Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar, Second Edition [Second Edition] 9781442665330

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YIDDISH: A SURVEY AND A GRAMMAR Second Edition S.A. Birnbaum With new introductory essays by David Birnbaum, Eleazar Birnbaum, Kalman Weiser, and Jean Baumgarten One of the great Yiddish scholars of the twentieth century, S.A. Birnbaum (1891– 1989) published Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar in 1979 towards the end of a long and prolific career. Unlike other grammars and study guides for English speakers, this survey fully describes the dialect and pronunciation used today by most native speakers, while also taking into account other forms of Yiddish such as those associated with secularist and academic circles. The book also includes specimens of Yiddish prose and poetic texts spanning eight centuries, sampling literature from the medieval to modern eras across its vast European geographic expanse. The second edition makes this classic text available again to students, teachers, and Yiddish speakers alike. Featuring three new introductory essays by noted Yiddish scholars, a corrected version of the text, and an expanded and updated bibliography, this book is essential reading for any serious student of Yiddish and its culture. s.a. birnbaum

was a pioneer in the academic study of Yiddish. The first person to hold a teaching post in the study of Yiddish at any university in the world, he taught at the Universities of Hamburg and London.

david birnbaum

Toronto.

is the Director of the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives,

eleazar birnbaum is a professor emeritus in the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations at the University of Toronto.

is the Silber Family Professor of Modern Jewish Studies at York University, Toronto.

kalman weiser

is Directeur de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and the Centre d’Études Juives, Paris, France.

jean baumgarten

Solomon A. Birnbaum at age 90.

SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM

Yiddish A Survey and a Grammar Second Edition With new essays by David Birnbaum, Eleazar Birnbaum, Kalman Weiser, and Jean Baumgarten

university of toronto press toronto buffalo london

First edition: © University of Toronto Press 1979 Second edition: © University of Toronto Press 2016 Toronto Buffalo London www.utppublishing.com Printed in Canada isbn

978-1-4426-1433-8 (paper)  

isbn

978-1-4875-0208-9 (bound)

Printed on acid-free, 100% post-consumer recycled paper with vegetable-based inks. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Birnbaum, Salomo A., 1891−1989, author Yiddish : a survey and a grammar / Solomon A. Birnbaum ; with new essays by David Birnbaum, Eleazar Birnbaum, Kalman Weiser, and Jean Baumgarten. − Second edition. Originally published: University of Toronto Press, 1979. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn 978-1-4875-0208-9 (bound)   isbn 978-1-4426-1433-8 (paperback) 1. Yiddish language − History.  2. Yiddish language − Grammar.  I. Title. pj5115.b52 2016  439'.1  c2015-904823-0 This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Awards to Scholarly Publications Program, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council, an agency of the Government of Ontario.

Funded by the Financé par le Government gouvernement du Canada of Canada

Contents

p r e fa c e t o t h e n e w e d i t i o n



Section A: Introductory Essays 1

ix

A Brief Account of Solomon Birnbaum’s Life By David and Eleazar Birnbaum

2 Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar in its Historical and Cultural Context By Kalman Weiser 3

Solomon A. Birnbaum: An Appreciation of a Lifetime of Scholarship on Yiddish By Jean Baumgarten

Section B: Solomon A. Birnbaum’s Yiddish, a Survey and a Grammar (1979) Section C: 2016 Bibliography and General Index 2016 s u p p l e m e n t

to the bibliography

general index to the

2016

vii

edition

xi

xxiv

lviii lxxix 389 391 431

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Preface to the New Edition

This edition seeks to introduce a new generation to Solomon Birnbaum’s Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (YSG), first published in 1979 by the University of Toronto Press. The main text is identical with that of the original, except that the more important typographical errors have been corrected. These corrections are based on an errata list plus a few additional items and changes, all compiled by the author himself, which he also noted in his own personal copy for inclusion in a future second edition. Some of these changes indicate the further development of his spelling and transcription systems. This new edition contains the following additional features: •

• • •

This preface, which includes a brief account of the author’s life, and some personal reminiscences by his sons David Birnbaum (Director of the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives, Toronto) and Professor Eleazar Birnbaum (University of Toronto); An introduction to the work in its historical, cultural and linguistic context by Professor Kalman (Keith) Weiser, Silber Family Professor of Modern Jewish Studies, Centre for Jewish Studies, York University, Toronto; An historical and literary introduction by Professor Jean Baumgarten of the Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, and the Centre d’Études Juives, in Paris; and A greatly expanded bibliography. More than three decades have passed since Solomon Birnbaum’s comprehensive classified bibliography appeared in the first edition of YSG (309–88).

The original bibliography is admittedly selective, reflecting Birnbaum’s interests, preferences, and the sources available to him, but it remains invaluable to researchers, and its chronological organization offers a view of the evolution of the field of Yiddish Studies. The expanded bibliography in the present new

viii  Preface to the New Edition edition draws upon the supplementary bibliographies found in the re-editions of Birnbaum’s Die Jiddische Sprache as well as many newer materials. It strives to adhere as closely as possible to the norms of Birnbaum’s original bibliography, including its Romanization system. Each new section of this updated bibliography follows chronologically from the relevant section of the original bibliography. The new Abbreviations section incorporates and adds to the Abbreviations section of the first edition. For this new edition, Jean Baumgarten has updated the onomastic, historical, and literary bibliographic sections (1–2, 10–15, 17–18), and Kalman Weiser has done the same for the linguistic ones and the ‘Bibliographic Writings’ section (3–9, 16). We have also introduced a new section about Solomon Birnbaum’s life and work (21). The field of Yiddish Studies has expanded − and continues to grow − so much since the original volume of YSG was published, however, that the compilers of this extended bibliography can make no claim that it is near exhaustive. We regret that many valuable studies are not included or are not listed individually for lack of space. To remedy, if only partly, this situation, we have created a new section titled ‘Yiddish Studies Collections’ (20). In the citations in the essays in this volume, the titles of Yiddish-language works, and the personal names of authors writing in Yiddish are rendered in Roman letters in two parallel forms: according to the guidelines set forth by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research and then, after a slash, according to Solomon Birnbaum’s own system, e.g. Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim. In contrast, the spelling of personal names and Yiddish terms appearing in the body of the essays generally follows the conventions of contemporary scholarship. The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe serves as our guide in most cases. Hence, for example, we use Max Weinreich in the text but Maks Vaynraykh/ Maks Vaanraax in citations. Hebrew terms and titles in the notes are Romanized according to the system employed by Solomon Birnbaum in the bibliographical section of the original edition of YSG. The same is done in the body of the essays for Hebrew items unless there exist commonly accepted spellings of them in English-language scholarship. For more on YIVO’s system of Romanization for Yiddish, see Uriel Weinreich, Modern English-Yiddish Yiddish-English Dictionary (New York: YIVO, 1999), xx–xi, xxiv–xxv. See also Kalman Weiser’s essay in this volume for an illustrated comparison of the YIVO and Birnbaum systems for Yiddish.* * A Note of Appreciation We wish to express our grateful thanks to our colleague Kalman Weiser for his special efforts in preparing this edition for publication. Eleazar Birnbaum, David Birnbaum, and Jean Baumgarten.

SECTION A

INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS

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1 A Brief Account of Solomon Birnbaum’s Life David and Eleazar Birnbaum

Biographical Outline The eldest of the three sons of the distinguished Jewish thinker and writer Nathan Birnbaum, our father Solomon A./Salomo Birnbaum was born in Vienna, Austria on 24 December 1891.1 He did pioneer work in two main fields: Yiddish and other Jewish languages, and Hebrew palaeography. He held the first university position in Yiddish in Germany (and presumably in the world) as Dozent at the University of Hamburg, from 1922 to 1933. After moving to England in 1933 when the Nazis came to power, he held positions at two divisions of the University of London: in Hebrew Palaeography at the School of Oriental and African Studies (1936–1957), and in Yiddish at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (1938–1957). He continued research and publication until his death in Toronto in 1989, shortly after his 98th birthday. Jewish Languages Solomon Birnbaum’s native language was German, but he became interested in Yiddish while in his teens. In 1908, at the age of 16, he attended the international Conference on the Yiddish Language, convened by his father at Czernowitz (capital of the Habsburg Empire’s province of Bukovina). It was in that city, where he lived from 1908 to 1910, that he perfected his Yiddish, while attending the ‘German’ Gymnasium (high school), where most of his fellow-students were native Yiddish speakers. Already intensely interested in languages, he now began to make linguistic notes on the Yiddish of his Czernowitz classmates, and so – informally – began his career as a scholar of Yiddish. In 1910 he returned to Vienna, where he studied architecture at the Technische Hochschule. After two years he ran out of money, and had to abandon the course. His architectural drawings from this time show that he was a fine and careful draftsman, a talent also seen in his later meticulous drawings of the Hebrew

[. . ]

xii  David and Eleazar Birnbaum letters in old manuscripts, drawn in the course of his palaeographical research. In 1912, together with his brothers Uriel and Menachem, he started a business in commercial art in Berlin (where his father was living at the time). After the First World War broke out the business ended, and in 1915 the whole Birnbaum family returned to Vienna. Our father enrolled in the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg) army in 1915, and was promoted to lieutenant. In his military unit the language of command was German, but the soldiers were native speakers of many different linguistic groups – it was a polyglot Empire! His unit included Yiddish speakers and native speakers of Judezmu (‘Judeo-Spanish’) from Bosnia, and he took the opportunity to question the speakers of each of these languages. For instance, he taught German to one Jewish soldier from Sarajevo, in exchange for instruction in Džidezmu/Judezmo. His later publications benefitted from the knowledge thus gained. His first period in the army was spent in Slavonia (now part of Croatia), then in 1916 he was sent to the Italian front near Gorizia (north of Trieste), where on 3 November 1916 he was severely wounded when a bullet passed through his neck between his windpipe and spine. (His brother Uriel was also severely wounded.) Moreover, he contracted malaria and then the deadly 1918 influenza. He spent the rest of the war in military hospitals and convalescent homes. Around this time he became a religiously observant Jew, and remained so for the rest of his life, which profoundly influenced his choice of subjects for scholarship. In 1915, at the age of 23, he drafted his Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache, the first well-organized grammar of the Yiddish language, which was finally published in 1918.2 While in the trenches, hospitals, and convalescent homes, he corrected the proofs of his Grammatik, and in 1918 drafted what ultimately became his PhD dissertation in 1921: Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, published in 1922.3 From 1918 on, as was quite common at the time, our father attended several universities in succession, where he studied Oriental languages, and gained his PhD in 1921 at the University of Würzburg, Germany.4 At the University of Hamburg in 1922 there were two professors interested in Yiddish: Conrad Borchling and Heinrich Meyer-Benfey (neither of them Jewish), and it was through the former’s recommendation that he was offered a post as Dozent (lecturer) in Yiddish at that University.5 This position was specially created for him, and he stayed until May 1933 when, at the onset of the Nazi regime in Germany, he and his family fled to England, where his wife had grown up. He was appointed lecturer at the University of London in Hebrew Palaeography and Epigraphy at the School of Oriental and African Studies (1936–1957), and also in Yiddish at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (1939–1957), both posts specially created for him. Besides Yiddish, he studied many other Jewish languages – some living, some dead – and

xiii  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life did pioneer research in many of them. For example: Džidezmu/Judezmo/Džidyo/ Jidyo/Jidic (‘Judeo-Spanish’), Bukharic (a form of ‘Judeo-Persian’), Yevanic (‘Judeo-Greek’), Arvic (‘Judeo-Arabic’), Zarphatic (‘Judeo-French’), Italkian (‘Judeo-Italian’), Krimchak (‘Judeo-Turkish’ of the Crimea), etc. For articles on some of these, see vol. 1 of the work cited in footnote 1, chapters 1, 2, 21–27. Hebrew Palaeography Through his study of early Yiddish manuscripts from the 1920s on, our father became interested in Hebrew palaeography (the differing shapes of the Hebrew letters over time and place), and in 1929 submitted a Habilitation (advanced PhD) thesis on a palaeographical subject to Hamburg University (see below, in the Personal Reminiscences section, p. xvi). His comparison of the shapes of the letters in old dated Yiddish manuscripts with those that were undated became important for his study of the historical development of the Yiddish language.6 He gradually expanded this interest in the changing shapes of the letters of Hebrew alphabets to the forms used in any Jewish language – anywhere, at any period. He assembled a large collection of photographs of both dated and undated manuscripts and arranged them by geographic origin, and then by date. Thus began his scientific study of Hebrew scripts from the earliest times till the twentieth century. In 1948, after the Dead Sea Scrolls had been discovered, but before they were publicly known, Père Roland de Vaux of the École Biblique in Jerusalem sent him, in confidence, photographs of several manuscripts, asking his opinion on their dates and authenticity. Based on his previous research and drawings of lettershapes, he assigned mostly pre-Christian dates to them. For the next decade the ‘Battle of the Dead Sea Scrolls’ was waged by academic scholars as more scrolls and fragments came to light. Some scholars found his datings convincing, while others claimed medieval dates. Some asserted that Hebrew palaeography was only guesswork, and not a scientific discipline; others insisted that early dates were impossible because the proto-Masoretic text of some scrolls conflicted with their own long-held theories on the dates of the redaction of the Bible. Our father published a series of detailed palaeographical studies on the various Dead Sea materials in scholarly journals. The dates he assigned were confirmed some years later when carbon-14 tests were applied to the Scrolls: his dates were usually right in the middle of the periods indicated by these tests. There is now general agreement that Hebrew palaeography is a legitimate systematic discipline, and that on scientific, archaeological, and palaeographic grounds, the Dead Sea Scrolls and other finds in the region mostly date from approximately the second century BCE to the first century CE, although some date from as early as the fourth century BCE – all of which essentially confirm his original datings.

