi Islands, Kaledupa and Wanci sub-district, Southeast Sulawesi. In addition to that, they also live in Bacan, Taliabu, Mongole, Buru, Sulabesi, Seram, and Ambon Islan. They even live in Singapore. The language is categorized as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Muna-Buton. The north Wakatobi group is divided into several dialects, namely Kaledupa (Kahedupa), Wan-ci. They are Muslims. Meanwhile, south Wakatobi (in Binongko and Tomea Island) is divided into several dialects, namely Binangko, Tomea (Tomia). Further research is required. WAKDE 666 Papua The population was perhaps around 400 people (1980 SIL). They live in Wakde Island, offshore northern coast of Papua, in front of the estuary of Tor River, Jayapura Regency, Pantai Timur sub-district, Papua Province. The language is categorized as the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, Oceanic. Further research is required. WALAK (Lower Pyramid, Wodo) 667 Papua The population was perhaps around 1,500 people (1993). They live in several villages, namely Ilugwa, Wodo, Bugi, Mogonik, Wurige-lebut. The language is categorized as the language family of Central Trans–New Guinea, and the language group of Kwerba. Further research is required.

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WALSA 642 Papua The tribe is one of the sub-tribes of Kerom tribe. They live in Waris sub-district, located near the borderline of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, in Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. Their territory lies around 140 km in the southeast of Jayapura, at the around 850-m altitude above the sea level. The population was around 1,100 people. Some others live in Imonda District in Papua New Guinea. The tribe is divided into several sub-tribes, namely Pedwund, and May Swah (in Papua New Guinea), May Pindesi, May Tanggul, and Yuwainda. They make a living by farming in fields with the rotational farming method. Their staple crops are sweet potato, cassava, taro, pumpkin, peanut, breadfruit. Some also gather sago and produce is flour. In addition to that, they also hunt wild animals as a protein source. Further research is required. Source: Depsos (1985). WAMBON 643 Papua They live in the southern coast of Papua, near the settlement of Wanggom tribe, in Kauh sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The territory is located in the northeast of Katei tribe’s territory. The population was around 2,000 people. Their villages are Waniktit, Ikyandit, Inim, Biangkatem, Kukubun, Wombun, Komerangga, and Simiram. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WANA 290 Sulawesi The tribe is considered to be a sub-tribe of Pamona tribe or what was then known as Toraja Bare’e ethnic group, or East Toraja according to A. C. Kruyt (1930). They live in various places in the neck area of Central Sulawesi, between Poso Bay and Tomini Bay. They live around the meander of Ulu Bongka, North Bungku and Barone sub-district, in Poso Regency. The population was around 5,000 people. The language of Wana belongs to the family group of Ta’a, namely bahasa ingkar (ingkar language, “ingkar means “no”) which is one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. Though they are considered a culturally exiled tribe, they , in fact, still maintain good interactions with coastal inhabitants, especially to to obtain external commodities such as salt and iron tools. To obtain these goods, they gather rattan, resin, or ebony to sell and money they make from it can be used to buy their necessities from coastal traders.

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They generally make a living by working as farmers with the rotational farming method. Their staple crops are rice, corn, yams, pumpkin, vegetables, coffee, banana, and coconut. In addition to gathering natural resources, they also hunt wild animals such as deer, hog deer, monkeys, maleo birds and so on. To hunt, they use weapons called sopu (poisonous chopsticks), spears or nooses. The exiled tribe lives in small groups near their fields. Settlements near these fields consist of 5–15 nuclear families. Usually one nuclear family is closely knit to another. A household consists of a senior nuclear family often accompanied with several close relatives as a unit of labors because a field is cultivated by around 5– 10 adult workers and children already able to help their parents with light chores. In terms of effective leadership, a figure called Tautua Lipu, is a senior man with a role of settlement leader, as well as farming leader and shaman.

For many years, they have built connections with coastal people whose religion is Islam, such as Bugis, Mori, Ampana, Bajau tribe, and so on. Because of that, some of them also convert to Islam. Some also convert to Protestantism brought by a missionary in Lemo. Yet, some also still practice the old local religion. Those who still practice their old religion (animism and dynamism) assume that their religion is older than Christianity but younger than Islam (perhaps because Islam came to them earlier). The Wana tribe’s old religion is oriented to supernatural power and spirits staying in certain places. A place they consider sacred is Tongku Tua (Tambosisi) Mountain, standing at around 2,500 m. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Atkinson (1979, 1985). See also: PAMONA.

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WANAM 644 Papua They live in Pegunungan Tengah or Jajawijaya Mountains. Their territory is specifically located in the east of Ngalik tribe’s territory, in the east of Dani Large Valley. The area is located in Jayawijaya Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. WANDAMEN 645 Papua They live in the Bird Head region of Irian, more specifically in the west of Cenderawasih Bay, or around Bintuni Bay, where is also known as the Mouth of Irian “Bird” region. Their territory is located in Wasior, Windesi, Bintuni, and Bobo sub-district, in Manokwari Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 8,000 people. Because most of them live around Bintuni Bay, some call their language “the language of Bintuni” or Bibtunese. The language of Wandamen (Wandamenese) is classified as the language subgroup of Austronesia and it seems that the language is divided more into several dialects, such as Windes, Bintuni, Wamesa, Wasior, Umari, Ambumi, and Desener. Further research is required. Sources: Depdikbud (1989), Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WANGGOM (Wanggo) 646 Papua Wanggom or Wanggo tribe lives around the borderline of Indonesia and southern Papua New Guinea, near the meander of Digul River, in the north of Kaeti tribe’s territory. The territory is located in Kouh sub-district, Merauke Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 1,000 people. The villages are Komanik, Tugunop, Beteyop, Nenop, Mitop, Gotopin, Ndainop, Wagariop, Wayop, and Mainak. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984), Barr and Barr (1978). WANO 647 Papua They live in Jayawijaya Mountains (Central Pegunungan), specifically in the upstream of Tariku (Rouffaer) River, in the west of Dani Barat tribe, in the south of Dem tribe’s territory, and located in Sinak and Mulia sub-district, Paniai Regency,

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Papua Province. The population was around 3,500 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WANUKAKA (Wanokaka) 407 Nusa Tenggara The population was possibly around 10,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the west of Lamboya, southwestern coast of Sumba Island, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia, and the language group of Bima-Sumba. The dialects are Wanu-kaka and Rua. Further research is required. WAREMBORI (Warenbori) 648 Papua They live in the estuary of Memberamo River in the northern coast of Papua. The territory lies in Hayapura Regency. Their villages are Warenbori, Teba, and Yoke. The population was around 500 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WARES 668 Papua The population was perhaps around 200 people (1993). They live from the northern coast of Papua to the hinterland in Kwesten, in the upstream of Biri River. Their village is Mauswares. The language is classified as the language sub-group of North Central Trans–New Guinea, the language group of Tor. Further research is required. WARI (Weeretai, Waritai) 669 Papua The population was around 300 people (1993). They live in Lakes Plain around Taiyeve. The language is classified as the language group of Cenderawasih Bay. The tribe is close to Doutai tribe. They are different from Waris or Wares tribe. Further research is required.

