A Chinese grammar for English speakers 9787301218655, 7301218655

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A Chinese Grammar

for English Speakers ____

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图书在版编目（ CIP ) 数据 汉语语法指南 =A Chinese Grammar for English Speakers. 英文版 / 朱 春 耕 （Chungeng Z h u ) ，高 燕 （Yan G a o ) 著 . 一 北 京 ：北京大学出 版i ,

2013.6

ISBN 978-7-301-21865-5 I . ①汉 …

I I . ①朱 … ②高 …

I I I . ① 汉 语 - 语 法 -对 外 汉 语

教 学 - i 学 参 考 资 料 IV . ① H195.4 中国版本图书馆 C IP 数 据 核 字 （ 2 0 1 3 ) 第 000135 号

书

名 ：汉 语 语 法 指 南 （英 文版）

A Chinese Grammar for English Speakers 著 作 责 任 者 ： Chungeng Zhu Yan G a o 著 责 任 编 辑 ：孙 姻 标 准 书 号 ISBN978-7-301-21865-5/H • 3218

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contents Foreword Preface

..................................................................................... i ..................................................................................... iii

Part One: Parts of Speech 词类 /1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10

Nouns 名 词 ................................................................... 4 Pronouns 代 词 ............................................................. 20 Verbs 动 词 ..................................................................... 34 Auxiliary Verbs 助 动 词 ................................................ 52 Adjectives 形 容 词 ........................................................ 64 Adverbs 副 词 ................................................................. 83 Numerals 数 词 ............................................................... 100 Measure Words 量 词 .....................................................116 Prepositions 介 词 ...........................................................132 Conjunctions 连 词 ..........................................................148

Part Two: Parts of the Sentence 句子成分 / 165 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14

Subject, Verb, and Object 主 谓 宾 ................................. 168 Attributives 定 语 ............................................................187 Adverbials 状 语 ............................................................. 201 Complements 补 语 ........................................................ 218

Part Three: Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式 / 251 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22

Verbless Predicates 非 动 词 谓 语 ................................... 254 Emphatic Constructions 强 调 结 构 ................................ 265 Copular Sentences “是 ”字 句 ..................................... 279 The Bổ Sentences “把 ”字 句 ...................................... 292 The Sentence _ 句 …: = = 二 二 = = 二 二 =šoš Existential Sentences 存 现 句 ........................................ 322 Comparisons 比 较 句 ..................................................... 334 Pivotal Sentences 兼 语 句 .............................................. 352

Part Four: Sentence Types 句类 / 365 Chapter 23

Interrogative Sentences 疑 问 句 .................................... 368

A Chinese Grammar fo r Eng丨 ish Speakers

Chapter 24 Chapter 25

汉语语法指南

Imperative Sentences 祈使句........................................ 380 Exclamatory Sentences 感叹句..................................... 394

Part Five: Time and Aspects 时与态 / 407 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31

Present，Past, and Future 现 在 、过 去 、将 来 .............. 410 The Perfective Aspect 完成态....................................... 423 The Transformative Aspect 变化态.............................. 437 The Experiential Aspect 经历态.................................. 451 The Progressive Aspect 进行态................................... 464 The Durative Aspect 持续态........................................ 477

Part Six: Punctuation Marks 标点符号 / 489 Chapter 32 Chapter 33 Chapter 34

Commas 逗号................................................................492 Separation Marks 点号..................................................505 Indication Marks 标号...................................................523

Appendix I Characters and Words 字与词....................................... 541 Appendix n Chinese Radicals 汉字部首表.......................................558 Appendix III Chinese Phonetic Transcription 汉语标音法.................565 Bibliography Index

..................................................................................... 574 ..................................................................................... 576

Foreuiord This book is a grammar in the truest sense of the word. It systematically and thoroughly treats parts of speech and parts of the sentence. It then moves on to cover special sentence patterns (a very helpful section), sentence types, time and aspects, and punctuation marks. A unique feature of this book is that it very much is, as the title implies, a Chinese grammar for English speakers. That is to say, the present work has been written to meet the particular needs of speakers of English. In fact, this book is distinguished by the way in which it constantly references English while yet keeping its eyes squarely on the task of explicating Chinese. The authors have been able to write such an unusual book because they are native speakers of Chinese with a strong background as highly proficient learners of English who have long experience as teachers of Chinese. The result is the most complete and rigorous grammar of Mandarin Chinese for speakers of English that is available. Another welcome feature of this book is the huge number of illustrative sentences that it contains. These examples are succinct and apposite, but they also are characterized by having a tripartite form: Chinese characters, pinyin transcription, and English translation. I am especially pleased to see the inclusion of pinyin, since it is so often stubbornly omitted by Chinese teachers who overemphasize the characters at the expense of their students who need it to save time looking up the sounds of characters. In addition, it is heartening to note that the pinyin transcription has been done with a keen attention to proper orthography. The authors5 attention to morphology and orthography is underscored by the extremely welcome first appendix of the book on characters and words (zi and CỈ). It is unusual to find such a section in a book written by Chinese authors, but it is one more instance of the authors5goal of producing a grammar that is user-friendly and linguistically sound. I dare say that, if a student were to read through this entire book carefully and repeat each sentence several times, because of the abundance of phonetically annotated and idiomatically translated example sentences, together with apposite explanations, they would raise their ability in Chinese to a much higher level. Two other appendices are respectively concerned with Chinese radicals (including their earliest available forms) and a historical account °f Chinese phonetic franscription. The latter is representative of yet another commendable feature of the book, namely, the large amount of useful, valuable cultural and historical information that it contains.

A j m q n 31Ỉ Ĩ

A Chinese Grammar for English Speakers

汉语语法指南

In sum, this is an excellent grammar of Chinese for speakers of English, one that has been composed by master pedagogues with an accurate sense of the needs of the non-native learner. I recommend it heartily to anyone with a serious interest in Chinese language. Victor H. Mair University of Pennsylvania

preface This grammar is written primarily for English-speaking college and university students who study Chinese as a second language. It is also intended for instructors teaching Chinese as a second language, and for readers interested in Chinese language and culture or in the comparative study of Chinese and English. The word refers to a book about grammar or to the system of rules within a language. There are various ways of writing a grammar. This one, seeking to serve English speakers, attempts to achieve its end through a comparative approach. Chinese is putatively a difficult language, but, for adult learners, the challenge does not lie in Chinese per se; it also to some extent arises from the influence of English, known as language transfer. In learning Chinese, students naturally apply their knowledge of English words and structures to constructing Chinese sentences. This knowledge can be supportive where the two languages are similar, but it can also be an obstacle or the source of errors where the two languages differ. This book is unparalleled, if not unique, in presenting a comprehensive treatment of Chinese grammar with a view to comparing it with English grammar whenever relevant. It aims to help students learn the rules of Chinese through reference to English grammar, which they know but may not be aware of. In doing so, students may, as Confucius advocates, learn what is new while reviewing what is known. This grammar may also inadvertently help students clarify their knowledge of English grammar. A grammar can be descriptive or prescriptive: one describes the ways in which a language is actually used by its speakers; the other tells what is correct or incorrect language use. This grammar is descriptive in that it presents a view of contemporary Chinese used by educated native speakers, and it includes some new vocabulary and word usages that have been generally accepted. This grammar is also prescriptive, not in the sense of recommending or condemning particular usage choices, but in laying out the rules of standard usage that students are requested to follow. As a grammar for non-native learners, the goal of this book differs from that of a grammar for native speakers. Users of this book may have no previous knowledge of Chinese; they need to know the rules of Chinese to construct grammatical sentences. This book contains many prescriptive cautions of correct or incorrect', these may sound didactic, but they are important to remember. It also serves the purpose of learning in that this grammar provides a wealth of illustrative sentences with pinyin and English translations. Students will gain a plethora of knowledge about Chinese grammar from this book, but they

A Chinese Grammar fo r English Speakers

汉语语法指南

should also be aware that grammatical knowledge alone is not enough; words vary in their usages, and many idiomatic usages do not conform to the stated rules. For students and instructors, this grammar can be used as either a reference grammar or a pedagogical grammar. Thematically organized, the text contains many important aspects of Chinese grammar, including parts of speech, parts of the sentence, and major sentence patterns, which grammar books usually deal with. It also contains discussions on times and aspects in Chinese and illustrations of the use of punctuation marks, which Chinese grammar books traditionally do not include. As a reference grammar, users will find it handy for individual consultation about grammar questions. Meanwhile, this grammar may, in various ways, serve as a pedagogical grammar, a textbook, or a companion to textbooks. All chapters in this book are relatively short and about equal in length; each chapter is prefaced by an introduction to its subject. Illustrative sentences demonstrate grammatical points and word usages; they also provide a wide range of vocabulary. The instructor, in dealing with the grammar part of each lesson, may assign a relevant chapter of this book as homework or use it for class instruction. Those who consider teaching a course in modem Chinese grammar may use it as a textbook. Grammar generally fails to appeal to students, and this grammar may not fare any better. Given its focus on rules about the language, grammar is intrinsically boring for non-specialists, particularly those texts loaded with technical linguistic terminologies, symbols, and abbreviations. This grammar is practical rather than theoretical; it is written to be accessible to non-specialists. Except for the basic terms necessary for discussing grammar, this grammar stays away from jargon, which is meaningless to outsiders and often pretentious on the part of writers. The style of this book is informal and personal; it addresses students directly, engaging their participation. In the treatment of each subject, this grammar tries to bring in pertinent linguistic, literary, and cultural information, so that students will see grammar within the broad spectrum of humanities rather than as an isolated discipline or a long list of dry rules. Grammar, with its various word usages and syntactic patterns, shows the ways in which people express their thoughts. This grammar provides students with a key into Chinese language, which will broaden their perspectives and open up a world and a culture. This grammar is grounded in the authors5 many years of experience teaching both English and Chinese, language and literature. It draws on the authors5 own experience of learning English as a second language. To all

Preface

those who use this book, the authors are grateful. The authors would like to express their thanks to Professor Walter Reed for his confidence and encouragement in this project, to Professor Victor H. Mair for his warm and generous foreword to this book, and to Dr. Harriette Grissom for her careful proofreading and sound suggestions. The authors also would like to thank editors Shen Puna and Sun Xian of Peking University Press for their support and valuable comments, and to Mr. Yuheng Zhu for writing the cover title of this book in Chinese calligraphy. Chungeng Zhu and Yan Gao Suwanee, Georgia, USA November, 2011

Ũ 力

Pa r t

ne

S Ĩ E Ẹ O

逾 滌

II

m a n 3U Ĩ

2

A Chinese Grammar for English Speakers

汉语语法指南

Words are traditionally grouped into classes known as parts of speech. Words can be semantically classified; however, the most reliable classification is based on words5 syntactic functions: the roles they play in a sentence. The number of word classes varies: it depends on how much detail one includes. In English, words are divided into eight classes: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. In Chinese, words are traditionally classified into two groups: content words ( 实词） and function words (虚词) . 实 and 虚 literally mean 奶 /žď and empty, so content words and function words are also known as solid words and empty words. Content words are the names of tangible entities. For example, the word spade represents a solid object. Function words do not represent anything tangible; they only have a grammatical function. For example, the preposition o f may indicate the relationship between nouns, but it does not represent a tangible object. According to this general classification, content words include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, and measure words. Function words include adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, and onomatopoeias. This classification is interesting in that only content words can serve as the subject of a sentence in Chinese. Parts of speech include another interesting classification: the distinction between open-class and closed-class words. Open-class words are content or lexical words that include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These words are subject to changes: some become archaic and obsolete as time goes by; meanwhile, some new members are constantly admitted into these classes. In the past three decades, many English words have made their way into Chinese， such as 酷 （ cool) and 伊 妹 儿 （ email). Meanwhile, a fairly large number of Chinese words have gained dual membership. For exam ple, 投 入 （ devote) was only a verb; it is now also an adjective•阳光（ sunshine) was only a noun; it is now also an adjective. Closed-class words are structural words, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions, known as function words in Chinese. The closed-classes seldom accept new members, and words in these classes are relatively stable. Chinese words (mostly composed of single or double characters) differ from English words in a number of ways. One important difference is that Chinese characters are not morphologically indicative of their word classes. We can usually tell a worďs part of speech by its suffix in English. Adjectives may end with -able, -ful, -ish, -less, -ive, -ous,

Parts of Speech 词类

etc. Many adverbs are derived from adjectives by taking the suffix -ly. Nouns often end with -ance, -ence, -ness, -tion, etc. But you cannot tell a Chinese character’s identity by its appearance. The Chinese radical may give you some idea about what a word may be semantically related to, but it does not tell its word class. However, in general, nouns can be premodified by adjectives; most adjectives can be premodified by the adverb ^ (very), but most verbs cannot; adverbs can premodify verbs and adjectives. In Chinese, many gram m ar books classify words into twelve categories, but we have included ten. One group not included in this part consists of structural particles 的，地 ，得 ， aspect particles 了，着， 过 ， and modal particles. Structural particles are discussed in the chapters on attributives, adverbials, and complements; aspect particles, which are traditionally called verbal particles, are discussed in the chapters on aspects. In addition, we have not included the group of exclamatory words here; this group, together with modal particles, is discussed in the chapter on exclamatory sentences. Still another group not included is onomatopoeias; some onomatopoeic words are discussed in the chapter on adjectives. Meanwhile, verbs and auxiliary verbs are divided into two chapters in Part One. You may not have paid much attention to the parts of speech in English, but you need to know each word's part of speech in learning Chinese as a foreign language. In building a house, your knowledge about the uses of construction materials is important. Similarly, you should know words’ classes and thereby their syntactic functions， so you can construct grammatical sentences.

A Chinese Grammar fo r English Speakers

C h a p te r 1

汉语语法指南

N ouns名 词

The word noun, coming from the Latin nomen, means name. Nouns are names, and names denote things—persons, animals, places, ideas, or any entity physical or metaphysical. In the West, the relation between the name and the named is a subject that has fascinated people since antiquity. It is a subject not only in linguistic and philosophical studies but also in literature. In Romeo and Juliet, Juliet asks, t4Whaťs in a name??, She believes: 玫, 瑰 -花 ， 使 换 了 一 个 名 字 也 依 旧 芬 芳 。

Meiguīhuā jishī huàn le yí ge míngzi yě yĩjiù fēnfāng. A rose by any other word would smell as sweet. For Juliet, Romeo is himself in spite of his family name. This also means that the relation between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary rather than natural. In Chinese, the noun is called 名词 ， which is also a focal point in Chinese philosophy and art. For Daoism， “the name that can be named is not the eternal name” （ 名可名，非常名). A cornerstone of Confucianism is the rectification of names (正名 )• It is commonly believed that the meaning of â thing is ingrained in its name. Chinese characters started as pictures, which seems to buttress the view that some kind of natural relation exists between the signifier and the signified. In art, calligraphers try to capture and articulate the meaning of characters exactly through their brush strokes. English nouns can be classified into count and non-count nouns; you may add the suffix -s to desk but not to furniture. Chinese nouns have no plural forms. A noun is a name representing a category of things, and it is naturally singular. To indicate the plural, you need to use a numeral together with a measure word, which indicates not only the number but also the type or the shape of the object the noun represents. You may also use numeral-measure words to quantify abstract and collective nouns, and there is no subject-verb agreement for Chinese nouns. In Chinese, there is a group of directional nouns that are used to indicate directions as we do with prepositions in English. Directional nouns often co-occur with nouns to indicate locations, such as 桌子 上 （on the table) and 床 下 （under the bed), which we denote through prepositional phrases. Chinese temporal nouns can modify verbs and

Parts o f speech 词类

function adverbially, while English relies on prepositional phrases and adverbs. Chinese nouns appear to play more grammatical roles than their counterparts in English. Nouns form the largest word class. They also constitute the most active word class—many new members constantly come in; some old members gradually become obsolete. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Proper nouns Common nouns Directional nouns Locational nouns Temporal nouns

1.1 Proper nouns (专有名词) Nouns are divided into two general categories: proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are the names of specific people, countries, organizations, places, tìie titles of books, etc. These nouns or names are unique; each is the only one of its kind. For example, there are walls everywhere, but there is only one Great Wall. Here are some proper nouns: 北 京 大 学 （Peking U n i v e r s i t y ) 长 城 （The Great Wall) 孔夫子（ Confucius) ( 论 语 } (The Analects) 纽 约 时 报 （Afevv yơrẢ: 77所烈） 《失 乐 厲 } (Paradise Losí) 新 闻 周 刊 從 A：) 中国（ China) 帝 国 大 厦 （The Empire State Building)

In English, proper nouns can be easily recognized because the first letter of the word is capitalized; Chinese proper nouns are written like common nouns, except that Chinese uses a double parenthesis for the titles of books.

1.1.1 Personal names One difference between Chinese names (Han Chinese) and English names is that the Chinese family name goes before the given name— a practice that reflects the Chinese traditional respect for family ancestry. Most Chinese family names, perhaps up to 98 percent, consist of just one character. There are thousands of family names in China, but the top twenty cover more than 50 percent of the population. Here are the twenty most prevalent ones:

A Chinese Grammar for English Speakers

f

(Li)

陈（ Chen)

)ễị (Zhou) 胡 (Hu) 何 （ He)

王 杨 吴 朱 郭

（ Wang)

(Yang) (Wu) (Zhu) （ Guo)

汉语语法指南

张 (Zhang) 趁 (Zhao)

é (Xu) Ã (Gao) 马 （ Ma)

刘 黄 孙 林 罗

（ Liu) （ Huang) （ Sun) （ Lin) （ Luo)

There are also a few two-character family names, such as 欧 阳 （ Ouyang)， 司马（ Sima), and 诸 葛 （ Zhuge). You may have heard of 诸 葛 亮 （Zhuge Liang), a legendary figure in The Story o f Three Kingdoms', his first name is 亮 ，and his last name is 诸 葛 . Chinese given names comprise either one or two characters. Onecharacter given names were very common in early dynasties; twocharacter given names became popular after the Tang and Song dynasties. Today, two-character given names appear to outnumber one-character ones. Here are a few names of some historical figures: 刘 邦 （Liu Bang) 曹 雪 芽 （Cao Xueqin)

项 羽 （Xiang Yu) 朱 自 清 (Zhu Ziqing)

Chinese do not have middle names. However, traditionally one of the two characters of a person’s given name may be shared by the siblings of the family or the people of the same generation in a big family. In addition, Chinese males used to have courtesy names called ^ (zi), which they acquired when entering adulthood and which were used by their peers. But the use of courtesy names is no longer practiced today. For most of the last century, Chinese followed the Wade-Giles system， a Latinized way of translating Chinese names• 孑L夫子 is rendered as K’ung-fu-tzu， and 小逸仙 as Sun Yat-sen. This method， though still used in Taiwan and in some areas outside China, is no longer used in mainland China. Today, Chinese in the mainland use pinyin to spell their names in international communications. According to the Chinese convention, the family name comes first, and the first letter of given name is capitalized. If the given name has two characters, only the first letter of the given name is capitalized, and there is neither space nor hyphen between the two characters. Li Bai (李白).

Tao Yuanming ( 陶渊明）

However, many overseas Chinese do not follow this “family name + given name” pattern; they place the family name last as we do in English to avoid misreading of their names. You need to be careful when reading

Parts o f Speech 词类

the names of overseas Chinese.

1.1.2 Geographical names In Chinese, geographical names can be divided into two groups. The first group consists of the names of national/administrative entities. They include 国 （ country), 省 （ province), 州 （ state), 市 （ city)，区 （ district), 县 (county),镇 (town), and 村 (village). The second group consists of the names of natural entities, such as 山 （ mountain)，江 （big river)，河 （ river), 湖 （ lake)，海 (sea), and 洋 (ocean). Chinese language makes a distinction between specific names and generic n a m e s. 黄 河 （the Yellow River), for example, consists of two characters: 黄 (Yellow) is a specific n a m e ; 河 (River) is a generic name because H is the name for all rivers. This distinction is relevant to the names of national/administrative entities. In general, if the specific name is one character, the generic name needs to be added as part of the name. If the specific name comprises two or more characters, the generic name is usually not needed. 德国（ Germany) 美 国 （United States) 澳大利亚（ Australia) 新加坡（ Singapore)

法国（ France) 泰国（ Thailand) i 西 (Brazil) 智利丨Chile)

In the above exam ples, 国 （ country) is a generic name. It is added to the specific name that consists of only one character. However, the distinction between specific and generic names has no bearing on the names of natural entities. In this case, the generic name is usually needed regardless of whether the specific name has one or more characters. 峨 眉 山 （Mount Emei) 泰 山 （Mount Tai)

黄 山 （Mount Huang) 喜 马 拉 雅 山 （the Himalayas)

长 江 （the Yangtze River) 洞 庭 湖 （Dongting Lake) 黑 龙 江 (the Heilong River) 淮 河 (the Huai River) 太 湖 （Tai Lake) 雅 鲁 藏 布 江 (the Yaluzangbu River)

Notice that Chinese generic names are all placed after specific names, but m English the generic names, mountain and lake, may go before or after the specific name: Mount Vernon, Stone Mountain, Lake Superior, and

A Chinese Grammar fo r English Speakers

汉语语法指南

Great Bear Lake. The name of a river is usually preceded by the definite article the, such as the Mississippi River.

1.2 Common nouns (普通名词) Common nouns are names of general entities—any or all members of a class or a category of things. In English, the common noun can be further divided into count and non-count nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. Along with these distinctions comes subject-verb agreement. Sometimes there is ambiguity. For example, audience is a collective noun that can go with & or are， depending on the context. Chinese common nouns may be similarly subdivided like their English counterparts. They are free from subject-verb agreement, but there is an agreement between the noun and measure word that will need to be memorized. See the chapter on measure words.

1.2.1 Count and non-count nouns To use a noun in English, you invariably have to indicate if it is singular or plural, which means that you either place the indefinite article a or an before the noun or add an -s or -es at the end of it. In Chinese, there is no need to tell the number if you do not want to or are not concerned about it. 阅览室有电脑。 Yuànlânshì yõu diànnâo. There are computers in the reading room. The Chinese sentence simply says that there is a computer or there are computers in the reading room; it can be either singular or plural. In English, you have to choose either a computer or computers, and accordingly either there is or there are. Chinese nouns have no plural forms; Chinese relies on premodifying numerals to indicate the plural or the number. It is crucial that whenever a premodifying numeral is used, a measure word must also be used simultaneously. The measure word is placed after the numeral. 三 朵 花 （three flowers) 五 棵 树 （five trees)

四 只 青 蛙 （four frogs) 六 双 鞋 （six pairs of shoes)

A variety of measure words match different nouns, based on the meaning or the shape of the signified object.

Parts of Speech 词类

[1 ]桌 上 有 一 根 香 蕉 。

Zhuõ shàng yõu liâng ge shizi, yì gẽn xiangjiao. There are two persimmons and one banana on the table. [ 2 ] 她拿着一支蜡烛走了进来。

Tā ná zhe yì zhī lázhú zou le jinlai. She walks in, a candle in hand. Some objects cannot be counted because they are continuous entities and have no natural bounds, such as beef and m ilk. In English, nouns standing for those objects are called non-count nouns that cannot take -s or -es for the plural. However, you s till have a way o f counting those objects through measure words, such as two pounds o f beef and three gallons o f m ilk. In Chinese, nouns standing for non-countable objects can also be counted w ith the help o f measure words, such as the names o f containers or measuring units. [ 3 ] 他 买 了 一 瓶 洗 发 液 ，两 盒 牙 线 Q

Tā mãi le yì píng xĩfàyè, liâng hé yáxiàn. He bought one bottle o f shampoo and two boxes o f dental floss. [4 ] $ 给我v7- ^ 年 寺 油 ，乎斤猪肉。

QTng gěi wo yì liâng huãshẽngyóu, bàn jĩn zhūrou. Please give me one liang o f peanut oil and a h a lf jin o f pork.

1.2.2 Abstract nouns Abstract nouns are the opposite o f concrete nouns. Concrete nouns refer to tangible things that can be either countable or uncountable; abstract nouns stand fo r im m aterial things, such as qualities, ideas, or states o f mind. Here are some o f them:

零情 (love) 疾病（ disease) 力量（ strength) 气质（ temperament) 性 格 (disposition) 预 料 (expectation) 智 慧 (wisdom)

感 觉 (feeling) 精 力 ㊄nergG 魅力（ charisma) 态度 (attitude) 意识（ consciousness) 正义（ justice).

Abstract nouns typically go w ith certain measure words that include

种 (typ e ), 类 （ category), — 些 （ some)，and —点 儿 （ a little).

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A Chinese Grammar fo r English Speakers

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[5 ] 他有一种迷人的气质。 Tỗ yõu yi zhong mířen de qizhi. He has a charming temperament. [ 6 ] 它们属于同一类疾病。 Tāmen shũyú tóng yí lèi jibing. They belong to the same type of disease. 1.2.3 Collective nouns English collective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning (e.g. audience, class, jury, and team). Collective nouns may agree with either singular or plural verbs; it depends on the point of emphasis or reference in a sentence. In Chinese, collective nouns, like abstract nouns, go with certain measure words. There is a group of words known as collective measure words that include:套 (set)，群 （ group)，帮 （ gang),堆 （ heap),批 （ batch), etc.

[ 7 ] 他送我一套日本茶具。 Tā sòng wõ yí tào Riběn chájù. He gave me a Japanese tea set. [ 8 ] 教室门口站着一群人。 Jiáoshi ménkõu zhàn zhe yì qún rén. A group of people stands at the entrance of the classroom. For a detailed discussion on the collocation between nouns and measure words， see the chapter on measure words.

1.3 Directional nouns (方位名词) The directional noun is part of common nouns; but it needs to be treated separately because of its special place in Chinese. In English, adverbs and prepositions (e.g. in, out, up, and down) indicate directions, locations, or positions. In Chinese, directional nouns can play the role of adverbs and prepositions in English, and they can be divided into two types: simple and compound directional nouns.

1.3.1 Simple directional nouns A simple directional noun consists of one character. Like English

Parts of speech 词类

adverbs such as up, down, in, and out, simple locational nouns indicate directions, locations, or positions. They include:

4 (in) (front) (left) （ south) （ side)

前 左 南 旁

外 后 右 北

(out) （ back)

(right) （ nõrth)

内（ interior) 上 (up) 东（ east) 中（ middle)

夕卜（ exterior) 下（ down) 西（ west) 间（ middle)

Simple directional nouns usually join another noun to express a complete meaning. For example, means out of something; you need to tell what that something is, or the meaning of out is incomplete. Here are three typical ways in which simple directional nouns occur with other words. First, simple directional nouns, like adjectives, often precede a noun to make up the name of a place, a concept or an object. 东 方 （the East) 南门（ Southgate) 内 债 （ internal debt) 前人（ forebear) 左手 /left haná)

西 方 （the West) 北 门 （north gate) 外 债 （external debt) 后人（ descendant) 右 手 (right hand)

Second, simple directional nouns can occur after a noun to form a noun phrase. The noun phrase thus created is not the name of a specific place; it refers to a particular area. 城 南 （the south of the city) 楼上（ upstairs) 台 前 （before the stage) 屋 里 （in the house) 桌 上 (on the desk)

城 北 （the north of the city) 楼下（ downstairs) 台 后 （behind the stage) 屋 外 （outside the house) 桌 下 (under the desk)

Third, simple directional nouns can serve as the object of some prepositions, such as 朝 ，往 ， and 向 ， which indicate a direction. [ 1 ] 你: 朝 贫 走 ,/ 再 ^主 左 拐 。 NT cháo qián zõu, zài wàng zuõ guaiYou go straight，and then turn left. [ 2 ] 别 向 下 看 ，你 会 头 晕 的 Q Bié xiàng xià kàn, nĩ huì tóu yũn de. Don?t look down! You will feel dizzy.

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Among simple directional nouns, 里 and 上 are used extensively•里 means inside; it is usually translated as in. The primary meaning of J i is up; it is usually translated as on. 盒 子 里 （in the box) 树 林 里 （in the woods) 背 上 (on the back) 墙 上 （on the wall)

电 影 里 （in the movie) 书 里 （in the book) 地 上 （on the ground) 肩 上 (on the shoulder)

Notice that in and on are placed before the noun to form a prepositional phrase in English, but % and J i are placed after the noun to form a noun phrase in Chinese.

1.3.2 Compound directional nouns A compound directional noun consists of two characters, and there are two types of compound directional nouns. The first type consists of a simple directional noun and one of the three w ords: 边 ，面 or 头 ， which all mean side. Of the three, i i is popularly used; ® sounds somewhat formal; 头 is colloquial. 里边（ inside) 下边（ below) 上面（ above) 外头（ outside)

外 边 (outside) 里面（ inside) 下面（ below) 上头（ above)

上 边 (above) 夕卜面（ outside) 里头（ inside) 下头（ below)

东 边 （east side) 后边（ back) 前面 /frontj 西 头 （west side)

西 边 （west side) 东 面 （east side) 后面（ back) 前 头 (front)

前 边 (front) 西面丨west side) 东 头 （east side) 后头（ back)

南 边 （south side) 右 边 (right side) 左 面 （ left side) 北 头 （north side)

北 边 （north side) 南 面 （south side) 右 面 （right side)

左 边 （ left side) 3匕面（north side) 南 头 （south side)

东头，西头，南头， and 北头 usually mean east end， west end, south end， and north end. For example, 东头那栋房子 refers to the house at the east end in a row of houses, though it could also mean the house in the east side•内 and 中 cannot join 边 ，面 or 头 to make compound directional nouns， nor can 左 and 右 join 头•旁 can only join 边 to make compound directional noun 旁 边 (side).

Parts o f Speech 词类

Compound directional nouns of the first type refer to a place or an area, and they can independently serve as subjects or objects (simple directional nouns have to join another noun to do so). They can also be preceded by another noun to form a noun phrase. • [3 ] 里面黑， _外 面 亮 。 LTmian hēi, waimian liàng. Inside is dark; outside is bright. [4 ] 教 室 外 边 是 运 动 场 。 Jiáoshi wáibian shì yùndòngchâng. Outside the classroom is the sports ground. The second type of compound directional nouns consists of a simple directional noun and 以 or 之 ；both 以 and 之 are placed before the simple directional noun . 以 and 之 help to indicate the boundary of something •以 is commonly used ; 之 is formal and carries a tone of classical language. 以内（ within) 以下（ below) 之上（ above)

以夕卜（ outside) 之内（ within) 之下（ below)

以上（ above) 之外（ outside)

以 东 （east of) 以 北 （north of) 之 南 （south of)

以 西 （west of) 之 东 （east of) 之 北 （north of)

以 南 （south of) 之 西 （west of)

以前（ before) 之前（ before)

以后（ after) 之后（ after)

Some of these compound directional nouns (以 前 ，以 后 ，之 前 ， and 之 后 ） are used in a temporal sense. 左 ，右 ， and 里 cannot go with 以 or 之 to form compound nouns. 中 and 间 can go with 之 but not with 以 . Most of the second type of compound directional nouns cannot function by themselves. For example，之内 means you need to tell within what, or it is unclear. These compound directional nouns normally join another noun to form noun phrases, which may function as subjects, objects or adverbials. [5 ]河南省在黄河以南。 Hénán shěng zài Huáng Hé yĩ nán. Henan Province is to the south of the Yellow River.

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[6 ] 我三天之内通知你。 wõ sān tiān zhī nèi tongzhī nī. I will notify you within three days. A few o f th ese com pound d ire c tio n a l nouns can fu n ctio n independently• 以 前 （ before) and 以 后 （ after) denote a period of time, and they can serve as adverbials• 以 上 （ above) and 以 下 （ below) refer to a particular area, and they can serve as subjects. [7 ] 以前他们家很穷。 Yĩqián tāmen jiā hen qióng. Their family used to be very poor. [8 ] 以下是我” 看法 。 Yĩxià shì wõ de kànfâ. The following is my view. Notice that 间 （ between) may be viewed as a directional noun, but 间 and 中 are somewhat different. 间 means ⑼ two things or parties and can be used in an abstract sense: 你、 我 之 间 （between you and me) or 朋 友 之 间 （between friends)•中 means Amťiúfe ơ /things; it is used in a spatial as well as a temporal sense, such as 昆"žL之 中 （in the middle of chaos).

1.3.3 Comparing directional nouns We have drawn the distinction between two types of compound directional nouns. The first type of compound directional nouns refers to a place or location; the second type draws a line separating two entities. 桌 子 上 边 (on the desk) 床 下 边 (under the bed) 五 十 岁 以 上 （above fifty years old) 三 十 块 钱 以 下 （under thirty dollars) 五十岁以上 draws a line at the age of fifty and includes those over the age of fifty as a category■三十块钱 1以下 sets thirty dollars as a limit， and the amount of money hãs to be below thirty dollars. In some cases, these two types of compound directional nouns may appear to mean the same thing, but there are often some subtle differences to be noted. Here are some examples:

Parts o f Speech 词类

城 市 南 边 (the south of the city) 城 市 以 南 （to the south of the city) 城市 南 边 refers to the south part of the city •城市以南 is usually understood as referring to the place that is to the south of the city. 长 江 北 边 （the north of the Yangtze River) 长 江 以 北 （to the north of the Yangtze River) 长江 j 匕边 refers to the north side of the Yangtze River: it can be an area not far from the river or anywhere to the north of the river •长江以北

refers to the whole area to the north of the river as opposed to the south of the river. There is normally not much difference between a simple directional noun phrase and compound directional noun phrase •床下 and 床下边 (under the bed) mean the same thing. But sometimes it can be tricky. For example, both 鼻子上 and 鼻子上边 mean however， the latter could also refer to the area above the nose.

14 Locationa丨nouns (处所名词) L ocational nouns signify places or locations. They include compound directional nouns, such as 前 边 （ front) and 后 边 （ back)， and noun phrases, such as 门 前 （in front of the door) and 房 后 （behind the house). They also include names of specific places (e.g. Disney World, Atlanta, and Beijing) and non-specific organizational entities (e.g. schools, hospitals, and restaurants). L ocational nouns appear to have a special place in C hinese presentation of visual perceptions. For example, to express the idea that there is something somewhere in English, you use the existential sentence that starts with the existential there. There is a church by the lakeside. Hú biỗn you yí ZUÓ jiáotáng. 湖边有一座教堂。 In the English sentence, the church goes before the prepositional phrase of location, but the corresponding Chinese sentence begins with the locational noun 湖 边 （ lakeside). One says there is something at someplace; the other says at someplace there is something. The Chinese way first calls your attention to the location before telling you what is there. See the chapter on existential sentencēs.

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The locational noun often functions as the subject of a sentence in Chinese. Many English prepositional phrases indicating locations are typically translated into locational nouns in Chinese. [1 ] 前 边 走 来 一 位 漂 亮 的 女 人 。 Qiánbian zõu lái yí wèi piàoliang de nũrén. A pretty woman is coming over. [2 ] 树 林 里 住 着 一 个 陌 生 人 。 Shùlín li zhú zhe yí ge mòshẽngrén. A stranger lives in the woods. [ 3 ] 台/ 下 坐 满 了 热 情 的 观 众 。 Tái xià zuò mân le rèqíng de guānzhong. A large enthusiastic audience sits in front of the stage. [4 ] 世 界 上 没 有 免 费 的 午 餐 。 Shijié shang méiyõu mianféi de wúcan. There is no free lunch in the world. The locational noun also frequently serves as the object of some prepositions, such as 朝 （ towards), 向 （ towards),往 （ towards), and 在 （ at)， or as the object of the verb 到 （ arrive) and 去 （ go). [5] $ 朝 我 的 宿 舍 看 了 一 眼 Q Tā cháo wõ de sùshè kàn le yì yân. She took a glance at my dormitory. [ 6 ] 我 真 _到 月 亮 上 去 旅 行 。 Wo zhēng xiâng dào yuèliang shang qù lũxíng. I would really like to travel on the moon. The locational noun signifies not only concrete, physical locations but also abstract locations, such as one?s mind, heart, memory, and imagination. [7 ] 你说到了我的心坎儿上。 N丫 shuõ dào le wõ de xĩnkánr shang. You have expressed exactly how I feel. [8 ] 人 生 中 什 么 东 西 最 珍 贵 ？ Rénshẽng zhõng shénme dõngxi zuì zhēngui? What is the most precious thing in human life?

Parts o f Speech 词类

Some English nouns, such as today and tom orrow, are both nouns and adverbs. Tomorrow in "Tomorrow is Sunday99 is a noun, but 如 in “I’ll see you tomorrow” is an adverb. In English， it is mostly adverbs that express various time-related concepts. Nouns cannot serve adverbially with the exception of some noun phrases (e.g. I met him last week). In Chinese, temporal nouns play an important role in conveying different notions of time. Words, like today and tomorrow, are considered as nouns, not as both nouns and adverbs, but nouns can serve adverbially in Chinese. 他昨天来了。

Tā zuótian lái le. He arrived yesterday. 昨天（ yesterday) is a noun that functions adverbially in the sentence, but yesterday in the above English sentence is an adverb. In Chinese, temporal nouns fall into two categories: one indicates a point of time, and the other shows duration.

1.5.1 Temporal nouns: a point of time Some temporal nouns denote a point of time. It can be a particular time, a day, a month, a year, a historical period, or a holiday. Here are some examples: 今 天 (today) 星期天（ Sunday) 月 初 （the beginning of the month) 二月（ February) 今 年 (this year) 情人节（ Valentine’s Day) 唐 朝 （the Tang D y n a s t y ) 中 秋 节 （the Moon Festival)

Temporal nouns denoting a point of time can serve as subjects that take the initial position of the sentence to show the time of an event or action. [1 ]明天是我的生日。 Míngtiỗn shì wõ de shẽngrì. Tomorrow is my birthday.

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[2 ] 今晚 v有 亨 阵 雨 。 JTnwan you léizhényu. There is a thunderstorm tonight. They may also premodify the verb to indicate the time of an action. In this case, the temporal noun functions adverbially in the sentence. [3 ] 你明天上班吗？ NT míngtiỗn shàng bān ma? Are you going to work tomorrow? [4] $ 月 底 f 工 资 。 wõ yuèdĩ ling gongzl I get paid at the end of the month. 明天 and 月底 are nouns; both function adverbially. In English, in [3] is an adverb, and at the end o f the month in [4] is a prepositional phrase.

1.5.2 Temporal nouns: duration Some temporal nouns, premodified by a numeral, indicate a span of time or duration. Many of these temporal nouns also require the presence of a measure word, but some do not. For exam ple, 星 為 （ week) and 月 (month) need the measure word 个 ，but 天 (day) ầnd 年 （ year) do not. You need to memorize them individually. Here are some examples: 三 十 分 钟 (thirty minutes) 两 个 钟 头 (two hours) 五 天 （five days) 七 个 星 期 （seven weeks) 四 个 季 节 （four seasons)

一 个 小 时 (one hour) 三 个 晚 上 （three evenings) 六 周 （six weeks) 八 个 月 （eight months) 九 年 （nine years)

The temporal noun indicating duration often precedes the verb to denote what happens during a period of time, and they function adverbially. [5] $ 十 年 去 了 五 次 中 国 。 Tỗ shí nián qù le wú cì Zhongguó. He has been to China five times in ten years. [6 ] 我一天喝了六瓶可乐。 Wõ yì tiān hē le liù ping kẽlè. I had six bottles of Coke in one day.

Parts of Speech 词类

A temporal noun indicating duration can also be placed after the verb to show how long an action lasts, and it serves as the complement in the sentence. [7 ] 我在英国住了一个月。 wõ zài Yĩngguó zhù le yí ge yuè. I lived in Britain for one month. [8 ] 他教武术教了一辈子。 Tā jiāo wúshii jiāo le yí béizi. He has been teaching martial art for his whole life. Notice that there is a difference between —月 and —个月： one means January and the other means one month. The same is the case with the names of other months.

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Pronouns 代 词

The Latin prefix pro means in place of, thus pronoun means in place o f nouns, which is exactly how the pronoun functions grammatically in a sentence. Related to the pronoun is a group of words called determiners. Pronouns take the place of nouns and can function as subjects or objects; determiners introduce nouns and cannot act as subjects or objects. Take a look at these two English sentences: Some are joyful; some are anxious. 有人欢¥ 肴人愁。

You rén huỗnxĩ yõu rén chóu. Every dog has his day. 每人都有得意的时候

Měi rén dõu yõu déyì de shíhou. In the first sentence, some, as a pronoun, can serve as the subject. In the second sentence, every is a determiner and cannot serve as the subject; it functions as an adjective. Some pronouns, such as some and each, can function as both pronouns and determiners. In Chinese, there is a similar distinction between pronouns (代 词 ） and determiners (指另ļ 词 ). Some Chinese pronouns， like their English counterparts, have a determiner function and can be used attributively. For exam ple, 什 么 （ what) is an interrogative pronoun in “你 要 什 么 ？’’ （ What do you want?)， but it is a determiner in 什 么 时 间 （what time) and 什么地 点 （what place). Chinese pronouns and determiners do not exactly match those in English. For instance, each is both a pronoun and a determiner in English， but in Chinese 各 (each) only functions as a determiner， except in some fixed expressions. Chinese pronouns are usually classified into three categories: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns. For the sake of comparison, we will, in the following, classify them in ways that match the categories of English pronouns. In general, Chinese and English pronouns correspond to one another fairly well, except that modern Chinese has no relative pronouns (see the chapter on adverbials). It should be noted that some Chinese determiners require measure words to introduce nouns. 2.1 Personal pronouns

Parts of Speech 词类

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronoun Interrogative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns Indefinite pronouns

2.1 Personal pronouns (人称代词) Personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things. Modern English has seven personal pronouns, and each has two cases: subjective and objective. The subjective cases include /, you, he, she, it, we, you, and they; the objective cases include me, you, him, her, it, US, you, and them. The first group serves as the subject; the second group serves as the object. Chinese has more personal pronouns than English, but some of these are viewed as indefinite pronouns in English. The ones corresponding to English personal pronouns a re : 我 （ I )，你 （ you), 他 （ h e), 她 （ sh e), 它 （ it), 我们（ we)，你 们 （plural y o u ), 他 们 （ they)，她 们 （ they)， and 它们仲已丫). These personal pronouns make no distinction between subjective case and objective case. In the north, people use 您 as a polite form for 你 . [1 ] 她今天怎么了？ Tā jīntiān zěnme le? What has happened to her today? [2 ] 请 不 要 责 怪 她 。 QTng bú yào zéguái tā. Please don’t blame her. [3 ] 我们何时再见？ Women hé shí zài jiàn? When will we meet again? [4 ] 没人养心各们。 Méi rén guỡnxĩn women. No one cares about US. In English, the generic he is now viewed by many as sexist language. In classical Chinese, there was no character 她 （ sh e); 他 （ he) was used for both male and female. After the May 4lh Movement in 1919,她 was coined. Now 她 stands for female while 他 stands for male. Meanwhile, the generic 他 is still used.

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咱们 is another personal pronoun translated as w in English. However, 我们 is used in ã way that may or may not include the listener, while 哨们 definitely includes the listener. In addition，咱们 is somewhat colloquial.

[5 ] 咱们今天都去。 zánmen jīntiān dõu qù. All of us will go today. [6] $ 是 咱 p 的 人 。 Tā shi zānmen de rén. He is one of US. We will look at some other Chinese personal pronouns, such as 大家 (all) and 另4人 （ others), in the following section on indefinite pronouns.

2.2 Possessive pronouns (物主代词) English has a category of possessive pronouns but Chinese does not. However， Chinese personal pronouns (e.g. 我 ，你 ， and 他 ） can take the structural particle 的 ； this combination functions like possessive pronouns in English. 我 的 （my / mine) 你 的 （your / yours) 他的（ his) 他们的（ their/theirs) 它 们 的 (their / theirs)

我 们 的 （our / ours) 你 们 的 （your / yours) 她的（ her/hérs) 它 的 (its)

English possessive pronouns have two forms: attributive and predicative. For example, my in "This is my book59 is used attributively while mine in t4This book is mine" is used predicatively一 one functions as an adjective and the other as a noun. In Chinese, “personal pronoun + 的 ” can also function both ways. [1 ] 这 是 你 的 座 位 。 Zhè shì nĩ de zuòwèi. This is your seat. [2 ] 这 个 座 位 是 你 的 。 Zhè ge zuòwèi shì nĩ de. This seat is yours.

Parts of Speech 词类

[3 ] 这是他的电脑。 Zhè shì tā de diànnâo. This is his computer. [4 ]

台电脑是他的。

Zhè tái diànnão shì tā de. This computer is his. When the personal pronouns 我 ，你 ，他 ， and 她 are used to indicate the possessive relationship among family members (e.g.爸 爸 ，妈 妈 ，哥 哥 ， 姐 姐 ） and friends， it is idiomatic to leave out 的 . [ 5 ] 你 （的 ）妈 妈 在 哪 儿 工 作 ？ NĨ (de) māma zài nâr gongzuó? Where does your mom work? [ 6 ] 我 （的 ）朋 友 是 电 影 导 演 。 wõ (de) péngyou shì diànyĩng dâoyân. My friend is a movie director. Notice that the above usage only applies to personal pronouns 我 ，你 ， 他 ， and 她 in reference to family members and friends; otherwise , 的 is indispensible. Incorrect : 你 看 法 太 幼 稚 了 〇 Nĩ kànfã tài yóuzhi le. Your view is too naive. C o rre c t:你 的 看 法 太 幼 稚 了 。 Nĩ de kànfâ tài yòuzhì le. Your view is too naive. In c o rre c t: 我 们 朋 友 不 来 了 。 Women péngyou bù lái le. Our friend will not come. Correct:

我们的朋友不来了。

Women de péngyou bù lái le. Our friend will not come.

_

^ 3 Reflexive pronoun (反身代词)

In English, reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence, and they are made up of personal pronouns ended in -se lf or -selves

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(i.e. myself, yourself, himself, herseĶ itself, ourselves, yourselves, and iĀeATue/vM). Meanwhile, reflexive pronouns are also called intensive pronouns when they are used for the purpose of emphasis. He recommends himself. 他推荐他自己。

Tā tuijian tā ziji. He himself cooks dinner. 他自己做晚饭。

Tā zijT zuò wanfán. In the first sentence, himself a reflexive pronoun; in the second sentence, himself an intensive pronoun. In C h in e s e , 自 己 （ self) is a pronoun that can be placed after a personal pronoun. For example, 我 and 自己 can make up 我 自 己 （ myself), which can function like English reflexive and intensive pronouns.

2.3.1 Reflexive pronoun as the object The reflexive pronoun 自己， together with the personal pronoun, serves as the object of a sentence, but it refers to the subject. It usually expresses the idea that one has done something to oneself. [1 ] 他在笑他自己。

TỖ zai Xiao ta ziji. He is laughing at himself. [2 ] 他卖了他自己。

Tã mài le tā zìjĩ. He sold himself. [3 ] 你只能怪你自己。

Nĩ zh丫 néng guài nĩ zijTYou can only blame yourself. [4 ] 你照顾好你自己。

NĨ zhóogu hâo nĩ zìjĩ. You take good care of yourself. In Chinese, you may drop the personal pronoun and leave only the pronoun 自己 as the object of the sentence.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 5 ] 他 总 是 吹 嘘 （他 ）自己。 Tā zongshi chuĩxũ (tā) zìjĩ. He always brags about himself. [ 6 ] 他 经 常 高 估 （他 ）自己。 Tā j'īngchang gāo gū (tā) zijī. He often over-estimates himself.

2.3.2 Reflexive pronoun as the subject In Chinese ，自己 may also be placed after the subject for the purpose of emphasis; it serves as an appositive to the subject. In such a case, the reflective pronoun 自己 functions as an intensive pronoun. [7 ] 我自己做晚饭。 Wo zìjĩ zuò wanfan. I myself cook the dinner. [8 ] 他自己都糊涂了。 Tã zĩjĩ dõu hútu le. He himself is confused. You may insert certain adverbs between the personal pronoun and 自 己 • In such sentences，自己 still functions as an appositive to the subject. [9] _ 常 常 自 己 修 车 。 Tỗ chángcháng zìjĩ xiū chẽ. He often fixes the car himself. [1 0 ]我 总 是 自 己 刷 房 。 Wo zongshi zìjĩ shuā fáng. I always paint the house myself. Notice that 自己， by itself, can serve as the subject of a sentence. You may say “ 自己骗自己’’ （one deceives oneself). In addition , 自己 can be used attributively with 的 ， such as 我自己 的 车 （my own car) and 自己的家（ one’s own home).

三4 Interrogative pronouns (疑问代词) Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions that require a specific answer, not ayes or no answer. They include fr 1} ' (how many), and 几 （how m any), 哪 （ w hich), 哪 里 （ where)，谁 （ w ho), 什 么 （ what)，怎

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么（ how), and z怎 样 （ how). Some interrogative pronouns function as both pronouns and determiners. See the chapter on interrogative sentences. For other use of some of these pronouns, see the chapter on emphatic constructions.

c 多 少 ） 多 少 （ how many) is used to ask about the quantity of something, and the number can be big or small•多少 is both a pronoun and a determiner. As a determiner, it often takes a measure word to introduce a noun, but the use of a measure word is optional. [ 1 ] 吃 要 多 少 ，我 有 多 , 。 NT yào duõshâo, wõ yõu duõshâo. I have whatever amount you want. [2 ] 这个剧丨手能、坐 € 少 （个 ）人 ？ Zhè ge júyuán néng zuò duõshâo (ge) rén? How many people can this theater seat? ( 几 ）几 (several) is a numeral; it can function as a determiner to ask about the amount of something, usually referring to a number smaller than ten. It can refer to several tens (几十)， several hundreds (几百）or several thousands (几千)•几 needs a measure word to introduce a noun. [3 ] 今 年 / 尔申请 _了+ 个 学 校 ？ Jīnnian nĩ shẽnqĩng le jĩ ge xuéxiào? How many schools have you applied to this year? [4 ] 今 天 我 有 几 件 事 儿 要 做 。 Jīntiān wo you jT jiàn shir yào ZUÓ. There are several things I need to do today. The sentence [4] is a statement, in which JL functions as a determiner instead of an interrogative pronoun. ( 哪 ) 哪 (which) is mostly used as a determiner, and it needs a measure word, such as 哪 本 书 （which book) and 哪 辆 车 （which car). 哪 is also a pronoun and can serve as a subject. [5 ] 你喜欢哪家饭馆？ NT xĩhuan nq jiā fánguan? Which restaurant do you like? [ 6 ] 哪7个 电 影 你 认 为 应 该 获 奖 ？ Nâ ge diànyĩng nī rénwéi yĩnggâỉ huò jiang? Which movie do you think should win the award?

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 7 ] 我 说 不 清 哪 是 我 的 ，哪 是 他 的 。

wõ shuõ bù qĩng nâ shì wõ de, nâ shì tã de. I cannot tell which is mine and which is his. 〔哪 里 ）哪里 and 哪 儿 （ where) both refer to locations， and 哪儿 is used in spoken language. They may serve as the subject, the object, and the prepositional object. [ 8 ] 哪 里 有 压 迫 ，哪 里 就 有 反 抗 。

Nâlĩ yõu yãpò, nâlĩ jiù yõu fankáng. Where there is oppression, there is resistance. [ 9 ] 你去哪彳L , 冬 去 哪 V 儿。

Nĩ qù nâr, wõ qù nâr. I go where you go. [ 1 0 ] 你 从 哪 儿 来 ？我 不 认 识 你 。

Nĩ cóng nâr lái? wõ bú rènshi nĩ. Where are you from? I don’t know you. Cife ) 谁 (who)， unlike and in English， does not have cases (no difference between and •谁 can take 的 to denote the possessive, such as 谁的目艮镜（whose glasses). [1 1 ] 穿蓝衣服的人是谁？

Chuỗn lán yīfu de rén shì shéi? Who is the person in blue? [1 2 ] 这是谁的主意？

Zhè shì shéi de zhúyi? Whose idea is this? [ 1 3 ] 谁 先 来 ，谁 先 吃 。 Shéi xiõn lái, shéi xiãn chĩ. Whoever comes first will eat first. c 什 么 ）什 么 （ what) has both pronoun and determiner functions. As a determiner, it introduces a noun without a measure word, such as “ 什么时 候 ’’ (when) and “ 什么地方 ’’ (what place). [1 4 ] 你想吃什么？ Nĩ xiâng chĩ shénme? What do you want to eat?

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[1 5 ] 你 什 么 时 候 来 我 家 ？ Nĩ shénme shíhou lái wõ jiā? When will you come to my home? ( 怎 么 ）怎 么 （ how) has both determiner and pronoun functions. As a determiner, it often precedes ã verb or ân adjective and asks or vvẠy. As a pronoun, it usually serves as the predicate followed by the aspect particle 了 .

[1 6 ] 你 怎 么 知 道 课 取 消 了 ？ NĨ zěnme zhīdao kè qúxiăo le? How do you know the class is cancelled? [1 7 ] 你 怎 么 来 得 这 么 晚 ？ NT zěnme lái de zhéme wan? Why do you come so late? [1 8 ] 你怎么了？ 你 脸 色 很 白 Q NĨ zěnme le? NT liânsè hen bái. Are you all right? You look pale. ( 怎 样 ）怎 样 （ how) and 怎 么 样 （ how) are used to ask about the way of doing things; in this sense, they are synonyms of 怎、 么.

[1 9 ] 你 是 怎 样 说 服 他 的 ？ Nĩ shì zěnyáng shuofú tā de? How did you persuade him? [2 0 ] 别 忘 了 他 是 怎 样 报 复 你 的 。 Bié wàng le tā shì zěnyáng baofu nĩ de. D oni forget how he got back at you. 怎 样 and 怎么样 are also used to ask about the condition of something or one’s feeling about something, whereas 怎■么 cannot. You can say “她 身 体 怎 么 样 ？” （How is her health?), but not “她 身 体 怎 么 ？ ”

[21] ， 近 年 情绪怎样？ Tā jinlái qíngxù zěnyáng? How is his mood recently? [2 2 ] 你 觉 得 这 个 电 影 怎 么 样 ？ NĨ juéde zhè ge diànyĩng zěnmeyáng? How do you feel about this movie?

Parts of Speech 词类

2.5 Demonstrative pronouns (指示代词) In Chinese, there are four primary demonstrative pronouns (这 ，男p ， 这 些 ，and 那些 ) . They, like their English counterparts (this，that, these, and those), can all function as both pronouns and determiners. In addition, there arc some other demonstrative pronouns: 这 里 (here), 里 ithcrc),这 么（ such), 那 么 （ such), 这 会 儿 （this moment), and 那 会 儿 （that moment). 〔这 ) 这 （ this) is the antonym of 那 （ that). One refers to what is close; the other, what is far. They function as both pronouns and determiners and refer to the singular. As determiners，这 and 男p need measure words: 这 个 人 （this person) or 那 只 狗 （that dog).

m

ỊỊ是谁干的? Zhè shì shéi gàn de? Who did this?

[2 ] 这个主意不错Q Zhè ge zhuyi bú cuò. This idea is good. 这些（ these) and 那 些 （ those) function in the same way as 这 and 那 ， except that they express the plural. Serving as determiners, they do not require measure words.

[3 ] 这 ^ 果翏气意 v思 。 Zhéxiě kè méiyõu yìsi. These classes are not interesting. [4 ] 那些都是老生常谈。 Nàxiẽ dõu shì lâo shẽng cháng tán. Those are all cliches. c 这 会 儿 ) 这 会 (this moment) refers to the time of speaking. It can refer to a future time or past time if qualified by a temporal noun, such as 明 天 这 会 儿 （this time tomorrow)•那会儿 （that moment) usually refers to a point of time in the past. [5 ] 这会儿是最困难的时候。 Zhehuir shì zuì kùnnan de shíhou. This is the most difficult time. [6 ] 那会儿我们还是小学生。 Nà huìr women hái shì xiâoxuésheng. We were still elementary school students at that time.

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( 这里) 这里（ here) and 这 儿 （ here) both refer to the location where the speaker is (the latter is used in spoken language).男p里 （ there) and 那 J i (there) refer to the location that is away from the speaker. They all need 的 when used as determiners. [7 ] 这儿是我出生的地方。 Zhèr shì wõ chūshēng de difang. This is my birthplace. [8 ] 那儿的西瓜又大又甜。 Nàr de )ãgua yòu dà yòu tián. The watermelon produced there is both big and sweet. ( 这 么 ）这 么 （ so, such) and 那 么 （ so, such) can intensify an adjective or describe the manner of an action. They are also used to express one* s emotions and feelings. See the chapter on exclamatory sentences. [9 ] 他为什么对你这么好？ Tā wéishénme dui nĩ zhéme hâo? Why is he so nice to you? [10] $ 九 十 了 ，身 年 还 那 么 棒 。 Tā jiushí le, shẽntĩ hâi name bàng. She is ninety years old and is still in such excellent health. [1 1 ] 你 这 么 做 会 伤 害 别 人 。 NĨ zhéme zuò hui shanghai biérén. The way you act will hurt others. [1 2 ] 他 为 什 么 那 么 不 讲 理 ？ Tồ wéishénme name bù jiang lĩ? Why is he so unreasonable? (这 样 ) 这 样 （ such) and 那 样 （ such) both have determ iner and pronoun functions. As determiners， they need 的 to introduce a noun; they can also precede a verb to show the manner of an action.

[1 3 ] 这 样 的 事 情 以 后 不 会 再 发 生 了 。 Zhéyáng de shìqing yĩhòu bú huì zài fāshēng le. Things like this will not happen again. [1 4 ] 你 们 这 样 做 无 助 于 解 决 问 题 。 Nĩmen zhéyáng zuó wúzhú yú jiějué wéntí. The way you acted will not help solve the problem.

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 1 5 ] 如 果 这 样 下 去 ，你 迟 早 会 有 麻 烦 。 Rúguõ zhéyáng xià qù, nĩ chízao huì yõu máfan. If it goes on like this, sooner or later you will be in trouble.

2.6 Indefinite pronouns (不定代词) In English, indefinite pronouns make up the largest group of all pronouns. They may refer to any unspecified persons or things (e.g. anyone or anything) or quantity (e.g. any, some, all, and none). In Chinese, we may loosely group a num ber of pronouns and determiners within the category of indefinite pronouns. They include 别人 (others)，别 的 （ others), 大 家 (everyone),各 (each),每 (every), 某 (certain), 任 何 (any)，人 家 (others),有 的 （ some), and 有 些 （ some). ( 别 的 ）别 的 （ others) is often used as a determiner to refer to other things: 别 的 公 司 （other companies),别 的 经 理 （other managers), and 另 丨 J的 问 题 （other questions) • It can also be used as a pronoun.

[1 ] 你有没有 别 的 担 心 ？ Nĩ yõu méiyõu bié de dỗnxĩn? Do you have any other concerns? [ 2 ] 别/的我叶么， 不 想 $ 。、 Bié de wõ shénme dõu bù xiâng mâi. I do not want to buy any other things. ( 另 丨 j 人 ) 另!]人 （ others) refers to other people; it can be someone specific or anyone in general. It is often used to draw a contrast between oneself and others. [3 ] 我不管别人怎么说。 Wo bùguân biérén zěnme shuõ. I do not care what others say. [ 4 ] 别 ^ 行 ，你 为 什 么 不 行 ？ Biérén xíng, nĩ wéishénme bù xíng? Others can do it， why can’t you? Notice that 人家 and 旁人 are synonyms for 别 人 ， but 人家 may also be used to refer to oneself. c 大 家 ）大 家 （ all, everybody) refers to every one in a group; it can be used to address all the members of the group, such as 大 家 好 （ hello, everyone)•我们大家 （all of us) includes the speaker and the listeners•大伙

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is the synonym of 大 家 ，but it is colloquial. [5 ] 请大家回到座位上去。 Qĩng dajiā huí dào zuòwèi shàng qu. Everyone please return to your seats. [6 ] 大 夸 都 要 冬 取 消 考 g 。 Dajiā dõu yãoqiú qũxião kâoshì. Everybody demands to cancel the exam. 各 （ each), a determiner, refers to each individual in a group. 各 introduces a place or an organization: 各 国 （each country)，各 州 （each state), 各 县 （each county)，各 地 （each place)，各 校 （each school)， and 各 系 （each department). If the noun is dissyllabic，各 needs a measure word: 各 次 航 班 （each flight), 各 期 杂 志 （each issue of the magazine),各位老师 (each teacher), and 各 种 建 议 （each kind of suggestion).

[7 ] 各州都有自己的州花。 Gè zhõu dõu yõu ZÌ]T de zhouhuā. Each state has its own state flower. [8 ] 各校都有自己的篮球队。 Gè xiào dõu yõu zìjĩ de lánqiú duì. Each school has its own basketball team. C W ) 每 (every), a determiner, refers to every member in a group. ■ặr precedes a numeral and a measure word, but the numeral is often dropped if it is o n e : 每 （一 ）个 学 生 （every student) and 每 （一 ）个祝愿 (every wish). The measure word can also be dropped if the noun does not require a measure w ord: 每 天 (every day) and 每 年 (every year). Since 每 emphasizes everyone, it collocates with 都 . [ 9 ] 每 个 人 都 要 修 二 门 英 语 课 /。 Měi ge rén dõu yào xiĩì yì mén yĩngyú kè. Everyone must take an English class. [1 0 ]他 每 两 个 星 期 都 去 一 次 必 胜 客 。 Tā měi liâng ge xĩngqĩ dõu qù yí cì Bìshèngkè. He goes to Pizza Hut once every other week. Notice that 每 and 各 are close in meaning, such as 每 家 （every family) and 各 家 (each family). But they differ in point of emphasis: 每 includes every one while 各 emphasizes each individual.

Parts o f Speech 词类

( 某（ certain) is a determiner， referring to an unidentified member in a group. It may go with or without a measure w o rd :某 人 （certain person),某 事 （certain thing )，某家工厂（certain factory), and 某项政策 (certain policy)•某些 refers to the plural and does not need the measure w ord:某些报纸（certain newspapers)，某些国家（certain countries)，某些 食 品 （certain foods)， and 某些语言（certain languages). [1 1 ] 某人f 给他一千美元。

Mõu rén ji gěi tỗ yì qiãn měiyuán. Someone sent him a thousand dollars. [1 2 ] 某些人的话你不能信。

Mỗu xiẽ rén de huà nĩ bù néng xìn. Some peopled words you cannot trust. ( 任 何 ）任 何 （ any) is ã determiner that refers to anyone or anything. It does not require a measure word and collocates with 都 or 也 . [1 3 ] ， 何问题都可以提。

Rènhé wéntí dõu kẽyĩ tí. Any questions can be raised. [1 4 ] 任何人也不能缺席。

Rènhé rén yě bù néng quẽ xí. No one is allowed to be absent. (T有 些 ）有 些 （ some) and 有 的 （ some) refer to a small number of people or things. They both have determiner and pronoun functions. [ 1 5 ] 有 些 问题已经解决了。

Yỗuxiẽ wéntí yĩjĩng jiějué le. Some problems are already solved. [ 1 6 ] 我 有 很 多 书 ，有 些 我 不 需 要 。

Wo you hen duõ shū, yõuxiẽ wõ bù xũyào. I have many books; I do not need some of them. Notice that can also be used as an adverb, meaning somewhat, such as 我 有 些 不 舒 服 （ I feel somewhat uncomfortable).

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V erbs 动 词

“The threshold of language,” says Michel Foucault， “lies at the point where the verb first appears. Of all parts of speech, verbs may well be the most important word class in all languages. Nouns are the names of things, but for a language to function, you need verbs to represent actions and to move the meaning of sentences. You may use verbs to indicate dynamic actions or a state of being, or to show the transfer of energy from the subject to the object. To write effectively in any language, you must be able to use verbs well. English verbs, for many Chinese, are a headache because of conjugation— the change of forms to indicate person, number, tense, voice， and mood. As you move from English to Chinese, ỵou may be glad to see that Chinese verbs have no conjugation; they have just one base form. You do not need to change verb forms or memorize those irregular verb forms. You will never make errors about subject-verb agreement. What a simplification! Indeed, the absence of conjugation is by far one of the biggest differences between Chinese and English. The absence of conjugation has a profound impact on the grammatical role of Chinese verbs. English has verbals— gerunds, participles, and infinitives. These verbals, derived from verbs, can function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. But, in Chinese, verbs in their only base form play a variety of roles. In addition to serving as predicates, they can serve as subjects and objects; some can serve as complements and attributives (verb + 的)• Here， for example， is a well-known line from Alexander Pope:

， 错 ;^人 性 i 宽恕是寸性、 。 Fan cuò shì rénxìng, kuãnshù shì shénxìng. To err is human; to forgive is divine. Notice that, in English, we have to use the infinitive to err and to forgive as subjects. But， in C hinese, 方巳错（make mistake) is a verb p hrase; 宽恕 (forgive) is a verb. They both can directly serve as the subject. Chinese verbs can be classified into transitive, intransitive, dynamic, stative, and separable verbs. Many verbs take nouns as objects; a few only take verbs as objects. Chinese verbs can be postmodified by the complement, which differs from English. Verb reduplication is extensively used in Chinese. In studying verbs, pay attention to their relations with prepositions. They often collaborate with each other to indicate where the action is directed.

Parts of Speech 词类

Verbs represent actions. Now let US visit Chinese verbs and get into action. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Transitive and intransitive verbs Dynamic and stative verbs Separable verbs Verb reduplications

3.1 Transitive and intransitive verbs (及物动词与不及物动词) Verbs can be classified into transitive and intransitive verbs. The difference between the two is that one takes an object and the other does not. I raised a question. 我提了一i 问 题。 Wo tí le yí ge wéntí. The sun rises at seven o’clock. 太阳七点升起。

Tàiyang qĩ diân shēng qĩ. Raise is a transitive verb because raise necessarily involves raising something; it requires an object. Rise is an intransitive verb, for the action rise is not directed toward an object c at seven o^lock99is an adverbial, not an object). Chinese verbs can also be divided into transitive and intransitive verbs. You may tell a verb5s identity by asking what or whom about it. For exam ple, 喝 （ drink) and 打 （ beat) are transitive verbs, and you can ask drink what or beat whom. But you cannot ask the same question about 业（ graduate) or 退 休 （ retire); they are not directed toward an object.

3.1.1 Transitive verbs Transitive verbs take objects; however, they may take different kinds of objects. Some English verbs take only nouns or gerunds as objects (e.g. avoid something or avoid doing something, but not avoid to do something). Some take only infinitives as objects (e.g. agree to do something, but not agree doing something). Some can take nouns, gerunds, or infinitives as objects. In Chinese, transitive verbs also respond differently to objects. First, a large number of Chinese transitive verbs take only nouns as

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objects; they are similar to some English verbs (e.g. avoid, contemplate, dislike, enjoy, and evade) that take only nouns and gerunds as objects. [ 1 ] 你需要下载一个软件。

Nĩ xũyào xiázái yí ge ruanjián. You need to download a piece of software. [ 2 ] 他们说你违反了合同。

Tỗmen shuõ nĩ wéifan le hétong. They say you violated the contract. [ 3 ] 他总是吃香的喝辣的。

Tā zongshi chī xiãng de hẽ là de. He always gets the best of everything. [4 ] 我们每天刷盘子洗碗。

Women mẽitiỗn shuā pánzi xĩ wan. Every day we wash dishes. Here are some verbs that take only nouns as objects: 安慰（ comfort) 吃 (eat) 丢 （ lose) 改 善 (ameliorate) 开 (drive) 卖 (sell) 刷 （ brush) 威胁（ threaten) 余 理 (repair) 找 （ search)

保护（ protect) 打 （ bekt) 读 （ read) 关 (close) 骂 （ curse) 欺骗（ deceive) 调 整 (adjust) 违 反 (violate) 下载（ download)

报 复 (retaliate) 打 扫 (clean up) 罚 （ punish)

^ (drink) 买（ buy) 取消（ cancel) 推 荐 (recommend) 洗 (wash) 写（ write)

Second, a fairly large number of Chinese transitive verbs can take either nouns or verbs as objects. They are like some English verbs such as like and love that take either nouns or infinitives as objects. For example, you may say, “I like basketball” or “I like to play basketball.” In the following examples, the same verb is first followed by a noun and then by a verb as the objects. [ 5 ] 你要： 避 免 ;ỹ 突，要 避 免 伤 害 别 人 。 Nĩ yào bìmiân chõngtũ, yào bìmiân Shanghai biérén.

You should avoid conflict and avoid hurting other people.

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 6 ] 我 表 示 了 我 的 看 法 ，他 表 示 同 意 。

wõ biãoshì le wõ de kanfa, tā biâoshì tóngyì. I expressed my view; he expressed his consent. [7 ] $ 没 ỷ 巨 彳 色 要 求 ：但 拒 绝 见 我 。.

Tā méi jCijué wỗ de yỗoqiú, dàn jújué jiàn wõ. He refused to see me, but did not refuse my request. [ 8 ] 我准备 了 一 些 材 料 ，他 准 备 发 言 。

Wo zhunbéi le yìxiẽ cáiliào, tā zhunbéi fā yán. I have prepared some materials; he is prepared to make a speech. The following are some verbs that take either nouns or verbs as objects: 爱（ love) 保证（ guarantee) 害怕（ fear) 思 考 (contemplate) 同 季 (agree) 研究（ study) 准备（ prepare)

摆 脱 （get rid of) 避 免 (avoid) 拒 绝 (reject) 听 (listen) 通 知 (notify) 引 起 (cause)

帮助（ help) 表示（ express) 看 （ watch) 停止（ stop)

(like) 知道（ know)

Third, a very small number of transitive verbs take only verbs as objects. They resemble some English verbs called process verbs (e.g. begin, cease, continune, and start) that only take infinitives as objects. These verbs in c lu d e : 打 算 （ p la n ) , 开 始 （ b e g in ) , 禁 止 （ forbid ) , 继续 (continue),进 行 (carry on), 企 图 （ attempt), etc. [ 9 ] 他们打算搬到加州去。

Tāmen dâsuàn bān dào Jiāzhāu qù. They plan to move to California. [1 0 ] 我下学期继续学中文。

Wõ xià xuéqĩ jìxù xué zhongwén. I will continue to study Chinese next semester. Fourth, some verbs typically take clausal objects to express personal views and feelings. They include: 断 定 （ conclude)，建 议 （ suggest),觉得 (feel),期 望 (expect),认 为 （ think), 希 望 （ hope), 主 张 (advocate), etc. [1 1 ] 我认为你们俩都不对。

Wo renwéi nĩmen liâ dõu bú duì. I think both of you are wrong.

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[1 2 ]我 觉 得 他 说 的 有 道 理 。 Wo juéde tā shuõ de yõu dàoli. I think there is a point in what he said. Finally, many transitive verbs can go without an object— that is, they can be used alone (out of a sentence) in response to a question. For example: Q :你喜欢历史课吗？ Nĩ xĩhuan lìshĩ kè ma? Do you like the history class? A :喜 欢 Q xĩhuan. Yes, I do. But some transitive verbs must go with an object, and they cannot stand alone in response to questions. These verbs include: 成 为 （ become), 当 作 （take for), 等 于 （amount to ), 给 以 （grant to ), 好 比 （be compared to)， 具有（ possess)，免 得 (avoid),属 于 （belong to)，限 于 (to be restricted to)，作 为 （in the capacity of) ，etc. Q :你们成为朋友了吗？ NTmen chéngwéi péngyou le ma? Have you become friends? A :我们成为朋友了。 Women chéngwéi péngyou le. Yes, we have become friends. In response to the question “Have you become friends?” you need to give a full answer; 成为 cannot stand alone as a reply.

3.1.2 Ditransitive verbs Ditransitive verbs take two objects: one is the direct object (直接宾语 ) and the other is the indirect object ( 间接宾 Í吾). Some Chinese ditransitive verbs are very similar to their English counterparts in terms of usage and word order. Here are ạome ditransitive verbs: 罚 （ punish), 告 诉 （ tell)，给 (give)，还 （ return), 教 (teach),借 （borrow or lend)，拿 （ take), 欠 （ ow n), 赔 (compensate)，输 （ lose)，送 (send)， and 问 （ ask).

Parts o f Speech 词类

[1 3 ] 他告诉我一个好消息。 Tã gàosu wõ yí ge hâo xiãoxi. He tells me a piece of good news. [14 ]

我朋友欠我一百块钱。 wõ péngyou qiàn wỗ yì bãi kuài qián. My friend owes me a hundred dollars.

[1 5 ] 王教授教我们心理学。 wáng jiáoshóu jiāo women xĩnlĩxué. Professor Wang teaches us psychology. [ 1 6 ] 她要 \送 _ 们 一 份 礼物义 Tā yào sòng women yí fèn lĩwù. She wants to give US a gift. Notice that between direct and indirect objects, the one that is closer to the verb is the indirect object and the other is direct object. In other words, somebody is the indirect object, and something is the direct object.

3.1.3 Intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs do not take objects; they indicate actions that are not directed towards someone or something and that do not involve a receiver. For example, in “I caught a fish” （ 我钓到一条鱼)，the 知 A is the receiver of the verb cíưc/2. But in “I walk” (我走) and “you run” (你 跑 )， walk and run are not directed towards anyone or anything. [1 7 ] 我少年乎业。 Wo jīnnian bì yè. I will graduate this year. [ 1 8 ] 他^明 年 退 休 。 Tã míngnián tuì xiū. He will retire next year. [1 9 ] 老鹰飞得很快。 Lâoyĩng fēi de hen kuài. The eagle flies fast. [2 0 ] 树 叶 在 风 中 飘 Q Shùyè zài fēng zhong piāo. The leaves are floating in the air.

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The number of Chinese intransitive verbs is considerably fewer than that of transitive verbs. Here are some commonly used intransitive verbs: 飞（ fly) 跑 (run) 漂 （float in the water) 站 （ stand) 毕业（ graduate) 道 歉 (apologize) 咳嗽（ cough) 破裂（ break) 散 步 （take a walk) 洗 澡 (take a bath) 游行（ parade)

爬 (crawl) 飘 （float in the air) 躺 (lie) 走 òvalk) 出 发 (depart) 考 试 （take exam) 交 涉 (negotiate) 挑 战 (challenge) 退 休 (retire) 休 息 (rest)

Some English intransitive verbs occur with prepositional phrases. In “He contributes to the school,” for exam ple， you may view the prepositional phrase to the school as an adverbial that modifies the verb, or view contribute to as a prepositional verb, and the school as the object. Similarly, some Chinese intransitive verbs collocate with prepositional phrases, particularly those introduced by 向 （ toward) ，多艮（ with), and (for), which indicate to whom or with whom the action happens. But Chinese prepositional phrases are normally located before the intransitive verbs. [2 1 ] 她 向 上 帝 祈 祷 。 Tỗ xiàng Shàngdì qídâo. She prays to God. [2 2 ] 我 跟 他 们 合 作 。 wõ gẽn tỗmen hézuó. I cooperate with them. [23] $ 为 国 家 士 -作 Ọ Tā wéi guójia gongzuó. He works for the country. An intransitive verb in English is not necessarily translated into an intransitive verb in Chinese or vice versa. Compare the following sentences: [2 4 ] 他 不 评 论 这 件 事 。 Tā bù pínglùn zhè jiàn shì. He does not comment on this matter.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 2 5 ] 我不于烤你的f 。

wõ bù gỗnshè nĩ de shì. I do not interfere with your business. In [24] and [25]，评 论 and 干涉 are transitive verbs in Chinese, but comment and interfere are not transitive verbs in English, and they are followed by prepositional phrases. [2 6 ] 他 们 为 顾 客 服 务 。 Tāmen wèi gùkè fúwù. They serve customers. [2 7 ] 他 跟 妻 子 离 婚 了 。 Tā gēn qĩzi IÍ hūn le. He divorced his wife. In [26] and [27],服 务 and 离婚 are intransitive verbs in Chinese， but serve and divorce are transitive verbs in English. You need to be sensitive to these differences. Intransitive verbs cannot take objects, but some Chinese intransitive verbs take what appears to be an object, and some people call it quasi­ object. [ 2 8 ] 天_上 飘 着 朵 朵 白 云 。 Tiỗn shàng pião zhe duõ duõ bái yun. Flower-like white clouds float in the sky. [2 9 ] 海 边 坐 着 一 对 情 侣 Q Hâi biān zuò zhe yí dui qínglu. A couple of lovers sit by the ocean side. In English [28] and [29], white clouds and a couple o f lovers respectively serve as the subject, and flo a t and sit are intransitive verbs. But, in Chinese P8] and P 9 ],天上 and 海边 are viewed as the subject of each sentence, and 白云 and —对 情 侣 make part of the predicate of each sentence. See the chapter on existential sentences.

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3.2 Dynamic and stative verbs (动态动词与静态动词)

Verbs can also be classified into dynamic verbs and stative verbs. Dynamic verbs, as the name suggests, are those that are engaged in dynamic actions, such as /"eai/，vvrzYe, vva/Ấ:， and Stative verbs express a state or a condition, such as emotions, feelings,

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perceptions, and beliefs. Stative verbs include believe, doubt, know, love, and sound, etc. Chinese verbs can also be divided into dynamic verbs and stative verbs. Here are some dynamic verbs: 搬 （ carry) 拉 (pull) 在兆（ jump) 走 (; a l i ) 利用（ utilize) 限制（ restrict)

吹 （ blow) 跑 (run) 推 (push) 改善（ improve) 搜秦丨collect)

飞 (fly) 逃 (escape) 吻 （ kiss) 观 察 (observe) 威 胁 (threaten)

Chinese stative verbs normally convey ã mental state, such as emotions, feelings, perceptions, and cognitions. Here are some of them: 爱（ love) 想 （ miss)

(fear) 嫉妒（ envy) 盼 望 （look forward to) 歧 视 (discriminate) 讨厌（ loathe) 相 信 (believe) 知道（ know)

恨 （ hate) 感 觉 (feel) 后愒：（ regret) 理 解 (understand) 佩 服 (admire) 轻 视 (despise) 喜 欢 (likề) 尊 敬 (respect)

Why is it necessary, you might ask, to know the distinction between dynamic and stative verbs? The answer is that there is a difference in their usage in relation to time. In English, for example, dynamic verbs can be used for the progressive aspect, but stative verbs usually cannot. Correct:

He is reading a newspaper. 他正在看Ẫ 纸。

Tã zhengzái kàn baozhī. Incorrect: I am loving him. _正 夺 爱 他 ？

Wo zhéngzái ài tā. You say, “I love him” instead of “I am loving him” because denotes a state of mind. Love, to be sure, is also an action, but it is the kind of action that moves on in a durative manner. You cannot add an -ing to a verb that already indicates an on-going process.

Parts of Speech 词类

In Chinese, it is also the dynamic verbs that can be used with the progressive aspect particle Ậ. that indicates a dynamic action, similar to the progressive aspect in English. Stative verbs, in general, cannot work with the adverb 正 在 • You need to take off 正在 in the following sentences. In co rrect: 我 正 在 知 道 这 个 故 事 。 Wo zhéngzái zhīdao zhè ge gùshi. I am knowing this story. In co rrect: 我 正 在 相 信 他 说 的 话 。 Wo zhéngzái xiỗngxìn tã shuõ de huà. I am believing what he said. Dynamic verbs are free to take the aspect particles 了 and 过 that indicate actions completed either in the past or at the time of speaking. Stative verbs, as â group, are not homogenous; most of them can take i i to indicate something that once happened but is no longer the case at present. [ 1 ] 我 佩 服 过 他 ，也 嫉 妒 过 他 。 Wo péifú guo tā, yě jídù guo tā. I once admired him and envied him. [2 ] 我喜欢过摄影艺术Q wõ xĩhuan guo shèyĩng yìshù. I once liked photography. Stative verbs usually do not work with the perfective 了， but they can take the transformative 了， which is placed at the end of a sentenccto indicate a changed situation at the time of speaking. [ 3 ] 他 害 怕 了 ，后悔了 Tỗ hàipà le, hòuhuĩ le. He starts to fear and regret. [4 ] 我相信你的话了。 wõ xiỡngxìn nĩ de huà le. I now believe what you said. For the usage of the perfective 了 and the transformative 了， see the chapters on the perfective aspect and the transformative aspect.

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3.3 Separable verbs (离合动词) Many verbs take a variety of nouns as objects. For example，洗 (wash) can go with 洗 脸 （wash face),洗 脚 （wash feet),洗 手 （wash hands)，洗头 (wash hair), etc. Between the verb and its object, you can insert certain elements, such as a measure w o r d : 洗一会^1*脚（wash feet for a while). But certain verbs and their objects， such as 洗 澡 （ bathe), are often used together that they have become disyllabic verbs. For this type of disyllabic verbs, you can still insert certain elements between the two composing characters; we cd l them 离合动词（separable verb). It is im portant to recognize separable verbs from the rest of disyllabic verbs, for disyllabic verbs in general are not separable. For example， you cannot insert anything between the two characters of 同意 (consent) or 喜 欢 (like). In addition, separable verbs cannot take an object because its composition already involves a verb-object relationship. The two characters of separable verbs all involve a verb-object relationship, but the exact nature of that relationship may vary. For example,考 试 （ test) is a separable verb and cannot take an object. But the word 考 itself also means to test, and it can take an object， such as 考算 术 （take a math test). In the case of 跳 舞 （ dance),跳 itself means to jump ， and # is a noun, meaning dance. The two characters together make up the verb dance, , used alone, cannot convey the idea of dancing. [ 1 ] 你是在生我的气吗？

Nĩ shì zài shẽng wõ de qì ma? Are you mad at me? [2] 啤今天倒了邪霉了。

Tā jīntiān dâo le xié méi le. He had rough luck today. [ 3 ] 你 真 ，我_们大忙了。

Nĩ zhēn bỗng women dà máng le. You really gave me a lot of help. [4 ] $ 撒_了个 弥 天 大 谎 。

Tā sā le ge mí tiān dà huâng. He told a monstrous lie. Not all disyllabic verbs that involve verb-object relationship are separable verbs, but the number of separable verbs is quite large. Here are some of them:

Parts o f Speech 词类

安 心 （be at ease) 帮忙（ help) 唱 歌 (sing) 吹 牛 (bral) 倒 霉 （be unlucky) 结 婚 （get married) 闹 事 (make trouble)

报仇（ revenge) 操心（ worry) 出 事 （have an accident) 打 ả ifight) 丢 人 （be disgraced) 鞠躬（ bow)

i A , (get angry) 提 醒 (remind)

睡觉（ sleep) 游泳（ swim)

M

(tell a lie)

Notice that separable verbs vary in the ways they can be separated and the extent to which they can be separated; some can be more freely separated than others. In this case, usage is largely idiomatic. For example: Correct:

他道了几次歉。

Tā dào le jĩ cì qiàn. He apologized several times. A w kw ard: 他 道 了 几 次 谢 。 Tã dào le jĩ cì xiè. He expressed thanks several times. A w kw ard: 他 道 了 几 次 喜 。 Tā dao le ji Cl XI. He expressed congratulations several times. 道 歉 ，道 谢 ， and 道 喜 are all separable verbs. One may say 道了几次歉 , but many people would find it awkward to say 道了几次谢 and 道了几次喜 . However， one may say 道 什 么 谢 (no need to thank) and 道 什 么 喜 (nothing to congratulate about). The usage of separable verbs is highly idiomatic. You will need to memorize them individually.

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3.4 Verb reduplications (动词重叠)

Reduplication can be found in many languages. In English, for example, there are ablaut reduplication (e.g. see-saw, tip-top, wishywashy)^ exact reduplication (e.g. knock-knock, pee-pee, pooh-pooh), and rhyming reduplication (e.g. okey-dokey, walkie-talkie, willy-nilly). Reduplication is informal and mostly used in spoken language. Many Chinese verbs that indicate dynamic actions can be used in reduplication. The use of reduplication is primarily for three purposes:

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it has the effect of easing or relaxing the tone of a statement; it implies that the action to be taken will last just a short while; it indicates certain manners of movement. In Chinese, reduplication is also mostly used in spoken language, but it is used far more extensively than in English. 3.4.1 Reduplication of monosyllabic verbs: AA Quite a few monosyllabic verbs can be used in reduplication. For example: the reduplication of 说 （ talk) is i兑说， and the reduplication of 想 (think) is 想 想 • The repeated verb carries â neutral tone. The reduplication of monosyllabic verbs is frequently used to convey the idea of testing something or just doing something for a short moment. The verbs may or may not take an object. [1 ] 你猜猜。

NT cāicai. You guess. [ 2 ] 让我想想。

Ràng wo xiângxiang. Let me think for a second. [ 3 ] 你再听听。

Nĩ zai tīngting. You listen again. [ 4 ] 谁能帮帮他 _?

Shéi néng bāngbang tā? Who can give him a hand? The verbs used for reduplication are mostly dynamic verbs. There are quite a few of them: 猜（ guess) 尝 (taste) 画（ draw) 念 (read) 算（ count) ik (talk) 躺 （ lie down) 写（ write) 玩 （ play) 坐（ sit)

踩 (tramp) 穿（ wear) ầ (look) 拍 ipat) 刷 (trush) 挑 （ select) 听 (listen) 歇 (rest) 用 (use)

查（ check) 等 (wait) 聊 (chat) 跑 (run) 试 (try) 跳 (jump) 洗 (wash) 问（ ask) 走 /walk)

Parts of Speech 词类

For the reduplication of monosyllabic verbs, you may place the numeral — or the perfective 了 between the verb and its reduplicant, which indicates that something will last or lasted for a short time. [5 ] 请你等一等。 Oĩng nĩ děng yi děng. Please wait just a moment. [6 ] 你歇一歇。 Nĩ xiē yi xiē. You please take a break. [7 ] 他试了试。 Tā shì le shì. She gave a try. [8 ] 我问了问她。 wõ wèn le wèn tã I asked her. The reduplication of verbs is sometimes used to refer to something that is done casually as a matter of routine or as a way of killing time. [ 9 ] 我 每 天 $ 看 书 ，做 做 饭 ，没 别 的 事 儿 做 。 Wo měi tiỗn kànkan shū, ZU0ZUO fan, méi bié de shìr zuò. Every day I just do some reading and cooking, nothing else to do. [ 1 0 ] 每 ^ ^ 打_打 ，球 ，/ 泡 泡 妞 ，纯 粹 一 个 花 花 公 子 Q Měi tiỗn tā dada wángqiú, pàopao niũ, chúncuì yí ge huāhuā gongzī.

Every day he plays tennis and fools around with girls—a sheer playboy. The reduplication of verbs is usually used in declarative sentences, not in negation. It is not used to refer to something that did not occur. Correct:

每天我都遛遛狗。

Měi tiãn wõ dõu liùliu gõu. Every day I walk the dog. In c o rre c t: 今 天 我 没 去 遛 遛 狗 。 Jīntiān wo měi qù liùliu gõu. I did not walk the dog today.

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In the second sentence, the verb should not be reduplicated because the speaker did not walk the dog at all. 3.4.2

R eduplication o f disylla b ic verbs: A B A B

ABAB is the typical form of reduplication for disyllabic verbs. For example, the reduplication of the verb 研 究 （ study) is 研 究 研 究 • The reduplication of disyllabic verbs is also used to refer to the action that is done casually and quickly; it is the kind of action that you intend to do and can control, not something that happens to you. [1 1 ] 你 要 鼓 励 鼓 励 他 。

Nĩ yào guli guli tã. You need to encourage him. [1 2 ] < 们要庆、 祝庆祝。

Women yào qingzhú qingzhů. We want to have a celebration. [13 ]

我 明 天 考 试 ，我 令 晚 ^寻准备; 准 爷 。 Wỗ míngtiỗn kâoshì, wõ jĩn wân děi zhunbéi zhunbéi. I have a test tomorrow; I need to prepare tonight.

[ 1 4 ] 这 事 儿 我 定 不 了 ，我 们 得 商 量 商 量 。

Zhè shìr wò ding bù liâo, women děi shāngliang shāngliang. I cannot decide on this; we need to talk about it. In general, most dynamic verbs can be used in reduplication, but this is not a hard and fast rule, and there are exceptions. It is a matter of convention， and you have to remember them individually. Here are some disyllabic verbs often used for reduplication: 安排（ arrange) 打 扫 (clean up) 调查（ investigate) 鼓励（ encourage) 检 查 (check) 考虑（ consider) 庆 祝 (celebrate) 商 量 (discuss) 讨 论 (discuss) 提 醒 (remind)

表扬（ praise) 打 听 (make inquiry) 锻 炼 (exercise) 欢 迎 (welcome) 解 释 (explain) 考 验 (test) 认识（ recognize) 搜 集 (collect) 提高（ improve) 吓 喊 (scare)

Parts o f Speech 词类

修 理 (fix) 准备（ prepare)

休 息 （take a rest) 琢磨（ ruminate)

Reduplication is used to indicate the manner of doing things; it cannot be used to refer to the action that accidentally happens or that is beyond your control. In addition, stative verbs that indicate durative actions, such as believe, feel, know, and love, cannot be reduplicated. Take a look at these two sentences: In co rrect: 我 们 误 会 了 误 会 你 。 Women wúhui le wúhuT nĩ. We misunderstood you. In co rrect: 他 让 我 相 信 相 信 他 。 Tã ràng wõ xiỗngxìn xiãngxìn ta. He asks me to believe him. Notice that you cannot place the numeral — between a disyllabic verb and its reduplicant, but for some disyllabic verbs you may place the perfective 了 between the verb and its reduplicant. For example: [1 5 ] 他 打 听 了 打 听 Q Tā dating le dating. He made some inquiry. [1 6 ] 我 们 研 究 了 研 究 你 的 建 议 Q Women yánjiii le yánjiu ní de jiányi. We studied your suggestion. 3.4.3

O ther reduplications: A 着A 着 ， A 来 A 去，and A A B B

The reduplication of verbs cannot be used in the progressive aspect, but some monosyllabic verbs can be reduplicated with the aspect particle 着 in the form of A 着A 着 that indicates a durative action, it is iised to show that while something is going on, something else happens. It is mostly used in narrative. [17] $ 看 着 看 着 睡 着 了 。 Tā kán zhe kán zhe shui zháo le. While watching, she falls asleep. [18] $ 着 跑 着 他 摔 倒 了 。 Pâo zhe pâo zhe tã 5huãi dâo le. He ran and ran, then fell down.

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Another form of reduplication of verbs is A来A去 that describes a continuous action, either in circular or back and forth movement. [ 1 9 ] 他 算 来 算 去 ，最 后 还 是 算 错 了 。

Tā suàn lái suàn qù, zuìhòu háishì suàn cuò le. He counted over and over, but still ended up wrong. [ 2〇]草 原 上 ，

一 只老鹰飞来飞去。 Cãoyuán shang, yì zhī lâoyĩng fẽi lái fēi qù. On the grassland, an eagle flies around and around.

Only a limited number of verbs can be used this way, and they include: 看来看去（look back and forth) 说来说去（repeat over and over) 踢来踢去（pass the buck) 推来推去（push back and forth) 想来想去(think over and over) 转来转去（turn around and around) 走来走去(walk back and forth) Some verbs may be reduplicated in the form of AABB, which is used to describe constant actions. AABB is the typical form of the reduplication of adjectives. This type of reduplication is usually found in fixed expressions, and you cannot make them up freely. They include: 吃 喝 喝 （wine and dine),进进出出（walk in and out),哭哭啼啼（weep and wail)，来 来 往 往 (come and g o ),骂骂例例 （ foul-mouthed)，说说 笑 笑 (talk and laugh), etc. [ 2 1 ] ， 们 说 说 f 笑 _的 ：很 开 心 。

Tāmen shuõshuõ xiàoxiào de, hỗn kãixĩn. They talk and laugh, feeling so good. [ 2 2 ] 他 们 打 打 闹 闹 的 ，真 不 像 话 。

Tỗmen dâdâ nàonào de, zhēn bú xiànghuà. They behaved boisterously. Iťs outrageous! This AABB reduplication, when post-positioned by the structural particle 地， can be used adverbially to modify another verb. [2 3 ] $ 们 说 说 $ 笑地离开了教室。

Tāmen shuõshuõ xiàoxiào de líkãi le jiáoshi. Talking and laughing, they left the classroom.

Parts of Speech 词类

The AABB reduplication of verb is very similar to the reduplication of adjectives， such as 高 高 兴 兴 （joyful and happy) that， with the particle 地 ， may also be used adverbially.

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汉语语法指南

A u x ilia ry V erbs 助 动 词

Auxiliary verbs accompany the main verb in a sentence. In English, there are two kinds of auxiliary verbs. One is the primary auxiliary, which includes be, have, and do. The other is known as the modal auxiliary, which includes will, would, may, might, shall, should, can, could, must, need, ought, dare, and used to. Most of these auxiliaries can function as operators一 they may be placed before the subject to make an interrogative sentence, and some modal auxiliaries, such as need and dare, are also full verbs. Modal auxiliaries help to reflect the mood or tense of a sentence, and they precede a bare infinitive to express a variety of meanings, such as ability, certainty, doubt, prediction, necessity, obligation, permission, possibility, and volition. In Chinese， auxiliary verbs are called 助 动 词 . They do not function as operators; they express the mood of a sentence. Scholars differ on the grammatical properties of Chinese auxiliaries and on what words should be included in this category. In this chapter, we will focus on the usages of auxiliaries rather than on their grammatical properties. However, it is important to know that the auxiliary only assists the main verb to express the mood of a sentence; it does not take a noun as the direct object, nor does it occur with an aspect particle. For example: 你应该研究儒家思想。 Nĩ yĩnggõi yánjiũ rujiā sĩxiâng. You should study Confucianism. In this sentence，研 究 （ study) is the main verb that takes Confucianism as the object.应 该 （ should) is the auxiliary verb that precedes the main verb and contributes its meaning to it, suggesting what one ought to study. Auxiliary verbs do have some verbal properties. They can be used in the affirmative-negative form, such as 能不能；they can stand alone in responding to questions; but they cannot be reduplicated. In this chapter, we will examine the following auxiliaries: 得 （have to),敢 (dare)，会 （ be able to)，可 (may),可 以 （ may)，肯 (consent),能 （ can)， 想（ intend)，须 要 (must),要 (desire)，应 该 （ should), and 愿 意 （be willing). Among th em ,要 and 想 also function as full verbs. You may find some similarities between English and Chinese auxiliaries, but they do not match. Many of these auxiliaries have multiple meanings; some of them may be used interchangeably. Auxiliaries are used extensively in everyday speech and should be used with precision.

Parts of Speech 词类

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Ability and skills Permission and possibility Obligation and necessity Assumption and predication Intention and willingness

4.1 Ability and skills (能力与技能) In English, the auxiliary can is one of the most commonly used auxiliary verbs. Among its multiple meanings, it may express the idea that one knows how to do something and that one is able to do something. In Chinese, both ếb and ^ may be used to convey the idea of ability and skills.

4.1.1 Ability ( 会 ) 会 means that one has the knowledge or skill to do something. ^ and i t are interchangeable in many cases; however, refers to any kind of ability， but 会 usually refers to the ability, knowledge or skill that one has acquired through learning. [1 ] 我 朋 友 会 拉 提 琴 。 Wo péngyou huì lã tíqín. My friend can play the violin. [2 ] 谁说恐龙不会游泳？ Shéi shuõ kõnglóng bú huì yóuyõng? Who says dinosaurs cannot swim? [3 ] 她 会 让 你 神 魂 颠 倒 。 Tỗ huì ràng nĩ shénhún diãndâo. She is able to make you lose all your senses. g o 能 , like can in English, is one of the most frequently used auxiliary verbs in Chinese. One meaning of 能 is that one knows how to do something. It may refer to any kind of ability or capability, inherently endowed or later acquired . 能够 also means ability, but it is used in written language. [ 4 ] 你: _ 做 什 + 就 做 什 Nĩ néng zuò shénme jiù zuò shénme. Just do whatever you can.

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[5 ] 授 鱼 能 在 海 里 生 存 吗 ？ Ềyú néng zài hâi IT shẽngcún ma? Can alligators live in the ocean? [6 ] 锻 炼能够降低你的胆固醇。 Duànliàn nénggòu jiangdī nĩ de dângùchún. Exercise can lower your cholesterol. Both 会 and 能 mean ability. If you are unsure which one to use, remember that， in most: cases， you may use 能 where 会 is used， but not always vice versa. In c o rre c t: 他 会 喝 三 瓶 啤 酒 。 Tā hui hē sān ping píjiu. He is able to drink three bottles of beer. Correct:

他能喝三瓶啤酒。

Tā néng hē sān ping píjiu. He can drink three bottles of beer. 不会 may mean one’ s inability to do something or one’ s assumption about something. 不能 may mean one’ s inability to do something or not being allowed to do something.

4.1.2 Skills ( 会 ）会 may be used to say that one is particularly good at doing something. For this usage，会 is often premodified by adverbs such as Í 艮， 真 ，最 ，s 特 别 . [ 7 ] 她彳艮会利用自己的魅力。 Tā hen huì lìyòng zìjĩ de mèilì. She knows how to make use of her charm. [8 ] 他真会拍领导的马屁Q Tā zhēn huì pãi lĩngdâo de mâpì. He is really good at flattering his boss. [9 ] 他 最 会 讨 女 孩 ^ 的 喜 欢 。 Tỗ zuì huì tâo.nu háizi de xĩhuan. He knows well how to make himself popular among girls. A uxiliary verbs cannot take a direct object; however, you may see sentences, such as 他 会 古 英 语 （ he knows Old English). This usage is limited, and you may take 会 as a full verb in such cases.

Parts of Speech 词类

4.2 Permission and possibility (允许与可能) The auxiliaries may and can, among a range of meanings they convey, are often used to express permission and possibility. Their counterparts in Chinese 可以 and 能 also have multiple meanings， and they are most frequently used to express permission and possibility.

4.2.1 Permission C T O ) 可以 is used as a polite way of asking for permission or granting permission. It is also frequently used to make suggestions or to give advice. [ 1 ] 我 可 p i ệ 来吗？

wõ kẽyĩ jinlai ma? May I come in? [ 2 ] 他怎么可以这样对待你？

TỖ zěnme kẽyĩ zhéyang duìdài nĩ? How can he be allowed to treat you like this? [ 3 ] 你 可 以 试 一 试 ，但 可 辉 性 不 大 。

Nĩ kẽyĩ shì yi shì, dàn kẽnéngxìng bú dà. You may give it a try, though it is a long shot. The affirmative-negative form of 可以 is 可不可以 or 可以不可以 ； both are used in spoken language . 可以 can also be used as an adjective, m eaning ôaí/， such as 那家餐馆 还 可 以 （ That restaurant is not bad). C ^ĩ ) 可 is used to express perm ission or possibility, but it is more often used in written language or in comparing the two opposite alternatives. [ 4 ] 理智与感情是不可分的。

Līzhi yú gânqíng shì bù kẽ fēn de. Reason and passion cannot be separated. [5 ] 你 可 去 可 不 去 ，问 题 都 不 大 。 Nĩ kě qù kě bú qù, wéntí dõu bú dà. You may go or not go; it is not a big deal.

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( 能 ）能• is also widely used to ask for permission, but 可以 is more polite. In this regard, the difference betweeň 能 and 可以 is very similar to that of can and may in English. [6] 我能不能再用一下你的电话？ wõ néng bù néng zài yòng yíxià nĩ de diànhuà? Can I use your phone again? [ 7 ] 你不能想干什么就干什么。 Nĩ bù néng xiâng gàn shénme jiù gàn shénme. You cannot do whatever you want. [8] 你不能滥用你的职权。 Nĩ bù néng lànyòng nĩ de zhíquán. You cannot abuse your power.

4.2.2 Possibility (可以) 可以 may express possibility, which closely associates with ability and capability.可A often expresses both possibility and capability at the same time. The negative form is 不倉Ế* instead of 不可以. [ 9 ] 这间教室可以坐三十个学生。 Zhe jiān jiáoshi kẽyĩ zuò sãnshí ge xuésheng. This classroom can contain thirty students. [10] 地 震 可 以 毁 灭 一 个 城 市 。 Dizhén keyĩ huĩmiè yí ge chéngshì. An earthquake can destroy a city. [11] 金 银 花 可 以 用 来 止 咳 。 Jĩnyínhuỗ kẽyĩ yòng lái zhĩ ké. Honeysuckle can be used to stop coughing. ( 倉i ) 能 also expresses possibility, which is dosely related to ability or capability. The exact meaning it denotes depends on the context. [12] 飞 机 能 准 点 到 吗 ？ Fēijī nống zhundian dào ma? Can the airplane arrive on time? [13] 你 觉 得 这 么 冷 的 天 他 能 来 吗 ？ NĨ juéde zhéme lěng de tiān tã néng lái ma? Do you think he can come in such cold weather?

Parts o f Speech 词类

[1 4 ]他 怎 么 能 为 我 着 想 ？ TỖ zěnme néng wèi wo zhuóxiang? How can he possibly care about me?

4.3 Obligation and necessity (职责与需要) In English, we use should to say what we feel right or obliged to do for moral or legal reasons. We use must to refer to things that we have to do and use need to refer to things that we feel necessary to do. Now let US see how these ideas are conveyed by Chinese auxiliaries.

4.3.1 Obligation ( 得 ）# (pronounced děi) means m ust or have to. It is used to say that one is obliged to do something . 得 is colloquial, and it can be premodified by certain adverbs， such as —定 ，必须，非 ，etc. [1] 我 砰 辛 ，？ Wo děi qù ma? Do I have to go? [2] 你 得 说 话 算 数 。 Nĩ děi shuõhuà suànshù. You must keep your word. [3] $ 说 她 非 得 跟 我 结 婚 不 可 。 Tā shuõ tā fēi děi gēn wo jié hun bù kě. She says she has to marry me. The negative form of 得 is 不用 and 不必，which mean wwweeífeúř and unnecessary. ( 迨 该 ) 应该 and 应当 both mean what one should do or what ought to be. It is often used to make suggestions or to give advice. 应该 can be shortened to 应 ， which is used in written or formal language, or to 该 ， which is used in spoken language. [4 ] 你应该告诉他你的想法。 Nĩ yĩnggãi gàosu tā nĩ de xiângỉâ. You should tell him what you think. [5 ] 你应当学会如何保护自己Q Nĩ yĩngdỡng xué huì rúhé bâohù zìjĩ. You should learn how to protect yourself.

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[ 6 ] 此 人应 立 即 逮 捕 。 Cĩ rén yĩng lijí dàibú. This person should be arrested immediately. [7 ] 他不该那样说话。

Tā bù gāi nàyang shuõ huà. He should not talk like that. The affirmative-negative forms are 应该不应该，应不应该 ， or 该不该 . The last one is colloquial.

4.3.2 Necessity d D 须要 means that something must or should be done; it is often used to give advice or to issue a command. The negative form is 无 须 instead of 不 须 ； the affirmative-negative form is 须 不 须 要 . [8] 你须要了解你的听众。 Nĩ xũyào liaojiě nĩ de tīngzhong. You must know your audience. [ 9 ] 你们须要听我的指挥。 Nĩmen xũyào tĩng wo de zhThuī. You must listen to my command. [10] 你 无 须 回 答 所 有 问 题 。 Nĩ.^úxũ huídâ suõyõu de wéntí. You do not have to answer all the questions. 须要 and 需要 are pronounced the same， but they are two different words•须要 is an auxiliary verb; 需要 is both a noun and a full verb， and it means «eeí/ ơ /or 吣 《從 í/.

[11] 你 须 要 尊 重 你 父 母 的 意 见 。 N丫 xũyào zũnzhòng nĩ fúmú de yijián. You must respect your parents9 opinion. [12] 我 需 要 一 个 计 算 器 和 一 本 字 典 。 wõ xũyào yí ge J*ìsuànqì hé yì běn zidian. I need a calculator and a dictionary. c 要 ) Ặ can be used in the sense of need or should. It is often used to denote the necessity of doing something.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 1 3 ] 你 要 表 $ 出; ^ 与 众 不 同 的 地 方 。 Nĩ yào biâoxiàn chũ nĩ yú zhóng bù tóng de difang. You need to show how you distinguish yourself from others. [1 4 ] 你 要 三 号 而 行 。 Nĩ yào sānsī’ ér xíng. You should think it over carefully before taking action. [1 5 ] 你 要 不 要 看 医 生 ？ Nĩ yào bú yào kàn ýĩshẽng? Do you need to see a doctor?

4.4 Assumption and prediction (假定与预测) Assumption means what one feels to be true, but there is no proof. Prediction says what one thinks will happen. These two terms are close in meaning. Now let US see how they are expressed by auxiliaries in Chinese.

4.4.1 Assumption

( 得 ）得 （pronounced děi) can be used to express what one thinks is true or will happen. It can be premodified by an adverb, and it does not have a negative form .得 is colloquial. [ 1 ] 他 真 胖 ，得 有 三 百 磅 。 Tā zhēn pàng, děi you sân bâi bàng. He is really heavy; he must weigh three hundred pounds. [2 ] 你准得被他骗了。 NT zhun děi bèi tã pián le. You will be fooled by him. [3 ] 她迟早得明白这件事的真相。 Tā chízao děi míngbai zhé jián shi de zhěnxiáng. Sooner or later she will know the truth of this incident. c 应 该 ) 应该 denotes what one assumes to be true, but the result is either not known yet or different from what one expects. It is often used to express assumptions or puzzlement. [4 ] 埤 现 、 在 存 该 到 T 。、

Tā xiánzái yĩnggãi dào le. He should have arrived by now.

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[ 5 ] 他 应 该 考 得 不 错 ，不知道他怎么了。 Tã yĩnggãi kâo de búcuò, bù zhīdao tā zěnme le. He should have done well in the exam; I don’t know what happened to him. [6] 他 不 应 该 是 出卖我的人。 Tā bù yĩnggãi shì chũmài wõ de rén. He should not be the one who betrayed me.

4.4.2 Prediction ( 会 ) 会 may express one’s prediction of what will happen, and it can denote future time•会 can be preceded by certain adverbs， such as —定 a n d 肯定. [7] 这个电影一定会得奥斯卡奖吗？ Zhè ge diànyĩng yídìng huì dé Àosĩkâ jiang ma? Can this movie definitely win an Oscar? [8] 今天夜里肯定会下雪. Jīntiān yè lĩ kẽndìng huì xià xuě. It will snow tonight for sure. [9 ] 任何事情都会发生。 Rènhé shìqing dõu huì fāshēng. Anything can happen. ( 要 ) 要 can express one’s prediction of what will happen. Like 会 ，it can denote future time and can be preceded by certain adverbs, such as — 定 a n d 肯定. [10] 下、 个月煤，今 涨 价 。

Xià ge yuè méiqì yào zhang jià? The price of gas will increase next month. [11] 不 听 我 的 话 你 要 后 悔 的 。 Bù tĩng wõ de huà nĩ yào hòuhuĩ de. If you don’t listen to me, you will regret it. [12] 他 肯 定 要 重 犯 这 个 错 误 。 Tā kẽndìng yào chóng fan zhè ge He will surely repeat this mistake.

CUÓWU.

Parts of Speech 词类

To predict that something will not happen， you should use 不会 instead of

4.5 Intention and willingness (意向与意愿) There are several auxiliaries that express intention, desire, volition, or willingness in Chinese. Among th em ,要 and 想 express a variety of meanings, and they are also the most commonly used full verbs.

4.5.1 Intention ( _ S j 想 is both an auxiliary verb and a full verb. The auxiliary 想 is used to express one’s intention or desire to do something; it can be premodified by some adverbs, such as 4艮 （ very)，非 常 （very much),只 (only), etc. [1] 我 非 常 想 学 习 中国山 水 画 。 Wo fēichang xiâng xuéxí Zhongguó shãnshuĩhuà. I very much like to study Chinese landscape painting. [2] 你想不想买一栋五居室的房子？ Nĩ xiâng bù xiâng mâi yí dòng wũ jūshi de fángzi? Do you want to buy a five-bedroom house? [3] 我不想追求这些世俗的东西。 wõ bù xiâng zhuTqiú zhéxiě shìsú de dõngxi. I do not want to pursue these worldly things. c 要 〕要 is both an auxiliary verb and a full verb. The auxiliary 要 is used to express one5s volition or intention to do something. It may be preceded by 想 (intend)，打 算 （ plan)，etc. [4] 有人要喝咖啡吗？ You rén yào hē kāfēi ma? Does anyone want to drink coffee? [5 ] 埯 想 ^要 当 了 名 笋 洋 丰 哕 学 r 。 / Tā xiâng yào dâng yì míng hâiyáng shẽngwùxuéjiã. He wants to be a marine biologist. [6] 他要生活得有意义。 TỠ yào shẽnghuó de you yiyi. He wants to live meaningfully.

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To say that you do not want or desire to do something， use 不想 or 不愿意 instead of 不 要 . Both 想 and 要 express intentions, but 想 means that one is thinking or contemplating about doing something， whereas 要 means that one wants or desires to do something.

4.5.2 Willingness 敢 is used to say that one has the courage or audacity to do something. It may be premodified by some adverbs such as 竟然 (unexpectedly)，甚 至 （ even)，etc.

[7 ] 我敢说他没做过非法的事。 wõ gân shuõ tā méi zuò guo fēifa de shì. I dare say that he did not do anything illegal. [8 ] 他甚至不敢说出他的真实想法。 Tā shénzhi bù gân shuõ chū tā de zhēnshi xiangfa. He does not even dare to tell what he really thinks. [ 9 ] 舍 得 一 身 剐 ，敢 把 皇 帝 拉 下 马 。 Shědé yì shēn guâ, gân bâ huángdì lỗ xià mâ. Not fearing death, one dares to pull the emperor off his horse. 不敢不 is a double negative， and it literally means that one dares not not to do something. For example, 我 不 敢 不 去 means that I am afraid of not going.

( 肯 ) 肯 means the consent to do something， which often comes after initial reluctance or unwillingness. It is often used when one has to be persuaded to do something. [ 1 0 ] 只 要 你 肯 花 时 间 ，汉 字 并 不 难 。 Zhĩyào nĩ kěn huā shijiān, Hánzi bing bù nán. If you are willing to spend time, Chinese characters are not difficult. [ 1 1 ] 我 的 建 议 虽 好 ，可 是 他 们 不 肯 采 纳 。 wõ de jiányi suĩ hâo, kěshi tāmen bù kěn câinà. My suggestion is good, but they do not want to adopt it. [ 1 2 ] 示 威 _者 不 肯 放 弃 他 们 的 要 求 。 Shiwěizhě bù kěn fángqi tõmen de yãoqiú. The demonstrators will not give up their demand.

Parts of Speech 词类

f 愿 意 ) 愿意 means willingness and cheerful compliance. It is used to say that one is ready to act gladly or voluntarily and does not need to be persuaded•愿意 can be premodified by auxiliaries 会 and Ềầ and some adverbs. [1 3 ] 你 愿 意 跟 他 结 婚 吗 ？ NT yuànyĩ gēn tā jié hūn ma? Are you willing to marry her? [ 1 4 ] 我 很 愿 意 ，但 她 可 能 不 愿 意 。 Wo hen yuànyì, dàn tā kěnéng bú yuànyì. I am very willing, but she may not be willing. [1 5 ] 谁 会 愿 意 嫁 给 这 样 一 个 书 呆 子 ？ Shéi huì yuànyì jià gěi zhéyáng yí ge shūdāizi? Who would like to marry such a nerd?

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C h a p te r 5

汉语语法指南

A d je c tiv e s 形 容 词

Many writers do not seem to think much of adjectives. Mark Twain offers this advice about writing: 4tWhen you catch an adjective, kill it. No, I don’t mean utterly， but kill most of them— then the rest will be valuable.” Adjectives do not seem to appeal to modernists’ sensibilities either. Ezra Pound cautions poets about the use of adjectives because ctgood description makes bad poetry.” These writers, it should be noted， are not against adjectives p er se\ they are against the superfluous use of adjectives. Adjectives are very valuable. They provide new dimensions to our knowledge and add color to our world. Adjectives have two functions. They can be used attributively to modify nouns; they can also be used predicatively to describe the subject of a sentence. Here are two examples: 美丽的海伦引发了一场战會。

Mẽilì de Hâilún ýínfa le yì Châng zhanzhēng. The beautiful Helen caused a war. 希腊神话里海伦最美丽。

Xĩlà shénhuà lĩ Hâilún zuì mẽilì. In Greek mythology, Helen is the most beautiful. The first beautiful is used attributively\ the second beautiful is used predicatively. In English and Chinese, many adjectives may perform either way, but some can only play one of the two roles. C hinese adjectives are a com plicated word class. Some are monosyllabic; some are disyllabic; they differ in usage. There is also a distinction between nominal and descriptive use of adjectives. The former defines the nature of an object and names an entity or a type of things; the latter， with the structural particle 的 ， describes an object. Some adjectives need 的 to act attributively; some do not. A large number of adjectives can be reduplicated. Like English adjectives, Chinese adjectives are not a homogenous group. Some Chinese adjectives also act as adverbs; some have verbal properties and can take aspect particles. The adjective is an open class that has admitted a fairly large amount of new members in recent years. 5.1 Attributive adjectives 5.2 Attributive-only adjectives

Parts of Speech 词类

53 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Predicative-only adjectives Adjectival verbs Adjectival adverbs Adjective reduplications Multi-syllabic adjectives

5.1 Attributive adjectives (定语形容词) In Chinese, we may draw a distinction between the nominal and descriptive uses of attributive adjectives. The word nominal comes from the Latin nominalis, which means pertaining to a name or names. The nominal use is to name an entity (adjective + noun); the descriptive use is to define an entity, which requires 的 （adjective + 的 + noun). When used attributively, monosyllabic and disyllabic adjectives differ from each other. Now let US start with monosyllabic adjectives.

5.1.1 Monosyllabic adjectives (nominal) Monosyllabic adjectives can be used to name a new entity, thereby creating a new common noun. For example, the combination of the adjective red and the noun bean gives rise to red bean, which is the name of a kind of beans. Many common nouns result from such attributive use of monosyllabic adjectives. 暗号（ cipher) 长 威 (Great Wall) 低调（ low-key) 干 柴 (firewood) 怪 事 （weird thing) 红 酒 （red wine) 黄 牌 （yellow card) 近 亲 （close relative) 蓝图（ blueprint) 绿 灯 （green light) 软 件 (softwai^ 酸奶（ yogurt) 小吃（ snack) 硬件（ hardware) 远 景 （distant view) 直 线 （straight line)

白 人 (white people) 大 雨 （big rain) 短/Í言 （short message) 高 价 (high price) 黑名 Ạ (blacklist) 红 "i良（ matchmaker) 假 币 （counterfeit money) 快 车 （express train/bus) 凉 水 (cold water) 晴 天 （sunny day) 湿度（ humidity) •ítì■点 （ pastry) 新 居 （new residence) 圆 桌 （round table) 晚 饭 (dinner)

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Notice that a monosyllabic adjective-noun combination does not always make a common noun. For example ，红 衬 衫 （red shirt) may refer to all shirts in red color, but it is not a common noun that you can find from a dictionary entry. It is a temporary rather than a permanent entity.

5.1.2 Monosyllabic adjectives (descriptive) Monosyllabic adjectives can also be used to describe rather than to name an entity. For example, if, among some beans in different colors, you want the red-colored beans (not necessarily the red bean as a species), you may use 的 to highlight or foreground the description. Norminal use:

红 豆 （red bean) hóngdòu

Descriptive use:

红 的 豆 （th e b ean th a t is red in color) hóng de dòu

You may apply 的 to many common nouns， including temporary entities, for descriptive purposes. Compare these sentences: ^ 送、 我 一 g 大产果、 。 Tā sòng wỗ yì lán dà píngguõ. He sent me a basket of big apples. 我^ 、 大 ^ 苹 果 ，不 要 的 苹 果 Ọ wõ yào dà de píngguõ, bú yào xiâo de píngguõ. I want big apples, not small ones. 她 买 ỵ 一^砖 酸 葡 萄 。 Tā mâi le yí bàng suãn pútao. She bought a pound of sour grapes. 你 别 买 兮 的 琴 萄 ，要 挑 甜 的 葡 等 。

Nĩ bié mâi suãn de pútao, yào tião tián de pútao. Don’t buy sour grapes; you should choose sweet grapes. Remember that 的 cannot be applied to all common nouns, for some of them are used in a metaphorical sense. For example ，红 娘 means matchmaker, you cannot say (red color mother). It should be noted that when 的 is used to describe a common noun (adjective + noun) that is used predicatively， the adverb 4艮 or other adverbs of degree are usually used (很 + adjective + 的 + noun):

Parts of Speech 词类

In co rrect: 这 是 一 场 大 的 雨 。

Zhè shì yì Châng dà de yú. This is a big rain. Correct:

这是一场很大的雨Q

Zhè shì yì Châng hẽn dà de yú. This is a big rain. In the above sentence, the adverb Í 艮 intensifies the meaning of 大 （ big), but it is more used for idiomatic reasons.