xiv  David and Eleazar Birnbaum His path-breaking palaeographical work found its climax in his handsome two-volume work The Hebrew Scripts (1954–1971), which, with its over six hundred photographs and charts, and detailed discussions, still serves as a basic reference.7 During the years of the Second World War, our father was seconded to the British government’s postal censorship in Liverpool (1939-1945), in the ‘Uncommon Languages Division’ headed by Prof. Norman Jopson, where he examined all mail written in Yiddish, Hebrew, and all other Jewish languages, as well as some other languages. It was there that he became aware of the genocide of the Jews that was taking place in continental Europe, before it was generally known, and he made great efforts to influence the British government to take action against it. In 1970 he and his wife Irene and their youngest son David (who had been born in London) immigrated to Toronto, Canada, where his second son, Eleazar, was teaching at the University of Toronto. Their eldest son Jacob, founder of the grassroots movement to free Soviet Jewry, was living in New York, and their daughter Eva (Guttentag) remained with her family in England. He spent the last nineteen years of his life in Toronto, continuing active research in both his chosen fields: Yiddish and other Jewish languages, and Hebrew palaeography. He died there on 28 December 1989, soon after his 98th birthday. His scholarly articles appeared in academic journals over a period of more than sixty years. Many of them brought path-breaking changes to their academic fields. In 2011 a selection of sixty-three of his articles (the majority in English) was published under the title Solomon/Salomo A. Birnbaum: Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft/A Lifetime of Achievement, edited by Erika Timm, Eleazar Birnbaum, and David Birnbaum (de Gruyter: Berlin/Boston), in 2 volumes, the first on Yiddish and other Jewish languages, the second on Hebrew palaeography. Some Personal Reminiscences The following collection of personal reminiscences may give a more rounded view of our father’s personality. From a quite early age our father was passionate about Yiddish. Professor Jess Olson, while doing research on Nathan Birnbaum in the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives in Toronto, found letters from Solomon to his father Nathan Birnbaum. In the earliest one, dated 10 November 1907, our father, who at the time had not yet reached his 16th birthday, insisted on writing to his father almost exclusively in Yiddish rather than in German, which was their native tongue. Solomon wrote the following letter to his father, presumably when Nathan was travelling prior to a visit to the United States, where he landed in New York on 1 January 1908.

xv  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life ‘I read every day in Yiddish and Hebrew,’ Solomon writes in one letter [dated 4 January 1908]. ‘You have no idea how difficult it is for me to improve my Yiddish’; he complains in another, ‘having only books to learn from’ [letter dated January 7, 1908]. In one fascinating letter, dated January 14, 1908, Solomon writes the following after in his own German-inflected Yiddish, scolding his father [for giving speeches in German] … ‘That you must speak German is certainly better for your [political] party, but for [i.e. what about] your principles?’8 When Nathan Birnbaum convened the Czernowitz Conference in 1908, our father, who was only 16 years old, also attended. One would imagine, therefore, that the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives in Toronto would contain a full range of documents from the Conference. Yet this is not the case. No official proceedings (Protokol) of the Conference were ever published, because they were mislaid or lost. How could this have happened? After looking through boxed files for 1908 in the Archives, we were surprised to find that there was almost no material from the Conference itself, although there was quite a lot of material from both before and after. Our father told us that after the Conference his father Nathan Birnbaum asked him to work on these papers by arranging and editing them. Although he was not yet 17, it was definitely not our father’s style to lose important papers! Right from his boyhood he was always very meticulous and well-organized. When the YIVO book on the Czernowitz Conference9 was being assembled (1928–1930), the distinguished Yiddish scholar Max Weinreich corresponded with our father and grandfather, asking them for information about the Conference. After our father had finished working on the Conference papers, probably in 1908, he had apparently been told to give them to a Mr. Gottlieb, a participant in the Conference. In a letter dated 7 January 1931 our father mentioned to Max Weinreich that Mr. Gottlieb, living in Czernowitz, had these documents. Clearly, Max Weinreich was unable to retrieve them, either because he could not find Mr. Gottlieb, or Mr. Gottlieb had lost them, or – just as likely – there were no funds available in about 1910 to publish them, and Mr. Gottlieb presumably disposed of them at some point, perhaps thinking that they were no longer worth keeping. In any case, they were never seen again. Our cousin Mirjam Birnbaum (daughter of our father’s youngest brother, the artist and poet Uriel Birnbaum) described a scene that her father told her took place in an Austrian military convalescent hospital, where both Solomon and Uriel were recovering from war wounds. Uriel sat in his bed surrounded by a group of admirers, laughing and having a lively time, while Solomon sat quietly in his bed working on his papers (probably correcting the proofs of his Das hebräische

xvi  David and Eleazar Birnbaum und aramäische Element). Uriel’s later comment to Mirjam was ‘Der Moni (family name for Salomon) … und seine Bücher!’ (‘That Moni … with his books!’). Our father enjoyed telling the story of when, as a student in Vienna, he and some other Jewish and Yiddish-speaking students went swimming outside the city, in the River Danube or perhaps a lake. One of his companions got into difficulties and cried out ‘Gevalt!/Gyvalt!’ (‘Help!’ in Yiddish). After he was rescued, the other young men amused themselves by telling him he should have called out ‘Zu Hilfe!’ (the ‘correct’ German!) – a joking reference to the belief that Yiddish was simply a corrupt form of German. After our father’s death we came across files on a subject that was never mentioned to us. This was typical, as he was the sort of man who did not spend time and effort in looking backwards at unpleasant memories – he always looked ahead. In 1926, while teaching at Hamburg University, he submitted a dissertation (Habilitation) on modern Hebrew poetry for a further, more advanced, doctorate.10 He was ‘advised’ to withdraw it. So in 1929 he submitted a new and totally different dissertation on palaeography,11 but it too was rejected. Our father did not know the reasons for this: his dissertations were certainly immaculately researched and written. But – and this was also typical of him – he just picked himself up, dusted himself off, and got on with his life. Only 55 years later did some of the reasons emerge. In 1983 Dr. Peter Freimark of the Institut für die Geschichte der deutschen Juden (Institute for the History of German Jews) in Hamburg, who was researching what went on in Hamburg University during the Hitler years, wrote to our father about why these dissertations had been rejected. In the first case, two of the adjudicating professors objected to it with completely irrelevant arguments, one of them apparently on ideological grounds. In the second case, one of the adjudicators was an Austrian Nazi, and another was critical of it, probably also for antisemitic reasons.12 In fact, none of the adjudicators were experts in the subjects of either dissertation. Dr. Freimark wrote to our father that it would be understandable if he were bitter about this. However, he replied that he did not feel bitter. He said that at the time he neither knew what the reasons were for the rejections, nor who had made the decisions, and now it was in the distant past. Freimark commented in his chapter that Solomon Birnbaum was so generous-minded that he had never said one critical word about these events, but had expressed only his gratitude to his former colleagues who had supported the promotion of Yiddish studies at Hamburg University. He probably had in mind the support he received for – among other things – his proposed Institutum Germano-Judaicum (or Institutum Ascenezicum) (see below).

xvii  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life After the Anschluss in 1938, when Germany annexed Austria, that same Nazi professor who had rejected his 1929 dissertation was appointed Rektor of Graz University, but did not enjoy his new honour for very long; he died a few months later, in 1939. The absence of a consistent spelling system for Yiddish was an important concern for our father. Publications were haphazard in their orthography (spelling), and often spelled the same word differently – even on the same page. The situation was complicated by the phonetic differences between the various Yiddish dialects. Starting in 1915, when he was writing the first edition of his Grammatik, he gradually designed an interdialectal orthography that would serve all the different dialects. His orthography gained wide use: in 1930 his spelling system was adopted by the Bais Iaankyv/Beys-yankev (‘Beth Jacob’) girls’ school system in Poland – the largest Jewish school network there – and was used in its many publications. Alas, the schools were all destroyed when the Germans invaded Poland. When he submitted his own work in Yiddish to other publishers, the printers would often arbitrarily ‘correct’ his spelling, substituting inconsistent orthographies to which they were accustomed. They even made changes to his grammar, syntax, and vocabulary! His frustration was sometimes expressed in informal handwritten notes to himself, such as this one about the changes made by the printer to an article he had written in Der Tog/Der Tug newspaper (19 October 1929): ‘.‫’וואס הבחור הרעדאקטאר האט אויסגיבעסערט אחוץ דעם אויסלייג‬ On page xviii, we reproduce his careful handwritten instructions to the typesetter for the 1979 edition of his Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar. Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. On 3 May our father left that country and travelled to Holland. In June, after he was joined there by our mother and their three young children, the whole family travelled to London. (A fourth child was born in London later that year.) Life there was extremely difficult. They lived in cramped rented rooms in part of a house, and had no way of making a real living. A little private teaching brought in only a pittance. One day a stranger knocked on the door, and when the door was opened, he held out a copy of the 1918 edition of our father’s Yiddish grammar and said, ‘Are you Dr. Birnbaum, the author of this book? I am Norman Jopson. I heard yesterday that you were in London, and I just had to come round to see you immediately.’ Professor Norman Brooke Jopson was a non-Jewish scholar who was at that time teaching at the School of Slavonic Studies, University of London (later Professor

xix  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life at St. John’s College, Cambridge University). He was a brilliant linguist: it was said that he could master the essentials of a language in a single weekend. He obviously recognized our parents’ poor circumstances, and sometime later, quite unexpectedly, an invitation arrived for our father to give a series of three public lectures on the Yiddish language at the University of London. These were held in April and May of 1934 at University College, under the chairmanship of Professor Jopson, who had set them up. He gave a second series at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies in October 1938.13 His lecture on 12 October was published as The Age of the Yiddish Language in the Transactions of the Philological Society in 1939. In it he first put forward the view – now widely held, but at the time extraordinary – that Yiddish was a thousand years old. Considering that English was much less known on Continental Europe at that time, it is remarkable that, within a year of coming to Britain, he gave these lectures in English. Prof. Jopson, after trying unsuccessfully in 1935 to arrange a Hebrew Research Fellowship for our father, was instrumental in securing funding for his eventual research lectureship in Hebrew Palaeography and Epigraphy in 1936 at the University of London’s School of Oriental and African Studies. Jopson quietly contributed a substantial sum of his own money for three years towards the establishment of that lectureship. No wonder our father referred to him in a public speech as ‘my dear friend Norman Jopson.’ During the Second World War, the British Postal Censorship brought together the greatest linguists in Britain under one roof in Liverpool, and our father made full use of such an opportunity to learn other languages and discuss comparative linguistics. At times people approached him with surprising requests. On one occasion, a colleague showed him a letter and asked him in what language it was written. He answered that it was in Armenian, and the person then asked ‘What does it say?’ Our father replied, ‘I don‘t know – I don’t know Armenian,’ at which the person exclaimed, ‘What do you mean, you don’t know! Armenian is an uncommon language, and isn’t this the Uncommon Languages Division?’ Liverpool was an extremely important port for trans-Atlantic shipping, and was heavily bombed during the War. Our father was too old to serve in the British armed forces, but became an official Fire Watcher and spent many nights on the roof of the Postal Censorship building watching for and reporting on fires which broke out as a result of bombing by German airplanes. For his service he was awarded the (British) Civil Defence Medal. It is ironic that during the First World War he was awarded two medals by Austria-Hungary, an ally of Germany, against which Britain had been fighting. All three of these medals are preserved in the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives in Toronto.

xx  David and Eleazar Birnbaum Our father always maintained a passion for research. While living in London he would go very regularly to the libraries of the School of Oriental and African Studies, and the British Museum to keep up with the latest academic publications. At home he kept a card index of many thousands of bibliographical references. Before photocopies were inexpensive and easily available, he would often handcopy relevant articles from academic journals for his files. For many years after moving to Canada, he would visit the University of Toronto library weekly to survey the newest publications. As a researcher he was meticulous, and in his philosophy of life one of his defining characteristics was his fearless pursuit of the truth. He would pursue a line of research and thinking, following a logical and verifiable process, without being diverted by considerations as to whether his results would upset current theories – or even his own. He was very organized in his work habits, and was thus able to produce a prodigious amount of high quality work in all his chosen fields. He was deeply attached both to Yiddish and to Hebrew palaeography. Many years ago his son David asked him whether he thought that his Yiddish linguistic work or his palaeographical work would be remembered as the most significant, and his answer was, after a moment’s thought, ‘Probably my work on Yiddish.’ David was surprised, as he had thought (and still thinks) that they were equally significant. Throughout his life he retained a spirit of curiosity and sense of adventure. He was in his 79th year when he moved from London to Toronto, and he continued his research and the publication of its results without delay. Between the ages of 86 and 87 he wrote and saw through the publication of his Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (published 1979). He had first visited North America in 1966, giving a series of guest lectures on Hebrew palaeography at leading universities in Canada and the United States. On settling in Canada in 1970 he was eager to explore the North American environment, and for the next 19 years he and our mother travelled (mainly with his son David, usually by car) all over the continent, recording his travels on film – as he put it, ‘for the record.’ Despite his ideological differences with the linguistic methodology of YIVO (Institute for Jewish Research), he gave a course of lectures to YIVO students and staff in 1972 when he was 80 years old, flying to New York every week. The students there greatly appreciated his perspective, which differed from that of YIVO. In 1986, at 94, he travelled from Toronto to Trier, Germany accompanied by his son Eleazar to receive an honorary doctorate from its University. He had very close relations with the scholars of Yiddish there, ever since the

xxi  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life establishment of Yiddish studies at that University. In his acceptance speech, our father referred to the period when he lectured in Yiddish at the University of Hamburg.14 At the beginning of 1933 he had sent a letter to a great number of leading – specifically non-Jewish – scholars in Germany (also some in Austria and Switzerland), inviting them to sign an appeal for the establishment in Hamburg of an institute for Yiddish language research and other Ashkenazic studies, which he tentatively named Institutum Germano-Judaicum. Between 28 January and 22 April 1933, sixty supportive (often extremely supportive) replies were received. Most of them were sent in February 1933, after Hitler had been appointed Reichskanzler (chancellor) on 30 January, and the Nazis were already in the midst of a campaign of violence and intimidation against anyone who disagreed with them. Thirteen positive replies were sent in March, the last four even a week after the election of 5 March 1933. On 23 March the Reichstag gave Hitler all the powers of a dictator. Our father said that those who signed in support of the appeal were the cream of German linguistic scholarship. Indeed, they were willing, even after Hitler’s advent, to take the risk of supporting such a venture! Although our father was, in his scholarship, rigorous, demanding, and above all, self-demanding, many – both scholars and students – who sought his advice or help have testified to his kindness, warmth, and humanity. Among them, Professor Erika Timm wrote in her introduction to a published selection of his articles: He invariably acted as an indefatigable and unbiased adviser. Anyone who approached him with a technical question was astounded by his virtually inexhaustible knowledge and impressive willingness to impart information and to engage in dialogue … an individualist of exceptional personal nobility … a generous and friendly adviser … a steadfast representative of supranational ideals, and an extraordinarily kind person.15 A final, and very important, note. Throughout his academic life our father had a very influential, though virtually unseen collaborator: his wife (our mother) Irene (Rikl). She was a gifted translator and literary stylist in her own right, to whom he dedicated his magnum opus The Hebrew Scripts. From the time of their marriage in 1925 until 1982 when her health deteriorated, she read and critiqued virtually everything he wrote in English, examining every paragraph for the logic of its content and its literary form. Practically all his published work bears her indelible imprint.

