Your Indoor Herb Garden: Growing and Harvesting Herbs at Home 0865719330, 9780865719330

Citation preview

GARDENING / HOUSE & HOME C I T Y

L I F E

complete how-to guide for growing herbs indoors for health, vitality, and culinary zest

#HOMEGROWNCIT YLIFE

A fantastic read! Anyone interested in human health and well-being should get hold of this book immediately. It’s frankly brilliant.

— Phillip Adcock, commercial psychologist, author, Master Your Brain

GROWING HERBS INDOORS leads the list of the healthiest and most useful indoor activities we can do. Herbs can clean the air of toxins, provide oxygen and humidity, and help vanquish our psychoses. And they’re tasty! Learn how to grow herbs for health, for taste, and for life with Your Indoor Herb Garden, a comprehensive guide to growing herbs indoors. Featuring all the tips and guidance you’ll need to grow and harvest organic culinary and medicinal herbs right in your own home, coverage includes: Techniques for successfully growing herbs indoors Y Equipment, soil types, and feeding Z Why indoor herb gardens are an important part of life, from cooking to healing Y Herbal medicine, herbal history and lore Z An annotated glossary of herbs, including their common uses, growing requirements, cautions, and more. Y

This is the ideal practical guide for gardeners and cooks with an interest in healthy living and fresh flavors looking to create their own indoor herb garden anywhere.

x DJ HERDA is a professional author, gourmet chef, and master indoor/outdoor gardener. He is a syndicated newspaper and magazine garden writer, columnist, and former test grower for Jackson & Perkins and the Rodale Institute. He lives and works in the Rocky Mountains of the southwestern United States. www.djherda.org

ISBN 978-0-86571-933-0

www.newsociety.com

9 780865 719330

52499

US/CAN $24.99

Praise for Your Indoor Herb Garden This was a fantastic read! From the very first chapter – Welcome to My World – I was intrigued and drawn to a subject that I’d mistakenly taken for granted all my life. D. J. gives herbs their rightful place center stage, clearly explaining their health and wellness benefits. Once I had learned why to grow herbs, D. J. then took me through a step by step guide on how to grow and use them. As a behavioral science expert, I’ve spent 30 years advising and altering people’s behavior. Helping big brands make their brands all that more appealing by tapping into the psychology of consumers. Your Indoor Herb Garden has given me a complete new set of tools with which to alter the moods of consumers, and myself. Anyone interested in human health and wellbeing should get hold of this book immediately. It’s frankly brilliant. And there was me thinking herbs were just . . . herbs. Phillip Adcock commercial psychologist, author, Master Your Brain

A fascinating, beautifully-illustrated guide to growing and using herbs to enhance your life, from ancient supernatural rituals to present-day cooking and medicinal purposes. Janet Kay author, The Sisters

I know the importance of good health. I have been trained in the healthcare industry, and I am challenged with an incurable bone marrow cancer that I am pursuing with unconventional protocols. I have refused chemotherapy and have outlived my original prognosis by nearly two years, so I know the importance of herbs for health and cooking. What a treasure trove D. J. Herda has put together in this beautiful and easy-tounderstand book. From the history of herbs to their medicinal value and the “ins and outs” of using them. Great stuff. Dig in!  Dr. Al Danenberg periodontist, certified functional medicine practitioner, certified primal health coach

A great book! D.J. Herda’s Your Indoor Herb Garden is a fun read that’s both inspiring and educational. I never considered an indoor herb garden before, but it makes sense physically, emotionally, and spiritually. His book is a welcome resource and a captivating read that had me from the start: “Herbs make great indoor additions to the human domicile.” And when I say inspiring, I mean it. As soon as I finished the book, I drove straight to the nursery and bought a batch of seeds and had to send D.J. the photos to prove it! So excited to start my indoor garden! Sheryle Bauer indoor gardener, author, The Devil in the Deal

Copyright © 2020 by DJ Herda All rights reserved. Cover design by Diane McIntosh. Cover image: ©iStock Printed in Canada. First printing April 2020. This book is intended to be educational and informative. It is not intended to serve as a guide. The author and publisher disclaim all responsibility for any liability, loss or risk that may be associated with the application of any of the contents of this book. Inquiries regarding requests to reprint all or part of Your Indoor Herb Garden should be addressed to New Society Publishers at the address below. To order directly from the publishers, please call toll-free (North America) 1-800 -567-6772 , or order online at www.newsociety.com Any other inquiries can be directed by mail to: New Society Publishers P.O. Box 189, Gabriola Island, BC V0R 1X0, Canada (250) 247-9737 Libr ary and Archiv es Canada Cataloguing in Publication Title: Your indoor herb garden : growing and harvesting herbs at home / DJ Herda.

Names: Herda, D. J., 1948- author. Description: Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20190227486 | Canadiana (ebook) 20190227494 |

ISBN 9780865719330 (softcover) | ISBN 9781550927269 (PDF) | ISBN 9781771423229 (EPUB) Subjects: LCSH: Herb gardening. | LCSH: Indoor gardening. | LCSH: Herbs. | LCSH: Herbs—Therapeutic use. Classification: LCC SB351.H5 H47 2020 | DDC 635/.7—dc23

New Society Publishers’ mission is to publish books that contribute in fundamental ways to building an ecologically sustainable and just society, and to do so with the least possible impact on the environment, in a manner that models this vision.

Y

ou’d like to be self-sufficient, but the space you have

available is tighter than your budget. If this sounds familiar, the Homegrown City Life Series was created

just for you! Our authors bring country living to the city with big

ideas for small spaces. Topics include cheesemaking, fermenting, gardening, composting and, more—everything you need to create your own homegrown city life!  

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The Food Lover’s Garden: Growing, Cooking and Eating Well by Jenni Blackmore

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The Art of Plant-Based Cheesemaking, revised & updated 2nd edition: How to Craft Real, Cultured, Non-Dairy Cheese by  Karen McAthy

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Worms at Work: Harnessing the Awesome Power of Worms with Vermiculture and Vermicomposting by Crystal Stevens

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Pure Charcuterie: The Craft and Poetry of Curing Meats at Home by Meredith Leigh

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DIY Kombucha by Andrea Potter

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DIY Autoflowering Cannabis by Jeff Lowenfels

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DIY Mushroom Cultivation by Willoughby Arevalo

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The Elderberry Book by John Moody

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DIY Sourdough by John and Jessica Moody #Homegrowncitylife

CONTENTS

1

Welcome to My World An introduction explaining why herbs are an essential part of my life—and why they should be in yours, as well. 1

2

Herbal Life and Lore From 5000 BC to the present— a fascinating historical look into the background of herbs. 12

3

From Magic to Medicine Herbal medicine, how it began, and where it is in modern society. 30

4

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoors A general introduction into how-to do it, equipment required, best soil types, feeding, etc. 44

5

Using Herbs at Home Employing the use of herbs in cooking, bouquet garni, fines herbes, herb vinegar, drying, health foods, etc. 64

6

An Annotated Glossary of Herbs Most important herbs, historical references, most common uses, growing tips, cautions, and other useful information. 84



endnotes 129



About the Author 135



About the Publisher 136

1

W E LCO M E TO M Y WO R L D

H

erbs. Dozens of them. Thousands. Millions. Trillions! Well,

 A pot filled with herbs like this

maybe not that many. Still, they dominate the landscape

oregano can work wonders for any

in all four corners of the world. They adapt to the

room in your home. Pix abay

harshest climates and the most grueling conditions. They generate

life-giving oxygen and remove deadly carbon dioxide from the atmosphere around us. They provide culinary treats and natural cures for diseases. They soften the skin and lessen the debilitation of old age. They fight cancer and can reduce a family’s medical expenses. Some even produce beautiful, edible flowers! But why on earth would anyone want to grow herbs indoors? They are, after all, the outdoor darlings of the plant world. They need sunlight and room—lots of room. They’re difficult to grow under the best of conditions. And they’re nearly impossible to keep healthy. Aren’t they? Actually, herbs make great indoor additions to the human domicile. They are masters of environmental cleansing, which is extraordinarily good news since studies show that the most polluted air we breathe comes from inside our homes and not out. They grow well at home and at work under a wide variety of conditions. And recent studies have proven that potted plants improve your home and work environments by reducing your blood pressure, improving your attention span and productivity, lowering your anxiety levels,1

• 1

and lessening your chances for stroke, heart attacks, high blood pressure, and cancer. Other research has demonstrated that working around plants— including herbs—leads to a higher degree of accuracy and better results in workplace performance. People exposed to the sensory-tickling properties of herbs actually enjoy 20 percent greater memory retention and improved ability to concentrate. While most plants are adept at removing some pollution from our indoor air, scientists have discovered several that are better at removing volatile organic chemicals, or VOCs, than others. NASA was the first to prove that specific plants are useful in reducing pollution in sealed environments—such as a space capsule or the space station—by as much as 87 percent. Since then, numerous university and horticultural tech study groups have pinpointed the fantastically diverse effects of herbs on our lives. For purposes of cleansing your indoor environment, NA SA researchers suggest you use at least one potted plant per 100 square feet of home or office space for maximum air-purifying effect. That distills down to two large plants or several smaller ones for a spacious area such as a family room or a master bedroom en-suite. Some taller herbs and many “wanderers” can indeed take up a lot of space, but they don’t have to. Many species are compact enough for a small-to-medium-sized pot, and numerous herbs enjoy being planted together in a single pot—either with other herbs or with your non-herbaceous houseplants such as Ficus benjamina or Schefflera. That makes herbs ideal companion plants in foyers, stairwells, homes with open floorplans, near windows, and beneath skylights. And when it comes time for moving your herbs around (to give them more light in winter, for example), even the most substantial planted containers are a cinch to transport if you put them on rolling trivets. Placed beneath even a monster of a container, trivets make relocating plants simple. How do I know? I’ve been growing herbs indoors for the better part of four decades. I wouldn’t dream of living anywhere that didn’t

2 • Your indoor herb garden

boast a dozen or more of these foliar marvels sharing my family’s space. All plants have something to offer. They make us feel good; bring a piece of the outdoors in; cleanse and oxygenate the air we breathe; create dramatic decorating details, and change with the seasons. As a bonus, they help increase our cognitive reasoning, stretch our memories, and kick our immune systems up a notch or two. I haven’t had the flu or even a common cold in a dozen years now. (Knock on Italian parsley!) The sheer beauty of herbs can create a central focal point in a room and perk us up while we slave away at our computers. As far as the dramatic effect on your décor, forget that painting or mirror. Move in a companion planting of Dracaena marginata with horsetail, trailing thyme, or curly basil, instead. Or perhaps interplant a Norfolk Island pine with a carpet of soft sage beneath its beautiful, weeping boughs. Or companion-plant some French lavender with a Ficus in the bedroom for a relaxing night’s sleep. But the number-one advantage to growing herbs indoors is the number-one reason behind nearly everything we do in life.

Herbs for Health Surrounding yourself with healthful herbs is not only physically beneficial but also emotionally stimulating, calming, soothing, and sedating. In fact, a pot filled with lush, bushy herbs is so healthful to humans that cutting-edge hospital and medical facility design teams are beginning to incorporate herbs and other plants into their fundamental architectural concepts. Institutional designers have found that walls of spreading thyme cut down on sound pollution while contributing to shorter hospital stays and fewer medical complications for their patients, resulting in lower patient costs.2 One of the reasons is that all plants produce a radical change in the molecular structure of the air around us. Since most people spend far more time inside than out, it makes sense to surround ourselves with these miracles of molecular transmogrification.

Welcome to My World • 3

Herbs offer yet another health benefit that has only recently come to light: they act as some of the world’s most efficient and effective humidifiers, turning the driest, least healthy of rooms into the most hospitable of human habitats. As a bonus, they produce none of the potentially deadly pathogens of costly conventional humidification systems. And that’s only the beginning! At the Landscape and Human Health Laboratory in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, researchers are working on developing the best strategies for impacting human health and happiness. They concentrate on plants in and around the home to increase positive mental attitude (PM A) and reduce human aggression. They have uncovered how rational planting can strengthen the welfare of the community and enhance the individual’s ability to cope with various physical and mental diseases and illnesses via increased immunity, vitality, attention span, self-control, and capacity for learning. At the same time, new studies are showing how herbs in the home environment can significantly reduce attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other human diseases. Several studies suggest that herbs added to the decorative plants already in our homes reduce the incidence and severity of domestic violence.3 Studies conducted at the Rodale Institute, the Plants for Human Health Institute, the University of Minnesota’s Healthy Foods, Healthy Lives Institute, NC State University’s Plants for Human Health Institute, and other research facilities are also yielding promising findings with the correlation of herbs to human wellness. Not only in the home but also in our schools, churches, and workplaces— in fact, wherever groups of people congregate. Yet another way plants can aid the environment is through gaseous exchange. Plants naturally take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen as part of their photosynthesis and respiratory processes. Carbon dioxide is poisonous to humans and other mammals and is a leading contributor to global warming. And with worldwide CO2 emissions reaching an all-time high, according to a May 2019

4 • Your indoor herb garden

published report by the Scripps Institution,4 surrounding ourselves with plants that exchange life-sustaining oxygen for harmful CO2 is more important than ever. So, if you’re looking for a single word that sums up all of the reasons for growing herbs indoors, sorry. I can’t help you. But if you’re looking for the most critical rationale for growing these age-old wonders of the plant world inside your home, I can sum it up in three simple words: For your health!

And That’s Not All Health is a critical reason for growing herbs around your home, but it’s far from the only one. As with most people, my journey into the wonderful world of herbs didn’t begin in a doctor’s office; it started in a kitchen. My first encounter with herbs came when, as a picky eater, I grew frustrated with my mother’s cooking. For some reason, pig’s knuckles and calves’ brains simply didn’t hold much appeal for me. Finally, after months of grousing, I sensed I was wearing the woman down. In short, I drove her to give me an ultimatum: Either eat what I make or cook for yourself! Now, to most male children sitting smugly at the top of their eighth-grade food chain, such an ultimatum would have been a disaster. But to me, it was the word of the Lord passed down from heaven. After all, if Chef Boyardee could boil up some noodles smothered in ketchup before serving them up to a hungry teenager, why couldn’t I? As the future Marinara King of South Campbell Avenue, I picked up the gauntlet and set about showing mom, and the rest of the world, that I was perfectly capable of doing just that. And I never looked back. Of course, my first attempts at producing that savory, nose-tingling sauce Italiano were dismal failures. Too bland, too unsavory, too thin, and barely a tingle. That’s when I began paying attention to how the mothers of my Italian friends cooked. Lots of ripe tomatoes. Handfuls of fresh herbs. A healthy drizzle of olive oil. And some slowcooked beef, pork, and veal for substance. Oh, and Chianti. Lots and

Welcome to My World • 5

 Cooking a meal like this is a whole lot easier when you have the right herbs at your fingertips! Pix abay

lots of Chianti, some of which actually made its way into the sauce! About the same time, I also discovered a weekly television show called The French Chef starring Julia Child. It was on PBS television every Saturday morning, and I took to Ms. Child over the airwaves as I would decades later while doing an interview with her in her Cambridge, Massachusetts, kitchen. Both she and my recently adopted “mom,” Anne Romagnoli of Chicago’s Italo-American Accordion Manufacturing Company renown, skyrocketed to a vaulted position of loftiness in my life. Thanks to them, I learned that thyme improves the taste of pork; cilantro improves the taste of chili; sage improves the taste of roast duck, and basil improves the taste of damned near everything.

6 • Your indoor herb garden

Of course, merely possessing all this newfound knowledge wasn’t enough to stir me to action as a culinary entrepreneur. Still missing was some hands-on experience. So, as time went by, I found myself spending as many hours in a small Italian delicatessen on Chicago’s Near North Side as most kids my age did riding their bicycles or playing ball. Italian cheeses, espresso, salamis, cannoli, and fresh herbs and vegetables tickled my nose whenever I walked through the door, and these became my new marching orders through life. Cooking grew to become a challenge I could no longer ignore, and doing it correctly became my fetish. So, while I cooked my way through high school, college, and my first marriage (there’s a related backstory here that I’m not going to get into now, but ask me about it sometime), I learned not only how to select fresh herbs for the finest, tastiest additions to my culinary preparations, but also how to grow them myself. In fact, except for a Swedish ivy and a spider plant, herbs were among my earliest gardening triumphs. They were readily available (either from seed or as plantlets), easy to transplant into nearly any pot or container, simple to keep alive, and always available for plucking and adding to that evening’s sauce, soup, or stew. They were also remarkably resistant to insect attacks and disease. Who could ask for anything more? I soon found myself experimenting with herbs and other forms of

 Preparing to make the evening meal is more fun when you have fresh herbs at your fingertips. Pix abay

ingestible greenery. Imagine my surprise, for example, while tromping around a trout stream outside Blue Mounds, Wisconsin (where I had recently moved from Chicago to claim my little piece of heaven), when I discovered something growing wild and smelling a lot like crushed mint, which is precisely what it was. With the running of the Kentucky Derby fast approaching, I threw together a few invitations, harvested some wild mint, and prepared for a Derby Day featuring the tastiest juleps anyone ever downed. And when I learned that both herbs and other botanicals can be steeped in alcohol to create that favorite concoction of W.C. Fields known as gin, I had to try it. I’ve been concocting my own house brand, Ragged around the Edges, ever since.

Welcome to My World • 7

Of course, you don’t have to be an alcoholic or even an aspiring lush to partake of your favorite herbs in liquid form. Many are delicious and nourishing when steeped in hot water as an herbal tea, and they’re especially tasty when added to lemonade and other warmweather concoctions. And you’ve never really lived if you haven’t tasted hot cocoa with a sprig or two of freshly cut mint on a cold winter’s night. I was fortunate in those early days of my escape from Metropolis to have purchased 40 acres of land filled with dense woods, open fields, a pasture, and a stream running just downhill from my house. What I couldn’t find growing wild anywhere around my property I bought and planted around the house. Borage. Sage. Savory. And when winter threatened to ruin everything, I harvested the remaining greens plus all the oregano, basil, and thyme my arms could carry, brought them into the house, and dried them in front of the fireplace for use that winter. Then I discovered the beauty of growing herbs in pots. It began with a tiny potted mint plant that I bought on sale for $1.25 , and it turned my life around—but not without first demonizing it for a couple of years. I was so enamored with my newfound treasure that I promptly transplanted it into the garden, watered it well, and was thrilled when a volunteer plant popped up next to it. I had two! And then another. Three! And another. And still more. By the time a year had passed, I had thrown every trick in the book at eradicating the mint that had taken over the garden. I tried poisoning it, pulling it, killing off the plants beneath a heavy black plastic tarp, tilling it up, and spraying it with a solution of vinegar and water. And they all worked—for a while. Then, as if by magic (“black” magic), another few mint plants sprouted. Some had actually grown out into the lawn, threatening to take over my beloved blue fescue. Six months later, through sheer diligence and determination (I outlasted the little devils), the digging paid off. The key was not merely to remove the parent plants but to extract the underground rhizomes by which mint spreads. The garden was an eyesore by the

8 • Your indoor herb garden

 Potted herbs make every aspect of cooking and meal preparation easier. Pix abay

time I’d finished, and the lawn looked like an infestation of gophers had christened it “mecca.” But, today, the only mint I have growing anywhere within a hundred yards of my property is in pots. Even then, I have to be ever vigilant that the mint doesn’t trail down the side and establish a volunteer plantlet in the ground. By the time I’d survived my mint infestation, I had left my home in Wisconsin and resettled in the high Rocky Mountain altitude of Steamboat Springs, Colorado, where the growing season runs approximately from July 1 to July 3 . The entire rest of the year, so far as gardening goes, is “dicey.” So, that’s when I began planting all my herbs in pots and bringing them in at the first sign of frost. In that way, I have had the same parsley, basil, and sage plants for years. I often move the pots back outside when the weather warms again in spring just to give myself a little extra breathing room in my solarium. Now—vagabond that I am—I hang my hat in the high desert plateau of southern Utah where the winters are comparatively mild. Still, I have to bring some of my more sensitive herbs, like basil and tarragon, indoors for the winter (along with some other “annuals” such as tomatoes and peppers) if I want to carry the plants over to the following year. Many of my other herbs, including chicory (I know, I know,

Welcome to My World • 9

it’s not really an herb, but I use it as one anyway), sage, rosemary, and oregano, are permanent residents in pots left outdoors over winter. The bottom line is that, since moving to Utah, I’ve enjoyed my herbs so much that I actually planted a real, live herb garden—you know, the way some people plant annual flower gardens or perennial plots—with a combination of in-ground and potted herbs, the latter of which I can easily move indoors. I also have several south-facing window boxes that make an excellent home for sun-loving herbs, including rosemary, sage, basil, thyme, marjoram, chives, dill, and cilantro. The results? I’m in hog—make that herb—heaven. I never have to walk farther than four or five steps from my kitchen sink to harvest all the herbs I’m going to need for that evening’s meal, and I’m never without a rich foliar complement outside my office window to greet me as the sun comes up each morning. Herbs in the garden? I wouldn’t be without them. Herbs indoors? They can’t be beaten. Mixing and matching the two? It’s the best of both worlds. So, what are we waiting for? Let’s get started.

10 • Your indoor herb garden

Welcome to My World • 11

2

H E R B A L L I FE A N D LO R E

H

erbs are remark able plants with a rich and fascinat-

ing history dating back thousands of years. Their first use as medicinals was recorded on papyrus scrolls

and parchments, bearing witness to our ancestors’ intrepid belief in experimentation. With nothing more than an educated guess to guide them, they consumed plants that might either cure or kill. Thanks to those dauntless pioneers, successive generations of practicing herbalists built an impressive body of botanical knowledge. Inside the monasteries of medieval Europe, this accumulated learning—like that of nearly all arts and sciences—found preservation in painstakingly illustrated manuscripts written by monks, who, no doubt, soothed their strained eyes with infusions of rue. The unofficial history of herbalism thus wound its way down through generations. However, in a world where reading and writing were often gifts of the noblesse oblige, word of mouth proved the only reliable form of communication, particularly in rural areas where herbs were indispensable. These remarkably adaptable plants were treasured not only for curing human ailments, but also for performing such household tasks as preserving food, dyeing cloth, and repelling fleas. Our ancestors were deeply respectful of herbs: myths and legends sprang up around them, and those steeped in the

12 •

mysterious majesty of biology, those botanical alchemists, played to an appreciative audience. In her book, Herbs: Their Medicine and Magic, author Anna Kruger laments the diminishing role of instinctive knowledge that our ancestors once possessed about plants. “Today, we may disparage such notions as superstition, yet we have lost the purely instinctual feel for plants that came so naturally to our forebears.”5 Even our early American heroes of fact and fiction spent enough time in the woods to know which plants were edible, which were useful in times of illness, and which were to be avoided under penalty of death. In the 1800s, mountain man John “Liver-Eating” Johnson boiled dandelion leaves for their high content of essential vitamin C and other life-sustaining nutrients while digging the plant’s roots and drying them for use as a substitute for coffee. Before him, Natty Bumppo, that venerable fictional hero of James Fennimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales, knew instinctively which herbs, leaves, and roots were edible, and which poisonous. And even earlier than him, Daniel Boone, while helping to plot the western lands of the fledgling United States, could tell an edible plant from a poisonous one at a hundred yards. Or so rumor had it.

Earliest Uses Not surprisingly, our knowledge of the roots of herbalism is uncertain, although we do know that the oldest written records of the use of herbs were for medicinal purposes. “By a lengthy and somewhat dangerous process of trial and error,” Kruger writes, “our ancestors accumulated a wealth of practical knowledge about herbs. Country people were free to collect wild food, and they learned ways of using herbs to preserve food and drink for winter consumption.”6 Traditional plant lore wended its way down through generations because herbs and other medicinals were critical for the survival of humankind, particularly in the rural communities where most people at the time lived. Herbs were an essential part of a family’s

Herbal Life and Lore • 13

arsenal for treating diseases and illnesses because medical attention was either beyond the means of most families “or simply non-existent.”7

The Herbal Mystique It is the very historical associations of herbs that give them their exotic appeal—that and their strong scents, intense taste, and vigorous growth habits. Most herbs are “old-fashioned plants, not showy crossbreeds of the modern era,” according to one reference, “and they go back a lot further than Aunt Minnie’s lavender sachets or Aunt Mabel’s rose-water bath.”8 Herbs are, in fact, the oldest cultivated garden genera in the world, offering a glimpse back in time at what people in all four corners of the globe thought and how they survived. In that regard, herbs are a living window onto our past. From thousands of years ago, people used herbs not only for their pungent flavors and scintillating scents, but also for numerous other reasons, ranging from magic potions and aphrodisiacs to medicinal teas, carminatives (gas preventatives), and salves. People relied on herbs to ward off plagues and pestilence as well as to stop hair loss and heal wounds and skin diseases. They used them as home deodorizers too, to mask offensive odors or simply to act as a pleasant airborne scent. Is it any wonder that herbs played such a prominent role in the development of society? As Rudyard Kipling once observed: “Anything green that grew out of the mould/Was an excellent herb to our fathers of old,” adding wryly, of course, that “Half of their remedies cured you dead.”9 Yet, enough people survived that herbs became widely used in the ancient Egyptian and Sumerian civilizations. Both of these races of people were well acquainted with the medicinal properties of herbs. The famous Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical record of herbal knowledge, is among the oldest and most prestigious medical papyri of ancient Egypt. Georg Ebers brought it back with him from Luxor (Thebes) in the winter of 1873–74; it is now part of the permanent collection of the library of the University of Leipzig in Germany.