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WARIS (Walsa) 649 Papua The population was around 1,500 people in Papua; 2,500 in Papua New Guinea; 4,000 people throughout the country. They live near the borderline of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, in the southeast of Jayapura Regency, in Waris sub-district. Their villages are Ampas, Komieti, Mayor, and Waris. The language is classified as the language sub-group of North Central Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984), Barr and Barr (1978). WARKAY-BIPIM (Bipim As-So, Bipim) 670 Papua The population was around 300 people (1993 R. Doriot UFM). They live in the southern coast of Papua, sharing a borderline with Asmat tribe and Sawi tribe’s territory in the east, around the meander of Eildanen River. They live in three villages. The language is classified as the language sub-group of Central Trans– New Guinea. Further research is required. WAROPEN (Wonti, Worpen) 650 Papua The tribe lives in the eastern coast by Cenderawasih Bay, specifically around the hump region of Irian Bird, opposite of Yapen Island, and some others live in the southern part of Yapen Island. The territory is located in Waropen Atas and Nabire sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 7,000 people. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language group of Cenderawasih Bay. The dialects are Waropen Kai, Napan, and Mo’or. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WARU (Mopute, Mapute) 295a Sulawesi The population was possibly around 350 people (1991 SIL). They live in Mopute Village and around Lindu River, Asera sub-district, Kendali Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Bungku-Mori-Tolaki. The dialects are Waru dan Lalomerui. They are Muslims. Further research is required.

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WAWONII (Wowonii, Menui) 295b Sulawesi The population was perhaps around 22,000 people, divided into 14,000 people living in Wawonii and 7,500 people in Menui Island (1991 SIL), South Sulawesi Province. The language is classified into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, the language group of Bungku-Mori-Tolaki. The language has many things in common with one of Bungku and Tulambatu. They are Muslims. Further research is required. WAYOLI (Biyoli) 398 Maluku Mayoli or Biyoli tribe lives in the northern hinterland of Halmahera Island, near the foothill of Toduku Mountain. As the mountain erupted in 1867, they were made to refuge to the coast and form a new settlement, in Peot, Sasur, and Goro-Goro Village, Sahu sub-district, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. The population was around 3,500 people. They make a living by farming and catching fish. They are Christians. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). WANDAMEN (Windesi, Bintuni, Wamesa) 671 Papua The population was perhaps around 5,000 people (1993). They live in Wasior, near Manokwari, in the west of Cenderawasih Bay to the coast of Wadanamen and Bintuni Bay. The language is classified as the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language sub-group of Cenderawasih Bay. The dialects are Windesi, Bintuni, Wamesa, Wasior, Ambumi, Dasener, and Aibondeni. Further research is required. WEDA 399 Maluku They live in the east of the southern Halmahera Island, namely near Weda Bay, North Maluku Regency, Maluku Province. They live next to Gane and Sawai tribe. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia. The population was recently around 2,500 people. They make a living by farming and catching fish. They are Muslims. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984).

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WEMALE 400 Maluku The tribe is considered as one of the oldest tribes living in the remote area of the hinterland in Seram Island, Maluku Province. They might be one of the parent tribes from which other tribes in Central Maluku islands were descended. However, there is no information as to whether the tribe still exists independently or is already immersed with another tribe. Further research is required. Source: Grimes (1984). WEWEYEW (Wewewa) 672 Nusa Tenggara The population war perhaps around 50,000 people (1981 Wurm and Hattori). They live in the western part of Sumba Islan, East Nusa Tenggara Province. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-South-Central Polynesia. The dialects are Weyewa, Lauli (loli), Laura, and Tana Righu. They still practice their traditional religion. Further research is required. WIRI (Duve, Duvle) 651 Papua They live around the Lakey Plain in the central part of Papua, in the south meander of Van Dalen River or in the north of Dani Barat tribe’s territory in Mulia. The territory lies in Mulia sub-district, Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 200 people. The villages are in Dagai and Fedide or Wedi. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984), Grimes (1984). WITU (Dayak Witu) 135 Kalimantan The population of Dayak Witu tribe was around 2,500 people (1981). They live in the southeast of Pendang and Bunto Kecil, South Kalimantan. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Borneo, and close to the language of Dayak Ma’anyan. Further research is required.

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WIWIRANO 295c Sulawesi The tribe is classified as one of the sub-tribes of Tolaki tribe. They live in Kendari and Kolaka Regency, Southeast Sulawesi Province. Further research is required. Source: Kennedy (1935). See also: TOLAKI. WOI (Wo’oi) 652 Papua The tribe is one of the sub-tribes living in Miosnum Island and the west of Yapen Islan located in Cenderawasih Bay. The territory is located in Yapen Barat sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, West Papua Province. The language is classified as the @@@language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, and the language group of Yapen-Serui. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WOISIKA (Kamang) 408 Nusa Tenggara The population was around 5,000 people (1981). They live in the eastern part of Alor Tengah Island, between the territory of Baui and Tanglapui tribe. The language is classified as the language sub-group of West Trans–New Guinea, and the language group of Makasai-Alor-Pantar. The dialects are Lembur (Limbur, Kawel), Kamot, Kamana (Kamang), Petimpui, Kamengmi, Ateita, Pido, LangkuruKolomano, Silaipui, and Apui. Further research is required. WOLANI (Wodani, Woda, Woda-Mo) 653 Papua Also called Wodani or Woda, the tribe lives in the western part of Jayawijaya Moutains, specifically around the meander of Kamandongan and Mbiyandogo River, in the north of Ekagi tribe’s territory, around miles in the northeast of Paniai Lake. The territory is located in Arodide sub-district in Paniai Regency, Papua Province. The population was around 5,000 people. Further research is required. Source: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984).

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WORIASI 654 Papua They live in Yapen Island located in Cenderawasih Bay, specifically in the southern and eastern coast. The territory is located in Yapen Timur sub-district, Yapen Waropen Regency, West Papua Province. The population was around 2,000 people. Experts classify the language into the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia. Further research is required. Sources: Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). WOTU 291 Sulawesi The tribe is classified into one of the sub-tribes of Pamona tribe. The people live around Poso Lake, Poso Regency, Central Sulawesi Province. Some others live in Wotu sub-district, Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi Province. The population was around 5,000 people. The language is classified as the language family of Austronesia, the language sub-group of Malay-West Polynesia, Sulawesi, and the language group of Bugis-Luwu. They are Muslims. Further research is required. Sources: Kennedy (1935), Grimes (1984). See also: PAMONA.