xxii  David and Eleazar Birnbaum Notes 1

2

3 4

5 6

7

8

For a more detailed biography of S.A. Birnbaum, in both English and German, and a scholarly bibliography of his works, see Erika Timm, Eleazar Birnbaum, and David Birnbaum, eds. Salomo/Solomon A. Birnbaum – Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft/A Lifetime of Achievement, 2 vols, (Berlin/ Boston: de Gruyter, 2011). Republished with the title Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache in Hamburg in 1966, 1979, 1984, and 1988, each time with additions to the bibliography by the author. In his Foreword to the 1984 edition he describes some of the difficulties experienced in getting the first edition published. (In 2011, in an unauthorized printing, the 1918 edition was re-published unchanged by Lincom Europa.) His Yiddish: A Survey and A Grammar (henceforth, YSG), with vastly expanded historical, cultural, and grammatical information, was published in 1979. 2nd edition, Hamburg, 1986, with a Nachwort by Walter Röll. The universities and the often eminent professors under whom he studied are listed in his Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, 1922: University of Vienna – Professors Gayer, Gomperz, Grohmann, Kretschmer, Reininger, and Stöhr; Zürich – Professors Freytag, Hausheer, Lipps, and Schinz; Berlin – Professors Frank, Ed. Meyer, Mittwoch, Sachau, Spranger, and Strack; Würzburg – Professors Jiriczek, Marbe and Streck. YSG, 39. ‘He was able to demonstrate that up to approximately the 13th century there was virtually no difference between the script of the Jews of Northern France and Germany i.e., Ashkenazi Jews, and he utilized this realization to support a strong argument that the original homeland of most German Jews was Romanic, and not Byzantine-Slavic.’ ‘Fundamental points [which were] already made [in an article] in 1931.’ See Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol 2, xxii. An earlier version was under preparation in 1939, but had to be abandoned when the Second World War broke out, and the plates, which were being processed in the Netherlands, were destroyed. This delay allowed our father to include and discuss samples from the Dead Sea Scrolls (see Preface to Birnbaum, The Hebrew Scripts, part 1, 21). Quoted in Jess Olson, ‘A Tale of Two Photographs,’ in Czernowitz at 100. The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical Perspective, Kalman Weiser and Joshua Fogel, eds., (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010), 37. See also Jess Olson: Nathan Birnbaum and Jewish Modernity: Architect of Zionism, Yiddishism and Orthodoxy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013), 181, 343n66.

xxiii  Solomon Birnbaum’s Life   9  YIVO, ed. Di ershte yidishe shprakh-konferents…1908/Di éirśty Iîdiśy śprax-konferénc…1908. (Vilna, 1931). 10  Die moderne hebräische Poesie, Form und Inhalt. 11  Die nordjüdischen Kursivschrift: Eine Studie zur hebräischen Buchstaben­ geschichte. This would have been a pioneer work on Hebrew palaeography. 12  See Peter Freimark, ‘Juden an der Hamburger Universität’ in Hochschulalltag im dritten Reich: Die Hamburger Universität 1933−1945, Eckart Krause, Ludwig Huber, and Holger Fischer, eds. (Berlin-Hamburg: D. Reimer, 1991), 129−33, 144−5. See also: Reiner Hering, ‘“Sprache und Kultur des Judentums” in Nationalsozialismus: Walter Windfuhrs Lehrtätigkeit an der Hamburger Universität.’ Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte 80 (1994), 141–51. 13  An earlier series of lectures: The Origins and Characteristics of the Yiddish Language and the History of its Literature was held at Jews College, London, in January 1934. 14  Verleihung der Würde eines Ehrendoktors der Universität Trier an Dr. Salomo Birnbaum, 4 Juni, Trier 1986; and Salomo A. Birnbaum, ‘Institutum Ascenezicum,’ Leo Baeck Year Book 17 (1972): 243−9. 15  Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 2, xxiv, xxv.

2 Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar in its Historical and Cultural Context1 Kalman Weiser

The twentieth century saw the publication of two major grammars and study guides for English-speakers of modern Eastern Yiddish, the traditional vernacular of the Jews of Eastern Europe.2 The first, College Yiddish (1949), was written while its author, Uriel Weinreich (1926-1967), was a twenty-three-year-old doctoral candidate at Columbia University.3 The second, Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (YSG, 1979), appeared three decades later. In contrast with College Yiddish, YSG represents the mature fruit of a long and remarkably prolific career spanning almost the entirety of the twentieth century. Its author Solomon Birnbaum (1891-1989) was the first to occupy a position in Yiddish in a modern university, which he did in 1920s Hamburg. He was also a pioneer in the academic study of Yiddish and Jewish languages in general, and the founder of the field of Hebrew palaeography, subjects to which he continued to devote himself after fleeing Nazi Germany and living for decades in England and later Canada. Yet, he first articulated many of his most profound and enduring insights about Yiddish during his adolescence and early adulthood. Birnbaum (known in his writings in German generally as Salomo, in English as Solomon A., and in his Yiddish contributions as Shloyme/Śloimy) composed his first book in 1915, Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache für den Selbstunterricht, also at the age of twenty-three (the book was not published, however, until 1918). Remarkably, he wrote it before having received formal linguistics training. A classic and foundational work of Yiddish scholarship, this pocket-sized German language grammar of Yiddish lies – in a much expanded and revised English version – at the heart of YSG’s grammar section. Intended as an introduction to the language and its culture for university undergraduates, Weinreich’s College Yiddish debuted following the era of the Second World War, when Yiddish was first being introduced into the curricula of American universities. This was largely the achievement of the author’s father,

[. . ]

xxv  Historical and Cultural Context the renowned linguist and Yiddish scholar Max Weinreich. The elder Weinreich was a co-founder and the guiding spirit of the Yiddish Scientific Institute (Yidisher visnshaftlekher institut/Iîdiśer visnśaftlexer institút; known in English by the acronym YIVO), which was conceived to function as a national library, language academy, and university for a Yiddish-speaking, diasporic Jewish people. Unattached to any government apparatus, it was headquartered in Vilna, Poland, but maintained branches in Eastern European Jewish immigrant centres around the world in the period between the two world wars. Arriving in New York City as a refugee in 1940 in the company of his teenage son, Max Weinreich committed himself to building Yiddish scholarship on American shores and became the inaugural professor of Yiddish at City College in New York in 1947.4 In 1952, after completing a doctorate in linguistics, Uriel was appointed to the newly created Atran Chair of Yiddish Language, Literature and Culture at Columbia University. A product of both the Yiddish secular schools of Vilna and American educational institutions, he compressed the work of several lifetimes into a brilliant career as both a Yiddish scholar and general linguist until cancer cut him down in his prime.5 Much like their authors, who both established prominent careers in Englishspeaking lands, these two masterpieces of modern Yiddish scholarship share many parallels but have had very different fates. The two volumes, written by scholars who cordially disagreed about much, complement as much as compete with each other;6 together, they reflect different perspectives on the language while illuminating its broader cultural history. While Birnbaum’s Praktische Grammatik was the first sophisticated grammar of Yiddish in any language, Weinreich’s College Yiddish, published more than thirty years later, became the first scientific English-language grammar of Yiddish and remains a standard text for beginners more than sixty years since its first publication. It has been only slightly revised in more than twenty new editions and reprintings since 1949, making it as much a fascinating cultural artefact as a tool for learning ‘Standard Yiddish.’ Standard Yiddish is ‘largely a “common-ground” variety of Eastern Yiddish in which many of the most dialect-marked features are dropped …’ Its ‘ideal’ pronunciation or orthoepy is that of the pre−Second World War secular Jewish intelligentsia of Vilna.7 Beyond imparting basic competency in Standard Yiddish, the book seeks to distil through its cultural component the essence of a remarkably diverse and vibrant civilization that had only recently been murdered by Germany and its accomplices. College Yiddish sees religion as having played a major role in shaping Ashkenazi Jewish cultural life and the Yiddish language. Still, it emphasizes a modern, secular era in pre−Second World War Eastern Europe as the culmination of this civilization, and implies a secular future for Yiddish.8 The book’s longevity

xxvi  Kalman Weiser is due not only to its general excellence but also to its association with YIVO, which has played the leading role in codifying and disseminating the norms of Standard Yiddish in non-ultra Orthodox circles in the post-war era, and has become the language’s de facto authority in academic circles. Most universityeducated students of Yiddish today are familiar with both this work and Uriel Weinreich’s magisterial Modern English-Yiddish Yiddish-English Dictionary, the leading bi-directional dictionary for these languages, which similarly prescribes the norms of Standard Yiddish.9 In contrast, although YSG’s Part One (‘Jewish Languages’ and ‘The Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry’) and Part Two, chapter 1 (‘The External History of Yiddish’) contain much information of interest to non-specialists, it is a work known mainly to experts. In many ways, it also constitutes a polemic against the norms promoted by YIVO and the entire ideology of Yiddishism, the movement to transform Yiddish from the folk language of the traditionally religious Jews of Eastern Europe into the officially recognized language of a modern, secularized Jewish nation. Best suited to more advanced language learners and to linguists, YSG has remained out of print and difficult to obtain until the current edition. Like his famous father Nathan Birnbaum (1864-1937), Solomon Birnbaum was very much an individualist. He lived most of his life on the geographic periphery of Yiddish culture rather than in cities with dense Jewish concentrations such as Warsaw, Vilna, or New York.10 Despite spending most of his formative years in Vienna, he identified not with acculturated German-speaking Jewry, but with the Orthodox Jews of Eastern Europe, most of whom spoke Yiddish but did not share his lionization of the language. Solomon Birnbaum was still in high school when he embarked upon what would become a life’s path as an uncompromising champion of Yiddish and the cultural distinctiveness of traditional Ashkenazi Jewry. His very insistence upon referring to the language in his earliest writings in German as Jiddisch (Yiddish) – the designation commonly used by its speakers – and not Judeo-German (Jüdischdeutsch) or some other externally imposed term then in vogue, testifies to his maverick obstinacy at an early age.11 For personal and ideological reasons, Birnbaum avoided close collaboration with many of the notoriously fractious community of ideologically-committed Yiddish scholars and cultural activists. Although they shared his love of Yiddish, they were often quite indifferent, if not hostile, to religious practice.12 As a matter of principle, his work rejects many of the secularist and ‘northernist’ assumptions of YIVO scholarship and offers a guide to the language based on the southern dialects spoken by the vast majority of Yiddish speakers to this day. As such, its masterful grammar section, which draws on materials systematically culled from the spoken language,13 presents a welcome challenge to many of the positions widely accepted in university pedagogy and expands students’ understanding of the dynamics of Yiddish as a living language.

xxvii  Historical and Cultural Context A more comprehensive reference to the language than College Yiddish, YSG also covers some grammatical topics (such as verbal aspect) too advanced for a beginner’s textbook, and gives greater attention to the sounds and script of the language.14 It presents Yiddish language materials in both Standard Yiddish Orthography (SYO, also known by its Yiddish name der eynheytlekher oysleyg/der ainhaitlexer ous-laig, ‘unitary spelling’), the spelling system promoted by YIVO, and in his own ingenious interdialectal system that enables the reader to pronounce words in any of the three major dialects of Eastern Yiddish: Northeastern Yiddish (NEY, popularly known as ‘Lithuanian’ or Litvish/Litviś), Central (CY, ‘Polish’), and Southeastern (SEY, ‘Ukrainian’).15 Further, the volume, which is almost exclusively based on the author’s own painstaking research, contains invaluable overviews of such topics as the phonological evolution of the language,16 the relationship between Yiddish’s constituent ‘components’ (Germanic, Semitic, Romance, and Slavic), the development of Jewish languages and writing systems in general, and the role of Judaism as a religious civilization in shaping Yiddish. It also contains a toponymical list explicating ‘Jewish geography’ (the Yiddish names for regions historically populated by Jews) and an invaluable bibliography of important works in the field. Birnbaum’s interests were hardly limited to the linguistic or religious dimensions of Yiddish Studies, however. The book includes specimens of Yiddish prose and poetic texts spanning eight centuries, providing a rich tapestry for the appreciation of Yiddish literature from the medieval to modern eras across its vast European geographic expanse and through the Holocaust. In short, Birnbaum’s Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar is essential reading for any serious student of Yiddish and its culture, Ashkenazi Jewry, or Germanic languages. The Emergence of a Yiddish Scholarship In Solomon Birnbaum’s youth, Yiddish was widely denied recognition as an autonomous language. Instead, it was commonly derided as a corrupted German dialect, an unruly, unaesthetic amalgam of Slavic, Semitic, and Germanic elements spoken only by the most unenlightened of Jews – those millions dwelling in poverty in ‘semi-barbaric’ Eastern Europe or in immigrant quarters in Central and Western European and American cities. Yiddish was commonly assumed to be a product of Jews’ forced medieval segregation, its origins lying in ‘correct’ German that had been carried by Jews into Central European ghettos or beyond them into Eastern Europe. There it decayed over generations from its pristine state, proof of the vast chasm separating the lucky few, the ‘civilized’ (i.e. acculturated) Jews of the West and the ‘benighted’ majority, the distinctively Jewish masses in the East. That it was the historic language of all of Ashkenazi Jews was largely forgotten, repressed, or denied by those Jews whose ancestors had abandoned it in the course of the nineteenth century for German and other languages of modern states.