5.1.3 Disyllabic adjectives (descriptive) In Chinese, disyllabic adjectives significantly outnumber monosyllabic adjectives. In general, disyllabic adjectives require 的 when premodifying nouns. [1 ] 这 是 世 界 上 最 容 易 的 事 情 。 Zhồ shì shijié shang zuì róngyi de shìqing. This is the easiest thing in the world. [2 ] 谁会相信这种荒唐的借口？ Shéi huì xiõngxìn zhè zhong huỗngtáng de jièkõu? Who will believe such an absurd excuse? [3 ] 她习惯了这种单调的生活。 Tỗ xíguàn le zhè zhong dãndiồo de shẽnghuó. She has become used to this monotonous life. [4 ] 他家来了一个神秘的女人。 Tā jiā lái le yí ge shénmì de nurén. A very mysterious woman came to his home. The following are some commonly used disyllabic adjectives: 安 静 (quiet) 卑鄙（ despicable) 出 色 (excellent) 繁荣（ prosperous) 和 揭 (amiable) 好奇（ curious) 简 单 (simple) 可 爱 (lo v ầ b le ), 谦 虚 (modest)

傲 f曼 (arrogant) 诚实（ honest) 聪明（ smart)

愤怒 iangryi 和谐（ harmonious) 黑 暗 (dark) 紧 张 (nervous) 明领（ sunny) 清 楚 (clear)

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微 妙 (delicate) 虚伪（ hypercritical) 自然（ natural)

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稳 定 (stable) 勇 敢 (courageous)

5.1.4 Disyllabic adjectives (nominal) Disyllabic adjectives require 的 when premodifying nouns. But some disyllabic adjectives occur so often with certain nouns that they have become fixed expressions or a kind of permanent entity. In such instances， they may premodify nouns without 的 ， though 的 may be used for emphasis. [5 ] 我只买新鲜食品。 Wo zhĩ mâi xĩnxiãn shípĩn. I buy only fresh foods. [6 ] 她 在 看 贫 急 知 。 Tā zài kàn jīnji tongzhī. She is reading an emergency notice. [7 ] 他们是秘密警察。 Tāmen shi mimi jTngchá. They are secret police. [8] 这 不 是 正 常 手 续 。 Zhè bú shì zhéngcháng shõuxù. This is not the normal procedure. Here are some disyllabic adjectives for which the use of 的 is optional: 合 法 要 求 （legitimate request) 合 理 建 议 （reasonable suggestion) 健 康 食 品 （healthy food) 年 轻 学 者 （young scholar) 漂 亮 女 人 (pretty woman) 实 用 手 册 （practical handbook) 新 鲜 水 果 (fresh fruit) 意 外 事 件 （unexpected incident) 重 要 会 议 （important meeting)

Notice that whether an adjective-noun combination needs 的 is a matter of convention. For example，的 is not needed in 抽 象 思 维 （abstract thinking), but it is needed in 抽 象 的 理 论 (abstract theory). However， when

Parts o f Speech 词类

these disyllabic adjectives are premodified by an adverb，的 is needed, for example, in 很 抽 象 的 思 维 (very abstract thinking).

5.2 Attributive-only adjectives (唯定形容词) Most adjectives function both attributively and predicatively, but a few can only serve attributively, which are called attributive-only or non­ predicative adjectives. English has a small number of attributive-only adjectives, such as chief, sheer, sole, and utter. For example, you may say, 'This is sheer nonsense/9but not 'T his nonsense is sheerr Chinese attributive-only adjectives appear to outnumber those in English, and they can be monosyllabic or disyllabic adjectives. Attributive-only adjectives are often used to distinguish one category of things from another; therefore, they are also known as 区另丨]词 in Chinese grammar. Here are some of them: 笔头（ written) 单 (single) 高 速 (high speed) 国际（ international) 男（ male) 潜在（ potential) 双 (pair) 新 — （new style) 正 （ principal)

初步（ preliminary) 副 （ deputy) 公 (male animal) 母 （female animal) 女 （ female) 人造（ man-made) 现 代 (modern) 崭 新 （ brand new)

Chinese attributive-only adjectives may differ from their English counterparts in terms of word class. For example, in English, man and woman are nouns, but in Chinese ^ (man) and -k (woman) are adjectives. You cannot say，“他 们 是 男 ” （they are male)， but “他们是男人 ” （they are male persons)• 国 际 （ international) is attributive-only in Chinese but not in English. You may say 国 际 会 议 （international meeting)， but not “这个 会 议 很 国 际 ” （This meeting is international). Watch the attributive-only adjectives in the following sentences: In c o rre c t: 这 只 老 虎 公 。 Zhè zhī lâohú gõng. This tiger is male. C o rre c t:这 是 公 老 虎 。 Zhè shì gõng.lâohủ. This is a male tiger.

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In c o rre c t: 这 个 分 析 初 步 。 Zhé ge fěnxi chũbù. This analysis is preliminary. Correct:

这是初步分析Q

Zhè shì chũbù fěnxi. This is preliminary analysis. In c o rre c t: 这 辆 汽 车 崩 •新 。 Zhè liàng qìchẽ zhânxĩn. This car is brand new. C o r r e c t : 这彳 : 崭 新 的 汽 车 。 Zhè shì zhanxTn de qìchẽ. This is a brand new car. Notice that disyllabic attributive-only adjectives usually do not need ^ when modifying nouns, except in some cases such as 靜 新 （brand new) and 潜 在 （ potential). Attributive-only adjectives can be used predicatively with 的 • “Adjective + 的’’ functions as a noun. For example: [1 ] 这 只 大 象 是 母 的 。 • Zhè zhĩ dàxiàng shì mũ de. This elephant is female. [2 ] 这种材料是人造的。 Zhè zhong cáiliào shì rénzáo de. This material is man-made.

—5_3 Predicative-on丨 y adjectives (唯谓形容词) Most adjectives, as noted early, can function both attributively and predicatively. However, like attributive-only adjectives, there are a small number of adjectives that are predicative-only. In English, these adjectives include aware, etc. For example， you may say, “The baby is afraid^ but not t4He is an afraid baby^ In Chinese, there are also a small number of adjectives that are predicative-only, and most of them are monosyllabic. In c o rre c t: 她 有 多 朋 友 ，我 有 少 朋 友 。 Tỗ yõu duõ péngyou, wõ yõu shâo péngyou. She has many friends; I have a few friends.

Parts of Speech 词类

Correct:

她 的 朋 友 多 ，我 的 朋 友 少 。

Tã de péngyou duõ, wõ de péngyou shâo. She has many friends; I have a few friends. In c o rre c t: 这 是 闷 房 间 ，这 是 紧 窗 户 。 Zhè shì měn fángjian, zhè shi j'Tn chuãnghù. This room is stifling; this window is tight. C o r r e c t : 这 个 房 间 闷 ，这 个 窗 户 紧 。 Zhè ge fangjiān men, zhè ge chuãnghù jĩn. This room is stifling; this window is tight. Here are some predicative-only adjectives: 沉 对 贵 活 牢 少 号 痒

（ heavy)

(correct) (expensive) （ flexible) (firm) （few or less) (proper) （ itchy)

多 （many or much) 够 (enough) 狠 (ruthless)

(tight) 闷（ stifling) 松 （ loose) 稳 (stable)

Most predicative-only adjectives can act attributively if they are premodified by the adverb 很 or other adverbs of degree and followed by 的（ 很 + adjective + 的 + noun). [1 ] 这是一只很沉的箱子。 Zhè shì yì zhī hěn chén de xiangzi. This is a very heavy suitcase. [2 ] ， 打了一个很紧的结。 Tỗ dâ le yí ge hen jĩn de jié. He made a very tight knot.

—5.4 Adjectival verbs (形容词兼动词) In English, some adjectives can function as adverbs but not as verbs. However, if we need certain adjectives to function as verbs, we can perform a small surgery on them: we transform red into redden, white into whiten, conceptual into conceptualize, and fin a l into finalize. Of course, it is disputable if we have overused the suffix -ize. In C h in e s e , som e a d je c tiv e s o v e rla p v e rb s. You c a n n o t

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morphologically tell an adjective from a verb, but you can test it with the adverb 很 (very)•很can premodify adjectives, such as 很 红 （very red) and 4艮湿（very wet), but you cannot say Í艮吃（very eat) and Í艮喝（very drink). However, some Chinese adjectives, such as 红 （ red) and 湿 （ wet)， can not only be modified by 4艮but also take objects. [1] 他 们 从 来 没 红 过 脸 。 Tỗmen cónglái méi hóng guo liân. They have never exchanged words. [2] 露水湿了她的衣服。 Lùshuĩ shī le tā de yīfu. The dew wet her clothes. Now let us call the adjectives that also function as verbs adjectival verbs. They deserve attention because their dual membership can cause some confusion.

5.4.1 Monosyllabic adjectival verbs Some monosyllabic adjectival verbs may cause confusion about how to read them. For example， if you take 热 （ warm) in 热 饭 （warm meal) as an adjective, it means the meal that is warm, but if we take ^ as a verb, it means to warm the meal. Because of this potential confusion, adjectival verbs, when functioning as verbs, are often separated from their objects by some additional words, such âs —下儿，了，死 and 着. [3] i 竟你辞一下儿水。 QTng nĩ rè yíxiàr shuĩ. Heat the water, please. [4] 奶奶白了头发。 Nâinai bái le tóufa. Grandmother’s hair turned white. [5 ] 你坏了我的事。 Nĩ huà le wõ de shì. You ruined my plan. [ 6 ] ， 黑-了心 肠 。 Tā hēi le xĩncháng. He has lost his moral sense.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[7 ] 手术疼死我了。 Shõushù téng sĩ wõ le. The pain of the surgery kills me. [8 ] 他光着屁股出去了。 Tā guāng zhe pìgũ chũqù le. He went out stark naked. Notice the words separating the verbs from their objects in the sentences above. Without those buffers between them ，热水 means hot water, 白头 发 means white hair, and the adjectives in the sentences from [5] to [8] cannot take objects. In addition, when adjectival verbs function as verbs, they often take on some metaphorical or extended meanings. For example，肥 as an adjective means fat, but as a verb it can mean to profit. Watch the derived meanings of the following adjectival verbs. [9] i t 些 年 苦 了 你 了 。 Zhéxiě nián ku le nĩ le. You suffered all these years. [ 10] 这 次 ’ 考 了 件 了。 Zhè cì kě měi le nĩ le. This time you are the lucky dog. [1 1 ] 袜 子 破 了 一 个 洞 。 Wàzi pò le yí ge dòng. There is a hole in the sock. [1 2 ] 巧 白 了 我 们 一 眼 。 Tã bái le women yì yân. He cast a contemptuous look at US. Some adjectival-verbs can take certain nouns directly and have become fixed verbal phrases. They include 烦 人 （bother people),干洗 (dry clean), 累 人 （exhaust people), 烫 衣 服 （iron clothes),松 手 （ loosen the grip)，弯 身 （bend the body), etc.

5.4.2 Disyllabic adjectival verbs Some disyllabic adjectives also function as verbs. They are verbs when preceding a noun and are adjectives when used predicatively. These adjectival verbs are usually used in written language.

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As verb:

As adjective:

汉语语法指南

我 们 需 要 稳 定 ^ 济。 Women xũyào wending jīngjl We need to stabilize the economy. 现在的经济很稳定。

Xiánzái de jīngji hen wending. The economy now is very stable. As verb:

我们不应该孤立她。

Women bù yĩnggỗi gūli tā. We should not isolate her. As adjective:

在学校里她很孤立。 zài xuéxiào lĩ tã hen gūli.

She is very isolated at school. Here are some adjectival verbs: 纯洁（ purify) 巩固（ consolidate) 肯 定 (affirm) 平 衡 (balance) 协调（ coordinate)

丰富（ enrich) 缓和（ ease) 麻烦（ trouble) 统一（ unify)

公 开 (open) 简 便 (simplify) 模 糊 :b lu i). 委 屈 （feel wronged)

When used attributively, disyllabic adjectival verbs generally require 的. In this respect, they act like most disyllabic adjectives.

As adjective:

这已经是公开的秘密。

Zhè yĩjĩng shì gõngkỡi de mìmì. This is already an open secret. As adjective:

这不是一个孤立的问题。

Zhè bú shì yí ge gūli de wéntí. This is not an isolated issue.

5.5 Adjectival adverbs (形容词兼副词) Some monosyllabic adjectives are also adverbs; let US call them adjectival adverbs. You may tell their word class by checking if they premodify a noun or verb. For exam ple, 快 （ fast) is an adjective in 快餐 (fast food) and an adverb in 快 跑 （run fast)• 早 （ early) is an adjective in 早 茶 （morning tea) and an adverb in 早 到 （arrive early). Here are some sentences in which these adjectival adverbs serve as adverbs.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[1] 他 每 次 上 课 都 晚 到 。 Tā měi cì shàng kè dõu wân dào. Every time he comes to class late. [2 ] 我只是粗算了一下儿。 Wo zhīshi cū suàn le yíxiàr. I just roughly calculated. [3] 我 不 想 在 纽 约 长 住 。 Wo bù xiâng zài Niũyuẽ cháng zhù. I do not plan to stay long in New York. [4 ] 奶 奶 斧 是 让 我 多 吃 。 Nâinai zongshi ràng wo duõ chī. Grandmother always asks me to eat more. Adjectival adverbs tend to collocate with certain verbs. Here are some collocations: 长 住 （stay long) 多 吃 （eat more) 快 跑 (run fast) 软 着 陆 (softly land) 少 睡 (sleep less) 晚 到 （arrive late) 硬 推 (push hard) 直 走 （walk straight)

粗 算 (roughly calculate) 狠 打 （beat hard) 轻 放 （ lay down lightly) 傻 干 （unthinkingly work) 深 埋 （bury deeply) 细 想 (think carefully) 远 走 （go far)

As is the case with adjectival verbs, adjectival adverbs may differ semantically when playing different roles as adjectives and as adverbs. For example， the adjective 白 means the adverb 白 means íư «ơ CƠ对 ơr The adjective 老 means old; the adverb 老 means Watch the derived meanings of the following adjectival adverbs. [5 ] $ 听 他 的 ！他 ỷ 瞎 说 。 Bié tĩng tā de! Ta jìng xiã shuõ. Don5t listen to him! He always talks nonsense. [ 6 ] 算 了 吧 。你 白 费 口 舌 。 Suàn le ba. Nĩ bái fèi kỗushé. Forget about it! You just waste your breath. [ 7 ] 你 不 能 光 说 ，得 有 行 动 。 NT bù néng guỗng fehuo, děi you xíngdòng. You cannot only talk; there must be action.

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[8] i ž 道 等 谁 都 会 答 。 Zhè dào tí hâo dá, shéidõuhuìdá. This question is easy to answer; everyone can do it. See the chapter on adverbials about how a large number of disyllabic adjectives may take the structural particle 地 to perform adverbially.

5.6 Adjective reduplications (形容词重叠) Many Chinese adjectives, like Chinese verbs, can be used in reduplication. The reduplication of adjectives achieves two major effects: it places a mild emphasis on the adjective; it expresses a fond sentiment for the thing being modified. The reduplication of adjectives can also be found in English. Here is line from the poem “A Red， Red Rose” by the 18th century Scottish poet Robert Burns: o , my luve’s like a red, red rose. ‘ 心上人恰似一朵纟工红的玫瑰。 Wỗ xĩnshàngrén qiàsì yì duõ hónghóng de méigui. This line is a classical example of figurative speech in English. The use of reduplication 红红的 highlights the red color and expresses a deep affection. In Chinese, reduplications are often used in descriptive language. Monosyllabic and disyllabic adjectives form their patterns of reduplication differently.

5.6.1 Monosyllabic adjectives: AA reduplication Quite a number of monosyllabic adjectives may take (AA) form of reduplication. For example，红 can be duplicated into 红 红 • The AA reduplication occurs with 的 when used predicatively or attributively. They often appear in literary or descriptive languages. [ 1 ] 天 蓝 蓝 的 ，水 清 清 的 。 Tiỗn lánlán de, shuĩ qĩngqĩng de. The sky is blue; the water is clear. [2 ] 暫 雙 的 夜 晚 、 气 她 _ 起 很 多 v往 事 。 Jingj'ing de yèwân ràng tā xiâng qĩ hen duõ wangshi. The tranquil night brings back a lot of memories to her. The following are some monosyllabic adjectives often used in AA reduplication:

Parts o f Speech 词类

暗 (dim) 大 (big) 宽 (wide) 绿（ green) 轻 （ gentle) 甜 (sweet) 圆（ round)

白（ white) 淡 (bland) 辣 (spicy) 嫩 (tềnder) 酸 (sour) 弯 (curved) 直（ straight)

粗 (thick) * (tall) 亮（ bright) 胖 (chubby) 痩 (slim) 细（ thin)

Many monosyllabic adjectives themselves imply neither positive nor pejorative connotations, but their reduplications almost always convey a tone of fondness. [ 3 ] 这 条 路 宽 宽 的 ，平 平 的 。 Zhè tiáo lù kuānkuān de, píngpíng de. This road is wide and smooth. [ 4 ] 她 的 腰 细 细 的 ，腿 长 长 的 。 Tā de yão xìxì de, tuĩ chângchâng de­ fier waist is thin ，and her legs are long. Certain reduplications appear to have a feminine tone, though this may vary individually or in different regions: [ 5 ] 这 道 菜 甜 甜 的 ，很 好 吃 。 Zhè dào cài tiántián de, hẽn hâochĩ. This dish is sweetish. Very tasty! [ 6 ] 这 宝 宝 胖 胖 的 ，真 可 爱 。 Zhè bâobao pàngpàng de, zhēnkē’āi. This baby is chubby. So cute! 5.6.2 D isyllabic adjectives : A A B B reduplication Many disyllabic adjectives can be used in reduplications, and their most common form is AABB (e.g.安 静 can be made into 安 安 静 静 )• The AABB reduplications are mostly used for emphasis; they intensify the meaning of adjectives. For example，诚恳 means sincere;诚诚恳恳 means very sincere and genuine•干净 means clean;干干净净 refers to something thoroughly clean. Compare these two sentences: 这家饭馆很冷清。 Zhè jiā fánguan hen lẽngqĩng. This restaurant has féw customers.

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这家饭馆冷冷清清的。 Zhè jiā fánguan lěnglěng qĩngqĩng de. This restaurant hardly has any customers. The second sentence is more emphatic than the first one. Here are some adjectives that take AABB reduplications: 安 稳 (steady) 肥大（ loose) 工 整 ộieat) 客气（ courteous) 冷 清 (cheerless) 忙碌（ busy) 暖 和 (warm) 平 安 (safe) 平 庸 (mediocre) 清楚 (clear) 随 便 (casual)

粗 大 (big and thick)

干脆(straightforward) 和睦（ harmonious) 宽大（ loose)

马虎 (careless) 迷糊（ muddleheaded) 漂亮（ pretty) 平 常 (ordinary) 破烂（ shabby) 普 通 (common) 整 齐 (tidy)

AABB re d u p lic a tio n s can be used b o th a ttrib u tiv e ly and predicatively， but in either case， they need to go with 的 . [7] 他是一个平平常常的人。 Tỗ shì yí ge píngping chángchang de rén. He is a very ordinary man. [8] _ 穿过」 破破烂烂的街道。 Tā chuãnguò pòpo lànlan de jiēdao. He walked through the dilapidated street. [9] 我妹妹整天忙忙碌碌的。 wõ mèimei zhěng tiān mángmang lùlu de. My younger sister is busy all the time. [10]朱教授总是客客气气的。 Zhū jiáoshóu zongshi kèke qìqi de. Professor Zhu is always very courteous. 5.6.3 D isyllabic adjectives : A B A B reduplication Some disyllabic adjectives take ABAB reduplication. Some of these adjectives consist of a noun and an adjective; the noun illustrates what the adjective denotes. For example, the adjective 雪白 consists of

Parts o f Speech 词类

sno^ and white', it describes something as white as snow. Some of these adjectives consist of two adjectives. The adjective 细嫩 draws its meaning from its contributing adjectives of fine and tender. ABAB reduplication foregrounds the metaphorical or visual denotations of these adjectives, and it needs 的 to be used predicatively or attributively. [1 1 ] 她 的 脸 冰 冷 冰 冷 的 。 Tã de lián bīngleng bīnglēng de. Her face is icy cold. [1 2 ] 她 的 手 细 嫩 细 嫩 的 。 Tã de shõu xìnèn xìnèn de. Her hands are fine and tender. [1 3 ] 泉 水 清 凉 清 凉 的 。 Quánshuĩ qĩngliáng qĩngliáng de. The spring water is clear and cool [14 ] 山 脚 下 是 轉 绿 爹 轉 的 湖 水 。 Shān jiao xià shì bìlu bìlu de húshuĩ. The lake at the foot of the mountain is emerald green. The following are some disyllabic adjectives that can take ABAB reduplication: 白 净 (fair and clear) 笔 直 （straight as a pen) 滚 圆 （round as a ball) 火 红 （fire red) 金 黄 （gold yellow) 闷 热 （stuffy and hot) 通 红 （thoroughly red) 鲜 嫩 （fresh and tender)

白 嫩 （fair and delicate) 冰冷（ ice-cold) 灰白（ grayish-white) 火 热 （fire hot) 溜 光 （shinny smooth) 漆黑（ pitch-black) 细 嫩 (fine and tender) 油 绿 （shiny dark green)

There are a small number of disyllabic adjectives that can take both AABB and ABAB reduplications. When they are in AABB form, they are adjectives; when they are in ABAB form, they function as verbs: As adjective:

他 今 天 安 安 静 舞 óỹ 。

Tā jīntiān ān’an jingjing de. He is very quiet today. As verb:

请你安静安静！

Qĩnặ nĩ ānjing ānjing! Please be quiet!

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As adjective:

他们俩亲亲热热的。 Tỗmen liâ qĩnqin rère de. They are affectionate with each other.

As verb:

我们今夜亲热亲热。 Women jĩnyè qĩnrè qĩnrè. We will have an intimate time tonight.

5.7 Multi-syllabic adjectives (多音节形容词) An adjective in AABB form is not necessarily an adjective in reduplication. The adjective reduplication refers to the adjective that is derived from another adjective. For example，干干净净（thoroughly clean) is the reduplication of 干 净 （ clean). But 密密麻麻（thickly dotted) is an adjective in its own right, and there is no such a word as 密麻. Now let us call 密密麻麻 a and examine two forms of multi-syllabic adjectives: AABB and ABB.

5.7.1 Multi-syllabỉc adjectives: AABB reduplication There are a small number of multi-syllabic adjectives that take the form of A ABB. These adjectives, like the A ABB form of adjective reduplication, can be used both attributively and predicatively, and they need to go with 的 • These adjectives are both emphatic and graphic. [1] $ 是 一 个 大 大 咧 咧 的 人 。 Tỗ shì yí ge dàda liêlie de rén. He is a happy-go-lucky person. [2] 前面是密密丛丛的树林。 Qiánmiàn shì mimi cóngcong de shùlín. Ahead are dense woods. [3] 他们的关系疙疙瘩瘪的。 Tāmen de guãnxi gẽge dãda de. Their relation is rough and bumpy. [4 ] 这个人纟寻常鬼 鬼 祟 祟 的 。 Zhè ge rén j'īngchang guĩgui suìsui de. This man is often surreptitious. The following are more multi-syllabic adjectives in AABB form:

Parts o f Speech 词类

风风火火(rashly and hastily) 鼓鼓嚢囊（full and bulging) 花 花 绿 绿 (colorful) 满满当当（ jam-packed) 慢慢 腾 腾 (slow and sloppy) 曲曲弯弯（ zigzag) 婆婆妈妈（garrulous and sluggish) 松松誇誇（slack and undisciplined) 堂堂正正（upright and dignified) 羞羞答答(shy and bashful)

5.7.2 Multi-syllabic adjectives: ABB reduplication Another type of multi-syllabic adjectives takes the form of ABB. Of all forms of adjectives, this type is perhaps most vivid in image and sound. In these adjectives, the first character usually expresses the meaning of the word; the second and third characters often present either the image or the sound that the word denotes. Take the adjective 笑眯眯 for exam ple,笑 means sm ile;眯 describes the eyes that are slightly d o s e d .笑昧眯 thus draws a picture of a smiling face. Many adjectives of the ABB form are onomatopoeic words_ they contain a sound similar to the sound they express. In 冷 跑 跑 （whistling cold),冷 means co ld ;飑飑 imitates the sound of the cold wind•冷鹏飑 appeals to the sensation of coldness, as English words chilling, shivering, and řrewWzwg do. Do you remember the name “Chillingworth” in rAe iStarto The name says something about that character. Read and feel the following sentences. [5 ] 桌 七 摆 着 香 f 喷 的 毛 。 Zhuõ shang bâỉ zhe xiãngpẽnpẽn de cài. The dishes on the table smell delicious. [6] 这是个赤裸裸的谎言。 Zhè shì ge chìluõluô de huângyán. This is a naked lie. [7] 她今天怎么气冲冲的？ Tā jīntiān zěnme qìchõngchõng de? Why is she so angry today? [8] 你那位朋友傻乎乎的。 Nĩ nà wèi péngyou shahūhū de. That friend of yours is idiotic.

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In [5]，香 means fragrance ; 喷 refers to the spouting of air or liquid under pressure •香喷喷的菜 describes the delicious smell of a dish that is overwhelming. Here are a few more multi-syllabic adjectives of ABB form : 孤 零 零 (lonely),光 先 秃 （ bald)，静 悄 悄 (quiet),空 荡 荡 （ vacant)，冷 清 清 (deserted)， 亮晶晶（ glittering) ，乱 哄 哄 （chaotic and noisy ), 慢 悠 悠 （ leisurely and slow), and 酸 溜 潘 （sour taste).

Parts of Speech 词类

Chapter 6

A dverbs 畐|J词

Adverb comes from the Latin adverbium\ ad- means to, and verbum means verb or word. Adverb means that which is added to a verb. Adjectives modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs. For example, in the sentence t4I recently bought a car,99 recently is an adverb that modifies the verb. In English, adverbs, besides modifying verbs, also modify adjectives, adverbs, or a whole sentence. The function of adverbs in Chinese is similar to that in English. They modify verbs, adjectives, and sentences, but not other adverbs. When modifying verbs, the adverb indicates when, in what manner, to what degree, and in what scope an action occurs or is carried out. When modifying adjectives, the adverb describes the degree or intensity of a quality. When modifying sentences, the adverb may comment on what is said in the sentence. Here are three examples: 你不能永远欺骗所有的人。 Nĩ bù néng yõngyuân qĩpiàn suỗyõu de rén. You cannot deceive all the people all the time. 黄歹公园的景色/相当壮观 e Huángshí Gõngyuán de jĩngsè xiãngdãng zhuangguān. The scenery of Yellowstone Park is remarkably spectacular. 难怪他是一位理想主义者。 Nánguài tā shì yí wèi lĩxiâng zhũyì zhě. No wonder he is an idealist. One characteristic of English adverbs is that they are morphological— many are derived from adjectives and end in -ly. M any C hinese disyllabic adjectives can take the particle 地 （adjective + 地) and thus function like adverbs; but Chinese adverbs, like other Chinese words, are not morphologically recognizable. You need to see how they are used in a sentence or check a dictionary if you are unsure about their part of speech. In this chapter, we will divide Chinese adverbs into semantic groups and illustrate some of their usages. Classifications vary when words are semantically classified, and some can be listed in more than one category. Our illustrations are selective; many adverbs have multiple usages and meanings.

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6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

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Adverbs of comment Adverbs of manner Adverbs of time Adverbs of degree Adverbs of scope Adverbs of negation Conjunctive adverbs

6.1 Adverbs of comment (语气副词) Adverbs of comment are used to express one’s comment，opinion, or sentiment about what is stated in the sentence. Adverbs of comment take the initial position or the pre-verb position in the sentence. Some can act as both adjuncts and disjuncts; some can act only as adjuncts (see the chapter on adverbials). When appearing initially in a sentence, they are not set off from the sentence by a comma. The following are illustrations of some frequently used adverbs of comment. Remember that each adverb may have multiple meanings, and the following illustrations are selective. C M S j 到 底 （in the final analysis) is used to ask or speculate what the truth is; it often carries a tone of frustration or anger•到底 also means or 力《a //少 when used in declarative sentences•到底 and 究竟 are synonyms, but the latter is only used in interrogative and rhetorical sentences. [1 ] 他 到 底 要 什 么 ？ Tā dàodĩ yào shénme? What on earth does he want? [2 ] 他到底还是同意了。 Tā dàodĩ háishì tóngyì le. He finally agreed. CSHj 反正 （ anyway) is used to say that whatever one does or whatever happens makes no difference. It is extensively used in spoken language. [ 3 ] 我 不 去 考 试 ，反 正 我 也 考 不 好 。 wõ bú qù kâoshì, fanzhéng wõ yě kâo bù hâo. I will not take the exam; I cannot do it well anyway.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 4 ] 我不说了，反 正 他 也 不 听 。 wõ bù shuõ le, fanzhéng tā yě bù tīng. I will not speak any more; he will not listen anyway. r 果然) 果 然 （as expected) is used to denote that something has indeed turned out to be as expected. [5] 果然他又得了全A 。 Guõrán tā yòu dé le quán A. As expected, he again got straight A5S. [6] 他 果 然 是 独 一 无 二 。 Tā guỗrán shì dú yĩ wú èr. He is indeed unique. c 难道) 难 道 （Could it be true that...) is used to raise an interrogative or rhetorical question when one finds something totally surprising or incredible. [7] 难道你不知道他是谁？ Nándào nĩ bù zhīdao tā shì shéi? How can you not know who he is? [8] 难 道 他 会 那 样 卑 鄙 无 耻 ？ Nándào tā huì nàyàng bẽibĩ wúchĩ? Can he be so despicable?

( 原来) 原 来 （as a m atter of fact, originally) refers to a sudden awareness or discovery of a fact that one did not know all along; it can also refer to something that is no longer what it was. [ 9 ] 我以 为 他 死 了 ，原 来 他 还 活 着 。 wõ yĩwéi tỗ sĩ le, yuánlái tā hái huó zhe. I thought he died; it turns out he is still alive. [ 1 0 ] 原 来 他 很 有 钱 ，现 在 他 破 产 了 。 Yuánlái tã hen you qián, xiánzái tā pò chân le. He used to have a lot of money; now he is bankrupt. Here are more adverbs of comment: 毕 竟 (after all) 大概（ approximately) 好 在 (fortunately) 究 竟 (after all) ‘

必须（ must) 多 亏 （thanks to) 简 直 (simply) 居然（ unexpectedly)

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难 怪 (no wonder) 索 性 （may as well) 幸亏（ fortunately) 一定（ surely)

汉语语法指南

其 实 （in fact) 显然（ apparently) 也许（ perhaps)

6.2 Adverbs of manner (情态副词) Adverbs of manner describe how things happen. In English, adverbs of manner make up the largest group of adverbs, and many of them are derived from adjectives. Chinese adverbs of manner are mostly composed of disyllabic words; they are descriptive and are mostly used in written language. Many “adjective + 地 ” words function as adverbs of manner. Here are some commonly used adverbs of manner.

( 趁早) 趁 早 （at an early date) is used to suggest that it will be to one’s advantage to do something at an early date or stage. [1 ] 你 趁 早 跟 他 断 绝 关 系 。 NĨ chenzao gēn tā duánjué guỗnxì. You’d better cut off your relation with him at an early date. [2 ] 你趁早决定搬不搬家。 NT chénzao juéding ban bù bān jiā. You’d better decide about moving as soon as possible. c 互相 ] 互 相 （each other) is used to describe a reciprocal action; it can be written conversely as 相 互 . While 互相 is an adverb, eacố Ơ/Aer is a pronoun in English. [3] ^ •们 喜 欢 互 相 吹 ， 。 Tāmen xĩhuan hùxiỗng chuīpēng. They enjoy flattering each other. [4 ] 他们背后互相拆台。 Tỡmen bèihòu hùxiãng chãi tái. They secretly pull the rug from under each others feet. (M E ) 亲 自 （ personally) is used to em phasize that one does something personally. Other related words include: 亲 耳 (hear with one’s own e a rs ), 亲 口 （say with one’s own m o u th ), 亲 手 （do with one’s own hands), and 亲 眼 （see with one’s own eyes). These adverbs, all related to body parts, emphasize one5s personal involvement in an action or event.

Parts of Speech 词类

[5 ] 他亲自检查了一遍。 Tā qinzi jianchá le yí biàn. He personally checked it once. [ 6 ] 我7要 亲 自 问 一 问 他 。 wõ yào qTnzi wen yi wen tā. I will personally ask him. ( ļ r % _ ) 事 先 （in advance) means before something happens. It is usually used in reference to an announcement, notice, or warning. [7 ] 你 事 先 没 跟 我 说 。 Nĩ shìxiỗn méi gẽn wõ shuõ. You did not tell me beforehand. [ 8 ] 我、 /事 先 f 告 过 你 。 Wo shìxiỗn jTnggáo guo ní. I warned you in advance. (逐 步 ) 逐 步 （ gradually) means step by step; it usually refers to a process related to human efforts, such as reaching one’s objective•逐渐 and 渐渐 also mean gradually, but they refer to the unfolding of a natural process.

[9 ] 他正逐步达到他的目的。 Tā zhéng zhúbú dádào tã de mùdì. He is gradually reaching his goal. [10]

$ 们 的 矛 盾 ^£ 渐 暴 露 了 。 Tỗmen de máodùn zhújián bàolù le. Their conflict is gradually brought to light.

Here are more adverbs of manner: 按 时 (on time) 独 自 （all alone) 极 力 （to the utmost) 轻易（ easily) 曰 夜 (day and night) 无 故 (without reason)

当 场 （on the spot) 忽然（ suddenly) 筷速丨rapidly) 仍 然 (still) 如 期 （as scheduled) 照 常 （as usual)

_ 6.3 Adverbs of time (时间副词) Adverbs of time make ujp a fairly large group, and they indicate

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various tim es: a point o f tim e, duration, frequency, and relationship in tim e. Words, such as today and tomorrow, are considered as both nouns and adverbs in English, but they are tem poral nouns in Chinese and can function adverbially (see the chapter on nouns). Here are some frequently used adverbs o f tim e. C Z ) 才 （ as late as) refers to som ething that occurs or becomes known later than expected. It may convey a tone o f disapproval, regret, or surprise. 才 is often preceded by a tem poral noun. [1 ] 他早上九点半才来Q

TỖ zaoshang jiu diân bàn cái lái. He did not come u n til nine th irty. [2 ] 我才知道他去世了。

Wo cái zhīdao tā qùshì le. I ju s t learned that he passed away. In the above examples, 才 m odifies the verb that follow s it •才 can also precede a tem poral noun or a numeral word and is used in the sense o f

only. [3 ] 他才六点半就到了。

Tā cái liù diân bàn jiù dào le. He arrived as early as six th irty. [4 ] 他们认识了才半年。

Tỗmen rènshi le cái bàn nián. They have know n each other fo r only six months.

(从来) 从 来 （ a ll along) refers to som ething th a t is consistent and unchanged from the beginning to the present. It is m ostly used in negative sentences. Its synonym s include 历来 and 向 来 ：one is only used in positive sentences; the other is used in both positive and negative sentences. [5 ] 我 从 来 没 说 过 这 话 。

Wo cónglái méi shuõ guo zhè huà. I have never made such a statement. [6 ] $ 历 来 夺 说 话 算 数 。

Tā lìlái dõu shuõ huà suànshù. He can always be counted on to keep his word.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[7 ] 这个人向来心胸狭窄。

Zhè ge rén xiànglái xĩnxiõng xiázhai. This person is always narrow-minded. 〔冈『) 冈ļ (ju st) refers to an action or event that happened or was completed ju st a moment a g o .冈1 J冈1 J is an intensified version o f 冈1 J. [ 8 ] 我7刚 ， 门 ，还 没 换 衣 服 呢 。

Wo gang jin men, hái méi huàn yīfu ne. I ju s t walked in, and have not changed m y clothes yet. [9 ] $ 刚_睡 着 ，不 能 接 电 话 。

Tã găng shuì zháo, bù néng jiẽ diànhuà. She ju s t went to bed; she cannot answer the phone. ( 还 ) 还 （ s till) refers to som ething that continues to be the way it is. It also means even when used in comparison or means not too bad in reference to something that could be worse. [1 0 ] $ 是 老 了 ，可 是 脑 子 还 很 清 楚 。

TỠ shì lâo le, kěshi naozi hái hen qĩngchu. He is getting old now, but he s till thinks clearly. [ 1 1 ] 好^

不 见 了 ，你 还 这 么 年 轻 。

Haojiíj bú jiàn le, nĩ hái zhème niánqĩng. Long tim e no see; you s till look so young. [1 2 ] 他 刚 毕 业 就 比 他 爸 爸 挣 的 还 多 。

Tā găng bì yè jiù bĩ tã bába zhèng de hái duõ. R ight after graduation, he makes more than his father does. [ 1 3 ] 还„

，她 吴 少 没 有 完 全 拒 绝 你 。

Hái bú cuò, tā zhishao méiyou wánquán jújué ní. N ot too bad, at least she did not absolutely turn you down. c ® 就 (as early as) is one o f the most com m only used adverbs. Among its various meanings, it is often used to refer to something that occurs earlier than expected. It is the antonym o f 才 . [1 4 ] 他 六 点 就 来 了 。 T —

I •N

I >V

•• X

Iỵ •

I

TỖ liu dian jiu lai le. He came as early as six o’clock.

[ 1 5 ] 天_没 黑 我 们 就 到 了 。

Tiõn méi hẽi women jiù dào le. We got there before it was dark.

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tJt also means immediately or very soon. In addition, it can be used to express one’s insistence or firm ness about something. [16 ]

筹; 一 下 儿 ，我 碑 来 。

Děng yíxiàr, wõ jiù lái. W ait a second. I am coming. [1 7 ] 我 就 不 道 歉 Q

Wõ jiù bú dào qiàn. There is no way I w ill apologize. C D 又 （ again) refers to the reoccurance o f the same action or event (see # in the follow ing). It also means repeatedly, such as — (day after day). [ 1 8 ] ， 昨 天 没 来 上 课 ，今 天 又 没 来 。

Tā zuótian méi lái shàng kè, jīntiān yòu méi lái. He d id ď t come to class yesterday, and he missed class again today. [ 1 9 ] 她 问 了 又 问 ，想 了 又 想 ，决定不了。

Tỗ wèn le yòu wen, Xiang le you Xiang, juéding bù liâo. She asked again and again, thought again and again, but could not decide.

[ 2 0 ] 他 等 了一天又一天，一年又一年。 Tồ děng le yì tiỡn yòu yì tiõn, yì nián yòu yì nián. He waited day after day, year after year. (T再] 再 （ again) refers to an action that is going to be repeated (又 refers to the action that was already repeated) or an action that is going to occur after something else is done.

[21] 如 果 你 再 来 ，先 给 我 打 个 电 话 。 Rúguõ nĩ zài lái, xiãn gẽi wõ dâ ge diànhuà. I f you come again, call me first.

[22] $ 我 挣 v了 大钱，我 再 向 你 求 婚 。 Děng wo Zheng le dà qián, wỗ zài xiàng nĩ qiú hũn. Once I make big money, I w ill propose to you. There is a difference between 再不 and 不 再 . The form er means

longer in the sense that one resolves never to do something again or that something is fin a lly over. The latter sim ply means that one has stopped doing something.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[2 3 ] 她 发 誓 再 不 结 婚 了 。

Tā fāshi zài bù jié hūn le. She swears never to m arry again. [2 4 ] 他 不 再 给 我 送 花 了 。

Tā bú zài gěi wô sòng huā le. He does not send me flowers anymore. Here are more adverbs o f tim e: 不断（ continuously) 曾经（ used to be) 从此（ from now on) 反 复 (repeatedly) 历 来 (a ll along) 仍然 /s till) 先 (first) 已经（ already) 永远（ forever) 正在（ at present) 终 于 (fin a lly)

常 常 (often) 迟早（ sooner or later) 顿时（ instantly) 立刻（ at once) 马上（ rig h t away) 随 时 (at any tim e) 一旦（ once) 一直（ a ll the way) 再三（ again and again) 至 今 ( t i date)

6.4 Adverbs of degree (程度副词) Adverbs o f degree are used to indicate the degree or intensity o f a q u a lity; they m ostly prem odify adjectives. Some E nglish adverbs o f degree are used fo r com parison and are gradable. In Chinese, some adverbs o f degree, such as 更 and 最 ，are also used in comparison. Here are some com m only used adverbs o f degree.

c

比 较 )比 较 （ com paratively, relatively) is p rim a rily used to m odify adjectives; it indicates what is said is based on comparison w ith something else. 比较 is so extensively used, or perhaps overused, that many speakers sim ply use it in the sense o f very or fairly. [1 ] 这 本 书 比 较 有 意 思 。

Zhè bẽn shū bījiao you yìsi. This book is rather interesting. [2 ] 今 天 比 贫 冷 。

Jīntiān bījiao lěng. Today is fa irly cold.

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c过 于 ) 过 于 （ excessively) refers to a conduct that has gone too far, more than what is reasonable or appropriate.过于 ând 过 分 are sỵnonyms; the latter is both an adverb and an adjective. [3 ] $ 你 不 要 过 、 于敏感。

Qĩng nĩ bú yào guòyú mĩngân. Please do not be over-sensitive. [ 4 ] 你 过 于 相 g 自己了。

Nĩ guòyú xiõngxìn zìjĩ le. You trusted yourself too much. (稍微) 稍 微 （ s lig h tly ) means very little in degree or intensity. It prem odifies adjectives and verbs, and it needs to go w ith some measure words (such as —些 ，一 点 儿 ，or —下儿）that are placed after the adjective or the verb. [5 ] $ 稍 參 ， 了 一 些 。

TỖ shaowěi pàng le yìxiẽ. She is slig h tly overweight. [6 ] 你稍微抬一点儿头。

NĨ shaowěi tái yìdiânr tóu. You raise your head ju s t a little bit. [ 7 ] 请 你 稍 微 _动 二 下 儿 ，你 挡 住 了 我 的 视 线 。

QTng nĩ shaowěi dòng yíxiàr, nĩ dangzhu le wõ de shìxiàn. Please move a little bit. YouVe blocked m y view. ( 太 ）太 （ too much) prem odifies adjectives to indicate an excessive degree. It can mean something positive or negative. [8 ] 你说得太好了。

Nĩ shuõ de tài hâo le. You spoke so w ell. [9 ] 这个人太抠了。

Zhè ge rén tài kõu le. This man is too stingy.

(特 别 ) 特 别 （ especially) refers to som ething that is more true or relevant w ith one peršon or thing than w ith others.特 别 是 ，placed after a clause, is used to name a specific example•特别 and 尤其 are synonyms.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[1 0 ] 这 种 工 作 特 别 危 险 。

Zhé zhong gongzuó tèbié wěixian. This kin d o f jo b is p articularly dangerous. [ 1 1 ] 你 要 注 意 身 体 ，特 别 是 你 的 血 压 。

Nĩ yào zhùyì shẽntĩ, tèbié shì nĩ de xuèyã. You should w atch your health, p a rtic u la rly your high-blood pressure. Here are more adverbs o f degree: 友匕较（ com paratively) 格 外 (exceptionally) 过于（ excessively) 极 （ extremely) 几 乎 (almost) 太（ too much) 相当（ remarkably) 有 点 儿 (a little ) 越 发 (increasingly)

«

非 常 (highly) 够（ enough) 很 (very) 略 微 (slightly) 绝 对 (abfoluiely) 特别（ especially) 异常（ unusually) 有 些 (somewhat)

6.5 Adverbs of scope (范围副词)

Adverbs o f scope are closely related to adverbs o f degree. They indicate the scope in which an action is carried out. They may show the extent to w hich people are involved in an action, or the range o f things that are related to an action. Here are some com m only used adverbs o f scope.

(不过 ) 不 过 （ merely, no more than) is used to downplay something. It often appears in a sentence that ends w ith 而已 or 罢了 • Synonyms o f 不过 are 只是 and 仅 仅 .不 过 is also a conjunction. [ 1 ] 我 不 过 问 一 问 ，没 别 的 意 思 。

wõ búguò wèn yí wen, méi bié de yìsi. I am ju s t asking; I doď t mean anything else. [ 2 ] 他 不 过 幸 运 罢 了 ，没 什 么 了 不 起 。

Tã búguò xìngyùn bà le, méi shẽnme liâobùqĩ. He is ju s t lucky, nothing extraordinary about him self. 〔都 ) 都 （ all) means totally or completely， including every member or individual with no exception. It is often needed in certain patterns that

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emphasize inclusiveness, such as 他 什 么 都 吃 （ he eats everything). [3 ] 大 家 都 说 她 是 个 谜 。

Dàjiõ dõu shuõ tã shì ge mí. Everyone says that she is an enigma. [4 ] 他们都是电脑高手。

Tãmen dõu shì diànnâo gãoshõu. They are a ll computer savvies.

(凡 是 ) 凡 是 （ any, a ll) is used to include everyone or everything as long as they meet a certain condition•凡是 goes together w ith 都 . [ 5 ] 凡 是 认 识 他 的 人 ，都 很 喜 欢 他 。

Fánshi rènshi tā de rén, dõu hen xĩhuan tã. Anyone who knows him likes him . [ 6 ] 凡 是 通 过 考 试 的 人 ，都 可 以 得 到 奖 学 金 。

Fánshi tõngguò kâoshì de rén, dõu kẽyĩ dédào jiângxuéjĩn. A ll those who pass the exam w ill receive the scholarship. ( —律D 一 律 （ uniform ly) refers to that which applies to everyone or everything w ithout exception•—律 and —fearesynon ym s;how ever，一 律 emphasizes the same rule that everyone follow s; —概 emphasizes that a diversity o f things w ill be treated by the same standard. [7 ] 今天所有的商店一律关门。

Jīntiān suõyõu de shỗngdiàn yílu guãn mén. Today all Stores are closed. [8 ] 这次提工资大家一律f

等。

Zhè cì tí gongzī dajiā yílù píngděng. This tim e everyone is equal in getting a salary raise. [9 ] f 管 谁 来 采 访 ，他 一 概 拒 绝 。

Bùguân shéi lái caifang, tã yígài jújué. He rejects everyone who comes to interview him . N otice that —律 can also be used in [9]，but —概 cannot be used in [7] and [8]. c 只) 只 （ only) means exc印,；it is used to restrict the meaning o f verbs•只 is only an adverb in Chinese，but is an adjective, an adverb, and a conjunction in English.

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 1 0 ] 我7们 在 课 上 只 说 中 文 。

Women zài kè shang zhĩ shuõ Zhongwén. We only speak Chinese in class. [1 1 ] 我 只 希 望 他 回 心 转 意 。

Wỗ zhĩ xĩwàng tỗ huí xĩn zhuan yì. I only hope that he w ill change his m ind. c 至少] 至 少 （ at least) is used to name the low est am ount or the m inim um that is acceptable or that one should do. It may precede a noun， a verb, or a clause•至少 and 起 码 are synonyms. [1 2 ] 学费至少上 涨 百 分 之 十 。

Xuéféi zhishao shángzhang bâi fēn zhī shí. The tu itio n w ill increase at least ten percent. [ 1 3 ] 如/果彳尔有參意， ， 你至少先付上押金。

Rúguõ nĩ yõu chéngyì, nĩ zhishao xiãn fushang yājīn. I f you are serious, at least put down the deposit. Here are more adverbs o f scope: 大体（ generally) 单 独 (individually) 几 乎 (nearly) 起 码 (at least) 唯 独 (solely) 一 共 (altogether) 程 度 (adv)

大约（ probably) 多 半 (most like ly) 仅 仅 (merely) 全 (completely) 也 (also) 一 起 (together) 总 共 (totally)

6.6 Adverbs of negation (否定副词) Adverbs o f negation are used to fo rm the negative o f verbs or adjectives. They are needed to make sentences or to answer questions m the negative; some are needed in the im perative. There are a lim ite d number o f adverbs o f negation, and the follow ing are illustrations o f some o f their usages. c 另o 另) ] (do not) is used in the im p e ra tive , asking or o rd e rin g someone not to do something• 另 丨 J precedes the verb，but there can be other elements (e.g. a prepositional phrase) between 另*] and the verb.

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[ 1 ] 别 去 了 ，现 在 太 晚 了 。

Bié qù le, xiánzái tài wan le. Don’t go; it is too late now. [2 ] 你别什么都告诉他。

NT bié shénme dõu gàosu tã. Don’t tell him everything. Synonyms of 另 丨 ] include 勿，休 ， and 莫 • But they are not as commonly used as 另 丨1.

^ (not), like not in English, is used to form the negative of verbs and adjectives. It prepositions auxiliary verbs, verbs, or adjectives. [3 ] 我 不 知 道 也 不 想 知 道 。

wõ bù zhīdao yě bù xiâng zhīdao. I don’t know， and I don’t want to know. [4 ] 你不应该这么固执。

Nĩ bù yĩnggãi zhème gùzhì. You shouldn’t be so stubborn. d D 不 用 （not needed) means unnecessary to do something. Synonym s of 不用 include 不必 and 甭 （ notice that the word 甭 structurally composed of 不 and 用 ） •甭 is colloquial. [ 5 ] 你 不 用 解 释 ，一 切 都 很 清 楚 。

Nĩ bú yòng jiěshi, yíqiè dõu hěn qĩngchu. You do not need to explain; everything is clear. [ 6 ] 你 不 用 来 ，我 这 就 给 你 送 去 。

Nĩ bú yòng lái, wõ zhè jiù gěi nĩ sòngqu. You do not need to come; I will send it to you right away. (没 有 ) 没有 or 没 （ not), like 不， forms the negative of verbs. It is used to refer to the action that did not occur or was not completed. The verb 有 （ have) only takes 没 for negation; it does not take 不 . [7 ] 他没有考完就离开了教室。

Tā měiyou kâo wan jiù líkãi le jiáoshi. He left the classroom before he completed the exam. [8 ] 他没告诉你他的真实想法。

Tỗ méi gàosu riĩ tã de zhěnshí xiangfá. He did not tell you what he really thinks.

Parts of Speech 词类

[9]

$ 遗 ，、 ，我 冬 有 别 的 选 择 。

Hễn yíhàn, wo měi you bié de xuanzé. It is a p ity; I don’t have any other choice. [ 10]

，没育兮么值得骄傲的。

Tā méi yõu shénme zhídé jiāo’ ao de. He does not have anything w orthy to be proud of. c未 未必（ not necessarily) prem odifies verbs and adjectives; it indicates that som ething may not be as it appears•未必 may express a positive meaning i f follow ed by 不 or 没 • [ 11] i i 未 必 是 坏 事 儿 。

Zhè wèibì shì huài shìr. This is not necessarily a bad thing. [1 2 ] ， 未 必 没 看 见 我 。

Tā wéibi méi kánjián wo. He may have seen me. [1 3 ] 这 个 新 $ 未 必 灵 。

Zhè ge xĩn yào wèibì líng. This new m edicine is not necessarily effective.

6.7 Conjunctive adverbs (关联副词) In English, some adverbs, such as however, thus, and therefore, are conjunctive adverbs that, lik e conjunctions, may connect two clauses. You can switch the position o f the m ain clause and a subordinate clause led by a conjunction w ithout changing the m eaning o f the sentence (e.g. “ I like him because he is sm art” or “ Because he is sm art，I lik e him ’’)，but you cannot do this w ith a conjunctive adverb. You may say，“ It rained; therefore, we canceled the p a rty /9but it w ill not make sense to say, tẾWe canceled the party; therefore，it rained.” There is a group o f Chinese adverbs (many o f which we have visited above fo r th e ir various functions) that can also serve as conjunctive adverbs. Some connect tw o verbs or tw o adjectives; some w ork w ith conjunctions; some w ork w ith each other and form certain patterns. Here are some patterns consisting o f two conjunctive adverbs. ....... 才................ 就 （ just...then) refers to tw o things that happen one a fte r another. It som etim es m ay c a rry a tone o f d isa p p ro va l

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because the second thing occurs too soon or p rem aturely.才....... 就 are interchangeable w ith 刚....... 就.

[1] 你才工作就想买房？ NT cái gongzuó jiù xiâng mâi fáng? Do you want to buy a house rig h t after you start working?

[2] 他才来两天就忘乎所以。 Tỗ cái lái liâng tiãn jiù wàng hũ suõyĩ. He acts presum ptuously after being here fo r only tw o days.

( Aķ....... ) 非............ 不 （ not...unless) is used to demand something as the only choice or acceptable condition. 不 is follow ed by a verb，typ ica lly b y 可 o r行 . [3] 他 非 要 你 来 不 可 。 Ta Těl yao ni lai bu ke. He insists that you come.

[4] 她 非 亿 万 富 翁 不 嫁 。 Tā fēi yì wàn fúwěng bú jià. She w ill not m arry anyone except a billio n a ire .

(也 ....... 也 ) 也... 也 (both) is used to refer to two actions that occur at the same tim e, and the two actions have different subjects. It may carry a tone o f frustration or anger. [ 5 ] 你 也 抱 怨 ，他 也 抱 怨 ，有 什 么 可 抱 怨 的 ？ Nĩ yě bàoyuàn, tā yě bàoyuàn, yõu shénme kě bàoyuàn de? You com plain; he complains. W hat is there to com plain about?

[ 6 ] 这 也 不 对 ，那 也 不 对 ，到 底 什 么 是 对 的 ？ Zhé yě bú duì, nà yě bú dui, dàodĩ shénme shi dui de? This is wrong; that is wrong; what on earth is correct? ( X — ■•又 ）又. .... 又 （ both) prem odifies either adjectives or verbs and connects two parallel states or actions that share the same subject.

[7] 她又聪明又性感。 Tỗ yòu cõngming yòu xìnggân. She is both intelligen t and sexy.

[8] 他又高兴又悲哀。 丁õ yòu gỗoxìng yòu bēi’āi. He is both happy and sad.

Parts of Speech 词类

r 越……越 ） 越 .......越 （ the m ore."the more) connects tw o actions that correlate w ith each other in intensity and degree in their development. [9] 他 越 Ạ 越 远 。 、

Tā yuè zou yuè yuan. He is going fu rth e r and further away. [ 10] 你

越

他

，他 越 有 自 卑 感 。

Nĩ yuè bāngzhu ta, tā yuè you zibēigan. The m ore you help h im , the m ore he feels his in fe rio rity complex. c w … “ •就)再 .......就 （ if...th e n ) is used to show w hat w ould be the

r e s u l t i f t h e s i t u a t i o n w e r e a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n t h e s a m e . 再 .......就 i s

s im ila r to th e c o n d itio n a l c la u s e in tr o d u c e d b y 4 口 果 （ i f ) , b u t 4 口果 d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r ily im p ly th e m e a n in g o f #

(a g a in ) .

[11] 你再不走碑晚了。

Nĩ zài bù zõu jiù wân le. It w ill be too late i f you s till do not leave. [ 1 2 ] 你再、 这 巧 做 ，就 别 指 望 我 帮 你 了 。

NT zài zhéyáng zuồ, jiù bié zhĩwàng wõ bâng nĩ le. I f you do it again, then do not expect me to help you. ( 再……ļg ) 再 .......也 （ however...still) is used to express the idea that one w ill be persistant regardless o f what one may go against or what the consequence w ill be. [1 3 ] 别 人 再 反 对 他 也 去 。

Biérén zài fandui tā yě qù. He w ill go, however much others may be opposed to it. [14 ]

它_再 、 便 Ị 我也不买。

Tã zài piányi wỗ yě bù mâi. I w ill not buy it, however inexpensive it is.

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N u m era ls 数 词

We use the H indu-Arabic numeral system, as do alm ost a ll countries in the w orld today. In English, we have tw o ways to w rite numbers. One is to use Arabic numerals: 1, 2, and 3; the other is to use English numeral w ords: one, two, and three. A ra b ic num erals are easy to w rite and convenient fo r calculation, but we s till need English num eral words fo r many occasions. Your English professor, fo r example, requires that you spell out numerals when you w rite essays. The C hinese h is to ric a lly used ro d calculus (筹算)，w h ich was a p o s itio n a l num eral system that re lie d on counting rods (算筹）fo r ca lculation . M eanw hile, the Chinese also used w ritte n characters to w rite numbers. The H in d u -A ra b ic num eral system came to C hina in about the thirteenth century, but it did not become popularly used u n til the beginning o f the tw entieth century. Today, there are also tw o ways to w rite numbers in Chinese. One is to use the A rabic numerals as we do; the other is to use Chinese num eral characters, w hich, lik e English num eral words, are used in form al w ritin g and on form al occasions. In business and financial transactions, fo r example, people feel more secure recording in Chinese numeral characters. You w ill fin d it easy to count numbers in Chinese. Once you know how to count from one to ten, you can easily move up to one thousand. One bump that you w ill encounter is the difference in the representation o f positions. In Chinese, there is a word 7Ī (w an) representing the placevalue o f ten thousand, and a word (y i) fo r the position o f one hundred m illio n . In English, there are not separate symbols fo r these tw o positions, and we use compound words fo r them. For example, 20,000 is read as twenty thousand in E nglish but as two wan in Chinese. By the same token, we have the word million in English, but Chinese does not have a separate word for it and has to use the compound word /而 This difference in representation o f positions may cause a little confusion. In th is chapter, we w ill le a rn some fundam entals o f C hinese num erals, in c lu d in g how to read num bers, w hich often d iffe rs fro m E nglish. In spoken language, fo r example, we may read the year as a pair o f tw o -d ig it numbers, so the year 2012 is twenty twelve. In everyday Chinese, people w ill read each four d ig it numbers, so the year 2012 w ill be two zero one two. Chinese also d iffe rs from English in the ways o f saying ordinal numbers, approxim ate numbers, and fractions. A ll these

Parts o f Speech 词类

are not d iffic u lt, but you do need to com m it them to memory. It w ill help a lo t i f you try to read numbers in Chinese whenever you can, such as when you make a phone ca ll or when you check your bank account to see how much money you have. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

C ardinal numbers O rdinal numbers Other numerals Approxim ate numbers Basic mathem atical expressions

7.1 Cardinal numbers (基数词) A ll numbers can be divided into tw o types: cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. C ardinal numbers (e.g. 1, 2, and 3) are used to express quantities w hile ordinal numbers (e.g. firs t, second, and th ird ) are used to show the order or position o f things in a series. Now le t US firs t look at cardinal numbers and Chinese numeral characters. 7.1.1 Chinese num eral characters In China, along w ith the H indu-Arabic numerals, Chinese numeral characters are also used everywhere. For exam ple, when you make a purchase, you w ill see numeral characters printed on the receipt. W hen you open a book, you may fin d that the contents o f the book are numbered in numeral characters. There are two sets o f numeral characters. One is called 小 写 （ xiáo xiě), w hich are characters used in everyday w ritin g . The other is called 大 写 （ dá xiě), which are characters composed w ith m ulti-stro ke s th a t are used fo r m oney-related docum ents. They are com plicated to w rite to avoid am biguity or forgery. The term s xiaoxie and daxie, incidentally, are also used to refer to the lower and upper case letters in English.

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小写 大写

0

1

零

一

二

三

零

壹

贰

叁

y丁

èr

sān

ling

2

10

3

4

5

6

7

8

九

9

四

五

六

七

八

肆

伍

陆

柒

捌

玖

SÌ

wũ

liù

q丁

bā

jiũ

100,000,000

1,000

10,000

百

千

万

亿

拾

佰

仟

万

億

shí

bài

qiãn

wan

小写

十

大写

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yì

The above chart shows fifteen commonly used num eral characters (there are other characters standing for numbers larger than one hundred million). These characters can be combined with each other to represent infinite numbers. 7.1.2 Chinese representation o f num bers

English representation of numbers is, on the whole, systematic. From one to one hundred, only eleven and tw e lv e are different from th irteen to nineteen that end with the suffix -te e n . Chinese representation of numbers is simple and straightforward. E leven is + — (ten one); tw e lv e , (ten two); tw en ty, (two tens); tw e n ty -o n e , (two tens one); th irty, (three tens); th irty -o n e , 三 十 一 （three tens one). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九 十

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

十一 十二 十三 十四 十五 十六 十七 十八 十九 二十

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

二十一 二十二 二十三 二十四 二十五 二十六 二十七 二十八 二十九 三十

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

三十一 三十二 三十三 三十四 三十五 三十六 三十七 三十八 三十九 四十

Parts of Speech 词类

H ow ever, C hinese, as noted e a rlie r, has the w ord 7Ī (w an) to designate the place-value o f ten thousand; English does not have a special word fo r this position; it uses the compound word ten thousand. Chinese: 52,000 = 五 万 二 千 （ five two thousand) English: 52,000 = fifty -tw o thousand English has the w ord m illio n fo r the place value o f one-thousand thousand, but Chinese does not have a separate word fo r this position; it uses the compound word on e h u n d red w an fo r one m illio n . English: 42,000,000 = forty-tw o m illio n Chinese: 42,000,000 = 四千二百万(four thousand two hundred Chinese has the word 亿 （ yi) fo r one hundred m illio n w hile English uses the com pound w ord one hundred m illio n . E nglish has the w ord billion fo r one thousand m illio n , fo r which Chinese uses the compound word 十 亿 （ ten Chinese: 1， 200,000,000 = 十 二 亿 (twelve〆 ） English: 1,200,000,000 = one b illio n two hundred m illio n F inally, English has the word trillion and Chinese has the word ^ (zhao), and they both represent 1,000,000,000,000. That is a big number! 7.1.3 R eading num bers in Chinese It is one thing to know a number; it is another thing to know how to read it. There can be a difference even w ith in the same language. For exam ple, 125 is read as o n e h u n d r e d a n d tw e n ty - f iv e in B ritis h English, but as on e h u n d re d tw en ty-five in Am erican English, where the conjunction a n d is needed in one but not in the other. In English, we use a comma to separate each group o f three digits in a number consisting o f four or more digits, which makes reading easier. Take fo r example 95,345,788, we read the digits in each group follow ed by the positional notations. 95, 345, 788 ninety-five m illio n , three hundred fo rty-five thousand seven hundred eighty-eight Chinese also uses the three-digits grouping, which is an international practice, but this grouping does not help reading numbers in Chinese due

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to the positional notations of 万 and 彳乙. One way that will help is to mark each group of four-digits because ^ or ^ appears after every four placevalue beyond ten thousand.

2,50 II 0,000 二百 五 十 万 （two hundred fifty 84.00 II 0,000 八 千 四 百 万 （eight thousand four hundred wa«)

4 II 55,00 II 0,000 四 亿 五 千 五 百 万 （four w five thousand five hundred wa«) 1,3 II 89,00 II 0^000 十三亿八千九百万 （thirteen 少/_eight thousand nine hundred wa«)

Notice this four-digit grouping may help you read numbers, but you should never use a comma to separate each group of four-digits in writing, as this will cause confusion. If a number has one or more consecutive zeroes, you read the zero once. But if two zeros are separated within a number, you need to read both of them.

40.001 四 万 零 一 （four Wim zero one)

510,101 五十一万零一百零一（ fifty-one WÚ77 zero one hundred zero one)

When you read numbers from 11 to 19, you drop the leading one. But if a number has more than three digits, you need to include the leading on e and read it.

17 十 七 （ten seven)

317 三百'—-h-k (three hundred on e ten seven) 7.1.4

F unctions o f c a rd in a l num bers

In addition to counting and calculation, cardinal numbers are primarily used as adjectives to premodify nouns. In Chinese, whenever a cardinal number is used to modify a noun, it has to go together with a measure word.

Parts of Speech 词类

二十名学生（ twenty s tu d e n ts ) 九 十 张 照 片 （ ninety photos) B u t when c a rd in a l num bers m o d ify huge num bers, m easure words are not needed; however this only applies to a lim ite d number o f situations，such as 十 三 亿 中 国 人 （ one b illio n and three hundred m illio n Chinese) and 三百 5 # 4 (th re e m illio n s tu d e n ts ). Some cardinal numbers and measure words are form ed in to fixed expressions, and they function as adverbials or as complements. [1 ] 他一语中了要害。

Tỗ yì yũ zhóng le yàohài. H is rem ark h it the na il rig h t on the head. [2 ] $ 亲 了 我 一 口 。

Tỗ qĩn le wõ yì kõu. She gave me a kiss. For the functions o f cardinal numbers, see the chapters on measure words, adverbials, and complements.

7.2 Ordinal numbers (序数词) O rdinal numbers are used to indicate the order or position o f things in a series. However, the ways o f using ordinal numbers can be a little more com plicated in Chinese than in English. 7.2.1

O rd in a l num bers w ith 第

Chinese ordinal numbers are easier to construct than that o f English: you sim ply place the word 第 before a cardinal number, such as 第一 (first)， 第二（ second), and 第 三 （ 1:1^(1). O rd in a l numbers are used to indicate the order or the sequence o f things. They, lik e cardinal numbers, take a measure word to m odify nouns. 第 一 家 医 院 (the firs t h o s p ita l) 第 三 杯 茶 (the th ird cup o f tea) 第八本书（ the eighth book) 第 十 枚 奖 牌 (the tenth medal) However, ordinal numbers can also m odify nouns w ithout a measure word; in doing so, they and the noun can form a common noun or a proper noun. 第一课（ the firs t lesson) ( 第十二良 、 Ợwelfth Night)

第四季度（ the fourth season) 《第四十二街》 從o

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It is im portant to note i f an ordinal number takes a measure word when m odifying a noun, fo r the meaning can be different w ith or w ithout a measure word. 第 一 夫 人 (the firs t lady) 第一饭店（ the firs t hotel)

第 一 个 夫 人 (the firs t w ife) 第一家饭店（ the firs t hotel)

第一夫人 usually refers to the w ife o f the president o f a country•第一个 夫人 refers to the firs t w ife o f someone•第一饭店 may be the name o f a hotel or the ranking o f a h o te l.第一家饭店 refers to a hotel known as the firs t one fo r certain reasons, which needs to be explained. In E nglish, ordinal numbers can take the w ord time to count the occurrence o f actions. In Chinese, ordinal numbers need to take a verbal measure word (e .g .次，趟 ，and 回）to count the occurrence o f actions，and they function as adverbials. [1 ] 这 是 他 第 三 次 去 加 拿 大 。

Zhè shì tỗ dì sân cì qù Jiānada. This is his th ird tim e to go to Canada. [2 ] 这是他第一回看见恐龙。

Zhè shì tā dì yĩ huí kànjiàn kõnglóng. This is the firs t tim e he has seen a dinosaur. i

English ordinal numbers are also adverbs in their own right. They can be used to introduce items in a series. Chinese numerals can be used in the same way. •’ [ 3 ] 第 一 ，我 不 想 去 ；第 二 ，我 没 时 间 去 。

Dì yĩ, wõ bù xiâng qù; dì èr, wõ méi shijiān qù. First, I do not want to go; second, I have no tim e to go. 第 is the prim ary word used to form ordinal numbers•初 and 老 ，in a very lim ite d way, can also form ordinal numbers. means beginning. For e xa m p le ,初 一 ，初 二 ，and 初三 can refer to the firs t three days o f January (Spring Festival holidays) or to the firs t, second, and the th ird year o f Chinese m iddle schools.老 can take cardinal nuņibers to refer to the ranking o f children in a fam ily, such as 老大，老二，and 老三.

7.2.2 Ordinal numbers without 第 In reference to class, ra n k in g , o r le ve l in a p a rtic u la r trade, profession, or society, ordinal numbers can be used w ithout %. In such

Parts o f Speech 词类

cases，ordinal numbers go w ith the measure words 级 ，流 ，and 等，which a ll mean class or rate. 一级厨师（ the firs t class chef) 二等公民（ the second class citizen) 三流学校（ the third-rate school) 四年级学生（ the fourth grader) Chinese also uses cardinal numbers in reference to the order o f fam ily members based on age. In this case，大 is used fo r the eldest, and 小 is fo r the youngest one. 二姐（ second elder sister) 大 女 儿 (the oldest daughter)

三叔（ th ird uncle) 小 儿 子 (the youngest son)

第 is often ellipted in reference to buildings，floors, streets, districts, and groups, particularly in spoken language. 一 号 楼 (the firs t building) 三区（ the th ird district) 五组（ the fifth group)

二层（ the second flo o r) 四街（ the fourth avenue) 六队（ the sixth division)

In E nglish, we use ordin a l numbers to name dates, such as July

fourth. But Chinese uses cardinal numbers fo r dates. 二月一号（ February firs t)

十月二十号（ October twentieth)

Chinese also uses c a rd in a l numbers to name m onths, but there is a difference i f a measure word is used. For example, —月 means January, but —个月 means one month.

7.3 other numerals (其他数词） In Chinese，两 （ tw o)，半 （ h a lf)，and 几 （ several) are a ll categorized as numerals in terms o f part o f speech, and they are frequently used. Now let us take a look at their distinctive usage. 7.3.1 二 and 两 Both 二 and 两 mean Avơ，but they are used d ifferently.二 is used in counting numbers and in calculations•两 is used to indicate the quantity o f things, and it always goes w ith a measure word.

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两 架 飞 机 (two airplanes)

Remember that 两，lik e an adjective, is used a ttrib u tive ly and that “两 + number” always refers to something. For exa m p le ,两 should be used fo r 两 千 辆 汽 车 （ tw o thousand cars) and 两 万 个 学 生 （ tw enty thousand students). In the case o f you could say 两 百 台 电 脑 （ tw o hundred computers) or 二 百 台 电 脑 （ two hundred computers), though 两 is s till preferable. 二 and 两 m ay be used in te rc h a n g e a b ly w hen they m o d ify traditional Chinese measuring units. In these cases,两 appears to be more com m only used. 两斤土豆（ tw o力 o f p o ta to e s )二 斤 土 豆 （ t w o o f potatoes) 两亩花生（ tw o mw o f p e a n u ts )二 亩 花 生 （ two mw o f peanuts) In reference to international measuring u n its ,两 is clearly preferred: 两米（ two meters) or 两 公 里 （ two kilom eters).

7.3.2 半 ^ means half, and it is categorized as a numeral in Chinese. Like other num erals,半 needs a measure word when m odifying nouns. But i f it is used after a whole number, it is placed after the measure word. 半 瓶 水 (h a lf bottle o f water) 半个学期（ h a lf o f a semester) 三个半月（ three and a h a lf months) 一 斤 半 米 (one and â h a lf o f rice) 半 can be used in both a concrete and abstract sense, such as 半路 (m idw ay),半 夜 （ m id n ig h t),半 辈 子 （ h a lf o f one’s life ). In such instances, the measure word is usually not needed. In some cases, , lik e the English word half, functions as an adverb to show the state or condition o f something. [1 ] 他的门总是半 开着。

Tā de men zongshi bàn kāi zhe. H is door is always h a lf open. [2 ] 这学期我累得半死。

Zhè xuéqĩ wõ lèi de bànsĩ. I am half-dead from exhaustion this semester.

Parts o f Speech 词类

7.3.3 几 几 is a numeral representing â sm dl number_ anywhere from two to nine. It may be translated into s e v e ra l or a f e w in English. R j , lik e other cardinal numbers, has to go w ith a measure word when m odifying a noun. JL can also m odify a whole number, such as ten, hundred, and thousand. 几本书（ several books) 十几个杯子（ ten plus cups)

几个月（ a few months) 几 十 个 人 (dozens o f people)

means ten p lu s s e v e r a l, it refers to numbers anywhere between eleven to nineteen. A i+ means s e v e r a l tens. You may say Asw (several hundred) or /l/f~(severalthousand). JL means s e v e r a l. B y derivation, it is often used em phatically to mean ju s t a f e w or n o t m uch. [3 ] 我就剩几块钱了。

Wo jiù shèng jĩ kuài qián le. I have only a few dollars left. [4 ] 他 活 不 了 几 天 了 。

Tỗ huó bù liâo jĩ tiãn le. H is days are numbered.

7.4 Approximate numbers (概数) People give approximate numbers when they do not know the exact number or feel uncom fortable about revealing the exact number. Your doctor may te ll you that it takes about a week fo r you to get over the flu ; your aunt, forty-nine years old, may prefer to say that she is in her forties. There are various ways to say approxim ate numbers. In Chinese, i f you are not sure about a number, you may name it together w ith its adjacent number. For example, i f you th in k seven may be the correct number，you may say either 六 七 （ six or seven) or 七 八 （ seven or eight), depending on how you feel about it. B ut do not say 九 十 （ nine tens) because that is how n in ety is w ritten and pronounced in Chinese. In fact, we also use this method to say an approximate number in English, but we need the conjunction o r to connect the two numbers. [1 ]我今天三四点就起来了。

Wo jīntiān sān SI dian jiu qĩlái le. I got up as early as three or four o’clock today.

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[2 ] 我觉得他有十七八岁。

wõ juéde tã yõu shí qī bā SUÌ. I th in k he is seventeen or eighteen years old. I f the tw o numbers are double d ig its, as in [2], you do not repeat the tens in the second number. You say 十七八岁 rather than 十七，十八岁. S im ilarly, i f it is a three-digit number, you do not need to repeat hundreds in the second number. You say 四 五 百 个 字 （ four or five hundred words) rather than (four hundred or five hundred words). There are various expressions to express approximate numbers, and the follow ing are some o f them. c不至l l ) 不 到 （ fewer than) is used to suggest that the actual number is short o f a number (usually a whole number). It goes before the number: 不 到二十人（ fewer than tw enty people) and 不 到 二 十 分 钟 （ less than twenty minutes). [3 ] 这张飞机票不到三百美元。

Zhè zhāng fēijīpiao bú dào sān bâi měiyuán. This a irline ticket is less than three hundred dollars. [4 ] 现 在 还 不 到 十 二 点 。

Xiánzái hái bú dào shĩèr diân. It is not twelve o’clock yet.

(差 不 多 ) 差 不 多 （ more or less) lite ra lly means mỉ•肌 >7g «cư mwcA. It can be used to qu a lify any numbers, tim e, age, and quantity o f things. It is used in spoken language. [5 ] 现在差不多十二点了。

Xiánzái chàbừđuõ shĩèr diân le. It is about twelve o’clock now. [6 ] 油价差不多三美元一加仑。

Yóujiá chàbùduõ sān měiyuán yi jiālun. The gas price is about three dollars per gallon. ( S ) 大约（ roughly) and 大 概 （ approxim ately) are both adjectives and adverbs. They, as adverbs, are used to indicate that something is more or less accurate but. not exact. They can be used to refer to any kin d o f numbers, age, price, tim e, etc. [7 ] 飞机大约四点到。

Fēijī dàyuẽ sì diân dào. The plane w ill arrive at about four o’clock.

Parts of Speech 词类

[8 ] 他大概五十岁了。

Tā dàgài wushí suì le. He is probably fifty years old. ( W ) 多 (more) is used to indicate a number larger than a whole number. It is placed after the whole num ber: 三十多本书 （more than thirty books) and 六 十 多 美 元 (111〇比11^ 1181又1 丫(1 〇1以 8).

[9 ] $ 有 产 1 多 年 的 教 学 经 验 。

Tỗ yõu sõnshí duõ nián de jiáoxué jingyán. He has more than th irty years9 teaching experience.

[ 10] 那 个 人 有 四 十 多 岁 。

Nà ge rén yõu sìshí duõ suì. That person is more than fo rty years old.

(来 )来 （ give or take) is a colloquial expression. It is only used to m odify a whole number，such as 10, 20，100, or 1000•来 is positioned between the number and the measure word, but i f the number is below 10, 来 is placed after the measure word. [ 11]

有二十来个人没通过考试。

Yõu èrshí lái ge rén méi tõngguò kâoshì. About tw enty people did not pass the exam.

[ 1 2 ] 这 ỷ 西 瓜 有 _四 十 来 斤 重 。 Zhè ge xĩguõ yõu sìshí lái jĩn zhòng. This watermelon weighs about fo rty jin. [1 3 ] 我 在 山 东 住 了 一 个 来 月 。

wõ zài Shandong zhù le yí ge lái yuè.

•

I lived in Shandong fo r about one month. c上 下 ) J iT (about) lite ra lly means up or down. It is usually used in reference to age. Its synonym lite ra lly meaning before or after, is used to refer to dates. Both postm odify the numeral or the tem poral noun. [ w ] 他_太 太 看 上 去 父 十 上 下 。

Tỗ tàitai kàn shàngqu sãnshí shàngxià. H is w ife seems to be around th irty years old.

[15] $ 可 能 感 恩 节 ！ 后 搬 家 。

TỖ kěnéng Ganēn Jié qiánhòu bān jiā. He may move around Thanksgiving.

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左右（ le ft or right) is com m only used to express the idea o f v ic in ity . It is sim ila r to the English expression in the neighborhood o f som ething.左右 is a postm odifier. [1 6 ] 他 家 每 年 的 收 入 是 五 万 左 右 。

Tā jiā měi nián de shõurù shì wũ wàn zuõyòu. H is fa m ily ^ annual income is around fifty thousand dollars. [1 7 ] 参 加 示 威 的 人 有 二 十 万 左 右 。

Cānjiā shiwěi de rén yõu èrshí wàn zuõyòu. A b o u t tw o hundred thousand people p a rtic ip a te d in the demonstration.

7.5 Basic mathemat丨 cal expressions (基本数学用语) In Chinese, Arabic numerals are used fo r calculations, but Chinese numeral characters can also be used to represent numbers or arithm etical operations, as we can represent 1 + 1 w ith words one plus one. Here are some basic Chinese terms used fo r calculations. 7.5.1

F our a rith m e tic a l operations

Chinese words fo r the four basic arithm etical operations a re :加法 (a d d itio n ),减 法 （ subtraction)，乘 法 （ m ultiplication), and 除 法 （ division). The w ord '/k means rule or method (jặr'/ầ lite ra lly means the ru le o f language). The symbol is 等 于 （ equal).

[ 1] 1+1 = 2

一力Ợ一 等 于 二 。

Yī jiā yĩ děngyú èr. One plus one equals two. [2 ] 9 - 4 = 5

九减四等于五。

Jiu jian si děngyú [3 ] 3 x 3 = 9

WÚ.

N ine subtracted by four equals five. 三乘以三等于旯。

Sān chéngyĩ sān děngyú jiu. Three m ultiplied by three equals nine. [4 ] 8 + 2 = 4

八除以二等于四。 ，

Bõ chúyĩ ér děngyú sì. Eight divided by tw o equals four.

Parts of Speech 词类

In spoken language, you may shorten 乘 以 （ m u ltip lie d by) to 乘 and shorten 除 以 （ divided by) to 除.

7.5.2 Fractions A fra ctio n is called 分 数 （fěnshú) in Chinese. A fra ctio n , as you know, is a division in w hich one number is divided by another number. For example, 1/4 shows the result o f d ividing 1 by 4, where the numerator 1 is called 分 子 （fēnzī), and the denominator 4 is called 分 母 （fěnmů). In fractions, the number on the top is 分 子 ，and the number at the bottom is 分母. When you read a fraction in Chinese, you firs t read the denominator (the bottom number) and then the numerator (the top number), w hich is the opposite way we read in English (we start w ith the numerator, such as 0 In Chinese, 1/4 is read as 四 分 之 一 （ sì fẽn zhĩ yĩ) that means 1 out o f 4. The character ^ means to divide one into m ultiple portions. +五 分 之 三

八分之七

ị 〇

For a m ixed number (a whole number and a proper fraction), you need to place the character 又 between the whole number and the fraction. The character X means plus in this case. This is how you read it:

7.5.3 D ecim als A decim al is not a whole number. In Chinese, the decim al is called 小 数 （xiâoshù)，and a period is used to represent a decim al point as we do in English. The decim al point is called 小 数 点 （xiáoshùdiỗn) and is placed to the right o f the numeral that occupies the ones’ place, which is called 个 位 （ gèw èi). Here is how you read decim als in Chinese: 0.25 零点二五 100.01 —百点零一

12.12 十二点一二 421.234 四百二十一点二三四

Notice that you need to read the place value o f each d ig it to the le ft o f the decim al point, such as 四 百 二 十 一 （ fo u r hundred and twenty-one). But you do not read the place value o f each number to the rig h t o f the decim al point.

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7.5.4 Percents The C hinese te rm fo r percent is 百 分 数 （ b á ifě n s h ú ). C hinese also uses the symbol % to indicate percent. In English, we firs t read the number and then the percentage, such as fifteen percent. In Chinese, you firs t read the percentage and then read the number: 15%

百分之十五

95%

百分之九十五

I f you travel in China, you sometimes see sale signs such as 八 折 or 九 折 • In C hinese,打 折 （ dá zhé) means to purchase things at discount•折 is a way o f expressing percentage, but the denominator o f 4/f is ten instead o f hundred. One 折 is one-tenth, which equals ten percent.八 折 is eighty percent. It means that you pay eighty percent o f the original price, which means tw enty percent o ff. I f it is 八 五 折 （ it is read as bỗ wú zhé), it means fifte e n percent off. [5 ] 这块表我可以给你打七折。 Zhè kuài biâo wỗ kẽyĩ gěi nĩ dâ qĩ zhé. You can get this watch at th irty percent off. [6 ] 这双运动鞋能不能打折？ Zhè shuỡng yùndòng xié néng bù néng dâ zhé? Can I get a discount for this pair o f athletic shoes? In C hin e se ,成 (chéng) is another way to express percentage• 成 ， lik e 折 ，is also based on ten (one in every ten) rather than a hundred. One 成 is one tenth，which equals 10% •成 uses the whole numbers from 1 to 9, so it is used to present a general, rough figure compared w ith percentage. [7 ] 他三成的收入都缴税了。 Tā sãn chéng de shõurù dõu jiāo shuì le. T h irty percent o f his income went to pay the tax. [8 ] 七成的公司都没有赚钱。 Qĩ chống de gõngsĩ dõu méiyõu zhuàn qián. Seventy percent o f companies did not make money. In English, you can use percents to express certainty or like lih o o d (e.g. “ I am a hundred percent certain” ). You can do the same in Chinese. But i f you do it w ith 成 ，you may only use 八 成 （ eighty percent) that has become a fixed expression; people hardly ever use any other numbers w ith Jji to express certainty or probability.

Parts of Speech 词类

[9 ]你百分之百地错了。

Nĩ bâi fēn zhī bâi de cuò le. You are a hundred percent wrong. [1 0 ]今 天 他 八 成 不 来 了 。

Jīntiān tā bã chéng bù lái le. M ost lik e ly he w ill not come today.

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M e a s u re W ords 量 词

Chinese measure words, also know n as classifiers, are probably a pain in the neck as you begin to learn Chinese. You m ight have never paid attention to measure words before. But, in English, there are also measure words know n as p a rtitiv e expressions that you use a ll the tim e. For example, we say a piece o f inform ation, a heap o f trash, and ten gallons o f gas. These p a rtitive s provide ways o f counting or m easuring what otherwise is uncountable or immeasurable. W ell, you may s till argue that there are a lo t o f measure words in Chinese. In C hinese, measure words are needed whenever you q u a n tify nouns, whether they are concrete or abstract entities. But in fact measure words are very interesting, fo r they reveal the ways people perceive things in the w orld. For example: 他 家 有 五 口 人 ，养 了 两 头 猪 。

Tā jiā you wũ kỗu rén, yâng le liâng tóu zhū. There are five people in his fa m ily; they raise tw o pigs. 口 （ m outh) is fo r speaking and eating, perhaps the most representative b o d y p a rt o f hum ans. T h is m ay be th e reason th a t it is used synecdochically fo r people, m ostly fo r fa m ily members. In E nglish we also say that one has a lo t o f mouths to fe e d .头 （ head) is a measure word fo r pigs; one can easily use the head to count the number o f pigs (we use head fo r cattle in English). But mouth can also be used fo r pigs as though they could be considered fa m ily members. Measure words may present a visual dimension to the language and show the ways things are related to each other. For examples, the measure word 才艮can m odify a needle or a colum n— anything o f a long th in piece. The measure w ord 棵 is used fo r plants; it can m o d ify a tin y tom ato seedling or a gigantic redwood tree, though they look very different. The measure word %r is fo r things in a long and narrow shape, such as a river; by derivation, it is also used fo r news perhaps because that is how the p rin t o f a piece o f news looks in the newspaper. Chinese measure words can be classified into two m ain categories. One is 名 量 词 （ nom inal measure word), w hich quantifies nouns; the other is 动 量 词 （ verbal measure word)，which indicates the frequency o f actions or the means by w hich an action is perform ed. Some nom inal measure words are subject to idiom atic usages; things s im ila r in shape or kin d may not necessarily take the same measure word. In some instances, two

Parts o f Speech 词类

or more measure words may be used fo r the same noun. M any measure words may be used in reduplication. Chinese measure words are ã word class very different from that o f English. But once you get used to them, you w ill enjoy them. 8.1 N om inal measure words 8.2 Verbal measure words 8.3 Reduplications o f measure words

8.1 Nominal measure words (名量词) There are three types o f English p a rtitive expressions. One is the general p artitive (e.g. b it and p ie c e ), w hich can be applied to numerous uncountable things that are not necessarily the same kin d . A nother is the ty p ic a l p a rtitiv e , w hich is used fo r things sharing some physical characteristics, such as a b a r o f chocolate, a g r a in o f rice, or a lu m p o f sugar. The th ird is the measure p a rtitiv e , w hich includes various measuring units: an a c re o f land, a q u a rt o f m ilk , a p o u n d o f beef, and a m ile o f power line. Chinese nom inal measure words may be divided in to fo u r m ajor catgories. One is ty p ic a l m e a s u r e w o r d s that can o n ly occur w ith a number or a dem onstrative to m odify nouns. The second is te m p o r a r y m e a su re w o r d s that are the names o f objects but can also fu nction as measure words, such as ã ốoừ/e o f beer. The third is 力ve weaswre vw rifc that indicate p lural entities, such as a f l o c k o f birds. The fo u rth is unit m easu re w o rd s that are units fo r measuring length, weight, and quantity. 8.1.1 T yp ica l measure w ords T ypical measure words only function as measure words: they are always preceded by ã number or ã demonstrative to m odify nouns. M ost o f these measure words are only appropriate to one kind o f thing; a few may apply to things o f diffe re n t kinds. In some instances, people from different regions may use different measure words fo r certain things. The follow ing are some com m only used typical measure words. c 把 ) 把 ：（ 1) objects w ith handles: —把 刀 （ a k n ife ), —把 手 枪 （ a pistol)，一 把 铁 锹 (a spade), —把 钥 匙 (a key), —把 雨 伞 (an um brella); (2) things that can be held in hand: —把 汗 （ a handful o f sweat), —把 米 （ a handful o f rice); (3) hand that stands fo r a person: —把 好 手 （ a competent

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person), —把 老 手 （ an old hand) ( 包 ) 包：parcel, packet，or bundle— something wrapped in paper or in cloth rather than packed in a container: — 包 茶 叶 （ a packet o f tea), — 包礼物（ a packet o f g ift), — 包 衣 服 (a parcel o f clothes)，一 包 烟 （ a pack o f cigarettes)，一 包 炸 药 （ a package o f explosives) ( 本 ）本 : books and magazines or any set o f printed or blank pages that are fastened together: —本 笔 记 本 （ a notebook), —本 地 图 册 （ an atlas), —本 书 （ a book)，一 本 相 册 (a photo album)，一 本 杂 志 （ a magazine), 一本账（ an account book)

( 场 ） 场 ：（1) a show or perform ance: — 场 辩 论 （ a debate), —场表 演 （ a perform ance), — 场 电 影 （ a m ovie)，一 场 足 球 赛 （ a soccer game); (2) personal experience: — 场 恶 梦 （ a nightm are), — 场 惊 吓 （ a scary experience); (3) a natural or human event: —场 革 命 （ a revolution)，一场突 难 (a disaster)，一 场 战 争 (a war) c 道 ）道 ：（ 1) som ething long and narrow : — 道 闪 电 （ a streak o f lightening), — 道 伤 口 （ a wound);⑵ barriers: —道 墙 （ a w a ll)，一道屏障 (a protective screen)，一 道 铁 幕 （ an “ iron curtain’’)；（ 3) verbal entities: — 道命令（ an order)，一 道 难 题 （ a d iffic u lt question);⑷ dishes: —道 菜 （ a course in a meal), —道 药 膳 (a tonic food) c 份 ）份 : （ 1) a share o f something: —份 财 产 （ a piece o f property), 一份早餐（ a b re a kfa st); (2) a p o rtio n o f som ething: — 份 k ： 李金（ a scholarship), —份 礼 物 （ a g ift)，一 份 工 作 （ a job);⑶ a copy o f something: 一份指J 氏（ a newspaper)，一 份 文 件 （ a document) ( 费 勺 个 ：（ 1) humans: — 个 人 （ a person), — 个 学 生 （ a student);⑵ abstract entities: —个 故 事 (a story), —个 计 划 (a plan), —个 主 意 (an idea) ;⑶ objects in round or cubical shapes: —个 盒 子 （ a box), —个 苹 果 （ an apple), 一个球（ a ball), —个 西 瓜 （ a w aterm elon);⑷ certain tim e periods: —个冬 天 （ a w inter), —^个 晚 上 （ an evening)，一 个 月 （ a month) c 根 ) 根 ：things long and th in : —根 冰 棍 （ a popsicle), —根 棍 子 （ a stick)，一 根 树 枝 (a tree branch), —根 头 发 (a strand ồ f hair), —根 香 黑 （ a banana)，一 根 针 （ a needle)

C W ) 间: a room in a house or a building: 一 间 厨 房 （ a kitchen)，一 间办公室（ an office), — 间 急 诊 室 （ an emergency room)，一 间 手 术 室 （ an operation room), — 间 宿 舍 (a dorm itory)，一 间 卧 室 （ a bedroom), — 间浴室 (a bathroom)

Parts o f Speech 词类

( W ) 件 ：（1) clothes: — 件 衬 衫 （ a s h irt), — 件 大 衣 （ a coat); (2) fu rn itu re : 一 件 摆 设 （ a decoration), —件 家 具 （ a piece o f fu rn itu re ); (3) small g ifts and art works: —件 礼 物 （ a g ift), — 件 艺 术 品 （ an art work); (4) incidents: —件 事 （ an incident) C D 棵 : plants and trees: —棵 草 莓 （ a strawberry plant)，一棵杜胃乌 (an azalea), —棵 黄 瓜 （ a cucumber plant)，一 棵 柳 树 （ a w illo w )，一 棵 苗 （ a seedling), 一 棵 树 （ a tree) ( 颗 ) 颗 : grain o r some sm all and roundish objects: — 颗 爱 心 （ a loving heart), — 颗 纽 扣 （ a button)，一 颗 卫 星 （ a satellite), — 颗 星 星 （ a star), —颗 炸 弹 (a bomb), —颗 珍 珠 (a pearl) c 粒 ) 粒 ：granular objects (sm aller than what 颗 m odifies): —粒胶嚢 (a capsule), — 粒 米 (a grain o f rice), —粒 葡 萄 （ a grape)，一 粒 沙 子 （ a grain o f sand), — 粒 珍 珠 （ a pearl), — 粒 芝 麻 （ a sesame seed)，一 粒 种 子 (a seed)

c

)

块 块 ：（ 1) som ething in a cubical shape: — 块 蛋 糕 （ a piece o f cake)，一 块 肥 鬼 （ a bar o f soap)，一 块 牛 肉 （ a chunk o f beef);⑵ a piece o f something w ith a fla t surface: —块 表 （ a watch)，一 块 木 板 （ a length o f board), —块 手 靖 （a handkerchief)，一 块 土 地 (a piece o f land)，一 块 砖 (a break) ( 辆 ) 辆 ：any kind o f vehicle: —辆 出 租 车 （ a taxi), —辆 公 共 汽 车 （ a bus), —辆 摩 托 车 (a motorcycle), — 辆 汽 车 (an automobile), —辆 小 轿 车 (a car)，一 辆 自 行 车 （ a bicycle) c 片 ) 片：（ 1) things in th in pieces: —片 奶 赂 （ a slice o f cheese), — 片树叶（ a tree leaf), —片 药 （ a tablet);⑵ a stretch o f land or water: — 片草地（ a stretch o f lawn), —片 树 林 （ an expanse o f woods), —片ÍS 泽 （ a swamp);⑶ sounds or noises: —片 噪 音 （ fu ll o f noises);⑷ a heart fu ll o f certain feelings: —片 好 心 （ fu ll o f good intentions)，一 片 心 意 （ fu ll o f kind feelings) ( 台 ) 台：（ 1) electrical or mechanical devices: — 台 打 印 机 （ a printer), 一台电脑（ a computer), — 台 电 视 (a television set), — 台 机 器 （ a machine); (2) stage performances: 一 台 歌 剧 （ an opera), — 台 演 出 （ a performance) c 条 ) 条 ：anything in a long and narrow shape: — 条 虫 子 （ a worm)，一 条 船 (a boat)，一 条 河 (a river)，一 条 路 (a road), — 条 裤 子 （ a pair o f pants)， 一条毛巾（ a towel), —条 裙 子 （ a s k irt)，一 条 绳 子 （ a rope)，一 条 鱼 （ a fish) ( 张 ) 张：（ 1) things having a fla t surface: — 张 画 （ a picture)，一 张 票 （ a ticket), — 张 纸 （ a piece o f paper);•⑵ certain fu rn itu re and tools: — 张 床 （ a

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bed)，一 张 弓 （ a bow)，一 张 桌 子 （ a desk);⑶ human face: — 张 脸 （ a face), 一 张 嘴 (a mouth) c 只 ) 只：（ 1) certain anim als and insects: —只 狗 （ a dog), —只 蝴蝶 (a butterfly), —只 蚂 蛑 （ a grasshopper), —只 猫 （ a cat)，一 只 鸟 （ a bird);⑵ human or anim al body parts: —只 翅 膀 （ a w ing)，一 只 脚 （ a foot)，一 只 手 （ a hand)，一 只 爪 子 （a claw); (3) one o f a pair o f things: —只 手 套 （ one o f the gloves)，一 只 鞋 （ one o f the shoes)

( 支 ）支：（ 1) s tic k -lik e objects (interchangeable w ith 枝 ） ：一支笔 (a pen), — 支 步 枪 （ a r ifle ) ，一 支 蜡 烛 （ a candle), — 支 烟 （ a cigarette); (2) songs: — 支 歌 （ a song)，一 支 乐 曲 （ a m usic); (3) a crew fo r special purposēs: —支 队 伍 (an arm y detachment), —支 抢 险 队 (a rescue crew), — 支 医 疗 队 (a m edical team) c 座 ）座 ：（ 1) mountains, h ills ，and forests: —座 森 林 （ a forest), —座山 (a m ountain);⑵ cities: —座 城 市 （ a city)，一 座 古 城 （ an ancient city)，一座 县城（ a county seat); (3) large architecture or constructions: 一 座 城 堡 （ a castle), —座 雕 塑 （ a statue), —座 坟 墓 （ a grave)，一 座 楼 房 （ a building)，一 座屈（ a temple)，一 座 塔 (a tower), —座 舞 台 （ a stage) N otice that many ty p ic a l measure words are not specific entities. For example,条 refers to things in a long and narrow shape, but 条 its e lf is not the name o f a specific object, and it is only used to describe other objects.

8.1.2 Temporary measure words Temporary measure words represent specific objects or entities and can, at the same tim e, also serve as measure words. They can be names fo r human body parts or various containers. C M ) 杯 : cups and glasses: —杯 ;水 激 淋 （ a cup o f ice cream)，一杯 茶 (a cup o f tea), —杯 橘 子 水 (a glass o f orange juice), —杯 咖 # (a cup o f coffee), —杯 牛 奶 (a glass o f m ilk )，一 杯 葡 萄 酒 （ a glass o f wine)

c 肚 子 ) 肚 子 ：a b e lly fu l o f something usually used in a m etaphorical sense: —肚 子 话 （ a b e lly fu l o f w ords), and —肚 子 坏 水 （ a b e lly fu l o f w icked ideas), —肚 子 牢 骚 （ a b e lly fu l o f com plaints), —肚 子 墨 水 （ a b e lly fu l o f knowledge), —肚 子 气 （ a b e lly fu l o f anger), —肚 子 委 屈 （ a b e lly fu l o f grievances)

c

D ) 口 ：（1) the number o f people in a household:四 口 人 （ a fa m ily o f four);⑵ p ig s : 三 口 猪 （ three pigs);⑶ certain u tilitie s w ith a roundish

Parts o f Speech 词类

opening: — 口 缸 （ a jar), — 口 井 （ a w ell); (4) a m outhful o f something: — 口果汁（ a m outhful o f fru it juice); (5) the manner o f speaking a language: 一口流利的中文（ speaking fluent Chinese)，一 口 脏 话 （ a m outhful o f foul language) — ® 脸 : fa c ia l expressions: 一 脸 敌 意 （ a face fu ll o f anim osity)， 一脸魅尬（ a face f u ll o f em barrassm ent), —脸 沮 丧 （ a face f u ll o f disappointm ent), —脸 天 真 （ a face fu ll o f innocence), —脸 痛 苦 （ a face fu ll o f pain), —脸 羞 湿 （ a face fu ll o f bashfulness)

( 盘 ) 盘 ：（ 1) plates: —盘 炒 饭 （ a plate o f frie d rice ), —盘 水 果 （ a plate o f fru it); (2) ro lls o f tapes: — i 篆 音 带 （ an audio tape)，一盘录Ặ 带 （ a video tape); (3) chess boards: —盘 棋 （ a chess game); (4) games or matches: 一 盘 比 赛 （ a game) c 瓶 ) 瓶 ：b o ttle s: — 瓶 醋 （ a b o ttle o f v in e g a r)，一 瓶 可 口 可 乐 （ a bottle o f Coco Cola)，一 瓶 啤 酒 （ a bottle o f beer), —瓶 洗 碗 液 （ a bottle o f dishwashing liq u id ), —瓶 药 （ a bottle o f medicine) c 身 ）身：a person in possession o f c e rta in m o ra l q u a litie s or physically covered by something: — 身 病 （ a body fu ll o f ailm ồnts)，一身臭 气（ a body fu ll o f stinking sm ell), — 身 大 汗 (a body fu ll o f sweat), — 身胆 量 (a person fu ll o f courage), — 身 伤 痕 (a body fu ll o f bruises), — 身 正 气 (a person fu ll o f righteousness) ( 头 ) 头：（ 1) certain types o f livestock: — 头马户（ a donkey), — 头 螺 子 （ a mule)，一 头 牛 （ a cow)，一 头 猪 （ a pig);⑵ a head fu ll o f something: — 头 汗（ a head fu ll o f sweat)，一 头 银 发 (a head fu ll o f silver hair) 碗 : bowls: —碗 茶 (a bowl o f tea)，一 碗 豆 浆 （ a bow l o f soybean m ilk )，一 碗 米 饭 （ a bowl o f rice), —碗 面 （ a bow l o f noodles)，一 碗 汤 （ a bowl o f soup), —碗 粥 （ a bowl o f congee) Notice that tem porary measure words representing body parts (e.g. i f ,Ẽ t, or 肚 子 ）can only go w ith the numeral owe. For example, you can say 一 脸怒气（ a face fu ll o f anger), but not 两 脸 怒 气 （ two faces fu ll o f anger). They can be m odified by 满 （ fu ll) as in 满 脸 怒 气 （ a face fu ll o f anger).

8.1.3 Collective measure words C ollective measure words refer to m ultitudes o f people or things whose number is unknown or uncountable. Each o f these measure words is only appropriate to certain things based on their meanings or physical

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appearances.

c

帮 ）帮：（ 1) a gathering o f people organized as â group: —帮 旅 游 者 (a horde o f to u rists),二 帮 乞 丐 （ a ģ a th ;rin g č)f beggars),二帮X 球 迷 (a crowd o f football fans);⑵ gangs: —帮 流 紙 （ a gang o f thugs), — 帮 土 匪 （ a bunch o f bandits), — 帮 罪 犯 (a bunch o f crim inals)

c

堆 ) 堆 :⑴ piles o f things: —堆 垃 圾 (a heap o f trash), —堆 书 （ a pile o f books), —堆 文 件 （ a stack o f documents), —堆 玉 米 (a mound o f corns); (2) a crowd o f people: —堆 人 （ a crowd o f people); (3) a bunch o f words: 一堆谎言（ a pack o f lies)

c

对 ） 对 ：（ 1) m arried couple or tw ins: —对 夫 妻 （ a m arried couple), 一 对 双 胞 胎 （a set o f tw ins); (2) a pair o f insects, birds, or anim als: —对 蝴蝶（ a pair o f butterflies), —对 鸿 子 （ a pair o f pigeons), —对 熊 猫 （ a pair o f pandas);⑶ a pair o f matched things: —对 灯 笼 （ a pair o f lanterns), — 对石狮子（ a pair o f stone lions) ( 双 ) 双 ：a p a ir o f things: —双 脚 （ tw o feet), —双 筷 子 （ a p a ir o f chopsticks), —双 手 （ tw o hands), —双 手 套 （ a pair o f gloves), —双 袜 子 （ a pair o f socks), —双 鞋 （ a pair o f shoes), —双 眼 睛 （ a pair o f eyes)

( 副 ) 副 ：（ 1) certain objects in pairs: — 副 耳 环 （ a p a ir o f earrings), 一副手套（ a p a ir o f gloves)，一 副 眼 镜 （ a p a ir o f glasses); (2) fa c ia l expressions: — 副 笑 脸 （ a sm iling face); (3) packs o f cards or games: — 副 扑 克 牌 (a pack o f cards)，一 副 象 棋 (a chess set) ( 批 ）批 : （ 1) a batch o f people: —批 毕 业 生 （ a batch o f graduates)，一 批旅游者（ a batch o f tourists);⑵ a batch o f com m odities:二 批 建 筑 材 料 (a batch o f building materials), —批 进 口 货 （ a batch o f im ported goods);⑶ a bunch o f documents: —批 信 件 （ a batch o f m ail)

( 群 ）群 : a number o f people，anim als，birds in the same place: —群 蚂蚁（ a swarm o f ants), — 群 蜜 蜂 （ a swarm o f bees), —^群鸟 （ a flo c k o f birds), —群 牛 (a herd o f cows)，一 群旁观 者 (a crowd o f onlookers), —群 人 (a group o f people) c 套 ）套 ：a set o f things either concrete or abstract: —套 家 具 （ a set o f furniture), —套 理 论 （ a set o f doctrines)，一 套 设 计 （ a set o f designs), —套 西 服 (a suit), —套 想 法 （ a set o f ideas), —套 邮 票 （ a set o f stamps) ( 些 ) 些：certain amount o f things either countable or uncountable: 一 些帮助（ some help), — 些 冲 突 （ some conflicts), — 些 食 品 （ some food)，一 些书（ some books), —些 问 题 (some questions) ，一 些 想 法 （ some ideas)

Parts of Speech 词类

c

点 儿 ) 点 儿 ：（ 1) a sm all am ount o f som ething usu a lly used fo r uncountable nouns: —点 儿 困 难 （ a little d iffic u lty ), —点 儿 奶 絡 （ a little cheese), —点 儿 时 间 （ a little tim e), —点 儿 新 鲜 空 气 （ a little fresh air), — 点儿想法（ a thought), —点 儿 盐 （ a little salt); (2 )点 ：opinions or views: 三 点建议（ three suggestions),两 点 看 法 （ two points o f views) 对，双 ，and 副 can a ll be translated as pazr in E nglish, but they m o d ify d iffe re n t objects in Chinese•对 refers to tw o people who are doing something together or have a particular relationship, or two animals or birds o f the same species that mate w ith each other, or tw o objects that match each other in style or function. ^ also means even, and it is the antonym o f 单 （ odd). It is used to refer to objects that naturally come in pairs. 副 refers to certain objects whose fu n ctio n depends on two constituting parts. Some objects can be m odified by more than one measure word such as — 畐1J耳环 or —对 耳 环 (a pair o f earrings). 些 and are known as indefinite measure words. They refer to a small amount o f something, but refers to even a sm aller amount than 些 • W hen they prem odify nouns, they are often preceded by the numeral —些 （ some) and —点 儿 （ a little ); they can also be preceded by some demonstrative pronouns, such as 这 些 （ this m u ch ),那 些 （ that much)，这 么些（ so m u c h ),那 么 些 （ so m u c h ),这 么 点 儿 （ such a little )，a n d 那么点 儿 （ such a little ). In addition to prem odifying nouns, 些 and 点儿 can postm odify adjectives and verbs, meaning slightly or a little bit.

8.1.4 Unit measure words The International System o f Units (SI)，known as 公 制 ，is the o ffic ia l system o f units in China. M eanwhile, the traditional Chinese system o f units, called 市制，is also extensively used. The fo llo w in g chart shows some com m only used Chinese units in comparison w ith the International System and the English system. The English system is not used in China. Chinese System 1市 里 （ /Ž) 1市 尺 (chi) 1市寸 1市斤 (iin ) 1市两 1市 亩 (ww) 1市 升 (•s/zewg)

International System = 0 .5 公 里 （ kilom eter)

English System

=0.3333米 (meter) =0.3333厘 米 (centimeter) = 0.5公 斤 （ kilogram ) 二50克 （ gram)

=0.3107英 里 （ m ile) =1.0936英 尺 (footi =1.3123英 寸 （ hich) =1.1023镑 （ pound) = 1.7637ắ 司 （ ounce)

=0.0667公 项 （ hectare) =1 公 升 （ lite r)

=0.1644 英 亩 （ acre) =0.2200加 仑 (gallon)

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O f the tw o systems, one may be more com m only used in one area than in another. In terms o f weight and distance, the Chinese system tends to be more used in daily life than the International System. [ 1 ] 我 要 子 斤-香 ị Ị , 5 斤J i 。

wõ yào sān jīn xiāngjiāo, s ijīn li. I want three jin o f bananas and four jin o f pears. [2 ] 他的体重是二百五十斤。

Tã de tīzhong shì èr bâi wushí j'īn. He weighs tw o hundred fifty jin. [3 ] 从我家到商场有四里地。

Cóng wo jiā dào shãngchâng you si IT dì. It is four li from m y home to the shopping center. N otice that 四里地 lite ra lly means fo u r // o f land, w hich may also be stated as 四 里 路 （ four " o f road). Both are idiom atic usages. In te ch n ica l w ritin g or newspaper re p o rtin g , the In te rn a tio n a l System is usually used regarding weight and distance. [4 ] 这颗卫星重四百公斤。 Zhè kẽ wéixing zhóng sì bâi gongjīn. This satellite weighs four hundred kilogram s. [5 ] 这条铁路全长三千公里。

Zhè tiáo tiẽlù quán cháng săn qiãn gõnglĩ. This railroad totals three thousand kilom eters. W ith reference to length, both the In te rn a tio n a l System and the Chinese system are com m only used. Chinese 尺 (foot) is usually used if the object is tw o or three feet long; otherwise 米 （ meter) is p re fe rre d .米 is also com m only used fo r height, such as the height o f buildings, trees, or humans. [6 ] 那条蛇有两尺多长。

Nà tiáo shé yõu liâng chí duõ cháng. That snake is more than tw o feet long. [ 7 ] 这 座 桥 三 十 米 长 ，五 米 宽 。

Zhè zuò 'qiáo sãnshí mĩ cháng, wú mĩ kuãn. This bridge is th irty meters long, five meters wide.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 8]

他儿子身高一米八 五 。

Tỗ érzi shẽngõo yì mĩ bã wũ. H is son is 1.85 meters ta ll. 斤 and 两 are usually used in referring to liq u id ，such as cooking o il and liquor, but the International System is used i f the liq u id is m edically or scientifically related•公升 is used fo r gasoline. [9 ] 做 、 这 4 菜、 要一两香油。

Zuò zhè dào cài yào yì liâng xiãngyóu. One Hang o f sesame o il is needed to cook this dish. [1 0 ] 我 刚 ， 车 加 了 四 十 公 升 汽 油 。

Wo gang gěi chē jiā le sìshí gõngshêng qìyóu. I ju s t put 40 liters o f gas in the car. Chinese is generally used fo r farm land; the International System such as 平 方 米 （ square meters) is usually used fo r size, and 平方公里 (square kilom eters) is used in reference to a large area o f land including territory. [1 1 ] 他 们 种 了 二 百 亩 花 生 Q

Tāmen zhóng le liâng bâi mũ huāshēng. They planted tw o hundred mu o f peanuts. [1 2 ] 这 栋 房 子 是 四 百 平 方 米 。

Zhè dòng fángzi shì sìbâi píngíângmĩ. This is a four hundred-square-meter house.

■8,2 Verbal measure words (动量词) In English, we use the adverbs once or twice to indicate the occurrences o f actions and use some adverbs or prepositional phrases (e.g. momentarily and fo r a little while) to indicate the duration o f actions. In Chinese, verbal measure words may be subdivided in to ty p ic a l verbal measure words and tem porary verbal measure words: one is used to indicate the frequency and duration o f actions; the other shows the means by which an action is perform ed.

8.2.1 Typical verbal measure words T ypical verbal measụre words only function as measure words to indicate the occurrences or duration o f actions. They are always preceded

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by a number or a demonstrative. Some typical verbal measure words can also serve as nom inal measure words.

( 遍 ）遍 （ num ber o f tim e s) re fe rs to the act o f g o iilg th ro u g h som ething from beginning to end. It is often used to emphasize one* s knowledge or awareness o f something. It may refer to various actions or experiences, such as reading a book or watching a movie. [ 1 ] 我 看 过 两 遍 Ị 论 语 )〉。

Wo kàn guo liâng biàn (Lúnyú). I have read The Analects tw ice. [2 ] 我检查了一遍作业。

Wo jianchá le yí biàn zuòyè. I checked the homework once.

c

次 ）次 （ number o f tim es) is used to count the occurrences o f any actions or events. It sim ply says how many tim es, as once (—次）and tw ice (两次) in English. [3 ] $ — 年 卢 了 、 三 次 Ỷ 湾'

Tā yì nỉán qù le sân cì Taiwan. He went to Taiwan three tim es in one year. [4 ] 你跟他说多少次都没用。

Nĩ gēn tā shuõ duõshâo cì dõu méi yòng. It is useless no m atter how many tim es you ta lk to him . c 顿 〕顿 （ a moment) denotes a short and intensive action, usually in reference to beating, scolding, and quarreling. ® can be used as a nom inal measure word as in — 顿 饭 （ a meal). [5 ] 我爸爸训了我一顿。

Wo bàba xùn le wỗ yí dùn. M y father gave me a dressing-down. [ 6 ] ， 们昨天； ^ 了一 ， 。

Tāmen zuótian châo le yí dùn. They had an argument yesterday.

c

回 ）回 （ num ber o f tim es) is used to count the occurrences o f actions, and it is more used in spoken language. 回 can also be used as a verb.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[7 ] 我去过两回黄石公园。

wõ qù guo liâng huí Huángshí Gõngyuán. I have been to Yellow Stone Park tw ice. [8 ] 我跟他说过两回考试的事。

Wo gēn tā shuõ guo liâng huí kâoshì de shì. I have spoken to him tw ice about the exam. c 趟 ）趟 （ num ber o f tim es) is used exclusively fo r trip s , u sually round-trips. It can also be used as a norm inal measure word to m odify a noun，such as —趟 火 车 （ a train scheduled fo r a destination). [ 9 ] 昨天-我 去 了 她 家 + 琴 。_

Zuótian wỗ qù le tā jiā sān tàng. I have been to her home three times. [ 10]

幕德修斯去了一趟地狱。

Àodéxiũsĩ qù le yí tàng dìyù. Odysseus made a trip to Hades. c 下 ）T (frequency, a little w hile) is used to count the occurrences o f short actions or to indicate the very short duration o f an action. [ 1 1 ] 我 敲 了 三 下 门 ，没 人 答 应 。

Wỗ qiỗo le sỗn xià mén, méi rén dỗying. I knocked on the door three tim es; no one answered. [ 1 2 ] 让 我 看 一 下 ，没 准 儿 我 能 修 。

Ràng wõ kàn yíxià, méi zhúnr wõ néng xiũ. Let me take a look; maybe I can fix it.

( 阵 ）阵 （ a moment) refers to an action that lasts fo r a fa irly short tim e .阵 can also be used as a nom inal measure word as in — 阵 雨 （ a period o f rain). [1 3 ] 飞 机 在 波 士 顿 停 了 一 阵 。

Fēijī zài Bõshìdùn ting le yí zhèn. The airplane stopped in Boston fo r a short tim e. [1 4 ] 我 在 地 铁 站 等 了 她 一 阵 。

wõ zài ditiě zhàn děng le tā yí zhèn. I waited fo r her at the subway station fo r a short w hile.

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T em porary ve rbal measure w ords

Tem porary verbal measure words are the names o f body parts, weapons, and tools. W hen serving as measure words, these objects are used both in action and in counting the frequency o f the action. They often appear at the end o f the sentence and function as complements. Here are some o f them :锤 （ ham m er),刀 （ k n ife ),棍 （ s tic k ),脚 (foot), 口(mouth)， 炮 (cannon)，枪 (gun)，拳 (fist), 4产 （ spade),目艮(eye), and 掌 （ palm). [1 5 ] 我 踢 了 他 一 脚 。

Wo tī le tā yì jiao. I gave him a kick. [1 6 ] 他 咬 了 我 一 口 。

Tồ yâo le wõ yì kỗu. He gave me a bite. [1 7 ] $ 打 7了 我 一 拳 。

Tỗ dâ le wõ yì quán. He gave me a punch. [1 8 ] 我 瞪 了 他 一 眼 Q

Wo dèng le tỗ yì yân. I gave him a browbeating. In English, we use verbs such as kick or bite\ there is no need to mention foot or mouth because the verbs already indicate the means by which the action is carried out. Chinese uses the body parts to count the actions. T em porary ve rb a l m easure w ords m ay also p re m o d ify verbs, functioning as adverbials. They are v iv id and emphatic in depicting the dynam ic o f the action. [1 9 ] $ — 头 扎 进 了 水 里 。

Tã yì tóu zhā jin le shuĩ IT. She dived into the water. [2 0 ] 他 一 屁 股 坐 在 了 地 上 。

Tā yí pigu zuò zài le dì shàng. He flopped down on the floor. [2 1 ] 我 一 脚 踩 上 了 一 瘫 狗 屎 。

Wo yi jiao câi shàng le yì tân gõushĩ. I stepped in a pile of dog poop.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[ 22] 鲁 智 深 三 拳 打 死 了 镇 关 西 。

LÚ Zhishēn sãn quán dâ sĩ le Zhèn Guãnxĩ. Lu Zhishen k ille d Zhen G uanxi w ith three punches. M uch o f the dynam ic effect o f the above sentences comes from 4‘ 一 + measure word” that denotes a sudden, forceful action.

8.3 Reduplications of measure words (量词重叠;) Some Chinese measure words, lik e some verbs and adjectives, may also be used in reduplication. There are two kinds o f reduplications: one involves only the reduplication o f measure words (A A ); the other involves the number one plus the reduplication o f measure words (—* A A ).

8.3.1 Measure word reduplication: AA The reduplication o f measure words is used to emphasize every single one in a group or on a lis t, and it often prem odifies the noun and functions attributively. [1 ] 巧 句句话都打动了我。

Tā jù jù huà dõu dâ dòng le wõ. Every sentence o f his touched me. [2 ] 我们场场比赛都赢了。

Women Châng Châng bìsài dõu yíng le. We won every game we played. [3 ] 他件件事都亲自处理。

Tā jiàn jiàn shì dõu qĩnzì chũlĩ. He personally handled every issue. In [1]，you may ta k e 他 句 句 话 a s 他 的 句 句 话 . In [2] and [3 ],场 场 比 赛 and 件 件 事 2 此 & 〇1^ ^ (1〇1 ^ ( ^ 8 .

Som etim es, the re d u p lica tio n does not p re m o d ify the noun; it juxtaposes the noun and is in apposition to the subject. [4 ] 学生们个个都很聪明。

Xuéshẽngmen gè gè dõu hền cõngming. Every one o f the students is smart. [5 ] 这 些 珍 珠 颗颗都很贵。

Zhéxiě zhēnzhū kẽ1kē dõu hen guì. Every one o f these pearls is expensive.

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[6 ] 这 些 题 道 道 都 非 常 难 。

Zhéxiě tí dào dào dõu fěicháng nán. Every one o f these questions is d iffic u lt. There are only a lim ited number o f measure words that can be reduplicated in the form o f A A , and the reduplication is subject to idiom atic usage. You need to memorize each usage individually.

