70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education 9789811935213, 9811935211

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Xiaobing Sun

70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education

70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education

Xiaobing Sun

70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education

Xiaobing Sun International Education Studies Beijing Foreign Studies University Beijing, China

ISBN 978-981-19-3520-6 ISBN 978-981-19-3521-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3 Jointly published with East China Normal University Press The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: East China Normal University Press. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and East China Normal University Press 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

Promoting Opening-Up in Education and Talents Cultivation 2018 International Education Annual Conference BFSU Consensus Over the past 40 years since reform and opening-up, China has always prioritized education opening-up work as we go global. China’s education opening-up has boosted economic development and improved education reforms. It aims to meet people’s growing demand for quality and diversified education. We have consistently promoted development and reform through opening-up, connected China with the world and carried out wide-ranging and multilevel educational exchanges and cooperation. Our work has achieved remarkable results. China is opening-up its education system and completing relative policies. We have signed agreements on the mutual recognition of higher education degrees with 46 countries and regions. Overseas education has opened the way for education opening-up. International student exchange develops rapidly, and China has become the world’s largest exporter of international students and the largest destination country in Asia for overseas students. Steady progress has been made in Chineseforeign cooperative education; high-level Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs have flourished. A new pattern has emerged in the cause of cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries; bilateral and multilateral educational exchanges and cooperation have developed in depth. By actively participating in major education initiatives through international intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO, China has significantly increased the international influence of education. At present, China’s international education development is confronted with new situations and challenges, which requires us to build new consensus and solve new problems. First, the uncertainty of the international situation has increased, anti-globalization has emerged in some countries; existing international agreements and rules are being challenged, and new international environments and orders are taking shape. In v

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particular, the trade model of education services under the framework of the WTO has encountered obstacles, and unilateral trade protectionism has risen in some countries. People have not reached consensus on the role, value and significance of international education and have even more diverged. We should integrate and deepen the understanding of international education to enhance its pertinence, effectiveness and adaptability. Second, China has entered a new phase of development. Domestic demand for quality international education is growing. However, quality international education is in short supply; competition is becoming increasingly fierce, and problems are increasingly prominent. It is urgent to define the goal and establish a system for international education talent cultivation. Thirdly, education opening-up is further expanded. The Belt and Road education initiatives launched under the framework of building a community with a shared future for mankind have provided new opportunities for China’s international education. As cooperation in various fields among Belt and Road countries develops, we should give prominence to new features, hot spots and problems of China’s international education and put forward policies and measures to solve them. International education academic research and exchange must follow the guidance of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, thoroughly implement all the guiding principles from the Party’s 19th National Congress and arrangements from 2018 National Education Conference, fulfill work requirements of education opening-up and demonstrate Marxism principle of absorbing and benefiting from all outstanding cultural achievements in the world. It should also promote international education research and practices in the new era and further analyze the situation, future development and tasks faced by China’s international education to speed up its modernization. China should continue to carry out the following work in the field of international education:

Expand Education Opening-Up and Promote Education Globalization Education is the common core interest of mankind and the key to achieving global sustainable development, which requires joint efforts of all humanity. History has repeatedly proven that China’s development cannot be separated from the world and vice versa. International education academic research and exchange should be based on building world-class modern education with Chinese characteristics and the guidance of “Education should be oriented toward modernization, the world and the future.” We will continue to support students in studying abroad, encourage them to return after graduation and respect their own choices. We will keep education opening-up and engage in international education exchange and cooperation with

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other countries under the framework of UNESCO and other international organizations. We will share quality education resources with Belt and Road countries and establish the Belt and Road Education Community. We will deepen cultural exchanges between China and other countries, build platforms for people-to-people exchanges, personnel training and technological innovation to enhance people-topeople bonds and mutual learning among civilizations, build cultural consensus and achieve common development. We will comprehensively improve the scale and quality of Chinese education and establish the brand of “study in China” to make China an ideal country for outstanding youth to study. We will try to contribute to building the Belt and Road Education Community and a community with a shared future for mankind.

Promote Policies and Regulations to Construct International Education Systems We will further study international education policies and regulations to promote China’s relative policies and regulations, which will provide policy support and legal protection for international education’s sound development. We will study and promote our national development strategy of international education with quality as the orientation and construct a target system, protection system and supervision system. We will promote in-depth people-to-people exchange in formulating teacher standards and curriculum arrangements. We support rule-based governance in international education, and we will complete relevant institutions to provide institutional protection for overseas education, Chinese-foreign cooperative education and international cooperative research. We will improve the coordination between external sectors to safeguard China’s educational sovereignty. We will deepen the experience sharing among international education research organizations to provide academic support for educational foreign policy-making.

Combining Domestic and Foreign Quality Resources and Cultivating High-level International Talents China’s international education should integrate international and domestic resources to train a number of international top talents and build a number of international innovative talent training bases. We will continue to cooperate with world-class universities and research institutes to promote “Double First-Class” universities. In the stage of higher education, we will engage in well-known overseas schools, educational research institutions and enterprises to cooperate in teaching, training, research institutions or projects. We will encourage various forms of international exchange

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and cooperation among universities at all levels and run a number of model Chineseforeign cooperative schools and programs. We will build an international collaborative education model to cultivate talent with a global vision and Chinese sentiments who are committed to promoting understanding and exchange between different cultures. We will train and introduce top innovative talents, non-universal language talents, international organizations talents, and national and regional research talents that are urgently needed. We will give full play to the important supporting role of studying abroad in cultivating talent and improve the contribution of studying abroad to constructing a modern socialist country. We advocate studying abroad at an appropriate age and staying safe while studying abroad. We will systematically train international talent and try to determine the effective mechanism of talent cultivation in universities, middle schools and primary schools.

Encourage Global Education and Improve Our International Education Governance We encourage universities to set up international organization talent training courses to expand the talent pool to improve international education governance. We will deepen cooperation with UNESCO and other international organizations. We will actively participate in educational affairs in international organizations and deliver Chinese talent to international organizations. We will strengthen research on various major international education rules, standards and evaluations and advocate deep participation in formulating international education rules. We will make full use of international education organizations as a platform to voice out, share experience, offer solutions and contribute wisdom. In conjunction with China’s foreign aid projects, we encourage college teachers and students to participate in projects and provide volunteer services in developing countries, which will improve the intensity and effectiveness of international education assistance and contribute to the development of education fairness. Deepening education opening-up and further promoting international education is an important way to fully realize China’s education modernization. Let us work together to innovate our international education development concept, carry out pragmatic cooperation and promote the leap-forward development of China’s international education. We will strive to build China into an important world education center and promote cultural exchange between China and other countries. We will try our best to contribute to China’s education modernization and building a community with a shared future for mankind.

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2

Construction of Development of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Definition of International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The Beginning of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 The Development of China’s International Education Since Reform and Opening-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Exploration Period: 1978–2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Formation Period: 2001–2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Development Period: 2013 to the Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 National Legislation and Important Documents of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Education Law of the People’s Republic of China and Related Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 The Non-State Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China and Regulations on the Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education and Regulations on the Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 The Outlines of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-Term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5 The 13th Five-Year Plan for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6 The Opinions on Deepening the Reform of the Institutional Mechanism for Education . . . . . . . . . 2.4.7 The Opinions on the Work of the Opening-Up of Education in the New Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.8 China’s Education Modernization 2035 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 7 7 10 10 11 16 18 20 20

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Studying Abroad in China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Origin of Studying Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 History of Studying Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 The Initial Exploration Stage (1978–1991) . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Adjustment and Standardization Stage (1992–2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Improvement Stage (2013 to the Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Overall Characteristics of Studying Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 The Overall Scale of Studying Abroad Has Continued to Grow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 The Rate of Returning to China Has Grown Steadily with Significant Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Relatively Concentrated Destination Countries of Studying Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Forming a Working Pattern of Studying Abroad with the Government-Funded Study Abroad as the Leading Part and the Self-Funded Study Abroad as the Main Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 A Case Study of Studying Abroad—Taking Beijing Foreign Studies University as an Example of Exploring the Model of Compound Talents Needed by International Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Organizational Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Implementation Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Study in China: A Crucial Part of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Historical Development Since Reform and Opening-Up . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 The Stage of Recovery (1978–1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 The Stage of Standardization (2000–2009) . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 The Stage of Improvement (2010 to the Present) . . . . . . 4.3 Major Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Expanded Scale and Optimized Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Main Source Countries and New Growth from Countries Along the Belt and Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Increasingly Balanced Distribution of Discipline and the Dominant Portion of Self-Financed Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Scholarships and the Growing Attractiveness of Study in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Case Analysis: Taking Shaanxi Province as an Example . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.4.2

Measures Taken by the Shaanxi Provincial Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 The Inception of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Education . . . . 5.2 The History of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools Since Reform and Opening-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 The Stage of Exploring Norms of Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education (1978–2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 The Stage of Adaptation and Construction (2001–2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 The Stage of Developing the Substance of Education (2013 to the Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Current Development of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Case Study of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools—With Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool as an Example . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Basic Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Curriculum Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Study in XJTLU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.5 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overseas School Start-Up of China’s International Education . . . . . 6.1 Historical Development of Overseas Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Experience Exploration (1978–2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Systematic Regulation and Policy Making (2001–2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Improvement and Encouragement (2013 to the Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Current Situations of China’s Overseas Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Real Case Study—Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka Campus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Basic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Education Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Influence of the Cooperation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges of China’s International Education with the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Origin of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges with the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7.2

7.3 7.4

8

The Historical Development of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchange with the World Since Reform and Opening-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Exploring and Learning (1978–1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Strengthening Trust and Removing Doubts (1990–2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Overall Planning (2013 to the Present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current Situation of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case Analysis of People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges—Example of China-US High-Level Consultation Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Background of Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.3 Major Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.4 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Bilateral and Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges in China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8.1 Bilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8.1.1 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 8.1.2 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with European Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 8.1.3 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with North American Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 8.1.4 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with South American Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 8.1.5 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 8.1.6 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with Oceania Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.2 Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges . . . . . . . . . 93 8.2.1 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNESCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 8.2.2 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNICEF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 8.2.3 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 8.2.4 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNFPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 8.2.5 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with World Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 8.2.6 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with APEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

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8.3

A Case Study of Bilateral and Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges—Regional Convention for the Recognition of Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Asia and the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 8.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 8.3.2 The Significance of the Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

9

Actions on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative in China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 The Context and Background of the Belt and Road Initiative Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The Document—Education Action on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 The Implementation Status of the Action Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.1 Cooperation and Exchanges in Education Have Been Strengthened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.2 The Talent Training Programs Have Been Increased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3.3 The Joint Building of Silk Road Cooperation Mechanism Has Been Carried Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Macro Management of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges (Office of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan Affairs) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 China Scholarship Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Chinese Association for International Understanding . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107 107 108 113 113 114 115 117 117 117 117 124 125 125 126 127 129 129 130 132 134 134 134 135 136 136 137 137 139 139

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10.6.2 Work Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.6.3 Work Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 11 The Experience and Implication of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Adhering to the Educational Development Path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics as the Basic Guiding Ideology for the Opening-Up of Education in China . . . 11.2 Adhering to Serving the Country’s Economic and Social Construction and Education Reform and Development as the Fundamental Driving Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Adhering to Serving Both the International and Domestic Plans, Using a Combination of “Introducing in” and “Reaching Out” as the Basic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Adhering to the Cultivation of Outstanding Talents as the Core Task of Opening China’s Education to the Outside World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Adhering to Laws, Regulations and Policies as the Solid Guarantee for the Opening-Up and Promotion of China’s Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 A Literature Review on China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . 12.1 The Importance and Reflection of International Education . . . . . . 12.2 The World Trends of International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Analysis and References of International Education Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Research on China’s International Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Exploration of the Development of China’s International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 The Ways and Scope of Internationalization of Basic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.2 Future Goals of International Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.3 The Development Trend of International Education . . . .

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Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Chapter 1

Introduction

International education is not only a hot topic in the theoretical research of education but also a major research topic of national policy as well as an innovation of diversified educational practices. It is a multidimensional concept that integrates educational theory, policy and practice. In some developed countries and emerging developing countries, international education has become an important national strategy for developing foreign trade and services, making up for the shortage of human resources, demonstrating national soft power, safeguarding national security and maintaining the voice in the international stage. Given the importance of international education, traditional education powers such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia have successively formulated development strategies of international education suited to their own national conditions in recent years. According to incomplete statistics, the Chinese government has issued nearly 100 comprehensive, systemic and multilevel policies on international education since the reform and opening-up. China’s international education is also known as the opening-up of education in our policy context. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the Chinese government began to borrow experience from advanced countries in terms of education. Given the historical conditions and international environment in the early days of the People’s Republic of China, China’s education at that time was mainly open to socialist countries such as the Soviet Union and eastern European countries. With their help, China gained advanced science and technologies and cultivated much-needed talent in different fields at all levels. The 70-year development of China’s international education was full of arduous exploration and unremitting efforts. We should keep that long journey in mind and summarize the past experience. In 1978, after correcting the errors of the “Cultural Revolution”, the Vice Chairman of the CPC Central Committee Deng Xiaoping proposed cultivating high-level professionals needed by China’s scientific research institutions and universities as soon as possible by sending a large number of Chinese students to study abroad.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_12

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Regarding the selection of state-sponsored students, the Ministry of Education formulated the principle of “focusing on key points, making overall plans, ensuring quality, and striving for more” within a short period of time. The resumption of sending out Chinese students was a prelude to the rapid development of international education in China. In the mid-1980s, with the continuous expansion of overseas study, the government began to pay special attention to the education, service and management of international students. In 1992, according to the spirit demonstrated in Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour speech, the government decided the principle of “supporting study abroad, encouraging students to return home, and freedom of choice”. In February 1993, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council Jointly published the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China to further open up China’s education sector and strengthen educational exchanges and cooperation with other countries. In June 1993, the State Education Commission issued the first regulations for China-foreign cooperative education, the Notice on the Issues of Overseas Institutions and Individuals Coming to China for Cooperative Education. In November 1993, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 14th CPC Central Committee established the principle of “supporting study abroad, encouraging students to return home, and freedom of choice” for Chinese overseas students in the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Major Issues Concerning the Establishment of a Socialist Market Economy. In 1994, the State Council published its opinions on the implementation of the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China and proposed forming the China Scholarship Council. In 1996, the China Scholarship Council was formally established, mainly responsible for the admission, selection and administration of international students in China in accordance with the principle of “individual application, expert evaluation, fair competition, selective admission, contracted dispatch, and compensation for breach of contract”. By then, China’s admission, selection and administration of inbound and outbound international students had embarked on a standardized and law-based path. During this period, with the resumption of sending out Chinese students, China opened its door to the outside world, and China’s international education was standardized and made great progress. Entering the new century, especially after China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, Chinese-foreign cooperative education, as an important model of international education, has developed vigorously in China. In 2003, the State Council issued the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education, which gradually standardized Chinese-foreign cooperative education. In 2006, Xi Jinping, then Secretary of the Zhejiang Provincial Party Committee, attended the inauguration ceremony of the University of Nottingham Ningbo China, the first Chinese-foreign cooperative university approved by the Ministry of Education under the goal of bringing in world-class universities. It was a pioneer in connecting China’s higher education resources with high-quality overseas resources.

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This combination created a new model for Chinese education to go global. Chineseforeign cooperative education can take maximum advantage of both China’s domestic educational resources and overseas high-quality educational resources, improving China’s educational development and international competitiveness. In 2010, Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) was unveiled, it stressed, “it is essential to reform and develop education by opening it to the outside world, carrying out education exchanges and collaboration at multiple levels and in a broad scope, and raising education’s internationalization level. Advanced concepts and experience in education in the world should be assimilated to boost education reform and development in China and to enhance the nation’s global position, influence and competitiveness in the field of education. To meet the requirement of opening-up the Chinese economy and society to the world, a large number of talents shall be cultivated that are imbued with global vision, well-versed in international rules, and capable of dealing with international affairs and competition.” During this period, China’s international education made new progress with rapidly expanding Chinese-foreign cooperative education. As of 2012, there were 1,765 Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs and institutions across the country, of which 732 programs and 42 institutions were undergraduate and above. In this period, a development pattern with overseas study (internationalization of human resources) and Chinese-foreign cooperative education (internationalization of institutions) as the main bodies began to take shape. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, especially after 2013, the leadership of the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core attached great importance to the development of international education. China’s international education has gradually presented a new outlook that is comprehensive, multilevel and wide-ranging. From September to October 2013, during his visit to Central and Southeast Asian countries, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed jointly building the “Silk Road Economic Belt” and the “21st Century Maritime Silk Road” (the Belt and Road Initiative). This initiative has received great attention from the international community and has been warmly received by countries concerned. In March 2015, the National Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Commerce jointly issued the Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road, which marked that the Belt and Road Initiative has entered a stage of comprehensive advancement and China has started a new round of opening-up. In April 2016, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on the Work of the Opening-up of Education in the New Era. This was the first programmatic document for the openingup of education since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Strategical deployments were made for the development of international education in the next five years. The Opinions stated, “We shall adhere to the principle of focusing on the central task, serving the overall interests, taking the initiative, being inclusive and open, enhancing the level, developing in intension, and promoting equal cooperation

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and security assurance”. It provided important instructions for overseas study, crossborder education, the construction of first-class universities and first-class disciplines, people-to-people exchange, multilateral educational cooperation, and educational cooperation along the Belt and Road. The Opinions also suggested, “by 2020, China will have a basically sound service system for overseas study; the quality of Studyin-China and the efficiency of cross-border education will improve significantly; the breadth and depth of bilateral and multilateral cooperation on education will expand greatly; China’s role in formulating international education rules will be enhanced greatly; the opening-up of education will be more standardized and lawbased; we will move forward to better serve people’s needs for diverse and highquality education and drive the overall economic and social progress.” In July 2016, the Ministry of Education launched the Campaign to Promote Education while Jointly Advancing the Belt and Road Initiative to build a shared community of education for countries along the Belt and Road and fully advancing the Belt and Road Initiative. With the introduction of two important guiding documents—the Opinions and the Campaign—the top-level design of developing China’s international education in the new era has been optimized gradually. At the same time, under the guidance of the Campaign, China-foreign cultural exchanges played an increasingly important role in serving the national strategy and promoting connectivity through academic exchanges, people-to-people exchanges and communication platforms during this period. In November 2017, to implement the strategic plan of the Party Central Committee and the State Council on strengthening China-foreign cultural exchanges and further promote cultural communication between China and other countries, the Party Group of the Ministry of Education decided to establish the China-foreign Cultural Exchange Center in accordance with the Reply from the State Commission Office of Public Sectors Reform on the Adjustment and Establishment of ChinaForeign Cultural Exchange Center to the Ministry of Education. As such, China’s international education has been enriched by flourishing cultural exchanges. Under the guidance of government policies, China’s international education has made a giant step forward. From overseas study, Chinese-foreign cooperative education to educational cooperation along the Belt and Road, China has become both an importer and exporter of international education and realized win-win cooperation. We are gradually catching up and even taking the lead in this field. The Minister of Education Chen Baosheng noted in the Guangming Daily on December 13, 2018, “the opening-up of education is developing in an all-round way, and education has become a famous brand for China to enter the center of the international stage. The number of international students in China has increased from more than 1200 in 1978 to more than 480,000 in 2017. China has become Asia’s largest destination for study abroad. The number of Chinese students studying abroad increased from 860 in 1978 to more than 600,000 in 2017. In the past 40 years, a total of 3.132 million overseas Chinese students returned to China. Students returning to China after the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China accounted for 73.9%, giving rise to the largest ‘returning tide’ since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Chinese-foreign cooperative education

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has developed from scratch, and now, there are 2385 cooperative education institutions and programs in China. We have advanced educational cooperation along the Belt and Road, encouraged the wide participation of countries concerned, and promoted connectivity and education exchanges. A total of 533 Confucius Institutes and 1140 Confucius Classrooms in 150 countries and regions were built through Chinese-foreign cooperation. The influence of Chinese culture has improved continuously. China-foreign cultural exchanges have flourished, and 9 high-level mechanisms of cultural exchange with countries concerned have been established. At present, cultural exchanges, together with strategic mutual trust as well as economic and trade cooperation, have become the three pillars of diplomacy with Chinese characteristics”.1 Looking back at the development of China’s international education, we feel gratified by those achievements. International education has become a world trend. Carrying out international education is of great significance for cultivating highquality international talent, developing China’s public diplomacy and enhancing China’s soft power. From a global perspective, the current situation of international education and its development tell us that major international education powers, including the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, have benefited greatly from overseas study services. For instance, according to the statistics of the US Department of Commerce, international students contributed more than $39 billion to the US economy by paying tuition, food, accommodation and living expenses in 2016. The huge benefits behind international education led major international education powers to formulate strategies to attract and recruit more international students. Emerging countries have also taken measures such as reducing tuition fees, relaxing study visa requirements, and providing scholarships for the same purpose. In terms of the flow of international students, by June 2018, the total number of international students had exceeded 5 million,2 mainly flowing to the United States, Britain, Australia, Germany, France, Japan, Canada, New Zealand and other major international education powers. Among them, the number of international students studying in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom accounted for nearly half (45%) of the total number, and China only accounted for 6%.3 According to data from the Ministry of Education, the total number of international students studying in China in 2018 was 662,100.4 A total of 363,300 Chinese students studied in the United States from 2017 to 2018.5 During the same period, only 21,000

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Baosheng, Chen. “Education: The Pioneer, Beneficiary, and Driver of Reform and Opening-Up”. Guangming Daily, 12 December 2018. 2 Data from the report of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 3 Wanhua, Ma. “Flow of International Student: A Game Behind Academics.” 2018 Annual Meeting, Chinese Society of Educational Development Strategy, 10 November, 2018, Jinan University, Guangzhou, IN. Keynote Address. 4 People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Education. Statistics on Chinese Overseas Students, 2019. 5 United States, Institute of International Education, New Open Doors Data, 2018.

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US students were studying in China.6 We can also see the gap from another group of data from ny.uschinapress.com in May 2017: the number of Chinese students at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign in the midwestern United States reached 5,629 with a four-fold increase from 2008 to 2017. China remains the world’s largest source of international students, with a growing number of Chinese students studying abroad. However, the comparison between the number of inbound and outbound international students in China tells us that we till need to further expand the scale of China’s international education, as pointed out by President Xi Jinping at the celebration of the 40th anniversary of reform and openingup: “reform and opening-up has gone through a long and arduous journey, but there is still a hard way to go before we reach the destination. The glorious mission and great course that the Party and the people of all ethnic groups committed to now require us to handle more arduous tasks and more severe challenges. In the world of competition, we can never be complacent, self-sufficient, hesitated and confused. Instead, we should shoulder the responsibility and strive to achieve the great struggle, great project, great cause and great dream”. Therefore, we need to review the historical development of China’s international education and summarize the experience learned since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. We look forward to working with the whole educational sector to further promote the opening-up of education and build China into an ideal destination for studying abroad. A wider-ranging, comprehensive, cooperative, and influential layout will empower China to be an important player in the global market of international education.

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People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Education. Statistics on International Students in China, 2019.

Chapter 2

Construction of Development of China’s International Education

2.1 Definition of International Education International education is a broad concept with rich connotations. According to the chronological order of the publications, educational researchers in China made the following definitions based on different research perspectives and dimensions. In the Education Dictionary, Gu Mingyuan defined the connotation of international education in three aspects. In the first aspect, international education is regarded as a branch of educational studies investigating transnational and intercultural education issues and how education, society, economy and politics impact international relations. It is a key research subject in the field of international and comparative educational studies. As an academic pursuit, it is an interdisciplinary research subject of international and cross-cultural issues. The second aspect is to regard international education as a kind of educational content, enabling educators to be equipped with the language, ability, value and attitude necessary to understand international issues. Alternatively, it not only refers to the goals and contents of certain educational pursuits but also refers to the institutionalization of these activities. The former mainly involves the roles of education in aspects of cultivating competence, such as foreign languages, knowledge about other cultures or views that are conducive to international understanding. The latter refers to certain institutions, programs and internal or external curriculum of formal education systems. The third aspect regards international education as an educational program, aiming to promote the exchange of teachers, students and resources between countries. Xu Hui’s book New Progress in Comparative Education: A Preliminary Study of International Education defined international education as a branch of comparative educational studies and a modern comparative educational theory. He defined international education as a modern comparative educational theory based on the broad background of world educational reform and development, aiming to international understanding and peace, taking the transnational movement of educational resources, information and population as the mainstream, relying on international © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_1

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schools and global international cooperation and exchange institutions, with the theme of globalization or educational issues that draw public attention. In American International Education: History, Theory and Policy, Li Aiping pointed out that international education is an education system, a research field and an educational policy, including at least three dimensions: curriculum content, communications and exchanges between scholars and students in training and research, and a technology-supported educational system and cross-border cooperative education programs. Zhang Hezhen and Chen Shijian’s article “The History, Multi-Identity and New Development of American International Education” pointed out that American International Education has multiple identities. It is not only an independent research field but also a national education policy. As an emerging field of research, the scope of international educational research in the United States involves basic theory of international education, international education and educational reform, international education and the common development of human society, international curriculum and teaching methods, international educational institutions and policy on international educational communication and cooperation, etc. Zhou Nanzhao emphasized that we must dialectically understand the dynamic meaning of educational internationalization from the perspective of the interaction between globalization and localization. In his article “A Comparison of Several National Policies for Education Internationalization and Reflections on the World Situation”, Zhou Nanzhao deeply explores the essence of education internationalization from multiple perspectives and fields. Theoretically, the essence of education internationalization is “a process of integrating the international, cross-cultural or global dimension into the purpose, function and implementation of education”. While studying abroad, Chinese-foreign cooperative education and international joint degree programs are just the pathways or forms of education internationalization. From a policy perspective, education internationalization refers to “the policy response of a country, an educational system and a university to globalization, that is, responding to inequalities in human knowledge systems with student transferring, knowledge creation, and talent training.” From a practical point of view, education internationalization refers to effective integration of elements of other countries or cultures in curriculum content, teacher development, school-based management, educational technology, and development of core competencies and values for student, cultivating talents with broad international perspectives. According to the definition of education, education internationalization in the field of basic education refers to the training objectives defined by the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) and three major elements that achieve the objectives: the structure and content of the curriculum, teacher professional quality, and student achievement assessment. The internationalization of education in and after secondary senior high school involves obtaining internationally recognized formal diplomas, qualifications, and degrees through international mobility and acquiring informal learning experiences such as knowledge and skills that flow in the international labor market through web-based learning. The definition of internationalization of vocational and technical education refers to the international standardization, mutual recognition

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and mobility of vocational and technical skills stipulated by professional curriculum and teaching standards. Finally, he also mentioned UNESCO’s definition of international education. In the UNESCO policy text, international education should be accepted by everyone at all levels of formal education and informal education. It plays a role in the curriculum and teaching of all disciplines. It refers to international exchange and cooperation in education, aiming to enhance mutual understanding and solidarity among people from all over the world. In the article “Research on China-US International Education Policy”, Ma Yifei interpreted international education as an educational activity that aims to develop the international understanding of educatees. It relies on international schools and international exchange institutions. The main content involves the transnational mobility of educational resources, information and people. Wang Xi and Chen Xiaoxiao stated that international education is a concept with broad boundaries and vague definitions. In the article “The Trap of Globalization in International Education”, they defined international education in both narrow and broad aspects. In the narrow sense, international education is the education provided by international schools (including schools that provide transplanted national education for expatriate children and schools that offer international courses for expatriate children or foreign children). From a broad perspective, international education is an education with transnational understanding and international peace as its core values, regardless of whether the student is a citizen or not, and the school is public or private. From the above analysis of the connotation of international education, we can see that the concept of international education can be interpreted from multiple perspectives and types. It can be classified into three main perspectives and six main types. The three main perspectives are theory-oriented international education, policy-oriented international education, and practical-oriented international education. The six main types involve three theory-oriented “theories”. “Subject theory”, in which international education is regarded as a branch of comparative education. “Field theory”, in which international education is regarded as a field of educational research. “Type theory”, in which international education is understood as a type of education. The six main types also involve three policy-oriented “theories”. “Policy theory”, in which international education is regarded as an education policy. “Activity theory”, in which international education is regarded as an activity of international cooperation and exchange. “Institutional theory”, in which international education is regarded as an educational system under educational policy guidance. In this book, international education is mainly related to policy-oriented international education and practical-oriented international education. That is, international education is an educational policy and the international educational system and international educational communication and cooperation activities under the guidance of such policies.

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2.2 The Beginning of China’s International Education China’s international education began with studying abroad in the early days of the Founding of the People’s Republic of China. At that time, to speed up the development of a socialist country and fight against the capitalist Western Bloc, the central government clearly proposed sending students and scholars to students to the former Soviet Union and other socialist countries in a planned way. Simultaneously, students from some socialist countries (mainly North Korea and Vietnam) should be accepted to study in China in a planned way. Since the 1960s, with the change in the international situation (especially the breakdown of China-Soviet relations), the central government has adjusted the study abroad policy in time and adhered to the studying abroad policy of “less but continuous” for the Soviet Union and Eastern European socialist countries. The central government conducted priority dispatch. It actively opened up channels for studying in Western developed countries while sending students to Asian, African, and Latin American developing countries through cultural exchange programs. From 1950 to the beginning of 1966, there were 10,698 students studying abroad, including 1,116 visiting students, 6,834 university students, 2,526 postgraduates, 28 interns, and 197 translators. During the ten years of the “Cultural Revolution” (1966–1976), taking studying abroad education as the main body, international education was almost interrupted and stagnated. After smashing the “Gang of Four”, with the gradual deepening of the reform and opening-up policy, international education with studying abroad education as the main body gradually recovered.

2.3 The Development of China’s International Education Since Reform and Opening-Up In 1978, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China saw the beginning of China’s historic journey of reform and openingup. In the same year, Deng Xiaoping, the Vice Chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, made the important decision of expanding the scales of sending students and scholars abroad. This not only started the large-scale dispatch of students abroad but also made historic progress in China’s education opening-up. International education has thus become an important part of the country’s reform and opening-up. gradually formed the all-round, multilevel and wide-ranging situation of international education. On December 9, 2015, when deliberating and passing Opinions on the Work of the Opening-up of Education in the New Era, CPC General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that “opening-up of education is an integral part of China’s overall reform and opening-up, serving the overall situation of the party and state, considering both domestic and international situations, and improving the quality and level of openingup of education.” According to some important time nodes, this book divided three

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stages of the development of China’s international education since the reform and opening-up.

2.3.1 Exploration Period: 1978–2000 “When we arrived at the New York airport, dozens of journalists surrounded us and asked for an interview. Under the flashing light, we announced a short statement, ‘we are not only coming to learn American advanced science and technology, but also to promote the friendship between the Chinese and American peoples.’” As one of the first batch of 52 government-funded students to study in the United States on December 26,1978, Liu Baicheng, the current Tsinghua University professor and academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, is still fresh in the memory. On June 23, 1978, on the eve of the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Deng Xiaoping, the Vice Chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, made the important decision of expanding the scales of sending students and scholars abroad. He pointed out, “I agree with the increase in the number of sending students to study abroad, especially in the subject of nature science. We should send thousands of students to study abroad, not just a few. We have to step the pace as possible and make roads wider. The Ministry of Education must have a team that specializes in students studying abroad.” This important instruction focuses on the overall situation of the party and state. It not only opened a new chapter for Chinese studying abroad industry but also started China’s international education. Less than 20 days after Deng Xiaoping gave the famous speech “The Important Speech about Expanding the Scales of Sending Students and Scholars Abroad”, the Ministry of Education submitted the Report on Increasing the Number of Students Studying Abroad and determined the plan of sending 3,000 students. Soon, a delegation was sent by the Chinese government to the US to discuss matters related to Chinese students studying in the United States in the following years. Finally, the two sides reached a number of oral understandings. “In the academic years 1978–1979, the US accepted 500–700 Chinese students, including graduate students and visiting scholars. China accepts 60 US students and visiting scholars”; “The cost of study is paid by the sending side, but both sides can make full use of the scholarships that may be offered”; “Students shall abide by the laws and regulations of the receiving country and respect their customs”; “In order to determine the number of exchanged students and scholars and discuss the progress of the plan each year, the two sides would meet when necessary, and important issues can also be negotiated between the governments of two countries”; “The direct contract between universities, research institutions and scholars of the two countries is encouraged”, etc. Under Deng Xiaoping’s vigorous advocacy, the door of Chinese students studying abroad has finally opened. By sending students to study abroad, Chinese education officially opened up a new journey after years of isolation from the world. After reaching an agreement with

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the United States, the former Ministry of Education and State Education Commission reached exchange student agreement with the United Kingdom (1979), Egypt (1979), Canada (1979), the Netherlands (1979), Italy (1980), Japan (1981), Germany (1981), France (1981), Belgium (1981), Australia (1986) and other countries. In 1979, the Ministry of Education established Pre-Departure Training Departments in 11 universities across the country, providing foreign language training and ideological education training in advance for government-funded students. At this point, the great surge of studying abroad has appeared in China. On December 18, 1978, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China completely denied the “two whatevers”. It reestablished the ideological line of emancipating the mind, seeking truth facts, and made the historic decision on shifting the work focus of the Party and the State to the economic modernization program and carrying out the reform and opening-up. This session realized the great transitions with far-reaching significance in China’s history, opening the new historical period of the reform and opening-up. It has laid a solid foundation for the opening-up of China’s education and has brought a new spring for China’s education. On the eve of the National Day of 1983, Deng Xiaoping wrote the inscription for Beijing Jingshan School: “Education should be geared toward modernization, toward the world and toward the future”. As a great politician with a broad vision and big-picture and strategic views, Deng Xiaoping pointed out the direction for the reform and development of China’s education after the mid-1980s, which had a great impact on the reform and development of China’s education after the mid1980s. From the perspective of the social situation and policy context faced by China’s social development at that time, “toward the world” not only refers to the consciousness of opening-up in education, focuses on international exchanges and cooperation in the field of education, and strives to learn the excellent experiencing of the reform and development of education from other countries. It also involves the global vision needed for the work of education, allowing us to examine the reform and development of education from the perspectives of the major patterns and major trends of international social politics, economy, science and technology, and cultural change. Before the reform and opening-up, limited by some internal and external factors, our educational practice was quite closed and antiforeign. Not only was the ancient education culture and heritage abandoned, but the experience of educational reform of other countries, especially some developed countries, was also ignored. We were in a self-isolated state. This is very harmful to the development of education. From this perspective, Deng Xiaoping’s “toward the world” was intended to correct the closed, narrow and egocentric state of previous educational work. It was to call on educators to free their mind and to provide a new vision for educational planning at the national level. The “three towards” reflects the objective requirements of building socialism with Chinese characteristics building socialism with Chinese characteristics for education and has become the fundamental guiding principle for China’s education reform and development at that time. In May 1985, the National Education Working Conference was held in Beijing. Deng Xiaoping gave the famous speech “Take Educational Work Seriously”. Deng

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Xiaoping pointed out: “Our country, the strength of national power, and the strength of economic development, are more and more dependent on the quality of workers, depending on the quantity and quality of intellectuals. As a big country with a population of one billion, if we can offer good education, we will have the great advantage of talent resources that no country can match.” This is a conference with historical significance and far-reaching influence in the history of China’s education. Before the conference was held, the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Educational System was promulgated. This is another significant leading document promulgated by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. The document stated, “We must systematically carry out the reform from the educational system”. The state officially launched educational reform. The Decision is an important milestone in the history of China’s education development. It summarized the positive and negative experiences of China’s education development, pointed out the correct direction for the reform of China’s educational system, and proposed the purpose of “education must serve the building of socialism, the building of socialism must rely on the fundamental guiding principle of education and the new historical period of education”. It integrated educational reform into the overall design of the reform and opening-up and modernization. In May 1986, the State Council issued the Notice on Several Issues Concerning the Strengthening and Improvement of Work about Students Studying Abroad, which stated that “sending students and scholars to study abroad through various ways is in full compliance with the long-term policy of China’s opening-up. In the future, we must unswervingly adhere to this policy.” In December of the same year, the State Council approved and forwarded the Provisions on the Work Concerning Students Studying Abroad from the State Education Commission. This regulation involves a series of hot and difficult issues concerning student studying abroad at that time, including the guiding principles of the work about student studying abroad, organization and management of student studying abroad, selection of students, enrollment of post-doctoral research or internships, government-funded students returning China for vocation and their spouses travelling abroad for visiting, and self-funded overseas students. In 1987, the Report to the 13th National Congress of the Communist Party of China pointed out that “we must adhere to opening-up. Contemporary international economic relations are becoming increasingly closer. No country can afford to pursue development with its door closed. The path of socialist construction in a backward country requires the development of international communication and cooperation in economics and technology, trying to absorb the achievements of world civilization and gradually narrowing the gap with developed countries. Closing only leads to increasing backwardness.” “In addition to giving full play to the role of scientific and technical talents, we must actively conduct international talent exchange.” In 1993, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China promulgated the Guideline for Educational Reform and Development of China. The Guideline stated that “Under the new situation, the task of education is to fully implement the spirit of the 14th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, to take

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the theory of building socialism with Chinese characteristics as guide, to adhere to the Party’s basic line, to comprehensively implement the education policy, to gear toward modernization, the world and the future, to speed up educational reform and development, to further improve the quality of laborers, to cultivate a large number of talents, to establish an educational system that meets the needs of the socialist market economic system and the reform of the political and scientific systems, and to better serve the socialist modernization. In 1994, the State Council’s Opinions on Implementing Outlines of the Reform and Development of China’s Education proposed that the China Scholarship Council should be established to explore the new mechanisms of enrollment, selection and management of students studying abroad and studying in China, ensuring it on the track of legalization. In 1995, the State Education Commission conducted a new selection mechanism for piloting the reform and selecting students to study abroad. That is, the new selection principle “individual application, expert review, equal competition, meritbased admission, dispatch with contract, compensation for breach of contract” was adopted instead of the previous method that distributed quotas based on the plan. In 1996, the China Scholarship Council was formally established. The State Education Commission decided to comprehensively pilot the selection method of government-funded students to study abroad, that is, “individual application, expert review, equal competition, merit-based admission, dispatch with contract, compensation for breach of contract”. The establishment of the China Scholarship Council is a significant sign of legalization in government-funded studying abroad affairs and an important step for opening-up. The establishment of the China Scholarship Council changed the administrative command mode, replaced the administrative management approach with economic and legal means, established an open competition mechanism, rationalized the relationship between various parties, implemented the management method of “dispatch with contract, compensation for breach of contract”, changed the functions of the government and improved the effectiveness of the opening-up of national education. Government-funded studying abroad affairs has embarked on the track of legalization. In the same year, the State Education Commission issued the “Chunhui Program” Measures for the Implementation of the Special Funds for Short-term Return of Scholars and Researchers Oversea, strongly supporting outstanding overseas students to come back to carry out work. In the following years, under the implementation of the “Chunhui Program”, the patriotic enthusiasm of the majority of young people was stimulated, and hundreds of outstanding overseas students returned to China. In 1999, the Ministry of Education issued the Education Promotion Plan of Action for the 21st Century (hereinafter referred to as the Action Plan), which was approved and forwarded by the State Council. The Action Plan proposed the implementation of the “High-level Innovative Talents Project”, emphasizing “strengthening international academic exchanges. In addition to continuing to send short-term visiting scholars according to the existing studying abroad funding system, financing the heads of the university department and fellows from the research institutes and laboratories as senior visiting scholars to visit overseas top universities. Inviting

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well-known foreign scholars, especially professors from world-class universities, to visit China for short-term lectures and research stays as visiting professors. Various measures must be taken to encourage overseas students to return to China or to contribute to improving the teaching quality and scientific level of higher education institutions in China in various ways. Various measures should be taken to encourage overseas students to return to China or to contribute to improving the teaching quality and scientific level of higher education institutions in China in different ways. In the same year, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council jointly promulgated the Decision on the Deepening of Educational Reform and the Full Promotion of Quality Education (hereinafter referred to as the Decision), exercising the spirit of “three towards” throughout the Decision, and closely integrating the spirit of “three towards” with full promotion of quality education. The Decision pointed out, “To fully promote quality education, education should be geared toward modernization, toward the world and toward the future, enabling educatees to adhere to the unity of learning science culture and strengthening ideological cultivation, the unity of learning knowledge from books and social practice, the unity of realizing one’s value and serving the country, the unity of setting up the lofty idea and working hard.” In 2000, the National Conference on Work Relating Education Foreign Affairs was held, which affirmed the work relating education foreign affairs after the reform and opening-up and decided the direction for the future development of the work relating education foreign affairs. The conference stated that China’s education foreign affairs have achieved the following remarkable achievements. First, the educational exchanges between bilateral and international organizations have become increasingly active. Second, studying abroad has developed rapidly in the process of continuous reform. Third, the work of returning to China has been continuously improved and has achieved excellent results. Fourth, the number of foreign students studying in China has largely increased in recent years. Fifth, solid progress has been made in teaching Chinese as Foreign Language, and it has been soundly developed. Sixth, the work relating the employment of foreign cultural and educational experts has made progress. Seventh, international cooperation in educational technology has been significantly strengthened. Overall, at this stage, China’s educational system had just resumed, and China’s international education was still in the exploration stage. During this period, by sending students to study abroad, China opened its door to opening-up. At that time, the Western countries headed by the United States were also willing to strengthen educational cooperation and exchanges with China. Bilateral exchange and cooperation in education between China and Western countries has been gradually carried out.