xxviii  Kalman Weiser Since the beginnings of activity in the late eighteenth century on behalf of the Jews’ civil and political emancipation in the West, Yiddish’s disappearance was eagerly anticipated. The internal ‘Jewish Enlightenment,’ the Haskalah, typically denigrated the Jews’ mother tongue. It similarly encouraged Jews to embrace the language of the state as part of its program for them to transcend their traditional intellectual, cultural, and social boundaries. What little modern scholarship did exist about Yiddish by the late nineteenth century typically treated it as a minor phenomenon, a subfield of German philology rather than as a field in its own right demanding knowledge of Germanic, Semitic, Slavic, and Romance linguistics, in addition to deep familiarity with Jewish cultural history.17 These attitudes first began to change toward the turn of the twentieth century with the advent of the Jewish nationalist movement. Its founders, themselves often westernized Jews estranged from Jewish tradition, came to re-evaluate Jewish languages – first Hebrew and later Yiddish and other languages – for their cultural, sociological, and political value. Even before the Russified labour Zionist Ber Borochov published his epoch-making essay ‘The Tasks of Yiddish Philology’ declaring the promotion, study, and standardization of Yiddish a national necessity,18 Yiddish found an impassioned advocate in Solomon Birnbaum’s father Nathan. Indeed, Solomon Birnbaum composed his Grammatik in line with the pre-1914 movement his father espoused ‘which aimed at rebuilding AustriaHungary as a structure of national-cultural [i.e. ethnic] units.’19 It is to him, as ‘the first western champion of Yiddish’ along with his ‘devoted wife’ Rosa, that Solomon Birnbaum dedicated YSG. The Legacy of Nathan Birnbaum Nathan Birnbaum (1864-1937) was raised in a German-speaking middle-class home in Vienna by his parents, traditional Orthodox Jews who had left behind their native Galicia for the capital of the Habsburg monarchy.20 His father died when he was eleven years old, and he slowly drifted away from religious observance. Nonetheless, in his later adolescence he rejected the integrationist ideology common among his generation of Central European Jews. Instead, Nathan Birnbaum became the foremost leader of the Jewish nationalist movement in the Habsburg Empire before Theodor Herzl arrived on the scene. Unlike Herzl, who was largely insensitive to Jewish languages, he was a staunch Hebraist, an advocate of the revival of Hebrew as the national language of the Jews, and as a spoken and written language for all of life’s functions, both sacred and mundane. Over time, he grew disillusioned by what he deemed the spiritual barrenness of political Zionism, the movement to gain an internationally recognized charter for the creation of a sovereign Jewish state in what was then Ottoman Palestine. Soured by ideological and personal differences with Herzl, he withdrew from the

xxix  Historical and Cultural Context Zionist movement following the Second Zionist Congress in 1898. Meanwhile, contact with Yiddish-speaking Jewry during his itinerant Zionist activity in Eastern Europe inspired him to reappraise the diaspora. He came to see it no longer as deforming Jewish character, but instead as the site for the genesis of a unique and venerable Jewish national culture. Having earlier denounced Yiddish as the corrupt language of the ghetto,21 Nathan Birnbaum became enamoured of it as the language of authentic, unassimilated Jewry. Its former flaws were in his eyes transformed into virtues, evidence of a fundamental Jewish drive for uniqueness manifest in language. Mastering the language (he was in his forties at the time), Nathan Birnbaum worked increasingly as a publicist and politician to defend and promote the idiom and its blossoming secular culture. As early as 1904, he proclaimed the need to ‘awaken an open and conscious Jewish language-pride among Eastern European Jews’ in order to combat the widespread perception of Yiddish as, at best, a ‘handmaiden’ of Hebrew and, at worst, a degenerate form of German.22 He was active in an attempt to gain official recognition for the language and, indirectly, for the Jews as a legitimate national community with rights to cultural autonomy within the framework of the multilingual, multi-ethnic Habsburg empire. In 1907 he even ran for election as a Jewish national delegate to the Austrian parliament from the Galician district of Buczacz, but was deprived of a mandate by the fraudulent vote counting of Polish nationalists who wished to preserve ethnic domination of this province populated chiefly by Poles, Ukrainians, and to a lesser extent, Jews. The following year he served as the chief organizer of the First Yiddish Language Conference in Czernowitz, in the neighbouring Austrian province of Bukovina. There, Yiddish writers, intellectuals, and cultural and political activists met to discuss the future of the language and famously proclaimed it a national language of the Jewish people.23 Nathan Birnbaum drew adolescent Solomon, the eldest of three sons, into his efforts on behalf of the Jüdische Renaissance, the movement to ‘re-invigorate’ European Jewry as a whole and to develop its potential for Jewish secularized cultural creativity. The younger Birnbaum’s interest in Yiddish was evident as early as 1907, when at the age of sixteen he published his first translation of Yiddish literature into German.24 The following year his family relocated from Vienna to Czernowitz to pursue his father’s Yiddishist, Diaspora nationalist activity. There Solomon Birnbaum, a native speaker of German, mastered the local (Southeastern) dialect of the language.25 He returned to the Austrian capital in 1910, and in 1912 relocated again to Berlin, where his father had moved the family following a religious awakening that caused him to grow increasingly estranged from what he came to see as the linguistic ‘idolatry’ of the secularist Yiddishist movement.

xxx  Kalman Weiser Influenced profoundly by his father, he endeavoured to build among Germanspeaking Jews awareness of and admiration for the cultural treasures of Yiddishspeaking Jewry. He translated or transcribed selections of Yiddish literature, poems, and folklore in order to make them accessible to a German-reading audience unschooled in the Hebrew alphabet. A number of these appeared in 1913-14 in Mordechai Fritz Kaufmann’s Die Freistatt, the ephemeral organ of the ‘pan-Jewish’ movement dedicated to uniting German and East European Jews, to which his father had begun contributing articles with an increasingly religious bent.26 He also published brief announcements and reviews of new works of Yiddish scholarship.27 Solomon Birnbaum was appalled by the then widespread use of transcription schemes for Yiddish that relied heavily on the norms of German spelling and that romanized its Semitic elements to reflect their pronunciation not in Yiddish but in Hebrew and Aramaic, somewhat as pronounced by German Jews. These measures reinforced, wittingly or unwittingly, the image of Yiddish as at best a folk dialect of German peppered with Hebrew words rather than as the self-sufficient, unitary language of a distinct people. In order to remedy this situation, Birnbaum devised his own system of transcription into Latin letters for use in Die Freistatt. He also began to experiment with his own orthographic system in Hebrew letters in order to facilitate the reading of texts in the original by those who did not know the language.28 Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache The First World War engendered a remarkable turn of events in the history of Yiddish scholarship and in relations between German speakers and Eastern European Jews. The encounter in occupied territories with masses of Yiddishspeaking Jews, so unlike the Jews known in German-speaking lands, not only generated much curiosity among Kaiser Wilhelm II’s soldiers; it also inspired a large number of articles in the popular press seeking to describe this strange people and evaluate its value for the war effort and its post-war future. It also necessitated that troops, officials, and businessmen in the German army familiarize themselves with the language and culture of a significant part of the local population in whose hands resided much commerce and whose émigré population was believed to hold decisive political influence in the United States. This prompted the use of Yiddish in official proclamations aimed at the Jewish population (including Kaiser Wilhelm II’s famous appeal to his ‘beloved Jews’ to support the German war effort to free them from arbitrary and brutal tsarist rule), the tolerance of Yiddish as a language of instruction in Jewish secular schools, and the sponsorship of a pro-German Yiddish press. Naturally, because of its formal similarity to German, Yiddish was more accessible to German speakers than the Slavic or Baltic languages spoken

xxxi  Historical and Cultural Context by other local peoples, yet mutual miscomprehension between speakers of the two languages was still the norm.29 To facilitate interactions, the Protestant theologian and Orientalist Hermann Strack (later one of Birnbaum’s professors at the University of Berlin) produced a Yiddish-German dictionary and the occupation authority issued a multilingual dictionary that included Yiddish alongside German and five other languages.30 In Birnbaum’s retrospective appraisal, the practical value imparted to the language by the war likely enabled him to secure a reputable publisher for his Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache.31 In April 1915, the twenty-three-year-old Salomo Birnbaum approached the A. Hartleben publishing house in Vienna with a proposal for a Yiddish volume for its popular series of language self-instruction books, Die Kunst der Polyglottie. Hartleben’s response was immediately positive, although not wholly free of doubts characteristic of the day about the soundness of the undertaking: The question poses itself whether this Jewish language (Judensprache) suffices to fill a volume of 12 printer’s sheets (=192 pages) in my language library, whether it has scientific, grammatical foundations at all. Therefore, I request that you provide me with written information about it and inform me what literature already exists about the Yiddish language and whether it comprises only multiple separate dialects that are not mutually intelligible. Above all, Hartleben asked Birnbaum, as yet unknown in academic circles, ‘Are you up to the task?’32 In composing his response, Birnbaum drew upon the already significant erudition he had demonstrated in his contributions to Die Freistatt.33 More than satisfied with Birnbaum’s response, which he complimented for its thoroughness and clarity, Hartleben quickly signed a contract with Birnbaum for the book’s production, to be completed by ‘the war’s end.’ The Grammatik outlines many themes and questions that would occupy Birnbaum throughout his career as a researcher. Its preface, written of necessity with great brevity, begins by asserting the almost total ignorance among non-Jews of post-biblical Jewish history, and the estrangement of denationalized Western Jewry from virtually all aspects of the Jewish nation’s distinctive culture in Eastern Europe – ‘the organic continuation of that of previous Jewish epochs.’ Since the decline of Hebrew as a spoken language some two thousand years ago, it explains that groups of Jews have spoken a number of Jewish languages – including ‘Jewish Aramaic, Jewish Arabic, and Jewish Spanish’ – but Yiddish dwarfs all of them in the size of its speech community in recent centuries.34 Repudiating the layman’s assumption that Yiddish is a perversion of modern (i.e., New High)

xxxii  Kalman Weiser German, the preface advances that Yiddish has its origins in medieval (Middle High) German dialects shared by Jews and Germans (an idea Birnbaum would later repudiate in favour of the notion that Jews’ German was never identical with that of non-Jews). The spiritual uniqueness of the Jewish people over time – not ‘ghetto isolation’ – shaped it, however, into a distinct language, fusing it with Hebrew-Aramaic elements and imparting to it a unique phonetic colouration. The preface concludes with a discussion of the development of the modern literary language and Yiddish’s contemporary demographics. The body of the work provides the reader with an introduction to Yiddish orthography, phonology, morphology, syntax, and dialectology. It concludes with a list of common first names, abbreviations used in print, geographical names, a bibliography of important scholarly works, and a table summarizing the phonetics of Yiddish. These are reinforced by language exercises and selections by contemporary writers in their original language and in German translation. At the time of its publication, this was a work far more comprehensive and superior to any other about Yiddish appearing in German or any other language. It describes contemporary Yiddish as an autonomous system, avoiding the use of descriptive categories influenced by the German literary language, Latin school grammars, or diachronic considerations.35 Today, scholars commend Birnbaum’s book for its excellent discussions of the phonology and morphology as well as of central syntactic phenomena of the language (including verbal aspect, a topic that would not be discussed by Yiddish linguists until decades later). Based on the grammar of Central Yiddish, it nonetheless contains a comprehensive summary of the ways in which Northeastern pronunciation differs from Central pronunciation, and references to syntactic and morphological uses that differ in the two dialects. Thanks to a preliminary version of Birnbaum’s interdialectal orthographic and transliteration systems, its entries can be read easily and precisely in any of the three major dialects.36 Birnbaum’s only concession to what he later decried as ‘maskilic spelling’ (phonetically imprecise spellings introduced in the nineteenth century by maskilim, proponents of the Haskalah, in imitation of literary German) was the preservation of ayin instead of yod in unaccented syllables and before lamed and mem when they function as syllables.37 Neither the war, nor the publication of Birnbaum’s Yiddish grammar came to an anticipated quick resolution. Birnbaum himself volunteered for military service, obtaining the rank of lieutenant, and was dispatched to the war front in what is now northern Italy, where he was severely wounded. Even while editing proofs in the trenches and later from a military hospital bed, he refused to compromise his exacting standards. By the end of 1916, with matters dragging out and no end in sight, Hartleben lamented to Birnbaum, ‘Repeatedly, I regret having taken this disastrous manuscript into the press.’38 Much to the annoyance

xxxiii  Historical and Cultural Context of the exasperated publisher, who assigned chief responsibility for delays to the author (a view Birnbaum did not share), the demands of the preparation of the volume far exceeded the publisher’s technical and financial expectations. Hebrew fonts with the necessary diacritics were unobtainable and had to be commissioned from a graphic design company in Bohemia. Typesetters familiar with Yiddish were hard to find in a time of war; endless corrections were required and became lost when finally printed and sent to the author for review. In short, Hartleben concluded, ‘doom weighs on this Yiddish grammar.’39 By the time the book was published some three years later in 1918, Hartleben had more than once expressed his extreme displeasure with the work and its author: ‘I consider it one of the unhappiest moments of my professional existence when you approached my firm to produce your book.’40 Perhaps not surprisingly, the book was not a great financial success. The 3000 copies printed landed mainly in the hands of German-speaking Jews and earned neither the author nor the press much money.41 It was, however, a critical success, earning praise for both its remarkable conciseness and for helping to demystify the culture of Eastern European Jewry. The scholarly Orientalistische Literaturzeitung commented, The interest in the language and literature of Eastern European Jewry awakened by the war has remained platonic not because of a lack of willingness to occupy oneself with the subject but because of the lack of a thorough book to learn the language and penetrate this intellectual world. Strack’s texts and dictionary only partly met the need since a grammar was lacking… The texts [in Birnbaum’s Grammatik – KW] give a good sense of the height which Yiddish literature has reached and may surprise those who consider Eastern European Jewry to be an uncultured mass.42 The popular German-language Jewish press lauded the book’s value in bringing German and Eastern European Jews closer together. ‘How many Jewish soldiers who crossed the borders of Russia and Galicia for the first time and would have liked to converse in depth with their Jewish brothers felt the lack of an appropriate Yiddish grammar?’ asked the Swiss Jewish Israelitisches Wochenblatt für die Schweitz.43 Following the First World War, Birnbaum turned to Oriental studies at the universities of Vienna, Zurich, Berlin, and Würzburg.44 His 1921 University of Würzburg dissertation, much of which he wrote while recuperating in a military hospital during the war, explores the subject of the Hebrew-Aramaic component of Yiddish. In it, Birnbaum discarded the final vestige of maskilic