Y YAFI (Jafi, Yaffi, Wagarindem, Wargarindem) 673 Papua The population is only around 175 (1975), living in the village of Yaffri, Sungguar, Tainda, Abiu and Tokondo, next to Jayapura. The location is in the vicinity of border line between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The language falls into the category of Trans Central New Guinea. Further research is required. YAHADIAN (Nerigo) 655 Papua Yahadian is a tribe living in the southern region of Irian bird’s head (note: the shape of Irian as an island resembles the shape of a bird), between the downstream of Mintamani River and valley of Sekak River, and in several settlements along the Bay of Maccluer (Berau). Their territory belongs to the area of Inanwatan

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sub-district, Sorong Regency, Papua Province. The population number is approximately 500. The tribe’s language is classified into the language group of Trans West New Guinea, the Bird Head region, the language family of Konda-Yahadian. Further research on the tribe is still required. YAHRAI 656 Papua Yahrai people live around the estuary of Digul River, in Merauke Regency, Papua Province. Their territory is surrounded by Awyu people. The language belongs to the family of Marind-Anim and Boazi languages. Therefore, it is usually assumed that the tribe is originally part of Marind Anim or Boazi people that once annexed Awyu people’s territory. Further study on the tribe is still required. Source: Depdikbud (1989), Boelaars (1986). See also: MARIND. YAKAI (Yakay, Yaqai) 674 Papua The population was around 8,000 people. They live in the southern coast of Papua, around the meander of Odamun and Miwamon River. Their territory is located in the southeast of Sawyu and Kaigir tribe’s territory. The language is categorized under the language family of Trans–New Guinea and the language sub-group of southern Papua. The dialects are Oba-Miwamon, Namblomon-Mabur, and Bapai. Further research is required. YALI (Yalimo, Yale, Kosarek) 675 Papua The population was around 15,000 people (1991 UBS). The villages are Angguruk, Ninia, Holuwon, Landikma, and Apahalapsi. The territory is located in Yahukimo Regency. They live in Central Pegunungan (Jayawijaya Mountains), in the west of Nalca, in the east of Baliem Valley. The language is categorized as the language subgroup of Trans–New Guinea. It is close to the language of Dani-Kwerba, Ngalik-Nduga. Further research is required. YAMNA 676 Papua The population was around 250 people (1980 SIL). They live in an island offshore the east of Tor River estuary, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language is classified as the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Sarmi. Further research is required.

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YARSUN 677 Papua The population was perhaps around 200 people (1991 SIL). They live in an island offshore Northern Papuan coast, in the east of Biri River estuary, Bonggoa sub-district, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province. The language is classified as the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Sarmi. Further research is required. YAWA (Yapanani, Mora, Turu, Mantembu, Yava, Iau) 678 Papua The population was around 6,000 people (1987 SIL). They live in the central part of Serui Island, Serui Waropen and South Serui sub-district. They live in eight villages on the northern coast, two villages in the hinterland and 18 villages in the southern coast. The language is classified as the language group of Serui-Yapen, Cenderawasih Bay. Further research is required. YEI (Yey, Jei, Je) 679 Papua The population was around 1,000 people throughout the country (1975 Wurm). They live in the borderline of southern coastal area of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, in the east of Marind tribe’s territory. They also live in Papua New Guinea, specifically along the upstream meander of Maro River. The language is classified as the language sub-group of South Central Trans–New Guinea. Further research is required. YELMEK (Jelmek, Jab, Jabsch) 680 Papua The population was around 400 people (1978 SIL). They live in the southern coast of Papua along the east of Marianne Strait between Kolepom (Frederik Hendrik) Island and Irian mainland. Further research is required. YERETUAR (Goni, Umar, Umari) 681 Papua The population was around 250 people (1978 SIL). They live in the inner part of Cenderawasih Bay, in the south of Wandamen tribe’s territory. The language is classified into the language sub-group of Malay-East Polynesia, the language group of Cenderawasih Bay. Further research is required.

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YETFA 682 Papua The population was around 1,000 people (1996 UFM). They live near the borderline of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, in the east of Sogber River, in Okbibab sub-district, Pegunungan Bintang Regency, Papua Province. Further research is required. YONGGOM (Yongom, Yongkom) 683 Papua The population was around 2,000 people in Papua (1987 SIL) and 15,000 people in Papua New Guinea (1986 UBS). They live in the northern upstream of Fly River, where the river starts to form the borderline between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The language is categorized as the language family of Papua-Melanesia, the language sub-group of Central Trans–New Guinea, and it is close to the language of Kati and Ninggerum. Further research is required.

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Appendix Maps of Tribes in Indonesia

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Index

A ABAU, 471; Papua, 1 ABUI, 411; Barue, Barawahing, Namatalaki; Nusa Tenggara, 1 ABUNG, 061; Abung Bunga Mayang; Sumatra, 1 ACEH, 001; Akhir, Achin, A-Tse, Lammuri, Lambri, Ureung Aceh, Sumatra, 3 AIKWAKAI, 472; Sikari, Tori, Eritai, Araikurioko; Papua, 8 AIRORAN, 473; Adora, Iriemkena; Papua, 8 AKIT, 021; Akik, Sumatra, 9 ALAS, 022; Sumatra, 10 ALOR, 412; Nusa Tenggara, 13 ALUNE, 361; Nusa Tenggara, 15 AMAHAI, 362; Maluku, 15 AMANAB, 474; Papua, 16 AMBAI, 475; Papua, 16 AMBELAU, 363; Maluku, 16 AMBERBAKEN, 476; Papua, 16 AMBON, 364; Maluku, 17 AMMATOWA, 301; Orang Kajang; Sulawesi, 19 AMUNGME, 477; Amung, Hamung, Papua, 20 ANAK DALAM, 062; Kubu, Lubu, Ulu; Sumatra, 21 ANEUK JAMEE, 003; Sumatra, 22 ANGKOLA-MANDAILING, 011; Batak; Sumatra, 22 AOHENG, 206; Penihing; Kalimantan, 23 ARAB, -, -, 23 ARANDAI, 478; Yaban; Papua, 26 ARFAK, 476; Papua, 26 ARGUNI, 480; Papua, 26 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 Z. Hidayah, A Guide to Tribes in Indonesia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1835-5

ARU, 365; Maluku, 26 ASERAWANUA, 341; Sulawesi, 27 ASMAT, 481; Papua, 27 ATAM, 482; Hatam, Tinam, Mire; Papua, 30 ATINGGOLA, 211; Sulawesi, 30 ATOGOIM, 483; Autohwaim, Kaugat; Papua, 30 ATONI, 413; Dawan, Rawan, Orang Gunung; Nusa Tenggara, 30 ATORI, 484; Aiso, Kais, Minatamani; Papua, 33 AWYI, 485; Awye; Papua, 33 AWYU, 486; Away, Papua, 33 AYAMARU, 487; Meibrat; Papua Barat, 34 AYFAT, 657; Papua, 33 B BABURUA, 488; Babiriwa, Babirua, Barua; Papua, 35 BACAN, 366; Maluku, 35 BADANG, 207, Kalimantan, 35 BADUY, 101, Jawa-Bali, 35 BAHAM, 489, Pattimuni; Papua, 37 BAHAU, 201, Kalimantan, 38 BAJAU, 231; Bajo, Wajo, Bajao, Bayo, Lu’an; Sulawesi, 38 BAJAWA, 461, Nusa Tenggara, 40 BAKUMPAI, 202, Kalimantan, 40 BALAESANG, 232, Kalimantan, 40 BALANGAN, 203, Kalimantan, 40 BALANTAK, 233; Mian Balantak; Sulawesi, 41 BALAU, 111; Iban; Kalimantan, 41 BALI, 108, Java-Bali, 42 BALI AGA, 109, Java-Bali, 44 377