8.3.2 Measure word reduplication: — AA Another form o f reduplication consists o f the numeral “一 ’’ and the reduplication o f the measure word, such as 一 个 个 ，一 条 条 ，and 一 次 次 . This reduplication denotes the idea o f everyone, one by one, or one after another, depending on the context. It often im plies a large quantity. M any measure words can be reduplicated in this form . [7 ] 这一本本书都是关于艺术史的。

Zhè yì běn běn shũ dõu shì guỡnyú yìshùshĩ de. Each o f these books is about the history o f art. [ 8]

这 ：^ 长Í Ị 照 片 夺 是 获 奖 的 作 品 。

Zhè yì zhāng zhāng zhaopián dõu shì huójiang de zuopīn. Each o f these photos is an aw ard-w inning w ork. [ 9 ] 我、 ； 们 走 4 了 一 声 座 山 ，一 道 道 水 。

Women

Z0U

guò le yí zuò zuò shỗn, yí dào dào shuĩ.

We walked ữirough mountain after mountain, river after river. [ 1 0 ] 夜 深 了 ，他 气 回 想 起 一 件 件 往 事 Q

Yè shẽn le, tã yòu huíxiâng qĩ yí jiàn jiàn wangshi. Deep in the night, he again recalled bygone things one by one. The “一 A A ” reduplication, together w ith the stru ctu ra l p a rticle 地 ，may prem odify verbs and function adverbially. This adverbial use o f reduplication typ ica lly involves verbal measure word, w hich denotes the frequency o f actions. [ 1 1 ] 他_一 遍 遍 地 邀 请 我 去 。

Tỗ yí biàn biàn de yãoqĩng wỗ qù. He invited me to go again and again. [1 2 ] 我 一 次 次 地 谢 绝 了 他 。 w õ yí cT cì de xiéjué le tỗ. I declined him again and again.

Parts of Speech 词类

8.3.3 Measure word reduplication: — A— A The “一 A — A” reduplication is a variation o f “一 A A ” reduplication. When used attributively，it norm ally needs the structural particle 的 and conveys the idea o f The “一 A — A + 地 ’’ construction m odifies the verb, and it emphasizes the notion o f one by one. [1 3 ] — 批 一 批 的 游 客 参 观 了 这 座 寺 庙 。

YÌ pī yì pī de yóukè cānguān le zhè zuò sìmiào. One group o f tourists after another visited this monastery. [1 4 ] 一 次 一 次 的 失 败 使 她 失 去 了 自 信 。

Yí cì yí cì de shĩbài shĩ tã shĩqù le zìxìn. One failure after another makes her lose self-confidence. [1 5 ] 学 生 们 一 个 一 个 地 走 进 了 图 书 馆 。

Xuéshẽngmen yí gè yí gè de zõu jìn le túshũguân. Students walked into the lib ra ry one by one. [1 6 ] 她 一 笔 一 笔 地 记 了 这 个 月 的 花 销 。

Tỗ yì bĩ yì bĩ de jì le zhè ge yuè de huỗxiỗo. She recorded this m onths expenditure item by item . The “ 一 A — A” reduplication may be alternately stated as “ 一 A 又一 A.” For example, you may say —批 一 批 or —批 又 一 批 •

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P re p o sitio n s 介 词

Prepositions are stru ctu ra l words that connect tw o entities in a sentence. They precede a noun known as prepositional object, and then connect it to a certain part o f a sentence. In 4iHe made a lo t o f money from the stock market,^ fo r example, the preposition from connects made a lot o f money w ith stock market, which shows where the money is made. E a rlie r, we m entioned the d is tin c tio n between content w ord (实 词）and function word (虚词）in Chinese. Prepositions (介 词 ）are typical function words in the sense that they do not represent anything tangible; they only relate one thing to another and indicate their relationships. 6 为气死鸟为食亡。

Rén wèi cái sĩ; niâo wèi shí wáng. Humans die in pursuit o f wealtíi; birds die in pursuit o f food. 为 is a preposition, m eaning fo r what reason; 为财 means fo r pursuing wealth, and 为食 means fo r obtaining food. The two prepositional phrases point out the causes o f humans9 and birds9 death. Chinese prepositions are derived from verbs; quite a number o f them s till function as both prepositions and verbs. The verbal origins have le ft their trace on the meanings o f many Chinese prepositions, but they should not be m istaken fo r verbs, as this w ill lead to misreading. 你应该替她想想。

Nĩ yĩnggỗi tì tỗ xiângxiang. You should be considerate towards her. The verb # means to substitute or replace. But # here is a preposition that does not mean to substitute fo r her or replace her; it means fo r her or yỏr fe r But 替 s till retains the verbal meaning, and it im plies that you should put yourself in her shoes. Chinese prepositional phrases m ainly m odify verbs and usually take a pre-verb position, whereas English prepositional phrases chiefly serve as complements to verbs, adjectives, and nouns, and usually fo llo w what they m odify. The syntactic position o f some Chinese prepositional phrases also depends on the verb that they occur w ith. Prepositions make up a sm all closed-class, but they are im portant; you need them to relate one thing to another and to specify relationships.

Parts of Speech 词类

9.1 Recognizing prepositions 9.2 Positions o f prepositional phrases 9.3 Prepositional meanings

9.1 Recognizing prepositions (分辨介词) The English w ord preposition comes fro m the L a tin praepositio, w h ic h means a p u ttin g before. P re p o s itio n s ca n n o t fu n c tio n by themselves; they precede a prepositional object to form a prepositional phm sethatfunctionsasasingleg ram m a ticalunit. Chinese prepositions also precede prepositional objects to make up prepositional phrases, w hich are called 介 词 短 语 • Chinese prepositions， as noted earlier, are derived from verbs, and some o f them function as both verbs and prepositions. Now let US firs t see how to distinguish a verb from a preposition. 9.1.1

Prepositional phrase + verb

Several Chinese prepositions that also fun ctio n as verbs include: 朝 （ facing)，给 (to, fo r)，跟 (w ith )，替 （ fo r)，and 在 （ at). Some o f them may d iffe r sem antically when playing d iffe re n t roles. T ypically, when these words fu n c tio n as verbs, they take an object. W hen serving as prepositions, they make up a prepositional phrase that precedes the verb (preposition + noun + verb). [1 ] 他 在 家 。

Tā zai jiā. He is at home. [2 ] 他 在 家 工 作 。

Tỗ zài jiā gongzuó. He works at home. In [1]，在 is a verb th a t means to be at. In [2]，在 家 （ at hom e) is a prepositional phrase that precedes the verb 工 作 （ work). [3 ] 你 跟 着 我 。

NT gēn zhe wo. Follow me. [4 ] 你 跟 我 来 。

Nĩ gẽn wõ lái. Come w ith me.

'

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In [3 ],系艮is a verb that means to follow , and 我 （ me) is the object. In [4]， 多艮我（ w ith me) is a prepositional phrase that precedes the verb 来 （ come). [5 ] 我家房子朝南Q

Wo jiā fángzi cháo nán. O ur house faces south. [6 ] 你一直朝南走。

NĨ yizhí cháo nán zõu. You go straight toward the south. In [5]，朝 is a verb that means to face. In [6]，朝 南 （ toward south) is a prepositional phrase that precedes the verb 走 (walk).

9.1.2 Preposition + 着 The aspect p a rtic le 着 takes a post-verb p o sitio n to in d ica te a durative action. Some Chinese prepositions, because o f th e ir verbal origins, can s till take 着 （ see the chapter on the durative aspect). They do not have to occur w ith 着；however, the presence o f 着 s till conveys a sense o f duration. [7 ]

你: 别 对 肴 人 打 喷 嚏 。

Nĩ bié dui zhe rén dâ pēnti. You don’t sneeze on people. [8 ] 你朝着这个方向看。 _

NT cháo zhe zhè ge fangxiáng kàn. You look in this direction. [9 ] 你沿着这条小路走。

NT yán zhe zhè tiáo xiâo lù zõu. You w alk along this road. [1 0 ]你 要 照 着 我 说 的 做 。

NT yào zhào zhe wõ shuõ de zuò. You need to fo llo w what I said. O ther prepositions that occur w ith 着 in c lu d e :冲 着 （ to w a rd ),当 着 （ in front o f)，顺 着 (follow ing)，向 着 (toward), etc.

Parts o f Speech 词类

9.2 Positions of prepositional phrases (介词短语的位置.) Chinese prepositional phrases m ostly m o d ify verbs, and they take different positions in a sentence. Some take the in itia l place in the sentence; some, a pre-verb position; some, a post-verb position. Some can be in more than one position. Now let US see the three groups.

9.2.1 Initial position Some prepositional phrases are usually placed at the beginning o f a sentence. This group in clu d e s:按 照 (in accordance w ith ),除了 (besides， except),对 于 (with regard to)，根 据 （ based on)，鉴 于 （ in view o f)，为了 (for), 由于（ because o f)，自 从 （ since), and 至 于 （ as for). Some o f them can also take a pre-verb position. [1 ] $ 于 这 件 事 ，他 似 乎 特 别 敏 感 。

Duìyú zhè jiàn shì, tā sìhũ tèbié mĩngân. He seems particularly sensitive w ith respect to this matter. [ 2 ] 鉴 于 他 p 仟 悔 ，我 决 定 原 谅 他 。

Jiányú tā de chànhuĩ, wõ juéding yuánliàng tā. Considering his repentance, I decide to forgive him . [ 3 ] 由 于 /各

因

，他 取 消 了 会 议 Ọ

Yóuyú gè zhong yuányĩn, tā qủxião le huìýì. He called o ff the meeting due to various reasons. [ 4 ] 至 于 他 _的 私 生 活 ，我 无 可 奉 告 。

Zhiyú tā de sĩ shẽnghuó, wo wú kě fèng gào. As fo r his private life , I have no comment. In this group,按 照 ，根 据 ，为了，and 由于 can also be placed after the linking verb 是 to serve as an object (which we ca ll the subject complement in English). [5 ] 我是 按 照 你 说 的 做 的 。

wõ shì ànzhào nĩ shuõ de zuò de. I acted according to what you said. [6 ] ^ 这 样 做 是 为 了 你 好 。

Tā zhéyáng zuò shì wèi le nĩ hâo. W hat he did is for yọur good.

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9.2.2 Pre-verb position Some prepositional phrases usually take a pre-verb position. This group includes:从 （ fro m ),向 （ toward)，跟 （ w ith ),在 （ at)，被 （ b y ),比 （ compared with)，朝 (toward)，对 (to)，给 (for)，凭 (by means o f)，替 (for), and 往 (toward).

[ 7 ] 雪 花 从 天 上 飘 下来。 Xuẽhuõ cóng tiān shang piāo xiàlái. Snowflakes float down from the sky. [8 ] 他 向 政 府 提 出 抗 议 。 Tā xiàng zhéngfu tichu kàngyì. He made a protest against the Government. [9 ] 这件事跟他没关系。 Zhè jiàn shì gẽn tã méi guãnxì. This incident has nothing to do w ith him . [1 0 ] 我 在 梦 中 见 到 了 他 。 Wo zài mèng zhõng jiàn dào le tã. I met him in m y dream. N otice that Chinese prepositional phrases in the sentences above take a pre-verb position w hile their English counterparts are placed at the end o f sentences. In c o rre c t:我 等 你 在 学 校 门 口 。 Wo děng nĩ zài xuéxiào ménkõu. I w ill w ait fo r you at the school entrance. C o r r e c t:我 在 学 校 门 口 等 你 。 Wo zài xuéxiào ménkõu děng nĩ. I w ill w ait fo r you at the school entrance.

9.2.3 Post-verb position Prepositional phrases in this group take a post-verb position when occurring w ith certain verbs. They include: Ť (at, in ) , 自 （ fro m ),在 （ at，on)， 给 ⑽ ，往 (toward), and 向 (toward).

[11] 毕业典礼定于星期一。

，

Bìyè diânlĩ ding yú xĩngqĩ yĩ. The commencement is set on Monday.

Parts o f Speech 词类

[1 2 ] i l 是 她 发 自 内 心 的 话 。 Zhè shì tā fā zì nèixĩn de huà. These are the words com ing from her heart. [1 3 ] 故 事 发 生 在 1954年 。 Gùshi fāshēng zài yĩ jiũ wú sì nián. The story took place in 1954. [1 4 ] 他 寄 给 我 一 盘 D V D 。 Tā ji gěi wỗ yi pán DVD. He m ailed me a DVD. The prepositional phrase that takes a post-verb position functions as a complement to the verb.

9.3 Prepositional meanings (介词词义) A preposition may have several meanings; several prepositions may seem to have the same m eaning. To pick up the rig h t preposition, you cannot sim ply look at what a Chinese preposition means in English, fo r it may mean to in one place and fo r in another. You need to know the precise meaning o f the preposition and see how it is used in the context. In the follow ing, we w ill put some prepositions in groups, com paring and analyzing their meanings and usages. 9 .3 .1 按 照 an d 根据 按照、and 才艮据 are used to give the reason why one takes a particular action or makes a certain decision. They can be used interchangeably; however, there is also a difference between them. d D 按照 (in accordance w ith ) introduces the ru le , p o licy, or instruction according to w hich one does som ething•按照 is form al and usually takes a position at the beginning o f the sentence. 按照 can be shortened to either 按 or 照 ，which is used in spoken Chinese. [1 ]

梦 照 要 我 得 修 一 门 外 语 。 Ánzháo yõoqiú, wo děi xiũ yì mén wáiyu. According to ứie requừement, I have to take a foreign language.

[ 2 ] 对 不 起 ，我 得 按 规 矩 办 事 儿 。 Duìbùqĩ, wo děi àn guīju bàn shir. I am sorry; I have to act according to rules.

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根 据 （ on the basis o f) shows the reason w hy one takes a particular action or acts in a certain way, but 才艮据 also shows the source fro m w hich som ething is developed, made, o r w ritte n •才艮据 can be shortened to 据 i f used as an adverbial at the beginning o f a sentence. [3 ] 这个电影是根据一本小说改编的。 Zhè ge diànyĩng shì gēnju yì běn xiâoshuõ gâibiãn de. This m ovie is an adaptation based on a novel. [ 4 ] 根 据 我 的 分 析 ，他 四 年 毕 不 了 业 。 Gēnju wỗ de fẽnxĩ, tā sì nián bì bù liâo yè. Based on m y analysis, he cannot graduate in four years. In [4]，根 据 is used appropriately, but 按 照 w ill not f it in this sentence. Remember that 按照、conveys the idea o f follow ing something, whereas 才艮 据 points out something as the basis fo r certain actions.

9.3.2 朝 ，向 ， and 往 ĩéj, and ị í a ll mean toward. In some instances, they are interchangeable in reference to an action that moves tow ard a certain d ire c tio n or destination, and they a ll s y n ta c tic a lly take the pre-verb position. For example, one can say 朝 东 走 ，向东走，往 东 走 ; they a ll mean to w alk eastward. But there are other subtle differences among them. C lO 朝 （ toward), among these three prepositions, is most com m only used in everyday speech. It only refers to physical rather than abstract movements or actions. [ 5 ] 你 朝 南 走 ，很 快 就 到 了 。 NT cháo nán zõu, hen kuài jiù dào le. Go toward the south, and you’ll get there soon. [6 ] 那个女g 朝我挥了挥手。 Nà ge nũhái cháo wõ huĩ le huĩ shõu. That g irl waved to me.

c 向 ）向 （ tow ard) is used to refer to either a concrete or abstract movement toward sorpewhere，such as going a place or apologizing 如 someone. 向 collocates w ith 奔 （ dash)，冲 （ charge)，飞 （ fly )，开 （ drive)， 流 (flow )，跑 (run)，通 （ lead to), and 走 (walk).

Parts of Speech 词类

[7 ] 航天飞机正飞向太空。 Hángtiỗn fē ijī zhéng fēi xiàng tàikõng. The space shuttle is fly in g to outer space. [8 ] 他们正一步步走向胜利。 . Tỗmen Zheng yí bù bù zõu xiàng shènglì. They are w alking step by step toward victory. c 往 ）往 （ tow ard) is used to refer to physical movement tow ard a specific location or destination.往 collocates w ith verbs 飞 （ fly ) ,赶 （ rush)， 寄 （ m a il),开 （ d riv e ),派 （ dispatch),送 （ send),逃 （ escape)，通 （ lead), and 运 （ transport). [9 ] 这列火车开往广州。 Zhè liè huõchẽ kõi wang Guangzhou. This tra in is bound fo r Guangzhou. [1 0 ]他 正 在 赶 往 出 事 地 点 。 Tā zhéngzái gân wang chũshì dìdiân. He is rushing to the spot o f accident. The prep o sitio n a l object o f 朝 and 向 can re fe r to someone or someplace，but 往 cannot take the preposition al object that refers to humans. C orrect:

她朝我笑了笑。 Tā cháo wõ xiào le xiào. She smiles at me.

C orrect:

她向我笑了笑。 Tã xiàng wỗ xiào le xiào. She smiles at me.

In c o rre c t: 她 往 我 笑 了 笑 。 Tā wâng wõ xiào le xiào. She smiles at me. Am ong these three prepositions,向 and 往 can take either a pre-verb or a post-verb position, but 朝 can only take a pre-verb position. C orrect:

这条路通向大海。 Zhè tiáo lù tõng xiàng dà hâi. This road leads to the ocean.

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这条路通往大海。 Zhè tiáơ lù tõng wâng dà hâi. This road leads to the ocean.

In c o rre c t:这 条 路 通 朝 大 海 。 Zhè tiáo lù tõng cháo dà hâi. This road leads to the ocean.

9.3.3 从 and 由 从 and 由 are both used to show the o rig in o f something, but the o rig in that 由 introduces can be the agent o f an action. ( 从 ) 从 (from ) is used to show where som ething starts or comes from ; it applies to tim e, scope, distance, scource, and origin. [ 11]

他_从 :〗、就 守 ， 喜 ^欠 昆 虫 。 Tã cóng xiâo jiù fěicháng xĩhuan kũnchóng. He has been very fond o f insects since childhood.

[ 1 2 ] 你 从 左 边 数 ，第 二 个 是 他 。 N ĩ cóng zuobiān shũ, dì èr ge shì tã. Count from the le ft; he is the second one. rs ~ ) 由 （ from ) indicates where something starts or comes from . It can also introduce the agent o f an action or the members o f a group. [1 3 ] 这 封 ^ 由 伦 敦 寄 出 Q Zhè fēng xìn you Lundūn j'i chū. This letter w ill be m ailed out from London. [1 4 ] 这 ， 事 儿 由 你 决 定 。 Zhè jiàn shìr yóu ní juéding. This m atter w ill be decided by you. [ 1 5 ] 委^ 会 由 教 员 组 成 。 wěiyuánhui yóu jiáoyuán zuchéng. The com m ittee is composed o f faculty members.

9.3.4 对 于 an d 关于 对于 and 关于 are both translated as in English. They can be used interchangeably in some instances, but there are some subtle differences between them.

Parts o f Speech 词类

〔对 于 ) 对 于 （ w ith regard to) usually takes the in itia l position o f a sentence. The object o f 对于 is the focus or the target to which the action o f the sentence is directed. [ 1 6 ] 对 于 他 的 失 职 ，学 校 没 有 掩 盖 。 Duìyú tā de shīzhi, xuéxiào méiyõu yângài. W ith regard to his negligence, the school did not hide anything. [ 1 7 ] 对 于 这 次 考 试 ，学 生 都 抱 怨 。 Duìyú zhè cì kâoshì, xuésheng dõu bàoyuàn. W ith respect to this exam, students a ll complained. 〔关 于 ) 关 于 （ about, on) means on the subject o f something. It often takes a position at the beginning o f a sentence. [ 1 8 ] 关 于 故 宫 ，我 有 一 盘 录 像 带 Q Guỡnyú Gùgõng, wõ yõu yì pán lùxiàngdàỉ. A bout the Forbidden C ity, I have a video. [1 9 ] 我 听 到 一 些 关 于 他 的 消 ệ 。 wõ tĩngdào yìxiẽ guõnyú tā de xiãoxi. I have heard some news about him . N otice that 关于 expresses on certain subjects in [18] and [19]，where 对 于 cannot be used. In some cases, they can be used interchangeably, but there is a slight difference in meaning. Compare these tw o sentences: [ 2 0 ] 对 于 他 的 作 弊 ，学 校 正 在 调 查 。 Duìyú tā de zuò bì, xuéxiào zhèngzài diàochá. Regarding his plagiarism , the school is investigating. [ 2 1 ] 关 于 他 的 作 弊 ，学 校 正 在 调 查 。 Guỗnyú tỗde zuò bì, xuéxiào zhèngzài diàochá. It is about his plagiarism that the school is investigating. In [20] 对于 highlights his plagiarism as the target o f the investigation; in [21] 关于 denotes what the investigation is about. 9.3.5

给 and 对

Both 给 and 对 are translated into to in English; they are interchangeable only in certain instances due to their o riginal verbal meanings.

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( 给 )给 （ to, for, by), as a verb，means 如 g/ve，w hich has inform ed its meanings as a preposition.给 may mean 如 to indicate the recipient o f an action, or fo r to indicate that something is done fo r someone, or by to indicate that something is done by someone.给 takes the pre-verb position in these usages. [2 2 ] $ 每 天 ， 给 我 打 电 话 。 Tā měi tiān dõu gěi wõ dâ diànhuà. He makes a phone ca ll to me every day. [ 2 3 ] 我7们 都 应 _该 ， 你 道 歉 。 Women dõu yĩnggõi gěi nĩ dào qiàn. We should a ll apologize to you. [2 4 ] $ 给、 ^我 织 了 一 件 毛 衣 。 Tā gěi wo zhT le yí jiàn máoyĩ. She knitted a sweater fo r me. [2 5 ] 我 给 她 了 一 顿 晚 餐 Q Wỗ gěi tỗ zuò le yí dùn wancan. I cooked dinner fo r her. [2 6 ] 我 的 计 划 给 他 搅 乱 了 。 Wõ de jihuá gěi tā jiao luàn le. M y plan is messed up by him . [Z 7 ]我 们 家 都 给 他 翻 遍 了 。 Women jiā dõu gěi tā fān biàn le. O ur house has been thoroughly searched by him . 给 takes the post-verb position when occurring w ith certain verbs that include 传 （ pass to)，寄 （ m ail to ) ,交 （ subm itto)，留 （ leave to ),送 （ send to), etc. [2 8 ]

给4 一封辞职信。 Tā jiāo gěi wõ yì fēng cí zhí xìn. She subm itted a letter o f resignation to me.

[2 9 ] ， 留 给 儿 子 一 份 财 产 。 Tā liú gěi érzi yí fén cáichan. He le ft his property to his son. In [26] and [27],给 can be replaced by 被 and 叫 （ see the chapter on the bèi sentence)•给 can be used in im perative sentences. See the chapter on im perative sentences.

Parts of Speech 词类

c 对 ）^ (to), as a verb, means to face someone or something. As a preposition, it introduces an object, usually a personal pronoun, to which an action is d ire cte d .对 can be preceded by certain au xilia ry verbs. [ 3 0 ] 我 对 他 说 ：“ 你 无 可 救 药 。” wõ duì tã shuõ：UNT wú kě jiù yào.ỹ, I said to him , “ You are hopeless.” [3 1 ] 这 件 事 会 对 她 是 一 个 打 击 。 Zhè jiàn shì huì duì tỗ shì yí ge dâj'ĩ. This incident w ill be a blow to her. [3 2 ] 村 里 的 人 对 我 都 非 常 热 情 。 Cūn IT de rén duì wõ duõ fěicháng rèqíng. The villagers were very warm to me.

对 and 对于 are synonyms, and 对 can be used wherever 对于 is used. But cannot be preceded by an a u xiliary verb.

9.3.Ó通 过 an d 除了 通 过 refers to going through something; 除了 indicates the scope o f something— what is included or not included.

(通 过 ) 通 过 （ through) lite ra lly means going through. By derivation, it also means by means o f or as a result of. i i i i can take a noun, a verb phrase, or a clause as the object, and it usually stands at the beginning o f a sentence. [ 3 3 ] 通 过 这 门 课 ，她 认 识 了 一 个 女 朋 友 。 v Tõngguò zhè mén kè, ts rènshi le yí ge nũ péngyõu. Through this class, he came to know a g irl friend. [ 3 4 ] 通 过 治 疗 ，他 的 病 情 得 到 了 控 制 。 Tõngguò zhiliáo, tã de bìngqíng dédào le kóngzhi. Through treatment, his m edical condition is now under control. [ 3 5 ] 通 过 走 后 门 ，他 找 到 了 一 份 工 作 。 Tõngguò zõu hòumén, tỗ Zhao dào le yí fén gõngzuò. Through the back-door, he got a job. c 除了) (besides, except) means both in addition and except. When used in the sense o f 除了 occurs w ith either 还 or 也 . It says that something is not alone or the only one.

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[ 3 6 ] 除 了 文 学 ，他 还 教 历 史 。 Chúle wénxué, tỗ hái jiāo lìshĩ. In addition to literature, he also teaches history. [ 3 7 ] 除 了 教 书 ，他 也 做 研 究 。 Chúle jiāo shū, tā yě ZUÓ yánjiũ. Besides teaching, he also does research. W hen used in the sense o f 除了 occurs w ith either 都 or ^ , which means exception. It is used to say that a ll is included, except someone or something. [ 3 8 ] 除 了 拍 马 屁 ，别 的 她 什 么 都 不 会 。 Chúle pāi mâpì, bié de tã shénme dõu bú huì. Except faw ning, she isn5t good at anything. [ 3 9 ] 除 了 她 以 外 ，别 人 全 通 过 了 考 试 。 Chúle tā ýíwái, biěrén quán tõngguò le kâoshì. Everyone passed the exam except her.

9.3.7 为 and 为了 为 and 为了 both can be translated as yòr in English. They introduce an object fo r which an action is perform ed•为 is more broadly used than 为了.

c

为 ）为 （ for) introduces someone or something that is the cause, the purpose, or the beneficiary o f an action. It typ ica lly introduces a noun and takes a pre-verb position. [4 0 ] 这 家 医 院 只 为 穷 人 服 务 。 Zhè jiā yĩyuàn zhī wèi qióngrén fúwù. This hospital only serves poor people. [4 1 ] 你 不 该 为 这 小 事 烦 恼 。 N丫bù gỗi wèi zhè xiâoshì fánnao. You should not bother yourself w ith such a petty thing. [ 4 2 ] 为 我 们 的 友 谊 ，干 杯 ！ Wei women de yõuyì, gỗn bẽi! Cheers to our friendship!

( W f) 为了（ in order to) indicates the purpose o f an action. It typ ica lly takes a noun or a verb phrase as the object and takes a sentencein itia l position follow ed by a comma.

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 4 3 ] 为 了 目 的 ，他 不 择 手 段 。 Wèi le mùdì, tỗ bù zé shõuduàn. For reaching his ends, he is unscrupulous about the means. [4 4 ]

为 了 爱 情 ，他 放 弃 了 王 位 。 wèi le àiqíng, tā fángqi le wángwéi.

For love, he gave up the throne. [45 ] 为 了 上 学 ，他 借 了 很 多 钱 。 Wéi le shàng xué, tā jiè le hẽnduõ qián. He borrowed a lo t o f money fo r going to school. 9.3.8

在 and 于

在 and 于 are both used to indicate location and tim e•在 is used in both spoken and w ritte n language, but Ť is restricte d to w ritte n and fo rm a l language. They are interchangeable only in some lim ite d situations. ( 在 ) Ạ {at, in, on), as a preposition, takes a locational noun or a tem poral noun to form a prepositional phrase. The syntactic position o f the 在 phrase varies. To express the idea that one does something at some place, it takes a pre-verb or a sentence-initial position. For this usage, it cannot be placed at the end o f a sentence as we do in English. In c o rre c t:他 表 现 很 好 在 学 校 。 Tā biâoxiàn hen hâo zài xuéxiào. He behaves w e ll in school. C orrect:

他在学校表现很好。 Tā zài xuéxiào biâoxiàn hen hâo. He behaves w ell in school.

H ow ever,在 takes a post-verb position when occurring w ith certain verbs, and we may roughly divid e these verbs in to three groups. The firs t group expresses the idea o f appearance or disappearance, and they in c lu d e :出 生 （ to be born)，出 现 （ appear),发 生 （ take place)，生 长 （ grow up)，消 失 (disappear)，死 (die)，etc. [4 6 ] 他 出 生 在 一 个 穷 人 家 。 Tā chūshēng zài yí ge qióngrén jiā. He was born in a poor fam ily.

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[4 7 ] $ 突- 今 出 现 夺 我 面 前 。 Tā tūran chũxiàn zài wõ miànqián. She suddenly appears in front o f me. The second group denotes and They in c lu d e :安 排 （ arrange)，摆 （ set)，藏 （ h id e ),倒 （ damp)，掉 （ d ro p ),定 (set),放 （ p u t),改 （ change)，留 （ stay),拓 （ throw ), etc. This second group o f verbs is often used in the 把 sentence or in the passive voice. [4 8 ] ^ 的 婚 礼 定 在 星 期 天 Q Tā de hũnlĩ ding zài xĩngqĩtiãn. Her wedding is set on Sunday. [4 9 ] 我 把 钱 藏 在 了 抽 屉 里 。 wõ bâ qián cáng zài le chõutì lĩ. I hid the money in the drawer. The th ird group describes body position and posture. They include: 蹲 （ squat)，跪 （ kneel)， (lie prone),睡 （ sleep)，躺 （ lie down)，站 （ stand), and 坐 （ sit)，etc. [5 0 ] $ 跃 _在 了 地 上 。 Tā pã zài le dì shang. He lay prone on the ground. [5 1 ] 我 睡 在 沙 发 上 。 wõ shuì zài shāfā shang. I sleep on the sofa. For the th ird group o f verbs, you may also place the prepositional phrase before the verb, w hich，fo r some verbs，requires the aspect particle 着 to indicate a state. For example, “ 他 在 地 上 队 着 ’’ （ He lies prone on the ground); you cannot say, “ 他 在 地 上 跃 .， ’ ( 于 ）于 （ a [ 如，/>2) is used to denote tim e，location，or o rig in — when something starts or where something comes from . Ť usually takes a postverb position and is used in w ritten Chinese. [5 2 ] 多 种 橘 子 产 于 佛 罗 里 i Ị 州 。 Zhè zhong júzi chân yú FóluólTdá Zhou. This kin d o f orange is produced in Florida. [ 5 3 ] 联/合 国 成 立 于 一 九 四 五 年 。 Liánhéguó chénglì yú yĩ jiũ sì wũ nián. The U nited Nations was founded in 1945.

Parts of Speech 词类

于 is also used after certain verbs and adjectives to name something in which one is engaged. It can be a cause to which one is devoted, a goal one tries to achieve, or something one tries to deal w ith. [5 4 ] 我 近 来 一 直 忙 于 教 学 。 Wo jinlái yizhí máng yú jiáoxué. I have been busy w ith teaching recently. [5 5 ] g 致 力 于 艾 滋 病 研 究 。 Tā zhili yú Aizībing yánjiu. He is dedicated to A ID S research. [5 6 ] 他 敢 于 承 认 他 的 错 Tā gân yú chéngrèn tã de cuòwù. He has the courage to acknowledge his mistake. [5 7 ] 她 非 常 善 于 化 解 冲 突 。 Tā fěicháng shànyú huájiě chõngtũ. She is very good at resolving conflicts. Notice that 在 can be used in [52] but not in [53]. To indicate tim e, both 在 and 于 may be used after the verbs 出 生 （ to be born)，定 （ set), and 发 生（ take place), but 在 does not occur w ith the verb 成 立 （ establish).

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C onjunction s 连 词

D o you rem em ber Schoolhouse R ock: “ C o n ju n ctio n Ju n ctio n ， what is your function?” W ell，the function o f conjunctions is to connect words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. E nglish has three types o f conjunctions. Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are used to make compound sentences that consist o f tw o clauses equal in rank (e.g. He looks sm art, but he is airhead). Subordinating conjunctions are used to make complex sentences composed o f an independent and a dependent clause (e.g. I love her because she is sweet). C onjunctive adverbs also connect clauses, showing their relationships such as a cause and effect. Chinese conjunctions can be d ivided in to tw o g ro u p s :并列连词 (coordinating conjunctions) and 偏 正 连 词 （ subordinating conjunctions). 并列 means to be yw xřaposeí/; c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s connect words, phrases, or clauses that are juxtaposed and are equal in status or importance. $送 、 我 一 v幅 山 水 画 和 一 首 田 园 诗 。 Tā sòng wỗ yì fú shãnshuĩhuà hé yì shõu tiányuánshĩ. He gave me a mountain-stream painting and an id yllic poem. In this sentence,和 （ and) joins up two nouns in juxtaposition•偏正 means

subordinating and primary. Subordinating conjunctions lin k two clauses: one is 主 句 （ an independent clause); the other is 从 句 （ a dependent clause). A subordinating conjunction is placed before the dependent clause. 如 果 冬 天 来 了 ，春 天 还 会 远 吗 ？ Rúguỗ dõngtỉỡn lái le, chúntiãn hái huì yuan mã? I f w inter comes, can spring be far behind? T his lin e , fro m the English poet Shelly, begins w ith the subordinating conjunction 如 果 （ if ) that introduces a dependent clause. Subordinating conjunctions constitute complex sentences that express various meanings, such as condition, reason, concession, tim e, etc. In addition, Chinese has quiteafew conjunctiveexpressions. There are many parallels between English and Chinese conjunctions, but they often do not match. Pay attention to those words that function as both conjunctions and prepositions because their different roles affect the m eaning o f a sentence. A lso watch the element that a conjunction connects, and do not forget that some conjunctions occur w ith certain adverbs.

Parts o f Speech 词类

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Coordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions Connective expressions Omission o f conjunctions

10.1 Coordinating conjunctions (并列连词) E nglish has seven coordinating conjunctions {and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet) and several correlative conjunctions (as...as, both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, and whether...or). These conjunctions are a ll used to make compound sentences. Chinese has more coordinating conjunctions than English, but some o f them are considered conjunctive adverbs in English. In the follow ing, we w ill divid e Chinese coordinatin g conjunctions in to three groups: one group o n ly connects w ords and phrases; one connects clauses; one connects words, phrases, and clauses. But, firs t, it is necessary to differentiate conjunctions from prepositions.

Ỉ0.1.1 Recognizing conjunctions and prepositions Some conjunctions, specifically 和 （ and)，系艮（ and)，同 （ and), and 与 (and), also function as prepositions. It is im portant to te ll what role they play in a sentence, fo r that affects the meaning o f the sentence. Compare these two sentences: 我跟她都参加了演出。 Wỗ gēn tô dõu cānjiā le yânchũ. Both she and I participated in the performance. 我跟她谈了我的看法。 w õ gēn tā tán le wo de kánfa.

I spoke to her about m y view. In the firs t sentence, i f you switch 我 跟 她 into 她 跟 我 ，the meaning o f the sentence remains the same. In the second sentence，if you switch 我妥艮 她 into 她 跟 我 ，the meaning w ill change from “ I spoke to her” to “ She spoke to me.” 跟 is a conjunction in the firs t one and a preposition in the second one. Remember that coordinating conjunctions lin k tw o equal elements. In addition, the conjunction often occurs w ith the adverb 都 or 全 that precedes the verb and it cannot take a prem odifer; on the other hand,

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prepositional phrases may be prem odifed by some adverbs. [ 1 ] 我 跟 $ $ 喜_欢 表 演 艺 术 。 Wo gēn tā dõu xĩhuan biâoyân yìshù. She and I both lik e perform ing art. [ 2 ] 我 只 跟 ^ 谈 _了 我 的 剧 本 。 wõ zhĩ gẽn tỗ tán le wõ de juběn. I only discussed my play script w ith her. N otice that 和 is com m only used in both spoken and w ritte n C h i nese•跟 is more used in the north China w hile 同 is more used in southern China. 与 usually appears in w ritten and classical Chinese.

10.Ỉ.2 Connecting words and phrases

( 和 ）和 （ and), as a conjunction，only connects words and phrases, particularly nouns, pronouns, or noun phrases. For items in a series, 和 is used to connect the last tw o items o f the series. [3 ] $ 和 我 非 f 般 配 ，可 我 们 没 缘 分 。 Tā hé wo fēichang bānpei, kě women méi yuánfén. He and I match well, but we are not predestmed for marriage. [ 4 ] 我 喜 欢 吃 菜 花 、青 椒 、丝 瓜 、韭 菜 和 芹 菜 。 wõ xĩhuan chĩ càihuỗ、qĩngjiâo、sīģuā、jiũcài hé qíncài. I like to eat cauliflow er, green peppers, lu ffa gourds, leeks, and celery. In Chinese，和 ，unlike

in English, cannot connect tw o clauses in

a compound sentence, nor can it connect two verbs or adjectives serving as the predicate o f a sentence. In the follow ing three sentences, each 和 should be replaced by a comma. In c o rre c t:我 要 牛 排 和 她 要 马 哈 鱼 。 Wõ yào niúpái hé tã yào mâhãyú. I want steak, and she wants salmon. In c o rre c t:我 们 去 跳 舞 和 打 保 龄 球 。 Women qù tiào wũ hé dâ bâolíngqiú. I w ill go to a dance and go bow ling. In c o rre c t:他 的 妻 非 常 贤 惠 和 漂 亮 。 Tā de qīzi fēichang xiánhuì hé piàoliang. H is w ife is virtuous and beautiful.

Parts o f Speech 词类

However, 和 m ay connect verbs or verb phrases serving as the subject o f a sentence. 和 may also connect disyllabic verbs serving as the predicate under the condition that they share the same object or m odifier and that they collocate and function lik e a single verb.

[5 ] 我的老师总是支持和鼓励我。 wõ de laoshī zongshi zhīchi hé guli wo. M y teacher always supports and encourages me. [6 ] 坐飞机和坐高速火车一样贵Q

Zuò fēijī hé zuò gỗosù huõchẽ yíyàng guì. It is as expensive to go by a ir as to take a high-speed train. Notice that 支 持 和 鼓 励 （ support and encourage) are often used together, and they share the same object in [5]. 及 （ as w ell as) lin ks nouns and is used in w ritten language. For items in a series,及 is used to connect the last two items o f the series, and it is not preceded by a comma. [ 7 ] 他 擅 长 于 诗 歌 、绘 画 、音 乐 及 书 法 。 Tỗ shànchâng yú shīgē、 huìhuà、 yĩnyuè Jí shūfa. He is good at poetry, painting, music, and calligraphy. [8 ] 招待会只限于教员及其配偶参加。 Zhāodaihui zhĩ xiànyú jiáoyuán jí qí p è i^ u cānjiā. The reception is open only to the faculty and their spouses.

10.1.3 Connecting clauses Some coordinating conjunctions only connect clauses, and they can indicate various relationships between the clauses, such as contrasting and alternative. Some o f these conjunctions are considered conjunctive adverbs in English.

c D

不然 不 然 （ otherwise) and 否则 are synonyms; both are used to indicate what the outcome would be i f the situation were diffe re n t•不然 and 否则 collocate w ith 就 or 会 . And 不然 is less form al than 否则. [ 9 ] 你 要 马 上 通 知 他 ，不 然 就 太 晚 了 。 Nĩ yào mâshàng tongzhī ta, bùrán jiù tài wan le. You should n o tify him im m ediately; otherwise it w ould be too late.

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[ 1 0 ] 你 要 赶 快 决 定 ，否 则 你 会 后 悔 的 。

Nĩ yào gãnkuài juéding, fouzé nĩ huì hòuhuĩ de. You need to decide soon, or you w ill regret it. Ģē M j 但 是 （ but) is used to contrast w hat is said e a rlie r o r to introduce something unexpected. Synonyms o f 但 是 include 可是 and 不 过 . 可 是 is often used to introduce something undesirable; 不过 is m ilder in tone than the other two. [ 1 1 ] 这 辆 车 很 贵 ，但 是 她 买 得 起 。

Zhè liàng chẽ hen guì, dànshì tā mâi de qĩ. This car is expensive, but she can afford it. [ 1 2 ] 孩 子 长 大 了 ，可 是 父 母 也 老 了 。

Háizi zhang dà le, kẽshì fùmũ yě lâo le. The children have grown up, but the parents are aging. [ 1 3 ] 我 没 打 算 去 ，不 过 我 还 是 去 了 。

Wõ méi dâsuàn qù, búguò wõ háishi qù le. I did not plan to go, but I went anyway. ( M M j 从 而 (thereby) is used to introduce the result o f what is stated in the preceding clause. It is used in form al language. [ 1 4 ] 他_讲 了 一 句 有 争 议 的 话 ，从 而 引 起 了 一 场 辩 论 。

TỖ jiang le yí jù yõu zhěngyi de huà, cóng^r yĩnqĩ le yì Châng biànlùn. He made a controversial statement; thereby it led to a debate. [ 1 5 ] 上 星 期 他 的 _咳 嗷 越 来 越 恶 化 ，从 而 引 发 了 肺 炎 。

Shàng)õngqĩ tõ de késou yuè lài yuè èhuà, cóng’ ér yĩnfõ le féiyán. Last week his cough became deteriorated, w hich triggered tuberculosis.

c

况 且 )况 且 （ moreover, in addition to) is used to further ju s tify or to add more reasons to what is said. It collocates w ith 也 ，又 ，or 还 . [ 1 6 ] 这 所 学 校 环 境 好 ，况 且 学 费 也 便 宜 。

Zhè suõ xuéxiào huánjing hâo, kuàngqiẽ xuéféi yě piányi. T his school’s environm ent is good; m oreover, the tu itio n is inexpensive. [ 1 7 ] 我 不 能 取 消 课 ，况 且 明 天 还 有 考 试 。

Wõ bù néng qũxião kè, kuàngqiẽ míngtiãn hái you kâoshì. I cannot cancel the class; moreover, there is â test tomorrow.

____

Parts o f Speech 词类

〔宁 可 ) 宁可. ... 也 不 （ rather.••than) is used to say that one w ould rather do som ething else undesirable than do a certain th in g that one strongly opposes. [1 8 ] 他 宁 可 当 蛇 头 也 不 做 龙 尾 。

Tã nìngkẽ dâng shé tóu yě bú zuó long wěi. He w ould rather be the head o f a snake than the ta il o f a dragon. [1 9 ] 我 宁 可 当 姑 子 也 不 嫁 给 他 。

Wõ ningkě dāng gūzi yě bú jià gěi tā. I w ould rather be a nun than m arry him .

( 要 么 ) 要么 ..... 要 么 （ either...or) is placed at the beginning o f two clauses to indicate tw o very d iffe re n t choices•要么......要么 is s im ila r to 或者，but its tone is softer, and it is often used to raise something fo r someone，s consideration or fo r discussion. [ 2 0 ] 要 么 你 先 道 歉 ，要 么 她 先 道 歉 。作们_需要、 合 作、 。 Yàome nĩ xiỗn dào qiàn, yàome tã xiãn dào qiàn. Nĩmen xũyào hézuò. Either you apologize firs t or she apologizes firs t. You need to cooperate. [ 2 1 ] 要 么 鱼 死 ，要 么 网 破 。没 有 别 的 今 择 。

Yàome yú sĩ, yàome wãng pò. Méiyỗu biéde xuanzé. Either the fish dies or the fishnet splits. There is no other choice. N otice that in [21]，鱼死网破 is a proverb that is used to say something is the only choice or a life-and-death struggle.

( 与其) 与其.......不 如 （ rather...than) is used to say that i f one has to do something, one m ight as w ell choose another thing that is a better choice. [2 2 ] 你 与 其 当 面 跟 他 说 不 如 给 他 写 一 封 信 _。 Nĩ yũqí dỗngmiàn gēn tā shuõ bùrú gěi tā xiě yì fēng xìn. It may be better i f you w rite him a letter rather than speaking to him . [2 3 ] 你 与 其 努 力 改 变 环 境 不 如 去 适 应 环 境 。

Nĩ yúqí null gâibiàn huánjing bùrú qù shìyĩng huánjing. You may adapt yourself to the environm ent rather than try to change it.

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10.1.4 Connecting words, phrases, and clauses Some conjunctions may connect words, phrases, or clauses. Watch the syn ta ctic p o s itio n o f some o f these conjunctio ns. Some p a ired conjunctions take a position at the beginning o f a sentence when the two clauses have different subjects. 且 ) 并且（ furtherm ore) is used to introduce an action that adds some new in fo rm a tio n to the previous a ctio n ■并且 can be shortened to 并 . [2 4 ] 他 做 了 示 范 并 且 回 答 了 观 众 的 问 题 。

Tỗ zuò le shifán bingqiě huídá le guānzong de wéntí. He gave an illu stra tio n and answered the audience^ questions. [2 5 ] ^ 毕 业 了 ，并 找 到 了 一 份 很 好 的 工 作 。

Tã bìyè le, bing zhao dào le yí fén hen hâo de gõngzuò. He graduated and found a very good job.

(不但 ）不但.......而 且 （ not only...but also) is used to add something fu rth e r to what is said. It connects tw o adjectives, phrases, or clauses, but not tw o nouns. 不但.......而且 stands at the beginning o f a sentence i f the two clauses have different subjects. [2 6 ] 她 的 讲 话 不 但 冗 长 而 且 乏 味 。

Tā de jianghuá búdàn rõngcháng érqiě fáwéi. Her speech is not only long-winded but also boring. [2 7 ]， 不 但 通 晓 拉 丁 而 且 懂 希 腊 语 。

Tā búdàn tõngxiâo lãdĩngyũ, érqiě dõng xĩlàyũ. He is conversant not only w ith L a tin but also w ith Greek. [2 8 ] 不

今 天 $ 雨 ; 而 且 /下 5 周， 没 雨 。

Búdàn jīntiān méi yú, érqiě xià liâng zhõu dõu méi yú. There is no rain today and none is expected fo r the next two weeks.

( 还是) 还 是 （ or) is used to denote another choice or possibility. It is only used in interrogative or rhetorical sentences• 或 者 （ or) is used in declarative sentences. [2 9 ] 你 今 天 来 还 是 明 天 来 ？

NĨ jīntiān lái háishi míngtiân lái? A re you com ing today or tom orrow?

Parts of Speech 词类

[3 0 ] 这 是 好 的 还 是 坏 的 征 兆 ？

Zhè shì hâo de háishi huài de zhēngzhao? Is this a good or bad omen?

c 或 者 ) 或 者 （or) is used to introduce another option; it is only used in declarative sentences•或者 usually connects words and phrases. [3 1 ] 你 可 以 坐 飞 机 或 者 坐 火 车 。

Nĩ kẽyĩ zuò fēijī huózhě zuò hõuchẽ. You may fly or take the train. [3 2 ] 你 只 能 选 哲 学 或 者 政 治 学 Q

Nĩ zhĩ néng xuân zhéxué huózhě zhéngzhixué. You can only select philosophy or p o litic a l science. may be repeated when connecting words, phrases, or clauses. W hen jo n in g tw o clauses w ith d iffe re n t subjects, it is placed at the beginning o f each clause. [ 3 3 ] 你 或 者 接 受 ，或 者 拒 绝 ，没 别 的 选 择 。

NĨ huózhě jiěshóu, huózhě jijjué, méi biéde xuanzé. You either accept or reject; there is no other choice. [ 3 4 ] 或 者 你 安 排 ，或 者 她 安 排 ，都 可 以 。

Huózhě nĩ ỗnpái, huózhě tā ỗnpái, dõu kẽyĩ. It is fine i f you or she makes the arrangement. c以及) 以 及 （ as w ell as) can connect nouns, phrases, and clauses; it is preceded by a comma. The item after 以及 weighs less in im portance than the item(s) preceding it. N otice that 及 （ as w ell as) can only connect nouns and cannot be separated from the preceding item by a comma. [ 3 5 ] 我 讲 了 我 校 的 历 史 、环 境 ，以 及 我 冷 什 么 參 择 V我 答 。， Wo jiang le wõ xiào de lìshĩ、 huánjing, ýíjí wỗ wéishénme

xuanzé wõ xiào. I spoke about our school’s history, environm ent，as w ell as why I chose our school. [ 3 6 ] 我 们 参 观 了 北 京 、上 海 、广 州 ，以 及 一 些 小 城 市 。 Wõmen cānguān le Beijīng、 Shànghài、 Guỗngzhõu, yĩjí yìxiẽ

xiâo chéngshì. We vis ite d B e ijin g , Shanghai, Guangzhou, as w e ll as some sm all cities.

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10.2 Subordinating conjunctions (偏正连词) Subordinating conjunctions connect the subordinate clause w ith the main clause. In English, either the main clause or the subordinate clause may come firs t. In Chinese, the subordinate clause usually precedes the main clause. c除非) 除 非 （ unless) is used to name the o n ly co n d itio n that is acceptable or satisfactory in order to make something happen or become true. [ 1 ] 除 非 他 辞 职 ，我 们 会 继 续 抗 议 下 去 。

Chútẽi tã cí zhi, women huì jìxù kàngyì xiàqù. We w ill go on our protest unless he resigns. [2 ]

不 会 嫁 给 他 ，除 非 太 阳 从 西 边 出 来 。

Tã bú huì jià gěi tā, chufēi tàiyáng cóng xĩbiãn chũlái. She w ill not m arry him unless the sun rises from the west.

(既然）既 然 （ since) means given the fact that something is already the way it is，it would be best or would make sense for one to act in ã certain way. [ 3 ] 既 然 你 知 道 了 ，我 也 就 不 瞒 你 了 。

Jirán nĩ zhīdao le, wo yě jiù bù mán nĩ le. Since you already know it, I w ill not hide it from you. [ 4 ] 既 然 我 们 合 不 来 ，我 们 最 好 分 居 。

Jirán women hé bù lái, women zuihao fēnjū. Since we cannot get along, weM better separate. QSPjÉJ 即 使 (even if) is used to say that even i f something hypothetical becomes true, one is s till able to handle it or is prepared for it. 即使 collocates w ith 也 o r还 有 . [ 5 ] 即 使 丟 了 工 作 ，他 也 不 在 乎 。

Jishī diū le gongzuó, tā yě bú záihu. He w ould not care even i f he lost his job. [6 ] 呷 埤 天 塌 下 奉 , 还 有 地 顶 着 。

Jishī tiỗn tā xiàlái, hái yõu dì dĩng zhe. Even i f the sky falls, there is the earth to hold it.

(如果) 如 果 （ if ) is com m only used to make a conditional clause. O ther synonym s in clude 要 是 ，假 如 ，假 使 ，假 若 ，and 倘 若 • Am ong these synonyms，要 是 is used in the spoken language; the rest are form al expressions. A ll o f them collocate w ith 就 or 会

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 7 ] 如 果 你 不 果 断 ，你 会 错 失 良 机 。

Rúguõ nĩ bù guõduàn, riĩ huì cuò shĩ liáng jĩ. I f you are not decisive, you w ill miss a good opportunity. [ 8 ] 要 是 你 有 时 间 ，就 给 我 打 一 个 电 话 。

Yàoshi nĩ you shijiān, jiù gěi wõ dã yí ge diànhuà. I f you have tim e, give me a call. [ 9 ] 假 如 我 是 你 ，我 不 会 饶 过 他 。

Jiarú wỗ shì nĩ, wõ bú huì ráo guò tã. I f I were you, I w ould not let him go. ( 虽 然 ) 虽然.......(although) is used the same way as although in English; however, does not occur w ith In C hinese,虽然 goes together w ith 但 是 • [ 1 0 ] 虽 然 他 的 态 度 不 好 ，但 是 他 说 的 是 对 的 。

Suĩrán tā de tàidù bù hâo, dànshì tã shuõ de shì duì de. A lthough his attitude is bad, what he said is correct. [ 1 1 ] 虽 然 我 不 爱 他 ，但 是 我 还 是 离 不 开 他 。

Suĩrán wõ bú ài tā, dànshì wõ háishi lí bù kāi tỗ. Although I do not love him , I cannot live w ithout him .

(万一 ）万一 (in case) literally means one chance out o f ten thousand. It is used to say that there is a remote chance that something w ill happen. [ 1 2 ] 万 一 有 紧 急 情 况 ，你 要 马 上 打 9 1 1 。

wànyĩ you jīnji qíngkuàn, nĩ yào mâshàng dâ jiú yão yão. In case there is an emergency, you should call 911 im m ediately. [ 1 3 ] 你 万 一 迷 路 了 ，就 打 我 的 手 机 。

Nĩ wànyĩ mí lù le, jiù dâ wõ de shoujī. In case you get lost, call my cell phone. c无 论 ) 无 论 （ no m atter) is used to express the idea that whatever happens，things w ill remain true or the same•无论 is interchangeable w ith 不 论 and 不 管 . A ll three o f them collocate w ith 都 and 也 . [ 1 4 ] 无 论 在 哪 儿 ，这 种 行 为 都 是 不 允 许 的 。

wúlůn zài nâr, zhè zhong xíngwéi dõu shì bù yũnxú de. No m atter where it is, such behavior is inadm issible. [ 1 5 ] 不 管 他 说 什 么 ，你 也 不 要 信 他 。

Bùguân tã shuõ shénme, nĩ yě bú yào xìn tã. No m atter what he says, you should not believe him .

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C M D 以致（ so that) is used to show how one thing gives rise to another. The result is usually negative, and it is used in w ritten Chinese. [ 16 ] $ 很7少 说 声 话 ，_以 致 人 们 都 不 相 信 他 。

Tỗ hẽn shâo shuõ shíhuà, yĩzhì rénmen dõu bù xiãngxìn tã. He seldom tells the tru th , so people do not believe him . [17 ]

今 年 干 ļ 严、 重 ，以 致 粮 食 会 大 幅 度 减 产 。

JTnnián gãnhàn yánzhóng, yĩzhì liángshí huì dà fúdù jiân chân. T his year the drought is serious, so the grain output w ill be significantly reduced. CM M j 以至（ so that，up to) can be used interchangeably w ith 以致 in the sense o f 认ÍƯ. But 以至 is also used to name a higher degree or level that something may reach. [ 1 8 ] 你 可 以 试 两 次 、三 次 ，以 至 四 五 次 。

Nĩ kěýí shì liâng CK sãn cì, yĩzhì sì wú à You may try tw ice, three tim es, up to four or five times. [1 9 ] 你 '

以买v— 周 ỏ ỷ、一 个 月 的 ，以 至 一 年 的 地 铁 票 。

NĨ kěýí mái yì zhõu de、 yí ge yuè de, yĩzhì ýỉ nián de dìtiẽ piào. You may purchase weekly, m onthly, up to yearly subway pass. G因为0 因为.......所 以 （ because...therefore) is a paired conjunction: one explains the cause; the other tells the result. Each o f them can also be used independently. [ 2 0 ] 因 为 她 ， 了，所 以 她 没 来 上 课 。

Yĩnwéi tô bing le, suỗyĩ tā méi lái shòng kè. Because she was sick, she did not come to the class. [2 1]

， 有7抑气[ ^ ， 、 所以他定亨去看医生。

Tã you yìyùzhèng, suõyĩ tã dìngqĩ qù kàn yĩshẽng. He su ffe rs fro m depression; therefore, he sees the do cto r regularly. 〔由 于 ) 由 于 （ because)，both a preposition and a conjunction，is used to name the cause o f something. As a conjunction, it can be placed before or after the subject o f the dependent clause. [2 2 ] 由 于 天 ’

不 好 ，音 乐 会 取 消 了 。

Yóuyú tiỗnqì bù hâo, yĩnyuèhuì qúxião le. The concert is cancelled due to inclem ent weather.

Parts of Speech 词类

[ 2 3 ] 他 由 于 没 通 过 考 试 ，所 以 不 能 毕 业 。

TỠ yóuyú méi tõngguò kâoshì, sõuýí bù néng bìyè. Because he did not pass the exam, he cannot graduate. (只 要 ) 只要（ as long as) is used to say that if a certain condition is met, something can become true or be realized•只要 collocates w ith 就 .

[ 24]

只 要 天 阴 ，就 有 可 能 下 雨 。

Zhĩyào tiỗn yĩn, jiù yõu kěnéng xià yũ. As long as it is cloudy, there is a possib ility o f rain. [ 2 5 ] 只 要 你 努 力 ，就 有 成 功 的 可 能 。

Zhĩyào nĩ null, jiù you chénggõng de kěnéng. I f you w ork hard, there is a chance o f success. (只有) 只 有 （ o n ly if ) is used to introduce som ething as the only condition under which something can happen or be realized. 只有 collocates w ith 才 . [2 6 ] 你 只 有 平 均 成 绩 在 B 以 上 才 能 申 请 。

Nĩ zhĩyõu pingjūn chéngji zài B yĩshàng cái néng shẽnqĩng. You can apply only i f your grade average is above B. [2 7 ] 你 只 有 诉 诸 法 律 才 能 解 决 这 个 问 题 。

Nĩ zhĩyõu súzhú falu cái néng jiějué zhè ge wèntí. O nly i f you resort to law can you solve this problem.

In addition to conjunctions, there are some fixe d expressions that are also used to connect verb phrases or clauses. Here are some paired connective expressions that connect phrases or clauses equal in status or importance. ( 一 边 ) 一 边 .......一 边 (w h ile ) is used to show th a t som eone is doing tw o things at the same tim e o r that tw o th in g s are going on simultaneously. [1 ] 他 总 是 一 边 看 电 视 一 边 做 作 业 。

Tā zongshi yìbiãn kàn diànshì yìbiãn zuò zuòyè. He always does his homework w hile w atching television. [ 2 ] 他 一 边 打 工 一 边 上 学 ，真 不 容 易 。

Tā yìbiãn dâ gõng yìbiãn shàng xué, zhẽn bù róngyì. W hile he goes to school, he also works. It is really not easy.

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( — 方 面 ) 一 方 面 .......另 一 方 面 （ on the one hand...on the Other) introduces tw o opposite ideas or viewpoints. It can connect two phrases or clauses. 、 方- 面 热 情 很 高 ，另 一 Ỷ 面 没 经 验 。

[ 3]

Tā yì fāngmian rèqíng hen gão, ling yì fāngmian méi jingyán. On the one hand, he has a lo t o f enthusiasm; on the other, he has no experience. [4 ] 一 t

面 ，他 想 声 风 头 ；另 一 方 面 ，他 又 怕 露 丑 。

YÌ fāngmian, tā xiâng chū fēngtou; ling yì fāngmian, tā yòu pà lòu chõu. On the one hand, he wants to show o ff; on the other, he fears to lose face. ( ~~~会 儿 ）一 会儿.......一 会 儿 （ at one m om ent".at another moment) is used to show that someone or som ething lacks consistency or is capricious. [5 ] $ — 今儿、 让 我 做 这 个

， 一

会儿让我们做那个。

Tã yìhuìr ràng women zuò zhè ge, yìhuìr ràng women zuò nà ge. At

o n e m o m e n t h e a s k s US t o d o t h i s ; a t a n o t h e r h e a s k s US t o

d o th a t.

[ 6 ] 天_气 一 会 儿 晴 ，一 会 儿 下 雨 。你 最 好 带 上 雨 伞 Q

Tiỗnqì yíhuìr qíng, yíhuìr xià yũ. Nĩ zuihao dài shàng yũsân. The weather is sunny one m inute and ra in y the next. You5d better bring your um brella. ( 来 ) 一来.......二 来 （ first...second) is used to name two reasons fo r something (三来 and 四来 are seldom used). It is m ostly used in spoken language. [ 7 ] 我 不 去 ，一 来 我 没 时 间 ，二 来 我 不 舒 服 。

Wõ bú qù, yĩ lái wỗ méi shijiān, èr lái wỗ bù shūfu. I won’t go. First, I don’t have tim e; second, I do not feel good. [ 8 ] 我 推 荐 这 所 大 学 ，一 来 它 便 宜 ，二 来 它 环 境 好 。

Wo tuijián zhè suỗ dàxué, yĩ lái tã piányi, èr lái tã huánjing háo. I recommend this university. For one thing, it is inexpensive; for another, its environm ent is good.

Parts o f Speech 词类

( 一 时 ) 一 时 .......— 0 t (at one tim e ...a t a n o th e r) can be used interchangeably w ith 一 会儿 .......一 会 儿 • However, it is also used to show how things d iffe r at different periods o f tim e. [ 9 ] 爸 爸 一 时 聪 明 一 时 糊 涂 。妈 妈 是 小 事 聪 明 大 事 糊 i涂 。 Bàba yìshí cõngming yìshí hútu. Māma shì xiâoshì cõngming dàshì hútu. Dad is now wise, now foolish. M om is penny wise and pound foolish. [1 0 ] — 时 英 文 时 髦 ，一 时 中 文 时 髦 ，真 是 此 一 时 彳 ^ 1一 时 ！ Yishí yingwén shímáo, yishí zhongwén shímáo, zhēnshi c ĩ yìshí bĩ yìshí! A t one tim e English is popular; at another, Chinese. How tim es change! e s ) 一是•… ••二是（ fo r one thing...for another) is a synonym o f — 来 二 Ạ . It is used to name two reasons•一则...... 二则 expresses the same idea, but it is form al. [ 1 1 ] 英 语 有 两 个 难 点 ：一 是 定 冠 词 ，二 是 介 词 。 Yĩngyu yõu liâng ge nándiân: yĩ shì dìng guàncí, èr shì jiècí. English has tw o d iffic u lt points: one is the definite article; the other is the preposition. [ 1 2 ] 她 跟 他 吹 了 ，一 是 他 俗 气 ，二 是 他 小 心 眼 丨 L 。_ Tā gēn tā chuī le, yī shi tā súqì, èr shì tā xiâo xĩnyânr. She dumped him . F irst, he is mundane; second, he is narrow ­ minded.

10.4 Omission of conjunctions (连词省略) W hen you are on a bus, in an elevator, or in a free market in China, you often hear e llip tic a l sentences. You may hear such an exchange between a peddler and a shopper about the price o f tomatoes: P e d d le r :不 挑 五 毛 钱 一 斤 。 Bù tiõo wú máo qián yì jĩn. N ot pick, five mao per jin. S h o p p e r:四 毛 我 也 不 买 。 Sì máo wõ yě bù mâi. Four mao, I w ould not buy.

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These sentences can be hard to fo llo w because o f the absence o f conjunctions. One means "If you do not pick, I w ill sell it to you fo r five mao per jin r The other means ""Even i f it were four mao per jin, I would not buy it.” In English, z/cannot be om itted in a conditional clause，but 要 是 （ if) is perhaps the most com m only om itted conjunction in spoken Chinese. However, when one conjunction is om itted, the adverb that goes w ith it has to remain. In the follow ing two sentences,就 （ then) has to stay in the m ain clause to retain the meaning o f 要 是 . [ 1 ] ( 要 是 ）你 去 我 就 去 。 (Yàoshì) nĩ qù wõ jiù qù. I f you go, I w ill go.

[2]

m

)„ 意 我 夢 巧 _ 。

(Yàoshì) nĩ tóngyì wỗ jiù tóngyì. I f you agree, I w ill agree. 即使（ even if) can be om itted; the adverb 也 must stay in the main clause to keep the meaning o f , [ 3]

( 即 彳吏）她 不 去 我 也 去 。 (JíshT) tỗ bú qù wõ yě qù. Even i f she does not go, I w ill s till go.

[ 4 ] ( 即 使 ）你 不 说 我 也 知 道 谁 干 的 。 (Jishī) nĩ bù shuõ wõ yě zhīdao shéi gàn de. Even i f you do not te ll, I s till know who did it. 不论 or 不管 can also be om itted, but 都 or 也 must be kept in the m ain clause. N otice that, in English, i f you leave out no matter, you need to change what to whatever, and who to whoever. [ 5 ] ( 不 管 ）你 说 什 么 ，他 都 不 在 乎 。 (Bùguân) nĩ shuõ shénme, tã dõu bú zàihu. No m atter what you say, he does not care. [ 6 ] ( 不 管 ）谁 当 政 ，他 也 做 不 了 什 么 。 (Bùguân) shéi dāng zhéng, tā yě zuò bù liâo shénme. W hoever is in power, there is not much he can do. Sometimes there can be am biguity about w hat is om itted, but it norm ally would not cause any problem in communication.

Parts of Speech 词类

[7 ] (既 然 ）你 管 不 了 就 别 管 了 。 (Jirán) nĩ guân bù liâo jiù bié guân le. Since you cannot control it, ju s t let it go.

[ 8 ] ( 要 是 ）你 管 不 了 就 别 管 了 。 (Yàoshì) riĩ guân bù liâo jiù bié guân le. I f you cannot control it, ju st let it go. In [7] and [8]，what are le ft out can be 既 然 （ since) or 要 是 （ if), but the

point o f the sentence is to leave something alone, which the listener can easily get.

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Pa r t

Parts 〇f

the

Sentence

句子成分

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In C hinese, there are s ix m ajor sentence com ponents: subject (主 语 ) ，verb (谓 语 )，object (宾语)，a ttrib u tiv e (定语)，adverbial (状语)， and com plem ent 0 卜Í吾). A sentence m ust include tw o m ajor parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject identifies what the sentence is about; the predicate says som ething about the subject. The predicate includes everything on the other side o f the subject; it must contain a verb (see the chapter on verbless predicates). But the term predicate is sometimes also used only to refer to the verb. Am ong the six m ajor components, the subject, verb, and object make up the basic structure o f a sentence (the intransitive verb does not take an object), and they are essential. Here is a sentence that shows the typical syntactic position o f these components. subject II adverbial verb complement attributive object 我 又 看 见 了 Wỗ yòu kàn jiàn le I again saw the golden autumn.

金色的 jĩnsè de

秋天。 qiũtiãn.

In th is sentence,我 （ I) ，看 （ s e e ),秋 天 （ autum n), are respectively the subject，verb，and object• 又 （ again) is an adverbial m odifying the verb; 见 （ see) is a com plem ent po stm o d ifyin g the verb• 金 色 的 （ golden) is an attrib u tive m o d ifyin g the object. 了 is an aspect particle indicating a com plete a ction. The a ttrib u tiv e , a d ve rb ia l, and com plem ent are secondary; however, they are also im p o rta n t because they specify, describe, and explain the other three parts. In addition to adjectives, many other lin g u is tic elements can serve as attributives, and they a ll prem odify nouns. Adverbials m odify verbs or the whole sentence. They take pre-verb positions or stand at the beginning o f a sentence, though some only take the pre-verb position. Complements postm odify verbs. Some may stand d ire ctly after the verb, w hile some need the structural particle 得. 我 I I 喜 欢 蓝 色的海。 Wỗ xĩhuan lánsè de hãi. I lik e the blue ocean. * I I 愉快地接受了我的邀请。 Tã yúkuài de jiēshou le wõ de yãoqĩng. She pleasantly accepted my invitation. 他 I I 站 得 高 ，看 得 远 。 Tã zhàn de gõo, kàn de yuan. He stands high and can look afar.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

N otice the three structural particles 的，地 ，and There used to be no distinction among them; they were a ll w ritten as 的. But after the M ay Fourth Movement in 1919, a division o f function among them was gradually established. Today, each has a clearly designated role: 的 is used a ttrib u tiv e ly ;地 ，a d v e rb ia lly ;得，in form ing a complement. They are essential in composing parts o f a sentence.

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S u b je c t, V erb , and O b je c t 主 谓 宾

A hundred years ago, Chinese language was not much know n in the West, even among the erudite. When Ernest Fenollosa, an Am erican professor, firs t saw Chinese characters, he was fascinated by what he believed to be a natural, p icto ria l language that reflected the process o f nature. He cited this as an example: 人 rén man

見 jiàn sees

馬 mâ horse

Fenollosa saw in this sentence a “ continuous m oving picture.” 人 （ man) pictures a man standing on tw o le g s ;見 （ see) draws an eye and tw o running le g s ;馬 （ horse) depicts a horse on four legs. These three words follow â natural order from “ agent to object” and present ã “ picture o f the operations o f nature.” This, fo r Fenollosa, is a poetic language. Fenollosa’s p icto ria l reading o f Chinese, through Ezra Pound, le ft its im pact on the tw entieth century English and Am erican poetry. Fenollosa’s reading o f Chinese evokes the m yth o f language based on s im ilitu d e . B ut one does not, as you know , get the m eaning o f a Chinese sentence by decomposing each character. Language is a system o f signs that may, in an ultim ate sense, run parallel to the w orld; however, it does not present the w orld through the relationship between the word and the object on a one-to-one basis. Chinese, lik e many languages, indeed fo llo w s subject-verb-object (SVO), but many other languages fo llo w subject-object-verb (SOV). T his issue o f word order raises some interesting, philosophical questions about language, but fo r our purposes here, Fenollosa points out three most im portant constituents o f a sentence: subject, verb, and object. Subject, verb, and object can be syntactically divided into tw o parts: subject is on one side; verb and object are on the other side known as predicate. The predicate can be w ithout an object but not w ithout a verb. Sentences often follow the order o f subject, verb, and object, but this is by no means true in a ll cases. A sentence may not begin w ith an agent; the agent may not be necessarily the subject. These three elements o f subject, verb, and object can be variously engaged in their relations. In this chapter, we w ill explore various form s o f the subject, verb, and object. We w ill pay a special attention to compound predicates, in w hich tw o verbs or verb phrases may relate to each other d iffe re n tly.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

Finally, we w ill take a look at â type o f sentence that may go w ithout â subject. 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4

Subjects Predicates Objects Non-subject sentences

®

11-1 Subjects (主语)

A complete sentence consists o f two obligatory parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject identifies what the sentence is about or what is being discussed, w h ile the predicate says som ething about the subject. The subject is often the agent o f an action, but it can also be the receiver o f an action. 房 子 II ， 了。 Fángzi tā le. The house collapsed. 房 子 I I 修好了。 Fángzi xiũ hão le. The house is fixed. The house is the subject in both sentences. In the firs t one, house is the agent o f the action w hile, in the second, it is the receiver o f the action. See the chapter on the bèi sentence. The subject, as the theme o f the sentence, norm ally comes at the beginning o f a sentence, but it can be preceded by an adverbial or by a fronted object. 昨天 我 Zuótian wo Yesterday I was sick.

I I 病了。 bing le.

这个人 我 丨 | Zhè ge rén wõ I cannot tru st this man.

信不过。 xìn bú guò.

In the firs t sentence,昨天 （ yesterday) is a tem poral noun that functions as an adverbial. A tem poral noun may serve as the subject o f a sentence, such as 昨天是星期五（ Yesterday was Friday).

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11.1.1 Makeup of subjects In English, only a noun or noun equivalent can serve as the subject. Verbs cannot serve as the subject unless they are changed into a verbal— a gerund or an in fin itiv e . Adjectives cannot serve as the subject; they have to be transform ed into nouns, such as from happy to happiness. But, in Chinese, nouns, verbs, and adjectives can a ll serve as the subject. N oun as subject:

乔治亚产桃。 Qiáozhiyá chân táo. Georgia grows peaches.

Verb as subject:

笑是最好的药。 Xiào shì zuì hâo de yào. Laughter is the best m edicine.

A djective as s u b je c t:高 兴 能 让 你 长 寿 。 Gỗoxìng néng ràng nĩ chángshòu. Being happy can make you live long. Clause as subject:

她爱音乐是受了她父亲的影响。 Tỗ ài yĩnyuè shì shòu le tã fùqin de ýíngxiâng. That she loves m usic is due to her fa th e r’s influence.

In English, it and there can serve as anticipatory subjects that carry no meaning but only point forw ard to the notional subject placed at the end o f the sentence. In Chinese, there are no anticipatory subjects.

11.1.2 Simple subjects (Ỉ) The subject can be divided into simple and compound subjects. The simple subject is â single entity. 月 亮 I I 真美。 Yuèliang zhēn měi. The moon is beautiful. 爹 II 征 服 一 切 。 Ài zhēngfu yíqiè. Love conquers a ll. The noun phrase often serves as the subject o f a sentence, w hich consists o f a m odifier and a head noun, and the m odifier can be a noun, an

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

adjective, or a verb.

昨 天 买 的 ^奶

v I I 坏了。

Zuotiān mâi de niúnâi huài le. The m ilk bought yesterday is spoiled. S trictly speaking,牛 奶 （ the m ilk ) is the subject o f the above sentence, but the m odifier may be counted as part o f the subject. Nouns and verbs need the structural particle 的 to m odify nouns, but it varies w ith adjectives. See the chapter on adjectives.

[1]那只绿色的青蛙是树蛙。 Nà zhī lusè de qīngwā shì shůwa. That green frog is a tree frog.

[ 2 ] 穿蓝衣服的女孩真漂亮。 Chuỗn lán yĩfu de nũhái zhēn piàoliang. The g irl in the blue dress is beautiful.

[ 3] 这 种 过 时 的 衣 服 很 便 宜 。 Zhé zhong guòshí de yĩfu hen piányi. This kind o f obsolete clothing is inexpensive.

[ 4 ] 患难中的朋友才是真朋友。 Huànnàn zhong de péngyou cái shì zhẽn péngyou. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

11.1.3 Simple subjects (2) A simple subject can be a noun prem odified by an attributive clause, which makes up a noun phrase. The attributive clause needs the structural particle 的 to prem odify the noun.

你在剧场看见的那个人

II

是我前夫。_

Nĩ zài júchang kánjián de nà ge rén shì wõ qiánfu. The man that you saw in the theater is m y ex-husband.

你在剧场看见的（ you saw in the theater) is a clause m odifying 那个人(the man). N otice that in English the adjectival clause postm odifies the noun, whereas in Chinese the adjectival clause precedes the noun it m odifies.

[ 5 ] 爸爸送给我的那本书不再版了。 Bàba sòng gei wõ de nà běn shū bú záiban le. The book that m y father gave me is out o f print.

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你 为 $ ” 制定的目标很不现实。 Nĩ wei women zhiding de mùbiỗo hen bú xiànshí. The goal you set fo r US is very unrealistic.

[ 7 ] 我7们昨晚去吃饭的那家餐馆真 脏 。 Women ZUÓ wan qù chĩ fan de nà jiā cãnguân zhēn zāng. The restaurant we went to last night is really d irty.

[ 8] 你想象的那种生活根本不存在。 N ĩ xiângxiàng de nà zhong shẽnghuó gẽnbẽn bù cúnzái. The kin d o f life you im agine does not exist at all.

11.1.4 Simple subjects (3) The sim ple subject can also be a nom inal clause, also know n as noun clause. The nom inal clause equals a noun, and it often consists o f an interrogative pronoun when serving as the subject o f a sentence.

吟说什么

I I 是什么。

Tỗ shuõ shénme shì shénme. W hat he says is to be follow ed.

他说什么 in the above sentence means “ what he says.” I f it stands alone w ith a question m ark, it is an interrogative sentence, m eaning uW hat does he say??, In the follow ing sentences, each subject is an interrogative sentence i f standing by its e lf w ith a question mark. [9 ] g 跟谁结婚是他自己的事。

Tā gēn shéi jié hun shĩ tā zìjĩ de shì. W hom he w ill m arry is his own business.

[ 10] 巧想做什么跟你没有关系。

Tỗ xiâng zuò shénme gēn nĩ méiyõu guãnxi. W hat she wants to do has nothing to do w ith you. [ 11]

你 能 不 能 及 格 要看你的 课 堂表 现 。 Nĩ néng bù néng jígé yào kàn nĩ de kètáng biâoxiàn. W h e th e r you can pass th is class depends on y o u r class performance.

[ 12] $需_要、 不气要_丨终手术由医生决定。 Tã xũyào bù xũyào zuò shõushù yóu yĩshẽng juéding. W hether he needs the operation is decided by the doctor.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

11.1.5 Compound subjects A compound subject is made up o f tw o or more simple subjects that, connected by a conjunction, jo in tly serve as the subject o f the same verb in the sentence.

夫和爹爹 wõ hé bàba

II

♦ 钓鱼了？ qù diào yú le.

Dad and I went fishing.

I I

爹花和杜鸦 同属一类。 Cháhuỗ hé dujuan tóng shũ yí lèi. Cam ellias and azaleas belong to the same fam ily. In English, i f tw o pronouns, such as you and another person, jo in tly serve as the subject, the other person comes before you, such as “ Dad and I.” In Chinese, you as the speaker precede the other person as in “ 我 和 爸 爸 ’’ （ I and Dad). The components m aking up the compound subject need to be equal in rank, and they are connected by a conjunction instead o f a preposition. It can be confusing because some Chinese conjunctions also serve as prepositions.

II

她和老师 说了这件事。 Tā hé lâoshĩ shuõ le zhè jiàn shì. She and the teacher talked about this matter.

II

她 和老师说了这件事。 Tā hé lâoshĩ shuõ le zhè jiàn shì. She talked w ith the teacher about this matter. In the firs t sentence, 和 is a con ju n ctio n ;她 和 老 师 （ she and the teacher) is the compound subject. In the second sentence，她 is the subject; 和老 师 （ w ith the teacher) is a prepositional phrase•和 is ty p ic a lly used as a conjunction, but it is sometimes used as a preposition in spoken language (see the chapter on conjunctions). W atch the com pound subject in the follow ing sentences. [1 3 ]奶 酪 和 豆 腐 是 我 最 爱 吃 的 。 Nâilào hé dòuỉu shì wõ zuì ài chĩ de. Cheese and to fu are m y favorite foods.

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[1 4 ] $ 同 彼 得 在 课 上 暗 送 秋 波 。 Tã tóng Bĩdé zài kè shàng àn sòng qiũ bõ. She and Peter exchanged fu rtiv e glances in class. [1 5 ] 政 ， 改 ， $ , 济 $ 革 同 等 重 要 。 Zhéngzhi gâigé yũ jīngj? gâigé tóngděng zhóngyáo. P olitical reform and economic reform are equally im portant. [ 1 6 ] 平 等 、自 由 、民 主 是 我 们 的 目 标 。 Píngděng、ziyóu、mínzhú shì vvõmen de mùbiỗo. Equality, freedom , and democracy are our goals. The compound subject is different from the appositive ( 同位语). The compound subject is composed o f two different entities, but the appositive consists o f two words identical in reference. Here are tw o examples o f appositives: 我们两个人都太天真了。 Women liâng ge rén dõu tài tiānzhēn le. Both o f us are too naive. 王先生这个人太自私了。 Wáng xiãnsheng zhè ge rén tài zìsĩ le. M r. Wang is too selfish. The appositive is not a compound subject. In the above exam ple,这个人 is in apposition to 王 先 生 ; they refer to the same person.

11.2 .Predicates (谭语) The pre d ica te provides the in fo rm a tio n about the subject. It must contain a verb; it may also include an object, an adverbial, and a complement. The term predicate refers to the entire part o f the predicate, as opposed to the subject, but it may also be used only to refer to the verb (also known as predicator). In this section, we w ill look at the entire part o f the predicate. 11.2.1

Sim ple predicates (1)

A simple predicate must have at least a verb; there may also be an object, an adverbial, and a complement.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

他家前面的大树 II 信ļ 了。 Tā jiã qiánbian de dà shù dâo le. The big tree in front o f his house fe ll down. 我的申请书

丨 丨

已经寄出声了。 yĩjĩng jì chũqù le. M y application has already been sent out.

wõ de shẽnqĩngshũ

In the second sentence, the predicate consists o f the verb 寄 （ send)，the verb complement 出去 （ out), and the adverbial 已经 （ already). [1 ] 感恩节我们烤了一只火鸡。 Gan’ēn Jié vvõmen kâo le yì zhī huõjĩ. We roasted a turkey on Thanksgiving. [2 ]

东西校园之间有一」 ặ 长梦。 Dõng xĩ xiàoyuán zhījiān yõu yí zuò chángqiáo. There is a long bridge between the east and the west campuses.

[3 ] 他给了很多不成立的理由。 Tā gěi le hen duõ bù chénglì de lĩyóu. He gave many unfounded reasons. [4 ] 这些没完没了的琐事真烦。 Zhè xiẽ méi wán méi liâo de suõshì zhēn fan. These endless triv ia litie s are so annoying. The sim ple predicate can consist o f a lin k in g verb and a noun, a phrase, or a clause. W hat follow s the lin k in g verb is called subject complement in English, but it is s till called object in Chinese. 今天 I I 是一个难夸的、 日子。 Jiāntiān shì yí ge nánwáng de rìzi. Today is an unforgettable day. In Chinese, the lin k in g verb does not occur w ith the adjective to make up the predicate. The adjective alone can serve as the predicate. See the chapter on verbless predicates. [5 ] 她仍是二十年前的她。 Tã réng shì èrshí nián qián de tã. She is s till what she was tw enty years ago. [6 ] 你做的一切都是徒劳的。 N ĩ zuò de yíqiè dõu 'Shì túláo de. A ll you did is in vain.

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[7 ] 这仅仅是冰山的一角。

Zhe jīnjīn shì bĩngshỗn de yì jiao. This is only the tip o f the iceberg. 是这个国家独立十周年的日子。

[ 8]

Jīntiān shì zhè ge guójia duli shí Zhou nián de rizi. Today is the tenth anniversary o f the independence o f th is country.

11.2.2 Simple predicates (2) The sim ple predicate may consist o f a verb and a nom inal clause as the object. A nom inal clause is equivalent to a noun; it may serve as a subject or an object. 我

Wo

I I 认为他是最好的诗人。

rénwéi tā shì zui hâo de shĩrén.

I th in k that he is the best poet. ‘‘他 是 最 好 的 诗 人 ” is the object o f the verb 认 为 （ think). In Chinese，as in English, there is a group o f verbs that often take clausal object. See the chapter on verbs. [9 ] 我 担 心 她 通 不 过 考 试 。 wõ

dõnxĩn tã tõng bú guò kâoshì.

I am concerned that she cannot pass the exam. [1 0 ] 他 明 白 你 是 为 了 他 好 。

Tā míngbai nĩ shì wèi le tã hâo. He understands that you mean w ell to him . [1 1 ] 我 夷 议 你 找 一 份 工 作 。

Wo jiányi nĩ zhao yí fén gongzuó. I suggest that you look fo r a job. [1 2 ] 我 怀 疑 他 说 的 是 真 话 。 wõ

huáiyí tã shuõ de shì zhēnhua.

I doubt what he said is true.

11.2.3 Compound predicates (1) The com pound predicate refers to a predicate that has tw o or more verbs pe rta in in g to the same subject. It is know n as serial-verb

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

construction (连动句）in Chinese. We may divide the compound predicate into four categories according to the way the tw o verbs or verb phrases relate to each other. In the firs t category, the compound predicate consists o f two verbs or verb phrases that represent two consecutive actions. The juxtaposed verbs or verb phrases are in an equal position. 他丨丨站起来走了出去。

Tā

zhàn qílái zõu le chũqù.

He stood up and walked out. B etw een the tw o verb phrases, a com m a m ay be used b u t n o t a conjunction. However, the conjunction and is required to connect the two verb phrases in English. [1 3 ] 昨 天 他 打 篮 球 崴 了 脚 2

Zuotiān tā dâ lánqiú wâi le jiao. Yesterday he played basketball and tw isted his ankle. [1 4 ] 他 挣 了 一 百 块 都 花 了 。

TỖ Zheng le yì bãi kuài dõu huã le. He made a hundred dollars and spent a ll o f it. [ 1 5 ] 她 打 完 电 话 ，离 开 了 办 公 室 。

Tā dâ wan diànhuà, líkãi le bàngõngshì. She made a phone call and le ft the office. In the second category, the two verbs or verb phrases represent two consecutive actions, but they are not in equal position. The second verb or verb phrase explains the purpose o f the firs t one. 我

wõ

I I 来失力0 — 个 会 。

lái cānjiā yí ge huì.

I come to attend a meeting. In English, the second verb needs to be turned into an in fin itiv e phrase that m odifies the firs t verb. In Chinese，the verbs 来 （ come) and 去 （ go) often serve as the firs t verb. [1 6 ] 你 来 干 什 么 ？

Nĩ lái gàn shénme? W hat are you com ing for?

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[1 7 ] 我 去 问 问 他 的 意 见 。

wõ qù wénwen tā de yijián. I w ill go to ask his opinion. [1 8 ] 4 去 图 书 馆 借 一 本 书 。

Tã qù túshũguân jiè yì bẽn shũ. She goes to the lib ra ry to check out a book. In the th ird category，the compound predicate has the verb 有 （ have) as the firs t o f the tw o verbs. The tw o verbs or verb phrases are not in equal positions, and the compound predicate conveys a state rather than two consecutive actions. 我

Wo

I I 有问题问你。

you wéntí wen nT.

I have questions to ask you. In the above E nglish sentence, the in fin itiv e phrase fu n ctio n s as an adjective m odifying the preceding noun. In Chinese, the second verb or verb phrase may be viewed as a complement to the preceding noun. [1 9 ] 你 没 有 理 由 拒 绝 我 。

Nĩ méiyõu lĩyóu jùjué wõ. You have no reason to refuse me. [ 2 0 ] 我 没 有 东 西 吃 ，没 有 地 方 住 。

Wõ méiyõu dõngxi chĩ, méiyõu difang zhù. I have nothing to eat and no place to live. [2 1 ] ， 没 有 权 力 提 这 种 要 求 。

Tỗ méiyõu quánlì tí zhè zhong yãoqiú. He has no rig h t to make such a request. In the fourth category, the tw o actions occur consecutively, but the firs t verb indicates the means by which the second action is carried out or shows the manner in which the second action occurs. 我

Wõ

I I 坐火车去巴黎。

zuò huõchẽ qù Bāli.

I go to Paris by train. For this kind o f compound predicate, the firs t verb or verb phrase is often translated into a prepositional phrase in English.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[2 2 ] 他 用 手 机 发 短 信 。

Tã yòng shoujī fā duãnxìn. He sends short messages w ith his ce ll phone.

[23] 他 每 天 开 车 去 学 校 。 Tā meitiān kāi chẽ qù xuéxiào. Every day he drives to school.

[24] 他 们 手 拉 手 走 了 出 来 Q Tāmen shõu lã shõu zõu le chũlái. They walked out, hand in hand.

11.2.4 Compound predicates (2) In Chinese, there is another kind o f compound predicate known as the verb-copying sentence (重动句）in which the verb that takes an object is repeated. These verbs are m ostly transitive m onosyllabic verbs. The verb-copying sentence is used to describe or comment on how someone does something. It consists o f “ subject + verb + object + repeated verb + complement.” 他

I I 谈政治谈得津津有味。

Tā

tán zhéngzhi tán de jīnjīn yõu wèi.

He thoroughly enjoys ta lkin g about politics. 我 丨 I

值夜班值了十个小时。

wõ

zhí yèbỗn zhí le shí gè xiâoshí.

I worked the night s h ift fo r ten hours. B oth sentences te ll how someone does som ething. The verb and its repetition constitute the com pound predicate. V erb-copying sentences require that the firs t verb must have an object, and that the complement must fo llo w the repeated verb instead o f the object. The complement can take various forms.

[25] 她 看 电 脑 看 得 头 都 晕 了 。 Tā kàn diànnâo kàn de tóu dõu yũn le. She feels dizzy after too much tim e on the computer.

[26] 他 们 跳 舞 跳 了 一 个 通 宵 。 Tỗmen tiào wũ tiào le yí ge tõngxião. They danced fo r the whole night.

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[2 7 ] 爸 爸 妈 妈 送 我 送 到 登 机 口 。

Bába māma sòng wõ sòng dào dēngjīkou. Dad and M om accom panied me a ll the way to the boarding gate. [2 8 ] 昨 晚 我 们 喝 酒 喝 了 个 痛 快 。

Zuó wan women hē jiũ hē le ge tòngkuài. Last night we drank to our hearťs content. [2 9 ] 他 主 持 电 视 节 目 主 持 得 不 错 。

Tā zhuchí diànshì jiémů zhuchí de búcuò. He hosts television shows w ell. In the sentences above, various elements serve as the complement (see the chapter on complements). N otice that in [29]，the disyllabic verb 主持 is repeated. O nly the transitive disyllabic verbs that take an object can be used in verb-copying sentences. In ve rb -co p yin g sentences, the verb m ust have an o bject. B ut the form ation o f some d isylla b ic verbs already involves a verb-object relationship; many o f these are separable verbs (see the chapter on verbs). M ost separable verbs can be used in verb-copying sentences. In such a case，the firs t character o f the disyllabic verb is repeated. 她

tā

I I 丢人丟到家了。 diū rén diū dào jiā le.

She to ta lly disgraced herself. In th is sentence,丢 人 （ be disgraced) is a d isylla b ic verb in w hich 丢 (lose) and 人 （ person) are in â verb-object relationship. In the follow ing sentences,帮 忙 ，住 院 ，and 旷课 are a ll separable verbs. [3 0 ] 你 帮 忙 帮 错 了 地 方 。

Nĩ bâng máng bâng cuồ le difang. Your help did more harm than good. [3 1 ] 病 人 芦 院 住 了 三 天 。

Bìngrén zhù yuan zhù le sãn tiãn. The patient was hospitalized fo r three days. [3 2 ] 他 旷 课 旷 了 七 次 。

Tā kuàng kè kuàng le qĩ cì. He missed the class seven times. N otice that not a ll disyllabic verbs involve a verb-object relationship and

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

not a ll separable verbs can be used in verb-copying sentences. You w ill need to remember them individually. In some rare cases, a disylla b ic verb is form ed by tw o verbs that are in a kind o f verb-object relationship. For these verbs, you repeat the second character o f the disyllabic verb. [3 3 ] 他 发 烧 烧 到 四 十 度 。

Tā fā shāo shāo dào sìshí dù. He is running a temperature o f 104°F. [3 4 ] 她 做 梦 梦 见 了 奶 奶 。

Tā zuò mèng mèng jiàn le nâinai. She dreamed o f her grandmother. In the tw o sentences above, the second characters o f 发 烧 （ ru n a temperature) and 做 梦 （ dream) are verbs that are repeated. T his usage is idiom atic and only applies to lim ite d cases. A gain, you w ill need to com m it them to memory. The verb-copying sentence is often used in spoken language. I f the referent is definite, you may leave out the firs t verb and keep the rest intact. [ 3 5 ] 她 （选 ）教 材 选 得 不 错 。

Tā (xuân) jiáocái xuân de búcuò. She selected textbooks w ell. [ 3 6 ] 你 （喝 ）酒 喝 得 太 多 了 。

NĨ (hē) jiū hẽ de tài duõ le. You have drunk too much. When the firs t verb is om itted, the object takes a more prom inent position. This short version highlights the object, and it is used contextually. Sometimes you may see sentences in w hich an adjective is placed a fte r the object w ith o u t the repeated verb and 得，w hich means the adjective is used adverbially. 她写汉字很漂亮。

Tā xiě hánži hen piàoliang. She w rites characters beautifully. 他讲故事很生动。

Tā jiang gùshì hen shẽngdòng. He tells stories v iv id ly .,

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S tric tly speaking, th is adverbial use o f adjectives is not gram m atical, though th is usage has gained fa irly w ide acceptance. You should stay away from it.

11.3 Objects (宾语) We have exam ined various form s o f the object in the preceding section on predicates. We have also looked in to the relations between verbs and objects in the chapter on verbs. In the fo llo w in g , le t US take another look at some characteristics o f the object.

11.3.1 Verbs as objects In English, the verb, when serving as an object, has to be changed to a verbal (gerund or in fin itiv e ). In Chinese, a verb or verb phrase can be d irectly placed after the m ain verb to serve as an object. *

Tā

I I 喜欢听音乐。

xĩhuan tĩng yĩnyuè.

She likes to listen to music. 听音乐（ lis te n to m usic) serves as the object o f the verb 喜 欢 （ lik e ). In English, the verb needs to be changed to a gerund (liste n in g ) or an in fin itiv e (to listen) to serve as the object. W hen serving as the object, the gerund tends to convey fulfillment', the in fin itiv e may denote potentiality. In Chinese, the verb serving as an object also tends to express the idea that something has not occurred yet but may potentially happen. [1 ] 我 保 证 说 到 做 到 。

Wo baozhéng shuõ dào zuò dào. I guarantee to mean what I say. [2 ] 近 来 他 害怕见我。

Jinlái tā hàipà jiàn wỗ. Recently he is afraid to see me. [3 ] 他 企 图 劫 持 飞 机 。

Ta qitu jiechi fēijī. He attempts to hijack the airplane. [4 ] 她 不 喜 欢 听 抱 怨 。

Tã bù xĩhuan tĩng bàoyuàn. She does not lik e to hear complaints.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

11.3.2 Agents as objects The agent usually serves as the subject o f a sentence, but the agent can be in the position o f the object, and th is , fo r exam ple, occurs in existential sentences.

学校 I I 来了一个新 g 长 。 Xuéxiào lái le yí ge xĩn xiáozhang. The school came a new principal. In this sentence, the school is considered the subject; a new principal, the agent o f the action, is the object.

[5 ] 我们宿舍住三个学生。 Women sùshè zhù sān ge xuésheng. Three students live in our dorm itory.

[ 6 ] 他们学校死了一个人。 Tāmen xuéxiào sĩ le yí ge rén. A person from their school died.

[ 7 ] 社区里搬进了两户人。 Shèqũ lĩ bãn jin le liâng hù rén. Two fam ilies moved into the com m unity.

[ 8 ] 桌上放着一杯乌龙茶。 Zhuõ shàng fang zhe ýì bēi wulóng chá. There is a cup o f Oolong tea on the table. N otice that, in English existential sentence, what comes after the verb is considered the notional subject o f the sentence. See the chapter on existential sentences.

11.3.3 Locational nouns as objects Some E n g lish in tra n s itiv e verbs, such as come and go, can be follow ed by a prepositional phrase o f place or destination that indicates where the action or movement is directed.

他 Tā

I I

去颐和园了。 qù Yíhé Yuan le.

He went to the Summer Palace. In the English sentence, to the Summer Palace is a prepositional phrase

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that serves as an adverbial modifying the verb go. The Summer Palace is the destination of the action, not the recipient of the action, but it is considered the object in Chinese; some call it non-recipient object. [9 ]昨天他来北京了。

Zuotiān tā lâi Beijīng le. Yesterday he came to Beijing. [1 0 ] 他 已 经 上 了 飞 机 。

Tā yĩjĩng shàng le fēijī. He already got on the airplane. [1 1 ] 这 条 路 通 游 泳 池 。

Zhè tiáo lù tõng yóuyõngchí. This path leads to the swimming pool. [1 2 ] 他 的 宿 舍 在 湖 边 。

Tā de sùshè zài húbiãn. His dormitory is by the lakeside. Here are some directional verbs that often take locational nouns as object: 来 （ com e), 去 （ g o ), 上 （ ascend), 下 （ descend), 进 （ enter), a (e x is t) ，etc. Some verbs that indicate positions， such as 到 （ arrive) and 在 （to be at), can take locational nouns as the object.

11.4 Non-subject sentences (无主句） A sentence, as noted earlier, must contain a subject and a predicate. But you may often see sentences without a subject. Here are two situations.

11.4.1 Pronoun dropping In Chinese, people often drop the subject of a sentence when the omitted subject is clearly understood, and this mostly occurs in casual dialogues or conversations. Look at the following two exchanges: A :你看见了吗？ NĨ kánjián le ma? Did you see? B :看见了。

Kánjián le. Yes, I did.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

A :他 来 了 吗 ？

Tỗ lái le ma? Has he come? B : _ 了 〇

Lái le. Yes, he has. In each response to the questions, the subject 我 （ I) and 他 （ he) are dropped, but the meaning is clear within each context. In English, we occasionally may drop the subject in dialogues; pronoun dropping occurs far more frequently in Chinese than in English.

11.4.2 Null subject sentences In English, we do not feel comfortable if a sentence lacks a subject. If a sentence does not have a clear, definite subject, we use the pronoun it, also known as empty it or prop it, to represent it. However, in Chinese, the subject position is left vacant if there is not a clear subject. [1 ] 要下雪了。

Yào xià xuě le. It is going to snow. [2 ] 刮5

Ị 〇

Guā fēng le. It is windy now. [ 3 ] 四点了。

Sì diân le. It is four o’clock. The above sentences do not have subjects, which only occur in some limited situations, such as in reference to rain, snow, wind, and time. However, the sky, time, and weather can serve as the subject in the following sentences. [4 ] 天阴了。

Tiān yĩn le. It is cloudy now. [5 ] 夜深了。

Yè shēn le. It is late at night.

.

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[ 6 ] 天-气 凉 了 。

Tiỗnqì liống le. It is getting cold now. Notice that, in English, the pronoun it still serves as the subject in sentences from [4] to [6].

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

C h a p te r 12

A ttrib u tiv e s 定 语

Attributives modify nouns; various grammatical items can serve as attributives. In Chinese, a distinction is often drawn between restrictive and descriptive attributives. Nouns, verbs, phrases, and clauses tend to restrict the meaning of an entity, setting one thing apart from another; whereas adjectives describe an entity. This distinction may be generally true, but sometimes it is difficult to draw a clear line. Here is a statement from Albert Einstein: 不要做一个成功的人而要做一个有价$ 的 人 ，

Bú yào zuò yí ge chénggõng de rén ér yào zuò yí ge you jiázhí de rén. Try not to become a man of success but rather to become a man of value. In C h in ese, 成 功 （ successful) is an adjective; 有 价 值 （ have value) is a verb phrase. Both are attributives modifying the man. One is descriptive; the other can be argued either way. For another example, in 漂亮的 鸟 （ beautiful b ird s ), 漂亮 is descriptive, but in 树 林 里 的 鸟 （ birds in the bush), 树 林 里 is restrictive— the birds in the bush, not the birds in the cage. It is not always necessary to analyze whether an attributive is descriptive or restrictive, but it is important to know various kinds of attributives and to recognize how they modify nouns. In English, adjectives typically premodify nouns while infinitives, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses postmodify nouns. In Chinese, attributives, no matter what they are made of, invariably premodify nouns. This is another important characteristic of Chinese attributives. 那 个 穿 迷 你 裙 的 聪 明 漂 亮 的 女 孩 儿 是 我 的 同 学 Qv ,

Nà ge chuãn mínĩqún de cõngming piàoliang de nuháir shì wỗ de tóngxué. That smart and beautiful girl in a mini skirt is my classmate. In the English sentence, smart and beautiful premodify the girl; in a mini 从 /rí postmodifies the girl. In the Chinese sentence, both 穿 迷 你 裙 的 （in a mini skirt) and 聪 明 漂 亮 的 （smart and beautiful) premodify 女 孩 （the g irl).

Chinese nouns only take prem odification, which means that a Chinese noun may have a long premodifier, as an English noun could have a long postmodifier, especially when the relative clause serves as the

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m odifier. It is essential to distinguish the m odifier from the m odified in order to read a sentence correctly. In a ll these cases, the structural particle 的 plays a c ritic a l role. 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4

The structural particle de Forms o f attributives A ttrib u tive clauses The sequence o f attributives

12.1 The structural particle ote (结构助词" In E nglish, genitive and ỡ/-phrases denote ow nership that may, broadly interpreted, cover varied meanings and relations. For example, todays newspaper refers to the paper published today; a fifteen-minute break means a break lasting fifte e n minutes; the backyard o f our house means our house has a backyard; the man o f honor means the man is honorable. W ith in each phrase, the genitive or ơ/-phrase functions attributively. In Chinese, the stru ctu ra l p a rticle 的 also denotes ow nership in various ways, as do English genitives and ơ/phrases. You may place the particle 的 after a noun, ju st as you use an apostrophe and an —s after a noun in English. 皇帝的新衣（ th e E m p e ro r’s new clothes)

huángdì de xĩn yĩ 作者的意图（ th e a u th o r’s in te n tio n )

zuózhě de yìtú 饭店的前门（ th e fro n t d o o r o f th e h o te l)

íàndiàn de qiánmén 电影的结尾（ th e e n d in g o f th e m ovie)

diànyĩng de jiěwěi In each noun phrase above, the p a rtic le 的 denotes a possessive relationship between the two entities. The Em peror owns the new clothes; the m ovie has an ending. Both the Em peror and the m ovie function as attributives. In Chinese, not only nouns but also verbs, different kinds o f phrases, and clauses can take the particle 的 to perform attributively. This is where the particle 的 differs from English genitives and o/phrases. Remember what precedes 的 m odifies what follow s it.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

桌上的茶杯（ th e teacup on th e table)

zhuõ shàng de chábẽi 窗外的景色（ th e scenery outside th e w in d o w )

chuāng wai de jTngse 调查的结果（ th e re s u lt o f in v e s tig a tio n )

diàochá de jiēguo 我喜欢她的原因（ th e reason th a t I lik e her)

wo xĩhuan tā de yuányĩn Notice that on the table and outside the window are prepositional phrases postm odifying the nouns in E nglish，but 桌 上 （ on the table) and 窗外 (outside the window) are directional nouns that prem odify other nouns in Chinese• 调 查 （ investigate) is a verb，and 我 喜 欢 她 （ I lik e her) is ã clause; they both serve as prem odifiers o f the nouns. As an indicator o f prem odification，的 is capable o f highlighting or intensifying the descriptive role o f prem odification. As noted earlier about adjectives, means red apple, which stands fo r a category o f thing, but 红的苹果 m e a n s a p p f c /Aíư & r ^ /，which highlights the red color. This difference also applies to nouns when they serve as attributives. 国家公园（ n a tio n a l p a rk )

guojia gõngyuán 国家的公园（ th e p a rk th a t belongs to th e c o u n try )

guójiỗ de gõngyuán 北京饭店（ B e ijin g H o te l)

Beijing fandian 北京的饭店（ th e h o te ls in B e ijin g )

Beijing de fándián 国家公园 stands fo r a single unit o f meaning, but in 国家的公园•北京饭店 is a proper noun，but in 北京的饭店.

is highlighted is emphasized

12.2 Forms of attributives (定语的种类) A variety o f lin g u is tic item s can function a ttributively. Some can directly m odify nouns，but most need 的 （ see the chapter on adjectives). Now let us go over them.

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12.2.1 Nouns as attributives In English, we say history book instead o f historical book; in this case, the noun history can perform attributively. In Chinese, some nouns can also function attributively and play a nominal role. They jo in the noun，without 的 ， to stand for â class o f things or express ã single unit o f meaning. [1 ] 我刚买了汽车保险。

Wo găng mâi le qìchẽ bãoxiân. I ju s t bought car insurance. [ 2 ] 我^ 亥$ 人7寿 保 险 吗 ？

Wỗ gỗi mâi rénshòu bãoxiân ma? Should I purchase life insurance? 汽车保险（ car insurance) is a particular kind o f insurance, and so is 人寿 保险（ life insurance). The attributive noun, in each case，helps to set up a category o f thing. B ut m ost nouns need 的 （ noun + 的）to act a ttrib u tiv e ly ，w hich ususlly indicates possession. For example，in 秋 后 的 蚂 坤 （ late autumn’s grasshopper)，秋后的 modifies 蚂蛑，and it figuratively means that something w ill not last long. [3 ] 你 ，今 f 的新闻了吗？

NT tĩng jīntiān de xinwén le ma. Have you listened to today’s news? [4 ]

下学期的学费了。

Wo jiāo xià xuéqĩ de xuétèi le. I have paid the next semester^ tu ition . [5 ] 这 、 本 f 的 兮 面 很 _漂 亮 。

Zhè běn shū de tẽngmiàn hen piàoliang. The cover o f this book is pretty. [ 6 ] 这 ;[牛f 儿 $ 影 响 深 远 。

Zhè jiàn shìr de yĩngxiâng shẽnyuân. The im pact o f this incident is far-reaching. Chinese directional and locational nouns are usually translated into prepositional phrases in English, such as 天 上 （ in the sky) and 地 下 （ under the ground). They need 的 to function attributively.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[7 ] 天上的星星会掉下来吗？

Tiõn shàng de xĩngxing huì diào xiàlai ma? Can the star in the sky fa ll down? [8 ] 地下的石油到底有多少？

Dì xia de shíyóu dàodĩ yõu duõshao? How much o il is there under the ground?

[9 ] 水里的鱼显得非常局兴。 Shuĩ lĩ de yú xiân de fěicháng gãoxìng. The fish in the water appears to be very happy.

12.2.2 Pronouns as attributives Personal pronouns， such as 你 （ you) and 他 （ he)， and indefinite personal pronouns, such as 大家(everybody) and 另 丨 J人 (others)， all need 的 to perform attributively. [1 0 ] 我 的 家 就 是 你 的 家 。

Wo de jiā jiù shì nĩ de jiā. M y home is your home. [1 1 ] 他 总 管 别 人 的 事 儿 。

Tā zong guân biérén de shìr. He always pokes his nose into others9 business.

Interrogative pronouns do not need 的 to premodify nouns. But the interrogative pronoun 谁 （ who) and reflexive pronoun 自己 need 的 to indicate possessive relationship. [1 2 ] 谁 的 车 挡 了 我 的 路 ？

Shéi de chẽ dâng le wõ de lù? Whose car is blocking m y way? [1 3 ] 我 自 己 的 问 题 我 知 道 。

wõ zìjĩ de wéntí wo zhīdao. I know m y own problems.

12.2.3 Numerals as attributives Numerals always need measure words when m odifying nouns; they generally do not need 的 （ see the chapter on measure words).

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动物园、 有子只亚洲象。

Dóngwuyuán you sān zhī yàzhõuxiàng. There are three Asian elephants in the zoo.

[15] 鱼 缸 里 有 十 条 热 带 鱼 。 Yúgỗng IT you shí tiáo rèdàiyú. There are ten tropical fish in the fish tank. When numerals and unit measure words are used to indicate age, prices, or tim e,的 is needed.

[16] 他 有 一 个 十 五 岁 的 女 儿 。 Tā you yí ge shíwú suì de nũ^r. He has a fifteen-year-old daughter. [n ] ， 们要了百美元的押金。

Tāmen yào yì bâi měiyuán de yāj'īn. He wants a one-hundred-dollar deposit.

[18] 我 打 算 坐 十 二 点 的 飞 机 。 Wỗ dâsuàn zuò shíJèr diân de fēij'ī. I plan to take the twelve o'clock airplane. Numerals âĩid unit measure words also need 的 when they describe the height or the length o f something. In such instances, certain adjectives are often added for further description.

[19] 这 ， 一 ， 四 _十 米 高 的 ， 树 。 Zhè shì yì kẽ sìshí mĩ gõo de xiàngshù. This is an oak tree o f fo rty meters ta ll. [2 0 ] 我 捉 了 二 条 三 米 长 的 鳄 鱼 。

Wỗ zhuõ le yì tiáo sân mĩ cháng de èyú. I caught a three-m eter long alligator. I f a numeral-measure word is used to indicate the weight o f something, the use o f 的 may affect the meaning o f a sentence. Compare these two sentences: 我要五十斤南瓜。

Wo yào wushí j'īn nánguỗ. I want fifty jin o f pum pkin. 我 V要一 个 五 十 斤 的 南 瓜 。

wõ yào yí ge wushí jīn de nánguỗ. I want a pum pkin that weighs fifty jin.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

In the firs t sentence, 五十斤 means fifty o f pum pkin. In the second sentence,五十斤的 refers to the kind o f pumpkin that weighs fiftyym .

12.2.4 Verbs as attributives In English, verbs take nouns as objects; they do not m odify nouns. Only when tìiey are changed into past participles (-ed), present participles (-ing), or verb in fin itive (e.g. things to eat), can they m odify nouns. In Chinese, t4verb + 的’’ can be used to prem odify nouns:吃 的 东 西 （ things to e a t),穿的衣服 (clothes to wear), and 去 的 地 方 （ places to go). [ 2 1 ] 他 的 房 间 太 小 ，没 有 坐 的 地 方 。

Tā de fángjian tài xiâo, méi yõu zuò de difang. H is room is too sm all; there is no place to sit. [ 22]

买的饭没有我自己做的好吃。

Mâi de fan méiyỗu wo jìjĩ zuò de hâochĩ. Purchased food is not as tasty as the food I cooked m yself. [2 3 ] 失 去 的 东 西 你 就 不 要 再 想 了 。

Shĩqù de dõngxi nĩ jiù bú yào zài xiâng le. You should not bother yourself w ith the things lost. In English, an in finitive, when taking an object, becomes an in fin itive phrase that can postm odify a noun. In Chinese，“ verb + object + 的’’ can also function a ttrib u tive ly:买飞机票的钱^ (the money to purchase air tickets) and 接 人 的 地 点 (the place to pick up people). [2 4 ] 我 连 喝 咖 啡 的 时 间 都 没 有 。

Wo lián kẽ kāfēi de shijiān dõu méi you. I do not even have tim e to d rin k coffee. [ 25]

老上涛的冬车已经离开； Ĩ 。

QÙ Shanghai de huõchẽ ýíjĩng líkãi le. The tra in bound for Shanghai has already left. [2 6 ] 你 要 给 听 众 提 问 题 的 机 会 。

Nĩ yào gěi fíngzhóng tí vvèntí de jīhui. You need to give the audience an opportunity to ask questions. In English, infinitives can be in the passive voice, such as the work to be In Chinese, ‘ ‘ 要 + verb + 的” also denotes passive notions:要洗的衣服 (clothes to be washed),要 处 理 的 问 题 (the problem to be dealt w ith)，and 要 打击的目标(the targetto be attacked).

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[2 7 ] 这 些 都 是 要 扔 的 垃 圾 。

Zhèxiẽ dõu shì yào rēng de lājī. This is the trash to be disposed of. [2 8 ] 这 芦 $ 要 ， 决 ^ 问 题 。

Zhéxiě shì yào jiějué de wéntí. These are the problems to be solved. In Chinese, some verbs play an attributive role in some compound nouns, such as 笑 料 （laughing stock),跑 鞋 （running shoes),休 息 室 （sitting room),游 泳 池 (swimming pool)， and 学习驾照 （Learning Permit). [2 9 ] 我 很 想 吃 北 京 烤 ， 。

Wo hen xiâng chĩ Beijing kâoyã. I am craving Beijing roast duck. [3 0 ] 这 份 工 作 是 个 跳 板 。

Zhè fén gongzuó shì ge tiàobân. This job is a springboard. In these compound nouns, you may view the verbs as nominalized verbs that are used as attributive nouns.

12,3 Attributive clauses (定语从句) In English, the attributive clause is also known as the relative clause or adjectival clause, which functions as an adjective, modifying a noun in a sentence. Attributive clauses are led by a set of words called relative pronouns (i.e. th at, w h ich , w h o, w h om , or w h o se), and they answer or specify w hich on e or w h a t k in d o f about the noun they modify. You may use attributive clauses to define a noun or use it for stylistic purposes, to create variety in sentence structure and avoid choppy sentences. He bought a book that I wrote. $ 买7 了1 本 我 7写 的 书 。

Tỗ mâi le yì běn wõ xiě de shū. None of the people whom I know showed up. 我认识的乂都没有来。

wõ rènshi de rén dõu méi lái. In the above sentences, uthat I wrote19is an attributive clause that modifies the book, and t4whom I know?, is another attributive clause that modifies the p e o p le .

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

12.3.1 Subject + verb + 的 In Chinese, “subject + verb + 的’ ’（ 主谓结构 ） makes up an attributive clause that is comparable to some English attributive clauses. But the “subject + verb + 的， ’’ like all other Chinese attributives， has to precede the noun it modifies. [1 ] 我 买不到我喜欢的音乐。

wõ mâi bú dào wõ xĩhuan de yĩnyuè. There is nowhere I can buy the music that I like. [2 ] 他是不是你羨慕的男人？

Tỗ shì bú shì nĩ xiànmù de nánrén? Is he the kind of man whom you admire? [3 ] 这是 海 明 威 住 过 的 房 子 。

Zhè shì Haimíngwěi zhù guo de fángzi. This is the house where Hemingway lived before. [4 ] 身体不好的人可以不去。

Shẽntĩ bù hâo de rén kẽyĩ bú qù. Those whose health is not good do not have to go. Notice how English relative pronouns and Chinese 的 perform in these adjective clauses. 我喜欢的音乐 means i/ze 认ÍƯ / /žfe，的 may be viewed as comparable to the in English. 我喜欢的音乐 equals the music o f my preference.

12.3.2 Truncating It is not stylistically preferable to have a long attributive clause in a sentence in Chinese, but it is quite common in English. You may break English attributive clauses into two parts when translating them into Chinese. Compare the following sentences: A w kw ard: 妈 妈 常 想 念 大 学 毕 业 后 就 去 非 洲 教 书 的 女 儿 Ọ

Mỗma cháng xiângniàn dàxué bìyè hòu ]iù qù Fēizhou jiāo shū de nú’ ér. Mother often misses her daughter who went to teach in Africa after graduating from the college. R e v is e d :女 儿 大 学 毕 业 后 就 去 非 洲 教 书 ỵ ， 妈 妈 常 想 念 。

NŨ^r dàxué'bìyè hòu iiù qù Fēizhou jiāo shū le,

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māma cháng xiângniàn tã. M other often misses her daughter who went to teach in A fric a after graduating from the college. A w k w a rd :他 至 今 还 记 得 他 的 女 友 和 他 分 手 时 说 的 那 句 话 。

Tā zhijīn hái J?de tā de núyỗu hé tā fēn shõu shí shuõ de nà jù huà. He s till rem em bers the sentence his g ir l frie n d said when they le ft each other. R e v is e d :他 的 女 友 和 他 分 手 时 说 的 那 句 话 ，他 至 今 还 记 得 。

Tỗ de nũyõu hé tā fēn shõu shí shuõ de nà jù huà, tā zhijīn nāi Jiae. He s till remembers the sentence that his g irl friend said when they le ft each other. In Chinese, the long a ttrib u tive clause that separates the verb from its object can make the sentence hard to fo llo w . T h is is not an issue in English because the adjective clause postm odifies the noun.

12_4 The sequence of attributives (定语的顺序) W hen a noun has m ore than one p re m o d ifie r, there is an issue about the sequence o f prem odifiers, and this may d iffe r between English and Chinese. For example, we say iSbw/A Chinese say 东南亚 (East South Asia). We say top right corner, Chinese say (rig h t top corner). The fo llo w in g is an illu s tra tio n o f the order o f Chinese prem odifications.

12.4.1 Coordinate premodification Coordinate prem odification refers to two or more prem odifiers that are equal in status, which may be further divided into tw o types. For one type, individual prem odifiers in the series are parallel to one another, and their order may be freely changed. 她 是 一 个 聪 明 、寡 言 、内 向 的 女 孩 儿 。

Tã shì yí ge cõngming、guâyân、nèixiàng de núhâir. She is an intelligent, taciturn, and introverted g irl. The above sentence has three adjectives that a ll m odify the g irl. You may freely switch the order o f these adjectives, though the firs t one generally receives more emphasis than the one that comes last.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[ 1 ] 这 是 一 个 有 组 织 、有 密 谋 、有 目 标 的 行 动 。

Zhè shì yí ge you zuzhuyou mìmóu>yõu mùbião de xíngdòng. This is an organized, plotted, and targeted action. [ 2 ] 这 个 会 议 有 关 政 今 、经 济 、贸 易 的 合 、 作。 Zhè ge huìyì yõuguõn zhéngzhi、jīngji、 màoyì de hézuó.

T his m ee tin g is about p o litic a l, eco n o m ic, and tra d e cooperation. [ 3 ] 这 是 一 场 灾 难 性 的 ，史 无 前 例 的 文 化 革 命 。

Zhè shì yì Châng zainánxing de, shĩ wú qián lì de wénhuá gémìng. This is a disastrous, unprecedented cultural revolution. The second type consists of individual modifiers equal in status, but there is an order based on social or cultural conventions. For instance, one would start with father when listing family members and begin with the east when speaking of four directions. 他 从 来 不 关 心 柴 、米 、油 、盐 的 问 题 。

T âcóngláibùguãnxĩnchâi 、mĩ、yóu、yándew èntí. He never cares about the issue of firewood, rice, cooking oil, and salt. ‘‘柴，米 ，油，and 盐’’ （ firewood, rice, cooking oil， and salt) is a fixed expression standing for daily necessities. It would sound awkward if the sequencing of these items was not followed. [ 4 ] 这 是 爸 爸 、妈 妈 、大 姐 和 二 姐 的 礼 物 。 Zhè shì bàba 、mãma、 dàjiẽ hé érjiě de IĨVVÙ.

These are the gifts from dad, mom, the oldest sister, and the second sister. [ 5 ] 我 们 没 学 过 直 接 宾 语 和 间 接 宾 语 的 用 _法_。

Women méi xué guo zhijiē bĩnyũ hé jianjiē bĩnyú de yòngỉâ. We have not learned the usage of direct and indirect objects. [ 6 ] 他 儿 子 的 数 、理 、化 的 成 绩 都 非 常 好 。

tỗ érzi de shùs lu huà de chéngji dõu fēichāng hâo. His son does very well in math, physics, and chemistry. In Chinese, ‘ ‘ 数 ，理 ，化 ” （ math, physics, and chemistry) has become another fixed expression that represents the basic yet essential subjects for the study of science.