14 • Your indoor herb garden

 Massive fields of herbs like this one of lavender once dotted Europe’s countryside. Pix abay

It lists more than 700 medicinal plants that were commonly prescribed for illness as well as for ritual and embalming purposes. The Papyrus is thought to have been written around 1500 BC, although it was most likely a copy of an original tome written even earlier. A parallel development in herbal medicine took place in China and India. Herbal preparations are documented in a Chinese pharmacopeia written around 2700 BC, while the Rig Veda, one of the ancient Hindu scriptures, lists over 1,000 medicinal plants. Along with the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (c. 1800 BC), the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BC), the Hearst Papyrus (c. 1600 BC), the Brugsch Papyrus (c. 1300 BC), and the London Medical Papyrus (c.

Herbal Life and Lore • 15

 The Edwin Smith Papyrus is one of several papyri thought to be among the foundations of modern medicine.

1300 BC), the Ebers document is among the oldest preserved medical records. The Brugsch and the London Medical papyri share some of the same information as the Ebers Papyrus. Another text, the Carlsberg Papyrus, is identical to the Ebers Papyrus, although the origin of the Carlsberg document is unknown. These papyri combined are said to contain more invaluable medical information than possessed by Hippocrates more than a thousand years later!10 These documents reveal that Egyptian kings around 1000 BC fed their slaves and laborers garlic in the belief that it would make them strong enough to build the pyramids. The Bible suggests that anise and cumin seeds, among others, were such highly valued medicinal plants that they were even used to pay debts. In later centuries, the ancient Greeks and Romans expanded and codified their use of herbs. One of their favorites was an evergreen they called laurel, which grows to tree size on the sunny Mediterranean shores—the same Laurus nobilis used today under the name of sweet bay to flavor stuffings and stews (not to be confused with American mountain laurel, which has toxic leaves). According to legend, the god Peneus turned the nymph Daphne into a laurel tree to save her from the

16 • Your indoor herb garden

clutches of Apollo. The laurel herb was regarded as sacred, and its leafy twigs were woven into garlands to crown victorious warriors, athletes, statesmen, and poets. At festivals, young men and maidens wore ceremonial garlands of other herbs too, including parsley, dill, and fennel, that celebrated the triumphant Battle of Marathon, meaning “fennel” in Greek. It was on a field of wild fennel that the Greeks defeated a Persian army in 490 BC.11 But of all the herbs valued by the ancients, none was more revered than rosemary. A hardy, aromatic shrub with soft, emerald green needles, it grew on the wind-swept bluffs of the Mediterranean

 Garlands of various herbs were

Sea. Christened ros marinus, or “dew of the sea,” it was used in fra-

once presented to the crème de la

grant hedges and borders in the walled gardens of Egypt, Algeria,

crème of society.

and Spain; the Greeks wore it in festive garlands, burned it at sacrifices, and scattered it over their floors. According to authors James Underwood Crockett and Ogden Tanner, “like many other herbs still in use today, it traveled north across Europe and Britain with the Roman legions, becoming a salve for wounds, a love potion, an ingredient in perfumes and embalming fluids, a savory for meats, and one of the 130-odd herbs thought to flavor the Carthusian monks’ secret formula for Chartreuse liqueur.”12

From Greece to Mighty Rome From its earliest foundations in Egypt and Mesopotamia, herbal knowledge spread to Greece before embedding itself into the day-today strands of Roman life. Many legends grew up around Asclepius, the famous Egyptian-born Greek herbalist and teacher who, aided by his daughters Hygeia and Panacea, practiced as a healer after 1250 BC when herbalism became closely linked with magic. Many of the prescribed herbs were furnished by itinerant and often illiterate gatherers, some of whom performed their own secret rituals and incantations. The appearance of Hippocrates (460 –377 BC) brought a newly established scientific system of medicine based on diagnosis and treatment with plant remedies, a giant leap forward from the

Herbal Life and Lore • 17

 Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, was far ahead of his time. Here, he is shown refusing gifts from Artaxerxes, a Persian king seeking medical care from the Greek healer. Painting by Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson, 1792.

age-old notion that disease was visited upon its wretched victims by the gods. The Romans, who used fennel for ceremonial garlands, also valued its fresh, licorice flavor for cooking or use in salads. They also scattered powdered herbs about their houses and burned them as incense. The word “perfume” comes from the Latin per fumum, meaning “by smoke.” The ancients crushed the flowers of one fragrant species into their bath water so frequently that it became known as lavender, after the Latin word, lavare, meaning to bathe. The Greeks and Romans also

18 • Your indoor herb garden

started the custom, continued throughout Europe and elsewhere until modern times, of using aromatic plants such as lavender, mint, and thyme as “strewing herbs,” meant to be scattered across the floors so their fragrance would mask common household odors. But of all the treasured aromatic herbs in the world, the one that held the title King of the Plant World was saffron, a red-orange, sweet-scented herb from the stigmas of the saffron crocus flower. Requiring some 65 ,000 hand-picked blossoms to make a pound of saffron, its use became the epicenter of conspicuous consumption in which only the wealthy could afford to employ it to flavor their food, perfume their banquet halls, and dye their robes. Roman Emperor Nero, with exuberant extravagance, ordered saffron water sprinkled along the road before him whenever he returned to the Eternal City.

Medicinal Use Spreads Despite the popularity of herbs in everyday life, the plants’ principle values lay in their medicinal properties, whether real or imagined. Among the earliest physicians were some of history’s most avid herbalists, including Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine, who categorized and described some 400 medicinal herbs and their uses. Among them were basil, horehound, rue, and sage. The first century AD produced the earliest herbal (as books about herbs were called), De Materia Medica (On Medical Material), the work of Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek physician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author. The work was a five-volume Greek encyclopedia of herbal medicine and related medicinal substances (a pharmacopeia) that was widely read for more than 1,500 years. Working as a physician within the Roman army, Dioscorides expanded upon the work of Hippocrates in describing the appearance and properties of more than 500 plants. In Dioscorides’ view, herbs were remarkably versatile in their medical applications. For example, mountain rue, which makes some people violently ill, could cure poisoning, snakebite, chest pain, hard breathing, coughing, lung

Herbal Life and Lore • 19

inflammation, worms, stones, poor vision, headache, nosebleed, and pain in the hips, joints and ears. Cress was prescribed to break up carbuncles, cure falling hair, stimulate passion and drive away serpents. Garlic worked wonders in treating boils, coughs, lice, ulcers, toothache and dog bites. The lily removed wrinkles, ivy turned the hair black, and cinquefoil soothed or cured toothache, dysentery, liver and lung diseases, poisons, wounds, fear and enchantment.13

Around the same time, Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder wrote the encyclopedic Naturalis Historia (Natural History), which became a template for all future encyclopedias. He spent most of his time studying, writing, and investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field. His nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote of him in a letter to the historian, Tacitus: For my part I deem those blessed to whom, by favour of the gods, it has been granted either to do what is worth writing of, or to write what is worth reading; above measure blessed those on whom both gifts have been conferred. In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions.14

The next several centuries were known collectively as the Dark Ages (saeculum obscurum) because of the lack of written records (that is, the darkness of information) as opposed to the abundance of documents (or enlightedness) of earlier and later periods. The term, Dark Ages, originated with 1330s Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as “dark” compared to the light of classical antiquity.15 He used the “Dark Ages” to refer to a historical period of intellectual darkness that included a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration in Western Europe between the fall of Rome and the rise of the Renaissance. Although the Dark Ages as a historical period has been disparaged by historians, the task of keeping alive accumulated herbal

20 • Your indoor herb garden

knowledge during the post-Roman centuries nevertheless was passed from the gentry to the monasteries where cloistered monks copied texts by hand, practiced healing, and tended flourishing herb gardens. They raised their medicinal herbs to treat the sick in their hospitals. Meanwhile, outside monastery walls, itinerant herbalists wandered the streets and walkways of the villages, selling herbs and the secret formulas and incantations that supposedly made them work. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek and Roman herbals were translated by Arabic physicians who added their own teachings and those acquired via their trade contacts with the East. Avicenna, the most celebrated Muslim physician of the time, wrote the Canon of Medicine, a classic compilation of medicinal plants, diseases, and treatments, in 1035 AD; it remained a standard reference work until 1650. The tenth century also saw the appearance of the first Anglo-Saxon herbal, the Leechbook of Bald, written in the common tongue and with an emphasis on the ritual and the magical. The herb and spice trade remained relatively confined to the East until Marco Polo and other Italian explorers opened up trade links with China and India. Venice quickly became the center of the European spice trade, and traders grew wealthy from the flavorings that proved so valuable for preserving and improving the taste of food.

 Avicenna was one of the great scholars of the Middle Ages. Although a Muslim, he created a medical encyclopedia that was respected by both Jews and Christians. Here his accomplishments are acknowledged

The lucrative market motivated Portuguese explorers to open up a

by a sculpture at the Persian Scholar

direct sea route to the East, while the discovery of the New World led

Pavilion, Vienna, gifted by the country

to the appearance of even more plants and herbal medicines. Mean-

of Iran. CC BY-SA 3.0

while in the 13th century, Queen Elizabeth of Hungary grew famous for concocting Hungary Water, a libation consisting of rosemary, lavender, and myrtle steeped in brandy; later, rosemary became a prominent ingredient in eau de cologne. When the printing press was invented in the 15th century, herbals were among the first and most popular books to be published and distributed widely. The Elizabethan era proved a boon for the age of herbals, and reprints of the most celebrated texts of the day are still widely read both for their knowledge and for pleasure.

Herbal Life and Lore • 21

Throughout literary history, rosemary makes its appearance as a prominent herb of sentiment, an evergreen symbolic of the unbreakable bonds of love. In her letter to Laertes, Shakespeare’s character, Ophelia, writes: “There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance; pray, love, remember.” The body of Romeo’s fair Juliet was carried to church festooned with rosemary sprigs, and in many parts of the world today, the herb decorates the hearth at Christmas, makes up an essential part of bridal bouquets, and provides a sense of calm at the passing of a friend or loved one.16

Herbals and Herbalists As time passed, improvements in the quality and scope of herbals kept pace. As mass-market printing exploded, the world’s cornucopia of information on herbs did, too. The German Kreuterbuch, pub The invention of the printing press

lished in 1539, offered the most up-to-date and accurate descriptions

helped to revolutionize “modern medi-

of herbs, while William Turner’s New Herball offered one of the first

cine” as well as literature. Pix abay

scientific botanical studies. A Flemish herbal by Dodoens described the properties of herbs and attempted to codify them, and it was this volume, translated into both French and English, that formed the basis of one of the most famous of all herbals, Gerard’s Herball, published in 1597. John Gerard (1545–1612) was a celebrated surgeon, horticulturalist, and botanist who grew over 1,000 common and rare plants in his garden in London’s Fetter Lane. His interest in plants spurred people from around the world to send him seeds. Gerard rearranged and enlarged a Latin version of Dodoens’ herbal by including his own experiences, theories, and remedies. This herbal became enormously popular, culminating in a revised edition published by Thomas Johnson in 1633 . Another Brit—a skilled gardener, experienced herbalist, and apothecary named John Parkinson (1567–1650)—kept a magnificent garden in the Covent Garden district of London. He published two books, Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris (Park-in-Sun’s Terrestrial Paradise)

22 • Your indoor herb garden

and the Theatricum Botanicum (Theatre of Plants). The latter ranks among the most complete and thoughtful herbals of the era. Around the same time, Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), an herbalist of the people with remedies that were popular mostly with the poor residents of London’s East End, began publishing his works. An iconoclast and center of controversy throughout most of his life, Culpeper infuriated the medical establishment by translating the London Pharmacopeia from Latin to English in an attempt to break the stranglehold of the Royal College of Physicians and restore medicine to the everyday people who actually needed it most—through the apothecaries or pharmacists who sold it. A haughty and often condescending individual who loved the limelight that the notoriety of his writings brought him, Culpeper subscribed to the theory of astrological botany, believing that the planetary relationship of plants helped to determine their medical application. Addressing the readers of his book on why he chose to write on such a well-traveled topic, he penned this paean:

 As a trendsetting herbalist, Nicholas Culpeper left an indelible

But you will say, What need I have written on this Subject, seeing

mark on medicine.

so many famous and learned men have written so much of it in the English Tongue, much more than I have done? To this I answer, neither Gerrard [sic] nor Parkinson, or any that ever wrote in the like nature, ever gave one wise reason for what they wrote, and so did nothing else but train up young novices in Physic in the School of tradition, and teach them just as a parrot is taught to speak; an Author says so, therefore it is true; and if all that Authors say be true, why do they contradict one another? But in mine, if you view it with the eye of reason, you shall see a reason for everything that is written, whereby you may find the very ground and foundation of Physic; you may know what you do, and wherefore you do it; and this shall call me Father, it being (that I know of) never done in the world before.17

Herbal Life and Lore • 23

 An illustration of the “Doctrine of Signatures”: The eyebright seen here was used for eye infections, owing to the supposed resemblance of its flower to a bloodshot eye. Pix abay

The showman-like brashness of Culpeper led to the publication of his masterwork, English Physician, and Complete Herbal (1653). It boasted the Herculean subtitle of An Astrological Discourse of the Vulgar Herbs of this Nation being a Compleat Method of Physick whereby a man may preserve his Body in health; or cure himself being sick, for three pence charge, with such things onely as grow in England, they being most fit for English Bodies. A fanciful blend of traditional medicine, folklore, astrology, and the art of magic, the book listed 369 plants along with specific advice on how to identify each plant, where to find it, its purpose, and by which celestial body it was governed. The author’s acute intellect enabled him to present in three volumes a remarkable amount of information. It also generated a tremendous amount of misinformation. Authors Crockett and Tanner write about Culpepper’s notes concerning a concoction based upon mustard seed: “Let old men and women make much of this Medicine, and they will either give me thanks or manifest ingratitude.” At another point, he stated: “Sage is of excellent use to help the Memory, warming and quickening the senses; and the Conserve made of the Flowers issued to the same purpose.”18

24 • Your indoor herb garden

Despite what many readers no doubt perceived to be his shortminded and long-winded arrogance, Culpeper’s research endured, and, in fact, his volumes were among the earliest to display the dauntless support of the Doctrine of Signatures, which, for good reason, eventually fell out of favor. The main reason the doctrine soon faded from memory was that its theory was flawed. It proposed that the shape, color, and general appearance of a plant indicated its medicinal application. Thus, the belief attributed to a species known as lungwort, with its lung-shaped leaves and small whitish spots, was that it could cure diseased (or spotted) lungs in people. Steeped in hot water, its infusions were downed by countless numbers of Brits for the treatment of chest colds and whooping cough. Similarly, wild pansies were thought to be a potent base for a heart tonic because of their heartshaped leaves; hollow-stalked plants such as garlic and onions were perceived to be beneficial for ailments of the windpipe; the flowers of eyebright, resembling bloodshot eyes, were used to make eye lotions for preventing blindness and curing cataracts.19 Although the doctrine was itself deeply blemished, it led to studies that proved invaluable. The theory’s chief proponent, 16th-century Swiss physician, herbalist, and alchemist Paracelsus, believed in the active healing principles present in plants, anticipating the supportive findings of 19th century chemistry.

The New World As the Pilgrims from England and the colonists from Europe brought the seeds of their native plants to the Americas, they took time to replicate the flourishing herb gardens they’d abandoned back home. At the same time, they learned about the folk medicine of the indigenous people they found while acquiring an ever-broader knowledge of medicinal herbs that eventually found its way into Nicolás Monardes’ 16th-century text, Joyfull Newes out of the Newe Founde Worlde, as well as Woods’ New England Prospect. American plants

Herbal Life and Lore • 25

spurred new interest among botanists who traveled to the New World, bringing seeds, roots, and cuttings of their favorite household herbs with them. Combined with native herbal medicines adopted from the Indians’ stock, they played the precursors of promising new medicinal discoveries. Before long, every Puritan housewife knew, in John Parkinson’s words, “what Herbes and Fruits were fit, eyther for meate or medicine, for Use or Delight,”20 and those housewives could grow almost every plant they needed for cooking, flavoring, garnishes, nosegays, insect and vermin repellents, dyes, teas, plasters, salves, and lotions—just to name a few applications. Among the more common colonial New England housewife’s “simples” were such old reliable herbs used by themselves: elecampane for throat and breathing disorders; balm for bee stings, and tansy for worms. For more complex “unknown guests,” as ailments were called, a package remedy was often deemed appropriate on the theory that a combination of herbs, according to Crockett, could purge “both upwards and downwards” by inducing sneezing, sweating, vomiting and laxative action—sometimes all at once. If the patient recovered, the “imbalance” had been eliminated. If he did not, it was believed, God had obviously called him. Some early American recipes were formidable: “Take for a cough or stitch upon a cold, Wormwood, Sage, Marygolds, and Crabs-claws boiled in posset-drink [hot milk curdled by ale or wine and spiced] and drunk off very warm.” Or, “For wind Collick, take Summer Savory, Angelica, Sweet Tansy and Elecampane; for back pains, make a syrup of Borage or Comphrey and add Brandy and Gunpowder to taste.” As immigrants arrived from other countries, they carried their own folk medicines and traditions. Old Pennsylvania Dutch treatments for asthma, for example, included sleeping on the dried flowers of pearly everlasting and chewing calamus root, while also smoking the leaves of mullein, drinking teas made of horehound, hyssop, sage, and yarrow, and sipping a potion made by steeping “four quarts of huckleberries for four days in two gallons of good gin.”21

26 • Your indoor herb garden

By the early 18th century in Europe, Linnaeus’ pioneering work on the classification of plants flagged a division between herbalists and botanists. Plants of all types, not only the medicinal ones, were being discovered, classified, and studied, and the Flora soon replaced the Herbal as the darling of the scientific community. In the New World, commercial herb farms, planted on a modest scale by religious communities of Shakers, had begun supplying home remedies that city dwellers could no longer conveniently grow. Before long, hundreds of patent medicines, root tonics, and snake oils, most using herbs, were being advertised in newspapers and sold from door to door.22 Not long after, advances in chemistry and biochemistry resulted in the isolation and the eventual synthesis of many active components unique to the plant world. With the rise of the pharmaceutical industry, plant-based medicines, flavorings, cosmetics, household cleansers, and dyes were replaced by less expensive and more widely available synthetic products. In a mad dash toward botanical oblivion, humankind turned its back on its time-tested friend: herbs. With the advent of modern medicine, the use of herbal remedies quickly declined. But over the past several decades, herbs have witnessed a resurgence in popularity. Today, herbs—many the source for modern-day drugs—still serve mankind in a wide array of ways. Digitalis from foxglove stimulates the heart; rauwolfia and valerian perform as tranquilizers; aloe from the aloe vera plant soothes a roily stomach and provides relief from burns. The worldwide manufacture of cosmetics, foods, and drinks can thank the fragrant oils of herbs used in making soaps, perfumes, and lotions. Liniments for sore muscles and aching joints take their heating-soothing action from menthol and thymol found initially in wormwood, mint, and thyme. Even modern-day cocktails owe their existence to herbs. Bitter wormwood forms the foundations for vermouth, Campari, and absinthe. Anise seeds create a strong base for the licorice taste of anisette; caraway goes into making the German aperitif kummel;

Herbal Life and Lore • 27

 Artist Toulouse-Lautrec captured this French woman applying a plantbased eyeliner to add to her appeal.

mint makes the eye-opening cordial crème de menthe; and angelica (and a few dozen other herbs) helps lay the foundation for gin. Above all else, herbs are still used in foods. Thousands of tons of the aromatic darlings are raised today on farms from California to southern France, lending their flavors to nearly everything we eat: sausages, frankfurters, and other processed meats; buns, cookies, crackers, and confections; mustard, catsup, relish, pickles, chutney, mayonnaise, meat sauce, and an endless range of additional condiments. Add those to all the canisters of dried herbs lining our kitchen cabinet shelves, and you begin to understand the place of prominence herbs occupy in the modern household. Today, we’re experiencing a revival of interest in a more genteel, less aggressive, more renewable source of plant-based products and remedies. People have grown disillusioned with harsh, harmful, or even outright dangerous petrochemical-based drugs, cosmetics, and cleansers and the resultant pollution they create. With the current

28 • Your indoor herb garden

awareness of ecological issues and the reaction against synthetic chemical ingredients, plants symbolize a comforting link with the natural world and our past, and herbs are leading the way. In the words of Nicholas Culpeper to his “dearest consort,” his wife Alice, on the preparation for his departure from this mortal world: My dearest, The works that I have published to the world (though envied by some illiterate physicians) have merited such just applause, that thou mayest be confident in proceeding to publish anything I leave thee, especially this master-piece: assuring my friends and countrymen, that they will receive as much benefit by this, as by my Dispensatory, and that incomparable piece called, Semiotica Uranica enlarged, and English Physician. These are the choicest secrets, which I have had many years locked up in my own breast. I gained them by my constant practice, and by them I maintained a continual reputation in the world, and I doubt not but the world will honour thee for divulging them; and my fame shall continue and increase thereby, though the period of my Life and Studies be at hand, and I must now bid all things under the Sun farewell. Farewell, my dear wife and child; farewell, Arts and Sciences, which I so dearly loved; farewell, all worldly glories; adieu, readers, Nicholas Culpeper.23

Herbal Life and Lore • 29

3

FRO M M AG IC TO M E D ICI N E

T

he earliest humans on record were omnivores, eating

whatever fell into their hands or passed between their lips.

Their diet consisted of foodstuffs ranging from seeds, ber-

ries, and roots to herbs, nuts, grains, and occasionally (as in rarely)

a largesse of meat. Perceptive and skillful practitioners of wild-crafting, these earliest humanoids eventually developed the native’s instinct for eating those plants that served them well while avoiding those that proved harmful. As early humans evolved the skills of tool-making, they learned to hunt, trap, fish, and pursue their meals over ever-widening territories. Through trial and error, they gradually transformed their diet to be heavier in meat and lighter in plant foodstuffs. As a result, humanoids began to lose their ability to know instinctively which herbs and berries to eat and which to avoid—not at all beneficial! Plants, because of both their immense benefits and great dangers, appeared in many primitive religious myths. These myths were created to account for the cycle of the seasons and other mysteries of life. The stories were not recorded in writing until centuries later, but they still provide us with clues to the workings of the primitive mind.

30 •

The All-Powerful Herb Early literature from around the world demonstrates a powerful belief in the divine, mystical powers of herbs. Heracles gave the gods of Olympus victory over the Titans when he gave them the “herb of invulnerability”! In the Old Testament, Rachel, Jacob’s barren wife, was at last able to bear him a son with the aid of mandrake, sold to her by her stepson Reuben. In India, the Vedic gods became immortal by drinking an herbal brew called “soma.”24 Other histories record similarly remarkable properties attributed to herbs.

Herbs and Human Sacrifice Among the darkest practices of early humankind was human sacrifice. To please the gods and coax from them yet one more bountiful year of crops, people offered sacrifices to hasten the arrival of a warm, forgiving spring. In Assyria, the god Tammuz died yearly and was brought back to life by Ishtar, the Mother Goddess. A Syrian idol mentioned in Ezekiel 8:14 , Tammuz was the same deity that the Phoenicians called Adonis and perhaps the Egyptians, Osiris. The fabled death and restoration of Adonis, supposed to symbolize the departure and return of the Sun, were celebrated at the summer

 In the Bible, the herb, mandrake,

solstice, first with lamentation and then with rejoicing and obscene

allegedly helped Rachel, the barren

revelry.25 The pheasant’s eye anemone (Adonis annua), which was

wife of Jacob, to become pregnant.

used to treat heart conditions, owes its Latin name to Adonis, whose blood was said to have turned it scarlet.26 Another ancient sacrificial victim was the Tollund Man. His 2 ,000 -year-old corpse was found fully preserved in a Danish peat bog. He was so precisely mummified that the contents of his stomach could still be analyzed. His last dinner included gold of pleasure, fat hen, black bindweed, and wild pansy. The pansy, featured in many medieval love potions used by black (bad) and white (good) witches alike, is mildly narcotic. It seems clear that this meal was not typical of the tribe’s diet since they were primarily meat eaters. The recipe was most likely prepared as part of the sacrificial ritual.