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2.3.2 Formation Period: 2001–2012 After China’s accession to the WTO in December 2001, the Chinese government successively formulated a series of documents related to international education, strongly promoted the construction of multilateral exchanges and cooperation in education, and conducted Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs in senior high schools and kindergartens. International classes have been conducted in a number of senior high schools; introduced textbooks, courses, teachers and management models from overseas; absorbed high-quality educational resources from overseas; and constantly improved the mechanism for opening- up education. China’s accession to the WTO is a historic event on China’s road to modernization, which has brought unprecedented opportunities and challenges to the development and progress of China’s education. At the same time, joining the WTO is an important sign that China speed up the reform and further opening-up. This not only helps China to have more opportunities in the reform and openingup but also injects new impetuses into the development and prosperity of education all around the world. After China’s accession to the WTO, the scale of China’s education opening-up has been widened and deepened. Facing the new situation, the Chinese government has firmly upheld China’s sovereignty in education and always emphasized equality and mutual benefit in the opening-up of education. This not only helps China to have more opportunities in the reform and opening-up but also injects new impetuses into the development and prosperity of education all around the world. In 2003, to promote educational exchanges and cooperation, to regulate Chineseforeign cooperative educational activities after joining the WTO and to promote the development of education, the State Council issued the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education. In 2004, the Ministry of Education promulgated Implementation Measures for the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education. Chinese-foreign cooperative education has gradually embarked on a standardized track. In 2004, the State Council approved and forwarded the 2003–2007 Action Plan for Invigorating Education (hereinafter referred to as the Plan) from the Ministry of Education. Article 11 of the Plan proposed three main methods for “further expanding the opening-up of education: Strengthening international cooperation and exchange in all fields of education and at a higher level; deepening the reform of the studying abroad system, expanding the exchange of international students and scholars at a high level; and strengthening the promotion of teaching Chinese as a foreign language and actively exploring the international education service market. In the same year, the world’s first Confucius Institute was officially opened in Seoul, South Korea. The phenomenon of “Chinese fever” has gradually emerged around the world. The Chinese government actively promotes the Chinese language and spreads Chinese culture through Confucius Institutes. The opening-up of education has formed a macroscopic and microscopic mutual penetration matrix.

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In 2006, the first Chinese-foreign cooperative world-class university, University of Nottingham Ningbo China, was officially established with the full approval of the Chinese Ministry of Education. Chinese-foreign cooperative education plays a huge advantage in basing itself on domestic education, maximizing the use of foreign high-quality educational resources, and improving the development and international competitiveness of China’s education and international competitiveness. In June 2010, the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee deliberated and adopted the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020). The Outline proposed that “Education development should always be put in a prioritized position on Party and state agenda. In line with the requirements to reach out to modernization, the world and the future, and to meet the demands for building a moderately prosperous society in all respects and an innovative country, it is imperative to regard cultivation of people as a fundamental mission, draw strength from reform and innovation, improve education equity, carry out quality oriented education in an all-round way, push forward scientific education development from a new historical starting point, and speed up the transition from the world’s largest education system to one of the world’s best, and from a country with larger scale of human resource to a country rich in human resources. Only thus can we make still greater contributions to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and the advancement of world civilization.” In July of the same year, at the National Education Working Conference, the former President Hu Jintao emphasized that “Under the new situation of deepening economic globalization, and the increasingly deepening participation of China in international economic cooperation and competition, we must strengthen education international exchanges and cooperation, improve the level of educational exchanges and cooperation, and make full use of domestic and international educational resources. To learn from foreign advanced educational concepts and experiences, to introduce highquality educational resources and to enhance the international status, influence and competitiveness of China’s education. To actively attract more world-class experts and scholars to work in teaching, research and management in China. To plan to introduce high-level talent and academic teams from overseas, high-level Chinese higher education institutions should be promoted to run overseas campuses. We must adhere to the principle of ‘giving support to people studying abroad, encouraging them to come back to China, and freedom to come and go’, to innovate and improve the mechanism for studying abroad, to improve the service and management of overseas students, and to attract overseas outstanding students to return to China.” During this period, China conveyed a friendly image to the world. International education has made new progress in studying abroad, studying in China, promoting the Chinese language, and Chinese-foreign cooperative education. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation platforms for education have been effectively expanded, and the concept of harmonious society has spread around the world by presenting traditional Chinese history, culture and art. While realizing the cultivation of international talent, China’s national soft power has been demonstrated. China’s international education has gradually taken shape during this period.

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2.3.3 Development Period: 2013 to the Present Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the leadership of the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping as the core has attached great importance to the development of international education and strives to pursue a new level of openness in the opening-up of education. In September 2013, President Xi Jinping delivered an important speech at the First Anniversary of the UN SecretaryGeneral’s Global Education First Initiative, stating that “China will firmly implement the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education. It will always give priority to education and constantly expand investment. China will strengthen educational exchanges with other countries in the world, expand the opening-up of education, actively support the development of educational undertakings in developing countries, and work with the people of all countries to push mankind towards a better tomorrow.” President Xi Jinping’s speech shows that China’s policy of opening-up will continue to be developed, and the various policies for opening-up of education will continue to be improved. In September and October 2013, during his visit to Central Asia and Southeast Asian countries, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed the initiative of jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road (hereinafter referred to as the Belt and Road), which received high attention and positive reflection from the international community and other countries. In November 2013, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China reviewed and approved the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform, giving clear instructions on the guiding ideology, objectives, tasks, and major principles for comprehensively deepening the reform. New ideas, new decisions and new initiatives have been proposed to deepen the reform and opening-up. The “five-in-one” comprehensive reform overall layout that covers social, political, economic, cultural and ecological civilization construction was proposed. In October 2015, the 5th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China was held. It proposed five development concepts: innovation, coordination, green, openness, and sharing. A new blueprint for development in the next five years was depicted. The spirit of the 5th Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China has become a guide to the modernization of education and the opening-up of education in China. In April 2016, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on Doing a Good Job in the Openingup of Education in the New Era. This is the first guiding document for the opening-up of education since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, making a strategic plan for the development of China’s international education in the next five years. The Opinions adhere to the principle of “focusing on the central task, serving the overall interests, taking the initiative, being inclusive and open, enhancing the level, developing in intension, and promoting equal cooperation and security assurance”.

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Significant arrangements have been made for studying abroad, Chinese-foreign schools, first-class universities and first-class discipline construction, people-topeople exchange, bilateral and multilateral education cooperation, and Belt and Road education activities. It proposed that “by 2020, China’s study abroad service system is basically sound; the quality of Study-in-China improves significantly; the efficiency of cross-border education improves significantly; the breadth and depth of bilateral and multilateral cooperation in education develops effectively; the capacity of participation in developing international rules in the field of education increases greatly; the level of standardization and legalization of the education opening-up improves significantly; people’s needs for diverse, high-quality education are better met; and the overall economic and social development are better served.” In July of the same year, the Ministry of Education issued the Education Activities for Promoting Jointly Building the Belt and Road, which clearly stated that “China will consistently stick to its open policy in education and deeply integrate with the global trends in educational reform and development.” It provides countries along the Belt and Road an action framework for promoting strengthening people-to-people, providing support for talents, and achieving common development. In January 2017, the 13th Five-Year Plan for Education was released. The Plan emphasized the promotion of education informationization and the promotion of the development of the new industry “Internet + Education”. To promote the opening-up of education, strengthen exchanges and cooperation in education, improve Chinese and foreign humanities education mechanisms, and actively participate in global education governance. In November of the same year, in order to implement the strategic plan of the Party Central Committee and the State Council on strengthening and improving people-to-people exchanges between China and foreign countries, and further improve the work on people-to-people exchanges between China and foreign countries, in accordance with the Official Replay of the State Commission Office for Public Sector Reform on the Adjusting and Establishing of the China Center for International People-to-People Exchange, Ministry of Education (No.158 [2016] of the State Commission Office for Public Sector Reform), the Party organization of the Ministry of Education decided, the Ministry of Education officially established the China Center for International People-to-People Exchange. The connotation of international education in China is enriched by the vigorous development of humanities communication. In February 2019, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council officially issued the China Education Modernization 2035, in which “creating a new pattern of the opening-up of education” is clearly positioned as one of the ten strategies for promoting education modernization. During this period, under the strong leadership of the CPC Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping as the core, the opening-up of education was expanded. China’s international education has formed a development system covering studying abroad, studying in China, Chinese-foreign cooperative education, overseas education, people-topeople exchanges between China and foreign countries, bilateral and multilateral international exchanges and cooperation in education, the Belt and Road education initiative, and macro management of international education. By 2018, China

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signed agreements on the mutual recognition of academic degrees with 46 countries and regions, including 24 countries along the Belt and Road. The Belt and Road education initiative has been steadily promoted. Substantial progress has been made in Chinese-foreign cooperative education, with 2,385 institutions and projects. The bilateral and multilateral people-to-people exchange mechanism has been continuously improved. China has successively established 9 high-level peopleto-people exchange mechanisms with foreign countries, including China-Russia, China-United Sates, China–Europe, China-United Kingdom, China-France, ChinaIndonesia, China-Germany, and China-India. The capabilities of education that serve national diplomatic strategies have constantly increased.

2.4 National Legislation and Important Documents of China’s International Education 2.4.1 Education Law of the People’s Republic of China and Related Laws The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the Education Law) is the most important law in China’s educational legal system and the fundamental law of China’s education. It is related to the overall situation of China’s educational reform and development and China’s construction of socialist modernization. It provides basic legal protection for the priority development of education, the promotion of educational reform and development, and the establishment of a socialist modern educational system with Chinese characteristics, legitimate rights and interests. The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted on March 18, 1995. It was first amended in accordance with the Decision on Amending Some Laws adopted at the 10th session of the 11th Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on August 27, 2009. It was amended for the second time in accordance with the Decision on Amending the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China adopted at the 18th session of the 12th Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on December 27, 2015. To regulate the development of China’s international education and ensure the smooth progress of the opening-up of China’s education, the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China specifically uses a chapter to clearly define the issues related to educational exchange and cooperation. On the basis of encouraging foreign exchange and cooperation in education, the basic principles of foreign exchange and cooperation in China’s education were clearly defined; that is, in Chapter 8 Article 67 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, “In conducting foreign exchange and cooperation in education, the principles of independence, equality, mutual benefit and mutual respect shall be adhered to, the laws of the People’s

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Republic of China shall not be violated, and the State sovereignty and security and public interests shall not be harmed.” The principles of going abroad for study, research, academic exchange or teaching purposes were clearly defined, that is, in Chapter 8 Article 68 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, it stipulates that “to go abroad for study, research, academic exchange or teaching purposes by Chinese citizens within the territory of China shall be handled according to the relevant regulations of the State.” The principles of foreign citizens entering China to study, do research, engage in academic exchange or teach in schools or other institutions of education were clearly defined, that is, in Chapter 8 Article 69 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, it stipulates that “Individuals outside the territory of China, who meet the requirements of the State and complete the relevant formalities, may enter China to study, do research, engage in academic exchange or teach in schools or other of education. Their lawful rights and interests shall be protected by the State.” The principles of recognition of the academic degree certificates, educational qualification certificates and other types of education certificates issued by institutions of education outside the territory of China were clearly defined; that is, in Chapter 8 Article 69 of the Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, it stipulates that “Recognition of the academic degree certificates, educational qualification certificates and other types of education certificates issued by institutions of education outside the territory of China shall be governed by the international treaties to which China is a signatory party or has acceded, or by the relevant regulations of the State.” Other important laws also cover issues related to international education. The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Academic Degrees was enacted in 1980 and amended in 2004. The Regulations are formulated for the purpose of promoting the growth of specialized personnel, helping to raise the academic level of various branches of learning and promoting the development of education and science in our country. Article 15 stipulates that “Foreign students studying in China and foreign scholars engaged in research work in China may apply to a degree-conferring entity for academic degrees. Those who have attained the academic standards stipulated in these regulations shall be conferred appropriate degrees. The Teachers Law of the President of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 1993 and amended in 2009. This Law is formulated for the purpose of safeguarding teachers’ legitimate rights and interests. Article 42 stipulates that “the measures for the employment of foreign teachers shall be formulated by the administrative department of education under the State Council.” The Vocation Education Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 1993. This Law formulated for the purpose of regulating vocational education. Article 21 stipulates that “measures for the establishment of vocational schools and vocational training institutions within Chinese territory by an organization or individual from abroad shall be formulated by the State Council.” The Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 1998. This Law formulated for the purpose of regulating higher education Article 67 stipulates that “Individuals from outside the territory of China who meet the conditions prescribed by the State and who have completed the necessary formalities

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may enter higher education institutions in China to pursue their studies and research, to conduct academic exchange or to teach, and their lawful rights and interest shall be protected by the State.”

2.4.2 The Non-State Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China and Regulations on the Implementation The Non-state Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the Non-state Education Promotion Law) was adopted at the 31st Session of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National People’s Congress on December 28,2002, was amended for the first time in accordance with the Decision on Amending the Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China and Other Eleven Laws as adopted at the Third Session of the Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People’s Congress on June 29,2013, and was amended for the second time in accordance with the Decision on Amending the Non-state Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China as adopted at the 24th Session of the Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China on November 7, 2016. This Law formulated for the purpose of regulating non-state education. In terms of school-running subjects, funding sources, and enrollment targets, the Non-state Education Promotion Law clearly stipulates that “The present Law shall be applicable to the activities that any public organs or individuals, except for the state organs, run schools or other educational institutions to meet the demand of the society by utilizing non-state financial funds.” Simultaneously, this law clarifies the public welfare nature of non-state education: “Non-state education is a public undertaking. It’s a part of the socialist education undertakings.” The Non-state Education Promotion Law has played an active role in promoting the sound development of non-state education undertaking and protecting the legal rights and interests of private schools and the educated. The Regulations on the Implementation of the Non-state Education Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the Regulations on the Implementation of the Non-state Education Promotion Law) were adopted at the 41st executive meeting of the State Council on February 25, 2004, issued by the State Council on March 5, 2004, and take effect as of April 1, 2004. The Regulations on the Implementation of the Non-state Education Promotion Law stipulate the establishment, organization and activities of private schools, asset and financial management, support and rewards, and the legal responsibilities of private schools. Article 53 stipulates that “the support and incentive measures stipulated in these Regulations shall be applicable to Chinese-foreign cooperative education institutions. That is, detailed provisions were made on the appropriate conditions for Chinese-foreign cooperative education institutions to obtain reasonable returns

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in accordance with the law and enjoy the same tax and other preferential policies as public schools.”

2.4.3 The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education and Regulations on the Implementation The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education (hereinafter referred to as the Regulations on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education) was enacted in 1998, adopted at the 68th Executive Session of the State Council on February 19,2003, promulgated by Order No.372 of the State Council on March 1,2003, effective from September 1,2003 and amended in accordance with the Decision of the State Council on Repealing and Amending Some Administrative Regulations on July 8,2013. The enactment of the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education has regulated the activities of Chinese-foreign cooperative education, strengthened foreign exchange and cooperation in education, and promoted the development of education undertakings. In terms of the content, the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chineseforeign Cooperative Education clearly stipulate the nature, status and guidelines of Chinese-foreign cooperative education activities. Article 3 of the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education clearly stipulates that the nature of Chinese-foreign cooperative education is a “public undertaking”, the status of Chinese-foreign cooperative education is “a part of Chinese education undertakings”, the guidelines are “expand the opening-up, regulating the education activities, administering according to law and promoting the development to Chinese-foreign cooperative education.” On the other hand, the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education also regulates the connotation, establishment, organization and management, education and teaching, assets and finance, change and termination of Chinese-foreign cooperative educational institutions. In 2004, the Implementation Measures for the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education was issued by the Ministry of Education. It has played an important role in promoting the sound and wellregulated development of Chinese-foreign cooperative education. The revised Regulations on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education in 2013 canceled the examination and approval procedures for the head teacher or the chief administrative officer of a Chinese-foreign cooperative education institution and clearly distinguished between the procedures for the change of the residence of the education institution, the legal representative and the principal or the chief administrative officer. These changes have further expanded the personnel autonomy of Chinese-foreign cooperative higher education institutions.

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2.4.4 The Outlines of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-Term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) The Outlines of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) (hereinafter referred to as the Outlines for Education Reform and Development) is the first plan for medium- and long-term education reform and development and the first leading documents for guiding national education reform and development in the twenty-first century in China. On May 5, 2010, the executive meetings of the State Council reviewed and approved the Outlines of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020). On July 29, 2010, the full text of the Outlines of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) was officially promulgated. Chapter 16 of the Outlines for Education Reform and Development provides a more comprehensive regulation of related issues of international education. In terms of the principles of international educational exchanges and cooperation, Article 48 of the Outlines for Education Reform and Development stipulates that It is essential to reform and develop education by opening it to the outside world, carrying out education exchanges and collaboration at multiple levels and in a broad scope, and raising education’s internationalization level. Advanced concepts and experience in education in the world should be assimilated to boost education reform and development at home and to enhance the nation’s global position, influence and competitiveness in the field of education. To meet the requirement of opening-up the Chinese economy and society to the world, large numbers of talents shall be cultivated that are imbued with global vision, well versed in international rules, and capable of participating in international affairs and competition.

In terms of introducing quality education resources abroad, Article 49 of the Outlines for Education Reform and Development stipulates that It is necessary to seek the cooperation of renowned schools, education institutions, research institutes and companies outside this nation to establish education, teaching, training and research organizations or undertake such projects. Schools at all levels and of all varieties should be encouraged to engage in diverse forms of international exchanges and cooperation, and a good job should be done in running demonstrative joint schools or joint projects in cooperation with foreign partners. Multiple approaches to utilizing quality education resources from abroad should be searched for. Efforts should be made to attract more worldclass experts and scholars to teaching, research and managerial jobs in China and invite highlevel professionals and academic teams from overseas in a planned way. Quality textbooks were imported, and the percentage of foreign teachers in college faculty increased. More outstanding Chinese students shall be attracted to serve the nation after they have finished their studies in other countries and regions.

In terms of promoting international exchanges and cooperation, Article 50 of the Outlines for Education Reform and Development stipulates that China should facilitate the mutual recognition of academic credentials and degrees between its colleges and academic institutions from more countries and regions. More support shall be given to exchanges of students and teachers, mutual recognition of academic credits,

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and mutual or joint conferment of academic degrees between Chinese and foreign colleges. Collaboration between Chinese colleges and their counterparts abroad shall be stepped up, platforms for collaborative teaching and research projects set up, and collaborative highlevel research in basic or high technology promoted. Exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and foreign primary and middle schools and vocational schools should be boosted. Education aimed at enhancing international understanding shall be stepped up to promote the level of cross-cultural communication and to help students better understand different countries and cultures.

In terms of studying abroad and studying in China, the Outlines for Education Reform and Development stipulate that The mechanism by which government-funded students are sent to study abroad shall be renovated and improved, and outstanding Chinese students heading for studies in elite universities and research institutes overseas should be selected through fair and open competition. Policy guidance should be intensified for students studying abroad on their own expenses, while financial aid and rewards for those who excel should be increased. The policy of ‘supporting students to study abroad, encouraging them to return upon finishing their studies, and they are free to return or leave’ shall be upheld, and the services catering for those studying abroad shall be improved. More international students should be admitted for studies in this country. Chinese government scholarships shall be increased, with financial assistance offered mainly to students from other developing countries, and the composition of students coming to this country for studies shall be optimized. Foundation courses shall be given to international students before they start college education in China; more disciplines shall be taught in foreign languages in Chinese colleges; and education quality for those studying in China shall be improved.

In terms of bilateral and multilateral international exchanges and cooperation in education, the Outlines for Education Reform and Development stipulates that Cooperation with UNESCO and other international organizations shall be intensified. This nation will take a more active part in bilateral, multilateral, regional and global collaboration in education. China should also actively participate and promote the study and formulation of education policies, rules, regulations and standards of international organizations. Platforms shall be established for high-level international exchanges, cooperation, and policy dialogs on education; and global exchanges and cooperation shall be stepped up in education research and innovation.

2.4.5 The 13th Five-Year Plan for Education The period covered by the 13th Five-Year Plan will be decisive for finishing building a moderately prosperous society in all respects. To make faster progress in modernizing education, in accordance with the 13th Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China and the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020), in January 2017, the State Council released the 13th Five-Year Plan for Education (hereinafter referred to as the Plan). The Plan confirms the guiding ideology, major objectives, strategic tasks and safeguard measures of educational reform and development during the period covered by the 13th Five-Year Plan. It is an action plan and

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guiding document in China’s educational reform and development during the period covered by the 13th Five-Year Plan. Article 6 of the Plan mentions that “the promotion of the opening-up of education”, and it proposes to optimize the layout of the opening-up of education through “implementing the education action on jointly building the Belt and Road”, “promoting international cooperation and exchange based on classification”, and “creating characteristics of the opening-up of regional education characteristics”. It proposes to improve the level of opening-up of education through “improving quality of studying aboard”, “deepening exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and foreign schools” and “improving the quality of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools”. It proposes to achieve active participation in global governance through “deepening multilateral education cooperation”, “deepening participation in the formulation of international education rules”, and “conducting international education assistance”. It proposes to promote the development of international exchanges and cooperation through “improving people-to-people exchanges mechanism” and “running Confucius Institutes”.

2.4.6 The Opinions on Deepening the Reform of the Institutional Mechanism for Education In September 2017, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on Deepening the Reform of the Institutional Mechanism for Education (hereinafter referred to as the Opinions). The Opinions clarifies the guiding ideology, basic principles, and major objectives. The Opinions pointed out that the current development of China’s education reform has entered a new stage. To deepen the reform of the education system and mechanism, we must fully implement the Party’s education policy, adhere to education to serve the people, serve the Chinese Communist Party’s governance of the country, serve the consolidation and development of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, and serve the reform, opening-up, and socialist modernization. Comprehensive reform of education, comprehensive implementation of quality education, comprehensive implementation of the fundamental tasks of Lide Shuren, systematically promote the reform of education methods, school-running mode, management system, and guarantee mechanism, so that all levels of education are more in line with the law of education and more in line with the law of talent growth. It can promote the all-round development of people, focus on cultivating the socialist builders and successors of the all-round development of morality, intelligence, beauty and beauty, and lay a solid foundation for realizing the “two hundred years” struggle goal and realizing the Chinese dream of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The Opinions proposes that one of the basic principles for deepening the reform of the educational system and mechanism is “to adhere to the roots of China and the integration of China and foreign countries”, emphasizing the inheritance of China’s

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excellent educational traditions, based on China’s national conditions, and adhering to the laws of education, and strive to absorb the world’s advanced experience of running a school and study will unswervingly follow the path of socialist education with Chinese characteristics.

2.4.7 The Opinions on the Work of the Opening-Up of Education in the New Era On April 2016, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on the Work of the Opening-up of Education in the New Era (hereinafter referred to as the Opinions), and the Opinions take effect as of April 1,2004. The Opinions further improve the level of standardization and legalization of the education opening-up, better meet people’s needs for diverse, high-quality education, and better serve the overall economic and social development. The Opinions clarifies the basic principles of the work of the opening-up of education in the new era, which are “focusing on the central task, serving the overall interests, taking the initiative, being inclusive and open, enhancing the level, developing in intension, and promoting equal cooperation and security assurance”. The working objectives set by the Opinions are that by 2020, “China’s study abroad service system is basically sound; the quality of Study-in-China improves significantly; the efficiency of cross-border education improves significantly; the breadth and depth of bilateral and multilateral cooperation in education develops effectively; the capacity of participation in developing international rules in the field of education increases greatly; the level of standardization and legalization of the education opening-up improves significantly; people’s needs for diverse, high-quality education are better met; and the overall economic and social development are better served.” The Opinions made a strategic plan for the work of the opening-up of education in the new era. In terms of studying in China, it mentioned that Through improving the working mechanism of ‘selection, dispatch, administration, return and service’, to regulate overseas study markets, to enhance the full chain of the overseas Chinese student administration system and to optimize the services of study abroad. To build the ‘Study in China’ brand through improving the arrangements of source countries and majors of students studying in China, strengthening the construction of majors and courses, building a social and professional service system of study-in China. Through increased efforts to implement the action plan of studying abroad, to accelerate the cultivation of five categories of talented personnel including top-notch creative talents, people specialized in less-commonly used languages, personnel of international organizations, national and regional research talents, and outstanding foreign talents coming to China.

In terms of cross-border education (Chinese-foreign cooperation education and overseas education), it proposed that

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2 Construction of Development of China’s International Education By improving the access system, reforming approval systems, carrying out evaluation and accreditation, strengthening exit mechanisms, strengthening information disclosure, establishing mechanisms for sharing successful experiences, focusing on speciality construction for disciplines of natural science and engineering that are urgently needed, introducing foreign high-quality resources, to enhance the overall quality of joint program/institute. By encouraging Chinese higher education institutions and vocational colleges to work with Chinese enterprises to go abroad and to encourage social forces to participate in establishing programs and campuses in foreign countries to steadily push forward the establishment of Chinese-foreign cooperation in education in foreign countries.

In terms of Chinese-foreign people-to-people exchange, it proposed that Through integrating and building high-level intergovernmental educational consultations, practical cooperation among educational professionals, platforms of students and teachers’ friendly exchanges, to improve the relevant mechanism of Chinese-foreign people-to-people exchange, to create a number of significant projects under Chinese-foreign people-to-people exchanges, to actively develop education for international understanding, to strengthen the construction of people-to-people exchange mechanisms. By deepening language cooperation and exchange with foreign countries, to reinforce the mutual assistance in the promotion of Chinese language and less-commonly used languages learning, to promote language interoperability with foreign countries to expand inter-governmental language-learning exchange programmes, to jointly develop language connectivity shared courses with more countries, and to promote the language interoperability between Chinese languages and foreign languages.

In terms of bilateral and multilateral exchange and cooperation, it mentioned that Strengthening cooperation with international organizations, to establish and improve the mechanism for bilateral and multilateral meetings of Education Ministers, to promote subregional educational cooperation and exchanges, to promote the construction of university alliances, to further promote in-depth cooperation between sister cities and sister schools, to deepen bilateral and multilateral cooperation in education. By improving the voice and representation of developing countries in global education governance, to select and recommend outstanding talents to work in international organizations, to improve education cooperation mechanisms among BRICS countries, to further expand education cooperation opportunities with international organisations, to actively engage in global education governance.

In terms of the Belt and Road education initiative, it mentioned that To strengthen the work of education interoperability and talent cultivation and training, to match the development needs of the countries along the Belt and Road, to promote joint initiatives with the countries along the Belt and Road to achieve win–win cooperation. To expand the scale of Chinese government scholarships, to establish the Silk Road Chinese Government Scholarship, to fund 10,000 new students from the countries along the Belt and Road to study or undertake training in China each year. To commend international figures, teams and organizations that have made outstanding contributions and have an important impact in the common development of Belt and Road educational cooperation and exchange and regional education.

2.4.8 China’s Education Modernization 2035 On February 23, 2019, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council issued China’s Education Modernization 2035. China’s Education

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Modernization 2035 is China’s first medium- and long-term strategic plan with the theme of education modernization. It is a leading document for promoting education modernization and strengthening education in the new era. It has systematically outlined the strategic vision of China’s education modernization. It also has pointed out the direction for opening a new journey of education modernization in the new era. Focusing on the strategic goal of accelerating education modernization and strengthening education, China’s Education Modernization 2035 proposed ten strategic tasks for promoting education modernization. Among them, the ninth strategic task explicitly mentioned “creating a new pattern of opening-up in education.” Among them, for the work of studying abroad, China’s Education Modernization 2035 clearly stipulated that “optimizing the study abroad service. Through implementing the plan of study in China, to build and improve service system of study in China, and to improve the quality of study in China”. For Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools, China’s Education Modernization 2035 clearly formulated that “Improving the quality of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools”. For overseas education, China’s Education Modernization 2035 clearly formulated that. Accelerating the construction of overseas international schools with Chinese characteristics. Encouraging qualified vocational colleges to build ‘Luban Workshops’ overseas.

For bilateral and multilateral exchange and cooperation in international education, China’s Education Modernization 2035 clearly formulated that To comprehensively improve the level of international exchange and cooperation, to facilitate mutual recognition of academic qualifications, standard interoperability and mutual learning among experiences. To promote the Belt and Road education initiative, to strengthen cooperation with international organizations and multilateral organizations such as UNESCO.

For Chinese-foreign people-to-people exchange, China’s Education Modernization 2035 clearly formulated that To strengthen the construction of a high-level mechanism of Chinese-foreign people-topeople exchange, to expand the fields of people-to-people exchange, to promote exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations, to promote the development of Confucius Institutes and Confucius Classrooms.

In addition, China’s Education Modernization 2035 also mentioned that To actively participate in global education governance, to deeply participate in the research and formulation of international education rules, standards, and evaluation systems. To promote educational exchanges and cooperation with international organizations and professional institutions. To improve the mechanism of educational assistance.

This shows that China actively participates in global education governance, fulfills China’s commitment to the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and contributes China’s wisdom, experience and program for educational development all over the world.

Chapter 3

Studying Abroad in China’s International Education

3.1 Origin of Studying Abroad In the early days of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, since Western capitalist countries imposed a comprehensive blockade on newly established China, China could only select and send students to socialist countries such as the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries with the principle of “strict selection, and rather less than abuse”. In the “first seventeen years” of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the total number of Chinese students studying abroad was approximately 16,000, with an average annual number of less than 1,000. In the decade of the “Cultural Revolution”, China’s study abroad was basically stagnant. In particular, at the beginning of the “Cultural Revolution”, it was once stopped sending overseas students. After the restoration of the United Nations legal seat in 1971, the work of sending overseas students gradually recovered. From 1972 to 1978, 1,977 overseas students were sent to 49 countries, with an annual average of more than 300. Generally, although the work of study abroad in the early days of the founding of the People’s Republic of China was full of twists and turns and has even been interrupted once, these growing works have accumulated valuable experience and laid a solid foundation for China’s study abroad after the reform and opening-up.

3.2 History of Studying Abroad Studying abroad is an important embodiment of a country’s openness and tolerance. It is also an important way for civilizations to exchange and learn from each other and for high-level talent training in China. It has important practical significance for deepening Chinese and foreign cultural exchanges and improving China’s national soft power. After studying and developing since the reform and opening-up, according to the time node of historical events, the following three stages of development can be roughly determined. According to the time node of historical events, the sustainable © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_2

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development of studying abroad since the reform and opening-up can be divided into three stages:

3.2.1 The Initial Exploration Stage (1978–1991) Taking the repatriation of sending students to study abroad as a starting point, at this stage, Chinese studying abroad activities have achieved scale expansion, phase adjustment, exploratory expansion and empirical accumulation. The work of studying abroad has gradually standardized from “crossing the river by feeling the stones”. On March 18, 1978, at the opening ceremony of the National Science and Technology Conference, Deng Xiaoping emphasized that “any ethnic group or country needs to learn the strengths of other ethnic groups and countries, and learn their advanced science and technology. We need to work hard to learn from foreign countries, not only because our science and technology are currently backward. Even if our science and technology catch up with the world’s advanced level, we also need to learn from the strengths of others.” On June 23, 1978, when listening to the work report of President and former Party Secretary Liu Da of Tsinghua University, Deng Xiaoping pointed out, “I agree the increase of the number of sending students to study abroad, especially in the subject of nature science. We should send thousands of students to study abroad, not just a few.” “We have to step the pace as possible, and make roads wider.” Judging the situation, breaking the ice. This directive has in fact established a working principle for accelerating the large-scale dispatch of students abroad, and it is of forwardlooking and epoch-making significance. This not only means the end of the domestic 10-year closed situation but also an important indicator of China’s opening-up of education in the future. Soon, on 11 July, the Ministry of Education submitted the Report on Increasing the Number of Students Studying Abroad, which explains the number of students, sources, selection methods and conditions, dispatch countries, majors and management institutions. Regarding the number, source and conditions of students selected, the Report intends to send 3,000 students to study abroad. The 3,000 students mainly involved university students, visiting students and postgraduates. The conditions are mainly examined in terms of political conditions, professional competence and age. Students are sent to 20 countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, Sweden, Mexico, Romania, Yugoslavia, Canada, the United States, New Zealand, Finland and Belgium. Most students take natural sciences as their majors (accounting for 85% of the total), and the remaining students take social sciences as their majors (accounting for 15% of the total). It is planned to set up the International Student Management Department in the Ministry of Education, which is responsible for the selection, dispatch, management and distribution of students studying abroad. After investigation and repeated discussions, the Ministry of Education submitted the latest “Several Requests for the Work of Sending Students Abroad” to supplement

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and revise the original report. Due to the low level of foreign language proficiency of high school students in China, the differences between Chinese and Western academic systems, the Western countries’ experiences of sending students abroad, and the real situation of accepting international students in Western countries, it is planned to focus on sending visiting students and graduate students this year, and a small number of university students will be sent as pilots. On August 6, 1979, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Science and Technology Cadre Bureau of the State Council jointly submitted the Report on Improving the Work of Study Abroad Students and reviewed and analyzed the work of sending students abroad over the past year. It pointed out that 4,252 students were selected for studying abroad last year, including 3,066 visiting students, 537 graduate students and 649 university students. By the end of July 1979, a total of 1,320 students had been sent to 33 countries, including 894 further education students, 74 graduate students, and 352 university students. Among them, there were 1,001 students studying in the natural sciences and 319 students studying in the social sciences. Nearly 3,000 students who have not yet been sent are studying foreign languages. In 1981, the Ministry of Education and six other departments submitted the Report on the Overseas Students Management Work Conference and were approved by the State Council. It established the work policy of “emphasizing key points, taking all factors into consideration, striving to send more students under the premise of ensuring quality, and making the number of overseas students has remained relatively stable in recent years.” In the same year, the State Council approved the “Instructions for Self-funded Study Abroad” and the “Interim Provisions on Self-funded Study Abroad”, which were proposed by seven departments, including the Ministry of Education. It pointed out that “self-funded study abroad is a channel for cultivating talents.” Self-funded study abroad has become an integral part of studying abroad, and the policy of self-funded study abroad has gradually been liberalized. In 1984, the State Council issued the Interim Provisions on Self-funded Study Abroad, stating that “self-funded study abroad is a channel for cultivating talents, and it is also an aspect of implementing the policy of opening-up and introducing foreign intelligence. Self-funded overseas students are treated equally with governmentfunded overseas students in policies.” In 1985, the state canceled the “self-funded study abroad qualification review”, which broke the threshold for self-funded overseas students. Since then, the selffunded study abroad team has begun to flourish. The scale of self-funded study abroad has expanded rapidly, and it has gradually developed into the main force for studying abroad. By the end of 1991, the number of self-funded students studying abroad was 13,670, accounting for 60.01% of the total number of students studying abroad. On May 4, 1986, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council officially issued the Notice on Several Issues Concerning the Strengthening and Improvement of Work about the Students Studying Abroad, summarizing the experiences of the work of studying abroad since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee. The first is to further clarify the guidelines for the work

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of overseas students studying abroad—“dispatch on demand, ensure the quality, integrate study with application; strengthen the management and education of overseas students; strive to create conditions for students to enable them to apply what they have learned after retuning China and to contribute to the construction of the motherland in a relaxed mood.” The second is to improve the selection plan for overseas students. “Under the premise of ensuring quality, we focus on sending further education students and visiting scholars; in addition to learning languages and some specific subjects, we normally do not send undergraduate students; we need to appropriately reduce the number of graduate students pursuing master’s degrees and increase the number of graduate students pursuing doctoral degrees, and actively conduct Chinese-foreign cooperation in scientific research and joint training doctoral students”. The third is to strengthen the management, education and service of overseas students. The fourth is to strengthen the guidance and management of self-funded overseas students. The fifth is to strive to create conditions and give full play to the role of returned students. The sixth is to reform the management system and strengthen unified leadership. “The State Education Commission manages the work of studying abroad across the country.” In accordance with the spirit of the State Council’s Notice on Several Issues Concerning the Strengthening and Improvement of Work about Students Studying Abroad, the State Education Commission formulated the Interim Provisions on Students Studying Abroad in December 1986 and was forwarded and approved by the State Council. The Provisions has made specific provisions on the guiding principles of the work about student studying abroad, organization and management of student studying abroad, selection of students, enrollment of postdoctoral research or internships, government-funded students returning China for vocation and their spouses travelling abroad for visiting, and self-funded overseas students. It regards studying abroad as a part of China’s opening-up policy, clarifies the guidelines for the work of overseas students studying abroad—“dispatch on demand, ensure the quality, integrate study with application; strengthen the management and education of overseas students; strive to create conditions for students to enable them to apply what they have learned after retuning China and to contribute to the construction of the motherland in a relaxed mood.” The promulgation of the Provisions guided and standardized the work of studying abroad at that time, making the work of studying abroad more standardized. At this stage, studying abroad education gradually formed a policy guarantee system covering three parts: self-funded study abroad, government-funded study abroad, and returning China.