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12.4.2 Progressive premodification In progressive premodification, while each modifier qualifies the head noun, the preceding modifier also modifies the following modifier. The order of modifiers cannot be freely changed. In general, the modifier that is most susceptible to forming an entity with the head noun will be the nearest to the head noun, and restrictive attributives precede descriptive attributives. Correct:

她的那双漂亮的蓝眼睛非常迷人。

Tā de nà shuāng piàoliang de lán yanjing fēichang mířen. Her pair of beautiful blue eyes is very charming. In c o rre c t: 她 的 那 双 蓝 的 漂 亮 的 眼 睛 非 常 迷 人 。

TỠ de nà shuãng lán de piàoliang de yanjing fēichang mířen. Her pair of blue beautiful eyes is very charming. In the first sentence ，蓝 （ blue) m odifies the e y e s ; 漂 亮 （ beautiful) modifies both blue and the eyes. Blue eyes may be classified as an entity, but beautiful eyes are not; therefore, we say b ea u tifu l blu e e y e s instead of ■•她 的 （ her) and 男p双 （that pair) are restrictive attributives, and they precede descriptive arributives. [7 ] 她的床下的那双中号的红皮鞋是我买的Q

Tã de chuáng xià de nà shuãng zhõng hào de hóng píxié shì wõ mâi de. I bought that pair of medium-size red leather shoes under her bed. [8 ] 客厅里的那套黑色的中国硬木家具是古董。

Kètĩng lĩ de nà tào hẽisè de Zhongguó yìngmù jiājii shì gúdõng. That set of black Chinese hardwood furniture in the parlor is antique. [ 9 ] 我 的 老 师 对 古 老 的 传 统 中 国 医 学 很 感 兴 _趣 。

wõ de lâoshĩ duì gũlâo de chuántõng Zhongguó yĩxué hen gân xìngqù. My teacher is interested in ancient, trad itio n al C hinese medicine.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

12.4.3 Possession modifier In Chinese, the a ttributive indicating possession usually stands at the beginning in a series o f attributives. W hen it occurs w ith a numeralmeasure word m odifying a noun, the numeral-measure word stays next to the noun. C orrect:

我的一个朋友昨天去世了。

wõ de yí ge péngyou zuotiān qùshì le. A friend o f m ine passed away yesterday. Incorrect: — 个 我 的 朋 友 昨 天 去 世 了 。

Yí ge wõ de péngyou zuotiān qùshì le. A friend o f m ine passed away yesterday. is translated as 我的一个朋友，and Aeryỉve as 她 的五 个 孩 子 . I f you want to say two o f her five children, it w ill be 她的五 个孩子中的两个. [ 1 0 ] ， 们 是 我 爸 爸 的 三 个 同 _事 。

Tãmen shì wo bába de sān ge tóngshì. They are m y father’s three colleagues. [1 1 ] 她 是 我 两 个 妹 妹 中 的 小 妹 妹 。

Tā shì wỗ liâng ge mèimei zhong de xiâo mèimei. She is the younger one o f my tw o younger sisters. [1 2 ] 桌 子 上 的 三 瓶 法 国 红 酒 是 我 的 。

Zhuozi shàng de sān ping Faguó hóngjiu shì wõ de. The three bottles o f the French red w ine on the table are mine.

12.4.4 Location modifier In E n g lish , p re p o sitio n a l phrases often in d ica te locations that p o s tm o d ify nouns, such as the trees by the riverside. In C hinese, locational nouns should precede the noun they m odify. In c o rre c t:谁 喝 了 三 瓶 啤 酒 在 冰 箱 里 的 ？

Shéi hē le sān ping píjiu zài bĩngxiãng lĩ de? Who drank the three bottle o f beer in the refrigerator? C orrect:

谁喝了冰箱里的三瓶啤酒？

Shéi hē le bĩngxiỗng lĩ de sỡn píng pìjiũ? Who drank the three bottles o f beer in the refrigerator?

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冰 箱 里 的 （in the refrigerator) precedes the numeral-measure word 三瓶 (three bottles) and the noun 啤 酒 （ beer). Whenever you see a prepositional phrase modifying a noun in English, you need to move it before the noun when translating it into Chinese. In addition, it should be ;水箱里 instead o f在冰箱里. [1 3 ] 教 室 里 的 三 台 电 脑 都 被 偷 走 了 。

Jiáoshi lĩ de sỗn tái diànnão dõu bèi tõu zõu le. All three computers in the classroom were stolen. [1 4 ] 我 认 识 这 个 电 影 里 的 两 个 演 员 。

Wõ rènshi zhè ge diànyĩng lĩ de liâng ge yânyuán. I know two actors in this movie. [1 5 ] 你 看 一 下 第 一 页 右 上 角 的 日 期 。

NT kàn yíxià dì yĩ yè yòu shàng jiao de rìqĩ. Please check the date on the top right Corner of the first page.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

C h a p te r 13

A d verb ials 状 语

As part o f a sentence, adverbials m odify the verb, the adjective, or the sentence. They te ll how, why, when, and where something happens. In English, adverbials are divided into three categories: adjunct (修 饰 4生 状语 )， disjunct (评注性状语 )， and conjunct (连接性状语 ). Here are three examples: He surreptitiously walked out. 他 鬼 鬼 蕖 祟 地 à 了出去。

Tỗ guĩguĩ suìsuì de zõu le chũqù. Frankly, you acquiesced to his behavior. 坦 率 á i ，你 à 许 了 他 的 行 为 。

Tânshuài de shuõ, nĩ mòxu le tã de xíngwéi. He hurt me; however, he did not do it intentionally. 他 伤 害 了 歲 ，可 是 他 不 是 故 意 的 。

TÕ shanghai le wõ, kěshi tā bú shì gùyì de. Surreptitiously is an adjunct that describes the verb walk. Frankly is a disjunct that shows the style in which the statement is made. However is a conjunct connecting the tw o clauses. Adjuncts, to some degree, are integrated into the structure o f the sentence, but disjuncts and conjuncts are not. In Chinese, a d is tin c tio n is often draw n between re s tric tiv e and descriptive adverbials. Adverbs, tem poral nouns, locational nouns, and prepositional phrases tend to re strict the m eaning o f the verb. The 地 construction，particularly adjective + 地 ，usually describes actions. In the examples above,坦 率 地 说 is a restrictive adverbial that makes it clear that the statement is made candidly and honestly.鬼 鬼 祟 祟 地 （ surreptitiously) is a descriptive adverbial that depicts the m anner o f the action. T his semantic classification, lik e a ll semantic classifications, is generally true; however, in many cases, it is hard to say i f an adverbial is restrictive or descriptive. In th is chapter, we w ill exam ine C hinese adverbials fro m the perspective o f th e ir syntactic functions, and we w ill also look into the semantic dimension o f adverbials, which is useful fo r learning about their order in a series. We w ill start w ith the structural particle 地 ，w hich is im portant fo r the adverbial，as 的. is for the attributive.

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The structural particle d e Adjuncts Disjuncts Conjuncts The order of adverbials

13.1 The structural particle ďe (结构助词“ 地”） In English, many adjectives with the suffix -ly added to them will be turned into adverbs, such as p le a s a n t and p le a sa n tly . In Chinese, some grammatical items, mostly adjectives, can take the structural particle 地 to perform adverbially, such as 高 兴 （ glad) and 高 兴 地 （ gladly), which we may call the 地 construction. Compared with adverbs, the 地 construction tends to describe actions. Now let us see what can take the particle 地 .

13.1.1 Adjectives + 地 “A djective + 地， ’ m akes up the larg est group of descriptive adverbials. However， adjectives do not react to 地 homogeneously. Many need 地 to modify verbs; some do not; some may go either way. We need to look into each category individually. First, a small number of m onosyllabic adjectives can directly premodify verbs without 地 . They are adjectival adverbs (see the chapter on adjectives). They include: 早 （ early), 晚 （ la te ), 多 （ m ore), 少 （ less), 快 (fast),慢 (slowly)，etc. [ 1 ] 外 边 黑 ，请 您 慢 走 。

Waibian hẽi, qĩng nín màn zõu. It is dark outside; please walk slowly. [2 ] 你要少说话多干活。

NT yào shâo shuõ huà duõ gàn huó. You should talk less and do more. [3 ] 孩子都远走高飞了。

Háizi dõu yuan zou gāo fēi le. The children have all left and travelled far. Second, a large number of disyllabic adjectives need 地 to function adverbially. These adjectives are generally used in descriptive language.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[4 ] 他轻松地打败了对手。

Tã qĩngsõng de dâ bài le duìshỗu. He easily beat his opponent. [5 ] 她 客 观 地分析了形势。

Tã kèguỗn de ỉẽnxĩ le xíngshì. She objectively analyzed the situation. [6 ] 他 诚 恳 地 向 大 家 道 歉 Q

Tā chéngkěn de xiàng dajiā dào qiàn. He sincerely apologized to everyone. Here are some o f those d isylla b ic adjectives that need 地 to fun ctio n adverbially: 傲 慢 地 (arrogantly) 悲 伤 地 (sadlf) 粗 鲁 地 òrudổly) 恶毒地（ m aliciously) 高兴地（ gladly) 激 动 地 (excitedly) 客观地（ objectively) 理 智 地 (rationally) 明 显 地 (obviously) 频 繁 地 (frequentíy) 清 楚 地 (clearly) 深刻地（ penetratingly) 顺 利 地 (smoothly) 严肃地（ sternly) 勇敢地（ courageously) 愉 快 地 (pleasantly) 直 率 地 (candidly)

悲观地（ pessim istically) 匆忙地（ hurriedly) 动 人 地 (m ovingly) 愤 怒 地 (angrily) 尖 锐 地 (pointedly) 惊 奇 地 (surprisingly) 查^ 地 (kindly) 冒 昧 地 (recklessly) 敏 感 地 (sensitively) 谦 虚 地 (modestly) 轻 易 地 (easily) 舒适地（ com fortably) 现 实 地 (realistically) 遗 憾 地 (regrettably) 有限地（ lim ite d ly) 意外地（ unexpectedly) 主观地（ subjectively)

T h ird , 地 is optional fo r some disyllabic adjectives. These adjectives often occur w ith certain verbs, and it sounds more emphatic when they go w ith 地 . [ 7 ] 他 详 细 （地 ）讲 述 了 这 段 历 史 。

Tã xiángxì de jiangshú le zhè duàn lìshĩ. He narrated this period o f history in great detail. [ 8]

他 简 单 （地 ）介 绍 了 一 下 自 己 。

Tā jiandān de jiésháo le yíxià zìjĩ. He b rie fly introduced him self.

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[ 9 ] 她 积 极 （地 ）参 加 了 总 统 竞 选 。

Tā jīji de cānjiā le zongtong jingxuan. She actively participated in the presidential campaign. Here are some disyllabic adjectives fo r which 地 is optional: 安 全 地 (safely) 错 误 地 (wrongly) 坚 决 地 (firm ly ) 耐心地（ patiently) 平 等 地 (equally) 生动地（ v ivid ly) 正式地（ form ally) 仔 细 地 (carefully)

充 分 地 (sufficiently) 大胆地（ bravely) 明 确 地 (explicitly) 热 情 地 (w Jrm ly) 认真地（ seriously) 系统地（ system atically) 自然地（ naturally)

Fourth, various form s o f reduplicated adjectives (A A , A A B B , and ABB) need 地 to perform adverbially. [ 1 0 ] 他^一/个 人 ， 默 地 承 受 着 各 种 压 力 。

Tỗ yí ge rén mòmò de chéngshòu zhe gè zhong yỗlì. He silently endures a ll kinds o f pressure by him self. [ 1 1 ] 他_们 轻 轻 松 松 地 度 过 了 一 个 假 期 。

Tỗmen qĩngqĩng sõngsõng de dùguò le yí ge jiàql They spent a very relaxing vacation. [1 2 ] 那 个 捣 蛋 鬼 懒 洋 洋 地 走 进 了 教 室 。

Nà ge dãodànguĩ lânyángyáng de zõu jìn le iiàoshì. That troublemaker lethargically walked into the classroom. The follow ing are some various form s o f reduplicated adjectives, and they a ll need 地 to function adverbially: 静 静 地 (quietly) 轻 ế 地 (lig h tlb 甜 甜 地 (s^eetíy) 安 安 静 静 地 (peacefully) 高 高 兴 兴 地 (jo y fu lly ) 慢慢腾腾地（ unhurriedly) 轻轻松松地（ relaxingly) 孤零零地（ lonely) 慢 悠 悠 地 (slowly) 笑 眯 眯 地 (sm ilingly)

慢 慢 地 (slowly) 深 深 地 (deeply) 重重地（ heavily) 大 大 例 例 地 (carelessly) 简 简 单 单 地 (plainly) 平 平 稳 稳 地 (smoothly) 羞羞答答地（ bashfully) 静 悄 悄 地 (quietly) 气 冲 冲 地 (furiously)

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

地 is optional with some reduplicated adjectives. For example, Í曼Ỷ曼站起 来 （stand up slowly) and 慢 慢 地 站 起 来 are both acceptable (the latter is

more used in descriptive language). But such cases are limited and should be viewed as idiomatic usages.

13.1.2 Adverbs + 地 Adverbs, in general, do not occur w ith 地 ，but some d is y lla b ic adverbs o f m anner can m o d ify verbs eith e r w ith or w ith o u t 地 . The presence o f 地 sounds more emphatic. [ 1 3 ] 我 想 单 独 （地 ）见 他 一 下 。

wõ xiâng dãndú de jiàn tã yíxià. I want to see him individually. [ 1 4 ] 你 可 以 任 意 （地 ）， 学 校 。

Nĩ kẽyĩ rènyì de xuân xuéxiào. You may choose any school at your will. [ 1 5 ] 她 如 实 （地 ）讲 述 了 她 的 经 历 。

Tỗ rúshí de jiangshú le tã de jīngli. She truthfully related her experience. Here are some disyllabic adverbs o f manner fo r w hich 地 is optional: 暗暗地（ secretively) 成心地（ intentionally) 公然地（ blatantly) 渐渐地（ gradually) •I*肖悄地(noiselessly) 死命地（ desperately) 偷 偷 地 (secretly) 稳步地（ step by step) 有意地（ intentionally) 逐年地（ yearly)

按时地（ punctually) 独 自 地 (ẫlong) 故 意 地 (deliberately) 经 常 地 (frequently) 如实地（ tru th fu lly ) 私下地（ privately) 完 全 地 (compleíely) 无故地（ w ithout cause) 逐个地（ individua lly) 纵情地（ indulgently)

13.1.3 Fixed expressions + 地 Some fix e d expressions，such as proverbs, need 地 to p erform adverbially. They usually describe the manner o f actions and are m ostly used in descriptive language.

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[1 6 ] 他 不 动 声 色 地 把 我 打 量 了 一 番 。

Tã bú dòng shẽng sè de bâ wõ dâliang le yìfãn. He blankly looked at me up and down. [1 7 ] 他 趾 高 气 扬 地 朝 我 走 来 。

Tā zhī gāo qì yáng de chóo wõ zõu lái. He arrogantly walked up to me. [1 8 ] 他 得 意 洋 洋 地 走 出 了 教 室 。

Tā déyì yángyáng de zõu chũ le jiáoshi. He com placently walked out o f the classroom. The follow ing are some fixed expressions, and they a ll need 地 to function adverbially: 不动声色地（ expressionlessly) 不 偏 不 倚 地 (even-handedly) 单 枪 匹 马 地 (single-handedly) 反复无常地（ capriciously) 开 诚 布 公 地 (candidly) 聚 精 会 神 地 (attentively) 气 喘 吁 吁 地 (breathlessly) 心 平 气 和 地 (calm ly) 一心一^ 地 （ whole-heartedly)

不可思议地（ inconceivably) 不屈不挠地（ perseveringly) 诚 心 诚 意 地 (earnestly) 鬼 鬼 祟 祟 地 (surreptitiously) 坚持不懈地（ persistently) 明目张胆地（ í>razenly) 心不在焉地（ absent-mindedly) 胸 有 成 竹 地 (confidently) 一针见血地（ penetm tingly)

13.1.4 Other words + 地 A few nouns and verbs can also take 地 to perform adverbially. Such cases are rare, and they are idiom atic usages. [1 9 ] 你 要 历 史 地 看 这 个 问 题 。

Nĩ yào lìshĩ de kàn zhè ge wèntí. You should look at this issue historically. [2 0 ] $ 同， 情地拍了拍我的4 膀。

Tã tóngqíng de pāi le pỗi wo de jiānbang. He patted me on the shoulder sym pathetically. 历史（ history) is a n o u n ;同惰* (sympathize) is a verb. They both may take 地 to function adverbially.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

1 13_2 Adjuncts (修饰性状语) In Chinese, adjuncts m o d ify the verb, the adjective, or the whole sentence. They usually take the pre-verb position when m o d ifyin g the verb or the adjective, and take a position at the beginning o f the sentence when m odifying the whole sentence. M any adverbs, tem poral nouns, the 地 construction, and prepositional phrases can serve as adjuncts，which may be classified into many semantic groups. Here we divide them into four m ajor groups: tim e, space, process, and focusing. These by no means cover the various meanings o f adjuncts.

13.2.1 Time adjuncts (1) Point of time: many tem poral nouns and some adverbs can serve as adjuncts to denote a point o f tim e. Temporal nouns take either the in itia l position in the sentence or the pre-verb position; adverbs usually take the pre-verb position. [1 ] 上个月她流了一次产。

Shàng ge yuè tā liú le yí cì chân. Last month she had a m iscarriage. [2 ] 我刚听说了这件事儿。

Wỗ găng tĩngshuõ le zhè jiàn shìr. I ju s t heard about this matter.

Duration: Some tem poral nouns and adverbs can serve as adjuncts to denote the duration o f an action or a state o f being. They norm ally precede the verb they m odify. [ 3]

她一生经历了三次冬机。

Tā yì shēng jīngli le sān CÌ wěiji She went through three crises in life . [4 ] 这些年他一直没增加体重。

Zhéxiě nián tā yizhí méi zēngjiā tízhóng. He has not gained weight a ll these years.

Frequency: tem poral nouns and adverbs often serve adjuncts to indicate frequency, and they typ ica lly take the pre-verb position. [ 5 ] 他 每 五 年 买 一 辆 $ 车 Ọ、

Tā měi wú nián mâi yĩ liàng qìchẽ. He buys a new car every five years.

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[6 ] 我偶尔喝一两瓶啤酒。 w õ õu^r hẽ yì liâng ping píjiu.

I occasionally d rin k one or tw o beers.

13.2.2 Time adjuncts (2) In English, before, after, and when are subordinating conjunctions that are used to make adverbial clauses related to tim e. But, in Chinese, these three words (以 前 ，以 后 ，and 时候）are nouns that follow a phrase or a clause to make up a noun phrase that functions as an adverbial. They provide tim e inform ation and are usually separated from the follo w in g sentence by a comma. 以前（ before) is a directional noun that can fo llo w a verb or a clause to form a noun phrase, w hich, functioning as an adverbial, shows the tim e o f what is said in the sentence. [ 7 ] 退、 休 _以 前 ：他 做 房 地 产 买 卖 。

Tuì xiũ yĩqián, tā zuồ fángdichan mâimài. Before re tirin g , he was in the real estate business. [8 ] $ 信 基 督 _教 以 前 ，是 一 个 无 神 论 者 。

Tā xìn jīdūjiao ýíqián, shì yí ge wúshénlůnzhě. Before he became a C hristian, he was an atheist. 以后（ after) is also a d irectional noun that can fo llo w a verb or a clause to form a noun phrase, which tells the tim e o f what is said in the sentence. [ 9 ] 回 家 0 后 ，她 f 得 什 么 都 不 想 做 了 。

Huí jiỡ yĩhòu, tā lèi de shénme dõu bù xiâng zuò le. A fte r going home, she feels too tire d to do anything. [ 1 0 ] 他_看 了 一 次 手 术 以 后 ，就 再 也 不 想 当 医 生 了 。

Tã kàn le yí cì shõushù ýĩhòu, jiù zài yẽ bù xiâng dõng yĩshẽng le. A fte r he observed a surgery, he no longer w anted to be a doctor. 时候（ when) is a noun that, preceded by the structural particle 的， can be prem odified by a phrase or a clause, which form s a noun phrase functioning as an adverbial. It provides the tim e fram e o f the action or event that follow s.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[ 1 1 ] 小 的 时 候 ，我 觉 得 世 上 的 事 我 都 能 做 。

Xiâo de shíhou, wo juéde shìshang de shì wõ dõu néng zuò. W hen I was young, I fe lt that I could accomplish everything in the w orld. [ 12 ] 我 走 的 时 候 ，全 家 都 去 了 ， 今 为 我 送 吁 ％

、

v

w õ zõu de shíhou, quán jiā dõu qù le jīchang wèi wõ sòng

xíng. W hen I le ft, the whole fa m ily went to the a irp o rt to see me off. N otice that sentences from [7] to [12] are translated into adverbial clauses o f tim e in E n g lis h . B u t since 以前，以后，and 时候 are not conjunctions in Chinese, th e ir syntactic positions d iffe r fro m E nglish before, after, and when. 13.2.3

S patial adjuncts

L o ca tio n : prepositional phases, headed by 在 （ at) or 从 (from ), often serve as spatial adjuncts to indicate locations. They may take either the in itia l position in the sentence or the pre-verb position. [ 1 3 ] 在 学 校 ，她 没 有 朋 友 。

Zài xuéxiào, tā méi yõu péngyou. She has no friends at school. [1 4 ] 我 从 镜 子 里 看 到 了 她 。 w õ cóng jingzi lĩ kàn dào le tã.

I saw her in the m irror. D om ain: some English adverbs, such as politically and economically, are used to denote certain social or cultural domains or fields, from which som ething is viewed. In Chinese, some noun phrases (noun + J i) also denote those abstract areas. [1 5 ] 我 哥 哥 政 治 上 非 常 幼 稚 。 w õ gēge zhéngzhi shàng fěicháng yóuzhi.

M y older brother is p o litic a lly naive. [1 6 ] 这 个 国 家 经 济 上 不 稳 定 。

Zhé ge guójia jīngji shàng bù wending. This country is econom ically unstable.

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13.2.4 Process adjuncts M an n e r: process adjuncts may depict the manner in w hich an action is carried out. This function is m ostly realized by the 地 construction and by some adverbs. They precede the verb they m odify. [1 7 ] 她 仔 细 地 检 查 了 每 一 道 题 。

Tā zTxi de jianchá le měi yí dào tí. She carefully checked each problem. [1 8 ] 他 们 私 下 解 决 了 纠 纷 。

Tỗmen sĩxià jiějué le jiūfēn. They privately settled the conflict. R e la tio n s h ip : process adjuncts may also indicate relationships. Prepositional phrases usually play this role, and they take the pre-verb position. [1 9 ] ， 向 ， 司卷交了j

职信。

Tỗ xiàng gõngsĩ tijiāo le cí zhí xìn. She subm itted her resignation letter to the company. [2 0 ] 我 对 她 的 表 现 非 常 满 意 。

wõ duì tỗ de biâoxiàn fěicháng mânyì. I am very satisfied w ith her performance. 13.2.5 Focusing adjuncts In te n s ific a tio n : some focusing adjuncts are used to in te n sify the meaning o f verbs or adjectives. These adjuncts take the form o f adverbs or the 地 construction，and they precede the verb or adjective they m odify. [2 1]

， 的成功， 极 $ 地 整 舞了我们。

Tā de chénggõng jí dà de gúwú le women. H is success imm ensely encouraged

US.

[2 2 ] 你 们 老 师 说 的 绝 对 正 确 。

NTmen lâoshĩ shuõ de juédui zhéngqué. W hat your teacher said is absolutely correct. P a rtic u la riz a tio n : some focusing adjuncts are used to name or specify something as particulars. These adjuncts usually take the form o f adverbs, and they prem odify verbs.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[2 3 ] 她 特 别 讲 究 穿 衣 。

Tỗ tèbié jiangjiu chuān yī. She is very particular about clothes. [ 24]

她只穿名牌衣服。

Tā zhī chuān míngpái ỳĩfu. She only wears name-brand clothes.

Down-toning: some focusing adjuncts serve to tone down or to make something sound less harsh. These adjuncts can be adverbs or the 地 construction, and they prem odify verbs. [2 5 ] 这 仅 仅 是 一 个 小 的 挫 折 。

Zhè jTrijīn shì yí ge xiâo de cuózhé. This is ju s t a sm all setback. [ 2 6 ] 他 轻 微 地 擦 破 了 一 点 皮 。v

Tā qīngwēi de cā pò le yìdiân pí. He had some lig h t bruises.

13.3 Disjuncts (评注性状语) In E ng lish , the d isju n ct n o rm a lly stands at the b e ginn ing o f a sentence. It is optional and is not integrated in to the structure o f the sentence. In C hinese, m any disjuncts are also independent elements and take the in itia l position in the sentence, but some can take the pre­ verb position. The disjunct presents the speaker^ com m ent on what is said in the sentence. In Chinese, disjuncts can be divided into style and attitudinal disjuncts. 13.3.1

Style disjuncts

Style disjuncts show the condition in which the follow ing statement is made. They are m ostly used in spoken language. [ 1 ] 不 瞒 你 说 ，我 真 买 不 起 房 。

Bù mán nĩ shuõ, wõ zhēn mâi bù qĩ fang. To be honest w ith you, I really cannot afford to buy a house. [ 2 ] 说 实 在 的 ，你 不 该 当 老 师 。

Shuõ shízái de, nĩ bù gãi dâng lâoshĩ. To te ll you the tru th , yo.u should not be a teacher.

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[ 3 ] 不 用 说 ，她 一 定 非 常 恨 我 。

Búyòng shuõ, tỗ yídìng fēichang hèn wo. Needless to say, she must loathe me. [ 4 ] 总 而 言 之 ，我 是 进 退 两 难 。

Zong ér yán zhī, wo shi jin tuì liãng nán. In short, I am in a dilem m a. The follow ing are some style disjuncts: 不 瞒 你 说 (to be honest w ith y o u )说 到 底 (in final analysis) 不 用 说 (needless to say) 说实在的（ to tell you the truth) 长 话 短 说 (to be b rie f) 说真的（ tru th fu lly ) 客 观 地 说 (objectively s p e a k in g )严 格 地 说 （ strictly speaking) 简 单 地 说 (sim ply put) 总 的 来 说 (generally speaking) 老 实 说 (honestly speaking) 总而言之（ in short) 13.3.2

A ttỉtu d in a l disjuncts

A ttitu d in a l disjuncts reflect the speaker’s view，such as a comment， evaluation, or speculation about what is said in the sentence. [ 5 ] 据 说 ：她_这 个 人 笑 里 藏 刀 。

Jùshuõ, tā zhè ge rén xiào lĩ cáng dão. It is said that she is a sm iling backstabber. [ 6 ] 依 我 看 ，你 不 要 跟 她 摊 牌 。

Yĩ wõ kàn, nĩ bú yào gẽn tã tỗn pái. In m y view, you should not have a showdown w ith her. [ 7 ] 看 样 子 ，我 得 离 开 这 个 地 方 。

Kán yángzi, wo děi likāi zhè ge difang. It appears that I have to get out o f this place. [ 8 ] 充 其 量 ，她 一 年 也 就 挣 五 万 。

Chõngqíliáng, tã yì nián yě jiù zhéng wuwán. A t most, she makes fifty thousand a year. Here are some disjuncts. Some o f them are used in w ritten language and some in spoken language: 不 可 否 认 (undeniably) 毫无疑问（ undoubtedly)

充其量（ at most) 很 明 显 (apparently)

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

看 样 子 (it seems) 据说（ it is said) 没准儿（ possibly) 说 不 定 (perhaps) 依我看（ in my view)

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据 记 载 (according to the record) 没想到（ unexpectedly) 难 怪 (no wonder) 听说（ it is said)

Some Chinese attitudinal disjuncts can take either the in itia l or the pre-verb position in a sentence. They are usually adverbs o f manner. [9 ]幸亏我没有坐那趟航班。

Xìngkuĩ wõ méiyõu zuò nà tàng hángbãn. Fortunately, I did not take that flig h t. [1 0 ]其 实 这 是 意 料 之 中 的 事 。

Qíshí zhè shì yìliào zhĩ zhõng de shì. In fact, this is not unexpected. [1 1 ] 他 显 然 是 受 别 人 指 使 的 。

Tỗ xiânrán shì shòu biérén zhīshī de. Apparently, he took orders from someone else. [1 2 ] 这 毕 竟 是 百 年 不 遇 的 事 。

Zhè bijing shì bâi nián bú yù de shì. A fte r a ll, this is once in a blue moon. The follow ing are some attitudinal disjuncts that can take either the in itia l or the pre-verb position in a sentence: 毕 竟 (after all) 到 底 (in the end) 果然（ as expected) 简 直 (sim ply) 难道（ C ould it be true that...) 索性（ may as w ell) 幸亏（ fortunately)

t-

大概（ approxim ately) 反正（ anyway) 好在（ fortunately) 究竟（ in the fin a l analysis) 其 实 (in fact) 显然（ apparently) 也许（ perhaps)

13.4 Conjuncts (连接性状语)

We have discussed the individual meaning and usage o f 才，都 ，就 ， and 也 in our discussion o f adverbs. These fo u r adverbs also serve as conjuncts and are indispensable in m aking certain com plex sentences. Now let us see how they, as conjuncts, collaborate w ith some conjunctions.

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( 才 ）Some conditional clauses beginning with subordinators 除非 (unless) and 只 有 （ unless) need the conjunctive adverb 才 in the main clause. [ 1 ] 除 非 你 做 出 些 牺 牲 ，这 个 问 题 才 能 解 决 。

Chufēi nĩ zuò chū xiẽ xĩshẽng, zhè ge wèntí cái néng jiějué. T his problem cannot be solved unless you m ake some sacrifices. [ 2 ] 只 有 你 的 老 师 同 意 ，你 才 能 选 修 这 门 课 。

Zhĩyõu nĩ de lâoshĩ tóngyì, nĩ cái néng xuãnxiũ zhè mén kè. You cannot take this class unless your teacher agrees. c 都 ）The concessive clause beginning with 不 论 (no matter) or 不管 (no matter) need either 都 or 也 in the main clause. 都 is used in the sense of nevertheless. [ 3 ] 不 论 最 终 结 果 如 何 ，你 都 要 $ 最 大 的 努 力 。

Búlùn zuizhong jiéguo rúhé, nĩ dõu yào jin zuì dà de nũlì. No matter what the future holds, you should try your best. [ 4 ] 不 管 天 气 怎 样 ，我 们 都 要 开 这 次 派 对 。__

Bùguân tiãnqì zěnyáng, women dõu yào kãi zhè cì pàiduì. No matter what the weather will be, we will have this party. ( 就 ） (then) is often needed in conditional clauses starting with subordinators 如 果 （ if )，要 是 （ if ) ,假 如 （ if ) ,倘 若 （ if), e t c . 就 is also needed in making the concessive clause that begins with the subordinator 既然（ since). In either case ，就 takes the pre-verb position in the main clause. [ 5 ] 如 果 你 做 的 是 对 的 ，你 就 不 要 管 别 人 说 什 么 。

Rúguõ nĩ zuò de shì duì de, nĩ jiù bú yào guân biérén shuõ shénme. If you are doing the right thing, just disregard what others say. [ 6 ] 既 然 我 们 控 制 不 了 它 ，那 就 让 它 任 其 自 然 吧 。

Jirán women kóngzhi bù lião tā, nà jiù ràng tã rèn qí zírán ba. Since we cannot control it, let it take its natural course. 〔也 ）Some concessive clauses beginning with subordinators 即使 (even if )，哪 怕 （even if) need the conjunctive adverb 也 （ still) in the main clause.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[ 7 ] 即 使 你 不 同 意 ，我 也 不 放 弃 。

Jíshĩ nĩ bù tóngyì, wõ yě bú fángql Even i f you do not agree, I w ill not give up. [ 8 ] 哪 怕 再 困 难 ，他 也 要 试 一 试 。

Nâpà zài kùnnán, tā yě yào shì yí shì. As d iffic u lt as it may be, he w ill give it a try.

13.5 The order of adverbials (状语的顺序) There are certain rules regarding the relative position o f adverbials, but, in many instances, you are free to arrange th e ir order according to your intention and emphasis. We have already talked about the syntactic positions o f disjuncts and conjuncts. In the fo llo w in g , we w ill review some general rules about the relative position o f adjuncts. 13.5.1

T im e + space + other adjuncts

About the sequence o f adjuncts, we may roughly divide the adjunct in to three groups: the tim e adjunct, the spatial adjunct, and a ll other adjuncts. In general, they go in the order o f the tim e adjunct, the spatial adjunct, and other adjuncts. 你们去年在上海一起工作了多久？

Nĩmen qùnián zài Shanghai yìqĩ gongzuó le duõ jiũ? How long did you w ork together in Shanghai? 他今天从日本给我发了一封短信。

Tā jīntiān cóng Riběn gěi wõ fā le yì fēng duânxìn. Today he sent me a short letter from Japan. N otice that th is order o f adjunct is d iffe re n t fro m that in E nglish. In English, the spatial adjunct often appears at the end o f the sentence. [1 ] 我昨天在电影 院 突 然 觉 得 肚 子 疼 。

Wo zuótian zài diànyĩngyuàn tũrán juéde dūzi téng. Yesterday I suddenly fe lt a stomachache in the m ovie theater. [2 ] 他这几年在经济上逐步好了起来。

Tỗ zhè jĩ nián zài jīngji shàng zhúbù hâo le qĩlai. In recent years he is financially getting better.

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13.5.2 Time versus space The time adjunct usually comes first, but sometimes the time adjunct (certain adverbs, not tem poral nouns) may switch positions w ith the spatial adjunct. 常今那座、 小带上钓鱼。

Tā jīngchang zài nà zuò xiâo qiáo shàng diào yú. He often goes fishing on that small bridge. $ 在\ 那 座 小 桥 上 经 常 钓 鱼 。

Tã zài nà zuò xiâo qiáo shàng jīngchang diào yú. He often goes fishing on that small bridge. These two sentences slightly differ. In one, the time adjunct modifies the entire predicate; in the other, the time adjunct only modifies the verb, which im plies what he often does on the small bridge is fishing rather than anything else. [3 ] 他 立 刻 从 桌 上 拿 起 了 他 的 书 。

Tā like cóng zhuõ shàng ná qĩ le tã de shũ. He immediately picked up his book from the desk. [4 ] $ 从 电 脑士马 v上 查 出 了 她 的 名 字 。

Tā cóng diànnâo shàng mâshàng chá chũ le tã de míngzi. He immediately found out her name from the computer.

13.5.3 Space versus the 地 construction The spatial adjunct and the 地 construction often appear in the same sentence. In such instances, either one may precede the other, but there can be a slight difference between them. ^ 从楼下悄悄地走了上来。

Tā cóng lóuxià qiãoqião de zõu le shànglai. She quietly walked up from downstairs. 她悄悄地从楼下走了上来。

TỠ qiãoqião de cóng lóuxià zõu le shànglai. She quietly walked up from downstairs. In the firs t sentence,悄 悄 地 （ quietly) describes the manner o f her walking up. In the second sentence,悄 悄 地 ，placed before downstairs，draws a broader picture o f her walking a ll the way down from the top o f the stairs.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[5 ] 他轻轻地在我的脸上吻了一下。

Tã qĩngqĩng de zài wõ de liân shàng wěn le yíxià. He lig h tly kissed me on the cheek. [6 ] 她从我身边慢慢地走了过去。

Tā cóng wõ shēnbiān mànmàn de zỗu le guòqu. She slowly walked past me.

13.5.4 The 地 construction versus process The 地 construction usually precedes process adjuncts that are made up o f prepositional phrases headed by 朝，向，往 ，给 ，and 跟 . [7 ] 她傲慢地朝我看了一眼 。

Tā àomàn de cháo wõ kàn le yì yân. Arrogantly, she took a glance at me. [8 ] 我 恭 敬 地 给 她 鞠 了 个 躬 。

Wo gongjing de gěi tā jũ le ge gõng. I respectfully bowed to her. When the 地 construction occurs with the process adjunct made up o f a prepositional phrase led by 为了，the process adjunct usually precedes the 地 construction. [9 ] 他为了 家 庭 认 真 地 考 虑 过 退 休 。

TÕ wéile jiāting renzhēn de kâolù guo tuì xiũ. He once seriously thought about retirement for the sake o f his family. [1 0 ]她 为 了 孩 t 夜 ， 继

工

1 着 。、

Tā wéile háizi yè yĩ jì rì de gongzuó zhe. She works day and night for the sake o f her children.

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C o m p le m e n ts 补 语

A complement is a word added to the predicate, and it is one of the basic elements of a sentence. In English, nouns, adjectives, or phrases can be used as a complement to complete the sense of the subject or object. He is a presidential candidate. 他 是 ấ 统候 7选人\。

Tā shi zongtong hòuxuânrén. We elected him the President. 我们选他当总统。

Women xuân tā dāng zongtong. In the first sentence, a p r e s id e n tia l c a n d id a te is the subject complement: it describes who the subject is. In the second sentence, the P re sid e n t is the object complement: it explains what we elect him to be. In Chinese, the complement is also added to the predicate, but it is placed after the verb or predicative adjective to complete their meanings. Chinese complements take two forms: one directly follows the verb or the predicative adjective; the other, led by the structural particle 得，follows the verb or the predicative adjective. 她捡起了一片红叶。

Tā jian qĩ le yí piàn hóngyè. She picked up a red leaf. $ 的诗写!

美极了vọ_

Tồ de shĩ xiě de měi jí le. His poem is written beautifully. In the first sentence, the verb 捡 （ pick) has another verb 起 （ rise) as its complement， and together they make up the meaning 检 起 （pick up). In the second sentence, the structural particle 得 and 美 极 了 （extremely beautiful) form a complement to the verb 写 （ write), and it describes how the poem is written. Chinese complements may be formally and semantically subdivided into several groups (see the chapter on prepositions about prepositional phrases serving as complements). The complement is one of the areas where Chinese and English differ significantly.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6

Complements o f direction Complements o f result Complements o f potential Complements o f manner Complements o f degree Complements o f quantity

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14.1 Complements of direction (Ž1|〇 3^Kh )

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English has a plethora o f multi-word verbs known as phrasal verbs. The phrasal verb consists o f a verb (e.g. bring, take, turn) and an adverb (e.g. up, down, in, out, on, off). The verb can be paired w ith a set o f contrasting adverbs, such as bring up, bring down, take in, take out, turn on, and turn off. In each o f these pairs, the adverb has a completive meaning o f showing the direction o f the action. In Chinese, there is a group of directional verbs that can be placed right after other verbs to indicate where the action is directed. They play a role known as co/wpfcweAító (趋向彳卜语)，as do those adverbs in English phrasal verbs. Among the directional verbs，来 and 去 can be combined w ith the rest o f the group to form contrasting compoundwords. The complement o f direction not only indicates directions but also expresses a variety o f meanings.

14.1.1 Simple complements of direction The group of directional verbs includes 来 （ come)，去 （ go), 进 （ enter)， 出 （ exit), 上 （ ascend), 下 （ descend)，回 （ return), 过 （ p ass), 开 （ open)，到 (arrive)， and 起 （ rise). These directional verbs， like any other verbs, also serve as the main verb of a sentence. In the following two sentences, see how the verb 进 （ enter) serves as the main verb and the complement respectively.

Subject

verbcomplement

object

他

进了

剧场。

Tā

jin le

juchang.

He entered the theater. 他

Tā

走

zou

进

了

剧场。

jin le

H walked into the theater.

juchang.

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The verb and its complement are grammatically two different parts of a sentence, but you may view them as a multi-word verb, in which the complement plays a role similar to that of the adverb in an English phrasal verb. [1 ] 谁 算 出 了 这 道 题 的 答 案 ？

Shéi suàn chū le zhè dào tí de dá’ àn? Who figured out the answer to this question? [2 ] 谁提出了这个棘手的问题？

Shéi tí chū le zhè ge jíshou de wèntí? Who brought up this thorny question? [3 ] 谁看出了他的骗人把戏？

Shéi kàn chū le tā de piàn rén bâxì? Who saw through his legerdemain? [4 ] 谁说出了我们的心里话？

Shéi shuõ chū le women de xĩnlĩ huà? Who spoke out the words from our hearts? The verbs that frequently take the directional complement are monosyllabic, dynamic verbs, such as 搬 （ c a rry ), 带 （ bring), 飞 （ fly ), 拿 (take), 爬 （ clim b ), 跑 （ r u n ), 跳 （ jum p), and 走 （ walk). The directional complement shows how the action occurs or where the action is directed. [5 ] 两只天鹅飞过我们的校园。

Liâng zhī tiān^ fēi guò women de xiàoyuán. Two swans flew over our campus. [ 6 ] 她 ; ^ 开_窗 帘 ，外 边 阳 光 明 _媚 。

Tā lā kāi chuānglian, wáibian yángguãng míngmèi. She drew open the curtain; it was bright and sunny outside. [7 ] $ 走 下 舞 台 ，与 粉 丝 们 握 手 。

Tā zõu xià wutái, yú fensīmen wò shõu. He walked down the stage, shaking hands with the fans. [ 8] $ 爬 /上 0 ; 顶 ，考 色 十 分 壮

Tā pá shàng shāndTng, jīngse shifēn zhuangguān. He clim bed to the top o f the m o u n tain ; the view was spectacular. Stative verbs can also take the complement of direction. They, with directional verbs, often express the extended or derived meanings from

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

physical directions. Ml, for example, lite ra lly means to rise; it can also mean to start or to appear as in 想 起 （ come to mind).

[ 9 ] 气 奶 又 f 气了过去的事情。 Nâinai yòu jiang qĩ le guòqù de shìqing. Grandmother again started to talk about bygone things.

[1 0 ] 他爱上了那个法国女孩儿。 Tā ài shàng le nà ge Faguó núháir. He fe ll in love w ith that French girl.

[1 1 ] 他 意 识 到 了他自己的弱点。 Tā yìshi dào le tā zìjĩ de ruòdiân. He realized his own weakness.

[1 2 ] 关于这件事: 你要想开一些。 Guõnyú zhè jiàn shì, nĩ yào xiâng kãi yìxiẽ. You should not take this matter to heart.

14.1.2 来 and 去 as complements of direction For English phrasal verbs, you may place the adverb either before or after the object, such as “ figure ơw/ the answer” or “ figure the answer out." You cannot insert the object between the Chinese verb and its complement. H o w e ver,来 （ come) and 去 （ go), as complements, can be placed either after the verb or after the object if the object is not a locational noun.

昨天他给我寄参 了 一 本书。 Zuotiān tā gěi wõ jì lái le yì bẽn shũ. Yesterday he mailed me a book.

，天他给我寄了一本书来。 Zuotiān tā gěi wỗ jì le yì bẽn shũ lái. Yesterday he mailed a book to me. The firs t sentence is more commonly used, but the second one is also grammatical. However, it is important to remember that when the object is a locational noun，来 and 去 ，as complements, can only be placed after the object, not after the verb.

Correct: 他回饭店去了。 Tā huí fándián qù le. He returned to the hotel.

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In c o rre c t: 他 回 去 饭 店 了 。 Tā huí qù tàndiàn le. He returned to the hotel. Correct:

她下楼来了。

Tā xià lóu lái le. She went downstairs. In c o rre c t: 她 下 来 楼 了 。 Tā xià lái lóu le. She went downstairs. When you choose to use 来 or 去，your own position (where you are) should be the point of reference. You use 来 to indicate what comes in your direction， and use 去 to refer to what moves away from you. [13] — 个 陌 生 人 向 我 跑 来 。

Yí ge mòshẽngrén xiàng wõ pâo lái. A stranger ran up to me. [14] 一 位 少 女 朝 大 海 走 去 。

Yí wèi shàonú cháo dàhâi zỗu qù. A girl walked to the ocean. [15 ] — 群 海 鷗 向 我 们 飞 来 。

Yì qún hai'ou xiàng women fẽi lái. A flock of seagulls flew toward US. [1 6 ] 他 朝 我 指 的 方 向 看 去 。

Tã cháo wỗ zhĩ de tãngxiàng kàn qù. He looked at where I pointed.

14.1.3 Compound complements of direction Among the directional v e r b s , 来 and 去 can be combined with the rest of the group to form contrasting compound-words and serve as compound complements:进 来 (come in), 进 去 （go in)，上 来 (come up),上 去 （go up)，下Ặ (come down)，下 去 （go down)，士 来 (come o u t), 出Ậ (go out), 回 来 （come back), 回 去 （go back), 过 来 （come here), 过 去 （go there), and 起 来 （rise up). The compound complement may further clarify where the speaker is in relation to the action.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

subject

verb

complement

object

她 回 带 huí dài Tā She brought back a letter.

一封信。 yì fēng xìn.

她 回来 带 huílai Tā dài She brought back a letter.

一封信。 yì fēng xìn.

The first sentence means that she brings back a letter. It is not clear if she comes to the speaker or goes away from the speaker. The second sentence specifies that he comes to the direction of where the speaker is. Some compound complements， such as 下 来 （come down) and 起 来 （rise up), often serve as complements to adjectives, indicating the transformation of someone or something from one state of being into another.

[ 1 7 ] 天黑下来了。 Tiỗn hēi xiàlai le. It is getting dark now. [ 1 8 ] 暴 风 雨 过 后 ，大海平静下来了。 Bàoỉẽngyũ guòhòu, dàhâi píngjing xiàlai le. After the storm, the sea is quiescent. [1 9 ] 他兴奋起来了。 Tỗ xĩngíèn qĩlai le. He is getting excited. [20] — 种 新 的 女 式 夏 装 流 行 起 来 了 。 Yì zhong xĩn de nũshì xiázhuang liúxíng qĩlai le. A new summer women’s dress is becoming popular. Compound complements, like some simple complements, are also frequently used for their extended meanings or used in an abstract sense. For exam ple, 下 去 （go down) may refer to the physical action of descending or may mean to continue or keep on doing something.

[2 1 ] 他从楼上掉下去了。 Tã cóng lóu shang diào xiàqu le. He fell off the building.

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[2 2 ] 你 不 能 这 样 混 下 去 了 。

Nĩ bù néng zhéyáng hùn xiàqu le. You cannot go on fooling around like this. [ 2 3 ] 这 地 方 我 住 v不 下 去 了 。

Zhè difang wõ zhù bú xiàqu le. I cannot go on livin g in this place. The position o f compound complements varies. I f the object is a person or a thing, the compound complement is often split: one word before the object and one word after it. The compound complement may also be placed after the verb or after the object. Combinations o f verbs w ith compound complements are subject to idiom atic usage; some are more commonly used than others. $ 带 \过 一 \个 助 手 来 。

Tā dài guò yí ge zhúshou lái. He brought an assistant over. f

带过来一个助手。

Tã dài guòlai yí gezhůshou. He brought over an assistant. 他带了一个助手过来。

Tā dài le yí ge zhúshou guòlái. He brought over an assistant. 我想出一个主意来。

wõ xiâng chū yí ge zhúyi lái. I come up w ith an idea. 我想出来一个主意。

Wo Xiang chūlai yí gezhuyi. I come up w ith an idea. 你能想一个主意出来吗？

Nĩ néng xiâng yí ge zhúyi chũlai ma? Can you come up w ith an idea? However, if the object is a locational noun, the compound complement needs to be split: 来 or 去 needs to be placed after the object. Correct:

他一下车就冲进医院去了。

Tā yí xià chẽ jiù chõng jìn yĩyuàn qù le. As soon as he got out o f the car, he rushed into the hospital.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

225

In c o rre c t: 他 一 下 车 就 冲 进 去 了 医 院 。

Tã yí xià chẽ jiù chõng jinqu le yìyuàn. As soon as he got out o f the car, he rushed into the hospital. Correct:

他 花 了 三 个 小 时 才 爬 上 山 来 。

Tā huā le sân ge xiâoshí cái pá shàng shãn lái. It took him three hours to clim b up the mountain. In c o rre c t: 他 花 了 三 个 小 时 才 爬 上 来 山 。

Tā huā le sān ge xiâoshí cái pá shànglai shãn. It took him three hours to clim b up the mountain. Notice that, with some English phrasal verbs, the pronoun serving as the object has to be placed between the verb and the adverb. For example, we say, t4We picked her up at the airport,:, but not uWe picked up her at the airport.” In Chinese complements o f direction, it is the locational noun that affects the position o f 来 OI• 去 as a complement.

14.2 Complements of result (结果补语) English has some uverb + adjective,9 combinations (e.g. keep open, set free, come true, cut short, stay alive, wash clean, go crazy， run wild ， etc.). In these combinations, the adjective has the completive meaning of showing the effect or the result o f the verbal action. For example, in “ dye it blue," the adjective blue indicates the result o f dying, and it functions as a complement. In Chinese, some verbs can take an adjective or another verb as a complement that indicates the result o f action, which is comparable to verb-adjective combinations in English and is grammatically known as q/Veyw"(结 果 补 语 ） in Chinese.

subject

verb

complement

object

她

t jian

M7 duan le

tā de tóufa.

Tā

她 的 头 发 。

She cut short her hair. 我

看

kàn Wo I saw through this person.

透 了

这 个 人 。

tòu le

zhè ge rén.

In the firs t sentence, the adjective 短 （ short) is ã complement to the verb

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cut, showing the result o f cutting. In the second sentence, the verb ĩế. (penetrate) is a complement to the verb see, indicating the result o f seeing.

14.2.1 Adjectives as complements English has a lim ited number of “ verb + adjective” combinations. In Chinese，some monosyllabic and disyllabic adjectives can serve as verb complements, showing the result o f the action. [1 ] 你记错了 我 的 地 址 。

Nĩ jì cuò le wõ de dìzhĩ. You remembered my address incorrectly. [2 ] 他 打 破 了 世 界 纪 录 。 T

IV

Ņ

I

ļ N«» Ņ

»N| N

Tā da po le shijie jílu. He broke the world’s record. [3 ] 我 灌满了一瓶凉水。

，

Wỗ guàn mân le yì píng liángshuĩ. I fille d up the bottle w ith cold water. [4 ] $ 写丨青ặ 了 评 分 标 准 Ọ

Tā xiě qĩngchu le pingfēn biāozhun. He wrote clearly the criteria o f grading Some “ verb + adjective” combinations have already been accepted as disyllabic verbs. In such cases, the adjective can s till be used as a complement o f potential. For example, about the verb 缩小，one can s till say 缩 得 小 o r 缩不小 . [ 5 ] $ 缩 」、 了中文字体。

Tã suõ xiâo le zhongwén zìtĩ. He reduced the size o f the Chinese characters. [6 ] 我放大了这张照片。 w õ tòng dà le zhè zhāng zháopián.

I enlarged this photo. [7 ] $ 们 又 抬 高 了 油 价 。

Tỗmen yòu tái gāo le yóujiá. They again raised the o il price. [8 ] $ 压_低 了 她 的 声 音 。

Tā yā dī le tā de shẽngyĩn. She lowered her voice.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

14.2.2 Verbs as complements In English, look does not equal see; listen does not mean hear, search is not the same as find. In each pair, the second verb shows the result o f the firs t verb, but cannot serve as the complement to the firs t verb in a sentence. However, in Chinese, the second verb can serve as a complement to the firs t verb, showing the result o f the firs t verb. Here are four sentences with word-for-word translations.

subject

verb

complement

object

我

看

懂了

这首诗。

Wo

kàn

dõng le

zhè shõu shī.

I

read

understand

this poem.

我

飞

到了

旧金山。

Wo

dào le

Jiijjīnshān.

I

fēi fly

arrive

San Francisco.

她

打

败了

她的对手。

Tā

do

bài le

tā de duìshỗu.

She

fights

defeats

her opponent.

完了

他的作业。

Tā

xiě

wán le

tã de zuòyè.

He

writes

finishes

his homework.

他

写v

Notice the reciprocal relation between the two verbs in each sentence. W hile the second verb shows the result of the firs t verb, the first verb also shows the means by which the action o f the second verb is realized. Here are more examples. [9 ]他把我们都 吓 跑 了 。

Tā bâ women dõu xià pâo le. He scared US away. [1 0 ] 你 让 人 笑 掉 大 牙 了 。

Nĩ ràng rén xiào diào dà yá le. You make people laugh their heads off. [1 1 ] 他 撞 倒 了 一 棵 大 树 。

Tồ zhuang dâo le yì kẽ dà shù. He knocked down a big tree.

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[ 1 2 ] 这 声 ỹ 生， 气死我了。 Zhéxiě xuésheng qì sĩ wõ le. These students drive me crazy.

14.2.3 Commonly used adjectives as complements Most monosyllabic adjectives can serve as complements o f result, but some are used more commonly and extensively than others. The follow ing are a selected few, and they collocate w ith a large number of verbs.

c 错 ）错 （ wrong), used as a complement, is sim ilar to the English such as 放 错 （ misplace) or 算 错 （ miscalculate).

prefix

[13] 你 家 真 不 好 找 ，我 走 错 了 爷 。 NT jiā zhēn bù hâo Zhao, wo zou cuò le IÙ. Your home is really hard to find; I took the wrong way.

[ 1 4 ] 我 这 次 考 砸 了 ，我 看 错 了 题 。 Wõ zhè cì kâo zá le, wõ kàn cuò le tí. I did horribly in the exam; I misread the question.

c 对 ）对 （ correct) is often used as the complement to denote that something is done correctly or appropriately. [ 1 5 ] 你 说 对 了 ，他 是 个 溜 须 拍 马 的 人 。 NT shuõ duì le, tā shì ge liū xū pãi mâ de rén. You are right. He is â sycophant.

[ 1 6 ] 公_平 地 说 ，这 道 题 他 确 实 答 对 了 。 Gõngpíng de shuõ, zhè dào tí tã quèshí dá duì le. Fairly speaking, he in fact answered this question correctly. ( 好 ）好 （ completed), used as a complement, means that something has being settled, taken care of, completed or achieved.

[ 1 7 ] 这 事 我 们 说 好 了 ，你 不 能 反 悔 。 Zhè shì women shuõ hâo le, nĩ bù néng tânhuĩ. We have made a deal about this; you cannot go back on your word.

[ 1 8 ] 我 昨 天 发 烧 ，一 夜 都 没 有 睡 好 。 Wo zuótian fā shāo, yí yè dõu méiyõu shuì hâo. I had a temperature yesterday and did not sleep well last night.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

〔坏 ）i f (bad) is used to denote the failure or harm ful result o f an action. It can also be used after adjectives to show intensities (see the complement o f degree).

[ 1 9 ] 他 拉 稀 ，' 定 是 吃 坏 了 。 Tā lã xị yídìng shì chĩ huài le. He has diarrhea. He must have had spoiled food.

[2 0 ] 他们家的孩子都惯坏了。 Tāmen jiā de háizi dõu guàn huài le. The children from their household are all spoiled.

14.2.4 Commonly used verbs as complements Many monosyllabic verbs can take another verb as complements; however, only a lim ited number o f verbs can serve as complements o f result. These verbs collocate w ith a large number o f verbs, and some have become disyllabic verbs. Here are some frequently used ones. c 到 ）Ỉ'J (arrive) denotes the arrival at a destination. It is also used in the sense o f having obtained something or having achieved a goal.

[2 1 ] 他始终没有找到他的梦中人。 Tā shīzhong méiyõu zhâo dào tã de mèng zhõng rén. He has never found his dream lover.

[ 2 2 ] 这个故事 流 传 到 了 很 多 国 家 。 Zhè ge gùshì liúchuán dào le hen duõ guojiā. This story has traveled to quite a few countries. ( 掉 ) # (fa ll, drop), used as a complement, means to let go, to dispose, or to get rid o f someone or something.

[ 2 3 ] 公司裁掉了三分之一的雇员。 Gõngsĩ cái diào le sān fēn zhī yī de gùyuán. Their company laid o ff one third o f the employees.

[2 4 ] 别把孩子和洗澡水一起倒掉。 Bié bâ háizi hé xĩ zâo shuT yìqĩ dào diào. Don’tth ro w the baby out w ith the bathwater.

够 （ enough) is a verb in Chinese. It means that there is an adequate amount o f something.

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[ 2 5 ] 你 出 去 旅 野 ，一 定 要 带 够 钱 。 Nĩ chū qù lúyóu, yídìng yào dài gòu qián.

When you travel, be sure to take enough money with you. [2 6 ] 我 听 够 这 个 伪 君 子 的 说 教 了 。 wõ tĩng gòu zhè ge wěijunzi de shuõịiào le.

I have heard enough of the preaching of this hypocrite. ( 见 ）见 （ see) is used to refer to not only what one sees but also what one feels with other senses, such as hearing or smelling. [2 7 ] 她 遇 见 了 她 高 中 时 的 情 人 。 Tỗ yù jiàn le tā gāozhong shí de qíngrén.

She came across her high school sweetheart. [2 8 ] 他 听 见 了 巨 大 的 爆 炸 声 。 Tā tĩng jiàn le jùdà de bàozhà shẽng.

He heard a huge sound of explosion. c 完 ）完 （ finish, end) is used extensively as a complement to denote the completion of an action. [ 29 ] 他 还 没 讲 完 ，我 们 都 睡 着 了 。 Tā hái méi jiang wan, women dõu shuì zháo le.

He still has not finished his speech; we all fall asleep. [ 3 0 ] 请 让 我 说 完 ，我 没 有 打 断 你 。 Qĩng ràng wỗ shuõ wán, wo méiyõu dâ duàn nĩ.

Please let me finish; I did not interrupt you. 着 （ arrive, reach), pronounced zháo ，denotes that one has achieved or obtained what is desired for. It is used in spoken language.

[ 3 1 ] 我 查 着 了 ，这 两 个 字 都 来 自 希 腊 文 。 Wỗ chá zháo le, zhè liâng ge zì dõu láizi Xĩlàwén.

I found it; both of these words come from Greek. [ 3 2 ] 他 个 子 高 极 了 ，伸 手 就 够 着 篮 筐 了 。 tā gezi gāo jí le, shẽn shõu jiù gòu zháo lánkuãng le.

He is very tall. Raising his hands, he can touch the basketball ring.

C li J 住 (stay), used as a complement， means to get hold of something or to keep something at someplace.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[3 3 ] 这 只 猫 一 只 老 鼠 也 没 捉 住 。 Zhè zhĩ mão yì zhĩ lâoshú yě méi zhuõ zhù.

This cat did not catch any mouse. [3 4 ] 我 会 永 远 记 住 这 个 教 训 。 Wỗ huì yõngyuân ]ì zhù zhè ge jiàoxùn.

I will forever remember this lesson. j-

14.3 Complements of potential (可能补语)

The complement of potential, positioned after the verb, is used to indicate ability, capability, possibility, and feasibility. There are three forms of complements of potential. The first one consists of the structural particle 得 and a verb or Adjective. The other two take the forms of “得 + T7, and “糸 + 得 •” 14.3.1 得 + verb (adjective)

The most common complement of potential is ‘ ‘ 得 + verb (or adjective)，” which is placed right after the verb. The negative form “不 + verb (adjective)” does not need 得 • Here are two sentences with word-forword translation. verb

complement

object

他

看

得懂

拉丁文。

Tā He

kàn

de dõng

LadTngwén.

reads

(able) understand

Latin.

他

看

不懂

拉丁文。

Tā He

kàn

bù dõng

LadTngwén.

reads

(unable) understand

Latin.

subject

“得 + verb (adjective)’’ can be used to say that someone is able to do something, that a certain goal is achievable, or that something can be done.

[ 1 ] 她 很 喜 欢 你 ，谁 都 看 得 出 来 。 Tā hen xĩhuan nĩ, shéi dõu kàn de chũlai.

She likes you; anyone can tell. [2 ] 这种事我怎么解释得清楚呢？ Zhè zhong shì wỗ zěnme jiěshi de qĩngchu ne?

How can I explain clearly a thing like this?

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[3 ] 你在很多地方都买得到中药。 Nĩ zai hen duõ difang dõu mâi de dào zhõngyào.

You can get Chinese herbal medicine in many places. [ 4 ] 这 种 病 没 什 么 ，完 全 治 得 好 。 Zhè zhong bing méi shénme, wánquán zhi de hao.

There is nothing serious about this disease; it can be absolutely cured. [5 ] 这间小卧室放不下三张床。 Zhè jiān xiâo wóshi fang bú xià sān zhāng chuáng.

This small bedroom cannot hold three beds. [6 ] 他总摆脱不 掉 内 心 的 自 疚 。 Tā zõng bâituõ bú diào nèixĩn de zì jiù.

He can never get rid of his guilty conscience. The “得 + verb (or adjective)” form of complement of potential is closely related to the complement of direction and the complement of result. It differs from them by adding 得 or 不 between the verb and its complement. In some cases， the verb and its complement are fused into a fixed expression with a new meaning, which does not always reflect the original meaning of the verb and the complement verb. Here are some of them:

(吃得开 ）吃 得 开 or 吃 不 开 is derived from eating. It means that one has certain advantages, privileges, or popularity in a certain place because of oneJs ability and power, or the favorable treatment that one receives. It is often used in a pejorative sense. [ 7 ] 要 想 吃 得 开 ，你 得 有 关 系 。 Yào xiâng chĩ de kãi, nĩ děi you guãnxì.

If you want things to open up for you, you must have connections. [8 ] 他 在 我 们 学 校 根 夸 吃 予 气 。 Tā zài women xuéxiào gẽnbẽn chĩ bu kāi.

He cannot get everything his way in our school.

(对得起) 对 得 起 means that one has lived up to someone’s expectation and 对 不 起 means the opposite. 对 不 起 is also used for apology.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[9 ]你 这 样 做 对 得 起 你 的 父 母 吗 ？ NĨ zhéyáng zuò duì de qĩ nĩ de fùmũ ma? Does your behavior do justice to your parents? [ 1 0 ] 对 f 起 ，$ 不 应 该 问 这 个 问 题 。 DuìbuqT, wõ bù yĩnggỗi wèn zhè ge wentí. I am sorry. I should not ask this question. c 合得来 D 合 得 来 refers to the kind o f human relationship in which people can get dong ，cooperate，or work together well. [1 1 ] 他 很 随 和 ，跟 谁 都 合 得 来 。 Tā hen suíhe, gẽn shéi dõu hé de iái. He is congenial and can get along w ith everyone. [12] _ 很」 |圣，她 跟 谁 都 合 不 来 。 Tā hen guài, gēn shéi dõu hé bu lái. She is eccentric; she cannot get along w ith anyone. 得 起 ] 经 得 起 means affordability. It is used in the sense that one can stand certain d iffic u lt situations or costly challenges.

[1 3 ] 我 们 经 得 起 这 次 石 油 危 机 。 Women jīng de qĩ zhè cì shíyóu wẽijĩ. We can weather this o il crisis. [ 14 ] $ 琴 不 起 这 条 ^、亭 的 击。 Tā jīng bu qĩ zhè tiáo xiãoxi de dâjĩ. She cannot stand the blow o f this news.

( 看得起）看 得 起 means to regard someone w ith respect; 看不起 means to look down upon someone or to hold someone in distain. [15] $ 请 你 是 因 为 他 看 ， 起 你 。 TỠ qĩng nĩ shì yĩnwèi tã kàn de qĩ nĩ. He invites you because he takes you seriously. [1 6 ] 我 很 看 不 起 自 我 炫 耀 的 人 。 Wo hen kàn bu qĩ zìwõ xuànyào de rén. I have nothing but contempt for those ostentatious people. C U D 靠 得 住 means accountability and re lia b ility . It refers to people who can be trusted and depended upon . 靠不住 means the opposite.

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他 绝 对 靠 得 住 ，我 认 识 他 十 年 了 。

Tā juédui kào de zhù, wỗ rènshí tã shí nián le. He is absolutely dependable; I have known him for ten years. [ 1 8 ] 这 个 人 太 圆 滑 ，我 觉 得 他 靠 不 住 。 Zhè ge rén tài yuánhuá, wõ juéde tā kào bu zhù. This man is too unctuous; I doďt think he is dependable. ( H D 来得及 means that there is s till tim e to do something, whilS 来 本 means that it is too late to do something. Both are used to refer to a last-minute situation. [ 1 9 ] 商 店 还 有 十 分 钟 关 门 ，你 现 在 去 还 来 得 及 。 Shângdiàn háiyỗu shí fēnzhong guān mén, nT xiánzái qù hái lá id e jí. The store w ill close in ten minutes; you s till can make it. [ 2 0 ] 你 现 在 报 名 来 不 及 了 ，最 后 期 限 已 经 过 了 。 NT xiánzái bào míng lái bu jí le, zuìhòu qĩxiàn yĩjĩng guò le. It is too late to register now. The deadline is already past.

(谈得来) 谈 得 来 refers to the kind o f relationship in which two people enjoy talking w ith each other or get along well due to perhaps the same interest or personality. [ 2 1 ] 他 们 俩 一 见 如 故 ，很 谈 得 来 。 Tỗmen liâ yí jiàn rú gù, hen tán de lái. A t their firs t meeting, they were like old friends and enjoyed their talk. [ 22]

他 们 结 婚 十 年 了 ，从 来 谈 不 来 。

Tāmen jié hūn shí nián le, cónglái tán bu lál. They have been married for ten years; they never see eye to eye w ith each other.

14.3.2 得 + 了 + 了’’ is a form of the complement of potential• 了 （pronounced + T ,9means to b e a b le to, and it is used in spoken language. “得

liâo) is a verb that means to c o m p lete orfin ish . [2 3 ] 他 今 天 晚 上 来 得 了 吗 ？ Tā jīntiān wanshang lái de liâo ma? Is he able to come tonight?

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[2 4 ] 你 觉 得 你 骗 得 了 我 吗 ？ NT juéde nĩ pián de liâo wõ ma?

You think you can fool me? [2 5 ] 你 买 这 么 多 吃 得 了 吗 ？ Nĩ mâi zhéme duõ chĩ de liâo ma?

You bought so much; can you eat all of it? [ 2 6 ] 我 常 旅 行 , v趁 现 在 还 动 得 了 。 Wõ chóng lũxíng, chèn xiànzài hái dòng de liâo.

I often travel while I can still move around. “不 + 了’’ is the negative form of “得 + 了 The negative form is more used than the positive form. Many verbs and some adjectives can take “不 + 了” as the complement.

[2 7 ] $ 每 夜 都 打 _呼 噜 ，我 真 受 不 了 。 Tā měi yè dõu da hũlu, wỗ zhēn shòu bu liâo.

He snores every night; I really cannot stand it. [ 2 8 ] 我 手 边 的 事 儿 太 多 ，我 去 不 了 。 wõ shõubiỗn de shìr tài duõ, wỗ qù bu liâo.

I have many things to do at hand; I cannot go. [ 29] $ 们 两 个 人 谁 也 说 服 不 了 谁 。 Tõmen liâng ge rén shéi yề shuõfú bù liâo shéi.

Between the two of them, neither can persuade the other. [3 0 ] $ 忘 、 不了童， 的 天 真 和 梦 想 Ọ Tã wàng bu liâo tóngnián de tiānzhēn hé mèngxiâng.

He cannot forget his childhood innocence and dreams. 14.3.3 不 + 得 ^ + W 9 means cannot or should not. It is often used in the sense that something should not be done because of its detrimental consequence. The positive form of this pattern is seldom used in contemporary Chinese.

[ 3 1 ] 这 件 事 你 可 做 不 得 ，太 危 险 了 。 Zhè jiàn shì nĩ kě zuò bu de, tài wěixian le.

You should not do that; it is too dangerous. [32] $ 这 个 人 一 /点儿考匕评， 听 不 得 。 Tỗ zhè ge rén yìdiânr piping dõu tīng bu de.

He cannot take any criticism.

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[ 3 3 ] 我 的 老 板 可 惹 不 得 ，他 很 会 报 复 。 Wỗ de lâobân kě rě bu de, tā hen hui báofu.

One should not offend my boss; he is good at retaliation. [ 3 4 ] 这 话 说 不 得 ，你 会 得 罪 很 多 人 。 Zhè huà shuõ bu de, nĩ huì dézui hen duõ rén.

You cannot say this, or you will offend many people. Some “verb + 不 + 得 ” formations are fixed, idiomatic expressions. For exam ple ，顾 不 得 means that one has to do something urgently regardless of the cost. 舍不得 means that one is so emotionally attached to something that one cannot let it go. [3 5 ] 我 舍 不 得 卖 这 栋 房 子 。 Wo she bu de mài zhè dòng fángzi.

I am too emotionally attached to this house to sell it. [3 6 ] 我 恨 不 得 立 刻 就 毕 业 。 Wõ hèn bu de like jiù bìyè.

I am dying to graduate at once. [3 7 ] 怪 不 得 老 师 都 喜 欢 她 。 Guài bu de lâoshĩ dõu xĩhuan tã.

No wonder all teachers like her. [3 8 ] 你 没 考 好 怨 不 得 别 人 。 Nĩ méi kâo hâo yuan bu de biérén.

You cannot blame anyone else for not doing well in the exam. 14.3.4

lb versus complements o f potential

The auxiliary verb Ũ , when used in the sense of b e in g a b le to, can be used interchangeably with the complement of potential. In this sense, there is little semantic difference between the two. 我能认出那个嫌疑犯。

wõ néng rèn chū nà ge xiányíỉàn. I can identify that suspect. 我认得出那个嫌疑犯。 w õ rèn de chū nà ge xiányífán.

I can identify that suspect.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

But 能 may also express permission while the complement of potential only denotes ability or capability. You should use ỐẾ, if you mean that something is not allowed. Incorrect: 这 是 女 厕 所 ，你 进 不 去 。 Zhè shì nu cèsuỗ, ní jin bu qù.

This is Lady’s Room; you are not able to enter. C o r r e c t: 这 是 女 厕 所 ，你 不 能 进 去 。 Zhè shì nú cèsuõ, nĩ bù néng jinqu.

This is Lady’s Room; you cannot go in. The first one is incorrect because the speaker does not mean that you do not have the ability to go in but you are not allowed to go in. If you mean ability rather than permission, then the complement of potential is the right choice. Incorrect:他 的 钱 一 辈 子 都 不 能 花 完 。 Tā de qián yíbéizi dõu bù néng huã wán.

His money is more than he can spend in his lifetime. Correct:

他的钱一辈子都花不完。

Tā de qián yíbéizi dõu huā bu wan.

His money is more than he can spend in his lifetime. Incorrect: 天 上 的 星 星 不 能 数 清 。 Tiỗnshàng de xĩngxĩng bù néng shú qĩng.

The stars in the sky are countless. Correct:

天上的星星数不清。

Tiốnshàng de xĩngxĩng shũ bu qĩng.

The stars in the sky are countless. Notice that the complement of potential carries an expository or commentative tone. ».

14.4 Complements of manner (情态补语)

The complement of manner is used for two purposes. First, it describes h ow one does something or h ow something is done. Second, it shows the result or consequence of an action. The complement of manner is formed by the particle 得 followed by an adjective, an adjective phrase， a verb phrase, or a clause, which is placed after the verb or predicative

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adjective. We may divide the complement of manner into two types: the commentative and the consequential. 14.4.1 Complements o f manner (commentative)

The complement of manner is often used to explain one’s view or opinion about how something is done. It takes the form of ‘ ‘ 得 + adjective,which is commentative or descriptive. The adjective can be preceded by an adverb. 她穿得非常性感。

Tā chuān de fēichang xìnggân.

She is dressed in a very sexy manner. 他表现得很潇洒。

Tā biâoxiàn de hen xiãosâ.

He presents himself gracefully. 性 感 （ sexy) and 潇 洒 （graceful) are both adjectives. Adjectives do not modify verbs, but here， placed after 得 ， they serve as complements, which is similar to an adverbial in English. Adjective phrases are also frequently used as complements of manner.

[1 ] 这 次 去 欧 ㉑ 的旅行组、 / 只得很好。 Zhè cì qù Õuzhõu de lúxíng zúzhĩ de hen hâo.

This trip to Europe is well-organized. [ 2 ] 书 -中 每 一 个 情 节 都 写 得 非 Ỵ 逼 1 。 ShQ zhong měi yí ge qíngjié dõu xiě de fēichang bīzhēn.

Every plot in the book is true to life. [3 ] 你妈妈的话说得重了一点儿。 NT māma de huà shuõ de zhòng le yìdiânr.

Your mom's remark is a little too strong. [4 ] 这件事你朋友做得太过分了。 Zhè jiàn shì nĩ péngyou zuò de tài guòíèn le.

Your friend has gone too far in this matter. The complement of manner takes a post-verb position. If the verb has an object, the verb needs to be repeated after the object, and the complement of manner follows the repeated verb, as in the verb-copying sentence (see the chapter on subject, verb, object). It cannot be placed after the object.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

他 写 徘 句 写 ;ỉệ 好 极 了 Tā xiě paiju xiě de hâo jí le.

He writes haiku extremely well. This sentence comments on how someone writes haiku. The complement of manner follows the repeated verb that highlights the action. [5 ] 使 馆 办 签 证 办 得 很 慢 。 Shĩguân bàn qianzhéng bàn de hen màn.

The embassy is slow in issuing visas. [6 ] 他们要价 要 得 太 高 了 。 Tõmen yào jià yào de tài gão le.

The price they ask is too high. [7 ] 你提要求提得太多了。 NT tí yàoqiú tí de tài d u i le.

You make too many requests. [8 ] 他 说 话 说 得 很 不 好 听 。 Tã shuõ huà shuõ de hen bù hâotĩng.

His words are very unpleasant. 14.4.2

Complements o f manner (consequential)

The complement of manner is also used to show the effect or result of an action. It takes the form of “得 + verb phrase，’’ which serves as a complement to the predicative adjective. 他紧张得尿了裤子。

Tā jīnzhāng de niào le ktlzi.

He is so nervous that he wets his pants. Notice that there is a clear cause-effect relation between the adjective and its complement. Verb phrases often serve as complements to adjectives, which are similar to English “too + adjective + infinitive” or “so", that...” [9 ] 我们累得走不动了。 Women lèi de zỗu bu dòng le.

We are too tired to walk. [1 0 ]他 激 动 得 说 不 出 话 来 。 Tā jīdong de shuõ bu *chū huà lâi.

He is too excited to speak.

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[1 1 ] 风_大 得 刮 断 了 电 缆 。 Fēng dà de guā duàn le diànlân. The w ind is so strong that it blows down the power line. [1 2 ] 雪 大 得 压 弯 了 树 枝 。 Xuě dà de yỗ wan le shůzhl The snow is so heavy that it bends the tree branches. Clauses can also serve as complements to express the effect or result o f an action, but they usually serve as complements to verbs rather than adjectives. ， 吓得我出了一身冷汗。

Tā xià de wỗ chũ le yì shẽn lẽnghàn. He scared me so much that I broke out in a cold sweat. In this sentence,我 出 了 一 身 汗 （ I broke out in a cold sweat) is a clause that shows the result o f being scared. It also matches English complex sentence “ so." that....’’ [13] f 变 得 我 都 认 不 出 他 来 了 。 Tã biàn de wõ dõu rèn bu chū tõ lâi le­ lle has changed so much that I can hardly recognize him. [ 14 ] 这 $ 节 感 今 得 7我 ， 泪 盈 眶 。 Zhè běn shũ gândòng de wõ rè lèi yíng kuàng. This book has brought me to tears. [1 5 ] 大 风 刮 得 她 睁 不 开 眼 睛 了 。 Dà fēng guā de tā zhēng bu kāi yanjing le. The wind blows so hard that she can hardly keep her eyes open. [1 6 ] 巧 锻 炼 得 身 体 越 来 越 好 了 。 Tỗ duànliàn de shẽntĩ yuồláiyuè hâo le. He exercises so that his health is getting better and better.

14.4.3 Fixed expressions as complements of manner Fixed expressions and proverbs are composed in various ways, and they can also serve as complements o f manner that may show the result of an action or describe an action. They are very selective w ith verbs. [1 7 ] 他 被 打 得 鼻 青 脸 肿 。 Tā bèi dâ de bí qĩng lián zhong. He was beaten black and blue.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

[1 8 ] 彳 也 被 逼 得 走 投 无 路 。 Tã bèi bĩ de zõu tóu wú lù. He is forced to a dead end. [1 9 ] 我 们 听 得 一 清 二 楚 。 Women tĩng de yì qĩng èr chũ. We heard it loud and clear. [2 0 ] 他 们 讲 得 枯 燥 $ 今 。

Tāmen jiang de kūzao wúwéi. Their speeches are monotonous and insipid. 14.5 Complements of degree (程度补语) There are two types o f complements o f degree. One type consists o f an adverb, adjective, or verb ending w ith the aspect particle 7, and this type usually serves as a complement to the predicative adjective. The other type is led by the structural particle 得 . 韭菜馅儿饺子好吃极了。

Jiucái xiànr jiaozi hâochĩ jí le. The dumpling with leek filling is extremely delicious. 他 很 有 钱 ，但 他 抠 得 要 命 。

Tā hen yõu qián, dàn tā kõu de yào mìng. He has lot of money, but he is incredibly parsimonious. Structurally speaking, the first type may be included in the complement of result, and the second type belongs to the complement of manner. The complement of degree is usually considered a separate group because it uses a set of words to show the degree or intensity of a quality. The complement of degree is used in spoken language.

14.5.1 Complements of degree (with T ) O nly a sm all number o f adjectives, adverbs, or verbs, follow ed by the aspect particle 7, are used as complements o f degree. Some of these words serve as complements o f result when used for their lexical meanings, and as complements o f degree when used for their derived meanings. For example, i f means that something is broken or out of order when used as a complement o f result, but it describes the degree or the intensity o f feelings when used 'às a complement o f degree.

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(多了 ) 多 了 （ much more) can refer to either quantity or quality of something. It may be used in either a positive or pejorative sense. [1 ] 这两天他辱觉好多了。

Zhè liâng tiān tã ganjué hâo duõ le. He has been feeling much better in the past two days. [2 ] $ 说的 _比 做 的 多 多 了 。

Tā shuõ de bĩ zuò de duõ duõ le. His words speak louder than his deeds.

(W f) 坏了（ bad) is used after adjectives to say that something is extreme in degree. It is usually used in a pejorative sense. [ 3 ] 我 差 一 点 误 了 飞 机 ，我 急 坏 了 。

Wõ chà yìdiân wù le fēijī, wõ jí huài le. I almost missed the airplane; I was frantic. [ 4 ] 我 一 天 没 吃 东 西 了 ，我 饿 坏 了 。

Wỗ yì tiỡn méi chī dõngxi le, wỗ è huài le. I have not eaten for a whole day; I am ravenous.

(极了 ) 极了 (extremely) is a very common，everyday expression. It can be used in either a positive or pejorative sense. [5 ] ^ 的 自 我 保 护 意 识 强 极 了 。

Tỗ de zìwõ bâohù yìshí qiáng jí le. His sense o f self-protection is very strong. [6 ] $

! 单、 _ 纯 朴 ，心 地 善 良 极 了 。

Tā jiândãn、chúnpù， xĩndì shànliáng jí le. Simple and innocent, he is very kind-hearted.

( 死 了 ) 死了 (death) is often used a fte r adjectives to mean the extreme degree o f something, though it could mean actual death in certain situations. [ 7 ] 饭 还 没 好 ？我 都 饿 死 了 。

Fan hái méi hâo? Wỗ dõu è sĩ le. The meal is s till not ready? I am starving. [ 8 ] 他 老 鼠 肉 都 吃 ，恶 心 死 了 。

Tā lâoshũ ròu dõu chĩ, ěxin sĩ le. He even eats mouse meat. It is so disgusting.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

C 透了) 透 了 （ ripe, thoroughly) can be used in reference to both objects and humans. It is often used in a pejorative sense in reference to humans. [ 9 ] 这 个 西 瓜 熟 透 了 ，你 得 赶 快 吃 。

Zhè ge xĩguã shú tòu le, nĩ děi gânkuài chĩ. This watermelon is almost overripe. You must serve it quickly. [ 1 0 ] 他 没 有 道 德 感 ，实 在 是 坏 透 了 。

Tā méi you dàodégân, shizai shì huài tòu le. He has no moral sense; he is incorrigibly bad. 14.5.2 Complements of degree (with %) Complements of degree led by the particle 得 are colloquial; some are regional. They mostly serve as complements to predicative adjectives. Here are some commonly used ones.

CUD

不得了（ extraordinary ，disastrous) refers to something extraordinary, usually in an undesirable w a y . 不得了 and 了不得 are synonyms; they may carry a tone of shock. 不得了 is a fixed expression that differs from “得 + 了’’ used for the complement of potential.

[1 1 ] 他 的 嘴 大 得 不 得 了 ，真 够 吓 人 的 。

Tỗ de zuĩ dà de bù de liâo, zhēn gòu xià rén de. His mouth is so big; it is scary. [ 1 2 ] 我 头 痛 得 不 得 了 ，我 得 去 看 医 生 。

wõ tóu tòng de bù de liâo, wõ děi qù kàn yĩshẽng. I have a bad headache; I have to see the doctor. ( 不行) 不 行 （ unacceptable, unbearable) is often used as a denial to a request. As a complement, it means too much to be accepted or tolerated. [ 1 3 ] 屋 里 热 得 不 行 ，我 差 点 儿 昏 过 去 。

Wū lĩ rè de bùxíng, wõ chàdiânr hũn guòqu. It was so hot inside the house that I almost passed out. [14] 一 楼 潮 得 不 行 ，我 一 定 要 住 二 楼 。

Yĩ lóu cháo de bùxíng, wõ yídìng yào zhù èr lóu. The first floor is so damp; I must live on the second floor. (panic) is used to describe the action or the condition that makes one feel uneasy, anxiouổ, or perhaps unable to control oneself. It is very colloquial when used as a complement.

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[ 1 5 ] 他 得 了 糖 尿 病 以 后 ，总 觉 得 饿 得 慌 。

Tã dé le tángniàobìng yĩhòu, zong juéde è de huãng. Since he has had diabetes, he always feels hungry. [ 1 6 ] 我 半 年 没 吃 汉 堡 包 了 ，真 想 得 慌 。

Wỗ bàn nián méi chĩ hànbâobỗo le, zhēn xiâng de huãng. I have not had a hamburger for h a lf a year. I really crave it. 可以 可以 refers to something that is acceptable though not ideal. It is often preceded by the adverb 还 （ still).

[ 1 7 ] 她； 长 得 还 可 以 ，可 是 她 的 牙 真 难 看 。

Tā zhang de hái kẽyĩ, kẽshì tã de yá zhēn nánkàn. She looks fa irly good, but her teeth are so ugly. [ 1 8 ] ， 汉 语 说 得 还 可 以 ，可 写 得 一 塌 糊 涂 。

Tã Hànyú shuõ de hái kẽyĩ, kě xiě de yìtâhútú. He speaks Chinese fa irly well, but his w riting is terrible. c厉害) 厉 害 （ fo rm id a b le ) is used to d e s c rib e so m e th in g overpowering, ferocious, serious, or extraordinary. It usually refers to something negative. [ 1 9 ] ， 喝 酒 喝 得 厉 害 ，一 天 十 瓶 啤 酒 。

Tā hē jiú hẽ de lìhái, yì tiãn shí ping pijiú. He drinks ferociously, ten bottles o f beer a day. [2 0 ] $ 病 得 很 厉 害 ，两 周 没 来 上 课 了 。

TỖ bing de hen lìhai, liâng zhõu méi lái shàng kè le. He is very sick, and he has not come to class for two weeks.

( 要命) 要 命 （ extreme) and 要 死 （ extreme) are synonyms. They lite ra lly mean at the cost o f one’s life ，but they are usually used figuratively to mean something terrible. [ 2 1 ] 这 字 难 得 要 命 ，我 根 本 过 不 去 。

Zhè cì kâoshì nán de yào mìng, wỗ gẽnbẽn guò bu qù. This exam is hopelessly d ifficu lt; there is no way I can pass. [22 ] < 每 天 累 _得 要 死 ，周 末 也 休 息 不 好 Q

Wo měi tiān lèi de yào sĩ, zhõumò yě xiũxi bù hâo. I am exhausted to death every day and cannot rest well even on weekends.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

14.6 Complements of quantity (数量补语) In English, some prepositional phrases (e.g. f o r tw o h o u rs, f o r a y e a r, f o r now, and f o r g o o d ) are used to indicate the duration of an action. Some adverbs (e.g. on ce, tw ic e , and o cca sio n a lly) are used to indicate the frequency of an action. In both cases, the prepositional phrases and the adverbs function as a d verb ia ls. He has been waiting for four hours.

他等了四个小时 f 。 Tā děng le sì ge xiâoshí le. He has been to the moon twice.

他去过月球两次了。 Tā qù guo yuèqiú liâng cì le. In Chinese, temporal nouns, such as —个小时 （one hour)，两天 （two days)，三 年 （three years), are used to indicate the duration of an action. Verbal measure words, such as 遍 （ times) or 次 （ times)， are used to show the frequency of an action. Grammarians have different views on how to classify these temporal nouns and verbal measure words; here they are classified as complements.

14.6.1 Complements of duration D urational nouns, such as —个 月 （one month) and —年 （one year), can serve as subjects, adverbials, or complements. When they are positioned after verbs or adjectives, they serve as complements to indicate the length of an action.

[1] 他在月球上住了一年。 Tā zài yuèqiú shang zhù le yì nián. He lived on the moon for one year. [ 2 ] 日食持续了一分十秒。 Rìshí chíxù le yì fẽn shí miâo. The solar eclipse lasted for one minute and ten seconds. [3] 会议进行了一上午了。 Huìyì jinxing le yí shángwú le. The meeting has been going on for the whole morning.

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[4 ] 这位歌星红了一年了。

Zhè wèi gẽxĩng hóng le yì nián le. This star singer has been hot for one year. I f the verb has a common noun as the object, there are two ways to position durational nouns. One is to place it after the repeated verb; the other is to place it, w ith the structural particle ửặ, before the object. 他玩电脑游戏玩了五个小时。

Tā wan diànnao yóuxì wan le wũ ge xiâoshí. He played computer games for five hours. 他玩了五个小时的电脑游戏。

TỖ wán le wú ge xiãoshí de diànnâo yóuxi. He played five hours o f computer games. N otice that, in the firs t sentence, the durational noun serves as a complement o f duration, and that, in the second sentence, the durational noun acts as an attributive. In some o f these situations, the complement of duration sounds more idiomatic than the attributive. [5]

他在澳、 门赌钱赌了一晚上。

Tā zài Àomén dũ qián dú le yì wanshang. He gambled in Macao for a whole evening. [6 ] $ 逛 城 隍 庙 逛 了 整 整 一 天 。

Tỗ guàng Chénghuáng Miào guàng le zhěngzhěng yì tiãn. She strolled in Chenghuang Temple for a whole day. [7]

我在墨西哥湾钓鱼钓了辛天Ọ

Wỗ zài Mòxĩgẽ Wỡn diào yú diào le bàn tiãn. I fished in the G u lf o f Mexico for h a lf a day. [8 ] 她在海边捡贝壳捡了一上午。

Tã zài hâỉbiãn jiân bèiké jian le yí shángwu. She picked up seashells at seaside for most o f the morning. I f the verb takes a pronoun or a noun referring to a person as an object, you may directly place the complement o f duration after the object. But the durational noun —会 儿 （ a little while) may be placed either before or after the object. [9 ] 我伺候了他们二十年。

wõ cìhou le tỗmen èrshí nián. I waited on them for twenty years.

Parts of the Sentence 句子成分

[10] $ 采 了 我 三 个 士 时 。

tā caifang le wỗ săn ge xiâoshí. She interviewed me for three hours. [1 1 ] 他 陪 了 客 人 一 会 儿 。

tā péi le kèrén yíhuìr. He accompanied the guest for a while. [1 2 ] 我 等 了 一 会 儿 朋 友 。

Wo děng le yíhuìr péngyou. I waited for friends for a while.

14.6.2 Complements of frequency Verbal measure words are used to indicate the frequency o f an action. They stay after the verb and predicative adjective, serving as complements o f frequency. I f the verb or the adjective has an aspect particle, such as 了 or 过 ，the verbal measure words are placed after the particle. [1 3 ] 我 看 了 一 下 。

Wo kàn le yíxià. I took a look. [1 4 ] 他 来 过 一 次 。

Tā lái guo yícì. He came once. [15 ] $ 往 /前 走 了 一 Ỹ 。

Tā wáng qián zou le yí bù. He took a step forward. [ 1 6 ] 代 在 斧 园 、转 了 一 圈 。

Wỗ zài xiàoyuán zhuán le yì quân. I took a tour o f the campus. Be careful when the verb takes an object. I f the object is a common noun, it is placed before the verbal measure word. Correct:

他太太一天换三次衣服。

Tā tàitai yì tiồn huàn sân cì yĩfu. His w ife changes clothes three times a day.

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In c o rre c t:他 太 太 一 天 换 衣 服 三 次 。

Tỗ tàitai yì tiãn huàn yīfu sān CÌ. H is w ife changes clothes three tim es a day. C orrect:

这个岛发生了三回地震。

Zhè ge dâo fāshēng le sān huí dizhén. Three earthquakes occurred on this island. In c o rre c t:这 个 岛 发 生 了 地 震 三 回 。

Zhè ge dâo fāshēng le dizhén sān huí. Three earthquakes occurred on this island. I f the object is a locational noun, a person, or an anim al, it can be placed either before or after the verbal measure word. C o r r e c t:我 一 年 去 了 三 趟 西 藏 。

wõ yì nián qù le sân tàng Xĩzàng. I visited Tibet three tim es in a year. C o r r e c t:我 一 年 去 了 西 藏 三 趟 。

wõ yìnián qù le Xĩzàng sân tàng. I visited Tibet three tim es in a year. C orrect:

这个星期他见了两次律师。

Zhè ge xĩngqĩ tỗ jiàn le liâng cì lùshĩ. This week he saw the law yer tw ice. C o r r e c t:这 个 星 期 他 见 了 律 师 两 、 次。

Zhè ge xĩngqĩ tã jiàn le lushī liâng cì. This week he saw the law yer tw ice. I f the object is a pronoun, or i f the measure w ord is a tem porary verbal measure word, such as 拳 （ fis t) ,脚 （ fo o t),棍 子 （ s tic k ),刀 （ knife), the verbal measure w ord serving as the com plem ent should be placed after the object. C orrect:

他骗过我三回。

Tā piàn guo wo sān huí. He duped me three times. In c o rre c t:他 骗 过 三 回 我 。

Tā piàn guo sān huí wo. He duped me three times.

Parts o f the Sentence 句子成分

C orrect:

她扇了他一掌。

Tā shān le tā yì zhang. She gave him a slap. In c o rre c t:她 扇 了 一 掌 他 。

Tā shān le yi zhang tā. She gave him a slap. F in a lly ，if the verbal measure word —下 serves as a complement, you have the choice o f placing the verbal measure word either before or after the pronoun. [1 7 ] 请 你 等 我 一 下 ％

Qĩng nĩ děng wỗ yíxià. Please w ait fo r me a moment. [1 8 ] 请 你 等 一 下 我 。

Qĩng nĩ děng yíxià wỗ. Please w ait fo r me a moment. For more discussion on the use o f verbal measure words, see the chapter on measure words and adverbials. F or the use o f the com plem ent o f quantity in comparative constructions, see the chapter on comparisons.

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特殊句式

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There are various ways o f classifying sentences. In terms o f syntax and structure, we traditio n a lly classify English sentences into four types: the sim ple sentence, the compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the com pound-com plex sentence. T h is c la s s ific a tio n is based on the number and types o f fin ite clauses. Another classification draws five basic sentence patterns based on the types o f verbs in the sentence，such as the lin k in g verb, the transitive or in transitive verb. Basic patterns a ll start w ith the subject follow ed by the predicate; sentences that do not conform to the basic patterns are atypical patterns, such as extraposition or cle ft sentences. In Chinese, a distinction is also made between simple and compound sentences by gram m atical classification. The sim ple sentence is fu rth e r classified into four types: the verbal predicate, the nom inal predicate, the adjectival predicate, and the clausal predicate. This classification is based on the types o f predicates in a sentence; the verbal predicate that follow s the order o f subject, verb, and object represents the basic pattern o f Chinese as a s v o language. However, among verbal predicate sentences, there are also patterns that do not fo llo w the order o f subject, verb, and object. These patterns w ould be a p p ro p ria te ly c a lle d special rather than atypical, fo r they reveal much about the characteristics o f Chinese language. In this part, we w ill examine some special Chinese sentence patterns that do not conform to the basic patterns. Some o f them have counterparts in English. For example, both languages have the passive voice, in which the subject o f the sentence is the receiver o f the action. In English, the passive voice is form ed by an a u x ilia ry verb and the past p a rticip le o f a tra n sitive verb, but Chinese, a n o n -in fle c tio n a l language, relies on a passive voice m arker to indicate the passive condition . For another exam ple, both languages have e x is te n tia l sentences. In E ng lish , the subject position o f existential sentences, fille d in by the em pty there, is le ft vacant o f content; the notional subject, which is the new inform ation, is introduced later in the sentence. In existential sentences in Chinese, the notional subject, which is the new inform ation, does not take the subject position either. It is introduced by a locationa l or tem poral noun that serves as the theme o f the sentence. Am ong these C hinese special patterns, some are u n fa m ilia r to English speakers. For instance，the 把 sentence expresses the idea that som ething w ill be dealt w ith . In th is pattern, the object o f the verb, som ething definite, is placed before the verb. T his structure brings the

Specỉa丨Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

focus to the object, which we seldom do in English. However, in Chinese, it is very common, p a rticu la rly in spoken language, to move the object forw ard. The m ost com m on type o f inversion is to place the object, something definite, at the beginning o f the sentence, w hich is regarded by some as the topic o f the sentence. Another pattern to be noted is the adjectival predicate sentence. In English, the lin k in g verb is needed when the adjective serves as the subject complement; but, in Chinese, adjectives alone may serve as the predicate. Sentence patterns are the ways in w hich sentences are constructed; they represent various ways in which thoughts are expressed. The study o f these special patterns w ill help you express your thoughts clearly and idiom atically.

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V e rb le s s P re d ic a te s 非 动 词 谓 语

The w ord predicate comes from the L a tin preadicatum, meaning that which is said o f the subject. To convey a thought, a sentence needs a verb or a verb phrase to express an action or a state that is attributed to the subject. It would be hard to decipher the meaning o f a sentence i f the predicate is composed o f a single noun. Im agine i f a sentence only has John and car as subject and predicate— this juxtaposition cannot clearly say anything. Does it mean that John drives a car, buys a car, sells a car, or sits in a car? You name it; there are more possibilities than one can imagine. However, it is generally agreed among Chinese gram m arians that, besides the verbal predicate, there are three other types o f predicates in Chinese: nom inal predicate sentences (名词谓语句)，adjectival predicate sentences (形容词谓语句)，and clausal predicate sentences (主谓谓语句). None o f the predicates o f these sentences contains a fin ite verb. Here are three examples: 星期五。

Jīntiān xĩngqĩ wũ. Today is Friday. 她很善良。

Tā hen shànliáng. She is kind-hearted. 我身体很兮。

Wo shẽntĩ hen hâo. I am in good health. These sentences may be sim ple and fa m ilia r to you, but they are very different from the way we say them in English. The firs t sentence indeed consists o f only tw o nouns: today and Friday. In the second sentence, you may th in k that the lin k in g verb A is m issing according to English, but your teacher w ould remove it each tim e you inserted it there. As fo r the th ird sentence, i f someone asked you to analyze it gram m atically, you would fin d it hard to make heads or tails o f it. For a ll practical purposes, it does not seem to m atter how these sentences are g ra m m a tic a lly c la s s ifie d o r analyzed as long as you understand their meanings. That may be true, but it is im portant to know how these sentences w ork and under what conditions they w ork, so that

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

you can use them correctly. In this chapter, we w ill learn how to read these verbless predicate sentences. 15.1 N om inal predicate sentences 15.2 A djectival predicate sentences 15.3 Clausal predicate sentences

#

15.1 Nominal predicate sentences (名词谓语句)

The word nominal is connected to nouns. In the nom inal predicate sentence, the predicate is a noun or a noun phrase, and the subject and the predicate are juxtaposed to each other w ithout a lin k in g verb indicating their relationship. 今天

II

Jīntiān

星期五。

xĩngqĩ wú.

Today is Friday. 我奶奶

II

九十六岁。 jiushi liu SUI. M y grandm other is ninety-six years old.

Wo nainai

In these sentences, you can te ll instantly that the subject is equal to the predicate and that the lin k in g verb Ẵ . is absent. You may certainly restore 是 in these sentences. In fact, you must bring 是 back i f these sentences are in negative or interrogative forms. 今天

II

Jīntiān

不是星期五。

bú shì xĩngqĩ wủ.

Today is not Friday. 你奶奶

Nĩ náinai

II

是九十六岁吗？

shì jiushí liù suì ma?

Is your grandm other ninety-six years old? It is clear th a t the so -ca lle d nom in a l predicate sentence is an e llip tic a l copular sentence where Â. is om itted and where the subject must be equal to the predicate, or else it w ill not be readable. However, you cannot sim ply om it Â. whenever the subject is equal to the predicate; it has to be acceptable by social convention. In lim ite d situations where 是 can be om itted, you can always use 是 ，which in some cases may sound emphatic. Now le t US see where .you may leave  . out.

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15.1.1 Dates, weather, and age F irst o f a ll, nom inal predicate sentences are m ostly used in spoken language. It is acceptable to om it 是 i f the predicate is a noun or noun phrase about the date, weather, or age, w hich says something about the subject.

[1] 今天十二月三十一号。 Jīntiān shi’ er yuè sỗnshí yĩ hào. Today is December th irty -firs t.

[2] 今天冬 至 。 Jīntiān dongzhi. Toady is w inter solstice.

[3] 明天 Hỷ天 。 Míngtiỗn qíngtiỗn. Tom orrow is a clear day. [ 4 ] 我妈妈五十岁。

Wỗ mama wushí

sùi.

M y m other is fifty years old. In the above sentences, it is perfectly proper to use However, since these sentences often go w ithout 是 ，the presence o f 是 can make them sound emphatic or affirm ative, especially in reference to age as in [4].

15.1.2 Measurements and prices 是 is not needed i f the predicate is a noun or noun phrase about the measurement or the price o f something. In these situations, it w ill sound emphatic or affirm ative i f 是 is present. [5 ] 我弟弟六 尺 。 wõ dìdi liù ch丫. M y younger brother is six feet ta ll.

[ 6 ] 这条鱼三斤。 Zhè tiáo yú sān jĩn. This fish weighs three jin.

[ 7 ] 这件衬衫四十元。 Zhè jiàn chènshãn sìshí yuái. This sh irt is ĩoxty yuan.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[8 ] 他每月工资两千元D

T i měi yuè gongzī liâng qiãn yuan. H is m onthly salary is tw o thousand

15.1.3 Descriptive and literary language 是 m ay be o m itte d in d e scrip tive and lite ra ry language i f the predicate is a noun or noun phrase•是 is not needed i f the predicate is a proverb or fixe d expression. [9 ] 地上一层厚厚的白雪Q

Dìshàng yì céng hòuhòu de bái xuě. A th ick layer o f snow covers the ground. [1 0 ] 浩 瀚 的 大 海 一 望 无 际 。

Hàohàn de dàhâi yíwáng wúji. The vast expanse o f ocean is boundless. [1 1 ] 早 上 的 阳 光 灿 烂 迷 人 。

Zaoshang de yángguãng cànlàn mírén. The m orning sun is enchantingly bright. [1 2 ] 这 个 小 镇 的 房 子 破 烂 不 堪 。

Zhè ge xiâo zhèn de fángzi pòlàn bùkãn. In this sm all tow n the houses are dilapidated. N otice that 是 may be used in [9]，but it would be awkward to use it in the other three sentences.

15.2 Adjectival predicate sentences (形容词谓语句) In Chinese copular sentences, the lin k in g verb must be follow ed by ã noun or noun equivalent. I f the predicate is composed o f an adjective, the lin k in g verb Â. needs to be dropped, which is called adjectival predicate

sentence.

subject 她的笑

Tã de xiào

predicate (adjective) I I 很甜蜜。

hen tiốnmì.

Her sm ile is sweet. In the above Chinese sentence，是 is not needed because 甜 蜜 （ sweet) is an adjective. It is hard fo r tw o juxtaposed nouns to convey a m eaning,

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but when a noun is juxtaposed w ith an adjective as subject and predicate, the adjective apparently describe the noun. The meaning is clear w ithout a lin k in g verb. N ow le t US see some characteristics o f the a d jectival predicate sentence.

15.2.1 Adverb + adjective In adjectival predicate sentences, the lin k in g verb  . is not needed. However, the predicative adjective usually does not stand alone; it needs to be m odified by an adverb, typ ica lly by adverbs o f degree.

这座城市很干净。 Zhè zuò chéngshì hẽn gānjing. This c ity is very clean. W ithout an adverb, the sentence is not w rong but sounds awkward or unidiom atic. The presence o f an adverb is often perfunctory; it does not necessarily intensify the meanings o f the adjective unless you stress it or use some stronger adverbs. The adverb 4艮 is most frequently used in such cases. [1 ] 她 的 丈 夫 很 高 。

Tā de zhángfu hen gāo. Her husband is ta ll. [2 ] 他的太太真胖Q

Tỗ de tàitai zhēn pàng. H is w ife is really heavy.

[3] 这 个 主 意 舞 好 。 Zhè ge zhúyi tĩng hâo. This is a good idea. [4 ] 他们非常热情。

Tāmen fēichang rèqíng. They are very warm and friendly. H ow ever, the adverb is not needed i f tw o a d je c tiv a l predicate sentences are juxtaposed fo r comparison and contrast. [5 ] 土 豆 贵 ，香 蕉 便 宜 。

Tudòu guì, xiangjiao piányi. The potato is expensive; the banana is inexpensive.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 6 ] 哥 哥 笨 ，弟 弟 聪 ， 。

Gẽge bèn, dìdi cõngming. The older brother is slow; the younger brother is smart.

15.2.2 Adjective + T A djectival predicate sentences can take the aspect particle 了，which means that Chinese adjectives have verbal properties. However, the adverb o f degree cannot occur w ith the aspect particle. A w k w a rd :我 的 茶 很 凉 了 。

Wo de chá hěn liáng le. M y tea is cold now. C o r r e c t:我 的 茶 凉 了 。

Wo de chá liáng le. M y tea is cold now. You should not use the adverb in the above sentence because the adjective, when taking the aspect particle, is used as a verb，and the adverb 4艮 can only m odify adjectives, not verbs. [7 ] 他的病好了Q

Tā de bing hâo le. He has recovered now. [8 ] 她的脸红了。

Tā de lián hóng le. She has blushed. [9 ] 奶奶而兴了。

Nâinai gãoxìng le. Grandm other is happy now. [1 0 ] 爷 爷 生 气 了 Q

Yéye shẽngqì le. Grandfather is unhappy. Some adjectives can function as fu ll verbs and therefore can take an object. In such instances, they are no longer considered adjectival predicate sentences. [1 1 ] 那 份 工 作 能 累 死 你 。

Nà fén gongzuó néng lèỉ sĩ nĩ. That jo b can exhaust you to death.

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[ 1 2 ] 这 样 的 天 气 热 _死 人 。

Zhè yàng de tiỗnqì rè sĩ rén. This hot weather k ills people.

15.2.3 Adjectival predication In adjectival predicate sentences, the adjectives can be preceded by an adverbial or follow ed by a complement. It is im portant to distinguish the adjective from the rest o f the elements. 他对他的老板非常殷勤。

Tā duì tā de lâobân fēichang yĩnqín. He is very obsequious to his boss. 她兴奋得睡不着觉。

Tā xĩngtèn de shuì bù zháo jiào. She is too excited to go to sleep. In the firs t sentence, the adjective 殷 勤 （ obsequious) is prem odified by the prepositional phrase, w hich differs from English usage. In the second, the adjective 兴 奋 (excited) takes a post-complementation. [1 3 ] 张 声 授 对 学 生 很 严 格 。

Zhang jiáoshóu dui xuésheng hěn yángé. Professor Zhang is very strict w ith students. [ 1 4 ] 他_在 下 属 面 前 很 傲 气 。

Tā zài xiàshũ miànqián hẽn àoqì.

He is arrogant in front of his subordinates. [1 5 ] $ 渐 渐 黑 下 来 了 。

Tiān jiánjián hēi xiàlai le. It is slow ly getting dark. [1 6 ] 雨 大 得 他 都 看 不 清 路 了 。

Yú dà de tã dõu kàn bu qĩng lù le. The rain is so heavy that he cannot see the road clearly.

15.3 Clausal predicate sentences (主谓谓语句) In Chinese，主 谓 谓 语 句 （ the clausal predicate sentence) refers to the kind o f sentence that has a subject-verb construction (equivalent to a noun clause) serving as the predicate, w hich means that the clausal predicate sentence does not have a verbal predicate.

Spec丨 ai Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

这家饭店

II

咚差。

Zhè jiā ỉàndiàn

fúwú

hen chà.

This hotel

the service

is poor

I f we read this as a clausal predicate sentence，这 家 饭 店 （ th is hotel) is the subject, called the big subject; 月 1 务#■差 （ the service is poor) is the predicate, in w hich the service serves as the subject, called the sm all subject. In this sentence, the big subject does not have a direct semantic relationship w ith a verb (月 l 务 relates to 4艮差)• Clausal predicate sentences vary somewhat; now le t US see how they may be otherwise approached. 15.3.1

Possession

Clausal predicate sentences m ostly appear in spoken language; the above sentence is a very common example. In this sentence, there is a possessive relationship between the big subject (this hotel) and the sm all subject (service)— it is this hotel’s service. You may add the structural particle 的 to denote this relationship, as we do by using the genitive or the ơ/phrase in English. 这家饭店的服务

I I 很差。

Zhè jiỗ tàndiàn de fúwù

hen chà.

This hotel’s service is poor. W ith 的 added, 这 家 饭 店 的 服 务 becomes the subject，w hich d ire c tly relates to Í 艮差. In fact，it is proper and appropriate to add 的 to this sentence. You may keep 的 in the follow ing sentences. [1 ] 他的身体非常好。

Tỗ de shēntī fēichang hâo. H is health is excellent. [2 ]

的头发白了。

Tỗ de tóufa bái le. H er hair has turned white. [3] 件 的 汉 语 彳 平 很 快 。

Nĩ de Hànyũ jinbu de hen kuài. You have made fast progress in Chinese. [4 ] 北京的冬天不太冷。

Beijing de dõngtiỗn bú tài leng. B eijin g ’s w inter is nòt very cold.

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15.3.2 Adverbial There is another type o f clausal predicate sentence in which the big subject and the sm all subject are not in a possessive relationship. The subject again does not have a direct semantic relationship w ith the verb, and it is often separated from the predicate by a comma. 这两个人，

Zhè liâng ge rén,

II

我 们 选 一 个 。，

women xuân yí ge.

We w ill choose one form these tw o people. As a clausal predicate s e n te n ce ,这 两 个 人 （ these tw o people) is the s u b je c t;我 们 选 一 个 （ we w ill choose one) is the predicate. But in this sentence, it is obvious that these two people means from these two people. You may see this as a prepositional phrase and change 这 两 个 人 （ these two people) into 从 这 两 个 人 里 （ from these two people). 从 这 两 个 人 里 ，我 们 选 一 个 。

Cóng zhè liâng ge rén IT, women xuân yí ge. From these tw o people, we w ill choose one. T his change makes it easier to see the gram m atical relations, and it is also gram m atically proper. In the follo w in g sentences, you can take the big subject as a prepositional phrase or a noun phrase that serves as an adverbial. [5 ]

( 关 于 ）这 三 件 事 ，我 们 有 不 同 的 看 法 。

(Guỗnyú) zhè sỗn jiàn shì, women you bùtóng de kànfâ. A bout these three things, we have different views. [6 ]

( 就 ）北 方 食 品 （而 言 ），我 最 喜 欢 吃 饺 子 。 (Jiú) beifāng shípĩn (ér yán), wo zui xĩhuan chī jiaozi.

A s fa r as northern food is concerned, I lik e dum plings the most. [ 7 ] 全 班 的 人 （里 ），我 觉 得 她 最 漂 亮 。

Quán bān de rén (lĩ), wõ juéde tā zuì piàoliang. Am ong a ll the people in the class, I th in k she is the m ost beautiful. [ 8]

( 在 ）所 有 的 问 题 （中 ），这 个 问 题 最 难 。

(zài) suõyõu de wéntí (zhong), zhè ge wéntí zuì nán. Out o f a ll the questions, this question is most d iffic u lt.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

15.3.3 Inversion The th ird type o f clausal-predicate sentence involves placing the object at the beginning o f the sentence, w hich is called object-fronting. The subject again has no direct semantic relationship w ith the verb i f it is read as a clausal predicate sentence. $ 妻 子 I I 我»

Tā qīzi

只很 多 年 了_。

wõ rènshi hěn duõ nián le.

I have know n his w ife fo r many years. As a clausal predicate sentence,他 妻 子 （ his w ife) is the subject, and 我认 识^艮多年了（ I have known fo r many years) is the predicate. But it is much sim pler to read this sentence as an inverted sentence; you can certainly return the object back to where it was before. 我

wõ

I I 认识他妻子很多年了。

rènshi tā qīzi hen duõ nián le.

I have know n his w ife fo r many years. In the fo llo w in g sentences, you may return the forw arded objects back to th e ir o rig in a l places. In C hinese, the fro n te d object can be separated from the rest o f the sentence by a comma fo r clarity. [ 9 ] 这 些 巧 饭 ，你 带 回 家 去 喂 色 。

Zhè xiẽ shèngtàn, nĩ dài huí jiã qù wèi gõu. You take this leftover home to feed the dog. [ 1 0 ] 那 台 电 脑 ，序 送 我 我 都 $ 要 。

Nà tái diànnâo, nĩ sòng wõ wỗ dõu bú yào. I don’t want that computer even i f you give it to me fo r free. [1 1 ] 这 位 作 家 我 从 来 没 听 说 过 。

Zhè wèi zuojiā wõ cónglái méi tĩngshuõ guo. I have never heard o f this w rite r before. [1 2 ] 佛 家 思 想 我 觉 得 很 深 奥 。

Fójia sĩxiâng wõ juéde hen shēn’ ao. I fin d Buddhism very abstruse. In casual ta lk o r conversation , people m ay som etim es place a pronoun to re fe r back to the forw arded object. In such cases, the forw arded object cannot be returned to its o rig in a l place. T his casual usage should not be view ed as a gram m atical pattern. Here are tw o sentences:

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那 些 人 ，你 最 好 不 要 理 他 们 。

Nà xiẽ rén, nĩ zuihao bú yào lĩ tāmen. You’d better leave those people alone. 黄 教 授 ，我 觉 得 他 有 点 儿 迂 腐 。

Huáng jiáoshóu, wo juéde tã yõu diânr yijfú. I th in k that Professor Huang is a little pedantic. It should be pointed out that the fro n te d object receives m ore emphasis at the beginning o f the sentence than in its o riginal position, and this is a common phenomenon in Chinese. See the chapter on emphatic constructions.

15.3.4 Topic-comment sentences The idea o f clausal predicate sentences is u n fa m ilia r to E nglish speakers, and the m ain issue is that the subject does not have a direct semantic relation w ith a verb. In the examples above，we have offered some a lte rn a tiv e ways o f reading. A n o th e r way o f reading clausal predicate sentences is to treat them as topic-com m ent sentences. 她嗓子发炎了。

Tā sangzi fā yán le. She has a sore throat. In the above sentence,她 （ she) is the topic; the rest is a comment on her. You may read a ll three types o f clausal predicate sentences discussed above as topic-com m ent sentences, but the clausal predicate sentence is s till the most common way o f classifying these types o f sentences in China.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

C h a p te r 1 6

E m p h a tic C o n s tru c tio n s 强 调 结 构

In lite ra ry study, one interesting question is how poetic language differs from practical language. About this, the Russian form alist V ik to r Shklovsky offered the theory o f ostranenie (m aking strange), known as defamiliarization. This theory, sim ply put, is that poetic language is made d iffic u lt and strange compared to practical language, w hich enables one to gain a new perception o f the fam iliar. Em phatic constructions, it may be argued, also involve deviations from regular sentence structures or word usages to foreground certain elements and produce an em phatic effect. For example, inversions are often used fo r the purpose o f emphasis. Here is a lin e fro m Stephen Foster’s song “ O ld B laci; Joe”： Gone are the days when m y heart was young and gay. 年轻丨夫活的曰子，如 今 二 去 不 复 返 Q

Niánqĩng kuàihuo de rizi, rujīn yí qù bú fù fan. In this sentence, the past participle gone is placed at the beginning, which highlights the sense o f loss. I f we return it to its o rig in a l place — “ The days when my heart was young and gay were gone," not only w ill the emphatic effect be dim inished, but the sentence w ill be structurally out o f balance. In Chinese, there are various kinds o f emphatic constructions, and they a ll involve, in one way or another, some unusual sentence structures or w ord usages. F or example, the lin k in g verb 是 is norm a lly placed between the subject and the predicate, but Ẵ can also take a sentencein itia l position. 是梦让她回到了童年。

Shì mèng ràng tā huí dào le tóngnián. It is the dream that has brought her back to childhood. In this sentence, the emphasis fa lls on dream, which is effected by placing 是 before the subject. T his use o f 是 is unusual; it leads to d iffe re n t views on how to read th is sentence gram m atically. Some consider it a non-subject sentence; others contend that 是 is used adverbially, though lexicographers s till fin d it hard to accept 是 as an adverb. Regardless o f its gram m atical identity, this use o f Â. highlights the subject. In th is chapter, we w ill exam ine several em phatic constructions,

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w hich often need the assistance o f the adverb 都 and 也 ；jo in tly they generate an emphatic tone. 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5

O bject-fronting Emphatic pronouns Lion... dõu constructions Double negatives The emphatic s/?/'

16,1 Ob丨 ect-fronting (宾语前置) Inversions are extensively used in Chinese; object-fronting is perhaps the most common type o f inversion. L e t US take another look at objectfronting, which we discussed earlier under clausal predicate sentences.

16.1.1 Object-fronting The object w ill receive more emphasis i f it is placed at the beginning o f the sentence than in the position a fte r the verb, but in E nglish we seldom move the object fo rw a rd even when we w ant to stress it. In Chinese, it sounds natural, p a rtic u la rly in spoken language, to put the object in fro n t fo r emphatic purpose. 那本书我找遍了北京城也没找到。

Nà běn shū wõ zhao biàn le Beijīng chéng yě méi zhâo dào. I looked for that book everywhere in B eijing but couldď t fin d it. 那个女，儿我好像在哪儿见过。

Nà gè núháir wỗ hâoxiàng zài nâr jiàn guo. It seems that I saw that g irl somewhere before. In these tw o sentences, it is id io m a tic to place the object, som ething d e fin ite , at the beginning o f the sentence fo r emphasis. In w ritin g , it is also perm issible to separate the fronted object fro m the rest o f the sentence by a comma. Each o f the fo llo w in g sentences sounds natural w ith the fronted object. [1 ]这 种 缺 德 事 你 不 能 做 。

Zhè zhong quẽ dé shì nĩ bù néng zuò. You cannot do such an unethical thing.

Specia丨Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[2 ] 这 样 的 朋友你不能交。

Zhéyáng de péngyou nĩ bù néng jiāo. You should not make such a friend. [3 ] 这件事我不知怎么跟他说。

Zhè jiàn shì wõ bù zhī zěnme gēn tā shuõ. I do not know how to speak to him about this. [4 ] $ 的 雕 Ị 小 技 我 一 眼 就 识 破 了 。

Tā de diãochóng xiaoji wõ yì yân ]iù shí pò le. I saw through his legerdemain instantly.

16.1.2 Pithy statements In addition to em phatic effects, object-fronting in some instances may sound terse, concise, o r rh y th m ic a lly pleasing com pared w ith sentences in th e ir regular w ord order. It often w orks w e ll fo r saying something pithy or aphoristic. Compare these two sentences: 人人爱美丽的姑娘。

Rén rén ài meilì de gũniang. Everyone loves beautiful girls. 美丽的姑娘人人爱。

Mẽilì de gũniang rén rén ài. Everyone loves beautiful girls. The tw o sentences express the same idea. However, the fir s t one is prosaic; the second one reads lik e a tersely phrased statement o f truth. This effect seems to be derived from both object-fronting and ending the sentence w ith a m onosyllabic verb. It is often used fo r slogans or the titles o f lyrics. [5 ] 过 街 老 鼠 人 人 喊 打 。

Guò jiẽ lâoshũ rén rén hân dâ. A rat running across the Street— everyone shouts: “ K ill it.’’ [6 ] 路 边 的 野 花 不 要 采 。

Lù biõn de yẽhuỗ bú yào câi. Do not pluck roadside w ildflow ers. [ 7 ] 阶 级 斗 争 要 年 年 讲 ，月 月 讲 ，天 天 讲 。

Jiēji douzhēng yào nián nián jiang, yuè yuè jiang, tiān tiān jiang. Class struggle must be talked about yearly, m onthly, and daily.