378 BANCE, 234, Sulawesi, 45 BANDA, 367; Eli Elat; Maluku, 45 BANGGAI, 235; MIan Banggai, Mian Sea-sea; Sulawesi, 46 BANGGAKORO, 236, Sulawesi, 46 BANGKA, 063; Melayu Bangka; Sumatra, 47 BANJAR, 204; Oloh Masih, Melayu Banjar; Kalimantan, 49 BANLOL, 490, Papua, 49 BANTIK, 212, Sulawesi, 50 BARAS, 302, Sulawesi, 50 BARAU, 491, Papua, 50 BASAP, 171, Kalimantan, 50 BASO, 492, Papua, 51 BATAK, 010, Tapanuli; Sumatra, 51 BATIN, 041, Sumatra, 54 BAUZI, 493; Bauji, Baudi, Bauir; Papua, 55 BAWEAN, 104; Babian, Boyan; Java-Bali, 55 BAWO, 172, Kalimantan, 56 BEDOANAS, 494, Papua, 56 BELITUNG, 064; Biliton, Melayu Belitung; Sumatra, 56 BELU, 443; Tetun, Tettum, Teto; Nusa Tenggara, 58 BENGGAULU, 303, Sulawesi, 60 BENGKULU, 051; Melayu Bengkulu, Sumatra, 60 BENTONG, 334, Sulawesi, 63 BENUAK, 173; Benuaq, Lawangan; Kalimantan, 64 BERAU, 174; Merau, Dayak Sa’ban; Kalimantan, 64 BERIK, 495, Papua, 65 BERUSU, 175, Kalimantan, 65 BESOA, 237; Behoa; Sulawesi, 65 BETCH-MBUP, 496; Asmat, Papua, 67 BGU, 497; Bonggo, Papua, 67 BIAK-NUMFOR, 498; Noefoor, Mafoorsch; Papua, 68 BIDAYUH, 112; Biatah, Kalimantan, 69 BIKSI, 499, Papua, 69 BIMA, 401, Nusa Tenggara, 70 BINGI, 304; Toribingi, Tobingi; Sulawesi, 71 BIPIM, 500, Papua, 71 BIRUMARU, 238; Tobirumaru, Kaili; Sulawesi, 71 BISMAM, 501, Asmat; Papua, 72 BOANO (1), 239; Tomini; Sulawesi, 72 BOANO (2), 368, Maluku, 72 BOLAANG ITANG, 214; Mongondow; Sulawesi, 72 BOLAANG UKI, 215; Mongondow, Sulawesi, 73 BONAI, 022, Sumatra, 73

Index BONERAF, 502, Papua, 74 BONERATE, 305, Sulawesi, 74 BORTO, 503; Ittik-Tor, Papua, 74 BRAZZA, 504; Asmat, Papua, 74 BUGIS, 306; Ugi, Sulawesi, 75 BUKAT, 113; Ukit, Kalimantan, 77 BUKIT, 205, Kalimantan, 77 BULI, 369, Maluku, 78 BULUNGAN, 194; Murut, Kalimantan, 79 BUNAK, 444; Marae, Nusa Tenggara, 79 BUNGKU, 240; Tobungku, Sulawesi, 79 BUOL, 241, Sulawesi, 79 BURATMATO, 176, Kalimantan, 80 BURU, 370, Maluku, 80 BURUWAI, 505; Korufa, Asienara, Madidwana; Papua, 81 BUSAMI, 506, Papua, 81 BUTON, 342; Butung; Sulawesi, 81 BUTONG, 307, Sulawesi, 83 BUYU, 242; Pamona, Sulawesi, 83 C CINA, -; Tionghoa; -, 84 CITAK MITAK, 507; Cicak, Kaunak; Papua, 87 D DAIRI PAK-PAK, 012; Batak; Sumatra, 87 DALE-DALE, 243, Sulawesi, 88 DAMAR, 371, Maluku, 88 DAMPELAS, 244; Tomini, Sulawesi, 88 DANI, 508; Ndani; Papua, 88 DARAI, 114, Kalimantan, 91 DAWAN, 414; Atoni Metto; Nusa Tenggara, 91 DAYA, 065, Sumatra, 92 DAYAK, Kalimantan, 92 DEM, 509; Lem; Papua, 93 DERA, 511, Papua, 94 DESA, 115, Kalimantan, 94 DOLO, 246; Todolo; Sulawesi, 95 DOMPU, 405, Nusa Tenggara, 95 DONDO, 247; Tomini; Sulawesi, 95 DOU, 512; Dosobou, Doufou; Papua, 95 DUBU, 513, Papua, 96 DUNGGU, 308, Tribinggi; Sulawesi, 96 E EIPOMEK, 514, Papua, 96 EKAGI, 515; Ekari, Kapauku, Me Mana, Tapiro; Papua, 96 EMARI DUCUR, 516; Asmat; Papua, 97 EMPRAN, 151; Ulu Batang Ali, Iban; Kalimantan, 97

Index EMUMU, 517; Kiamorep, Imimkal; Papua, 97 ENGGANO, 052; E. Lopeh; Sumatra, 98 ENIM, 066, Sumatra, 98 ERAI, 372, Maluku, 99 F FAYU, 519, Papua, 99 FOAU, 520, Papua, 99 G GAAT, 152; Iban; Kalimantan, 99 GALUMPANG, 309; Kalumpang, Kalimantan, 100 GANE, 373; Gani; Maluku, 100 GAURA, 415, Nusa Tenggara, 101 GAYO, 004, Sumatra, 101 GEBE, 374; Gebi; Maluku, 103 GORONTALO, 216; Hulontalo, Sulawesi, 103 GRESSI, 521; Gressik; Papua, 106 GUMBAK CADEK, 005; Urang Cumbok, Muslim Gunung Kong; Sumatra, 107 H HELONG, 416, Nusa Tenggara, 107 HMANGGONA, 522; Nalca, Kimyal, Hmonono; Papua, 108 I IBAN, 116; Hivan, Neban, Dayak Laut; Kalimantan, 108 INANWATAN, 658, Papua, 109 IRAHUTU, 524; Irrarutu; Papua, 110 IRESIM, 525, Papua, 110 ISIRAWA, 526; Okwasar, Papua, 110 IWUR, 527, papua, 110 J JAIR, 528; Aghu; Papua, 111 JAMBI, 043, Sumatra, 111 JANGGU, 529; Morwap, Tabu, Sawa; Papua, 112 JANGKANG, 117, Kalimantan, 112 JAVA, 103, Java-Bali, 113 JELAI, 118; Kalimantan, 118 JINAK, 530; ZInak, Papua, 118 JOERAT, 531; Asmat, Papua, 119 K KABOLA, 460, Nusa Tenggara, 119 KABURI, 657, Papua, 119 KADAI, 376, Maluku, 119 KADAMBUKU, 248; Pamona, Sulawesi, 120 KAFOA, 461, Nusa Tenggara, 120 KAHUMAMAHON, 291; Sulawesi, 120