3.2.2 Adjustment and Standardization Stage (1992–2012) In January 1992, in terms of overseas students returning China, Deng Xiaoping said, “I hope that all students who study abroad will come back, no matter how their political attitudes were, they can come back and get properly arranged. This policy cannot

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be changed. Tell them, it is better to return to China if they want to make a contribution.” Taking Deng Xiaoping’s speech as a symbol, the 3rd Plenary Session of the 14th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China formulated the Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Issues Concerning the Establishment of the Socialist Market Economy, officially confirmed the working guidelines of “supporting students to study abroad, encouraging them to return upon finishing their studies, and they are free to return or leave”. The establishment of these working guidelines indicates that China’s study abroad policy has gradually matured. At this stage, China’s study abroad activities achieved policy improvement and sound management. In particular, with the establishment of the China Scholarship Council in June 1996, the secretariat under the China Scholarship Council specifically undertook the management of national funding for studying abroad. The management of China’s government-funded study abroad officially embarked on the track of specialization and standardization. In the twenty-first century, especially after China officially joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China’s policy of studying abroad was completely liberalized and integrated with the world. The policy of government-funded study abroad has continued to exert its strength in cultivating high-level overseas students. China’s study abroad activities show comprehensive development and a wide range of aggressiveness. In July 2010, the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) pointed out that “The mechanism by which government-funded students are sent to study abroad shall be renovated and improved, and outstanding Chinese students heading for studies in elite universities and research institutes overseas should be selected through fair and open competition. Policy guidance should be intensified for students studying abroad on their own expenses, while financial aid and rewards for those who excel should be increased. The policy of ‘supporting students to study abroad, encouraging them to return upon finishing their studies, and they are free to return or leave’ shall be upheld, and the services catering for those studying abroad shall be improved.” It further standardized the study abroad education in China.

3.2.3 Improvement Stage (2013 to the Present) The 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China stated, “Adhere to the principle of the Party exercising leadership over personnel management and attract outstanding individuals from all over for the cause of the Party and country”. Taking the 18th National Congress of the Party in November 2012 as an opportunity, the development of studying abroad entered a new era. At this stage, the study abroad activities in China have shown unprecedented vigor and vitality. In terms of the distribution of overseas students, it preliminarily formed a working pattern of studying abroad, with government-funded study abroad as the leading part and selffunded study abroad as the main part. During this period, the work of studying abroad

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focused on the national strategy, served the central task, and insisted on the working principles of “supporting students to study abroad, encouraging them to return upon finishing their studies, and they are free to return or leave”, which were proposed in the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping in October 2013 at the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the European and American Alumni Association. The policy of study abroad has cultivated a large number of international talents with international vision and competitiveness. In December 2014, the Ministry of Education held the National Study Abroad Working Conference in Beijing. It planned and arranged the work of studying abroad overall for the first time after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. General Secretary Xi Jinping and Premier Li Keqiang provided important instructions on studying abroad. Vice Premier Liu Yandong attended the meeting and gave an important speech. The meeting pointed out that the work of studying abroad should adhere to the five principles of “talents cultivating and functioning, studying abroad and studying in China, government-funded study abroad and self-funded study abroad, scale and quality, administration by law and improving services”. In April 2016, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on Doing a Good Job in the Openingup of Education in the New Era. It is the first guiding document for the opening-up of education since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It further proposed the measures that “accelerate the development of study abroad and improve the quality of study abroad” and “improve the working mechanism, regulate overseas study markets, to enhance the full chain of the overseas student administration system and to optimize the services of study abroad”. During this period, to match the Party and the State’s strategic deployment on economic and social construction and the Belt and Road initiative’s new requirements of talent cultivation and training, the study abroad education will further focus on less commonly language talents, international organization talents, and top-notch innovate talents, national and regional research talents; at the same time, continuously improve the management system for overseas students, improve service quality, attract more overseas high-level talents to return to China or serve the country in other ways.

3.3 Overall Characteristics of Studying Abroad Since the reform and opening-up, China’s study abroad education has achieved considerable development and achieved great achievements. Its characteristics are mainly manifested in four aspects.

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3.3.1 The Overall Scale of Studying Abroad Has Continued to Grow According to statistics from the Ministry of Education, the total number of Chinese students studying abroad in 2018 was 662,100. The number of students studying abroad in 2018 was 53,700 more than that in 2017, an increase of 8.83%. From 1978 to the end of 2018, a total of 5,857,100 Chinese students were studying abroad. China continues to maintain its status as the world’s largest source of international students.

3.3.2 The Rate of Returning to China Has Grown Steadily with Significant Effectiveness As shown in the data on study abroad in China since the reform and opening-up, it is not difficult to determine that the number of students returning to China has been steadily increasing, and the return of high-level talent has become a significant trend. According to statistics from the Ministry of Education, in 2018, the number of returned overseas students increased by 38,500, an increase of 8.00%. Among the various types of overseas students in 1978–2018, a total of 3,516,400 people chose to return to China after completing their studies, accounting for 84.46% of those who completed their academic courses (432.32 million). Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, driven by the sound economic development situation and the policy environment in China, the proportion of overseas students who returned to China has grown steadily. At present, more than 70% of the presidents of high-level universities in China, more than 80% of academicians, and more than 90% of Changjiang scholars have overseas studying or working experience. Those who returned to China after studying abroad provided strong talent support for China’s economic and social development and made outstanding contributions.

3.3.3 Relatively Concentrated Destination Countries of Studying Abroad By 2018, the number of overseas students in English-speaking countries accounted for nearly 80% of the total number of overseas students. More than 90% of students mainly went to 10 countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, to study.

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3.3.4 Forming a Working Pattern of Studying Abroad with the Government-Funded Study Abroad as the Leading Part and the Self-Funded Study Abroad as the Main Part At present, government-funded students are selected through 9 categories of 1,679 government-funded projects. Government-funded broad study has always been based on the needs of the national overall strategy, sending people to educationally developed countries for learning their development experiences, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, etc. To continuously strengthen “high-end leadership” and to form “talent highland” in several key areas. Among the overseas students in 2018, there were 30,200 government-funded students and institutionfunded students. A large number of talents with international vision and competitiveness and reserved talents were trained. In 2018, 596,300 students were self-funded, accounting for 90.06% of the total number of students studying abroad.

3.4 A Case Study of Studying Abroad—Taking Beijing Foreign Studies University as an Example of Exploring the Model of Compound Talents Needed by International Organizations 3.4.1 Introduction The “Exploring the Training Model of Compound Talents Needed by International Organizations” is a national education system reform pilot project undertaken by Beijing Foreign Studies University. It is an important measure for Beijing Foreign Studies University to explore the reform of the postgraduate training mode and actively serve national strategy under the guidance of the Ministry of Education and the China Scholarship Council. The project aims to improve the quality of compound foreign language talent training. It aims to train a group of more than 2 kinds of UN working languages (mainly in English and French) and professional skills, with interdisciplinary knowledge structure and cross-cultural communication skills, and international vision and Chinese sentiment, familiar with international rules, capable of competent multilingual and compound high-end foreign language talent.

3.4.2 Organizational Proof In July 2012, the expert argumentation meeting for the project “Exploration of the Training Model of Compound Talents Needed by International Organizations” was

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held at Beijing Foreign Studies University. The experts put forward constructive opinions on the source of students, curriculum construction and platform construction at the meeting. The meeting reached the following consensus: In terms of student selection, we will attract more students with higher comprehensive quality in multilingual and different majors. In terms of teaching, we will strengthen language teaching and pay attention to the cultivation of professional ability and cross-cultural communication ability. In terms of curriculum, we will broaden students’ knowledge of humanities and culture, open courses that reflect the important work of international organizations such as “peace, development, and human rights”, and invite experts and senior officials with rich experience in international organizations to open courses about drafting, hosting and negotiation skills for international conferences. In terms of platform construction, we will cooperate with regional organizations and the China Scholarship Council to provide students in the program with opportunities to study abroad and internships in international organizations.

3.4.3 Implementation Impact This program was approved in November 2010. By the end of 2016, 127 students were enrolled in this program. With the strong support of the China Scholarship Council, a total of 99 students have studied at world-class universities sponsored by the government, such as Oxford University, Cambridge University, Paris University of Political Science, Brussels Free University, Leiden University, University of Ottawa, and Columbia University. Three students went to UNESCO for internships with the support of the China Scholarship Council UNESCO Internship Program. Most of the graduates who returned to China work in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the International Liaison Department, the Ministry of Commerce, the State Council Development Research Center, the State Development Bank, the Bank of China and other national ministries, enterprises and institutions, and related international organizations to engage in high-end foreign affairs. The implementation of this program has enabled BFSUs to cultivate highlevel internationalized talent with distinct BFSU characteristics and to accumulate successful experiences that can be copied and promoted in selection mechanisms, curriculum settings, construction of Chinese-foreign joint training platforms, operation and management mechanisms and internships in international organizations. This successful case was included in the frontiers of Chinese education published by the Ministry of Education, “The Reform of Talent Cultivation Model in Higher Education”, which was promoted to the whole country as a typical case for the reform of the national talent cultivation model.

Chapter 4

Study in China: A Crucial Part of China’s International Education

4.1 Origin The education of international students in China began in 1950 after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. In January 2050, Czechoslovakia and Poland proposed exchanging students with China to learn each other’s language, history and other subjects. In November of the same year, five Romanian students entered Tsinghua University. After that, students from other socialist countries in Eastern Europe attended Tsinghua University’s Chinese Language Course in batches. The education of international students has mainly served political needs since then. China accepted 209 students from North Korea in 1952; trained more than 500 students for Vietnam from 1952 to 1956, and 533 students for friendly countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America from 1956 to 1966. During this period, there were also a small number of students from Western Europe, North America and Japan coming to China to study, while most of them were recommended by friendly groups or persons. In the first 17 years since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, China received 7,239 international students from 68 countries in total, among which 90.8% were from socialist countries, 7.3% were from Asian, African and Latin American countries, and 1.9% were from Western Europe, North America and Japan. Since the beginning of the “Cultural Revolution” in 1966, the education of international students has been seriously impacted and cannot be carried out smoothly. The Ministry of Education notified the relevant foreign embassies in China on September 19, 1966 and Chinese universities and colleges on September 22 that international students should take a year off and return to their homelands. In 1971, studying in China began to revive after China restored its lawful seat in the United Nations, yet with slow progress. According to statistics, the number of students studying in China was less than 500 per year from 1972 to 1978. The education of international students was developed mainly for political needs in the early years of the People’s Republic of China. It improved China’s influence

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_3

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in the international stage by cultivating urgently needed talent for friendly socialist countries and the third world countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

4.2 Historical Development Since Reform and Opening-Up The opening-up of education has never been a one-way flow but a two-way exchange and cooperation. When sending out a large number of Chinese students, China is also attracting international students to study in China in great quantities. The education of international students in the early days of the People’s Republic of China was a kind of intergovernment exchange with the main purpose of strengthening the friendship between China and other countries and serving diplomatic needs. At that time, the Chinese government decided how many international students could study in China and which educational institution they would enter. After the reform and opening-up, educational cooperation between China and other countries flourished. With growing national strength and great economic progress, China has attracted a large number of international students worldwide. The Chinese government adopted an open policy for foreign students to study in China, which means colleges and universities can recruit international students within the limits of their authority. Through streamlining administration and delegating power, the number of international students studying in China, both self-financed and scholarship students, continued to rise. In the twenty-first century, under the leadership of the central government, the Ministry of Education adopted a scientific method to guide the development of studying in China and followed the principle of “expanding scale, improving the level, ensuring quality, and standardizing management” to gradually improve the system. On that basis, studies in China have scored fruitful achievements with an increasing number of foreign students coming to China. They had diverse structures and different choices of major. We have trained a large number of talents in science and technology, education, diplomacy and management for many countries, especially developing countries, making positive contributions to the development and consolidation of China’s political, diplomatic and economic ties with other countries and the growth of cultural, educational and people-to-people exchanges. At present, study in China is making steady progress and is moving towards a higher level with good momentum. Since the reform and opening-up, the education of international students in China has experienced three stages of development: recovery, standardization and improvement.

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4.2.1 The Stage of Recovery (1978–1999) In 1978, China started reform and opening-up and formulated the development plan for the education of international students from the “6th Five-Year” to the “7th FiveYear”. The number of international students studying in China increased significantly. Under the new circumstances, managing and solving problems related to international students became an urgent task. In response to this challenge, the 2nd National Working Conference on International Students Studying in China was held in January 1979. The Report of the Vice Minister of Education Pu Tongxiu at the National Working Conference on International Students Studying in China analyzed the current situation and pointed out, “as China’s international reputation and education quality improve, more and more countries are willing to send students to China. This can further enhance the friendship between China and other countries. We should commit ourselves to cultivating international students and equip them with skills and abilities that are useful to develop their own nations. It is worth noting that we need a huge number of talents to accelerate the Four Modernizations. Therefore, apart from cultivating talent by ourselves, we should also send Chinese students to study abroad. Once we send out our students, other countries will also send students to China. At present, we have only 50 majors and 30 educational institutions for international students’ choice. It’s far from enough to meet the needs of the vast number of foreign students.” The Report also put forward the principle of receiving foreign students in the future—“adhere to standards, treat differently, build enabling environment and develop gradually” and specified how we should teach and manage international students as well as conduct ideological work for them. The Trial Regulations on International Student Work (Revised Version) issued in May of the same year clarified that when accepting foreign students in the future, “we should conform with China’s foreign policy and development, adhere to standards, adopt competitive admissions, build enabling environment and gradually increase the number of students”. For the cultivation of international students, “with reference to China’s education system and teaching plan or the study plan agreed by both sides, we should cultivate them to be talents with basic theory, professional knowledge and practical skills of the major they have learned based on their different situations, keep them healthy and make them good friends of China”. For the management of international students, we should provide “strict study requirements, timely help, proper care in life and careful management”. For the ideological work of international students, we should “require them to be active learners and be compliant with China’s laws and regulations as well as the disciplines of their schools. At the same time, a set of practical rules and regulations should be introduced for better management”. The Trial Regulations on International Student Work (Revised Version) ensured that all the issues related to international students’ study and lives in China were handled well and required that international students abide by the disciplines and

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4 Study in China: A Crucial Part of China’s International Education

regulations of the school, namely, the International Student Regulations, which regulated international students’ admission cultivation, ideological and political work, life and social activities. To further develop education for short-term international students, the Ministry of Education issued the Notice on the Short-term Chinese Language Courses for Foreigners in Higher Education Institutions in December 1980 and brought out specific measures to expand the scale of education for short-term international students. It pointed out, “qualified comprehensive universities, normal universities, and foreign language universities that have been referred to the Ministry of Education for the record can hold short-term Chinese language courses for foreigners with the approval of the higher education office and foreign affairs office of the province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the central government”; “all institutions that hold short-term Chinese language courses should provide Admission Brochure and Application Form both in Chinese and foreign languages for international students. The Admission Brochure should specify the duration, teaching content, teaching plan, entry requirements, admission procedures and tuition; “Chinese institutions that directly contacts foreign institutions, groups or friendly personage and signs agreements with them need to conduct the whole admission process on their own.” Thanks to this notice, the number of Chinese universities and colleges that are capable of receiving international students continued to rise. Those institutions of higher learning gained more autonomy in terms of students’ admission. Article 15 of the Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China implemented in January 1981 clearly stipulated, “foreign students studying in China and foreign scholars engaged in research work in China may apply to a degree-conferring entity for academic degrees. Those who have attained the academic standards stipulated in these Regulations shall be conferred appropriate degrees.” This regulation provided the legal basis for the degree grants of international students in China. In April 1983, the Ministry of Education issued the Regulations of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China On Short-term Courses for Foreigners, which mentioned the direct admission of short-term foreign students to Chinese higher education institutions: “We encourage Chinese institutions of higher learning to sign bilateral agreements of holding short-term courses with foreign institutions; we also agree Chinese institutions to sign such agreements with non-profit private organizations of other countries. The two sides can negotiate majors, duration, tuition and other issues. Agreements need to be signed before December 1 of the previous year and will only take effect after it has been approved by the authority concerned of the province, municipality or autonomous region where the Chinese institution is located.” In the 3rd National Working Conference on International Studying in China held in December 1984, the Minister of Education He Dongchang pointed out in his report, “accepting and cultivating foreign students is part of China’s intellectual assistance to other countries, and it is of strategic significance”; “it plays an important role to modernize China and open China to the outside world for a better future. This

4.2 Historical Development Since Reform and Opening-Up

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process is also a crucial part of China’s foreign work; “accepting and cultivating international students can promote China’s international education exchange and cooperation.” This conference raised the education of international students to a higher strategic position. In October 1985, when approving the Measures for the Administration of Foreign Students jointly issued by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Public Security and the Ministry of Finance, the State Council proposed, “the strategically important work of accepting and cultivating foreign students is part of China’s foreign exchanges. This work involves a wide range of issues and requires close collaboration of all sides. Please strengthen the leadership and well manage issues related to foreign students.” The first chapter of the Measures for the Administration of Foreign Students clearly stated, “it’s China’s obligation to accept and cultivate international students. It is also a work of strategic significance to promote China’s cooperation and exchange with other countries on education, science and technology, culture, economy and trade as well as enhance the friendship between our people and the peoples of the world. We should commit ourselves to that work; we should accept foreign students in accordance with China’s foreign policy and education system, take into account the different situation of source countries and follow the principle of adhering to standards, adopting competitive admissions, building enabling environment and gradually increasing the number of students; the cultivation of international students is generally based on school’s teaching plan, but necessary adjustments can be made given the different situations and requirements of students; we should offer international students strict study requirements, timely help, proper care in life and careful management. We should not impose political ideology on international students”. The Regulations of the State Education Commission on International Students Studying in China promulgated in 1986 specified, “according to the Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China, graduates and postgraduates who have finished their study and passed examinations required for the degree can get the graduation certificate and be awarded the bachelor’s degree or master’s degree. The doctor’s degree shall be conferred on postgraduates who have passed examinations and successfully defended their dissertations. Students who failed examinations required for the degree could only obtain a certificate of completion. General scholars and senior scholars who finished their programs will be granted a certificate of training instead of a degree. By doing so, the issues related to degree for international students were settled, which might help international students find a job after they returned to their homelands”. In 1989, the State Education Commission issued the Regulations on the Acceptance of Self-financed International Students (hereinafter referred to as the Regulations). According to the Regulations, “self-financed students (including shortterm students) are students who pay for the tuition, accommodation, food, medical services, teaching materials and internships and visits not included in the teaching plan on their own. By classification, self-financed students include degree students, scholars and short-term students.

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Article 2 of the Regulations stated, “the institutions of higher education that accept international students shall possess necessary teaching, learning and living facilities and administration. The institutions shall also have specialized management departments for international student affairs”; “the acceptance of international students by institutions of higher education shall undergo the joint examination and approval of the administrative departments of education of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government, and shall be referred to the Ministry of Education for the record”; “self-financed students who want to study in China should file an application directly to the higher education institution. The admission process is decided by the institution”. The above provision increased the number of higher education institutions that can accept international students and empowered those institutions to decide the admission of international students. In the early 1980s, institutions of higher learning could only exercise their independent admission rights when receiving short-term students studying in China at their own expense. With this provision, they can recruit all kinds of selffinanced students, including degree students (undergraduates and postgraduates) and non-degree students (scholars and short-term students). In addition, the administrative departments of education of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government were responsible for the examination and approval of the qualifications for colleges and universities to accept international students. They no longer needed the approval of the Ministry of Education, which greatly simplified the examination and approval procedures. In addition, with the right to decide the admission of foreign students on their own, higher education institutions can directly obtain access to international students. Allowing more higher education institutions to receive self-financed international students not only gave higher education institutions independent admission rights but also created more resources for developing international education in China. Past practices proved that Chinese colleges and universities were rich in material resources and capable of receiving self-financed foreign students. At the same time, this action greatly promoted the development of the education of international students in China and led to a huge growth in the number of foreign students coming to China. After the implementation of the Regulations on the Acceptance of Self-financed International Students, there was a significant rise in the number of higher education institutions receiving foreign students. In February 1993, the State Council released the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China, in which Article 14 mentioned international education exchange and cooperation and proposed to “further open up the educational sector, strengthen international education exchange and cooperation, and learn from the other countries’ experience in terms of developing and managing education.” Regarding international students studying in China, the Outline suggested “reforming the acceptance and administration system for foreign students, strengthening our exchanges and cooperation with foreign institutions of higher learning as well as jointly cultivating talents and conducting scientific research with foreign institutions or experts”.

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In June 1996, the China Scholarship Council was established. Under the guidance of the government, the China Scholarship Council solved and dealt with various problems related to international students studying in China through nongovernment management mechanisms. Its establishment provided a good opportunity and mechanism to further reform and improve international students’ work. Direct control of the government was no longer necessary. The China Scholarship Council, both a legal person and a nongovernment institution, has alleviated the burden of government agencies in this field and made the government free of trivial issues. It laid a good foundation for the government to transform its functions and strengthen the overall administration. In February 1998, at the 4th National Working Conference on International Students Studying in China, the Vice Minister of Education Wei Wei unveiled the new policy for the education of international students — “deepening reforms, strengthening administration, ensuring quality, and developing actively and steadily”. In December of the same year, Article 16 of the Action Scheme for Invigorating Education towards the 21st Century formulated by the Ministry of Education clearly advocated that “we must strengthen international academic exchanges”, which, to a certain extent, served as a motivation for developing China’s international education. At this stage, through a series of policies ranging from streamlining the examination and approval procedures, empowering institutions of higher learning to receive and manage international students, and introducing measures for the management of funds, the education of international students made fruitful achievements, and self-financed students accounted for the majority of international students in China.

4.2.2 The Stage of Standardization (2000–2009) Entering the twenty-first century, to enhance the mutual understanding and friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world, promote international exchange and cooperation among institutions of higher education, and strengthen the standardization and administration of the acceptance and cultivation of international students, in January 2000, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the Measures for the Administration on Acceptance of International Students by Institutions of Higher Education. Concerning the acceptance, scholarships, cultivation, school and social administration of international students, this regulation made it clear that “the Ministry of Education shall exercise overall management of the studies of international students in China; be responsible for the formulation of the principles and policies guiding the acceptance of international students and for the centralized administration of the ‘Chinese Government Scholarship Program’; coordinate and provide guidance for acceptance of international students by various regions and institutions of higher education; and undertake assessments of the quality of management and teaching of international students in various regions and institutions of higher education. The Ministry of Education shall entrust the China Scholarship Council with the duty

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of enrolling and managing international students both under and beyond the state enrolment plans.” With the implementation of this regulation, China established a sound administration system and mechanism for international students. By then, an administration system at the national, local and university levels was put in place, which provided policy support for colleges and universities to accept international students in a standardized and legitimate manner. The education of international students in China entered the stage of standardized development. In 2001, thanks to China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the establishment of the socialist market economy, a new reform impetus was pooled in the international education of foreign students. The idea of establishing a socialist market economy updated the principles of education administration for international students and helped to form a service system with Chinese characteristics for international students. In the same year, to attract more overseas students and scholars to study and research in China and to strengthen China’s exchanges and cooperation in diverse fields with other countries, the Ministry of Education issued the Regulations on the Management of Chinese Government Scholarships. The categories of Chinese Government Scholarships include scholarships for undergraduates, postgraduates (master’s degree and doctoral degree students), Chinese language students, and scholars (general and senior scholars). In addition, Chinese Government Scholarships, according to different programs, also include HSK Winner Scholarship, Distinguished International Students Scholarship, the Great Wall Fellowship, Chinese Culture Research Fellowship and Short-term Scholarship for Foreign Teachers of Chinese Language. The Ministry of Education also introduced the application procedures of scholarships in different categories, specifying appropriate applicants, durations, application processes and the use of scholarships. In July of the same year, the 10th Five-Year Plan for National Education formulated by the Ministry of Education pointed out that various measures should be taken to expand the scale of higher education, including striving to “steadily increase the number of international students received by Chinese institutions of higher learning”. To further improve the educational environment for international students, in February 2004, the Ministry of Education formulated the 2003–2007 Action Plan for Invigorating Education. Article 38 noted, “we must deepen the reform of overseas study system and promote the high-level exchange of international students and scholars.” Specifically, “we should build the Chinese education brand and follow the principle of ‘expanding scale, raising level, ensuring quality and standardizing administration’. We should create an enabling environment to keep the number of international students studying in China on the rise, deepen the administration system reform of the Chinese Government Scholarships, and improve the teaching and living management system for international students.” This policy suggested that we should not only ensure the overall increase in quantity but also the improvement of education quality. Since then, the education of international students in China has been included in the Action Plan for Vitalizing Education and has become an integral part of China’s education strategy.

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At this stage, by further streamlining administration and delegating power, reforming the management of academic qualifications, canceling the examination and approval of the acceptance of international students, establishing a comprehensive insurance system, and standardizing the management system of the Chinese Government Scholarship, the education of international students has embarked on a standardized and institutionalized path with rapid progress.

4.2.3 The Stage of Improvement (2010 to the Present) In July 2010, the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) (hereinafter referred to as the Outline) was issued and implemented. The Outline established the general idea of “increasing the number of international students studying in China” and put forward specific measures such as optimizing the structure of foreign students, increasing the number of Chinese government scholarship candidates, and developing preparatory education for international students. In the same year, the Ministry of Education released the Plan for Study in China at the National Working Conference on International Students Studying in China. In accordance with the principle of “expanding scale, optimizing structure, standardizing administration and ensuring quality”, the Plan coordinated the scale, structure and quality, promoted the sustainable development of education for international students and helped to build China’s higher education brand. The Plan for Study in China was issued by the Ministry of Education in September, which suggested that by 2020, China would become the largest destination for study abroad in Asia. The Plan is a major policy breakthrough in that field and the first strategic guidance plan. Its implementation met the urgent and long-term needs of promoting study in China for international students in the new context. The Plan was of strategic and practical significance. The introduction of the Outline and the Plan delivered a signal that studying in China has entered a new stage of improvement. In April 2016, the General Office of the Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council issued the Opinions on the Work of the Opening-up of Education in the New Era and proposed to “build the study-in-China brand through optimizing the current structure of source countries, improving majors and courses as well as establishing a professional service system”. In July 2016, the Ministry of Education launched the Campaign to Promote Education while Jointly Advancing the Belt and Road Initiative and started the plan of promoting overseas study along the Silk Road. The Silk Road Chinese Government Scholarship was established to train industrial leaders and skilled personnel for countries along the Road. All the above measures aimed to improve the quality of education for international students and make China a popular destination for students from countries along the Road. In July 2017, Administrative Measures for the Acceptance and Cultivation of International Students by Institutions of Higher Learning (hereinafter referred to

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as the Measures) were promulgated and implemented. The Measures attaches great importance to improve the administration and quality of higher education institutions and make study in China more attractive. In addition, it gives higher education institutions more autonomy so that they can play a more prominent role in international education, which might motivate them to receive and cultivate more international students. In addition, to break the policy barriers in building management teams, the Measures required colleges and universities to create posts for international student counselors who are responsible for timely information delivery, consultation, cultural and sports activities and other services. It made clear provisions on the number and salary of international student counselors. The measures have facilitated the education of international students in China, standardized the way Chinese educational institutions recruit, cultivate and manage international students, promoted China’s educational exchange and cooperation with other countries, and made China’s education more international. At this stage, with the study-in-China brand and the implementation of the Campaign to Promote Education while Jointly Advancing the Belt and Road Initiative, we have seen an optimized structure of international students, a higher proportion of degree students and a more reasonable discipline distribution. Overall, the education of international students is moving towards a higher level and higher quality.

4.3 Major Characteristics 4.3.1 Expanded Scale and Optimized Structure According to the data from the Ministry of Education, in 2018, there were students from 196 countries and regions studying 1,004 Chinese institutions of higher learning in 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities. The number of international students in China increased from 1,226 in 1978 to 492,185 in 2018. Among them, there were 258,122 degree students, accounting for 52.44%, a year-on-year growth of 6.86%; 85,062 graduate students, accounting for 17.28%. With an increasing number of international students coming to China to study, China has become the largest destination for overseas study in Asia.

4.3.2 Main Source Countries and New Growth from Countries Along the Belt and Road According to data released by the Ministry of Education, in recent years, international students studying in China were originally from a relatively fixed list of countries.

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The top 10 countries of origin in 2016 were Korea, the United States, Thailand, Pakistan, India, Russia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Japan and Vietnam. In 2017, the top 10 were Korea, Thailand, Pakistan, the United States, India, Russia, Japan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan and Laos. In 2018, Korea, Thailand, Pakistan, India, the United States, Russia, Indonesia, Laos, Japan, and Kazakhstan were on the top 10 list. In recent years, with the implementation of the Belt and Road Initiative, the growth of international students from main source countries has slowed down, and the number of students from countries along the Belt and Road has increased significantly. Data from the Ministry of Education show that among international students of different types in 2017, students from the Belt and Road countries totaled 317,200, accounting for 64.85%, a growth of 11.58%, higher than the average growth rate of the world.

4.3.3 Increasingly Balanced Distribution of Discipline and the Dominant Portion of Self-Financed Students According to the data released by the Ministry of Education, the top majors among foreign students in China used to be liberal arts such as Chinese language, humanities and social science and traditional Chinese medicine. Few students chose science and engineering. In recent years, the disciplinary distribution has become increasingly reasonable. Statistics from the Ministry of Education show that the number of students studying liberal arts still ranked first in 2017, accounting for 48.45%, while the number of students studying engineering, management, science, art and agriculture increased significantly with a year-on-year growth of more than 20%. In addition, self-financed students remained the majority of foreign students in China, accounting for 88.93%, 88.03% and 87.19% of the total in 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively.

4.3.4 Scholarships and the Growing Attractiveness of Study in China The data from the Ministry of Education indicate that in 2016, a total of 49,022 students enjoyed Chinese government scholarships, making up 11% of the total number of international students in China. Among them, 69% was graduate students. In 2017, scholarship students amounted to 58,600, accounting for 11.97% of the total, including 51,600 degree students, making up 88.02% of the total number of scholarship students, and 40,800 graduate students, accounting for 69.57%, an increase of 20.06% over 2016. In 2018, there were 63,041 Chinese government scholarship students, accounting for 12.81% of the total number of international students studying in China.

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Table 3.1 The number of international students studying in Shaanxi province (2010–2015)

Year

Number of international students

2010

5,801

2011

6,000

2012

6,451

2013

7,000

2014

8,110

2015

8,944

In addition to Chinese government scholarships, China has established 13 special scholarships for students from Mongolia, Tanzania, Egypt, Indonesia and other countries, China-US, China–Europe and China-Russia Culture Exchange Scholarship, as well as local government scholarships, university scholarships and grants. The multilevel scholarship system has constantly made study in China more attractive, leading to a higher level with better quality.

4.4 Case Analysis: Taking Shaanxi Province as an Example On October 31, 2016, the National Conference on Studying in China was held in Beijing. Hao Ping, a party member of the Ministry of Education and the Vice Minister of Education, attended this conference. Representatives from eight units, including the Beijing Municipal Education Commission, the Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, the Jiangsu Provincial Department of Education, the Shaanxi Provincial Department of Education, Peking University, and Sichuan University, delivered speeches. The following are information about Shaanxi Province’s international student education intercepted from the special report of the National Conference on Studying in China.1

4.4.1 Overview In recent years, especially since the implementation of the Plan for Study in China, Shaanxi Province has scored fruitful achievements in that field, with a rapidly growing number of international students coming to Shaanxi Province to study. As the table shows, the number of foreign students coming in Shaanxi Province totaled 5,801 in 2010, 6,000 in 2011, 6,451 in 2012, 7,000 in 2013, 8,110 in 2014, and close to 9,000 in 2015. The number of international students increased by 3,143 within five years (Table 3.1). 1

Jinghua (2016).

Reference

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4.4.2 Measures Taken by the Shaanxi Provincial Government In recent years, the scale of Chinese government scholarships has continued to expand. To attract more international students, the Shaanxi Provincial Party Committee and the provincial government established the “Shanxi Province Sanqin Scholarship” in 2014 and encouraged universities to set up their own scholarships. Thus, a multilevel scholarship system for international students was built, bringing an increasing number of foreign students to Shaanxi Province. At the same time, under the guidance of the Belt and Road initiative, Shaanxi Province took advantage of geographical location and adopted preferential policies to attract students from Central Asia and West Asia countries along the Belt and Road. For the cultivation of international students, Shaanxi Province built many education platforms for them, launched the High-end Talent Training Program and the Belt and Road Talent Training Program and created a new cultivation model through school-enterprise cooperation to serve the national strategy and improve the quality of international students’ education. For instance, Shaanxi Province has successively established the School of Central Asia, the Silk Road Research Institute and the Universities Alliance of the New Silk Road. For the management of international students, Shaanxi Province put in place an evaluation project to promote the development and upgrading of international students’ evaluation and management. The project regularly evaluates the school’s facilities, management, service and education quality for international students to solve problems in time and accumulate experience. In addition, Shaanxi Province has organized diverse activities, such as student speech contests, Xi’an City Wall Marathon and International Students Cultural Festival, to enrich students’ lives and build an enabling environment for international students.

Reference Jinghua G (2016) Overview of the international students education in Shaanxi province. Journal of World Information, pp 20–21

Chapter 5

Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools of China’s International Education

5.1 The Inception of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Education Chinese-foreign cooperation in education goes back to the establishment of aviation flight universities sponsored by the Soviet Union in 1949. Therefore, since the founding of the People’s Republic of China to the period before the reform and opening-up, Chinese-foreign cooperation in education was mainly carried out by learning from the Soviet Union. In October 1949, the Soviet Union sent 974 aviation experts to China with Batitsky as the leader of the tram, and they all participated in the building of the first 6 aviation flight universities in China. In summary, the Soviet Union’s support in building China aviation universities represents Chinese-foreign cooperation in education. For the entity of jointly ran schools, Joukowsky Air Force Engineering University of Soviet Union, Red Flag Air Force Academy (Russian Gagarin Air Force Academy) and other Soviet universities joint hands with 6 China aviation flight universities to run schools. For the location of jointly ran schools, all universities with Chinese-foreign cooperation were built in mainland China. Experts from the Soviet Union participated in all kinds of activities of the 6 aviation flight universities, including selecting locations, stipulating teaching plans, compiling textbooks, supervising social practices, and giving guidance in air combat. They helped China train the air force and various professional talents. They introduced advanced air force equipment, air combat technology, and advanced fighters into China, and all these were in urgent need in China. Meanwhile, they helped China nurture a large group of air forces and professional talents who later directly joined in war to resist US aggression and aid Korea, making China swiftly edge into the line of air force power in the world. The Soviet Union’s help with China aviation flight universities satisfied the needs of China at that time and accumulated precious experiences for Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools after reform and opening-up.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_4

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5.2 The History of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools Since Reform and Opening-Up Chinese-foreign cooperation in running a school refers to an educational institution or project that is jointly established by foreign (overseas) educational institutions and Chinese educational institutions; meanwhile, jointly run schools shall take Chinese citizens as their main target of enrollment. Chinese-foreign cooperation in education is a new thing born after reform and opening-up, and it is a new form of Chineseforeign exchange and cooperation in education in the context of economic globalization and internationalization of advanced education. Its essence lies in introducing high-quality educational resources of other countries. Chinese-foreign cooperation consists of jointly run schools and jointly run projects. According to the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chineseforeign Cooperative Education released by the State Council in March 2003, the Chinese-foreign cooperative education institution refers to “education institutions jointly run by foreign education institutions and Chinese education institutions which mainly aim to enroll Chinese citizens.” According to the Implementation Measures for the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education published by the Ministry of Education (MOE) in March 2004, Chinese-foreign cooperative education projects refer to “the cooperative educational and teaching activities between Chinese education institutions and foreign education institutions without establishing any education institution, and the said activities mainly aim to enroll Chinese citizens in the aspects of disciplines, specialties and courses.” Chinese-foreign cooperation in education can be divided into three levels and models: colleges for postsecondary specialized students, universities for undergraduates and masters, and doctors. These three kinds of schools are schools with independent corporate personality [for instance, University of Nottinghan Ningbo China, United International College of Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University in Suzhou, NYU Shanghai, Duke Kunshan University, Wenzhou-Kean University, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Guangdong Technion Isreal Institute of Technology, Shenzhen MSU-BIT University], schools without independent corporate personality (for instance, China-German College of Applied Sciences at Tongji University, SHU-UTB SILC Business School, China-British College-University of Shanghai for Science and Technology), Chinese-foreign cooperative projects [for instance, Undergraduate Educational Project of Computer Science and Technology Specialty Between Lanzhou University and Drexel University, Undergraduate Educational Project of Mechatronic Engineering Specialty Between Anhui University of Science & Technology and Dongseo University, Master Educational Project of Electric Vehicle and Vehicle Electrification Specialty Between Beijing Institute of Technology and University of Applied Science Ingolstadt of German, Undergraduate Educational Project of Pharmacy Engineering Specialty Between Shijiazhuang University and Wuusuk University of the South Korea, Undergraduate

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Educational Project of Mechanical Design, Manufacture and Automation Specialty Between Hubei Polytechnic University and Merrimack College of the United States, Undergraduate Educational Project of Underground Water Science and Engineering Specialty Between China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and University of Waterloo of Canada]. Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools is an important component in China’s reform and development of higher education and is also a significant step for China’s education to integrate with international education. It is also an important component of China’s opening-up in education. In recent years, Chinese-foreign cooperation in education has been playing a significant role in uniting education resources both at home and abroad and pushing forward the joint efforts of building the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and cultural exchanges between Chinese and foreigners. Since the adoption of the reform and opening-up policy, China went through three different stages of exploring norms, adaptation and construction and developing substance in Chinese-foreign cooperative education.