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[ 8 ] 早 饭 吃 好 ，午 饭 吃 饱 ，晚 饭 吃 少 。

Zaofan chĩ hâo, wúfán chĩ bâo, wanfan chĩ shâo. Have a good breakfast, a fu ll lunch, and a lig h t dinner. [6] is the title o f a song, cautioning the male lover to be fa ith fu l. N otice the rhythm s and rhymes in [7] and [8]. The omissions o f the subjects in some o f the above sentences also make them sound terse and concise.

16.2 Emphatic pronouns (代词的强调用法) In English, some pronouns, such as everything, everybody, nothing, and nobody, can be used to express the idea o f all-inclusiveness or a ll­ exclusiveness. In Chinese, some interrogative pronouns can be used fo r the purpose o f emphasis, but they have to go w ith 都 fo r the positive，and w ith 都 or 也 fo r the negative. 谁喜欢她？

Shéi xĩhuan tā? W ho likes her? 谁都不喜欢她。

Shéi dõu bù xĩhuan tã? Nobody likes her. The firs t iķ means who\ the second iệ- means nobody, but i f you leave out 都 in the second sentence, the meaning w ill be different.

16.2.1 什么 什 么 ，as a p ronoun , can be used to em phasize the idea th a t everything is included or excluded. It goes w ith 都 fo r the positive, and w ith 都 or 也 fo r the negative. For this emphatic use, 什么 takes the preverb position. [1 ] $ 什 么 都 吃 。

Tā shénme dõu chĩ. He eats everything. [2 ] 他 什 么 都 不 吃 。

Tā shénme dõu bù chĩ. He eats nothing. 什么，as a determ iner，can also be used fo r emphasis•“ 什么 + noun” can take either the pre-verb or sentence-initial position.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 3]

他什么坏事都干。

Tã shénme huài shì dõu gàn. He does a ll kinds o f w icked things. [4 ]

什么歌他都会

Shénme gē tỗ dõu huì chàng. He is able to sing a ll kinds o f songs. [5 ] 我什么困难和挫折都经历过Q

Wỗ shénme kùnnán hé cuózhé dõu jīngli guo. I have experienced every kind o f d iffic u lty and setback. [6 ] 什么东西也逃不过他的眼睛。

Shénme dõngxi yě táo bu guò tā de yanjing. N othing can escape his eyes.

16.2.2 谁 iậ , as an interrogative pronoun, means who or whom\ but it means anybody, everybody, or nobody when used w ith or fo r emphasis. [7 ] 我对谁都 一 视 同 仁 。

Wo duì shéi dõu yí shì tóng rén. I treat everybody equally. [8 ] 会 上 我 谁 都 不 认 识 。

Huì shàng wõ shéi dõu bú rènshi. I did not know anybody present in the meeting. [9 ] 谁 都 知 道 这 个国家的腐败很严重。

Shéi dõu zhĩdờo zhè ge guójia de fubái hen yánzhóng. Everybody knows that this country’s corruption is very serious. [1 0 ]谁 也 不 知 道 他 到 底 贪 污 了 多 少 钱 。

Shéi yě bù zhīdao tã dàodĩ tānwū le duõshao qián. Nobody has any idea how much money he has embezzled. In [8 ]，you can replace 谁 w ith — 个 人 （ one person), w h ich is also emphatic and can be translated as “ I did not know a single person.”

16.2.3 明IUL P^ L or as an in te rro g a tive pronoun, means where; but it means anywhere, everywhere, or nowhere when used w ith Ẩp or ^ fo r emphasis.

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[1 1 ] 我 世 界 上 哪 儿 都 去 过 。

Wo shijié shàng nâr dõu qù guo. I have been everywhere in the w orld. [ 1 2 ] 我 哪 儿 也 不 去 Q 天 南 海 北 ，家 最 好 。 wõ

nâr yề bú qù. Tiãn nán hãi běi, jiā zuì hâo.

I do not want to go anywhere. East and west, home is the best. [1 3 ] 我 哪 儿 都 胃 找 不 到 一 份 满 意 的 工 作 。

wõ nâr dõu Zhao bú dào yí fèn mânyì de gõngzuò. Nowhere can I fin d a satisfactory job. [1 4 ] 无 论 你 去 哪 儿 ，都 别 忘 了 我 。

wúlun nĩ qù nâr, dõu bié wàng le wõ. W herever you go, don5t forget me. is m ostly used in spoken language and is used in the north. 哪里 can be used interchangeably w ith 什 么 地 方 （ what place).

and

16.2.4 怎么 怎、 么，as a determ iner, means Aow. W hen it goes w ith 都 or 也 fo r emphatic use, it means to whatever degree or in whatever way or manner. [ 15 ] 你怎: 么 累 夺 要 -做 字 功 课 。

NĨ zěnme lèi dõu yào zuò wán gõngkè. You must finish your homework no m atter how tire d you are. [ 1 6 ] 不、 管 ỷ 怎 么 ， ，他 都 不 听 。

巳ùguân nĩ zěnme shuõ, tā dõu bù tīng. W hatever you say, he does not listen. [ 1 7 ] 无 论 怎 么 难 ，你 都 不 能 放 弃 。

Wúlůn zěnme nán, nĩ dõu bù néng fàngqì. However d iffic u lt it is, you cannot give up. [1 8 ] _ 怎 么 练 都 通 不 过 驾 驶 考 核 。

Tā zěnme lián dõu tõng bú guò jiashī kâohé. He cannot pass the road test no m atter how much he practices.

16.3 Lián.-.dõu constructions ( " iê .....都” 结构>. 连 ，together w ith 都 or 也 ，expresses the idea th a t som ething has gone to a certain extent or degree. It is usually used to emphasize

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

something surprising or unexpected or to make a stronger comparison, i i can take different syntactic positions.

16.3.1 Prepositioning the subject iẳ. can precede the subject o f a sentence to emphasize som ething unexpected or unusual that one may do or that may happen to someone. The point o f emphasis is not always on the subject itse lf; it may be used to make a p oint about som ething through a com parison to som ething uncommon. 连荷马也打瞌睡。

Lián Hémâ yě dâ kẽshuì. Even Homer nods. This w ell-know n line, coined by the Roman poet Horace, means that even someone who is the best at what he does is not immune from erring. For this usage, there is no change o f word order except that 连 precedes the subject and that 都 or 也 precedes the verb. [1 ] 连 小 学 生 都 能 回 答 这 个 问 题 。

Lián xiâoxuésheng dõu néng huídá zhè ge wèntí. Even an elem entary school student can answer this question. [2 ] 连他的妻子最后都背叛他了。

Lián tồ de qĩzi zuihóu dõu bèipàn tã le. Even his w ife eventually betrayed him . [3 ] 连和尚也开始做起买卖来了。

Lián héshang yě kỗishĩ zuò qĩ mâimai lái le. Even monks have started to do business. [4 ] 连迈阿密也经历了一场霜冻。

Lián Mai* āmi yě jīngli le yì Châng shuãngdòng. Even M ia m i experienced a frost.

16.3.2 Prepositioning the object iế can precede a noun, a phrase, or a clause that, as the object o f a sentence, is moved before the verb. T his usage highlights the object, em phasizing som ething surprising or unusual. It is more used in the negative than the positive.

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， 连四书五经是什么都不知道。

Tā lián Sì Shū wũ Jīng shì shénme dõu bù zhīdao. He does n o t even know w hat The Four Books and Five Classics are. In this sentence，the forwarded object (四书五经是什么）is a clause that is placed before the verb and after the subject. The use o f iế emphasizes the object. [5 ] 他连喝咖啡的时间都没有。

TỖ lián hē kāfēi de shijiān dõu méi you. He does not even have tim e to d rin k coffee. [6 ] 他连自己的名字都写错了。

Tā lián zìjĩ de míngzi dõu xiě cuò le. He even wrote his own name wrong. [7 ] 在 作 文 课 上 他 连 一 个 c 都没得到。

Zái zuówén kè shàng tā lián yí ge c dõu méi dé dào. He did not even get a “ c ” in his com position class. [8 ] 我的男朋友连一点幽默感都没有Q

Wỗ de nánpéngyou lián yìdiân yõumògân dõu méi yõu. M y boy friend does not have any sense o f hum or at all.

16.3.3 Prepositioning the verb 连 can also precede the verb to emphasize that something expected did not occur at a ll. For th is usage, the verb is repeated, and there is usually another action introduced by 就 that im m ediately follow s the firs t action. 他连想都没想就签了合同。

Tā lián xiâng dõu méi xiâng jiù qiãn le hétong. He signed the contract w ithout even th in k in g about it. W hen 连 precedes the verb, it is often used to say that the action is very fast or perhaps too fast. One is perhaps expected to ponder about the firs t action before taking the second action. A comma may be used to separate the firs t action from the second one. [9 ] ^ 们 连 看 也 没 看 ，就 拒 绝 了 我 的 申 请 。

Tồmen lián kán yě méi kán, jiu jujué le wo de shẽnqĩng. They rejected m y application w ithout even looking at it.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 10]

她 连 问 都 没 亨 问 我 ，就 替 我 作 Ạ 了、 决 $ 。、

Tã lián wèn dõu méiyõu wèn wõ, jiù tì wõ zuò chū le juéding. She made the decision fo r me w ithout even asking me. [1 1 ] 她 一 生 f 连 见 都 没 见 i i 她 的 亲 生 母 。

Tā yìshẽng zhong lián jian dõu mối jiàn guo tã de qĩnshẽng fùmu. She has not even seen her biological parents once in her whole life . [ 1 2 ] 世 上 有 这 等 荒 唐 事 ？我 连 听 都 没 听 说 过 。

Shì shàng yõu zhè děng huãngtáng shì? wõ lián tĩng dõu méi tĩngshuõ guo. Is there such absurdity in the world? I have never heard o f that.

16.4 Doub丨 e negatives (双重否定) Double negatives consist o f tw o negatives that cancel each other and produce a positive. In M odern E nglish, double negatives, such as “ I don’t know nothing,” are considered gram m atically incorrect. But in M id d le E nglish or in E arly M odern E nglish, the double negative was quite acceptable. Chaucer uses it fre e ly in The Canterbury Tales, and Shakespeare also uses it in his plays. In Chinese, the double negative is frequently used. It generates an emphasis in some cases and a weakened affirm ative in others. 16.4.1 不 ....... 不 不.......不 is a com m only used double negative construction, which is composed o f tw o negatives: ‘ ‘ 不 + a u xilia ry verb” and ‘ ‘ 不 + verb.” W ith the a u xilia ry verb # or iề, this construction emphasizes the idea o f have to or must. W ith the a u x ilia ry verb ^ or it produces a weakened affirm ative. [ 1 ] 我 不 得 不 通 知 你 ：你 被 逮 捕 了 。

wõ bù dé bù tongzhī nĩ: nĩ bèi dàibú le. I must n o tify you: you are under arrest. [ 2 ] 你 不 能 不 承 认 ，他 确 实 很 有 能 力 。

Nĩ bù néng bù chéngrèn, tỗ quèshí hěn yõu nénglì. You have to acknowledge that he is very capable.

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[3 ] 她 不 会 不 知 道 我 在 等 她 的 答 复 。

Tã bú huì bù zhīdao wỗ zài děng tā de dáfù. She should know that we are w aiting fo r her response. [4 ] $ 不 应 该 不 _考 虑 这 做 的 后 果 。

Tã bù yĩnggãi bù kâolu zhèyàng zuò de hòuguõ. She should consider the consequence o f acting this way. In [1] and [2], the double negative emphasizes that one is forced to do something. In [3] and [4], the double negative expresses one’s assumption o f som ething. T he 不.......不 c o n s tru c tio n can also w o rk w ith the lin k in g verb Ẵ , w hich is usually used fo r c la rifica tio n , ju s tific a tio n , or argumentation. [5 ] 我„

不想、 去， v我 是 、 没有时间今

Wỗ bú shì bù xiâng qù, wõ shì méiyõu shijiān qù. It is not that I do not want to go, but that I do not have tim e to

go. [ 6 ] 你 不 是 不 应 该 去 ，只 是 你 去 的 时 间 不 对 。

NT bú shì bù yĩnggỗi qù, zhīshi nĩ qù de shijiān bú duì. It is not that you should not go, but you did not go at the rig h t tim e.

16.4.2不……没有 In the 不.......没有 construction，the firs t negative is “不 + a u xilia ry verb” ; the second negative is 没有• W ith the a u xilia ry verb 能，this double negative lite ra lly means cannot not have, w hich is an emphatic way o f saying that one must have. W ith the a u xilia ry verb ^ or JÉ.ÍŘ, it conveys one’s speculation o f something. [7 ] 做人不能没有尊严。

Zuò rén bù néng méiyõu zunyán. A man must have integrity.

[8] 代不样今炸薯条没有番恭酱 Ọ wõ bù néng chĩ zhá shũtiáo méiyou fanqiéjiáng. I cannot eat French fries w ithout ketchup. [ 9 ] $ 不、 应彳亥没_有 收 到 我 的 信 。

Tỗ bù yĩnggỗi méiyỗu shõu dào wõ de xìn. He should have received m y letter.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[1 0 ] 她 不 会 没 有 听 到 他 丈 夫 的 丑 闻 。

Tã bú huì méiyõu tĩng dào tā zhángfu de chouwén. She should have heard o f the scandal about her husband. The 不.......没有 construction can also occur w ith the lin k in g verb 是 ， which is usually used fo r cla rifica tio n or argumentation. [ 1 1 ] 他 不 是 没 有 判 断 力 ，他 是 被 洗 脑 了 。

Tã bú shì méiyỗu pànduànlì, tã shì bèi xĩ nâo le. It is not that he has poor judgm ent; he is brain-washed. [ 1 2 ] ， 不 是 没 有 朋 /< ，是 $ 有 真 正 的 朋

Tā bú shì méiyơư péngyou, shì méiyõu zhēnzheng de péngyou. It is not th a t he does not have frie n d s , but he has no true friends.

16.4.3没有……不 In the double negative 没有.......不 construction, the firs t negative expresses the idea that there is not anyone or anything', the second negative expresses the idea that who does not do something or that is not something. T his construction emphasizes all-inclusiveness and non­ exception. [1 3 ] 没 有 人 不 夸 她 的 中 文 好 。

Méiyõu rén bù kuā tā de zhongwén hâo. There is no one who does not praise her Chinese. [1 4 ] 他 没 有 一 天 不 给 我 找 麻 烦 。

Tỗ méiyỗu yì tiān bù gěi wõ zhao máfan. There is not a single day when he does not make trouble fo r me. [1 5 ] 这 家 饭 馆 没 有 一 样 菜 不 辣 。

Zhè jiã tànguân méiyõu yí yàng cài bú là. In this restaurant, there is not a single dish that is not spicy. [1 6 ] 我 们 班 没 有 一 个 人 不 是 军 校 生 。

Women bỡn méiyõu yí ge rén bú shì jũnxiàoshẽng. In our class, there is no one who is not a cadet. 没有 may im m e d ia te ly precede a noun phrase that, serving as object, begins w ith 不，such as 不 吃 菜 的 兔 子 （ the rabbit that does not eat vegetables). In this, the two negatives make a positive.

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[1 7 ] 世 上 没 有 不 透 风 的 墙 。

Shì shàng méiyõu bú tòu fēng de qiáng. There is no w all that can keep a secret from being revealed. [1 8 ] 天 下 没 有 不 要 钱 的 午 餐 。 /

Tiān xià méiyõu bú yào qián de wucan. There is no free lunch in the w orld.

16.5 The emphatic s/7/、 (强调 In English, we can place the a u xilia ry verb do before the verb in an affirm ative sentence when we feel strongly about something. In Chinese, A. is usually used as a lin k in g verb to id e n tify one thing w ith another, but it can also be placed before the verb, the predicative adjective, or at the beginning o f a sentence to emphasize or a ffirm what is stated in the sentence. In such cases，是 more plays the role o f an adverb than a lin k in g verb. Let us call it the emphatic 是 .

16.5.1 Emphatic functions The em phatic 是 is o n ly used fo r em phasis and a ffirm a tio n ; otherw ise, it is not needed. A lso , the em phatic 是 is not about new inform a tio n ; it is usually articulated in response to som ething already mentioned in the discourse. 苏轼是很背赏王维的诗、

Sũ Shi shi hen zánshang wáng wéi de shĩ. It is true that Su Shi hig h ly thinks o f Wang W ei9s poems. 她在感情上是非常脆弱。

Tā zàỉ gânqíng shàng shì fēichang cuìruò. It is true that she is em otionally very fragile. In both sentences，the speaker uses the em phatic 是 to emphasize the truthfulness o f something. 是 needs to be stressed when you read it. You may use the emphatic 是 in almost any sentence, including nom inal and adjectival predicate sentences where 是 is not needed. [1 ]爸爸今年 是 七 十 九岁 。

Bába jīnnian shì qĩshí jiũ suì. Father is seventy-nine years old this year.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[2 ] 是清晨的雨把我叫醒了。

Shì qĩngchén de yũ bâ wõ jiào xĩng le. It is the early m orning rain that woke me up. [ 3]

碑 不 是 零 件 ，是 爱 你 的 钱 。

Tã bú shì ài nĩ, shì ài nĩ de qián. It is not you but your money that she loves. [4 ] 哈姆雷特是考虑、 过自杀。

Hàmúléitè shì kâolu guo zishā. It is true that Ham let once considered com m itting suicide.

16.5.2 Contrastive emphasis The emphatic 是 is used fo r a ffirm a tio n ，but usually that is not a ll that the speaker intends to do. The emphatic 是 is often used to introduce the other side o f the issue in a contentious situation, thereby m aking a stronger argument. [ 5 ] 你 是 $ ， 业 了 ，可 是 你 没 有 做 完 。

NT shi jiāo zuòyè le, kẽshì nĩ méiyỗu zuò wán. You did subm it your homework, but you did not complete it. [ 6]

这 里 的 气 候 是 好 ，但 是 生 活 太 单 调 Q

ZhélT de qìhou shì hâo, dànshì shẽnghuó tài dândiào. The weather here is good, but the life is too monotonous. [ 7 ] 我 不 是 不 想 去 ，我 是 没 有 时 间 去 。

Wỗ bú shì bù xiâng qù, wỗ shì méiyõu shijiān qù. It is not that I do not want to go, but that I do not have tim e to go. The emphatic 是 is often used in an “A 是 A” construction or device for contrastive emphasis. As in above examples, one firs t acknowledges that something is true, and then points out the other side o f the issue to make the argument persuasive.

[8 ] 这 、 所学^

， 条 件 差 是 养 ，但 教 学 质 量 非 常 好 Q

Zhè suỗ xuéxiào de tiáojián chà shì chà, dàn jiáoxué zhiliáng fēichang hâo. T his school’s condition is in fe rio r，but its teaching q u a lity is excellent.

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[ 9 ] 你 的 批 评 对 是 对 ，可 是 你 说 得 有 一 点 过 火 了 。

NĨ de piping duì shì dui, kẽshì nĩ shuõ de yõu yìdiân guò huỗ le. Your criticism is correct, but you somewhat overstated it. [ 1 0 ] 他 固 执 是 固 执 ，可 是 他 有 责 任 感 而 且 很 执 爹 。 v

Tā guzhí shi gúzhí, kẽshì tā you zéréngan érqiě hen zhízhuó. He is obstinate, but he is responsible and persevering. Both the emphatic 是 and the affirm a tive 是.......的 construction can be used fo r a ffirm ation and emphasis，but the form er is more assertive，and it is often used fo r argum entative purpose w hile the latter is often used to state personal opinion w ith an a ffirm a tiv e tone. See the chapter on copular sentences.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

C h a p te r 17

C opular S e n te n c e s “ 是 ” 字 句

The word copula comes from Latin, meaning that which binds. It is also known as a lin k in g verb, which is perhaps the most im portant word in a ll languages. Im agine i f humans created language firs t by assigning names to things, it was through the lin k in g verb that they were able to associate things, id e n tify beings, and make judgm ents. In E nglish, the lin kin g verb be is also related to being or existence, which is the central issue o f Western metaphysics. In ancient China, one o f the most common ways o f id e n tifyin g or equating one thing w ith another was to place the particle 也 at the end o f the predicate, w hich plays the same role as the lin k in g verb. 孔 子 ，圣 人 也 。

Kongzī, shèngrén yề. Confucius is a saint. In this sentence, 也 equates Confucius w ith saint. In ancient C hina, 是 was not in itia lly used as a lin k in g verb but as a relative pronoun, sim ilar to 认ÚT/ or in English. For example, in “知 之 为 知 之 ，不知为不知，是 知也” （ be tru th fu l about what you know and what you do not know, which is knowledge),是 is a relative pronoun standing fo r the preceding clause. It was not u n til about the Pre-Q in or the Han Dynasty that Ẵ began to be used as a lin k in g verb. In modern Chinese,是 is used to form a copular sentence called 断句• The word 判断 means 也纪rmz’we orywdge; the copular sentence is typ ica lly used to express one’s judgm ent about the identity o f something or the relationship between two entities. 子贡是孔子最聪明的弟子。

Zīgong shi Kongzī zuì cõngming de dìzĩ. Zigong is the most intelligent disciple o f Confucius. In this sentence, 是 draws an equation between Zigong and C onfucius’s most in te llig e n t disciple. In addition to indicating an equation, 是 may also express various relations between the subject and the object, but 是 is not needed i f the object is an adjective. In Chinese，there are two patterns o f 是. ..... 的，where 是 ，in a broad sense, is s till used to associate or id e n tify things, but they d iffe r from regular copular sentences in usage and denotation. We include them in this chapter and see them as variations o f the copular sentence.

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17.1 Copular sentences 17.2 The expository shi ...d e 17.3 The a ffirm a tiv e shi ...d e

17.1 Copular sentences ( “ 是” 字句) In copular sentences, the lin k in g verb identifies the subject w ith the predicate. In English, what follow s the lin k in g verb is called a subject complement, w hich can be either a predicative adjective or a noun. In Chinese, the lin k in g verb o n ly lin k s the subject to a noun or a noun equivalent called object; the lin k in g verb is not needed i f the object is an adjective. 菲碧是一位希腊女神Q

Fēibi shì yí wèi Xĩlà nushén. Phoebe is a Greek Goddess. 他的讲座又深奥又晦涩。

Tā de jiangzuó yòu shẽn^o yòu huìsè. H is lecture is both abstruse and obscure. N otice that, in the firs t sentence, the lin k in g verb identifies Phoebe w ith a Greek Goddess. In the second sentence, the lin k in g verb 是 is not needed because the predicate consists o f tw o adjectives. See the chapter on verbless predicates.

17.1.1 Time and negation In English, the lin k in g verb be, lik e other verbs, has different form s. But the Chinese lin k in g verb 是 has ju st one form , and it does not occur w ith aspect particles. It indicates a past event or state through tem poral nouns, adverbs, or contexts. [1 ] 她 的 母 亲 以 前 是 一 位 小 学 校 !。

Tā de múqĩn yĩqián shì yí wèi xiâoxué xiaozhang. H er m other was the principal o f an elementary school. [2 ] 帝国大厦曾是纽约最高的建筑。

Dìguó dàshà céng shì Niũyuẽ zuì gão de jiànzhù. The Em pire State B u ild in g used to be the tallest architecture in New York.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

O nly the adverb 不 can precede the lin k in g verb 是 to form a negative. To indicate a past state that was negative, you need to use 不是 in connection w ith tem poral nouns, adverbs, or through context.

[3 ] 过辛!也予4 这所专校7的教员。 Guòqù tā bú shì zhè suõ xuéxiào de jiáoyuán. He was not a faculty member o f this school before.

[ 4 ] 年轻的时候，他不是这么保守。 Niánqĩng de shíhou, tā bú shì zhéme bâoshõu. He was not so conservative when he was young. In copular sentences, the lin k in g verb, in a general sense, identifies the subject w ith the object. But it may associate the subject w ith the object in various ways that can be subtle. Now le t US take a close look at the relations between the subject and the object.

17.1.2 Equation 是 typ ica lly signifies an equation o f the subject w ith the object. The position o f the subject and the object may be reversed in the sentence. Here is a famous lin e from John Keats’s poem “ Ode on a Grecian U rn”： ^ 即 是 真 ，真 即 是 美 。

Měi J? shi zhēn, zhēn \i shi mei. Beauty is tru th , tru th beauty. In these tw o slļo rt clauses, the subject is com pletely id e n tifie d w ith the object. I f you reverse their positions, the meaning remains the same. You may reverse the subject and the object in the follow ing sentences.

[ 5 ] 乔治•华盛顿是第一任美国总统 Q Qiáozhi Huáshèngdùn shì dì yĩ rèn Měiguó zongtong. George W ashington is the firs t President o f the U nited States.

[6] 七 月 四 美 国 独 立 ， o Qĩ yuè sì hào shì Měiguó Dúlì Jié. July fourth is Am erican Independence Day. m

谁 考 《独， 立 宣 言 》的作者? Shéi shì 《Dúlì Xuỗnyân》 de zuózhě? W ho is the author o f the Declaration o f Independence!

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《红 字 》是 霍 桑 最 著 名 的 作 品 。

《 Hóngzi》 shì Huòsỡng zui zhůmíng de zuòpĩn. The Scarlet Letter is H aw thorne^ best-known work.

17.1.3 Classification 是 is often used fo r classification，placing people or things in to a group, class, or category. In these instances, the subject and the object are p a rtia lly equal; th e ir positions cannot be reversed in the fo llo w in g sentences. [9 ] 哈 佛 是 常 青 藤 学 校 Q

Hỡfó shì chángqĩngténg xuéxiào. H arvard is an ivy-league school. [1 0 ] 他 妈 妈 是 越 南 人 。

Tā māma shì Yuènán rén. H is mother is a Vietnamese. [1 1 ] 香 蕉 树 是 热 带 植 物 Q

Xiangjiao shù shì rèdài zhíwú. The banana tree is a tropical plant. [1 2 ] 海 豚 是 海 洋 哺 乳 动 物 。

Hâitún shì hâiyáng bũrũ dòngwù. D olphins are m arine mammals. Notice that, in the above sentences, the subject on the le ft is an individual member belonging to a group or category on the right.

17.1.4 Exposition 是 can take an object that is expository or commentary. In this case, the object is often made up o f a phrase or a clause. [1 3 ] 你 的 问 题 是 站 错 了 队 。

Nĩ de wéntí shì zhàn cuò le duì. Your problem was that you took the w rong side. [1 4 ] 我 的 目 标 是 提 高 阅 读 能 力 。 w õ de mùbiõo shì tígõo yuèdú nénglì.

M y goal is to im prove reading comprehension.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 1 5 ] 他; 的 肥 胖 症 是 不 锻 炼 的 结 果 。

Tã de féipángzhéng shì bú duànliàn de jiéguo. H is obesity is the result o f lack o f exercise. [1 6 ] 他 喜 欢 植 物 是 因 为 他 热 爱 自 然 。

Tā xĩhuan zhíwú shì yĩnwèi tā rè^i zírán. He likes plants because he loves nature.

17.1.5 Existence In E n g lis h , we use a /A e re -e x is te n tia l sentence to denote the existence o f som ething at some place. In Chinese, 是 is also used to indicate existence, but it is more about id e n tify in g som ething at some place. [1 7 ] 教 学 楼 前 是 什 么 ？

Jiáoxué lóu qián shi shénme? W hat is there in front o f the classroom building? [ 18 ] 宿、 舍、 楼旁终是^ 速公路。

Sùshè lóu pángbiỗn shì gỗosù gõnglù. The dorm itory build in g is on the side o f the highway. [ 19 ] 桌 卞 上 是 、 一 张 两 于 前 _的 照 片 。

Zhuozi shàng shì yì zhāng liâng nián qián de zhàopiàn. There is a photo taken tw o years ago on the table. [2 0 ] 眼 前 是 一 望 无 际 的 大 海 。

Yânqián shì yíwàng-wújì de dàhâi. In the front is the endless ocean. When Ẵ is used to indicate the existence o f something, the subject is a locational noun. See the chapter on existential sentences.

17.2 ’The expository s U e (说 明 性 "是 .....的”） There are tw o types o f 是 .......的 patterns that appear s im ila r, but they are d iffe re n t. We may, fo r lack o f a better name, c a ll them the exp o sito ry 是 .......的 co n stru ctio n and the a ffirm a tiv e 是 ........的 construction. Now let US begin w ith the firs t one.

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17.2.1 Past action The expository 是...... 的 has tw o functions: referring to past actions and em phasizing d iffe re n t elements o f a sentence. F irs t, it is used to refer to an action that has already occurred. It plays a sim ilar role to the E nglish past tense. In the fo llo w in g tw o sentences, the second one is wrong because the expository 是. ..... 的 cannot be used to refer to things that have not happened yet. C o rre c t:

她是昨天出院的。

Tā shi zuotiān chū yuan de. It was yesterday th a t she was discharged fro m the hospital. In c o rre c t:她 是 明 天 出 院 的 。

Tā shi mingtiān chū yuan de. It is to m o rro w th a t she w ill be released fro m the hospital. Second, the expository 是 .......的 can answer who, how, when, or where about a past action. It is often used fo r the purpose o f c la rify in g or answering certain questions about an action or event. Compare these two sentences: 她昨天出院了。

Tā zuótian chū yuan le. She was discharged from the hospital yesterday. 她是昨天出院的。

Tā shi zuótian chū yuan de. It was yesterday that she was discharged from the hospital. Both sentences express the idea that she was discharged from the hospital, but they are in different modes. The firs t sentence sim ply states a fact, but the second one emphasizes yesterday, e xp la in in g when she was discharged from the hospital.

17.2.2 Selective focuses The second fu n c tio n o f the e xpository 是 .......的 is to focus on d iffe re n t elements o f a sentence. 是 is movable, and you may place it before an element o f a sentence as the point o f focus. In this regard, the

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

expository 是.......的 is s im ila r to the cle ft sentence in English that also allows one to focus on certain element o f a sentence. 是麦克昨天在书店买的书。

Shì Màikè zuotiān zài shũdiàn mâi de shũ. I t was M ik e w ho b o u g h t the b o o k fro m the b o o ksto re yesterday. 麦克是昨天在书店买的书。

Màikè shì zuótian zài shũdiàn mâi de shũ. It was yesterday that M ike bought the book in the bookstore. ，天麦克是在书店买的书。

Zuótian Màikè shì zài shũdiàn mâi de shũ. It was in the bookstore that M ike bought the book yesterday. ，天麦克在书店是买的书。

Zuótian Màikè zài shũdiàn shì mâi de shũ. It was the book that M ike bought in the bookstore yesterday. N otice that the elem ent a fte r the lin k in g verb is emphasized in both Chinese and English. I f the verb has an object, 的 can be placed either after the verb or after the object. But i f the object is a pronoun，的 is usually positioned after the object. A w k w a rd :我 是 在 多 伦 多 见 到 的 他 。

Wỗ shì zài Duõlúnduõ jiàn dào de tã. It was in Toronto I met him . C orrect:

我是在多伦多见到他的。

Wỗ shì zài Duõlúnduõ jiàn dào tỗ de. It was in Toronto I met him . The e xp o sito ry 是 .......的 is p rim a rily used to raise a s p e c ific question about a certain event or to provide an answer to it. Now let US see how this works in detail.

17.2.3 Focusing on the subject When the expository 是. ..... 的 is used to h ighligh t the subject o f a sentence，是 is placed at the beginning o f the sentence. [1 ]

4 他 演 $ 《奥 爭 罗 》。 、 、

Shi tã yân de 《Àosàiluó》. It is he who played the role o f Othello.

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[2 ] 是 他 送 的 这 束 花 。

Shì tỗ sòng de zhè shù huỗ. It was he who sent the flower. [3 ] 是谁写的这首诗？

Shi shéi xiě de zhè shõu shĩ? W ho w rote this poem? [4 ] 是哪个人开的门？

Shì nỗ ge rén kāi de mén? W ho opened the door? N otice that there is a difference between the expository 是...... 的 and the emphatic 是 . One refers to an action that already occurred; the other can refer to a future action or event. Compare these two sentences: 是谁早上做的早饭？

Shi shéi zaoshang zuò de zaofán? W ho cooked the breakfast in the m orning? 是谁明天早上做早饭？

Shì shéi míngtiỗn zaoshang zuồ zaofan? W ho w ill cook breakfast tom orrow m orning? For the use o f the emphatic 是 ，see the chapter on emphatic constructions.

17.2.4 Focusing on the adverbial The expository 是...... 的 may hig h lig h t the adverbial o f a sentence through placing 是 before a tem poral noun or a prepositional phrase, which indicates when, where, or how an action occurred. [5 ] 我是昨天晚上到北京的。

Wỗ shi zuótian wanshang dào Beijīng de. It was yesterday evening that I arrived in Beijing. [6]

我不是车东京转的飞机。

wõ bú shì zài DongjTng zhuan de fēijī. It was not in Tokyo that I changed planes. [7 ] 我是和我先生一起来的。

Wỗ shì hé wõ xiỗnsheng yìqĩ lái de. It was w ith m y husband that I came.

Specia丨Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 8]

我是为希父母来北京的。

wõ shì wèi kàn fùmú lái Beijīng de. It was fo r v is itin g m y parents that I came to B eijing. I f there are tw o verbs w ith in the expository 是...... 的 construction， 是 often precedes the firs t verb to emphasize the means or the manner o f the second action. [9 ] 我是坐飞机来北京的。

wõ shì zuò fēijī lái Bēijīng de. It was by airplane I came to B eijing. [1 0 ] 我 是 冒 着 严 寒 来 北 京 的 。

Wõ shì mào zhe yánhán lái Bēij'īng de. I came to B eijing in b itte r cold weather. W hen the expository A : ..... 的 highlights an adverbial, 是 may also take a position at the beginning o f a sentence, w hich often indicates the reason or the tim e o f an action. [1 1 ] 是 因 为 我 病 了 他 才 打 的 电 话 。

Shì yĩnwèi wỗ bing le tā cái dâ de diànhuà. It was because I was sick that he made the call. [1 2 ] 是 公 司 倒 闭 以 后 他 才 $ 业 的 。

Shì gõngsĩ dâobì yĩhòu tã cái shĩ yè de. It was after the company went bankrupt that he lost his job. I f the expository 是. ..... 的 is used to hig h lig h t an adverbial，是 may be om itted in spoken language，but 的 cannot.

17.2.5 Focusing on the verb W hen the e xp o sito ry 是 .......的 h ig h lig h ts the verb, it u su a lly explains the cause or the result o f an action. These sentences are often translated in passive voice in English. [ 1 3 ] 他 的 坏 毛 病 都 是 （父 母 ）惯 的 。

Tā de huài máobìng dõu shì (fùmú) guàn de. H is bad habits were the result o f being spoiled by his parents. [ 1 4 ] 他 手 上 的 伤 疤 是 （开 水 ）烫 的 。

Tā shồu shang de shāngbā shì (kãỉshuĩ) tàng de. The scar on his hand was caused by burning.

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[ 1 5 ] ， 的 肺 癌 是 （他 ）抽 烟 抽 的 。

Tā de fei'ai shì (tā) chõu yãn chõu de. H is lung cancer is caused by smoking. [ 1 6 ] 他 拉 稀 是 （他 ）吃 冰 棍 吃 的 。

Tā lā xī shi (tā) chĩ bĩnggùn chī de. H is diarrhea is caused by eating too many popsicles. In [13] and [14]，是 is follow ed by a clause，in w hich the subject can be om itted. You may stress either the subject or the verb w ith in the clause. In [15] and [16], after the verb takes an object and therefore needs to be repeated; you should stress the repeated verb when you say it.

17.2.6 Focusing on the object I f the object, the receiver o f the action, is selected to be the focal point, 是 is placed before the verb，and the object is placed after 的• The stress is placed on the object when you say the sentence. [1 7 ] 我 是 说 的 你 。

Wo shì shuõ de nĩ. It was you that I talked about. [1 8 ] 我 是 要 的 茶 。

Wo shì yào de chá. It was tea that I ordered. [1 9 ] 昨 天 我 是 穿 的 红 衬 衫 。

Zuótian wo shi chuān de hóng chènshỗn. It was the red sh irt that I wore yesterday. [2 0 ] 在 北 大 我 是 学 的 美 国 文 学 。

zài Bẽidà wõ shì xué de Měiguó wénxué. It was Am erican literature that I studied at Peking U niversity. You may convert the above sentences to copular sentences, w hich also highlights the object, but to a slightly lesser degree in terms o f intensity. [2 1 ] 我 说 的 是 你 。

wõ shuõ de shì nĩ. It is you that I am ta lkin g about. [2 2 ] 我 要 的 是 茶 。

Wo yào de shì chá. W hat I have ordered is tea.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

17.3 The affirmative s U e (肯 定 性 “ 是…， “ 的”） The affirm a tive 是-..... 的 is used to articulate an affirm a tive tone. It d iffe rs from the expository 是 .......的 in three aspects. F irs t，it is not restricted to referring to past actions; second, it is optional一 the sentence is gram m atical w ithout it; th ird , its presence does not affect the meaning o f a sentence. 人类可以登上火星。

Rénlèi kẽyĩ dẽng shàng huõxĩng. Humans are able to land on Mars. 人类是可以登上火星的。

Rénlèi shì keyĩ dẽng shàng huỗxĩng de. Humans are able to land on Mars. The firs t sentence is a neutral statement w ith a positive message. The second sentence carries a tone o f assurance, confidence, or conviction. It may be articulated in response to questions or skepticism about landing on M ars. It is not stated as new inform ation. The a ffirm a tive 是 .......的 does not occur in a negative form , but it can add an affirm ative tone to a negative statement. In c o rre c t:人 类 不 是 能 在 月 球 上 生 存 的 。

Rénlèi bú shì néng zài yuèqiú shàng shẽngcún de. Humans cannot survive on the moon. C orrect:

6 类、是 不 辱 在 / 月 球 、 上生、 存的。 、

Rénlèi shì bù néng zài yuèqiú shàng shẽngcún de. Humans cannot survive on the moon. The affirm a tive 是 *..... tends to appear in certain constructions. It generally conveys an a ffirm a tive tone, but there can be some subtle differences as it interacts w ith different elements o f ã sentence in different sentence patterns. Now let US look at some o f these individua l cases.

17.3.1 是 + adjective The a ffirm a tive 是 .......的 may take the form in w hich predicative adjectives serve as the predicate. In such sentences, the speaker typ ica lly uses the affirm ative 是 .......的 to express his or her view or comment on the subject o f the sentence. .

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[1 ] $ 的 信 息 ， 很可v靠 的 。

Tā de xìnxĩ shì hẽn kẽkào de. Her inform ation is very reliable. [2 ] 这个学生是很用功的。

Zhè ge xuésheng shì hěn yònggõng de. This student is exceedingly hard-w orking. [3 ] $ 的 汉 语 是 相 当 好 的 。 _

Tā de Hànyũ shì xiãngdãng hâo de. H is Chinese is rem arkably good. [4 ] 这 种 做 法 是 很 卑 鄙 的 。

Zhé zhong zuófa shi hen bẽibĩ de. Such conduct is quite despicable. For this type o f the affirm ative 是.......的 ，the fin a l “ adjective + 的’’ may be viewed as a noun. For e xa m p le ,可靠的 means 可 靠 的 信 息 （ reliable inform ation), and 用功的 means 用 功 的 学 生 （ hard-w orking student).

17.3.2 是 + auxiliary verb The affirm ative 是...... 的 may occur w ith a u x ilia ry verbs. In such instances, the a ffirm a tiv e 是 .......的 ty p ic a lly expresses the speaker’s prediction o f or confidence in something that has not occurred yet. The speaker may also use this affirm ative tone to assure or convince others o f something. [5 ] 你是可以跟他合作的。

NT shì kẽyĩ gēn tā hézuó de. You can w ork in collaboration w ith him . [6 ] 她 是 会 把 这 件 事 做 好 的 。

Tā shì huì bâ zhè jiàn shì zuò hâo de. She w ill get this jo b w ell done. [7 ] 我是不能说服他们的。

Wỗ shì bù néng shuõíú tãmen de. I am unable to persuade them. [8 ] 这个梦是不可能实现的。

Zhè ge mèng shĩ bù kěnéng shíxỊìn de. This dream cannot possibly come true.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

17.3.3

是 + verb

The affirm ative 是. ..... 的 may take the form in which 是 precedes the m ain verb. Such a construction is often used to state, a ffirm , or c la rify one’s view or position. [9 ]我是赞成你的观点的。 wõ shi zánchéng nĩ de guãndiân de. I do support your view. [1 0 ] 我 是 不 想 再 提 这 件 事 的 。 Wõ shì bù xiâng zài tí zhè jiàn shì de. I do not want to m ention this thing again. [1 1 ] 他 是 来 找 你 的 麻 烦 的 。 Tỗ shì lái zhao nT de máfan de. He comes to make trouble for you [1 2 ] 你 是 跳 进 黄 河 也 洗 不 清 的 。 Nĩ shì tiào ]ìn Huáng Hé yě xí bù qĩng de. There is nothing you can do to clear your name. N otice that the lite ra l meaning o f [12] is that you cannot wash yourself clean even i f you jum p into the Yellow River. For the use o f the emphatic 是 ，see the chapter on emphatic constructions.

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T h e Bă S e n te n c e “ ị 巴” 字 句

M uch has been said about the 把 sentence，w hich has become one o f the best know n constructions. The 把 sentence is called a disposal construction (处 置 式 ）in Chinese. It is used to express the idea that something is dealt w ith or is disposed of, such as being arranged, placed, or handled in a particular way or manner. It is focused on what is done to the object. In English, we do not have a construction exactly matching it; the one very close to it is to have something done. Compare these two sentences: 我清除了电脑病毒。 Wo qĩngchú le diànnâo bìngdú. I removed the computer virus. 我把电脑病毒清除了。 Wõ bâ diànnâo bìngdú qĩngchú le. I had the com puter virus removed.

To have the virus removed means that you got someone else to remove the v iru s , whereas in the 把 sentence, the subject is usually the agent o f the action. In spite o f th is difference, these tw o constructions share some syntactic and semantic sim ilarities. In to have the virus removed, the object is placed before removed, ju s t as the object is moved to the pre-verb position in the 把 sentence. B oth constructions h ig h lig h t the object, indicating that something is done to the object. O f course, have is a verb; 把 is a preposition. But 把 as a preposition is derived from 把 as a verb, meaning to hold, and it has retained its verbal meaning. Both constructions also retain the sense o f the passive voice from the view o f the object. The 把 sentence is syntactically sim ple, but it can be com plicated because o f various constraints on its components. N ot a ll verbs can be used to make the 把 sentence; not a ll 把 sentences can be converted into regular sentences. In many instances，you have the option o f using 把 sentences; in some situations, the 把 sentence is the only option. The 把 sentence requires com plem entation to indicate the result or com pletion o f an action, but the requirem ent may d iffe r fo r d ifferent verbs. The 把 sentence is subject to idiom atic usages, which means that there are rules about the m aking o f the 把 sentence, but there are also exceptions that you need to com m it to memory.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

In this chapter, we w ill look into the components o f the 把 sentence and the conditions o f its usage. We w ill p articularly focus on when you have to use the 把 sentence，w hich is c ru c ia l fo r the study o f the 把 sentence. 18.1 The ỐƠ construction 18.2 O ptional 18.3 O bligatory

18.1 The ba construction ('*

” 字句结构）

In the 把 sentence,把 ，as a preposition，precedes the object that is placed before the verb. A fte r the verb, there is another element indicating the com pletion or result o f the action. # 把那杯水喝完了。 Tỗ bâ nà bẽi shuĩ hē wán le. He drank that cup o f water. In this sentence，把 and 那 杯 水 （ that cup o f water) form a prepositional phrase. That cup o f water is the prepositional object as w ell as the object o f the verb 喝 （ d rin k)•完 is the verb complement indicating the result o f the action. Now let US look at each component o f the -te sentence in detail.

18.1.1 Subjects The subject o f the 把 sentence is usually an animated being that can in itia te actions or do something to something else; it can be humans or some natural forces, such as w ind, rain, waves, etc. [1 ] $ 会 啤 你 : 的 爱 锁 在 心 里 把 钥 匙 李 给 你 。 wõ huì bâ nĩ de ài suỗ zài xĩn li, bâ yàoshi jiāo gěi nĩ. I w ill lock your love in my heart and let you keep the key. [2 ] $ 浪 把 我 v打 昏 了 ，把 我 冲 到 了 一 个 岛 上 。 Hâilàng bâ wõ dâ hun le, bâ wõ chõng dào le yí ge dâo shàng. The waves knocked me unconscious and carried me to an island. However, some lifeless entities can also serve as the subject. They may not in itia te actions，but they can cause problems. The 把 sentence is also used to denote what happens tò something because o f something else.

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[3 ] 这道题把我难住了Q Zhè dào tí bâ wỗ nán zhù le. This question got me stumped. [4 ] 瓶盖把管道堵住了。 Pínggài bâ guândào dú zhù le. The bottle cap has clogged the pipe. In [3], the question cannot in itia te actions, but it has done something to the object; or you can see it as kind o f personification.

18.1.2 Verbs O nly transitive verbs (the ones that take objects) can be used to make the 把 sentence. These transitive verbs are usually dynam ic verbs that represent physical actions and can produce tangible effects. But remember that verbs alone are not sufficient to make the 把 sentence; some kin d o f complementation is needed. [5 ] 我把那一行删掉了。 Wo bâ nà yì háng shãn diào le. I deleted that line. [6 ] 他把你的名字除去了 Tỗ bâ nĩ de míngzi chú qù le. He removed your name. [7 ] 我把我的电脑拆了。 Wỗ bâ wõ de diànnâo chãi le. I took m y computer apart. [8 ] 他把车停在了路边。 Tỗ bâ chẽ ting zài le lù biān. He parked the car on the side o f the road. The 把 sentence, in general, is not com patible w ith verbs that describe m ental a c tiv itie s , such as c o g n itio n s , fe e lin g s , o r sense perceptions. You cannot physically fix m ental activities, such as feeling and emotions. In c o rre c t:我 把 他 相 信 。 Wo bâ tā xiãngxìn. I believe him .

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

C orrect:

我相信他。

wõ xiỡngxìn tā. I believe him . In c o rre c t:我 把 她 看 见 了 。 Wo bâ tā kàn jiàn le. I saw her. C orrect:

我看见她了。 Wõ kàn jiàn tā le. I saw her.

Verbs that cannot be used in the 把 sentence include: 爱 (love) 关心（ concern) 看 见 (see) 请 求 (request) i 十厌（ disgust) 同 意 (agree) 喜 欢 (like) 希望（ hope) 要 求 (demand)

懂（ understand) 觉 得 (feel) 怕 (fear) 认为（ think) 听见（ hear) 闻见（ smell) 想 (miss) 需 要 (need) 赞成（ endorse)

18.1.3 Objects The focus o f the 把 sentence is on the object that is placed after 把 and before the verb. The object is usually made up o f nouns or noun phrases that refer to som ething d e fin ite and are often preceded by the demonstrative pronouns this or that fo r clarity. [9 ]她把 这个秘密 告 诉 了 我 。 Tā bâ zhè ge mìmì gàosu le wõ. She told this secret to me. [1 0 ] 我 把 那 张 照 片 印 出 来 了 。 wõ bâ nà zhāng zháopidn ýìn chūlai le. I have printed out that photo. [1 1 ] 昨 天 月 亮 把 太 阳 遮 住 了 。 Zuotiān yuèlỉang bâ tàiyáng zhẽ zhù le. Yesterday the moon eclipsed the sun.

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[1 2 ]

我 把 件 傍 岭 的 钱 都 $ 他了。

wõ bã nĩ jiè tā de qián dõu huán tã le. I have returned to him all the money you borrowed from him. Sometimes the object in a 把 sentence may not directly relate to the verb alone but to both the verb and its complement. In addition, when the verb is followed by ã complement of nmmier, the object may be the agent of the action. [ 1 3 ] 他 吃 了 三 个 螃 蟹 ，把 肚 子 吃 坏 了 。 Tồ chĩ le sān ge pángxiè, bâ dūzi chĩ huài le.

He has diarrhea because of eating three crabs. [1 4 ] 他 的 表 演 把 我 们 笑 得 肚 子 都 疼 了 。 _ Tỗ de biâoyân bâ women xiào de dūzi dõu téng le.

His performance made hurt.

US

laugh so much that our stomachs

In [13],肚 子 （ belly) is notthe object of the verb 吃 （ eat), but the object of 吃 坏 • In [14]， the object 我 们 （ us) is the agent of the action.

18.1.4 Complementation In the construction of have something done, the past participle done indicates the completion of the action. Similarly， the 把 sentence denotes not only the action but also the result and the completion of the action. The main verb needs other elements to indicate the completion or the result of the action. Here are two sentences: In c o rre c t: 他 把 药 吃 。 Tā bâ yào chĩ.

Hè takes medicine. C orrect:

他把药吃了。 Tā bâ yào chī le.

He took the medicine. The first sentence is incorrect because it does not say anything about the action. In the t e sentence, various elements, such as complements, verb reduplications, or aspect particles 了 and 着 ， may be used to describe the manner or the condition of an action.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 15 ] $ 你 把 气 兮 用 的 东 西 准 备 好 。 Qĩng nĩ bâ lúxíng yòng de dõngxi zhunbéi hâo. Please get the things you need for the trip . [1 6 ] 你 不 要 把 这 件 事 看 得 太 严 重 。 Nĩ bú yào bâ zhè jiàn shì kàn de tài yánzhóng. You should not take this m atter too seriously. [ n ] 诮^你 巧 那 V个 、 故事讲给夺听听。 Qĩng nĩ bâ nà ge gùshi jiang gěi wỗ tīngting. Please te ll me that story. [ 1 8 ] 你 把 7你 新 _买 的 那 个 手 机 带 着 。 NT bâ nĩ xĩn mâi de nà ge shoujī dài zhe. You take the new cell phone you ju s t bought w ith you.

18.1.5 Three Don’ts Don’t place the a u xilia ry verb before the verb in the 把 sentence; i f you need to use an a u xilia ry verb, position it before 把 . In c o rre c t:他 把 这 件 事 会 处 理 好 的 。 Tỗ bâ zhè jiàn shĩ huì chulĩ hâo de. He w ill handle this issue w ell. C orrect:

他会把这件事处理好的。 Tỗ huì bâ zhè jiàn shì chúlĩ hâo de. He w ill handle this issue w ell.

Don’t use the aspect particle 过 in the 把 sentence•过 shows that one has experienced something w hile the 把 sentence means that something was done. In c o rre c t:他 把 我 骗 过 。 Tā bâ wõ pián guo. He deceived me. C orrect:

他把我骗了。 Tā bâ wố pián le. He deceived me.

Don’t use a potential complement in the 把 sentence. I f you need to express an idea about one’s a b ility in doing something, you may use an au xilia ry verb.

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In c o rre c t:今 晚 我 把 这 本 书 看 得 完 。 Jīn wan wõ bâ zhè běn shū kán de wán. I can fin is h reading this book this evening. C o r r e c t:今 晚 我 能 把 这 本 书 看 完 。 Jīn wan wo néng bâ zhè bẽn shū kán wán. I can fin ish reading this book this evening.

18.1.6 Negation In the negative fo rm , 不 or 没有 should be placed before 把 ，not before the verb•不 or 没有 can be preceded by adverbs. [1 9 ]他 不 把 我 看 做 他 的 朋 友 。 Tồ bù bâ wõ kàn zuò tã de péngyou. He does not take me as his friend. [ 2〇] 我 从 来 没 有 把 他 放 在 眼 里 。 wõ cónglái méiyỗu bâ tã tàng zài yân lĩ. I have never taken him seriously.

18.2 Optional (可以选用“ 把” 字句的情况) In many instances, you may either use a 把 sentence or a regular sentence; in some situations, you have no choice. In this section, le t US look at situations when you have options to use 把 sentences.

18.2.1 Receiver of action To focus on the receiver o f the action，you may use either the 把 sentence or the 被 sentence; one can be easily turned into the other. The difference between the tw o is that the 把 sentence emphasizes what the subject has done to the receiver o f the action w h ile the 被 sentence is focused on what happens to the receiver o f the action (see the chapter on the bèi sentence). They both express a passive sense. Compare these three sentences: 一条大河挡住了我的路。 Yì tiáo dà hé dâng zhù le wõ de lù. A big rive r blocked m y way.

Specia丨Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

一条大河把我的路挡住了。 Yì tiáo dà hé bâ wõ de lù dâng zhù le. A big rive r blocked m y way. 我的路被一条大河挡住了。

wõ de lù bèi ýì tiáo dà hé dâng zhù le. M y way is blocked by a big river. The firs t sentence p la in ly states a fact; the emphasis is on the subject. The 把 sentence emphasizes what the subject has done to the object. The 被 sentence highlights the receiver o f the action, and the agent becomes less im portant. Here are tw o more sentences: 猫被老鼠打败了。 Mão bèi lâoshũ dâ bài le. The cat was beaten by the mouse. 老鼠把猫打败了。 Lâoshú bâ mão dâ bài le. The mouse beat the cat. In both sentences, the emphasis falls on the cat, but the 把 sentence also highlights the idea that it is the mouse that defeats the cat.

18.2.2 Context In English, we use the article a or an to refer to something indefinite and use the a rticle the to refer to something definite. In Chinese, i f the object is definite, something known to the listener or mentioned in earlier discourse, you have the choice o f using the sentence, the object­ fronting sentence, or regular sentences. 我把那本小说看完了。 Wõ bâ nà bẽn xiâoshuõ kàn wán le. I have finished reading that novel. 那本小说我看完了。 Nà běn xiâoshuõ wỗ kán wán le. That novel I have finished reading. 我看完那本小说了Q

wõ kàn wán nà bẽn xiâoshuõ le. I have finished reading that novel.

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A ll three sentences are appropriate though the firs t two are perhaps more frequently used in conversation than the th ird one. It is the demonstrative pronoun 那 （ that) that specifies the object. Neither the 把 sentence nor the object-fronting sentence is used i f the object is indefinite. In c o rre c t:我 把 一 本 小 说 看 完 了 。 wõ bâ yì bẽn xiâoshuõ kàn wán le. I have finished reading a novel. 一本小说（ a novel) is indefinite. The listener needs to know which novel it is. However, the in d efinite object may be used to specify one type or category o f things. C orrect:

我丢了一本书。 Wo diū le yì bẽn shũ. I lost a book.

C o r r e c t:我 把 一 本 书 丟 了 。 wõ bâ yì běn shū diū le. I lost a book. In the second sentence, the speaker emphasizes that it is a book rather than something else is lost. In this sense, the reference is s till definite.

18.2.3 Idiomatic use The 把 sentence can be capricious; it does not always act consistently according to the rules that one can draw about it. For example, the 把 sentence is usually not compatible w ith verbs representing mental actions, but there are exceptions. C orrect:

我把他的名字忘了。 Wo bâ tā de míngzi wàng le. I forget his name.

In c o rre c t:我 把 他 的 名 字 想 起 来 了 。 Wỗ bâ tā de mingzi xiâng qĩlai le. I recall his name now.

Forget and recall both represent m ental activities, but one can be used in the 把 sentence, and the other cannot. For another example, the aspect particle 了 is sufficient to indicate the com pletion o f an action fo r some verbs but not adequate fo r others.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

C orrect:

他把衣服脱了。 Tã bâ yìtu tuõ le. He took o ff his clothes.

In c o rre c t:他 把 衣 服 穿 了 。 Tã bâ yīfu chuān le. He put on his clothes. C orrect:

他把衣服穿上了。 Tā bâ yĩfu chuān shàng le. He put on his clothes.

The aspect particle is sufficie n t to indicate the com pletion o f an action fo r the verb 脱 （ take o ff) but not adequate fo r the verb 穿. F or such differences, you need to com m it the phrases to memory.

18.3 Obligatory (必 须 用 “ 把” 字句的情况) In many instances, as noted above, you have the option o f using the sentence. But to express certain ideas w ith certain words and certain constructions, you have no choice but to use the sentence. You need to pay special attention to these situations when the use o f the 把 sentence is required.

18.3.1 Placement (在） We often speak o f p u ttin g , placing, hanging, keeping, holding , leaving, or h iding som ething somewhere. In a ll these instances, i f you intend to emphasize the object，you need to use the 把 sentence w ith the 在 prepositional phrase as a complement to indicate location (subject + 把 + object + verb + 在 + location noun). C orrect:

他把照片挂在墙上了。 Tā bâ zháopián guà zài qiáng shàng le. He hung the photo on the w a ll

In c o rre c t:他 挂 了 一 张 照 片 在 墙 上 。 Tā guà le yì zhāng zháopián zài qiáng shàng. He hung a photo on the w all. The 把 sentence answers the question o f what he did w ith the photo. You could say 他 在 墙 上 挂 了 一 张 照 片 （ He hung the photo on the w a ll)，which w ill be a neutral statement.

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[1 ] 她 把 婴 儿 抱 在 怀 里 。 Tā bâ y ĩn g ^ r bào zài huái lĩ.

She holds the baby in her arms. [2 ] 我把车停在楼前了。 wõ bâ chẽ tíng zài lóu qián le.

I parked the car in front of the building. [3 ] 你 把 海 报 贴 在 走 廊 里 。 N ĩ bâ hâibào tie zài zouláng IT.

You post the poster in the hallway. [4 ] 她 把 钱 藏 在 床 垫 子 下 。 Tā bâ qián cáng zài chuáng diánzi xià.

She hides the money under the mattress. Here are some verbs that collocate with 在 as a complement: 摆 （ place), 插 （ insert )，存 （ deposit), 倒 （ throw ), 放 （ p u t), 挂 （ h a n g ), 画 （ d raw ), 刻 (carve)，撒 (scatter),贴 （ stick),停 （ park), 种 （ plant), etc. 18.3.2

T ra n sfe r (到）

The verb ỉ ị means to arrive. To express the idea of sending, moving, transferring, bringing, or carrying something to a certain destination, you need to use the 把 sentence with 到 as a complement (subject + 把 + object + verb + 到 + location noun). C o rre c t:他 把 那 箱 书 寄 到 中 国 了 。 Tỗ bâ nà xiãng shũ jì dào Zhongguó le.

He has sent that box of books to China. In c o rre c t: 他 寄 那 箱 书 到 中 国 了 。 Tā jì nà xiang shū dào Zhongguó le.

He has sent that box of books to China. This construction is the same as the one in which the 在 prepositional phrase is used as a complement, but Ķ indicates at a certain location while H indicates to a certain location. [5 ] 公司把总部搬到了亚特兰大。 Gõngsĩ bâ zongbú bỡn dào le Yâtèlándà.

The company has moved its headquarters to Atlanta.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[6 ] 火箭把宇宙飞船运到了太空。 Huojián bâ yuzhóu fěichuán yùn dào le tàikõng. The rocket has carried the space shuttle into space. [7 ] 贫穷把他推到了绝望的边缘Q Pínqióng bâ tã tuĩ dào le juéwáng de biãnyuán. Poverty has pushed him to the edge o f despair. [8 ] 他把她带到了一个梦的世界。 Tā bâ tã dài dào le yí ge mèng de shì]iè. He has brought her into a dream world. Here are some verbs that often occur w ith 到 as a com plem ent:搬 （ move), 背 (carry on the b ack),带 （ b rin g ),寄 (m a il),拉 (p u ll),送 (send),推 (push), 运 （ transport), etc.

18.3.3 Transfer (directional verbs) To express the idea o f ta k in g , m oving, o r sending someone or something towards the direction o f some place, you need to use the 把 sentence w ith a directional verb as a complement (subject + 把 + object + verb + directional verb + location noun). C orrect:

他们把病人抬下了救护车。 Tāmen bâ bìngrén tái xià le ịiùhùchẽ. They unloaded the patient from the ambulance.

In co rre ct: 他 们 抬 病 人 下 了 救 护 车 。 ， Tāmen tái bìngrén xià le jiùhùchê. They unloaded the patient from the ambulance. This construction is the same as the ones in w hich 在 or 到 serves as a com plem ent. B ut the use o f the d ire ctio n a l verb as the com plem ent emphasizes the direction towards certain location. [9 ] 他 把 他 的 对 手 Ặ 上了法庭。 Tā bâ tā de duìshỗu gào shàng le fating. He took his opponent to court. [1 0 ]他 们 把 抗 议 者 推 出 了 门 外 。 Tāmen bâ kángyizhě tuī chū le mén wài. They pushed the protestors out o f the door.

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[ 1 1 ] 她_把 7外 ļ 朋 友 ỹ 进 了 家 里 。 Tã bâ wáiguó péngyou qĩng jin le jiā lĩ. She invited foreign friends to her home. [1 2 ] $ 们 把 剩 饭 倒 进 了 垃 圾 桶 。 Tāmen bâ shèngíàn dâo jìn le lājītong. They dumped the leftovers into the trash can.

18.3.4 Transformation (成） l /f /lullU L £ J ::: :;;;;; :

:;: 、

|| ^|(

as a verb, means to succeed or become. It is also used as a verb complement to mean to become, grow into, or turn into. W hen à is used as a verb complement to convey the idea that something has been changed from one thing into another, you need to use the 把 sentence. C o r r e c t : 她 把 《荒 原 》翻 成 了 中 文 。 Tỗ b õ 《Huõngyuân》 fõn chéng le Zhõngwén. She translated The Waste Land into Chinese. In c o rre c t:她 翻 《荒 原 》成中文了〇 Tỗ f õ n 《Huãngyuân》 chéng Zhõngwén le. She translated The Waste Land into Chinese. Here āre some verbs that often take 成 as â com plem ent:摆 （ set)，读 （ read)， 建 （ b u ild ),弄 (make)，切 (cut)，修 ( fix ) ,绣 (embroider)，织 （ weave)，etc. [1 3 ] ， 们 把 客 厅 改 装 成 了 书 房 。 Tỗmen bâ kètĩng gaizhuāng chéng le shūfang. They renovated the liv in g room into a study. [1 4 ] ， 妹 妹 把 头 发 染 成 了 红 色 。 Tã mèimei bâ tóufa rân chéng le hóngsè. H is younger sister has dyed her hair red. [1 5 ] 他 父 母 把 财 产 分 成 了 五 份 。 Tã fùmú bâ cáichân fẽn chéng le WLJ fèn. H is parents divide the property into five portions. [ 16 ] 父 考 把 家 Ị 编 成 了 一 本 书 。 Fùqĩn bâ jiā shī biān chéng le yì běn shū. Father com piled the fa m ily history into a book. N otice that 成为 is a verb that also means to become or change into, but it is not used in the 把 sentence.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

18.3.5 Treatment (做） In E nglish, we have several verb phrases to express the idea o f treating something as something else, such as see as, view as, regard as, etc. To express the same idea in Chinese, you need to use the 把 sentence w ith 做 as a verb complement. C o r r e c t:你 把 朋 友 看 做 敌 人 了 。

Nĩ bâ péngyou kàn zuò dírén le. You take friends as enemies. In c o rre c t:你 看 朋 友 做 敌 人 了 。

NT kàn péngyou zuò dírén le. You take friends as enemies. T h is co n stru ctio n is s y n ta c tic a lly the same as the one in w h ich 成 serves as ã complement. But it uses ã different set o f verbs w ith 做 as ã complement. [1 7 ] 他 把 父 母 的 话 当 做 耳 旁 风 。

Tā bâ fùmú de huà dàng zuò ěrpángfěng. He pays no attention to his parents’ words. [1 8 ] 小 心 他 们 把 你 当 做 替 罪 羊 。

Xiâoxĩn tămen bâ nĩ dàng zuò ữzuĩyáng. Be careful or they w ill make you a scapegoat. [1 9 ] 他 把 愚 蠢 看 做 自 己 的 聪 明 。

Tā bâ yúchún kàn zuò zìjĩ de cõngming. He sees his stupidity as his cleverness. [2 0 ] 他 们 三 个 人 把 他 认 做 教 、 父 。、

Tāmen sỗn ge rén bâ tā rèn zuò jỉàofù. Three o f them regard him as their godfather. N otice that 做 and 作 are homophones; they both mean to do, but they d iffe r in usages. It should be 做 as 当 做 (treat as),看 做 （ see as)，叫 做 （ name as)，i人 做 （ regard as), etc. It is incorrect to use 作 as a complement in those cases• 视 为 （ view as) is a synonym o f 看 做 . It is more form al and can also be used in the 把 sentence.

18.3.6 Totality (都） To express the idea that someone has to ta lly completed or finished

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something一 that nothing is le ft，you need to use the 把 sentence w ith the adverb 都 or 全 placed before the verb. C orrect:

他把巧克力都吃了 Q

Tã bâ qiâokèlì dõu chĩ le. He ate a ll the chocolate. In c o rre c t:他 都 吃 了 巧 克 力 。

Tā dõu chī le qiâokèlì. He ate a ll the chocolate. This construction emphasizes the idea o f to ta lity•都 and 全 can be used interchangeably, or you may put them together fo r more emphatic effect. [2 1 ] $ 把 银 行 里 的 钱 都 取 了 。

Tā bâ yínháng lĩ de qián dõu qũ le. She w ithdrew a ll her money from her bank account. [2 2 ] 他 把 昨 天 的 剩 菜 全 吃 了 。

Tā bâ zuótian de shèngcài quán chĩ le. He ate a ll the leftovers from yesterday. [2 3 ] 你 把 你 的 弱 点 全 都 暴 露 了 。

Nĩ bâ nĩ de ruòdiân quán dõu bàolù le. You exposed a ll your weaknesses. [2 4 ] 他 把 他 的 朋 友 都 得 罪 了 。

Tỗ bâ tā de péngyou dõu dézui le. He has offended a ll his friends.

18.3.7 Complement of manner The com plem ent o f m anner is used to describe, evaluate, or comment on how someone has done something. The 把 sentence is not necessarily needed fo r the complement o f manner; however, i f you want to h ighligh t the object，you need to use the 把 sentence. 她屋子布置得漂亮极了。

Tā wūzi bCizhi de piàoliang jí le. She decorated the room beautifully. 屋f 布置得漂亮极了。

Tỗ bâ wūzi bùzhì de piàoliang jí le. She decorated the room beautifully.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

Both sentences are com m entative or evaluative, but the 把 sentence emphasizes what she has done to the room w hile the firs t sentence sim ply tells that she has done a great jo b in decorating the room. [2 5 ] 她 把 头 发 剪 得 短 短 的 。

Tỗ bâ tóufa ]iân de duânduân de. She has her hair cut very short. [2 6 ] 学 生 把 考 试 看 得 很 重 。

Xuésheng bâ kâoshì kàn de hen zhòng. Students take exams very seriously. [ 2 7 ] 我7把 竽 亭 得 一 干 二 净 Ọ

Wỗ bâ tā wàng de yì gān èr jìng. I to ta lly forgot about it. [2 8 ] 巧 把 ,

说 得 _神 乎 其 神 。

Tã bâ nĩ shuõ de shén hũ qí shén. She describes you as a man o f m iraculous power. Notice that, in the four sentences above, it is fa r more common to use the 把 sentence than to use regular sentences.

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汉语语法指南

T h e B èi S e n te n c e “ 被 ， ，字 句

The action o f a sentence can be stated in two ways: you may either focus on the agent who perform s the action, or on the object that receives the action. The form er is called the active voice, in w hich the agent serves as the subject o f the sentence; the la tte r is called the passive voice, in w hich the receiver becomes the subject. 罗马征服了埃及。 _

Luómâ zhēngfu le Āiji. Rome conquered Egypt. 埃及被罗马征服了。

Āiji bèi Luómã zhēngfu le. Egypt was conquered by Rome. These two sentences express the same meaning, but the point o f emphasis is different. In the passive voice, the receiver o f the action takes a more prom inent position; the agent becomes less im portant. In Chinese, the passive voice, as shown above, does not involve any change o f verb form s; it is indicated by prepositions serving as passive voice m arkers. In classical Chinese, several words, such as 于，为，与， and 被 ，are used as passive voice markers that introduce the agent o f the action. Here is ã w ell-know n saying from Mencius: 劳 心 者 治 人 ，劳 力 者 治 于 人 。

Láo xĩn zhě zhi rén, láo lì zhě zhì yú rén. M ental laborers rule; manual laborers are ruled. In this sentence, Ť marks the passive voice; w ithout it, the second clause w ould convey the opposite meaning. O f a ll passive voice markers used in classical Chinese, 被 is s till used today. The 被 sentence has become the standard pattern fo r the passive voice in modern Chinese. In addition to 被 ，there are a few other passive voice markers used m ostly in spoken Chinese today. In English, we may sometimes leave out the passive voice m arker and the agent o f the action when it is irrelevant or unknown, and this does not hinder US from recognizing the sentence as the passive voice due to the verb form . In Chinese, such omissions also occur, which means that the sentence appears in active voice form but conveys a passive meaning. T his kin d o f sentence is called the notional passive, and it can only be

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

recognized semantically rather than syntactically. 19.1 The ố ề / sentence 19.2 Ràng, jioo, a.nd g ě i 19.3 The notional passive

19.1 The ốể/ sentence ( “ 被” 字句) In E nglish, the passive voice, beside the passive voice m arker by, is marked by tw o d istinctive syntactical changes from the active voice. One is that the object, the receiver o f the action, becomes the subject; the other is that the predicate takes the form o f the a u xilia ry be and the past participle o f the verb. Now le t US firs t look at the form ation o f the ịẤ sentence.

19.1.1 Syntax In the 被 sentence, the receiver o f the action takes the place o f the subject that is follow ed by 被 ，the agent o f the action, and the verb. Except for some disyllabic verbs, the verb needs to be follow ed by some kin d o f complementation to indicate the com pletion, the result, or the occurrence o f an action. 他被学校开除了。

Tồ bèi xuéxiào kãichú le. He was expelled by the school. 他被学校警告过。

Tỗ bèi xuéxiào jīnggao guo. He has been warned by the school. In these tw o sentences, the aspect p a rtic le 7 and 过 add m ore inform ation to the action. The verb may take an object that is usually part o f the subject or is related to the subject; it may also take a complement. [ 1 ] 他 的 家 被 F B I查 了 三 遍 。

Tā de jiā bèi FBI chá le sān biàn. H is home was searched by the FBI three times. [2 ] $ 的 信 用 卡 被 、 人偷走了Ọ

Tỗ de xìnyòngkâ bèi rén tõu zõu le. Her credit card was stolen.

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[3 ] 我的光盘被她借走了一张。 Wỗ de guãngpán bèi tā jiè zou le yi zhāng. One of my CDs was borrowed by her. [4 ] 她 被 路 人 送 进 了 精 神 病 院 。 Tã bèi lù rén sòng ]ìn le jĩngshénbìngyuàn. She was sent to a mental asylum by passers-by. Notice that in [1] and [2] the verbs are followed by a complement and that in [3] the verb takes an object that is related to the subject. Intransitive verbs and directional verbs cannot be used in the 被 sentence. Some verbs that express mental activities, such as 同 意 （ agree) and 赞 成 （approve of)， do not occur with the 被 sentence either. Incorrect:你 被 我 支 持 。 Nĩ bèi wỗ zhīchi. I support you. Correct:

我支持你。

wõ zhīchi nĩ. I support you. However, some mental action verbs with the directional complement may be used in the 被 sentence to show rising actions, as though an abstract action is being made tangible. [5 ] 那间大的宿舍被他喜欢上了。 Nà jiān dà de sùshè bèi tã xĩhuan shàng le. He became interested in that big dormitory room. [6 ] 那个放荡的女人被他爱上了。

Nà ge tàngdàng de núrén bèi tã àỉ shàng le. He felt in love with that wanton woman.

In some instances，被 has merged with another word to form a new word, such as 被 告 人 （the accused),被 害 人 （the victim)，被 压 迫 者 （the oppressed),被 提 名 者 （the nominee)，被 选 举 权 （the right to be elected), etc. These words should be treated like any other nouns. 19.1.2 Adverse implications íẩL is traditionally used in the sense of b e in g in f lic te d u p o n —to suffer from something undesirable or negative. It typically collocates with verbs expressing negative meanings such as 被 打 （be beaten)，被害

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

(be k ille d )，被 告 （ be sued),被 抢 （ be robbed)，被 抓 （ be arrested)，etc. The verb 被 迫 means to be forced. The 被 sentence is used to refer to unhappy events. C o r r e c t:他 被 罚 了 。

Tā bèi fa le. He was penalized. A w k w a rd :他 被 表 扬 了 。

Tā bèi biâoyáng le. He was praised. The use o f the passive voice is inappropriate in the second sentence, which conveys a positive message (see the fo llow ing about the change o f this convention). It should be 他受到 了 表 扬 （ he received praise). N otice how the follow ing sentences a ll announce bad news. [7] $ 座 ， 被 产 水 冲 垮 了 。

Sỗn zuò qiáo bồi hóngshuĩ chõng kuâ le. Three bridges collapsed because o f the flood. [8 ] 她丈夫被警察带走了。

Tā zhángfu bèi jTngchá dài zou le. Her husband was taken away by police. [9 ] 车被冰雹砸了很多坑。

Chẽ bèi bĩngbáo zá le hẽn duõ kẽng. The car is badly dented by hail. [1 0 ] 他 被 他 的 女 朋 友 甩 了 。

Tỗ bèi tā de nú péngyõu shuâi le. He was dumped by his g irl friend. However, languages change. Since the early tw entieth century, due to the influence o f western languages，the 被 sentence is no longer used exclusively to refer to negative events. Today, it is also used to convey positive news. [ 1 1 ] 他- 被 、 选 为 V公 司 总 參 。

Tỗ bồi xuân wéi gõngsĩ zongcái. He was selected as the CEO o f the company. [1 2 ] 他 被 任 命 为 副 校 长 。

Tỗ bèi rènmìng wéi fù xiáozhang. He was appointed vice president o f the university.

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[1 3 ] 她 被 提 名 诺 贝 尔 奖 。 Tā bèi tí míng Nuòbèi’ẽr Jiang. She was nominated for the Nobel Prize.

[1 4 ] 他 爸 的 病 被 治 好 了 。 Tỗ bà de bing bèi zhì hâo le. Hef father’s illness is cured.

19.1.3 Where to use the b èi sentence In English, the active voice is s ty lis tic a lly desirable because it emphasizes the agent o f the action and livens up your prose. Therefore, the active voice is used more in imaginative w ritin g w hile the passive voice is used more in scientific articles or news reports. You may have heard o f this joke about the passive voice: The road was crossed by the chicken. 马 路 被 鸡 穿 过 。

Mâlù bèi )7 chuãn guò. This sentence comes from the old riddle why did the chicken cross the road. The passive form sounds strange because it is the chicken that should be the subject, unless there is something particular about the road that you want to talk about. In Chinese, the passive voice appears to be used less than in English. However, there are many occasions when the use o f the passive voice is warranted. The passive voice is used i f the receiver o f the action is the focal point or i f the agent o f the action is irrelevant or unknown.

[1 5 ] 会 议 被 推 迟 了 一 天 。

Huìyì bèi tuĩchí le yì tiỗn. The meeting is postponed for one day.

[1 6 ] 很 多 河 流 被 污 染 了 。 Hen duõ héliu bèi wuran le. M any rivers are polluted.

[1 7 ] 高 速 公 路 被 关 闭 了 。 Gỗosù gõnglù bèi guõnbì le. The highway is closed.

[1 8 ] 教 育 部 长 被 撤 职 了 。 Jiáoyú búzhang bèi chè zhí le. The M inister o f Education was removed from office.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

In these sentences, the speaker may not be interested in the agent o f the action, or the inform ation about the agent may be unrecoverable. Notice that there is a slight difference between the sentence and English passive voice when the information about the agent is omitted.

银 行 被 （人 ）抢了。 Yínháng bèi (rén) qiâng le. The bank was robbed (by someone).

啤 家 被 （人 ）盗了。 Tā jiā bèi (rén) dào le. His home was burglarized (by someone). In the above E nglish sentences, the entire by-phrase is om itted. In Chinese, the agent is left out, but the passive voice marker 被 （ by) is still kept fo r clarity. In some cases, the entire by-phrase is also om itted in Chinese (see the notional passive).

19.1.4 Classical passive constructions In classical Chinese, one o f the patterns used for the passive voice is “为.......所 .......， ’’ w hich became popular fro m the tim e o f the Han Dynasty. In modern Chinese, this pattern is still used in formal writings.

^不 为 金 钱 所 惑 。 Tā bú wéi jinqián suỗ huò. He is not distracted by money. 为 indicates fo r what re a so n ;所 is a structural particle preceding the verb. From the pattern is derived “ 被... 所....... • ’ ，Now neither pattern is commonly used, but you may use them for a touch o f classical elegance. [ 1 9 ] 我 为 她 ỏỸ精 神 所 感 动 。

Wo wéi tā de j'īngshen suõ gândòng. I am moved by her spirit. [ 2〇] $ 不、 为f

何困， 难所动摇。

Tā bù wéi rènhé kùnnán suõ dòngyáo. He does not vacillate for any difficulty.

[21]这 ， 节被大学生所喜爱 Zhè běn shū bèi dàxuéshẽng suõ xĩài. This book is popular artiong college students.

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[2 2 ]他 的 行 为 被 世 人 所 耻 笑 。

Tã de xíngwéi bèi shìrén suỗ chĩxiào. Everyone finds his conduct shameful and contemptible.

19.1.5 被 and 把 In the last chapter，we com pared the 把 sentence and the 被 sentence. These two constructions are sim ilar in that they both focus on the object o f the verb. However，the 把 sentence can be used in both the positive and negative imperatives, but the 被 sentence is only used in the negative imperative. 把你想说的都说出来。

Bâ nĩ xiâng shuõ de dõu shuõ chũlai. Say everything you want to say. 别被他的甜言蜜语所骗。

Bié bèi tā de tiányán mìyú suỗ pỉàn. Don’t be fooled by his sweet talk. Notice that in the second sentence, iķ (you), which is left out, is the object o f the verb ĩ ế (fool). See the chapter on the bo sentence and the chapter on imperative sentences. 19.2

fíâ/70,/iờo,ỡể/ (让、叫、给)

In m odern Chinese, the 被 sentence is m ore used in w ritte n language; there are three other passive voice m akers,让 ，叫，and 给，that are extensively used in spoken Chinese. Now let US look at each one o f them individually.

19.2.1 让 For a long tim e, i t has been used as a verb, meaning allow or permit. Since the early twentieth century, i t also began to be used as a passive voice marker. Today, i t appears to be far more commonly used than 叫 and 给 in spoken language. U nlike the 被 sentence, when 让 serves as a passive voice marker, the agent o f the action cannot be omitted. 那 件 古 董 被 （他 ）卖了。

Nà jiàn gũdỗng bèi (tã) mài le. That antique has been sold by him.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

那件古董让他卖了。

Nà jiàn gũdõng ràng tā mài le. That antique has been sold. 让 ，âS ã passive voice marker, requires the agent o f the action because 让 ， as a verb, requires an object (the doer o f the action). The second sentence, without the agent，could mean that íơ èe [1 ] 巧的笔记让同学借去了。

Tỗ de bĩ]ì ràng tóngxué ]iè qù le. His notes were borrowed by his classmate. [2 ] 我的新电脑让他弄坏了。

Wỗ de xĩn diànnâo ràng tā nòng huài le. M y new computer was messed up by him. [3 ] 他闯红灯让警察抓住了。

Tā chuâng hóngdẽng ràng jTngchá zhuā zhù le. He was caught by the police for running a red light. [4 ] 他的人品真让人看不起。

Tā de rénpĩn zhēn ràng rén kàn bù qĩ. His moral character is really contemptible. Since 让 as a passive voice marker is developed from the verbal meaning o f allow or permit, sometimes there can be an ambiguity about whether 让 is being used as a verb or as a passive voice marker. 这、 事儿不能让老师知導。

Zhè shìr bù néng ràng lâoshĩ zhīdao. This matter must be kept from the teacher. In this sentence, can mean by the teacher, which is the passive voice. But 不能让老师知道 may also mean ca⑽ oř a//ovv 认e /eac/ỉer know. This ambiguity does not cause any problem in communication, but you may use the 被 sentence to avoid ambiguity. 19.2.2

叫

叫 has been used as a passive voice marker for about two or three hundred years，longer than 让 and 给• It is derived from the verb 叫， which means to call, ask, or allow. as a passive voice marker, needs the presence o f the agent o f the action, which is sim ilar to i t but different fro iii 被 .

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^ 被 （上 司 ）训 斥 了 一 顿 。

Tỗ bèi (shàngsĩ) xùnchì le yí dùn. He got a dressing-down (from his superior). 他叫上司训斥了一顿。

Tā jiao shàngsĩ xùnchì le yí dùn. He got a dressing-down from his superior. As in the case o f 让 ，the fact that 叫，as a passive voice marker，needs an object can be traced to the verb 叫，which requires an object. The second sentence, without the agent o f the action, would not make sense. íi： ： ； l ►"NIK： !''

[5 ]

匆匙叫我锁夺车里了。

Yàoshi jiao wo suõ zài chẽ lĩ le. I have locked the key inside the car. [6 ]

简:1::

他叫他的朋友带坏了。

Tã jiao tā de péngyou dài huài le. He has been led astray by his friends. [7 ]

我叫他说得一无是处。

Wo jiao tā shuõ de yiwúshichů.

： c ：

He said nothing positive about me. [8 ]

他叫胜利冲昏了头脑Q

Tā jiao shènglì chõng hūn le tóunâo. Success has turned his head. The verb 叫 is ty p ic a lly used in the sense o f asking or allow ing someone to do something. Sometimes, it may appear unclear i f 叫 is used as a verb or as a passive voice marker, but a careful analysis o f the sentence w ill clear away ambiguity. 我叫老师批评了。

Wo jiao lâoshĩ piping le. I was criticized by the teacher. In this sentence，叫老师 means 被 老 师 • It means that I did something that caused the teacher to criticize me. It does not mean that I asked the teacher to criticize me; i f so, the verb criticize has to be followed by an object.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

19.2.3

给

^ is both a verb and a preposition. As a verb, it means to give or grant; as a preposition, it has m ultiple meanings (see the section on prepositions). When used as a passive voice m a rke r,给 is inform al and colloquial; it is commonly used in Beijing dialect, and the agent o f the action, in some instances, may be omitted. [9 ]我后院种的菜都给兔子吃了。

wõ hòuyuàn zhóng de cài dõu gěi tùzi chĩ le. The rabbits ate all the vegetables I planted in my backyard. [ 1 0 ] 她； 一 辈 子 给 人 使 唤 ，真 可 怜 。

Tā yíbéizi gěi rén shĩhuàn, zhēn kělián. She has been at others’ beck and call all her life. It is p itifu l. [ 1 1 ] 他_包 二 奶 的 事 给 他 老 婆 知 道 了 。

Tỗ bão èrnâi de shì gěi tā lâopo zhīdao le. His w ife has found out that he has a secret lover. [ 12 ] $ 的 那 些 寻 闻 都 给 曝 光 了 。

Tã de nàxiẽ chouwén dõu gěi bàoguãng le. A ll his scandals have been exposed. 被 ，让 ，and 叫 may all jo in 给 to form passive voice patterns: “才皮....... 给 .......， ”“让....... 给 ....... ， ” and “叫....... 给 ....... r These patterns are very colloquial. [1 3 ] 他 让 那 个 女 孩 儿 给 涮 了 。

Tỗ ràng nà ge nuháỉr gẽỉ shuàn le. He was tricked by that girl. [1 4 ] 我 叫 那 个 老 头 儿 给 忽 悠 了 Q

Wõ jiòo nà ge lâotóur gěi hũyou le. I was bamboozled by that old man. Notice that 给，used as a passive voice marker, sometimes can cause ambiguity because 给，like 把 ，can also be used to express the idea that something w ill be dealt with. Clear:

^ 把〃我: ^ 进 了 医 院 。

Tỗ bâ wỗ sòng jin le yĩyuàn. He sent me to the hospital.

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Ambiguous:

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他给我送进了医院。

Tā gěi wõ sòng jin le yìyuàn. He was sent to the hospital by me. / He sent me to the hospital. The second sentence can be understood in two ways, and you may use either 被 or 把 to avoid this ambiguity.

19.3 The notional passive (意义被动句) ^

iyl

l , f l í r I J f - # ; £ I 1 - £ 加 l i i i i i ~ . i li J irJ uw l w 1 r M 1 -- r I f ” M r iT ---r ^l ^ M r . l j f f -

• l l : 3 l l I W « ' l « < l < l l 4 l l

< l < l M « l l l l . l l l l 1 l l l l l l

t i l l a n l l l l : , , ' l l ' H I 1 l # : : ' : ! I B r ! ' : ! : ! l l lI l ' l ' l l l ! l I ; S ! l l l l l l l ' l l l l l l > l l l l l ' * ' l » l l ' " < l . l l l r l , > ' l l l l ' 1 1 ' , ! B ' l l * t I H I , ' 1 ' l » . ■ » ■ ■ m i i

—r

' i m : : : 'l ẩ: i H I < , l 'h .l " l l l l l ' i

i i i i w i i

The notional passive means that a sentence is in the active voice form, but it expresses a passive meaning. In English, we have a few verbs that can be used this way. This fabric doesn’t wash well. 这种布料不适合洗。

Zhè zhong bùliào bú shìhé xĩ. This pen writes very well. 这 支 笔 彳 用 。 .

Zhè zhĩ bĩ hen hâoyòng. The fabric cannot wash itself, nor can the pen write itself. However, these usages are acceptable. The notional passive is used much more extensively in Chinese than in English. The Chinese notional passive consists o f a subject (the receiver o f the action) and a verb or verb phrase. 我的书

还了。

Wo de shū

huân le.

M y book was returned. 他的车

II

Tā de chẽ

卖了。

mài le.

His car was sold. These sentences are in active form, but they express passive meanings. The meanings o f these sentences are clear without passive voice markers, but you may want to know why they are w ritte n as such, and, more importantly, under what conditions you may compose such sentences.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

19.3.1 Two readings

One explanation about the notional passive is that it is a shortened form of the 被 sentence, an elliptical sentence in which the passive voice marker and the agent of the action are omitted. You may return ‘ ‘ 被 + agenť, to the notional passive sentences, but oftentimes their restoration makes the sentence sound awkward. A w kw ard: 衣 服 被 她 洗 好 了 。

Yīfu bèi tā xĩ hâo le. The clothes have been washed by her. A w kw ard: 功 课 被 她 做 完 了 。

Gõngkè bèi tỗ zuò wán le. The homework has been completed These two sentences may be gram m atically correct, but they are unidiomatic, especially the second one. Many notional passive sentences, which involve using certain words and expressing certain ideas, have been conventionalized, and they need to be committed to memory. Also, not all English passive voice sentences are necessarily translated into 被 sentences. A nother explanation about the notional passive is that it is a shortened form of object-fronting sentence (some call it topic-comment sentence). This reading means that the notional passive is again an elliptical sentence, but the subject is omitted. 衣 服 （她 ）洗 好 了 。

Yĩfu (tỗ) xĩ hâo le. The clothes (she) has washed. 功 课 （她 ）做 完 了 。

Gõngkè (tã) zuò wán le. Homework (she) has done. In Chinese, the object is indeed often placed at the sentence-initial position if it refers to something definite, and the subject is often left out in conversation. This explanation is quite persuasive. Notice that the notional passive is mostly used in spoken language to explain something or to update some information. [1 ]晚饭准备好了。

Wanfán zhunbéi hâò le. The dinner has been prepared.

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[ 2 ] 申， 表 填 好 了 。 Shẽnqĩngbiâo tián hâo le. The application form has been filled in. [3] 行 李 都 托 运 了 。

xíngli dõu tuõyùn le. The luggage has all been checked in. [4 ] 论 文 写 完 了 三 章 。

Lůnwén xiě wán le sān zhāng. Three chapters of the dissertation have been completed.

19.3.2 Inanimate objects Be careful that the subject of the notional passive (the receiver of the action) is an inanimate object; if an animate being serves as the subject, it may cause ambiguity. Clear:

饭

II 吃了。 Fan chi le. The meal was eaten.

Ambiguous : 鸡

II 吃了。 Jī chĩ le. The chicken was eaten. / The chicken has eaten.

Generally speaking, the subject is the one that initiates actions. In the second sentence, the chicken can be read either as the object of the verb or the doer of the action. So the passive voice marker is essential in the following sentences. [5 ] 她 被 发 现 有 问 题 。

Tā bèi faxián you wéntí. She falls under suspicion. [6] g 被 检 查 了 两 遍 。

Tã bèi jianchá le liâng biàn. He was checked twice. [7] $ 被 脱 光 了 衣 服 。

Tã bèi tuõ guỗng le yrfu. He was stripped naked.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[8 ]她被采访了三次。

Tỗ bèi caifang le sān cì. She was interviewed three times. In the above sentences, the meaning o f each sentence w ill be the opposite without the passive voice marker.

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E x is te n tia l S e n te n c e s 存 现 句

To state the existence of something somewhere in English, we use the existential sentence that begins with there followed by a form of the verb be. Existential sentences are not related to existentialism. The existential there, also known as expletive, does not have any meaning; it just fills in the empty position of the subject, and the object is the notional subject. Existential sentences convey new information. Here is a sentence from Hamlet «'MII： !1! «：! in|. «"I4IIIIM I>

， _»B!

! ''MillIlull' ■""III llllll

： «£

世 3 本 无 善 恶 ，皆 由 个 人 看 法 而 定 。

Shijiān běn wú shàn è, jiē yóu gèrén kánfa ér ding. There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so. There is nothing means the non-existence of something. Hamlet does not say w/zere， but in translating this sentence， we add the word 世 间 （in the world)， which is apparently what Hamlet means. One major characteristic of the Chinese existential sentence is that it begins with a locational noun. Chinese existential sentences look like inverted sentences. They begin with a locational noun serving as the subject, followed by the verb and the object. Chinese existential sentences are also used to convey new information. Compare these two sentences: Ỷ 院门口站着一个小和尚。 Sìyuàn ménkỗu zhàn zhe yí ge xiao héshang. There is a little monk standing at the gate of the monastery. 二 个 小 ， 尚/站 在 寺 院 门 口 。 Yí ge xiâo héshang zhàn zài sìyuàn ménkõu. A little monk is standing at the gate of the monastery.

The first sentence is an existential sentence, stating there is someone somewhere; a little monk is introduced as new information. The second one is a regular sentence, which tells what a little monk is doing. Chinese existential sentences are divided into 存在句 and 隐现句 . One is about the existence of something and implies a static condition; the other is about the appearance or disappearance of something. Both types follow the same pattern. It is interesting to note that Chinese existential sentences are closely related to different modes of action, which reminds one of transitory nature of all things in existence.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

20.1 Static existential sentences 20.2 Dynamic existential sentences 20.3 Use of existential sentences

20.1 Static existential sentences (存在句) In English, the existential there can be followed by a verb other than be. In Chinese, we can divide static existential sentences into three types: durative construction, existential sentences with 有， and existential sentences with 是 .

20.1.1 Durative construction The durative construction is characteristic of Chinese existential sentences. It begins with a locational noun that serves as the subject and uses a specific verb followed by the durative aspect particle 着. 树荫下坐着一个女学生。 v

Shùyĩn xià zuò zhe yí ge nu xuésheng. There is a girl student (sitting) under the shade of a tree. In the above sentence， the verb 坐 （ sit) shows the manner of existence, which does not have to be specified in English existential sentences. The durative 着 further shows the continuous nature of the action. T here are two groups o f verbs often used in the durative construction. One group is made up of intransitive verbs that describe the postures of humans or animals. In such sentences, the object is usually the notional subject of the sentence. 社区里住着一对日本夫妻。

Shèqũ lĩ zhù zhe yí dui Riběn fūqī. There is a Japanese couple living in the community. In this sentence, a Japanese couple is the agent of the action. Some verbs in this group in clu d e: 蹲 （ sq u a t), 靠 （ lean against)， （ lie p ro n e), 站 (stand)，睡 (sleep),躺 （ lie)，坐 （ sit), 住 （ live), etc. [1 ]楼门口站着两个警卫。

Lóu ménkõu zhàn zhe liâng ge jTngwéi. There are two guards standing at the entrance of the building.

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[2 ] 椅子上睡着一个乞丐。

Yĩzi shàng shuì zhe yí ge qĩgài. There is a beggar sleeping on the chair. [3 ] 床 + 躺着： - 位病危者。

Chuáng shàng tâng zhe yí wèi bingwěi zhě. There is a patient in critical condition lying on the bed. [4 ] 我前边坐着一个大胖子。 wõ q ắ • s i

⑷

I I H > 1 « » l l l l u : t : r —í7/ Ẹ i ^ ^ y 1 i ^ l

, 1 : t l

l l . l ' « . l l « l l l l l l , : : : : ;: « l l l l

qiánbiỗn zuò zhe yí ge dà pángzi.

There is a large size man sitting in front of me. Another group of verbs describes how something is set, placed or arranged. Many of these verbs are transitive verbs. In such sentences, the object is usually the receiver of the action. 门上贴着一个福字。

M m

"

Mén shàng tiẽ zhe yí ge fú zì. There is a character for happiness posted on the door.

^

u

l l l l l l l l l : ; £ : i M I M I l «

{

^

4 1 l

M // ! Y MLr^^ H

' ; : : l ^ 3 l . l : 4 l : : :

The durative 着 is indispensable in the durative construction. It signifies that the action denoted by the verb is passive and lasting. See the chapter on the durative aspect.

/ I —M

/

i l E i !

[5 ] 花， 里插着一枝郁金香。

Huõpíng lĩ chã zhe yi zhī yůjTnxiang. #

There is a tulip placed in the vase.

' ! ! ! ! ! ř

' « l l l ' " l l

[6 ] 画里画着一只大肚子蝈蝈。

Huà lĩ huà zhe yì zhĩ dà dùzi guõguo. There is a big-belly katydid in the picture. [7]

衬 声 上 _绣 着 一 只 小 天 鹅 。

Chènshõn shàng xiù zhe yì zhĩ xiâo tiỗné. There is a small swan embroidered on the shirt. [ 8 ] 黑 上 写 着 ：今 天 没 有 课 Q

Hẽibân shàng xiě zhe: jīntiān méi yõu kè. On the blackboard is written: no class today. Verbs often used in this group include: 摆 （ set), 插 （ insert), 戴 （ w ear), 顶 (hold on the head), 放 （ place), 挂 （ hang)，画 （ draw)，举 （ raise), 贴 （ post), 停 (park)，写 ，(write),绣 (embroider),种 （ plant)，etc.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

2 0 . 1 .2

满 as a complement

Verbs used in the durative construction may take the adjective 满 (full) as a complement to indicate an abundance o f something somewhere. [9 ]警察局门口站满了旁观者。

JTngchájú ménkõu zhàn mân le pángguãn zhě. The entrance o f the police station is fu ll o f bystanders. [1 0 ] 她 的 手 包 里 装 满 了 化 妆 品 。

Tỗ de shõu bão IT zhuāng mân le huazhuāngpTn. Her purse is fu ll o f cosmetics. [1 1 ] 他 脸 上 长 满 了 一 个 个 红 包 。

Tā lián shàng zhang mân le yí ge ge hóng bão. His face is covered w ith red pimples. [1 2 ] 她 的 心 里 充 满 了 感 激 之 情 。

Tỗ de xĩn li chõng mân le ganjī zhī qíng. Her heart is fille d w ith gratitude.

20.1.3 Existential sentences with 有 The verb ^ means to exist or possess-, it is also used to indicate the existence o f something somewhere. The existential 有 sentence is syntactically the same as the durative construction, but 有 does not occur w ith the durative 着. 他的电脑里有很多病毒。

Tā de diànnâo IT you hen duõ bìngdú. There are many viruses in his computer. 有 is broadly used for existential sentences; you may use it wherever the durative construction is used. But it only denotes that something exists somewhere; it does not specify the mode o f existence. [1 3 ] 海 上 有 一 艘 货 轮 。

Hâi shàng yõu yì sõu huòlún. There is a cargo ship on the ocean. [1 4 ] 河 边 有 一 排 柳 树 。

Hé biỗn you yì pái liúshù. There is a line o f w illo w trees along the river bank.

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[1 5 ] 蔬 菜 里 有 维 生 素 。

Shũcài lĩ you wéishěngsú. There are vitam ins in vegetables. [1 6 ] 人 群 中 有 恐 怖 分 子 。

Rénqún zhong yõu kõngbùfènzĩ. There are terrorists in the crowds. In the existential 有 sentence, i f the object o f 有 is an animated being, the object can be followed by another verb and an object to express the idea that there is someone doing something somewhere. This w ill change the existential 有 sentence into a pivotal sentence. Compare these two sentences: 山上有人。

Shan shàng yõu rén. There is someone on the mountain. 山上有人在捡柴。

Shỗn shàng yõu rén zài jiân chái. There is someone gathering firewood on the mountain. In the second sentence，人 （ person) has a double function; it is the object o f 有 and the subject o f 检 柴 （ gather firewood). [1 7 ] 河 里 有 一 些 年 轻 人 在 洗 澡 。

Hé lĩ yõu yìxiẽ niánqĩngrén zài xĩ zâo. There are some young people bathing in the river. [1 8 ] 树 林 里 有 一 对 恋 人 在 唱 歌 。

Shùlín lĩ yõu yí duì liànrén zài chàng gẽ. There are two lovers singing in the woods. In addition to locational nouns, temporal nouns may also serve as the subject o f the existential 有 sentence，which should be differentiated from the temporal noun serving as an adverbial. 明天有雷阵雨。

Míngtiỗn yõu léizhényu. There w ill be a thunder shower tomorrow. 明，天 参 有 $ 会 。

Míngtiỡn wo you yuẽhuì. I have an appointment tomorrow.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

The first sentence is an existential sentence, but the second one is not. In English, sentences with have serving as the main verb are all considered existential sentences. In Chinese, when the subject o f 有 is a pronoun，有 is used in the sense o f possess rather than exist, and this is not considered an existential sentence.

20.1.4 Existential sentences with 是 The copular 是 may convey the idea o f the existence o f something somewhere (see the chapter on copular sentences)•是 and 有 may be used interchangeably fo r making existential sentences，but 是 is used more for identifying or distinguishing something at some place. Compare these two sentences: 山脚下有一个村庄。

Shānjiao xià you yi ge cūnzhuāng. There is a village at the foot o f the mountain. 山 脚 下 是 一 ^个 村 庄 。

Shānjiao xià shì yí ge cūnzhuāng. A village is at the foot o f the mountain. Both sentences tell about the existence o f something somewhere. But the second sentence specifies what that something is: it is a village, rather than something else, that is at the foot o f the mountain. [1 9 ] 麦 当 劳 的 马 路 对 面 是 一 家 沃 尔 玛 Q

Màidỡngláo de mâlù duìmiàn shì yì jiā wó^rma. A W almart is across the street from the MacDonalďs. [2 0 ] 那 家 饭 店 的 顶 层 是 一 个 旋 转 餐 厅 。

Nà jiỗ tàndiàn de dĩngcéng shì yí ge xuánzhuán cāntīng. There is a revolving restaurant on the top o f that hotel. [2 1 ] 购 物 中 心 旁 边 是 一 个 四 层 停 车 楼 。

Gòuwù zhõngxĩn pángbiõn shì yí ge sì céng tíngchẽ lóu. Next to the shopping center is a four-floor parking deck. [2 2 ] 高 速 公 路 的 两 边 都 是 绿 色 的 农 田 。

Gỗosù gõnglù de Bang biãn dõu shì lùsè de nóngtián. There are green fields on both sides o f the highway. Notice that 都 是 and 到 处 都 是 are emphatic ways o f saying that something is found everywhere at some place.

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[23] 街 上 都 是 卖 水 果 的 小 贩 。 Jiẽ shàng dõu shì mài shuĩguõ de xiâoíàn. Peddlers selling fruits are everywhere in the street.

[24] 这家 餐 厅 到 处 都 是 璋 螂 。 Zhè jiā cāntīng dàochù dõu shi zhangláng. There are roaches everywhere in this restaurant.

20.2 Dynamic existential sentences (隐现句) In C hinese，隐 现 means disappearance and appearance. The dynam ic existential sentence denotes that something has arrived or departed，and it is used to convey new information.

地球上来了一个外星人。 Dĩqiú shàng lái le yí ge wàixĩngrén. A n alien has arrived on Earth. T h is d yn a m ic e x is te n tia l sentence s y n ta c tic a lly fo llo w s the same pattern as the static existential sentence, but it uses different verbs and complementation, and both locational and temporal nouns may serve as its subject. The dynamic existential sentence is not necessarily translated into an English existential sentence.

20.2.1 Appearances The dyn a m ic e x is te n tia l sentence uses verbs that denote the appearance o f things or events, such as 来 （ come)，发 生 （ take p la c e ), 出 现 （ appear)，and 爆 发 （ break out). It relies heavily on the perfective aspect particle 了 to indicate something has occurred.

[ 1 ] 历 史 上 ^生 了 ， 多 次 农 民 起 义 Q Lìshĩ shàng fāshēng le hen duõ cì nóngmín qĩyì. M any peasant uprisings took place in history.

[2] 1914年 爆 发 了 第 一 次 世 界 大 战 。 1914 nián baofā le dì yĩ cì shìịiè dà zhàn. The First W orld War broke out in 1914. The dynamic existential sentence also frequently uses either simple or compound dire ctio n a l complements to convey that something has arrived or has come into being.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[3 ] 天上掉下来一个馅儿饼。

Tiồn shàng diào xiàlái yí ge xiànrbĩng. A meat pie falls from the sky. [4 ] 菜地里长出一个西瓜。

Càidì IT zhang chū yí ge xĩguâ. A watermelorf grows in the vegetable field. [5 ] 门外飞进来一只苍蝇。

Mén wài fẽi jinlái yi zhī cangying. A fly flies in from outside the door. [6 ] 楼下爬上来一只換蛛。

Lóu xià pá shànglái yì zhĩ zhīzhū. A spider climbs up from downstairs.

20.2.2 Disappearances The dynam ic existe n tia l sentence uses verbs, such as ỉ t (die) and A (leave), to denote the disappearance or departure o f someone or something. It also relies on the perfective aspect particle 了 and the directional complement to signify the completion o f an action. [7 ] 今天医院里死了一个病人。

Jīntiān yĩyuàn lĩ sĩ le yí ge bìngrén. Today a patient died in the hospital. [8 ] 树上飞走了一只啄木鸟。

Shù shàng fẽi zỗu le yì zhĩ zhuómůniao. A woodpecker flew away from the tree. [9 ] 昨天监狱里跑了一个囚犯。

Zuotiān jianyú lĩ pâo le yí ge qiúfán. Yesterday a prisoner escaped from the ja il. [1 0 ]大西洋 上 沉 没 了 一 艘 货 船 。

Dàxìyáng shàng chénmò le yì sõu huòchuán. A cargo sank in the Atlantic Ocean. The experiential aspect particle i i can also be used in dynamic existential sentences to show that something has been experienced at some place, though it is not used as frequently as the perfective aspect particle 了. .

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[1 1 ] 昨 天 她 家 来 过 两 个 警 察 。

Zuotiān tā jiā lái guo liâng ge jĩngchá. Two police men came to her house yesterday. [ 1 2 ] 我5 ] 家 号 院 、 种 过、 丁香树。

Women jiā hòuyuàn zhóng guo dĩngxiãng shù. Lilacs were once planted in our backyard. Notice that the existential 有 and the existential 是 are not used in the dynamic existential sentence.

20.3 Use of existential sentences (存现句的使用) In E nglish, an e xiste n tia l sentence can be easily transform ed in to regular sentence patterns. We may, fo r example, change “ there is something burn in g ” into “ something is burning,” w hich d iffe rs in meaning. In Chinese, existential sentences can also be transformed into regular patterns, but they are used for a purpose. The following are a few points to be noted about existential sentences.

20.3.1 When to use existential sentences You use existential sentences only when you want to inform that something exists or happens somewhere, which you are mentioning for the first time. Also remember that what stands at the beginning o f a sentence receives most emphasis, and the Chinese way o f saying something somewhere starts w ith the location. If, for example, you see a man hiding under your bed, and you intend to tell there is someone there, you would say: 我的床下藏着一个人。

Wõ de chuáng xià cáng zhe yí ge rén. There is a man hiding under my bed. This sentence first calls attention to the bed; then it shows the manner in which someone stays there. This sentence can be transformed into: 一个人在$ 的床下藏着。

Yí ge rén zài wõ de chuáng xià cáng zhe. A man is hiding under my bed. 一 个 人 /藏 夸 我 $ 床 下 。

Yí ge rén cáng zài wõ de chuáng xià. A man hides under my bed.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

The firs t sentence shows the durative state o f the action, but both the second and the third sentences shift the focus from the bed to someone. For these two sentences, the subject —个 人 （ a man) may be preceded by 有一个人在我的床下藏着。

Yõu yí ge rén zài wõ de chuáng xià cáng zhe. There is someone hiding under my bed. The use o f 有 makes — 个人 in d e fin ite , but it s till d iffe rs fro m the existential sentence that emphasizes that at some place someone exists or is to be found.

20.3.2 Indefinite references The existential sentence introduces new inform ation, something indefinite that was not discussed in previous discourse. Pay attention to the reference o f someone’s name, which is considered definite. C o rre c t:我 们 班 来 了 一 个 新 同 学 。

Women ban lái le yí gè xĩn tóngxué. A new student came to our class. In c o r r e c t:我 们 班 来 了 乔 治 。

Women bỡn lái le Qiáozhi. George came to our class. Correct:

乔治来我们班了。

Qiáozhi lái women bān le. George came to our class. 一个新同学（ a new student) is an in d e fin ite noun phrase, but George is not. The listener presumably knows who George is. Notice how the following existential sentences are changed into non-existential sentences. 会议室里有一个教授。

Huìyìshì lĩ yõu yí ge jiáoshóu. There is a professor in the conference room. 王教授在会议室里。

Wáng jiáoshóu zài huìyìshì lĩ. Professor Wang is in the conference room.

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邻居家死了一条狗。

Linjū jiỗ sĩ le yì tiáo gõu. A dog died in the neighbor’s house. 邻 居 家 的 狗 f 匕了。

Linjū jiā de gõu sĩ le. The neighbor’s dog died.

20.3.3 Ambiguities The d ynam ic e x is te n tia l sentence, in some cases, may cause ambiguities about the origination or the destination o f an action. This may occur w ith verbs such as Ạ (come) that denote the movement from one point to another. 火星上来了一个人。

Huõxĩng shàng lái le yí ge rén. A man from Mars arrived. / A man arrived on Mars. T his sentence may mean either that someone fro m M ars has arrived on the Earth or that someone has landed on Mars. It depends upon the speaker’s perspective: Mars can be either the point o f departure or the destination. To avoid this ambiguity, you can add the preposition 从 （ from) or change the sentence into a regular one. 从火星上来了一个人。

Cóng huỗxĩng shàng lái le yí ge rén. A man from Mars has arrived. 一个人来到了火星上。

Yí ge rén lái dào le huõxĩng shàng. A man has arrived on Mars. B oth sentences express th e ir meanings precisely but w ith d iffe re n t structures. In the first sentence,从 火 星 上 （ from Mars) is a prepositional phrase that serves as an adverbial, and the sentence is without a subject. In the second one, the focus is on the subject, the agent o f the action.

20.3.4 Descriptive language E x is te n tia l sentences are often used in descriptive or lite ra ry language. They may describe environments, settings, objects, human gestures or expressions.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 1 ] 上 有 天 堂 ，下 有 苏 杭 。

Shàng yõu tiãntáng,

xià

yõu

SŪ

háng.

Up above there is a paradise; down below there are Suzhou and Hangzhou. [2 ] 她的书架上摆满了小巧玲珑的艺术品。

Tā de shūjia shàng bâi mân le xiâoqiâolínglóng de ýìshùpĩn. Her bookshelf is fu ll o f exquisite artworks. • [ 3 ] 明朗的夜空挂满了闪耀的星星。

Mínglâng de yèkõng guà mân le shânyào de xĩngxĩng. A plethora o f glittering stars hangs in the bright night sky. [4 ]他的脑海里又呈现出了她那甜蜜纯朴的笑容。

Tỗ de nâohâi lĩ yòu chéngxiàn chū le tā nà tiánmì chúnpũ de xiàoróng. Her sweet, innocent smile again appears in his mind. In [1], Suzhou and Hangzhou are considered the two cities w ith the most extraordinarily beautiful scenery in China.

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C om parisons 比 较 句

We live by comparisons, w hich are essential to our knowledge and understanding o f the world. Comparisons are also useful rhetorical devices. In Shakespeare^ Julius Caesar, Brutus, having assassinated Caesar, faces the d iffic u lt task o f ju s tify in g to the Romans why he assassinated the man who had been his close friend. Here are two lines o f his justification: 我不是不爱凯撒。

Wo bú shì bú ài Kâisã. Not that I loved Caesar less, 我是更爱罗马。

Wo shì gèng ài Luómâ. but that I loved Rome more. For many Romans, this comparison effectively appeals to their sense o f honor for their country. It paints Brutus as one who, instead o f being a conspirator, holds his country in a higher place. In a ll languages, com parison necessarily involves com paring two parties fo r the purpose o f fin d in g out th e ir relationship. These comparisons can be one o f three types: A is superior to B; A is inferior to B; A equals B. In English, we rely on the inflectional system o f many adjectives and a few adverbs, including more or less, to denote that A is superior or inferior to B ，and we use the “ as_..as” construction to indicate that A and B are equals. Chinese is not an inflectional language. It uses comparison words together w ith adjectives, adverbs, or verb complements to fo rm the comparative. For three basic relationships，比 denotes that A is superior to B ; 没有 and 不如 indicate that A is inferior to B ; 跟 .......一样 shows that A and B are equals. In this chapter, we w ill examine these comparative constructions and the Chinese ways o f comparing w ith multiples. We w ill also look into the adverbs 更 and 最 ，which are used to mark comparative and superlative forms. You come to know things better through com parison. A good mastery o f the comparative is essential to your language skills, and it w ill help you express yourself effectively and persuasively.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6

ỡ/vcomparative /Wé/yố/7 comparative ỠỜAƠ comparative G ě ^ .- .y /y á ^ comparative Comparing w ith multiples Comparative and superlative

21.1

comparative ( “ 比” 字比较句ļ

>匕 is both a verb and a preposition. As a preposition, it forms a comparative to denote that A is superior to B. Structurally, 比 connects two entities, and it works w ith adjectives, verb phrases, complements, and some adverbs to indicate the result o f comparison.

21.1.1 Comparing the subject The 友 匕comparative is used to show that A is superior to B. The purpose o f the comparison is to fin d out something about the subject. Here is an example with a word-for-word translation: 他 Tā He

比我 bĩ wo compared w ith me

而〇 gāo. tall

他 is the s u b je c t;比我 is a prepositional phrase fu n c tio n in g as an adverbial, which serves as the basis o f comparison. % is the predicate that shows the result o f comparison. 说比做容易。

Shuõ bĩ zuò róngyì. It is easier said than done 他比我说汉语说得好。

Tỗ bĩ wõ shuõ Hànyũ shuõ de hâo. He speaks Chinese better than I do. In the two sentences above，说 （ speak) is compared w ith 做 （ do)，and 他 (he) is compared w ith 我 （ I). In each case，the subject is compared with the prepositional object that is semantically equal to the subject. The 比 comparative may draw a comparison about how the subject appears at different times, which is done through a comparison o f two adverbials.

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他们的关系一天比一天好。

Tỗmen de guõnxì yì tiõn bĩ yì tiān hâo. Their relationship is getting better day by day. 他今天比昨天看上去好多了。

Tā jīntiān bĩ zuotiān kàn shàngqù hâo duõ le. He looks much better today than yesterday. 一 天 比 一 天 does not mean day after day; it means that something is increasing or decreasing w ith each passing day.

21.1.2 Adjectives as the predicate 比 connects the tw o entities to be compared; the result o f the comparison is shown through the adjective that serves as the predicate o f the sentence. 姐姐比妹妹漂亮。

Jiějie bĩ mèimei piàoliang. The elder sister is prettier than the younger sister. 声1火 车 比 步 飞 机 便 宜 。

Zuò huõchẽ bĩ zuò fēijī piányi. It is cheaper to go by train than by air. To make the comparison more specific, you can add a complement after the adjective, such as —点 儿 （ a lit t le ) , 多 了 （ m uch more)，一 些 （ some),得 多（ a lot), or the exact measurement. [1 ]

这 个 房 l、 a]比 ， 个 房 间 热 一 点 儿 。

Zhè ge fangjiān bĩ nà ge fangjiān rè yìdiânr. This room is a little hotter than that room. [2 ] 这种办法比那种办法灵多了。

Zhè zhong bánfa bĩ nà zhong bànfâ ling duõ le. This method is much more effective than that method. [3 ] 我的笔记本电脑比你的重三磅。

wõ de bījibēn diànnâo bĩ nĩ de zhòng sân bàng. M y laptop is three pounds heavier than yours. [4 ]

这声新、 楼_比 那 座 旧 楼 高 二 十 米 。

Zhè zuò xĩn lóu bĩ nà zuò jiù lóu gão èrshí mĩ. This new building is twenty meters taller than that old building.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

The 友 匕comparative can have the verb 有 as the predicate followed by an abstract noun. W hen the verb 有 takes some abstract nouns as objects，they together function as adjectives，such âs 有 意 思 （ interesting). [5 ] 他比他的前任更有远见。

Tỗ bĩ tā de qiánrèn gèng yõu yuanjián. He is more visionary than his predecessor. [6 ] 你说的比他说的有道理。

Nĩ shuõ de bĩ tỗ shuõ de yõu dàolĩ. W hat you said is more sensible than what he said.

21.1.3 Verbs as the predicate The >匕 comparative also uses verb phrases for comparison. Some mental action verbs may express a dimension o f comparison that can be measured. But many dynamic action verbs need to take a complement to show in what way or manner the comparison is made. Correct:

我比他喜欢奶路。

Wo bĩ tã xĩhuan nâilào. I like cheese more than he does. In c o r r e c t:我 比 他 吃 奶 絡 〇

Wo bĩ tā chī nâilào. Compared w ith him, I eat cheese. The verb 喜 欢 （ like)，like an adjective, expresses a meaning about which the two entities being compared can be measured. But the verb ựí (eat) does not denote a dimension that can be measured; it needs a complement o f manner to indicate the way o f comparison or the result o f comparison. [7 ] 我比他吃得多。

wõ bĩ tā chĩ de duõ. I eat more than he does. [8 ] 他比我来得早。

Tā bĩ wõ lái de zâo. He arrived earlier than I did. [9 ] 树比我长得快。

Shù bĩ wo zhang de kuài. The tree grows faster than I do.

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You can, after the complement o f manner, add another complement, such as —点 儿 （ a lit t le ) , 多 了 （ m uch more), — 些 （ som e),得 多 （ 5 lot), or specific measurements. [10] '

比我去学校去得早一点儿。

Tā bĩ wõ qù xuéxiào qù de zâo yìdiânr. He goes to school a little earlier than I do. [1 1 ] 这 种 事 我 比 你 经 历 得 多 多 了 。

Zhè zhong shì wõ bĩ nĩ jīngli de duõ duõ le. I have experienced such things much more than you have. The 比 comparative often occurs w ith certain monosyllabic adverbs, such as 多 （ m o re ),少 （ less)，先 （ fir s t),后 （ a fte r),早 （ early), and 晚 （ late), to show in what ways A is superior to B. [1 2 ] 我 比 他 多 修 了 两 门 英 文 课 。

Wỗ bĩ tã duõ xiũ le liâng mén Yĩngwén kè. I took two more English courses than he did. [13] $ 比 我 先 ， 道 了 考 试 成 绩 。

Tā bĩ wõ xiãn zhīdao le kâoshì chéngjl He found out the exam score earlier than I did. [1 4 ] 我同屋比我早睡了三十分钟

Wo tóngwij bĩ wo zao shuì le sānshi fēnzhāng. M y roommate went to sleep th irty minutes earlier than I did. [ 1 5 ] 飞_， 比 预 定 时 间 晚 到 了 半 小 时 Q

Fēij'ī bĩ yùdìng shijiān wan dào le bàn xiâoshí. The airplane arrived th irty minutes later than scheduled.