379 KAIDIPANG, 217; Mongondow, Sulawesi, 121 KAIGIR, 532; Kayigi, Kayagar, Papua, 121 KAILI, 249; Toraja, Parigi, Toraja Sigi, Toraja Barat; Sulawesi, 121 KAIMBULAWA, 294, Sulawesi, 124 KAIMO, 533; Papua, 124 KAIRUI, 450; Waima’a; Nusa Tenggara, 124 KAIS, 655, Papua, 124 KAIY, 656, Papua, 124 KAJANG, 165; Kalimantan, 125 KALABRA, 657, Papua, 125 KALADENG, 310, Sulawesi, 125 KALAE, 250; Pamona; Sulawesi, 125 KALAOTOA, 311, Sulawesi, 125 KALOWO, 312, Sulawesi, 126 KALUMPANG, 657, Sulawesi, 126 KAMBRAU, 534; Kamberau, Kambrau, Papua, 126 KAMORO, 535; Mimika, Lakahia, Nagramadu, Mukamuga, Kokonau-Umari, Nefarpi, Maswena; Papua, 127 KANGEAN, 105, Java-Bali, 127 KANOWIT, 153; Iban, Melanau; Kalimantan, 127 KANTU’, 119; Kalimantan, 128 KANUM, 536, Papua, 128 KAPAUKU, 537; Ekagi, Ekari, Memana, Simori, Tapiro, Yabi; Papua, 129 KAPAUR, 538; Iha; Papua, 129 KAPAURI, 539; Kapori; Papua, 130 KARAS, 540; Papua, 130 KARERA, 462; Nusa Tenggara, 130 KARFASIA, 541; Papua, 131 KARO, 013; Batak; Sumatra, 131 KARON, 542; Papua, 133 KASIMBAR, 251; Sulawesi, 133 KATIBAS, 154; Iban; Kalimantan, 133 KATINGAN, 156; Ngaju; Kalimantan, 133 KAU, 377; Maluku, 134 KAUGAT, 688, Papua, 134 KAUR, 053; Sumatra, 134 KAURE, 668, Papua, 134 KAUWERAWEC, 669, Papua, 135 KAUWOL, 543; Kauwor; Papua, 135 KAWE, 544, Papua, 135 KAYAN, 120; Da’ Kayan; Kalimantan, 135 KAYGIR, 670, Papua, 137 KAYU AGUNG, 067, Sumatra, 138 KAYUNG, 121, Kalimantan, 138 KAYUPULAU, 671, Papua, 138 KEDANG, 463, Nusa Tenggara, 138 KEDER, 672, Papua, 139

380 KEI, 378, Maluku, 139 KEJIN, 177; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 141 KELABIT, 122; Murut; Kalimantan, 141 KELINGI, 019, Sumatra, 142 KELONG, 461, Nusa Tenggara, 142 KEMAK, 451, Nusa Tenggara, 142 KEMBAYAN, 165, Kalimantan, 143 KEMBERANO, 672, Papua, 143 KEMTUK, 445; Kemtuik; Ppaua, 143 KENDAYAN, 123; Kanayatn; Kalimantan, 144 KENYAH, 178, Kalimantan, 145 KENYAH BAHAU, 166, Kalimantan, 146 KENYAH KELINYAU, 167, Kalimantan, 147 KENYAH MAHAKAM, 168, Kalimantan, 147 KENYAH SUNGAI KAYAN, 169, Kalimantan, 147 KENYAH ULU BARAM, 170, Kalimantan, 147 KERIAU, 171, Kalimantan, 148 KERINCI, 066, Sumatra, 148 KEROM, 546, Papua, 150 KETENGBAN, 547; Oktengban, Kupel, Upu, Hmanggona, Oipomek, Omban; Papua, 150 KETUNGAU, 124, Kalimantan, 150 KIKIM, 068, Sumatra, 150 KIMAGAMA, 548; Kaladar; Papua, 151 KIMKI, 673, Papua, 151 KIMYAL, 674, Papua, 151 KIOKO, 292, Sulawesi, 152 KIRIKIRI, 675, Papua, 152 KISAM, 069, Sumatra, 152 KISAR, 379, Maluku, 152 KLUET, 006; Kalut; Sumatra, 153 KODEOHA, 293, Sulawesi, 154 KODI, 462, Nusa Tenggara, 154 KOIWAI, 549; Kaiwai, Kawiai, Namatote, Aiduma, Kayumerah; Papua, 154 KOKODA, 675, Papua, 155 KOLANA, 463, Nusa Tenggara, 155 KOMBAI, 550, Papua, 155 KOMERING, 070; Komring; Sumatra, 156 KOMODO, 463, Nusa Tenggara, 157 KONDA, 676, Papua, 157 KONERAW, 551, Papua, 157 KONJO, 294, Sulawesi, 157 KOPKA, 676, Papua, 158 KORAPUN, 552, Papua, 158 KORONI, 293, Sulawesi, 158 KOROWAI, 553, Papua, 158 KOTA BANGUN, 172, Kalimantan, 158 KOTOGUT, 554, Papua, 159 KRIAU, 125, Papua, 159

Index KRUI, 019a, Sumatra, 159 KUANGSU, 555, Papua, 159 KUBU, 071; Anak Dalam; Sumatra, 160 KUI, 464, Nusa Tenggara, 160 KULAWI, 252; Tokulawi, Toraja Barat; Sulawesi, 160 KULISUSU, 294, Sulawesi, 162 KUMPANG, 157; Olah Kantu’; Kalimantan, 162 KUPANG, 417, Nusa Tenggara, 162 KUPEL, 556, Papua, 162 KURUDU, 557, Papua, 163 KUTAI, 179; Halok; Kalimantan, 163 KWANDANG, 295, Sulawesi, 164 KWANSU, 677, Ppaua, 165 KWERBA, 558; Nobuk, Air Mati; Papua, 165 KWESTEN, 559, Papua, 165 L LABEAU, 344; Tolaki; Sulawesi, 165 LAGE, 253; Tolage, Pamona; Sulawesi, 166 LAIWONU, 254, Sulawesi, 166 LAIYOLO, 292, Sulawesi, 166 LAKALEI, 452, Nusa Tenggara, 166 LALALEO, 255, Nusa Tenggara, 167 LAMAHOT, 418; Lamholot, Lamkolot; Larantuka; Nusa Tenggara, 167 LAMBOYA, 465, Nusa Tenggara, 168 LAMMA, 466, Nusa Tenggara, 168 LAMPU, 256; Tolampu, Pamon; Sulawesi, 169 LAMPUNG, 092, Sumatra, 169 LAMPUNG, 325, Sulawesi, 174 LAMUSA, 257; Pamona; Sulawesi, 174 LANGKAT, 014, Sumatra, 174 LARA’, 173, Kalimantan, 175 LARANTUKA, 419, Nusa Tenggara, 176 LASALIMU, 293, Sulawesi, 176 LAUJE, 294, Sulawesi, 176 LAUT, 023; Orang Kuala, Mantang, Mapur, Barok, Orang Sampan, 176 LAWANGAN, 206, Kalimantan, 179 LEMATANG, 072, Sumatra, 180 LEMBAK, 054, Sumatra, 181 LEMBO, 258; Pamoa; Sulawesi, 182 LEPO BAKUNG, 180; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 182 LEPO JALAN, 181; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 182 LEPO MANT, 182; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 183 LEPO TAU, 183; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 183 LEPO TEPU, 184; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 183 LEPO TUKUNG, 185; Kenyah; Kalimantan, 183 LIABUKU, 295, Sulawesi, 184 LINDU, 259; Kaili, Tolidu; Sulawesi, 184