5.2.1 The Stage of Exploring Norms of Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Education (1978–2000) In December 1978, the successful convening of the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee blew the horn of reform and opening-up. Since then, China has implemented reform and opening-up policy; therefore, Chinese-foreign cooperation in running school has been an important part of China’s reform, and opening-up in education ushered into the early stage of exploration. In 1985, the Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Educational System Reform was released, and the document pointed out that “China shall enhance foreign exchanges through all possible channels and build our educational career on the base of the achievement of contemporary world civilization”. Chinese-foreign cooperation in running school has become an important component of educational system reform. In 1986, Nanjing University and Johns Hopkins University, two prestigious universities in China and the United States, jointly founded Johns Hopkins University— Nanjing University Center for Chinese and American Studies. The Center enrolls 50 Chinese and US students every year and awards certificates to students who studied here for a whole year. This is the earliest long-term and international cooperation project in higher education, starting the chapter of cooperative education between Chinese educational institutions and foreign institutions. Since Johns Hopkins University—Nanjing University Center for Chinese and American Studies was founded, other regions around China followed suit; therefore, Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools became populous in China. In 1992, the Branch School of Korea University (Yanbian University of Science & Technology) was established. In 1994, SHU-UTB SILC Business School was built.

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The Outline of Education Reform and Development of China was published in 1993, which highlights that “China needs to further expand opening-up and enhance international education exchanges and cooperation and to absorb successful experiences in educational development and management from all countries around the world”. In the same year, the State Education Commission of the P.R.C. released the Notice of Chinese-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools in China to Foreign Institutions and Individuals, the Notice points out that “with the acceleration of China’s reform and opening-up and modernization, various of activities were carried out including sending and accepting visiting scholars and foreign students, expanding school-to-school exchange and cooperation, encouraging and accepting foreign private institutions and individuals to make donation in Chinese schools. Increasing numbers of foreign institutions and individuals contacted Chinese schools through various channels and expressed their willingness to cooperate in running schools”. Against such a backdrop, the Notice specified principles of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools. In 1995, the State Education Commission released the Interim Regulation on Chinese-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools (hereafter referred to as the Regulation), a provision on Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools that is the No. 1 provision being released after reform and opening-up. The Regulation points out a series of issues, including the status, definition, operation and supervision of Chineseforeign cooperative education. It also points out that “Chinese-foreign cooperation in education is an important form of China’s international exchange and cooperation in education. In addition, it also serves as a supplement to China’s education”. “Chinese-foreign cooperation in education refers to educational institutions founded by both foreign corporate institutions or individuals and Chinese educational institutions and other private organizations with corporate personality which mainly enroll Chinese citizens, and the schools will carry out educational activities in China”. The publication of the Regulation marks that Chinese-foreign cooperation in education has a policy and law base, pushing forward the joint operation of schools in a good order. During this period, starting from the cooperative project and with the aim of introducing high-quality educational resources, Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools went through the early stage exploration of norms and accumulated helpful experiences for future development.

5.2.2 The Stage of Adaptation and Construction (2001–2012) In 2001, China officially joined the World Trade Organization (WTO), which proposed greater requirements for the opening-up of China’s education. China needs to enhance international cooperation and exchanges in the educational sector. Paragraph 3, Article 10 of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the WTO stipulates that “apart from educational activities that under the absolute sponsorship of the government of each nation, all other educational activities charging

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tuition or with a commercial nature belongs to the category of educational service trade”. This requires that China integrate its domestic laws and regulations with those of the WTO. According to the regulation of the WTO, foreign educational institutions are allowed to carry out educational service trade that is commercial in nature. Chinese-foreign cooperation in education, as an important educational service trade, therefore entered the stage of adaptation and construction. Under this background, the Interim Regulation on Chinese-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools released in 1995 is obviously no longer suited for the need in the current stage. Thus, China successively amended many laws and regulations. In 2003, the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education came into being and was released. The Regulation specified the nature and status of Chinese-foreign cooperation in education, allowing jointly run schools to apply regulations. A year later, the Ministry of Education published the Implementation Measures for the Regulation of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education, which specifically unveiled how to implement the Regulation. The Regulation and the Measures were successively released, pushing forward the job of standardizing Chinese-foreign cooperative education and accelerating cooperation. To steadily improve the healthy development of Chinese-foreign cooperation in education, promote its quality, and standardize its order, a valuation system for Chinese-foreign collaborative education was established. In 2006, the Opinions of the Ministry of Education on Chinese-foreign Cooperative Education was released; a year later, the Notice of the Ministry of Education on Further Regulating Chineseforeign Cooperation in Running Schools was published; in 2009, the Notice of the General Office of the Ministry of Education on the Performance Valuation of Chinese-foreign Cooperation in Education was released. In 2010, the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020) was released. The Outline points out that “China needs to introduce high-quality educational resources and attract prestigious foreign schools, educational and science and technology institutions, companies to join hands with China to establish educational, training and research institutions and projects. China encourages all kinds of schools to carry out diversified international exchanges and cooperation and do a good job in running school and projects with foreign parties. She also encourages all schools to explore diversified methods in using high-quality educational resources”. To implement the Guideline, the MOE released the Notice on Enhancing the Regulation and Management of Chineseforeign Cooperation in Education in 2012, further specifying the management and supervision of the schools and improving the quality of the Cooperation. Overall, during this period, the establishment of cooperative education and implementation shall apply with laws and regulations, and the valuation of its performance was strengthened, which enhanced the government’s management, valuation and supervision of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools and projects and allowed cooperation to gradually step on the path of expanding opening-up, standardizing regulation, managing in accordance with law and boosting development. Chinese-foreign cooperation in education entered a fast growing period in this stage.

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By 2012, the number of Chinese foreign jointly built projects and institutions totaled 1,765; 732 were projects nurturing undergraduates or higher degree students, and 42 were institutions nurturing undergraduates or higher degree students.

5.2.3 The Stage of Developing the Substance of Education (2013 to the Present) In 2012, the Government Work Report of the 18th Party Congress put forward policy guidance for “improving quality and efficiency, developing substance”. Since then, Chinese-foreign cooperation in education entered the stage of developing substance. To enhance the result of Chinese-foreign cooperation in higher education and improve schools’ quality, in 2013, the MOE released the Opinion of the Ministry of Education on Further Safeguarding the Quality of Chinese-foreign Cooperation in Higher Education, in which they proposed 8 opinions. First, “to clarify the quality standard and set a general target.” The general target in maintaining the quality of Chinese-foreign cooperation in higher education refers to increasing the number of high-quality jointly built schools, signifying the brand and curriculum of schools, working out a batter and more rational layout of schools, facilitating the quality valuation and recognition system, building quality supervision and information publication platforms, contributing more to the reform of higher education, and giving greater support to national and local economic growth. Second, “to enhance comprehensive integration, improve layout and structure.” This refers to enhancing the integration of resources under different categories among different regions and of different disciplines. Third, “to facilitate the mechanism of introducing highquality educational resources.” This includes highlighting superior resources, supplementing advantages in cooperation, and expanding resource introduction channels. Fourth, “to standardize the management in cooperation.” This refers to improving the enrollment mechanism, safeguarding teachers’ capability, and standardizing fee management. Fifth, “to promote a quality valuation system.” This refers to facilitating a quality valuation system and establishing a quality valuation mechanism. Sixth, “to enhance quality supervision and industrial self-discipline.” This refers to strengthening the construction of supervision platforms, intensifying information publication, increasing law enforcement, and boosting industrial self-discipline. Seventh, “to advance reform and innovation, deliver greater support to Chineseforeign cooperation in education.” Eighth, “to intensify administration by different levels.” In 2016, the General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council jointly released the Opinions of the Opening-up of Education in the New Era, which raised higher requirements for Chinese-foreign cooperative education. The Opinion stresses that China shall improve its educational system and mechanism, carry out reform in its approval system, launch certification valuation, enhance exit mechanisms, increase information publication, and establish a sharing

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mechanism of successful experiences. In addition, centering on urgently needed specialties such as natural science and engineering, China shall introduce superior resources from other countries to comprehensively improve the quality of Chineseforeign cooperative education. In 2018, the General Office of the Ministry of Education released the Notice of the Approval to the Closing of Some Chinese-foreign Cooperative Institutions and Projects. According to the law, 5 Chinese-foreign cooperative institutions, such as Zhuoyue International Academy of University of International Business and Economics, were closed, and 234 Chinese-foreign cooperative projects, such as Master of Science in Dentistry between Peking University and Hong Kong University, ended. An exit mechanism was enforced, which became one of the most important tools for supervising Chinese-foreign cooperation in educational projects. In the year, President Xi Jinping pointed out at the National Education Conference that “China needs to expand opening-up, join hands with world leading practitioners in education to build schools and provide education, and improve the influence of China’s education in the international community”. General Secretary Xi Jinping’s remarks are important and point out a new direction for the new journey of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools in the new era. As a whole, during this period, with the increment of quality awareness and the enforcement of exit mechanisms, Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools stepped on the path of developing substance. It continuously showed that the cooperation transferred from quantitative development to the development of substance, it also shifted from imitation and replication of foreign model to self-innovation in education, moreover, it changed from high liquidity of students to the improvement of capacity. Chinese-foreign cooperative education gained more recognition in China and displayed greater influence in the international arena.

5.3 Current Development of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools During the two sessions of 2018, when answering the questions relating to Chineseforeign cooperation in education from journalists, the minister of MOE Chen Baosheng said “since the adoption of reform and opening-up 40 years ago, China’s education achieved progresses by future opening-up to the world. We champion the principle of bringing in and going global, we learned from the best practices of all other countries and unswervingly built China’s education with Chinese characteristics.” Since the reform and opening-up, Chinese-foreign cooperation in education developed from scratch and expanded from a small scale to a large scale. By December 2018, China approved 2,389 cases of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running projects

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or schools, and among them, 90% were schools or projects providing higher education. Currently, the number of students in schools totaled approximately 600,000, and their graduates topped 1.6 million.1 According to the latest data (29th April 2019) of the supervision and information publication platform of Chinese-foreign cooperation in education of P.R.C., to date, the number of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running undergraduate university is 65 and that of cooperative projects stood at 789. Among them, Chineseforeign cooperative institutions nurturing undergraduates are (3 in Beijing) Centrale Pekin, Beijing-Dublin International College at BJUT, Faculty of International Media, Communication University of China; (9 in Shanghai) China-German College of Applied Sciences at Tongji University, China-European School of Technology of Shanghai University, China-British College-University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, University of Michigan-Shanghai Jiaotong University Joint Institute, SHU-UTS SILC Business School, NYU Shanghai, SJTU-Paris Tech Elite Institute of Technology, Shanghai International College of Fashion and Innovation-Donghua University, China-German College-University of Shanghai for Science and Technology; (1 in Tianjin) China-European Institute of Aviation Engineering; (4 in Chongqing) Modern International Art Design Academy of CTBU, Meishi Film Academy of Chongqing University, International Business School of CTBU, Westa College-Southwest University; (8 in Jiangsu) Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, North American College-Jiangnan University, China-French Institute-Renmin University of China, Duke Kunshan University, China-French Engineer School of NUST, NUIST Reading Academy, JSNU-SPbPU Institute of Engineering-Jiangsu Normal University, Joint Institute of Nanjing Tech University and The University of Sheffield-Nanjing Tech University; (6 in Zhejiang) University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Chinese-German Institute of Engineering at Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Wenzhou-Kean University, ZJU-UoE Institute-Zhejiang University, ZJU-UIUC Institute, the University of Waikato Joint Institute at Zhejiang University City College; (7 in Guangdong) Beijing Normal University-HongKong Baptist University United International College, China-French Institute of Nuclear Engineering & Technology-Sun Yat-sen University, SYSU-CMU Joint Institute of Engineering, the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen), Jinan University— University of Birmingham Joint Institute, Shenzhen MSU-BIT University, Guangdong Technion-Israel Institute of Technology; (5 in Shandong) International Business School of Shandong Institute of Business and Technology, China-German Technology Faculty of Qingdao University of Science and Technology, International Communication School of Shandong Agricultural University, Ulsan Ship And Ocean College-Ludong University, Lancaster University College at Beijing Jiaotong University; (3 in Sichuan) Sichuan University-Pittsburgh Institute, SWJTULeeds Joint School, UESTC-UoGJEP; (1 in Hebei) HBU-UCLan School of Media, Communication and Creative Industries; (2 in Henan) Zhengzhou Sias University, Miami College of Henan University; (1 in Hubei) Birmingham Institute of Fashion and Creative Art-Wuhan Textile University; (1 in Hunan) Bangor College, Central 1

Jianhui and Huirong (2018).

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South University of Forestry and Technology; (2 in Shannxi) Queen Mary University of London Engineering School, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Moscow Institute of Arts-WNU; (I in Shanxi) China-Germen School of Shanxi University of Finance and Economics; (8 in Liaoning) China-Dutch Biomedical and Information Engineering School of Northeastern University, Asia-Australia Business College of Liaoning University, Sun Wah International Business School-Liaoning University, LNU-MSU College of International Business, International Business School of Shenyang Normal University, Surrey International Institute-Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, DUT-RU International School of Information Science Engineering at DUT, China Medical University—The Queen’s University of Belfast Joint College; (3 in Jilin) Jilin University-Lambton College, Yanbian University of Science & Technology, Rutgers University Newark Institute at NENU. By 2018, since China joined the WTO, 9 Chinese-foreign cooperative institutions with independent corporate personalities received approval from the Ministry of Education, namely, the University of Nottingham—Ningbo (approved in 2005), Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University (approved in 2006), Beijing Normal UniversityHong Kong Baptist University United International College (approved in 2006), Shanghai New York University (approved in 2012), Kunshan Duke University (approved in 2013), Wenzhou-Kean University (approved in 2014), the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Shenzhen) (approved in 2014), Guangdong TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology (approved in 2015), and Shenzhen MSU-BIT University (approved in 2016). All these schools are allowed to nurture undergraduates in China. Together with the Cheung Kong Graduate School of Business, there are 10 Chinese-foreign cooperative institutions with independent corporate personalities. Today, Chinese-foreign cooperative institutions are quite successful in the Chinese educational sector. It displayed a unique and conducive role in creating a talent nurturing model, advancing the nurturing of international talent, and pushing forward reform in higher education and the construction of international education. To this end, we will continue to learn and draw best practices and good experiences of education careers from other countries and perform our duty in improving China’s education with Chinese characteristics.

5.4 Case Study of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools—With Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool as an Example 5.4.1 Basic Situation Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University is located at Suzhou, Jiangsu. It was founded in May 2006 and approved by the Ministry of Education of P.R.C. The university was cofounded by Xi’an Jiaotong University and the University of Liverpool, and it is one of the nine comprehensive universities in China under the project of Chinese-foreign

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cooperation in education. The university awards degrees of both Xi’an Jiaotong University and University of Liverpool to graduates.

5.4.2 Curriculum Setting Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University has 14 departments and 3 research centers, as shown in the Table 4.1. For the curriculum setting of Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, one can see that the International Business School Suzhou has an outstanding status and is the major discipline of the university. Business schools based on foreign leading teachers’ teacher teams and teaching philosophy try to nurture more international talent with strong application capability. As a whole, the university has more science curricula than art curricula, the second best performers are design and film production departments, and few art professions have been set. Most of its professions have strong application capacity. This also responds to the teaching philosophy of the school that “Happy life and successful career”. Apart from the Western cultural curriculum, the university also set Chinese and traditional Chinese cultural curricula, indicating its teaching philosophy of integrating superior Chinese and foreign culture. The teaching philosophy effectively integrated the essence of Eastern and Western culture and educational experiences of both sides, united global resources in education. It is conducive to nurturing Chinese citizens’ global perspective and international competitiveness and will impact the education of both China and the world.

5.4.3 Teachers Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University has a team of teachers with outstanding capability, and the university applied the employment standard of world prestigious universities to select teachers. Today, the university has 600 teachers, and most of them are foreigners graduating from prestigious universities and have an educational degree of doctors and even post doctors. They have rich experiences in teaching and superior foreign studying backgrounds, laying a sound foundation for the nurturing of international talent.

5.4.4 Study in XJTLU The University has two major nurturing models. The first is “2 + 2”, which refers to studying at Xi’an Jiaotong University in the first two years and completing the study at the University of Liverpool in the remaining two years. The second is “4 + X”, which means that if students completed study in XJTLU, they can make decisions on

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Table 4.1 Departments of Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University Department

Profession

Architecture

Architecture, Architecture & Construction, Architecture Design

Biological Sciences

Molecular Bioscience, Bioinformatics, Biological Sciences

Chemistry

Applied Chemistry, Chemistry

China Studies

Chinese International Education, China Studies

Civil Engineering

Sustainable Construction, Architectural Engineering

Computer Science and Software Engineering

Applied Informatics, Social Computing Technology, Information and Computing Science

Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Electronic Science and Technology, Telecommunication Engineering

English

Media English, English and Communication Studies, English and International Business

Industrial Design

Industrial Design

International Business School Suzhou

Economics, Economics and Finance, Business Administration, Marketing, Project Management, Accounting, Business Analytics

International Relations

International Relations

Mathematical Sciences

Applied Mathematics, Actuarial Science, Financial Mathematics

School of Film and TV Arts

Communication Studies, Communication and Television Studies, Film and Television Production, Digital Media Arts

Leadership and Education Research Center

International Education, National Academic English Teaching

Urban Planning and Design

Urban Planning and Design, Urban Planning

Health and Environmental Sciences

Public Health, Environmental Science

Education and Art Center Chinese Cultural Teaching Centre

Literature and Art, History and Social Research, Science, Application Capability

Language Center

English, Chinese

Physical Education Center

Frisbee, Tai Chi, Yoga

whether to study abroad, find jobs or start their own business. As long as students who achieved the need credits, they will be awarded undergraduate degrees and diplomas from both Xi’an Jiaotong University and the University of Liverpool, the two degrees and diplomas enjoy worldwide recognition.

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5.4.5 Influence In summary, XJTLU is a new typical case of China in exploring higher educational reform in the new era and digitalization. It represents an example of Chineseforeign cooperation in running comprehensive schools, and its birth, development and exploration are showcasing the courage and confidence of China in the international arena. XJTLU actively united leading domestic and foreign educational resources and explored teaching, science and technology research, and social services. It boosted the reform and new exploration of China’s reform in higher education and injected a new impetus into the world’s higher education development.

Reference Jianhui X, Huirong C (2018) Chinese-foreign cooperation in running school walked out a ‘Chinese path’. CHISA (12)

Chapter 6

Overseas School Start-Up of China’s International Education

6.1 Historical Development of Overseas Education As a part of the going global strategy, Chinese overseas education is in line with its bring-in strategy of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools. It has gradually emerged and developed along with China’s increasing opening-up to the outside world and growing strength in higher education. At present, overseas education is playing an increasingly important role in promoting China’s education to the world and enhancing people-to-people exchanges. The development of China’s overseas education can be divided into the following 3 phases:

6.1.1 Experience Exploration (1978–2000) China has been exploring the experience of running schools overseas from 1978 to 2000. At this phase, along with Chinese universities’ increasing autonomy in running schools and the gradual improvement of higher education quality, overseas school start-ups carried out by universities have gradually become a reality. The Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Education System, released in May 1985, pointed out that the weak points of the current higher education management system were “in the division of educational management authority, the relevant government departments have been too rigid in governing schools, mainly higher education institutions, leading to the lack of vitality that institutions should have; and what the government should manage has not been well managed.” Therefore, “the key to the current reform of the higher education system is to change the government’s over-centralized management system for higher education and to expand the autonomy of higher education institutions under the guidance of the national unified education policy”. Against the backdrop

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_5

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of this educational system reform, Chinese colleges and universities started to run schools abroad. In February 1993, the Outline of China’s Educational Reform and Development issued by the Party Central Committee and the State Council clearly stated that “the relationship between the government and higher education shall be defined according to the principle of separating the functions of government from those of public institutions; the rights and obligations of higher education institutions shall be clarified through legislation, and higher education institutions shall be legal entities that can run schools independently for the society.” The Outline further clarified the autonomy of higher education institutions in running schools. In 1995, to promote the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education, the Chinese government launched Project 211 in the field of higher education, with the intent of developing 100 key universities and a number of key disciplines oriented to the twenty-first century. In 1999, the Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China came into effect. The law emphasized that “the state encourages and supports international exchanges and cooperation in higher education” and that “institutions of higher learning independently carry out scientific, technological and cultural exchanges and cooperation with overseas institutions of higher learning in accordance with relevant state regulations.” In the same year, to meet the needs of China’s modernization in the twenty-first century, the Chinese government launched Project 985 in the field of higher education to promote the development and reputation of the Chinese higher education system by founding world-class universities in the twenty-first century. Project 211 and Project 985, along with the promulgation and implementation of the Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, have jointly promoted the rapid development, strength and international influence of China’s higher education.

6.1.2 Systematic Regulation and Policy Making (2001–2012) After China’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, running schools abroad has become an effective carrier and an important method for China to carry out trade in educational services. Therefore, it is imperative that specific and standardized policies pertaining to overseas education be issued. After a year of deliberation, in December 2002, the Ministry of Education issued the first policy and regulation that systematically regulated overseas education, the Interim Measures Governing Universities and Colleges Engaged in Overseas Education (hereinafter referred to as the Measures). The Measures defined the concept of overseas start-up of higher education institutions as “the universities and colleges that establish, independently or jointly with the educational institutions and other social organizations that have the status of legal person and are acknowledged by the government of the country (region) where they are located, educational institutions abroad mainly for recruiting overseas citizens as students, or adopt other forms to engage

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in educational institution and teaching activities, to engage in diploma education, degree education and non-diploma higher education.” The Measures emphasized that “the universities and colleges engaged in overseas education shall adhere to the policies of exploring actively, progressing steadily, doing according to their abilities, ensuring the quality, managing normatively and running school in accordance with the law; the universities and colleges engaged in overseas education shall be in conformity with relevant provisions of China, shall abide by the law and regulations of country (region) where they are located, shall obtain relevant legal qualifications and shall take relevant underliabilities.” In terms of the disciplinary division and setting, the Measures required that “the universities and colleges engaged in overseas education shall first establish the preponderant or distinctive studies in the sphere of Chinese higher education and take full account of the needs and the development features of country (region) where they are located; the state encourages universities and colleges to run schools abroad in a wider range of disciplinary fields; where universities and colleges engaged in overseas education confer Chinese diploma education and degrees, the establishment of specialties and schooling system shall be in conformity with relevant provisions of China, ensuring the quality and the standing credit of Chinese higher education.” The Measures also made clear of the application and approval procedures of higher education institutions to run schools overseas. The Measures pointed out that “where a university or college is engaged in undergraduate degree education or on a higher level, it shall file an application to the Ministry of Education upon check and approval by the people’s government or the administrative department of education of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government according to the relationship of subordination; where a university or college is engaged in professional training and non-diploma higher education, it shall file an application to the people’s government of the province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central Government or the administrative department of education in charge, for check and approval; within 15 days as of the approval, the checking and approving organs shall report the approved documents to the Ministry of Education for archivist purposes.” The promulgation of the Measures laid out the rules for the overseas education activities of Chinese higher education institutions that have been continuously developing for many years to follow. At the same time, it also played a positive role in enabling China to better adapt to the requirements of the new situation brought by China’s accession to the WTO, promoting its educational exchange and cooperation with foreign countries, and improving the international competitiveness of China’s higher education. Since then, there has been a legal basis and framework for the overseas educational activities of colleges and universities to operate under, and China’s overseas education has then stepped onto a standardized track. In March 2004, to systematically implement the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science, education and talent and accelerate the reform and development of education, the State Council approved the 2003–2007 Action Plan for Revitalizing Education proposed by the Ministry of Education (hereinafter referred to as the Plan). The Plan emphasized the importance of vigorously promoting teaching

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Chinese as a foreign language and actively exploring the international education service market, strengthening the teaching of other disciplines with advantages or Chinese characteristics abroad, and encouraging qualified educational institutions to run schools abroad. In 2010, the Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development 2010–2020 (hereinafter referred to as the Outline) was released. The Outline clearly stated that “China’s high-level education institutions should be encouraged to run schools overseas, to strengthen international exchanges in education, and to extensively carry out international cooperation and education services.” With the guidance of a series of policies, China’s overseas education has taken a steady step forward.

6.1.3 Improvement and Encouragement (2013 to the Present) Chinese President Xi Jinping in 2013 proposed the Belt and Road Initiative to promote the economic development of various countries and regional economic cooperation, strengthen exchanges and mutual learning among different civilizations, and promote the peaceful development of the world as a whole. As an important carrier of bringing China’s education outward, overseas education shoulders a new historical responsibility. Several Opinions on the Opening-up of Education in the New Era issued by the general office of the CPC Central Committee and the general office of the State Council in April 2016 made strategic plans for the development of China’s international education in the next five years. It is also the first guidance document on opening education to the outside world since the founding of the P.R.C. In terms of overseas education, the Opinion emphasized “improving the system and mechanism to enhance the quality of foreign-related schooling” and “encouraging higher education institutions and vocational colleges to cooperate with enterprises to go out, encouraging social forces to participate in overseas school start-up, and steadily promoting overseas education”. The promulgation of the Opinions pointed out a clear direction for the development of overseas education in the new era. According to the report deviled at the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2017, new and higher requirements were set in terms of overseas education based on a series of new thoughts on China’s opening-up to the outside world and the construction of a community with a shared future for mankind. At this stage, overseas education was continuously improving through standardization. Administrative approval and the Interim Measures Governing Universities and Colleges Engaged in Overseas Education have been successively abolished. The Ministry of Education mentioned in its Annual Report 2018 that “opinions should be developed to encourage and standardize the overseas running of higher education institutions.”

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6.2 Current Situations of China’s Overseas Education Running schools abroad are an important form of cross-border education in the world. It is also of crucial importance for China to develop its international education and contribute China’s plan and wisdom to the solution of human problems through the introduction of its education to the world. Since entering the twenty-first century, with China’s comprehensive national strength getting stronger and its education increasingly going global, colleges and universities have significantly stepped up their efforts in running schools overseas. As of 2018, 84 universities in 21 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities across the country have organized 5 institutions and 128 educational projects overseas. Among them, the 5 overseas institutions are Laos Soochow University (2011), Yunnan University of Finance and Economics Bangkok Business School (2013), Beijing Language and Culture University Tokyo College (2015), Beijing Normal University Cardiff Chinese College (2015) and Xiamen University Malaysia (2016). The 128 overseas education projects are mainly located in Asia, such as the higher Maritime Education Project jointly organized by Dalian Maritime University and Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College and the undergraduate Traditional Chinese Medicine project jointly organized by Beijing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. China’s overseas cooperation education projects cover students at different educational levels, namely, vocational, undergraduate and graduate levels, with undergraduate education being the focus. At present, the disciplines that China’s overseas education focuses on have expanded from traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese language to economic and engineering fields. The quality of overseas education has also improved significantly, as has China’s influence in exporting its cross-border higher education model. With an increasing number of policies issued to standardize China’s overseas education, overseas education is bound to achieve greater development in serving the country’s going global strategy and facilitating the Belt and Road Initiative.

6.3 Real Case Study—Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka Campus) 6.3.1 Basic Information Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka campus) was established jointly by Dalian Maritime University and Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College in Sri Lanka in 2006. The campus was open for enrollment in Sri Lanka in 2007. This campus not only helps fill the gap in Sri Lanka’s higher maritime education but also exports China’s higher maritime education for the first time, as it is one of the earliest overseas education projects carried out by Chinese higher education institutions. In 2011, with the support of the education authorities in two countries and the joint

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efforts of the relevant departments of two universities, the project extended to the postgraduate level. In the same year, the first batch of postgraduates started their journey at this project. By the end of 2017, the coverage of the programs provided by Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka campus) had been expanding, from mere undergraduate programs to a holistic education structure, specifically speaking, three undergraduate programs including Nautical Technology, Marine Engineering, and Transportation, three master programs, including Transportation Planning and Management, Maritime Safety and Environmental Management, and Logistics Supply Chain Management, and a doctoral program in Transportation Planning and Management. The cooperation project has had a great impact on Sri Lanka’s shipping industry and maritime education. By early 2018, 220 people graduated from this campus, including 211 undergraduates, 8 postgraduates and 1 doctoral candidate.

6.3.2 Education Mechanism Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka campus) adopts the teaching plans and syllabuses of China’s maritime education to train higher maritime talent with a bachelor’s degree or above for Sri Lanka. In terms of student enrollment, Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College is responsible for publicizing the features and merits of the campus and enrolling at least 10 qualified students for each master program. Then, Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College will review the basic information of applicants and organize entrance examinations (written and interview) based on the minimum standards set by Dalian Maritime University. Dalian Maritime University will decide on the final admission list according to the qualifications of applicants and their performance in the written examination and interview. In terms of teaching, Dalian Maritime University is responsible for formulating training plans and evaluating the relevant teaching materials of Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College before each course starts, including but not limited to the courses’ names, syllabuses, teaching materials, focuses of the courses, model test papers, scoring and administrative forms. All courses are jointly taught by teachers from Dalian Maritime University and Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College. Moreover, Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College is responsible for the management and organization work of the campus, including the arrangement of classrooms and related facilities, the provision of broadband networks and computer rooms to students, accommodations and other related staff. In terms of the thesis instruction, the project adopts a two-tutor system, meaning that both Dalian Maritime University and Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College will assign a teacher as a tutor for each student. The tutor from Dalian Maritime University will be the first tutor, while the tutor from Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College will be the second tutor who will supervise

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all the aspects of the thesis writing of students, be it at master level or Ph.D. level. The aforementioned aspects include research proposal, mid-term evaluation, graduation defense, etc. In the process of thesis supervision and inspection, Dalian Maritime University and Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College have set up an academic committee to supervise the implementation of the whole cooperation project. This committee is also responsible for guiding and approving the employment of teaching faculty, evaluating their teaching performance on courses and programs, and ensuring the quality of courses and programs through inspection and evaluation feedback. Dalian Maritime University is in charge of the recruitment and assignment of teaching faculty for the project. When necessary, relevant teachers from Dalian Maritime University will be assigned to teach at Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College. Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College will send the curriculum vitae and qualification certifications of the tutors to Dalian Maritime University in advance for evaluation and confirmation (Lixin et al. 2018).

6.3.3 Influence of the Cooperation Project Drawing on the profound historical accumulation and rapid development of higher maritime education in China, Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka campus) has been recognized worldwide for its high-quality education outcome. The graduates of Sri Lanka campus stand out in both professional knowledge and professional accomplishment and are sought after by many enterprises. The degree awarded by Dalian Maritime University is also certified by Sri Lanka’s Ministry of Education and University Committee and is equivalent to the degree awarded by Sri Lanka’s public universities.1 Today, Dalian Maritime University (Sri Lanka campus) has become an example of Chinese universities running schools overseas and a maritime education project widely recognized in the international shipping community.

Reference Lixin, Shen, et al. (2018) Practice and enlightenment of Dalian Maritime University overseas campus. Marit.E Educ Res (3):26–27.

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This reporter. Dalian Maritime University has a campus in Sri Lanka. China Traffic News, 2017– 12–15.

Chapter 7

People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges of China’s International Education with the World

7.1 Origin of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges with the World When the People’s Republic of China was founded, people-to-people and cultural exchange was an important part of China’s work in the fields of foreign affairs, playing a significant role in the overall external work arrangement. China had not established diplomatic relations with many countries at that time, but through cultural exchange projects and activities, China gradually closed the distance with people around the world, laying the foundation for the development of diplomatic affairs. At the time, Premier Zhou Enlai, who served concurrently as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, regarded cultural exchange and economic cooperation as the “Two Wings” of China’s political diplomacy. Without them, diplomacy would be without the most powerful assistance. It is evident that people-to-people and cultural exchanges were of great significance in the early founding of the People’s Republic of China.

7.2 The Historical Development of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchange with the World Since Reform and Opening-Up At its early stage, China’s international education was mainly featured by dispatching students abroad and introducing high-quality resources for operating schools and cultivating talent. With the continuous improvement of China’s overall national and educational strength, people-to-people and cultural exchange that was based on academic communication, personnel exchange and carrier platforms showed an increasingly strong position in serving the grand national strategy and connecting people at home and abroad. The connotation of China’s international education is enriched by the vigorous development of people-to-people and cultural exchange. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_6

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“Friendship, which derives from close contact between the people, holds the key to sound state-to-state relations.” Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, China has spared no effort in advocating new international relations and building a community with a shared future for mankind. People-to-people and cultural exchanges opened up a new situation, which has become one of three pillars of China’s foreign relations. The development of China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges with the world can be sorted into three stages.

7.2.1 Exploring and Learning (1978–1989) In 1978, China made a breakthrough by dispatching a large number of international students abroad and accepting foreign students to study in China, which was the prelude to China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges with the world after the reform and opening-up. China and the United States formally established diplomatic relations in 1979. In 1980, the two countries officially resumed the Fulbright Program with the purpose of “promoting cooperation and communication in the field of education basing on the principles of equality, reciprocity and mutual benefit.” With the support of the program, the educators, researchers, professionals and students of China and the United States went to each other’s country for studying, researching and teaching. Meanwhile, China carried out a variety of people-to-people and cultural exchange activities with the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Japan and other African, Asian and Latin American countries. In 1981, with the approval of the State Council, the China Education Association for International Exchange (CEAIE), which is a civil group nationwide for external educational exchanges, was established. Its objective is to actively promote cooperation and communication of China’s educational sector with all countries and regions around the world, enhance understanding and friendship and boost the development of education, science and cultural undertakings. In 1983, the Chinese Teaching and Research Institute of the Chinese Society of Education (CSE) was established. It contributed to the teaching of Chinese as a foreign language mainly through organizing national, regional and thematic academic seminars, compiling and publishing books and journals, exchanging scientific research results, teaching experience and academic information. The institute set up a bridge for exchanging Chinese culture with the world and enhancing the friendship and solidarity of the people. In 1984, the first nationwide civil organization for external cultural exchanges, the China International Cultural Exchange Center (CICEC), was officially established. In 1986, the nonprofit nationwide civil group—the China International Culture Association (CICA)—was officially established under the direct guidance and support of the Ministry of Culture. On the basis of equality and mutual benefit, CICA communicates and cooperates with relevant agencies of the world on exchanging

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personnel and information, organizing theoretical performances, exhibitions, international competitions and cultural and academic seminars. In 1987, an international academic organization that connects world Chinese teaching and researching personnel—International Society for Chinese Language Teaching (ISCLT), was established for adapting to the flourishing situation of Chinese teaching and researching, enhancing the mutual understanding and friendship of Chinese teaching communities around the world, and carrying out extensive academic exchanges. As an international academic organization, ISCLT’s mission is to “promote the teaching of and researching on Chinese for international communication and cooperation; boost the development of Chinese teaching and researching in the globe; strengthen the connection of teaching and researching personnel over the globe; deepen the mutual understanding and cooperation of people around the world and contribute to maintaining world peace.” Generally, China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges were in the process of exploring and learning from other countries during this period, focusing mainly on the fields of education, culture and sports. Efforts from both the governmental and civil sides deepened the understanding of the actual situation between China and the world.

7.2.2 Strengthening Trust and Removing Doubts (1990–2012) In the 1990s, the international community experienced tremendous changes. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the international political landscape changed profoundly. Western countries began to frequently issue objection against China and discredit the image of China in the international community. To demonstrate its image as a country that cherishes harmony, China has organized a series of large-scale cultural exchange activities with “99 Paris-China Cultural Week” and “Chinese Culture’s Tour in US” as major examples. On September 1, 1999, the “99 Paris-China Culture Week” jointly organized by the Information Office of the State Council of China and UNESCO was grandly opened in Paris, which was the largest cultural exchange event held by China in Europe since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. It presented to the international community China’s 5,000 years of civilization and its achievements in fields such as education, science and culture within 50 years after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, especially in 20 years since the reform and opening-up, as well as Chinese people’s uplifting spirit and confidence in welcoming twenty-first century. Since August 24, 2000, the 25 days of “Chinese Culture’s Tour in US” in the form of large-scale cultural performances, exhibitions and speeches were delivered in 8 countries and UN headquarters more than 20 times, with more than 100,000

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American citizens attending all walks of life. The American audience not only had the chance to appreciate the profoundness and artistic charm of Chinese culture but also deepened their understanding of China’s achievements and the new spirit of the Chinese people. “Chinese Culture’s Tour in US” promoted cultural exchanges between China and the United States, enhanced mutual understanding and friendship between the two people and yielded satisfying results. After entering the twenty-first century, China joined the World Trade Organization and further integrated it into the world economic community. In 2004, the then Chinese President Hu Jintao proposed the idea of building a “harmonious society.” In the same year, in order to better convey China’s “harmonious” philosophy, develop friendly relations between China and the rest of the world, further enhance the understanding of Chinese language and culture among people around the world, and provide convenient and benign learning conditions for Chinese learners in other countries, Chinese government decided to establish “Confucius Institute” in countries that have the demands and qualified conditions, with the main activities focusing on Chinese language teaching. The Charter of Confucius Institute clearly stipulates that as a nonprofit educational organization, the aim of the Confucius Institute is to enhance the understanding of the Chinese language and culture around the world, establish friendly relations between China and foreign countries, boost the development of multiculturalism and contribute to building a harmonious world. Faced with a world of huge adjustment and change, China proposed a new concept of a “harmonious world” in 2005 and clarified its long-term goal of joining hands with people around the world to promote the establishment of a harmonious world featuring long-lasting peace and common prosperity. The concept and goal fundamentally responded to the international community’s doubts about China’s social trends in the future, counterattacked various “China threat theories” and answered the question of what kind of world human beings hope to have and how to build such a world. China successfully hosted the 29th International Olympic Games in 2008 and the Shanghai World Expo in 2010. These major international people-to-people and cultural exchange events once again showed the world the warm and friendly image of China. Generally, the people-to-people and cultural exchanges at this stage were through various forms of cultural, educational and artistic expressions that are of profound history. It delivered China’s philosophy of “precious harmony”, “peaceful development” and “harmony without uniformity” and allowed the world to understand real China.