From Magic to Medicine • 31

 Attic red-figure aryballos painting by Aison (c. 410 BC) showing Adonis consorting with Aphrodite. CC BY-SA 3.0

The people who sacrificed the Tollund Man spent most of their lives searching for food. The lives of modern-day humans are quite different. The ability to hunt animals or identify a health-giving herb is far less critical to us than it was to our ancestors. Today, specialists produce our food, freeing everyone else to pursue other activities, such as working to earn enough money to pay for it. Few among us know how our food is produced or what processes it undergoes before we buy it. The wild herbs that once provided our ancestors with food, medicine, and grounding for their religious ceremonies are what we regard mostly as weeds today. Chemical sprays and a swelling population leave fewer places for wild plants to grow. True, we’re witnessing an upsurge in interest in herbs and spices, but that has been mostly in the field of the culinary arts as opposed to that of medical

32 • Your indoor herb garden

practitioners. Long gone are the days when humanity looked to herbs as a critical part of its relationship to the universe. The books we read about herbs today are less appreciated than some of the earliest tomes recorded—those by our ancestral herbalists. The herbal of the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung dates from 2700 BC. Around the same time, Egypt boasted some 2 ,000 herbal doctors who treated their patients with precisely measured doses of potential poisons from the poppy and the autumn crocus. In India, the Ayurvedic school of medicine listed some 700 herbs; even more were known to the Assyrians. Not too surprisingly, the two most celebrated doctors in our early history were both Greek. One was Dioscorides; the other was Galen, the personal physician to Roman emperor and stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius. Galen was adept at treating cramps with rhubarb imported from China, but he couldn’t save Aurelius from the effects

 The herbalist and physician Dioscorides as depicted in a 1240

of the plague in 180 BC.27

Arabic edition of De Materia Medica.  CC BY 4.0.jpg

How Herbs Were Named The names of numerous herbs such as pilewort, birth-wort, and goutwort all belie their ancient uses. The word wort means “a plant that is used for.” Other herbs owe their names to classical mythology. Iris was the “many-colored messenger of the gods,” and elecampane takes its Latin name, Inula helenium, from Helen of Troy. Sage bears the Latin moniker, Salvia officinalis, because of its healing powers. Officinalis as a species name indicates that it was once sold in apothecary shops. Ancient herbalists were rooted in the belief of an unbreakable bond between herbs and the stars. Plants grew and died with the seasons, just as the stars and planets waxed and waned throughout the celestial heavens. While ancient Assyrian priests accurately plotted the stars’ heavenly movements, herbalist Nicholas Culpeper went so far as to insist that “All men are unfit to be physicians, who are not artists in astrology!”28

From Magic to Medicine • 33

A belief in the supernatural power of herbs was a very human reaction to the speedy death or blissful hallucination that often resulted from eating a few roots, leaves, or berries from the wrong plants. A person who understood which herbs were beneficial and which harmful, was looked upon with god-like awe. The rose has been a sign of spiritual purity throughout history. Other herbs became associated with different forms of magic. Angelica and mallow offered protection against witchcraft. Wild garlic, which still encircles the ruins of many old monasteries, was planted there to fend off the devil. One of the plants most revered throughout history was mistletoe, which Pliny claimed could cure epilepsy. It was sacred to the Druids when discovered growing on an oak tree, for they believed that whatever grew on that tree was sent from heaven. Mistletoe was also consecrated by the Ainu of northern Japan, who hoped to find it growing on a willow, which for the Japanese remains the tree of life. The Christmas kiss under the mistletoe is a survival of old Nordic fertility rites. The white fruits of the mistletoe appear when all nature seems dead; the midwinter rite was believed to encourage dormant plants to come back to life with a simple kiss, symbolizing human fertility. During the Middle Ages, the most extensive herb gardens were cultivated by monks, who with the nuns established hospitals to care for the sick within their monastic walls. Plants known to the Greeks, Druids, and Anglo-Saxons continued to be cultivated for their medicinal powers, despite the pagan superstition attached to many of them. Louis the Pious, son of the Emperor Charlemagne, drew up a long list of plants that were to be grown on his lands. Parsley, chives, sage, and most other modern culinary herbs were evidently appreciated even in the ninth century. Among the more popular royal medicinal herbs were marshmallow, feverfew, and spurge. Today, people tend to look back with horror at the brutal methods of surgery that existed in the Middle Ages. But they’re wrong

34 • Your indoor herb garden

to think that medieval doctors had no pain killers at their disposal.

 Feverfew was one of the esteemed

A soporific sponge was inhaled by patients before amputations. It

royal medicinal herbs.

was soaked in the juices of several herbs, most often opium, henbane, hemlock, mandrake, and ivy. These contain poisons that kill pain very effectively—and occasionally the patient, too, if overprescribed. In the 12th century, the Abbess Hildegarde of Bingen and Abbot Alexander Neckam of the Augustinian abbey at Cirencester wrote about herbs and their medicinal uses. Early in the 14th century, Pietro de Crescenzi wrote a book on gardens for the King of Naples in which he described the beauty of fountains surrounded by low hedges of rue, sage, marjoram, and mint. Herb-shrouded fountains remained popular with the Italians for decades. Early descriptions of the magnificent gardens of the Villa d’Este at Tivoli speak of lavender hedges enclosing fields of marjoram, hyssop, and other green herbs. The herbs have now gone, leaving only the glorious fountains in their wake. Nearly a century after Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press circa 14 40, one of the first herbals printed in England was produced by William Turner, the Dean of Wells. Turner was embroiled in the religious conflicts that followed the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII. His book, The Names of Herbes, along with those of Thomas Hyll and John Gerard, soon followed, helping to preserve the plant lore accrued by medieval monks over the centuries. Turner said that his ambition was “To know and see the herbes myself,”29 and he traveled the world to accomplish that goal.

The Four Humors One of the central beliefs shared by all herbalists of the Renaissance was Hippocrates’ doctrine of the four humors. A carryover from the sorcerer’s black magic, all physical and mental behaviors were believed to be caused by phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile. Respectively, the “humors” had one of four conditions: cold and wet,

From Magic to Medicine • 35

hot and wet, cold and dry, and hot and dry. Depending on their balance, a person was either phlegmatic (slothful), sanguine (full of lust and energy), melancholy (given to brooding), or choleric (bad-tempered). Herbs were also said to be hot, cold, wet, or dry. To restore a healthy balance, one had to purge the body of any excess humor. Thus, John Parkinson prescribed three roots boiled in wine to cure the tertian ague, a form of malaria producing chills followed by a fever every third degree (or roughly three days). A quatrain ague needed four roots. The mathematics were based on the three-and four-day cycles of the two fevers. Another herb, capsicum, the red or green pepper, was measured as hot and dry in the fourth degree. This fruit “out of the new found world” was beneficial “for them that be of cold complexion.” Saffron was hot in the second degree and dry in the first. Turner blended it with poppy juice, milk, and rose oil to ease “payne of the fete”30! Some medicinal herbals did double duty. Parkinson recommended sweet marjoram “against the poison of venemous beasts!” and basil as “good for the stryking of a se [sic] dragon!” Wormwood, southernwood, vervain, and a hundred other herbs were suggested to expel worms.31

The Dreaded Plague Not surprisingly, herbalists were rarely without work. Their minds were kept sharp and their pockets filled by the numerous, recurrent epidemics sweeping Europe and the rest of the world. The Black Death of 1348 and the frequent outbreaks of bubonic plague were caused by flea-infested rats. The victims suffered agonizing swelling in the groin and under the arms. Thousands died horrific deaths. Herbalists were as confused as their wretched patients as to what caused the symptoms, let alone how to treat them. One recalled that Galen had chewed rue to avoid infection. Another made pills containing hellebore and opium. A third applied a hot onion to the tumors, having first stuffed the bulb with rue, fig, and Venice treacle, which was a compound of 61 herbs and spices, one of Venice’s most

36 • Your indoor herb garden

profitable—if not useful—exports. Tobacco was another remedy for the most hopeless of cases, resulting in parents forcing even their youngest children to smoke. Inhaling sweet-scented pomanders and posies was also a standard prescription since the epidemics were at first thought to be caused by bad air. In Italy, malaria became the name for the fever commonly called tertian ague. A bouquet of rosemary or the fumitory prescribed by John of Milan were both useless against the Anopheles mosquito. But many of the herbalists’ cures did work, even if their methods were haphazard and their explanations fanciful.

Sailing the Seven Seas Of course, as with all trade, word of which lands possessed what herbs and how best to obtain them spread like wildfire. From the earliest days of oceangoing travel, herbs and spices were among the

 Galen allegedly chewed rue

most important items of trade. As long as 3 ,000 years ago, Queen

to avoid infection from the plague. 

Hatshepsut of Egypt imported myrrh from Somalia to put into her

CC BY-SA 3.0.jpg

cosmetics, and the ancient Babylonians were familiar with most of the Oriental spices. Cinnamon, cloves, and ginger comprised an essential part of their medicines and diets. Alexander’s invasion of Asia in 333 BC introduced the Greeks to nearly five times the number of spices they had known before. Pepper was initially among the most costly of medicinal herbs available. By the time of the Roman Empire, it had become essential in cooking. The price was so high that the spice was actually used as a form of currency. The Gothic invaders of Italy in the fifth century demanded 3 ,000 pounds of pepper as part of the price for not sacking Rome. Venetian galleys supplied the European spice market during the Middle Ages. Around the same time, cane sugar was introduced to the Western world. Like pepper, its first use was in medicine, and it took centuries before it became a favorite food. Throughout history, trade has led to wars, while wars have led to trade. And herbs and spices have topped the list of invaluable commodities since nearly the beginning of time. They are light and

From Magic to Medicine • 37

highly concentrated, making them easy to carry across land or sea. They commanded high prices because the medical profession was clamoring for them. And they were both rare and exotic. When Herodotus tried to find where cinnamon trees grew, he was told in the jungles south of the Nile, where they were guarded day and night by giant, man-eating birds. In reality, they grew in Ceylon, and the bark often traveled via rafts across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar; from there, it made its way up to the Red Sea. Arabs continued to supply the European market with their valuable commodities for the next 2 ,000 years. Pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and cloves were sold to the Venetians in Alexandria until a sea route to India was discovered in 1498. Predictably, with such a high demand for so many exotic medicinal herbs and so much at stake in both medicine and other areas of life, European nations soon began fighting among themselves to establish Asian colonies to access the spices. The Dutch controlled the Moluccas in the 17th century, forcing up the price of cloves and nutmeg by limiting the number of trees grown in the “Spice Isles.” All the while, these valuable medicinal products came under increased demand as apothecaries and physicians throughout Europe and America cried out for more. The need for plants to produce medicine changed dramatically in the 19th century with the introduction of chemical analysis. Alkaloids were isolated from a succession of medicinal plants, beginning with morphine from the poppy in 1806 and quickly followed by ipecacuanha and strychnine in 1817. That led to the discovery of quinine from the cinchona tree, as well as many other notable finds. As the burgeoning field of chemistry boomed, new classes of pharmacologically active substances were discovered in medicinal plants.32 Commercial extraction of purified alkaloids, including morphine, began at Merck in Darmstadt, Germany, in 1826. Synthesis of substances first found in medicinal plants began with salicylic acid in 1853 .33

38 • Your indoor herb garden

Around the end of the 19th century, the mood of Big Pharma turned against medicinal plants, as enzymes often modified the active ingredients when whole plants were dried, and medicine began showing a preference toward alkaloids and glycosides purified from plant material.34 Still, drug discoveries from plants continued to be significant through the 20th century and into the 21st; for example, critical anti-cancer drugs were derived from yew and Madagascar periwinkle.35

Changing of the Guard While in hindsight it may be tempting to view modern pharmacology as the bad guy in what once was a hands-on, mom-and-pop industry of growing herbs and supplying local practitioners with the materials they needed to practice their craft, the reality is that such an approach to modern medicine today is impractical. Between booming numbers of people spread over an ever-widening area of the globe and the impracticality of relying upon individuals producing their own medicinal substances for themselves and their neighbors, the truth is that Big Pharma was destined to happen. And, as Martha Stewart used to say, “That’s a good thing.” Or at least it can be. But turning over our medicinal needs to corporate America so it can care for us as competently as our ancestors cared for their progeny is not as easy as reaching into a test tube and pulling out a panacea for what ails us. The truth is that, while some medicines are synthetically produced in the laboratory, all are still “obliging” at least to some degree to that simple, botanical herb growing just outside our own back door. But harvesting enough herbs to produce an adequate supply of medicine for a growing world is not easy, not even for Big Pharma. For starters, most medicinal plants can’t be steeped in water and drunk as a tea. Many require some form of physical alteration to make them more convenient to administer. According to the

From Magic to Medicine • 39

Institute for Traditional Medicine, standard methods for the preparation of herbal medicines include decoction, powdering, extraction with alcohol, and application as a poultice, each method yielding a mixture of substances. Decoction involves crushing and then boiling the plant material in water to produce a liquid extract. Powdering requires drying the plant material thoroughly before grinding it to yield a powder that can be compressed into tablets. Alcohol extraction involves soaking the plant material in cold wine or a distilled spirit to form a tincture.36 Poultices, although rarely used in modern medicine, require boiling medicinal plants, wrapping them in a cloth, and applying the resulting parcel externally to the affected part of the body.37 The routine for isolating a chemical compound from a plant is remarkably similar from one case to another. Chemists work to identify which substance in a plant is responsible for a particular effect. Once that’s known, the chemist attempts to manufacture a synthetic compound that mimics the chemical structure of that substance. Synthetic drugs are preferred to natural herbals because  Hyssop is one of many bitter botan-

they’re more concentrated, more stable (they don’t rot!), and easier

icals acting as a digestive stimulant.

to measure out accurately, although extractions can be the more efficient process when a compound in question is complicated. Herbal extractions are sometimes used when science is unable to isolate the beneficial substance. Among those substances most commonly found in medicinal herbs, mucilage is one that dissolves readily in water and becomes slimy. It is present to some degree in most food plants and helps our bodies to digest them. The herbaceous mulleins are rich in mucilage and can be used to treat irritations of the mouth and throat. Alkaloids are nitrogenous, often poisonous substances that must be used cautiously. Some alkaloids are used as antispasmodics; some for liniments, balms, and ointments.

40 • Your indoor herb garden

Medicinal Properties The scent and flavor unique to various herbs come mostly from the volatile oils within the plants. More than fragrant and tasty (think peppermint!), they’re often used medicinally. The thymol in thyme, for example, is an effective antiseptic. The oil in pennyroyal, rubbed onto the skin, deters insects. Volatile oils also increase the action of the kidneys and the rate of perspiration, useful in sweating the system of impurities and infections. Glycosides are complex substances, comprised partly of sugars. Among the glycosides are the lather-producing saponins present in many plants, including that sudsiest of all plants, soapwort. The body is not able to absorb much of these substances, so they run through the system, acting as laxatives or expectorants. Hellebores and several other wild plants contain poisonous glycosides. Hyssop, angelica, and many other herbs contain tannins that are bitter tasting; they stimulate the digestive juices in the gut and are valuable in treating stomach complaints. Once science identifies, extracts, and synthesizes an ingredi-

 After centuries of mystic influence, science finally put the spells of wicked witches to rest.

ent, the chemical (or chemical compound) undergoes a series of time-consuming and costly tests before a new product can meet the standards of the US Federal Drug Administration (FDA) and proceed to market. The entire process can take a dozen or more years and cost tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars before that single drug ever sees the shelf in your neighborhood pharmacy!

We’ve Come a Long Way Of course, pharmaceuticals have come a long way since witches and warlocks danced around a roaring fire, incanting their prayers and dusting the flames with dried herbs and fragrant spices. Yet, without those earliest magic potions and incantations, medicinal plants would never have come to the attention of serious students of apothecary, authors, and physicians, and we might never have developed the knowledge we have today about the medicinal use and value of

From Magic to Medicine • 41

so many herbs in our lives. And we certainly wouldn’t have evolved a conglomeration of industrialized pharmaceutical entities busy cranking out medicines, old and new. But no matter how far we’ve come, there will always be a devoted following of our ancestors and their instinctual knowledge about which herbs work for what illnesses or diseases and which don’t. The small cluster of us who find herbal studies not only motivating but also practical will always have our aloe vera plants to fall back on in case of burns. We’ll rely upon our arnica oil to soothe aching muscles and wash away scars from old wounds. And we’ll turn to our copaiba, helichrysum, tea tree oil, neem leaves, and dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of other herbal remedies at our fingertips for when we need them.

A Word of Caution Fortunately, by growing herbs in pots, we can have all the medicinal plants we could ever want right at our fingertips. Plants come from across the yard or across the globe. Still, it’s wise to remember that herbs misused can cause adverse effects and even death, whether through the side effects of their active components, adulteration, contamination, or interaction with prescription drugs. Overdosing and inaccurate diagnosing may also come into play. Just because a plant is natural doesn’t mean it’s safe. Powerful natural poisons such as atropine and nicotine show that every drug, whether naturally extracted or synthetically produced, has the potential to harm as well as help. Also, the high standards applied to conventional medicines do not apply to plant remedies, and doses can vary widely depending on the growing conditions of plants; older plants are likely much more toxic than young ones, for instance.38 Herbal medicines may also interact pharmacologically with conventional prescription drugs, both because they may provide an increased dose of similar compounds and because some phytochemicals interfere with the body’s systems that metabolize drugs in

42 • Your indoor herb garden

the liver, including the cytochrome P450 system, making the drugs last longer in the body and have a more powerful cumulative effect. Plant medicines can be especially dangerous during pregnancy and should be avoided without careful supervision of a medical advisor. Since plants may contain many different substances, plant extracts may have complex and undesirable effects on the human body.39 Always check with a competent, licensed medical practitioner before ingesting any herbals, supplements, or other over-the-counter (OTC) medications. Doing so is only common sense, and it just might save your life.

From Magic to Medicine • 43

4 G ROW I N G A N D H A RV E S T I N G H E R B S I N DOO R S

T

he other day, while I was removing a cast-iron Dutch oven

from a 400°F oven—you guessed it. I brushed my forearm

across the edge. Instead of running to the medicine chest

and scrounging around for a tube of zinc oxide, I walked four steps across the kitchen, plucked a leaf from an aloe vera plant, and rubbed the cooling gel on the burn. Inside of a few minutes, the stinging had diminished, and the chances for a scar were eliminated. One example of the advantages of growing herbs indoors? I certainly think so. But there are others, as well. Here are just a few more.

1. You can grow as many different herbs and varieties as you choose just inches from your kitchen. Not so in the garden. 2. You can modify the soil so that it suits each of your herbs’ requirements precisely. Not so in the garden, where modification for each individual plant is virtually impossible. 3. Indoor herbs can make dramatic showpieces, adding drama, scent, and color to whichever room you choose. Not so in the garden, where even showy herbs can get lost among the crowd. 4. You’ll spend less time protecting your plants from insects and critters bound upon devouring them. Not so in the garden, where every living thing is food for some other living thing.

44 •

5. You can control the growing conditions of your indoor plants, giving them just the right amounts of water and light to thrive. Not so in the garden, where beggars can’t be choosers. 6. You can extend your growing season all year long by growing your herbs indoors. Not so in the garden, where the seasonally shifting light and temperatures affect the circadian rhythm governing your plants’ growth. 7. You can take some of the pressure off your outdoor garden planning if you don’t have to worry about providing room for herbs. Aren’t peppers and peonies, jonquils and artichokes, and tomatoes and tulips enough to deal with without having to squeeze in a dozen or more herb plants? Of course, despite all the pluses to growing herbs indoors, there’s also a negative side that only Mother Nature can address: Plants are naturally outdoor creatures—always have been and always will be. While we can make numerous modifications to overcome that “shortcoming” to allow us our indoor gardening passions, we can’t deny the facts. Outdoor gardening is pretty much a “set it and forget it” affair. Plant enough for the bugs, plant enough for the birds, plant enough for the weather, and take the rest for yourself. It’s called letting nature take its course. Obviously, there are advantages and disadvantages to gardening both ways—indoors and out. I’m a strong proponent of both. But, while I see plenty of advantages to growing corn and indeterminate tomato vines outdoors, I prefer all the benefits that indoor gardening gives me when it comes to growing herbs. Oh, and there’s one more argument in favor of growing herbs indoors. Noshing. Whenever I pass a potted basil or marjoram plant, I take a moment to pinch back the tips to pop into my mouth and chew on. There is nothing zingier, fresher, or healthier than a freshly picked sprig of thyme or mint thrown under your tongue. Unless you’re in and out of the house a few dozen times a day, you

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 45

simply won’t have the same opportunity to raid your outdoor garden in passing. Thankfully, nearly every herb under the sun can be grown under the roof—if it’s planted in the proper soil and given the right amount of light and water. Some notable exceptions are herbs that have long tap roots (carrots, chicory, etc.). If you try growing these, make sure to provide them with a deep enough container for them to stretch out their legs. (Think ten-gallon milk can.)

Choosing a Container Fortunately, you’ll never feel strapped when it comes time to select your plants’ containers. An entire world of attractive pots awaits you when choosing a new home for your herbs. They range from ordinary clay pots and wooden planters to unusual and distinctive jars, bowls, dishes, and more. Choose pots that will meet the needs of the herbs and enhance their beauty. Here are a few points to keep in mind when making your selection. For starters, a container needs adequate drainage. That means at least one hole on the bottom to allow excess water to flow out so that the soil and the plant’s roots won’t become waterlogged. There’s an exception to the rule, which we’ll discuss below, but for now, let’s think “holes.” Also, a suitable container should be able to withstand constant wetting and drying without breaking down and falling apart, so its material is an issue. Most commercially available containers meet these requirements, but keep in mind materials used for homemade, or repurposed, containers. If a container doesn’t have a drainage hole, make one (get out that electric drill!). If the container isn’t suitable for holding moist soil without breaking down, pick up one of several effective waterproofing products available at your local hardware or paint supply store, and give the vessel a good coating inside and out. There’s one more thing: This should be common sense, but it’s worth mentioning anyway. Make sure your repurposed containers are clean. Use steel wool or a stiff wire brush to scrub off old potting

46 • Your indoor herb garden

soil, moss, calcium, rust, paint, or stains. Rinse or wash new containers in hot water before planting in them. You never know what kinds of chemical residues they may harbor. Unglazed clay flower pots are the most versatile and widely used garden containers. They’re inexpensive, readily available, and relatively durable, particularly indoors where they’re not subjected to periodic freezing and thawing. You can make them even more durable by coating the inside with a waterproof coating such as tree-wound dressing. Do the same to the outside with clear acrylic or other protective spray. In that way, you’ll preserve the earthy, Old World charm of your pots so that they complement any herb. Unglazed clay pots typically come in brick red (although I’ve seen them in tan, off-white, and chocolate brown) in a variety of sizes and shapes. As an alternative to buying a conventional pot that you can’t stand looking at, you can find a container you love. In this case, make sure the vessel doesn’t have any drainage holes. That’s important because you’ll be double-potting your herbs—placing them initially in a plain, old, unglazed clay pot and placing that pot inside your decorative container. The excess moisture from watering your plant will drain out into the decorative vessel. Layering an inch or so of coarse stones or gravel at the bottom of the decorative pot will help keep the planted pot above sitting water. Obviously, if you choose this double-potting method, you’ll want to make sure that the inside of the decorative container is absolutely water impermeable. You don’t want excess moisture leaching through the vessel and causing damage to your floor. I like to spray some waterproofing material inside all my decorative pots. Even when a container is metal, there could be a pinpoint-sized rust hole through which water could eventually seep. Waterproofing the pot’s interior just makes sense. As you water your herbs, any water that drains out into the decorative container in excess of a fraction of an inch will need to be emptied out or wicked up with paper towels or rags. Meanwhile,

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 47

you’ll enjoy the benefits of both worlds—an efficient well-draining flower pot and the beautiful, waterproof container you adore!