Index LINTANG, 073, Sumatra, 184 LIO, 420, Nusa Tenggara, 184 LOLODA, 380; Laloda; Maluku, 185 LOM, 021b, Sumatra, 185 LOMBLEN, 421, Nusa Tenggara, 185 LONCONG, 020a, Sumatra, 185 LONGKEA, 260; Pamona; Sulawesi, 186 LORE, 261; Napu, Bada; Sulawesi, 186 LUMOLI, 381; Alfuru; Maluku, 187 LUNDAYEH, 174, Kalimantan, 188 M MA’YA, 684, Papua, 188 MAANYAN, 158, Kalimantan, 188 MABA, 382, Maluku, 190 MADEN, 679, Papua, 190 MADIK, 560, Papua, 190 MADURA, 105, Java-Bali, 190 MAI BRAT, 680, Papua, 191 MAIRASI, 561; Kaniran, 191 MAIWA, 296, Sulawesi, 191 MAKASSAR, 313; Mangasara; Sulawesi, 192 MAKIAN, 383; Jitine, Desite, Tabayama; Maluku, 193 MAKUA, 454, Nusa Tenggara, 194 MALANG, 174, Kalimantan, 194 MALIMPUNG, 297, Sulawesi, 194 MALOH, 127; Embaloh, Mbaloh; Kalimantan, 195 MAMASA, 298, Sulawesi, 196 MAMBAI, 455, Nusa Tenggara, 196 MAMBI, 299, Sulawesi, 196 MAMBORU, 467, Nusa Tenggara, 197 MAMUJU, 298, Sulawesi, 197 MANDAILING, 021a, 197 MANDER, 562, Papua, 199 MANDOBO, 563; Wandub Wambon; Papua, 199 MANEM, 564; Yeti, Skofro, Wembi; Papua, 200 MANGGARAI, 422, Nusa Tenggara, 201 MANGOLE, 384, Maluku, 202 MANIKION, 565; Sough; Papua, 202 MANIPA, 385, Maluku, 202 MANSIM, 566, Papua, 203 MAPI, 567, Papua, 203 MARAU, 568, Papua, 203 MARENGGE, 569; Maremgi; Papua, 203 MARIND, 570, Papua, 204 MAROBO, 456; Kemak; Nusa Tenggara, 205 MASAMA, 262; Babongko, Saluan; Sulawesi, 206 MASENREMPULU, 316; Enrekang; Sulawesi, 206

381 MASIMASI, 683, Papua, 206 MASSEP, 681, Papua, 206 MATBAT, 682, Papua, 206 MAWES, 571, Papua, 207 MBOJA, 402; Bajo; Nusa Tenggara, 207 MEDANG, 158; Modang; Kalimantan, 208 MEKONGGA, 345, Sulawesi, 208 MEKWAI, 572; Moi, Mooi, Menggei, Munggai, Mungge, Mengwei, Memkei; Papua, 208 MENDALAM, 174a, Kalimantan, 208 MENINGGO, 573, Papua, 208 MENTAWAI, 030; Siberut, Pagai; Sumatra, 209 MENYUKE, 128, Kalimantan, 210 MEOSWAR, 574, Papua, 211 MER, 575; Muri, Miere; Papua, 211 MERANJAT, 074, Sumatra, 211 MEYAH, 576; Meyak; Papua, 211 MIAN BANGGAI, 263; Banggai; Sulawesi, 212 MIAN SEA-SEA, 264; Banggai; Sulawesi, 212 MIMIKA, 578; Nefarpi, Mukamuga, Lakahia, Kamoro, Papua, 212 MINAHASA, 218; Manad, Kawanua; Sulawesi, 213 MINANGKABAU, 031, Sumatra, 215 MODANG, 175a, Kalimantan, 220 MOI, 579; Mosana; Papua, 220 MOLOF, 469, Papua, 221 MOMUNA, 409; Somage; Papua, 221 MONGONDOW, 207, Sulawesi, 221 MONI, 120, Papua, 222 MOR (1), 390, Papua, 223 MOR (2), 391, Maluku, 223 MORAID, 586, Papua, 223 MORAORI, 690, Papua, 223 MORI, 265, Sulawesi, 223 MORONENE, 346; Tolaki, Sulawesi, 224 MORWAP, 686, Papua, 225 MOSKANA, 604, Papua, 225 MOUTONG, 266; Tomini, Sulawesi, 225 MOWEWE, 347; Tolaki, Sulawesi, 225 MUALANG, 129, Kalimantan, 225 MUARA, 208, Kalimantan, 226 MUKO-MUKO, 016, Sumatra, 226 MUNGGUI, 471, Papua, 227 MUROP, 579, Papua, 227 MURUT, 160, Kalimantan, 227 MUSI, 076, Sumatra, 228 MUYU, 376, Papua, 229 N NABI, 472; Modan; Papua, 230

382 NAFRI, 379, Papua, 230 NAGE KEO, 622, Nusa Tenggara, 230 NALCA, 687, Papua, 230 NAPU, 290a, Sulawesi, 231 NDAO, 468, Nusa Tenggara, 231 NDOM, 473; Dom; Papua, 231 NDUGWA, 405; Nduga, Dauwa, Pasegam, Pasekhem; Papua, 232 NGADA, 356; Maung, Riung, Rongga, Nage Keo, Bajawa, Palue; Nusa Tenggara, 232 NGAJU, 144, Kalimantan, 233 NGGEM, 691, Papua, 238 NIAS, 015, Ono Niha; Sumatra, 238 NIMBORAN, 596; Nambrung, Papua, 240 NINGGRUM, 692, Papua, 240 NISA, 597, Papua, 241 NOBUK, 693, Papua, 241 NUAULU, 386; Naulu, Nuahunai; Maluku, 241 NYADU, 175b, Kalimantan, 242 O OBOKUITAI, 694, Papua, 242 OGAN, 076, Sumatra, 242 ONIN, 598, Papua, 243 ORIA, 599; Uria, Saweh, Warpu, Bundru; Papua, 243 OSING, 107; Using; Java-Bali, 243 OT Danum, 131, Kalimantan, 244 P PADA, 268; Pamona, Sulawesi, 245 PADO’E, 290b, Sulawesi, 245 PAGU, 387, Maluku, 246 PAKAMBIA, 269; Pamona; Sulawesi, 246 PALEMBANG, 077; Melayu Palembang; Sumatra, 246 PALENDE, 274; Pamona; Sulawesi, 248 PALU’E, 469, Nusa Tenggara, 249 PAMONA, 270; Toraja Bare’e, Toraja Poso-Tojo, Toraja Timur; Sulawesi, 249 PANASUAN, 291a, Sulawesi, 250 PANCANA, 291B, Sulawesi, 250 PANTAR, 425, Nusa Tenggara, 250 PAPUA, 251 PAPUMA, 697, Papua, 253 PASEMAH, 060, Sumatra, 253 PASIR, 186, Kalimantan, 254 PATANI, 388, Maluku, 255 PATAPA, 271, Sulawesi, 255 PATTAE, 317, Sulawesi, 255 PAYAPI, 272; Pamona; Sulawesi, 255 PEBATO, 273; Pamona; Sulawesi, 256