7.2.3 Overall Planning (2013 to the Present) Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the Party Central Committee with General Secretary Xi Jinping as the core has attached great importance to China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges. In October 2014,

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Xi Jinping pointed out at the Symposium on Literature and Art: “The literary and art workers should tell the Chinese story well, spread the Chinese voice, explain the spirit of China and show the Chinese style and features to let foreign citizens deepen their understanding of China through appreciating the works of Chinese writers and artists. It is necessary to publicize and promote China’s excellent culture and art to the world so that they can feel the charm and deepen the understanding of Chinese culture in the aesthetic appreciation process.” Under the guidance of “telling Chinese stories and spreading Chinese voices”, China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges with the world have shown a thriving trend, achieving integration in various fields such as education, science and technology, culture, health and sports. In July 2017, General Secretary Xi Jinping presided over the Central Committee’s leaders group meeting on comprehensively deepening reform, during which Several Opinions on Improving China’s People-to-people and Cultural Exchanges was issued. This was the first time that the party and the state formulated special documents for China’s people-to-people and cultural exchanges with the world, which pointed out a new direction for future undertakings in the new era. In October 2017, General Secretary Xi Jinping re-emphasized in the report of the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China to “promote the cultural exchanges between China and abroad, take the initiative and stick to inclusiveness, improve the ability of international communication, tell the story of China and strengthen the national soft power by presenting a real, three-dimensional and comprehensive image of China”. In November 2017, with the research and decision of the leading party group of Ministry of Education, based on the State Commission Office of Public Sectors Reform’s Approval of Adjusting and Establishing the International Cultural Exchange Center under Ministry of Education (State Commission Office of Public Sectors Reform [2016] 158), the International Cultural Exchange Center was officially established to implement the strategic plan of the Party Central Committee and the State Council on strengthening China’s people-to-people and cultural exchange with the world. The main duties of the center are to undertake the specific organization and implementation of China’s people-to-people and cultural exchange programs, participate in the organization of high-level meetings, coordinate and cooperate with the foreign counterparts of cultural exchanges, publicize and promote the achievements of the exchanges. The establishment of the International Cultural Exchange Center will better facilitate the opening-up of China’s educational sector. During this period, people-to-people and cultural exchanges were planned, and the overall layout was basically established. China has gradually formed an all-round, multilevel and wide-ranging pattern of foreign exchanges. By the end of 2018, nine people-to-people cultural exchange mechanisms were designed, specifically between China and Russia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe, France, Indonesia, South Africa, Germany and India. The abovementioned mechanisms not only effectively coordinated 16 domestic central departments and units but also promoted the 37 governments, departments and units of foreign countries and regions as well as relevant Chinese and foreign institutions and social organizations to participate in the

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activities within the mechanism. In the past five years, the nine major mechanisms have held 26 meetings and more than 250 supporting activities, signed more than 260 cooperation agreements, and reached nearly 2,500 concrete results. People-to-people and cultural exchanges have been steadily pushed forward with fruitful results.

7.3 Current Situation of China’s People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges Humans live in a connected society in which cultural exchanges among different countries are of particular importance. General Secretary Xi Jinping once stressed that “In today’s world, all countries are interdependent and share a common future. We should renew our commitment to the purposes and principles of the UN Charter, build a new type of international relations featuring win–win cooperation, and create a community of shared future for mankind.” Strengthening the exchanges with foreign countries is a crucial part of China’s work, which serves as a shortcut to deepen its degree of opening-up. By the end of 2016, China had established educational cooperation and exchange relations with 188 countries and regions, conducted educational communication and cooperation with 46 major international organizations, and signed mutual recognition agreements for academic degrees with 47 countries and regions. According to statistics from the Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban), by the end of 2017, China established 516 Confucius Institutes and 1,076 Confucius classrooms at the elementary and secondary school levels in 142 countries and regions around the world. In addition to teaching Chinese, Confucius Institutes in these countries also offer special courses in business, Chinese medicine, martial arts, art, food, tourism and vocational skills training. The founding and development of the Confucius Institute greatly promoted the “Mandarin Craze” around the world, effectively spreading traditional Chinese culture and enhancing the understanding of the Chinese language and culture, developing friendly relations between China and foreign countries, promoting the development of multiculturalism and contributing to building a harmonious world. In addition, China has successively established nine high-level mechanisms for people-to-people and cultural exchanges with Russia, the United States, the United Kingdom, the European Union, France, Indonesia, South Africa, Germany and India. Since 2009, primary and secondary school students from Shanghai and other places in China have won first prize two consecutive times in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) held by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), winning a world reputation. Developed countries, especially the United Kingdom, started to learn from China’s experience. With the platform of China-British peopleto-people and cultural exchanges, the “China-UK Mathematics Teacher Exchange Program” was launched around 2015, when the British government dispatched more than 70 experts in mathematics teaching to study in China and invited more than 130 Shanghai mathematics teachers to the UK to carry out demonstration classes and

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promoted Shanghai’s method of mathematics teaching in 8,000 primary schools. From January 2018, more than 8,400 primary schools in the UK could choose to use translated Chinese mathematics textbooks.

7.4 Case Analysis of People-To-People and Cultural Exchanges—Example of China-US High-Level Consultation Mechanism 7.4.1 Background of Establishment In April 2009, Liu Yandong, State Councilor of China at the time, proposed expanding China-US people-to-people and cultural exchanges and establishing highlevel consultations during his meeting with Hillary Clinton, the then US Secretary of State, and received a positive response. In November of the same year, during the US President Barack Obama’s visit to China and his meeting with the then Chinese President Hu Jintao, an important consensus was reached on strengthening cultural exchanges between the two countries. The two governments agreed to establish a new bilateral mechanism that was enshrined in the China-US Joint Statement. On May 25, 2010, the China-US high-level consultation mechanism for people-to-people and cultural exchanges was officially established in Beijing, and the first meeting was held.

7.4.2 Main Content The China-US high-level consultation mechanism for people-to-people and cultural exchanges is a brand new mechanism focusing on fields such as education, science, culture and sports. The chairman of the Chinese side is taken charge of by the vicepremier level official, with the secretary of state serving as the counterpart of the US side. After its establishment of the mechanism, high-level consultation meetings will be held annually in two countries in turn, with the fields of communication and cooperation including education, science, culture, sports and others related.

7.4.3 Major Programs Since the first round of the high-level consultation mechanism was carried out in 2010, China and the US mainly launched the following people-to-people and

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cultural exchanging programs: US-China Friendship Volunteers (USCFV), USChina State/Provincial Education Leaders Dialogue, Exchange Program for Prominent High School Graduates, Exchange Program for University Professors, Fulbright Program, Fulbright-Hayes Program, Government Funded Overseas Study of PhD for 10,000 Chinese Students in US, Special Scholarship for 10,000 Participants of China-US Cultural Exchanges, “Chinese Bridge” Research and Study Program, China-US 1,000 Schools Hands Together Program, Zhi-Xing China: Young Scholars Program, Pilot Classes of Distinguished Principals at Primary and Secondary School Level, 100,000 Americans Studying in China Program, One Million Strong Initiative, Zhi-Xing China: Academic Impact Program, Zhi-Xing China: US-China University Students Leader Academy, China-US Applied Technology Education “100–100” Plan, Program for US-China Personnel Training.

7.4.4 Meaning The high-level consultation mechanism for people-to-people and cultural exchanges has been continuously improved since its establishment in 2010. The fields of cooperation have transformed from education, science and technology, culture, sports, women, youth and hygiene to education, science and technology, environmental protection, culture, hygiene, social development and regional cooperation of peopleto-people and cultural affairs. Almost every round of high-level consultation brought about new highlights. For instance, the Government Funded Overseas Study of Ph.D. for 10,000 Chinese Students in US project and “Chinese Bridge” program started from the 1st round of consultation; the Young Chinese Scientists Visiting the US and the US-China State/Provincial Education Leaders Dialogue in the 3rd round; the China-US 1,000 Schools Hands Together Program in the 5th round; the Zhi-Xing China: Young Scholars Program in the 6th round; the Pilot Classes of Distinguished Principals at Primary and Secondary School Level in the 7th round. These exchange projects have promoted mutual trust and benefit from multiple perspectives in an all-round manner. At present, the high-level consultation mechanism for people-to-people and cultural exchanges has become an important platform for China-US cooperation, which opens up a new situation for the mutual understanding and win–win outcomes of the two countries. Taking Chinese learning as an example, in 2009, Obama, the president of the United States at the time, announced the “100,000 Strong Initiative”, proposing to send 100,000 American students to study Chinese by 2014 to create a pipeline of China-savvy employees in a range of fields. In 2016, the “Million Strong Initiative” was launched in the 7th round of consultation as the interactions between the two countries continued to increase. From the “100,000 Strong Initiative” to the “Million Strong Initiative” and through language learning, a bridge of friendship was set up to connect the hearts of people from both sides. As the China-US high-level consultation mechanism continues to be pushed forward, the China-US relation is sure to embrace an increasingly splendid future.

Chapter 8

Bilateral and Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges in China’s International Education

8.1 Bilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges Since the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in 1978, China has considerably developed its educational exchanges with other countries worldwide. The bilateral exchanges began with the exchange of visits between delegations. Over more than forty years of exploration and development, through reform and opening-up, a pattern has established bilateral education cooperation and exchanges between China and foreign countries with high-level exchange visits, work consultations, scientific research cooperation, and intellectual foreign aid. Bilateral educational cooperation and exchanges have progressed smoothly and have achieved fruitful results.

8.1.1 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with Asian Countries In 1991, educational exchanges and cooperation between China and neighboring countries were further consolidated and developed. North Korean General Education Minister Lee Zongzhou, Mongolian Deputy Minister of Education Arnhe Tubusin, and Pakistan University Grants Committee Chairman An Shari led an education delegation to China. The educational exchanges and cooperation between China and both Laos and Vietnam have also been restored and improved. The State Education Commission of the P.R.C. sent many delegations of Chinese higher education planning committees and local education administrative officials to visit Japan and in return received a delegation in China from the Japanese Ministry of Education. The Laos Minister of Education, Shaman, and his entourage visited

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_7

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China and signed the education cooperation plan between China and Laos in 1992– 1993 with Deputy Director He Dongchang, which officially restored the bilateral educational exchange relationship that had been interrupted for more than 10 years. In 1992, Li Tieying, the State Councilor and Director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., led a Chinese education delegation to visit Laos, India and Sri Lanka and signed the 1992–1993 Education Cooperation Protocol with India’s Ministry of Human Resources Development. Zou Shiyan, the deputy director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., led a Chinese education delegation to visit North Korea. Sri Lanka’s Minister of Justice and Higher Education, Hamid, and India’s Minister of Human Resources Development, Singh, both led educational delegations to visit China. The Japanese Minister of Education, Minshan Bangfu, led an education delegation to visit China. In 1993, educational delegations led by senior leaders of education departments in North Korea, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, and Vietnam visited China. The head of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C. also led a delegation to visit Singapore, Indonesia, Japan, India, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines. In 1994, the head of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C. visited Japan and South Korea. The leaders of the Bangladesh Ministry of Education led an educational delegation to visit China. In 1995, Abdul Aziz, Brunei’s Minister of Education, led a delegation to visit China. Zhu Kaixuan, director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., held a working meeting with the other party. The Japanese Minister of Culture and Minister Kaoru Yosano led a delegation to visit China. Zhu Kaixuan, director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., and Wei Yu, deputy director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., had a working meeting with the Japanese side. In the same year, Zhu Kaixuan, director of the State Education Commission of the P.R.C., led delegations to visit India and Japan. In 1996, Wang Mingda, deputy director of the State Education Commission of P.R.C., led a delegation to visit South Korea and met with the Minister and the Deputy Minister of Education and the Deputy Minister of Labour from South Korea. Zhu Kaixuan, director of the State Education Commission of P.R.C., visited Malaysia and Vietnam. Director Zhu Kaixuan’s visit to Malaysia was the first visit of the director of the State Education Commission of P.R.C. since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Malaysia. It established a channel for dialogue between the Chinese and Malaysian government education departments and was praised by the Minister of Education of Malaysia as “a historical visit”. In 1997, Zhou Yuanqing, deputy director of the State Education Commission of P.R.C., led a delegation to visit Japan. In this same year, the State Education Commission of P.R.C. hosted visits from the Minister of Education of Malaysia, the Minister of Education of Sri Lanka, and the Deputy Minister of Education and Training of Vietnam. In 1999, the Minister of Education of China, Chen Zhili, led a delegation to visit Thailand. Chen Zhili was the first Education Minister of China to visit Thailand since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Thailand, and he gave a lecture entitled “Chinese Education in the Upcoming 21st Century” at Chulalongkorn

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University. Vice Minister Wei Yu led a delegation to visit Myanmar, Vietnam and Nepal and promoted educational cooperation and exchanges between China and neighboring countries. In the same year, he received a visit from the Minister of Education of Singapore and signed the Memorandum of Education Exchange and Cooperation between China and Singapore for 2000–2005. In 2000, China successfully hosted the “China-Thai University Presidents Seminar” and the “China-Japan University Presidents Meeting” and facilitated the “Designated Universities Cooperation Program” that the Japan Academic Promotion Association set up between famous Japanese universities and Tsinghua University, Peking University and Northwest Agricultural University. In 2001, China established close educational cooperation mechanisms with Asian countries, such as the China-Singapore Education Cooperation Mixed Working Group, the China-Malaysia Education Cooperation Coordination Group, and the China-Thai Education Cooperation Joint Working Group. In 2003, Minister of Education Zhou Ji led a delegation of Chinese university presidents to Japan to attend the first China-Japan University Presidents Forum. In 2007, China successfully hosted the China-Japan, China-Korea University Presidents Forum. Many exchange programs were established, such as sending 110 students every year to Japanese universities for doctoral education. In 2010, Zhou Ji, the Minister of the Ministry of Education, accompanied Premier Wen Jiabao for visits to four South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh) and signed the “China and Pakistan Government Education Exchange Implementation Plan”.

8.1.2 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with European Countries In 1979, a Chinese education delegation headed by the Minister of Education Jiang Nanxiang visited Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. During his visit to the Netherlands, Minister Jiang Nanxiang met with the Dutch Minister of Education and Science Arie Pais and signed the agreements discussed in the meeting. The two sides discussed in-depth academic exchanges and cooperation in the field of education between the two countries, exchanging students and scholars. They also discussed establishing contacts between Peking University and the University of Leiden in the Netherlands and Tsinghua University and the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. During his visit to the UK, Minister Jiang Nanxiang reached an agreement with British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs Peter Carington and Secretary of State for Education Mark Carlisle: China would send 200–250 international students to the UK in 1980 while accepting British scholars of Humanities and Social Sciences. In their meeting, they agreed on more matters, such as

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exchanging education delegations and research scholars and establishing contacts between Fudan University and the University of Leeds. In 1980, a Chinese Education Delegation headed by Education Minister Jiang Nanxiang visited Germany and France. The delegation held talks with the education ministers of the two countries to discuss the possibilities of educational exchanges and cooperation between China and Germany and France. In 1991, Zhu Kaixuan, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led an education delegation to visit the former Soviet Union, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Yugoslavia. In the same year, the State Education Commission invited the Portuguese Minister of Education and his delegation to visit China, exploring and learning about China’s education and discussing possibilities of bilateral educational exchanges. In 1992, the deputy director of the State Education Commission, Teng Teng, led a Chinese education delegation to visit France and signed an agreement on educational exchanges and cooperation between China and France. Li Tieying, the State Councilor and Director of the State Education Commission, led a Chinese education delegation to visit Austria, the Netherlands and Portugal. The Chinese State Education Commission invited a series of ministers and education experts to visit China in 1992, such as Shukshunov, the director of the National Committee of the State Council of the former Soviet Union; Kishkurno, Deputy Minister of Education of Belarus; Sokol, Minister of Education of Ukraine; Dr. Bok, German expert; Pilke, Chairman of the German Seidel Foundation. Deputy Director of the Russian Federation Higher Schools Committee Shadrikovled an educational delegation to visit China upon invitation. In the same year, the Chinese State Education Commission also signed educational cooperation agreements and relevant meeting records with the governmental education departments of Bulgaria, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan. In 1993, the head of the Chinese State Education Commission led a delegation to visit Russia. In 1994, leaders of the governmental education departments of Russia and Romania led their education delegations to visit China. The head of the Chinese State Education Commission also led an education delegation to visit Italy, Germany, and Switzerland. China signed new research cooperation agreements with higher education institutions and research institutions in Belgium, Russia and other countries. China applied for 8 new research cooperation projects to the British government in 1994. The Chinese State Education Commission also conducted an evaluation of the ELT project with its British counterpart. China and France held the second consultation meeting on China-French educational exchanges, and they jointly identified 24 cooperation projects. In this same year, the Chinese and German prime ministers jointly signed the Joint Statement on Vocational Education Cooperation. In 1995, the Israeli Minister of Education, Culture and Sports Arubinstein led a delegation to visit China. This was the first ministerial education delegation of Israel after the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Israel. The two

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sides signed a memorandum of intent on education cooperation between China and Israel. In this same year, Zhang Tianbao, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Sweden and Romania. Wei Yu, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, went to the UK to attend the 10th meeting of the China-UK Friendship Scholarship Program Committee as the president from the Chinese side. During the meeting, he met with senior officials from the British Department for International Development, the Ministry of Education, and the British Council and signed a China-British education and technology exchange program. Later this year, some other managers of the Chinese State Education Commission also visited Russia, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. In 1996, Wei Yu, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, was invited to visit Israel. This was the first education delegation sent since the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Israel in 1992. It was of great significance to further promote the educational exchange between China and Israel. Zhu Kaixuan, director of the State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit the United Kingdom and Germany in 1996. This was the first time in the past decade that a Chinese education delegation that involved provincial officials visited these two countries. It has been warmly welcomed and warmly received by the governments and education departments of the two countries. Later this year, Liu Bin, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a Chinese education delegation to visit the Netherlands and Norway, signed the Supplementary Agreement on ChinaDutch Education Science Cooperation, and restored the diplomatic relations and contacts between China and the Netherlands and Norway on the level of education. In 1997, Zhu Kaixuan, director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Italy and Poland upon invitation. This was the first visit in more than a decade that the Chinese State Education Commission went to these two countries. Deputy Director Zhang Baoqing led a delegation to visit to Finland and Germany. The visit was largely focused on understanding the reform of the education management system in Finland and Germany and promoting exchanges and cooperation between China and the Nordic region. Deputy Director Zhang Tianbao visited Spain and Portugal and met with leaders of the education departments in these two countries. This visit was focused on Vocational Education in Spain and Portugal, especially Higher Vocational Education. Later, in 1997, the Chinese State Education Commission hosted visits to the Saudi Arabian Minister of Higher Education and the Danish Minister of Education. In 1998, Minister of Education Chen Zhili went to Paris, France, to participate in the UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education. He met with senior officials of the French National Education, Research and Technology Minister Allegel and other senior officials and visited the French Higher Vocational and Technical Education institutions. China and France exchanged views on the development of education and cooperation and exchanges between the two countries in the twenty-first century. In the same year, Vice Minister of Education Wei Yu visited the UK with the purpose of understanding and studying the impact of the knowledge economy on

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education, virtual universities, virtual industrial parks and high-tech industrialization. He also visited for the purpose of discussing the further development of China-UK educational cooperation. In 1999, Minister of Education Chen Zhili led a delegation to Germany and the United Kingdom and achieved complete success, marked by the signing of the “Joint Statement on Mutual Recognition of Higher Education Diplomas” with Germany. Vice Minister of Education Zhang Tianbao led a delegation to visit Russia and Ukraine, which had an important impact on promoting education cooperation and exchanges between China and Russia and China and Ukraine. Vice Minister of Education Zhou Yuanqing led a delegation to visit Belgium and restored educational cooperation and exchanges between China and the French-speaking part of Belgium. In 2001, the senior officials of the Ministry of Education’s International Cooperation and Exchange Division visited Austria and Slovakia, and they signed a bilateral education cooperation agreement with Slovakia. In the same year, a series of educational cooperation mechanisms were established with countries in Europe, including the Education Cooperation Subcommittee of the China-Russian Governmental Education, Culture, Health and Sports Cooperation Committee; the ChinaBritish Distance Education Cooperation Coordination Group, and the China-German Higher Education Cooperation Project Steering Group. In 2002, the Chinese government and the French government signed the “ChinaFrench Education Exchange Agreement.” The Chinese government also signed the “Agreement on Mutual Recognition of Higher Education Equivalence” with the German government. In 2003, China signed mutual recognition agreements for higher education degrees with France and the United Kingdom. In the same year, Minister of Education Zhou Ji visited Germany and France. This visit aimed to discuss the training and development of high-level talent, especially focusing on building top-ranking universities and creating well-known universities with disciplinary specialities. His visit also hoped to promote close ties between Chinese, French and German universities: to establish joint funds for high-level research cooperation, to jointly train graduate students, to establish cooperation in university programs and to strengthen language teaching. Zhou ji and his colleagues reached broad consensus with the German and French governmental education departments and research institutions and signed agreements on cooperation and collaboration plans. In 2007, China successfully hosted the China-Spain University Presidents Forum. China also convened the 8th meeting of the China-Russia Humanities Cooperation Committee and organized and implemented a series of activities about “Year of China” in Russia. China identified 8 institutionalized activities, such as Russian University Presidents Forum, Higher Education Exhibition, and Middle School Winter (Summer) Camp. At the same time, China also successfully implemented collaborations with other countries, such as the China-French Doctoral College, organizing internships for Chinese university students in the UK, scientific research cooperation between Chinese and British research institutions, and joint training of Chinese and German doctoral students. In 2009, China successfully organized the “Year of Russia” activities in China.

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In 2010, China and Latvia signed the Agreement on Mutual Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications and Degrees. In 2013, the 14th meeting of the China-Russia Humanities Cooperation Committee and the 13th meeting of the China-Russian Education Cooperation SubCommittee were held to launch the China-Russia Humanities Cooperation Action Plan, as well as to establish the “Chinese-Russian 100,000 People Study Abroad Program”. During the two meetings, they reached an agreement on the 2014–2015 “China-Russia Youth Friendly Exchange Year” activities and protocol for institutionalized projects such as the China-Russian “National Year” and “Language Year” and the creation of a series of consensuses on widening China-Russia pragmatic cooperation.

8.1.3 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with North American Countries In 1980, a Chinese education delegation led by the Minister of Education Jiang Nanxiang visited the United States. They together explored the educational exchanges and cooperation between China and the United States. In 1981, Vice Minister of Education Zhou Lin led a Chinese education delegation to visit Mexico and held meetings with the Mexican Minister of Public Education Fernando. In 1993, the China-US and China-Canada educational exchange programs were restored. The China-Canada University Presidents Meeting and the China-US Fulbright Program Seminar were held. In 1994, the Chinese State Education Commission sent education delegations to visit Canada and Mexico. In 1996, Wei Yu, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, visited the United States with a Chinese education delegation composed of Presidents of Peking University, Tsinghua University, Fudan University and Shanghai Jiaotong University. This visit reimplemented a direct dialogue between high-level Chinese and American education circles. In 1997, the Chinese State Education Commission hosted education delegations led by Assistant Director of the US News Agency and the Deputy Assistant Minister of Education. Zhou Yuanqing, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Canada in 1997 as well. In 1998, Vice Minister of Education Lu Fuyuan went to the United States to attend the Global Management Education Conference. He gave a talk entitled “China’s Management Education in the 21st Century” and met with the US Department of Education and the Director of the US Information Agency. In the same year, the Ministry of Education held the 3rd China-Canada University Presidents Meeting at Dong Nan University in Nanjing in cooperation with the

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Canadian Association of Colleges and Universities. Thirty-four Chinese and Canadian university presidents attended the meeting and launched three management and training programs in the fields of energy, communication and finance. In 1999, Vice Minister of Education Lv Fuyuan led a delegation to the United States and Canada. This trip was focused on understanding the practical application of advanced science and technology, such as the application of the internet in basic education development. Visits played an important role in enhancing computer science education in basic education in China. In this same year, Vice Minister of Education Zhou Yuanqing led a delegation composed of presidents of Chinese agricultural universities to visit the United States. This visit widened the cooperation and exchanges between Chinese and American agricultural institutions. In 2000, according to the China-US Fulbright Program, 21 Chinese researchers were selected for the US study, and 21 American experts were received in China. Five outstanding scholars were sent to the US for exchange, and 1 outstanding American scholar was received in China. For the China-Canada 2000–2001 Scholar Exchange Program, 21 Chinese researchers were selected to attend the program. In this same year, the Chinese Ministry of Education hosted more than 30 famous university delegations, such as delegations from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, University of Maryland, and University of Minnesota. These visits further promoted cooperation and exchanges between Chinese and international higher education institutions in the field of education and technology. In 2008, China successfully established a senior-level work consultation mechanism for China-US educational exchange. In 2010, the inauguration ceremony and the first meeting of the China-US Cultural Exchange High-level Consultation Mechanism were held in China. The two sides signed the Memorandum of Understanding on the Establishment of a Senior-Level Consultation Mechanism for Cultural Exchanges between China and the United States. The conference held extensive and in-depth discussions on issues of shared focus in the fields of education, science and technology, culture, sports, etc. The conference also announced the launch of a series of cultural exchange programs, including the United States to send 100,000 students to study in China in the next 4 years and China to send 10,000 students to the United States to study for doctoral degrees in the next 4 years. The Chinese Bridges program was set up to encourage at least 10,000 American students to study in China. Other programs included setting up joint research centers in specific research areas, with funding from both sides. In the same year, China and Mexico signed the Agreement on Mutual Recognition of Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates of Graduation.

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8.1.4 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with South American Countries In 1981, Vice Minister of Education Zhou Lin led a Chinese education delegation to visit Venezuela and held talks with Venezuelan Intellectual Development Minister Machado. In 1991, the Deputy of the State Education Commission Director Teng Teng led an education delegation to visit Cuba and Mexico. In 1994, senior officials from the Cuban Ministry of Education led an educational delegation to visit China. Later this year, senior officials of the Chinese State Education Commission led an education delegation visiting Brazil. In 1995, Zhu Kaixuan, director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Colombia and Argentina. In 1997, Zhou Yuanqing, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Cuba. In 2000, the Chinese State Education Commission hosted a delegation from the University of Ecuador and the Comprehensive Technical University Committee.

8.1.5 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with African Countries In 1991, China actively carried out educational cooperation with African countries. The Chinese State Education Commission sent 7 teachers to Tanzania and the Republic of Cameroon, together with laboratory equipment and teaching supplies. China provided teaching materials worth 20,000 RMB to Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe. Zou Shiyan, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led delegations to visit the countries of Mali, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire and the Niger and proposed plans and suggestions on educational cooperation projects with African countries in the next few years. In the same year, the Chinese State Education Commission invited the Secretary of the University of Algeria, Omar, to visit China. Officials from the Ministry of Education of Ethiopia and other countries were also invited to visit China to explore and understand China’s education system and discuss bilateral education exchanges. In 1992, China continued to actively carry out educational exchanges and cooperation with African countries. The deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, Teng Teng, led a Chinese education delegation to visit Sudan and Egypt. Deputy director Liu Bin led a Chinese education delegation to visit Mauritius, Botswana, Namibia, Ghana and Zimbabwe. In the same year, the Minister of Higher Education of Côte d’Ivoire and Director of the Department of Scientific Research of Sudan Higher Education successively led their educational delegations to visit China.

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To establish new educational exchanges and cooperation projects in African countries, the Chinese State Education Commission sent a team to Mali, Senegal, Burundi and Zambia to conduct project investigations and exchanged official documents for education cooperation with the abovementioned national government education departments. The Chinese State Education Commission also commissioned two delegations from Peking University, Beijing Language and Culture University, Nanjing University and Donghua University to explore possibilities of cooperation projects in Egypt and Sudan. The Chinese State Education Commission sponsored the experimental equipment for the construction of the Ecole Normale Superrieure of Bamako and the University of Senegal. It also completed the selection and training of Chinese lecturers to be sent to the above two universities as part of the support. The Chinese State Education Commission also provided a small amount of RMB 50,000 to the Yemen Qutaybah Experimental Middle School for the improvement of the school’s computer software and the purchase of teaching supplies. In 1993, China’s intellectual foreign aid work in Africa gradually developed into sustainable projects. China actively supported the exchanges and cooperation between Chinese and African universities and convened a working conference on projects for supporting African universities. In 1994, senior officials of the Chinese State Education Commission visited Kenya, Congo and Cameroon. The officials of the government education departments in Cameroon and Kenya also sent educational delegations to visit China. China’s intellectual aid work continued to develop from previous work. Additionally, the Chinese State Education Commission sent a project group to Côte d’Ivoire and signed an exchange of documents for the cooperation agreement. In 1995, Zhu Kaixuan, director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Egypt. In 1997, Liu Bin, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to visit Egypt, attended the China-Egypt senior-level education seminar, and signed the “China-Egypt mutual recognition of academic qualifications agreement”. Wei Yu, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, visited Guinea, Gabon, Cameroon, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Mauritius. This trip aimed to determine the implementation of the Intellectual Foreign Aid projects. Liu Bing and his delegation also signed six bilateral educational exchanges and project cooperation agreements with five of the above countries. In 1998, with the approval of the Chinese State Council, the Ministry of Education launched a series of Educational Foreign Aid Projects for 1998 and the following years: (1) assistance with the Fruit and Vegetable Preservation and Processing Project of the Higher Agricultural School of the National Institute of Integrated Technology of Côte d’Ivoire; (2) consolidation and development of the University of Namibia Project; (3) completion of the Project of the Chinese Language Centre in Cameroon; (4) continuing assistance with the University of Zambia project; (5) assistance with Mali higher education program development; and (6) conducting training courses in

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Qingdao for vocational and technical education officials from the Asian and African regions.

8.1.6 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with Oceania Countries In 1991, Liu Bin, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to Australia and New Zealand and signed a memorandum of understanding on China-Australian educational exchanges and cooperation with the Australian government. In 1994, senior officials of government education departments in Australia and New Zealand led their own education delegation to visit China. Through discussions with the Australian Development Assistance Bureau, they implemented the “Part-Time Management Training Program” and the “China-Australia University Institutional Cooperation Project”. These projects and programs were funded for 19,000,000 Australian dollars. In 1997, Zhu Kaixuan, director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led an education delegation to visit Australia and New Zealand, and this year happened to be the 25th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between Australia and China. This visit to Australia and New Zealand not only promoted exchanges and cooperation in the field of education between China and these two countries but also had positive implications for the development of bilateral diplomatic relations. In 2003, China signed mutual recognition agreements for higher education qualifications with Australia and New Zealand. In 2007, China successfully hosted the China-New Zealand Higher Education Forum and the China-Australia Higher Education Forum. China also implemented the China-Australian joint training program for doctoral researchers. In 2008, China successfully held the China-Australia International Student Management and Service Seminar.

8.2 Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges Multilateral international cooperation and exchanges refers to those exchanges and cooperation programs and projects that China worked in with the organizations within the United Nations (UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, etc.) and other international organizations (such as the World Bank, APEC, etc.). Since the 1980s, China has carried out educational cooperation and exchanges with many countries through official international organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, World Bank and APEC. These educational cooperations

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and exchanges included preschool education, basic education, higher education, teacher education, vocational education, distance education and other relevant fields. UNESCO mostly provided technical assistance in these programs and projects. UNICEF, the United Nations Development Program and the United Nations Population Fund mostly provided free financial and technical assistance to China, a developing country, to help with economic and societal development. The World Bank supported the development of education in China mainly through providing China with educational soft loans. APEC mainly supported China through assistance in achieving mutual understanding of educational experiences in various countries through education network construction and ministerial level meetings. In recent years, in the process of reforming and opening up, China began to participate more actively in various organizations around the world and actively participate in international affairs, especially in educational affairs. For example, China actively supported the formation of a number of multilateral education cooperation and foreign aid platforms, such as the “China-ASEAN Education Week”, the “China-Arab University Presidents Forum”, the “China-Africa University 20 + 20 Cooperation Program”, the “China-Latin America Education Exchange Platform”, and the “BRICS National University Alliance”. By actively participating in global governance, China showed the world its own business card of Chinese education. In 2013, Hao Ping, then Vice Minister of Education of China, was elected as the President of the 37th Session of UNESCO. It also showed that China’s educational leadership and influence in multilateral international cooperation and exchanges have been significantly enhanced.

8.2.1 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNESCO UNESCO, whose full name is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, was formally established in November 1946 and was headquartered in Paris, France. It now has 195 members and has the largest number of expert groups in the field of international education, science and culture within the entire United Nations. The organization aims to promote cooperation among nations through education, science and culture and contribute to world peace and security. The organization’s assistance to member states is mainly reflected in intellectual cooperation. As an international intellectual cooperation agency, UNESCO’s activities in education mainly include sending experts, organizing large-scale professional international conferences/seminars, training personnel and specialists, participating in the capacity building of member states in related fields, formulating international regulations documents, and proposing or advocating new ideas and new concepts. China is one of the founding members of UNESCO. In 1971, China resumed its legal status in the United Nations, and later, in 1972, China resumed participating in activities at UNESCO. In 1978, under the impetus of the president of China, Deng Xiaoping, China and UNESCO signed the Memorandum of Understanding between

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the Minister of Education, the Deputy Minister of Culture and the Deputy SecretaryGeneral of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. This document marked the formal cooperation and exchange between China and UNESCO. In 1979, the National Committee of China’s UNESCO was formally established as a domestic coordinating body, and cooperation and exchanges between China and UNESCO had entered the fast lane since. In the field of education, there are four main forms of cooperation and exchange between China and UNESCO: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Attending International Education Conferences; Convening Senior-level Seminars; Implementing the Education for All Program; Organizing Academic Degree Mutual Recognition.

1.

Attending International Education Conferences China has always considered the great importance of International Education Conferences. In 1978, Chinese deputy ministers of the Ministry of Education led a delegation to attend the 37th International Education Conference and participated in the discussion of many important topics, and China has been participating in this conference ever since. In recent years, with the rapid development of China’s information technology, the first UNESCO International Education Informatization Conference was successfully held in Qingdao, China. By participating in and attending the International Education Conference, China has mastered the development trend of world education in a timely manner, strengthened senior-level communication within China’s education field, and promoted international cooperation and exchanges. Convening Senior-level Seminars To meet the practical needs of national education reform and development, the National UNESCO Committee cooperated with the Ministry of Education of China and organized a series of international seminars of considerable scale and influence with the support of UNESCO. The seminars and conference included the 4th Ministerial Conference on Education for All in 9 developing populous countries in 2001; 2003 International Conference on Rural Education; Asia– Pacific Education Innovation Conference; World Open University Presidents Conference; and Environmental, Population Health for Sustainable Development Education Conference. The success in hosting these international seminars in China provided good opportunities for the Chinese education sector to learn from other countries’ useful educational experiences. Implementing the Education for All Program Since the World Conference on Education for All in 1990, UNESCO has launched an “Education for All” program aimed at universalizing basic education, eradicating illiteracy among young and middle-aged adults and developing postliteracy vocational and technical education. China actively participated in the relevant activities of the plan and announced the “China Education for All Action Plan” in 1993. In the same period, UNESCO provided various

2.

3.

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support to China in eliminating literacy in some western regions of China, technical training for adults, girls’ education research, minority education research and basic education and innovation. The support activities included holding seminars, training courses, and funding for the development of local training materials and funding pilot projects. In 2000, a Chinese government delegation attended the World Education Forum hosted by UNESCO in Dakar, Senegal. The representative of the Chinese Permanent Mission to UNESCO, Zhang Chongli, led this delegation and spoke at the plenary session to introduce the experience and challenges and solutions for China’s Education for All. The conference concluded with an Action Plan for Education for All, which identified two important goals: (1) eliminating gender discrimination in primary and secondary schools in 2005 and (2) achieving high-quality primary education for all children in 2015 and improving overall basic education and adult education. In December 2003, China established the China Education for All Forum, composed of ten ministries and commissions, and proposed a new “China Education for All” action plan. Organizing Academic Degree Mutual Recognition Under the coordination of UNESCO, countries around the world started signing a series of regional conventions or cross-regional international conventions since the 1970s on the mutual recogonization of higher education degrees. These conventions included: Regional Convention for the Accreditation of Diplomas and Degrees the Latin American and Caribbean region’s Higher Education (1974); International Convention for the Accreditation of Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in Europe and the Arab States (1976); Regional Convention for the Arab States (1978); Regional Convention for Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas, Degrees and Other Academic Accreditations in African Countries (1981); Regional Convention for Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Asia and the Pacific (1983); European Union Convention (1991); European Regional Higher Education Qualifications Convention (1997); Implementation Guidelines for Providing Excellent Transnational Education (2001); China-ASEAN Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity Joint Declaration (2003);ChinaASEAN Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity Joint Declaration Action Plan (2004); Guidelines for Safeguarding the Quality of Cross-Border Higher Education (2005); Information Package on Regulating the Quality Assurance of Cross-Border Higher Education (2006); and Lisbon Convention (2007).

8.2.2 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNICEF UNICEF was created by the United Nations on December 11,1946, with the aim of meeting the urgent needs of postwar European and Chinese children. From 1950, the object expanded to the long-term needs of children and mothers in all developing countries.