21.1.4 Ellipsis in the comparative In English comparative constructions, the part o f the comparative clause that repeats something in the main clause is usually omitted. In the 比 comparative, A is compared w ith B. The head noun o f B can be ellipted i f it repeats the same head noun o f A. [ 1 6 ] 我 们 班 的 _学 生 比 你 们 班 的 （学 生 ）实 际 。

Women bôn de xuésheng bĩ nĩmen bõn de (xuésheng) shíji. Students in our class are more practical than those in your class.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 1 7 ] 福 克 纳 的 作 品 比 海 明 威 的 （作 品 ）难 懂 。

Fúkènà de zuòpĩn bĩ Haimíngwěi de (zuòpĩn) nán dõng. I t is m ore d if f ic u lt to understand F a u lk n e r5s w orks than Hemingway’s. The structural particle 的 o f B can also be omitted i f the attributive of the head noun can clearly signify what is being compared. [ 1 8 ] 上 海 的 人 口 比 北 京 （的 人 口 ）多。

Shanghai de rénkõu bĩ Beijing (de rénkõu) duõ. The population o f Shanghai is larger than that o f Beijing. [ 1 9 ] 这 个 月 的 物 价 比 上 个 月 （的 物 价 ）涨 了 很 多 。

Zhè ge yuè de wùjià bĩ shàng gè yuè (de wùjià) zhang le hen duõ. The com m odity prices have increased a lot more this month than last month. I f 比 is both preceded and followed by a clause, you can either omit the predicate o f A or the predicate o f B i f one predicate repeats the other. 他 处 理 危 机 比 我 （处 理 危 机 ）处 理 得 好 。

Tā chúlĩ wẽijĩ bĩ wõ (chũlĩ wẽijĩ) chũlĩ de hâo. He handles crisis better than I do. 他 （处 理 危 机 ）比 我 处 理 危 机 处 理 得 好 。

Tã (chúlĩ wēij'ī) bĩ wõ chúlĩ wěijT chúlĩ de hâo. He handles crisis better than I do. Notice that, for a ll ellipses, the part left out has to be the repetition, and the ellipses should not obscure the meaning o f the sentence.

21.1.5 不比 comparative The 不比 comparative is not the negative form o f the 比 comparative; instead, it means that A is not necessarily inferior to B. It is usually used in the situation where the speaker may contend that A is not much inferior to B, or that A at least equals B or perhaps even exceeds B. 你不比我吃得少。

Nĩ bù bĩ wỗ chĩ de shâo. You do not eat less than I do.

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我不比你来得晚。

wõ bù bĩ nĩ lái de wân. You and I came about the same time. The 不比 comparative is used contextually; the speaker may use it for argumentation or clarification.

comparative ( “ 没有” 比较句)

21.2

有 means to possess. The 没有 comparative literally means that A does not possess the same quality o f B or has not reached the same level as B. The positive form is the 有 comparative，which is less used than the 没有 comparative.

21.2.1 没有 comparative The 没有 comparative is a commonly used negative form o f the 仁 匕 comparative. It denotes that A is inferior to B. It is syntactically sim ilar to the 比 comparative, and adjectives often serve as the predicate to indicate the result o f comparison. Here is an example with word-for-word translation: 我的老板

没有你的老板

慷慨。

Wỗ de lâobân méiyỗu nĩ de lâobân

kãngkâi.

M y boss

generous

not matching your boss

In this sentence,没 有 你 的 老 板 （ n o t matching your boss) serves as an adverbial, which is also the basis o f com parison.慷 慨 （ generous) is the predicate, which is often premodified by 这 么 （ such) and 那 么 （ such) to denote that A has not reached such a level as B. [1 ] 你弟弟没有你这么谦虚。

Nĩ dìdi méiyõu nĩ zhème qiỗnxũ. Your younger brother is not as modest as you are. [2 ] ^ 没 有 她 姐 姐 那 么 文 雅 。

Tỗ méiyõu tā jiějie name wénya. She is not as graceful as her elder sister. The 没有 comparative also uses verb phrases to indicate the result o f comparison. In this case, the difference between mental action verbs and dynamic verbs noted earlier regarding the 比 comparative also applies to the 没有 comparative.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[3 ] 爸爸没有妈妈重视教育。 Bàba méiyõu mama zhóngshi jiáoyú. Father does not take education as seriously as Mother does. [4 ] 我没有你那么看重名利。 wõ méiyỗu nĩ name kánzhóng mínglì. I do not value fame and wealth as much as you do. [5 ] 我没有他弹钢琴i f 得好。 Wo méiyõu tā tán gãngqín tán de hâo. I do not play piano as well as he does. [6 ] 他没有你讲话讲得有分寸。 Tỗ méiyỗu nĩ jiang huà jiang de yõu fēnciin. He does not weigh his words as well in his speech as you do. In spoken la n g u a g e ,没 有 can be shortened to 没 • N otice the difference between 没有 serving as a comparative marker and 没有 as the negative form o f the verb. [7 ] 我没他有钱。 Wo méi tã you qián. I am not as rich as he is. [ 8]

21.2.2

他 没 我 气 修 养 。_ Tã méi wo you xiũyâng. He is not as cultured as I am.

有 com parative

The 有 comparative means that A has reached the same level as B, or A possesses the same quality as B. It is often used in interrogative sentences to ask i f A can measure up to B. [9 ]长江有尼罗河长吗？ Chóng Jiāng yõu Níluó Hé chàng ma? Is the Yangtze River as long as the Nile? [1 0 ]你 儿 子 有 你 高 T 吗 ？ Nĩ érzi yõu nĩ gỗo le ma? Is your son as ta ll as you are now? In [9] and [10], the speaker wonders i f A can measure up to B. The 有 comparative may also be ušed in affirm ative sentences to assert that A has caught up w ith B or w ill be soon up to the level o f B.

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[ 1 1 ] 这 伊 士 树 7都 有 一 Ạ 高了。 Zhè kẽ xiâo shù dõu yõu yì rén gão le. This small tree is already as ta ll as a man. [12 ] $ 快 有 他 7爸 爹 那 么 壮 了 。 Tỗ kuài yõu tã bába name zhuáng le. He w ill be soon as strong as his father. In rhetorical questions，the 有 comparative is sometimes used to point out that A is s till far from catching up w ith B. [1 3 ] 我 哪 儿 有 你 那 么 精 明 呢 ？ Wõ nãr yõu nĩ name jīngming ne? How can I be as shrewd as you are? [1 4 ] 巧 怎 么 会有你本事大呢？ Tā zěnme hui you nĩ běnshi dà ne? How can she be as capable as you are?

21.3 郎 /iý comparative ( “ 不如” 比较句) means to resemble; its negative form means cannot be cơmpareí/ 如 or «6^ as1gơơí/ as. The 不如 comparative denotes that A is in fe rio r to B. Both the 不如 comparative and the 没有 comparative are used as the negative forms o f the >匕comparative. 21.3.1

不如 com parative (1)

如 is a verb，and its negative form 不如 can take an object to form the comparative. The 不如 comparative is often used to compare two entities made up o f the same grammatical elements, such as nouns, verbs, or clauses. 这辆车不如那辆车。 Zhè liàng chẽ bù rú nà liàng chẽ. This car is not as good as that car. This sentence literally means that this car cannot be compared to that car. D ifferent from the 比 comparative，如 is a verb in this sentence. 那辆车 serves as the object.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[1 ]

今年， 不穴去年。/ Jīnnian bù rú qùnián. This year is not as good as last year.

[2 ] 晚去不如早去。

Wan qù bù rú zâo qù. It is better to go early than late. [3 ] 百闻不如一见。 Bãi wén bù rú yí jiàn. Seeing is believing. [4 ] 你给他打电话不如他给你打电话。 NT gěi tā dâ diànhuà bù rú tã gẽi nĩ dã diànhuà. It is better for him to call you rather than you call him. Notice that in [4], one clause serves as the subject, and the other serves as the object. 21.3.2

不女口 com parative (2)

In addition to being a v e rb ,如 can also be used as a preposition in the 不如 comparative. The prepositional object follow ing 不如 is the element to be compared. 这种尿不湿不如那种尿不湿贵。 Zhè zhong niàobùshĩ bù rú nà zhong niàobùshĩ guì. T his k in d o f disposable diapers is not as expensive as that kind. In th is s e n te n c e ,这 种 尿 不 湿 is the s u b je c t ; 不 如 那 种 尿 不 湿 is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial•贵 is the predicate that shows the result o f comparison. Here 如 functions the same way as 比 in the 比 comparative. [5 ] 火箭队不如湖人队打得好。 Huojián Duì bù rú Húrén Duì dâ de hâo. The Rockets do not play as w ell as The Lakers. [6 ] 今年黄瓜不如丝瓜长得旺。 Jīnnian huángguã bù rú sĩguã zhang de wàng. This year cucumbers do not grow as vigorously as luffa gourds.

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As in other comparatives, you can also leave out the parts either in A or B that repeat each other, but be sure that the omission w ill not obscure the comparison. [ 7 ] 你 （做 笔 记 ）不 如 她 做 笔 记 做 得 细 。

Nĩ (zuò bĩj7) bù rú tā zuò bĩjì zuò de xì. You do not take as detailed notes as she does. [8 ] $ 层 的 房 间 不 如 四 层 的 （房 间 ）宽 敞 。

Sān céng de fángjian bù rú sì cệng de (fangjiān) kuānchang. Rooms on the th ird flo o r are not as spacious as the ones on the fourth floor. Since the 不如 comparative expresses that A is in fe rio r to B ，the adjectives serving as the predicate usually convey a positive meaning.

21,4 Gẽn... y/ỵờ/ìổ1comparative (

.....—样” 比较句)

In E nglish, we use correlative construction introduced by as to indicate equality (e.g. He is as smart as his younger brother). In Chinese, the corresponding construction fo r this comparison is 在艮.......一才羊.

21.4.1 Equalities 一样 means the same. I f you w antto say that A is the same as B ，you connect A to B through the preposition 跟 ，and then use —样 to indicate the sameness o f the two. 她跟她妹妹一样。

Tā gēn tā mèimei yíyàng. She is the same as her younger sister. In this sentence,跟 她 妹 妹 （ and her younger sisteỉ) is an adverbial. To be specific about the way in which A and B are sim ilar, you may place an adjective，â verb，or a verb phmse after 一样. [1 ] $ 跟-她 终 妹 一 样 幼 稚 。

Tā gēn tā mèimei yíyàng yóuzhi. She is as naive as her younger sister. [2]

喝_酒 跟 吸 烟 一 样 有 害 。

Hẽ jiũ gẽn xĩ yỗn yíyàng you hài. D rin k in g is as detrim ental as smoking.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 3 ] 他跟我一样喜好旅游％

Tã gẽn wõ yíyàng xĩhào lủyóu. He enjoys traveling as I do.

[4 ] 我跟他一样冬恶與伪？ Wo gēn tỗ yíyàng yànwù xūwēi. I loathe hypocrisy as he does.

21.4.2 Inequalities To say that A is not the same as B, you use the construction 互艮.......

不一样• H ow ever, you can also say “ 不跟... 一样”under c e rta in circumstances.

柿子跟西红柿不一样。 Shizi gẽn xĩhóngshì bù yíyàng. The persim m on is not the same as the tomato.

柿子不跟西红柿一样 Q Shizi bù gẽn xĩhóngshì yíyàng. The persim m on is not the same as the tomato. The firs t sentence is the negative form o f ^ ....... 一样， which emphasizes not the same. The second sentence emphasizes not w ith tomato as the basis o f comparison; the speaker m ight want to say the persimmon is not the same as the tomato, but it is the same as something else.

[ 5 ] 他 的 性 格 跟 我的性格不一样。 ， Tỗ de xìnggé gẽn wõ de xìnggé bù yíyàng. H is personality is not the same as mine.

[ 6] 我的看法跟你的完全不一样。 wõ de kànfâ gẽn nĩ de wánquán bù yíyàng. M y view is entirely different from yours. To question i f one thing equals another, you may use the affirm ativenegative question w hich can fu n c tio n p re d ica tive ly or attributively. [ 7 ] 他的答案跟你的一^羊不一样？

Tã de dá^n gẽn nĩ de yíyàng bù yíyàng? Is his answer the same as yours?

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[ 8 ] 河， 蟹、 跟 海 ® —、 样不、 一样、 好吃、 ？

Héxiè gẽn hãixiè yíyàng bù yíyàng hãochĩ?

•

Does the riv e r crab taste as good as the sea crab?

21.4.3 Variations There are some variations about the construction 多艮.......一样. You may replace the preposition 艰■w ith 和，与，and 同• You may also replace 一样 w ith 近 似 (close)，相 同 （ identical)，差 不 多 （ approximate). [9 ] 他 的 声 音 和你的很近似。

Tã de shẽngyĩn hé nĩ de hen jìnsì. H is voice sounds very sim ila r to yours. [1 0 ] — 班 的 进 度 跟 二 _班 相 同 。

Yī bān de jindu gēn èr ban xiỗngtóng. Class One proceeds at the same pace as Class Two. [1 1 ] 中 国 文 化 与 西 方 文 化 不 同 。

Zhongguó wénhuá yú Xĩíỗng wénhuá bù tóng. Chinese culture differs from Western culture. [ 1 2 ] 你 和 他 差 不 多 ，半 斤 八 两 。

Nĩ hé tỗ chàbuduõ, banjīn-bāliang. You and he are about the same: six o f one and h a lf a dozen o f the other. The construction 跟 .......一样 often functions as an adverbial，but it can also be used as an attributive to prem odify nouns. [1 3 ] 代 想 多 一 个 ， ， 太 太 厂 样 的 女 友 。 w õ xiâng zhâo yí ge gẽn nĩ tàitai yíyàng de nuyõu.

I want to look for a g irl frie n d lik e your w ife. [1 4 ] 世 界 上 再 也 没 有 跟 你 一 样 的 傻 瓜 了 。

Shijié shàng zài yě méiyõu gẽn nĩ yíyàng de shâguã le. There can never be another fool like you in the w orld.

21.5 Comparing with multiples (倍数的比较) Instead o f com paring by in d ic a tin g e q u a lity or in e q u a lity , we sometimes want to indicate that one thing is a certain number o f tim es bigger or larger than the other. In E nglish, we use expressions such as

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

twice as large, three times as big, increased twofold, etc. In Chinese, the word fo r times is 倍• Now let us see how these comparisons are expressed in Chinese.

21.5.1 Including the base number One way o f saying that som ething is a certain num ber o f tim es larger than another thing is to use the pattern: A is B*s number o f times. This way o f comparison is sim ila r to English usage in terms o f counting the base number. 今年的失业人数是去年的两倍。

Jīnnian de shĩ yè rénshù shì qùnián de liâng bèi. There are tw ice as many unemployed people this year as last year. In this sentence, the base number is counted in com parison. I f the last year’s unemployed number is 20,000, then this year’s number is 40,000. keře are more examples. [1 ] 这 架 飞 机 的 速 度 是 音 速 的 三 倍 。

Zhè jià fēijī de sùdù shì yĩnsù de sỗn bèi. The speed o f this a ircra ft is three tim es faster than the speed o f sound. [2 ] 中国人口是美国人口的三倍多。

Zhongguó rénkõu shì Měiguó rénkỗu de sỡn bèi duõ. The Chinese population is more than three tim es larger than the Am erican population. [3 ] 地 球 的 体 积 是 月 球 的 四 十 九 倍 。

Dìqiú de tījī shì yuèqiú de sìshí jiũ bèi. The earth is forty-nine tim es the size o f the moon.

21.5.2 Excluding the base number H ow ever, C hinese also uses some expressions th a t in d ic a te som ething has been increased or raised by a number o f tim es, but the base number is not counted; that is, these expressions indicate how certain things have increased w ithout indicating the base number.

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今年毕业生的人数比去年增加了两倍。

Jīnnian bìyèshẽng de rénshù bĩ qùnián zēngjiā le liâng bèi. The number o f graduates this year is three tim es as many as last year. In this sentence，the Chinese expression 增加了两倍 means that, beyond the base number, the num ber has doubled. I f the number o f graduates was 10,000 last year, then the number is 30,000 this year. Another way o f saying this is 翻了 两番，which is colloquial. Here are more examples. [4 ] 今 年 的 小 麦 产 量 比 去 年 增 长 了 两 倍 多 。_

Jīnnian de xiâomài chânliàng bĩ qùnián zěngcháng le liâng bèi duõ. This year5s wheat production has increased by more than three tim es compared to last year. [5 ] 他们已经把在中国的投资提高了三倍。

Tỗmen yljing bâ zài Zhongguó de touzī tígỗo le săn bèi. They have already increased th e ir investm ent in China fourfold. [6 ] 他们学校的外国学生比我们的多四倍。

Tỗmen xuéxiào de wáiguó xuésheng bĩ women de duõ sì bèi. The number o f foreign students in th e ir university is five times as many as ours. N otice that, in Chinese, there is also a difference between 增力口 (increase) and 增力口到（ increase to), and between 提 高 （ raise) and 提高到 (raise to); the latter o f each pair includes the base number. 你们需要把温度提高到现在的两倍半。

Nĩmen xũyào bâ wẽndù tígão dào xiánzái de liâng bèỉ bàn. You need to raise the present tem perature by tw o and h a lf tim es. In this sentence, the base number is counted. I f the temperature is 1 0 0 ^ at this moment, it is supposed to be raised to 2 5 0 ^ .

21.5.3 Decreasing In E nglish, we usually use a percentage or fra c tio n to denote a decrease or reduction, and the same is true in Chinese• 倍，lik e English fold, is only used to quantify an increase and never to quantify a decrease.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[ 7 ] 他的银行存款减少了百分之二十。 Tã de yínháng cúnkuân jianshao le bâi fẽn zhĩ èr shí. H is bank account has decreased by tw enty percent.

[ 8 ] 这星期汽油价格下降了五分之一。 Zhè xĩngqĩ qìyóu jiágé xiájiáng le wu fēn zhī yī. This week the gasoline price has dropped by one-fifth.

[ 9 ] 由 于 经 济 危 ， ，他的财产規失了一半儿。 Yóuyú jīngji wẽijĩ, tā de cáichân sũnshĩ le yí bànr. Because o f the economic crisis, he lost h a lf o f his properties. You may sometimes hear people say 成倍地减少 （ decrease by m ultiple times), w hich is incorrect. For the usage o f percentage and fraction, see the chapter on numerals.

，和 “ 最’ ，） 21.6 Comparative and superlative ( " Ī ， In E nglish, more and most are the com parative and superlative form s o f many and much. M eanwhile, they are also adverbs m arking the non-inflectional comparatives and superlatives o f adjectives and adverbs. In Chinese, 更 and 最 are adverbs that prem odify adjectives or verbs to form the comparative and the superlative.

21.6.1 Comparative 更 m eaning even more, is used fo r a com parison between tw o things. It prem odifies adjectives and verbs to m ark a higher degree o f a quality.

她 能 干 ，她 女 儿 更 能 干 。 Tā nénggàn, tã nũ’ ér gèng nénggàn. She is capable; her daughter is more capable.

请你说得更清楚一点儿。 QTng nĩ shuõ de gèng qĩngchu yìdiânr. Please explain more explicitly. In the firs t sentence, the firs t part is a plain statement; the second part is the com parative•更 may occur w ith the 比 com parative, in w hich it further intensifies the comparison.

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[1] $ 比 我 v更 能 代 表 你 。 Tã bĩ wõ gèng néng dàibiâo nĩ. He can represent you better than I do.

[2 ] 我比你更知道内幕。 Wo bĩ nĩ gèng zhīdao nèimù. I know the inside story more than you do. [3 ] 她比她妹妹更温柔。

Tā bĩ tā mèimei gèng wěnróu. She is much gentler than her younger sister. [4 ] 她现在比过去更孤单。

Tā xiánzái bĩ guòqù gèng gūdān. Now she is even lonelier than before.

Besides 更，the adverb 还 can also form the comparative•还 is often used in spoken language, and it carries a tone of surprise, disbelief, or excitement.

[5 ] i i 只 老 虎 比 那 只 还 大 。 Zhè zhĩ lãohũ bĩ nà zhĩ hái dà. This tiger is even bigger than that one.

[6 ] 他太太比他还爱赌博。 Tā tàitai bĩ tā hái ài dúbó. H is w ife loves gam bling more than he does. 21.6.2

S uperlative M

最 indicates som ething that is greater than anything else in terms o f number, degree, quality, etc. It is used to form the superlative where a comparison o f more than three is involved. It m odifies adjectives the same way as most does in English. [ 7 ] 这是当前最畅销的书。

Zhè shì dỗngqián zuì chàngxiõo de shũ. This is currently the best-selling book.

[ 8 ] 七月是最热的一个月。 Qĩyuè shì zuì rè de yí ge yuè. July is the hottest month.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[9 ]这是我看过的最感人的电影。

Zhè shì wõ kàn guo de zuì gânrén de diànyĩng. This is the most touching movie I have ever seen. [1 0 ] 你 可 以 在 你 最 方 便 的 时 候 来 。

Nĩ kẽyĩ zài nĩ zuì fāngbian de shíhou lái. You may come at the time most convenient to you. ỆL only modifies verbs that express desires, feelings, emotions, or abstract mental activities. These words include 爱 （ love),渴 望 （ desire), 喜 欢（ like), 愿 意 （be w illing), 支 持 (support), etc.

[ 1 1 ] 女/ ^ 最 渴 望 什 么 ？

Nurén zui kěwáng shénme? What do women desire the most? [ 12 ] 你 最 不 喜 欢 叶 么 ？

Nĩ zuì bù xĩhuỗn shénme? What do you like the least? 最 often occurs with some adjectives to form an adverbial indicating the greatest extent or the limit of something. They include 最 多 （at the m ost),最 少 （at the least), 最 早 (at the earliest)，最 晚 (at the latest), 最 坏 (at the worst), etc. [ 1 3 ] 机 场 关 了 ，他 最 早 也 得 星 期 一 到 。

Jīchang guān le, tā zui zao yě děi xĩngqĩ yĩ dào. The airport is closed; at the earliest he will arrive on Monday. [ 1 4 ] 我 明 天 给 你 答 复 ，最 晚 七 点 以 前 Ọ

• wõ míngtiỗn gěi nĩ dáfù, zuì wan qĩ diãn yĩqián. I will answer you tomorrow, before seven o5clock at the latest. [ 1 5 ] 这 条 项 链 ，我 最 多 可 以 付 五 十 元 。

zhè tiáo xiàngliàn, wo zui duõ kẽyĩ fù wushi yuan. I can pay, at most, ũ ữ y y u a n for this necklace. [ 1 6 ] 我 钓 到 一 条 大 鱼 ，它 最 少 五 斤 重 。

wõ diào dào yì tiáo dà yú, tã zuì shâo wũ jĩn zhòng. I caught a big fish; it weighed at the least five jin . Notice that 最 少 （at the least) can be used interchangeably with 至 少 （at the least).

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P ivotal S e n te n c e s 兼 语 句

In E nglish, there is a difference between the fin ite and non -fin ite verb. The fin ite verb, also known as the m ain verb, agrees w ith the subject in terms o f tense and number. The non-finite verb, including the in fin itiv e , the gerund, and the participle, does not have a subject and is uninflected. In a sentence, the fin ite verb can only be follow ed by a non-finite verb. Compare these two sentences w ith their Chinese translations:

我 喜 欢 看 悲剧 。 wõ xĩhuan kàn bẽijù. I lik e w atching tragedies.

今 晚 我 请 你 看 《奥赛罗、 》。 Jĩnwân wỗ qĩng nĩ kàn 《Àosàiluó》. I invite you to watch Othello tonight. In the firs t sentence, after the verb like, you may use either watching or to watch, you cannot use the verb watch in its base form . In the second sentence, you, the object o f the m ain verb, also serves as the subject o f the in fin itiv e to watch. This in fin itiv e is called a complement in English. In Chinese, there is no d is tin c tio n between fin ite and n o n -fin ite verbs. As shown in the firs t sentence, the tw o verbs 喜 欢 （ like ) and 看 (watch) can stand side by side, and the subject relates to both o f them. However, Chinese categorizes the second sentence d iffe re n tly than it is categorized in English. The subject o f the second sentence only relates to the firs t verb invite; iķ (you) serves as the object o f the fir s t verb invite as w ell as the logical subject o f the second verb watch. has a double function, lik e a pivot relating to both verbs, and that is why this type o f sentence is called the pivotal sentence. The Chinese name fo r the pivotal sentence is 兼语句； the word 兼 means holding two or more posts concurrently. The n o tion o f the p iv o ta l sentence o ffe rs a convenient way o f categorizing a type o f sentence construction as w ell as the usage o f verbs. Verbs fo llo w d iffe re n t patterns. In E nglish, we say ask someone to do something and make someone do something', one takes a to -in fin itiv e , and the other takes a bare in fin itiv e ; both can constitute a pivotal sentence. Chinese pivotal sentences also depend on verbs— only certain verbs can make pivotal sentences. In this chapter, we w ill sem antically categorize those verbs and illustrate how they make pivotal sentences.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4

Causative verbs Em otive verbs Other pivotal verbs Chain constructions

22.1 Causative verbs (使役动词) Causative verbs denote that a person or a thing causes someone to do something or to make something happen. Here cause is used in a broad sense; it can be asking, ordering, helping, encouraging, sending, etc. In English, causative verbs often occur in a pattern in which the object o f the causative verb also serves as the logical subject o f another verb. I encourage her to study Latin.

我鼓励i

学拉丁语。

Wo guli tỗ xué Lãdĩngyũ. In this sentence, her has a double function; it is the object o f the verb encourage and the logical subject o f the in fin itiv e to study. This pattern is crucial fo r understanding the pivotal sentence in Chinese.

22.1.1 Causative construction In Chinese, the pivotal sentence has different kinds o f verbs serving as the firs t verb in the sentence; the causative verb is a m ajor type. The p ivotal sentence follow s the pattern “ subject + verb + object + verb + (object).”

电影导演推荐我演奥赛罗。

、

Diànyĩng dâoyân tuĩ jiàn wõ yân Àosàiluó. The movie director recommends me to play the role o f Othello. The above English and Chinese sentences are sim ila r structurally, but, as noted earlier, they are categorized differently. In English, to play the role o f Othello is considered a complement. In Chinese, this type o f sentence is called a pivotal sentence, and A, (m e/I) is the pivot word that plays a double function.

[ 1 ] 他 们 强 迫 我 接 受 他 们 的 要 _求 。

Tỗmen qiângpò wo jiēshou tāmen de yãoqiú. They force me to accept their request.

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[2 ] 医生提醒他注意饮食和体重。

Yĩshẽng tíxĩng tỡ zhùyì yĩnshí hé ťízhóng. The doctor rem inds him o f paying attention to his d ie t and weight. [3 ] 以前皇宫禁止普通百姓进入。

Yĩqián huánggõng jinzhī pũtõng bâixìng jinrů. In the past, the im perial palace forbade the ordinary people to enter. [ 4 ] 我 们 请 他 在 毕 业 典 礼 上 i井演。

Women qĩng tā zài bì yè diânlĩ shàng jiangyan. We invite him to give a speech in the commencement. In some causative constructions, the pivot word is follow ed by an adjective. T his occurs w ith a few causative verbs, including 叫，使 ，让 ， and 4". These verbs are used in the sense o f make. [5 ] 法院的判决叫她很伤心。

Fayuan de panjue jiao tā hen shãngxĩn. The court’s verdict makes her very sad. [6 ] 这次的考试使他非Ỹ 失望。

Zhè cì de kâoshì shĩ tã íẽicháng shĩwàng. The exam makes him disappointed. [7 ] 你 今 天 的表演让我很尴尬。

NĨ j'īntiān de biâoyân ràng wõ hěn gãngà. Your perform ance today makes me feel very embarrassed. Here are some com m only used causative verbs: 帮助（ help) 催 (urge) 鼓 励 (encourage) 派 （ dispatch) 劝（ advise) 推 荐 (recommend) 问（ ask) 引 导 (guide) 4旨示（ instruct) 组织（ organize)

逼 (force) 答应（ agree) 命 令 (ořder) 求（ beg) 通知（ n o tify) 委 托 (entrust) 要 求 (require) 允 许 (allow) 准许（ perm it)

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

22.1.2 Indicating purposes In Chinese causative construction, the second verb after the pivot word often indicates the purpose o f the firs t action, w hich is s im ila r to the in fin itiv e phrase that serves as a com plem ent in E nglish causative construction.

[8 ] 秘 密 警 察 逼 他 等 名 Ọ

Mimi jTngchá bĩ tā qiãn míng. The secret police forced him to sign his name. [9 ] 他们派我打听消息。

Tỗmen pài wo dating xiãoxi. They sent me to gather inform ation.

[10] 老 师 允 许 我 们 提 问 。

Lâoshĩ yúnxù women tí wèn. The teacher allows US to ask questions. [1 1 ] 他 们 要 求 厂 商 道 歉 。

Tỗmen yãoqiú chângshãng dào qiàn. They request the m anufacturer to apologize. In the above sentences, the second action, serving the purpose o f the firs t action, usually has not occurred yet. But the verbs 叫，使 ，让 ，and 令 may indicate the actions that have already happened.

22.1.3 Negation The negative form o f the causative construction is to place 不 or 没 有 before the firs t verb，which is true in serial-verb constructions as w ell.

[12] 我 不 鼓 励 你 竞 选 学 生 会 主 席 。

Wỗ bù guli nī jingxuan xuéshẽnghuì zhuxí. I do not encourage you to run fo r the President o f the Student Union.

[1 3 ] 我 没 有 答 应 他 们 来 听 我 的 课 Q w õ méiyõu dõying tỗmen lái tĩng wõ de kè. I did not let them come to observe m y class. However, w ith some verbs, you may negate either the firs t verb or the second verb, but there is a difference in meaning.

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[1 4 ] 我 没 劝 他 接 受 这 份 工 作 。 wõ

méi quàn tā jiēshou zhè fén gongzuó.

I did not advise him to accept this job. [1 5 ] 我 劝 他 不 接 受 这 份 工 作 。 wõ

quàn tã bù ịiẽshòu zhè fén gongzuó.

I advise him not to accept this job. In [14], the speaker did not advise the other person to do something. In [15], the speaker advised the other person not to do something.

22.1.4 使 as the causative verb The verb 使 means to cause; it is one o f the most com m only used causative verbs. It denotes that a person or a thing makes something.

海啸使我看到了生命的脆弱。

Hâixiào shĩ wỗ kàn dào le shẽngmìng de cuìruò. The tsunam i made me see the fra g ility o f life . The verb i i , as shown above, is often translated into make in English, which takes a bare in fin itiv e , ik. may also be translated into enable, let, or lead to in different situations. [1 6 ] 经 济 危 机 使 很 多 人 冬 业 。

Jīngji wēijī shī hen duõ rén shĩ yè. The economic crisis causes many people to lose th e ir jobs. [1 7 ] 那 本 侦 探 小 说 使 他 成 名 。

Nà běn zhēntan xiâoshuõ shĩ tā chéng míng. That m ystery novel makes him famous. [1 8 ] 我 怎 么 做 才 能 使 你 满 意 ？

Wo zěnme zuò cái néng shĩ nĩ mânyì? W hat should I do to make you satisfied? [1 9 ] 悲 剧 使 人 的 心 灵 得 到 净 化 。

Bēiju shĩ rén de xĩnlíng dédào jinghuá. Tragedy can purge the human soul. Be careful about the dangling m odifier when you use 使 • A dangling m o d ifie r is a phrase that m odifies a w ord (usually the subject o f the sentence) that is not stated in the sentence. The dangling m od ifie r does

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

not seem to be as s tric tly restricted in Chinese as in E nglish, but you should avoid it. In c o rre c t: 通 过 这 次 旅 行 ，使 我 改 变 了 对 非 洲 的 看 法 。

Tõngguò zhè cì luxíng, shĩ wõ gâibiàn le duì Fēizhou de kánfa. Through this trip changed m y view o f A frica . C o r r e c t:这 次 旅 行 使 我 改 变 了 对 非 洲 的 看 法 。

Zhè cì lũxíng shĩ wõ gãibiàn le duì Fēizhou de kanfa. This trip changed m y view o f A frica . 通过这次旅行（ through this trip ) is a prepositional phrase that cannot serve as the subject o f the sentence. N otice that the verb 使 can also be used in the sense o f use, which differs from the causative

这次中国行使我学会了使筷子。

Zhè

CÌ

Zhongguó xíng shĩ wõ xué huì le shĩ kuáizi.

This trip to China enables me to use chopsticks. In this sentence，the firs t 使 means to enable; the second 使 means to use. 彳吏得 is a synonym o f 使 ，but it only takes a clause as the object，and it is m ostly used in w ritten Chinese.

大雨使得很多航班取消了。

Dà yú shĩdé hen duõ hángbãn qúxiỗo le. The heavy rain caused the cancellation o f many flights. The collo q u ia l expression 使 不 得 means that a certain idea or method cannot be applied or put into use. For example, 这 个办法使不得 means “ this method cannot be used.”

22.2 Emotive verbs (情感动词) Em otive verbs are used to express feelings such as love, hate, like, and dislike. In addition to causative verbs, emotive verbs make up another group o f words that can compose pivotal sentences.

我喜欢他有幽默感。

Wo xĩhuan tā yõu yõumògân. I like him having a sense o f humor. The pivot word 他 （ him ) has a dual function as the object and the subject in this sentence; however, there are some differences between the emotive and the causative constructions.

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22.2.1 Indicating reasons In the causative construction, the second verb is typ ica lly translated in to an in fin itiv e in E nglish, w hich often indicates the purpose o f the firs t action. W hen emotive verbs serve as the firs t verb，the second verb often gives the reason fo r the firs t action. In their English translation, the preposition fo r is often used to offer the reason.

他责怪我没提醒他。

TỖ zéguái wõ méi tíxĩng tā. ^

«'I .#'

u 9 .l

' ' • , ' l l l * l ' l , l l l l k

^

I M I ' l . . *'l '

In this sentence，没 提 醒 他 （ did not rem ind him ) is the reason. A lso notice that, in the causative construction, the second action usually has not occurred yet, but, in the emotive construction，the second action is already realized.

[1] 我 们 佩 服 他 敢 说 实 话 。

wõ péifú tā gân shuõ shíhuà. We adm ire him fo r daring to speak the truth.

[2] 人 们 都 批 评 她 太 自 私 。

Rénmen dõu piping tỗ tài zišī. Everyone criticizes her fo r being too selfish.

屬

_

-ĩ — r r

ị i f í

r- f

' M I I ' N I I I

He blames me fo r not rem inding him .

' l l l .

Í A í ií I

I f ť — r.

v Í

h>l

sl

[3 ] 我祝贺他通过了考试。

Wỗ zhùhè tā tõngguò le kâoshì. I congratulate him on passing the exam. [4 ] ^ 感 谢 我 们 帮 助 了 他 。

Tā gânxiè women bāngzhu le tā. He thanks US fo r helping him . Here are some com m only used em otive v e rb s :爱 （ love)，表 扬 （ praise)， 害怕（ fear)，恨 （ h a te ),夸 （ pra ise ),埋 怨 （ com plain)，批 评 （ c ritic iz e ),讨厌 (loathe)，嫌 （ loathe)，羡 慕 (a dm ire),笑 （ laugh a t),原 谅 (excuse), etc.

22.2.2 Structural differences Some verbs, such as 认 为 （ th in k ) and 希 望 （ hope), ty p ic a lly take clausal objects to express personal views and feelings. These sentences should be distinguished from pivotal sentences in w hich the emotive verb serves as the m ain verb. Compare the two follow ing sentences.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

我 希 望 他 代 _表 我 ;[[]学 校 。

Wo xiwáng tỗ dàibiâo women xuéxiào. I hope that he will represent our school. 我喜欢他代表我们学校。

wõ xĩhuan tā dàibião women xuéxiào. I like him to represent our school. In these two sentences, 希 望 （ hope) takes a clausal object, but 喜 欢 （ like) only takes 他 （ him) as the object. The key to distinguishing these two different types of sentences is to know what verbs may take a clausal object. These two sentences are also read differently. In the first sentence, you may pause after in the second one, you may pause after (him). It would sound unnatural if you paused between the emotive verb and its object.

In c o rre c t: 她 嫌 I 我 说 得 太 多 了 。

Tā xián I wo shuõ de tài duõ le. She dislikes my talking too much. C o rre c t:她 嫌 我 丨 说 得 太 多 了 。 Tā xián wo I shuõ de tài duõ le. She dislikes my talking too much. In c o rre c t: 我 恨 I 他 出 卖 朋 友 。 Wo hèn I tỗ chũmài péngyou. I hate him for betraying a friend. Correct:

我 恨 他 I 出卖朋友。

Wo hèn tā I chũmài péngyou. I hate him for betraying a friend. Notice that many English emotive verbs, such as blame, hate, and like, cannot take a clausal object either.

22.3 other pivotal verbs (其他兼语动词) In addition to the causative and emotive constructions, some other verbs can be used to compose pivotal sentences. As a sentence pattern, the pivotal construction can convey a variety of meanings. Now let US look at some of those other verbs.

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22.3.1 有 as a pivotal verb The verb ^ means to possess or exist', it can also serve as the first verb of a pivotal sentence， which is often an extension of a simple sentence. Differing from the causative and emotive constructions, the 有 construction is used to introduce new information. 我有一个朋友是瑞典人。 wõ

yõu yí ge péngyou shì Ruìdiân rén.

I have a friend who is a Swede. 河 边 有 一 棵 ạ 树 ！花了。

Hé biỗn you yì kẽ lí shù kāi huā le. By the riverside there is a pear tree that is blooming. Notice that 朋 友 （ friend) and —棵 梨 树 （a pear tree) are both the objects and the subjects. The ^ construction is often translated into a relative clause into English. [1 ] 树 林 里 有 一只猫头鹰在叫。

Shùlín lĩ yõu yì zhĩ mâotóuyĩng zài jiao. There is an owl calling in the woods. [2 ] 他有个外甥学生物医学工程。

Tā you ge wáishěng xué shěngwú yĩxué gõngchéng. He has a nephew who studies biomedical engineering. [3 ] 我们系没有人教Ỹ 腊悲剧5

Women xì méiyõu rén jiỗo Xĩlà bẽijù.

In our department, there is no one who teaches Greek tragedies. [ 4 ] 这 一 地 区 无 人 居 住 ，太 荒 凉 了 。

Zhè yĩ dìqũ wú rén ]ũzhù, tài huồngliáng le. There is no one living in this region. It is too desolate. In [4 ], 无 is the opposite of 有 . It is much more formal than 没有 ， and it is used in limited situations. 有 may occur in a non-subject pivotal sentence，which， like the 有 construction, is also used to introduce new information. [5 ] 有人在偷听我们的谈话。

You rén zài touting women de tánhuà. Someone is eavesdropping on our conversation.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[6 ]有一件事一直让她不安。

Yõu yí ]iàn shì yizhí ràng tã bù ān. There is one thing that always makes her feel uneasy. In [5] and [6], the verb ^ does not have a subject. means there is which you may simply translate as 騰 in English.

22.3.2 Election and recognition In Chinese, the verbs that express the idea of electing a person to a position or recognizing a person as someone can also be used to compose pivotal sentences. These verbs include 拜 （ acknowledge), 称 （ c a ll), 封 (confer),认 (recognize),选 (elect), etc. 4 们 都 他 当 丨 州 长 。_

Women dõu xuân tā dāng zhouzhang. We all elect him the governor. In English, the verb elect does not take an infinitive; we say elect him the governor rather than elect him to be the governor. In Chinese, the verb 选 （ elect) requires a second verb. 当 means ^ «serve. Here is another example. * 家都称他为诸葛亮。

Dàjỉỗ dõu chēng tā wéi Zhūge Liàng. Everyone calls him Zhuge Liang. The English verb call does not take an infinitive, but # (call) requires a second verb, ỉh means to serve. Zhuge Liang was the greatest strategist in the period of the Three Kingdoms in Chinese history. His name has become synonymous with intelligence. [ 7 ] 你怎: 么 能 '

贼作父呢？、

NĨ zěnme néng rèn zéi zuò fù ne? How can you regard the enemy as kith and kin? [8 ] 你选择哪本 书作教材？

NT xuanzé nâ běn shū zuó jiáocái? Which book will you select as the textbook? [9 ] 七王可能会封他为爵士。 _

Nuwáng kěnéng huì fēng tā wéi juéshi. The Queen may confer knighthood on him.

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[1 0 ]很 多 人 拜 这 位 道 士 为 师 。

Hen duõ rén bài zhè wèi dàoshì wéi shĩ. Many people acknowledge this Taoist as â teacher. In [7], 认 贼 作 父 is a proverb that literally means to take a thief as father. In [10], the verb means to respectfully ask someone to be a teacher, which traditionally involves the ceremony of paying tribute to the teacher.

22.4 Chain constructions (连锁结构) The pivotal construction may com bine w ith the serial-verb construction to form various chain constructions. Remember that in the pivotal construction, the subject only relates to the first verb, but, in the serial-verb construction, the subject relates to each consecutive verb. 22.4.1

P ivo t w ord fo llo w in g the firs t verb

A sentence may start as a pivotal construction, but the pivot word also serves as the subject for more than one verb or verb phrase, which joins a pivotal construction to a serial-verb construction. 学校派他去中国讨论学生交换项目。

Xuéxiào pài tā qù Zhongguó tâolùn xuésheng jiāohuan xiàngmù. The school sent him to China to discuss a student exchange program. In this sentence, 派 （ send) is a causative verb; the pivot word 他 （ him/he) serves as the subject of two verbs 去 （ go) and 讨 论 （ discuss). Notice how the pivot word takes two verbs or verb phrases in the following sentences. [1 ] 我 们 都 选 他 为 代 表 跟 学 校 谈 判 。

Women dõu xuân tã wéi dàibiâo gẽn xuéxiào tánpàn. We all elect him the representative to negotiate with the school. [2 ] 我们请那位学者来美国讲风水。

Women qĩng nà wèi xuézhě lái Měiguó jiang fēngshuī. We invited that scholar to come to America to speak about fengshui. [3 ] 你不能强迫我冒着大雨去上课。

NT bù néng qiângpò wõ mào zhe dà yũ qù shàng kè. You cannot force me to brave the rain to go to class.

Special Sentence Patterns 特殊句式

[4 ]

明/ 天 亨 人 来 我 们 学 校 听 你 的 课 。

Míngtiỗn yõu rén lái women xuéxiào tĩng nĩ de kè. Tomorrow someone will come to our school to observe your class.

22.4.2 Pivot word following the second verb A sentence may start as a serial-verb construction, but the second verb is followed by a pivot word, which changes the second part of the sentence into a pivotal construction. «

了一、 封_短 信 手 学 生 在 图 书 馆 等 我 。

Wõ fỗ le yì fēng duânxìn ràng xuésheng zài túshũguân děng wỗ. I sent a text message asking students to wait for me in the library. In this sentence, the subject relates to two verbs 发 （ send) and 让 （ ask)， and the verb i t generates a pivotal construction. In the following sentences, notice how the second verb precedes a pivot word.

[ 5 ] 昨 $ _她 ^ 电^ 舌 请 我 跟 她 去 喝 咖 啡 Ọ Zuotiān tô dâ diànhuà qĩng wõ gēn tã qù hẽ kāfēi. Yesterday she called to invite me to drink coffee with her. [ 6]

律师来他家劝他接受法院的调解。

Lushĩ lái tā jiā quàn tā jiēshou fayuan de tiáojiě. The lawyer came to his home advising him to accept the courťs mediation.

[7] $ 们 想 办 法 阻 止 示 威 者 上 街 游 行 。 Tỗmen xiâng bánfa zuzhT shiwěizhě sháng jiě yóuxíng. They think of ways to stop the protesters from taking to the streets. [ 8 ] 昨 $ _晚上v他 开 车 我 去 纽 约 机 场 Q

Zuótian wanshang tā kāi chẽ sòng wò qù Niúyuẽ jīchang. Last night he drove me to the airport in New York.

22.4.3 Chain pivotal construction Two or more pivotal constructions may chain together to form a pivotal sentence, which requir.es each verb to be a pivotal verb.

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老板让我通知你去帮他搬办公室。

Lâobân ràng wo tongzhī nĩ qù băng tā băn bàngõngshì. The boss asks me to te ll you to help him move to another office.

In the above sentence，让 （ ask) and 通 知 （ notify) are causative verbs; 我 (me/I) ând 你、（ you) both serve âs the objects and the subjects. [9 ]经理吩咐他派人去检查商品质量。

Jīnglī fěnfú tỗ pài rén qù jianchá shãngpĩn zhiliáng. The manager asks him to send someone to check the q u a lity o f the goods. [1 0 ] 家 长 感 谢 学 校 允 许 学 生 推 迟 注 册 。

Jiāzhang gânxiè xuéxiào yũnxũ xuésheng tuĩchí zhùcè. Parents appreciate the school a llo w in g students to postpone registration. [1 1 ] 我 们 请 张 医 生 指 导 我 们 练 习 针 灸 。

Women qĩng Zhāng yĩshẽng zhīdao women liànxí zhēnjiu. We invite D octor Zhang to guide US to practice acupuncture. [ 1 2 ] 很 多 人 都 相 信 “ 有 钱 能 使 鬼 推 磨 ”。

Hen duõ rén dõu xiãngxìn “yõu qián néng shĩ guĩ tuĩ mò”. Many believe that “money makes the mare to go.” In [12]，有 钱 能 使 鬼 推 磨 lite ra lly means that money can make the ghost push m illstones，w hich is heavy labor. “ M oney makes the mare to go” comes from an old English nursery rhyme. Both sayings mean that money can do everything.

Pa

rt

曰E N T E N C E

Ỹ ou r T y p e s

句类

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Sentences can be classified gram m atically according to syntax and structure; they can also be classified fun ctio n a lly according to purpose. In Chinese, as in other languages, a ll sentences can be divided into four types by purpose: the declarative, the interrogative, the im perative, and the exclamatory. The declarative is by fa r the most common type o f sentence. It makes a statement or conveys inform ation; it does not require a response nor does it dire ctly ask anyone to do anything. Syntactically, the declarative is in re g u la r w ord order: it begins w ith the subject, fo llo w e d by the predicate, and ends w ith a period. Declarative sentences in both English and Chinese share these characteristics. For example: 四月是最残忍的一个月。

Sì yuè shì zuì cánrěn de yí ge yuè. A p ril is the crudest month. This sentence, a famous lin e from T. s. E lio t, is a declarative sentence; it states what the author believes to be a fact. The declarative sentence can be said to be the base form , w hich may be changed in to other types o f sentences. The declarative conveys inform ation; the interrogative is a question that s o lic its in fo rm a tio n , is uttered in a ris in g tone, and ends w ith a question mark. In English, we usually classify the interrogative into three types: yes-no questions, question-w ord questions, and the alternative question. In Chinese, another type, the affirm ative-negative question, is added to the interrogative, which raises the number to four types. Among them , yes-no questions and question-w ord questions are perhaps the most com m only used. S yntactically, yes-no questions in E nglish need an operator before the subject, but yes-no questions in Chinese need a modal particle at the end o f the sentence. As fo r question-word questions, English and Chinese d iffe r in the syntactic position o f the interrogative pronouns. In general, the im perative and the exclam atory are used less than the other tw o types. A n interrogative sentence is a c a ll fo r inform ation; an im perative sentence is a c a ll fo r action. Remember Moby D ick's famous opening line “ C all me Ishmael”？That is an im perative sentence. The im perative gives a command or an order; it can also make a request or ask fo r in stru ctio n . The im perative sounds abrupt, but m arkers o f politeness can be used to soften the tone. The im perative, ty p ic a lly in the second person, does not need the subject; however, in Chinese, some verbs require the presence o f the subject. Am ong the fo u r types, the

Sentence Types 句类

exclamatory, perhaps the least used, displays a sudden or strong emotion, w hich is u sually uttered to oneself rather than directed at anyone in particular. In Chinese, exclam atory sentences syntactically need certain adverbs, pronouns, or m odal particles; they can also be preceded by an exclam atory w ord, w hich is not gram m atically connected w ith the sentence. The decla ra tive , as noted e a rlie r, is the m ost com m on type o f sentences. In this section, our discussion w ill be devoted to the other three types: the interrogative, the im perative, and the exclamatory.

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In te rro g a tiv e S e n te n c e s 疑 问 句

C onfucius once praised an o ffic ia l fo r 不耻下问，w hich means

feeling unashamed to learn from one's subordinates. T refers to someone low er in position; 问 means to ask questions. In other words，one should hum ble oneself in s o lic itin g in fo rm a tio n . A sking questions is c ritic a l to learning. The C onfucian Analects, as you know, is in the form o f a dialogue in w hich Confucius illum inates his ideas by responding to his students5 questions. Inte rro g a tive sentences are questions that s o lic it in fo rm a tio n . In th is chapter, you w ill learn various ways o f ra isin g questions. In Chinese, how can we distinguish an interrogative sentence from a declarative sentence, or a question fro m a statement? They d iffe r in two ways. You can te ll the difference through prosody— that is, a raising intonation is used fo r questions, which is true fo r a ll languages. You can also te ll the difference through the syntax. In English, we begin a question w ith an a u x ilia ry verb, also know n as an operator, w hich involves a change o f word order. We may also begin a question w ith an interrogative w ord that s o lic its the m issing in fo rm a tio n . Chinese questions do not require changes in word order but place â m odal particle at the end o f ã declarative sentence. 皇帝是天子吗？

Huángdì shì tiānzī ma? Is the emperor the son o f heaven? The particle 吗 can be placed at the end o f any declarative sentence to make it a question. Chinese also uses in te rro g a tive words to request specific inform ation; these words sim ply take the exact position o f the words they replace in ã sentence. Interrogative sentences ask fo r various in fo rm a tio n ; they can be classified based on the kin d o f answers requested. Chinese interrogative sentences can be divided into four general categories. The firs t category is 是非问句，which corresponds to our yes-no questions; but the Chinese way o f saying yes and no varies, depending on what kinds o f verbs are used in the question. The second category is 特指问句，w hich, lik e our questionw ord questions, relies on in te rro g a tive words to request the m issing inform ation about a statement. The th ird category is 选择问句，w hich is sim ilar to our alternative questions. The last category is 正反问句，which requires either an affirm ative or ã negative answer to the question.

Sentence Types 句类

In the fo llo w in g , we w ill exam ine the syntactic features o f these four categories o f interrogative sentences as w ell as the ways o f answering those questions, w hich can be different from that in English. 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4

Yes-no questions Question-word questions Alternative questions A ffirm ative-negative questions

23.1 Yes-no questions (是非问句) Yes-no questions require a simple answer o f yes or no. English and Chinese d iffe r not only in the form ulation o f a yes-no question but also in the way o f responding to it; the latter requires your special attention.

23.1.1 B马（ positive orientation) In English, we place an in itia l a u x ilia ry verb or invert the subject and the a u xilia ry verb o f a declarative sentence to form yes-no questions. In C hinese, you may transform a declarative sentence in to a yes-no question by placing the modal particle 吗 at the end. [1 ] 他 的 女 ¥ 友 是 西班牙人 吗？

Tā de nú péngyõu shì Xĩbãnyá rén ma? Is his g irl friend a Spaniard? [2 ] 这学期你还上艺术史课吗？

Zhè xuéqĩ nĩ hái shàng yìshùshĩ kè ma? A re you s till taking the art history class this semester? The Chinese way o f form ulating a yes-no question is sim ple, but responding to the question is a little com plicated. In English, we use yes and no fo r a ll a ffirm a tiv e and negative answers, but Chinese does not have a panacea lik e yes or no. The word Ẵ is a lin k in g verb; it is far more lim ite d than English yes. People may respond to the same yes-no question differently. In general, you respond to the verb used in the question. The follow ing is a lis t o f various scenarios; there can be more than one proper response in some instances. F irs t, i f the q u e stio n is a c o p u la r sentence o r the 是 .......的 construction, you respond by 是 or 是的. You may also repeat the subject i f the question is about one’s, identity, such as 他 是 or 他 不 是 •

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[3 ]他是出租车司机吗？

是。

不是。

Tā shi chūzūchē sījī ma?

ShL

Bú shì.

Is he a ta xi driver?

Yes.

No.

[4 ]她 是 你 的 未 婚 妻 吗 ？

是〇

不是。

Tỗ shì nĩ de vvèihũnqĩ ma?

Shi.

Bú shì.

Is she your fiancee?

Yes.

No.

[5 ]你是今天到的吗？

是。

不是。

NT shì jīntiān dào de ma?

Shi.

Bú shì.

D id you arrive today?

Yes.

No.

Second, i f an adjective serves as the predicate, you respond by repeating the adjective. You may also use 是的. [6 ]你觉得我漂亮吗？

漂亮。

不漂党。

NĨ juéde wỗ piàoliang ma?

Piàoliang.

Bú piàoliang.

Do you th in k I am pretty?

Yes.

No.

[7 ]北京的夏天热吗？

热。

不热。

Bēijīng de xiàtiỗn rè ma?

Rè.

Bú rè.

Is B e ijin g ’s summer hot?

Yes.

No.

[8 ]这个房间太小吗？

是的。

不小。

Zhè ge fángjian tài xiâo ma?

Shì de.

Bù xiâo.

Is this room too small?

Yes.

No.

T h ird , i f there is a modal a u xilia ry verb in the sentence, you respond by repeating the a u x ilia ry verb. Some a u x ilia ry verbs have m u ltip le meanings, and there may be different responses. [9 ]我可以坐这儿吗？

可以。

不可以 ( 不 知 ）〇

Wo kẽyĩ zuò zhèr ma?

Kẽyĩ.

Bù kěyT, (Bùxíng).

M ay I sit here?

Yes.

No.

[ 1 0 ] 我/ n 应 该 道 歉 吗 ？

应该。

不应该。

Women yĩnggỗi dào qiànma?

Yĩnggỗi.

Bù yĩnggỗi.

Should we apologize?

Yes.

No.

[1 1 ]火 车 能 按 时 到 吗 ？

能 ( 可 以 ）〇

不能。

Huõchẽ néng ànshí dào ma?

Néng(Kẽyĩ).

Bù néng.

Can the tra in arrive on time?

Yes.

No.

Sentence Types 句类

F ourth, when verbs are follo w e d by the aspect particles 7 and i± , you should include them in the positive answer. I f the action has not occurred, use only the particle i i , but not the particle T. [1 2 ]你 吃 猪 肉 饺 子 吗 ？

吃。

不吃。

Nĩ chĩ zhūrou jiaozi ma?

Chī.

Bù chī.

Do you eat pork dumplings?

Yes.

No.

看过Q

没看过。

[1 3 ]你 看 过 这 个 电 影 吗 ？

Nĩ kàn guo zhè ge diànyĩng ma?

Kàn guo.

Méi kàn guo.

Have you seen this movie?

Yes.

No.

[1 4 ]你 还 她 那 本 书 了 吗 ？

还了。

没还。

Nĩ huán tā nà běn shū le ma?

Huân le.

Méi huán.

D id you return the book to her?

Yes.

No.

23.1.2 B马（ negative o rie n ta tio n ) Yes-no questions may be form ulated in a negative fo rm that is typ ica lly stated in a tone o f surprise or disbelief. The fact is different from one’s expectation or presumption. [1 5 ]你 不 是 法 国 人 吗 ？

Nĩ búshì Faguó rén ma? A ren’t you a Frenchman? [1 6 ]你 不 知 道 他 来 了 吗 ？

我是。 wõ shì. Yes, I am.

不是。

Bú shì. No.

我知道。

不知道。

Nĩ bù zhīdao tā lái le ma?

Wo zhīdao.

Bù zhīdao.

D idn’t you know he arrived?

Yes, I know

No

通知了。

没有。

[1 7 ]他 没 有 $ 知 你 吗 ？

Tỗ méiyỗu tongzhī nĩ ma?

Tongzhī le.

Méiyõu.

Hasn’t he notified you?

Yes, he has.

No.

[1 8 ]我 的 回 答 不 对 吗 ？

对。

不对。

Wo de huídá bú duì ma?

Dui.

Bú dui.

Isn’t m y answer correct?

Yes.

No.

There are tw o special patterns often used in the negative form o f the yes-no question. One is “ subject + 不是 + verb + clause”；the other is “ subject + 没有 + verb + clause.” These questions can be rhetorical questions; or they may require more than ayes or «Ơ answer.

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[1 9 ] 我 不 是 说 了 我 不 爱 你 了 吗 ？

wõ bú shì shuõ le wõ bú ài nĩ le ma? D idn’t I say that I do not love you any more? [2 0 ] 你 没 听 说 她 跟 别 人 同 居 了 吗 ？

Nĩ méi tĩngshuõ tā gẽn biérén tongjū le ma? Haven’t you heard she is now liv in g w ith someone else?

23.1.3 卩 巴as a modal particle

»

The m odal p a rticle can be placed at the end o f a declarative sentence to form a yes-no question，by w hich the questioner may want to c o n firm his or her presum ption. The particle ?巴 is used to seek fo r agreement from the listener. [2 1 ] 你 病 了 吧 ？

NT bing le ba? You are sick, aren’t you? [2 2 ] 你 认 识 他 吧 ？

Nĩ rènshi tā ba? You know him , don’t you? [2 3 ] 这 本 护 照 是 你 的 吧 ？

Zhè běn húzháo shì nĩ de ba? This passport is yours, isn’t it? [2 4 ] ，天 夜 里 没 下 雨 吧 ？

Zuotiān yè lĩ méi xià yũ ba? It didn’t rain last night, did it? However, in some instances，the sentence ending w ith the particle 口巴 can be an im perative sentence. ?巴 softens the tone o f a command. 我们走吧。

wõme门 zõu ba. Let us go. 口巴has the effect o f saying “ let us go i f it is fin e w ith you.” This sentence could be viewed as a question, but the speaker has already made his or her decision.

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23.1.4 Tag questions The tag question, also a type of yes-no question, consists of two parts. The first part is a statement; the second part is a question that seeks the confirmation or agreement from the listener. [ 2 5 ] 你 想 当 医 生 ，对 吗 ？

Nĩ xiâng dâng ỹĩshẽng, duì ma? You want to be a medical doctor, is that right? [ 26 ] 他 已 经 毕 业 了 ，是 不 是 ？

Tā yTjlng bìyè le, shì bu shì? He has graduated ，hasn’t he? [ 2 7 ] 我 们 十 年 后 退 休 ，怎 么 样 ？

Women shí nián hòu tuìxiũ, zěnmeyáng? We will retire in ten years, how about that? [ 2 8 ] 我 们 明 年 去 地 中 海 休 假 ，好 吗 ？

Women míngnián qù dizhonghai xiũ jià, hâo ma? We will vacation in the Mediterranean next year, is that okay?

23.2 Question-word questions (特指问句) In English, question-word questions (also known as wA-question or content question) begin with an interrogative word, such as wAat, w hen, w/ỉere, w h y, w h o , w h ic h , etc. Question-word questions (Q-question) require a specific answer for the missing information requested by the interrogative words, whereas yes-no questions require a simple y e s or no answer In Chinese, Q-question is known as 特 指 问 句 （specific question). It also requires interrogative words that include 多 少 （how many, how much),几 （how many),哪 儿 （ where),哪 （ which),什 么 （ what), 谁 （ who), 为 什么（ why), 怎 么 （ how, why), 怎 么 样 （ how), etc. These interrogative words do no take the same syntactic position as their counterparts in English (see the chapter on pronouns). In addition, 多，an adverb in Chinese, can take an adjective (多 + adjective) to form a Q-question.

23.2.1 Replacements Every Q-question is based on a declarative sentence in which the information about one element is missing, and the interrogative word

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takes the position o f that element and requests that in fo rm a tio n . The difference between E nglish and Chinese Q -questions is that E nglish interrogative words are placed at the beginning o f a sentence w h ile Chinese interrogative words stay at the position o f whatever elements they replace. 我要一碗燕窝汤。

Wo yào yì wan yànwõ tăng. I want a bow l o f birď s nest soup. 你要什么？

NT yào shénme? W hat do you want? In the above English Q-question, what is at the beginning o f the sentence, but in the above Chinese Q-question,什么 takes the position o f the object. Notice that, in the follow ing sentences, each Chinese interrogative word stays at the position o f the word it replaces. [1 ] 刚才打电话的人是谁？

Gỡngcái dâ diànhuà de rén shì shéi? W ho is the person who ju s t called? [2 ] 你昨天晚上去哪儿了？

NĨ zuotiān wanshang qù nâr le? W here did you go yesterday evening? [3 ] 哪家商店的声誉最好？

Nâ jiā shỗngdiàn de shẽngyù zuì hâo? W hich store has the best reputation? [4 ] 他告诉你了什么秘密？

TỠ gàosu nĩ le shénme mìmì? W hat secret did he te ll you? [5 ] 你什么时候上的飞机？

Nĩ shénme shíhou shàng de fēijī? W hen did you board the airplane? [6 ] 他怎么说服了你妈妈？

Tā zěnme shuofú le nĩ māma? How did he persuade your mom?

Sentence Types 句类

[7 ] 你给她买了多少件礼物？

Nĩ gẽi tā mâi le duõshao jiàn ITwù? How many g ifts did you buy her? [8 ] 为什么你不给我送花了？

wéishénme nĩ bù gěi wõ sòng huā le? W hy do you not bring me flowers any more? [9 ] 你知道埃菲尔铁塔多高？

NĨ zhīdao Āifēi^r tiě tâ duõ gāo? Do you know how ta ll the E iffe l Tower is? In [8 ]，the position o f the interrogative w ord 为什么 is fle x ib le because it does not replace any specific element in a sentence. It is often placed before or after the subject.

23.2.2 呢 as a modal particle The m odal particle 呢 may generate a Q-question, but its meanings are contextual. 呢 is preceded by a noun or pronoun, and it may form a follow -up question whose meaning depends on the preceding statement. 我 朋 友 毕 业 了 ，你 呢 ？

Wỗ péngyou bìyè le, nT nờ? M y friend has graduated. How about you? In th is sentence，你 呢 means “ how is your situation w ith respect to graduation?” In such instances，呢 requires the listener to respond to the preceding statement. [ 1 0 ] 系 主 任 同 意 了 ，你 呢 ？

Xì zhurén tóngyì le, nĩ ne? The Departm ent C hair has agreed, how about you? [ 1 1 ] 他 们 的 公 司 倒 闭 了 ，你 们 的 公 司 呢 ？

Tỗmen de gõngsĩ dâobì le, nĩmen de gõngsĩ ne? T heir company has gone bankrupt, how about your company? For another usage, the particle 呢 ，placed at the end o f a Q-question， may express the questioner’s wonder or perplexity. In some cases，the question is addressed to the speaker him self or herself. [1 2 ] 你 怎 么 不 早 告 诉 养 呢 ？

NĨ zěnme bù zâo gâosu wõ ne? W hy did you not te ll me earlier?

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[1 3 ] 那 个 戴 眼 镜 的 人 是 谁 呢 ？

Nà ge dài yanjing de rén shì shéi ne? W ho is the man w ith the glasses? “ Noun + 呢 ， ’’ as an in itia l rather than a follow -up question, usually means “ where is som ething?” The question may be self-directed or is directed to a listener. [1 4 ] 我 的 钥 匙 呢 ？

wõ de yàoshi ne? W here is m y key? [1 5 ] 我 们 的 车 呢 ？

Women de chẽ ne? W here is our car?

23.3 Alternative questions (选择问句) The alternative question raises two or more possibilities, and one o f them is expected to be selected as the answer. Here is a famous lin e from H am let’s soliloquy: To be, or not to be: that is the question. Ẵ 生 还 是 死 ，这 是 个 问 题 。

Shì shẽng hái shì sĩ, zhè shì ge wèntí. English alternative questions use the conjunction or to connect two options; in Chinese, there are tw o ways you can form ulate alternative questions. You can use 还 是 (or) to connect tw o alternatives; you can also, in addition to 还是 ， use 是 before the firs t alternative, which sounds more emphatic. 你去中国还是去印度？

Nĩ qù Zhongguó háishi qù Yìndù? Do you go to China or India? 你 是 去 中 国 ，还 是 去 印 度 ？

Nĩ shì qù Zhongguó, háishi qù Yìndù? Do you go to China or India? In Chinese alternative questions, the e ntire predicate is usually repeated after 还 是 （ subject + verb + object + 还是 + verb + object)，no matter whether the focus is on the verb, the object, or the adverbial.

Sentence Types 句类

[1 ] 您喝红酒还是喝白酒？

Nín hē hóngjiu háishi hē báijiu? W ould you d rin k red w ine or w hite wine? [2 ] 你 想 嫁 给 我 还 是 想 嫁 给 他 ？

NT xiâng jià gěi wõ háishi xiâng jià gěi tā? Do you want to m arry me or him? [3 ]

出院还是明天出院？

Tā jīntiān chũ yuan háishi mingtiān chū yuan? W ill he be discharged from the hospital today or tom orrow?

[4 ] $ 相_信 西 医 _还 是 相 信 中 医 ？

Nĩ xiỗngxìn xĩyĩ háishi xiãngxìn zhõngyĩ? Do you believe in W estern m edicine or tra d itio n a l Chinese medicine? I f the alternative is focused on the subject，是 should precede the subject o f the firs t part o f the sentence，and 还 是 should precede that o f the second part. [ 5 ] 是 你 错 了 ，还 是 我 错 了 ？

Shì nĩ cuò le, háishi wỏ cuò le? A re you wrong? O r am I wrong? [ 6 ] 是 你 中 奖 了 ，还 是 你 弟 弟 中 奖 了 ？

Shi nĩ zhóng jiang le, háishi nĩ didi zhóng jiang le? D id you or your younger brother w in the lottery? N otice that 还 是 is only used in interrogative sentences，w hile 或者， which also means or, is only used in declarative sentences. W rong:

你喜欢社会学或者喜欢心理学？

Nĩ xĩhuan shèhuìxué huózhě xĩhuan xĩnlĩxué? Do you lik e sociology or psychology? C orrect:

你喜欢社会学还是喜欢心理学？

Nĩ xĩhuan shèhuìxué háishi xĩhuan xĩnlĩxué? Do you lik e sociology or psychology? For the usages o f 或者，see the chapter on conjunctions.

23.4 Affirmative-negative questions (正反问句) The affirm ative-negative question offers the choices o f A or not A

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(affirm ative or negative), which differs from the alternative question that offers the choices o f A or B. There are two ways o f raising an affirm ative­ negative question. One is to place the affirm ative verb phrase before the negative form o f the verb phrase; then the object o f the repeated verb may be om itted. 他 吃 牛 肉 不 吃 （牛 肉 ）？

Tā chĩ niúròu bù chĩ (niúròu)?

•

Does he eat beef or not (eat beef)? In this case, it is more natural and idiom atic to om it the repeated object, and this is also true in the English sentence above. The other way o f fo rm in g an affirm ative-nega tive question is to juxtapose the a ffirm a tiv e and negative form o f the verb, w hich seems more common than the firs t form . 你喝不喝乌龙茶？

Nĩ hẽ bu hẽ wulóng chá? Do you d rin k oolong tea or not? F or th is fo rm o f a ffirm a tiv e -n e g a tiv e question , you ju xta p o se the affirm ative and negative form s o f the verb. I f an a u xilia ry verb precedes the verb, the a u xilia ry verb takes the affirm ative and negative form . [1 ] 你 会 不会唱京剧？

Nĩ huì bu huì chàng jĩngjù? Can you sing Peking Opera or not? [2 ] $ 是 不 是 新 校 长 ？

Tā shĩ bu shì xĩn xiáozhang? Is he the new president or not? [3 ] 你投不投我的票？

Nĩ tóu bu tóu wõ de piào? W ill you vote for me or not? [4 ]

他靠得住靠不住？

Tã kào de zhù kào bu zhù? Can he be trusted or not? N otice that in [4], the question should be 靠得住靠不住 instead o f 靠不靠 得 住 • You should juxtapose not only the affirm ative and negative form s o f the verb but also the potential complements. Remember, i f your question is about whether something has been

Sentence Types 句类

completed, you need to use 没有 or 没 instead o f 不 fo r the negative form o f the verb•没有 can also be placed at the end o f the sentence. [5 ] 你听过没听过这首歌？

Nĩ tĩng guo méi tĩng guo zhè shỗu gẽ? Have you heard this song? [6 ] 你买没买这学期的课本？

Nĩ mâi méi mâi zhè xuéqĩ de kèbẽn? Have you bought the textbooks fo r this semester? [7 ] 他离开了办公室没有？

Tā likāi le bàngõngshì méiyõu? Has he le ft the office? [8 ] 你看过这篇文章没有？

Nĩ kàn guo zhè pian wénzhang méiyõu*? Have you read this article? In [5]，you may change听 过 没 听 过 t o 听 没 听 过 . For another use o f the affirm ative-negative question: you may place 是不是 before a verb phrase to ask i f something is a fact. [9 ] 他是不是收到录取通知书了？

Tỗ shì bu shì shõudào lùqũ tongzhīshū le? Has he already received the acceptance letter? [1 0 ] 太 阳 是 不 是 总 是 从 东 方 升 起 ？

Tàiyáng shì bu Shi zongshi cóng dāngfāng shẽng qĩ? Does the sun always rise from the east? 是不是 may also be used to make a suggestion or to ask fo r advice，such as when one is uncertain about doing something. [1 1 ] 你 是 不 是 应 该 考 虑 一 下 他 的 看 法 ？

Nĩ shì bu shì yĩnggỗi kâolu yíxià tã de kànfâ? Should you give some thought to his view? [1 2 ] 我 是 不 是 今 天 晚 上 去 医 院 看 看 他 ？ w õ shì bu shì jīntiān wanshang qù yĩyuàn kànkan tã?

Should I go to v is it him at the hospital this evening? The affirm ative-negative question can be answered in the same way as the yes-no question is answered.

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Im p e ra tiv e S e n te n c e s 祈 使 句

Im perative sentences give orders and commands. You hear them everywhere. In the museum, the guide may say to you, t4D o not use the camera.” A t the a irp o rt security checkpoint, the guard may say to you, “ Take o ff your shoes.” In your class, your professor may say to you, “ Silence your cell phone.” A ll these are im perative sentences. You may not lik e being ordered around, but that is the way life is. As your grandmother may say, “ That’s the way the cookie crumbles.” Orders and commands are usually directed to the person spoken to; therefore, the subject o f the im perative is naturally the second person pronoun you, w hich is u sually not stated but understood. However, commands can be given to tw o or more people in clu d in g the speaker h im se lf or herself. Thus, the firs t person pronoun we can also be the subject o f the imperative. In English, some th in k that there is also a th ird person imperative: Someone pick up the trash! 收一下垃圾！

Shõu yíxià lājī! T his is uncom m on i f it is considered a th ird person im perative. In Chinese, the third person im perative is not possible, fo r the change from the second to the th ird person w ill make an interrogative or a declarative sentence. In English, im perative sentences use verbs in their base form s, and they are relatively simple. For Chinese im perative sentences, some verbs require the presence o f the subject, and quite a few com m only-used m onosyllabic verbs need to be reduplicated. Chinese adjectives, when serving as the predicate o f an im perative sentence, require an adverbial. In addition, for both English and Chinese imperatives, remember that only those verbs representing voluntary actions can serve in the im perative. You may order someone to go to bed but not to fa ll asleep. The im perative inherently sounds authoritative , abrupt, or rude. To be po lite , you may use an interrogative rather than an im perative sentence when making a request. In English, instead o f saying uPass me the pepper,” you could say, “ W ould you please pass me the pepper?” In Chinese, you may use tag questions that end w ith 好 吗 （ is that alright?). There are some markers o f politeness that you may use to soften the tone

Sentence Types 句类

of your requests. In writing, you may end an imperative sentence with a period rather than an exclamation mark, and the latter is forceful. In this chapter, we will examine various aspects of the imperative and those markers of politeness. We will also look at some harsh or offensive commands, which you should know but avoid using if you can. 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4

*

Positive imperatives Negative imperatives Polite imperatives Strong imperatives

24.1 Positive imperatives (肯定祈使句)

The imperative can be in a positive or negative form: one commands someone to do something; the other orders someone not to do something. Now let us start with positive imperatives.

24.1.1 Commands without a subject The imperative subject is usually not needed, and the predicate is typically a verb or a verb phrase. The verbs, as noted earlier, represent voluntary actions that you can control. They are usually monosyllabic verbs, such as 吃 （ e a t) , 喝 （ d rin k ), 看 （ lo o k ), 来 （ co m e), 瞧 （ lo o k ), 听 (listen), etc. [1] 停。 Ting. Stop. [2 ] 走 。

Zou. Go. The verb phrase usually consists of a verb and an object; it may also take the form of a verb preceded by an adverbial. The 把 sentence is often used in the imperative. [3 ] 打开书。 Dâ kāi shū. Open the book.

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[4 ] 往 前 走 。

Wang qián zou. Go straight. [5 ] 六点钟吃药。

Liù diân zhõng chĩ yào. Take the medicine at six o’clock. [6] 把 那张支票给我。 Bâ nà zhāng zhīpiao gěi wo. Give me that check. Many monosyllabic verbs need to be reduplicated or to have “ 一 ” placed between the reduplication, which somewhat softens the tone and indicates a short duration of the action. These verbs include /ỷ (rinse), 吹 （ b lo w ), 等 （ w a it) ,晃 （ sh ak e), 敲 （ k n o c k ), 揉 （ r u b ), 刷 （ b ru sh ), 算 (calculate)，舔 （ lick), 闻 （ sm ell), 吻 （ kiss), 洗 (wash)，醒 (wake), etc. [ 7 ] 摸 摸 （摸 一 摸 ）。

Mõmo (mõ yì mõ). Touch. [ 8 ] 歇 歇 （歇 一 歇 ）。

Xiẽxie (xiẽ yì xiē). Take a break. These verbs， postmodified by 一会 JL* (a little while) or 一下JL (a moment), can also form the imperative. Some verbs need a complement of direction to form the imperative, similar to English phrasal verbs. For example, the verb 出 needs the complement 去 to form the imperative of 出 去 （go out). [9 ] 上 来 。

Shàng lái. Come up. [10]站 起 来 。 Zhàn qĩlái. Stand up.

24.1.2 Commands with a subject Imperative sentences usually do not require a subject, but some disyllabic verbs require the presence of the subject when used in the

Sentence Types 句类

imperative. These verbs include 代 替 （ replace), 代 表 （ represent)，负 责 （be responsible)，解 决 （ solve),解 释 (explain),领 导 （ lead)，决 定 （ decide), etc. [11]

你负责收作业。

NĨ fuze shõu zuòyè. You are responsible for collecting homework. [1 2 ] 你 决 定 谁 发 言 。

NĨ juéding shéi fā yán. You decide who speaks. In some instances, you may keep or omit the subject, depending on the meaning and the tone of the imperative. The presence of the subject sometimes may sound a little more personal. [ 1 3]

你要注意考体。

Nĩ yào zhùyì shẽntĩ. Take care of your health. [1 4 ] 您 检 查 一 下 血 压 。

Nín jianchá yíxià xuèyã. Please check your blood pressure. The presence of the subject may also add a tone of dissatisfaction, displeasure, or irritation on the part of the speaker with the listener. It makes clear that the statement is directed at the listener. [1 5 ] 你 再 仔 细 看 看 ！

NT zài zĩxì kànkan! You must take another careful look! [1 6 ] 你 把 电 脑 关 上 ！

Nĩ bâ diànnâo guãn shàng! You must turn off the computer! [1 7 ] 你 来 一 下 我 的 办 公 室 。

NT lái yíxià wõ de bàngõngshì. You must come to my office. [1 8 ] 你 先 回 去 看 看 你 的 考 试 再 来 谈 分 数 ！

NT xiãn huí qù kànkan nĩ de kâoshì zài lái tán fěnshú! You must first go back and look at your exam before discussing the grade.

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In B eijing and many parts o f the north, people also use 您 fo r the im perative. The use o f iề is a respectful way o f addressing someone senior to you. [1 9 ] 您 慢 走 。

Nín màn zõu. Please w alk slowly. [2 0 ] 您 坐 这 个 位 子 。

Nín zuò zhồ ge wéizi. Please take this seat. The im perative subject is usually the second person pronoun, but it can be the firs t person pronouns 我彳门（ we) and 咱彳门（ we). English firs t person im peratives often begin w ith let\ in Chinese, can also be preceded by 让 （ let), but 咱们 is usually not. [2 1 ] 让 我 们 想 一 想 。

Ràng women xiâng yì xiâng. Let us th in k it over. [2 2 ] 咱 们 明 天 都 去 Q

zánmen míngtiồn dõu qù. We w ill a ll go tom orrow.

24丄 3 The durative 着 The E nglish im perative is h a rd ly ever in progressive fo rm ; the Chinese im perative may be form ed by an action verb follow ed by the aspect particle 着，which requests the listener to stay in a position or hold a posture. These verbs are m onosyllabic，and they in clu d e :按 （ press down), 蹲 （ squat),扶 （ hold to ),举 （ lif t up)，看 （ watch)，挣 （ carry)，拿 （ hold)，认 (lie face-down)，躺 （ lie ) ,听 （ listen)，站 （ stand),拽 (p u ll),坐 （ sit)，etc.

[2 3 ] 托 着 ！ Tuõ zhe! H old it in the palm.

[ 2 4 ] 赉着!

Bào zhe! H old it in your arms.

Sentence Types 句类

[2 5 ] 扛 着 ！

Káng zhe! C arry it on your shoulder. [2 6 ] ỹ 着 ！

Bii zhe! C arry it on your back

24.1.4 Commands (adjective) The E nglish im perative can be form ed by the lin k in g verb plus adjectives, such as be careful and be patient. The Chinese im perative can be form ed by adjectives follow ed by —々JL* (a little ) or —些 （ some), w hich means that som ething’s current state is not adequate in terms o f degree, quantity, size, etc. For example, means a little bigger, and the speaker wants something to be bigger than it currently is. [2 7 ] 认 真 一 点 儿 。

Renzhēn yìdiânr. Be serious! [2 8 ] 小 心 一 点 A 。

Xiâoxĩn yìdiânr. Be cautious! [2 9 ] 大 方 一 些 。

Dafāng yìxiẽ. Be generous. [3 0 ] 客 气 一 些 。

Kèqì yìxiẽ. Be polite.

24.2 Negative imperatives (否定祈使句) Negative im peratives command someone not to do something, and they need a negative adverb to begin the sentence. In the follow ing, we w ill examine five negative adverbs:另 丨 J ,不要，不用，不必，and 甭.

24.2.1 The negative imperative 另Ij 另1J is an adverb. It corresponds to English

and it is exclusively

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used fo r negative im p e ra tiv e s .另,J precedes the verb, and verbs may represent voluntary actions or mental activities. [1 ] 别 说 话 。

Bié shuõ huà. Don’t talk. [2 ] 别 碰 我 。

Bié pèng wo. Don’t touch me. [ 3 ] 别 忘 了 向 他 问 好 。_

Bié wàng le xiàng tã wèn hâo. Don’t forget to say hello to him . [4 ] 刮 考 多 个 人 得 失 。

Bié kâolu gèrén déshĩ. D o ď t consider personal gain or loss. In [3]，忘、is usually used in the negative im perative. In [4]，考虑 can be used in the positive im perative but only in reduplication, and it requires the presence o f the subject. In E nglish, the presence o f the subject may have the effect o f an angry or w arning tone in the negative im perative (e.g. D on’t you do that!). In Chinese, there is little difference whether you use the subject in negative im peratives• 另1J postpositions the subject. [5 ] 你 别 听他的。

Nĩ bié tīng tā de. Don’t listen to him . [6 ] 你别小看他。

Nĩ bié xiâo kàn tã. Don’t take him lightly. [7 ] 你别把这事看得太重。

Nĩ bié bâ zhè shì kàn de tài zhòng. Don’t take this m atter too seriously. [8 ] 我 们 别 和 他 一 般 见 识 。

Women bié hé tā yìbăn jiánshi. Let us not low er ourselves to his level. The firs t person negative im perative (我们 and 咱 们 ）is usually suggestive in tone. In [8 ]，if 另u is replaced by 不，it w ill change into a declarative

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sentence. 另 may also precede adjectives to form negative imperatives, where 这么（ to this degree),那 么 （ to that degree)，and 太 （ too) are often used to prem odify the adjective. [9 ]别担，〇 _

Bié dỗnxĩn. D on’t w orry. [1 0 ] 别 太 自 信 。

Bié tài zixin. Don’t be too self-confident. [1 1 ] 别 这 么 多 愁 善 感 。

Bié zhéme duõ chóu shàn gân. Don’t be so sentimental. [1 2 ] 别 那 么 自 以 为 是 。

Bié name zì yĩ wéi shì. D on’t be so self-righteous. Negative im peratives often end w ith the aspect particle 了，w hich may mean that the speaker either does not want something to happen or wants to stop something from continuing. [ 1 3 ] 别 去 了 ，太 晚 了 2

Bié qù le, tài wãn le. Don’t go; it is too late. [ 1 4 ] 别 丟 了 ，这 是 驾 驶 证 。

Bié diū le, zhồ shì jiàshĩzhèng. Don’t lose it; this is the drive r’s license. [ 1 5 ] 别 唱 了 ，烦 死 我 了 。

Bie chàng le, fan sĩ wõ le. Stop singing; it drives me crazy. [ 1 6 ] 别 天 天 吃 快 餐 了 ，没 好 处 。

Bié tiãntiỗn chĩ kuàicăn le, méi hâochù. Stop eating fast food every day; it is no good. See the usage o f the im perative in the chapters on the perfective aspect and the transform ative aspect.

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24.2.2 The negative imperative 不要 lite ra lly means not want. A s a negative adverb, it orders someone not to do som ething, but it may have a tone o f giving advice. A senior person may use it to address someone younger; it w ould be inappropriate to be the other way around. [1 7 ] 不 要 这 么 莽 撞 。

Bú yào zhéme mangzhuáng. Don’t be so reckless. [1 8 ] 不 要 这 么 幼 稚 。

Búyàozhèmeyòuzhì. Don’t be so naive. [1 9 ] 你 不 要 一 见 钟 情 。

Nĩ bú yào yí jiàn zhõng qíng. Don’t fa ll in love at firs t sight. [2 0 ] 你 不 要 不 听 劝 告 。

Nĩ bú yào bù tĩng quàngào. Don’t reject advice. 不 要 ，used in the firs t person im perative, can be both an im perative and a declarative sentence. For example,我彳门不 要去 can be read in both ways.

24.2.3 The negative imperative 不 用 ，不 必 ， and 甭 不用，不必 and 甭 are negative adverbs. T hey are v e ry close synonyms, and they a ll mean no use, not necessary, or no need. is a little more form al than 不用，and 甭 is colloquial compared w ith the other two. [ 2 1 ] 你 不 用 解 释 ，我 们 都 明 白 。

Nĩ bú yòng jiěshi, wõmen dõu míngbai. You do not need to explain; we a ll understand. [ 22]

你 不 用 着 急 ，他 一 切 都 好 。

Nĩ bú yòng zháojí, tā yíqiè dõu hâo. Don’t w orry; everything is fine w ith him . [2 3 ] 你 不 必 回 答 所 有 的 问 题 。

Nĩ bú bì huídá suõyõu de wèntí. You do not have to answer a ll the questions.

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[ 2 4 ] 你 不 / 必 再 花 五 _十元 买 保 险 。

Nĩ bú bì zài huỗ wushí yuán mâi bâoxiãn. You do not need to spend another fifty yuan on a warranty. [ 2 5 ] 甭去了，他 不 想 见 你 。

Béng qù le, tã bù xiâng jiàn nĩ. Don’t go; he does not want to see you. [ 2 6 ] 甭 说 了 ，Ỷ兑 了 也 白 说 。

Béng shuõ le, shuõ le yễ bái shuõ. Speak no more about it; you9re ju s t wasting your breath.

24.3 Polite imperatives (委婉祈使句) Im perative sentences, as noted earlier, are inherently authoritative, abrupt, or rude. However, you may use some m arkers o f politeness to tone down your commands. Now le t US look at several expressions o f politeness.

24.3.1 The imperative 请 ifr is a verb that means to invite. It is the m ost frequently used im perative m arker o f politeness that corresponds to please in English. ^ can occur w ith the subject, and it takes the in itia l position o f the sentence. [ 1 ] 请 回 到 你 ，座 位 上 。

Qĩng huí dào nĩde zuòwèi shàng. Please return to your seat. [2 ] 请你关上你的手机。

Qĩng nĩ guỗn shàng nĩ de shoujī. Please tu rn o ff your ce ll phone. [3 ] 请你谈谈这次事件的真相。

Qĩng nĩ tántan zhè cì shijián de zhěnxiáng. Please te ll the tru th about this incident. [4 ] 请告诉我政府的职责是什么。

Qĩng gàosu wo zhéngfu de zhízé shì shénme. Please te ll me what the government’s responsibilities are. 请 is also used in the negative im perative and can occur w ith 另4 ，不 要，不必，and 不用. It requires the presence o f the subject i f used w ith 甭.

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[5 ] 请别介意。

Qing bie jieyi. Please don’t take it to heart. [6 ] 请 你 不 要 再 打 扰 她 。

Qĩng nĩ bú yào zài dârâo tã. Please do not bother her again.

24.3.2 The imperative 麻烦 M-M means trouble or troublesome, and it is both a verb and an adjective. As an im perative marker, it expresses an apology fo r troubling someone to do som ething■麻烦 usually occurs w ith the subject, and it takes the in itia l position o f the sentence. [7 ] 麻 烦 你 把 那 张 报 纸 递 给 我 。

Máfan nĩ bâ nà zhāng baozhī dì gěi wo. Could I trouble you to hand me that newspaper? [8 ] 麻烦您帮我填一下申请表。

Máfan nín bồng wõ tián yíxià shẽnqĩngbiâo. Could I trouble you to f ill in this application form fo r me? [ 9 ] 麻 烦 您 给 我 写 一 封 推 夸 信 。_

Máfan nín gěi wỗ xiě yì fēng tuijianxin. Could I trouble you to w rite a recommendation letter fo r me? [1 0 ] 麻 烦 您 明 天 替 我 代 一 节 课 。

Máfan nín míngtiỗn tì wõ dài yì jié kè. Could I trouble you to substitute fo r me in a class tom orrow?

24.3.3 The imperative 劳驾 劳驾 is a popular im perative m arker o f politeness in B eijing dialect. ^ means to labor, and % means horse-drawn carriage, w hich used to be the vehicle fo r im portant people or high o ffic ia ls •劳驾 lite ra lly means to bother someone important. In everyday speech today, it is equivalent to excuse me in English. can occur w ith and in w ritin g it can be separated from the rest o f the sentence by a comma. [1 1 ] 劳 驾 让 我 过 去 。

Láojiá ràng wỗ guò qù. Excuse me, le t me pass.

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[1 2 ] $ 琴、 ，请v您 在 这 士 签 名 。_

Láojiá, qĩng nín zài zhèr qiãn míng. Excuse me, please sign your name here. [ 1 3 ] 劳, $ 、 ，请、 / ề 给/我f 二 张 收 据 。

Láojiá, qĩng nín gěi wõ kāi yi zhāng shouju. Excuse me, please give me a receipt. [ 14 ] 劳/ % , 请7给 我 v— 个 靠 窗 户 的 座 位 。

Láojiá, qĩng gěi wỗ yí ge kào chuãnghu de zuówéi. Excuse me, please give me a w indow seat. 24.4

s tro n g im p e ra tiv e s (强硬祈使句)

Im perative sentences can be strong, offensive, or even insu ltin g . In C hinese，one may use such commands as 住 嘴 （ shut up) o r 滚蛋 (get away) in an angry or raging mood. Now le t US look at some strong commands; some o f them are offensive.

24.4.1 The imperative 不许 不许 means not allo w e d . It is used to te ll someone not to do something or to stop someone doing something. 不许 sounds authoritative and serious. F o r exam ple, someone m ay say to you, uN o photo is allowed.” As a command，不许 is not necessarily rude, but it can make you feel embarrassed•不许 goes w ithout the subject. [1 ] 不 许 说 话 ！

Bù xú shuõ huà! No ta lkin g is allowed! [2 ] 不许看笔记！

Bù xũ kán biji! It is not allowed to look at notes! [3 ] 不许出教室！

Bù xũ chū jiáoshi! It is not allowed to leave the classroom! To soften the tone, you may use 不要 instead o f 不许，such as 请 不 要 说 话. 不要 can occur w ith 请，but 不许 does not.

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24.4.2 The imperative 给 我 means fo r me. It is often preceded by the subject and follow ed by the verb and the aspect particle 着 to form an im perative. It can also be follow ed by a verb and a directional complement to form an im perative. The tone o f such a command can be angry, authoritative, or threatening, and it can be offensive and insulting. [4 ] 你 给 我呀着！

NĨ gěi wo tīng zhe! You listen to me! [5]

你给我年着！

NĨ gěi wo zhán zhe! You stand there fo r me! [6 ] 你给我看着他！

NĨ gěi wỗ kān zhe tā! You watch him fo r me! [7 ] 你给我出去！

NT gěi wo chū qù! You get out o f here!

24.4.3 The imperative !ỳ ếỷ means less. I t can precede a verb or verb phrase to fo rm a command. The speaker o f such a command may be irrita te d and fed up w ith what someone is saying or doing. Such a command is offensive and insulting.

[ 8 ] 少废话! Shâo fèi huà! Come o ff it! [9 ] 少管闲事！

Shâo guân xiánshì! M in d your own business! [1 0 ]少来这一 套 ！

Shâo lái zhè yí tào! Knock o ff it!

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N otice that 少 can also be used in giving advice, such as 少 吃 肉 （ eat less meat), w hich does not mean to com pletely stop eating meat. However, when 少 is used in the im perative, it does not mean to do something less, but it sim ply means do not do something.

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E x c la m a to ry S e n te n c e s 感 叹 句

Exclam atory sentences express strong feelings and emotions. In a sense, alm ost any sentence can be turned in to an exclam atory sentence by in fle c tio n o f voice and tone. However, g ra m m a tica lly speaking, form al English exclam atory sentences begin w ith the pronoun vvAíư and the adverb how, which function as intensifiers and prem odify nouns and adjectives respectively. In Chinese, form al exclam atory sentences need certain adverbs or pronouns. Am ong them , the adverb 多 么 （ how much) may be viewed as the archetypal in te n s ifie r o f Chinese exclam atory sentences. The follow ing lines, for example, are from Ham leťs famous soliloquy: 人 是 一 件 多 么 了 不 起 的 杰 作 ！多 么 高 贵 的 理 性 ！多 么 伟 大 ử ỉ力 * ! 多 么 优 美 的 仪 冬 ！多 么 优 # 的 举 辞 ！夺 行 A i 多 么 杳 一 个 天 使 ! 在 智 Ẳ 上 多 么 像 一 个 天 神 ！宇 杳 华 ！万 物 的 灵 长 ！

Rén shì yí jiàn duõme liâobùqĩ de jiézuó! Duõme gãoguì de lĩxìng! Duõme wěidá de lìliàng! Duõme yõumẽi de yíbiâo! Duõme yõuyâ de júdóng! zài xíngwéi shàng duõme xiàng yí ge tiãnshĩ! zài zhihui shàng duõme xiàng yí ge tiãnshén! Yúzhóu de jīnghua! Wànwù de língzhang! W hat a piece o f w ork is a man! how noble in reason! how in fin ite in faculties! in form and m oving how express and adm irable! in action how lik e an angel! in apprehension how lik e a god! the beauty o f the w orld! the paragon o f anim als! These lines represent w e ll the Renaissance H um anists5 g lo rific a tio n o f man, w hile H am let, saddened by his father’s death and his m other’s rem arriage, is suggesting th a t man is very fa r fro m a m asterpiece. However, notice that in the Chinese version, translated by Zhu Shenghao, the adverb 多么 turns each line into an exclamation. In addition to certain adverbs and pronouns, some modal particles, when placed at the end o f sentences, can signal different moods and make exclamatory sentences in Chinese. There are also quite a few exclamatory words, known as interjections, which can express strong emotions. These exclam atory words, s im ila r to their counterparts in English, are usually placed at the beg in n in g o f a sentence. They are not g ra m m a tica lly connected w ith the rest o f the sentence, and their meanings may depend

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on the tone o f voice. In this chapter, we w ill include them in exclamatory sentences. Chinese is a tonal language. The tone o f voice is crucial in uttering exclamatory sentences, fo r different tones may convey different meanings. 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5

Adverbial intensifiers Pronoun intensifiers M odal particles Exclam atory words Special exclamatory words

25.1 Adverbial intensifiers (副词的强化作用) In English, the adverb how is an intensifier in m aking exclamatory sentences. In Chinese, several adverbs o f degree are used to compose exclamatory sentences. They prem odify adjectives and certain verbs.

25.1.1 多么 as an intensifier The adverb 多么 means mwcA or a greař It is a strong in te n sifie r that, lik e what and how in E nglish, perhaps best represents Chinese exclamatory sentences•多么 is usually used in w ritten language or in poetry w hile 多 is m ostly used in spoken language. [1 ] 大峡谷的景色多么壮丽！

Dà xiágú de jīngse duõme zhuángli! W hat a breathtaking view the Grand Canyon has! [2]

那 个 女 I亥 多 么 知 书 达 理 ！

Nà ge núhái duõme zhĩ shũ dá lĩ! How w ell-cultured that g irl is. [3 ] 校 长 的 讲 演 多 枯 燥 无 味 ！

Xiáozhang de jiangyan duõ kūzao wúwéi! How boring and insipid the president’s speech is! [4 ] 我 多 羡 慕 她 乌 黑 的 头 发 ！ w õ duõ xiànmù tā wūhēi de tóufa!

How much I adm ire her shining black hair! 多么 or 多 only m odifies a lim ite d num ber o f verbs, such as Ề. (lo v e ),喜 欢 （ lik e ) ,羨 慕 （ adm ire). These verbs, lik e adjectives, can be

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prem odified by 4艮（ very). The subject o f the 多么 exclamatory sentence is often om itted i f it is clearly understood. [ 5 ] 多 么 慷 慨 ！多 么 大 气 ！

Duõme kỗngkâi! Duõme dàqì! How generous! How magnanimous! [6 ] 多么感人的故事！

Duõme gãnrén de gùshi! W hat a m oving tale! [ 7 ] 多 了 不 起 ！我 真 佩 服 他 的 毅 力 。

Duõ liâobùqĩ! Wo zhēn péifú tā de yìlì. How extraordinary! I tru ly adm ire his perseverance. [ 8 ] 多 大 的 雨 ！天 好 像 要 塌 下 来 了 。

Duõ dà de yũ! Tiān hâoxiàng yào tã xiàlaỉ le. W hat a to rre n tia l ra in ! It seems as i f the sky is going to collapse.

25.1.2 太 as an intensifier The adverb 太 is an intensifier，meaning exc從S7V办 It indicates ã much higher degree than what is norm al, either in a positive or negative sense•太 often collocates w ith 了，w hich can be used as an exclamatory phrase. [9 ] 年轻的一代太不可思议！

Niánqĩng de yídài tài bù kě sĩ yì! How incomprehensible the young generation is! [1 0 ] 他 们 的 决 定 太 不 近 人 情 ！

Tỗmen de juéding tài bú ]ìn rén qíng! How inhumane their decision is! [ 1 1 ] 太 震 撼 了 ！我 真 喜 欢 跳 伞 ！

Tài zhénhán le! Wo zhēn xĩhuan tiào sân! It is overwhelm ing! I really lik e parachuting! [ 1 2 ] 太 爽 了 ！这 么 好 喝 的 冰 茶 ！

Tài shuâng le! Zhéme hâo hē de bĩngchá! It is so cool! This ice tea tastes so good!

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25.1.3 真 as an intensifier ■$r, as an adverb, means really and truly. In exclamatory sentences, it denotes a high degree o f something, and it often expresses surprise or wonder. can introduce an exclamatory phrase. [1 3 ] 这 个 机 会 真 是 千 载 难 逢 ！

Zhè ge jīhui zhēn shì qiỡn zâi nán féng! This opportunity is once in a blue moon! [1 4 ] 你 的 那 位 同 事 真 爱 吹 牛 ！

NT de nà wèi tóngshì zhēn ài chuĩ niú! How much that colleague o f yours loves to brag! [ 1 5 ] 真 奇 怪 ！他 们 好 像 在 躲 着 我 。

Zhēn qíguài! Tāmen hâoxiàng zài duõ zhe wo. How strange! They seem to shun me. [ 1 6 ] 真 倒 霉 ！我 的 车 启 动 不 了 了 。

Zhēn dâoméi! Wỗ de chẽ qĩdòng bù liâo le. W hat bad luck! I cannot start m y car.

25.1.4 好 as an intensifier i f means good and is m ostly used as an adjective. However, it can also be used as an adverb indicating a high degree o f something. As an adverbial intensifier，it is m ostly used in spoken language and in the south. It can introduce an exclamatory phrase. [1 7 ] 你 们 家 的 儿 子 好 ， 气 ！

Nĩmen jiā de érzi hâo táoqì! Your son is so naughty! [1 8 ] 他 们 俩 看 起 来 好 亲 热 ！

Tỗmen liâ kàn qĩlái hâo qĩnrè! Those tw o look so intim ate! [ 1 9 ] 好 大 的 雪 ！我 今 天 怎 么 去 上 班 ？

Hâo dà de xuě! Wo jīntiān zěnme qù shàng ban? W hat a big snow! How can I go to w ork today? [ 2 0 ] 好 悬 ！我 差 一 点 儿 撞 上 那 辆 车 ！

Hâo xuán! w õ chà yìdiânr zhuang shàng nà liàng chẽ! W hat a close call! I almost h it that car!

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25.2 Pronoun intensifiers ( 代词的强化作用） In E nglish, such is a determ iner that indicates a great degree o f something. In Chinese, demonstrative pronouns 这么，那么，这样，and 男p 样 can also serve as intensifiers in m aking exclamatory sentences.

25.2.1 这么 and 那么 as intensifiers 这么 and 男p 么 b oth mean 5wcA; they express the fe e lin g th a t something has reached a very high degree. 这么 and 那么 can be used interchangeably in exclam atory sentences, and they can also introduce exclamatory phrases. [ 1 ] 你 送 我 的 玫 瑰 花 这 么 ẳ Ị!

Nĩ sòng wõ de méiguĩ huõ zhème hóng! The roses you sent to me are so red! [2 ] 那个姑娘那么善解人意！

Nà ge gūniang name shàn jiě rén yì! How understanding that g irl is! [ 3 ] 这 么 冷 的 天 ！人 可 以 冬 眠 吗 ？

Zhéme lěng de tiān! Rén kěyT dõngmián ma? Such a cold day! Can humans hibernate? [4 ] 你的孩子那么有想象力！

NT de háizi name you xiângxiànglì! Your ch ild has such a great im agination!

25.2.2 这样 and 那样 as intensifiers i i # and also mean such, but they are not as much used in spoken language as 这么 and 男p么• They denote a high degree，often in reference to the manner or appearance o f someone or something. [ 5 ] 天 是 这 样 蓝 ！水 是 这 样 清 !

Tiỗn shì zhéyáng lán! Shuĩ shi zhéyáng qĩng! The sky is so blue! The water is so clear! [6 ] 他这个人是这样忘恩负义！

Tā zhè ge rén shì zhèyàng wàng ẽn fù yì! He is such an ungrateful person!

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[ 7 ] 她 那 样 懒 惰 ！那 样 贪 吃 ！

Tỗ nàyàng lânduò! Nàyàng tân chĩ! She is so lazy and so gluttonous! [ 8 ] 他 那 样 有 魅 力 ！那 样 谦 逊 ！

Tã nàyàng yõu mèilì! Nàyàng qiãnxùn! He is so charism atic! So humble!

25.3 Modal particles (语气助词.) Chinese has a group o f modal particles that are placed at the end o f a sentence to express different moods, but they do not have a referential meaning. For example, 吗 is an indicator o f a question. Let us focus on fo u r particles, ，呀，唾 ，and 哪，w hich are often used in exclam atory sentences or phrases. 25.3.1

啊 as a m odal p a rtic le

A n exclam atory sentence, as shown above, does not necessarily need a m odal particle. However, the speaker may use a m odal particle fo r more dram atic effect or to interact w ith the listener. Compare these two sentences: 多美的v歌 ！

Duõ měi de gē! How beautiful the song is! 多美的歌啊！

Duõ měi de gē a! How beautiful the song is! The firs t sentence is sim ply an exclamation, but the m odal particle adds some personal feelings to the second one. The speaker seems to anticipate some response fro m the listener. is a very com m only used m odal particle, but it is usually used when the proceeding sound ends w ith -o, -e, and nasal sound. [1 ]这 怎 么 是 我 的 错 啊 ！

Zhè zěnme shì wõ de cuò a! How can it be m y fault!

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[2 ] 他的一生多坎坷啊！

Tā de yìshẽng duõ kânkẽ a! W hat a rough life he has lived! [3 ] 这首曲子多动听啊！

Zhè shõu qúzi duõ dòngtĩng a! How sweet this melody is!

25.3.2 Rĩ as a modal particle 呀 is a frequently used modal particle. It is a different form o f p阿 ， and it is used i f the preceding sound ends w ith -a, -o, -e, -i, and -li. [4 ] 他 的 身 体真虚呀！

Tā de shēntī zhēn xū ya! He is so weak! [5 ] 你们来得真及时呀！

NTmen lái de zhēn jíshí ya! You arrived on tim e! [6 ] 这种话可说不得呀！

Zhé zhong huà kě shuõ bù dé ya! Never say anything like this!

25.3.3 哇 and 哪 as modal particles and are another two modal particles, w hich are different form s o f 啊 due to the preceding sound.唾 is used when the proceeding sound ends w ith -u, -ou, and -ao; is used when the proceeding sound ends w ith -n. [7 ] 我们小时候的生活真苦哇！

Women xiâo shíhou de shẽnghuó zhēn kũ wa! We had such â hard life when we were young! [8 ] 今天的 会 多 无 聊 哇 ！

Jīntiān de huì duõ wúliáo wa! How senseless today’s meeting was! [ 9 ] 天 好 阴 哪 ！一 场 暴 雨 要 来 了 ！

Tiān hâo yĩn na! Yì Châng bàoyũ yào lái le! How cloudy it is! A thunderstorm is com ing!

Sentence Types 句类

[ 1 0 ] 天 真 闷 哪 ！我 快 喘 不 上 气 了 ！

Tiān zhēn měn na! w õ kuài chuân bú shàng qì le! It is so s tu ffy! I can hardly breathe.

25.4 Exclamatory words (感叹词) Exclam atory words are used fo r interjections that express sudden, strong emotions. Exclam atory words are placed at the beginning o f the sentence; they are independent, not gram m atically connected to the rest o f the sentence. One exclamatory word may have several meanings, depending on the tone o f voice. Exclam atory words can be regional; some are pronounced d iffe re n tly in d iffe re n t regions. The fo llo w in g are com m only used in Putonghua. Pay attention to the pinyin o f these words and the context in which they are used.

25.4.1 Amazement and admiration [ 1 ] ， ！太 壮 观 了 ！我 看 到 了 一 种 超 自 然 的 力 量 ！

À ! Tài zhuangguān le! w õ kàn dào le yì zhong chão zírán de lìliàng! O! It is spectacular! I have seen a supernatural power! [ 2 ] 哇 ！香 是 难 以 置 信 ！这 绝 对 是 一 个 奇 迹 ！

Wa! Zhēn shì nán yĩ zhì xìn! Zhè juédui shì yí ge qíjì! W ow! It is incredible! This is absolutely a m iracle. [ 3 ] 嗬 ！这 么 大 的 冰 雹 ！比 网 球 的 个 儿 还 大 ！

Hẽ! Zhéme dà de bĩngbáo! Bĩ wangqiú de gèr hái dà! Oh! Such large hailstones! Bigger than tennis balls! [ 4 ] 嘆 ！你 每 天 背 这 么 重 的 书 包 去 上 学 ？

Huò! NĨ meitiān bēi zhéme zhóng de shũbão qù shàng xué? Yow! You carry such a heavy book bag to school every day?

25.4.2 Joy and complacency [ 5 ] 嘿 ！又 是 星 期 五 了 。我 明 天 不 用 早 起 了 。 Hẽi! Yòu shì xĩngqĩ wú le. Wỗ míngtiỗn bú yòng zâo qĩ le. Yay! It is Friday again. I do not need to get up early tom orrow.

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[ 6 ] 哇 ！这 么 漂 亮 的 礼 物 ！知 我 者 ，非 你 莫 属 。

Wa! Zhéme piàoliang de lĩwù! Zhī wõ zhě, fēi nĩ mò shú. Ooh! Such a beautiful g ift! You are the one who knows me the best. [ 7 ] 哈 哈 ！我 知 道 你 不 是 对 手 Q你 还 有 什 么 可 说 的 吗 ？

Hỗhã! w õ zhīdao nĩ bú shì duìshõu. Nĩ hái you shénme kẽ shuõ de ma? Ha-ha! I knew you were no match. Do you have anything to say?

25.4.3 Shock and dismay [ 8 ] ， 呀 ！我 忘 带 护 照 了 ，上 不 了 飞 机 。

Ãiya! w õ wàng dài hùzhào le, shàng bù liâo fēijT Oh! I forgot to brin g m y passport. I can5t get on the airplane. [ 9 ] ， 哟 ！厕 所 发 大 水 了 。快 来 人 哪 ！

Ãiyõ! Cèsuỗ fỗ dà shuĩ le. Kuài lái rén na! Good lord! The bathroom is flooding! Help! [ 1 0 ] 啊 ！他 怎 么 了 ？快 叫 救 护 车 !

À! Tồ zěnme le? Kuài jiao jiúhúchě! Aah! W hat happened to him? C all an ambulance!

25.4.4 Surprise and wonder [ 11]

嘿 ！是 你 f ◦ 好 冬 不 见 了 。

Hẽi! Shì nĩ ya. Hão jiu bú jiàn le. Hey! It is you! Long tim e no see. [ 1 2 ] 哟 ！您 就 是 王 教 授 ？幸 会 ！幸 会 ！

Yõ! Nín jiù shì wáng ịiàoshòu? xìnghuì! xìnghuì! Oh! A re you Professor Wang? I am honored to meet you. [ 1 3 ] 咦 ！我 的 钥 匙 哪 儿 去 了 ？瞧 我 这 记 性 。

Yí! w õ de yàoshi nâr qù le? Qiáo wõ zhè jixing. H rm . W here is m y key? W hat a mem ory I have! [ 1 4 ] 呀 ！都 十 点 了 。我 今 天 要 晚 了 。

Yỗ! Dõu shí dỉân le. Wo jīntiān yào wan le. Gosh! It is already ten o’clock. I w ill be late today.

Sentence Types 句类

[1 5 ] $ 哟 ！您 可 别 搬 这 么 重 的 东 西 ！小 心 闪 了 腰 。

Ãiyõ! Nín kě bié bān zhéme zhóng de dõngxi! Xiâoxĩn shân le yāo. M y goodness! D on’t lif t such heavy stu ff. You w ill hurt your back!

25.4.5 Realization and revelation [ 1 6 ] 嚷： ！原 来 如 此 ！谢 谢 您 的 指 点 。

Õ ! Yuánlái rúcĩ! Xièxie nín de zhīdian. Oh! So that is how it is. Thank you fo r your instruction. [ 1 7 ] 哦 ！我 明 白 了 ！他 们 出 卖 我 了 。

Ò ! wõ míngbai le! Tāmen chũmài wõ le. Aha! I see. They have betrayed me. [ 1 8 ] 噢 ！你 是 从 乔 治 亚 来 的 ！我 也 是 。

õ ! Nĩ shì cóng Qiáozhiyá lái de! wõ yẽ shì. A h, you are from Georgia! So am I.

25.4.6 Sadness and pain [1 9 ]

唉 ！她 从 小 就 失 去 了 父 母 。真可怜丄

Ài! Tā cóng xiâo jiù shĩqù le fùmú. Zhēn kělián! Alas! She lost her parents when she was young. It is p itifu l! [ 2 0 ] 嗨 ！这 都 怪 我 。我 不 应 该 告 诉 她 。

Hài! Zhè dõu guài wõ. w õ bù yìnggãi gàosu tā. Alas! It is m y fault. I shouldn’t have told her. [ 2 1 ] 多 哟 ！我 的 脚 抽 筋 了 。请 扶 兔 一 下 。

Ãiyõ! Wo de jiao chõu jĩn le. Qĩng fú wõ yíxià. Ouch! M y foot is cramping. Please hold me for a second.

25.4.7 Contempt and derision [22] 哼 ！他 多 占 我 的 便 宜 。没 门 ！ Hēng! Tā Xiang zhàn wo de piányi. Méi mén! Humph! He wants to take advantage o f me. No way! [ 2 3 ] 呸 ！他 想 糊 弄 我 。 I 没那么容易、 。

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Pẽi! Tã xiâng hùnổng wõ. Méi nàme róngyì. Pooh! He wants to tric k me. Iťs not that easy.

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25.5 Special exclamatory words (特 殊 感 叹 词 ） In English, quite a few interjections, such as Gosh and Golly, are euphemisms fo r God. In Chinese, there is no such interjection; however, there are two special w o rd s ,天 （ heaven) and 妈 （ mother), follow ed by a modal particle, that Chinese often use fo r exclamations.

25.5.1 天明|! as an interjection In C hinese c u ltu re , heaven represents the suprem e d e ity th a t transcends a ll s p irits and gods. As an in te rje c tio n , however, people usually use it to utter surprise, disbelief, or sorrow rather than fo r its lexical meaning. [ 1 ] 天 哪 ！你 的 宿 舍 怎 么 会 这 么 脏 ！ Tiān na! N丫de sùshè zěnme hui zhéme zāng! Gosh! How can your dorm itory be so filth y ! [ 2 ] 我 的 天 哪 ！你 还 不 明 白 我 的 意 思 ！

Wỗ de tiān na! NT hái bù míngbai wõ de yìsi! M y goodness! You s till do not understand what I mean! H ow ever,天 ，as an interjection，can be used fo r its lexical meaning. It can be used to call the heaven to witness the truth o f something or to appeal to the heaven fo r help or fo r the delivery o f justice. [ 3 ] _ 天_爷 呀 ！今 予 一 滴 雨 ， 没 下 呀 ！

Lâotiỗnyé ya! Jīnnian yì dĩ yũ yě méi xià ya! Heavens! We have not had a single drop o f rain this year! [ 4 ] 苍 天 哪 ！他 怎 么 会 有 这 样 不 孝 的 子 孙 ！

Cāngtiān na! Tā zěnme hui you zhéyáng bú xiào de zīsūn! Good heavens! H ow could he have such u n filia l children!

25.5.2 妈呀 as an interjection

In Chinese, the word mother, lik e the word heaven, is also frequently used to utter strong emotions. As an interjection，妈呀 expresses a shock， surprise, or sorrow. Variations o f 妈呀 include 我 的 妈 呀 ，娘 啊 and 我的 娘+了〇

Sentence Types 句类

[ 5 ] 妈 呀 ！你 忘 了 关 煤 气 了 ！

Mỡ ya! Nĩ wàng le guān méiqì le! Oh, m y goodness! You forgot to tu rn o ff the gas stove! [ 6 ] 我 的 妈 呀 ！我 的 电 脑 掉 到 水 里 了 ！ 1 w õ de mõ ya! Wỗ de diànnâo diào dào shuĩ lĩ le!

Good gracious! M y laptop has fallen in the water! H o w e ve r, 妈 呀 o r 娘 啊 can also be used to express stro n g emotions, w hich can be both an in terjection and a direct address. It is d ire c tly addressed to m other, appealing fo r perm ission, explanation, understanding, etc. [ 7 ] 妈_呀 ！您 怎 么 不 理 解 您 的 女 儿 呀 J

Mỗ ya! Nín zěnme bù líjiě nín de nú’ ér ya! M other! How can you not understand your own daughter! [ 8 ] 娘 啊 ！你 为 什 么 抛 弃 你 的 孩 子 呀 ！

* Niáng a! NT wéishénme pãoqì nĩ de háizi ya! M other ! W hy did you abandon your own child!

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时与态

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Tenses and aspects are often m entioned together, but they are two different concepts. Tense refers to the tim e o f an action or event expressed by the in fle c tio n o f the verb. In this sense, English has tw o tenses: the present and the past. The future tense, i f also considered a tense, relies on a u xilia ry verbs. The word aspect, com ing from the L atin aspectus, means seeing, looking, and appearance. Aspect refers to the manner in which an action or event is viewed or perceived, such as whether the action is going on or is completed. In English, tenses and aspects are closely connected because the a u x ilia ry and the verb in fle c tio n w ill display both the tim e and the manner o f the action. He is reading The Waste Land. 他在读〈 丨荒7原 》。

u

Tỗ zài đú 《Huỡngyuán》. He has read that poem tw ice. 那首诗他读了《遍 。

Nà shõu shĩ tã dú le liâng biàn. N otice that í4is reading^ in the fừ st sentence shows that the action occurs at present and is s till going on. In the second sentence, uhas reaď, shows that the action has been completed at the tim e o f speaking. Chinese verbs have no conjugation; the tim e o f an action or event is therefore not shown through verbal inflections. In this sense, Chinese has no tenses, i f tense is defined by showing the tim e o f an action or event through verbal in fle e tio n s . To denote the tim e o f an action or event, Chinese relies on tim e expressions that can specify the tim e o f an action. Aspect particles do not relate the tim e o f an action to the tim e o f speaking, but they may be understood to mean the tim e o f speaking, i f the reference tim e is not specified. Tim e adjuncts and aspect particles often co-occur in a sentence. 他昨晚写了一篇书评。

Tā ZUÓ wan xiề le yì piān shũpíng. He wrote a book review last night. In th is sentence，the perfective p a rticle 了 indicates that the action is com pleted, and the tem poral noun shows the tim e o f the action was last night. In Chinese, tim e expressions and aspect particles may w ork together to describe the different tim e and the manner o f an action, which, in a way, is sim ila r to English tenses and aspects. There are different views about Chinese aspects. We w ill divide them

Time and Aspects 时与态

into five categories: the perfective aspect, the transform ative aspect, the experiential aspect, the progressive aspect, and the durative aspect. Before going over each o f these five aspects, let US firs t see how Chinese denotes the present tim e, the past tim e, and the future tim e.

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Present，Past， and Future 现在、过去、将来

Time is conventionally divided into three segments. The past is what has gone by or elapsed; the future is what is yet to come; the present is where we stand now. With this division of time, we can list the sequence of things or events. This division reflects a view of time that is one-way directional. With each minute passing, the present becomes history; the future becomes the present. Time is independent of language; different languages have different ways of expressing time. In English, we consider the past as behind US and the future as ahead of US. Chinese share the same idea but express it differently. In Chinese， the word 前 （before or front) refers to the past， which is what already occurred before the present moment. The word (after or behind) refers to the future, which is what will occur a fte r the present moment. Thus, the day before yesterday is called 前 天 ， and people of earlier generations are called 前 人 • The day after tomorrow is named 后 天 ， and the future generations are referred to as 后 人 . In English, we use verbs in their base forms to refer to the present, past forms to indicate the past, and the auxiliary verbs w ill and sh a ll to denote the future. Chinese primarily relies on time adjuncts to denote times. Chinese aspects may indicate the manner of an action， but they do not relate the time of the action to the time of speaking. Compare these two sentences:

明 天 他 去 参加一个会议。 Míngtiỗn tā qù cānjiā yí ge huìyì. Tomorrow he will attend a meeting.

他在听-大会主 讲 人 发 ^。 Tã zài tĩng dà huì zhujiangrén fayán. He is listening to the speech of the keynote speaker. In the first sentence， the temporal noun 明 天 （ tomorrow) is sufficient to indicate a future action. In the second sentence, the aspect particle Ặ . indicates a progressive action, but we can only assume he is liste n in g rather than w a s listen in g because no other time reference is specified. In Chinese, time adjuncts and aspects can co-occur, which indicate both the time and the manner of an action, but they are not combined together as English tenses and aspects are. In this chapter, we will only focus on how Chinese expresses the present, past, and future through time adjuncts and other constructions. We will use the terms the present tim e,

Time and Aspects 时与态

the past time, and the future time to distinguish them from English tenses. 26.1 Present tim e 26.2 Past tim e 26.3 Future tim e

參 26.1 Present time (现在时) In E nglish, the present tense, m arked by the verbs in th e ir base form s and by the absence o f tim e references to a specific tim e, refers to the current state o f being. However, it may also denote a variety o f actions that are not necessarily simultaneous w ith the present moment. C urrent state:

He lives in Peach Blossom Spring. 他住在世外桃源。

Tỗ zhù zài shì wài táoyuán. Timeless truth:

Confucius advocates loyalty and filia l piety. 孔夫子提倡忠和孝。

Kongfūzī tíchàng zhong hé xiào. H abitual action:

He takes the eight o’clock tra in to Boston every day. 他每天坐八点的火车去波士顿。

Tā měi tiān zuò bā diân de huỗchê qù Bõshìdùn. Future happening: The banquet fo r foreign d ig n ita rie s begins at seven o’clock. 为外国使团举行的宴会七点开始。

wéi wáiguó shĩtuán júxíng de yànhuì qĩ diân kãishĩ. Past action:

He says that he likes that humble g irl. 他说他喜欢那个谦逊的女孩儿。 v ,

Tā shuõ tā xĩhuan nà ge qiãnxùn de núháir. In C hinese, verbs have no in fle c tio n s . T he present tim e is characterized by the absence o f tim e reference to the past, the future, or aspect particles. The present tim e also refers to a variety o f actions.