xxxiv  Kalman Weiser orthography present in the 1918 Grammatik.45 It was published the following year under the title Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache. Today, the book, which helped lay the foundation of research about Ashkenazi Hebrew as well as Yiddish, is praised for its innovative investigation of phonological developments within the Semitic component of Yiddish, and for demonstrating how Hebrew-Aramaic elements fused with other components within the language at all lexical and morphological levels to produce a coherent, unitary whole comparable to English, another language of extremely diverse origins.46 Ironically, a contemporary scholarly reviewer who was unconvinced by Birnbaum’s arguments about ‘Jüdischdeutsch,’ commented, ‘By the way, the dissertation contains many valuable contributions to the knowledge of Yiddish, with which the author seems to be extremely at home. Perhaps we might expect from him sometime a scientific presentation of Yiddish grammar, which remains a desideratum.’47 Soon after settling in Hamburg in 1921, Birnbaum became acquainted with the Germanist Conrad Borchling, who was devoting a semester with students to the study of Yiddish using Hermann Strack’s Jüdischdeutsche Texte48 and Birnbaum’s Grammatik. Through Borchling’s intervention, he received an appointment as lector in Yiddish at the University of Hamburg in 1922 – the very first position for Yiddish in a modern university. Throughout his teaching career in Hamburg, he offered instruction in the language in addition to courses about Yiddish linguistics and literature.49 Attendance in Birnbaum’s courses was modest due, in his opinion, to Yiddish’s lack of practical value in Hamburg, where there was but a small Jewish population and few Yiddish speakers. Those who attended his class were mainly German Jewish students and a few non-Jewish academics. Their motivations in studying Yiddish were diverse: Yiddish’s value for Jewish nationalism, its connection to religion, its literature, and interest in linguistics. Despite the small audience for his courses, his work drew the attention of Heinz Kloss, a specialist in minority languages then employed in Stuttgart in the Deutsches Auslandsinstitut (German Foreign Institute), an organization occupied with studying German nationals and people of German descent abroad, and to promoting Germany’s relations with them.50 Kloss and a colleague in the Deutsche Akademie (Akademie zur Wissenschaftlichen Erforschung und Pflege des Deutschtums [Academy for the Scientific Investigation and Cultivation of Germanness]) asked Birnbaum to head the Yiddish division of a proposed institute for the study of languages closely related to German. However, the institute, which was to occupy itself with Dutch, German, Afrikaans, Friesian, and Pennsylvania Dutch, as well as Yiddish, never came into existence. In the early months of 1933, Birnbaum himself solicited the support of Germanists, general linguists, Hebrew scholars, and Hebrew Bible

xxxv  Historical and Cultural Context experts – all non-Jewish - in German-speaking countries for the creation of an Institutum Germano-Judaicum dedicated to the study of Yiddish and Ashkenazi Jewry. Unfortunately, the project was still-born, owing to the advent of the Nazi regime.51 Language and Ideology: Solomon Birnbaum’s ‘Traditionalist’ School of Yiddish Standardization52 Birnbaum followed his father’s path of religious return. While in Hamburg he was active in the circles of the Orthodox political party Agudat Israel (Agudes Yisroel/Agjdys Ïisruul), whose General Secretary his father had become after the First World War.53 In addition to his professional articles, whose appearance in top journals and encyclopaedias helped to disseminate his views and raise the prestige of Yiddish in the world of European and Semitic philology,54 he contributed articles on a variety of topics reflecting his religious worldview to German-language Jewish publications and the Yiddish press in Eastern Europe and New York. These include popularizations of his scholarship, discussions of the importance of Yiddish for Orthodox Jews, and critical appraisals of the secularization of Jewish life.55 Attracted by both the spirituality of Hasidic life and the bulwark against secular materialism it offered, he also published selections from Hasidic literature and produced a book about the venerated ‘founder’ of Hasidism, the Ba’al Shem Tov.56 For more than two decades, he also continued to refine the orthographic and transcription systems he had introduced in his earliest publications. With the rise of language consciousness among Yiddish-speaking intellectuals, the reform of Yiddish spelling became a pressing matter during the First World War. In the 1920s and 1930s, it became the subject of much popular and scholarly discussion in Poland, the USSR and New York. Birnbaum argued in various forums against the major spelling systems then in use, on both ideological and scientific grounds. The first of these was SYO (Standard Yiddish Orthography; known popularly as ‘Yivo-oysleyg/Iîvuu-ous-laig’ i.e. YIVO-spelling), which was elaborated in Poland in the 1930s by YIVO and implemented in the network of secular Yiddishist schools known by the acronym Tsisho/Ciśo (Tsentrale yidishe shul-organizatsye/Céntraly Iîdiśy śúl-organizaciy [the Central Yiddish School Organization]). The second was the Soviet system (Sovetisher oysleyg/Sovétiśer ous-laig), the only system conceived with official support and made binding by government decree. He called his own scheme the ‘Orthodox’ or ‘traditionalist’ system to emphasize that it drew upon traditional, pre-Haskalah conventions. Both the Soviet and YIVO systems reject the most blatant daytshmerizmen/ daaćmerizmyn (elements deplored by most Yiddish linguists as undesirable borrowings from literary German since the nineteenth century), and are

xxxvi  Kalman Weiser essentially phonemic and largely interdialectical, meaning that speakers of any of the three major Yiddish dialects can with practice read them according to their own dialectical pronunciations. However, single graphemes commonly represent multiple vowels, creating ambiguities for anyone not using Standard Yiddish pronunciation, especially when encountering an unfamiliar word.57 The Soviet system differs primarily in that it totally eliminated the original, non-phonetic spelling of the Hebrew and Aramaic component and final forms of letters, at least in publications destined for Soviet readers. The ‘Orthodox’ system, which Birnbaum defined in strict opposition to what he labelled the ‘neo-maskilic’ (SYO) and ‘Bolshevik’ (Soviet) systems, seeks to represent the maximum number of phonemic oppositions in all three dialects simultaneously, and is also more purist in its approach, rejecting secular European influences as foreign and on the whole inimical to the Jewish way of life. The Haskalah, Birnbaum charged, was responsible for the inner slavery of the Jews to Gentile values. Its vilification of Yiddish as a deformation of German barring Jews’ progress and integration into gentile society was tantamount to the negation of yidishkeyt/Iîdiśkait.58 The ‘new maskilim’ – twentieth-century secular nationalists and socialists – had declared war on the ‘ugly, Germanized corrupt language’ of the nineteenth century ‘old maskilim,’ and to some extent had actually improved on their predecessors’ Germanized orthography (which Birnbaum dismissed as being ‘from a scientific standpoint…stupid’). These changes, however, had not rendered the language ‘more Jewish.’59 On the contrary, rather than build upon the language’s native traditions, Yiddishists had further denuded it of its authentically Jewish character through the imitation of Gentile languages. Like the ‘old maskilim’ whom they opposed, Yiddishists lived ‘in a world which is not in its essence Jewish, or is only half-Jewish,’ and they had consequently lost or were in the process of losing the authentic Yiddish idiom suffused with religious culture.60 Solomon Birnbaum repeatedly expressed in his writings the profound conviction that Yiddish, together with the sacred liturgical and scholarly language of Hebrew-Aramaic – what traditional Ashkenazi Jews called loshn-koydesh/ luuśn-koidyś (the holy language) – represented the essential core of Ashkenazi religious and cultural life and thus necessitated careful cultivation. He denounced Modern Hebrew, which draws primarily on biblical and mishnaic (not rabbinic) Hebrew and introduces a non-traditional pronunciation. To him, Modern Hebrew was an inorganic and ‘soulless Esperanto,’ the artificial engineering of secular enlighteners and nationalists with little or no regard for its sanctity and historical legacy. Similarly, the goal of the predominantly leftist Yiddishist movement to transform Yiddish into an instrument of progressive, secular culture was for Birnbaum a distorted paradox. Yiddishists sought to make profane a language that

xxxvii  Historical and Cultural Context had for centuries served as a medium to convey religious thought and feeling and consequently absorbed an element of holiness. For him, the rival movements for a monolingual Jewish society, Hebraism and Yiddishism, were but two sides of the same coin threatening traditional Judaism, which constituted the raison d’être of the Jewish people and the source of its uniqueness. Moreover, the determined efforts of Yiddishists had rid contemporary Yiddish only of the most glaring Germanisms in spelling and vocabulary introduced by the Haskalah, and had unwittingly permitted new ones to creep in. Scores of contemporary German words had been adopted, often only with the slightest modification to make them appear more in harmony with the rules of Yiddish morphology and phonology. Worst of all, German words had displaced Yiddish cognates. The word visnshaft/visnśaft, used in traditional Yiddish translations of the Bible to mean ‘knowledge,’ had, for example, assumed the meaning of German Wissenschaft, ‘science’ or ‘scholarship.’ Hence the irony of the title YIVO, the Yiddish Scientific (visnshaftlekh/visnśaftlex) Institute, whose director Max Weinreich was a native speaker of German like Birnbaum, and shared his penchant for linguistic purism. Birnbaum scoffed at the notion of orthoepy, or standard pronunciation, for Yiddish on the grounds that it, too, constituted the conscious modelling of Gentile language habits. He rejected the argument that the diffusion of a single prestigebearing dialect represents a natural and progressive sociolinguistic phenomenon. Instead, he encouraged each individual to retain his or her authentic, native dialect rather than assume a foreign or synthetic one.61 Thus, he supported the maintenance of a normative literary language, which had long existed in Yiddish and whose ‘… grammar is that of the Southern dialect,’ but not innovation in the form of a universal pronunciation.62 In particular, he objected to the ‘literary’ pronunciation (today commonly known as klal-yidish/klal-Iîdiś or YIVO-Yiddish despite the fact that YIVO did not create it) promoted in the Yiddish secular sector and most commonly taught in academic settings today.63 The pronunciation of klal-yidish/klal-Iîdiś is that of ‘purified’ Lithuanian Yiddish, the speech of Vilna intellectual circles before the Second World War.64 In the pronunciation of vowels, it more closely resembles literary German than any other Yiddish dialect. This type of speech is popularly summarized by the formula ‘NE Yiddish without /ej/’ where other dialects have / oj/ — for instance, Polish and Ukrainian /bojm/ (tree) instead of the Lithuanian / bejm/.65 Birnbaum further objected to the standard of ‘purified’ NEY pronunciation because of its association with secularism and the Haskalah, in contrast with the speech of the more Hasidic South. A norm based on NEY pronunciation was generally employed on both continents in the various networks of Yiddish secular

xxxviii  Kalman Weiser schools, which were largely organized on the initiatives of Litvaks (Lithuanian Jews), regardless of the native dialects of both teachers and students.66 That the members of YIVO in Vilna were frequently native speakers of NEY, or often made a point of adopting klal-yidish/klal-Iîdiś because of its modern and enlightened connotations, only strengthened his resistance to its spread. Nonetheless, he considered NEY – in contrast with klal-yidish/klal-Iîdiś – a legitimate historical development of the language, and deemed it in no way inferior to any other dialect. In his eyes, it was merely grossly inappropriate for NEY to usurp the place of other dialects in the mouths of non-Litvaks.67 Indeed, he later wrote, ‘if a standard pronunciation is regarded as necessary, then it ought to surely to be the speech of the three-quarter majority’ – i.e., based on the southern dialects.68 Organizers of the Beys-yankev/Bais Iaankyv (known in Polish as Bajs Jakow, in English as Beth Jacob) schools for girls in Poland shared Birnbaum’s concerns for the future of Yiddish in the Orthodox sector, and made the historic decision to adopt Birnbaum’s system in 1930. Thereafter Birnbaum was able to point with pride to the success of his system in the largest Jewish educational system in interwar Poland, where the number of children far exceeded that of even all Jewish secular schools put together. His system had the virtue of being phonemically accurate and wholly consistent. Unlike other systems that worked better with literary pronunciation than other dialects, his system could be read to produce the features of any of the major dialects of Yiddish – even by readers unfamiliar with a specific dialect. Much to his annoyance, however, most Orthodox writers and publications refused to employ a spelling system different from that of the rest of the Warsaw Yiddish press, arguing that Birnbaum’s system was too difficult to master. Having no native dialect of Yiddish, Birnbaum permitted himself to exchange the Bukovinian (Southeastern) pronunciation he had adopted in his adolescence for that of Central Yiddish, the dominant pronunciation in the ultra-Orthodox circles in which he increasingly traveled. While teaching summer courses for the Beys-yankev/Bais-Iaankyv schools in 1930, he had overheard a student unfamiliar with his Bukovina dialect unfavourably remark that ‘he speaks like a goy,’ and this provided the impetus for his own shift in pronunciation.69 Despite his ideological opposition to YIVO, Birnbaum contributed to its publications and maintained collegial relations with a number of its members. That he was greatly admired by YIVO’s director Max Weinreich is evident in the latter’s invitation to him to participate in the founding of YIVO in 1925, and in repeated entreaties for him to join YIVO’s philological section, as well as to participate in its 1931 spelling conference aimed at instituting a standardized spelling in all Jewish schools.70 Though he professed to respect the dedication of YIVO members, Birnbaum explained that he could not permit himself to be

xxxix  Historical and Cultural Context associated with an organization whose fundamental principles included secularism. In response, Max Weinreich argued that YIVO interferes in the personal views of none of its researchers. He warned that the championing of a separatist spelling system – one with which he did not necessarily agree was any more ‘traditional’ than YIVO’s – would only bring harm to the Yiddish literary language and in fact deprive Birnbaum of an audience to spread his message and win adherents for his views. Rather than promote the estrangement of one section of Yiddish speakers from another, he urged Birnbaum to attend the conference as a representative of the Beys-yankev/Bais-Iaankyv schools.71 For Birnbaum, however, this was not possible. As he wrote to Weinreich, ‘How could I, with my own hands, help to bring to, or strengthen among, the Jewish people an ideal I don’t approve of, an ideal which is dying out throughout the world even though it is fighting with its last, savage strength?’72 When Weinreich questioned why Birnbaum, an Orthodox Jew, felt no qualms about teaching at a secular German university populated by Christians of various denominations, he responded, ‘I am only a guest, even if I were a [full] professor. And besides that, secularism is not at its base. There is a theological faculty.’ While this answer may appear disingenuous, it expresses the crux of Birnbaum’s position. Quite simply, he explained, he could not in good conscience become an insider in a secularist institution, one whose ideological foundations were in diametric opposition to his own convictions, even though other Orthodox Jews may participate in it, and he would not be impeded from expressing his own views.73 Despite publicly expressing objections to YIVO’s spelling system, Birnbaum chose to propagate his system exclusively within Orthodox circles, where he considered himself an insider and therefore possessing influence. The ‘Second Life’ of Birnbaum’s Grammatik When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Solomon Birnbaum almost immediately emigrated from Germany. He settled in England where, fortunately, his reputation preceded him. Not long after arriving, he was invited by Professor Norman Jopson of University College in London, who had read his Grammatik, to deliver a series of public lectures about Yiddish. The quality of his lectures and his scholarship in general helped him obtain dual appointments as Lecturer in Hebrew Palaeography and Epigraphy in the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS, 1936-1957) and as Lecturer in East European Studies in the School of Slavonic and Eastern European Studies (SSEES, 1939-58), both at the University of London, until his retirement in 1958.74 The lectures form the basis of a book titled The Yiddish Language, whose proofs Birnbaum had begun to read and correct when the Second World War erupted and German bombs destroyed them.75 Its contents, preserved in his archives, reveal that Birnbaum was ready to publish a substantial, English-