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In 1953, UNICEF officially became part of the United Nations, headquartered in New York, the USA. It now has eight regional offices, 125 country offices worldwide, and a research center in Florence, Italy. Currently, UNICEF has long-term projects in 161 countries and regions. UNICEF is guided by the Convention for the Rights of the Children and specifically protects the most disadvantaged children, such as victims of war, disaster, extreme poverty and of all forms of violence and persons with disabilities. Since the reform and opening-up, China has had friendly and tacit cooperation with UNICEF in carrying out the “two basics” project, the development of the western region and the training of teachers. For example, in 1993, UNICEF provided 9.37 million US dollars in grant assistance to the education sector and assisted with many collaborative projects in the areas of basic education and teacher education. In the same year, the Chinese State Education Commission and UNICEF jointly held the International Symposium on Early Childhood Education and Development in Jiangmen. In 1994, the Chinese State Education Commission developed the UNICEF Program of Assistance to China in 1996–2000. UNICEF was to provide 19 million US dollars in grant assisting this cycle and to support projects and programs in basic education, distance education, and teacher education in 150 poverty-stricken counties in the northwest and southwest. In addition, UNICEF donated 50,000 US dollars to the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region for the reconstruction of flooded schools. In 1995, the Chinese State Education Commission and the UNCEF implemented 9 projects: (1) in-service teacher training programs; (2) distance education projects; (3) textbook compilation and printing projects; (4) teaching aid development and development projects; (5) primary education quality monitoring project; (6) promoting girls’ education projects in poverty-stricken areas; (7) specialized children’s education programs; (8) preschool education programs; and (9) basic education target monitoring projects. At the same time, the Chinese State Education Commission set out to prepare for the 1996–2000 education cooperation project with UNICEF and formally signed off a national program for cooperation projects. In 1996, China and UNICEF implemented 4 additional projects in cooperation: (1) strengthening education planning and management; (2) adjusting the content and process of education; (3) distance education; and (4) promoting primary education in poverty-stricken areas. In 1997, the Chinese State Education Commission’s collaboration with UNICEF continued to focus on the existing three national projects and one project: (1) strengthening education planning and management; (2) adjusting educational content and processes; (3) distance education; and (4) promoting primary education in poor areas. In 1998, four projects were implemented in cooperation between China and UNICEF: (1) strengthening education planning and management; (2) adjusting educational content and processes; (3) distance education; and (4) promoting primary education in poor areas. In 1999, there were five educational cooperation projects between China and UNICEF: (1) strengthening education planning and management; (2) adjusting

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educational content and processes; (3) distance education; (4) promoting primary education in poor areas; and (5) making free textbook projects available in poor areas. UNICEF provided approximately 17 million US dollars for the abovementioned cooperation projects. In 2001, the Ministry of Education and UNICEF implemented the 5th educational cooperation project for a period of five years (2001–2005). UNICEF was to provide 14 million US dollars in grant assistance for the development of education in the western region. Specifically, for the following four cooperation projects: (1) strengthening basic education projects in poverty-stricken areas; (2) strengthening early childhood education and development projects; strengthening education planning in poverty-stricken areas; (3) managing and monitoring projects; and (4) strengthening distance education projects in poverty-stricken areas. In 2004, UNICEF secured 600,000 US dollars in grant assistance to China for girls’ education, distance education, preschool education, and HIV prevention in poverty-stricken areas in Guangxi, Ningxia and Qinghai. In 2005, China participated in the drafting of the United Nations System Framework Document on Assistance to China (2006–2010) and confirmed cooperation with UNICEF in the areas of policy research and early childhood education in 2006–2010. The total funding for this five-year plan was 16,000,000 US dollars. In 2006, the Ministry of Education and the UNICEF 2006–2010 education cooperation project was launched. The following table is the 1982–2015 China-UNICEF Education Cooperation Project presented on the Ministry of Education’s official website (Table 7.1).

8.2.3 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNDP The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) was formerly two separate units: the Technical Assistance Expansion Program established in 1949 and the Special Fund established in 1958 to provide preinvestment assistance to larger-scale development projects. According to the UN General Assembly resolution, the two organizations merged together in 1965 to form today’s UNDP. The work of the United Nations Development Program is to provide technical advice, training for talent and equipment for developing countries, especially for the least developed countries. The UNDP is committed to promoting sustainable human development, helping countries improve their ability to adapt and helping people create a better life. Cooperation between the United Nations Development Program and China began in September 1979. At the beginning of the reform and opening-up period, the Chinese government and the UNDP signed the “China-UN Development Program Assistance Agreement”. Since then, the United Nations Development Program has mobilized more than 1 billion US dollars in funding to support China’s development. To date, more than 900 projects have been completed covering a wide range of areas, including agriculture, industry, energy, public health, poverty alleviation and economic reconstruction.

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Table 7.1 1982–2015 China-UNICEF education cooperation project Time period

Project names

1982–1984

(1) Teacher training program (2) Science education project (3) Children’s color reading materials development

1985–1989

(1) Teacher training program (2) Pre-school and elementary school teaching tools development (3) Children’s color reading materials development

1990–1993

(1) Pre-school teacher training program (2) Primary school teacher training program (3) Special education teacher training program (4) Basic education project in poverty-stricken areas (5) Teaching and learning materials development project (6) Teaching tools development project (7) Distance teacher training program (8) Connecting Pre-school and primary education (9) Improving education information system

1994–1995

(1) Teacher training program (2) Distance education project (3) Textbook development project (4) Teaching tools development project (5) Strengthening primary education project (6) Promoting girls’ education project (7) Strengthening educational project for disabled children (8) Early childhood education project (9) Regulating basic education targets project

1996–2000

(1) Strengthen education planning and management projects (2) Teaching content and process adjustment projects (3) Distance education projects (4) Basic education projects in poverty-stricken areas

2001–2005

(1) Strengthen basic education projects in poverty-stricken areas (2) Distance education projects (3) Education planning, management and monitoring projects in poverty-stricken areas (4) Early childhood education and development projects (5) Non-formal education

2006–2010

(1) Education policy development, strengthening education planning and monitoring projects (2) Early childhood development education projects (3) Building children-friendly schools and improving learners’ quality projects (4) Non-formal education programs (continued)

The United Nations Development Program and the Chinese Ministry of Education have completed cooperation on many educational projects. In 1991, the Chinese State Education Commission and the United Nations Development Program carried out three educational cooperation projects: (1) the junior high school English textbook

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Table 7.1 (continued) Time period

Project names

2011–2015

(1) Education policy for children-friendly learning environment (2) Education system for children-friendly learning environment (3) Education for disaster reduction and prevention (4) Early childhood development (5) Quality basic education (6) Youth education

preparation project, (2) the middle school English teacher training program in the southwest region, and (3) the university management training and research project. In 1992, the education cooperation between the Chinese State Education Commission and the United Nations Development Program expanded further. Three new educational cooperation projects were added: (1) primary and secondary school principal training programs, (2) primary and secondary school teacher training programs, and (3) middle school modern teaching methods projects. The UNDP provided a total of 2.5 million US dollars in assistance for three projects. In 1995, the Chinese State Education Commission, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation and the UND started preparing for cooperation projects in 1997–2000. They reached a consensus on the establishment of cooperation projects focusing on education and poverty alleviation in the five western provinces in the next phase. In 1996, the Chinese State Education Commission successfully completed the establishment and start-up of the 1997–2000 cooperation project. In 1997, the Chinese State Education Commission and the United Nations Development Program jointly launched a project with a total amount of 3 million US dollars. This project was about focusing on girls’ education and promoting nine-year compulsory education in poverty-stricken areas. Various types of training courses for teachers and education management cadres were held for the five provinces and regions in Southwest and Northwest China. Teaching materials were purchased, teaching equipment was purchased, and a series of educational research and research activities were carried out. In November 1999, the Ministry of Education and the United Nations Development Program successfully organized the International Symposium on Girls’ Education for the 21st Century. Representatives from the World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, India and other countries and more than 120 representatives from China attended the meeting. The conference promoted the achievements of girls’ education in China in recent years, explored the problems in girls’ education, and discussed the prospect of cooperation with UN agencies in the field of girls’ education. In 2001, the Chinese Ministry of Education also sought and implemented the UNDP remote teacher training program. The UNDP provided approximately 6.5 million US dollars in grant assistance to poor areas, mainly used in Gansu,

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Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, for the purpose of improving teachers’ teaching and management skills. In 2002, the Chinese Ministry of Education and the United Nations Development Program implemented two projects: (1) focusing on girls and promoting nine-year compulsory education in poverty-stricken areas and (2) improving the quality of teachers in poverty-stricken areas in western China through distance education and information and communication technologies.

8.2.4 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with UNFPA In 1966, the 21st session of the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 2211, requesting organizations of the UN system to provide technical assistance to countries in terms of population. The United Nations Population Activities Fund was then established in 1969 and was officially named the “United Nations Population Fund” in 1987. It is a subsidiary of the UN Economic and Social Council. Its main responsibility is to help developing countries solve population problems and is the largest international organization for population assistance. Approximately one-quarter of aid for developing countries was completed through the United Nations Population Fund. Since China resumed its legitimate seat in the United Nations, the relationship between the UNFPA and China has gradually developed. In May 1978, the UNFPA and China signed a Memorandum of Understanding in Beijing. Since the reform and opening-up of China, the two sides have carried out six phases of cooperation and implemented more than 200 cooperation projects. China’s cooperation with UNFPA included family planning, reproductive health, maternal and child health, poverty alleviation, census data research, demographic research and population education, contraceptive development, AIDS prevention, gender equality, population ageing, South-South cooperation, etc. Cooperation achieved great economic and social benefits for China. In the field of education, the Chinese State Education Commission and the United Nations Population Fund mainly carried out projects in population research, population education, and population training. For example, “University Population Research and Training Program”, “Secondary Population Education Project”, “Farmer Adult School Population Education Project”, “Rural Junior Middle School Population Education Project”, and “People’s University Population Science Training Centre Project”. Peking University and Renmin University of China worked as the “University Demographic Training and Research” project unit, launched a master’s degree program in the international population, and opened a population training course for North Korean and Mongolian population scholars.

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8.2.5 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with World Bank The World Bank is short for the World Bank Group. It refers to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Development Association. These institutions jointly provide low-interest loans, interest-free loans and grants to developing countries. The mission of this international organization is to help the reconstruction of countries that were destroyed in the Second World War. The mission is to help countries overcome poverty and play a unique role in the mission of alleviating poverty and improving living standards. In 1980, China resumed its status as a member of the World Bank. In the following year, a delegation headed by the senior officials of the Chinese Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Education negotiated an education loan agreement with the World Bank. Since then, China began to use the World Bank loan to vigorously develop the course of compulsory education, vocational education and higher education. In 2004, China successfully applied for 100,000 US dollars from the World Bank for cooperation in research on “Rural Workforce Transformation Training” and “Building a Lifelong Education System”. In 2005, China and the World Bank jointly carried out research on the “Transformation of Rural Labour Force” and “Establishing a lifelong education system” projects. China also applied for funding to support the project “China Ministry of Finance — World Bank 2005–2007 Joint Research”. This project was about researching the education of migrants’ children. To date, China’s main projects using World Bank Education Loans include (1) university development projects; (2) radio and television universities and short-term vocational college projects; (3) secondary school in-service teacher training; (4) textbook construction projects; (5) occupational technology educational projects; (6) key discipline development projects; (7) basic education development projects in poverty-stricken areas; and (8) teacher education development projects. These education loans were mainly used in purchasing educational equipment, training the workforce, hiring experts, and building school campuses.

8.2.6 Educational Cooperation and Exchange with APEC APEC is the abbreviation of Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation. It is an important economic cooperation forum in the Asia–Pacific region, and it is the highest level of intergovernmental economic cooperation mechanism in the Asia–Pacific region. It has played an irreplaceable role in promoting regional trade and investment liberalization and strengthening economic and technological cooperation among members. In August 1992, Teng Teng, deputy director of the Chinese State Education Commission, led a delegation to attend the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation

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Conference of Ministers of Education held in Washington, DC. In 1993, China’s education sector participated in three APEC Education Forum meetings. In 1995, the Chinese State Education Commission began to undertake the work of the Education Forum of the Human Resources Development Working Group under the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation. In the same year, it hosted the sixth meeting of the APEC Education Forum and the twelfth Meeting of the Human Resources Development Working Group. The APEC Research Centre was established at Nankai University, with the responsibility of coordinating and organizing the research activities of APECs in national higher education institutions. In 1996, the Chinese State Education Commission sent representatives to participate in the 13th and 14th meetings of the APEC Human Resources Development Working Group in New Zealand and Brunei. In 1997, the Chinese State Education Commission sent representatives to participate in the 15th and 16th meetings of the APEC Human Resources Development Working Group held in Australia and Canada. The representatives also participated in the APEC Human Resources Ministers Meeting held in South Korea. In 1998, the Chinese Ministry of Education sent representatives to the 17th, 18th, and 19th meetings of the APEC Human Resources Development Working Group that were held in Indonesia, Taipei China, and Chile. In 1999, the Chinese Ministry of Education represented the APEC Human Resources Conference held in Chile and Hong Kong, China. It also successfully applied for the organization’s project on “Improving School Management and Improving Teaching Quality through Measurement”, with 40,000 US dollars as project funding. In 2000, the Chinese Minister of Education Chen Zhili led a Chinese education delegation to attend the 2nd APEC Ministers of Education Conference in Singapore. Other delegates at the conference came from the United States, Australia, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Taipei China. In 2006, the Chinese Ministry of Education participated in the formulation of the APEC Future Education Cooperation and Development Plan. In 2009, the Chinese Ministry of Education took the lead in coordinating and promoting international cooperation and exchanges among members in the field of vocational education and successfully listed “vocational skills education” as one of the four priority research areas for APEC education. In recent years, China’s educational influence in the APEC has been continuously improving. In October 2016, the APEC Education Ministers’ Meeting was closed in Lima, Peru. The meeting adopted the blueprint for education development led by the ChinaAPEC Education Strategy, which clarified the vision and goals of education development in the Asia–Pacific region by 2030. In short, China’s education cooperation and exchanges with APEC benefited from drawing on the experience of APEC members’ education development and would continue to contribute to China’s education reform and development.

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8.3 A Case Study of Bilateral and Multilateral International Cooperation and Exchanges—Regional Convention for the Recognition of Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Asia and the Pacific 8.3.1 Introduction On December 16, 1983, China joined the Regional Convention on Recognition of Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Asia and the Pacific (referred to as the Convention in this section). This was the first mutual recognition convention signed by China. The Convention was scheduled to be a regional international convention signed by 21 countries under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It was signed by state parties in Asia and the Pacific with the purpose of strengthening cultural exchanges to promote economic, social, cultural and technological development in all countries of Asia and the Pacific region and to promote peace in the region. The Convention was set out to promote the mobility of people and the exchange of ideas, knowledge and scientific and technological experience, especially in the education between the countries that signed the Convention. It also greatly promoted exchanges and cooperation in education between these countries. The Convention set the regulations and standards for the practice in each country from the following perspectives: “definition”, “target”, “implementation obligations”, “implementation agencies”, “information”, “cooperation with international organizations”, “institutions of higher learning under one jurisdiction”, and “the protocol of approval, confirmation, acceptance, joining in, and being effective”. The countries that signed the Convention agreed that the rich and diverse national culture and education system was unique to Asia and the Pacific, especially the higher education system being a special and excellent resource. It was hoped that people of all countries would make full use of and share cultural resources and to provide and exempt educational resources for people from other countries, particularly for teachers, students, researchers and practitioners in related fields. It was hoped that people should be able to study and conduct research in higher education institutions in their own respected national cultural way, provided that it was within the limits permitted by national laws that the institution was located in. In this way, mutual recognition of diplomas, degrees and certificates becomes particularly important. It helps to better judge the level of ability of a person and better judge the degree of knowledge and culture of a citizen.

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8.3.2 The Significance of the Convention The Regional Convention for the Recognition of Higher Education Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees in Asia and the Pacific in 1983 was the first international convention for higher education qualifications and mutual recognition that China signed off since China’s reform and opening-up. China’s signing of the Convention fully reflected the continuous development of opening-up education and showed that the Chinese government had gained great confidence in promoting the opening-up of education. It also demonstrated the great sincerity of China’s willingness to develop friendly relations with the rest of the world and provided greater convenience for international student mobility. The signing of the Convention provided legal protection for enrollment, employment and other legitimate rights and interests for both Chinese and international students.

Chapter 9

Actions on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative in China’s International Education

9.1 The Context and Background of the Belt and Road Initiative Actions Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, General Secretary Xi Jinping proposed to “Work Together to Build a Community of Shared Future for Mankind” and advocated the Belt and Road Initiative. He called for the people of the world to share the fruits of peaceful development and to face the problems and challenges of development together by promoting the concepts of “A Community of Shared Future for Mankind” and the Belt and Road Initiative. In September and October 2013, General Secretary Xi Jinping proposed major initiatives to jointly build the “Silk Road Economic Belt” and the “21st Century Maritime Silk Road” during his visit to Central Asia and Southeast Asian countries. The Belt and Road Initiative is a great cause for the benefit of people worldwide. It is conducive to promoting the economic prosperity of countries along the Belt Road route, to strengthening exchanges and mutual learning of different civilizations, and to promoting world peace and development. The Belt and Road Initiative has received much attention from the international community. In March 2015, with the authorization of the Chinese State Council, the Chinese National Development and Reform Commission, the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Chinese Ministry of Commerce jointly issued the “Vision and Action for Promoting the Construction of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road”. It pointed out that the joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative was in line with the fundamental interests of the international community and demonstrated the common ideals and beautiful pursuits of human society. It was an active exploration of international cooperation and a new model of global governance that would add new positive energy to world peace and development. Education plays a fundamental and leading role in promoting the Belt and Road Initiative. Educational exchanges would promote communication among the people of the countries along the Belt Road route. Based on this possibility, in April 2016, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_8

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the Chinese Central Office issued a document to comprehensively guide the development of China’s education and support the opening-up to the outside world: Several Opinions on Carrying Out Good Work in Opening-Up of the Education in the New Era (this document will be referred to as the Opinions in this chapter). It was the first programmatic document since the founding of the People’s Republic of China. The Opinions pointed out that it is necessary to vigorously improve the level of openness of education and to actively participate in global education governance. As a supporting document of the Opinions, the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a notice in July 2016 on Education Action on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative. This notice emphasised the promotion of the “Silk Road Economic Belt” and the “21st Century Maritime Silk Road”. It provided a great opportunity to promote the opening, exchange and integration of regional education in China. Strengthening cooperation and joint action among the countries along the Belt Road route not only plays an important part of the Belt and Road Initiative from China’s perspective but also contributes to talent support for the joint construction of the Belt and Road Initiative between China and other countries. China is willing to work with countries along the route to expand humanities exchanges, strengthen talent cultivation, and jointly create a better tomorrow for education.

9.2 The Document—Education Action on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative The Education Action on Promoting the Belt and Road Initiative (referred to as the Document in this chapter) was issued by the Chinese Ministry of Education in July 2016 and acts as the main document reference for action plans under the Belt and Road Initiative in international education in China. The Document pointed out 6 themes as the focus for international education in China under the Belt and Road Initiative: (1) Educational Mission; (2) Cooperation Vision; (3) Cooperation Principles; (4) Cooperation Focus; (5) Chinese Education Gets Moving; and (6) Co-creating a Better Future for Education. In the “Education Mission” section, the Document pointed out the orientation and role of education in supporting the Belt and Road Initiative: Education exchanges bridge the gap between citizens along the Belt Road route, and personnel training provides support for policy communication, facility connectivity, trade communication and capital mobility.

There are “five connectivities” that are supposed to be achieved under the Belt and Road Initiative: in policy communication, in facility connectivity, in smooth trade, in capital mobility, and in connecting people’s hearts. Education should provide support to build the “five connectivities” in two ways: (1) to promote communication among citizens through educational exchanges and (2) to provide support through training talent for policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, and capital mobility.

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The “Cooperation Vision” section pointed out the purpose of this education action plan: to promote communication among citizens, to provide talent support and to achieve development together with others. The “Cooperative Principles” section pointed out the basic principles for China’s international education plans under the Belt and Road Initiative: (1) “Education is the foundation, humanity comes first”, (2) “Government provide guidance, people drive the projects”; (3) “Open communication and cooperation”, and (4) “Harmony and tolerance is important, achieve mutual benefit and win–win for all”. The “Cooperation Focus” section pointed out the action framework for China’s international education plans under the Belt and Road Initiative: the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative, the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative, and “Four aspects” as a leading initiative. The first part of the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative was about strengthening education policy communication. Education laws and policy research should be carried out to build a communication mechanism for information exchange between countries along the Belt Road route. Institutions should actively seek opportunities for signing bilateral, multilateral and sub-regional educational cooperation framework agreements; should actively formulate international conventions on education cooperation and exchanges among countries along the Belt Road route; and should gradually unblock policy cooperation bottlenecks for education cooperation and exchanges. All of the above should contribute to achieving mutual recognition of credits and joint awards in degrees. The second part of the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative was about providing better support for education cooperation. Institutions in China’s international education should better facilitate the process of obtaining visas among the countries that are backing the Belt and Road Initiative; they should encourage universities to establish sisterhood with those who have foundations for cooperation, those who have the same research topics and those who have the same development goals. Institutions should hold national president forums with countries along the Belt Road route; they should support establishing joint laboratories (research centers) and international technology and skills transition centers with other higher education institutions; they should create academic exchange platforms under the name of the Belt and Road Initiative; and they should gradually widen and enhance the development of educational cooperation and exchanges. The third part of the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative was about promoting language interoperability among citizens from the countries along the Belt Road route. Governments should set up language learning and exchange programs and should jointly train talent with high language abilities. China would seek to expand the number of students who are sent to study abroad and would encourage countries along the route to cooperate with Chinese universities to start their own language programs in China. China would support more nongovernment organizations and individuals who are contributing to setting up Confucius Institutes and the Confucius Classes. China would also strengthen the training of Chinese language teachers and language teaching volunteers to fully meet the needs of Chinese learning in the countries along the Belt Road route.

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The fourth part of the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative was about promoting the communication of the people along the Belt Road route. Scholars from countries along the route would be encouraged to carry out and cooperate in the research of topics about China and to further study China’s development models, national policies, education and culture. China would support national and regional research bases to be built and support more research in cooperation with the countries along the Belt Road route in the fields of economy, politics, education and culture. The idea of the Silk Road would be emphasized in the communication among youth, and Silk Road cultural heritage protection would be gradually incorporated into the curriculum of primary and secondary education in the countries along the Belt Road route, with the purpose of strengthening the understanding of people’s culture in different countries in youth. The fifth part of the “Educational Action for Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative was about promoting the mutual recognition of academic degrees’ standards. China would promote the implementation of the UNESCO Convention on the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications in the Asia–Pacific Region and support UNESCO in establishing a worldwide mutual recognition mechanism for academic qualifications, with the purpose of achieving mutual recognition of bilateral and multilateral academic degrees. China would encourage other countries to improve the education quality assurance system and certification mechanism; to accelerate the development of their own national education qualifications framework, to help different types of learners at different stages in education; and to promote lifelong learning of building a better society. China would jointly build a regional vocational education qualifications framework, contributing to the integration of the standards in the employment markets. China would explore the establishment of professional development standards for teachers in countries along the route and promote the mobility of teachers. The first part of the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative was about implementing the Silk Road study abroad promotion plan. The Silk Road Chinese Government Scholarship was established. In the following 5 years, 10,000 new students from the countries along the Belt Road route will be enrolled each year to study or to be trained in China. This was to support the training of industrial leaders and highly skilled talent for the countries along the Belt Road route. China would improve the quality of education for those who are coming to China to study, hoping to promote China to be a popular destination for international students from all over the world. China would also encourage students to study in the countries along the Belt Road route mostly by supporting them through government scholarships. In the following 3 years, 2,500 Chinese students would be sent to the countries along the route. The second part of the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative was about implementing the Silk Road education institution cooperation promotion plan. The Chinese government would play a guiding role, and the industry would play a leading role in the process of promoting the integration of industrial needs, education in higher education institutions, and education in vocational colleges. China’s highquality vocational colleges would be encouraged to work with high-speed rail and

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telecom operators, exploring and expanding to other countries. They should explore various forms of international cooperation and set up training programs for all kinds of talent that are urgently needed for the Belt and Road Initiative. China would work on integrating resources and actively promoting pragmatic cooperation with countries along the route in areas of common interest, such as employment training for young people. The third part of the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative was about implementing the Silk Road teacher training promotion plan. The Silk Road teacher training program would be carried out to strengthen the exchange of advanced educational experience and to improve the quality of regional education. China would strengthen the exchange of teachers, promote exchanges and visits between university presidents from the countries along the route, promote the exchange training program for the management of universities, and promote quality education models so that countries along the Belt Road route could learn from each other along the line. China would vigorously promote the export of high-quality teaching equipment, textbooks and overall teaching resources in various countries along the route; follow up with teacher training; and promote a balanced development of educational resources and teaching levels in the countries along the route. The fourth part of the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative was about implementing the Silk Road joint talent training promotion plan. China would promote the exchange of study activities among countries along the route. China would encourage higher education institutions along the Belt Road route to jointly develop talent in the areas of languages, transportation, construction, medicine, energy, environmental engineering, water conservancy, biological sciences, marine science, ecological protection, cultural heritage protection, etc. China would promote the sharing of educational resources within and among education institutions. In the Document, “Four aspects” was proposed as a leading initiative. The first aspect was enhancing senior-level consultations on the Silk Road cultural exchanges. Senior-level consultations on bilateral and multilateral cultural exchanges among countries along the Belt Road route would be carried out (1) to support setting up the overall layout of education cooperation and exchange and (2) to coordinate the promotion of bilateral and multilateral cooperation mechanisms for education, quality assurance cooperation mechanisms, and cross-border education market supervision and coordination mechanisms. The second aspect was making the most of international cooperation platforms. China would maximize the existing bilateral and multilateral cooperation mechanism and increase the new content for education cooperation. With the help of international organizations such as UNESCO, China would assist with the establishment of cooperation mechanisms around the world, supporting worldwide education development in achieving its targets. China would support the establishment of alliances among universities that share common areas, cooperation foundations and professional backgrounds. China would continue to extend the pragmatic platform for education cooperation. The third aspect was implementing the Silk Road education aid program. China would play an important role in the joint action of education aid under the Belt

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and Road Initiative and gradually increase education aid. Education aids focus on investing in people, assisting people, and benefiting people. China would play a key role in providing education aid in “South-South cooperation” and increase the support for the countries along the Belt Road route, especially the least developed countries. China would build more education and training centers and educational aid bases with the purpose of training more scholars, experts and various skilled personnel to support the countries along the route. The fourth aspect was giving awards for organizations and individuals who contributed to the work of the Belt and Road Initiative. Individuals, teams and organizations that have made outstanding and significant contributions to the development of education cooperation exchange and regional education will be commended. The “Chinese Education Gets Moving” section pointed out the institutional guarantees for the implementation of the Belt and Road initiative in China’s international education: (1) strengthen coordination and promotion; (2) strengthen the coordination of various local departments and departments; and (3) promote local priorities. “Highlight that the locality has a main role in realistically supporting the Belt and Road Initiative”, meaning that the localities were required to make the most of regional advantages and local characteristics, and work hard to develop a local education and economic cooperation action plan to explore outside of its region or even outside of China, as well as being relevant to the overall plan of the country. “Education institutions of all levels should move forward in an orderly manner”, refers to the requirement for education institutions of all levels to expand cooperation and exchanges with other institutions from those countries along the Belt Road route;to integrate high-quality resources to explore outside of China; and to select high-quality resources to import to China. “Follow the trend of social forces”, meaning that it was encouraged to have a wider, deeper, and higher level of nongovernment cooperation and exchange in education. Local authorities should learn from individual wisdom, individual power, independent programs, and independent actions. In the section “Co-creating a Better Future for Education”, the Document identified the participation plans for countries along the Belt Road route to be involved in China’s international education: “China is willing to work together with countries along the route, to uphold the concept of open cooperation and mutual benefit and win–win; to jointly build a diversified educational cooperation mechanism; to formulate timetables and roadmaps for promoting flexible cooperation processes; to create model cooperation projects; to meet the development needs of all countries involved; and to promote mutual development. The Chinese Ministry of Education encourages countries along the route to take active actions to strengthen strategic planning and policy consultation and to explore the mechanism and mode of cooperation and exchange in strategic planning and policy making. Actions should be taken to enhance the breadth and depth of educational cooperation and exchange, to pursue the quality and efficiency of educational cooperation and exchange, to build mutual trust, to provide mutual support, to learn from each other and to work together to promote education development and better communication among people. To build

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a shared educational community for the Belt and Road Initiative and to create a new chapter in a shared better future for all mankind.”

9.3 The Implementation Status of the Action Plans According to the data in the report produced by the Chinese Department of International Exchange and Cooperation of the Chinese Ministry of Education—the Updates on the Education Action under the Belt and Road Initiative, all actions taken under the “Educational Action Five Connectivity” as a basic initiative, the “Four promotion plans” as a supporting initiative and the “Four aspects” as a leading initiative have achieved good results.

9.3.1 Cooperation and Exchanges in Education Have Been Strengthened In the aspect of strengthening policy communication with other countries, China signed mutual recognition agreements for academic degrees with 46 countries and regions. Twenty-four of these countries participated in the Belt and Road Initiative, including 8 countries in Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic); 5 countries in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia); 5 countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia); 3 countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus); 1 country in South Asia (Sri Lanka); 1 country in East Asia (Mongolia); and 1 country in North Africa (Egypt). In the aspect of providing better support for education cooperation, a guiding document was drafted by the Chinese Ministry of Education, Office of Foreign Affairs of the CPC Central Committee and several other departments together cooperated, under the Chinese central government’s deployment: Guiding Opinions on Strengthening and Improving the Management of Teaching and Research Personnel Who Are Working Abroad Temporarily. This guiding document was published via the Chinese Central Office and the Chinese State Council. It provided policy support for the vast number of teaching and research personnel who wish to expand and deepen international academic exchanges and was widely welcomed and affirmed by them. To promote language exchange and communication among countries along the Belt Road route, the International Department of Chinese Ministry of Education signed a cooperation agreement with Beijing Foreign Studies University to support this university’s foreign language courses by introducing more international lecturers, sending students aboard government scholarships, and increasing cooperation with universities from other countries. In 2018, Beijing Foreign Studies University opened

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94 different language courses, achieving full coverage of all available foreign language courses. In the aspect of promoting the communication of the citizens in countries along the Belt Road route, China focused on organising national and regional studies, comprehensively strengthening the understanding of the economic, political, educational, and cultural aspects of the countries along the route, and providing intellectual support for promoting the communication. Two main methods were used in this work: (1) setting up special projects and (2) producing a series of think tank reports. A total of 141 special research projects were published, 70 of which focused on 46 countries along the Belt Road route. In the series of think tank reports, 66 countries along the Belt Road route were studied. One book of report was published in each country, so 66 books were included in this series. To promote the connection of academic degree certification standards, China implemented the UNESCO Asia–Pacific Convention on the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications. China worked with the World Bank in preparing the policy paper—“Policy Recommendations for International Education Trends and Experiences”. China also led the work in developing the APEC Organizational Education Strategy and UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Country Program for China.

9.3.2 The Talent Training Programs Have Been Increased In the work of implementing the Silk Road study abroad promotion plan, the “Action Plans for Study Abroad” was implemented. In 2016, 226 researchers who specialized in country-level regional research were selected to go to 34 countries, and 908 noncommon language talents (excl. English, French, Spanish, Mandarin, Russian and Arabic) in 37 different language courses were selected for further study abroad. The “Come to Study in China” brand gradually formed. As part of the Silk Road study abroad promotion plan, Chinese international education institutions emphasized attracting top talents to study in China and established a scholarship for excellence to train young elites and future leaders in developing countries. The Silk Road Chinese Government Scholarship Program was established to provide an additional total of no less than 3,000 scholarships to the countries along the Belt Road route each year. Another part of the Silk Road study abroad promotion plan was about optimizing the study regulations for studying China, building a complete policy chain for studying in China, and introducing new policy documents such as Regulations for the Recruitment and Cultivation of International Students in Universities. It was also about significantly increasing the proportion of students who are on government scholarships in the international student population (it has now achieved 90%), strengthening the quality of learning in China, establishing a quality standard system and quality assurance mechanism, and the continuous upgrading of branded courses and branded teaching content. The plan also required colleges and universities to build their own branded courses in their own speciality. As an incentive, 150

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courses that were taught in English for international students were selected as branded courses. In the implementation of the Silk Road education cooperation promotion plan, there were 2 main achievements. The first achievement was that the quality of education cooperation between China and other countries improved steadily, and it has now entered a stage where the focus of the work is “continuous quality and efficiency improvement, an education service for all, and capacity enhancement”. To date, 2,539 education cooperation programs between China and other countries have been approved. Among these programs, there are 1,248 programs at undergraduate and above level and higher education institutions and 928 programs in higher vocational training schools and vocational institutions. It has promoted a number of exemplary high-quality cooperative education programs, including 15 international education institutions, such as Shenzhen MSU-BIT University and ZJU-UOE Institute, and 57 education cooperation education programs. The second achievement in the implementation of the Silk Road education cooperation promotion plan was the steadily increasing number of Chinese overseas education institutions. At the end of 2016, China’s colleges and universities opened 4 institutions and 98 education programs abroad, which were distributed in 14 countries and regions. Most of them are located in the area along the Belt Road route. The 4 institutions are Suzhou University of Laos (established in 2011), Xiamen University of Malaysia (established in 2013), Bangkok Business School of Yunnan University of Finance and Economics (established in 2013), and Beijing Language and Culture University in Tokyo (established in 2014). Various courses were opened in these institutions, including Chinese Language and Literature, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture, Traditional Chinese Martial Arts, Physical Education, Business Administration, Law, Education, Finance, Investment and Management, Philosophy, Preschool and Special Education, Navigation Technology, Cooking Technology and Nutrition, and Journalism and Communication studies.

9.3.3 The Joint Building of Silk Road Cooperation Mechanism Has Been Carried Out The work of the Silk Road plan of promoting senior-level consultations to strengthen cultural exchanges made significant achievements. Cultural and social exchanges flourished, and they achieved a new high level of quality. Vice Premier Liu Yandong spoke highly of the work: “very smooth, very successful and very satisfied”. In 2016, through six senior-level consultation mechanisms, such China-Russia and China-Indonesia, a total of 86 cooperation agreements were signed, and more than 400 results were obtained. More than 100,000 Chinese and international guests attended the relevant events. This achievement consolidated the foundation of social

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and public opinion and contributed to the further development of Chinese diplomatic activities. International education cooperation has been substantially promoted with the support of cultural and social communication exchange mechanisms, such as China and ASEAN launching the “Two Hundred Vocational Schools Cooperation Flagship Program” together and the implementation of the “One Thousand Primary and Secondary School Teachers Exchange Program”. In the implementation of the Silk Road education aid plans, the “20 + 20 Cooperation Plan for China-Africa Universities” was launched to provide education and foreign aid. In China and Africa, 20 universities from each country were selected to conduct one-on-one long-term stable cooperation, and the two sides were encouraged to establish substantial cooperation and exchanges in their own specialized disciplines. This included collaborative research, teacher training, academic exchanges, mutual visits between teachers and students, joint development of courses, and joint training of graduate students. In 2016, an online application system was developed for the “20 + 20 Cooperation Plan for Chinese and African Universities”. A total of 25 universities, including Peking University, applied for 25 programs.

Chapter 10

Macro Management of China’s International Education

10.1 Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges (Office of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan Affairs) 10.1.1 Introduction The Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges is directly under the Chinese Ministry of Education. It is responsible for managing, coordinating and supervising educational cooperation and exchanges between China and other countries; formulating guidelines and policies for international students studying in China; and formulating guidelines and policies for education of international expatriates’ children. It also carries responsibilities for examining, approving and administrating institutions and programs engaged in educational cooperation and exchanges; giving instruction on the operation of education departments in Chinese embassy and consulate abroad; planning, coordinating and instructing the work of teaching Chinese as a foreign language; and managing the Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan affairs and communication on behalf of the Chinese Ministry of Education.