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26.1.1 Facts and generalizations

In Chinese, the present time is used to refer to a state or situation not necessarily limited to the present moment. It includes timeless truth, habitual, or repeated actions. [1 ] 政府规定一家只能有一个孩子。

Zhéngfú guĩdìng yì jiā zhT néng you yí ge háizi. The government stipulates that each family can only have one child. [2 ] 我们学校每个老师每年教八门课。

Women xuéxiào měi ge lâoshĩ měi nián jiào bã mén kè. Every teacher in our university teaches eight courses a year. [3 ] 屈原是中国已知最早的著名诗人。

Qũ Yuán shì Zhongguó yĩzhĩ zui zao de zhůmíng shĩrén. Qu Yuan is a great Chinese poet, the earliest known by name. [4 ] 美国东部时间比西部时间早三小时。

Mẽiguó dõngbù shijiān bĩ xĩbù shijiān zâo sān xiãoshí. Eastern Time is three hours earlier than Pacific Time in America. Some commonly used adverbs and noun phrases that refer to habitual actions include 多 数 时 间 （most of the tim e ), 经 常 （ o ften ), 每 天 （every d a y ), 每 周 （every week)，每 个 月 （every m onth), 每 年 （every year), 偶尔 (occasionally),有 时 候 （ sometimes),总 是 (always)，etc. 26.1.2 Instantaneous actions

In Chinese, the progressive and durative aspects are used to refer to actions that are going on at a particular point of time or a period of time. However, the present time can also be used to report, comment, or describe present actions happening one after another. [ 5 ] 他 们 站 起 身 ，向 观 众 挥 手 致 意 。

Tāmen zhàn qĩ shẽn, xiàng guānzhong huĩ shõu zhì yì. They stand up and wave to the audience. [6 ]

他冲进禁区， . 左 脚 射 门纟但々 量 /不够 。 、

Tỗ chõng jin jinqū, zuo jiao shè mén, dàn lìliàng bú gòu. He charges into the penalty area, and shoots with his left foot, but the shot proves weak.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[7 ]， 養 住 球 绕 夺

后

，起扣篮。

Tā jiẽ zhù qiú, rào guò hòuwèi, tiào qĩ kòu lán. He catches the ball, slips by the point guard, jum ps, and dunks the ball.

[ 8 ] 她 打 开 锅 盖 ，把 螃 蟹 放 在 蒸 锅 里 。

Tã dâ kāi guõgài, bâ pángxiè fang zài zhēngguo lĩ. She lifts the lid and puts the crabs in the steamer pot. The progressive aspect is not needed in the above sentences though the actions are occurring at the tim e o f the speaking. 26.1.3

Present tim e to express past actions

In Chinese, the perfective aspect is used to indicate actions that already occurred at the tim e o f speaking. However, some com m unication verbs may refer to the past actions w ithout the perfective 了. 她说她在梦中看见了我。

Tā shuõ tā zài mèng zhong kánjián le wo. She said that she saw me in her dream. You should use ‘ ‘ 说” instead o f “ 说了’’ even though the speaker o f this sentence is referring to a statement that was made earlier. [9 ] 他 告 诉 我 他 没 有 任 何 抱 怨 。

Tã gàosu wõ tã méiyõu rènhé bàoyuàn. He told me that he did not have any com plaint. [1 0 ] 医 生 提 醒 我 多 吃 菜 少 吃 肉 。

Yĩshẽng tíxĩng wõ duõ chĩ cài shâo chĩ ròu. The doctor rem inded me to eat more vegetables and less meat. [1 1 ] 老 师 要 求 我 们 写 一 篇 短 文 。

Lâoshĩ yãoqiú women xiě yi piān duanwén. The teacher required that we w rite a short essay. [1 2 ] 学 校 决 定 取 消 海 外 暑 期 班 。

Xuéxiào juéding qũxião haiwai shũqĩbãn. The school decided to cancel the overseas summer program.

Other communication verbs include 打 算 （ intend), 告 诉 (tell), 计 划 （ plan), 警告（ w arn ) 决 定 （ decide), 考 虑 （ consider)，提 醒 （ rem ind), 威 胁 （ threat), etc.

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26.1.4 Present tim e to express fu tu re actions In English, the a u x ilia ry verbs will and shall are used to indicate fu tu re actions or events. In Chinese, besides tim e adjuncts, any word representing a point o f tim e or a date can be used to indicate a future action or an event. 我 们 全 家 感 恩 节 去 加 州 。

Women quán jiā Garfēn Jie qù Jiāzhou. O ur whole fa m ily w ill go to C alifornia on Thanksgiving. The above Chinese sentence refers to a future action, but it could be interpreted as a habitual action w ithout a tim e adjunct. You may add “ this year” to alleviate am biguity.

[1 3 ] 去 首 尔 的 飞 机 十 点 起 飞 。 〇 ù Shõu’ẽr de fēijī shí diân qlífěi. The plane bound fo r Seoul takes o ff at ten o’clock.

[1 4 ] 他 晚 上 来 我 家 过 圣 诞 节 。 Tā wanshang lái wo jiã guò Shèngdàn Jié. He w ill come to m y home in the evening to observe Christmas.

[1 5 ] 他 说 电 脑 七 点 就 能 修 好 。 Tā shuõ diànnâo qĩ diân jiù néng xiũ hâo. He says that the computer w ill be fixed by seven o9clock.

[16 ] 今 气 夜 里 降 温 ， 有 雨 气 。 Jīntiān yè lĩ jiang wěn, you yú xuě. Tonight there w ill be a drop o f tem perature and showers o f freezing rain. 26.1.5 N egation There is a difference between 不 and 没 or 没 有 fo r negation. One is fo r the present tim e; the other is fo r the past tim e. The only exception is that the verb 有 always requires 没 fo r negation. Compare these two sentences: 他 今 天 不 来 。

Tā jīntiān bù lái. He does not come today.

Time and Aspects 时与态

他今天没来。

Tā jīntiān mei lai. He did not come today. You may add the adverb 还 before 没 . The sentence “他 还 没 来 ’’ means that he still has not come yet, which is equivalent to English present perfect tense.

26.2 Past time (过去时) In Chinese, the past tim e is expressed through time adjuncts. The perfective and transformative aspects can also denote past actions or conditions, but they do not inherently do so; they only indicate the completion of an action or the end of a state. 他 （昨 天 ）五 点 就 到 了 。

Tã (zuotiān) wũ diân jiù dào le. He arrived at five o’clock yesterday. 他 （明 天 ）五 点 就 到 了 。

Tồ (míngtiãn) wũ diân jiù dào le. He will have arrived by five o’clock tomorrow. Without the time adjuncts 昨 天 （ yesterday) and 明 天 （ tomorrow), these two sentences can be ambiguous, though we may assume the reference time is the time of speaking. See the chapters on the perfective and transformative aspects. 26.2.1

T im e expressions

To express past actions or conditions, you may use temporal nouns and temporal adverbs that indicate a time prior to the present. Here are some temporal nouns or phrases: 两 天 前 （two days ago), 去 年 （last year), 上 个 月 （last month),上 星 期 （last week)，昨 天 （ yesterday), etc. [1 ] 去 年 他 在 国 会 图 书 馆 做 研 究 。

Qùnián tā zài guóhuì túshũguân zuò yánjiu. Last year he did research in the Library of Congress. [2 ] 他妻子昨天生了一个男孩儿。

Tā qīzi zuotiān shẽng le yí ge nánháir. His wife gave birth to a boy yesterday.

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[3 ] 五分钟以前他还在办公室。

WÚ fēnzhong yĩqián tā hái zài bàngõngshì. He was in the office five minutes ago. [ 4 ] 中ỹ 民 国 成 立 于 一 九 一 二 年 _。

Zhonghuó Mínguó chénglì yú yī jiú yĩ èr nián. The Republic o f China was founded in 1912. Some tem poral adverbs indicating the past include: 一 度 （ at one tim e)，曾 经 （ used to b e ),刚 才 （ a moment a g o ),刚 刚 （ just)，过 去 （ in the past)，已 经 （ already),以 前 （ before)，etc. [5 ] 他一度对风水非常感兴趣。

Tā yídù duì fēngshui fěicháng gân xìngqù. A t one tim e he was very interested in Fengshui. [6 ] 他曾经想当一名建筑师。

Tā cengj'īng xiâng dãng yì míng jianzhushī. He once wanted to be an architect. [7 ] 我们刚刚讨论了唐代诗歌Q

Women gãnggỗng tâolùn le Táng Dài shīgē. We ju st discussed the poetry o f the Tang Dynasty. [8 ] 过去她对生活充满了幻想。

Guòqù tā duì shẽnghuó chõngmân le huànxiâng. She used to be fu ll o f illusions about life . The past tim e is often expressed through tim e adjuncts composed by 时候（ w hen),以 前 （ before)，and 以 后 （ after)，which set the time to the past. [9 ] 他小的时候特别喜欢昆虫。

Tā xiâo de shíhou tồbié xĩhuan kũnchóng. He was particularly fond o f insects when he was young. [1 0 ] 他 上 大 学 以 前 住 在 祖 父 母 家 。

Tā shàng dàxué yĩqián zhù zài zú fùmú jiã. He lived w ith his grandparents before going to university. The lin kin g verb 是 does not occur w ith the perfective 了 • It relies on tim e adjuncts to denote the past condition or state. [1 1 ] 她_过 去 是 一 位 芭 蕾 舞 演 员 。

Tā guòqù shì yí wèi balěiwu yânyuán. She used to be a ballerina.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[1 2 ] 他 以 前 是 坚 定 的 社 会 主 义 者 。

Tã yĩqián shì jiānding de shèhuì zhuyi zhě. He was a staunch socialist before. 26.2.2

The expository 是 .... 的 construction

The e x p o s ito ry 是 .......的 c o n s tru c tio n is used to em phasize how, where, or fo r what purpose something happened, and it refers to something that already occurred. [1 3 ] 我 是 在 机 场 看 见 他 的 。

wõ shì zài jīchang kàn jiàn tã de. It was at the a irport that I saw him . [1 4 ] 他 是 昨 天 到 华 盛 顿 的 。

Tỗ shì zuótian dào Huáshèngdùn de. It was yesterday that he arrived in W ashington, D.c. In the expository 是 .......的 construction, 是 can be om itted. See the chapter on copular sentences.

26.3 Future time (将来时) The future tim e refers to actions or conditions that are expected to occur or exist in the future. In English, the modal a u xilia ry will and the sem i-auxiliary be going to are the prim ary means o f expressing future tim e. In Chinese, tem poral nouns and temporal adverbs play a m ajor role in denoting future actions or events. 26.3.1

Tem poral nouns and tem poral adverbs

In English, tim e adjuncts such as today or tomorrow serve as both nouns and adverbs. In Chinese, temporal nouns are s till considered nouns when they function as adverbials. There is a plethora o f tem poral nouns and phrases. [1 ] 今 后 他 一 定 是 位 人 物 。

Jīnhou tỗ yídìng shì wèi rénwú. He w ill be somebody in the future. [2 ]我们下周去日本旅游。

v

Women xià zhõu qù Rìbẽn lũyóu. Next week we w ill go to Japan to travel.

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[3 ] 他们今年中秋节结婚。

Tāmen jīnnian ZhongqiCi Jié jié hūn. They will get married on Mid-Autumn Festival this year. [ 4 ] 那个人日后必有报应。

Nà ge rén rìhòu bì yõu bàoyìng. That man will be cursed in the days to come. Some commonly used temporal adverbs denoting the future include 一会 儿 （in a while)，立 即 （right away), 立 刻 （ immediately),马 上 （at once), 就 (very soon), etc. [ 5 ] 别 着 急 ，一 会 儿 就 不 痛 了 。

Bié zháo jí, yíhuìr jiù bú tòng le. Don5t worry. The pain will be gone in a little while. [ 6 ] 你 躺 着 ，救 护 车 立 刻 就 到 。

Nĩ tâng zhe, jiiihuchē like jiù dào. You lie down. The ambulance will arrive immediately. [7 ] 我马上给你太太发个短信。 w õ mâshàng gěi nĩ tàitai fã ge duânxìn.

I will send your wife a text message at once. [ 8 ] 请 你 耐 心 一 点 儿 ，我 就 到 。

QTng nĩ nàixĩn yìdiânr, wỗ iiù dào. Please be patient. I am coming. These temporal adverbs are often used with iJe to indicate a very short duration. Notice that 就 has multiple m eanings. 我就去 can mean “I will go in a second” or “I insist on going.”

26.3.2 将 and 将要 将 and 将 要 are adverbs referring to future actions or conditions， and they both are used in formal， written language. 将 is also a preposition used in the sense of 把 （to get something done). As an adverb, 将 may refer to an indefinite future time. When followed by the linking verb  . , it may carry an affirmative tone. [9 ] 她将写一本关于国际政治的书。

Tā jiāng xiě yi běn guanyú guóji zhéngzhi de shū. She is going to write a book on international politics.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[1 0 ] 这 些 领 导 人 将 讨 论 核 扩 散 问 题 。

Zhèxiẽ ITngdâorén jiāng tâolùn hékuòsàn wéntí. These leaders w ill discuss the issue o f nuclear proliferation. [ 1 1 ] 她 将 是 第 一 位 登 上 月 球 的 女 性 。 、.

v 、

Tā jiāng shì dì yĩ wèi dẽng shang yuèqiú de nủxìng. She w ill be the firs t female to land on the moon. [ 1 2 ] 你 要 有 毅 力 ，否 则 将 一 事 无 成 。

NT yào you yìlì, fouzé jiāng yí shì wú chéng. You must have perseverance, or you w ill succeed in nothing. 将 要 refers to something that w ill happen soon or in the near future; it does not refer to things that are indefinite or in the distant future. [ 1 3 ] 我 们 学 校 将 要 开 一 门 中 @ 哲 学 史 。.

Women xuéxiào jiangyáo kāi yì mén Zhongguó zhéxuéshT. O ur school w ill offer a class in Chinese philosophy. [ 1 4 ] 我 们 将 要 讨 论 《道 德 经 》和 《论 语 》。 Women jiangyáo tâolùn 《Dào Dé Jīng》 hé《Lủn Yũ》• We w ill discuss Dao De Jing and The Analects. 将 and 将 要 may be used interchangeably in many instances，but 将 may also be used to refer to things that w ill be enduring or long-standing, but 将 要 cannot be used in that sense. In c o rre c t:他 将 要 永 远 是 我 的 楷 模 。

Tā jiangyáo yõngyuân shì wỗ de kâimó. He w ill always be my role model. C o r r e c t:他 将 永 远 是 我 的 楷 模 。

Tā jiāng yõngyuân shì wỗ de kâimó. He w ill always be my role model. In c o rre c t:他 将 要 是 历 史 上 最 杰 出 的 总 统 。

Tā jiangyáo shì lìshĩ shàng zuì jiechū de zongtong. He w ill be the most outstanding President in history. C o r r e c t:他 将 是 历 史 上 最 杰 出 的 总 统 。

Tā jiāng shì lìshĩ shàng zuì jiechū de zongtong. He w ill be the most outstanding President in history.

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26.3.3 要 ••…• 了 In C hinese，要 .......了 is a m ajor pattern that is used to express a fu tu re action or condition. It is extensively used in both spoken and w ritten language. [ 1 5 ] 秋 天 要 来 了 ，树 叶 要 落 了 。

Qiũtiãn yào lái le, shùyè yào luò le. The autumn is com ing; the leaves w ill soon fa ll. [ 1 6 ] 寒 流 要 来 了 ，今 晚 要 降 温 了 。

Hánliú yào lái le, jīn wan yào jiang wen le. A cold current is a rrivin g ; the temperature w ill soon drop. [1 7 ] 地 上 的 积 雪 要 有 一 尺 厚 了 。

Dì shàng de jixuě yào yõu yì chĩ hòu le. The snow on the ground w ill soon be one foot thick. [ 18 ] 他 们 一 家 要 移 居 ， 加

Tāmen yì jiā yào yijū Xĩnịiãpõ le. T heir whole fa m ily w ill soon im m igrate to Singapore. The 要 .......了 p a tte rn collocates w ith the adverb 将，快 ，o r 就 . Among the three,将 要 .......了 is form al;就 要 ....... 了is inform al;快 要 ....... 了 is used in both spoken and w ritten language. They a ll refer to near future, but 就 要 .......了 refers to something im m inent. [1 9 ] 一 所 新 大 学 将 要 成 立 了 。

Yì suõ xĩn dàxué jiangyáo chénglì le. A new university w ill be soon founded. [ 2 0 ] 快 走 吧 ，眼 看 就 要 下 雨 了 。

Kuài zõu ba, yânkàn jiù yào xiàyũ le. Go quickly. It w ill rain in a m inute. [2 1 ] 我 们 的 梦 想 快 要 实 现 了 。

Women de mèngxiâng kuàiyào shíxiàn le. O ur dream w ill be soon realized. [2 2 ] 听 说 我 们 快 要 提 工 资 了 。

Tĩngshuõ women kuàiyào tí gongzī le. It is said that our salary w ill be raised soon. W hen 快 or 就 occurs w ith 要 .......了，they may be shortened to 快 ....... 了 or 就.......了，which are inform al and conversational.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[ 2 3 ] 准 备 好 ，快 轮 到 你 发 言 了 。 Zhunbéi hâo, kuài lún dào nĩ fâ yán le. Get ready. It w ill be your tu rn to speak soon. 0 4 ] 耐 心 一 点 儿 ，我 们 就 到 了 。

Nàixĩrì yìdiânr, women jiù dào le. Be patient; we w ill get there soon. B ut the adverb together w ith 了. 26.3.4

by its e lf, cannot indicate fu tu re action; it has to go

会 and 要

The a u x ilia ry verb 会 has several m eanings. I t can be used to express one’s prediction, belief, or promise that something w ill take place or be realized.

[2 5 ] 你 会 听 到 我 的 好 消 息 。 NT huì tĩng dào wỗ de hâo xiãoxi. You w ill hear m y good news.

[2 6 ] 他 不 会 承 认 他 的 错 误 。 Tã bú huì chéngrèn tā de cuòwù. He w ill not acknowledge his mistake.

[2 7 ] 我 肯 定 会 把 你 的 建 议 报 告 给 经 理 。 Wõ kěnding huì bâ nĩ de iiànyì bàogào gěi jīnglī. I w ill definitely report your suggestion to the Manager.

[2 8 ] 她 一 定 会 把 你 告 诉 她 的 话 传 出 去 Q Tā yídìng huì bâ nĩ gàosu tã de huà chuán chũqù. She w ill surely spread what you told her. N otice that 会 can also be used to express one’s prediction or speculation about what already happened. 要，as an a u xilia ry verb, can also be used to say that something w ill take place. But u n like 会，w hich carries an affirm a tive tone, 要 sim ply denotes a future happening.

[29] ^ 京 的 房 价 要 继 续 上 涨 。 BěijTng de fángjiá yào j7xù shángzhang. B eijing's housing price w ill continue to go up.

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[3 0 ] 颶 风 要 袭 击 多 ， 沿 海 。

Jiifēng yào xíjĩ dõng bù yánhâi. The hurricane is going to h it the East Coast. [3 1 ] 他 要 接 替 我 的 公 司 总 裁 职 位 。

Tā yào jiēti wõ de gõngsĩ zongcái zhíwéi. He is going to take over m y position as CEO o f the company. [3 2 ] 我 要 去 非 洲 工 作 几 个 月 。

Wỗ yào qù Fēizhou gongzuó jĩ ge yuè. I am going to w ork in A fric a fo r a few months. 要 is both a fu ll verb and an a u xilia ry verb, and it has m ultiple meanings. 要 in [32] may mean either a future action or one’s desire to do something. See the chapter on a u xilia ry verbs.

Time and Aspects 时与态

C h a p te r 2 7

T h e P e rfe c tiv e A s p e c t 完 成 态

The perfective aspect，expressed through the perfective particle 了， signifies the occurrence or the com pletion o f an action. The perfective 了， derived from the somewhat archaic verb 了 （ pronounced Iiâo)，means or For example，the proverb 二 了 百 了 （ one ends, a ll end)， coined by the great C onfucian scholar Zhu X i, means that when the root problem is solved, a ll other problems w ill be solved. The perfective 了 has retained the m eaning o f the verb 了. As an aspect particle, it does not denote the tim e o f an action, w hich may occur in the past, present, or fu tu re ; it only sig n ifie s the occurrence o r the com pletion o f an action. Here is an example:

我参观了孔子的故乡。

Wo cānguān le Kongzi de gùxiãng. I have visited Confucius’s hometown. The perfective 了 indicates the com pletion o f the visit. This sentence can be translated in to the present perfect tense or the past tense in English. You may ce rta in ly take it to be a recent event because the tim e is not specified. But the perfective 7 can be used to indicate the com pletion o f a future action w ith appropriate tim e expressions. The perfective 了 does not relate the tim e o f action to the tim e o f speaking, but it can occur w ith various tim e adjuncts denoting a specific tim e; they together w ill denote the manner and the tim e o f the action.

昨天我爬了泰山。

Zuotiān wỗ pá le Tài Shān. Yesterday I clim bed the M ount Tai. In this sentence, the perfective 了 denotes a completed action; the tim e adjunct 昨 天 （ yesterday) specifies the tim e o f action. In Chinese, aspect particles and tim e adjuncts often co-occur, w hich may w ork in a way approximate to what English com bination o f tenses and aspects does. In this chapter, we w ill examine how their co-occurrence may be compared w ith some English tenses. 4 The function o f the perfective 了 seems simple, but its usages can be subtle and complicated. It is not compatible w ith certain verbs. When m ultiple actions occur, various factors can determine where it may or may not be needed. It is a challenging but a very im portant word.

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27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4

汉语语法指南

Perfective aspect and verbs Perfective aspect and objects M ultiple actions Perfective aspect and tim e

27.1 Perfective aspect and verbs (完成态与动词) The perfective 了 s ig n ifie s the occurrence or the com pletion o f an action, but it does not occur w ith a ll verbs. Some verbs may express meanings that do not have a clear beginning and an end point. In English, we use different tenses to describe actions, but the perfective 了 does not associate the action w ith tim e.

27.1.1 Syntactic position The perfective 了 and its tw in brother, the transform ative 了，look alike, and sem antically they also have something in common. However, it is im portant to distinguish one from the other, fo r they d iffe r in their functions. Remember that the perfective 了 always im m ediately follow s the verb. I f the verb has a com plem ent, it takes the position after the complement. [1 ] 我 在 百 老 汇 看 了 一 场 歌 剧 。 wõ

zài Bâilâohuì kàn le yì Châng gẽjù.

I watched an opera on Broadway. [2 ] 我看明白了这首诗的主题。

Wỗ kàn míngbai le zhè shõu shĩ de zhúti. I have understood the theme o f this poem. In [1]，the perfective 了 follow s the verb 看 （ see); in [2 ]，it follow s the complement 明 白 （ understand). In Chinese, some verbs may take a verb or an adjective as a complement, known as the complement o f result. You may sim ply regard the verb and its complement as one entity. The perfective 了 postpositions the verb; the transform ative 了 appears at the end o f a sentence. I f the verb does not have an object or i f it is an intransitive verb，the perfective 了 w ill stand at the end o f a sentence, which makes it hard to te ll i f it is the perfective 了 or the transform ative 了. [3 ] 他吃了。

Tā chĩ le. He has eaten.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[ 4 ] 月亮升起了 Q Yuèliang shēng qĩ le. The moon has risen. W hen this happens，you may take this 了 as either the perfective 了 or the transform ative 了，which expresses the meanings o f both aspects.

27.1.2 Action and time Verbs represent d iffe re n t kinds o f actions: some sta rt and end instantly; some involve a process. The perfective 了 presents a view o f the occurrence o f action as a completed action. For example:

中国发 生 了 很 大 变 化 。 Zhongguó fāshēng le hen dà biànhuà. Great changes have taken place in China. In this sentence，the perfective 了 indicates that the change has already occurred as a completed action. The change may continue to unfold, but that is not what the perfective aspect is meant to show. You may use the progressive aspect or the durative aspect to describe the continuous or the durative mode o f the action.

In English, the past tense indicates an action that has already occurred at some point in the past, prior to the time of speaking. The perfective 7 only signifies the completion of an action; it does not relate it to any specific time. ， 天 她 读 了 弗 洛 伊 德 的 《释 梦 》。 Zuótiãn tã dú le Fúluòyĩdé d e 《Shì Mèng》. Yesterday she read Freuďs The Interpretation o f Dreams. 明 天 $ 下_了 班 就 去 看 心 理 医 生 。 Mingtiān tā xià le ban jiù qù kàn xĩnlĩ yĩshẽng. Tom orrow she w ill go to see a psychiatrist after she finishes her work. The perfective 了 appears in both sentences, but one denotes a past action, and the other refers to a future event. Notice that it is not the perfective 了 but the tim e markers or the semantic o f the sentence that sets the tim e o f the action. The perfective 了 may appear in a sentence w ithout any tim e indicator.

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我 喝 了 一 杯 冰 凉 的 雪 碧 。真 爽 ！

hẽ le yì bẽi bĩngliáng de Xuẽbì. Zhẽn shuâng! I have had a glass of icy-cold sprite. So cool!

wõ

This sentence apparently denotes an action just completed prior to the time of speaking. You may understand it as such because the time is not otherwise specified. But remember the perfective 了 does not inherently tie the action to the present moment. 27.1.3 Incompatibilities The perfective 了 occurs with many action verbs， but it does not occur with some stative verbs that describe mental states, such as 爱 （love)， 感觉（ feel), 恨 （hate),嫉 妒 （ envy), 盼 望 （ anticipate)，喜 欢 （lik e), 羡慕 (admire)，想 念 (miss), etc. Incorrect: 我 喜 欢 了 摇 滚 乐 。 Wo xĩhuan le yáogúnyuè. I liked rock and roll. Incorrect: 我 羨 慕 了 他 的 勇 气 。 Wo xiànmù le tā de yõngqì. I admired his courage. The above sentences are incorrect because the perfective 了 signifies a completed action, but these mental verbs denote a state with no clear beginning and end, which the perfective T cannot represent. You may use a temporal noun or the experiential i i if you want to talk about a state of being in the past. C o r r e c t:以 前 我 喜 欢 摇 滚 乐 。 Yĩqián wõ xĩhuan yáogúnyuè. I used to like rock and roll. C o r r e c t: 我 喜 欢 过 摇 滚 乐 。 Wo xĩhuan guò yáogũnyuè. I once liked rock and roll. The perfective 了 is also incompatible with the verb that takes a complement of potential, which denotes that one has ability to so something.

Time and Aspects 时与态

In c o rre c t:我 看 得 懂 了 古 汉 语 。

Wo kàn de dỏng le gú hànyũ. I can understand classical Chinese. C o r r e c t:我 看 得 懂 古 汉 语 了 。 wõ

kàn de dõng gũ hànyũ le.

I can understand classical Chinese now. A b ility is not considered an action. You may use the transform ative T i f you want to say that you now have a certain a b ility that you did not possess before. 27.1.4

Omission of the perfective T

The perfective 了 is needed in reference to a com pleted action. H ow ever, i f a verb is m o d ifie d by a com plem ent o f d ire c tio n , the perfective了 is optional. Compare these two sentences: 昨天母老虎生了 一 只 小 老 虎 。

Zuótian mú lâohũ shẽng le yì zhī xiâo lâohũ. Yesterday the tigress gave b irth to a baby tiger. 昨 天 母 老 虎 生 下 （了 ）一 只 小 老 虎 。

Zuotiān mũ lâohú shẽng xià (le) yì zhĩ xiâo lâohú. Yesterday the tigress gave b irth to a baby tiger. In the second sentence, the perfective 了 is optional because the verb complement T (down) already describes the manner o f the action. [ 5 ] 他 给 我 专 奉 （了 ）一 本 争 志 。

Tā gěi wỗ jì lái (le) yì běn zázhi. He sent me a magazine. [ 6 ] 从 飞 机 上 走 下 （了 ）一 个 人 。

Cóng fēijī shàng zõu xià (le) yí ge rén. A man walked down from the airplane. [ 7 ] 他 从 桌 上 拿 起 （了 ）一 份 文 件 。

Tõ cóng zhuõ shàng nâ qĩ (le) yí fén wénjián. He picked up a document from the desk. N otice that you cannot assume that the p e rfe ctive T is not needed whenever there is a com plem ent of. d ire c tio n . In m any cases, it also depends on idiom atic usage.

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27.1.5 The perfective T in the im perative Im perative sentences give the order to do or not to do something. In English, the verbs used fo r the im perative are in their base form s. In Chinese, the perspective 了 can be used fo r the im perative. 把; 药 吃 了 ！

Bâ yào chĩ le! Take the m edicine! 别忘了代我向他问好！

Bié wàng le dài wỗ xiàng tã wèn hâo! Don’t forget to remember me to him ! The firs t sentence orders someone to com plete the act o f ta kin g the m edicine (see the chapter on the bá sentence). In the second sentence, the perfective T is placed after dont forget, w hich lite ra lly means not to let the act o f forgetting happen. [8 ] 别忘了我在等你。

Bié wàng le wõ zài dẽng nĩ. Don’t forget I am w aiting fo r you. [9 ] 别丟了你的钥匙。

Bié diū le nĩ de yàoshi. Don’t lose your key. [1 0 ] 别 小 看 了 这 个 人 。

Bié xiâo kàn le zhè ge rén. D on’t take this person lig h tly. [ 1 1 ] 别 说 错 了 话 ，做 错 了 事 Q

Bié shuõ cuò le huà, zuò cuò le shì. D on’t say wrong words and do wrong things. In [8] and [9 ]，the verb 忘 （ forget) and 丟 （ lose), when used in the im perative, require the perfective T. In [10] and [11], the use o f the perfective 了 is optional. 27.1.6 N egation The perfective 了 indicates the com pletion o f an action. I f nothing happens or no action has been completed, the perfective T is naturally not needed in negation.

Time and Aspects 时与态

Incorrect:他 没 有 交 了 作 业 。 Tā méiyõu jiāo le zuòyè. He has not turned in his homework. Correct:

他 没 有 交 作 业 。

Tā méiyõu jiāo zuòyè. He has not turned in his homework. 27.2 Perfective aspect and objects (完成态与宾语) The actions of transitive verbs are directed towards objects. Verbs and objects are closely related, and together they present a view of the action. The perfective 7 modifies verbs, but it is also sensitive to the type of objects that verbs take. 27.2.1 D e fin ite objects The o bject o f a sentence can be d e fin ite or in d e fin ite . A noun phrase serving as the object may refer to a specific e n tity ; a generic noun standing fo r a class or category o f things does not refer to anything in particular. The perfective 了 denoting a completed action requires a

specific object. In Chinese, a numeral-measure word or any modifier can make the object definite or concrete. Inadequate:

我 买 了 书 。

Wo mâi le shū. I bought books. Correct:

我 买 了 一 本 书

Wo mãi le yì běn shū. I have bought a book. Correct:

我 买 了 这 门 课 需 要 的 书 。

Wỗ mãi le zhè mén kè xũyào de shũ. I have bought the books requừed for this class. The first sentence, as a separate sentence, is inadequate because the word 书 （ book) is a generic noun that does not refer to any particular book. In the second and the third sentences, the numeral measure word 一 本 （ a) and the modifier 这 门 课 需 要 的 （this course requires) make the object 书 specific. However, the first sentence will be correct if it is a part of a sentence.

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C o r r e c t: 我 买 了 书 就 去 上 课 了 。 w õ mâi le shū jiù qù shàng kè le. I went to class after I had bought the book. The use o f the p e rfe ctive 了 in th is sentence is fo r the purpose o f indicating the sequence o f actions, in w hich the reference to a d e finite object is not called for.

27.2.2 Verbal and clausal objects In English, verbs cannot serve as the object but infinitives can. For example, we say, “I want to eat” instead of “I want eat.” In Chinese, certain verbs, such as 打 算 （ plan)，禁 止 （ forbid), and 企 图 （ attempt), take verbs as the object. However, the perfective 7 is not needed if a verb or a verb phrase serves as the object. 学校决定取消暑期课程。

Xuéxiào juéding qũxião shúqĩ kèchéng. The school decided to cancel the summer programs. In th is sentence,决 定 （ decide) is the verb，and the decision has been made, but the perfective 了 is not needed because 取 消 暑 期 课 程 （ cancel the summer programs) is a verb phrase. [1 ] $ 拒 绝 回 答 我 $ 问 题 。

Tā jújué huídá wõ de wéntí. She refused to answer m y question. [2 ] 我避免伤害她的感情。 w õ bìmiân Shanghai tā de gânqíng.

I avoided hurting her feelings. The perfective 了 is also not needed in reference to a com pleted action i f the object is â clause. The verbs that take clausal objects include 认为（ th in k ),建 议 (suggest)，提 议 (propose),希 望 （ hope)，etc.

[ 3 ] 对 不 起 ，我 以 为 今 天 没 有 课 。 Duì bù qĩ, wõ yĩwéi jīntiān méiyõu kè. I am sorry. I thought we had no class today.

[4 ] , 天他建议我去试一试中医。 Zuótian tỗ jiányi wõ qù shì yí shì Zhongyl Yesterday he suggested that I try the traditional Chinese medicine.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[5 ]他说他爱我—

海枯石烂不变心。

Tỗ shuõ tồ ài wo-----hâi kū shí làn bú biàn xĩn. He said that he w ould love me t i l l the seas ru n d ry and the rocks crumble. In [5]，you could, fo r emphasis，use the perfective 了 after the verb 说 (say), but the perfective 了 cannot be used w ith other verbs that take clausal objects.

27,3 Multiple actions (多项动作) When tw o or more actions occur in a sentence, it can be confusing where to place the perfective 7. W ith ce rta in sentence patterns, the perfective 了 should be placed after one verb instead o f another. In some scenarios where the context is clear, the perfective T may be om itted. Now le t us v is it these various situations. 27.3.1 Sequence o f tw o actions The perfective 了 is frequently used to express the idea that as soon as the firs t action is completed the second action w ill start. For this construction, the perfective 了 is placed after the firs t verb, and the adverb 就 is often used to show the closeness o f the two actions. 我下了课就来。

Wo xià le kè jiù lái. I w ill come rig h t after the class. The perfective 了 indicates that the firs t action 下 课 （ fin is h the class) precedes the second action 来 （ come). W ithout any tim e indicator，we may assume that this refers to a future action. N otice how tim e adjuncts and the perfective 了 together indicate the d iffe re n t tim es o f the tw o consecutive actions in the follow ing sentences. [1 ] 昨天他吃了晚饭就出去了。

Zuotiān tā chī le wânfàn jiù chū qù le. Yesterday he went out after he had had dinner. [2 ] 明天我下了班去你家接你。

Míngtiõn wõ xià le băn qù nĩ jiā jiē nĩ. I w ill pick you up,at your home a fte r I have fin ish e d w ork tom orrow.

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[3 ] 她毕了业就去美国读研究生。

Tỗ bì le yè jiù qù Měiguó dú yánjiũshêng. As soon as she graduates, she w ill do her graduate study in Am erica. [4 ] $ 每 多 见 J 她 都 很 同 情 她 。

Tā měi cì jiàn le tã dõu hen tóngqíng tã. He feels sorry fo r her each tim e he meets her. 27.3.2 Purpose o f actions I f a sentence consists o f tw o com pleted actions in w hich the firs t serves as the purpose o f the second, or as the means by which the second is realized，the perfective 了 is placed after the second verb. $ 去中国_领 养 了 一 个 孩 子 。

Tā qù Zhongguó ITngyâng le yí ge háizi. She went to China to adopt a child. In this sentence，去 中 国 （ go to China) is fo r the purpose o f 领养一个孩 子 （ adopt a ch ild )，and the perfective 了 is placed after the second verb. However, in English, the firs t verb is the m ain verb, and the second one is an in fin itiv e phrase that indicates the purpose o f the main verb. [5 ] 他来我校做了个报告。

Tã lái wỗ xiào zuò le ge bàogào. He came to our school to give a talk. [6 ] 我用电脑画了一张画。

wõ yòng diànnâo huà le yì zhāng huà. I drew a picture w ith the computer. [7 ] 她坐火车去了波士顿。

Tã zuò huõchẽ qù le Bõshìdùn. She went to Boston by train. [8 ] 我去人事处填了一张表。

Wỗ qù rénshìchù tián le yì zhāng biâo. I went to Human Resources to f ill out a form . 27.3.3 The perfective 了 in p iv o ta l sentences In Chinese, the so-called pivo ta l sentence consists o f tw o verbs,

Time and Aspects 时与态

where the object o f the firs t verb is also the logical subject o f the second verb. For pivotal sentences, the perfective 了 is placed after the second verb to indicate a completed action.

她请我吃了年夜饭Q

Tỗ qĩng wõ chĩ le niányèỉàn. She invited me to eat dinner on New Year9s Eve. In this sentence,我 ⑴ is the object o f the firs t verb 请 （ invite) and the lo g ica l subject o f the second verb 去 （ go). See the chapter on pivo ta l sentences. [9 ]他劝我配了一副隐形眼镜。

Tā quàn wỗ pèi le yífù yĩnxíng yanjing. He talked me into getting contact lenses.

[10] 她 怪 我 泄 露 了 她 们 的 秘 密 。

Tỗ guài wõ xièlòu le tâmén de mimi. She blamed me fo r having revealed th e ir secrets.

[11] 我 们 选 他 当 了 学 生 会 的 代 表 。

Women xuân tā dāng le xuéshẽnghuì de dàibiâo. We selected him to be the representative o f the students9 union.

[12] 他 允 许 我 把 这 本 书 带 回 了 家 。

Tỗ yũnxũ wõ bã zhè bẽn shũ dài huí le jiỗ. He allowed me to bring this book home. 27.3.4

Series o f actions

I f you want to lis t two or more actions that occurred consecutively, and they are in an equal position, then d iffe re n t factors, including the choice o f verbs and rh y th m ic patterns, can determ ine where to use the perfective 7 . In general, the perfective 7 is needed a fte r each m onosyllabic verb.

g 洗 了 澡 ，吃 了 早 饭 ，锁 了 门 ，上 了 车 ，离 开 了 家 。

Tã xĩ le zâo, chĩ le zâo fan, suõ le mén, shàng le chẽ, líkãi le jiā. He took a shower, had his breakfast, locked the door, got in the car, and le ft home.

This sentence sums up a series .of actions, and the perfective 了 is needed after each verb. The final disyllabic verb phrase 离开了家（ left home)

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sem antically com pletes a thought and rh y th m ic a lly brings a fe e lin g o f ending. However, in a series o f actions shown by verbs follow ed by complements, it is perm issible to om it the perfective 了 fo r a ll except the last one.

他 合 上 （了 ）书 ，站 起 （了 ）身 ，打 开 （了 ）冰 箱 ，看 见 了一块蛋糕。

Tỗ hé shàng (le) shū, zhàn qĩ (le) shẽn, dâ kãi (le) bĩngxiãng, kàn ]iàn le yí kuài dàngão. He closed the book, stood up, opened the refrigerator, and saw a cake. In th is sentence, you may keep each perfective 了，w hich w ill create a pause a fte r each action. You need to keep the last perfective 了 to signify the whole series as completed actions. N otice that 打 开 （ open) is a disyllabic verb, but in this combination functions as a complement to iĩ.

27_4 Perfective aspect and time (完成态与时间 In Chinese, aspects and tim e adjuncts, as noted earlier, may form a mechanism that w ill denote both the manner and the tim e o f an action. Now let us see how the perfective 了 plays a role in this mechanism and how this mechanism may be compared w ith English tenses and aspects. 27.4.1 Sim ple past In E nglish, the sim ple past refers to an action that occurred at a d e fin ite past tim e or a period o f tim e. The perfective 7 , w ith a tim e adjunct indicating a past tim e, may refer to a past action.

， 天 我 们 讨 论 了 海 明 威 的 《老 人 与 海 》。

Zuótian women tâolùn le Haimíngwěi de (Lâorén Yú Hâi). Yesterday we discussed H em ingw ay^ The Old Man and Sea. In this sentence, the perfective 了 shows the com pletion o f the action，and

yesterday pinpoints the tim e o f the action. The follow ing sentences may be translated into the sim ple past tense in English.

[1] 上 昇 期 g 做了-一 次 体 检 。

Shàng xĩngqĩ tā zuò le yí cì tījian. He had a physical checkup last week.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[2 ] 注册的时候我付了学费。

Zhùcè de shíhou wõ fù le xuéféi. A t the tim e o f registration I paid the tu itio n . [ 3 ] 昨 ^ ^新 财 政 部 长 上 任 了 。 v

Zuótian xĩn cáizhéng búzhang shàngrèn le. Yesterday the new Secretary o f Commerce took office. [4 ] 上个月的失业率上升了。

Shàng ge yuè de shĩ yè lu shàngshẽng le. Last m onth’s unemployment rate went up. In [4], there is not a tim e adjunct，but the noun phrase “ last m onth’s unemployment rate59indicates that the action occurred in the past. 27.4.2

Present perfect

In E n g lis h , the completed at the tim e perfective 了 denotes having occurred p rio r not specified.

present p e rfe c t refers to a ctio n th a t has been o f speaking, and it is relevant to the present. The a completed action, w hich may be understood as to the tim e o f speaking i f the tim e o f the action is

我头了一辆新宝马。

Wo mâi le yí liàng xĩn Bâomâ. I have bought a new BMW . This sentence, w ithout tim e reference, fits in the mode o f English present perfect, and it is relevant to the present. The follow ing sentences may a ll be translated into the present perfect. [5 ] 科学家发现了一种新的植物。

Kěxuéjia íỗxiàn le yì zhong xĩn de zhíwù. Scientists have discovered a new species o f plant. [6 ] 他找到了一份福利好的工作。

Tā zhâo dào le yí fèn fúlì hâo de gõngzuò. He has found a jo b w ith good benefits. [7 ] 我买了一个最新的智能手机。

Wõ mâi le yí ge zuì xĩn de zhinéng shouj'ī. I have bought a new ly released smartphone.

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[8 ] 他写了一本很畅销的回忆录。

Tã xiě le yì běn hěn chàngxião de huíyìlù. He has w ritte n a very popular biography.

27.4.3 Past perfect In E n g lis h , the past p e rfe ct in d icates that an a ction occurred before another action in the past or before a specific tim e in the past. The perfective aspect may express the same idea w ith the help o f a tim e adjunct specifying a tim e in the past. $ 龙 f 绝 以 前 ，它 们 已 生 存 了 很 多 年 。

Kõnglóng miéjué yĩqián, tãmen yĩ shẽngcún le hen duõ nión. Before their extinction, dinosaurs had existed fo r many years. In this sentence，恐 龙 灭 绝 以 前 （ before the extinction o f the dinosaurs) sets a point o f tim e in the past. The perfective 了 helps to denote that the dinosaurs had lived fo r many years before that tim e in the past. [9 ] 干 饭 以 、 前我， 吃了两片药。

Zao fan yĩqián wõ chī le liâng piàn yào. I had taken tw o tablets o f m edicine before breakfast. [1 0 ] — 小 时 前 他 已 到 了 机 场 。

Yì xiâoshí qián tā yĩ dào le jīchang. He had arrived at the airp o rt one hour ago. [11] _ 们 结 户 前 ，崎 在 Ỹ 国 学 习 了 几 年 ？

Nĩmen jié hūn yĩqián, tā zài Zhongguó xuéxí le jĩ nián? Before you got m arried, how m any years had he studied in China? [ 1 2 ] 你 来 的 时 候 ，我 已 经 工 作 了 两 个 小 时 。

. NT lái de shíhou, wỗ yĩjĩng gongzuó le liâng ge xiâoshí.

W hen you arrived, I had already worked fo r tw o hours. The perfective 了 can occur w ith the transform ative 了 to indicate the present perfect continuous. See the next chapter on the transform ative aspect.

Time and Aspects 时与态

C h a p te r 2 8

T h e T ra n s fo rm a tiv e A s p e c t 变 化 态

The transformative aspect signifies the end of a state. It is expressed through the transformative 7, which, like its twin brother the perfective 7, is also derived from the verb T, meaning to en d or com plete. But the perfective 了 is focused on the action itself, while the transformative 了 presents a view about a mode of being. The end of one state necessarily means the beginning of another, as the end of the night is followed by the beginning of the day. Thus, the transformative了 also signifies the beginning of a new state. It can be placed at the end of almost any sentence to denote a change of state or transformation. Here, for example, is how Martin Luther King ends his famous speech “I Have a Dream ”： 自 由 了 ！ 自 由 了 ！感 谢 万 能 的 主 ，我 们 终 于 自 由 了 ！

ziyóu le! ziyóu le! Gânxiè wánnéng de zhũ, women zhongyú ziyóu le! Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last! In this statement, the use of the transformative 了 effectively expresses a change— it announces what is gone and what has newly arrived simultaneously. The statement is charged with emotions. In Chinese, the transformative 了 is considered by many as a 语 气 助 词 （modal particle), which may express feelings and emotions. We consider it an aspect particle because its function is to signify the change of a state; whatever emotion it expresses depends on what kind of a new state or situation has occurred. Let US again take the subject of freedom as an example: 我自由了。

Wo ziyóu le. I am free now. This sentence simply means / aw /ree. The use of the transformative 了 signals that this freedom is recently achieved, which may convey the feelings of happiness, excitement, or victory, but these feelings are only conveyed by connotation. For another example, 下雨了 simply means it is raining now; the connotation can be different. The speaker may be happy or may be disappointed at it..

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The transform ative aspect may relate the end o f a state to the tim e o f speaking i f no other tim e reference is specified. It can w ork w ith tim e adjuncts to convey the manner and the tim e o f an action. 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4

Change o f state Emotions and feelings Perfective and transform ative aspects Transform ative aspect and tim e

28.1 Change of state (状态的变化) A c tio n means the process o f doing som ething th a t w ill m ake som ething happen; state refers to the m ental or physical condition that a person or thing is in. The perfective aspect is about the com pletion o f actions; the transform ative aspect is about the change o f conditions or states.

28.1.1 Transform ations The perfective aspect, as noted earlier, denotes both the end o f one state and the beginning o f another. It is called the transform ative aspect because it signifies a change from one state into another. The change can be the opening up o f ã new situation or the return to ã previous state. 天晴了。

Tiān qíng le. The weather has cleared up. 又下雨了。

Yòu xià yũ le. It is raining again. In b oth sentences, the tra n s fo rm a tiv e 了 plays the c ru c ia l ro le o f indicating a change o f state. Adjectives describe conditions or states; the transform ative 了 is often placed after predicative adjectives or adjectives serving as a complement to indicate the change o f a state. [1 ]这一地区的地震频繁了。

Zhè yí dìqũ de dizhen pínfán le. The occurrence o f earthquakes has become frequent in this region.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[2 ] 南方的旱情更加严重了。

Nánfang de hànqíng gengjiā yánzhóng le. The drought in the south has become more serious. [ 3]

貧富间的差距越来越大了。

Pínfú jiān de chāju yuè lái yuè dà le. The gap between the rich and the poor has widened. [4 ] $ 脊 的 气 巧 慢 慢 、 变暖了Ọ

Dìqiú de qiwěn mànmàn biàn nuân le. The global temperature has gradually become warm er now. The tra n sfo rm a tive 了 is also used in sentences that show the com pletion o f an action. In such instances, the transform ative 了 is not focused on the action itse lf; it signifies a new situation or a mode o f being that the action has brought about. 边远地区的人们脱离贫困了Q

Biỗnyuân dìqũ de rénmen tuõlí pínkùn le. People livin g in the remote regions have le ft poverty behind. In this sentence，the transform ative 了 m odifies the whole sentence. It is not about the act o f getting rid o f poverty; it signifies the end o f the state o f poverty and the beginning o f a new life . [5 ] 毛虫变成漂亮的蝴蝶了。

Máochóng biàn chéng piàoliang de húdié le. The caterpillar has changed into a beautiful butterfly. [ 6 ] $ 说 $ 命 的 声 鸟 会 飞 了 v。

Tā shuõ tã yâng de tuóniâo huì fẽi le. He says that the ostriches he raises can fly now. [7 ] 人们已经离不开因特网了。

Rénmen yĩjĩng lí bù kỗi yĩntèwâng le. People cannot live w ithout the Internet now. [8 ] 我不出门便可知天下事了。 w õ bù chū mén biàn kě zhī tiãnxià shì le.

Now I know what is going on in the w orld w ithout leaving my house.

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28.1.2 Sense of closure In our discussion o f the perfective 7 , we mentioned that, in a separate sentence, the verb, i f it has an object, needs â definite object, or else there is a sense o f incompletion. However, the transformative 了， which marks the change o f a state, may bring a sense o f closure.

Inadequate:

他 买 了书。 Tā mâi le shũ.

He bought books. Correct:

他买书了。 Tã mâi shū le.

He has bought the book. The difference between these two sentences is that the former is focused on the act of purchasing a book, but the latter presents the purchasing of a book as a change of state—the buyer now has the book. In the discussion about series of actions, we also mentioned that the perfective 了 is needed at least for the last action in a series to denote all actions as completed and to bring a sense of ending as far as actions are concerned. In narrative, the transformative 了 is needed at the point where the description of one situation ends. Here is an example: 他 看 见 地 上 有 一 分 钱 ，他 捡 起 钱 ，把 它 放 进 兜 里 ，继 续 M Ẵ Ĩ O

Tā kàn ]ỉàn dì shàng yõu yì fẽn qián, tã jiân qĩ qián, bâ tã fang jin dõu lĩ, jìxù xiàng qián zõu le.

He saw a penny on the ground. He picked it up, put it in his pocket, and went on. Notice that the transformative 了 cannot be placed after the money and the pocket, which would create a closure and break up the whole scene as an entity. Let US see another example: 渔 人 顺 着 小 溪 划 船 ，看 到 桃 花 林 的 尽 处 有 一 个 洞 口 。他 离 开 了 船 ，走 进 了 洞 口 。开 始 洞 口 很 窄 ，又 走 了 几 十 步 ， 突然变得开钿敞亮了。 _ Yúrén shun zhe xiâoxĩ huá chuán, kàn dào táohuãlín de jinchu you yí ge dòngkõu. Tã líkãi le chuán, zõu jìn le dòngkõu. Kãishĩ dòngkõu hẽn zhâi, yòu zỗu le jTshí bù, tũrán biàn de kãikuò chângliàng le.

The fisherman rowed along the stream and saw an opening at

Time and Aspects 时与态

the end of a grove of blossoming peach trees. The fisherman left the boat and entered the opening. At first, it was narrow, and after dozens of steps, it suddenly became bright and opened up. This example, a shortened paragraph of Tao Yuanming^ P ea ch B lo sso m again shows how the transformative 了 draws an end to one scene or situation, after which a change of scene or situation is expected. The 了 that follows the verbs 离 开 （ leave), 走 进 （ enter)， and 走 （ walk) is the perfective 了.

28.1.3 Current relevance The transformative aspect, like the perfective aspect, does not relate the time of change to the time of speaking. It only signals a change of state that may occur in the past, present, or future. 下个月就结婚了。 Tā xià ge yuè jiù jié hũn le.

She will get married next month. In this sentence， the adverbial 下 个 月 （next month) indicates that a change of situation will occur in the future. However, the transformative aspect is usually used to refer to a change that occurred at the time of speaking, and the change is relevant to the present. In the following, watch how the first part of each sentence is relevant to the present. [9 ]

$ 出+ 了，你 过 一 会 儿 再 来 电 话 。 Tā chū qù le, nĩ guò yữiuìr zài lái diànhuà.

He is out; you may call back later. [ 1 0 ] 你 是 爸 爸 了 ，你 要 有 责 任 感 。 Nĩ shì bàba le, nĩ yào you zéréngan.

You are a father now; you should have a sense of responsibility. [ 1 1 ] 十 二 点 了 ，你 怎 么 还 不 回 家 ？ Shi’ er diân le, nĩ zěnme hái bù huí jiā?

It is twelve o’clock now; why have you still not come home? [ 1 2 ] 他 有 钱 了 ，可 他 照 样 精 打 细 算 。 Tỗ yõu qián le, kě tā zháoyáng j'īng dâ xì suàn.

He is rich now, but he is still penny-pinching.

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28.1.4 The transformative T in the interrogative The tra n sfo rm a tive 7 can be placed at the end o f alm ost a ll sentences, in clu d in g wA-questions. However, in yes-no questions, it precedes the modal particle 吗. [1 3 ] 你 跟 他 说 什 么 了 ？ Nĩ gẽn tā shuõ shénme le? What did you say to her? [1 4 ] 她 说 她 怀 孕 了 吗 ？ Tã shuõ tā huáiyùn le ma? D id she say she was pregnant? The transformative 了 cannot be used to ask about the adverbial o f a sentence that refers to a completed action. You should use the expository 是...... 的 construction to ask about adverbials. In c o r r e c t:你 是 什 么 时 候 知 道 了 ？ NT shì shénme shíhou zhĩdào le? When did you come to know it? C o rre c t:你 是 什 么 时 候 知 道 的 ？ Nĩ shì shénme shíhou zhĩdào de? When did you come to know it?

28.1.5 The transformative T in the imperative The transformative 了 may postposition the verb in the negative im p e ra tiv e to ask someone not to do som ething or to stop doing something. As noted earlier, i f the verb does not have an object, the aspect particle 了 after the verb can be viewed as either a transformative 了 or a perfective 了. [ 1 5 ] 别 去 了 ，她 不 会 见 你 。 Bié qù le, tā bú huì jiàn nĩ. Don?t go. She w ill not see you. [ 1 6 ] 别 说 了 ，我 不 想 听 。 Bié shuo le, wo bù Xiang ting. Stop talking. I do not want to listen. The transformative 了 can be placed after the object in the negative imperative to ask someone to stop doing something.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[17] 你 不 要 吃 快 餐 了 。 NT búyào chĩ kuàicãn le. You must stop eating ju n k food!

[18] 你 别 迁 就 他 们 了 。 Nĩ bié qianjiú tāmen le. You must stop humoring them. The transformative 了 can also be used in the positive imperative to announce that it is time to do something.

[19] 起 床 了 ！ QT chuáng le! Time to get up!

[ 20 ]

吃饭了！ Chĩ fan le! Time to eat!

28.2 Emotions and feelings (情绪与情感) The transformative 了 is traditionally viewed as a modal particle that may convey emotions and feelings. The transformative 了 itself，as noted before, only signifies a change o f state or situation; whatever emotions it may convey depends on what kind o f change o f situation has occurred. The transformative 了 also follows some adjectives to denote the high intensity o f a state or condition.

28.2.1 Emotional associations Changes can be for better or worse; people may respond to changes w ith d iffe re n t emotions and feelings. The transform ative aspect can express various sentiments that are not directly stated and can be subject to different interpretations. Ặ 今年三十了。 Wo jīnnian sānshi le. This year I am th irty years old. This sentence, without the transformative 了，states a simple fact, but the transformative 了 brings multiple implications. It could be an allusion to Confucius’s famous statement that a man should be established at the age

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of thirty, or the speaker may feel that time goes too fast, etc. See what each of the following sentences may imply.

[ 1 ] 明 天 又是星期一了。 Míngtiãn yòu shì xĩngqĩ yĩ le.

Tomorrow is Monday again.

[ 2 ] 他不给我送花儿了。 Tã bù gěi wõ sòng huãr le.

He does not bring me flowers any more.

[3] 我 女 士 考 J i 北大了。 Wo nú* ér kâo shàng Bẽidà le.

My daughter has been accepted by Peking University.

[ 4 ] 我不知道说什么好了。 w õ bù zhīdao shuõ shénme hâo le.

I do not know what to say.

28.2.2 Short of expectations T he re su lt of change may evoke d iffe re n t resp o n ses. The transformative 了 is often followed by some complements, such as —々JL (a little), —些 （ some), or exact measurements, to indicate how the change does not meet one’s expectation.

[ 5 ] 这 条 床 单 短 了 一 尺 ，我 的 床 是 加 长 的 。 Zhè tiáo chuángdân duân le yì chĩ, wõ de chuáng shì jiã Châng de.

This bed sheet is one foot short; my bed is extra long.

[ 6 ] 那 份 工 1 不 ， ，$ 是工资低了厂些 。 _ Nà fén gongzuó búcuò, zhīshi gongzī dĩ le yìxiẽ.

That job is not bad, but the pay is somewhat low.

[ 7 ] 这 件 衬 衫 比 那 件 贵 了 很 多 ，质 量 都 一 样 。 Zhè jiàn chènshãn bĩ nà jiàn guì le hen duõ, zhiliáng dõu yíyàng.

This blouse is much more expensive than the other one; but the quality is the same.

[8] ļ也 太 太 人 很 好 ，就 是 脾 气 大 了 一 点 儿 。 Tã tàitai rén hen hâo, jiúshi píqi dà le yìdiânr.

His wife is really kind, but just a little short-tempered.

Time and Aspects 时与态

28.2.3 Extremity and hyperbole The transformative 了can be placed after 极 (extreme) or used in “太 + adjective + 了’’ to indicate the extreme condition of something， which can be either positive or negative, depending upon what the adjective states. [ 9 ] 这 个 话 题 敏 感 极 了 ，你 谈 它 的 时 候 要 小 心 。 Zhè ge huàtí m ĩngân jí le, n ĩ tán tã de shíhou yào xiâoxĩn.

This topic is extremely sensitive; be careful when you talk about it. [ 1 0 ] 他 的 模 仿 力 好 极 了 ，他 是 个 有 天 赋 的 演 员 。 Tỗ de mófangli hâo jí le, tā shi ge you tianfu de yânyuán.

His ability to imitate is extremely good; he is a talented actor. [ 1 1 ] 他 的 口 才 太 好 了 ，他 的 讲 演 感 动 了 每 一 个 听 众 。 Tã de kõucái tài hâo le, tã de jiangyan gândòng le měi yí gè tīngzhong.

He is so eloquent; his lecture touched everyone in the audience. [1 2 ] “ 死 亡 是 美 的 母 亲 ” ，这 句 诗 真 是 太 有 哲 理 了 。 “ Sĩwâng shì měi de mííqĩn”，zhè jù shĩ shuõ de zhēn shì tài yõu zhelī le. “Death is the mother of beauty ”；this poetic line is really

philosophical. Hyperbole is a figure of speech expressing strong feelings that are exaggerated and should not be taken literally. The transformative 了 can be used to say that a very unusual situation has occurred. [1 3 ] 这 天 气 热 死 我 了 。 Zhè tiỗnqì rè sĩ wỗ le.

I am dying of this hot weather. [ 1 4 ] 他 把 我 都 ^ ^疯 了 。 _ Tã bâ wõ dõu qi fēng le.

He has driven me mad. [ 1 5 ] 我 都 磨 破 嘴 唇 了 ，可 他 还 是 不 听 。 wõ dõu mó pồ zuīchun le, kẽ tã háishi bù tĩng.

I have wasted all my breath, but he still does not listen.

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[ 1 6 ] 商 店 的 人 太 多 了 ，我 都 给 挤 扁 了 。 Shỗngdiàn de rén tài duõ le, wõ dõu gẽi jĩ biân le. There were so many people in the store; I was squashed flat.

28.3 Perfective and transformative aspects (完成态与变化态） The perfective 了 and the transformative 了 are both derived from the verb 7. They both mean to end or complete and may co-occur in the same sentence. However, they are different in function, and this should be clearly recognized.

28.3.1 Action and state Both the perfective 了 and the transformative 了 express a sense of completion; but, as said earlier, one is about the completion o f an action and the other is about the end o f a state, which further signifies change and transformation. Compare these two sentences: 奶奶看见了孙子。 Nâinai kàn jiàn le sūnzi. The grandmother saw the grandson. 奶奶看见孙子了。 Nâinai kàn jian sūnzi le. The grandmother has seen the grandson. In the above examples，the perfective 了 denotes that the grandmother saw the grandson. The transformative 了 implies that the grandmother has fin a lly seen the grandson, which may have been long anticipated. Now watch the differences in the follow ing sentences. [1 ] 我爬上了长城。 w õ pá shàng le Chángchéng. I climbed up the Great Wall. [2 ] 我爬上长城了。 Wỗ pá shàng Chángchéng le. I have climbed up the Great Wall. [ 3 ] 回 想 昨 天 发 生 的 事 ，她 觉 得 自 己 受 了 骗 。 Huíxiâng zuotiān fāshēng de shì, tā juéde zìjĩ shòu le piàn. Reflecting on what happened yesterday, she feels she was deceived.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[ 4 ] 回 想 昨 天 发 生 的 事 ，她 觉 得 自 己 _受 骗 了 。 Huíxiang zuótian fāshēng de shì, tā juéde zìjĩ shòu piàn le.

R eflecting on what happened yesterday, she feels she is deceived. Notice that in [3], attention is focused on the action that occurred yesterday, but in [4], the event has an impact on the speaker at the time of speaking and is relevant to the present.

28.3.2 Co-presence The perfective 了 and the transform ative 了 may occur in the same sentence, but if you only want to speak about the change of a state, you can omit the perfective 了 unless you also want to emphasize the completion of the action. 我 找 到 （了 ）问 题 的 根 源 了 。 Wo zhâo dào (le) wéntí de gẽnyuán le.

I have found out the cause of the problem. In this sentence, the perfective 了 is used to emphasize the completion of the action, which may be a response to a question about the action. The perfective 了 is optional in the following sentences. [ 5 ] 他 采 纳 （了 ）我 们 的 建 议 了 。 Tā câinà (le) women de jiányi le.

He has adopted our proposals. [ 6 ] 我 又 看 见 （了 ) 那 条 箄 鱼 了 。 w õ yòu kàn jiàn (le) nà tiáo shãyú le.

I have seen that shark again. [ 7 ] 那 棵 树 又 长 出 （了 ）新 叶 子 了 。 Nà kẽ shù yòu zhang chū (le) xĩn yèzi le.

That tree has grown new leaves again. [ 8 ] 我 去 （了 ）那 家 新 开 的 商 店 了 。 w õ qù (le) nà jiā xĩn kāi de shãngdiàn le.

I have been to that newly-opened store.

28.3.3 Complements of time The complement of time modifies verbs. To state how long an action

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lasted or how many times an action has been repeated, you need to use the perfective 了 instead o f the transformative 了. In c o r r e c t:我 参 观 一 次 国 家 艺 术 馆 了 。 w õ cānguān yí CÌ guójia yìshùguân le. I visited the National Gallery o f A rt once. C o r r e c t : 我7参 ， 了 次 国 家 艺 术 馆 。 w õ cỗnguỗn le yí cì guójia yìshùguân. I visited the National Gallery o f A rt once. However, the perfective 了 and the transformative 了 may co-occur with a complement o f time, which indicates the end o f one situation at the time o f speaking, but the action may be repeated or continued. [9 ]我参观了一次故宫博物院了。 w õ cãnguỗn le yí cì Gùgõng Bówùyuàn le. I have visited the Palace Museum once. [10]

g 研究了三年清代历史了Ọ TỖ yánjiu le sãn nián Qĩng Dài lĩshĩ le. He has been studying the history o f the Qing Dynasty for three years.

28.4 Transformative aspect and time (变化态与时间) The transformative 了 and tim e adjuncts can jo in tly denote the manner and the time o f the action. Now let US see how they can be used together and be compared w ith English tenses and aspects. Remember that these comparisons are approximations; they do not exactly match English usage.

28.4.1 Present perfect The transformative 了 indicates the end o f a state. W ithout a specific time reference, it may be understood as having occurred at the tim e o f speaking, which is relevant to the present. The following sentence may be translated into English present perfect. [1 ]他终于得到美国的绿卡了。 Tā zhongyú dé dào Měiguó de lùkâ le. He has finally got an American Green Card.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[2 ] 她读完荷马的两部史诗了。 Tā dú wán Hémâ de liang bù shĩshĩ le.

She has finished reading H om ēri two epics. [3 ] 我已决定主修文学专业了。 w õ yĩ juéding zhū xiū wénxué zhuanyé le.

I have already decided to major in literature. [4 ]

爭德修斯终于回到伊萨卡了。 Àodéxiũsĩ zhongyú huí dào Yĩsàkâ le.

Odysseus has finally returned to Ithaca. N otice that, in spite of the difference betw een the perfective and transformative aspects, they both in a general way fit in the mode of English present perfect. 28.4.2

Present perfect continuous

In English, the present perfect continuous refers to an action that, starting at some time in the past, continues up till now. In Chinese, the perfective 了 and the transformative 了 can together express this idea, with a complement of time indicating the duration or the frequency of an action. 我学武术学了五年了。 w õ xué wushu xué le WŮ nián le.

I have been studying martial arts for five years. This sentence means that the speaker has been studying martial arts all the way up to the time of speaking, and the speaker most likely will continue. [ 5 ] 雨下了一天一夜了。 Yũ xià le yì tiãn yí yè le.

It has been raining for a day and a night. [6 ] 他这双鞋穿了三年了。 Tã zhè shuỗng xié chuān le sān nián le.

He has been wearing this pair of shoes for three years. [ 7 ] 电影演了一个小时了。

Diànyĩng yân le yí ge xiâoshí le. The movie has been going on for an hour.

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[8 ] 她电话打了五十分钟了。 Tã diànhuà dâ le wúshí fēnzhong le. She has been on the phone for fifty minutes.

28.4.3 Future perfect In English, the future perfect refers to an action that w ill occur before another action in the future or at a specific tim e in the future. The transformative 了 can express the same idea i f it is used w ith a time adjunct indicating a time in the future. 他 明 天 早 上 醒 来 的 时 候 ，我 已 经 离 开 亚 特 兰 大 了 。 Tā míngtiãn zaoshang xĩng lai de shíhou, wõ yĩjĩng líkãi Yàtèlándà le. When he wakes up tomorrow morning, I w ill have left Atlanta. 他明天早上醒来的时候（ when he wakes up tomorrow morning) sets the time in the future; without this time adjunct, this sentence does not refer to the completion o f a future action. [9]

明 天 亨 个 时 候 ，我 已 经 到 中 国了。 Míngtiãn zhè ge shihou, wo yTjing dào Zhongguó le. By this time tomorrow, I w ill have arrived in China.

[1 0 ] 明 年 九 月 以 前 我 们 就 搬 进 新 宿 舍 了 。 Míngnián jiú yuè yĩqián women jiù bỡn jin xĩn sùshè le. Before September next year, we w ill have moved into the new dormitory. [ 1 1 ] 下、 学„ 喪 的 时 候 ，我 就 读 完 二 十 个 学 分 了 。 Xià xuéqĩ Ịiéshù de shíhou, wõ jiù dú wán èrshí ge xuéfěn le. By the end o f next semester, I w ill have earned twenty credits. [ 1 2 ] 你 从 中 国 回 _来 的 时 候 ，你 的 中 文 会 非 常 好 了 。 Nĩ cóng Zhongguó huí lái de shíhou, nĩ de Zhongwén huì fēichang hâo le. W hen you return fro m China, you w ill have perfected your Chinese.

Time and Aspects 时与态

C h a p te r 2 9

T h e E x p e rie n tia l A s p e c t 经 历 态

The verb it , having a f o o t radical, means to p a s s or g o through. It is one of the most commonly used verbs. The experiential aspect refers to an action or condition that has been experienced. It is expressed through the aspect particle 过 ， which is derived from the verb 过 • The experiential 过 is placed after the verb to signify that an action or condition, whether in a concrete or abstract sense, has been experienced. Here is a proverb you may have heard of: 骗 过 我 一 次 ，是 你 的 耻 辱 ，骗 过 我 两 次 ，是 我 的 耻 辱 。 Piàn guo wõ yí cì, shì nĩ de chĩrú, piàn guo wõ liâng cì, shì wõ de chĩrú.

Fool me once, shame on you; fool me twice, shame on me. This proverb is about learning from experience. Aldous Huxley says, “Experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happens to him.” If you are fooled twice， you are to blame for not learning from the experience. The experiential 过 can occur with many verbs to indicate the experience of having gone through something, including some stative verbs that denote a state. For example， we cannot say 她 爱 了 他 （she loved him) in the perfective aspect, but we can say it in the experiential aspect: 她 爱 过 他 ，也 恨 过 他 D Tỗ ài guo tā, yě hèn guo tã

She once loved him and once hated him. The experiential aspect shows that she once went through the feelings of loving him and hating him, which the perfective aspect cannot denote. However, the experiential i i is restricted in some situations. It cannot occur with verbs that represent unrepeatable actions, nor can it occur with some cognitive verbs. The experiential i i postmodifies the verb, but you cannot assume that every 过 positioned after the verb is experiential 过 • The verb 过 may be used as a complement. For examples, in 她 转 过 头 （she turned her head back),过 is a complement of direction; in 她 洗 过 碗 了 （she washed the dishes), i±, used in the sense of fin ish , is a complement of result. In both cases, i i is not used to show experience. “Nothing ever becomes real,” says the English Romantic poet John

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Keats, “till it is experienced.” Now let experiential aspect. 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4

US

experience how to use the

Experiential aspect and experiences Experiential aspect and complements Experiential and perfective aspects Experiential aspect and time

29.1 Experiential aspect and experiences (经历态与经历) When you go through an action, you also experience it at the same time. The experiential aspect, as noted earlier, is about what has been experienced. 29.1.1

Experiences

The experiential i i is placed after the verb to refer to an action that has been experienced. It can be an action that one initiates or something that falls upon one. In some cases, the one who has gone through the experience is not identified. 今年， 下 1Í 三次雪- 了。 Jīnnian xià guo sān cì xuě le.

It has snowed three times this year. This sentence tells that three occurrences of snow have been experienced so far this year. The use of the transformative 了 indicates that more snow may be expected. [ 1 ] 我 读 过 《三 ņ 演 义 》Ọ Wõ dú g u o 《Sân Guó 丫čnyi》.

I have read the T hree K in gdom s. [2]

他在中国拉过二，。 Tā zái Zhongguó lã guo èrhú.

He once played E rhu (two-stringed Chinese fiddle) in China. [3 ] 他当过美国驻联合国大使。 Tā dāng guo Měiguó zhù Liánhéguó dàshĩ.

He once served as the u.s. ambassador to the United Nations.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[4 ] 这是我小时候住过的房子。 Zhè shì wõ xiâo shíhou zhù guo de fángzi.

This is the house where I used to live as a child. The experiential i i can also be placed after a predicative adjective to denote a state that one has experienced. [ 5 ] 他 高 兴 过 ，也 失 望 过 。 Tã gãoxìng guo, yě shiwáng guo.

He had moment of happiness and moment of disappointment. [6 ] 这个星期没有晴过。 Zhè ge xĩngqĩ méiyỗu qíng guo.

This week has not witnessed any clear weather. 29.1.2

C u rre n t relevance

The experiential aspect, like other aspects, does not relate the time of an experience to the time of speaking. It may, with a time reference, refer to an experience that occurred at a point a long time ago which was relevant to that time. However, the past experience, in a broad sense, is always relevant to the present in one way or another. In referring to a past experience, the speaker may want to explain or suggest something. 我 年 轻 的 时 候 ，很 多 男 孩 子 追 过 我 Q w õ niánqĩng de shíhou, hen duõ nán háizi zhuī guo wõ.

When I was young, many young men chased after me. The speaker is apparently proud of herself though she may have lost the charm that she once had. The way she feels about her past is still relevant to her present ego. Notice how each reference to the past is pertinent to the present in the following sentences. [ 7 ] 我 在 海 边 住 过 ，这 里 的 气 候 太 干 燥 。 w õ zài hâi biān zhù guo, zhèlĩ de qìhou tài gānzao.

I used to live by the seaside; the climate here is too dry. [8 ] ^ 受 过 伤 害 ，不 轻 易 相 信 别 人 。 _ Tā shòu guo shanghai, bù qĩngyì xiãngxìn biérén.

She was hurt before; she does not easily trust others. [9 ]

失 业 过 ，知 道 有 份 工 作 多 么 重 要 。 、 、 Tā shĩ yè guo, zhīdap you fén gongzuó duõme zhóngyáo.

He was unemployed before; he knows how important it is to have a job.

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[ 1 0 ] 我 学 过 法 律 ，你 胜 诉 的 可 能 性 几 乎 没 有 。 Wo xué guo falu, nĩ shèngsù de kẽnéngxìng j'īhū méiyõu. I studied the law before. Your chance o f w in n in g the suit is next to zero. 29.1.3

Repeatable actions

The experiential i i may m odify many verbs, but it is not compatible with verbs that represent unrepeatable actions. For example, the verb die represents an action that cannot be repeated; one cannot experience death unless death is used in some kind o f metaphorical sense. Some verbs are one-action verbs as far as one experience or one event is concerned. For example: In c o r r e c t:我 到 达 过 西 藏 。 Wo dòodá guo Xĩzàng. I have been to Tibet. Correct:

我到过西藏。 Wo dào guo Xizang. I have been to Tibet.

The verb (arrive) is one-time-action verb, which means that one has reached certain destination in a journey. In the second sentence, the verb Ỉ'J (arrive) is used in the sense o f having been to, which can be repeated. Here are more examples: In c o r r e c t:民 主 党 全 国 大 会 闭 幕 过 。 Mínzhudang quánguó dàhuì bì mù guo. The Democratic National Convention closed. C o rre c t:民 主 党 全 国 大 会 闭 幕 了 。 Mínzhúdang quánguó dàhuì bì mù le. The Democratic National Convention closed. Incorrect: 1我 狄 浦 斯 杀 过 他 的 父 亲 ，娶 过 她 的 母 亲 。 Édípúsĩ shā guo tā de fùqĩn, qũ guo tã de múqĩn. Oedipus kille d his father and married his mother. Correct:

1我 狄 浦 斯 杀 了 他 的 父 亲 ，娶 了 她 的 母 亲 。 Édípúsĩ shỗ le tā de fùqĩn, qú le tỗ de mũqĩn. Oedipus killed his father and married his mother.

Time and Aspects 时与态

The verb 闭幕 literally means which occurs only once in a convention. Other one-time-action verbs include 出 发 （set out)，倒 闭 （ bankrupt)，开 张 （open the store), 上 班 （go to work)，下 班 （finish the work)，上 课 （start the class), 下 课 （finish the class), etc. In addition to one-time-action verbs, the experiential i i is not compatible with some cognitive verbs, such as t董 （ understand), i 己得 (remember),理 解 （ comprehend)，明 白 （be clear)，认 识 （ recognize), 认为 (think)，知 道 （ know), etc. In c o rre c t: 我 认 识 过 那 个 法 官 。 Wo rènshí guo nà ge faguān.

I once knew that judge. Incorrect: 我 明 白 过 游 戏 规 则 。 Wo míngbai guo yóuxì guīze.

I was clear about the rules of the game 认识（ know) is a one-time action verb; you cannot come to know someone several times, so is the verb 明 白 （be clear).

One-time-action verbs and cognitive verbs, in general, do not accur with i i in the negative form either. But, in some instances, people may use i i in the negative form to contradict an assertion which states that something has happened. For example, one may say “马克从来没明白过这 一点 ’’ （Make has never understood this point) in response to the view that Mark is clear about it. 29.1.4

Negation

没 or 没有 is used before the verb to make the negative form of the experiential aspect•没人 or 没 有 人 （no one) can also be used for the negation, which functions like a negative pronoun in English. [1 1 ] 我 没 去 过 南 美 洲 。 Wo méi qù guo Nánměizhou.

I have not been to South America. [1 2 ] 没 人 走 过 这 条 路 。 、 Méi rén zou guo zhè tiáo IÙ.

No one has taken this path before. In [11] and [12], the experiential 过 is used in negation to indicate that the

action has not been experienced. The meaning will be slightly different without the experiential i i .

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[1 3 ] 在 中 国 我 没 看 京 剧 。 Zái Zhongguó wõ méi kàn jīngju.

In China I did not watch Peking opera. [1 4 ] 在 中 国 我 没 看 过 京 剧 。

zài Zhongguó wõ méi kàn guo jĩngjù. In China I did not watch Peking opera. In [13], the speaker may simply choose not to watch a Peking opera in China. In [14], the speaker did not have the experience of watching a Peking opera in China.

29_2 Experiential aspect and complements (经历态与补语) The word i i is more than one part of speech, and it has multiple functions. It can be difficult to distinguish what role it plays in a sentence. First of all, i i is a commonly used verb in the sense of g o and p a ss. 时 巧 过 得 真 快 ，_再 过 两 周 就 过 年 了 。 Shijiān guò de zhēn kuài, zài guò liâng zhõu jiù guò nián le.

Time goes fast; in two weeks it will be time to celebrate the New Year. In this sentence, all three 过 are verbs; the first two 过 are used in the sense of p a s s , and the third i i is used in the sense of c e le b ra te or o bserve, i i also frequently serves as a verb complement. ^ 醒 过 来 时 ，飞 机 已 经 飞 过 了 日 本 。 Tã xĩng guòlái shí, fēijī yĩjĩng fēi guò le Rìbẽn.

When he woke up, the plane had already flown over Japan. 那 辆 车 我 令查^ ，没 有 什 么 问 题 。 Nà liàng chẽ wỗ jianchá guò le, méiyỗu shénme wèntí.

I checked the car; I did not find anything wrong. In the first sentence, 过 in 醒 过 来 and 飞过 serves as a complement of direction. In the second sentence, 过 in 检 查过 serves as the complement of result. It is easy to distinguish i i as a verb. Now let US see how to distinguish the experiential 过 from the complement 过 . 29.2.1

过 as the complement o f d irection

The experiential 过 implies that one has empirical experience

Time and Aspects 时与态

or knowledge of something. But when 过 serves as a complement of direction, it indicates going beyond a point of time or a destination, or showing a change of a direction. Compare these two sentences: Experiential: 年 轻 的 时 候 ，他 周 游 过 世 界 。 Niánqĩng de shíhou, tā zhouyóu guo shijié.

When he was young, he travelled all over the world. Complement: 他 睡 过 了 头 ，坐 过 了 站 。 Tā shuì guò le tóu, zuò guò le zhàn.

He overslept and missed the stop to get off. In the first sentence, the experiential i i indicates that the person in question has the experience of travelling around the world. In the second sentence, the complement i i indicates that the action has lasted beyond its designated point. Notice that the experiential i i cannot be followed by the perfective 了. In c o rre c t: 上 大 学 的 时 候 ，他 研 究 过 了 《易 经 》。 Shàng dàxué de shíhou, tã yánjiũ guo le CYÌ Jīng).

In college, he studied the B o o k o f C hanges. In c o rre c t: 文 化 大 革 命 中 ，他 参 加 过 了 红 卫 兵 。 w é n h u á D à g é m ìn g Hóngwéibing.

zh o n g ,

tā

c ā n jiā

guo

le

During the Cultural Revolution, he joined the Red Guards. In these two sentences, 过 is the experiential 过 ，and it does not occur with the perfective 了• But the complement 过 can be followed by the perfective 了. [ 1 ] 空 中 小 姐 送 过 来 （了 ）一 杯 咖 啡 。 Kongzhong xiaojiě sòng guò lái (le) yì bẽi kāfēi.

The stewardess brings a cup of coffee. [ 2 ] 她 转 过 （了 ）头 ，甜 甜 地 笑 了 一 下 。 Tā zhuan guò (le) tóu, tiántián de xiào le yíxià.

Looking back, she flashes a sweet smile.

29.2.2 过 as the complement of result When i i serves as the complement of result, it looks similar to the experiential i i . However, there is a slight distinction between the two.

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As a complement of result, i i is usually used in the sense of fin ish , done, or com plete, which differs from the experiential i i that emphasizes the experience. E xperiential: 我 吃 过 龙 坏 ，味 道 不 如 螃 蟹 。 w õ chī guo lóngxiỡ, wéidáo bù rú pángxiè.

I have had lobsters; it doesn’t taste as good as crabs. Com plem ent: 他 吃 过 （了 ）早 饭 就 上 班 去 了 。 Tā chi guò (le) zaofán jiù shàng bân qù le.

He went to work as soon as he finished his breakfast. The complement i i is used in the sense of fin ish ', in this case, it is interchangeable with the perfective 了，and it may also be followed by the perfective 了. But the experiential 过 ，as noted earlier， cannot be followed by the perfective 了• Notice how the complement 过 is used in the sense of finish in the following sentences. [ 3 ] 房 子 刷 过 了 ，你 下 周 就 可 以 搬 进 去 。 Fangzi shuã guò le, nĩ xià zhõu jiù kẽyĩ bãn jìnqù.

The house has been painted; you can move in next week. [ 4 ] 血 化 验 过 了 ，你 的 胆 固 醇 略 高 一 点 。 Xiě huàyàn guò le, nĩ de dângùchún liiè gỗo yìdiân.

The blood test has been done; your cholesterol is a little high. [ 5 ] 我 检 查 过 了 眼 睛 ，我 的 视 力 还 不 错 。 Wo jianchá guò le yanjing, wõ de shìlì hái búcuò.

I have checked my eyes; my vision is not bad. [ 6 ] 我 们 商 量 过 了 ，你 可 以 注 册 这 门 课 。 Women shỗngliáng guò le, nĩ kẽyĩ zhùcè zhè mén kè.

We discussed it. You may register for this class.

29.3 Experiential and perfective aspects (经历态与完成态) In some instances, the experiential aspect and the perfective aspect may be used interchangeably, but there are some differences. The key difference is that one indicates what is experienced and the other indicates what is completed. In addition, there are two more points to be noted.

Time and Aspects 时与态

29.3.1

E xposition and narra tio n

The experiential aspect is often used in exposition, denoting that something has been experienced. The perfective aspect is usually used in the narrative, recounting things that happened. Compare these two sentences: 我在大阪给你打过一个电话。

Wõ zồỉ Dàbân gẽi nĩ dâ guo yí ge diànhuà. I called you once in Osaka. 我在大阪给你打了一个电话。 w õ zài Dàbân gěi nĩ dâ le yí ge diànhuà.

I called you in Osaka. The firs t sentence is in the expository mode indicating that the speaker went through something. The second sentence is in the narrative mode; the speaker recounts what he or she did in Osaka. Watch the differences in the following sentences. [ 1 ] 我 请 过 他 来 欧 洲 ，咚 说 他 从 没 离 开 过 阿 拉 巴 马 。

_

Wố qĩng guo tỗ lái Ouzhou, tã shuõ tã cóng méi líkãi guo à lābāma. I once invited him to come to Europe; he said he had never left Alabama. [ 2 ] 他 以 前 去 过 中 国 ，学 过 汉 语 ，他 有 能 力 辅 导 学 _生 。

Tã yĩqián qù guò Zhongguó, xué guò Hànyũ, tã you nénglì fũdâo xuésheng. He went to China and studied Chinese before; he is able to tutor students. [ 3 ] 在 巴 黎 ，我 爬 了 埃 菲 尔 铍 塔 ，参 观 了 巴 黎 圣 母 院 。

Zai Bāli, wõ pá le Āifēi’ er Tiềtâ, Shèngmúyuàn.

cānguān le Bāli

In Paris, I climbed the E iffel Tower and visited Notre Dame de Paris. [ 4 ] 我 坐 了 下 来 ，要 了 一 杯 茶 ，一 点 儿 胃 口 都 没 有 。

Wỗ zuò le xiàlai, yào le yĩ bẽi chá, yìdiânr wèi kõu dõu méiyõu. I sat down and ordered a cup o f tea. I had no appetite at all.

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N otice that in [1] and [2], the speaker is explaining something or is providing the listener w ith some inform ation. But in [3] and [4], the speaker is recounting a story, the things that happened in a trip. 29.3.2

Past action

The experiential and perfective aspects also differ in their reference to the state o f an action. The experiential i i , without a time reference, refers to an action that was completed at the tim e o f speaking. The perfective 7, without a time reference, refers to an action that may be completed or may continue up to the time o f speaking. 一只小鸟在窗台上搭i Ị 一个窝。

YÌ zhī xiâo niâo zài chuãngtái shàng dã guo yí ge wõ. A little bird once built a nest on the windowsill. 一只小鸟在窗台上搭了一个窝。

YÌ zhī xiâo niâo zài chuãngtái shàng dã le yí ge wõ. A little bird has built a nest on the windowsill. In the first sentence, the birďs nest is no longer there; but in the second sentence, the little bird may be s till w orking on the nest. Watch the differences in the following sentences. [5 ] 他在一个非盈利组织工作过。

Tỗ zài yí ge fēi yínglì zũzhĩ gongzuó guo. He once worked for a non-profit organization. [ 6 ] 通 过 政 变 ，他 当 了 国 家 元 首 。

Tõngguò zhéngbián, tā dãng le guojiā yuánshõu. Through a coup ďéíat, he becomes the head o f the state. [7 ] 他的两幅画在中国美术馆展出过。

Tỗ de liâng fú huà zai Zhongguó Mẽishùguân zhanchū guo. Two o f his paintings were once displayed in China A rt Gallery. [8 ] 他在意大利的一个小镇住了下来。

Tã zài Yìdàlì de yí ge xiâo zhèn zhù le xiàlai. He has settled down in a small town in Italy. In [5] and [7], the experiential aspect refers to a bygone experience. But in [6] and [8], what comes as a result o f the action may be still present.

Time and Aspects 时与态

29.4 Experiential aspect and time (经历态与时间) The experiential aspect, like other aspects, does not relate the time o f experience to the time o f speaking. However, the experiential aspect also diffe rs fro m other aspects in that any mention o f an experience necessarily shows its relevance to the present. L e t US see how the experiential aspect can be compared w ith English tenses and aspects, but remember that none o f the English tenses and aspects specifically focuses on what has been experienced. 29.4.1

Simple past

The experiential i i , w ith a time adjunct indicating a past time, can refer to an action that occurred at a specific point in the past, which may be translated into the English simple past. 过

予

里

,,他 换 过 三 次 工 作 。

Guòqù sỗn nián lĩ, tā huàn guo sãn cì gõngzuò. He changed jobs three times in the past three years. This sentence emphasizes that the person in question experienced the change o f jobs three times, but the English translation only indicates that he changed jobs three times. [1 ] 今年夏天我在日内瓦见过他。

Jīnnian xiàtiỗn wo zai Rinéiwa jián guo tā. This summer I met him in Geneva. [ 2 ] 六 十 年 代 她 母 亲 吃 过 很 多苦。

Liùshí niándài tā múqĩn chĩ guo hen duõ kú. In the 60’s，her mother experienced a lot o f hardship. [ 3 ] 年/轻 的 时 候 ，， 参 4 军_可 是 从 参 & 打 过 仗 。

Nỉánqĩng de shíhou, tā can guo jun kěshi cónglái méi dá guo zháng. In his youth, he joined the army, but he never fought in a battle. [ 4 ] 上 大 学 的 时 候 ，他 修 过 一 门 美 国 亚 裔 文 学 。

Shàng dàxué de shíhou, tā xiū guo yìmén Měiguó yàyì wénxué. In college, he took a course in Asian American literature.

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Present perfect

The experiential aspect, without time reference, matches w ell the English present perfect, particularly in terms o f the past experience’s relevance to the present. 我 去 过 洛 杉 矶 ，我 知 道 那 儿 的 中 国 城 。 w õ qù guò Luoshānjī, wo zhīdao nàr de Zhongguóchéng.

I have been to Los Angeles; I know the Chinatown there. The speaker’s knowledge o f Chinatow n comes from his experience o f visiting Los Angeles. The experiential i i does not occur w ith the perfective 了，but it is compatible w ith the transformative 了. [5 ] 这个故事我听过一百遍了。

Zhè ge gùshì wỗ tīng guo yì bâi biàn le. I have heard this story a hundred times. [6 ] 他参加过律师资格考试吗？

Tā cānjiā guò lồshĩ zīge kâoshì ma? Has he ever taken the bar exam? [7 ] — 月 以 来 ，航 空 交 通 瘫 痪 过 好 几 次 。

Yĩyuè yĩlái, hángkõng Jiāotong tãnhuàn guo hâo jĩ cì. Since January, air traffic has been paralyzed several times. [ 8]

住 院 以 后 ，他 已 竽 做 _过 两 次 手 术 J 。

Zhù yuan yĩhòu, tã yĩjĩng zuò guo liâng cì shỗushù le. A fte r being hospitalized, he has already had two operations. In some cases, it may not be obvious i f a sentence in the experiential aspect should be translated into the present perfect or the simple past in English. 我 在 天 津 上 过 学 ，吃 过 狗 不 理 包 子 。 w õ zài Tiānjīn shàng guo xué, chĩ guo gõubùlĩ bāozi.

I studied in Tianjin before, and I tasted goubuli (Go Believe). It is appropriate to translate this sentence into the simple past because it refers to a specific time in the past tim e :在天津 refers to the time when the speaker studied in Tianjin.

Time and Aspects 时与态

29.4.3

Past perfect

The experiential 过 ，with a time adjunct specifying a past time, may indicate that an action had been experienced before another action in the past or before a point o f time in the past. [ 9 ] 学 校 开 除 他 以 前 ，已 经 警 告 过 他 两 次 。

Xuéxiào kāichu tā yĩqián, yījīng jīnggao guo tā liâng cì. The school had already warned h im tw ice before expelling him. [ 1 0 ] 她 毕 业 以 前 ，三 家 公 司 就 面 试 过 她 了 。

Tỗ bì yè yĩqián, sān jiā gõngsĩ jỉù miànshì guo tā le. Before she graduated, three companies had interviewed her. [1 1 ] 圣 诞 节 前 他 就 考 虑 过 建 立 一 个 博 客 。

Shèngdàn Jié qián tā jiù kâolò guo jiánli yí ge bókè. Before Christmas he had considered creating a blog. [ 1 2 ] 学 太 极 拳 以 前 ，他 练 过 几 年 的 瑜 伽 。

Xué táijíquán ýíqián, tā lián guo jīnian de yújia. Before learning Taijiquan, he had practiced Yoga for several years.

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T h e P ro g ressive A s p e c t 进 行 态

The progressive aspect is formed by the aspect particle 在 ，which precedes the verb to signify an incomplete action that is in progress. The actions that the progressive aspect signifies are active or dynamic; they can be those in which one is engaged to achieve an objective, or they can be the unfolding o f natural forces. Here is a line from The Yellow River Cantata, which expresses Chinese peopled w ill to defend their country against Japanese invasion during the Second World War: 风 在 吼 ，马 在 叫 ，黄 河 在 咆 哮 。

Fēng zài hỗu, mâ zài jiào, Huáng Hé zài páoxiào. The wind is howling; horses are neighing; the Yellow River is roaring. In this lin e , the progressive Ậ. is repeated before each o f the three dynam ic verbs, w hich displays the explosion o f po w e rfu l actions in sweeping motion. It also conveys strong human emotions and feelings. The word firs t o f all, is a verb, meaning to live or exist. In its earliest w ritten form , it shows a picture o f a plant growing from soil, indicating something that is alive and exists. The proverb 无所不在 ，for example, means ubiquitous— something that exists everywhere. The progressive aspect particle 在 is derived from the verb 在 ，indicating that something is alive and is in progress. Gram m atically, the progressive Ạ is traditionally considered an adverb, but it may be more appropriate to categorize it as an aspect particle, for it shows a state o f action. It can precede a large number o f action verbs to signify ongoing actions. The word Ạ is also a preposition, meaning to exist, which is usually translated into at, in, or on in English. It is important to distinguish the progressive 在 from the /jia s a v e rb a n d a p re p o s itio n . In addition to the progressive 在 ，two adverbs 正 and 正 在 also denote actions in progress. However, the progressive ķ . shows a state o f action; the adverb ÌÊ-, meaning presently, emphasizes the time o f an action. It indicates something happening at this moment rather than show the continuation o f the action. It also, in some ways, differs from the progressive Ķ. in usage, and it does not have a negative form. The adverb 正在 combines both meanings o f 正 and 在 • It intensifies the progressive 在 and can be used almost anywhere the progressive 在 is used; but 正在 resembles 正 in some respects and is lim ited in some usages. The progressive aspect denotes ongoing actions, which may carry

Time and Aspects 时与态

some overtones, such as that something is only temporary or goes on too long. 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4

Identifying the progressive aspect Usage o f the progressive aspect

Zhéng QXiảzhèngzài Progressive aspect and time

30.1 Identifying the progressive aspect (怎样识别进行态) The word 在 represents more than one part o f speech— it is a verb, a preposition, and a progressive aspect particle. It is essential to recognize what role the word 在 plays in a sentence. 30.1.1

The progressive 在

The progressive Ặ. precedes the verb to s ig n ify an action in progress. IĪ can be preceded by certain adverbs, such as 经 常 （ often) and —Ì (relentlessly), which describe how the subject is engaged in an action.

[ 1 ] 他 在 游 泳 的 时 候 ，看 见 了 一 只 小 乌 龟 。

Tã zài yóu yỗng de shíhou, kàn jiàn le yì zhĩ xiâo wūguī. When he was swimming, he saw a little turtle.

[2 ] 我在看一篇关于全球气候变暖的文章。 w õ zồi kàn yì piān guãnyú quánqiú qìhòu biàn nuân de

wénzhang. I am reading an article about global warming. [ 3 ] 他 常 常 在 想 ，为 什 么 他 走 月 亮 也 跟 受 走 v。

、

v

Tā chángcháng zàỉ xiâng, wéishénme tā zỗu yuèliang yě gẽn zhe zõu. He is often wondering why when he walks the moon follows. [ 4

]

一直在帮助那些生活在社会底层的人。

Tã yizhí zài bāngzhd nâxiẽ shẽnghuó zài shèhuì dĩcéng de rén. He has been helping those who live at the bottom o f society.

Some prepositional phrases indicating directions, such as 跟 （ to) and 朝 （ toward), can be placed between the progressive 在 and the verb to indicate where the action is directed.

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[ 5 ] 院 长 在 跟 学 生 谈 话 ，你 可 以 在 这 儿 等 一 会 儿 。

Yuánzhang zài gēn xuésheng tán huà, nĩ kẽyĩ zài zhèr děng yíhuìr. The dean is talking w ith a student; you may w ait here for a moment. [ 6 ] 他 在 朝 我 们 走 来 ，看 上 去 他 可 能 有 好 消 多 。

Tã zài cháo women zou lái, kàn shàngqù tā kěnéng yõu hâo xiãoxi. He is w alking toward US. It seems that he has some good news. In narrative or literary language，the 地 construction, functioning as an adverbial，can be placed between the progressive 在 and the verb to describe the manner o f the action. [ 7 ] 他 在 大 声 地 喊 ，让 全 世 界 都 听 到 他 的 声 音 。

Tỗ zài dà shẽng de hân, ràng quán shìjiè dõu tĩng dào tã de shẽngyĩn. He is shouting loudly, letting the whole world hear his voice. [ 8 ] 雨 在 不 停 地 下 ，她 望 着 他 逐 渐 消 失 在 雨 中 。

Yú zài bù ting de xià, tā wàng zhe tã zhújián xiãoshĩ zài yú zhõng. It is raining incessantly; she watches him gradually disappear in the rain. 30.1.2

The verb 在

The verb Ạ means to exist or to be at someplace. It may be used intransitively, or it may be followed only by a locational noun. [ 9 ] 他 父 母 不 在 了 ，他 $ 得 人 生 非 常 _短 暂 _ọ

Tā fùmú bú zài le, tã ]uéde rénshẽng fěicháng duanzán. His parents have left; he feels that life is so transitory. [ 1 0 ] 那 位 音 乐 家 还 健 在 ，只 是 不 再 演 出 了 。

Nà wèi yĩnyuèjiã hái jiánzái, zhīshi bú zài yânchũ le. That musician is still alive and healthy, but he does not perform any more. [ 11]

今 天 我 在 家 ，明 天 我 就 要 出 力 门 J 。

Jīntiān wõ zài jiā, mingtiān wỗ jiù yào chū yuan men le. I am at home today; I w ill go far away tomorrow.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[ 1 2 ] 我 以 为 我 的 手 机 丟 了 ，原 来 在 车 里 。 w õ yĩwéi wõ de shouj'ī diū le, yuánlái zài chẽ lĩ.

I thought I lost my cell phone; it turns out to be in the car. In [9]，不在了 means 不 在 世 了 （ n o t in the w o rld )• 在 ，as a verb，also means to depend upon (在 于 ) . You may have heard o f the Chinese saying: 谋 事 在 人 ，成 事 在 天 （ M an proposes, God disposes). 30.1.3

The preposition 在

As a preposition, Ậ. is usually follow ed by a locational noun, making up a prepositional phrase, which is further followed by a verb or verb phrase. 他在牛津大学读法律。

Tā zài Niuj'īn Dàxué dú falu. He studies law at Oxford University. In this sentence,在 牛 津 大 学 （ at O xford University) is a prepositional phrase. W ith o u t 读 法 律 （ studies law),在 w ould be a verb. Here is a com parison o f its roles as an aspect particle, as a verb, and as a preposition. Aspect p a r t i c l e : 他 在 游 泳 。

Tỗ zài yóu yõng. He is swimming. 他在浴缸里。

Verb:

Tā zài yùgỗng lĩ. He is in the bathtub. Preposition:

他在浴缸里游泳。

Tã zài yùgãng lĩ yóu yỗng. He swims in the bathtub. In the third sentence，在 浴 缸 里 （ in the bathtub) is a prepositional phrase. But i f you take o ff 游泳• （ swim),在 w ill become a verb. Here is another example o f 在 as a preposition from the nursery rhyme “ Sing a Song o f Sixpence”： 国王在账房里数钱币；

Guówáng zai zhángfáng lĩ shù qiánbì; The king was in his counting house, counting out his money;

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王后在客厅里吃面包和蜂蜜。

Wánghóu zài kètĩng lĩ chĩ miànbão hé fēngmi. The queen was in the parlor, eating bread and honey. 在 账 房 里 （in his counting house) and 在 客 厅 里 （in the parlor) are both prepositional phrases. Remember that the 在 prepositional phrase， when used as an adverbial, is typically placed before the verb.

30.2 Usage of the progressive aspect (进行态的使用) The progressive aspect emphasizes temporariness; it shows an incomplete action that is in progress and that is not permanent. It cannot occur with certain verbs, and it may convey a variety of meanings. Now let us see some of the characteristics of the progressive aspect in Chinese. 30.2.1

Selective co m p a tib ility

In Chinese, the progressive aspect, like that in English, cannot occur with stative verbs, because these verbs represent feelings, perceptions, or cognitions, which are states rather than actions. In co rrec t: 我 在 明 白 权 力 的 重 要 性 。 w õ zài míngbai quánlì de zhòngyàoxìng. I am understanding the importance of power. In co rrec t: 我 在 感 觉 我 变 成 了 一 只 蝴 蝶 。 w õ zài ganjué wõ biàn chéng le yì zhĩ húdié. I am feeling that I have become a butterfly. 明白（ understand) and 感 觉 （ feel) represent states. Other stative verbs that cannot be used in the progressive aspect include 爱 （ love),懂 (understand)， 感到（ sense), 记 得 （ rem em ber), 清 楚 （be clear), 认 识 （ recognize), 喜 欢 （ like)，愿 意 （be willing)，知 道 （ know)，etc. Notice how the following sentences convey actions in progress. [ 1 ] 我 在 听 莫 扎 特 ，你 在 干 吗 呢 ？ w õ zài ting Mozhāte, nĩ zài gàn má ne?

I am listening to Mozart. What are you doing now? [2]

飞 机 夺 着 陆 ，请 调 直 坐 椅 靠 t 。

Fēijī zài zhúolú, qĩng tiáo zhí zuòyĩ kàobèi. The plane is landing; please return the seatback to its upright position.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[3 ] $ 总>

为付不起房屋贷款而担忧。

Tā zõng zài wèi fù bù qĩ fángwD dàikuân ér dãnyõu. He is always worried about being unable to pay the mortgage. [4 ] i

们到处都在谈， 新上映的电影。

Rénmen dàochù dõu zài tánlùn xỉn shàngyìng de diànyĩng. Everywhere people are talking about the newly released movie. In English, the progressive aspect may occur w ith come and go to denote a future happening, such as he is coming. In Chinese, the progressive aspect does not occur with transitional verbs, which denote a movement from one point to another. In c o r r e c t:他 在 来 。

Tã zài lái. He is coming. Correct:

他马上就来。

Tā mâshàng jiù lái. He is coming. In c o r r e c t:他 在 到 。

Tã zài dào. He is arriving. Correct:

他立刻就到。

Tā like jiù dào. He is arriving immediately. Transitional verbs include 到 （ arrive ),来 (come),去 （ g o ),开 始 （ begin),停 jL (stop), etc. You may, as shown in the above example, premodify these transitional verbs with adverbs. 30.2.2

Overtones

The progressive aspect, as noted earlier, denotes an incomplete action that is in progress, but it may convey some concomitant meanings. For example, one can use it to emphasize duration. [ 5 ] 我 在 做 作 业 ，请 你 把 电 视 关 上 。 w õ zài zuò zuòyè, qĩng nĩ bâ diànshì guãn shàng.

I am doing homework; please turn o ff the TV.

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[ 6 ] 啤 在 开 会 ，请 你 过 一 个 小 时 再 来 。

Tỗ zài kỡi huì, qĩng nĩ guò yí ge xiâoshí zài lái. He is attending a meeting; please come back'in one hour. One can also use the progressive aspect to complain that something is dragging on too long, or to assure people that something w ill be complete in no time. [ 7 ] 他 还 在 讲 ，他 说 起 来 就 没 完 没 了 。

Tỗ hái zài jiang, tā shuõ qĩlai jiù méi wán méi liâo. He is s till rambling; he is notoriously long-winded. [8 ] ^ 在 摆 桌 子 呢 ，我 们 马 上 就 吃 饭 。

Tỗ zài bâi zhuozi ne, women mâshàng jiù chĩ fan. She is setting the table now; we w ill start eating right away.

One could use the progressive aspect to convey the feeling that something has become habitual and repetitive, or to describe what is characteristic of somebody or something. [ 9 ] ， 又 在 耍 小 孩 子 脾 气 ，极 不 成 熟 Q ỵ

ỵ Tā yòu zài shuâ xiâo háizi píqi, jí bù chéngshú. She is behaving like a child again; she is infantile.

[ 1 0 ] 又 在 下 雪 了 ，今 年 的 气 候 很 不 正 常 。

Yòu zài xià xuě le, jīnnian de qìhou hen bú zhéngcháng. It is snowing again. This year’s climate is abnormal. There are various overtones associated w ith the progressive aspect. The articulation o f these overtones, as you see in the above examples, depends upon the context and the use o f adverbs. 30.2.3

在 .... 呢

The progressive 在 collocates with the modal particle 呢 ，which has become a pattern. The particle 呢 ，placed at the end of a sentence, emphasizes that something is in progress; it carries an expository tone. [ 1 1 ] 他 在 接 待 客 人 呢 ，今 天 没 时 间 。

Tā zai jiēdai kèrén ne, jīntiān TTiéi shijiān. He is meeting w ith guests now; he is not available today. [ 1 2 ] 她 在 给 宝 宝 喂 奶 呢 ，宝 宝 刚 睡 醒 。

Tỗ zái gěi bâobao wèi nâi ne, bâobao găng shuì xĩng. She is nursing the baby now; the baby just woke up.

Time and Aspects 时与态

The “ 在 .......呢 ’’ pattern is used in spoken language. I f the context is clear， the progressive 在 can be omitted，and 呢 alone can indicate an action in progress. [1 3 ] $

Tã

(在、 ) 上 厕 所 呢 ，， 等 一 会 儿 。

(zài) shàng cèsuõ ne, nĩ děng yíhuìr.

He is in the restroom now; wait a while. [1 4 ] 我 （ 在 ）上 课 呢 ，别 给 我 打 电 话 。

Wõ (zài) shàng kè ne, bié gěi wõ dâ diànhuà. I am in class now; don’t call me. 30.2.4

Negation

没 （有 ）can be placed before the verb to fo rm the negative progressive aspect, which is used to emphasize that something is not going on. [ 1 5 ] 我 没 在 上 网 ，我 做 笔 记 呢 。

Wõ méi zài shàng wâng, wõ zuò bĩjì ne. I am not surfing online; I am taking notes. [ 1 6 ] 我 没 有 在 说 你 ，别 那 么 敏 感 。 w õ méiyỗu zài shuõ nĩ, bié nàme mĩngân.

I am not talking about you; don?t be so sensitive.

30.3 2^ 叫 and z/7ềnổ^/ ( “正”与 “正在”） The adverbs 正 and 正在 may also denote an action in progress, but they, in some ways, not only d iffe r from the progressive particle 在 but also from each other. They are all frequently used. Let US look at them individually. 30.3.1

正

SL is an adverb that means presently or at this point o f time. It can denote an action in progress, but it is restricted in some ways. When SL modifies a monosyllabic verb (without an object) or an adjective，着 and 呢 need to be placed after the verb; 着 is optional but 呢 is required. I f the monosyllabic verb has an object or i f it is a disyllabic verb，着 is usually not needed, but 呢 is still required.

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他 正 睡 （着 ）呢 。

Tā zhéng shui (zhe) ne. He is sleeping now. 他正睡觉呢。

Tā Zheng shuì jiao ne. He is sleeping now. I f there is a prepositional phrase, which typically goes before the verb, in a sentence,呢 is usually not needed•呢 is also not needed if a monosyllabic verb is followed by a prepositional phrase. [1 ] 他 们 正 在 白 宫 讨 论 中 东 问 题 。

Tāmen zhéng zài Báigõng tâolùn Zhongdong wèntí. They are discussing the M iddle East issues in the W hite House. [2 ] 她 正 从 网 上 查 找 去 香 港 的 航 班 。

Tā zhéng cóng wâng shàng cházhao qù Xianggang de hángbãn. She is checking flights to Hong Kong from the internet. [3 ] 她 正 把 一 杯 咖 徘 放 在 我 的 面 前 。

Tā zhéng bâ yì bēi kāfēi fang zài wõ de miànqián. She is placing a cup o f coffee in front o f me. Notice that，in [1],正 is an adverb, and 在 白 宫 （ in the W hite House) is a prepositional phrase; they should not be read as one word 正 在 . 正 also means that something happens by chance or occurs at a particular moment. It often appears in a tim e adjunct that provides the background inform ation fo r the sentence. In this case, SL is not interchangeable with 正在 or 在 . In c o rre c t: 他 在 出 门 的 时 候 ，电 话 锋 响 了 。

Tỗ zài chū mén de shíhou, dĩànhuà líng xiâng le. When he was just leaving the house, the phone started ringing. C o r r e c t: 他 正 出 门 的 时 候 ，电 话 铃 响 了 。

Tā zhéng chū mén de shíhou, diànhuà líng xiâng le. When he was just leaving the house, the phone started ringing.

Time and Aspects 时与态

正 cannot occur w ith adverbs that denote repeated actions at short intervals or ongoing actions, such as 还 （ s t ill) , 经 常 （ often), — 直 (continuously)，and 又 （ again). These verbs are not sem antically compatible with 正 ，but they may occur with the progressive 在 .

In c o rre c t: 他 还 正 考 虑 移 民 澳 大 利 、 亚。

Tā hái zheng kâolu yímín Àodàlìyà. He is s till contemplating im m igration to Australia. Correct:

他还在考虑移民澳大利亚。

Tā hái zài kâolu yímín Àodàlìyà. He is s till contemplating im m igration to Australia. In c o rre c t: 我 一 直 正 怀 疑 他 提 供 的 证 据 。

Wo yizhí Zheng huáiyí tā tígõng de zhéngju. I always doubt the evidence provided by him. Correct:

我一直在怀疑他提供的证据。

Wo yizhí zài huáiyí tā tígõng de zhèngjù. I always doubt the evidence provided by him. It should also be noted that SL does not have a negative form. You cannot say, for example，她 不 正 开 车 （ she is not driving). 30.3.2 正在 The adverb 正在 combines both meanings o f 正 and 在 • In terms o f usage, it resembles Ặ. in some areas and resembles SL in some others. First o f a ll, 正在 can be used almost anywhere the progressive 在 is used， and it intensifies the notion that something is going on right now. [4 ] _ 师 收 冬 子 的 时 候 ，我 正 在 做 最 后 一 题 。

Lâoshĩ shõu juanzi de shíhou, wõ zhèngzài zuò zuìhòu yì tí. When the teacher collected the exam, I was answering the last question. [ 5 ] 手 术 正 在 进 行 ，医 生 不 能 回 答 任 何 问 题 。

Shõushù zhéngzái jinxing, yĩshẽng bù néng huídá rènhé wèntí. The operation is underway; the doctor cannot answer any question. [ 6 ] 飞 机 正 在 飞 越 太 平 洋 ，窗 外 是 一 片 白 云 。

Fēijī zhéngzái fẽiyuè ‘Tàipíngyấng, chuỗng wài shì yí piàn báiyún.

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The plane is flying over the Pacific; outside is a stretch of white clouds. [ 7 ] 警 察 正 在 追 捕 一 名 罪 犯 ，行 人 纷 纷 躲 闪 。

Jingchá zhéngzái zhuību yì míng zuifán, xíngrén fēnfēn duỗshân. The police are chasing a criminal; pedestrians quickly get out of the way. H ow ever, 正 在 ， like 正 ， cannot occur with adverbs that denote repeated actions at short intervals or ongoing actions. In this regard ，正在 follows the usage of SL. In c o rre c t: 他 经 常 Ặ 在 想 为 什 么 生 活 不 公 平 。 , Tā jingcháng zhéngzái xiâng wéishénme shẽnghuó bù gõngpíng. He is often thinking why life is unfair. In c o rre c t: 她 总 正 在 考 虑 如 何 说 服 她 的 父 母 。 Tồ zong zhéngzai kâolù rúhé shuofú tā de fùmũ. She has been thinking how to persuade her parents. In addition，正在 cannot be negated by 不 or 没有 ； it can be negated by 不是 ， which is used to contend that something is not true. 我 不 是 正 在 玩 电 脑 游 戏 ，我 在 做 作 业 。

Wỗ bú shì zhéngzái wan diànnâo yóuxì, wo zài zuò zuòyè. I am not playing the computer game; I am doing my homework now.

30.4 Progressive aspect and time (进行态与时间) In English, the forms of auxiliary verbs can indicate the time of an action in progress; it can be at present, in the past, or in the future. In Chinese, the progressive 在 refers to what is going currently unless ã time reference indicates otherwise. Now let US see how the past progressive and the future progressive are expressed in Chinese. 30.4.1

Past progressive

In English, the past progressive refers to what someone was doing or what was happening at a particular time in the past. It is often used to refer to a longer action or event that was interrupted by another action. In

Time and Aspects 时与态

Chinese, the progressive 在 can express the same idea w ith the hdp o f a time adjunct to specify a past time. [1 ] 去 年 这 时 候 我 正 在 准 备 研 究 生 入 学 考 试 。

Qùnión zhè shíhòu wo zhéngzái zhunbéi yánjỉũshẽng rùxué kâoshì. This time last year I was preparing for the GRE. [ 2 ] 昨 天 _夜 里 十 二 点 的 时 候 ，我 还 在 机 场 等 你 。

Zuótian yè lĩ shĩèr diân de shíhou, wõ hái zài jlchang děng nĩ. I was s till waiting for you at the airport at twelve o9clock last night. [ 3 ] 我 打 电 话 的 时 候 ，他 们 正 在 吃 感 恩 节 晚 餐 。

Wõ dâ diànhuà de shíhou, tõmen zhéngzái chĩ Gan’ēn Jié wâncãn. When I called, they were having Thanksgiving dinner. [ 4 ] 昨 天 晚 上 地 震 发 生 的 时 候 ，你 在 做 什 么 呢 ？

Zuótian wanshang dizhén fāshēng de shíhou, nĩ zài zuò shénme ne? What were you doing when the earthquake happened yesterday evening? 30.4.2

Future progressive

In English, the future progressive refers to an action that w ill be taking place at some time in the future, and it is formed by “ w ill be + present participle.” In Chinese，the progressive 在 is not needed to denote an action that w ill occur at a certain point in the future. C o r r e c t:明 天 下 午 两 点 你 做 什 么 ？

Míngtiỗn xiàwũ liâng diân nĩ zuò shénme? What w ill you be doing at 2:00 p.m. tomorrow? A w k w a rd :明 天 下 午 两 点 你 在 做 什 么 ？

Míngtiỗn xiáwii liâng diân nĩ zài zuò shénme? What w ill you be doing at 2:00 p.m. tomorrow? C o r r e c t: 拿 上 雨 伞 ，你回来的时彳 1美 会 下 雨 。

Ná shàng yũsân, nĩ huí lái de shíhou huì xià yũ. Take your umbrella. It w ill be raining when you come back.

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A w k w a rd :拿 上 雨 伞 ，你 回 来 的 时 候 会 在 下 雨 。

Ná shàng yũsân, nĩ huí lái de shíhou huì zài xià yú. Take your umbrella. It w ill be raining when you come back. However, if you want to emphasize what one is doing or what is taking place at a particular point in the future, you may use the adverb 正 . [5 ] 明天这时候我正考试呢。

Míngtiỗn zhè shíhou wo Zheng kâoshì ne. I w ill be taking the test this time tomorrow. [6 ] 明天十点我正上飞机呢。

Míngtiỗn shí diãn wõ zhèng shàng fēij'ī ne. A t ten o’clock tomorrow, I w ill be boarding the airplane.

The adverb 正 in [5] and [6] denotes what will happen at thattime; it does not indicate duration.

Time and Aspects 时与态

C h a p te r 31

T h e D u rativ e A s p e c t 持 续 态

The durative aspect, formed by placing the durative aspect particle 着 after the verb, refers to an action that continues or lasts during some

length o f time. It presents ã state in which something continues or persists. In English, we have the progressive aspect, which makes no distinction whether an action goes on in an active or passive mode. We may try to illustrate this difference through two verbs put on and wear: Betty is putting on a red overcoat. 贝蒂在f 一 徉 红 大 衣 。

Bèidì zài chuān yí jiàn hóng dàyĩ. Betty is wearing a red overcoat. 贝蒂穿着一件红大衣。

Bèidì chuỗn zhe yí jiàn hóng dàyl In both sentences, the action moves on. In the firs t one, Betty is engaged in an action that aims to achieve a purpose. In the second, the action presents its e lf as a state. In Chinese, the verb 穿 means both 如 ơ« and to wear. It can be preceded by the progressive Ặ. or followed by the durative 着 to denote different kinds o f actions. The progressive and durative aspects sig n ify different kinds o f actions, but the difference sometimes can be subjective_ the same action may be perceived or looked upon in different ways. 水在不停地流。

ShuT zài bù ting de liú. The water is flowing incessantly. 水不停地流着。

Shuĩ bù ting de liú zhe. The water is flowing continuously. The same flow o f water may be perceived as an activity by one and as a state by another. In English, we may use incessantly to denote the active condition and continuously to signify the passive condition. In Chinese, the progressive aspect and the durative aspect are used to indicate these two modes o f action respectively. The durative and progressive aspects are a contrasting pair that displays different modes o f action. The durative aspect is often used for description, showing a passive state or condition.

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The durative state The durative z/?e Syntactic functions of z/?e Durative aspect and time

311 The durative state (持续状态) The durative aspect, as noted earlier, refers to an action that continues and lasts during a certain length o f time. The durative action presents its e lf as a state. Now let US look at actions that constitute a durative state. 31.1.1 Continuous actions An action may progress and develop from one stage to another, or it may continue or last during a period o f time. The durative aspect refers to the latter— an action that goes on continuously. 连绵的秋雨不停地下着。

Liánmián de qiũ yũ bù ting de xià zhe. A succession o f autumn rains goes on continuously. The durative 着 shows a state o f unceasing rain. You may use the progressive aspect in this sentence, which w ill change the mode o f the action from a state to an activity. Watch how the durative state in the following sentences conveys a passive condition. [ 1 ] 时 间 慢 慢 地 流 逝 着 ，一 年 又 一 年 。

Shijiān mànmàn de liúshì zhe, yì nián yòu yì nián. Time slowly goes by, year after year. [2 ] 他 默 默 地 等 着 奇 迹 再 一 次 发 生 。

Tā mòmò de děng zhe qíjì zài yí cì fāshēng. He is quietly waiting for the miracle to happen again. [3 ] 鱼在静静的湖水中悠闲地游着。

Yú zài jingjing de húshuĩ zhõng yõuxiân de yóu zhe. The fish are swimming at ease in the tranquil lake. [ 4 ] 她 拿 着 书 ，看 着 窗 外 的 乡 村 景 色 。

、

Tã ná zhe shū, kán zhe chuangwái de xiãngcũn jĩngsè. A book in hand, she is watching the bucolic scene outside her window.