Companion Planting Your Herbs Companion planting (planting two or more different varieties in the same pot) is one way to group plants for their mutual benefit—and yours—while saving on space. Centuries of farming wisdom tell us that some plants grown together just naturally improve one another’s health. Outdoors, for instance, some plants attract beneficial insects that help to protect a companion, while other plants (most often flowers and herbs) act as natural repellents. Here are some benefits of companion planting your herbs, indoors or out. Shade. Large plants provide shade for smaller plants that may not grow well in full sun. Physical support. Tall plants like corn and sunflowers can support lower-growing, sprawling crops such as cucumbers, peas, creeping thyme, and marjoram. Improved overall health. When one plant absorbs certain substances from the soil, it can change the soil’s biochemistry to the benefit of neighboring plants. Electrical viability. Plants’ electrical charges, mostly negative, stimulate the various aspects of plant growth. By grouping plants together, the electrical charges are amplified. Studies show that this amplification can help all the plants grow stronger and faster.40 Healthy soil. Some crops, such as beans and peas, help to make nitrogen available to other plants. Similarly, plants with long taproots, such as burdock, bring up nutrients from deep in the soil, enriching the topsoil to the benefit of their shallow-rooted cousins.

48 • Your indoor herb garden

Weed reduction. Planting creeping crops outdoors shades the soil and reduces the availability of space for sun-loving weeds to take root. Try mixing low-growing potatoes or thyme and indeterminate (vining or spreading) tomatoes or marjoram among taller growing plants such as corn, amaranth, artichoke, and peppers to reduce the amount of space available to sun-loving weeds. When you harvest your crops in fall, transplant those weed-free herbs into pots to bring indoors to enjoy over winter. You can use the lessons learned from companion planting outdoors to your advantage when growing herbs in your home, too. Instead of having three separate pots for basil, oregano, and thyme, for example, you can group them together in a single container to reap the growing advantages while saving space. You’ll want to make sure to use a pot that’s large enough to accommodate your plants (remember that they’ll continue to grow as they age, so allow some room for expansion) and that the plants you group together have similar water and light requirements. Fortunately, many herbs enjoy compatible growing requirements: Good water, plenty of light, and a well-drained potting mix are ideal for most. Some herbs, such as watercress, though, prefer having wet feet, so you wouldn’t want to plant that in with your coriander, which favors dry, well-drained soil. The companion-planting guide below explains which plants grow best together. Which plants look good when placed together? One easy guide for choosing companion plants for looks is to include “a thriller, a spiller, and a filler.”41 That translates to one or more tall plants to act as a focal point (the thriller) such as a majestic dill or basil centerpiece or perhaps a clump of society garlic with its sprays of fragrant, flashy pink flowers. Then, add several plants that hang down over the edge of the pot, such as rosemary or marjoram (the spiller). Finally, add several smaller, clumping plants with delicate leaves and flowers that add color and fill in the arrangement all season long (the filler). Some suitable fillers include creeping thyme, parsley, and marjoram.

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 49

Again, this assumes all the plants you’re combining have similar light and water requirements. If you’re dead set on comingling plants with different water requirements, you can indulge in what I call fake companion planting. Put the water-loving herbs in one pot and surround that with a second, third, or fourth pot with herbs that prefer a dryer soil. Arrange the different pots shoulder-to-shoulder in a grouping, and as the plants grow larger, they’ll fill out their spaces to appear as if they’re growing out of a single companion container. No one but you will be the wiser. Which herbs grow well with which others? Here’s some useful information courtesy of The Old Farmer’s Almanac for combining plants both indoors and out:

• Anise helps coriander and cilantro. •

Dill and basil planted among tomatoes and peppers can protect those plants from hornworms.

•

Similarly, bergamot aids in promoting healthy tomato growth.

•

Borage aids in the production of strawberries, tomatoes, and beans.

•

Caraway helps peas, but keep it away from your fennel.

•

Chamomile is a good friend to most plants, including cucumbers and onions.

•

Chives are beneficial to apple trees, carrots, roses, and parsley but detrimental to the growth of legumes such as beans and peas.

• While dill is beneficial to the growth of most vegetables, keep it clear of your tomato plants except, perhaps, in a salad.

50 • Your indoor herb garden

•

Garlic is beneficial to roses.

•

Lovage aids in the growth of beans.

•

Oregano is useful when interspersed with beans and cabbage.

•

Rosemary is helpful when growing carrots, cabbage, beans, and sage, but not so rue.

•

Rue, in turn, is beneficial around fig trees but not so helpful when planted near basil, sage, or cabbage.

•

Sage scattered about the garden is beneficial to cabbage by reducing injury from cabbage moths but is also beneficial to carrots, tomatoes, and strawberries.

•

Summer savory benefits beans and onions.

•

Tarragon aids with the growth of most vegetables and herbs.

• While thyme may not be on your side, it’s a good pal to potatoes, tomatoes, and cabbage.

• Although wormwood isn’t nearly as toxic to human consumption as once thought, it’s no friend to most vegetables.

•

Yarrow, on the other hand, is beneficial to most other herbs and vegetables.

•

Marigolds are as good as gold when grown with just about any garden plant; they repel the nematodes that attack the roots of vegetables, particularly tomatoes, and help repel houseflies and gnats.

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 51

•

Some companions act as trap plants, luring insects to themselves and away from your more valuable herbs. Nasturtiums, for example, are so favored by aphids that the devastating insects will flock to them instead of to your more treasured plants.

•

Carrots, dill, parsley, and parsnip also attract beneficial insects such as praying mantises, ladybugs, and spiders—bugs that dine on insect pests.

•

Catnip, hyssop, rosemary, and sage deter cabbage moth, which is detrimental to a host of edible crops, including broccoli, cauliflower, kale, turnip, radish, and, of course, cabbage.

•

Mint wards off cabbage moth and ants and is beneficial to the growth of most vegetables, including tomatoes.

•

Thyme thwarts cabbageworm, which munches on broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard, horseradish, kale, and kohlrabi.

•

Lavender is known to deter codling moths, which wreak havoc on apple trees.42 With that information safely filed away, this is as good a time as any to talk about the consummate companion-planting containers—strawberry pots. You’ve probably seen them. Made of terra cotta, they stand 1–2 feet tall. Shaped like a barrel with a central opening on top for planting a full, upright or bushy plant, they also have several smaller openings along the sides of the pot leading down toward its base. Herbs with a tendency to trail are attractive in these “pockets” while upright herbs or a few showy, large-leafed plants such as geranium or mint can crown the top. Sound like the perfect companion-planting solution? Absolutely. Is it?

52 • Your indoor herb garden

Absolutely not. Unfortunately, while strawberry pots may at first look beautiful, they’re a disaster waiting to happen. When you water the planter from the top, the liquid trickles straight down to the bottom while the “pockets” receive little or no moisture for their planted inhabitants. The result is that the plant on the top does reasonably well while the plantlets in the side pockets suffer from lack of water and dry out, wither, and die. You can counter that by watering not only the top but also the smaller side pockets, each one individually. But that only creates more problems with water overflowing onto the floor and the soil in the side pockets being eroded to expose the roots of the smaller plants. Everything considered, resist the temptation and avoid strawberry pots entirely. A much wiser choice for a planter is a wooden or plastic container typically made for use as an outdoor flowerbox attached to a fence, set on a patio, or hung on the side of the house below a window. They can be used indoors equally well. Just make sure that, with a wooden container, you line it with vinyl pond liner or paint it with a waterproof material, and test it before you fill it full of plants; you need to make sure the waterproofing works. Once that’s done, you can add potted herbs to the box, which should hold anywhere from three to eight 8-inch pots—maybe more, depending on the size of the window box. It’s a great way to get a lot of different plants into an ideal location, like near a south-facing window, where all the plants should do well. Again, as with any pot-within-a-pot system you use, be sure to place a one-inch layer of gravel or stones at the bottom of the box before setting your planted pots into the container, and don’t forget to check periodically to make sure they’re not sitting in water. Hanging containers are another way to display herbs with drama and panache. A group of culinary herbs hanging in a sunny kitchen window or beside a sliding glass door is convenient when you want a sprig or two while cooking. Trailing herbs such as rosemary, thyme,

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 53

 Preparing several pots of herbs for their new home in a south-facing window box. Pix abay

mint, and marjoram are naturals for such containers. Some herbs, such as basil and sage, grow upright at first but in time begin to hang over the sides as their stems grow longer. While many different types of containers are designed with hooks or other provisions for hanging, you can turn virtually any pot into a hanging planter by using a net or woven-twine “cradle” available for just such purposes.

Lighting Up! Although most herbs appreciate a nice, long sunbath, their roots are protected from overheating in the garden by the soil and the shade from their own leaves. Indoors, the sides of your planted pots take a beating from the sun, and the heat is quickly transferred to the soil. That causes moisture in the growing medium to evaporate, so you’ll have to pay special attention to the moisture level for your potted herbs as they bask in the rays of Old Sol. Too much heat can dry out the soil and roots and eventually kill the plant. To combat the problem, check the soil often by inserting a water meter, which will give

54 • Your indoor herb garden

you an accurate reading of its moisture content. Or simply stick your index finger into the soil down to the second knuckle and remove it. If some dirt sticks to your finger, you don’t need to water. If your finger comes out bone dry, it’s time to reach for the watering can. And don’t forget to close up that finger hole by pushing the soil down around it! An alternative to keeping roots from overheating in the summer sun is to purchase a specially insulated planter, such as those made by Planters by Design, featuring insulating twin walls with an air pocket in between the two layers. Or simply place your potted herb inside a slightly larger decorative container so that the vessel absorbs all the heat while your potted plant stays cool. One more solution to the problem is to situate your herbs so that they receive bright light for part of the day and shade during the hottest part of the afternoon. That may require a little experimenting and observation, but in time, you’ll get the knack. Remember that, when planting several herbs together in the same container, you should choose plants with similar water, light, and soil requirements. You can find out more about the needs of specific herbs in Chapter 6. One parting word of advice about companion planting: If you’re planning on planting mint or lemon verbena together with other herbs, don’t. They’re two of the most aggressive herbs you’ll find anywhere, and they’ll soon take over the pot at the expense of their less aggressive neighbors!

Watering There are no special techniques for watering herbs in containers. If you water from the top, use a sprinkling can. A diffuser head will help keep the water from washing away the soil. Apply to the plant until water begins running out of the drainage hole in the container’s bottom. Never use a hose spray, such as that in your kitchen sink, full force, or you could wash out the soil. Place the container in a waterproof dish or saucer if spilled water would harm the floor. Be sure to empty the dish after each watering so that roots and soil won’t

Growing and Harvesting Herbs Indoor • 55

become waterlogged—especially during the cooler times of the year when the plants slow their growth. Another way to water is to set the planted pot in a dish or saucer of water for an hour or so and allow the soil to absorb the moisture from the bottom up. When the surface soil appears damp and the plant stops taking up more, it’s saturated. Check container plants every other day or so—every day in hot weather, especially if the container is small, porous, or in direct sun, all situations that will hasten the loss of water. Use the finger test I mentioned above, and don’t let a plant sit in a dry pot for long, or you could kill the roots and, of course, the plant itself. A simple method for determining when a clay pot needs watering is to gently tap the side of the vessel with a wooden spoon: a dull thud indicates moist soil; a crisp tone shows it’s dry.

Potting and Transplanting When it comes to knowing what growing medium to use when potting or transplanting your herbs, a world of confusion exists. It shouldn’t. In its simplest terms, your plants want a well-drained, porous potting soil mixed with a little bone meal (natural fertilizer). You can either buy a commercial mixture or mix your own, in which case use equal parts of topsoil, coarse sand, and ground bark, leaf mold, or peat moss. Mix in 1 teaspoon of bone meal per 6-inch pot (measuring the diameter across the top). Fill the container so that when you place the plant inside, the upper surface of its root ball will come to within about an inch of the pot’s rim. How do you get your new plants out of their ugly plastic nursery containers and into their permanent homes or transplant them from one pot to another? The simplest and safest way is to place one hand on top of the soil with your fingers fanned out and the plant’s stem between your index and third fingers. Grasp the bottom of the pot with the other hand, invert it gently, and tap the rim with your fist or against the edge of a solid object to loosen the root ball. Lift the pot away from the plant, steadying the roots with the hand holding the

56 • Your indoor herb garden

surface. Resist the temptation to pull the plant out by its stem, which could crush the stem and cause irreparable damage. Next, place the plant in its new pot and firm the soil in around the root ball, using the heel of your hand and your fingers to eliminate any air pockets. If you find you haven’t used enough soil, simply dig your fingers in and lift the plant out by the root ball, add more, and try again. If you used too much soil, do the opposite, removing some soil from beneath the root ball before replacing the plant. Then, water thoroughly until the root ball is saturated. Keep all newly potted plants out of direct sun for a few days until they’ve had time to acclimate to their new environment. If, after several months to a year, you notice a plant showing signs of outgrowing its pot, remove the plant from its container, loosen any tightly clumped roots to allow for better oxygenation, and repot the plant into the next larger size container. If it was in a 6-inch pot, move it up to an 8-inch pot. If an 8-inch pot, upsize to 10 inches. Some herbs such as chives and mint expand by sending new sprouts or runners up from the mother plant. You can separate this young growth from the primary root system using a sharp knife or a pair of scissors and set your baby plantlets up in their very own new home. If you’re starting your herbs from seeds, wait until the seedlings have sprouted and formed at least four true leaves (not including those first two “baby leaves,” or “seed leaves”). Then gently work your fingers or a small spade beneath each plantlet and move it to its own pot. Leave as much of the original soil as possible around the plantlet to keep root disturbance to a minimum. And never mound soil up higher than the original root ball or you’ll risk smothering and rotting the roots.

Lighting Up a Room Most culinary herbs do best with five hours or more of direct sun a day. A few, such as chervil, lovage, lemon balm, the mints, sweet cicely, and sweet woodruff, grow better with good indirect light. Rarely can you give most herbs too much light.

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 Grow lights make growing herbs—or any other plant—possible regardless of a room’s natural light level. Pix abay

If good light is a problem in your home, invest in a good quality, daylight-balanced grow light. They come in all sizes, shapes, styles, and price ranges, so you should never have an excuse for not being able to provide enough light to grow healthy herbs at home.

Temperature and Humidity Herbs will be happy in the same indoor atmosphere that you find ideal—that is, around 70–72°F, but many herbs thrive in their natural environment in temperatures ranging from 40 –90°F, so you have plenty of flexibility. Humidity is likewise best kept to around 30–50 percent. And, just as you enjoy feeling the air moving gently around

58 • Your indoor herb garden

you, so do your plants. If your herbs are next to a window, crack it open for an hour or two each day during warm weather (but never in winter!) or turn on a small fan placed several feet away from your plants. A little experimentation will tell you what works best for the herbs in your environment.

Harvesting Your Herbs This one is pretty easy. Harvest your herbs whenever you need them, most likely for cooking but also for medicinal use and the occasional Bacchanalian festival. Here are a few more tips about harvesting that you might find helpful. 1. As a rule, harvest herbs grown for their leaves before they flower. Afterward, most herbs tend to lose their flavor or become bitter. Pick the leaves when they are tender and contain the highest concentration of oil. For most herbs, that means early in the morning—as the dew evaporates but before the sun begins to heat things up. Do not wash the leaves after harvesting or you’ll dilute those fragrant aromatic oils. 2. Most flowering herbs, such as lavender, borage, and chamomile, should be harvested before the buds are fully open. Seeding herbs, such as dill, fennel, coriander, and caraway, should be harvested as soon as the seed pods begin changing color. Root crops, such as ginseng and goldenseal, should be dug at the end of the summer’s growing season through early fall. 3. Harvest your herbs early and frequently to encourage plants to produce new growth so that you have a continual supply. You can prune a perennial to about one-third its height and cut back an annual even more, to only a few inches. Many culinary herbs, including chives, basil, parsley, mint, sage, and oregano, respond well to frequent pruning and grow back quickly. 4. Harvest indoor herbs, both perennials and annuals, year-round through the growing season. Once the plant goes dormant (a natural

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winter state for most perennials, even indoors), stop harvesting and allow the plant time to recycle its energy in preparation for spring. Tip: Gather lavender and tarragon flowers in early July before heading the plants back to half their original height to encourage new growth and a second bloom in fall.

Drying and Storing Herbs When it comes time to harvest your herbs, make sure they’re clean of dirt and dust. Use a clean, sharp pair of scissors, garden shears, or bud shears to clip only as much of the herb as you’ll need for that day. If you plan on harvesting a large number of herbs for drying and storage, do so in batches so you don’t end up bruising them in the process, which can cause the valuable oils to leach out, resulting in an inferior product. For root herbs, scrub with a vegetable brush and running water and blot dry with a clean cloth or paper towel. If you plan on using fresh herbs, don’t worry about this next step. If you want to dry the herbs for storage and later use, you have four time-tested methods for doing so. 1. Use a commercial dehydrator, following the instructions that accompany it. 2. Bundle the herbs, tie them with kitchen twine or secure them with a rubber band, and hang them top-side down in a warm, dry spot out of direct sun. Be aware that drying in this manner could take up to three weeks, depending on the herb and its moisture content. 3. Place the herbs in a single layer in a wide, open bowl or on a cookie sheet and place in the oven. Set the oven temperature to 200°F for 15 minutes. When the time is up, turn the oven off and crack the oven door open to allow the air to circulate. After cooling, remove and check for dryness. If necessary, return to oven for five minutes more until dry. 4. If you want to work with your herbs as soon after harvesting them as possible, you can dry them in a microwave oven. Lay them on a

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plate lined with a paper towel and “cook” for intervals of about one minute, allowing some downtime between cooking intervals. Check and repeat as required. Test the dryness of the herbs by rolling them between your fingers over a bowl. They should feel dry, crackly, and crisp to the touch and begin shedding their leaves. If there’s any sign of sponginess or softness in them, they need more drying. Another way to test herbs for dryness is to place them in a clean mason jar and cover it tightly. After a day or two of sitting on the counter, open the jar and check the underside of the lid for signs of moisture or condensation, which indicates that your herbs are still too damp for storage and require more drying time.43 Tip: Store dried herbs in airtight glass or ceramic containers away from light and heat to prevent them from losing their flavor and fragrance. Since crushing the leaves releases the oils, keep the dried herbs whole until needed, and discard old herbs after a year of harvesting.

Freezing Herbs Of course, not all herbs take kindly to drying. Some actually last longer by freezing, which is a fast, convenient method for preserving the more delicate herbs that don’t dry thoroughly, including dill, parsley, chervil, fennel, chives, tarragon, and, perhaps surprisingly, basil. Since frozen herbs have a shorter storage life than dried herbs (typically, a maximum of six months), freeze only those that you use most often in cooking. Freezing is not considered suitable for medicinal herbs because it can alter the efficacy of some of their chemical compounds. Some cooks recommend blanching herbs before freezing to destroy any bacteria and preserve the color, but many consider doing so unnecessary. According to others, blanched herbs can be stored for up to six months, while unblanched herbs should be used within two months.44

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 Dried herbs and spices can last a long time when stored properly. Pix abay

After collecting your herbs, prepare for freezing as soon as possible to preserve the volatile oils in the harvested plants. Always keep different species of herbs separate so that the flavors don’t transfer. Divide the herbs into the quantities you would most likely use in a typical cooking situation, and place them in sealed, labeled, dated freezer bags. Vacuum-sealed sacks work perfectly since they remove all the air from the pack. Another effective method is to chop or tear the herbs and put a small quantity of each into ice-cube trays and then top each compartment with water or stock. Once the cubes are frozen, transfer them to dated and labeled freezer bags and put them back into cold storage. If all this effort seems a little like unnecessary work, that may be because it is. Or, at least, I believe it is. I routinely dry all my herbs, including those most delicate, such as dill and parsley, with no apparent ill effects. About the only time I’ll freeze herbs is when

62 • Your indoor herb garden

I have concocted a batch of pesto sauce, comprised of chopped basil, pine nuts, garlic, parmesan cheese, and olive oil. I spoon out any excess from the blender into ice-cube trays and freeze solid before transferring to labeled and dated freezer bags. Then, whenever I like, I can pop a couple of cubes into a bowl full of piping hot einkorn pasta, and dinner is served! So, freezing yes or freezing no? To me, it’s merely a matter of preference.

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5

US I N G H E R B S AT H O M E

M

e : Psst! Hey, buddy, wanna be healthy, wealthy, and

wise? You: Are you kidding? Who wouldn’t? The answer may surprise you: Lots of people. Peo-

ple who don’t garden. People who don’t grow things. People who

don’t enjoy grubbing around in the dirt. People who don’t do what has come intuitively to human beings since the dawn of mankind. A recent study in the Netherlands found that gardening is a potent stress-relieving activity.45 In a trial, two groups of people were asked to complete a stressful task. Afterward, one group was instructed to putter around the garden for half an hour while the other was asked to stay inside and read for the same amount of time. The gardening group reported a significant improvement in mood. Tests also revealed that the gardeners had lower levels of the stress hormone cortisol compared to those who tried to relax by reading. Additional research suggests that beneficial microorganisms in the soil, itself, may be at least partly responsible for these positive effects.46 As reported by CNN Health: “Christopher Lowry, Ph.D., . . . has been injecting mice with Mycobacterium vaccae, a harmless bacteria commonly found in soil, and has found that they increase the release and metabolism of serotonin in parts of the brain that control cognitive function and mood—much like serotonin-boosting

64 •

antidepressant drugs do.”47 In other words, rooting around in the dirt is conducive to mental health! The study cited by CNN was published in 2007. A more current 2016 review by Lowry, which showed that Mycobacterium vaccae promotes resilience to stress, was named one of the “top 10 advancements and breakthroughs” of 2016 by the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation.48 In a third paper, published in 2018, Lowry’s team demonstrated Mycobacterium vaccae reduces stress and anxiety by having a calming, anti-inflammatory effect on the brain.49 What all these studies mean is that growing herbs indoors is more than a matter of never running out of herbs again: Playing in all that soil is also a matter of good health and happiness. This may come as no surprise to most gardeners, including those of us who are indoor advocates. Puttering around a flowerpot filled with soil, moving plants in and out of various containers, adding and removing soil, and just digging into a bagful of planting medium seems to make us feel happier, more fulfilled, and more alive. Now there’s scientific proof as to why! This information is not revolutionary to farmers who can’t wait to jump on a tractor and begin puttering around the fields all day. They hop down from the seat, grab a handful of dirt, squeeze it, examine it, analyze it, sniff it, throw it into the wind, and then continue on their way. One question: Have you ever known a farmer who didn’t love the land? So, if gardening is good, herb gardening is better—if only because of the enormous benefits we derive from herbs year-round.

An Herb Is an Herb Perhaps this is an appropriate time to discuss the difference between an herb and a spice. We often hear the words bandied about, but do we know what they mean? Ask a chef, and he’ll say herbs and spices are indispensable additions to virtually any dish. They add flavor, aroma, color, texture, and even nutrients to a presentation.

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But what exactly is the difference? It’s one that’s not so distinguishable after all, as it turns out. Both herbs and spices come from plants, and both are used either fresh or dried to enhance the flavor of foods. The difference between the two—technically, at least—is the location on the plant from where they are obtained. Herbs come from the leafy, green part of the plant. Spices come from elsewhere on the plant: the root, bulb, stem, bark, or seeds. Examples of herbs are basil, oregano, thyme, rosemary, parsley, cilantro, and mint. In addition to their flavoring enhancement, they may also have medicinal value and may be used in the production of cosmetics. Examples of spices are cinnamon, cloves, ginger, and pepper. They, too, enhance the flavor of foods. They have also been used as food preservatives, and some—such as turmeric with its anti-inflam Egypt’s Queen Nefertiti was a proponent of eyeliner thousands of years ago, as evidenced by this royal bust.

matory and antifungal properties—have medicinal value. Despite what seems to be a reasonable explanation, the American Spice Trade Association begs to differ. They define spices as “any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes,”50 which would tend to broaden the definition to include herbs, dehydrated vegetables, spice blends, spice seeds, and possibly even tree barks, tannins, and other botanical byproducts. For our purposes, we’re going to consider herbs to be any plant or part of a plant that can be used as a culinary additive or as a medicinal. Here’s a chart that gives a little broader look at how comparable herbs and spices are—and how invaluable to humanity from a therapeutic point of view they can be! Here we see at a glance the similar uses and importance of both herbs and spices. Now, let’s take a look at just how broad their applications in society are.