xl  Kalman Weiser language survey of Yiddish and its grammar decades before YSG was published. He clearly appeared eager to continue the project when he renewed contact with the Viennese publisher Hartleben in the 1950s. The original English language work was, however, never published because of his preoccupation with other projects. His sons say that shortly after the war, with the then recent discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, he became very much occupied with dating them and with his Hebrew palaeographic research in general, including his magnum opus, The Hebrew Scripts.76 The impetus for Birnbaum’s contacting Hartleben was simple. In a letter to Hartleben in 1952, he explained that someone had written to him from America, informing him that he had seen a new edition of the press’s Bibliothek der Sprachenkunde advertised, and asked whether Birnbaum had reworked his Grammatik.77 Birnbaum wrote to the press to inquire whether it had, without his knowing, published a second edition of the book, and whether it might be interested in publishing an English-language version in exclusively Latin letters. Hartleben’s response was less than encouraging: a new edition was ‘neither necessary nor intended. There are still so many copies of the 1919 [sic] edition that the very slight demand for it is certainly covered for the next two decades.’78 When his son David showed him in 1961 what appeared to be a reproduction of the book that he had bought in a London bookstore, he turned to Hartleben again to inquire about honoraria. He was informed that a number of sets of unbound sheets had been provided with a new cover in the last decade but that no new edition had been issued.79 The book’s fortunes changed in 1965. Helmut Buske, an aspiring academic publisher who had previously operated his own bookstore in Tübingen, approached Birnbaum about issuing a reprint of the 1918 edition to meet what he had noticed was a growing demand. For reasons of cost and time, Buske and Birnbaum agreed that changes in the new edition would be kept to a minimum. The new edition, to which the author attached a preface and an expanded and updated bibliography, proved enough of a success to warrant the publication of a third edition in 1978 and fourth and fifth editions in 1984 and 1988 (each one with a further enlarged bibliography). The pleasure Birnbaum took in this increased interest in Yiddish was, however, tinged with pain. ‘How tragic,’ he noted in the preface to the third edition, ‘that millions had to die to make possible this interest.’80 Indeed, the interest in Yiddish had become adequate to justify a new, more general work: Die jiddische Sprache: Ein kurzer Überblick und Texte aus acht Jahrhunderten (Hamburg: Buske, 1974; second expanded edition, 1986; third edition, with foreword by Walter Röll, 1997). At the same time, Birnbaum encouraged and assisted scholars in post-war Germany to establish the field of Yiddish Studies there. In 1981, Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 100: Sonderheft Jiddisch.

xli  Historical and Cultural Context Beiträge zur Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft was dedicated to him in honour of his ninetieth birthday. In recognition of his lifetime of major contributions to Yiddish Studies, he was awarded an honorary doctorate in 1986 at the University of Trier, a leading post-war centre for Yiddish research.81 Despite the renewed and growing interest in Yiddish in German-speaking lands, Birnbaum recognized that the most sizeable audience for his work was likely in the English-speaking world. Since the 1970s Yiddish was being introduced in an increasing number of American universities, where it found an audience above all among the children and grand children of Yiddish-speakers who were eager to understand their cultural heritage. He himself relocated in 1970 to Toronto to be close to his three sons: Eleazar, a professor of Turkish Studies at the University of Toronto; David, an architect; and his eldest son, Jacob, who founded and directed the movement on behalf of Soviet Jewry in the 1960s while residing in New York City. The doyen of Yiddish Studies, Solomon Birnbaum was urged, in his mideighties, by Eleazar to produce a reliable comprehensive general work in English and to offer it to the University of Toronto Press. The present volume of YSG is that work in updated form. It builds upon his vast oeuvre of both published and unpublished articles, books, and lectures. He continued his research until his death in 1989. Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar The synthesis of a lifetime of pioneering research, YSG cannot be fully appreciated without acknowledging its polemic thrust against secular Yiddishism in general, and the standardization norms promoted by what Birnbaum considered the seculardominated ‘northern’ school of Yiddish linguistics and language standardization specifically.82 Following the Second World War and the liquidation of Yiddish culture in the Soviet Union, Birnbaum directed his criticism almost exclusively at YIVO, whose headquarters had relocated with Max Weinreich from Vilna to New York City in 1940. He polemicized with YIVO Yiddishists on the pages of Yidishe Shprakh/Iîdiśy Śprax, YIVO’s journal for language standardization. Throughout his career, Birnbaum continued to oppose what he saw as the tyranny of an ‘insignificant minority’ of secular, Vilna-centric intellectuals determined to impose their own language standards on the vast majority of Yiddish speakers, who were speakers of other dialects.83 As Yiddish scholar Joshua Fishman notes in a review of the original edition of YSG, ‘Except for his views on the status of the language (language rather than dialect), age, and reasons for the appearance of Yiddish, Birnbaum is in a distinct minority (often a minority of one) among Yiddish specialists.’84 Even in his terminology, Birnbaum departed from the accepted conventions in the field of Yiddish dialectology.85 His prosouthern orientation, which is in no way concealed by the author, is evident in his

xlii  Kalman Weiser tendency to employ the terms ‘Yiddish’ and ‘New East Yiddish’ interchangeably with ‘Southern Yiddish’ (e.g. pp. 72, 96, 127).86 Distinctive southern features found in YSG include grammatical features such as gender (particularly the use of the neuter, e.g. dos os/dus os [‘the letter’] and dos yidishkeyt/dus Iîdiśkait [‘Jewishness’], where Uriel Weinreich’s bilingual dictionary prescribes otherwise); pluralisation, e.g. di khesroynim/di xesroinym along with di khesroynes/di xesroinys (‘flaws’); past participles, e.g. gebrengt/ gybréngt (‘brought’); numerals and counting forms (forms such as elef/élyf and tsvelef/cwélyf for ‘eleven’ and ‘twelve’ and ferder/férder and fifter/fifter for ‘fourth’ and ‘fifth’ are not only used in southern dialects but are also ‘further’ from their German cognates – elf, zwölf, vierter, fünfter – than Standard Yiddish elf/elf, tsvelf/cwélf, ferter/férter and finfter/finfter and therefore most distinct)87; reflexive pronouns (here declined according to person rather than taking the generic zikh/ zex, ‘one’s self’ e.g. ikh leyg mikh/ex laig mex instead of ikh leyg zikh/ex laig zex, ‘I lay myself’); and use of the Central Yiddish form undz (h)obmir or (h)omir/jndz (h)obmir or (h)omir, which does not appear in the literary language, alongside the pan-dialectal mir hobn/mir hobn ‘we have.’ He also includes Central Yiddish ets/éc (you, nominative, plural or formal) and enk/énk (you, oblative, plural or formal) alongside pan-dialectal ir/ir and aykh/aax. To his credit, where NEY syntactical and morphological features differ from those he promotes, they are usually noted and described. Differences in the phonology of northern dialect are indicated on pp. 218-19. Naturally, Birnbaum employs his own spelling system in the grammar section of the book. While he does provide SYO spellings alongside it, he is sure to demonstrate what he deems the inadequacies of this system. The prescribed pronunciation for SYO, he argues, actually impoverishes the language and creates new homophones. In particular, he protests the disappearance of distinct vowels, especially in the phonemically richer Central and Southeastern dialects, through their representation with a common grapheme in SYO (pp. 100-1). Birnbaum’s system, in contrast, establishes a one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme for the Indo-European component of the language. Thus, a speaker or student of any of the three major Yiddish dialects can more easily read using his own pronunciation, rather than a normative one. Birnbaum’s system also facilitates the reading of the Semitic component by employing vocalization points (niqqudot) in stressed syllables or where further disambiguation is needed. SYO, in contrast, allows for full vocalization of Hebrew and Aramaic-origin words, but this feature is not mandatory88 (and is seldom employed in publications). Birnbaum’s ‘traditionalist’ spelling system is used in his ‘An Outline of Yiddish Grammar’ (YSG, 190-307); in other sections of the book he employs his own transcription system, not YIVO’s, for the benefit of those who seek only

xliii  Historical and Cultural Context an overview of the subject and not to master the language. Mastering both his transcription and spelling systems (outlined in YSG, 200-9) may seem daunting to new learners as well as to those already familiar with the YIVO systems, which are less precise than Birnbaum’s for rendering any dialect other than Standard Yiddish.89 The table that follows, which summarizes the differences between Birnbaum’s orthographic and transcription systems and those of YIVO, should therefore be of assistance to the reader who is already acquainted with Standard Yiddish or who is interested in pronunciation differences between dialects. Today, Standard Yiddish and traditional dialects continue to exist. The former is used, however, almost exclusively in the dwindling circles of the ideological Jewish Left and in academia. It has few native speakers. Traditional dialects have the lion’s share of speakers (overwhelmingly, Hasidic Jews), but are rapidly evolving in new directions, grammatically and otherwise, outside of Eastern Europe. It may still be too early, however, to concur with Birnbaum’s evaluation that the Yiddish of the secular and religious sectors are on their way to becoming two distinct languages.90 Birnbaum’s orthographic and transcriptions systems never caught on outside of ultra-Orthodox circles and fell into disuse, if not oblivion, after the Second World War. It speaks to the strength of his convictions that he never wavered in their use even though he was alone in doing so. The post-war Hasidic press retains to this day some elements of the ‘maskilic’ spelling and vocabulary Birnbaum disdained, although it has moved much closer to the kind of norms favoured by both Birnbaum and YIVO. It is also heavily influenced by co-territorial English and modern Hebrew in ways that undoubtedly would offend the linguistic purism and aesthetic sensibilities of Birnbaum as much as those of the Weinreichs and other YIVO stalwarts. Birnbaum’s system is ideally suited for contemporary Hasidic communities, most of whom use southern pronunciation and tend – not without good reason – to see the language as their exclusive possession, but lack Birnbaum’s heightened sensitivity to its cultivation. It is also of great benefit to students who wish to learn the authentic or living Yiddish generally in use outside the classroom.

The table1 below illustrates the major differences between Birnbaum’s ‘Traditionalist’ spelling and transcription system and that of YIVO (Standard Yiddish Orthography, SYO) in the representation of vowels and diphthongs for the Indo-European component of Yiddish. The relevant sounds are also rendered for each of the major dialects of Eastern Yiddish according to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Since differences in the representation of consonants between the two systems are quite minor, they are not shown here. Birnbaum’s strategy (YSG, 213-215) for the representation of vowels in the Semitic component of Yiddish – a more complicated subject because of the much greater ‘discrepancy between phonemes and graphemes in the Semitic element of Yiddish…than in its Indo-European element, or in the orthographies of the languages using ‘Western’ alphabets’2 – is also not fully illustrated here. Comparison between Birnbaum’s and YIVO’s Yiddish Spelling and Romanization Systems 1

2

SAB

3

4

YIVO

5

6

7

8

9

IPA

Written

Transcription

Written

Transcription

SE

C

NE

Indo-European

Semitic

‫ַא‬

a/á

‫ַא‬

A

ɔ3

a/a:

a

‫ גרַאם‬,‫זַאמד‬ zamd, grám

‫ּכֹהַנים‬,‫חַֿבר‬ xaver, koihánym

‫ע‬

é

‫ע‬

E

‫י‬

I

ɛ

‫שּבון‬‎‫ֶח‬ xéźbm

i

ɛ

‫עּפל‬ épl

‫י‬

ɛ

i

‫כ'ּבין‬ x’bin

‫ׂשינאה‬ siny

‫א‬

o

‫ָא‬

O

‫ו‬

U

ɔ

‫חָכמה‬ xoxmy

j

ɔ

‫האט‬ hot

‫ו‬

ɔ

‫די זון‬ di zjn (sun)

‫ אֶמונה‬éimjny

ɪ

ɪ

i

i

u

‫ו‬

ú (in international words)

‫ו‬

U

ʊ4

ʊ

ʊ

‫אינסטיטוט‬ institút

--

‫ָא‬

uu

‫ָא‬

O

u

u:

‫דרָאט‬ druut

‫גָדול‬ guudl

‫יי‬

ai

‫יי‬

EY

aj

ej

‫שניי‬ śnai

‫סֵידר‬ saider

‫ִי‬

ii

‫י‬

I

ɛj5

ɔ

i

i:

i

‫גיּברי ִמט‬ gybriimt

‫מרי ִדה‬ meriidy

‫ִי‬

î (after word initial i)

‫ִי‬

I

i

i:

i

‫יי ִדיש‬ Iîdiś

--

‫ֹוי‬

oi

‫וי‬

OY

ɔj

ɔj

ej

‫טֹויּב‬ toib (deaf)

‫ּתֹורה‬ toiry

‫ּו‬

jj

‫ּו‬

U

i

i:

u

‫דער זּון‬ der zjjn (son)

‫רּוח‬ rjjex

‫ּו‬

úú (in ‘international words’)

‫ּו‬

U

u

u

u

‫נַאטּור‬ natúúr

--

‫ַײ‬

aa

‫ַײ‬

AY

a

a:

aj

‫דר ַײ‬ draa

‫ַמעַלה‬ maaly (Continued)

(Continued) SAB

YIVO

IPA

Written

Transcription

Written

Transcription

SE

C

NE

Indo-European

Semitic

‫וי‬

ou

‫וי‬

OY

‫ע‬

E

ɔj

--

éi

ɔu

‫טויּב‬ toub (dove)