Index PEDAMARAN, 078, Sumatra, 256 PEGAGAN, 079, Sumatra, 256 PEKAL, 056; Anak Sungai, Orang Kataun, Orang Seblat; Sumatra, 256 PELAUW, 589, Maluku, 257 PENDAU, 291c, Sulawesi, 257 PENESAK, 045, Sumatra, 257 PENGHULU, 044, Sumatra, 258 PESAGUAN, 132, Kalimantan, 258 PESEKHEM, 601, Papua, 258 PETAPA, 292a, Sulawesi, 259 PINDAH, 045, Sumatra, 259 PISA, 602, Papua, 259 PODENA, 685, Papua, 260 POM, 604, Papua, 260 PONOSAKAN, 221; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 260 PONTI, 133, Kalimantan, 260 POSO, 275, Sulawesi, 261 PU’UMBOTO, 276; Pamona; Sulawesi, 261 PU’UMNANA, 277; Pamona; Sulawesi, 261 PUNAN, 134, Kalimantan, 262 PURAGI, 686, Papua, 263 PYU, 605, Papua, 263 R RA’U, 279, Sulawesi, 263 RAHAMBUU, 296a, Sulawesi, 263 RAMBANG, 080; Rambang Senuling; Sumatra, 264 RAMPI, 296b, Sulawesi, 264 RANA, 390, Maluku, 264 RANAU, 086, Sumatra, 265 RASAWA, 687, Sulawesi, 265 RATAHAN, 222; Pasan, Minahasa, Sulawesi, 266 RAWAS, 081, Sumatra, 266 REJANG, 057; Jang, Keme Tun Jang; Sumatra, 266 REMBONG, 409, Nusa Tenggara, 268 RIANTANA, 606, Papua, 269 RIAU, 024, Sumatra, 269 RIUNG, 426, Nusa Tenggara, 271 RONDUK, 135, Kalimantan, 271 RONGGA, 410, Nusa Tenggara, 272 ROON, 607, Ppaua, 272 ROTE, 427; Roti; Nusa Tenggara, 272 RUMA, 428; Ruma; Maluku, 273 S SA’BAN, 136, Kalimantan, 273 SADONG, 137, Kalimantan, 273 SAFAN, 608; Asmat; Papua, 274 SAHU, 391; Sa’u; Maluku, 274 SAJAU, 138, Kalimantan, 274

Index SAKAI, 025, Sumatra, 274 SALING, 082, Sumatra, 275 SALUAN, 279, Sulawesi, 275 SAMORO, 458, Nusa Tenggara, 276 SANGIR, 223, Sulawesi, 276 SANGKE, 609, Papua, 277 SANGSANGLUANG, 318, Sulawesi, 277 SARBAS, 161; Saribas, Iban; Kalimantan, 278 SARIUNG, 319, Sulawesi, 278 SARUDU, 296c, Sulawesi, 278 SASAK, 403, Nusa Tenggara, 278 SASAWA, 611, Papua, 280 SAUSE, 612, Papua, 280 SAWAI, 392, Maluku, 281 SAWANG, 083, Sumatra, 281 SAWERU, 689, Papua, 281 SAWI, 613, Papua, 281 SAWU, 429; Sabu, Savu, Rai hawu; Nusa Tenggara, 282 SEBARUK, 136, Kalimantan, 284 SEBAYAU, 162, Kalimantan, 284 SEBERUANG, 137, Kalimantan, 284 SEKA, 616, Papua, 284 SEKADAU, 138, Kalimantan, 285 SEKAK, 084; Mapur, Lom, Belom; Sumatra, 285 SEKAR, 696, Papua, 286 SEKO, 320; Anak Seko; Sulawesi, 286 SELA, 617, Papua, 286 SELAKO, 140, Kalimantan, 287 SELAYAR, 297A, Sulawesi, 287 SELUNGAI, 297b, Kalimantan, 287 SEMANDANG, 141, Kalimantan, 287 SEMANG, 046, Sumatra, 288 SEMBAKUNG, 146, Kalimantan, 288 SEMENDO, 087; Semende; Sumatra, 288 SEMERI, 691, Papua, 289 SEMIMI, 618, Papua, 289 SEMPAN, 619; Nararapi, Mimika; Papua, 289 SENGGI, 692, Papua, 290 SENTANI, 620, Papua, 290 SERAWAI, 059, Sumatra, 292 SERU, 163; Srul; Kalimantan, 293 SERUI, 621; Serui Laut, Arui; Papua, 293 SIAGHA-YENIMU, 693, Papua, 294 SIANG, 144, Kalimantan, 294 SIKARITAI, 694, PAPUA, 294 SIKKA, 430, Nusa Tenggara, 294 SIKULE, 047, Sumatra, 295 SILADANG, 016, Sumatra, 296 SILATON, 321, Sulawesi, 296 SIMEULU, 007, Sumatra, 296 SINGKIL, 048, Sumatra, 298 SKRANG, 166; Iban; Kalimantan, 298