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Herb

Nutrition

Spice

Nutrition

Basil

Rich in vitamins A and K; assists with combatting bowel inflammation and rheumatoid arthritis

Cinnamon

Lowers blood sugar levels, LDL (bad) cholesterol and triglycerides, especially in people with type 2 diabetes

Mint

Helps with digestion and asthma

Ginger

Can stop nausea and may relieve heartburn and bloating

Oregano

Assists with inflammation

Chili

Contains capsaicin which puts the heat in chilies; may lower the risk of skin and colon cancers; shown to suppress appetite and boost metabolism

Parsley

Protects against rheumatoid arthritis; antioxidant-rich; fights cancer; high in vitamin C and iron

Cloves

Have antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antiseptic properties; they are known for relieving flatulence and can actually help promote good digestion as well as metabolism

Thyme

Contains the oil, thymol, especially helpful for chest and respiratory problems; also acts as an antiseptic and disinfectant

Mustard seeds

Contain phytonutrient compounds that protect against cancers of the gastrointestinal tract; believed to reduce the severity of asthma

Cooking At one time in life, herbs were herbs. No one distinguished between the culinary and the medicinal. Our ancestors used herbs for whatever worked—and for whatever reason. Commonly harvested root crops originated in the wild and served as both food and medicine for healing everything from headaches to bed sores. Caraway seeds, found whole in prehistoric sites, have been in use for at least 5 ,000 years; the Romans considered the seed an excellent digestive, but also reportedly made bread from the mashed root. In Northern Europe, fresh produce was virtually non-existent for most of the winter; so, the earliest springtime sprouts of dock, sorrel, and dandelion were considered cleansing to the system as well as palatable after a monotonous winter diet of starches and salted foods. The use of spices was initially confined to the East, but when an international trade route was opened up in 1550 BC, spices began wending their way via caravans from China and Indonesia through the Middle East to the eastern Mediterranean nation states of Spain and Italy. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Italian merchants imported

Using Herbs at Home • 67

spices into Europe, where the cities grew prosperous. Trade was effectively controlled by the Arab nations since the overland routes cut through their lands, but the enormous market value of spices motivated the discovery of sea routes to the East, bypassing traditional Arabian routes and breaking the Arab monopoly. During the Middle Ages, herbs and spices had become indispensable for disguising spoiled food or improving the taste of bland dishes. Following the discovery of the New World, more exotic herbs and spices, such as allspice and chilies, became available to Europeans. In 16th-century England, herbs, apart from the medicinal simples, were classified as pot herbs, sallet herbs, and sweet herbs. Pot herbs included leafy green and root vegetables, such as sorrel, onions, and parsnips, that were suitable for boiling or roasting in a pot for their health-giving properties. Sallet herbs, or salad herbs, were often served raw and ranged from simple combinations of herbs and vegetables in a dressing to elaborate compotes known as grand sallets that featured roasted meats, oysters, olives, capers, nuts, fruits, and vegetables—everything but the kitchen sink, which hadn’t yet been invented. Sweet herbs included sweet marjoram, basil, and cicely and were employed to enhance the flavor of a particular dish, in much the same manner as we use kitchen herbs today. In recent years, foreign travel has introduced the world to the different styles of cooking and flavoring. It has brought local herbs to new marketplaces. The endless variety and increased availability of herbs have induced many people to add dishes incorporating different flavors to their culinary repertoire. A growing distrust of artificial flavorings and colorings has motivated many more people to turn to natural herbal flavors, which also tend to reduce the amount of salt or sugar necessary to make food taste more palatable. According to author Anna Kruger: Cooking with herbs is a matter of experience, good judgment, personal taste, and a grasp of the basics. The flavor and strength of herbs vary according to freshness and soil quality, so it is

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 Herb-enriched salads provide some of the best food choices available. Pix abay

impossible to lay down rules as to quantities and combinations: it depends on your palate. It is generally accepted, however, that dried herbs have a more pronounced flavor than fresh, and some, such as oregano and thyme, must be used sparingly, or they will overpower, rather than enhance, your cooking.51

Fresh Herbs The flavors from most leafy herbs come from their fragrant essential oils. Since these oils are volatile, or unstable, it’s best to pick and use your fresh herbs as you need them. If using fresh herbs from the store, keep them in the refrigerator in a sealed plastic bag or box to prevent the leaves from drying out. If you have some bruised whole

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leaves or sprigs, you can use them to rub on meat or soak in a marinade without any problems. But for those recipes that call for fresh herbs, it’s best to use whole, healthy herbs. Even chopping them to add to a dish before cooking can strip a lot of the flavor from the herbs—more so the longer they cook. That’s true especially of the more delicate herbs such as sweet marjoram, chervil, cilantro, and dill. To countermand the problem, use those herbs in lightly cooked dishes or added to warm vegetables or cold salads, or add them to your preparation at the last minute.

70 • Your indoor herb garden

More robust herbs, such as oregano, sage, and thyme, will hold their flavor in dishes with longer cooking times, and long, slow cooking in sealed casseroles or pans can improve the taste and aroma of a meal. Still, for the most intense herbal sensations, add most herbs

 There’s nothing under the sun that smells any better than freshly picked herbs right in your own kitchen. Pix abay

within the last 10 to 15 minutes of cooking. Here are only a few of the herbs you’ll likely use most around the kitchen: Bouquet garni. This classic mixture is used in soups, casseroles, and sauces and is removed before serving. To make it, tie together three parsley stalks, a sprig of thyme, and a bay leaf with kitchen twine. Other variations include adding a sprig of marjoram or changing the proportions of thyme to parsley. The herbs can also be enclosed in two pieces of celery, bound with string or tied together inside a muslin bag. Fines herbes. In French cuisine, this delicate herb mixture provides classic seasoning for lighter dishes such as omelets and some sauces. It consists of four parts fresh parsley to two parts each of chervil, chives, and tarragon. Use it immediately, adding it in the last few minutes of cooking. Adjust the mixture for flavoring softened butter or low-fat soft cheese or mayonnaise. Herb vinegar. Make this by adding four large sprigs of tarragon, basil, rosemary, dill, thyme, or fennel to a bottle (500ml/17.5 fl. oz.) of white wine or apple cider vinegar kept at room temperature. You might also want to use several peeled garlic cloves or chilies. Set the sealed bottle in a warm place and turn daily for 2–4 weeks. Strain and taste for strength; if you prefer a stronger flavor, add two fresh sprigs, and repeat the process. You can also include a sprig for decorative purposes to identify the vinegar (tarragon, for example), but keep in mind that the addition will strengthen the taste of the vinegar noticeably over time. Use herbed vinegar in sauces, stocks,

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 Herb vinegars are available everywhere, but you can make your own for only pennies a bottle. Pix abay

marinades, and salad dressings—any recipe that typically calls for fresh herbs and a splash of vinegar. The herb vinegar should last for 12 months or longer. Herb oil. Start with high-quality oil such as extra virgin olive oil (if you enjoy the “punch” it delivers to the taste buds. If not, more mild oil such as avocado will work). Bruise a couple of sprigs of your favorite herb between your thumb and index finger and add in the amount of roughly one part herb to five parts oil. Allow to mature, as with the herb vinegar recipe above. Test for flavor. Oils infused with basil, marjoram, thyme, rosemary, or garlic are especially tasty in salad dressings, marinades, and stir-fries. If you begin by gradually incorporating flavored oils into your cooking, you’ll soon become a connoisseur. Use herb oils within 1–2 months. Herb honey. Flavor a jar of warmed honey by adding bruised fresh rose petals, sage leaves, a sprig of thyme, or lemon balm. As with

72 • Your indoor herb garden

 An age-old simple sauce made primarily from basil goes well with pasta, eggs, rice—and nearly any other food you can name. Pix abay

herb vinegar and herb oil, set in a warm place and turn daily for two weeks. Remove the herbs before use. Dill sauce. Melt 4 oz. butter over gentle heat in a heavy pan until it begins to foam. Remove the pan from the heat and slowly stir in 1 tbsp. double cream and 2 oz. chopped, fresh dill. Season to taste and serve warm with poached fish, new potatoes, steamed courgettes, or any spring or summer vegetable. Pesto sauce. Place 2 oz. fresh basil leaves (remove stalks if fibrous), 2 oz. pine nuts (or sunflower seeds or walnuts) to taste, 4 oz. olive oil,

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2 large garlic cloves, and 2 oz. grated hard cheese, such as parmesan or romano. Blend until you have a thick, smooth puree. Serve with pasta or on scrambled eggs. Store in a sealed glass jar in a cool, dark place or freeze in an ice-cube tray for use later.

Fresh Flowers Create subtle fragrances and flavors while enhancing the visual appeal of summer drinks and salads by adding colorful herb blossoms. Float blue borage flowers in white wine cups and include fresh sprigs of woodruff. Flower salads. The petals from marigold (calendula) heads add a unique, sweet-tasting zest to rice salads and green salads while they dress up the salad’s appearance. Include fresh nasturtium petals in green salads for a dash of color and a leathery bite. Other edible blossoms suitable for salads include chives, bergamot, mint, rose, and violet. When using fresh flowers, be sure to use a mild salad dressing so you don’t overpower the delicate taste of the florets.

Dried Herbs Everybody’s go-to grocery-store standby, dried herbs are convenient, inexpensive, and readily available. With many herbs, drying can actually condense the flavors into a more concentrated taste explosion. Others, such as dill, parsley, chives, fennel, and basil, lose much of their character during the drying process. Among the herbs that are best used after drying are bay leaf and oregano; their tastes improve noticeably with age. You can bring out the flavor of dried herbs by first steeping them in a little liquid—vinegar, lemon juice, stock, or oil—before adding to your dish. Freeze-dried herbs, although more expensive than those dried conventionally, have a somewhat more intense flavor and longer shelf life than their oven-dried counterparts.

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Single Spices Powdered spices are inferior in flavor to freshly ground; so, buy whole and grind only as needed, using a small spice mill dedicated to handling such hard spices as juniper, cardamom, and coriander. Use a peppermill for allspice and mustard seed (as well as for your peppercorns). Nutmeg and dried whole ginger can be finely grated. Sweet dishes often call for ground ginger, which, like other very hard spices such as cinnamon sticks or turmeric root, is easier to buy already ground, but it can also be reduced to a powder in a coffee mill and sieved before using. Fresh ginger is ideal for Asian dishes and Indian curries and is peeled and crushed using a garlic press or a pestle and mortar. When making marinades, stocks, and pickles, leave spices whole and strain if necessary. Some cooks advocate dry roasting spices in a heavy pan for a more pronounced, aromatic flavor when preparing curries and other highly spiced dishes.

Spice Mixtures Hot curry powder. Grind together as many of the following spices as you like: 1 tbsp. coriander seed (essential), 2 dried red chilies, 1 tsp. fenugreek seeds, 1 tsp. black mustard seeds, 1 tsp. cloves, 1 tbsp. peeled brown cardamom seeds, 1 2-inch stick of cinnamon, 1 tsp. black cumin seeds, 1 tsp. turmeric powder. To improve the flavor of this powder, dry roast the spices in a medium oven (325°F) for 10 minutes before grinding to a powder. This mixture will keep for three months or longer in an airtight container. Garam masala. Various incarnations of this sweet spice exist, including this one: 1 tbsp. coriander seeds, 1 tbsp. brown cardamom seeds, 1 tsp. black cumin seeds, 1 tsp. cloves, 1 tsp. black peppercorns, five 2-inch sticks of cinnamon, and 1 tsp. mace. Dry roast the spices in a medium oven (325°F) for 10 minutes before grinding into a powder. Store in an airtight container.

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Pickling spice. This concoction most often includes varying amounts of dried red chilies, black peppercorns, mustard seed, whole allspice, cloves, and ginger, although coriander, dill, garlic, and celery seed are also often used.

Cosmetics The use of herbs as beauty aids have a heritage running back to earliest civilization. Five thousand years ago, ancient Egyptians were coloring their hair with a mixture of henna and indigo and scenting it with marjoram. In the first century AD, moisturizing skin cream made from olive oil, beeswax, and rose water was created by the celebrated Greek physician Galen. The popularity of natural cosmetics has boomed in recent years in light of people’s adverse reactions to irritating, chemically-based skin and hair preparations. Herbal-based products, on the other hand, bathe the entire aura of a person in health. The fragrances released by the essential oils in plants directly affect the brain, relaxing or exciting us. Cherished herbs, with their clean, fresh scents, take us down memory lane to past, pleasurable experiences. Lavender is only one example of these evocative herbs. There are many ways to enjoy herbal cosmetics. Here are some of the more common in use today: Infusion (basic). 1–1½ handfuls of fresh herbs or 1 tbsp. dried herbs to 1 pt. spring or filtered water. Double the quantity of herbs for a more concentrated mix. Made like a tea, infusions involve placing the desired herbs in a clean glass, porcelain, or enamel bowl or teapot. Add boiling filtered water, cover, and steep for 20 to 30 minutes. Strain and use. The infusion will keep for three days in the refrigerator. Decoction (basic). 1 oz. of fresh herbs to 1 pt. distilled spring water. This method is traditionally used for the chewier parts of herbs, including the roots and woody stems. You can also make a decoction

76 • Your indoor herb garden

from dried herbs if you’d prefer a stronger, more concentrated preparation. Chop the herb material into small pieces and put into an enameled pan with filtered water. Bring to a boil, cover, and allow to simmer for 20 minutes. Strain, cool, and use. The decoction will keep for three days in the refrigerator. Herbal bath. For a relaxing herbal bath, add to the water an infusion or decoction of chamomile, jasmine, lime flowers, or vervain. For a more refreshing soak, use a stronger infusion or decoction of rosemary, lemon verbena, or pine needles. Other ways of incorporating herbs into your baths include adding two drops of your chosen herb’s essential oil to the bathwater or making a bath bag with skin-softening ingredients such as oatmeal. Fill a muslin bag or handkerchief with ½ cup of the dried grain to 1–1½ cups of fresh or ¾ cup of dried herbs. Tie up the bag, allow to soak in your bathwater, and rub it over your face and body when you’re finished soaking. Skin cleanser. For cleansing the skin, dab on an infusion of elderflowers, sweet violet, marigold blossom, or yarrow. For toning the skin, use an infusion of thyme, and for their astringent properties, dab on an infusion of witch hazel, meadowsweet, or lady’s mantle. Marigold and yarrow are herbs with both cleansing and toning properties. Shampoo. You can make your own herbal shampoo by adding a few drops of an essential oil suitable for your hair to a bottle of very mild, unperfumed shampoo, or add a tablespoon of a strong decoction or infusion of your chosen herb to your usual amount of shampoo, mixing the two in a cup. For an entirely herbal shampoo based on soapwort, mix 1 oz. bruised and shredded soapwort root with 2 parts spring or filtered water. Bring the soapwort root to a boil in a covered pan and simmer for 20 minutes. Cool, strain, and use. This shampoo will produce much less lather than soap or detergent-based

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shampoos, but it’s an effective cleanser that’s suitable for all hair types.

Cleansers/Fresheners For cleaning up around the house, nothing beats the grease- and bacteria-fighting effects of fresh herbs. Herbs and the essential oils derived from them provide safe, natural air fresheners, too. When it’s time to wash delicate or old fabrics, antique silk, or lace, and you hesitate using modern chemical detergents renowned for being too harsh, relax. There’s an herb that can do the job remarkably well. Soapwort is the perfect gentle alternative to detergents. Soapwort has been used to wash wool and other delicate fabrics since medieval times. The fresh stems and root contain lather-forming saponins that clean and condition natural textiles. Soapwort is also an ideal solution for cleaning delicate woven tapestries and rugs. To prepare the plant, bruise the root and chop the stems into coarse chunks. Put the herb in a pot and cover with filtered water for 20 –30 minutes. Then, strain and use the liquid. Afterward, wet-vacuum the item or allow to air dry. Although soapwort is notoriously gentle, be sure to test an inconspicuous part of the fabric before use—just to be safe. Essential oil. Pure essential oil can be burned in ceramic holders to fill a room with your favorite smell, or you can simply add three or four drops to a small dish of water placed near the stove or another source of heat. Essentials oils such as sandalwood create a relaxing atmosphere, while lavender or lemon generates a clean, fresh smell. Manufacturers use various methods to extract essential oils from herbs, but there’s one method of extracting oil that even an amateur can appreciate. Called maceration, it produces oils less pure and concentrated but effective nonetheless. To try it yourself, begin with 1 pint sweet almond oil, 1 tbsp. cider vinegar, and 1 healthy handful of your favorite fresh herb. Pound the aromatic, using a mortar and pestle or a cutting board and rolling pin, until it’s well macerated. Place

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 Potpourri can be made from any variety of sweet-smelling herbs and spices to liven up every room in the house. Pix abay

inside a clean canning jar and add the oil and vinegar. Shake the jar daily and keep the container in a warm, sunny window. Continue shaking daily for at least a month. Strain through a nylon sieve and bottle the oil in a clean, dark glass jar. If the oil isn’t strong enough to suit you, repeat the process with the same oil but using a fresh supply of herbs. Once it’s ready, you can transfer the infused oil to a spray bottle to both deodorize and disinfect surfaces around the house. You can also add a few drops of essential oil of pine, juniper, or eucalyptus to the toilet bowl instead of those harsh, chemical-rich freshener blocks. You can also make a strong infusion of eucalyptus, thyme, pine needles, or rosemary to wipe up the bathroom. Herbal

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disinfectants are milder than bleach- and phenol-based commercial products and every bit as effective. Potpourri. Traditionally, potpourri (“rotten pot”) for a room freshener was made by fermenting sweet-smelling plant material with salt and orris root in covered jars. Elizabethan recipes also included spices and brandy. The orris root and salt act as fixatives to stabilize and preserve the fragrance. Today, most potpourris are prepared according to the dry method, which is both easier and quicker than fermentation, if not as long-lasting. One suggestion for prolonging the life of dry potpourri is to put the mixture in a bowl or wide-necked jar with a lid, opening it only when you want to perfume the air. Or, simply add a few drops of a complimentary essential oil as the scent of your potpourri begins to wane. Here are some of the best flowers to use in a potpourri:

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Rose Carnation Chamomile Elderflowers

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Jasmine Lavender Lily of the Valley Nasturtium

Honeysuckle For herb-based mixtures, combine one or more of these:

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Bay leaf Lemon balm Lemon verbena

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Rosemary Sage Thyme

Marjoram And, if you’re more into spices, these make excellent choices:

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Allspice Cinnamon Cloves (whole)

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• •

Coriander Nutmeg

Traditional moist potpourri. Although far too time-consuming and labor-intensive for me, author Anna Kruger details her recipe for a moist potpourri: There are various complicated old recipes for making this long-lasting potpourri. It is traditionally based on either rose petals alone or a mixture of rose petals, bay leaves, lemon verbena leaves, and lavender flowers. The method is to start with a layer of the dried petals, sprinkle over a small handful of salt and press down well. Repeat this procedure until you have filled a wide-necked jar. Store the mixture under pressure using a weighted lid, saucer, or plate, and leave in a dark, dry place for two weeks or until the mixture has solidified. Then break up the resulting “cake” into small pieces and mix with sweet, powdered spices, such as allspice and cloves. Return the mixture to the jar and leave it for three to six weeks, or, for best results, for a further six months. The mixture can now be transferred to a ceramic container ready for use. Some recipes advise adding a few drops of brandy if the mixture has dried out.

Dry potpourri. Similarly time-consuming but a little less work, Kruger also lays out a plan of attack for creating a potpourri using the dry method: Assemble in a large bowl enough dried flower petals or leaves to fill your chosen container. Stir in any combination of such spices as whole cloves, broken cinnamon sticks, ground allspice or cinnamon. For a herbal, as opposed to a floral potpourri, select dried aromatic leaves, omitting the spices if you prefer. Now add two tbsps of sea salt and two tbsps of powdered orris root, and a tsp of a single, or a combination, of your preferred essential oils. Mix together with a wooden spoon (metal may impair the fragrance) and transfer the mixture to a wide-necked jar. Cover tightly and store in a dark, dry place for three to six weeks, shaking the jar about once a week to ensure even blending. The potpourri is now ready for use.52

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Insect Repellants Most commercial insect repellants such as fly spray, ant killer, and moth deterrents contain chemicals that give off irritating fumes and harmful byproducts. Herbal preparations may offer effective and safer alternatives. Indoors. Not surprisingly, several aromatic herbs such as tansy, mint, pennyroyal, wormwood, and mugwort have fly-repelling properties. Even potted basil was once used in Mediterranean cafes to shoo away pesky insects, although it was undoubtedly more effective as a flavoring in stews. A few of these herbs placed strategically around your own home might help keep flying insects from bothering you this summer. Pennyroyal, too, has long been used as a deterrent to ants as well  Mugwort has played a major role in

as flies. Rub a sprig of it around the ants’ point of entry or wherever

the development of herbs and herbals

you see them congregating. Dried chili or paprika are also reputed

over the years.

to send ants packing. Aromatics such as lavender, mugwort, and rosemary are traditional remedies for keeping moths away from fine woolens, and people still make sachets from the dried herbs to store with their clothes (although you’ll probably want to air the clothes out for a day or two before putting them on). Cloves, too, are reputed to be a moth deterrent. Use a traditional pomander of an orange studded with cloves to hang in the wardrobe; the moths detest the pungent, spicy aroma. To make a pomander, or pomme d’ambre (amber apple) in French, dry a firm-skinned orange in a cool dark place for 2–3 days. Then push enough whole cloves into the skin to cover the surface. If the skin is too tough to penetrate, use a sharp pencil or small knife to do the job. Next, roll the orange in a mixture of powdered cinnamon, nutmeg, and orris root and wrap in waxed paper. Allow to “cure” for 2–3 weeks. Shake off any surplus powder, and hang the pomander where it will do the most good. For effectiveness, replace every 3–6 months.

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Outdoors. To ward off biting flies and mosquitoes, dab on a little essential oil of lavender. Dilute it with almond oil if your skin is sensitive. To clear a larger area of pesky flying insects, use citronella, which is an age-old deterrent for mosquitoes.

Other Herbal Uses There are numerous other uses for herbs around the house—almost as many as you’d ever hope to find. Here is one more you might like to try before turning in tonight. Herb pillow. Nothing quite matches the exquisite smell of sweetscented dried herbs when you turn in for bed at night. Make your own herbal pillow by filling a small gauze bag and adding beneath your pillow. Here are two suggestions. Soothing pillow. Combine 4 parts dried hop flowers, 1 part lime flowers, and sweet woodruff, and tie the bag closed. Hops have been used traditionally as a sleep-inducing herb. Fragrant pillow. For the best-smelling sleep you’ll ever have, try mixing 3 parts dried meadowsweet, 2 parts dried rose petals, and 2 parts dried agrimony. The meadowsweet has a sweet scent reminiscent of freshly gathered honey that combines well with the flowery scent of roses and the fruit-rich scent of agrimony.

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6 A N A N N OTAT E D G LOS SA RY OF HERBS

T

he following list of plants consists of those I know to

grow indoors in pots. They are listed by their most common names (the names by which many of us know and refer to

them) along with their botanical or scientific names that specifically

identify each plant, such as Ficus benjamina variegata. The scientific names appear first by genus (Ficus—italics, uppercase first letter) and then by species (benjamina—italics, all lowercase letters) and finally by variety if any (variegata—non-italic, all lowercase letters), in that specific order. Be aware that some of these plants may require more light than your home can offer—particularly desert, equatorial, and fruiting plants. These may need to have supplemental light, which you can provide with commercially available grow lights that come in a wide variety of types at varying prices. Some high-light plants might also benefit from time spent outdoors during the sunniest summer months to keep them full, bushy, and healthy for the rest of the year indoors. Some tap root plants, such as Echinacea and chicory, may require containers deeper than most typical flower pots (tap roots require lots of “crawl space”). For them, choose or make a container deep enough to allow their roots to develop unimpeded.

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Also, I include here some plants that grow fairly tall or wide in the wild but that can be “headed back” and/or pruned to a more manageable height and shape. Remember: If you provide a plant with all of its growing requirements, it will grow indoors. The proper lighting, soil, water, fertilizer, container size, misting, and circulating air—all play key roles in every plant’s growth cycle. Meet a plant’s requirements, and it will be one of your best indoor buddies for years to come.