‫ֶע‬

ɔu6

‫טעֶג‬ téig

‫ּבֶגד‬ béigyd

‫ֹו‬

o

‫ו‬

U

‫דֹורך‬ dorx

‫חֹורבן‬ xorbm

e

‫ע‬

E

ɔ

u

‫ע‬

ɛ

ɛ

‫ווַײרעך‬ vaarex

‫ְמחַּבר‬ mexaber

‫ע‬/‫י‬

y

‫ע‬

E

ə

ə

ɒ

‫לאּפיטע‬ lopyty

‫מְשונה‬ myśjny

1

2 3

ɛj7 ɒ

ej

ɒ

ə

This table is adapted from that devised by Hugh Denman. It has been simplified and slightly expanded. ‘For the sake of clarity, sub-dialects and most positional variants have been excluded from the table while the examples drawn from the Hebrew-Aramaic component are included simply in order to demonstrate that they pertain to the same diaphonemes’ (Denman, 254). That is, the column titled ‘Semitic’ merely gives an example of a Semitic-origin word whose vowel has the same sound – and therefore transcription – as that of the word presented in the corresponding cell of the ‘Indo-European’ column. A fuller exposition of vowels – one that includes subdialects and in some ways differs from Birnbaum’s scheme – can be found in Uriel Weinreich, ‘Yiddish,’ The Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 21. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007, 336. Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar, 214. This vowel realization (see YSG, p103, examples 20 and 21) is common in the southern part of the territory of southeastern Yiddish. In the northern part, the vowel is typically realized as /a/. (Mordkhe Schaechter, Yiddish II. An Intermediate and

4 5 6 7

Advanced Textbook. New York: League for Yiddish, Inc., 1995, 443-4). Some scholars maintain that [ɔ] also applies for example 19, ‘hant.’ (Dr. Paul Glasser, personal communication.) Birnbaum may be unique in noting a difference between this vowel, which is realized identically in all dialects, and the one represented in the row that immediately precedes it. Other scholars maintain /ej/, which Birnbaum resolutely rejects (see YSG, p98, note 3). Other scholars also note /u/ in the southern part of this dialect area (see Schaechter, Yiddish II, 443). Other scholars maintain /ej/, which Birnbaum resolutely rejects (see YSG, p98, note 3). In the northern part of the dialect area, [ɪ] is common – a defining feature of the subdialect popularly known as khirik-loshn/xiiryk-luuśn. See Schaechter, Yiddish II, 443.

xlviii  Kalman Weiser NOTES   1  I am most grateful to Prof. Eleazar Birnbaum and to David Birnbaum for providing me with invaluable assistance in revising this essay, for sharing their personal reminiscences, and for granting me access to the Birnbaum Archives and other relevant materials. I would also like to thank Dr. Paul (Hershl) Glasser for his insightful comments on versions of this essay and for assistance with the Romanization of Yiddish titles. I thank Prof. Carl Ehrlich (York University) for assistance with the Romanization of Hebrew titles.   2  Western Yiddish refers to the now extinct branch of the Yiddish language, which was spoken by Jews in German-speaking territory for about a millennium (Solomon Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar [Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979], 12). The terms Eastern and Western Yiddish referring to the major dialectal division between the Yiddish of Eastern and Central Europe are used in most contemporary literature about Yiddish dialects. Solomon Birnbaum preferred the terms East and West Yiddish. See note 86 for more about his terminology.   3  Jeffrey Shandler, ‘College Yiddish: An Appreciation,’ foreword to the sixth edition of Uriel Weinreich, College Yiddish. An Introduction to the Yiddish Language and to Jewish Life and Culture (New York: YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, 1999), 3.   4  See Kalman Weiser, ‘Coming to America, Choosing Yiddish: Max Weinreich and the emergence of YIVO’s American center,’ in Lara Rabinovitch, Shiri Goren, and Hannah Pressman, eds. Choosing Yiddish: New Frontiers of Language and Culture (Wayne State University Press, 2012), 233−52.   5  On the creation of the Atran Chair, see Andrew Sunshine, ‘The making of a Chair: Uriel Weinreich and the Yiddish Chair at Columbia University,’ in EYDES. Beiheft zum Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry. Vol. 5. Marvin Herzog, Ulrike Kiefer, Robert Neumann, Wolfgang Putschke, Andrew Sunshine, eds. (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 2008): 305−19.   6  See, for example, Birnbaum’s critique of Uriel Weinreich’s arguments claiming that standardizing spelling and pronunciation on the basis of Northeastern (‘Lithuanian’) dialect yields a near perfect one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme in Shloyme Birnboym/ Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘Interdialektish/Interdialéktiś,’ Yidishe Shprakh/Iîdiśy Śprax 4 (3−6): 104−9.   7  Neil G. Jacobs, Yiddish. A Linguistic Introduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 2, 286−8.   8  Shandler, 2−7.

xlix  Historical and Cultural Context   9  For a description of the phonology of Standard Yiddish, see the section ‘4. Spelling and Pronunciation,’ in Uriel Weinreich, Modern English-Yiddish Yiddish-English Dictionary (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968). Reprinted by YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, Inc., 1990, xx− xxv. See also notes 63 and 65. 10  ‘Tsu Sh. Birnboyms eleftn yortsayt/Cj Ś. Biirnboims élyftn iuurcaat,’ Afn shvel/Ofn Śvel 320 (October−December 2000): 1. 11  David Gold, review of YSG in The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 81/4 (October 1982): 532. 12  David Birnbaum, personal communication. 13  Dovid Katz, review of YSG in Journal of Semitic Studies 26/1 (1981): 172. 14  Katz, 172. For reviews of College Yiddish, see Alan Hubbell, ‘A Yiddish Grammar,’ American Speech 25/3 (October 1950): 209−10 and Khayim Gininger/Xaaiym Gininger, ‘A bukh tsu lernen di yidishe shprakh/A bjjx cj lérnyn di Iîdiśy śprax,’ Yivo-bleter/Iîvuu-Bléter 33 (1949): 204−11. 15  The designations used here are those customary in Yiddish linguistics literature. For Birnbaum’s own terms, which differ slightly, see note 86. 16  Dovid Katz , who calls Birnbaum the ‘father of historical Yiddish phonology,’ observes that Birnbaum ‘untangled and systematized the vowels of Yiddish and correlated them with the relevant Semitic, Germanic and Slavic vowels’ in his 1923 Übersicht über den jiddischen Vokalismus. (Dovid Katz, ‘Shloyme Birnbaum 1891−1989/Śloimy Biirnboim 1891-1989,’ Oksforder yidish/Oksforder Iîdiś 2 (1991): 274). 17  On the history of Yiddish Studies, see Dovid Katz, ‘On Yiddish, in Yiddish and for Yiddish: 500 Years of Yiddish Scholarship,’ in Identity and Ethos. A Festschrift for Sol Liptzin. Mark H. Gelber, ed. (New York: Peter Lang, 1986), 23−36. 18  See Barry Trachtenberg, ‘Ber Borochov’s ‘The Tasks of Yiddish Philology,’ Science in Context 20/2 (2007): 341−79. 19  Solomon A. Birnbaum Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), 97. 20  Nathan Birnbaum, reflecting on his life, described his father in this way: ‘My father, Menachem Mendel Birnbaum, may he rest in peace, was from Ropczyce (Galicia) and descended, on his mother’s side, from a Hasidic family, intimates of the old Ropczycer rebbe, may his merit protect us, but he himself was no longer a Hasid. On the contrary, he was something of an Enlightened Jew (‘a shtikl maskil/a śtikl maskil’) but still conducted himself in a Jewish manner.’ To illustrate his point, Birnbaum relates how his father, a manufacturer of beer yeast, failed one year to divest himself of the factory’s contents in time for the Passover holiday, when leavened foods and

l  Kalman Weiser

21 

22  23 

24  25  26  27 

leavening agents (hametz) such as yeast are forbidden to Jews. He solicited a rabbi’s ruling and was obliged to destroy his hametz at great financial loss rather than violate Jewish law. (Nathan Birnbaum, ‘An iberblik iber mayn lebn/An iberblik iber maan léibn’ in Yubileum-bukh tsum zekhtsikstn geburts-tog fun d’r Nosn Birnboym/Iúbiléium-Bjjx cjm zéxcikstn gybúrts-tug fjn d’r Nuusn Biirnboim, ed. Y.L. Orlean and Nosn Hasoyfer/I.L. Orléian and Nuusn Hasoifer. Warsaw: Farlag Yeshurun/Farlag Iyśjjrin, 1925, 9). ‘What is the Jargon? It is the image of Israel in Exile … a comic medley of languages which undeniably has something of a cozy and nostalgic (one can almost say “stirring”) quality. The Jargon is the scenery for the tragicomedy named “Judaism in Exile.” In this true recognition of the nature of the Jargon, both the goal-conscious assimilationist, whose striving seems to be a struggle for liberation, as well as the goal conscious nationalist Jew, who acts for the true redemption of his people, both must raise a demand for the displacement of the Jargon. Certainly, both wish to escape the ghetto, so both must unlearn the language of the ghetto.’ (Nathan Birnbaum, ‘The Jewish Jargon,’ translation of ‘Der jüdische Jargon,’ Selbst-Emancipation 15 [1890] in Joshua A. Fishman, Ideology, Society and Language [Ann Arbor: Karoma Pubishers, 1987], 158). Nathan Birnbaum, ‘Die Sprachen des jüdischen Volkes,’ in his Ausgewählte Schriften zur jüdischen Frage, vol. 1 (Czernowitz: 1910), 324. On Nathan Birnbaum’s life, see Jess Olson, Nathan Birnbaum and Jewish Modernity: Architect of Zionism, Yiddishism, and Orthodoxy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013) and Fishman, Ideology, Society and Language. On the attempt to win legal recognition for Yiddish, see Gerald Stourzh, ‘Recognizing Yiddish – Max Diamant and the Struggle for Jewish Rights in Imperial Austria,’ Simon Dubnow Institut Year Book 1 (2002): 153−67. David Pinski, ‘Durchgesetzt,’ translated by Ben Acher (Solomon Birnbaum) Neue Zeitung (Vienna), 5 July 1907, 7 and 11 July 1907, 6−7. See Shmuel Hiley, ‘Solomon Birnbaum,’ in History of Yiddish Studies, ed. Dov-Ber Kerler (Chur, Switzerland; Philadelphia: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1991), 3. See, for instance, Nathan Birnbaum, ‘Sprachadel,’ Die Freistatt 1/2 (15 May 1913): 83−8 and 1/3 (15 June 1913): 137−45. For a comprehensive list of his more scholarly publications, see the bibliography in Salomo A. Birnbaum, Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft: Wissenschaftliche Aufsätze aus sechs Jahrzehnten/A Lifetime of Achievement: Six Decades of Scholarly Articles, Erika Timm, Eleazar Birnbaum, and David Birnbaum, eds. (Berlin; Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2011), vol 1, xxix−xlviii.

li  Historical and Cultural Context 28.  See, for example, Salomo Birnbaum, ‘Jiddische Dichtung,’ Die Freistatt 1/1 (April 1913): 56−62; S.B., ‘Die jiddische Orthographie,’ Die Freistatt 1 /10 (20 January 1914): 588−91. 29  On this period see, Zosa Szajkowski, ‘The Struggle for Yiddish during World War I.’ Leo Baeck Institute Year Book 9 (1964): 131–58; Steven E. Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers. The East European Jew in German and German-Jewish Consciousness, 1800–1923 (Madison: the University of Wisconsin Press, 1982); Kalman Weiser, Jewish People, Yiddish Nation. Noah Prylucki and the Folkists in Poland (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011), 120−39. 30  Hermann Strack, Jüdisches Wörterbuch – mit besonderer Berücksichtung der gegenwärtig in Polen üblichen Ausdrücke (Leipzig, 1916). Sieben-sprachenwörterbuch. Deutsch / Polnisch / Russisch / Weißruthenisch / Litauisch / Lettisch / Jiddisch (Leipzig: Hrsg. im Auftrag des Oberbefehlshabers Ost, 1918). Hermann Leberecht Strack (1848−1922), professor of Oriental languages in Berlin, was a leading non-Jewish scholar in the fields of Bible and Talmud, Hebrew and Aramaic linguistics, and Judaica in general. He employed his scholarly knowledge to serve as an ardent defender of Jews and Judaism against antisemitic libels. He also founded and directed the university’s Institutum Judaicum, whose purpose was to convert the Jews to Christianity. (‘Strack, Hermann Leberecht.’ Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. 2nd ed. Vol. 19. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 240. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 January 2014). 31  Salomo Birnbaum, ‘Institutum Ascenezicum,’ in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 297. 32  A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 6 April 1915. Solomon Birnbaum Archive (Part of the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives, Toronto), Hartleben folder. 33  Notes for his response are contained in the Hartleben folder in the Solomon Birnbaum Archive. 34  Preface to Salomo A. Birnbaum, Grammatik der Jiddischen Sprache (Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1966), 5. This volume is the second edition of Birnbaum’s 1918 Grammatik. 35  Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, xii. 36  See Katz, ‘Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biinboim,’ 271. See Hugh Denman, ‘Terumato šel Šlomo Birnbaum la-balšanut ha-yidiš,’ Ha-sifrut 35−6 (1986): 256. Naturally, the volume did not fail to make an impression on the aspiring Yiddish scholar Max Weinreich, who praised the Grammatik in a study drawing largely on his 1923 University of Marburg doctoral dissertation

lii  Kalman Weiser about the history of Yiddish language research (Studien zur Geschichte und dialektischen Gliederung der jiddischen Sprache; reprinted as Geschichte der jiddischen Sprachforschung, ed. Jerold Frakes [Atlanta: Scholars’ Press, 1993]). Weinreich commented, ‘Birnbaum’s book is extremely precise in its formulations; you can rely on it. When I want to know the form among Galician Jews, I look in Birnbaum’s work. But he also doesn’t degrade the Lithuanian dialect, and a whole series of characteristics of Lithuanian Yiddish are also indicated in his work.’ (Max Weinreich. Shtaplen: Fir etyuden tsu der yidisher shprakhvisnshaft un literaturgeshikhte/Śtaplyn: Fiir étiudn cj der Iîdiśer śpraxvisnśaft jn literatúúr gyśixty [Berlin: Wostok, 1923], 14−15). 37  Preface to Salomo A. Birnbaum, Grammatik der Jiddischen Sprache (Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1966), 3. 38  A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 1 December 1916. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Hartleben. 39  A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 23 February 1918. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Hartleben. 40  A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 16 August 1917. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Hartleben. 41  Salomo Birnbaum to Helmut Buske, 22 June 1965 and 9 July 1965. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Buske; Shikl Fishman/Śiikl Fiśman, ‘lezikorn reb Shloyme Birnboymen/lyzikuurn reb Śloimy Biirnboimyn,’ Afn shvel/Ofn Śvel 320 (October–December 2000): 5. 42  Felix Perles, review of Birnbaum’s Grammatik, Orientalistische Literaturzeitung 23/7–8 (July–August 1920): 163−4. 43  Felix Goldschmidt, review of Birnbaum’s Grammatik, Israelitsches Wochenblatt für die Schweiz, 19/36, 5 September 1919. 44  Denman, 258. 45 Birnbaum replaced ‫ ע‬in unaccented syllables (for instance, ‫ )געגעסן‬with traditional (and more phonologically precise) ‫( י‬for instance, ‫( ) גיגעסן‬see Hiley, ‘Solomon Birnbaum,’ 5). He also abandoned the silent ‫ ע‬used in both traditional and maskilic orthography preceding syllabic consonants (for instance, ‫ לעבן‬replaced ‫)לעבען‬. He retained, however, the traditional and maskilic silent or prosthetic ‫ א‬that SYO rejected. See Shloyme Birnboym/ Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘Di yesoydes fun yidishn oysleyg/Di iysoidys fjn Iîdiśn ous-laig,’ in Der eynheytlekher yidisher oysleyg, materialn un proyektn tsu der ortografisher konferents fun Yivo/Der ainhaitlexer ois-laig, materialn jn proiektn cj der ortografiśer konferénc fjn Iîvuu (Vienna: 1930); Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, Geule fun loshn/Gjly fjn luuśn (Lodz: 1931), reprinted in Never Say Die! A Thousand Years of Yiddish Life and Letters, ed. Joshua A. Fishman (The Hague: 1981), 181−95.