10.1.2 Work Responsibilities There are 12 teams within the Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges: the General Office, the Office of Policy Planning, the Office of Study in China, the Office of Study Abroad, the Office of International Education Supervision, the Office of International Organizations, the Office of International Education Cooperation, the Office of the Americas and Oceania, the Office of Europe, the Office of Asia and Africa, the Office of Eurasia, and the Office of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan. Their responsibilities are listed as below. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_9

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The General Office is responsible for the following: 1)

2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

coordinating the administrative, financial and personnel work of the department, formulating relevant regulations and implementing management, and the handling of documents, electricity, transmission, operation, audit, reminder, custody and seal management; Organizing and arranging the meetings for the director and other managers and reminding them to implement the agreed items; joint approval of foreign affairs funds; the reception of foreign education delegations and the arrangement of foreign meetings and visits for the leaders of the Ministry; the management, usage, maintenance and renewal of fixed assets of the department; the management of the seconded personnel and the assessment of the internship and work of personnel abroad; Assisting the Party General Branch, the League Branch, and the Union; attendance, employee welfare, and family planning; and completing other matters assigned by the management. The Office of Policy Planning is responsible for the following:

1) 2)

3)

4)

5) 6) 7)

8)

Studying the policies for international cooperation and exchange in education and formulating development plans and related regulatory documents; keeping close track of the development of education and reforms in various countries in the world, collecting and studying relevant information on international cooperation and exchanges in education, and proposing solutions and measures for important and sensitive issues; Guiding and coordinating with the education department (group) of the foreign embassy (consulate) to carry out research work, being responsible for the coordination and usage of research results, compiling and publishing the “Foreign Education Research”, and collecting data on international cooperation and exchange of education; coordinating with the management of foreign affairs in education, formulating relevant policies for groups working abroad (incoming and outgoing), compiling the annual incoming and outgoing plans for groups and units affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education, and reviewing the annual visiting targets of personnel and groups affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education; auditing and guiding educational exhibitions organized by groups directly affiliated with the Ministry; the formulation and management of policies related to overseas education examinations in China; Organization, planning and coordination of the construction of regional country research bases; and the introduction of overseas intelligence and the employment and management of foreign teachers and experts; coordinating with the overseas training of university management. The Office of Study in China is responsible for the following:

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1) 2) 3)

4) 5) 6) 7)

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Guiding and coordinating with the management of study abroad programs in China, drafting policies and planning for study in China programs; Assisting and guiding provincial education administrative departments to formulate development plans for study tours in China; formulating the Chinese government scholarship plan, including enrollment, admission, teaching and management; formulating the Chinese government scholarship budget plan, including standards and expenditures for each applicant; Building the management team for international students in China; supervising and managing violations in the study in China programs; gathering statistics and publishing data on studies in China-related activities; Guiding the education departments (groups) of relevant departments, institutions of higher learning and embassies and consulates abroad in the work relate to international graduates from the study in China programs. The Office of Study Abroad is responsible for the following:

1)

2)

3) 4)

5) 6) 7) 8)

studying and formulating policies for studying abroad programs and opportunities for Chinese students and coordinating the management of study abroad programs; Reviewing the national annual plans and reports of government-sponsored study abroad programs and organizing audit work on government-sponsored study abroad programs; gathering statistics and publishing data on study abroad-related activities; Organizing activities aimed at encouraging Chinese students to return to work and serve the country, such as the implementation of the “Research Fund for Returnees” and the “Chunhui Plan”; Improving and updating the “Overseas Top Talent Information Database” and “Top Talent Returnees needed in Chinese Universities Information Database”; Support relevant departments in the work of attracting overseas top talent returnees; Cooperation with relevant departments to guide services, management and safety education for overseas students; Research the work of overseas students for the Party. The Office of International Education Supervision is responsible for the following:

1) 2)

3) 4)

carrying out administrative supervision of education programs involving nonChinese citizens based on the national laws and regulations in this area; Supervising and guiding the provincial education administrative departments on cases involving violations of laws and regulations concerning foreign affairs and carrying out investigation and discipline according to the laws; Guiding the information webpage for education programs involving nonChinese citizens and in charging to gather and publish relevant news; the drafting and release of the Ministry of Education’s warning on overseas studies;

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Organizing the work on the selection of a recommendation list of overseas universities for self-funded Chinese students to study; Providing management, policy research and guidance for self-funded study abroad intermediary service agencies; Managing relevant activities organized by foreign educational institutions in China; participating in multilateral negotiations on education service trade under the framework of the World Trade Organization; the external publicity work on education and formulating the budget for the external publicity project. The Office of International Organizations is responsible for the following:

1)

2) 3)

4)

5) 6)

7)

8)

formulating policies and plans for educational exchanges and cooperation with international organizations (it refers to those world and intercontinental intergovernmental organizations other than the World Bank, Bank of Asia and UNESCO). Organizing cooperation and exchanges with international organizations; guiding and coordinating the implementation of the project; coordinating with international student sports organizations such as the World and Asian and Middle School Students Sports Federations and formulating and managing international sports affairs for universities and secondary education institutions; formulating guidance at international academic conferences in China, auditing and reviewing related activities, and providing support for the personnel of departments directly under the Ministry and the leaders of colleges and universities when applying for international conferences; examining the international conferences applications of scholars who are working for institutions with foreign affairs examination and approval authority; Implementation of the project of “Funding Colleges and Universities to Hold International Academic Conferences in China and Scholars to Attend International Academic Conferences Abroad”; formulating management measures and rules for those affiliated units and groups that are attending activities organized by international academic organizations under the name of the state, unit or group, and auditing related matters; drafting the application for international academic organizations to be established in China with affiliated units, institutions and universities.

The Office of International Education Cooperation is responsible for the following: 1) 2)

Research on the relevant policy and management of the Chinese-foreign cooperative education activities held in China; dealing with applications for Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs at the undergraduate and above levels, including organizing expert panel reviews and making administrative licensing decisions according to law;

10.1 Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges …

3) 4)

5) 6) 7) 8)

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Reviewing and recording the work of Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs, projects and institutions; Supervising the Chinese-foreign cooperative education activities, establishing the quality assurance system, and organizing the evaluation of Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs, projects and institutions; supervising and managing the operation of the online information platform of the above activities; Research on the relevant policy and management of the Chinese-foreign cooperative education activities held aboard by Chinese institutions; Organizing, coordinating and guiding overseas educational activities organized educational institutions of various Chinese localities and departments; dealing with applications from universities directly affiliated with the Chinese Ministry of Education for organizing education activities abroad; researching the relevant policy, managing and guiding the work around children of foreign nationals. The Office of the Americas and Oceania is responsible for the following:

1)

2)

3) 4)

5)

6)

Developing country and regional policies on educational cooperation and exchanges between China and the Americas and Oceania area, providing institutions within the Chinese National Education System with policy guidance and information services for bilateral educational exchanges and cooperation with countries in the Americas and Oceania area; Promoting effective working mechanisms for bilateral education cooperation and exchanges with national education and departments in the countries of the Americas and Oceania and their embassies and consulates in China; participating in bilateral coordination and consultation among governments, drafting agreements and plans for intergovernmental education cooperation and exchanges, and supervising and assessing the implementation; Managing and coordinating with intergovernmental education cooperation projects; Providing guidance to education activities organized by Chinese embassies and consulates in the countries of the Americas and Oceania, strengthening communication and providing information support services; auditing the bilateral international academic conferences organized by the departments directly under the Ministry of Education, auditing the visits of senior personnel of subordinate departments, universities and institutions to the Americas and Oceania area; participating in the negotiation with the FTA of countries in the Americas and Oceania, coordinating with educational exchanges and cooperation between the Chinese Ministry of Education and foreign multinational corporations. The Office of Europe is responsible for the following:

1)

cooperation and exchanges with European countries and the European Union; studying the education reforms and policy trends of European countries and

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3) 4) 5)

6)

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the European Union; formulating national and regional policies on educational cooperation and exchanges in Europe; and providing policy guidance and information services for institutions within the Chinese national education system to conduct bilateral educational cooperation and exchanges with European countries; Promoting effective working mechanisms for bilateral education cooperation and exchanges with national education departments of European countries, as well as their embassies and consulates in China, and participating in bilateral coordination and consultation among governments; drafting intergovernmental education cooperation and exchange agreements and plans and monitoring and assessing their implementation; Managing and coordinating with intergovernmental education cooperation projects; Providing guidance to education activities organized by Chinese embassies and consulates in European countries, strengthening communication and providing information support services; auditing the bilateral international academic conferences organized by the departments directly under the Ministry of Education, auditing the visits of senior personnel of subordinate departments, universities and institutions to the European region; participating in the negotiation with the FTA of countries in Europe. The Office of Asia and Africa is responsible for the following:

1)

2)

3) 4) 5)

6)

formulating national and regional policies on educational cooperation and exchanges in Asia and Africa and providing policy guidance and information services for institutions within the Chinese national education system to conduct bilateral educational cooperation and exchanges with countries in Asia and Africa; Promoting effective working mechanisms for bilateral education cooperation and exchanges with national education departments of Asian and African countries, as well as their embassies and consulates in China, and participating in bilateral coordination and consultation among governments; drafting intergovernmental education cooperation and exchange agreements and plans and monitoring and assessing their implementation; Managing and coordinating with intergovernmental education cooperation projects; Providing guidance to education activities organized by Chinese embassies and consulates in Asian and African countries, strengthening communication and providing information support services; auditing the bilateral international academic conferences organized by the departments directly under the Ministry of Education, auditing the visits of senior personnel of subordinate departments, universities and institutions to Asian and African countries;

10.1 Department of International Cooperation and Exchanges …

7)

8)

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Reaching out to Asian and African governments, regional and international organizations, institutions, enterprises and individuals, striving for funding and financial donation to Chinese education; participating in the negotiation with the FTA of countries within the Asian and African regions. The Office of Eurasia is responsible for the following:

1)

2)

3) 4) 5)

6)

7)

8)

being responsible for educational cooperation and exchanges with Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan; Studying the education reforms and policy trends of the above countries; formulating national and regional policies on educational cooperation and exchanges in the countries mentioned above, and providing policy guidance and information services for institutions within the Chinese national education system to conduct bilateral educational cooperation and exchanges with these above countries; promoting effective working mechanisms for bilateral education cooperation and exchanges with national education departments of these countries, as well as their embassies and consulates in China; and participating in bilateral coordination and consultation among governments; drafting intergovernmental education cooperation and exchange agreements and plans and monitoring and assessing their implementation; Managing and coordinating with intergovernmental education cooperation projects; Providing guidance to education activities organized by Chinese embassies and consulates in these countries, strengthening communication and providing information support services; auditing the bilateral international academic conferences organized by the departments directly under the Ministry of Education, auditing the visits of senior personnel of subordinate departments, universities and institutions to these 12 countries; carrying out the duties of the Office of the Chinese Secretariat of the ChinaRussia Humanities Cooperation Committee; coordinating with the relevant departments and reporting the cooperation of the branches of the Committee timely; coordinating and supervising the implementation of the agreements reached by the presidents of both sides of the Committee; being responsible for the educational cooperation affairs within the framework of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, ensuring the work under the operation and meeting mechanism of the Chinese Minister of Education, and the work of relevant educational experts; The Office of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan is responsible for the following:

1)

drafting relevant policies and regulations on education cooperation and exchanges with Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, based on the Chinese central government’s work guidelines and tasks on Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan; formulating work plans for Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan in education;

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6)

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auditing the visits of senior personnel of subordinate departments, universities and institutions to Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan; being responsible for the approval of the university lecturers’ exchange programs between Mainland China and Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan; Receiving regional education groups from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan for relevant educational activities; drafting policies and regulations for recruiting students from the Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan regions to study in mainland China and students from the mainland to study in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan; providing guidance to universities in mainland China to carry out relevant work; Striving, guiding and coordinating with the donation from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan (Education Foundation) to the Mainland; organizing educational projects donated by Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan citizens and foundations through the Ministry; being responsible for liaising with relevant departments and the Chinese central government’s liaison offices in Hong Kong and Macao and providing guidance to local education departments and universities to carry out educational exchanges with Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan.

10.1.3 Work Progress The Department of International Cooperation and Exchange of the Chinese Ministry of Education of China, as the most important management and supervision unit of China’s international education development, covers almost all aspects of international education in China. Therefore, this book only takes one example, the management and supervision of Chinese foreign education activities, for an in-depth introduction and analysis of the effectiveness of its work. To strengthen the management and supervision of Chinese-foreign education activities, in 2003, the Department of International Cooperation and Exchange of the Chinese Ministry of Education of China established a website: The Regulatory Information Network for Chinese-foreign Education Activities. This website was formally established to publish information on self-funded overseas study and Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs. The main responsibilities of the website include supervision of Chinese-foreign cooperative education program information; supervision of self-funded overseas study intermediary services; list of foreign higher education institutions and the release of foreign education warning information. The Chinese-foreign cooperative education supervision information platform focuses on publishing the supervision information of Chinese-foreign cooperative education, implementing a dynamic supervision platform for Chinese-foreign cooperative education, and providing more comprehensive and reliable information on university guidance and services to the wider society and the vast number of scholars as needed. The management and service work information contained in the platform mainly includes 10 aspects: (1) Chinese-foreign cooperative education institutions

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and project approval information, (2) admissions supervision information, (3) overseas certification registration and certification information, (4) education organizations and project evaluation information, (5) the Ministry of Education and local supervision reporting channels, (6) online hotspot questions and answers, (7) foreign educational resources, (8) Chinese-foreign cooperative education guidance, (9) policies and regulations, and (10) provincial and municipal local regulatory duties. These 10 services basically cover all aspects of Chinese-foreign cooperative education. The Chinese Ministry of Education relies on the Regulatory Information Network for Chinese-foreign Education Activities as a regulatory information platform for overseas study intermediary services. The platform enables the unified qualification certificate, timely publishes the relevant regulations and the detailed information of the intermediary service agencies that have been issued in various places, and opens the complaint tracking system for self-funded overseas study intermediary service agencies in a timely manner. Since 2003, the Chinese Ministry of Education has published information on a list of more than 10,000 foreign higher education institutions on the Regulatory Information Network for Chinese-foreign Education Activities. The publication of the list of foreign universities helps to guide citizens to study abroad and promote international cooperation and exchanges in education. At the same time, the Chinese Ministry of Education relies on the Regulatory Information Network for Chineseforeign Education Activities to release early warning information in a timely manner for studying abroad, helping Chinese students who are studying abroad to keep updated of the national dynamics of the countries they are studying at and related safety issues. For example, on June 3, 2019, Xu Mei, spokesperson of the Chinese Ministry of Education and the director of the Information Office, together with Xu Yongji, deputy director of the Department of International Cooperation and Exchange of the Ministry of Education, issued No.1 Early Warning for Study in 2019. The full text reads as follows: For some time, the visas for some Chinese students studying in the United States have been restricted. The visa review period was extended, the validity period was shortened, and the refusal rate increased. This has affected Chinese students’ study in the United States. The Ministry of Education is now sending a reminder to all students and scholars to strengthen risk assessment before going abroad to study, enhance your awareness of prevention, and prepare accordingly.

10.2 Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange 10.2.1 Introduction The Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange (CSCSE) is a public organization under the Chinese Ministry of Education. It is established for the purpose of supporting international education services and all incoming and outgoing students who are pursuing international exchanges and cooperation. CSCSE was initially

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founded in 1989 under Mr. Deng Xiaoping’s advocacy: a specialized organization that provides one-stop services for such a group of people is necessary.

10.2.2 Work Responsibilities The China Education Service Centre has nine departments and two registered enterprises. The nine offices are (1) the Public Affairs Office for Overseas Students; (2) the Passport and Visa Office of the Public Mission Group; (3) the Human Resources Office for Study Abroad; (4) the Office of Study Abroad in China; (5) the Office of Foreign Affairs; (6) the Office of International Cooperation; (7) the Overseas Returnees Investment Office; (8) the Office of China Study Abroad Network; and (9) Overseas Student Archives. The two registered direct enterprises are Beijing Jiahua Shida International Education Exchange Co., Ltd.; and Beijing Yuhong Technology Development Consulting Centre. The functions and business areas of the Study Abroad Service Centre of the Ministry of Education of China include (1) Study Abroad Service; (2) Overseas Returnees Service; (3) Study in China Service; (4) International Exchange and Cooperation Service; (5) Education Foreign Affairs Service; and (6) Network Information Service. 1)

2)

3)

Study Abroad Service It provides procedures for overseas study and exit and extension services for overseas students; provides file custody services for overseas students who study abroad at their own expense; provides services for self-funded overseas students; holds China International Education Exhibition and China Study Abroad Forum activities; provides pre-departure training before Chinese students go abroad; and assists the Ministry of Education in organizing and publishing a list of destination colleges and universities for Chinese citizens. Overseas Returnees Service It provides foreign academic degrees certification and related policy consulting services; drafts the National Report on Foreign Academic Degrees Certification; it provides services for returnees regarding work and settlement procedures; it is responsible for recruitment and recommendation (of overseas talents); it organizes recruitment fair of overseas talents; it manages the internship base for returning students; it manages the collective residence of returned overseas students; it drafts the Blue Paper for Returning Overseas Chinese for Employment; it accepts the application for confirmation of the status of seniorlevel overseas talents; it organizes the “Chunhui Cup” of Chinese Scholars Innovation and Entrepreneurship Competition; it provides entrepreneurship consulting service; it drafts China Overseas Students Entrepreneurship Yearbook; and it accepts application of “Chunhui Plan”, the project for overseas academics return to work on leave. Study in China Service

10.2 Chinese Service Centre for Scholarly Exchange

4)

5)

6)

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It is responsible for publishing information on enrolment in China; it organizes the education exhibition Study in China; it is responsible for overseas student; it provides policy advice on study in China; it organizes job fairs for overseas students who are studying in China; and it provides network events and opportunities for overseas alumni. International Exchange and Cooperation Service It is responsible for Singapore Government Scholarship Program; Study Abroad Training Program; UK Higher Education Diploma Program; International General Education Program; Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation consulting service; Chinese-foreign Cultural Exchange Mechanism and its supporting activities; Chinese-foreign Academic Degree Mutual Recognition Agreement related work; and it is responsible for working with UN and UNESCO. Education Foreign Affairs Service It is responsible for ordering gifts for the education department (group) of the Chinese embassies (consulates); providing support and guarantee services for the education and publicity work of the education department (group) of the Chinese embassies (consulates); it provides subscribing service of newspapers and magazines for overseas students; it provides passports and visa service for employees of the Ministry of Education who are traveling in groups for work; and it provides passports and visa service for educational diplomats and their spouses and children. Network Information Service The Network Information Service is responsible for the following network and webpages: China Study Abroad Network; the official website of the Ministry of Education (Group); China Scholarship Network; “Chunhui Cup” China Overseas Students Innovation and Entrepreneurship Competition Network; Predeparture Training Network for Study Abroad Students; Studying in China Network; Information Management System for Overseas Study and Training Programs; prestudy training video course broadcasting system; online archive system for studying abroad; online service system for overseas students’ collective residence; national degree system for foreign academic qualifications; online service system for overseas students returning for employment; Foreign Education Office (group) registration service platform for overseas students; Foreign Education Office (group) newspapers and gifts subscription system; and Admissions Service System for Study Abroad in China.

10.2.3 Work Progress In terms of overseas study services, the Overseas Education Service Centre of the Ministry of Education of China handles the procedures for sending students abroad. Since 1997, it has set up a filing office for overseas students to be responsible for the archives of overseas students. For self-funded study abroad, the center has compiled

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a collection of foreign institutions, scientific research institutions, handbooks, study guides, practical manuals, etc., to guide and standardize the self-funded study market and meet public needs. In terms of services for overseas returnees, since November 1989, the Overseas Education Service Centre of the Ministry of Education has organized recruitment teams for overseas students who have participated in various departments and units and has travelled to many foreign cities to hold nearly 100 job fairs and conferences. The symposiums accommodated tens of thousands of overseas students and established contacts with thousands of overseas students. In 1990, the Ministry of Education set up a research start-up fund for overseas returnees. The Overseas Study Service Centre of the Ministry of Education of China was entrusted to be responsible for the consultation, application, review, reporting, and appropriation of the fund and assisted the competent authorities in tracking and researching the use of funds. In April 1995, the State Council decided to set up an Overseas Returnees Investment Office at the Study Abroad Service Centre. During this period, the Overseas Education Service Centre provided services and convenience for overseas senior-level talent in various forms and for long-term residence in China. In 2000, the Ministry of Education set up the “Chunhui Plan” for overseas academics to take leave and return to China. The Chinese Ministry of Education Overseas Education Service Centre provides relevant services for these overseas academics to return to China to lecture and cooperate with scientific research. In China, since 1999, the center has sent staff to South Korea, Japan, Thailand, Germany, France, Indonesia, Italy and other countries to organize the China Education Exhibition. The China Education Exhibition has become another window for the world to understand higher education and international education in China. Since 1999, the China International Education Exhibition has successfully held 23 sessions in more than 20 cities in China. More than 2,400 colleges and educational institutions from 56 countries and regions have participated in the exhibition, with a total audience of approximately 1.45 million. In terms of educational foreign affairs service, the center annually orders and distributes domestic newspapers and magazines for the Education Department (Group) of the Chinese Embassies, overseas students and expatriate Chinese teachers; it also helps them with the pretrial, production, procurement, transmission of audiovisual products such as film and television and the preselection, submission, and production of gifts. In terms of network information services, the China Study Abroad Network, established in 1996, has become a group of four subnets consisting of the Study Abroad Policy Online Centre, Study Abroad Online Centre, Returning from Overseas Studies Online Centre and Study in China Online Centre. The Study Abroad Policy Online Centre provides the most complete information on study abroad policy for all sectors of society. The Study Abroad Online Centre provides the most authoritative information service for overseas students for overseas students and self-funded overseas students. The Returning from Overseas Studies Online Centre provides all-round service without time and space restrictions; and Study in China Online Centre provides information services for overseas students

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studying in China. Approved by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and the Ministry of Education, since 2000, the Chinese Education Service Centre has carried out foreign academic degree certification work nationwide.

10.3 China Scholarship Council 10.3.1 Introduction After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee in 1978, under the leadership of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, China embarked on a new journey of reform and opening-up. According to the initiative of Deng Xiaoping, the central government decided to allocate funds for the study of overseas students (including undergraduates, postgraduates, short course trainees or visiting scholars), thus opening a new page in the history of studying abroad. Throughout the 1980s, the total number of students studying abroad was approximately 3,000. This has proven that the achievements of the country’s policy of studying abroad are remarkable, and it has played a positive role in promoting the cause of socialist modernization in China at that time. However, during the mid-to-late 1980s, the problem of overdue personnel became increasingly prominent, and it was a result of the huge economic gap between China and the developed countries in the West, the specific environment during the transition period of social reform, and the institutional mechanisms of the management and selection services of national publicly funded overseas students at that time. Facing this challenge, the central government’s management provided important instructions. In 1986, the State Education Commission issued the document Provisional Regulations on the Work of Study Abroad Students. This document put forward timely the strategy and guidelines of “distribution on demand, quality assurance, and unified learning”, and it clarified the measures and policies for adjusting the level of personnel selection, disciplines of study and destination countries. Since then, the State Council of Education and the relevant departments have actively explored the establishment of a new national working mechanism for the management of public funds for study aboard. At the beginning of 1992, Deng Xiaoping said, “I hope that all those who study abroad will come back, regardless of his previous political stance. All of them can return and enjoy the services provided for returnees. This policy cannot be changed. Tell them that if they want to make a contribution, they should return to China.” Deng Xiaoping’s speech was a milestone for the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China’s decision on the establishment of a socialist market economic system, which was adopted at the Third Plenary Session of the 14th CPC Central Committee in 1993. In the formal establishment of the policy of “supporting study abroad, encouraging returning to the country, and coming and going freely”.

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In 1994, the State Council’s “Implementation Opinions on the Outline of China’s Education Reform and Development” proposed the establishment of the China Scholarship Council. This committee should support the legalization of the enrolment, selection and management of Chinese students going aboard and foreign students coming to China. On the one hand, through the establishment of the China Scholarship Council, it should improve the quality of the selection; on the other hand, through the establishment of China Scholarship Council, it should strengthen the management of the students studying abroad on public funds, so that it would improve the efficiency of studying abroad. In 1996, the Central Office officially approved the establishment of the China Scholarship Council.

10.3.2 Work Responsibilities The mission of the China Scholarship Council is to be responsible for the organization, funding and management of Chinese citizens studying abroad and foreign citizens studying in China, in accordance with national laws, regulations and relevant guidelines and policies. The China Scholarship Council should facilitate the development of education, science and technology, cultural exchanges and trade between China and other countries; it should help strengthen friendship and understanding between China and the people around the world and contribute to China’s socialist modernization and pursuit of world peace. The main tasks of the China Scholarship Council are managing the work around Chinese citizens studying abroad and foreign citizens studying in China, legally and economically; responsible for the management and use of the National Study Abroad Scholarship, decisions on the relevant funding projects and methods, formulating management regulations, and making the most of funds; management of various bilateral and multilateral exchanges or individual scholarships with foreign countries; managing matters related to educational exchanges and scientific and technological cooperation under commissions from relevant organizations, institutions and individuals; funding projects that are contributing to the development of Chinese education and friendly relations with foreign countries. The China Scholarship Council should strive for overseas donations, broaden the sources of funds, and increase fund accumulation. It should help establish contacts with domestic and foreign counterparts to carry out exchanges and cooperation. The China Scholarship Council has a committee and a secretariat. The committee is an advisory review body. The committee’s responsibilities are reviewing the work development plan and annual work plan, reviewing the annual financial report, reviewing the annual work report, and reviewing other major issues. The Secretariat is a permanent working body that consists of nine departments: the Department of Selection and Training for Study Abroad, the Department of Incoming Citizens’ Affairs, the Department of Legal and General Affairs, the Department of Cooperation and Projects, the Department of Funds and Finance, the Department of Information

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Resources, the Department of American and Oceania Affairs, the Department of Euro-Asian and African Affairs, and the General Office. 1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

The Department of Selection and Training for Study Abroad It is responsible for the application, selection, review and admission of senior research scholars, visiting scholars and postdoctoral programs; the application, selection, review and admission of publicly funded high-level university postgraduate programs; the application, selection, review and admission of top undergraduate international exchange programs; the application, selection, review and admission of special projects for the cultivation of artistic talent; and the application, selection, review, admission of international organization internship projects. The Department of Incoming Citizens’ Affairs The responsibilities of this department are undertaking the specific implementation work provided by the Chinese government scholarship; accepting application and reviewing the qualification of incoming citizens studying in China; it is responsible for the faculty arrangement for incoming citizens studying in China; drafting the management regulations for incoming citizens studying in China for decision-making; and managing providing services to overseas students regarding admission, study in China and graduation. The Department of Legal and General Affairs This department is responsible for the signing, notarization, consultation, and review of the “Study Abroad Sponsorship Agreement”; matters related to the termination of the agreement; and is responsible for the Outstanding Self-funded Study Aboard Scholarship program. The Department of Cooperation and Projects This department is responsible for the application, selection, review and admission of young scholars to study abroad; special projects for Talent Cultivation in the Western Region; the application, selection, reviewing and admission of local cooperation projects; the selection of projects for collaboration with industries; the selection of study abroad programs for Higher Education Executives; the selection of study abroad programs for university English teachers; the selection for public-funded study abroad special projects such as Higher Education Teaching Methods program; and the selection of study abroad programs for secondary education English teachers. The Department of Funds and Finance is responsible for the management of international exchange service fees and for the management of overseas student deposits. The Department of Information Resources This department is responsible for the National Public-funded Study Abroad Programs Management and Information platform; the National Outstanding Self-funded International Student Scholarship Management system; resolving issues around institutions’ encryption lock; issues around adding foreign study abroad institutions; overseas returnees’ work-related consultation; and National Study Network related consultation.

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The Department of American and Oceania Affairs This department is responsible for the projects of the Education Office of the Chinese Embassy in the United States; the projects of the Education Group of the Chinese Consulate General in New York; the projects of the Education Group of the Chinese Consulate General of Chicago and Houston; the projects of the Education Group of the Chinese Consulate General of San Francisco and Los Angeles; the education cooperation projects with Canada; the education cooperation projects with Australia and New Zealand; the education cooperation projects with Latin America; China-US Fulbright Project; and the Innovative Talents International Cooperation Training Program. The Department of Euro-Asian and African Affair This department is responsible for research on international regional issues, management and consultation of senior-level talent training programs in foreign languages. It is responsible for the work in the following countries: Japan, the UK, France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, Estonia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Latvia, Poland, Czech Republic, Romania, Hungary, Albania, Croatia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Belarus, Armenia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Ukraine, Russia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Israel, Turkey, Indonesia, South Korea, North Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Nepal, India, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Algeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia, South Africa and some other countries. The General Office is responsible for assisting the leaders in coordinating the work of different departments. It is responsible for secretarial work, document files and management, and other administrative logistics.

10.3.3 Work Progress As Xu Tao, former director of the Department of International Cooperation and Exchange of the Ministry of Education, said, “the establishment of the China Scholarship Council is a milestone in the development of the nation’s public-funded study aboard reform and even the development of the whole nation’s international education”. Since its establishment in 1996, the China Scholarship Council has sent out a total of 257,200 overseas students through continuous standardization, admission, management and service for overseas students. It not only selects and cultivates urgently needed talent for national development but also plays a positive role in diplomatic and cultural exchanges. In terms of studying abroad, students applying for publicly funded scholarships are selected according to the “distribution on demand” policy. Under the guidance of the Chinese government, the China Scholarship Council, as a nongovernment agency, manages students’ application using a process of “individual application, expert

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review, merit-based admission, contract signing, and breach of contract compensation”. This process reflects the principle of “fairness, competition and merit” and has been very effective after implementation. For example, among the more than 5,000 students sent out in 1999, the rate of returning to the country on agreed time reached 92%. Those who did not return to China on time paid compensation according to the agreement, and the compliance rate was 100%. To strengthen the targeted selection and better meet the needs of departments, localities and the nation, the China Scholarship Council set up corresponding talent training programs according to the needs of the nation. For example, to support the grand strategy of developing the western region, the China Scholarship Council implemented instructions from the Ministry of Education on strengthening the training of talent in the western region. In 2001, on the basis of full investigation, the China Scholarship Council set up a special project for talent training in the western region to fund the training of talent in the western region. In 2014, the China Scholarship Council established an International Organization Internship Program, as national development needs more talent who specialized in working with international organizations. In terms of studying in China, the establishment of the China Scholar Council legalized the enrollment, selection and management of international students coming to China. The China Scholarship Council undertakes specific management tasks under the guidance of the government and solves various problems in a timely manner through the management mechanism of nongovernment organizations. The management of international students in China has gradually been standardized, and the scale, level and quality have been improved yearly; the advantage and benefits of scholarship incentives have been improved; databases and alumni networks of international students in China have been developed and established. The statistical work of international students in China is timely and accurate, providing a reliable evidence foundation for the government to make decisions. The China Scholarship Council has trained a large number of international talents with excellent performance, and they are law-abiding and friendly to China. In addition, the China Scholarship Council actively supports the eight seniorlevel cultural exchange mechanisms established by the Chinese central government, including China-Russia, China-US, and China–Europe. It has successively hosted the China-US University Presidents Forum, the China–Europe Tank Seminar, Celebrating China-UK 40 Years of Student Exchange, China-France Higher Education Forum and other supporting activities. It played an important role in the nation’s cultural exchanges.

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10.4 National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO 10.4.1 Introduction China was one of the founding members of UNESCO. In 1971, China resumed its legal status in the United Nations and resumed its activities in UNESCO in 1972. In 1978, under the impetus of Deng Xiaoping, China and UNESCO signed the document Memorandum of Understanding among the Minister of Education, the Deputy Minister of Culture, the Deputy Secretary-General of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Director-General of UNESCO. It marks the formal and practical cooperation and exchange between China and UNESCO. In 1979, to coordinate the cooperation between China and UNESCO, an interdepartmental government agency led by the Chinese Ministry of Education was established, and it was the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO.

10.4.2 Work Responsibilities The National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO is composed of some departments of the Chinese State Council, some state-level public institutions, and some national nongovernmental organizations and institutions. Among them, the departments of the Chinese State Council include the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Land and Resources, the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development, the State Council Information Office, the Ministry of Water Resources, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Finance, National Radio and Television Administration, the State Sports General Administration, the Press and Publication Administration, the State Oceanic Administration, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage, and the State Seismological Bureau. State-level public institutions include the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Xinhua News Agency and China Central Television. The national non-governmental organizations and institutions include: All-China Federation of Trade Unions, All-China Youth Federation, All-China Women’s Federation, China Association for Science and Technology, Chinese Writers Association, All-China Journalists Association, The Chinese Society of Education, China International Culture Exchange Centre, and China Translation and Publishing Corporation. The functions of the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO include: (1) coordinating and assisting the various departments and agencies in the central and local governments to participate in UNESCO’s activities; (2) implementing some of the activities carried out by China in cooperation

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with UNESCO, mostly in education, and some of the activities are in science and culture; (3) acting as the external liaison for China’s participation and cooperation in UNESCO activities within the Regular Programme, Participation Programme and Extrabudgetary Sources Programme, including direct liaison with UNESCO headquarters and business units, indirect liaison with them through the Permanent Mission of China to UNESCO, liaison with the UNESCO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and the South-East Asia Regional Technology Office, liaison with the UNESCO Office in Beijing and liaison with the National Commission for Education and Culture of other countries; (4) preparing for China’s attendance at the UNESCO General Conference and providing advice to the government on matters related to discussion of the topic, submission of drafted resolutions, institutional elections, etc.; (5) providing assistance to UNESCO Executive Committee Chinese members’ preparation and participation in the Executive Board session; (6) drafting the letters of responses to advice sent by the Director-General of UNESCO on the preparation of the UNESCO medium-term strategy, biennial programs and budget, international regulatory documents and other important documents, and participating in consultations on relevant issues; (7) organizing the National Education and Culture Commissions meeting and sub-regional meetings in the Asia–Pacific region, and carrying out exchanges and cooperation with UNESCO’s national committees in the local and other regions; and (8) promoting important UNESCO activities and China’s work with the organization, and disseminating useful and valuable ideas, knowledge and experience.

10.4.3 Work Progress In the field of education, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO has carried out work in three aspects. First, the implementation of UNESCO’s Education for All program should be promoted. Since the World Conference on Education for All in 1990, UNESCO has launched an “Education for All” program aimed at universalizing basic education, eradicating illiteracy among young and middle-aged adults and developing postliteracy vocational and technical education. China actively participated in the relevant activities of the plan and announced the “China Education for All Programme of Action” in 1993. In 2005, the 33rd Session of the UNESCO Conference adopted the “UNESCO Confucius Education Award”, which was funded by China for 150,000 US dollars per year. This is the first award in the name a Chinese citizen. The award is dedicated to rewarding outstanding literacy institutions and workers, especially in rural adult literacy and women’s and children’s literacy, so Confucius’s concept of “education without distinction” could be passed on among literacy workers on an international scale to reduce global illiteracy. Second, hosting senior-level international conferences for UNESCO. In November 2005, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO hosted the fifth UNESCO Senior-Level Conference on Education for All

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for the first time, which was attended by Chinese and foreign state and government leaders. The conference was attended by approximately 400 representatives from 54 countries, 7 UN intergovernmental agencies and 9 nongovernmental international organizations. In 2012, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO successfully hosted the third International Conference on Vocational and Technical Education in Shanghai, which was attended by representatives of UNESCO, representatives from more than 80 Member States, representatives of relevant international institutions, representatives of nongovernmental organizations in the field of vocational education, and experts and business representatives. In October 2013, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO successfully hosted the International Learning City Conference in Beijing, attended by more than 500 representatives from 102 Member States of UNESCO. In April 2017, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO successfully hosted the International Conference of UNESCO Associated Education Network in Hainan. The leaders of UNESCO’s contact education institutions, teachers and representatives from partner institutions from more than 40 countries participated in the conference. They discussed the development of education institutions under the 2030 Education Agenda. In July 2017, the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO successfully hosted the International Education Informatization Conference in Qingdao, attended by representatives of UNESCO, representative of more than 70 member states, representatives of relevant international institutions and nongovernmental organizations in the field of education and information technology, and experts and business representatives. Third, recommending and delivering outstanding talent and contributing Chinese wisdom to UNESCO. In 2005, Chinese candidate Zhang Xinsheng was elected as the new (2005–2007) UNESCO Executive Board President with a high of 41 votes (58 votes in total). In 2010, our candidate, Don Juan, was appointed Assistant DirectorGeneral of UNESCO, responsible for the education activities of UNESCO. In 2013, Hao Ping, Vice Minister of the Ministry of Education of China and Director of the National Commission of the People’s Republic of China for UNESCO, was elected as the only candidate of the 37th session of the UNESCO General Assembly for a term of two years. This is the 68th year since the establishment of UNESCO, and it was the first time that a Chinese representative was elected as the “head of the family”.

10.5 Chinese Association for International Understanding 10.5.1 Introduction The Chinese Association for International Understanding was established in 1981, with the approval of the Chinese State Council, as a national civil society engaged in foreign education exchanges. Its purpose is to actively promote cooperation and

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exchanges between the Chinese education community and the education communities of countries (regions) around the world, enhance mutual understanding and friendship, and promote the development of education, science and culture.

10.5.2 Work Responsibilities According to Article 7 of Chapter 2 of the Statutes of the Chinese Association for International Understanding, the main responsibilities of the Chinese Association for International Understanding include 7 aspects. (1) Build a platform for international exchanges and cooperation in nongovernmental education; implement various forms of educational international exchange programs; and promote exchange and cooperation at all levels between Chinese and international educational individuals, organizations and institutions. (2) To participate in the self-discipline of foreign-related education industry; to conduct standardization work in foreign-related education in accordance with the law, with the approval of relevant government departments; and to provide quality assurance work such as certification and evaluation. (3) To conduct academic research in the field of international education; to edit relevant publications on education and international exchanges; to publish relevant reports and information on foreign education; to provide advice and suggestions for government, society and schools; and to play the role of think tank. (4) To conduct foreign-related educational training, conferences, exhibitions, competitions, etc., with approval from relevant government departments and in accordance with industry development needs. (5) To guide and support local education international exchange associations to carry out work for recruitment of new members. (6) Management and use of the Education International Exchange Fund. (7) To conduct social service activities and other related activities consistent with the purpose of the association.

10.5.3 Work Progress Since its establishment in 1981, the Chinese Association for International Understanding has been implementing various forms of educational international exchange programs and promoting international exchanges and cooperation in private education, all of which are consistent with its work mission. In 1982, the Chinese Association for International Understanding and the American State University and College Association signed the first Chinese-foreign nongovernmental education cooperation agreement. Since 1985, the Chinese Association for International Understanding has gradually started to undertake projects related to nongovernmental education exchanges from the International Department of the Ministry of Education, such as the “Chinese and foreign teachers and students cultural exchange program” and “higher vocational college leaders overseas training programs”. In addition, the association also received a delegation of students from Lincoln University in the United

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States, a summer camp delegation from Belarusian college students, a summer camp delegation from Kyrgyz middle school students, and a visiting group of teachers and students from the Ravenswood School in Australia. With the establishment of the Chinese and foreign cultural exchange mechanism in 2010, the Chinese Association for International Understanding actively undertakes cultural exchange programs between China-US, China-Russia, China-Japan and China-Central Europe. For example, the China-US “Zhi-Xing China” project, “Thousand Schools Collaboration” project, the China-UK “Partner Schools Exchange Program” and the “British Student Internship in China” program. Since 2014, the Chinese Association for International Understanding has undertaken the quality certification of Chinese-foreign cooperative education commissioned by the Ministry of Education, the self-disciplinary management of foreign-invested overseas media organizations, foreign teacher recruitment services, nongovernmental educational exchanges in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, and the selection of excellent courses for studying in China that are taught in English. The Chinese Association for International Understanding has played the role of a private think tank. To further develop this work, the Chinese Association for International Understanding has successively established different branches: a self-funded study abroad intermediary service branch, an international exchange branch for vocational and technical education, a volunteer committee for international cultural education exchanges, a professional committee for Chinese-foreign cooperative education, a teacher training and development branch, an educational equipment international exchange branch, a middle school education international exchange branch, a future education research committee, a teacher education branch, and an international exchange of universities branch. The Chinese Association for International Understanding has published certification standards for self-funded overseas study intermediary service agencies, the “100 Questions for Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation”, the “Annual Report on Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation Institutions” and the “Annual Report on Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation Programs”. To date, the Chinese Association for International Understanding is the only institution directly under the Ministry of Education that is qualified to carry out educational service certification business. The Chinese Association for International Understanding also actively expands international bilateral and multilateral nongovernmental exchange activities. It has carried out leadership development projects for all levels of principals in the UK, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and other countries. It co-organized the Chinese National Japanese Speech Contest with Japanese institutions. In addition, it has been hosting the China International Education Annual Conference since 2000, which has been developed into a brand project at a high level with high quality by the Chinese Association for International Understanding. The annual “China International Education Conference” consists of three parts: “China International Education Forum”, “China International Education Exhibition” and “Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation Project Fair”. It has become the largest and most influential annual education event in China and the Asia–Pacific region.