Agrimony Agrimonia eupatoria Church steeples, cocklebur

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Agrimony is an important herb that has been in domestic use for centuries. Used to speed the healing of wounds and to stop bleeding, its botanical name, Agrimonia, is from a Greek word meaning beneficial for cataracts and failing eyesight. The herb does, in fact, make an effective eyewash. Eupatoria, the species or specific name, is in honor of Mithridates Eupator, the king of Persia and a famed herbalist who devoted his time to studying poisons and their antidotes. The Anglo-Saxons also used agrimony to treat snake bites. An herb steeped in magic, it was pounded together with human blood and the flesh of frogs to heal wounds. In 15th-century France, agrimony was a key ingredient of a medicinal water known as arquebusade that was used to treat the wounds of those hit with an arquebus—a heavy rifle-like weapon that mounted on a supporting stick. In 16th-century England, wounds were often treated with a compote of agrimony, mugwort, and vinegar. Agrimony was also a traditional North American Indian remedy for fevers. Today, practitioners use agrimony to strengthen the digestive system and ease indigestion and colitis. It is also recommended for treating gallstones, a traditional use traced back to 16th-century surgeon and herbalist Gerard. The Chinese use the astringency of

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agrimony to slow menstrual flow. Another popular use of the plant is to soak it in water for a soothing gargle that was once commonly used by singers and public speakers. Habitat Throughout Europe, in parts of Asia, and in North America, especially the mountainous slopes of southern California and in Arizona. Typical of many herbs, it thrives on open ground, along roadsides and field edges, and in hedgerows. Description Graceful perennial with soft to rough reddish stems from 1–2 ft. Its numerous leaves are divided into pairs—oblong, Pix abay

toothed, deep green, and feathery. Yellow, aromatic flowers appear in clustered spikes from June to August followed by bristly, barbed seeds.

Alfalfa Medicago sativa Lucerne, buffalo herb Alfalfa has been grown since ancient times in Arab countries as a food crop for horses. It was imported into Greece and appears in various Roman writings before finally making its way in the 17th century to Europe, where the plant acquired its common name, lucerne. Medicinally, people still drink alfalfa tea to increase the appetite. It’s also a diuretic used for urinary problems and water retention. Native Americans once employed the seed as an abortifacient. Today, alfalfa sprouts are appreciated as a rich source of vitamin C, B1, B2 , K, chlorophyll, and amino acids. Alfalfa sprouts are popular at home and make a healthful addition to sandwiches and salads. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia; naturalized throughout North America where farmers use it to improve soil and feed their stock. Grows in moist soil.

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Description A perennial with a deep taproot from 20 ft. or more; with an upright, multi-branched stem from 2–3 ft. The ovate leaves grouped in threes and numerous pinkish-white or violet flowers resemble clover and appear from June through August.

Aloe Aloe vera Barbados aloe, Curacao aloe Aloe vera, or the real aloe, was referred to in Greek writings as far back as the fourth century BC. Early supplies of the plant came from the island of Socotra off the Horn of Africa until the plants were exported to Europe from the West Indies in the 17th century.

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To the ancient Greeks, aloe was so valuable a purgative that they attempted to conquer Socotra to procure an uninterrupted supply of the plant. Taken internally, aloe has a laxative action but may cause gastric distress. Today, it’s most often used as a burn remedy. The fresh leaves exude a gelatinous substance that has healing powers when applied to damaged or irritated skin. Fresh aloe gel rapidly relieves burns, sunburn, dermatitis, eczema, and poison-ivy rash. In the United States, aloe is an indispensable domestic first-aid plant, since it grows so well as a houseplant. Aloe vera has also been used with success in treating skin cancer, and some studies have shown its effectiveness in healing radiation burns. Cosmetically, Aloe vera gel was valued by the ancient Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, who massaged it into her skin. Aloe was also reputed to be the basis of the Empress Josephine’s complexion milk. In recent years, the time-honored cosmetic has enjoyed a revival; aloe gel is a principal ingredient of many body and hair-care products. Habitat Found wild in eastern and southern Africa and naturalized in North Africa, the Caribbean, and parts of the Mediterranean. Widely cultivated in the West Indies, Africa, Texas, and Florida, preferring well-drained soil and a dry, sunny location.

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Description Succulent belonging to the lily family; 1–5 ft. tall with a rosette of fleshy, narrow, lance-shaped leaves reaching 2 ft. in length and having prickly edges. Whitish-green on both sides, it may produce clusters of yellow or orange-red flowers at the end of long stalks rising from the rosette. The stems of older plants are woody. Growing Tips Aloe needs a sunny location and grows well in warm, dry climates; requires little water. Propagate from off-shoots planted in sandy or gravely soil or in a homemade mix of two parts soil to one part coarse contractor’s sand. Pix abay

Arnica Arnica montana Wolf’s bane, leopard’s bane, mountain tobacco, mountain daisy Arnica has been valued throughout history as a remedy for bruises and sprains. According to legend, the plant grows on the lower slopes of mountains to offer comfort to hikers who have fallen from the peaks! Applied externally, arnica oil reduces inflammation and lessens bruising. Arnica flowers, though, may cause a rash in people with sensitive skin. This plant is one of the best known of all home remedies and widely used in homeopathic pellets, creams, and tinctures. Internally, arnica can irritate the digestive system and be toxic; however, it is considered safe in the minute doses required in homeopathic remedies used to stimulate the body’s own immune system and to aid in recovery after childbirth, surgery, and dental procedures. Dried arnica leaves were once smoked as a tobacco substitute, lending it its common name of mountain tobacco. The origin of arnica’s other common names, wolf’s bane and leopard’s bane, is unknown, the names being more specific to the unrelated genus, Aconitum. Habitat Grows wild in the mountain pastures and woodlands of central Europe and Siberia at altitudes to 9,000 ft. Naturalized in

88 • Your indoor herb garden

Canada and the western United States. Prefers sandy or loamy soils in sunny situations. Description Aromatic perennial with a flat rosette of oval, toothed, bright green leaves at the plant’s base. The hairy stem is 1–2 ft. with one or two pairs of smaller, opposite, stalkless leaves. Its daisy-like yellow-orange flowers are pleasantly scented, appearing from mid- to late summer. Growing Tips Sow seeds in rich peat or loamy soil mixed with some coarse sand for drainage and give good indirect light. Pix abay

Balm Melissa officinalis Lemon balm, common balm, bee balm Melissa, the botanical name for this Mediterranean herb, is derived from the Greek word for bee, and the plant has been popular with beekeepers for more than 2 ,000 years. According to Pliny the Elder writing in the first century: “Bees are delighted with this plant above all others . . . when they are strayed away they do find their way home again by it.”53 It was said that bees would never leave a garden where balm grew, and before new bees were introduced to a hive, their keepers rubbed the inside with balm to make them bond with their new home. Medicinally, balm was a favorite remedy of the great 11th-century Arabic physician Avicenna who regarded it as a heart-and-spirit tonic. The plant’s reputation as an herbal antidepressant continued into the 17th century when Culpeper declared that it “driveth away all troublesome cares and thoughts out of the mind, arising from melancholy and black choler.”54 Modern tests on laboratory animals have confirmed balm’s soothing effects while attesting to its value as a sedative that works on the central nervous system. Aromatherapists recommend the essential oil for depression, anxiety, nervous headaches, and restlessness. Additionally, balm tea

An Annotated Glossary of Herbs • 89

promotes sweating and is a traditional remedy for feverish colds; taken after food, it also acts as a digestive. Since the volatile oils that are responsible for balm’s therapeutic effects tend to evaporate on drying, the plant should be used fresh. Habitat Native to southern and central Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia, the herb was naturalized in south England, where it is cultivated commercially as a garden plant for fertile, moist, loamy soils with plenty of sun. Description A perennial with a habit similar to common mint and Pix abay

very sweet smelling, growing to 32 in. In cross-section, its stems are square (like all plants in the mint family). The greenish-yellow leaves are oval- to heart-shaped at the base and coarsely serrated; they give off a pleasant lemon scent when bruised. Small clusters of flowers appear in the axils from late summer to mid-autumn, changing from yellow to purplish pink or even white.

Basil Ocimum basilicum Sweet basil, garden basil Introduced to Europe from India where a related species, Ocimum sanctum, is sacred to the Hindu gods of Vishnu and Krishna, basil sprigs were placed on the dead before burial to ensure their safe passage to the next world. Medieval legend preached that taking snuff from the powdered leaves (or even smelling the plant) invited nesting scorpions in the brain. The reason for basil’s ominous reputation may be confusion over the similarity of its name, basilicum, to another word, basilisk, a deadly, legendary reptile reputed in Greek mythology to be hybridized from a rooster and a serpent. Thankfully, basil’s reputation today leans more toward the culinary than the fanciful. The pungent fresh leaves are the main ingredient in the classic Italian sauce, pesto Genovese. Basil is also a companion plant

90 • Your indoor herb garden

to tomatoes, and the two work well together in the kitchen. The sweet, tart, clove-like taste of fresh basil is lost on drying, though, so purists and chefs overwhelmingly avoid the dried herb for the fresh. Growing basil in the kitchen not only benefits a culinary repast but also serves as a fly repellant! Habitat Native to India, southern Asia, and the Middle East and cultivated extensively in southern, central, and eastern Europe, North Africa, and the United States. Description Aromatic, bushy annual to 2 ft., featuring branching stems with slightly toothed, bright green, oval leaves. Clusters of

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small, white, two-lipped flowers form toward the top of stems from mid- to late summer. One ornate hybrid features purple leaves with pink flowers. Growing Tips Sow seeds in fertile, well-drained soil and grow in a sunny, sheltered location with frequent misting.

Bay Laurus nobilis Sweet bay, sweet laurel When, according to Greek mythology, Sun-god Apollo tried forcing his attention on the beautiful young nymph Daphne, she summoned Peneus, the river god, to open up the ground and turn her into a bay laurel tree. Undeterred, Apollo claimed the tree, made it evergreen, and assumed a crown of its scented leaves, a practice later adopted to honor Greek and Roman emperors, athletes, warriors, and scholars. Apollo was also the god of music and poetry, and poets were honored with laurel, a custom that still persists in the British tradition of the Poet Laureate—literally, a poet crowned with a laurel wreath. The honorable bay tree was also imbued with sacred properties that existed into Culpeper’s day: If you stood beneath a bay tree,

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you would be shielded from thunder, lightning, and the evil spells of witches. The death of a bay tree was a bad omen. Medicinal applications of bay covered uses ranging from the inducement of abortions and curing snakebites to urinary problems and rheumatism. Modern-day herbalists still consider bay oil an effective rub for stiff or rheumatic joints, and a bay leaf infusion may ease indigestion and flatulence. Bay’s principle use these days, though, is in the magic it works in the kitchen. It’s an indispensable herb in French and Mediterranean cooking, one of the prime ingredients in the classic French bouquet garni. Bay leaves improve the flavor of many hearty gravies and sauces and can be added to a potful of water when cooking rice or beans. Bay is most commonly used dry since the strong flavor of fresh leaves can be overpowering. The dried leaves are often placed in flour canisters to deter weevils. Habitat Most likely originating in Asia Minor, it is established throughout the Mediterranean where it grows wild in high, sheltered, sunny valleys with fertile soil. Description Evergreen tree with shiny, grey bark. Growing up to 45 ft. in the wild, it can be maintained as a houseplant at 4–6 ft. The glossy, dark green, leathery leaves are aromatic when crushed or added to a liquid. The leaves are oval in shape and pointed at both ends. Growing Tips Propagation is difficult, and rooting may take up to nine months. Young nursery shrubs can be planted directly in a pot or tub of rich soil and coarse sand for adequate drainage in a sunny location.

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Borage Borago officinalis Herb of gladness, burrage Borage, the “herb of gladness,” has powers to lift the spirits and dispel gloom. Pliny the Elder quoted an ancient Latin verse that translated as “I, Borage, bring always gladness,” while Gerard wrote that “the leaves and flowers of borage put in wine do make men and women glad and merry and drive away all sadness, dullness and melancholy.”55 Culpeper aligned borage with the planet Jupiter, known for its expansiveness and generosity, and put it under the sign of Leo, ruler of matters of the heart. Medicinally, today borage’s soothing effects on the adrenal glands account for the plant’s stress-reducing reputation.

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Modern herbalists still pay homage to borage’s traditional uses and recommend it for restoring lost vitality and spirits, particularly among those recuperating from illness. Some advocates say it can cure a hangover and leave one feeling delightfully cheerful and clear-headed, which alone marks it as a wonder drug. A versatile herb, borage promotes sweating and acts as an expectorant, both useful in battling fevers and chest colds. In the past, young borage leaves were eaten in salads, mainly because of their repute for inducing a state of euphoria. Regardless, they have a soothing cucumber-like smell and taste, and the herbs add flare to soups and salads or when chopped up and included in a soft-cheese dip. The periwinkle-blue flowers are some of the most attractive around, and they are decorative floating atop a glass of white wine or lemonade. The flowers of borage are also occasionally crystallized, like rose petals or violets, and used as decorative elements for deserts. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and naturalized throughout Europe and the UK. Description A hardy annual or biennial, the flowers appear on erect stems to 2 ft. from summer to early autumn. The entire plant

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is covered with fine white hairs that feel prickly when touched. The leaves are large, alternate, and oval-shaped. Growing Tips Borage is self-seeding and prolific. Sow in well-drained soil, and grow in a sunny location.

Cayenne Capsicum frutescens Tabasco pepper, African pepper Pix abay

The common name of this species of Capsicum came from the capital city of Cayenne in French Guiana where the plant originated. The botanical name of Capsicum, which is also used to describe sweet bell peppers, is said to be derived from the Greek, “to bite,” a forewarning of its potent kick. The cayenne, or Capsicum frutescens, is closely related to other species of peppers, especially the sweet red and chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, with which it may be confused. Cayenne is widely used in Creole, Cajun, Mexican, and East Asian cuisines. In European and North American cookery, its taste blends well with egg and cheese dishes, piquant sauces, and shellfish such as shrimp and oysters. Cayenne is also the principal ingredient of hot Tabasco sauce. Cayenne is used medicinally for its stimulant and antiseptic actions as well as its digestive properties. Considered one of the most effective circulatory herbs, it aids in unbroken chilblains and pain associated with arthritis or lumbago. Internally, cayenne stimulates the heart, regulating the blood flow and strengthening the arteries and capillaries. At the onset of a cold, cayenne promotes perspiration and can increase the body’s resistance to infection. Caution: Large doses of cayenne can severely irritate the gastrointestinal system and may damage the liver and kidneys. Excessive or prolonged external application can cause blistering of the skin or even dermatitis. Always dilute cayenne oil with a nonvolatile oil such as almond or olive oil and test on a small patch of skin.

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Habitat Found wild in some tropical countries, including Brazil and southern India. Currently cultivated in South America, Africa, Asia, and other tropical and subtropical regions. Description Shrubby perennial plant from 1–3 ft. when mature, with a woody trunk and angular, purple-tinged branches. The veined leaves assume several forms but are usually elliptical, tapering to a point. Drooping white or yellowish flowers hang in twos and threes from long stalks from early spring to mid-autumn, followed by small, brilliant, oblong pods that ripen to red or orange. Propagate via seeds.

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Chamomile Chamaemelum nobile Garden chamomile, Roman chamomile Garden chamomile takes its botanical and common names from the Greek chamaemelon, which translates to “apple on the ground” and describes the distinctive, sweet apple scent of the herb. In the Middle Ages, chamomile was strewn about the floor of the home to sweeten the air; in some places, it’s planted along garden walls and lawns in place of grass so that, when walked upon, its fragrance fills the air. Garden chamomile was known to the ancient Egyptians who considered it a cure-all and dedicated it to Ra, the Sun-god. It possesses similar properties to German chamomile, and its dried or fresh flowers make a comforting, relaxing tea. It is particularly useful for relieving indigestion and heartburn and has a soothing and relaxing effect. Chamomile was an ingredient of historic herbal beers and imparted its delicate flavor to the type of Spanish sherry known as manzanilla, or little apple. Like German chamomile, garden chamomile has cosmetic uses. An infusion of the herb makes a gentle, non-chemical lightener for hair, and it’s often added to shampoos for its conditioning effects. In the bath, dried chamomile flowers or essential oil of chamomile are calming. The flowers are often included in potpourri.

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Habitat Native to southern Europe and widespread over the continent and throughout southern England on rough, dry pastures with sandy soil. Description Low-growing perennial to 1 ft. with trailing, branched, and hairy stems. The leaves are deeply etched and feathery in appearance, grey-green and downy. The daisy-like flowers with yellow conical centers appear from mid-summer to mid-autumn on erect stalks.

Chicory Pix abay

Cichorium intybus Wild succory A close relative of dandelion, chicory was a favorite of the ancient Egyptians and Arabs, who ate its leaves blanched. The roasted ground root has been used to flavor coffee—and even as a substitute for java—since the early 19th century. While chicory was initially found in France, Italy, and India, it has been used for years as a forage crop in New Zealand. In England, Queen Elizabeth I ate chicory soup for its health-giving properties, and today herbalists value chicory for its cleansing effects on the liver. Habitat Native to Europe and naturalized in North America. A familiar sight on roadsides, fallow ground, and at the edges of fields with light, sandy soil. Description Perennial growing to 2–4 ft. above a large taproot, the stem bears stiff, green, upright leaves that are serrated, like those of the dandelion. The jagged lower leaves are rough with hairs underneath. Large, sky-blue, dandelion-shaped flowers blossom from late summer to mid-autumn, closing toward the onset of noon.

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Chives Allium schoenoprasum Chives, infant onion Boasting a long culinary history dating to ancient China in 3000 BC, chives were the only member of the onion family to be gathered from the wild instead of cultivated until the Middle Ages, when monks transplanted them to their herb gardens. Nicknamed “infant onions” for the small size of their bulbs, they have a milder flavor than that of onions, making them palatable to people who find onions challenging to digest. With their milder flavor, chives are ideal for adding to soft cheeses, on top of new and baked potatoes, and in soups, omelets, salads, and dressings. For grilled fish and meat, herb butters

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mixed with chives provide a delicate yet tasty finish. Habitat Native to Europe and naturalized in North America, growing wild in rocky, limestone soils and meadows and along stream banks. Description Hardy perennials and the smallest member of the onion family, growing to a height of 1 ft. The hollow, tubular leaves grow in clumps from small semi-flattened bulbs. The flowering stems produce spherical seed-producing heads of numerous pale mauve flowers in late spring and summer. Growing Tips Chives are particularly adaptable to growth in pots. They tolerate most any soil mix, although they prefer medium loam in bright indirect light. Propagate by seeds or by dividing clumps in spring or autumn. Snip off the flowering stems to encourage leaf growth for culinary harvest. Use fresh or refrigerate for 2–3 weeks.

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Comfrey Symphytum officinale Knitbone, bruisewort Both the botanical and common names of comfrey relate to its healing properties. Symphytum is derived from the Greek word for join or unite, and in the Middle Ages, that’s exactly how this herb was used— to join or mend together broken bones. Comfrey was often found growing in countryside gardens where gardeners made poultices of the fresh leaves as a remedy for sprains, bruises, and cuts. Comfrey not only promotes the healing of tissue and bone but also reduces swelling and hastens the healing process. Noted herbalists Gerard Pix abay

and Culpeper prescribed comfrey for internal as well as external use. Gerard recommended a comfrey-root syrup for ulcers of the lungs, while Culpeper considered it “very effectual in inward hurts”56 and attributed its wound-healing and bone-knitting qualities to the influence of the planet Saturn, ruler over both skin and skeleton. Recent studies have shown that comfrey’s remarkable healing powers are the result of a high concentration of allantoin, a chemical compound that contributes to the growth of tissue, bone, and cartilage. Both the leaves and the roots are high in mucilage, a gelatinous substance that soothes inflamed and painful tissues. Homeopaths, too, acknowledge comfrey’s impressive healing attributes and prescribe it for fractures, broken bones, and joint problems. Caution: Recent research has fueled a continuing debate over the safety of taking comfrey internally over a long period of time. Do so only under the care of a qualified medical practitioner. Habitat Native to Europe and temperate regions of Asia and naturalized in the United States. It grows in the fertile, wet soils along streams and river banks, in ditches, and in damp meadowland. Description Perennial growing to 3 ft. on thick, dark brown rootstock; has hairy leaves similar to borage. The ovate lower leaves are larger than the upper leaves, which are narrower, tapering to a point.

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The plant has clusters of bell-shaped flowers ranging in color from yellow to mauve or pale pink from late spring through early autumn. Growing Tips Comfrey is hardy in varying growing conditions but prefers rich, moist soil in a sunny location. Cut back the leaves twice a year to keep the plant compact.

Coriander Coriandrum sativum Chinese parsley, cilantro Used as both a flavoring and a medicine for over 3 ,000 years, coriander is recorded in several ancient texts dating from the Egyptian

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Ebers Papyrus and the Book of Exodus. The word, coriander, comes from the Greek koris, meaning bug, since the plant was supposed to smell unnervingly like bed bugs. Despite the association, the herb has been favored in cooking throughout the Middle East and was introduced to Europe by the Romans. The parsley-like leaves give off a strong aromatic taste that spices up curries and chutneys, and they are widely used in Chinese and Southeast Asian recipes, lending credence to the plant’s nickname of Chinese parsley. Coriander was popular in English cuisine up to Elizabethan times and is now enjoying a revival, especially as a flavoring in soups and salads. The dried, ripe seeds have a sweeter, spicier taste than the fresh leaf and are a feature of Indian, North African, and Indonesian cuisines. In parts of Europe, coriander seed flavors bread, cakes, and liqueurs. It is also a traditional pickling spice that aids the digestion of food, easing colic and flatulence. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean region and the Middle East and naturalized in temperate zones and dry soils worldwide. Description A hardy annual growing to 2 ft., featuring slender, branched stems with flat, parsley-like lower leaves and feathery, thread-like upper leaves. The leaves are aromatic when crushed.

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Small, flat umbels of attractive white-to-pale mauve flowers bloom from mid-summer to mid-autumn followed by round, green berries (the seeds) that drop as soon as they ripen. Growing Tips Sow in a pot in light, well-drained soil and keep in a bright, sunny location.

Dill Anethum graveolens Dill weed Referenced in the Bible, dill was well known to the ancient Greeks Pix abay

and Romans. Introduced to Europe during the Middle Ages, it gained popularity in the Scandinavian countries. Its name, according to some authorities, is derived from an old Norse word, dilla, meaning “to lull.” Dill seeds contain a volatile oil that calms and settles the stomach, easing flatulence and gripe, or colic. Gripe water was once prevalent as a treatment for babies and small children, though not necessarily successfully. Dill has also been used to promote the flow of milk in nursing mothers. Dill seeds, once popularly known as “Meeting House” seeds, were chewed during extended church services to allay hunger pains and calm rumbling stomachs. Despite its questionable medicinal uses, dill quickly grew into an essential culinary herb. The fresh green leaves have a sharp, slightly sweetish tang that’s lost upon drying. Often served with fish—most notably poached salmon—and with potato salads, dill is used like parsley for flavoring sour cream, sauces, vegetables, and garni. The seeds are even more pungent, reminiscent of caraway, making them perfect for pickles and cucumbers. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and southern Russia and naturalized throughout North America. Description Aromatic annual growing to 3 ft., resembling fennel but smaller. The stems of the plant are smooth and shiny, and the leaves

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pale green and feathery. Flowers arranged in flat umbels form in midto late summer before going to seed. Growing Tips Dill is a hardy plant that germinates readily, preferring full sun.

Echinacea Echinacea angustifolia Purple coneflower, Kansas snakeroot From the native Plains Indians came news to America’s settlers of a plant reputed to heal wounds and snake bites. The echinacea root has been used as a blood cleanser for clearing up septic sores, boils,

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and abscesses for centuries. Modern research has corroborated what the Indians already knew: the root’s antibacterial effects and its ability to strengthen the immune system are real. Habitat Native to the North American prairies as far north as southern Canada. Description Perennial on thick, bristly stems to 18 in., having ovate leaves that taper to a sharp point at both ends. Solitary flowers appear on robust stalks from early summer into autumn. The purple centers are conical in shape and surrounded by purple-grey florets.

Eyebright Euphrasia officinalis Meadow eyebright This herb was used for centuries to treat problems of the eye. Its French name, casse-lunettes, translates loosely to “discard your glasses,” further testimony to the plant’s reputation. The botanical name of the plant is derived from the Greek euphrosyne, which means happiness, most likely from improved eyesight! Advocates of the Doctrine of Signatures likened the plant’s purple-veined white flowers with yellow spots to bloodshot, diseased eyes; so, the

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plant was designated a cure for eye problems. In the Elizabethan era, eyebright was used in ales, and Gervase Markham’s Countrie Farm (1616) recommended that one should “Drinke everie morning a small draught of Eyebright wine.”57 Besides wine, the juice from eyebright was traditionally consumed as a tea or fermented into an ale. Today, the herb remains one of the best-known remedies for eye problems and is still recommended by herbalists whenever there is a discharge from the eyes, for treating conjunctivitis, and for allergic reactions that affect the eyes. Eyebright is also alleged to possess anti-catarrhal properties and was once smoked to relieve inflammation from colds and sinusitis. Habitat Native European plant common throughout Britain in meadows, on rough pastureland, and on sandy, chalky wasteland. Many species are found in snowy alpine or sub-alpine fields. Description Small annual to 6 in. with opposite, oval leaves and scalloped edges. Spikes of attractive white flowers appear from mid-summer to late autumn. Some species have yellow markings on the lower petal to act as an attractant to pollinating insects. The flowers are followed by tiny capsules containing the plant’s ribbed seeds. Growing Tips Eyebright can be challenging to grow alone since it’s a semi-parasitic plant that feeds off the roots of neighboring grasses and other plants through its attached suckers, so it may need to be companion planted for best success.

Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum Bird’s foot The name fenugreek is derived from foenum-graecum, or Greek hay. According to one legend, the name reflects fenugreek’s use as a fodder plant; according to another, it comes from its purpose of

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disguising the smell of stale hay to make it appear to the unwary buyer as top-grade. Bird’s foot, the plant’s common name, refers to the trifoliate arrangement of the leaves, which resemble the structure of a bird’s foot, similar, at a glance, to alfalfa. Fenugreek has been valued for its culinary and medicinal uses since the time of the ancient Greeks. Introduced into European medicine in the late eighth century by Benedictine monks, the plant’s aromatic seed has a slightly bitter, celery-like taste, making it the perfect complement in curries and chutneys. Fenugreek is ground with sesame seed to make the sweetmeat, halwa. The seeds are nutritious when sprouted and eaten fresh in a salad. The seed of fenugreek has developed a reputation as an aphrodi-

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siac, and chemical analysis has revealed the presence of diosgenin, a substance that reacts similarly to the body’s own sex hormones. A time-tested remedy for increasing the flow of milk in nursing mothers, the seed has also been recommended by Chinese herbalists for impotence and for restoring hair growth to balding scalps. The crushed seeds also make an effective poultice for sores, boils, and skin eruptions. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia and naturalized throughout North America Description Fragrant, erect-growing annual to 20 in. with a round, smooth stem. The leaves are grouped in threes and have toothed margins and hairy stalks. White to yellowish pea-like flowers grow from the leaf axils in summer, followed by narrow, beak-like seed pods. Growing Tips Fenugreek thrives in rich, well-drained soil.

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Garlic Allium sativum The word, garlic, derives from the Old English, garlēac, meaning gar (spear) and leek, as in a spear-shaped leek. Cultivated since early times, garlic was highly esteemed by the ancient Egyptians, who ensured that the slaves building the Great Pyramid at Cheops were given a daily supply to maintain their health and stamina. The Romans also acknowledged garlic’s strengthening powers and fed it to their soldiers before battle. Garlic was thought to protect the spirit as well as the body: the ancient Greeks left garlic offerings at crossroads to placate the underworld goddess Hecate. In more Pix abay

modern myth, cloves of garlic are reputed to serve as a protection against vampires which, if vampires are bacterial, is true: Garlic has active antibacterial properties that help the immune system fight infections. It may be taken as a preventative against colds and was once used successfully to curb the spread of dysentery, diphtheria, whooping cough, and typhoid. Its antiseptic properties were invaluable during World War I and II, when it was used to stop wounds from becoming gangrenous. Today, research has proven that regular garlic consumption lowers cholesterol levels in the blood, making it useful in fighting coronary-artery disease. In the Middle Ages, garlic was regarded as a vegetable and eaten accordingly. Today, despite garlic’s influences on our health, we consider it more of a flavoring to be used judiciously. To counteract “garlic breath,” munch on some fresh parsley or fenugreek seeds. Habitat Native to Asia and southern Siberia and cultivated in the Mediterranean. Description A perennial or biennial member of the onion family with a bulb of off-white, parchment-like skin. The stem grows to 1 ft.; its unbranching, long, grass-like leaves are sheathed at the base. A rounded umbel of whitish flowers appears at the tip of the stem, sometimes interspersed with small bulbs.

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Growing Tips Plant individual cloves to a depth of about 2 in. in welldrained soil. Grow in a sunny location. Pull the bulbs once the tops have withered.

Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis Orange root, eye balm This widely known and celebrated Native American medicinal plant is valued by modern herbalists for the healing action of the root in treating inflammation of the digestive system. It is also used to make a comforting wash for eye infections and as a dye in native cultures. Habitat Native to Canada and eastern US states, goldenseal was once prevalent in shady woods and meadows with fertile, moist soil; today, it’s rarely found in the wild. Description A member of the aster family, this low-growing perennial tops out at 1 ft. and features a thick, muted yellow, horizontal

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rhizome. Two large, clearly veined, five-lobed leaves appear in early spring at the top of a hairy flowering stem. Produces a solitary greenish-white flower without petals from spring on, followed by a raspberry-like fruit.

Hops Humulus lupulus Hop bine This vining herb, named after an Anglo-Saxon word meaning to climb, became an essential flavoring for beer in ninth-century Europe. In the UK , however, the inhabitants preferred traditional ales made from malt flavored with herbs such as costmary and wormwood. Hops were deemed “a wicked weed that would spoil the taste of the drink and endanger the people,”58 and it wasn’t until the 17th century that the beer brewed from them was as widely available as ale. Following the introduction of hops into Massachusetts in the

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early part of the 17th century, New York State became the hop-producing hub of North America, holding that title until the 1920s. Brewers added hops to their beer both to extend the brew’s keeping qualities and to improve its flavor. In the late 17th century, hops were considered to be injurious to health, even though most herbalists of the time appreciated the herb’s digestive and sedative qualities. Hops contain a volatile oil that creates a soothing effect on the central nervous system and is beneficial in relieving tension and anxiety. Some people attest to Pix abay

improved sleep after using a pillow filled with the dried herb. Hops also act as a tonic to the digestive system, relaxing the bowel and easing nervous indigestion, and they possess antiseptic properties that, when applied externally as a poultice, can reduce inflammation. But hops also contain hormonal substances that, when taken in large quantities, may cause the temporary impairment of the male sexual organ. And female hop pickers enduring prolonged contact with the flowers have been shown to suffer irregular menstrual cycles. Caution: Because hops depress the central nervous system, they should be avoided by those suffering from depression, except under a physician’s care. Habitat Native to northern temperate zones, especially Northern Europe, mountainous areas of southern Europe, and the UK, and cultivated throughout Northern Europe. Hops grow best in the wild along damp hedgerows and thickets on humus-rich soils. Description Perennial vine with sturdy stems to 20 ft.; the longstalked leaves with coarsely serrated margins are opposite and deeply indented and usually divided into three oval lobes that taper to a point. Yellowish-green flowers appear from late summer to mid-autumn. The female flowers are enclosed in cone-shaped catkins looking like an immature blackberry, while the male flowers hang in loose bunches.

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Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis Hyssop has a strong, sharp taste that made it a popular flavoring for meats and stews during the Middle Ages. In homes, the aromatic stems were strewn over the floors to freshen the air. Hyssop is rarely used in today’s kitchen, but it maintains its reputation as a valuable medicinal herb. Syrup of hyssop is a traditional remedy for chest complaints, phlegm discharge (catarrh), and sore throats. Used externally, a poultice or infusion of hyssop helps reduce bruising. Habitat Native to central and southern Europe and Russia and naturalized throughout North America where it grows wild on dry, rocky, or chalky soils. Description This hardy, camphor-scented bushy herb features branched, square stems to 2 ft. The small, linear leaves are stalkless, growing in coils at regular intervals along the stem. From early summer to early autumn, attractive royal blue, white, or pink flowers form dense spikes reaching toward the top of the stem.

Lavender Lavandula officinalis or Lavandula angustifolia English lavender One of the most popular of all the traditional herbs, lavender takes both its common and botanical names from the Latin verb, lavare, meaning to wash, after the practice of scenting bath water with the herb. Lavender was known and appreciated by the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Arabs for its strong fragrance. According to one Christian legend, the plant acquired its scent from the newly washed clothes of the infant Christ after they were hung over a bush to dry.

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Lavender was first cultivated in England after the mid-16th century and soon grew to be a popular cosmetic and strewing herb. It was among the first garden flowers that the Pilgrim Fathers brought with them to America.

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Lavender flowers contain a volatile oil that was traditionally inhaled or applied diluted to the temples to prevent faintness and “giddiness or turning of the brain,”59 according to Culpeper. The herb’s soothing, sedative properties have led aromatherapists to recommend the oil for sleeplessness. That oil is strongly antiseptic and capable of killing bacteria that cause diphtheria and typhoid. An antiseptic lotion of the herb may be applied to cuts, and in fact it was used until World War I to disinfect wounds. Lavender is well known for treating burns and scalds and can, if applied soon enough after injury, prevent the skin from blistering. Both flowers and oil have insect repellant properties and are traditionally made into sachets Pix abay

for cupboards and drawers to protect and perfume clothes and bed linen. Soaking a cotton wool ball with lavender oil is alleged to deter moths while rubbing the diluted oil onto the skin is said to provide an effective mosquito repellant. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean, distributed throughout southern Europe, and naturalized in the southern United States and elsewhere, grows wild on stony, well-drained soils in sunny locales. Because of its striking beauty and exquisite scent, the plant is grown extensively in the garden. Description Some varieties of this compact, fragrant perennial with short woody stems reach 3 ft. with grey-green to silver-grey linear leaves, covered with a layer of soft white hairs. Bloom from mid-summer to early autumn. Growing Tips Propagate from cuttings taken in summer and transplant in light, stony soil in a sunny location.

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Lobelia Lobelia inflata Indian tobacco, pukeweed Lobelia, with a similar response to nicotine on the nervous system, was often smoked by Native Americans to relieve asthma. Some herbalists still recommend the herb for bronchitis, while others consider it safe only for external use as a soothing rub for reducing the severity of bruising. Habitat Native to Canada and the eastern United States, this herb is found in dry pastures, on roadsides, and in open woodlands. Pix abay

Description Annual with branched, hairy stems from 1–2 ft. that contain a milky, acrid juice. The light green, oval leaves are stalkless with serrated edges. Loose spikes of tubular, blue flowers appear from mid-summer into fall.

Marjoram, Sweet Origanum marjorana Knotted marjoram Marjoram is a cold-sensitive perennial herb or undershrub. Its leaves have sweet pine and citrus flavors. In some Middle Eastern countries, it’s thought of as synonymous with oregano, and there the names sweet marjoram and knotted marjoram are used to distinguish it from other plants in the genus Origanum. Sweet marjoram is indigenous to Cyprus and southern Turkey and was known to the Greeks and Romans as a symbol of happiness. Further confusing the distinction between marjoram and oregano, true oregano (Origanum vulgare), also known as wild marjoram, is sometimes lumped in with sweet marjoram. Pot marjoram, or Cretan oregano (O. onites), is another species with similar uses to marjoram. Marjoram is known for bringing joy and comfort to both the living and the dead—a significant legacy to live up to. Newlywed

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couples were traditionally crowned with marjoram, and if the herb grew on a tomb, the souls of the dead allegedly found peace and happiness. According to English custom, if a young girl on St. Luke’s Day anointed herself before bed with a mixture of dried marjoram, marigold, thyme, and wormwood, she would foresee her future husband in her dreams. Less poetic but more practical, marjoram has been used medicinally for relieving sprains and bruises; the dried, powdered leaves were inhaled as snuff. Marjoram’s primary use today is culinary, although taken internally, its warm, spicy flavor both complements the taste and aids the digestion of meat. One of the most essential herbs in European cuisines, fresh marjoram has a subtle aroma that is lost in cooking, so it should be added at the very end of preparation. It’s a tasty addition to simple presentations such as scrambled eggs with mushrooms. Dried marjoram has a more robust flavor than the fresh herb, so it is often used as a rub on the surface of meat before roasting. Habitat Naturalized in the Mediterranean, Central Europe, and North America, where it is still cultivated today. Description Spicy, aromatic perennial often grown as an annual with square, branching stems from 1–2 ft. Can be maintained indoors in pots through judicious pruning. The rounded leaves are opposite, grey, and soft. Tightly formed heads of tiny white or pink flowers appear from late summer to mid-autumn, followed by small berries. Growing Tips Plant in rich, well-drained soil in a warm, sunny location and water sparingly, allowing the soil to dry out between waterings.

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Marjoram, Wild Oregano Origanum vulgare Wild marjoram (oregano) is a culinary herb like sweet marjoram, although medicinally, wild marjoram is more in demand than its “sweeter cousin.” The chemical components of the plant include the antiseptic compound, thymol (also present in thyme), which provides anti-inflammatory, expectorant, and digestive properties. Wild marjoram was gathered by the ancient Greeks for poultices applied to sores, aching muscles, and rheumatic joints. According to Gerard, wild marjoram, like the sweet variety, would bring joy to the depressed and “easeth such as are given to overmuch sighing.”60 After early settlers introduced the herb to North America,

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wild marjoram tea soon became a widely used respiratory treatment for bronchitis and asthma. Its digestive properties made it useful for gastrointestinal problems, while a mixture of olive oil and wild marjoram when rubbed on rheumatic joints was thought to alleviate pain. Today, herbalists recommend wild marjoram for coughs, colds, and flu and as an antiseptic mouthwash for mouth and throat infections. Tea made from the herb is also helpful for tension headaches. In culinary terms, wild marjoram is more commonly referred to as oregano. It is used dried and gives Italian sauces their traditional, zingy flavor. While Italian oregano is considered a peppery, pungent-tasting herb, the farther north its cultivation, the milder its flavor. In Mediterranean cookery, oregano is a welcome addition to bean casseroles, stews, and sauces based on tomato or eggplant. Habitat Native to Greece and Turkey and found from Iran westward to Central Asia and into Europe. Naturalized in the northeastern United States. Prefers chalky or limestone-rich soils, although it is adaptable to most common garden soil mixtures. Description Aromatic wild marjoram grows in a bushy habitat with erect, hairy, woody stems reaching 2 ft. The grey-green leaves are

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opposite and in pairs, with each pair at a right angle to the next. The leaves have hairy margins when young and are broadly oval and pointed at the tip, with the upper leaves often showing a reddish tint. Pinkish-purple or white flowers bloom two at a time in short terminal spikes from late summer through mid-autumn. Growing Tips Growing requirements are similar to those for sweet marjoram, although the wild variety is more tolerant of frequent watering. Pix abay

Mint, Peppermint Mentha piperita In Greek mythology, the nymph Minthe, who lent her name to the mint genus, was dazzled by Hades (Aidenous) and made an attempt to seduce him, but Queen Persephone objected and metamorphosed Minthe, according to Strabo, “into the garden mint, which some call hedyosmon.”61 The story is understandable, given the strongly aromatic scent the plant gives off. Culpeper, who knew the plant’s mythology well, assigned the rulership of mint to Venus, the planet of sexual attraction, and wrote that the herb “stirs up venery, or bodily lust.”62 Peppermint was known to the early Egyptians, and the Romans adorned themselves and their tables with the sweet-smelling herb. Peppermint was not used medicinally until the mid-18th century when herbalists discovered that its high content of menthol provided cooling, antispasmodic, anesthetic, and decongestant properties. Peppermint tea has long been a popular domestic remedy for indigestion; its antispasmodic effect helps to relieve stomach pain, as well as menstrual cramps. It is also used to alleviate tension headaches and tiredness. Peppermint stimulates gastric secretions, which promote digestion, the basis for the tradition of providing diners with after-dinner mints. Peppermint oil is a familiar ingredient in many brands of toothpaste, combining antiseptic action with refreshing flavor. Menthol, with its cooling and anesthetic

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action, is also found in rubs and massage lotions for aching muscles and rheumatism. Applying the fresh leaves in a poultice is said to ease muscular aches and pains. Menthol, too, makes an effective inhalation for clearing up mucus and nasal congestion. Also, aromatherapists recommend a bath of diluted peppermint oil for tired feet. Commercially, peppermint is widely used as a flavoring in the confectionery industry. Habitat Native to Europe and Asia and naturalized in North America. Found in hedgerows, on the banks of streams, and on barren ground.

Donovan Govan, CC BY-SA 3.0

Description A hybrid between spearmint (Mentha spicata) and water mint (Mentha aquatic), this perennial appears with erect, square, hairy stems, growing to 2–3 ft. The oval, aromatic, toothed leaves have pointed tips and are smooth and dark green to reddish-green in color. Conical spikes of pink-white-mauve flowers grow at the tops of the stems from late summer to mid-autumn. Growing Tips Peppermint is a hybrid, so it can’t be grown true from seed. Propagate by dividing the roots or runners in spring and place in water to root. Plant cuttings in moist, fertile soil in a bright location, preferably out of direct sunlight. Mint is extremely invasive, so think twice before adding it as a companion plant to your other potted herbs or before setting it out to overwinter in the garden!

Parsley Petroselinum crispum Curly-leaved parsley Both the botanical and English names of this herb are derived from the old Latin Petros selinon, or rock celery. To the ancient Greeks, curly-leaved parsley held court over death, wherein the leaves were strewn over the corpses and made into wreaths for decorating tombs. At the time, parsley had an exclusively ceremonial use. It began

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appearing years later on the tables at Roman banquets, both for its breath-freshening properties and for its flavor. Herbalists consider parsley a tonic for the kidney and liver and a digestive, and a tea is drunk to cure bladder problems, rheumatism, and flatulence. Scientific analysis has shown parsley to be a highly nutritious herb, more abundant in vitamin C than an orange. It also contains iron, calcium, and vitamins A and B. In the kitchen, parsley brings out the flavor of food, especially fish sauces, and combines well with other herbs, as in the classic flavorings of fines herbes and bouquet garni. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and possibly eastwards to Lebanon, and naturalized elsewhere. Prefers fertile, moist soils. Description Familiar biennial to 2 ft. on a thick taproot with branching stems. The bright green leaves are acutely segmented and tightly curled. In the second year, umbels of tiny greenish-yellow flowers appear in early summer, followed by small, ribbed fruits (seeds). Growing Tips Sow seeds in rich, moist soil and move sprouts gradu Mark W. Skinner, hosted by

ally to direct sun.

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Pepper Piper nigrum Black pepper Of all the spices, pepper has long been held among the highest in regard. The Romans began importing pepper in the fifth century, and the search for the source of this lucrative spice led to the discovery of a sea route to the East. Pepper became such a valuable commodity that, during the siege of Rome in AD 408, Attila demanded that part of the city’s ransom payment be made in the spice! During the Middle Ages, it was comparable with gold and silver, and the fortunes of the Roman hub of Venice were directly attributable to its trade in pepper. As late as the 15th century, rents in England were commonly

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paid in pepper, as it was considered more stable than the currency of the time. Unripe pepper berries are picked and then dried until they become the familiar, wrinkled, dark brown-to-black peppercorns. The flavor of freshly ground black pepper is superior to that of preground, and the best chefs use only freshly ground pepper. White pepper is from the same plant as black, but the berries are left on the vine to ripen before the dark outer skin is removed by soaking. Pepper’s use is mainly as a seasoning and condiment, although it also has digestive properties. Containing an alkaloid that stimulates the taste buds, it also stimulates the flow of saliva and gastric juices. In addition to being used for indigestion and flatulence, pepper is

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used externally to promote better circulation. Aromatherapists also value the warming qualities of essential oil of black pepper and prescribe it for colds and digestive problems. Combined with a carrier oil, it’s also useful in calming strained muscles. Habitat Native to South India and the East Indies, it grows best in humid, shady areas, making it an ideal potted plant for the home. Description Perennial climbing vine with stiff, woody stems that can reach 20 ft. but can be headed back to any desirable length. Attractive glossy, oval leaves taper to a point. Small white flowers are followed by clusters of round, green, or yellow berries that ripen to red.

Rosemary Rosemarinus officinalis Rosemary is a corruption of the Latin ros marinus, or dew of the sea, after the plant’s habit of growing in coastal areas. Even without sound evidence of medicinal properties, rosemary was considered sacred to ancient Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks. The plant serves as a symbol for remembrance during war commemorations and funerals in Europe and Australia. In Shakespeare’s

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Hamlet, Ophelia says, “Here, love, there’s rosemary for you for remembrance.”63 Rosemary’s connection with the head has existed since herbalists first recommended it for headaches. The oil is an old remedy for gout and muscular aches and pains, and it was the active ingredient of the celebrated Hungary Water that supposedly restored life to Queen Elizabeth of Hungary’s paralyzed limbs. During the 15th century, people burned rosemary branches in their homes to protect themselves from the Black Death, and in World War II, rosemary and juniper were burned in French hospitals to limit the spread of infection. Pix abay

In the home, rosemary is popular as a culinary herb for its pungent flavor that complements roast lamb, poultry, fish dishes, and vegetables. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and widely cultivated as a garden plant. Prefers light, dry, chalky soils. Description Aromatic, spreading, evergreen shrub to 3 ft. in height, becoming woody with age. The narrow, spiky leaves are dark green on top and grey underneath. When barely touched, they exude a strong scent of camphor with a note of pine. Cheerful blue flowers grow in clusters from spring through summer. Growing Tips Propagate from cuttings taken in summer and encouraged to root in water. Plant in a sunny location.

Rue Ruta graveolens Herb of grace Ruta graveolens, Latin for “strong smelling,” is a species of Ruta grown as an ornamental plant and herb. It is native to the Balkan Peninsula, but is now grown worldwide in gardens for its bluish leaves and its tolerance of hot and dry soil conditions. It is cultivated

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as a medicinal herb and, unlike in the past, is rarely grown as a condiment or insect repellent. Rue is the “sour herb of grace”64 referred to in Shakespeare’s Richard II, while in Catholic churches, clutches of the herb served to spray holy water over the faithful before High Mass. From that religious symbolism came the phrase, “to rue,” meaning to repent or regret. The ancient Romans considered rue beneficial for eye strain, and artists and monks working on medieval manuscripts took it to ease headaches brought on by eyestrain. It is still recommended in small amounts by herbalists today. The herb was also used as an abortifacient; so, it should not be taken during pregnancy. Externally, rue is thought to be helpful for rheumatic pains, and homeopaths prescribe it for sprained wrists and ankles. It is rarely used in cooking because of its overpowering flavor. Habitat Native to southern Europe and North Africa on poor, dry, gravely soil. Description Hardy, shrubby perennial to 2 ft. with woody lower stems and alternate blue-green leaves subdivided into petite leaflets. Yellowish-green, four-toothed flowers grow in bunches from summer

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through early autumn. Growing Tips Sow seeds in well-drained soil.

Sage Salvia officinalis Garden sage, narrow-leaved sage The botanical name of the genus, Salvia, comes from the Latin verb salvere, meaning “to save,” referring to the plant’s medicinal reputation in ancient times. Sage was so highly esteemed that, by the tenth century, it had gained the reputation of convening immortality—a reputation that lasted well into the 17th century when John Evelyn wrote, “It is a plant indeed with so many and wonderful properties

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that the assiduous use of it is said to render men immortal.”65 Gerard recommended sage because he thought, “It quickeneth the senses and memory, strengthens the sinews, restores health to those that have palsy, and taketh away shakey trembling of the members.”66 They might have been on to something, since the herb is still prescribed for nervous tension and headaches. Sage is also used to calm sore throats because of its antiseptic and antibacterial properties; Culpeper recommended a hot infusion for an inflamed throat and hoarseness. Sage is also alleged to reduce fevers, and herbalists prescribe it for colds and for easing hot flushes during menopause. In Roman times, it proved a popular darkener of the hair—not to mention a pungent one! Although sage wasn’t used in cooking until the 16th century, it has become one of the most commonly used kitchen herbs today. Besides being a critical ingredient in stuffing, pork, duck, and goose, it’s used in Italy with fried liver and in the classic veal dish, saltimbocca. In North America, sage appears in scrambled eggs, sausages, pork, and wherever else a sharp bite of flavor is desired. It pairs well with cheese and is used to make one of England’s famous regional cheeses, Sage Derby. The plant is also a hit with bees, who make flavorful honey from it. Habitat Native to the northern Mediterranean coast, particularly Yugoslavia, where it grows wild. Prefers poor, dry, lime soils in full sun. More than 750 species of sage are currently cultivated, including some with attractive variegated leaves. Description Hardy, shrubby, branching perennial from 12–30 in. The soft, young stems grow woody with age. Prominent veins mark the surface of the fuzzy leaves, which are grey-green and oblong with rounded tips. Flowers of violet-blue appear from early to mid-summer. Growing Tips Sow seeds or propagate by layering or from cuttings. Sage prefers well-drained soil in a sunny location.

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Soapwort Saponaria officinalis Fullers’ herb, latherwort When boiled in water, soapwort produces a soft, soap-like lather ideal for cleaning old and delicate textiles. In the days before chemical detergents, the plant was grown around wool mills to wash the woven cloth. Medicinally, soapwort lotion is soothing for sore, irritated skin. Habitat Native to western Asia and naturalized in Europe and eastern North America. Common on roadsides, railway embankments, and undeveloped land. Description Perennial with a single, thick, slightly branched stem to 32 in. with oval leaves that narrow to a point. Clusters of large, pale, pink flowers with five petals and ten stamens grow at the top of the stem from mid-summer to early autumn.