Time and Aspects 时与态

The durative action does not necessarily mean that the action moves in a slow or quiet manner. The action can be intensive, but the durative aspect denotes a passive state in which the action continues. : 群马夺草原+ 奔驰着Q

Yì qún mâ zài câoyuán shàng bẽnchí zhe. A herd o f horses are galloping on the grassland. G alloping is a very dynamic action; it can also be presented by the progressive aspect. However, in this sentence, it is perceived as a state. It depends on the perspective from which an action is viewed by the subject. [5 ] 大浪一波又一波地冲击着堤岸。

Dà làng yì bõ yòu yì bõ de chongjī zhe dĩàn. The big waves are lashing the dike again and again. [6 ] 他 紧 紧 地抓着一个落水孩子的手Q

Tā jTnjīn de zhuā zhe yí ge luò shuĩ háizi de shõu. He was tig htly holding the hand o f a child who fe ll into the water. 31.1.2

Inactive actions

The durative aspect refers to incomplete, moving actions; but some durative actions are moving only in a temporal rather than a physical sense. Posture verbs belong to this category, and they mostly occur in the durative aspect. [7 ] 门外站着一位造访的绅士。

Mén wài zhàn zhe yí wèi záofang de shẽnshl A gentleman caller is standing outside the door. [8 ] 她 的 床 上 睡 着 一 个 陌 生 人 。

Tỗ de chuông shàng shuì zhe yí ge mòshẽngrén. A stranger is sleeping on her bed. [9 ] 示威者都在马路中间躺着。

Shiwěizhě dõu zài mâlù zhongjiān tâng zhe. Protesters are all lying in the middle o f the road. The durative 着 also frequently occurs with the verbs that describe the ways humans carry things. These verbs frequently occur in the durative aspect, and the durative 着 is followed by the object o f the verb.

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[1 0 ] 扛 着 行 李 ，他 奋 力 挤 上 了 汽 车 。

Káng zhe xíngli, tā fenli jĩ shàng le qìchẽ. Carrying the luggage on his shoulder, he forced his way into the bus. [1 1 ] 她 抱 着 一 个 婴 儿 向 行 人 乞 讨 。

Tā bào zhe yí ge yĩng^r xiàng xíngrén qĩtâo. Holding a baby in her arms, she begs for money from passers-

by[ 1 2 ] 他 拿 着 手 枪 ，对 着 飞 机 驾 驶 员 。

Tỗ ná zhe shõuqiãng, duì zhe fēijī iiàshĩyuán. He is holding a gun, pointing at the pilot. Here are some verbs that describe the ways humans carry things: 背 （carry on the back), 顶 （carry on the head), 举 （hold up), 提 （carry in the hand), 尜匕（carry on the shoulder with a pole), etc. 31.1.3

Lasting actions

The durative 着 is often used in existential sentences to denote something existing somewhere. These sentences use specific verbs to show how something exists somewhere as a result of a particular action. 我家后院种着一棵桂花树。

Wo jiā hòuyuàn zhóng zhe yì kẽ guìhuă shù. There is a sweet olive tree in my backyard. In this sentence, the use of the verb 种 （ plant) enables the reader to see the act of planting in the tree. The durative ^ turns a momentary action into a lasting condition. [1 3 ] 河 上 架 着 一 座 长 长 的 木 桥 。

Hé shàng jià zhe yí zuò chángcháng de mùqiáo. There is a long wood bridge over the river. [1 4 ] 他 的 床 垫 下 藏 着 五 百 块 钱 。

Tỗ de chuángdiàn xià cáng zhe wúbai kuài qián. Five hundred dollars is hidden under his mattress. [1 5 ] 他 家 后 院 埋 着 三 百 两 银 子 。

Tā jiā hòuyuàn mái zhe sãnbâi liâng yínzi. Three hundred taels of silver are buried in his backyard.

Time and Aspects 时与态

[1 6 ]纪 念 碑 上 刻 着 烈 士 的 名 字 。

Jinianbēi shàng kè zhe lièshì de míngzi. M artyrs’ names are carved on the monument. Notice that in English we typically use the passive voice in the sentences above, which shows a state. However, the durative aspect im plies that there w ill be an end point to the lasting state or condition.

31.2 The durativez/7e (持续态 The use o f the durative 着 is fairly simple. Syntactically, it is always placed after the verb, and nothing can be placed between them. The verb may take an object after 着• There are, however, some conditions or restrictions about the use o f the durative 着. 31.2.1

着 and adjectives

The adjective denotes a state. The durative 着 is typically placed after the verb to denote the durative state o f an action; however, it may also be placed after some predicative adjectives to denote a state or condition. $ 二天 _都 ^ 着 准 备 感 恩 节 晚 餐 。

Tỗ yì tiãn dõu máng zhe zhūnbei Garfēn Jié wancan. A ll day long she has been busy preparing for Thanksgiving dinner. The word 忙 （ busy) is an adjective that denotes a state. The use o f the durative 着 further indicates that one is in a state o f being busy. [ 1 ] 清 晨 两 点 了 ，她 屋 里 的 灯 还 亮 着 。

Qĩngchén liâng diân le, tā wū lĩ de dẽng hái liàng zhe. It is two o^lock in the morning; the light in her room is s till on. [2 ] $ 还 黑 着 ，他 就 离 开 家 上 班 去 了 。

Tiān hái hēi zhe, tā jiù likāi jiā shàng bãn qù le. It was s till dark when he le ft home to go work. [3 ] $ 急 着 去 机 ， ，把 护 照 忘 在 家 了 。

TỖ jí zhe qù jīchang, bâ hùzhào wàng zài jiā le. He was in a hurry to go to the airport and forgot his passport at home.

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[ 4 ] 刚 下 了 一 场 雨 ，他 的 衣 服 还 湿 着 。 Găng xià le yì Châng yú, tã de yĩfu hái shĩ zhe. There was a rain shower a moment ago; his clothes are s till wet. 31.2.2

Selective co m p atib ility

The durative aspect cannot occur w ith some stative verbs that denote perceptions or cognition, such as 懂 （ comprehend)，明 白 （ be clear)，知 道 (know). However, it can occur with some mental verbs. Correct:

她 总 是 想 着 我 Q T5 zongshi Xiang zhe wo.

She is always thinking o f me. Correct:

她 总 是 盼 着 我 回 来 。

Tā zongshi pan zhe wo huí lái. She is always looking forward to my return. The durative aspect refers to actions that can last for a period o f time; therefore, the durative 着 cannot occur w ith actions that have little duration. It is compatible w ith durational verbs, not momentary verbs. In c o rre c t: 你 来 饭 店 接 我 的 时 候 ， 我 结 账 着 。

NT lái ỉàndiàn jiē wõ de shíhou, wõ jié zháng zhe. W hen you came to the hotel to p ick me up, I was checking out. In c o rre c t: 去 年 这 个 时 候 ， 经 济 危 机 结 束 着 。

Qùnián zhè ge shíhou, jīngji wẽijĩ jiéshú zhe. This time last year, the economic crisis was coming to an end. Both 结 账 （ check out) and 结 束 （ end) are momentary verbs，w ith which the durative aspect cannot occur. However, the durative aspect can refer to actions that happen again and again at extremely short intervals. This kind o f repetition o f actions, in a way, constitutes a continuous action.

[ 5 ] 夜 深 了 ，他 不 停 地 敲 着 门 。 Yè shēn le, tā bù ting de qiao zhe men. It is deep in the night; he is unceasingly knocking at the door.

[6 ] 他 点 着 头 满 意 地 笑 了 笑 。 Tā diân zhe tóu mânyì de xiào le xiào. Nodding his head, he smiles in satisfaction.

Time and Aspects 时与态

In addition, the durative 着 and the progressive 在 can co-occur in a sentence. Their jo in t presence indicates both the subject* s active involvement in the action and the durative manner o f the action, but they cannot co-occur w ith momentary verbs. [7 ] 我们都在等着你的消息。

Women dõu zài děng zhe nĩ de xiõoxi. We all have been waiting for your news. [8 ] 我 们 在 注 意 着 事 态 的 发 展 。

Women zài zhúyi zhe shìtài de fāzhan. We are closely watching the development o f the event. 31.2.3 The durative 着 in the im perative The durative 着 can be used w ith verbs or adjectives to form the imperative that orders or commands somebody to be in a certain position or to keep something in a certain state or condition. [ 9 ] 你 在 这 儿 看 _着 ，别 让 他 跑 了 。_

NT zài zhèr kān zhe, bié ràng tā pâo le. You watch here. Don’t let him escape. [ 1 0 ] 你 开 着 灯 ，鬼 就 不 敢 进 来 。

NĨ kāi zhe dẽng, guĩ jiù bù gân jin lái. Keep the light on, so the ghost dares not come in. [1 1 ] 慢 着 点 儿 ，你 差 点 儿 把 我 撞 倒 了 。

Màn zhe diânr, nĩ chà diânr bâ wỗ zhuáng dâo le. Slowly! You almost knocked me down. [ 1 2 ] 你 记 着 ，别 轻 信 一 个 陌 生 人 。

Nĩ ji zhe, bié qĩngxìn yí ge mòshẽngrén. Remember: don’t easily trust a stranger. 31.2.4 Negation The negative form o f the durative aspect is used to assert that something is not in a durative state or cond itio n.没 and the durative 着 are needed to form the negation, but the latter may be omitted in some instances.

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[ 1 3 ] 他 的 手 机 没 开 （着 ），没 法 跟 他 联 系 。

Tā de shoujī méi kāi (zhe), méi fâ gēn tā liánxì. His cell phone is not on; there is no way to contact him. [ 1 4 ] 我 来 的 时 候 他 没 坐 着 ，他 站 着 。

Wõ lái de shíhou tã méi zuò zhe, tã zhàn zhe. He was not sitting when I came in; he was standing. The durative 着 may be omitted in [13], which means that the cell phone is simply not on, but it cannot be omitted in [14].

31.2.5 Fixed expressions Some “ verb + 着 ’’ phrases are fixed expressions. In earlier stages of the language, these verbs transitioned to prepositions, and many o f them can s till be used as verbs. These expressions, followed by an object, s till express a durative mode o f an action. [ 1 5 ] 你 照 着 我 说 的 做 ，你 的 病 很 快 就 好 。

Nĩ zhào zhe wõ shuõ de zuò, nĩ de bing hen kuài jiù hâo. You do what I say; you w ill get well soon. [ 1 6 ] 你 趁 着 还 年 轻 ，不 妨 再 生 一 个 孩 子 。

Nĩ chèn zhe hái niánqĩng, búfáng zài shẽng yí ge háizi. W hile you are young, you might as well have another child. [ 1 7 ] 沿 着 河 边 ，你 会 看 到 不 少 浪 漫 的 恋 人 。

Yán zhe hé biān, nĩ huì kàn dào bù shâo làngmàn de liànrén. Along the river side, you w ill see plenty o f romantic lovers. [ 1 8 ] 随 着 经 济 的 复 苏 ，现 在 找 工 作 容 易 了 。

Suí zhe jīngji de fusū, xiánzái zhao gongzuó róngyì le. W ith economic recovery, it is easy to look for a job now. Here are more o f those fixed expressions:按 着 （ act according to )，朝 着 （ face the direction o f)，接 着 （ continue)，冒 着 （ run the risk o f) , 顺着 (proceed in the same direction as), etc.

31.3 Syntactic functions of 沐 e ( “ 着” 在句中的作用) The durative aspect is often used in existential sentences. It is also frequently used in sentences where two actions occur, and the relations of the two actions can be different.

Time and Aspects 时与态

31.3.1 Ind ica tin g conditions The durative aspect is often used to express the idea that w hile a longer action or state continues or lasts, another action occurs or completes it. The durative 着 is placed after the firs t verb. 他听着音乐渐渐地入睡了。

Tā tīng zhe yĩnyuè jiánjián de rù shuì le. W hile listening to music, he gradually falls asleep. Notice that in this sentence the firs t action shows a passive condition during which the second action takes place. [1 ] $ 打 着 伞 一 直 送 我 到 了 地 铁 站 。

Tā dá zhe sân yizhi sòng wỗ dào le ditiězhán. Holding an umbrella, she walked me a ll the way to the subway station. [ 2]

$ 望、 着 明 月 ，思 念 亨 方 的 、 故乡s ■

Tã wàng zhe míngyuè, sĩnỉàn yuanfang de gùxiãng. Watching the bright moon, he misses his faraway hometown. [3 ] 4 哭_着 让 $ 妈 给 她 买 芭 比 娃 娃 。

Tā kū zhe ràng māma gěi tā mâi BābT wáwa. She cries and wants her mom to buy her a Barbie doll. [ 4 ] 爭 涅 阿 斯 背 着 父 亲 ，携 着 儿 子 ，逃 离 了 特 洛 伊 。

Āinie^sī bēi zhe fùqĩn, xié zhe érzi, táolí le Tèluòỹĩ. Carrying his father on his back, holding his son by the hand, Aeneas escaped from Troy. Notice that when the sentences above are translated into English, the first verb and the durative 着 often serve as an adverbial in the sentence. 31.3.2 In d ica tin g purposes The durative aspect may occur in a sentence consisting o f two actions in which one action may be read as serving the purpose o f another. 我留着钱给孩子以后上大学用。

Wo liú zhe qián gěi háizi yĩhòu shàng dàxué yòng. I am saving the money for the child to go to college in the future. In this sentence, the reason the speaker is saving money is for the purpose

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o f the ch ild ’ s college education. Notice that the verb 留 means to keep. This sentence does not mean that the speaker is actively saving money; it means that the speaker is keeping money aside for future use. [5 ] 她 拉 着 我 的 手 慢 慢 地 站 了 起 来 。

Tā lā zhe wo de shõu mànmàn de zhan le qTlai. She held my hand and slowly stood up. [ 6 ] 我 忙 着 准 备 下 一 次 的 SAT考 试 。

Wo máng zhe zhunbéi xià yí cì de SAT kâoshì. I am busy preparing for the next SAT test. [7 ] 他 抱 着 脑 袋 躲 避 鸡 蛋 大 的 冰 雹 。

Tā bào zhe nâodài duõbì jīdan dà de bĩngbáo. He is covering his head w ith his arms to escape hailstones as big as eggs. [ 8 ] 她 在 大 树 下 坐 着 ，等 着 雷 阵 雨 过 去 。

Tỗ zài dà shù xià zuò zhe, děng zhe léizhényu guò qù. She is sitting under a big tree, waiting for the thunder shower to pass. 31.3.3

A 着A 着

The durative 着 can be used in the reduplicated form A 着 A 着， which shows that while something is going on, something else happens. [ 9 ] 她 说 着 说 着 ，眼 泪 流 了 出 来 。

Tā shuõ zhe shuõ zhe, yânlèi liú le chũlái. As she talks, tears flow from her eyes. [ 1 0 ] 他 走 着 走 着 ，腰 又 痛 了 起 来 。

Tā zou zhe zou zhe, yỡo yòu tòng le qĩlái. W hile he walks, his back again starts hurting. You may view A 着 A 着 reduplication as showing the condition in which the second action occurs.

31.4 Durative aspect and time (持续态与时间) The durative aspect, like other aspects, does not relate the time of the action to the time o f speaking. W ith a specific time reference, it may refer to ongoing actions at certain points in the past or in the future.

Time and Aspects 时与态

31.4.1 Past durative The durative aspect may refer to an ongoing action at a particular time period in the past, but it needs a time adjunct to specify a past time. It can be used to show the state or condition in which something occurred. [ 1 ] 早 上 我 离 开 家 的 时 候 ，天 还 黑 着 呢 Q

Zaoshang wo likāi jiā de shíhou, tiān hái hẽi zhe ne. When I le ft home this morning, it was s till dark. [ 2 ] 我 去 医 院 看 他 的 时 候 ，他 正 输 着 液 Q w õ qù yĩyuàn

kàn tã de shíhou, tā zheng shũ zhe yè.

W hen I w ent to see h im in the h o sp ita l, he was on an intravenous drip. [ 3 ] 昨天 _学 生 们 都 期 待 着 早 一 点 儿 下 课 。

Zuotiān xuéshengmen dõu qĩdài zhe zâo yìdiânr xià kè. Yesterday students were a ll expecting to fin ish class a little early.

[4 ] 个 ^一 士 午 我 都 等 着 ， 的电子邮件。 Jīntiān yí shángwu wõ dõu děng zhe nĩ de dianzī yóujián. I was waiting for your email for the whole morning.

31.4.2 Future durative The durative aspect may also refer to an ongoing action at a particular time in the future. Like the past durative, it also needs a time adjunct to specify a future time. [ 5 ] 明/ 天 亨 个 吃 候 ，那 家 商 店 可 能 还 开 着 。

Míngtiỗn zhè ge shíhou, nà jiā shỗngdiàn kěnéng hái kāi zhe. This time tomorrow, that store may be s till open. [6 ] 今 天 晚 上 很多人会在电视机前坐着。

Jīntičn wánshang hěn duõ rén huì zài diànshìjĩ qián

ZUÓ

zhe.

This evening many people w ill be sittin g in fro n t o f th e ir televisions. [7 ] 下个季度存在着通货亭胀的可能性。

Xià ge jìdù cúnzái zhe tõnghuò péngzháng de kěnéngxing. There is a possibility o f inflation in the next season.

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[8 ]明年我们仍面临着预算削减的问题。

Míngnián women réng miànlín zhe yùsuàn xuějian de wéntí. Next year we w ill be s till facing the problem o f budget cuts. Notice that the formation o f the past durative and the future durative is very sim ilar to that o f the past progressive and the future progressive, except that the durative aspect denotes actions that move on in a passive state.

Pa

r t

P U N C T U A 丁工〇 N M

"Six, a r k s

标点符号

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Punctuation, a graphic display to reflect pauses in a written language, is vital to clarify the meaning o f texts and to convey tones. In the West, the use o f punctuation can be traced to ancient Greece and Rome. Aristotle finds that the ancient “ free-running” style is unsatisfying, for it “ has no natural stopping-places.” He defines a period as “ a portion o f a speech that has in its e lf a beginning and an end.95 But the use o f punctuation was inconsistent during classical and medieval periods. It was not until the second half o f the seventeenth century that the current English punctuation system came into being. It was standardized by printers and publishing companies due to the increased publication of books. No punctuation marks were used in ancient Chinese w riting s. Readers had to find out where to place the pause, called 断 句 （ duàn jù), to get the correct meaning o f a text. This practice o f breaking sentences is known as 句 读 （jùdòu)，which began to be used in the Han D ynasty.句 means a stop after a complete thought;读 means a pause at an incomplete thought. In the Song Dynasty, readers would draw a small circle to indicate 句 and a small dot to indicate 读 （ later 读 is also written as 逗 ， the word for comma). This practice o f 句读 corresponds to today’s use of periods and commas. W ith the increasing popularity o f the use o f modern Chinese in the early twentieth century, a complete Chinese punctuation system, consisting of twelve marks based on Chinese tradition combined w ith a western punctuation system, was published in 1920. A fte r the founding o f the People’s Republic o f China，the government revised the system o f punctuation by adding two marks in 1951, increasing the number from twelve to fourteen. The government further revised the system o f punctuation by adding another two marks in 1990, raising the total number o f current punctuation marks to sixteen. This became the national standard for use of punctuation marks in 1995. Chinese punctuation marks, called 标 々、 符 号，are classified into two categories. One is called 点 号 （diánhào) ，which we call separation marks in English. There are seven separating marks: four are used to indicate pauses within a sentence, and three are used to mark the end of a sentence, th e other category is called 标 号 （biãohào)，which may be translated as indication marks. In English, we make a distinction between separation marks and enclosing marks. Among the nine Chinese indication marks, about half o f them are enclosing marks. The Chinese punctuation system has two punctuation marks— pause

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

mark and middle dot— that do not exist in English, but Chinese does not have the apostrophe. In English, a punctuation mark takes one letter space and skips a space before the next word; most Chinese punctuation marks take one character space, doubling an English letter space. The following is a chart of Chinese punctuation marks. Names

English 々、 号

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

句号 问号 叹号 逗ị 顿号 分号 冒号 引号 括号 破折号 省略号 着重号 连接号 间隔号 书名号 专名号

Forms Separation Marks

periods ::簡 ©f:. ? question marks Ị exclamation marks commas r pause marks semicolons > colons 标号 Indication Marks a 99 Í ， quotation marks parentheses ( ) n 〔〕【】 dashes ellipses emphasis marks linking marks middle dots book-title marks « » < > proper noun marks

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C om m as 逗 号

“A ll morning， ” Oscar Wilde once wrote, “ I worked on the proof of one o f my poems, and I took out a comma; in the afternoon, I put it back.55 This epigram, besides its w it, underlines the importance o f punctuation in general and o f the comma in particular. O f a ll separation marks, the comma appears the lightest, but it is the most frequently used punctuation mark. The comma is flexible and versatile; it may be used artistically to alter the meaning of a line or create certain rhythm. In both English and Chinese, the comma has these characteristics o f fle x ib ility and versatility. There are, however, also some major differences between the use of the comma in English and in Chinese. In general, the comma in English is based on grammatical structure rather than the rhythms o f speech. W riters may use the comma in various ways，but there are some basic rules to be followed. In Chinese, there are also basic rules about the use of the comma, yet these rules are more based on pauses and intonation breaks in speech. Here, for example, is a famous line from Dao De Jing, the most important text o f Daoism, which can be punctuated in more than one way:

无名，天地之 始 ；有名，万物之母。 w ú míng, tiān dì zhī shĩ; yõu míng, wan wù zhī mũ.

The nameless is the beginning o f heaven and earth; naming is the mother o f ten thousand things. This line consists o f two clauses; in each one, the subject is separated from the predicate by a comma. This use o f the comma reflects a pause and signals an emphasis on the subject, which is allowed in Chinese. However, in English, the subject cannot be separated from the predicate by only a comma for any reason. Because o f its close relation w ith the rhythms o f speech, the use o f the comma in Chinese differs from that in English in several ways. Besides separating the subject from the predicate, it may also separate the verb from the object or set o ff a coordinating conjunction. 我 主 修 历 史 ，可 是 ，我 更 喜 欢 哲 学 。 Wo zhuxiu lìshĩ, kěshi, wõ gèng xĩhuan zhéxué. I major in history, but I prefer philosophy. In this sentence,可 是 （ but) is set o ff by a comma to emphasize the contrast between the two subjects; this cannot be done in English.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

The comma is one o f the seven separation marks; it is the most frequently used punctuation mark. We w ill look at it separately in this chapter because o f its complexity.

32.1 Commas to separate clauses In English, you cannot use a comma between two independent clauses; this is a grammatical error, called comma splice. You may avoid this error by using a period, a semicolon, or a coordinating conjunction. In Chinese, a major function o f the comma is to separate coordinating clauses. Here is the firs t sentence o f Leo Tolstoy^ Anna Karenina: 幸 福 的 家 都 是 相 似 的 ，不 幸 的 家 庭 各 有 各 的 不 幸 。

xingfú de jiāting dõu shì xiãngsì de, búxìng de jiāting gè yõu gè de búxìng. Happy fam ilies are a ll alike; every unhappy fam ily is unhappy in its own way. It would be a comma splice to use a comma in the above sentence in English, but a comma should be used in the above sentence in Chinese. Coordinating conjunctions, such as 但 是 （ but), are used only when they are needed. [ 1 ] 他 拿 着 鱼 竿 兴 致 勃 勃 地 来 找 我 ，我 们 一 起 去 附 近 的 一 条 小 河 ỷậ 鱼 。 Tã ná zhe yúgãn xingzhi bóbó de lái Zhao wo, women yìqĩ qù fùjĩn de yì tiáo xiâo hé diào yú. He came to me enthusiastically w ith his fishing pole. We went fishing together in a small river nearby. [2 ] 昨Ạ 我 听 到 树 墙 里 有 鸟 叫 的 声 音 ， 一 只小鸟在那儿搭了一

个！

Zuotiān wõ tĩng dào shù qiáng IT yõu niâo jiao de shẽngyĩn, yì zhĩ xiâo niâo zài nàr dã le yí ge wõ. Yesterday, I heard some birds chirping in the hedges; a small bird had made a nest there. [3 ] — 片 白 色 的 花 瓣 从 玉 兰 树 上 飘 下 ，它 看 上 去 像 一 只 飞 舞 的蝴蝶。

Yí piàn báisè de huãbàn cóng yùlánshù shàng pião xià, tã kàn shàngqù xiàng yì zhĩ fẽiwú de húdié. A white flower petal was floating down from the magnolia tree, which looked like ã dancing butterfly.

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The comma is also used in complex sentences, separating a dependent clause from an independent clause. In Chinese, the complex sentence usually starts with the dependent clause. [ 4 ] 不 管 是 什 么 样 的 新 手 机 ，你 几 乎 都 能 找 到 山 寨 版 。 Bùguân shì shénme yàng de xĩn shõuịĩ, nĩ j'īhū dõu néng zhâo dào shānzhaiban. No matter what kind o f a new cell phones it is, you can almost always find a fake one. [ 5 ] 万 一 保 险 公 司 不 付 这 个 手 术 费 ，你 可 要 倾 家 荡 产 了 。 vvànyĩ bãoxiân gõngsĩ bú fù zhè ge shõushùtèi, nĩ kẽ yào qĩng jiā dàng chân le. I f the insurance does not cover this surgery, you w ill be penniless. For the use o f coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, see the chapter on conjunctions.

32.2 Commas together with conjunctions In Chinese, when a coordinating conjunction is used to connect two independent clauses, the comma precedes the coordinating conjunction as it does in English. Here is a quote from John F. Kennedy: 人 类 必 须 结 束 战 争 ，否 则 战 争 将 结 束 人 类 _ 。

Rénlèi bìxũ jiéshu zhanzhēng, fouzé zhanzhēng jiāng jiéshú rénlèi. M ankind must put an end to war, or war w ill put an end to mankind. However, in Chinese you can emphasize a coordinating conjunction by separating it from the following clause by a comma，which you cannot do in English. These coordinating conjunctions include 但 是 （ but)，可 是 （ but), 不过（ but)，and 况 且 （ moreover)，etc. [ 6 ] 我 愿 意 帮 助 他 ，但 是 ，他 自 己 必 须 努 力 。 w õ yuànyì bāngzhu tã, dànshì, tā zijī bixū null. I am w illin g to help him, but he him self must make efforts. [ 7 ] 你 应 该 尽 快 行 动 ，否 则 ，你 会 失 去 机 会 。 Nĩ yĩnggãi jīnkuai xíngdòng, fouzé, nĩ huì shĩ qù jīhui. You should act quickly, or you w ill miss the opportunity.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

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[ 8 ] 我7觉 得 住 校 内 好 ，况 且 ，学 校 的 饭 也 便 宜 。 Wo juéde zhù xiàonèi hâo, kuàngqiẽ, xuéxiào de fan yě piányi. I th in k it is better to live on campus; moreover, the food on campus is inexpensive.

32.3 Commas to separate the subject from the predicate In English, the subject cannot be separated from the predicate by a comma. In Chinese, the subject is generally not separated from the predicate by a comma either; however, it is permissible to separate the subject by a comma if it is long or i f a pause is needed. [9 ] $ 最 近 看 的 书 ，都 是 些 关 于 中 医 方 面 的 书 。 Tỗ zuìj7n kàn de shū, dõu shì xiẽ guãnyú Zhõngyĩ fāngmian de shũ. The books she has read recently are a ll about tra d itio n a l Chinese medicine. [ 1 0 ] 王 维 很 多 描 v写 自 辱 的 诗 歌 ，给 人 一 种 超 脱 的 感 觉 。 wáng wéi hen duõ miáoxiě zírán de shīgē, gěi rén yì zhong chãotuõ de ganjué. M any o f Wang W ei5s nature poems give one a feeling o f transcendence. [1 1 ] 近 来 核 电 站 的 事 故 ，使 人 们 对 核 电 站 的 安 全 产 生 了 疑 问 。 Jinlái hédiánzhán de shìgù, shĩ rénmen dui hédiánzhan de ãnquán chânshẽng le yíwèn. The recent accident at the nuclear power plant raises peopled doubt about the safety o f nuclear power plants. For emphasis, a comma can be used to separate the subject from the predicate even if the sentence is short. A modal particle can also be placed after the subject to show the tone o f the sentence. [ 1 2 ] 人 ，要 有 自 知 之 明 。 Rén, yào yõu zì zhĩ zhĩ míng. A person should know him self or herself well. [ 1 3 ] 天 命 ，是 不 可 违 的 。 Tiãnmìng, shì bù kě wéi de. The Mandate o f Heaven cannot be defied.

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[1 4 ] 他 这 个 人 呀 ，就 是 有 些 古 里 古 怪 。 Tỗ zhè ge rén ya, jiù shì yõuxiẽ gũlĩ gúguài.

He is indeed somewhat eccentric.

32.4 Commas to separate the verb from the clausal object In English, the verb cannot be separated from the clausal object. In Chinese, it can， and this often occurs with certain verbs that include 表示 (indicate)，发 现 （find out),告 诉 （ tell), 决 定 （ decide),认 为 （believe)，说明 (illustrate)，显 示 （ show),证 明 （ confirm),指 出 （point out), etc. [ 1 5 ] 事 实 证 明 ，多 吃 粗 粮 有 益 于 身 体 健 康 。 Shishí zhéngmíng, duõ chĩ cũliáng yõu yì yú shẽntĩ jiankāng.

It is proven that whole grain is good for health. [ 1 6 ] 白 宫 发 言 人 指 出 ，总 统 将 会 见 欧 盟 领 导 人 讨 论 世 界 经 济 问题。

•

_

,

巳âigõng fayánrén zhTchū, zongtong jiāng huijián õuméng

lĩngdâorén tâolùn shijié jīngji wéntí.

The White House spokesperson points out that the president will meet with European leaders to discuss the issue of world economy. [ 1 7 ] 学 校 决 定 ，每 个 学 生 都 要 修 两 个 学 期 的 外 语 。 Xuéxióo juéding, měi ge xuésheng dõu yào xiũ liâng ge xuéqĩ de wáiyu.

The school has decided that every student has to take two semesters’ study of foreign language. [1 8 ] 我 记 得 ，那 是 一 个 雷 雨 交 加 、令 人 生 畏 的 夜 晚 。 wõ jìde, nà shì yí ge léiyú jiāojiāN ling rén shẽng wèi de yèwân.

I remember that it was a fearful night of rain and thundering. A sentence may consist of a direct object and an indirect object. If the direct object is a long clausal object, a comma is often used to separate the indirect object from the clausal object. [1 9 ] 我 告 诉 他 ，话 剧 《茶 馆 》可 以 帮 助 他 了 解 老 北 京 。

Wỗ gàosu tã, huàjù 《Châguân〉 〉 kẽyĩ bangzhú tā liaojiě lâo Beijīng. I told him that the play Tea H ou se can help him understand old Beijing.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

[ 2 0 ] 他 提 醒 学 生 ，明 天 的 考 试 包 括 口 试 、笔 试 和 翻 译 。 Tỗ tíxĩng xuésheng, míngtiãn de kõoshì bõokuò kõushì、 bĩshì hé fãnyì. He reminds students that tom orrow ^ exam includes an oral test, a w ritten test, and translation. Notice that you cannot place a comma between the indirect object and that-clause in English.

32.5 Commas after introductory elements In both English and Chinese, an introductory word or phrase should be set o ff by a comma. One type o f the introductory element is the disjunct, which typically appears at the beginning o f a sentence. [2 1 ] 从 此 之 后 ，他 q 生 活 得 非 常 幸 福 。 Cóngcĩ zhīhou, tāmen shẽnghuó de fěicháng xingfú. Since then, they have lived happily ever after. [ 2 2 ] 羊 于 题 目 ，你 可 以 比 较 中 美 教 育 。 Zhiyú tímù, nĩ kẽyĩ bījiao Zhõng-Mei ịiàoyù. As for the topic, you may compare Chinese and Am erican education. [ 2 3 ] 今 而 亨 之 ；语 言 哲 学 很 值 得 研 究 。 Zong ér yán zhī, yũyán zhéxué hen zhíde yánjiCi. In summary, the philosophy o f language merits study. [ 2 4 ] , 他 来 说 ，古 汉 语 比 现 代 汉 语 容 易 。 Duì tā lái shuõ, gũ Hànyú bĩ xiàndài Hànyũ róngyì. As far as he is concerned, classical Chinese is easier than modern Chinese. A comma is needed to set o ff a direct address, tim e phrases, and prepositional phrases o f location that are at the beginning o f a sentence. [ 2 5 ] 王 主 任 ，好 久 不 见 了 ，别 来 无 恙 ？ wáng zhurén, haojiu bú jiàn le, bié lái wú yàng? Director Wang, long time no see. Is everything fine? [ 2 6 ] 目 前 ，我 最 关 心 的 是 何 时 提 工 资 。 Mùqián, wõ zuì guãnxĩn de shì héshí tí gõngzĩ. A t present, what I am most concerned is when I w ill get a salary increase.

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[ 2 7 ] 公 元 一 三 六 八 年 ，朱 元 璋 登 基 ，建 立 了 明 朝 。 Gõngyuán yī sân liù bã nián, Zhū Yuánzhang dēng jī, jiánli le Míng Cháo. In 1368 A D , Zhu Yuanzhang m ounted the throne and established the M ing Dynasty. [ 2 8 ] 在 地 球 村 ，你 可 以 跟 各 国 的 人 交 朋 友 。 zài dìqiúcũn, nĩ kěýí gēn gè guó de rén jiāo péngyou. In the global village, you can make friends w ith people from all countries.

32.6 Commas to set off insertions and inversions In English, a comma is used to set o ff various non-restrictive elements w ithin a sentence. In Chinese, a comma is needed to set o ff insertions or transitional expressions that are placed in the middle of a sentence. [ 2 9 ] 但 丁 ，《神 曲 》的 作 者 ，是 很 有 影 响 的 诗 人 。 Dàndĩng, (Shén Qũ» de zuózhě, shì hen yõu yĩngxiâng de shĩrén. Dante, the author o f the Divine Comedy, is a very influential poet. [ 3 0 ] 最 后 ，也 是 最 重 要 的 ，你 对 自 己 要 有 信 心 。 Zuihóu, yě shi zui zhóngyáo de, nĩ duì zìjĩ yào yõu xìnxĩn. Last, but most important, is that you should have confidence in yourself. [3 1 ] 你 的 投 资 ，从 长 远 看 ，会 有 很 好 的 回 报 。 N ĩ de tóuzĩ, cóng chángyuân kàn, huì you hen hâo de huíbào. Your investment, in the long run, w ill be well paid off. [ 3 2 ] 他 的 批 评 ，尽 管 尖 锐 ， _的 确 诚 / 心 ； ^成 $ 。 TỠ de piping, jīnguan jiānrui, díquè chéngxĩn chéngyì. His criticism , though sharp, is very sincere. I f the object o f a sentence is moved forward, whether it is a noun phrase or a clausal object, a comma is needed to set o ff the inversion. [ 3 3 ] 李 白 的 诗 ，她 高 中 时 读 过 一 些 。 Lĩ Bái de shī, tā gāozhong shí dú guo yìxiẽ. She read some o f L i Bai’s poems while in high school.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

[ 3 4 ] 你 在 暗 恋 他 ，我 们 都 看 得 出 来 。 Nĩ zài ànliàn tā, women dõu kàn de chũlái. We all can tell that you are secretly in love w ith him.

32,7 Commas to set off post-modifications In Chinese, a phrase or a fixed expression is sometimes placed at the end of a sentence to m odify either the subject or the object. A comma is needed to set o ff post-modifications. [3 5 ] $ 最 务 买 了 一 栋 豪 宅 ，又 气 派 又 宽 敞 。 Tā zuijin mâi le yí dòng háozhái, yòu qìpài yòu kuãnchang. She recently bought a luxury residence, imposing and spacious. [ 3 6 ] 那、 个班5 有他： - 个 外 国 人 ，很 孤 独 。 Nà ge bān zhĩyỗu tā yí ge wáiguó rén, hen gūdu. He is the only foreigner in that class— very lonely. [ 3 7 ] 谁 对 那 个 孩 子 也 没 办 法 ，朽 木 不 可 雕 也 。 Shéi duì nà ge háizi yě méi bánfa, xiũmù bù kě diāo yě. No one can do anything about that kid 一 rotten wood cannot be carved. [3 8 ] $ 是 一 个 三 十 _岁 的 男 人 ，事 业 成 功 ，家 庭 和 睦 。 Tã shì yí ge sỗnshí suì de nánrén, shìyè chénggõng, jiāting hémù. He is a man o f th irty , w ith a successful career and a harmonious fam ily.

32,8 Commas to separate items in a series The pause mark is used to separate words or short phrases in a series. However, if you want to extend the pause for emphasis, the comma can also do the work o f the pause mark. [ 3 9 ] 昨 天 我 参 观 了 故 宫 ，天 坛 ，雍 和 宫 ，颐 和 园 。 Zuótian wo cānguān le Gùgõng, Tiãntán, Yõnghé Gõng, Yíhé Yuán. Yesterday I visited the Forbidden City, the Temple o f Heaven, the Lama Temple, and the Summer Palace.

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[ 4 0 ] 今 天 的 作 业 是 复 习 第 三 章 ，第 四 章 ，第 五 章 。 Jīntiān de zuòyè shì fùxí dì sān zhāng, dì sì zhāng, dì wú zhāng. Today’s homework is to review chapters one, two, and three. [ 4 1 ] 这 趟 航 班 停 三 个 城 市 ：纽 约 ，西 雅 图 ，首 尔 。 Zhè tàng hángbỗn ting sān ge chéngshì: Niũyuẽ, Xĩyâtú, Shõu’ẽr. This flig h t stops at three cities: New York, Seattle, and Seoul. The comma can be used to set o ff the ordinal number, which refers to the position o f something in a series. [ 4 2 ] 我 不 能 跟 他 住 一 个 宿 舍 。第 一 ，他 打 呼 噜 。第 二 ，他 磨 牙 。 第 三 ，他 梦 游 。 w õ bù néng gẽn tã zhù yí ge sùshè. Dì yī, tã dâ hũlu. Dì

èr, tã móyá. Dì sān, tã mèngyóu. I cannot share the dorm w ith him. First, he snores; second, he grinds his teeth; third, he sleepwalks. [ 4 3 ] 首 先 ，校 长 讲 话 。其 次 ，学 生 代 表 讲 话 。最 后 ，教 师 代 表 讲朵。

Shõuxiỗn, xiáozhang jiang huà. Qícì, xuésheng dàibiâo jiang huà. Zuihou, jiaohī dàibiâo jiang huà. F irs t o f a ll, the president speaks; secondly, the student representative speaks; finally, the faculty representative speaks. [ 4 4 ] 我 ^■ 厌 他 的 原 因 很 多 。其 一 ，他 很 虚 伪 。其 二 ，他 自 命 不凡。 w õ tâoyàn tã de yuányĩn hen duõ. Qí yĩ, tã hẽn xūwēi. Qí

èr, tã zì mìng bufán. There are m any reasons th a t I loathe h im . F irs t, he is hypocritical; second, he is pretentious.

32.9 Commas in a series of clauses In Chinese, a com pound sentence can consist o f a series o f independent clauses connected by commas, and a period is drawn when a complete thought is conveyed. [ 4 5 ] 年 轻 的 时 候 ，他 想 当 一 名 工 程 师 ，也 想 过 当 一 名 生 物 学 袁 ，可 是 艮 快 发 现 他 喜 欢 写 作 ，于 他 决 定 当 一 名 # 家。

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

Niánqĩng de shíhou, tā xiâng dâng yì míng gõngchéngshĩ, yẽ xiâng guo dâng yì míng shěngwúxuéjia, kẽshì tã hỗn kuài tãxiàn tã xĩhuan xiězuó, yú shì, tā juéding dâng yì míng zuòjiã. When he was young, he wanted to be an engineer or a biologist, but he soon discovered that he enjoyed w riting, so he decided to be a writer. [ 4 6 ] 我 家 后 院 有 一 种 花 叫 “ 老 爷 儿 末 ” ，它 的 花 朵 像 喇 叭 ，夕 阳 西 下 时 徐 徐 张 开 ，散 发 着 一 种 á 淡 的 漘 香 ，太 阳 并 尨 时„ 今上。 w õ jiỗ hòuyuàn yõu yì zhõng huõ jiào “ lãoyérmò” ， tã de

huãduõ xiàng lâba, xĩyáng xĩ xià shí xúxú zhāng kāi, sanfā zhe yi zhong dàndàn de qĩng xiãng, tàiyáng shẽng q ĩ shí mànmàn hé shàng. One o f the flowers in my backyard is called “ four o’clock” ; the flowers resemble trumpets. During the sunset, the flowers gradually open, emitting a kind o f light fragrance. They slowly close as the sun rises. In [46]，one could use a period after 老爷儿末 . Sometimes people may d iffe r about the point at which a complete thought is conveyed. In this regard, the use o f comma in English is grammatically determined.

32.10 Unnecessary commas The comma should not be used if there is no pause in the sentence. In the 把 sentence and the 被 sentence, unless the subject is long，do not use a comma to separate the 把 or the 被 phrase from the following verb. In c o rre c t: 他 把 他 的 钱 ，都 捐 给 了 山 区 的 一 所 小 学 。 Tã bâ tā de qián, dõu juan gěi le shãnqũ de yì suõ xiâoxué. He donated all his money to an elementary school in a mountain area. In c o rre c t: 我 被 她 的 话 ，感 动 得 不 知 道 说 什 么 好 。 w õ bèi tỗ de huà, gândòng de bù zhīdao shuõ shénme hâo. I was so touched by her words that I did not know what to say.

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In the existential sentence, the comma is not needed to separate the locational noun or phrase, unless it is long. Incorrect: 山 脚 下 ，坐 着 一 位 久 经 风 霜 的 农 民 。 Shỗn jiao xià, zuò zhe yí wèi jiú jīng fēngshuāng de nóngmín.

At the foot of the hill sat a weather-beaten peasant. Notice that it is also incorrect in English to separate a t the f o o t o f the hill from the rest of the sentence by a comma. A common misuse of the comma is the continuous use of commas in a series of clauses, regardless if a complete thought is conveyed. Incorrect:儒 家 认 为 ，孩 子 不 孝 ，是 父 亲 的 过 错 ，父 母 对 等 子 的 f 响 很 羌 ，如 果 5C母 不 能 以 身 作 则 ，会 对 孩 子 的 发展造成不良影响。

Rújia rénwéi, háizi bú xiào, shì fùqĩn de guòcuò, fùmú dui háizi de yĩngxiâng hen dà, rúguõ fùmú bù néng yĩ shẽn zuò zé, huì dui háizi de fāzhan zào chéng bù liáng yĩngxiãng.

According to Confucianism, if a child is not filial, it is the mistake of the father. Parents have great influence over their children. If parents cannot set a good example, it will be detrimental to their children’s development. In this sentence, there should be two other periods in addition to the final period: one is after 父 亲 的 过 错 ；the other is after 影 响 很 大 . The unnecessary use of commas can spoil a good sentence; it can also create what is called 歧 义 （ ambiguity) in Chinese. An ambiguous sentence can be subject to different readings. Ambiguous:只 要 张 教 授 同 意 ，买 飞 机 票 ，安 排 住 处 由 我 们 负 责。 v _ ,

Zhĩyào Zhāng jiáoshóu tóngyì, mâi fēijīpiao ， ãnpái zhùchù you women fuze.

If Professor Zhang agrees, we will take care of the purchasing air ticket and arranging lodging. If the above English translation is what the speaker means, the second comma should be replaced with 和 （ and)， but if the speaker means that

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

Professor firs t has to agree to buying the air ticket，then the firs t comma should be taken off.

32.11 Necessary commas Unnecessary commas may confuse readers; but the lack o f needed commas can also create ambiguity and cause confusion. A m biguous:我 又 看 见 了 老 朋 友 心 里 非 常 高 兴 。

Wỗ yòu kàn jiàn le lâo péngyou xĩn li íẽicháng gãoxìng. I see again that my old friend is very happy. Revised:

我 又 看 见 了 老 朋 友 ，心 里 非 常 高 兴 。 w õ yòu kàn jiàn le lâo péngyou,

xĩn li fěicháng

gãoxing. I am very happy to see my old friend again. The firs t sentence is ambiguous because it could also mean that I again see that the old friend is very happy. By placing a comma after 老 朋 友 ， the subject w ill be the agent o f both actions. A m b ig u o u s :我 在 伦 敦 见 过 他 一 个 月 后 ，我 在 北 京 又 见 到 他 了。 w õ zài Lundūn jiàn guo tā yí ge yuè hòu, wõ zài

Beijing yòu jiàn dào tã le. A fte r seeing him in London for one month, I saw him again in Beijing. Revised:

我 在 伦 敦 见 过 他 ，一 个 月 后 ，我 在 北 京 又 见 到 他了。

Wõ zài Lúndũn jiàn guo tā, yí ge yuè hòu, wỗ zài Beijing yòu jiàn dào tã le. I saw him in London; one month later, I saw him again in Beijing. The speaker apparently does not mean that he saw someone for one month in London，so a comma should be placed after 我 在 伦 敦 见 过 他 . In c o rre c t: 我 反 对 这 位 教 员 支 持 学 生 的 做 法 。

Wo fandui zhè wèi jiáoyuán zhīchi xuésheng de zuófa. I am against this faculty member’s way o f supporting the students.

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R e v is e d : 我 反 对 这 位 教 员 ，支 持 学 生 的 做 法 。

Wõ tãnduì zhè wèi jiáoyuán, zhTchí xuésheng de zuófa. I am against th is fa c u lty member and support the students9 practice. A comma is needed after 这位教员 to indicate that the subject 我 is the agent o f both actions. W ithout a comma, the firs t sentence needs 的 placed after 这位教员 ，which means, “ I am against this faculty member’s way of supporting the students.”

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

C h a p te r 3 3

S e p a ra tio n M a rk s 点 号

Punctuation marks have two major functions: they either separate or enclose. In Chinese, there are seven separation marks: period, question mark, exclamation mark, colon, semicolon, comma, and pause mark. The firs t three are end punctuation marks; they are used to close a sentence. The rest are used to separate different kinds o f units w ithin a sentence. A ll punctuation m arks are not created equal. As there is a gram m atical hierarchy consisting o f sentences, clauses, phrases, and words, there is a separation punctuation hierarchy consisting o f (from bottom to the top): pause mark, comma, semicolon, colon, and end punctuation marks. The separation marks work at different levels: the pause mark separates juxtaposed words and phrases; the comma separates phrases and clauses; the semicolon separates clauses w ith interna l punctuation; the end punctuation marks signal the end o f a sentence. These different roles o f separation marks show different levels o f units of a sentence and make reading easier. Here, for example, is a well-known statement from Xun Zi:

青 ，取 之 于 蓝 ，而 青 于 蓝 ；冰 ，水 为 之 ，而 寒 于 水 。 Qĩng, qú zhī yú lán, ér qĩng yú lán; bĩng, shuĩ wéi zhī, ér hán yú shuĩ. Indigo, out o f the bluegrass, is bluer than the bluegrass; ice, out o f water, is colder than water. This sentence is composed o f two juxtaposed, closely related clauses; each is internally punctuated by commas. The use o f another comma after the firs t clause would obscure the two clauses; alternatively, the use o f a period would cut their close relations. A semicolon serves the best in this case. The separation marks not only work at d ifferent levels but also indicate different degrees o f emphasis. Here is a quotation from M ark Twain:

你 的 敌 人 和 你 的 朋 友 合 作 才 能 伤 透 你 的 心 ：一 个对你 进 行 诽 谤 ，另一个把它传递给^尔。 Nĩ de dírén hé nĩ de péngyou hézuò cái néng shãng tòu nĩ de xĩn: yí ge duì nĩ jinxing fěibáng, ling yí ge bâ tã chuándì gẽi nĩ. It takes your enemy and your friend, working together, to hurt

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you to the heart: the one to slander you and the other to get the news to you. In the Chinese translation, a semicolon could be used, which would separate two closely related clauses, but the colon signals a longer pause and calls attention to the words that follow. A t the end o f this sentence, an exclamation mark could be used, which would indicate stronger emotion. In the previous chapter, we have examined the comma; now let US look into the other six separation marks. 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6

Periods Question marks Exclamation marks Pause marks Semicolons Colons

33.1 Periods (句号) The period is called 句 号 （ júháo) in Chinese. A long w ith the comma, the period is one o f the two most frequently used punctuation marks. It signals the end of a sentence. In Chinese, the period is a small circle (〇). The small solid dot period is used only in science documents to distinguish the number 0 from the English letter o.

33.1.1 Periods to close sentences The period, as an end punctuation mark, is used at the end o f three types o f sentences: the declarative sentence, the indirect question, and the m ild imperative sentence. [1]

提 戈 s 》是 我 最 亭 ^欠 的 希 腊 悲 剧 $ 〈〈Ãntígẽniè》 shì zuì xĩhuan de Xĩlà bẽijù zhĩ yĩ.

Antigone is one o f my favorite Greek tragedies. [2 ]

请你重复一遍他的话。

Qĩng nĩ chóngfu yí biàn tã de huà. Please repeat what he said. [3 ] 他问我是不是真的看见了一个不明飞行物。

Tã wèn wỗ shì bú shì zhēn de kàn jiàn le yí ge bù míng fěixíngwu. He asked me i f I really saw a UFO.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

The strong imperative sentence may end w ith an exclamation mark, but try to use the exclamation mark sparingly.

33.1.2 Periods after a single word or phrase The period, in certain circumstances, can be placed after a single word or phrase. Such single words or phrases function as an e llip tica l sentence, and they are often used, for example, as stage directions o f a play. 第 一 幕 ：夜 晚 。墓 地 。闪 电 。猫 头 鹰 的 叫 声 。

Dì yĩ mù: yèwân. Mùdì. Shândiàn. Mãotóuyĩng de jiaoshēng. Act I: M idnight. Graveyard. Lightening. The calling o f owls. The period can also be used after a single word or phrase that is a response to a question in a dialogue. The meaning o f such a word or phrase, o f course, depends on the question that is asked. A :我们什么时候结婚？

Women shénme shíhou jié hūn? When do we get married? B :明天。

Míngtiỡn. Tomorrow. Notice that a sentence consists o f a subject and a predicate. In general, the period should not be used after a single word or phrase such as the title of a book or a newspaper headline.

33.1.3 Necessary periods The period indicates the end of a sentence. In Chinese, a sentence, as noted in our discussion on commas, may consist o f several independent clauses, but a period should be used wherever a complete thought is conveyed. In c o rre c t:很 多 人 羡 慕 这 份 工 作 ，他 们 觉 得 这 份 工 作 风 光 ，清 闲 ，没 压 力 ，其 实 ，这 份 工 作 责 任 很 大 ，我 不 适 合 这份工作。

Hẽnduõ rén xiànmù zhè fén gongzuó, tāmen juéde zhé fén gongzuó fēngguāng, qĩngxián, méi yãlì, qíshí, zhé fén gongzuó žeren hen dá, wo bú shihé zhé fén

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gongzuó. M any people a d m ire th is jo b . T hey th in k it is glamorous, carefree, no pressure; in fact, this job has big responsibilities. I do not fit this job. Revised:

很 多 人 羨 慕 这 份 工 作 。他 们 觉 得 这 份 工 作 风 光 ， 余 闲 ，ả Ẫ 力 ；其 实 ，k 份 工 任 很 大 。我 不 i t 合这份工 作 。

Hẽnduõ rén xiànmù zhè fén gongzuó. Tāmen juéde zhé fén gongzuó fēngguāng, qĩngxián, méi yãlì; qíshí, zhé fén gongzuó zérén hen dá. Wo bú shihé zhé fén gongzuó. M any people a d m ire th is jo b . T hey th in k it is glamorous, carefree, no pressure; in fact, this job has big responsibilities. I do not fit this job. 33.1.4 Unnecessary periods There are necessary and unnecessary periods. Do not use a period when two or more clauses are closely related. Pay attention to sentence variety; a series o f short sentences separated by periods can make your sentences sound choppy. A w k w a rd :李 校 长 朝 我 走 来 。我 站 了 起 来 。他 跟 我 握 ^ 。我 肴 点 紧 张 。他 问 我 从 哪 儿 来 。我 告 诉 他 我 是 美 国 人 。

Lĩ xiáozhang cháo wo zou lái. Wo zhàn le qĩlái. Tā gẽn wo wò shỗu. Wỗ yõu diân jīnzhāng. Tā wen wo cóng nâr lái. Wỗ gàosu tã wõ shì Měiguórén.

President L i walked over to me. I stood up. He shook hands w ith me. I was a little nervous. He asked where I came from. I said I was an American. Revised:

李 校 长 朝 我 走 来 ，我 站 了 起 来 。他 跟 我 握 手 的 时 候 ，我 有 点 紧 张 。他 问 我 从 哪 儿 来 ，我 告 诉 他 我 是 k 国人。 LĨ xiáozhang cháo wỗ zõu lái, wo zhàn le qĩlái. Tā gẽn wõ wò shõu de shíhou, wỗ yõu diân jīnzhāng. Tā wèn wõ cóng nâr lái, wõ gàosu tã wõ shì Mẽiguórén. President L i came over to me, and I stood up. When he shook hands w ith me, I was a little nervous. He asked where I came from ; I told him I was an American.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

33_2 Question marks (问号) The question m a r k , 问 号 （ wénháo), is one o f the three end punctuation marks. It is used to close a sentence and to indicate that the sentence is a question.

33.2.1 Question marks with interrogative sentences The question mark is used w ith yes-no questions (expecting a yes or no answer), question-word questions (requesting missing information), and alternative questions (asking for a choice). [1]

作 读 过 《窦 终 冤 〉 ) 这个巧本吗？

Nĩ dú guo (Dòué Yuan» zhè ge júběn ma? Have you read the play the Injustice to Dou E l [ 2] i 隹！ 《蝴 $ 夫 人 》的 f 者 ？

Shéi s h ì 《Húdié FQrén》 de zuózhě? Who is the author o f Madame Butterfly? For alternative questions, you can place only a question mark at the end if the sentence is short. You may add a comma after the firs t choice, which creates a pause. You may also add a question mark after the firs t choice, which emphasizes the two alternatives. [3 ] 四川菜辣还是湖南菜辣？

Sìchuỡn cài là háishi Húnán cài là? Between Sichuan and Hunan cuisine, which is spicier? [4 ]

你 想 v当 皮 參 科 医 生 ：还 4 神 经 科 医 生 ？

Nĩ xiâng dõng pifū kē yĩshẽng, háishi shénjTng kẽ yĩshẽng? Do you want to be a dermatologist or neurologist? [ 5 ] 你 觉 得 学 土 木 工 程 好 ?_还 是 学 电 力 工 程 好 ？

NĨ juéde xué túmù gõngchống hâo? Háishi xué diànlì gõngchéng hâo? Do you think it is better to study c iv il engineering or electrical engineering? The question mark is also used w ith a rhetorical question that is asked without the expectation o f a reply.

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[ 6 ] 你连走都不会怎么学跑？ NĨ lián Z0U dõu bú huì zěnme xué pâo? How can you learn to run before you walk?

[ 7 ] 他怎么能这么不负责任呢？ Tā zěnme néng zhéme bú fú žeren ne? How can he be so irresponsible?

33.2.2 Question marks with questions in a series In the case o f a series o f questions consisting o f words, phrases, or clauses, you can place a comma after each item and place a question mark at the end. For emphasis, you can place a question mark after each item.

[ 8 ] 她 是 你 的 什 么 人 ？同事？朋 友 ？情 人 ？ Tỗ shì nĩ de shénme rén? Tóngshì? Péngyou? Qíngrén? Who is she to you? Colleague? Friend? Lover?

[ 9 ] 你 晚 上 做 什 么 ？上 网 ？看 电 影 ？去 锻 炼 ？ NT wanshang zuò shénme? Shàng Wang? Kàn diànyĩng? Qù duànliàn? W hat w ill you do in the evening? S u rf the internet? C a ll friends? Go workout?

[ 1 0 ] 这 , 运 动 为 什 么 会 发 生 ？它 的 社 会 基 础 是 什 么 ？它的目 标 # 什7么？$ 怎么改变了历史？ Zhè Châng yùndòng wéishénme hui fashing? Tā de shèhuì jīchu shì shénme? Tã de mùbỉão shì shénme? Tã zěnme gâibiàn le lìshĩ? W hy did this movement occur? W hat was its social basis? What was its objective? How did it change history?

33.2.3 Question marks with inversions and unknown dates When a salutation comes after a question, use a comma after the question and a question mark after the salutation. Also place a question mark inside the parenthesis to indicate an unknown date.

[1 1 ] 你 能 为 我 写 封 推 荐 信 吗 ，李 教 授 ？ Nĩ nérig wéi wõ xiě fēng tuĩỊiànxìn ma, LĨ jiáoshóu? Could you w rite a letter o f recommendation for me, Professor Li?

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

[12 ]

张 老 师 ，我 们 什 么 时 候 考 试 ？

Zhāng lâoshĩ, women shénme shíhou kâoshì? When do we have the exam, Teacher Zhang? [ 1 3 ] 诗 人 屈 原 生 于 公 元 前 3 4 〇年 （？ ）。

Shīren Qū Yuan shẽngyú gõngyuán qián săn bâi sìshí nián (?). Qu Yuan, the poet, was born in 340 BC (?). Notice that if a salutation precedes a question, you need to place a comma after the salutation and place a question mark at the end the question as in [ 12].

33.2.4 Misuse of Question marks Be sure to distinguish direct questions from indirect questions. Do not use question marks for indirect questions. In c o rre c t: 我 不 知 道 他 什 么 时 候 能 成 熟 起 来 ？ w õ bù zhīdao tỗ shénme shíhou néng chéngshú qĩlái?

I do not know when he w ill become mature. In c o rre c t: 他 没 解 释 为 什 么 “ 空 ” 字 在 佛 教 中 很 重 要 ？

Tā méi jiěshi wéishénme “ kõng” zì zài Fójiáo zhong hen zhóngyáo? He did not explain why the word emptiness is very important in Buddhism. These two sentences are not questions even though the interrogative pronouns are used. They should end w ith a period instead o f a question mark.

33.3 Exclamation marks (B又号) The exclamation mark，known as either 感 叹 号 （gântànhào) or 叹号 (tànhào) in Chinese, is placed at the end o f a sentence to signal a forceful utterance. It usually marks the end of an exclamatory sentence, but it can also be used in a variety o f sentences to express strong emotions.

33.3.1 Exclamation marks with exclamatory sentences The exclamation mark is typically used at the end o f exclamatory sentences to express a variety o f strong emotions. In exclam atory

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sentences, adverbs，such as 多 （ SO) , 多 么 （ so m uch),太 （ too m uch),真 (truly), are often placed before adjectives; some modal particles, such as 口阿or 呀，are often placed at the end o f the sentence. TÍiese adverbs and particles help to intensify the tone. [1]

中国的变化多大呀！

Zhongguó de biànhuà duõ dà ya! How much China has changed! [2 ]

这个主意太妙了！

Zhè ge zhuyi tài miào le! What a smart idea it is!

[ 3 ] 我 的 天 哪 ！你 太 傻 了 ！ wõ de tiỗn na! Nĩ tài shâ le! M y goodness! You are so foolish!

[4 ] 这 是 多 么 动 人 的 故 事 呀 ！ Zhè shì duõme dòngrén de gùshì ya! What a moving story it is!

33.3.2 Exclamation marks with imperative sentences The im perative sentence usually ends w ith a period, but the exclamation mark can also be used to indicate a strong command, to give a warning or alarm, or to reflect an emotional outburst.

[5 ] 你 必 须 坦 白 你 的 罪 行 ！ NT bìxũ tânbái nĩ de zuixíng! You must confess your crimes! [6 ]

说 话 小 心 ！有 人 在 监 听 你 ！

Shuõ huà xiâoxĩn! You rén zài jiāntīng nĩ! Be c a re fu l w ith w hat you say! Someone is m o n ito rin g you! [7 ] 衅 给 我 参 考 ！

NĨ gěi wõ gún dàn! Get out o f my way!

33.3.3 Exclamation marks with rhetorical questions When a rhetorical question is asked fo r a purpose other than to

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

obtain information, it usually ends w ith a question mark. However, it can also end w ith an exclamation mark to express strong emotions.

[ 8] 你 为 什 今 总 是 ， 自 己 着 想 ！ NT wéishénme zongshi wéi zijT zhuóxiang! W hy do you always think for yourself!

[9]

么 能 忘 : 记 您 的 大 恩 大 德 呢 _1 Tā zěnme néng wángji nín de dà ẽn dá dé ne!

How can he ever forget your extraordinary kindness!

[1 0 ]我 到 底 还 有 什 么 办 法 能 让 她 相 信 呢 ！ wõ dàodĩ háiyõu shénme bànfâ néng ràng tā xiãngxìn ne! Is there any way that I can ever convince her!

33.3.4 Exclamation marks with declarative sentences The declarative sentence usually ends w ith a period; however, it sometimes can end w ith an exclamation mark to convey a strong tone, a firm belief, or strong feelings.

[1 1 ] 你 说 斤 正 中 要 点 ！ NT shuõ de Zheng zhóng yàodiân! What you said was exactly to the point!

[1 2 ] 这 种 人 不 会 认 错 ！ Zhè zhong rén bú huì rèn cuò! Such people w ill not admit wrongs!

[1 3 ] 我 从 来 没 吃 过 这 么 好 吃 的 烤 肉 ！ Wỗ cónglái méi chĩ guo zhéme hâochĩ de kâo ròu! I have never had such delicious barbecue! Notice that the exclamation mark should be used sparingly because too many o f them soon become grating. Try to create emphasis through diction and careful phrasing rather than rely on exclamation marks.

33_4 Pause marks (顿号) 顿 号 （dùnhào), the pause mark, is one o f the few punctuation marks that English does not have. In grammatical hierarchy, the pause mark is below the comma. The pause mark is used prim arily to separate words or short phrases in a series, and iť indicates a pause shorter than a comma.

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33.4.1 Pause marks to separate short items in a series The pause mark is used to separate words or short phrases in a series that may serve as the subject, the object, the attributive, or the adverbial in a sentence. [ 1 ] ^ 的 家 6 、亲 戚 、朋 友 参 加 了 他 的 毕 业 典 礼 。

Tỗ de jiãrénNqĩnqiNpéngyou cānjiā le tā de bì yè diânlĩ. H is fa m ily members, rela tives, and frie n ds attended his commencement. [ 2 ] 中 F 的 五 行 包 括 金 、， 、水 _、火 、土 。

Zhóngguó de wúxíng bỗokuò jĩn、 mù、 shu丫、 huõ、tũ. Chinese five elements include metal, wood, water, fire , and earth. [ 3 ] 大 、中、小 号 的 运 动 鞋 ，你 在 这 家 商 店 都 能 买 到 。

Dà、 zhõng、xiâo hào de yùndòngxié， nĩ zài zhè jiā shãngdiàn dõu néng mâi dào. You may get big, medium, and small size sport shoes in this store. [ 4 ] 除 了 英 文 、法 文 、西 班 牙 文 ，她 还 说 意 大 利 文 和 葡 萄 牙 文 。

Chúle Yĩngvvén、 Fawén、Xĩbỡnyâ wén， tā hái shuõ Yìdàlì wén hé Pútáoyá wén. In addition to English, French, and Spanish, he also speaks Italian and Portuguese. However, if the items in a series are composed o f verb phrases that serve as the predicate of ã sentence， ã comma is used instead of ã pause mark. [ 5 ] 作 为 一 个 领 导 人 ，她 有 眼 光 ，有 魅 力 ，有 口 才 ，有 勇 气 。

Zuówéi yí ge lĩngdâorén, tā yõu yânguãng, you mèilì, you kỗucái, you yõngqì. As a leader, she is visio n ary, charism atic, eloquent, and courageous. [ 6 ] 她 懂 了 妈 妈 的 爱 ，懂 了 妈 妈 的 期 望 ，懂 了 妈 妈 的 自 我 牺

Tã dõng le māma de ài, dõng le mâma de qĩwàng, dõng le mỗma de zìwõ xĩshêng. She understood a mother’s love, a mother’s expectation, and a mother’s self-sacrifice.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

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33.4.2 Pause marks to separate the last two items in a series In Chinese, the pause mark is used to separate the last two items in a series，but if a conjunction，such as 和，或 and 及 ，is used to connect the last two items, the pause mark is not needed. [ 7 ] 气 汉 字 的 笔 画 顺 序 是 从 上 到 下 、从 左 到 右 、从 外 到 里 。

Xiě Hànzì de bĩhuà shùnxù shì cóng shàng dào xiàNcóng zuõ dào yòu、cóng wài dào lĩ. The order o f w ritin g Chinese characters goes from top to bottom, from le ft to right, and from inside to outside. [8]

如 果 你 想 从 机 场 去 市 中 心 ，你 可 以 坐 大 巴 、^ 4 失 或 出 租 车 。

Rúguỗ nĩ xiâng cóng jīchang qù shĩ zhõngxĩn, nĩ kẽyĩ zuò dàbỗ、dĩtiẽ huò chūzūchā I f you want to go to downtown from the airport, you can take the shuttle bus, the subway, or the taxi.

33.4.3 Pause marks to facilitate reading In a series o f phrases or clauses separated by commas, the pause mark is used to separate the items w ithin a phrase or clause, which makes the sentence clearer and easier to read. [ 9 ] 北 京 是 中 国 的 首 都 ，是 政 治 、文 化 中 心 ，也 是 一 座 文 明 古 城 、旅 游 胜 地 。

Beijīng shì Zhongguó de shõudũ, shĩ zhéngzhi、wénhuá zhongxin, yě shi yí zuó wénmíng gúchéngNlủyóu shèngdì. Beijing, the Capital of China, is a political and cultural center; it is also a city of ancient civilization and a famous site for tourism. [ 1 0 ] 北 京 有 皇 家 宫 殿 、万 里 长 城 、名 寺 古 刹 ，还 有 北 大 、清 华 等 畚 ;ắ 大 ậ 。

Beijing you huangjiā gõngdiàn、vvànl丫 chángchéng、míngsì gũchà, hâiyõu Bẽidà、ơĩnghuá děng zhůmíng dàxué. Beijing has im perial palaces, the Great W all, famous temples, and w ell-know n universities, such as Peking U niversity and Tsinghua University.

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33.4.4 Pause marks versus commas In general, the pause mark separates words or short phrases; the comma separates clauses. However, you may also use the comma to separate words and short phrases if you want to emphasize each item in a series. [ 1 1 ] 我 喜 欢 这 里 的 绿 树 ，蓝 天 ，海 滩 ，日 出 和 迷 人 的 夜 晚 Q

Wõ xĩhuan zhèlĩ de lushù, lántiãn, hâitãn, rìchũ hé mírén de yèwân. I like the green tree, the blue sky, the beach, the sunrise, and the charming evening in this place. [ 1 2 ] 近 来 猪 肉 ，鸡 蛋 ，大 米 ，食 用 油 和 奶 制 品 都 涨 价 了 。

Jinlái zhūrou, jīdan, dàmĩ, shíyòngyóu hé naizhipīn dõu zhang jià le. Recently, the prices o f pork, eggs, rice, cooking oil, and dairy products all increased.

33.4.5 Unnecessary pause marks Do not use pause marks to separate the numerals in approximate numbers (see the chapter on numerals) or certain fixed expressions that may be viewed as one word. For exam ple,东 西 南 北 （ east, west, south, and north) means everywhere, and 春 夏 秋 冬 （ spring, summer, fa ll，and winter) means all seasons. [1 3 ] 男 女 老 少 都 需 要 这 种 维 生 素 。

Nán nủ lâo shào dõu xũyào zhè zhong wéishěngsu. Men, women, the elderly, and the young a ll need this kind o f vitam in. [1 4 ]这 芦 Ạ 位 为 老 残 考 专 用 。

Zhéxiě zuówéi wéi lâo ruó bing cán zhě zhuanyóng. These seats are reserved for the old, the weak, the sick, and the handicapped.

33,5 Semicolons (分号) In grammatical hierarchy, the semicolon is one level higher than the comma. It separates multiple clauses or clauses w ith internal punctuation;

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

it does not separate two independent clauses as it does in English. The semicolon helps to distinguish clauses separated by commas.

33.5.1 Semicolons to separate parallel clauses The semicolon is often used to separate parallel clauses that have sim ilar, though not necessarily identical, grammatical structures, and that compare or contrast certain things or ideas. The clauses on both sides of the semicolon contain commas. [ 1 ] 天_还 ， 亮 ，我 就 去 上 天 都 黑 了 ，我 才 回 家 。

Tiõn hái bú liàng, wõ jiù qù shàng băn； tiãn dõu hẽi le, wỗ cái huí jiā. Before daybreak, I went to work; after dark, I came home. [ 2 ] 如/ 果 ， 爱 多 ， f 你 告 诉 我 ；如 果 你 不 爱 参 ， 请你也告诉我。

Rúguỗ nĩ ài wõ, qĩng nĩ gàosu wõ； rúguõ nĩ bú ài wõ, qĩng nĩ yẽ gàosu wõ. I f you love me, please tell me; i f you do not love me, please also tell me. [3 ] g 离 开 了 城 市 ，因 为 他 喜 欢 安 静 ；他 离 开 了 官 场 ，因 为 他 号 超 ^^世 俗 。

Tã líkãi le chéngshì, yĩnwèi tã xĩhuan ānjing； tā likāi le guãnchâng, yĩnwèi tã yào chãotuõ shìsú. He le ft the c ity because he loves peace; he le ft officialdom because he wants to transcend the mundane world. [4 ]

“ 床 前 明 月 光 ，疑 是 地 上 霜 ；举 头 望 明 月 ，低 头 思 故 乡 。”

6tChuáng qián míng yuè guāng, yí shì dì shàng shuāng; jú tóu wàng míng yuè, dĩ tóu sĩ gùxiãng.’5 stM oonlight in front o f my bed, I wonder i f it is frost on the ground; I lif t my eyes to watch the moon and lower them to dream o f home.” Parallelism, as shown in [4], is an important device in Chinese poetry. The semicolon often serves well in separating and connecting the closely related parallel thoughts.

33.5.2 Semicolons to separate non-parallel clauses In Chinese, the semicolon is also used to separate non-parallel clauses. It often accompanies coordinating conjunctions and certain

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subordinating conjunctions to emphasize various relationships between clauses.

[ 5 ] 她 自 称 是 素 食 者 ：她 不 吃 肉 ，不 吃 鸡 蛋 ，不 吃 奶 制 品 ；不 过 ，她 吃 海 鲜 。 Tā zichēng shi sushízhě: tã bù chĩ ròu, bù chĩ jĩdàn, bù chĩ naizhipīn; búguò, tã chĩ hâixiã. She calls herself a vegetarian. She does not eat meat, eggs, and dairy products, but she eats sea food.

[6 ]

关 于 这 个 0 琴 ，我 问 了 几 个 教 授 ， 也查了不少资 料 ；但 是 我，纟 t 没 声 得 到 一 个 會 人 满 意 .、信 平 的 答 案 。 Guãnyú zhè ge wéntí, wo wen le jĩ ge jiáoshóu, yě chá le bù shâo zīliao; dànshì wỗ shīzhong méiyõu dédào yí ge lìng rén mânyì、xinfú de ctâ’ àn. About this question, I have asked several professors and done quite a lot o f research, but I have not gotten a satisfactory and convincing answer.

[7 ]

这 位 教 授 知 识 渊 博 ，是 医 学 界 一 位 杰 出 的 学 者 ；而 且 ， 他 非 常 谦 虚 ，平易 & 人 ^ 罙受李生 的 尊 敬 。

Zhè wèi jiáoshóu zhīshi yuỗnbó, shì yĩxuéjiè yí wèi jiechū de xuezhe；erqie, tā fēichang qiãnxũ, píngyi Jin rén, shēn shou xuésheng de zūnjing. This professor o f broad learning is an outstanding scholar in the field o f medicine; moreover, he is modest, easy-going, and is deeply respected by students.

[8] — 个 人 对 问 题 的 看 參 ，包 括 是 非 观 ，都是受了他生长的 社 会 环 境 和 时 代 的 影 响 T 因 此 ，人 要 努 力 开 阔 自 己 的 视 野 ，认 识 自 己 的 局 限 性 。 Yí ge rén dui wéntí de kàntà, bỗokuò shifēiguān, d õ u ， shì shòu le tã shēngzhang de shèhuì huánjing hé shídài de yĩngxiâng； yĩncĩ, rén yào null kỗikuò ZÌ]T de shìyẽ, rènshí ZÌ]T de júxiánxing. One9s ways o f looking at things, including the sense o f right and wrong, are influenced by the social environment and the tim e period in which one grows up; therefore, one needs to broaden one’s perspectives and realize one’s lim itations.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

33.5.3 Semicolons to separate items in a series The semicolon can be used to separate items in a series where the items are lengthy or include commas; otherwise, the comma can be used. [ 9 ] 夺 令 京 ，我 爬 了 长 城 ；在 杭 州 ，我 游 览 了 西 湖 ；在 西 安 ， 我参观了兵马俑。

Zài Beijīng, wõ pá le Chángchéng； zài Hangzhou, wõ yóulân le Xĩ Hú; zài xī’ān, wõ cānguān le bĩngmâyõng. In Beijing, I climbed the Great W all; in Hongzhou, I toured the West Lake; in X i5an, I visited the Terracotta Warriors. [ 1 0 ] 这 次 旅 行 你 要 带 三 件 东 西 ：一 件 既 防 雨 又 保 暖 的 外 衣 ； 一 盒 你 v常 用 的 药 ；一 个 能 在 中 国 使 用 的 手 机 。

Zhè cì lủxíng nĩ yào dài sān jiàn dõngxi: yí jiàn jì fáng yũ yòu bâo nuân de wàiyĩ; yì hé nĩ cháng yòng de yào; yí ge néng zài zhongguó shĩyòng de shoujī. You^l need to bring three things for this trip: a coat that is both waterproof and warm; a box o f medicines that you often need; and a cell phone that can be used in China. [ 1 1 ] 他 孝 入 ỹ 青 藤 大 学 巧 可 能 性 很 大 ：第 一 ，他 的 本 科 成 绩 优 第 二 ，他 多 à 获 奖 ; 第 三 ，他 经 常 为 社 区 义 务 服 表 0

Tỗ kâo rù Chángqĩngténg Dàxué de kěnéngxing hẽn dà: dì yĩ, tã de bẽnkẽ chéngji yõuxiù; dì èr, tã duõ cì huò jiang; dì sān, tã jīngchang wèi shèqũ yìwù fúwù. He has a good chance o f getting into an Ivy League university: firs t, he has excellent undergraduate academic performance; second, he has received many awards; third, he often volunteers for community service.

33.6 Colons (冒号) The colon is called 冒 号 （ màohào) in Chinese. As a separation mark, the colon is used prim arily to call attention to the words that follow, which can be a direct quotation, a list o f items, a summary, etc.

33.6.1 Colons to introduce direct quotations In E nglish, we use colons and commas to introduce a d ire ct quotation; the latter is less formal and more commonly used. In Chinese, only the colon is used to introduce a direct quotation.

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孔 子 曰 ：“ 己 所 不 欲 ，勿 施 于 人 。”

Kõngzĩ yuẽ: “Jĩ suõ bủ yù, wù shĩ yú rén.” Confucius says: tcDo not do to others what you would not like to be done to you.” [2 ]

柏 拉 图 说 ， ‘ 一 触 碰 到 爱 ，每 个 人 都 变 成 了 诗 人 。”

Bólõtú shuõ: UYÍ chùpèng dào ài, měi ge rén dõu biàn chéng le shĩrén”. Plato says, uA t the touch o f love, everyone becomes a poet.95 [3 ] — 个 学 生 问 ：“ 佛 教 是 什 么 时 候 传 入 中 国 的 ？”

Yí ge xuésheng wen: “ Fójiáo shì shénme shíhou chuân rù Zhõngguó de?” A student asks: uWhen did Buddhism come to China?" [ 4 ] 老 师 回 答 道 ： “ 请 你 自 己 去 查 一 查 。”

Lâoshĩ huídá dào: wQĩng nĩ zìjĩ qù chá yì chá.,J The teacher answers: “ Please find it out yourself.” In [4], the verb means to say; it is often used as a complement to another verb，such as 说 道 ，讲 道 ，and 谈 道 .

33.6.2 Coloos to introduce a list, an appositive, or a summary The colon is used after an independent clause to d ire ct one’ s attention to a list o f items, an appositive, or a summary. The items to be introduced can be words, phrases, or clauses. [ 5 ] 你 需 要 f 以 下 学 习 用 具 ：两 支 铅 笔 ，一 把 尺 子 ，一 本 字 典 ， 二Ặ i ị ị 器。 _ 、 v v.

Nĩ xũyào dài yĩxià xuéxí yòngjù: liâng zhĩ qiãnbĩ, yì bâ chīzi, yì běn zídian, yí ge jisuánqi. You need to bring the follow ing school supplies: two pencils, one ruler, one dictionary, and one calculator. [6]

这 学 期 我 读 了 四 本 小 说 : 《小 城 啤 人 》，,《了 不 起 的 盖 茨 比 》，《我 弥 留 之 际 》和 《太 阳 照 常 升 起 》。

Thè xuéqĩ wỗ dú le sì bẽn xiâoshuõ: (Xiâo Chéng JT Rén», 《 Liỗobùq丫 de Gàicíbĩ》， 《Wõ Míliú Zhĩ Jì》 h é 《Tàiyâng Zháocháng Shēng Qĩ». This semester I read four novels: Winesburg, Ohio, The Great Gatsby, As I Lay Dying, and The Sun Also Rises.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

[ 7 ] ， 有 两 种 我 最 不 喜 欢 的 坏 习 惯 ^ 抽 烟 ，喝 酒 。 Tã yõu liâng zhong wo zui bù xĩhuan de huai xíguàn： chõu yãn, hẽ jiũ. He has two bad habits that I dislike the most: smoking and drinking.

[ 8 ] 我7们可以^用 〒 个 字 来 形 容 他 ：自我中心。 Women kẽyĩ yòng sì ge zì lái xíngróng tã: zìwõ zhõngxĩn. We may describe him w ith four characters: egotistic.

33.6.3 Colons to highlight the object The colon is often used after some verbs to hig hligh t the words that follow. The comma can also be used for this purpose, but the colon signals a longer pause, and it is more emphatic and formal.

[9 ] 这 、 家 兮 司- 宣亨：吟 们 明 予 将 关 闭 所 有 的 海 外 分 公 司 。 Zhè jiỗ gõngsĩ xuãnbù: tãmen míngnián jiāng guãnbì suõyõu de haiwái fẽn gõngsĩ. This company announces that it w ill close a ll its overseas branches next year.

[10] ^ 的经 _验 ^ 明 ：\学中文最好的办法就是去中国留学。 Tã de jingyán zhéngmíng: xué Zhongwén zui hao de bánfa jiú shì qù Zhongguó liú xué. His experience proves that the best way to learn Chinese is to study in China.

[1 1 ] 政 府 发 言 5 指 出：政 4 会 在 医 疗 改 革 问 题 上 非 常 慎 重 。 Zhéngfu fayánrén zhīchū: zhéngfu huì zài yĩlióo gâigé wèntí shàng fěicháng shénzhóng. The government spokesperson points out that the government w ill be very careful in health care reform.

[ 1 2 ] 他 最 关 心 的 问 题 是 ：火 山 会 不会在黄石公园爆 发 ；如果 少 f 发 ，它 P 影 响 大 。 Tã zuì guãnxĩn de wéntí shì： huỗshãn huì bú huì zàỉ Huángshí Gõngyuán bàofã; rúguỗ baofā, tā de yĩngxiâng huì duõ dà. He is most concerned about whether a volcano w ill erupt at Yellowstone Park, and i f it occurs, how great the impact w ill be.

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33.6.4 Colons with salutations and bibliographic entries The colon is used after the salutation in a speech or a letter, and between the city and the publisher in bibliographic entries. [13] 士; 士 们 ，先 生 们 ：让 我 们 欢 迎 我 们 的 嘉 宾 致 词 。

NÚshìmen, xiãnshẽngmen: ràng women huỗnyíng women de jiābīn zhi cí. Ladies and gentleman: Let US welcome our distinguished guest to give a speech. [ 1 4 ] 尊 敬 的 史 密 斯 博 士 ：收 到 您 的 邀 请 ，我 感 到 非 常 荣 幸 。

Zūnjing de Shĩmìsĩ bóshì: shõudào nín de yãoqĩng, wõ gândào fěicháng róngxìng. Respected Dr. Sm ith: I am much honored to receive your invitation. [ 1 5 ] 吕 叔 湘 • 《现 代 汉 语 八 百 词 》. 北 京 ：商 务 印 书 馆 ，1999.

LÚ Shũxiỗng. (Xiàndài Hànyú Bãbâi CÍ》. Beijīng： Shangwú Vìnshũguân, 1999. L ũ , Shuxiang. X ia n D a i H anyu Baban C i, B e ijin g : The Commercial Press, 1999.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

C h a p te r 3 4

In d ic a tio n M a rk s 标 号

In Chinese，as noted earlier, the term 标々、 符 号 consists o f two general categories: separation marks and indication marks. The latter includes nine punctuation marks: the quotation mark, the parenthesis, the dash, the ellipsis, the emphasis mark, the lin kin g mark, the middle dot, the book-title mark, and the proper noun mark. Separation marks indicate pauses; indication marks serve to signify something, and about h a lf o f them are enclosing marks used in pairs. Quotation marks, fo r example, are used to sig n ify that the enclosed words are stated exactly as they were spoken. Book-title marks are used to enclose the title s o f various publications and a rtistic works. Each indication mark has its distinctive function. Both parentheses and dashes can be used to provide explanatory information, but the information they enclose is weighted differently. Compare these two sentences: 杰 弗 里 • 乔 叟 （ 英 国 中 世 纪 作 家 ）被 誉 为 英 国 文 学 之 父。 一

JiéfúlrQiáosou (Yĩngguó zhongshij'i zuojiā) bèi yù wèi Yĩngguó wénxué zhī fù. Geoffrey Chaucer (a Medieval English author) is regarded as the father o f English literature. 杰 弗 里 • 乔叟— 之父。

英国中世纪作家一被誉为英国文学

Jiéfúlĩ#Qiáosỗu-----Yĩngguó zhongshij'i zuojiā------ bèi yù wèi Yĩngguó wénxué zhĩ fù. Geoffrey Chaucer— a Medieval English author— is regarded as the father o f English literature. In the firs t sentence, the parenthetical information calls readers9 attention, but it is not essential. W riters sometimes use parentheses because the parenthetical inform ation does not fit into the structure o f the sentence or may disrupt the flow o f sentences. However, in the second sentence, dashes not only add but also highlight the enclosed inform ation; they convey an exclam atory tone. Dashes, incid en ta lly, can be used fo r separating and enclosing. There are many parallels between English and Chinese punctuation in term s o f usage, but there are also differences. The use o f the punctuation mark may diffe r when an English sentence is translated into

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Chinese due to differences in syntax or in the usage o f some punctuation marks. Here is a quotation from M ark Twain: Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs to. 人 类 是 唯 一 会 脸 红 的 动 物 ，或 是 唯 一 该 脸 红 的 动 物 。_

Rénlèi shì wéiyĩ huì lián hóng de dòngwù, huò shì wéiyĩ gãi liân hóng de dòngwù. uOr needs to?, is a sentence fragment; the use o f a period turns it into an afterthought. An alternative is to use a dash, which w ill highlight t4or needs to" and sound much more emphatic. In Chinese, a direct translation o f “ or needs to” cannot stand alone; the firs t clause needs to be repeated, which makes the comma the most appropriate choice. 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 34.6 34.7 34.8 34.9

Quotation marks Parentheses Dashes Ellipses Emphasis marks Linking marks M iddle dots Book-title marks Proper noun marks

34.1 Quotation marks (引号) Q uotation m a rk s , 引 号 （ yTnhào), are p rim a rily used to set o ff the exact words o f a speaker or a w riter. They do not enclose indirect quotations, summaries, or paraphrases. In Chinese, double quotation marks indicate direct quotations w hile single quotation marks indicate quotations w ithin quotations, which is the same as the American style but different from the British style.

34.1.1 Quotation marks to enclose direct quotations Quotation marks are used to enclose someone else9s original words. Direct quotations are often introduced by a reporting clause, or they are integrated into the w riter’s sentence. [ 1 ] 柏 拉 图 说 ：“ ậ 情 是 一 种 严 重 的 精 神 病 。”

Bólãtú shuõ: “ Àiqíng shì yì zhóng yánzhóng de jĩngshénbìng”.

Punctuation Marks 标点符号

Plato says, “ Love is a serious mental disease.” [ 2 ] “ iạ 故 而 知 新 ” 是 孔 子 关 于 治 学 的 名 言 。 uWẽn gù ér zhī xlrf5 Shi KongzT guõnyú zhixué de míngyán. “ Learning what is new w hile reviewing what is known” is a well-known statement o f Confucius about learning. [ 3 ] ， 提 醒 我 ：“ 你 一 定 要 ‘ 三 思 而 行 ， 。” Tồ tíxĩng wo: 2e ^ ( 《中华字海》 1 9 9 4 )ca rrie sm o reth a n 85,000 characters. These dictionaries include many obsolete characters that are no longer used. The List o f Frequently Used Characters in Modern Chinese (X 现 代 汉语常用字表》)，published by the government in 1988, includes 3,500 frequently used characters. Among them, 2,500 most frequently used characters are taught in elementary schools; the other 1,000 characters, in middle and high schools.

Appendix I

1.2 Formation of characters According to A Dictionary o f Etymology o f Chinese Characters, there are six methods of creating characters: pictographs ( 象形字 ，xiàngxíng zi); indicative characters (指示字 ，zhīshi zi); associative characters (会意 字，huìyì zi); picto-phonetic characters (形声字，xíngshẽng zi); mutually explanatory characters (转注字 ，zhuanzhú zi); phonetic loans (假借字， jičjié zi). They are known as six scripts (六书，liù shū). Pictographs are pictures o f objects, but later become ideographs whose original pictures are hardly discernible. Chart 1 O racle -B on e Inscription

M odern C haracters

Pinyin

English

人

rén

person

门

mén

door

火

huỗ

fire

Ì

水

shuT

water

w V

车

chẽ

vehicle

>h'

禾

hé

crop

mù

m

III

雨

yũ

eye rain

The following are some of them. This category, it should be noted, makes up less than one percent of the 9,353 characters in Xu Shen, s dictionary. Indicative characters are symbols that are self-explanatory. For instance, one horizontal stroke represents — (one); two strokes represent 二 （ two); three strokes represent 三 （ three). The character 上 （ up) consists o f a vertical line above a horizontal line with a short line pointing to the right. The character T (down) is composed o f a vertical line below a horizontal line w ith a downward point. The character 凶 （ danger) contains a sign of ư (pit) and a sign of X (warning danger). These are the earliest characters conveying abstract ideas. There are about 100 indicative characters in Xu Shen, s dictionary.

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Associative characters consist o f two or more components that contribute to a new meaning. One way o f combination is to reduplicate the character. For example, ^ means thorn; its reduplication íậ. means •火 meansyỉrq its reduplication 炎 m e a n s o r ^ means red\ its reduplication # means burning red. means tree\ (two means woods', ề - (three Ạ-) means forest. A nother way o f combination is to juxtapose different characters. For example, the chamcter 男 （ man) consists o f 田 （ field) and 力 （ strength): it is the man who works in the field. The character 明 （ bright) consists o f 日 （ sun) and 月（ moon). The character 尘 （ dust) consists o f 小 （ little ) and 土 （ d irt): a little d irt is dust. The character 歪 （ crooked) is composed o f 不 （ not) and 正 （ straight); the character 爾 （ no need) is composed o f 不 （ not) and 用（ use). The character上 means 下 means ứtoHTỉ,. their combination -ỳ means jammed: something cannot go up or down. This group o f fascinating characters makes about 1,200 in Xu Shen5 s dictionary. Picto-phonetic characters are composed o f a semantic and a phonetic component, which together express a new meaning. W ritten words are created to represent words that already exist in spoken language. I f the sound o f a word has no written symbol, the picto-phonetic method is used to create a w ritten symbol by borrowing a character for its sound and a pictograph to suggest its meaning. For example, the character 清 （ qĩng), meaning clear, is created by borrowing -fr (qĩng), meaning green, as one component and the radical / , meaning water, as the other component. It thus has both a phonetic and a semantic part. About twenty characters share 青 (qĩng) as their sound component and employ various radicals to indicate their semantic categories. The character ^ (qing), meaning sunny consists o f 青 and the radical 日 for The character 情 （ qing), meaning emotion, has -fr and the radical 十 for heart. The character ^ (qĩng), meaning d厂 a即 《 办， consists o f 青 and the radical 虫 for /«•secí. The character 睛 （ jīng) means eye; it is slightly different from 青 phonetically， but it also uses 青 to indicate its sound and the radical 目 for eye. A large number o f characters follow the picto-phonetic combination, which means that characters gradually moved away from being ideographs for objects to becoming symbols representing the sound and the meaning o f the signified. O f the last two scripts, m u tu a lly explanatory characters use characters o f sim ilar meaning and sound to define each other; phonetic loan characters are based on the loan o f homophones. They are not as significant as the other four scripts mentioned above.

Appendix I

1.3 Radicals The word radical comes from the Latin radix, meaning root. It is often used to refer to 偏 旁 （piõnpâng) and 部 首 （bùshõu) in Chinese，but these Chinese terms are not exactly the same.偏 （piõn) traditionally refers to the left part o f the character denoting the m eaning;旁 （páng) refers to the right part o f the character indicating the sound. Take the character 清 for example: the left part is pian\ the right part is pang. However, today, pianpang may refer to any part o f a character. Bushou lite ra lly means part and head. Bushou is also pianpang, but it refers to the semantic part o f the character that is used as an index in a Chinese dictionary. In Chinese, each character is categorized under a bushou, which may be called a radical. One can locate a character in a dictionary by the number o f strokes in the radical, and characters with the same radical are also sorted by the number o f strokes. A radical may or may not be an independent character. In the character 清 ，the semantic component / is a radical that means water, but it is not an independent character. In the character 骑 （ ride)，the semantic component 马 （ horse) is the radical, and it is also an independent character. It is interesting to note that a radical in one character may not be a radical in another. In the character 妈 （ m other),女 （ female) is the semantic component serving as the radical while 马 becomes the phonetic component. The ways o f counting radicals may differ. Xu Shen5 s A Dictionary o f Etymology o f Chinese Characters lists 540 radicals. The Kangxi Dictionary lists 214 radicals; Modern Chinese Dictionary (2005) lists 201 radicals. Each radical represents a fam ily containing from a dozen up to hundreds o f characters. In the Modern Chinese Dictionary (2005), for example, about 150 characters contain the bamboo top; around 150 characters share the female radical; more than 300 characters contain the hand radical; nearly 400 characters contain the wood radical; more than 400 characters have the grass top; and about 450 characters contain the water radical. Most o f these characters are semantically associated with their radicals in one way or another. Memorizing these frequently used radicals w ill make learning characters faster and more interesting. See the appendix o f Chinese radicals.

1.4 Strokes of characters Strokes, like alphabetic letters in English words, are the smallest unit o f Chinese characters. Strokes are short lines, dots, and hooks. There are

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six basic strokes in three symmetrical pairs: horizontal line and vertical line; le ft slant and rig h t slant; dot down and dot up. H orizontal lines should be written from le ft to right. Vertical lines and slant lines should be written downward. A downward dot should go from top le ft to bottom right. An upward short line should go from bottom left to top right. The following are the six basic strokes. Chart 2 stroke Plnyin character

stroke Pinyin character

English

English

一

héng

横

a horizontal line

1

shù

竖

a vertical line

/

piě

撇

a slant left

V

nà

捺

a slant right

点

a dot falling to the right

提

a short line rising to the riạht

、

diân

-

tí

In addition to the six basic strokes, there are three curving lines: zhe {iff) is a 90 degree angle; gou (ij) is a 45 degree hook, and wan ỢỆ) is a curved line. The three curving lines can be in various forms. For example, the gou can be a horizontal hook, a le ft vertical hook, a right vertical hook, or a slant hook. The three curving lines can combine w ith the six basic strokes to form 25 variant strokes (see Chart 3); they and the six basic strokes make a total o f 31 strokes for constructing all characters. Do not lif t the pen from the paper when w riting each stroke. Chart 3 —~ Stroke

1

Pinyin & C haracter

Exam ple

héng zhé 横折

习 1 st stroke

2

héng piě 横 撇

又 1 st stroke

3

héng gõu 横钩

买 1 st stroke

héng zhé gõu 横折韵

同 2 st stroke

héng zhé t í 横折 提

说 2 nd stroke

héng zhé wán 横折弯

没 5st stroke

1

4

\

5 6

L

J

；

Appendix I

7

1.

8

1

9 10

J

11

héng zhé zhé 才黄斤

凹 2nd stroke

héng zhé xié gõu 横折斜钩

风 2ndStroke

héng zhé wõn gõu 横折弯钩

九 2ndstroke

héng piě wõn gõu 横撇弯构

院 2ndstroke

héng zhé zhé piě 才斤4斤#

及 2ndstroke 凸 4th stroke

12

*1

héng zhé zhé zhé 才 黄 4斤4斤#

13

0

héng zhé zhé zhé gõu 横折折折韵 乃 2ndstroke

14

1

shù t í 竖提

氏 2ndstroke

15

L

shù z h é 竖折

山 2ndstroke

shù g õ u 竖构

小 1st stroke

shù w ã n 竖弯

四 4th stroke

shù wõn g õ u 竖弯构

已 3rd stroke

16 17

I： L

18 19

1,

shù zhé p iě 登折撇

专 3rd stroke

20

'j

shù zhé z h é 竖折折

鼎 6th stroke

21

Í

shù zhé zhé g õ u 竖折折钩

马 2ndstroke

22

1

piě dián 撇点

女 l sl stroke

23

:

piě z h é 撇折

么 2ndstroke

24

Ju

xié g õ u 斜构

戈 2nd stroke

wõn g õ u 弯釣

家 6th stroke

25

These twenty-five variants and the six basic strokes are used for w riting characters and for counting the strokes o f a character when you look it up in a dictionary. Characters vary in the number o f strokes; the average is about ten or eleven strokes. In Chinese, characters are w ritten according to a sequential order called 笔 顺 （ bĩshùn), which is basic training in learning how to w rite characters. F ollow ing the rig h t order w ill help w ith the speed and legibility o f w riting; it w ill keep the w riter aware of the components of the character. Here are the basic rules:

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Horizontal first, vertical second. Top first, bottom second. Left first, right second. M iddle first, sides second. Outside first, inside second. Inside first, seal second.

十 二 八 小 四 因

W riting in right stroke order is also essential to good handwriting. In Chinese culture, good handwriting is long seen as indicative o f being well-educated; it is something that one can take pride in.

1.5 The layout of characters Strokes are assembled in three ways: separation, connection, and intersection. Strokes can be separated from each other from top to bottom or from le ft to right, such as 三 （ three) and 儿 （ son). They can jo in each other in two ways: either one end o f a stroke joins w ith another stroke, such as 丁 （ nail) and 人 （ person), or two ends o f a stroke are connected to another stroke, as in 口 （ mouth) and 工 （ work). They can also intersect one another, as in 十 （ ten) and 大 （ big). Subtle differences make different characters. For instance, in the character A (person), the le ft stroke is higher than the right; whereas in the character 入 （ renter), the right stroke is higher than the left. The character X (work) has a vertical stroke that connects two horizontal strokes. The vertical stroke in 干 （ dry) intersects the bottom horizontal stroke, but, in i (d irt), it intersects the top horizontal stroke. Notice the difference between 土 （ dirt) and 士 （ soldier): the latter* s top stroke is longer than the bottom stroke, which differs from the former. Such nuances can also be seen in these four characters: 田 (fie ld ), 由 （ from )，甲 （ shell), and 申 （ apply). Strokes form parts; parts form characters. Some parts are not characters such as Í and 央 ；some can stand as Single Characters (独体 字)，such as 人 （ person) and 手 （ hand). Single characters make up a small percent o f frequently used characters. Compound Characters (合 体 字 ) that consist o f more than one part make up more than ninety percent of frequently used characters. Compound characters have four layouts. The firs t is a le ft-rig h t structure，such as 你 （ you) and 鲜 （ fresh). For these characters，either the left side or the right side can have more than one part, such as 唱 （ sing) and 韵 （ vowel). Some characters have multiple parts on one side:摸 （ feel), for example, has three parts from top to bottom on the right side. Some

Appendix I

characters are sym m etrical:韶 （ beautiful) and IỄ* (zither); each has two parts on the le ft and two on the right. Some have three parts from left to right, such as Ì% (thank) and (evolve). Characters w ith a left-right structure account for a large number o f compound characters. The second layout o f compound characters is a top-bottom structure, such as 早 （ early) and 分 （ point). The top-bottom layout has three variations. The top component can contain a left and a right part, such as 想 （ think) and 热 （ hot); or the bottom component can contain a le ft and a right part, such as 众 （ many) and 宿 （ stay). Some characters have three parts from top to bottom, such as 草 （ grass) and 意 （ meaning). Characters w ith a top-bottom structure make up about a quarter o f compound characters. The th ird layout o f compound characters is called enclosure, in which one part is fu lly or partially embedded in another part. There are three types o f enclosures. The firs t is fu ll enclosure, such as 回 （ return) and 因 （ reason). The second is three-sided enclosure, which can have an open bottom such as 同 （ share) and 网 （ net), an open top such as 凶 (danger) and 函 （ m ail), or an open rig h t side such as 匣 （ box) and 医 (medicine). The third is two-sided enclosure that may open on different sides, such as 这 （ th is ),起 （ s ta rt),句 （ sentence), and 习 （ practice). This category accounts for a smaller percent o f compound characters. The last layout o f compound characters is a frame structure, which is usually sym m etrical and cannot be dissected, such as 巫 （ w itch), 爽 （ pleasant), and 噩 （ shocking). The number o f characters w ith this arrangement is very lim ited.

1.6 Simplex words As noted earlier, there is a difference between characters (字 ）and words (词 )• Among words, there is also a difference between simplex words and compound words. In English, for example, basket is a simplex word while basketball is a compound word. In Chinese, many simplex words consist o f one character and are free m orphem es:看 （ lo o k ),听 (listen )，说 （ speak),来 （ come), and 去 （ go). However, simplex words can consist of two characters. For example, 奋旯（ gãlâ ，corner), is one word that is composed o f two characters. These two characters, if used individually, are meaningless; they together make up a free morpheme. Simplex words consisting o f two characters may diffe r phonetically in their formations. Here are three groups:

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月元脏（ õngzõng, d irty)

邁 遢 （ lõta, sloppy) 徘 徊 （ pâihuâi,

hesitating)

磁 跑 （ cuõtuó, wasting time) 月面腆（ mtântiàn, shy) 您 恿 （ sõngyõng, instigate)

惆十长（ chóuchàng, disconsolate) 遞 尬 （ gõngà, e m b a rra s s e d ) 恍 憶 （ huỗnghũ, inattentive) 琳 琅 （ línlâng， gem) 缓 烧 （ qĩqiõo, strange) 志 怎 （ tântè， disturbed) 疾 瘪 （ gēda，lump) 专坚4# (kẽngqiãng，sonorous) & 虫ỉl (qiũyĩn，earthworm)

狡 猾 （ jiỗohuâ，cunning) 茉 莉 （ mòlì，jasmine) 娱 松 （ vvúgõng，centipede)

In the firs t group, the two characters, like assonants, share the vowels; in the second, like alliterations, they share the consonants; in the third, they d iffe r in both consonants and vowels. In a ll three groups, the two characters share the same radical, which semantically binds them together. Some simplex words are reduplicated，such as 虫国蝈（ guõguo, katydid) and 猩 猩 （ xĩngxing，gorilla). There are dso simplex words consisting of more than two characters, and they are typically transliterations of non-Chinese words，such as 阿 司匹林（ Õsĩpìlíri，a sp rin ),马 拉 松 （mỗlõsõng， marathon), and 歇 斯 底 里 (xiēsīdīlī，hysteria). Some simplex words are onomatopoetic，such as 嘀塔 (dĩdõ，tick tock),叮 当 （ dĩngdõng，jingle )，嗔 唆 （gãgõ，quack),呵 5 (hēhē， giggle),哗 啦 （huõlõ, rattle )，啼 瘵 （kãchõ，crack), etc.

1.7 Compound words In English, compound words are formed by two or more words; one word serves as the base, and the other is added to it to form a new word. Compounds are formed in various ways. For example, bedroom consists o f two nouns; heartbeat consists of a subject and a verb; haircut consists o f an object and verb. In addition, affixes also make compounds. In Chinese, we may divide the formation o f compounds into three major categories: reduplication, affixation, and combination.

1.7.1 Reduplication In English, it is not common to form compounds by reduplication. Only a few compounds are made o f identical or slightly different words, such as walkie-talkie and wishy-washy. In Chinese, some compounds are

Appendix I

formed by reduplication. 常常（ often) 渐 渐 (gradually) 慢 慢 (slowly)

刚刚（ just) 姑姑（ aunt) 仅 仅 ( m e r e ly ) 舅 舅 （ uncle) 轻轻（ gently)

Notice that each word in these compounds can be used independently; they diffe r from simplex words，such as 蝈 蝈 and 猩 猩 ，in which neither character is a free morpheme and neither can be used independently. In Chinese, some compounds consist o f an adjective and the reduplication o f a morpheme. The three characters make up an adjective that can be used attributively or predicatively. 臭 烘 烘 (stinky) •赖洋 洋 (languid) 美滋滋（ complacent) 气呼呼（ panting w ith rage)

假惺惺（ unctuous) 紧巴巴（ tight) 枯 糊 糊 (sticky) 硬 邦 邦 (s tiff)

The reduplicated morphemes are often onomatopoetic. For example, the word 气呼呼 shows that one is angry，panting w ith a h uff-puff sound. See the chapter on adjectives.

1.7.2 Affixation In English, an a ffix is a morpheme that is bound to a base word. A prefix is placed before the base word, such as il-, im-, non- in illogical, improper, and non-profitable, which does not alter the word class o f the base word. A suffix is placed after the base word, such as -ful, -er, -ship in trustful, teacher, and friendship, and it usually alters the word class of the base word. There are also prefixes and suffixes in Chinese. For example，第 is a prefix that forms ordinal num bers:第 一 （ firs t), 第 二 （ second)，and 第三 (third). The following are some examples. 好 （ good), as a prefix, indicates something positive, pleasant, easy, and favorable. The exact meaning o f the prefix # also depends on the base word. 好办（ easy to do) 好看（ good-looking) 好玩（ fun) 好 修 (easy to repair)

好吃（ tasty) 好听（ pleasant to hear) 好学（ easy to learn) 好 做 (easỹ to do)

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( 可 ) 可 （ be able or be w o rth y o f) can be a p re fix to some m onosyllabic nouns，verbs, and adjectives. In most cases 可 changes the base word into an adjective. It is close to the English su ffix -able, meaning 如，mc/ž«汉/ 如，andyửyỡr. In the following examples, some words such as 亲 and 喜 are both verbs and adjectives. ( 1 ) 可 + noun: 可耻（ despicable) 可心（ satisfying) 可意（ satisfactory) (2 ) 可 + verb: 可爱（ lovable) 可鄙（ despicable) 可靠（ dependable) 可 诼 (p itifu l) 可气（ irritable) 可喜（ heartening) 可信（ believable)

可口（ delicious) 可疑（ suspicious)

可比* (comparable) 可恨（ detectable) 可控（ controllable) 可 怕 (dreadful) 可取（ desừable) 可笑（ laughable) 可行（ feasible)

(3) 可 + adjective: 可悲（ la m e n ta b le ) 可 贵 （ valuable) 可亲（ amiable) ( 难 ) 难 （ d iffic u lt), as a p re fix , is the antonym o f 好 . It means something negative, hard, unpleasant, ugly, etc. 难办（ hard to do) 难处（ d iffic u lt to handle) 难 过 (sad) 难受（ uncomfortable)

难产（ d iffic u lt delivery) 难 得 （d iffic u lt to get) 难 ^ • (ugly) 难言（ hard to say)

Some Chinese prefixes match those in English, such as 反 （ anti-) and 非 （ non-). One commonly used one is 自 （ self)，which forms verbs and adjectives. 自动（ automatic) 自 封 (self-appoint) 自 欺 (self-deceive) 自习（ self-study) 自愿（ voluntary) 自卑（ feeling inferior)

自发（ spontaneous) 自 夸 (self-praise) 自慰（ self-console) 自 信 (self-confident) 自治（ self-govern)

Appendix I

In Chinese, many suffixes are used to form nouns or verbs. They can change the word class of the base word, and you can also tell the word class o f some compounds by their suffix. For example, those that end with Ť or ^ are nouns. Here are a few commonly used ones. ( 化 ）化 can form verbs from nouns and adjectives. It means to become or to make something be in a particular state or condition denoted by the base word. It is sim ilar to the su ffix -ize and -ify in English. In Chinese,化 can also form some verbs from verbs. ( 1 ) noun + 化 ： 大众化（ popularize) 数 字 化 。igitize)

理想化（ idealize) 现 代 化 (modernize)

⑵ adjective + 化 ： 简 单 化 (sim plify) 美化（ beautify)

具体化（ concretize) 庸 俗 化 (vulgarize)

⑶ verb + 化 ： 分 化 (divide) 退 化 (degenerate) 转化（ transform)

融 化 (dissolve) 消 化 (digest)

c 头 ）头 (head), as a suffix, can be added to nouns, verbs, and adjectives to form nouns. “ Verb + 头 ’’ and “ adjective + 头 ’’ are usually abstract nouns, such as盼 头 （ things to look forward to) and苦头 (suffering). “ Location + 头” forms locational nouns. ( 1 ) noun + 头 ： 床 头 (the head o f the b e d ) 笔 头 (w riting skill) 木头（ wood) 口头（ orally) 手头（ in hand) 石头（ stone) ⑵ verb + 头 ： 干头（ worth doing) 赚头（ profit)

念 头 (thought)

(3) adjective + 头 ： 大头（ major part) 小头（ m inor part)

甜头（ benefit)

(4) location + 头 ： 里头（ inside)

外 头 (outside)

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( 性 ) •ìí can form abstract nouns from nouns, verbs, or adjectives; the new noun indicates the kind of quality denoted by the base word. It is sim ilar to English suffix -ity or -ness that forms nouns from adjectives. ⑴ noun + 性 ： 趣 味 •生 （ interestingness) 艺术性（ artistry)

时间性（ timeliness)

⑵ verb + 性 ： 创造性（ creativity) 适应性（ adaptability)

欺 骗 性 (deceptiveness)

⑶ adjective + 性 ： 实用性（ practicality) 普 遍 性 (universality)

可 行 性 (feasibility) 特殊性（ particularity)

( 子 ）子 （ seed, child) can form nouns from other nouns. For example, 桌（ table) and 椅 （ chair) represent the idea o f table and chair, but 桌子 and 椅子 represent concrete, countable objects•子 can also form nouns from some verbs and adjectives. ( 1 ) noun + 子 ： 刀子（ knife) 覺子 pencil) 瓶子（ bottle) 绳子（ rope)

叉 子 (fork) 溪子（ chopsticks) 勺子（ spoon)

⑵ verb + 子 ： 盖子（ lid ) 梳子（ comb)

剪子（ scissors)

(3) adjective + 子 ： 矮 子 (dwarf) 胖子（ large size person)

呆 子 (nerd)

者 as a suffix refers to a person engaged in a certain action or profession , or a believer in a doctrine. In English, the su ffix -er forms agent nouns from nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

( 1 ) noun + 者 ： 存在主义者（ e xiste n tia list)无 神 论 者 (atheist) 环 境 保 护 者 (environmentalist)

⑵ verb + 者 ： 读 者 (reader)

买者（ buyer)

Appendix I

卖 者 (seller) 投机者（ opportunist) 译 者 (translator)

吃 素 者 (vegetarian) 作者（ author)

(3) adjective + 者 ： 合格者（ qualified p e r s o n ) 强 者 （ strong one) 弱者（ weak one)

1.7.3 Combination In English, a compound word can be a combination o f two or more base words. It can be formed by two nouns: earphone^ a subject and a verb: rainfall, a verb and a subject: playboy; an object and a verbal: faultfinding, etc. Some compounds are solid (e.g. popcorn); some are hyphenated (e.g. home-made); some have a space between the two words (washing machine). In Chinese, compounds are also formed in various ways. Here are some ways o f compounding. Synonym combination: Some compounds consist o f two characters o f the same or close meaning, and they semantically complement each other. For exam ple,途 径 （ way) consists o f two nouns 途 (path) and 径 (road);学 习 （ study) consists o f two verbs 学 （ learn) and 习 （ practice);秀 丽 （ beautiful) consists o f two adjectives 秀 （ charming) and 丽 （ beautiful). ( 1 ) noun + noun: 胳 膊 (arm) 头脑（ mind)

价 值 (value) 书 本 (book)

群众（ mass)

(2 ) verb + verb: 锻炼（ exercise) 停止（ stop)

生产（ produce) 制 造 (make)

收获（ harvest)

(3) adjective + adjective: 寒 冷 (cold) 凉 爽 (cool) 善 良 (kind-hearted) 温 暖 (warm) 虚伪（ hypocritical) Some characters in these compounds are not free morphemes•锻 in 锻 炼 ，for example, cannot be used independently. In some cases, the two characters are not exact synonyms: for example, the word 尺 寸 （ size) consists of 尺 （ foot) and 寸 （ inch). Antonym combination: Some compounds consist o f two characters

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w ith opposite meanings; each semantically contributes to the compounds. For example，the compound 大 小 （ size) is composed o f two characters 大 (big) and 小 （ small). 多 少 (amount) 横竖（ in any case) 开关（ switch) 来往（ contact) 始 终 fin a lly )

高矮（ height) 紧张（ nervousness) 利害（ gains and losses) 买卖（ business) 早晚（ sooner or later)

Subject-verb com bination: In English, some compounds consist o f a subject and a verb, such as heartbeat and nightfall. Some Chinese com pounds are form ed in a s im ila r m anner. For exam ple ，地 震 (earthquake) consists o f 地 （ earth) and 震 （ quake). 耳 鸣 (tinnitus) 民主（ democracy) 头疼（ headache) 心宽（ broad-minded)

海啸（ tsunami) 年 轻 (youth) 夏至（ summer solstice) 自学（ self-study)

Verb-object combination: Some English compounds are composed o f an object followed by a verb, such as housekeep, but some Chinese compounds consist of a verb followed by an object. For example,煽 情 （ stir up emotion) is made up o f 煽 （ fan) and Ỷ青 (emotion). 表态（ take a stand) 盗版（ pirate copy) Í 匚#欠 （ rem it money) 开车（ drive) 整 容 (facelift) 做秀（ put on a show)

存 款 (deposit money) 管 家 (butler) 健身（ keep fit) 投 赉 (invest) 著 书 (write a book)

Verb-com plem ent com bination: In Chinese, some compounds consist o f a verb followed by a complement; the complement can be a verb or an adjective that completes the meaning o f the verb. For example,推翻 (overthrow) consists o f 推 （ push) and 翻 （ over). ( 1 ) verb + verb: 冲 走 (wash away) 毁 灭 (devastate;

打倒（ topple) 改进（ improve) 提出（ pầt forward)

(2 ) verb + adjective: 搞 好 (do well) 提 高 (raise)

才广大(e x p a n d ) 说 明 （ illustrate) 推迟（ postpone)

Appendix I

Attributive-noun combination: In both English and Chinese, some compounds are composed o f noun-noun or adjective-noun; the firs t one modifies the second. ( 1 ) noun + noun: 茶 杯 (tea cup) 火车（ train) 油箱（ o il tank)

电脑（ computer) 雪花（ snowflake)

(2 ) adjective + noun: 黄豆（ soy bean) 绿茶（ green tea) 香肠（ sausage)

快 餐 (fast food) 热心（ warm heart)

Finally, it is interesting to note that some compounds have different meanings if the order o f characters is reversed. Here are some examples: 人生（ human life) and 生 人 （ stranger),茶 花 （ camellia) and 花 茶 （ jasmine te a ); 文 盲 （ illiterate) and 盲 文 （ B ra ille ), 情 人 （ lover) and 人 情 （ human feelings).

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C hin ese R ad ic a ls 汉 字 部 首 表

The follow ing is a lis t o f 100 frequently used radicals and their ancient forms (Oracle-Bone Inscriptions or Bronze Inscriptions). Some radicals only serve as a component o f a character, but most o f them are also independent characters in their own right. The following radicals are semantically arranged according to four categories: nature, humans, living necessities，and worship. M ost o f these radicals stay on the le ft in the com position o f a character, but some are on the rig h t, top, or bottom . Many serve as semantic components, but some can also serve as phonetic components. The reading o f radicals usually follows a three syllable rule: the firs t syllable is the name and the meaning o f the radical; the second syllable, zi, means character; the third syllable, pang, means radical (the one on the side). For instance，日 （ sun) is read as rì zì pâng， which means the character 日 is a radical. I f the name o f a radical has two syllables, such as 禾 （ crop) hé mù，you drop zi and read it as hé mù pâng，meaning 禾 is a radical. I f a radical appears on the top o f a character, it is called tóu (head) instead o f pang. For example, (grass) is read as câo zì tóu, meaning is a top radical. I f a radical stays at the bottom o f a character, it is called d丫（ bottom). The radical 心 （ heart), for example，typically appears at the bottom o f a character, and it is read as xĩn zì dĩ. These names tóu， pâng， and d丫 indicate the position o f a radical in the composition o f a character. I f a radical can appear in different positions in different characters, it is referred to as pang. In the following, if a radical has more than one form, both forms are listed under one entry. However, the radical 月 is âĩi exception because the Oracle-Bone Inscriptions o f 月 have two pictures for two different entities.

Radicals /Ancient Forms

M㊀3ning

Pronunciation Examples

Related to nature 1 2

土

ii

ice

liâng diân shuT

冰 ，冷 ，冻

soil

tu zi pang

场 ， 坐 ，寺

Appendix II

3

山 必

mountain

shỗn zi pang

岩，岛，峰

4

小 V

small

xiâ o zì tóu

少，尖 ，尘

、 丨 ’ v

small

xiâ o zT tóu

光 ，肖，常

5

夕

sunset

XT zì páng

外，名，夜

6

曰 0

sun

rì zi pang

明，昨 ，晚

7

月 3

moon

yuè zi pang

明，朝 ，期

8

水 沾

water

shuT zi pang

尿 ，泉，浆

water

săn dia n shuT

江 ，洗 ，湖

fire

huo zi pang

炒，灯，炎

fire

sì diâ n d ĩ

热 ，照 ，煮

9

d

火 也 ,、 ， 、

也

10

气三

gas

qì zì páng

氛 ，氨 ，氧

11

石 fd

stone

shí zì páng

矿，研 ，碰

12

田囲

field

tián zì páng

男，累，畦

rain

yủ zì tóu

雪，雷，霜

13 雨

lĩl

Related to plants & animals c â o zì tóu

英，草，茶

wood

mù zì páng

林 ，果 ，椅

16 禾 办

crop

hé mù páng

和 ，种 ，租

17 米 沿

grain

m ĩ zì pá ng

栗，籽，粗

18

bamboo

zhú zì tóu

笔，筷，篇

19

feather

sãn pỉề pá ng

须 ，彩 ，影

14

grass

15 木 本

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20 马

Í

horse

m á z i páng

妒，骑 ，驮

21 犬

3

dog

qu ân zi pang

吠 ，臭，献

t

dog

fa n qu ân páng

狗 ，猫 ，猪

OX

niú zi pa ng

牟，牢，牵

ox

niú z i páng

物 ，特

claw

zhua zì tóu

采 ，受 ，爱

sheep

yán g zì páng

美，群 ，善

insect

chóng zì páng

坏，蚊 ，蚂

bird

niâo zì páng

鸡 ，鸵 ，鸳

short tailed bird

zhu ĩ zì páng

谁 ，雀 ，稚

ish

yú zì páng

鲜 ，鲸 ，鲨

1

y -ị

22 牛 if

23 24

¥

羊 令

25 26

鸟

27 *

ằ 令

28 鱼 貧

Related to humans

29 人 彳

h

person

rén zì pá ng

从 ，介 ，全

卜

single person

dá n rén páng

仙 ，休 ，你

30 儿

Y

person

ér zì d ĩ

元 ，兄 ，兑

31 又