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10.6 Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) 10.6.1 Introduction Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, with the development of China’s economy and increasing international exchanges, the demand for Chinese language learning has increased dramatically. To promote the Chinese language to the world and enhance the influence of the Chinese language and culture, China established the Confucius Institute in 2004. It is a nonprofit educational institution established for the purpose of teaching Chinese and spreading Chinese culture, drawing from the experience of other countries such as the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Spain. The Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) is the highest management and guidance body for the Confucius Institute worldwide.

10.6.2 Work Responsibilities The Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) has 7 main functions. (1) To support educational institutions at all levels to carry out Chinese language teaching and Chinese cultural communication. (2) To formulate, improve and promote international Chinese language teacher standards, international Chinese language proficiency standards, and international general syllabus for teaching Chinese. (3) To select and train Chinese teachers and volunteers for teaching abroad. (4) To develop and implement the Chinese proficiency test. (5) To implement the Confucius New Sinology Program and to support the development of Chinese studies. (6) Organize and manage the Confucius Institute Scholarship and organize important activities such as the “Chinese Bridge” series of competitions. (7) To build an international Chinese language teaching information network, TV programs, radio programs, three-dimensional platforms and digital resources.

10.6.3 Work Progress According to the data provided by the official website of the Confucius Institute Headquarters, as of the end of 2018, a total of 548 Confucius Institutes and 1,193 Confucius Classrooms and 5,665 teaching points were established in 154 countries (regions). Among them, the Confucius Institute’s distribution is as follows: 35 countries in Asia set up 125 Confucius Institutes and 114 Confucius Classrooms; 44 countries in Africa established 59 Confucius Institutes and 41 Confucius Classrooms; 43 countries in Europe set up 182 Confucius Institutes and 341 Confucius Classrooms; 25 countries in America established 161 Confucius Institutes and 595 Confucius Classrooms; 7 countries in Oceania set up 21 Confucius Institutes and 21

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Confucius Classrooms. The Confucius Institute has 47,000 full-time and part-time teachers, including 1.86 million face-to-face students and 8.1 million online registered students. The number of attendees of cultural events held in this year reached 13 million. In terms of textbook development, the Confucius Institute Headquarters developed textbooks in 54 languages and more than 6,700 Chinese learning materials and cultural reading materials by the end of 2018. A total of 457 Confucius Institutes (classrooms) in 114 countries have developed 3,119 local textbooks adapted to local syllabuses and test standards. The Confucius Institute has published more than 640 academic and translation work and developed more than 1,600 academic research projects. For the implementation of the “New Sinology Program”, more than 600 students, scholars and young sinologists came to China to pursue degrees or conduct research funded at the end of 2018. More than 700 young leaders and industry elites visited China. The Confucius Institute Headquarters supported more than 30 international academic conferences and the overseas translation and publishing of more than ten Chinese classics and contemporary works. Regarding the “Chinese Bridge” series competition brand project, since the first launch of the competition in 2002, nearly 1.3 million middle and high school students from 152 countries have participated in overseas preliminaries, and nearly 6,000 outstanding players have come to China. During the finals, more than 100 million viewers at home and abroad watched the competition every year. At present, the “Chinese Bridge” series competition has become an international competition with high attention and active participation by Chinese learners from all over the world. It is known as the “Olympic” of Chinese. In terms of Chinese tests, to meet the needs of Chinese learners around the world, the Confucius Institute Headquarters (Hanban) has developed and implemented the HSK, HSKK, Pupils Chinese Test (YCT), Business Chinese Test (BCT), Confucius Institute/Class Test (HSKE) and other Chinese tests. These tests provide objective and effective testing standards for testing Chinese language learners’ abilities, studying in China, applying for scholarships to study in China, conducting school assessments and employment and promotion. By the end of 2018, 1,147 test sites were set up in 137 countries and regions around the world, and 453 online test service sites were provided, with a coverage rate of 39.5%.

Chapter 11

The Experience and Implication of China’s International Education

11.1 Adhering to the Educational Development Path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics as the Basic Guiding Ideology for the Opening-Up of Education in China In the opening-up of education in China, we adhere to the state’s educational policy, adhere to the direction of socialist education, emphasize the virtues of the people, respect the characteristics of students’ physical and mental development and the laws of education, and encourage students to lively and proactively develop and absorb the excellent education and cultural science and technology resources of all countries in the world. We should promote mutual exchanges, promote the internationalization of education in China, and make opening-up to the outside world an active and organic part of China’s education.

11.2 Adhering to Serving the Country’s Economic and Social Construction and Education Reform and Development as the Fundamental Driving Force In the past 70 years, at each historical node, the Party Central Committee and the State Council have reviewed the situation, grasped the laws of social and educational development, made new arrangements and strategic adjustments to the opening-up of education in a timely manner, and made education open to the outside world to better serve China’s economic and social development, the needs of modernization, and the needs of China’s education reform and development and personnel training. They ensured that the schools, teachers, students and all sectors of society that participate in education were always highly motivated, and they embarked on a road of open-up education with Chinese characteristics. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_10

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11.3 Adhering to Serving Both the International and Domestic Plans, Using a Combination of “Introducing in” and “Reaching Out” as the Basic Approach The development of education is inseparable from intercultural communication, mutual understanding among civilizations and educational experience sharing among different countries. We should adhere to the opening-up of education in China and strengthen educational and cultural exchanges with countries around the world, adhere to expand the international influence of Chinese education, adhere to promote the improvement of China’s education level and quality, and contribute to world education and optimize the global education governance structure with Chinese programs, Chinese wisdom and Chinese approach.

11.4 Adhering to the Cultivation of Outstanding Talents as the Core Task of Opening China’s Education to the Outside World At the beginning of the establishment of the People’s Republic of China, the nation’s scientific research institutions and personnel were scarce, and there were few scientific and technological achievements. There were no new disciplines. Developing education and cultivating talent is an important and urgent task for China. In the past 70 years, through opening up education to the outside world, sending students overseas, introducing high-quality educational resources from abroad, and developing Chinese-foreign cooperative education, China rapidly cultivated outstanding talents with international vision and advanced scientific and cultural and technological talents that were urgently needed. The leading figures and top scientists and scholars of all industries in China have basically gone abroad to study. Since the 18th National Party Congress, to meet the needs of China’s diplomatic strategies and the Belt and Road initiative, training has been enhanced for nongeneric language talent, international organization talent, national and regional research talent, top-notch innovative talent and outstanding foreign talent coming to China. These five categories of talent have continuously increased, and fruitful results have been achieved. It made outstanding contributions to the reform and development of all industries and the overall development of the country’s modernization.

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11.5 Adhering to Laws, Regulations and Policies as the Solid Guarantee for the Opening-Up and Promotion of China’s Education In the past 70 years, China has adhered to the principle of promoting and guaranteeing the opening-up of education in accordance with the law, the principle of implementing governance according to law, the principle of placing importance in system construction, and the principle of constantly innovating the mechanism of opening-up. These actions provide a solid guarantee for China’s education to open up to the world and to establish a norm for international education. The State Council has launched a series of laws and regulations, such as the Education Law, the Law on the Promotion of Private Education, the Regulations on Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation, and the Measures for the Implementation of the Regulations on Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation. The State Council has also launched a series of overall, comprehensive and specialized documents, such as the Outline of the National Medium- and Long-term Education Reform and Development Plan (2010–2020), the China Education Modernization 2035, the Several Opinions on the Opening-up of Education in the New Era, and the Promoting the “One Belt, One Road” Education Action. The above laws, regulations and policy documents have formed effective standards and provided a policy and legal basis for China’s education opening-up. They have played a guiding role in promoting the healthy and rapid development of China’s education opening-up and have formed a scientific, normative and continuous process for China’s education opening-up. The openingup of education has gradually embarked on the road of legalization, high-quality development and content development. In the new era and facing new tasks and new requirements, China’s education should adhere to following the leadership of the Party, in accordance with General Secretary Xi Jinping’s instruction on education: “Rooting in China, integrating China and foreign countries, and basing on the times and the future”. China’s education should be inclusive, making use of both domestic and international resources and markets, focusing on the needs of the nation’s economic construction and social development, effectively serving the construction of strengthening the nation with education and the diplomatic practice of becoming a country with great powers. China’s education should be comprehensively promoting the opening-up of the education and should make greater contributions to realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and to building a community of shared future for mankind.

Chapter 12

A Literature Review on China’s International Education

The authors first conducted a literature search under the titles of “International Education”, “International Education Policy”, “Education Internationalization” and “China International Education” through the China Academic Journal Network Publishing Database. Second, they searched for international education-related online articles through general internet search engines. Finally, they collected the latest data on international education by participating in international education conferences. In short, they made great effort in ensuring that the research literature was comprehensive, accurate and updated.

12.1 The Importance and Reflection of International Education International education has become a world trend. Some scholars have discussed the significance of international education in China from the perspective of public diplomacy and national soft power. At the same time, some other scholars have also reflected on the global crisis brought about by international education, calling for rational treatment of international education and more attention to the issue of education sovereignty in international education. Wu Di and Zhang Yongxian interpreted international education from the perspective of public diplomacy and analyzed the characteristics and role of international education in the twenty-first century new public diplomacy in their article “The Rise of International Education and Public Diplomacy”. They pointed out that international educational activities have the characteristics of spreading, two-way communication and controllability, and these characteristics enabled international education programs to become an important means of public diplomacy. They could play a greater role in disseminating national core values, ideas and policy positions. In the article “International Education Exchange is an Important Resource of Soft Power”, Yan Yanxiang and Chen Yang pointed out that international education © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3_11

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exchange, as a special international exchange activity, not only spreads knowledge but also spreads values and cultures through human contact, communication and access. The combination of academic and political characteristics of international education exchanges allowed it to become an important means of advancing national cultural strategies, conducting public diplomacy and enhancing the country’s soft power. Based on this, China should place greater importance on the political significance implied in international education exchanges, increase investment, formulate various forms of educational exchanges, adjust curriculum settings, and fully develop the potential soft power resources contained in international education exchanges. Zhang Minxuan believes that from the perspective of the development of countries around the world, people have shifted from the stage of realizing the importance of international education to the stage of studying how to implement the strategy of internationalization of education. All countries are exploring how the goals of international education are defined and how to innovate. Society needs international talent, and China must consider international education as a strategic measure for education development. Therefore, international education is a trend of the times. Wang Xi and Chen Xiaoxiao’s article “The Trap of Globalization in International Education” explores the global crisis of international education from the perspectives of economy, society and politics. They believe that with the rapid development of international education, we should also be alert to the inherent illnesses of Western modernity brought about by international education. International education is alienated into “commodities” driven by capital, completely following the logic of global market expansion, disregarding the value of education, ignoring the educational sovereignty of the nation-state, and rarely reflecting on the value of its own elite attributes. Under the dominance of instrumental rationality, the “international feelings” of international education have faded and even become the gimmick of business speculation. It can be said that the excessive marketization, elitism and ideologicalization of international education have become global issues. Therefore, to safeguard the educational, public welfare and ideological security of international education in our country, we must maintain rationality and autonomy in the process of going global, and we must profoundly reflect and criticize global capitalism and neoliberalism. In particular, it is necessary to recognize the nature of maintaining market hegemony and safeguarding the interests of market monopolists. Zhou Mansheng believes that “the internationalization of education always faces the challenge of how to deal with internationalization and localization”. The internationalization of basic education focuses on cultivating students’ global awareness and multicultural understanding “but use the phrase cultivating international talents, which would be easily questioned and misunderstood”. Yin Houqing argues that when introducing foreign courses, it is necessary to manage the relationship between the internationalization of basic education and national identity. The current trend of high schools fully implementing foreign courses in their curriculum could lead to education sovereignty issues.

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12.2 The World Trends of International Education Many researchers have summarized the world characteristics and trends of international education by comparing different nations’ education policies and educational policies of UN educational institutions. Zhou Nanzhao’s article “Comparative National Policy Comparison of Education Internationalization and Reflection of the World Situation” looks at the world trends of international education by comparing the international education policies of the United States, Britain, Australia, Finland, Singapore, and Canada. The researcher summarized 10 trends: 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

From the perspective of the goal of international education, the most important world trend is to joint the efforts of all countries and the international community to establish a consensus education quality standard and measurement. From the perspective of the content carrier of international education, a significant trend in the internationalization of education in the field of basic education is that International Baccalaureate Organization programs are becoming more influential. From the perspective of the international certification of degree qualifications required for studying in higher education, a worldwide trend is that more countries have signed the international and regional Convention on Mutual Recognition of Degrees, Diplomas and Certificates under the auspices of UNESCO. It effectively promoted the flow of teachers and students, cooperative teaching, credit exchange, and degree joint education while protecting the rights of students in the employment and labor markets. “Market driven” will become a stronger international factor for education than “policy drive”. The international community and many nations have given priority policy attention to skills training in international education and youth employment in the international labor market. The results of international student achievement surveys by international, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations and world-class university rankings will continue to influence the flow of international students, the trend of curriculum reform, and the reconstruction of student evaluation models, thus affecting educational decision-makers’ understanding and their policy orientation of the effective way of cultivating international talent in the twenty-first century. The flow of students across borders, especially for higher education, will continue to grow. The main target countries for international students in higher education will still be the developed countries of the OECD. China continues to be the country with the largest number of overseas students and the fastest growing students. China has become the fifth largest receiving country of American international students, and China will become an important study abroad destination for a

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growing number of students from developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The internationalization of education and protection of the diversity of human language and culture promote each other. The informatization of education has become a powerful driving force and an important way to internationalize education.

In “Overview of the Main Characteristics and Trends of International Education Development”, Chen Yang systematically summarizes 7 world development characteristics and trends of international education today: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Education investment in various countries has increased steadily, and there will be a rise in education development. The role of education in social development is increasingly prominent, and education is an important driving force for revitalizing the nation’s economy. It is important to expand the reform of applied technology education and strengthen the training of skilled talent. It is important to promote education equity and improve the quality of education. Many countries are strengthening resource integration, and a collaboration trend is emerging. Many countries are improving the competitiveness of international talent and promoting two-way flow students. The education of science subjects such as mathematics is being enhanced, and the quality and level of basic education is being improved. Internet and technological innovation are driving educational change.

Qiao He and Shen Renna’s article “The Latest Trends in International Education Development” summarized the five major trends in international education today by analyzing the education policies of UNESCO, the World Bank, the OECD, the European Union and UNICEF: (1) focusing on core skills in the twenty-first century; (2) focusing on education quality from the perspective of education system; (3) strengthening global education cooperation; (4) restructuring higher education across the world; and (5) ensuring the realization of inclusive education in many aspects.

12.3 Analysis and References of International Education Strategy Some scholars have provided inspiration and reference for the development of China’s international education strategy by studying the international education strategies of major international education powers, such as the USA, the UK, and Australia. In the article “China-US International Education Policy Research”, Ma Yifei analyzed and compared the factors affecting the development of China-US international education policy from four dimensions: social context, politics, economy

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and culture. Ma put forward specific suggestions for improving the development of China’s education policy: (1) China needs to further innovate educational concepts and enhance the strategic position of international education policies; (2) China needs to clarify policy objectives and construct a target system for international education policies; (3) China needs to take care of education categories and introduce differentiated international education policies; (4) China needs to improve industrial mechanisms and strengthen the education services trade policy response; and (5) China needs to innovate the management system and enhance the implementation of international education policies. Ma Yifei and Tan Ke analyzed the background, vision and target system of the US Department of Education’s 2012–2016 International Strategy in their article “The Strategic Trend of American International Education Policy”, summarizing the basic trends of the US international education policy: (1) education first, highlighting the basic concept of education serving national interests; (2) standard leadership, emphasizing the cultivation of citizens’ global literacy with high quality standards; (3) learning from others and advocating for strengthening international cooperation through active educational diplomacy; and 4) promoting international education in a systematic way and coordinated manner. Liu Qiang and Jing Xiaoli analyzed the latest international education development strategies of three international education powers of the United States, the UK and Australia, in their article “Research on the Development of China’s International Education in the Perspective of Some Developed Countries”. They introduced the three dimensions, the background, content and influence of their international education strategies, and reviewed China’s international education development since the reform and opening-up. They analyze many existing problems, such as the lack of understanding of the strategic status of international education, little integration of domestic education and international education, high education service trade deficit, “double outflow” of talents and funds, and the quality of education and the benefits of education. In response to the above problems, combined with China’s national situation and the experience of international education construction in some developed countries, the researchers put forward some policy recommendations aimed at promoting the further development of China’s international education. These recommendations include (1) integrating international education into national talent development and security strategies; (2) strengthening the market share of international education and improving the quality of international education; (3) proactively implementing the Belt and Road education initiative and improving education services’ ability to strategize the Belt and Road initiative; and (4) educational diplomacy and increasing international education institutions. In their article “Australian International Education Strategy Analysis”, Wu Xueping and Liang Shuai analyzed Australia’s first national-level international education strategy formulated in 2016—“International Education National Strategy 2025”, in the aspects of the rationals, content, characteristics and implications for China. Their analysis pointed out that to break through the bottleneck of economic development and stand out in fierce international competition, Australia has established its three core objectives for the development of international education in

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the next decade: to create a world-class education system and to establish worldwide deep partnerships and to provide the best study experience in the world. The multi-participation of stakeholders, the coordination between departments, and the quality orientation of strategic planning are prominent features of Australia’s international education strategy. China should learn from the experience of Australia. On the one hand, China’s education should play an important role in the implementation of the national Belt and Road initiative, building a community with a shared future for mankind and enhancing the compatibility between international education and national strategic needs. In this way, international education could be effectively enhanced in the diplomatic strategy. On the other hand, on the basis of increasing the scale, the study abroad education in China needs to work hard to optimize the structure, to standardize management, and to improve quality and efficiency. China should take a development path of “improving quality and efficiency”, effectively guarantee the quality of studying in China and improve the efficiency of foreign-related education activities. In their article “The Background, Framework of Action and Realistic Dilemmas of Canada’s International Education Strategy”, Suo Changqing and Yao Wei analyzed Canada’s first national-level international education strategy formulated in 2012— “International Education is Canada’s Future Prosperity”. They summarized the strategic framework into the following key points: (1) setting successful targets, (2) strengthening policy coordination, (3) increasing market promotion, (4) increasing capital investment, and (5) improving visa policies. At the same time, they pointed out that the increasing international student fees and the management difficulties created by the soft federation will bring some resistance to the implementation of this strategic planning. In the article “Australian Regional International Education Funding System — A Case Study of the New Colombo Plan”, Teng Manman analyzed the “New Colombo Plan” of the regional international education funding system proposed by the Australian Federal Government in 2014. The program integrates scholarships, student mobility, alumni participation and social participation, funding students to study and take internships in 40 Asia–Pacific countries and regions. This program reflects the diversity of Australian international education development concepts, regional development, encouragement of mobility, diversity of participants and other characteristics. Judging from the results, the implementation of the “New Colombo Plan” provides Australian students with overseas study internship experience and cultural experience, enhances their understanding of the Asia–Pacific region and their employability, and enhances their enthusiasm for future participation in Asia– Pacific affairs. It contributes to the consolidation and construction of Australia’s links with various organizations in the Asia Pacific region. However, the program also faces cultural and linguistic differences, poor communication, lack of relevant information guidance and internship opportunities, and insufficient social support.

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12.4 Research on China’s International Education Policy Many researchers have studied the specific policies of China’s international education, including research on China’s foreign education policy, Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation policy, education service trade policy and study abroad policy. In the article “Research on China’s Foreign Education Policy”, Jiang Yanqiao carried out systematic research and discussion on the development of China’s foreign education policy, environmental impact, strategic choices, and policy objectives using historical methods, comparative methods, field investigations and interviews. Jiang treated foreign education policy as a research object and analyzed the policy from the perspectives of international relations, education policy and other disciplines. The article analyzed the current goals and guidelines of foreign education policy and proposed eight future foreign policy goals, such as advocating international understanding education and cultivating the international competitiveness of Chinese students. The article also discussed the current decision-making process of foreign education in China and proposed four improvements for China’s foreign education policy: (1) to strengthen the systematic design of the policy system; (2) to promote the value innovation of foreign education policy; (3) to improve the quality implementation of the foreign education policy; and (4) to promote the capacity building of foreign education policy research. Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation is the product of China’s reform and opening-up and the reform of the higher education system. It is a foreign-related educational service trade activity based on the authorization of Chinese national laws. Based on the issues of education sovereignty, interest return, applicable law, Chinese and foreign legal sources and legal differences, the use of teaching language, asset definition, and preferential policy definitions in Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation, Yi Ling proposed 5 specific solutions in the article “Legal Problems and Solutions in Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation”. (1) To earnestly safeguard the sovereignty of education and to strengthen and improve the legal system for the development of Chinese-foreign education cooperation. (2) To give clear and specific definitions of the public welfare of education and the return on investment in education. (3) To apply the principle of the closest connection to solve the legal conflicts in Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation. (4) To clearly distinguish the difference between basic teaching terms and foreign language teaching from the law. (5) to standardize the assets of the conditions for the Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation. In addition, Shao Lixia’s article “An Analysis of Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation Policies” and Gao Liping’s article “Investigation and Expectation of Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation Policies” systematically studied Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation policies from different perspectives. With the continuous development of China’s education openness, China’s education service trade has developed rapidly, and its influence has become increasingly prominent. In the article “The Development Status and Policy Discussion of China’s Education Service Trade since Reform and Opening-up”, Yang Xiaomin first introduced the development of China’s education service trade and the opening-up of

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education since the reform and opening-up, then analyzed and discussed the government policy arrangements and policy choices and their impact on the development of education service trade, finally put forward some suggestions for the policy choices and strategies for the further opening of China’s education. In the article “The Status Quo, Problems and Countermeasures of China’s Higher Education Service Trade Development”, Zhou Yongyuan and Zhang Guojun first clarified that an important part of China’s higher education service trade is the Chinese-foreign Education Cooperation and overseas education. They then summarized the development characteristics of China’s higher education service trade: Chinese-foreign education cooperation in colleges and universities has entered the stage of quality improvement and has made achievements in scale, and the development trend of overseas education is gradually increasing. The researchers then pointed out the development dilemma faced by the current higher education service trade: the contradiction between education public welfare and profitability is prominent; the development and disciplines are uneven; the teaching quality evaluation system is not perfect and the overall quality needs to be improved; and the management system is not perfect and the exitance of regulatory loopholes. The article finally put forward corresponding countermeasures for the problems mentioned above: (1) it emphasized that we should seize the opportunity of the Belt and Road initiative to promote overseas education; (2) we should promote healthy and balanced development and guide the active participation of colleges and universities; and (3) we should improve the quality assurance system and policy and regulation system. Lu Zhanfeng’s article “Research of the International Competitiveness of China’s Education Service Trade” first combed the theoretical basis of the competitiveness of education service trade and then explained the development status of service trade in China’s education from four aspects: overseas consumer trade, commercial presence trade, cross-border delivery trade and natural person mobile trade. Based on these aspects, the researcher evaluated the international competitiveness of China’s education service trade by using five evaluation indicators: international market share, dominant comparative advantage index, trade competitiveness index, MI index and export contribution rate. The researcher concluded that the international competitiveness of China’s education service trade is still at a low level. The article also analyzed the reasons why the international competitiveness of China’s education service trade is at a low level: (1) China’s education service trade started late, (2) financial support is insufficient, (3) policies and regulations are not in place, and (4) government excessive intervention. Based on the above, the article concluded that China should enhance the international competitiveness of China’s education service trade by increasing financial support, strengthening institutional regulations, establishing modern education service trade concepts, transforming government management methods, and improving the overall levels of teachers. The study abroad policy is an important part of the public policy of the Chinese government. It is an institutional regulation for the government to serve, control and regulate study abroad activities according to the value standards and rationality principles of a certain period of time.

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Liu Yan’s “Study on the Change of China’s Study Abroad Policy (1949–2014)” divided China’s study abroad policy into five stages: the initial establishment stage (1949–1956), the policy exploration implementation stage (1956–1966), the policy tortuosity stage (1966–1977), the policy recovery and adjustment stage (1978–1992) and the policy norm development stage (1993–). Based on the policy equilibrium problem in the process of China’s study abroad policy change, the weak management of returnees, the loopholes in policy implementation, and the low level of internationalization of policies, the article pointed out that the value structure of policy changes is too monotonous. The lack of a correct grasp of the law of policy change, the lack of scientific understanding of the dynamics of policy change, the lack of systematic research on the process of policy change, and the lack of rationality in the main structure of participating in policy changes are the main reasons for the above problems. To find a solution to improve China’s study abroad policy, the article finally proposed five specific measures: (1) to reshape the value structure of the policy; (2) to pay full attention to the practical significance of policy learning; (3) to scientifically grasp the dynamic factors of policy change; (4) to accurately grasp the basic process of change of the policy; and (5) to improve the institutional mechanisms for stakeholders to participate in policy changes. Chen Changgui’s article “1978–2006: The Evolution and Future Trend of China’s Study Abroad Policy” analyzed and evaluated the three stages of the evolution of China’s study abroad policy since the reform and opening-up and put forward some thoughts and suggestions on the future direction of China’s study abroad policy. Liu Guofu’s research “A Rational Review and Legal Thinking of China’s Study Abroad Policy in the Past Thirty Years” pointed out that after nearly 30 years of development, the study abroad policy still has shortcomings in the legislative thinking, legislative department, legislative technology, legal basis, and policy level, although the policy system of study abroad has been established under the principle of “supporting study abroad, encouraging returning to China, and freedom of coming and going” and the content has also covered the practice of study abroad, self-funded study abroad, and the overseas returnee services. These shortcomings have affected the development of abroad industry studies. Based on the above, the article proposed that we must improve the policy of studying abroad, rely on the rule of law and administration according to law, increase the legal study of studying abroad, establish a legal system for studying abroad with the International Education Law as the core, realize the institutionalization and technology of studying abroad and to make most of the potentials of the market in study abroad industry. Peng Shulian’s research “An Analysis of the Education Policy for Incoming International Students after the Establishment of the People’s Republic of China” took China’s political, economic, diplomatic and other developments as the research background. The educational policy for incoming international students was the research object, which was evaluated and reviewed from three aspects: policy value orientation, main policy characteristics and policy evaluation. The research reviewed and reflected on the development process of the education policy for incoming international students after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. The article pointed out that the education policy for international students in China served the

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national strategy, and its value orientation evolved from “fulfilling the obligation of internationalism, and cultivating specialized talents for friendly countries”, to “promoting the exchange of foreign students, and cultivating the urgent need to build talents and promote social openness”, and finally to “promoting international exchanges and cooperation in colleges and universities”. Under the guidance of this value orientation, the content of the education policy for international students in China has been continuously enriched and improved.

12.5 Exploration of the Development of China’s International Education Researchers, policy makers, and educational practitioners have put forward their own different views on specific issues, goals, and paths that arise in the development of China’s international education.

12.5.1 The Ways and Scope of Internationalization of Basic Education The internationalization of higher education and vocational education has been generally accepted and recognized by Chinese and foreign educational circles. However, whether China’s basic education needs internationalization is still under debate. Xie Yanhua’s article “Internationalization of Basic Education, A New Trend” listed the international education practices in Shanghai Minhang District, Beijing Chaoyang District, Shenzhen Nanshan District, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang and other cities. It pointed out that the internationalization of basic education was booming in the country. The regional practices of internationalization of basic education expanded from first-tier cities to second- and third-tier cities. Based on this fact, Zhou Mansheng, vice president of China Education Development Strategy Association and researcher of National Education Development Research Centre, believes that the internationalization of basic education is an important part of the whole internationalization of education, and it has become an inevitable choice for China in promoting basic education development and reform. We must establish strategic thinking for the internationalization of basic education. He also believes that to promote the internationalization of basic education, it is necessary to grasp several key links: (1) it is necessary to combine Chinese and Western cultures on the basis of understanding and to adhere to the characteristics of education and traditional culture of the country; (2) to pay attention to the leading role of public education institutions; (3) private international schools must adhere to the path of characteristic development; (4) to firmly grasp the core issue of curriculum; (5) to emphasize the promotion of teachers’ internationalization ability; and (6) to use

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commination of the internet and other platforms to promote the internationalization of basic education in the countries along the Belt and Road route. Zhang Minxuan, president of Shanghai Normal University and director of the National Education Research and Consulting Centre, believes it is important to be cautious about the internationalization of basic education. We must pay attention to the issue of education sovereignty in the internationalization of education, and the internationalization of education should have boundaries. He made it very clear: “I don’t agree with the term internationalization of basic education because basic education is divided into compulsory education and non-compulsory education. Compulsory education is mainly national education and public education. National education and public education must have universality, accountability, fairness and compulsory, so international education has its limitation, or in other words it has a certain level of participation.”

12.5.2 Future Goals of International Education China has formed an all-round, multilevel and wide-ranging education opening to the outside world at the moment. So, what is the future goal of international education? In 2017, at the press conference held by the 19th National Press Centre, the party secretary and minister of the Ministry of Education, Chen Baosheng, said when the goal of the “second hundred years” in Chinese education was realized, by then, Chinese education would stand firmly at the center of world education, which would lead the trend of world education development. China’s standards would become the standards of the world. China would become the most desirable destination for students in the world. Other countries would wish to communicate and integrate with Chinese culture, and teachers and students who wish to learn and have exchange experiences in China would have opportunities to come to China for exchanges, all to achieve common progress together. China would have a greater role in deciding the rules of world education development. We would do our best to provide Chinese programs and Chinese wisdom. Chinese textbooks and Chinese-language textbooks could face the whole world. In the article “International Education Should not Cultivate ‘Banana People’”, Hu Benwei argued that true international education emphasizes the cultivation of students’ cultural and national identity, gaining a foothold in their home country and then becoming a global citizen. The article criticized the fact that in recent years, some international schools have adopted the “full experience” of the American curriculum system or the English curriculum system as a strategy to expand and cater to parents. They only utilitarianly promoted international courses to students to encourage them to study abroad but forgot to provide these young students with basic Chinese education. It is pointed out that the “banana people” these schools cultivated have black hair and yellow skin but did not have the Chinese soul, it had to be concluded that this was a wrong path of internationalization of Chinese education. The article then proposed changing one-sidedness and utilitarianism in current

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international education, making specific recommendations for changing the situation of national education ignored in the pursuit of “success” in studying abroad: (1) the education administrative departments should do a better job in the implementation of education laws and regulations and increase national education and teaching in international schools; (2) to increase supervision and management and to eliminate the formalization and surfaceization of some international schools’ national education curriculum; (3) as the main body of international education, international schools should correct their own educational concepts and consciously carry out national education; and (4) Chinese parents should take a long-term perspective in planning for students’ future and a holistic perspective in developing students’ healthy personalities and abilities. Fu Jing, director of the International Department of Beijing No.18 High School believes that international education needs to cultivate global citizens. She said that compared to ordinary high school education, international education in high school is still a minority. Some parents are not satisfied with the current form of education. They feel the need to give the child additional education, so they choose international education. However, most students still have to follow the path of ordinary high school education and eventually participate in the college entrance examination. Therefore, there should be a primary and a secondary target. International education should be a supplement to current public education. She believes that students from international education must have an international vision and understand: first, they need to have an open mind and can be compatible with both Chinese and Western cultures; second, they must have critical thinking and the ability to resolve problems independently; and finally, they must have a broad range of knowledge. Li Yinuo, co-founder of Yitu Education, pointed out in the article “International Education in China is an International Joke” that the goal of international education is to cultivate people with global competence (starting from the basic education stage). Specifically, it should include three levels: the first level is the individual level, including morality, responsibility, self-awareness and self-confidence; the second level is the interpersonal level, including openness and respect, and communication and collaboration; and the third level is the cognitive level, including understanding of world culture and global issues.

12.5.3 The Development Trend of International Education In “Three Focus Points on International Education in Middle Schools”, Wang Yanlin argued that the three focuses on leading and promoting the healthy development of international education in secondary schools are systems, teachers and ideas. First, the education administration should consider the schools as the main force for systems innovation and promotion of internationalization, providing them with policy support and optimizing resource allocation, and use the international dimension as an important indicator to evaluate a school’s openness, tolerance, and management level. On the one hand, the school is going through local transformation in the practice of

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learning; on the other hand, it plays a leading role in guiding junior school through high school’s teaching practice. Second, in addition to adopting “going outing” and “introducing in” approaches to broaden teachers’ international horizons, the government should also guide teachers’ colleges to set up international courses, train excellent teachers with international visions for middle schools, use policy levers to solve the problems of institutional systems and other issues resulting from the international development of middle schools; they should encourage secondary schools to actively recruit staff with international education backgrounds to teach and optimize the structure of teachers; they should expand the international vision of teachers and enhance their intercultural communication ability and consider it an important part of the development of the teacher profession and one of the indicators for teacher assessment and promotion. Finally, the combination of instrumental courses, international communication courses and local cultural and social resources courses will foster students’ local feelings while giving students more international experience. At the same time, the government should return the power of international curriculum development and selection back to the schools as an important part of the autonomy of running schools; the government should return to the original function of supervision and guidance and promote and control the internationalization process of the school. Zhou Mansheng puts forward five key points that should be grasped in the internationalization of basic education in the article “How to Internationalize Basic Education”. The five key points are as follows: (1) breakthroughs in philosophy, emphasizing that the goal of internationalization of basic education is to cultivate students’ global awareness, pluralistic understanding, curiosity, imagination, critical thinking, communication and cooperation, and rule awareness; (2) regional exploration, emphasizing that the gradual internationalization of basic education should be achieved by region; (3) all-round reform, emphasizing a comprehensive reform in policy orientation, evaluation criteria, teacher literacy, curriculum content, student ability, etc.; (4) change the course to a breakthrough, emphasizing the modernity, inquiry, cutting edge and integrity of the curriculum; and (5) improve the internationalization of teachers’ competence, emphasizing the need to improve the international quality of teachers. In his speech at the Inaugural Meeting of the International Education Research Institute of Beijing Foreign Studies University, Sun Xiaobing said: International education reflects the frontier of China’s educational reform, reflects the core of China’s educational reform and opening-up, and has become the coordinate system of China’s educational achievements. International education research is standing at a new starting point and with new development and breakthroughs. We need to uphold new ideas and expand our international horizons. Therefore, the International Education Research Institute of Beijing Foreign Studies University has a long way to go. The institute needs to thoroughly study and carefully interpret the senior-level experience of other countries around the world. It also needs to comprehensively summarize the important achievements of China’s education opening up to the outside world, and it should actively propose policy recommendations for learning from other countries’ international education. In the future, we will work hard to strengthen the construction of the International Education Research Institute as a highend think tank and academic organization. We will make new efforts to contribute to the opening-up of China’s education.

Epilogue

In July 2017, in response to the opening-up of national education as a major strategy, the practical demand for serving international education cooperation, with the support of the Deputy Minister of Education and the former Beijing Foreign Studies University President Hao Ping, taking advantage of foreign languages as featured disciplines, and the focus of international education and research, Beijing Foreign Studies University established Academy of International Education Studies and appointed the former Director of the Policy and Regulation Department of the Ministry of Education, Mr. Sun Xiaobing, as the Dean. At the beginning of the establishment of the Academy of International Education Studies, it was already a collection of experts and scholars in the fields of international education, education policy, education and rule of law, adhering to the development philosophy of “rooting in the country, looking at the international, being eclectic, and using it for me”. The institute aims to build a high-end international education in China. The think tank serves the needs of the opening-up of national education and the Belt and Road Initiative and contributes to the internationalization of education and the modernization of education in the new era. Since its establishment more than a year ago, the institute has hosted and participated in many international educational activities, such as the “Internationalization and Investment Seminar on Basic Education in Western China”, the “Second Standing Council of the International Alliance of Talented Persons in North China”, the “2018 International Institute of Education of Beijing Foreign Studies University Annual Conference”, and the “3rd Academic Annual Meeting of the International Education Professional Committee of the China Education Development Strategy Society”. The institute actively participated in the drafting of international educationrelated documents, such as the section on opening-up of the “Ministry of Education’s China Education Modernization 2035”. A series of international educationrelated research results have been achieved, such as “Promoting the Opening-up of Education, Promoting Talent Cultivation in China — 2018 International Education Annual Conference Consensus from Beijing Foreign Studies University”, and the “International Education Laws, Regulations and Policy Documents”.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. and East China Normal University Press 2022 X. Sun, 70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-3521-3

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70 Years of Opening-up in China’s Education: A Report on the Development of China’s International Education is the latest research achievement of the International Education Research Institute of Beijing Foreign Studies University. It is a panoramic review and summary at this historical node of the 70th anniversary of the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. We look forward to dedicating more results to everyone in the future as an effort for the prosperous development of China’s international education research. In this work, we received the support of Wang Dinghua, the Party Secretary of Beijing Foreign Studies University; Yang Dan, the president of the university; Han Zhen, the former Party Secretary; Peng Long, the former president of the university; Vice President Yan Guohua, Jia Dezhong, Sun Youzhong, as well as other managing leaders of the university and relevant departments. Xu Tao, the then Director of the International Department of the Ministry of Education; Liu Jinghui, Secretary General of the China Scholarship Council; Wang Daquan, Deputy Director of the Department of Political and Legal Affairs of the Ministry of Education; Shen Xuesong, Deputy Secretary General of the Chinese Association For International Understanding; Liu Jianqing and Shu Gangbo, Directors of the Political Department of the Ministry of Education; Lu Chunsheng, manager of the General Office of the China Scholarship Council; Yang Weiguo, Deputy Director of the Research Department of the Department of Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education; Ma Wanhua, Director of the International Education Research Centre of Peking University; Professor Qin Huimin, School of Education, Renmin University of China; and Ma Leijun, Deputy Director of the Institute of Educational Rule of Law and Education Standards, and Deputy Director of China Academy of Educational Sciences and others attended the establishment ceremony of the Academy of International Education Studies and gave strong support in the follow-up work. We would like to express our sincere gratitude! In the writing of this book, Huang Xiaoyu and Wang Baowei participated in the coordination of work. East China Normal University Press provided strong support for the editorial and publication of this book. We would like to express our gratitude. Due to our limited knowledge, there are inevitable mistakes and omissions in the book. We hope that colleagues in the industry will put forward their valuable opinions for our future improvement.