383 SOBEI, 623; Biga; Papua, 299 SOLOR, 432; Holo, Solot, Ata Kiwan; Nusa Tenggara, 301 SUABO, 624; Suabo, Inanwatan; Papua, 303 SUM, 139; Suma Daruk; Kalimantan, 303 SUMBA, 432; Humba, Tau Humba; Nusa Tenggara, 303 SUMBAWA, 404; Semawa; Nusa Tenggara, 305 SUNDA, 102; Proyangan; Java-Bali, 307 SUNGKAI, 021c, Sumatra, 311 SUNGKUNG, 140, Kalimantan, 312 SURUK, 141, Kalimantan, 312 SUWAWA, 224; Gorontalo; Sulawesi, 312 SYIAGA-YENIMU, 625; Syagha, Oser, Yenimu; Papua, 312 T TABA, 142, Kalimantan, 313 TABLA, 626, Papua, 313 TAGAL, 188; Dayak Tagelan; Kalimantan, 313 TAIKAT, 699, Papua, 313 TAJIO, 280; Ta’jio, Kasimbar, Sulawesi, 314 TALANG MAMAK, 026, Sumatra, 314 TALAUD, 225; Taloda, Porodisa; Sulawesi, 315 TALOKI, 292a, Sulawesi, 316 TAMAGARIO, 656, Papua, 317 TAMAN, 143; Maloh, Kalimantan, 317 TAMBOKI, 349; Tolaki; Sulawesi, 317 TAMIANG, 008, Sumatra, 317 TANANDOA, 281; Pamona, Sulawesi, 319 TANDIA, 627, Papua, 319 TANGLAPUI, 405, Nusa Tenggara, 319 TANIMBAR, 393; Numbar, Orang Timur Laut; Maluku, 319 TANOTURAN, 282; Balantak, Sulawesi, 320 TAORI, 628; Papua, 320 TARFIA, 629; Tarpia, Surai, Kaptiau; Papua, 321 TAROF, 657, Papua, 321 TAURAP, 630, Papua, 321 TAUSE, 658, Papua, 321 TAUSUG, 659, Kalimantan, 322 TAWI, 284; Pamona, Sulawesi, 322 TAWORTA, 660, Papua, 322 TEFARO, 661, Papua, 322 TEHID, 631; Tehit, Tehiyit; Papua, 323 TELAGA, 144, Kalimantan, 324 TELOKO, 085, Sumatra, 324 TENGGARONG, 133, Kalimantan, 324 TENGGER, 106, Java-Bali, 324 TERNATE, 394, Maluku, 326

384 TEWA, 405, Nusa Tenggara, 326 TIDONG, 193, Kalimantan, 326 TIDORE, 395, Maluku, 327 TIMORINI, 632, Papua, 327 TINOMBO, 284, Sulawesi, 328 TOALA’, 292c, Sulawesi, 328 TOBA, 018; Batak; Sumatra, 328 TOBADA, 322, Sulawesi, 330 TOBALO’E, 235, Sulawesi, 330 TOBANA, 235, Sulawesi, 330 TOBATI, 662, Papua, 330 TOBELO, 396, Maluku, 331 TODOLO, 246; Toridolo; Sulawesi, 331 TOI ANAS, 434, Nusa Tenggara, 332 TOJO, 285; Pamona; Sulawesi, 333 TOKALOMPI, 324, Sulawesi, 333 TOKODEDE, 459, Nusa Tenggara, 333 TOLAKI, 350; Laki, Lalaki, Lolaki, Tokea; Sulawesi, 333 TOLI-TOLI, 286; Totoli, Tomini; Sulawesi, 334 TOLOTANG, 326; Bugis; Sulawesi, 334 TOMADINO, 293b, Sulawesi, 337 TOMAPUNG, 327, Sulawesi, 337 TOMBELALA, 293a, Sulawesi, 337 TOMINI, 287, Sulawesi, 338 TONDANO, 293c, Sulawesi, 338 TONSAWANG, 230; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 338 TONSEA, 227; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 339 TONTEMBUAN, 228; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 339 TOPAKKALOTONG, 328; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 339 TOPEMBUNI, 329; Tomembuni, Tominbuni; Sulawesi, 340 TOPOIYO, 294a, Sulawesi, 340 TORAJA, 330; Toraja Sa’dan, Toraja Tae; Sulawesi, 340 TORAMPI, 331, Sulawesi, 344 TOSIGI, 292; Kaili; Sulawesi, 344 TOSOMUNYA, 332, Sulawesi, 344 TOTARAMANU, 333; Toromanu; Sulawesi, 344 TOULOUR, 229; Minahasa; Sulawesi, 345 TOWEI, 663, Papua, 345 TUBU, 134, Kalimantan, 345 TUGUTIL, 397, Maluku, 345 TUMBIT, 189, Kalimantan, 346 TUNGARE, 664, Papua, 346 TUNJUNG, 190, Kalimantan, 347 U ULU AI’, 145, Kalimantan, 347 ULUMANDA, 294b, Sulawesi, 347

Index UMA, 294c, Sulawesi, 347 UMALASA, 288; Tomini, Sulawesi, 348 UNA, 633, Papua, 348 UNDA’E, 289; Pamona, Sulawesi, 348 UNDANG SANANG, 146, Kalimantan, 348 UNDUP, 164; Iban; Kalimantan, 349 UNISIRAU, 634; Asmat; Papua, 349 UNURUM, 635, Papua, 349 URIA, 636; Saweh; Papua, 349 URUANGMIRIN, 637, Papua, 350 URUNDI, 638, Papua, 350 USKU, 639; Turu, Ururi, Lau, Foi; Papua, 350 W WABO, 665, Papua, 350 WAERANA, 292, Sulawesi, 351 WAHAU, 165, Kalimantan, 351 WAIGEO, 640, Papua, 351 WAIMA’A, 460, Nusa Tenggara, 351 WAINA, 641, Papua, 352 WAKATOBI, 390a, Maluku, 352 WAKDE, 646, Papua, 352 WALAK, 667, Papua, 352 WALSA, 642; Keron; Papua, 353 WAMBON, 643, Papua, 353 WANA, 290; Towana, Pamona; Sulawesi, 353 WANAM, 644, Papua, 355 WANDAMEN, 645, Papua, 355 WANGGOM, 646; Wanggo; Papua, 355 WANO, 647, Papua, 355 WANUKAKA, 407, Nusa Tenggara, 356 WAREMBORI, 648, Papua, 356 WARI, 669, Papua, 356 WARIE, 668, Papua, 356 WARIS, 649, Papua, 357 WARKAY-BIPIM, 670, Papua, 357 WAROPEN, 650; Waropen; Papua, 357 WARU, 295a, Sulawesi, 357 WAWONII, 295b, Sulawesi, 358 WAYOLI, 398; Biyoli; Maluku, 358 WEDA, 399, Maluku, 358 WEMALE, 400, Maluku, 359 WEYEWA, 672, Nusa Tenggara, 359 WIRI, 651, Tolaki; Sulawesi, 359 WIWIRANO, 295c; Tolaki; Sulawesi, 360 WOI, 652, Papua, 360 WOISIKA, 408, Nusa Tenggara, 360 WOLANI, 653; Wodani, Wolani, Woda; Papua, 360 WORIASI, 654, Papua, 361 WOTU, 291; Pamona; Sulawesi, 361 Y YAFI, 673, Papua, 361

Index YAHADIAN, 651; Nerigo; Papua, 361 YAHRAI, 656, Irian Jaya, 362 YAKAI, 674, Papua, 362 YALI, 474, Papua, 236, 238 YALI, 675, Papua, 362 YAMNA, 676, Papua, 362 YARSUN, 677, Papua, 363

385 YAWA, 678, Papua, 363 YEI, 679, Papua, 363 YELMEK, 680, Papua, 363 YERETUAR, 681, Papua, 363 YETFA, 682, Papua, 364 YONGGOM, 683, Papua, 364