Summer Savory Satureja hortensis In Europe, the leaves of both summer and winter savory were traditionally used to flavor food—long before the introduction of spices from India and the Far East. Savory was popular with the ancient Romans who pounded it with vinegar to create a sauce for roast meat. They introduced the herb to England, where the Saxons named it savory after its sour, pungent flavor. Savory was well known to Shakespeare who mentions it in The Winter’s Tale. In Tudor England, winter savory shrubs were a common feature in kitchen gardens. In the 17th century, it was traditionally served with trout and mixed with breadcrumbs as a coating for both fish and meat. Today, summer savory is considered superior to winter savory, having a pungent, peppery flavor that complements sausages and stuffing. It is a primary component in Italian salami as well as in herbes de Provence.

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In Germany, savory is the traditional flavoring for beans, making them more digestible.

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According to Greek mythology, the genus, Satureia, means belonging to the satyrs—“lascivious, horned creatures with cloven hoofs who inhabited the forests and were fond of chasing nymphs.”67 This myth most likely gave summer savory its reputation as an aphrodisiac. Both savories were also used medicinally as digestive herbs and were considered warming to the stomach and helpful for flatulence and colic. Culpeper assigned savory to the planet Mercury, associated with the respiratory system, and recommended summer savory for asthma and other chest complaints. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and introduced to the UK and Pix abay

North America. Widely cultivated as a culinary herb. Description Aromatic annual, from 12–18 in. with erect, branching stems covered with fine hairs and having multiple pairs of oblong, pointed leaves with a purplish tinge. Small, two-lipped, white-to-pink flowers bloom in groups of three to six in the upper leaf axils from late summer to mid-autumn. Winter savory (Satureja montana) is a close relative and a similarly hardy perennial. Growing Tips Sow seeds in average soil and gradually move to a sunny location once the plantlets have two sets of regular leaves.

Sweet Violet Viola odorata The violet genus is reputedly named in honor of Io, one of Zeus’ many lovers. According to legend, Zeus turned her into a white heifer so that she would escape the wrath of his wife, Hera. Violets sprouted at her feet so that she wouldn’t go hungry. To the ancient Celts, the violet was a beauty aid, and Culpeper assigned the flower to the planetary rule of Venus. In the language of flowers, the violet denotes modesty and fidelity: Bouquets of violets were allegedly exchanged between Napoleon Bonaparte and Josephine. Napoleon

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later adopted the flower as the emblem of the Imperial Napoleonic party, and in the South of France, violets were once offered as prizes for love poetry, perhaps because of their association in Greek mythology with Orpheus, the fabled Greek poet and philosopher who succumbed to the underworld while attempting to rescue his wife. Violets are also used both to color and flavor an intensely floral French liqueur named parfait amour. Violets have long been associated with calmness and sleep. The Athenians made a sleeping potion from violets, the flowers of which were also thought to calm anger. Wearing violets around the head was an old folk remedy for curing dizziness, and Culpeper claimed that the violet “easeth pains in the head caused thru’ want of sleep.”68 Gerard, too, prescribed a syrup of violets for insomnia, headaches, and sore throats. Modern herbalists value the expectorant properties of the leaves and flowers and prescribe them for coughs, bronchitis, and phlegm. A series of tests carried out in the 1960s showed that an extract of violet leaves inhibited the growth of tumors in mice. Violets have been grown for their sweet scent for over 2 ,000 years, and violet water and perfume were particularly popular in Victorian England. Today, confectioners use crystallized violets to decorate cakes, pastries, and chocolates. In France, veal dishes were traditionally garnished with violet petals. Both flowers and leaves are rich in vitamins A and C. Habitat Native to Europe, North Africa, and Asia and naturalized in temperate zones of North America. Found in hedge banks, wood clearings, and at the edges of woods. Description Fragrant, low-growing perennial to 6 in. with dark green leaves that grow on long footstalks. The leaves are slightly downy beneath, with scalloped edges. Flowers bloom singly from early to mid-summer. Each has five petals varying from lilac and pink to white.

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Tarragon Artemisia dracunculus French tarragon, “true” French tarragon Tarragon’s botanical name, dracunculus (from the Greek drakon) means “little dragon,” a possible reference to the plant’s rhizomatous rootstalk system. In medieval folklore, plants with coiled roots were thought to cure the bites of venomous snakes. In the Roman Empire, people in the Middle Ages placed fresh sprigs inside their boots to ward off exhaustion before starting upon a journey. The root was once an effective cure for toothache since the raw plant creates a slight numbing of the mouth. Gerard declared tarragon to be “highly Emőke Dénes, CC BY-SA 4.0

cordial and friend to the head, heart and liver.”69 Tarragon is no longer used medicinally, but it’s still one of the most popular of the European culinary herbs, and it is indispensable in classic French cuisine. It has a unique, biting taste that can be overpowering in some dishes. For that reason, it’s often used in the form of tarragon vinegar, mustard, and the fines herbes mixture instead of straight. It goes well with various egg dishes, fish, and chicken, and fresh tarragon or tarragon vinegar are essential additives to béarnaise, hollandaise, and tartare sauces. Its counterpart, Russian tarragon, or Artemisia dracunculoides, boasts a milder flavor than its French cousin. Both types are most potent when used fresh rather than dried. Habitat Native to southern Europe and introduced elsewhere as a garden herb in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Description Bushy, aromatic perennial growing from 2–4 ft. and similar in appearance to wormwood (they are members of the same family). The slender stems bear smooth, dark leaves, narrow and linear in shape, spaced sparsely along the stem. Small globular grey-green or white wooly flowers appear from mid- to late summer. French tarragon flowers only in warm climates.

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Growing Tips Start French tarragon from root division or cuttings, since seeds are mostly sterile. Prefers well-drained soil and a sunny location.

Thyme Thymus vulgaris Common thyme, garden thyme The word, thymus, has two potential derivations: from the Greek word for courage or from the term meaning to purify or delouse. Ancient Egyptians used thyme for embalming, while the Greeks used it in their baths and burned it as incense in their temples, believing it to be a source of courage. The spread of thyme throughout Europe was

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most likely due to the Romans, who used it to purify their rooms and to “give an aromatic flavor to cheese and liqueurs.”70 During the Middle Ages, Europeans placed the herb beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off nightmares. Women also gave knights and warriors gifts that included thyme leaves to bring courage to the bearer. Thyme was also used as incense and placed on coffins during funerals since it was supposed to assure passage into the next life. Thymol, the essential oil in thyme, is a powerful antibacterial, making it a reliable disinfectant, resulting in its use externally during World War I. The oil has also been taken to expel intestinal parasites, including hookworm. Thyme has antispasmodic properties that make it an effective remedy for sore throats, irritable coughs, and bronchial difficulties. A thyme mouthwash is recommended to cure infections of the gums. In culinary practice, thyme is used in sausages, meatloaf, terrines, and stuffing—not only for its preservative qualities but also for its scintillating taste. It’s an essential ingredient in southern French, Greek, Creole, and Cajun cuisines. Habitat Native to the western Mediterranean and southern Italy and naturalized in Hungary, Germany, and the United States. It prefers dry, rocky, well-drained soil.

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Description Perennial that is treated as an annual in cold climates. Bushy herb with numerous branched, woody stems growing from 4–12 in. in length with aromatic leaves. The leaves are petite, narrow, and elliptical, grey-green above and downy underneath. Swirls of lilac-to-pink tubular flowers form in clusters on the branch tips from early to mid-summer. Many varieties of thyme exist, including broad-leaved, narrow-leaved, variegated, lemon, and creeping thyme, making it an extraordinarily attractive, useful companion plant. Growing Tips Sow seed or propagate from cuttings in a sunny, welldrained, gravelly soil. Pix abay

Valerian Valeriana officinalis Common valerian, garden heliotrope Valerian was in medieval times a blessed cure-all for numerous diseases and problems. Its name is from the Latin verb valere, meaning “to be well.” Both the common valerian and marsh valerian, Valeriana dioica, were used by early Arabian physicians, and one offensive-smelling variety was known to the ancient Greek herbalists as phu. Because of its antispasmodic properties, Valerian root acquired a reputation as a cure for epilepsy, convulsions, and other nervous disorders. An effective tranquilizer, Valerian was registered as a drug in the United States from the early 19th to the mid-20th century. The active ingredient in the herb is valepotriate, and today, herbalists often recommend it for bouts of anxiety and insomnia. Valerian root has a tranquillizing effect on animals, too. Rat-catchers once used it in their traps, giving rise to the rumor that the legendary Pied Piper lured rats away from Hamelin with the scent of the valerian roots stuffed in his pockets. Cats, too, are said to become intoxicated by the smell of valerian and will roll in it when the plant has bruised or damaged leaves. The Anglo-Saxons considered it both a food and a medicine, and as late as the 17th century,

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country folk were very partial to the fresh root, which they called setewale, in soups and stews. Habitat Native to Europe and western Asia and naturalized in North America on rough meadowlands, moist grasslands, and along riverbanks. Description Tall, conspicuous, fetid-smelling perennial from 3–4 ft. with a single grooved stem, hairy toward the base. Marked by horizontal branches and pairs of dark green, pinnate leaves joined at the bottom and ovate to lance-shaped. Two or more pairs of flowering stems produce loose clusters of white flowers from early to late

Doug Goldman, hosted by the

summer.

USDA-NRCS PL ANTS Databa se

Wormwood Artemisia absinthium Absinthe, green fairy, common wormwood Wormwood has been used medicinally for 3 ,500 years to eradicate intestinal worms. The species name, absinthium, foretells the traditional and most common use of wormwood—in the French aperitif, absinthe, which was allegedly concocted by witches. Wormwood is one of the most bitter-tasting of herbs known and one with a long history of use in medicinal alcoholic cordials. The plant, via the Old English wermod and the German wermut, lends its name to vermouth, for which it is still used as a flavoring, along with bitters. When wormwood was banned in France, Switzerland, the United States, and many other countries in the early 1900s, it had become associated with illicit behavior, accused of “turning children into criminals, encouraging loose morals and inspiring murders. That regular old alcohol received similar treatment during Prohibition in the United States turns out to be pretty apropos: We now know that properly manufactured absinthe—an anise-flavored, alcoholic drink— is no more dangerous than any other properly prepared liquor.”71

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That information does nothing to quell stories of hallucinations, Oscar Wilde and his tulips, family massacres, and instantaneous death, although none of that is due to the wormwood in absinthe at all. The liqueur does have a high alcohol content (anywhere from 55–72 percent alcohol by volume, or 110 to 14 4 proof), which makes most hard liquors’ 40 percent (80 proof) seem like kid’s stuff. But that’s why absinthe is meant to be diluted and not drunk straight. That’s the best way to enjoy its herbal flavor, which is what sets it apart from other liqueurs. Medicinally, wormwood is a bitter stomachic that allegedly restores poor appetites and eases a wide range of digestive difficulties. The herb acquired a reputation as a liver and gall bladder tonic, explaining its use in alcoholic drinks for the purpose of calming bad livers; and a compress of the leaves was applied to painful rheumatic joints to stimulate poor circulation, hasten childbirth, and expel the afterbirth. In the home, wormwood was a traditional insect repellant and was strewn across floors and placed among clothes and linen to discourage moths. For its bitter taste, wormwood was used in brewing beer before the use of hops. In some parts of eastern Europe, a sprig is added to a bottle of wine or vodka. Habitat Native to the Mediterranean and central Europe and naturalized in much of North America from Newfoundland south to Montana, it grows wild on uncultivated, arid ground. Description Shrubby, spreading, aromatic perennial to 3 ft. with hairy stems and greyish, pinnate leaves that are deeply divided into narrow, blunted segments. Small globular, greenish-yellow flowers appear on slender stalks from summer to mid-autumn. Growing Tips Plant seeds in average soil with good drainage or take summer or fall cuttings to root. Prefers soil rich in nitrogen.

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Yarrow Achillea millefolium Milfoil, staunchweed, soldier’s woundwort, common yarrow Yarrow has been highly valued for its medicinal properties since the earliest times: Pollen from the plant has been found in burial sites from the Neanderthal era. Historically used in traditional medicine due to its astringent effects, the herb is alleged to be a diaphoretic, astringent, tonic, stimulant, and mild aromatic. It contains isovaleric acid, salicylic acid, asparagine, sterols, and flavonoids. The genus name, Achillea, is derived from the mythical Greek character Achilles, who reportedly carried it with his army to treat battle wounds (the plant’s astringent qualities were useful for gashes). This medicinal use is also reflected in some of the common names, such

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as staunchweed and soldier’s woundwort. Several Native American Indian tribes held yarrow’s healing properties in high regard. The Blackfoot applied the herb to cuts, wounds, and bruises. The Navajo considered the plant a “life medicine”; they chewed it for toothaches and used its infusions for earaches. The Miwok in California use the plant as an analgesic and a head cold remedy. The Pawnee use the stalk for pain relief, while the Cherokee drink a tea of common yarrow to reduce fever and aid in restful sleep. The Shakers also relied upon yarrow as a digestive and general tonic. In Native American and European folk medicine, it has been used to reduce swelling and to ease rheumatic joints; modern research has confirmed that the herb possesses anti-inflammatory action. Yarrow also promotes sweating, and hot yarrow tea is a traditional home remedy of longstanding for colds. Today, herbalists recommend yarrow as one of the leading herbal remedies for fever, colds, and flu, often in combination with elderflower and peppermint. Habitat Native to temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and North America and introduced as fodder in New Zealand and Australia, where it is a common herb of both wet and dry areas.

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Description Herbaceous perennial with upright stem to 3 ft., with a spreading rhizomatous growth form. Its feathery leaves are evenly distributed along the stem, with middle and lower leaves the largest, arranged spirally on the stems.

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E N D N OT E S CHAPTER ONE 1

“12 Healthy Houseplants That Improve Your Indoor Air Quality,” Pure Essential Oils, September 17, 2016 BestPureEssentialOils.com. Accessed June 28, 2019. https://bestpureessentialoils.com/12-healthy-houseplants-that-improve-your-indoor-air-quality#_edn17

2

“Infographic: Plants Can Reduce Hospital Stays, Encourage Overall Health,” Produce Grower. Press release edited by Conner Howard, March 16, 2018. Accessed June 30, 2019. https://www.producegrower.com/ article/infographic-nich-plantsdothat-health-wellness/

3

Victoria Dunckley, “Nature’s Rx: Green-Time’s Effects On ADHD,” Psychology Today, posted June 20, 2013. Accessed September 13, 2018. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mental-wealth/201306/ natures-rx-green-times-effects-adhd

4

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, “The Keeling Curve: A daily record of global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration,” Accessed May 13, 2019. https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/

CHAPTER TWO 5

Anna Kruger, An Illustrated Guide to Herbs: Their Medicine and Magic. (Surrey, UK: Dragon’s World) 1993, 6.

6

Ibid., 7.

7 Ibid.

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8

James Underwood Crockett, Ogden Tanner, and the editors of Time-Life Books, Herbs: The Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening. (Virginia: TimeLife Books) 1977, 13.

9 Ibid. 10 Jill L. Baker, Technology of the Ancient Near East: From the Neolithic to the Early Roman Period. (London: Routledge) 2018. 11 Crockett, Herbs, 13. 12 Ibid., 17. 13 Ibid., 13–16. 14 Pliny the Younger, “Letters: LXV. To Tacitus,” The Harvard Classics, 1909–14. quoted onBartleby.com. Accessed May 27, 2019. https://www. bartleby.com/9/4/1065.html 15 Bard Thompson Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation. (Michigan: Erdmans) 1996, 13. 16 Crockett, Herbs, 17. 17 Nicholas Culpeper, The Complete Herbal. (London: Thomas Kelly) 1850, iv. 18 Ibid., 20. 19 Crockett, Herbs, 21. 20 Ibid., 22. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Culpeper, The Complete Herbal, vi.

CHAPTER THREE 24 Jack Harvey, Herbs. (Milwaukee: Ideals Publishing Corporation) 1980, 6. 25 “Tammuz,” BibleHub.com. Accessed June 28, 2019. https://biblehub. com/topical/t/tammuz.htm 26 Harvey, Herbs, 6–7. 27 Ibid., 8. 28 Ibid., 10. 29 Ibid., 14. 30 Ibid., 15.

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31 Ibid., 16. 32 Biljana Bauer Petrovska, “Historical Review of Medicinal Plants’ Usage,” Pharmacognosy Reviews 2012, 6 (11): 150–7. 33 Atanas G. Atanasov, et al. “Discovery and Resupply of Pharmacologically Active Plant-Derived Natural Products: A Review,” Biotechnology Advances 2015, 33 (8): 1582–1614. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC4748402 34 Petrovska, “Historical Review,” 150–7. 35 Atanasov, “Discovery,” 1582–1614. 36 Subhuti Dharmananda, “The Methods of Preparation of Herb Formulas,” ItmOnline.org May 1997. Accessed June 4, 2019. http://www.itmonline. org/arts/methprep.htm 37 Toni Mount, “9 Weird Medieval Medicines,” History Extra April 20, 2015. Accessed June 4, 2019. https://www.historyextra.com/period/ medieval/9-weird-medieval-medicines/ 38 Andrew Vickers “Which Botanicals or Other Unconventional Anticancer Agents Should We Take to Clinical Trial?” Journal of the Society for Integrative Oncology 2007, 5 (3): 125. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC2590766/ 39 Tapsell, L.C.; et al. “Health Benefits of Herbs and Spices: The Past, the Present, the Future,” Med. J. Aust. August 21, 2006, 185 (4 Suppl): S4–24.

CHAPTER FOUR 40 “Electrically Charged Plants,” Physics Forums January 29, 2015. Accessed June 8, 2019. https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/ electrically-charged-plants.794864/ 41 “Everything You Need To Know About Container Gardening,” Good Housekeeping August 12, 2008. Accessed June 11, 2019. https:// www.goodhousekeeping.com/home/gardening/a20707074/ container-gardening-tips/ 42 George and Becky Lohmiller, “Companion Planting Guide,” Old Farmer’s Almanac February 10, 2019. Accessed June 8, 2019. https://www. almanac.com/content/companion-planting-guide

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43 Andrew Carberry, “How to Harvest Herbs,” WikiHow. Accessed March 19, 2019. https://www.wikihow.com/Harvest-Herbs 44 Anna Kruger, An Illustrated Guide to Herbs: Their Medicine and Magic. (Surrey, UK: Dragon’s World) 1993, 13.

CHAPTER FIVE 45 Van Den Berg, Agnes E., and Mariëtte H.G. Custers, “Gardening Promotes Neuroendocrine and Affective Restoration from Stress,” Journal of Health Psychology January 2011, 16, 1: 3–11. 46 Schlanger, Zoe. “Dirt Has a Microbiome, and It May Double as an Antidepressant,” Quartz May 30, 2017. https://qz.com/993258/ dirt-has-a-microbiome-and-it-may-double-as-an-antidepressant/ 47 Harding, Anne. “Why Gardening Is Good for You,” CNN. July 8, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2019. http://www.cnn.com 48 “Study Linking Beneficial Bacteria To Mental Health Makes Top 10 List For Brain Research,” CU Boulder Today 2017. Accessed June 9, 2019. https://www.colorado.edu/today/2017/01/05/study-linking-beneficialbacteria-mental-health-makes-top-10-list-brain-research 49 Frank, Matthew G., et al. “Immunization with Mycobacterium Vaccae Induces an Anti-Inflammatory Milieu in the CNS: Attenuation of StressInduced Microglial Priming, Alarmins and Anxiety-Like Behavior.” Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 2018, 73: 352–363. 50 “Definition of Spice,” ASTASpice.org. 2019. Accessed June 11, 2019. https://www.astaspice.org/government-relations-advocacy/ complying-with-u-s-policy-regulations/definitions/ 51 Ibid, 19. 52 Ibid. 53 Anna Kruger (1993). An Illustrated Guide to Herbs: Their Medicine and Their Magic. (Surrey, UK: Dragon’s World) 1993, 32 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid, 48. 56 Ibid, 67.

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57 Maud Grieve (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folklore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with Their Modern Scientific Uses. Volume 1, 292. 58 Kruger, An Illustrated Guide, 97. 59 Ibid, 106. 60 Ibid, 115. 61 from The Geography of Strabo. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London) 1924. Quoted at Perseus.Tufts.edu “Strabo, Geography.” Accessed June 24, 2019. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ text?doc=Strab.+8.3.14&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198 62 Kruger, An Illustrated Guide, 118. 63 “Hamlet (Modern, Quarto 1),” Internet Shakespeare Editions, Accessed June 25, 2019. https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/doc/Ham_Q1M/ scene/13/ 64 “Richard II (Modern),” Internet Shakespeare Editions, Internetshakespeare.uvic.ca. Accessed June 25, 2019. https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/doc/R2_M/scene/3.4/ 65 “Black Sage (Mugwort Smudge)” www.BacktoYourRootsHerbs.com Accessed June 25, 2019. https://www.backtoyourrootsherbs.com/ product/black-sage-mugwort-smudge/ 66 “May Night’ Meadow Sage (Salvia nemorosa),” Holistic Horse, https://holistichorse.com/equine-therapy/ may-night-meadow-sage-salvia-nemorosa/ 67 Kruger, An Illustrated Guide, 16. 68 Ibid, 169. 69 “A Modern Herbal: Tarragon,” Botanical.com. Accessed June 26, 2019. https://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/t/tarrag07.html 70 “A Modern Herbal: Thyme, Garden,” Botanical.com. Accessed June 29, 2019. http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/t/thygar16.html 71 Layton, Julia. “Does Absinthe Really Cause Hallucinations?” January 9, 2007. HowStuffWorks.com Accessed June 27, 2019. https://science. howstuffworks.com/innovation/edible-innovations/absinthe.htm

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A BO U T T H E AU T H O R

D

.J. Herda is a professional author, gourmet chef, and master

indoor/outdoor gardener. He is a former Challenger Space Center project creator/coordinator, syndicated newspa-

per and magazine garden writer and columnist, and test grower for

Jackson & Perkins and the Rodale Institute, along with other recognized innovators in gardening plants and practices. He has written and published more than 80 books and thousands of short pieces. As an avid chef, D.J. has been cooking with dried and fresh herbs for more than 50 years and has been growing herbs indoors in pots for nearly as long. He lives and works in the Rocky Mountains of the southwestern United States. www.djherda.org

A N ot e a b o u t t h e P u b li s h e r New Society Publishers is an activist, solutions-oriented publisher focused on publishing books for a world of change. Our books offer tips, tools, and insights from leading experts in sustainable building, homesteading, climate change, environment, conscientious commerce, renewable energy, and more — positive solutions for troubled times. We’re proud to hold to the highest environmental and social standards of any publisher in North America. When you buy New Society books, you are part of the solution!

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We’re carbon-neutral (since 2006) We’re certified as a B Corporation (since 2016) At New Society Publishers, we care deeply about what we publish— but also about how we do business.

A Guide to Responsible Digital Reading Most readers understand that buying a book printed on 100% recycled, ancient-forest friendly paper is a more environmentally responsible choice than buying one printed on paper made from virgin timber or old-growth forests. In the same way, the choices we make about our electronic reading devices can help minimize the environmental impact of our e-reading. Want to learn more?

Issues and Resources Before your next electronic purchase, find out which companies have the best ratings in terms of environmental and social responsibility. Have the human rights of workers been respected in the manufacture of your device or in the sourcing of raw materials? What are the environmental standards of the countries where your electronics or their components are produced? Are the minerals used in your smartphone, tablet or e-reader conflict-free? How can you help advocate for greater Corporate Social Responsibility at all steps of the manufacturing process? Here are some resources to help you learn more: • • •

The Greenpeace Guide to Greener Electronics Global:Witness: Conflict Minerals Slavery Footprint

Recycle or Repair? In 2018 an estimated 49.8 million metric tonnes of e-waste was generated worldwide. Toxic chemicals in electronics, such as lead, cadmium and mercury, can leach into the land and water over time or can be released into the atmosphere, impacting nearby communities and the environment. The links below will help you to recycle your electronic devices responsibly: • • •

Electronics Take Back Canada - Recycle My Electronics United States - E-cycling central

Of course, the greenest option is to keep your device going as long as possible. IFIXIT.org is spearheading the repair revolution, complete with a consumer bill of rights. Their mission is to provide a viable (and exciting) alternative to the throwaway economy. If you do decide to upgrade, please give some thought to passing your old one along for someone else to use.