liii  Historical and Cultural Context 46  Hiley, 5. Denman, 257. 47  S.F., review of Salomo Birnbaum, Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache in Zeitschrift für Deutsche Mundarten. 18.1/2 (1923): 141−2. I thank Prof. Mark Louden for bringing this review to my attention. 48  Hermann Strack, Jüdischdeutsche Texte. Lesebuch zur Einführung in Denken, Leben und Sprache der osteuropäischen Juden (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrich, 1917). 49  Birnbaum, ‘Institutum Ascenezicum,’ in, Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 298. 50  Heinz Kloss (1904−1987) went on to achieve recognition after the Second World War as a leading expert in the study of minority languages, language planning, and language rights. A shadow is, however, cast over his post-war career by his activity in the 1930s and 1940s. His interest in the fate of ethnic Germans abroad and in cultivating a role for them in the future of Germany and of the German Volk made him useful as a researcher and propagandist in the service of Nazi aims. Among his contributions during this period is a report titled ‘Statistik, Presse und Organisationen des Judentums in den Vereinigten Staaten und Kanada’ (Statistics, Media, and Organizations of Jewry in the United States and Canada [Stuttgart: Publikationsstelle StuttgartHamburg, 1944]). On this book, see Timothy W. Ryback, ‘A Disquieting Book from Hitler’s Library,’ The New York Times 7 December 2011. On the controversy surrounding Kloss, see Cornelia Wilhelm, ‘Nazi Propaganda and the Uses of the Past: Heinz Kloss and the Making of a ‘German America,’ Amerikastudien/American Studies 44/1 (2002): 55−83; and Christopher M. Hutton, Linguistics and the Third Reich: Mother-Tongue Fascism, Race, and the Science of Language (London and New York: Routledge, 1999). 51  Ibid., 299−300; Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘In eyropeishn universitet lernt men yidish/In airopéïiśn úniversitéit lérnt myn Iîdiś,’ Der tog/Der tug (New York) 19 October 1929. 52  This section relies largely on prior research by this author. For a fuller treatment of this subject, see Kalman Weiser, ‘Language and Ideology: The “Orthodox” Orthography of Solomon Birnbaum,’ Studies in Contemporary Jewry 20 (2004): 275−95. 53  Joshua Shanes, ‘Nathan Birnbaum,’ YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe. vol. 1, ed. G.D. Hundert (New Haven: Yale University Press and YIVO), 2008, 186. 54  Katz, ‘Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim,’ 274. Werner Weinberg, review of YSG, Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 51/3 (1984): 378. 55  See, for example, his articles ‘Maskilisierung’ in Unser Weg (Berlin) 8 (February 1921): 53–64 and ‘Vi azoy yidn lebn in ashkenaz/Vi azoi Iîdn léibn in aśkenaz’ Yidishe tageblat/Iîdiśy tagyblat (New York), 27 July 1921.

liv  Kalman Weiser 56  Salomo Birnbaum, Leben und Worte des Balschemm: nach Chassidischen Schriften (Berlin: Welt-Verlag, 1920). It appeared in English translation by his wife: The Life and Sayings of the Baal Shem, trans. Irene Birnbaum. New York: Hebrew Pub. Co., 1933. 57 Thus, for example, kop/kop (head) and zogn/zugn (to say) are written with the same vowel (‫)ָא‬, as are royt/roit (red) and hoyz/houz (house) (‫)וי‬, although most Yiddish speakers differentiate between the sounds. When encountering a newer borrowing into the language, such as the internationalism ‫קולטור‬, the speaker of southern Yiddish dialects might not know whether to say /kiltir/ since ‫ ו‬usually indicates /i/ for him or her or to pronounce /kultur/ (ibid, 79; Birnboym/Biirnboim, ‘Interdialektish/Interdialéktiś,’ 105). 58  See Birnboym/Biirnboim, Geule fun loshn/Gjly fjn luuśn. 59  Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, Yidishkeyt un loshn/Iîdiśkait jn luuśn (Warsaw: 1930), 152−3. 60  Ibid., 152. 61  See B. (Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim), ‘Zeyer gerekht/Zaier gyréxt!’ Beys-yankev-zhurnal/Bais-Iaankyv-źúrnal 8/71−2 (1931): 42−3; reprinted in Fishman, Never Say Die! 668−9. 62  Birnbaum, Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar, 101. As early as 1913, Birnbaum took issue with arguments that the spelling of literary Yiddish was rooted in the pronunciation of Northeastern or ‘Lithuanian’ dialect or that this dialect was the basis of a generally accepted ‘correct’ pronunciation. He maintained that Yiddish spelling is, like that of Hebrew, ‘neutral’ with regard to dialect and none of the dialects, which differ chiefly in the pronunciation of vowels, is the basis of ‘educated’ speech. (See, S.B., ‘Die jiddische Orthographie,’ Die Freistatt 1/10 [20 January 1914]: 588−91). 63  On the prestige of NEY, see, for instance, Yudl Mark/Ijjdl Mark, ‘A por kurtse heores tsu Sh. Birnboyms notitsn/A puur korce hyuurys cj Ś. Biirnboims noticn,’ Yidishe Shprakh/Iîdiśy Śprax 8/1−2 (1948): 15−19. On its history and diffusion, see Dovid Katz, ‘The Religious Prestige of the Gaon and the Secular Prestige of Lithuanian Yiddish,’ in The Gaon of Vilna and the Annals of Jewish Culture, ed. Izraelis Lempertas (Vilnius: 1998), 187−99 and Dovid Kats/Duvyd Kac, ‘Naye gilgulim fun alte makhloykesn: di litvishe norme un di sikhsukhim vos arum zikh/Naaiy gilgjjlym fjn alty maxloikysn: di litviśy normy jn di sixsjjxym vus arjm zex’ in Yivo-bleter/Iîvuu-Bléter, n.s. 2 (1994): 205−57. 64  Seeking to explain the origins of literary pronunciation, Gennady Estraikh comments about Vilna Yiddishist intellectuals, ‘Many of them were, like [Ber] Borokhov, Yiddishist neophytes and either learned to speak Yiddish or returned to it after long years of speaking Russian, Polish, or German.

lv  Historical and Cultural Context As a result, Vilna intellectuals’ “high” Yiddish usually did not sound like any of the dialects, including ‘low’ Warsaw Yiddish.’ (Gennady Estraikh, In Harness: Yiddish Writers’ Romance with Communism. [Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2004], 23). 65 More accurately, ‘purified’ Lithuanian Yiddish refers to a pronunciation based on Northeastern dialect – the speech of Lithuania and Belarus – with a few modifications and clarifications of historical distinctions that fail to be observed in ‘provincial’ speech in those areas. Essentially, this means the following: elimination of the ‘sibilant confusion’ that most notably characterizes the subdialect known as sabesdiker loshn/sabysdiker luuśn (thus, a clear distinction between /s/ and /š/, /z/ and /ž/, and /ts/ and/č/); the pronunciation of the consonantal yod in a number of words (for instance, / jid/ and /jingl/ instead of /id/ and /ingl/ for ‘Jew’ and ‘boy,’ respectively); preservation of the distinction between the preposition ‫צו‬, the converb ‫צו‬, the verbal prefix ‫צע‬, the particle preceding the infinitive ‫צו‬, and the interrogative particle ‫( צי‬all otherwise pronounced as /tsu/); and pronunciation of the written vowel ‫ וי‬as /oj/ at all times instead of as both /oj/ and /ej/ depending on the word in question. See Yudl Mark/Ijjdl Mark, Gramatik fun der yidisher klal-shprakh/Gramatik fjn der Iîdiśer klal-śprax (New York: 1978), 15−16. 66  See Kalmen Vayzer/Kalmyn Vaazer, ‘Di debate arum aroysred in der yidisher veltlekher shul in mizrekh-eyrope/Di debaty arjm arousréd in der Iîdiśer veltlexer śúl in mizrex-airopy,’ Yidishe Shprakh/Iîdiśy Śprax 39 (2013): 17−43. 67  See Note Berliner/Nuty Bérliner, ‘Vegn litvishn dialekt in kongres-poyln/ Véign litviśn dialekt in kongrés-poiln,’ Beys-yankev-zhurnal/Bais-Iaankyvźúrnal 8, nos. 71−2 (1931): 42; Birnboym/Biirnboim, ‘Zeyer gerekht!/Zaier gyréxt!’ Contrary to Birnbaum’s impression of conformity to a standard pronunciation, Chaim Gininger recalls that in the Vilna YIVO, ‘Each spoke with his pronunciation and that did not in the least diminish the dignity, and also not the communality, of our language. No one felt that if he spoke with a different pronunciation, it was less dignified.’ (Gininger, 209−10). 68  Birnbaum, Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar, 101. 69  See Hiley, ‘Solomon Birnbaum,’ 6. 70  See, for example, Max Weinreich’s letters to Birnbaum on 1 December 1930 and 19 April 1931. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Max Weinreich. 71 ‘Perhaps you are 5 percent more traditional and perhaps not even that. The distinction between ‫ א‬and ‫[ א‬Weinreich presumably means ‫ ָא‬- KW] is your innovation (a very good practice, if it can be implemented, but it has no relation to tradition). The same with ‫ וי‬with and without a ḥolam, ‫ י‬with and without a ḥireq, ‫ ע‬with a seghol and so on. Further, you write

lvi  Kalman Weiser

72  73  74  75  76  77  78  79 

80  81  82 

“‫גוטער‬,” “‫ ”גליקלעך‬when tradition would require “‫ ”גוטר‬and “‫גליקליך‬,” just like “‫שלאפין‬,” “‫געבראכין‬,” “‫ ”הענטיל‬and more. Is it really worth it to build your own system for such a triviality (‫ ’?)קוצו של יוד‬Max Weinreich to Solomon Birnbaum, 28 January 1931. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Max Weinreich. It is worth noting that Birnbaum’s system, in contrast with both traditional spelling and the YIVO system, also distinguishes between long and short vowels – a useful distinction but still an innovation. Paul Glasser, personal communication. Solomon Birnbaum to Max Weinreich, 8 December 1930. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Max Weinreich. Solomon Birnbaum to Max Weinreich, 7 January 1931. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Max Weinreich. ‘Yidish in di universitetn fun hamburg un london/Iîdiś in di úniversitéitn fjn hambúrg jn london,’ YIVO-bleter/Iîvuu-Bléter 7/1–2 (September 1934): 163−4. See also the essay by Eleazar and David Birnbaum in this volume. Solomon Birnbaum, ‘The Origins of the German Elements in Yiddish,’ in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 121, footnote. David and Eleazar Birnbaum, personal communication. Salomo Birnbaum to A. Hartleben, 6 November 1952. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Hartleben. A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 12 November 1952. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, folder Hartleben. Salomo Birnbaum to A. Hartleben, 7 March 1961. Birnbaum actually writes in the letter that a ‘colleague’ had shown him a book. ‘This “colleague” was actually his son David, who found it in Foyle’s, the biggest bookstore in Britain. Perhaps he wrote “colleague” to give it more gravitas with the stuffy, formal publisher.” (David and Eleazar Birnbaum, private communication); A. Hartleben to Salomo Birnbaum, 18 March 1961. Solomon Birnbaum Archive, Folder Hartleben. Preface to fourth expanded edition, Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache (Hamburg: Buske, 1984), 2. See his address in Verleihung der Würde eines Ehrendoktors der Universität Trier an Professor Dr. Salomo A. Birnbaum, 4. June 1986, in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 297−304. Not all Yiddish linguists and language activists who were native speakers of NEY belonged to the ‘northern school,’ however. Zalman Reisen, for example, belonged to the specifist school that guided much of Birnbaum’s approach to Yiddish. Moreover, it would be inaccurate to suggest that such southern-born linguists as Noah Prylucki, Elye Spivak, Chaim Gininger, and Mordkhe Schaechter were necessarily any less secular than their northernborn colleagues. Paul Glasser, personal communication.

lvii  Historical and Cultural Context 83  See Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘Finf notitsn/Finyf noticn,’ Yidishe Shprakh/Iîdiśy Śprax 8/1–2 (1948): 14. 84  Joshua Fishman, review of YSG in Language Problems and Language Planning 4/2 (Summer 1980): 159. 85  Hence, his ‘East Yiddish, North’ = NEY, ‘East Yiddish, South East’ = SEY, ‘East Yiddish, South West’ = CY; his ‘Central Yiddish’ = Uriel Weinreich’s Transcarpathian Yiddish. The now defunct Yiddish dialects of Central Europe are known as West(ern) Yiddish in all schemes (Birnbaum, Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar, 96−9). 86  Dovid Katz, review of YSG, 172−3. 87  Mordkhe Shekhter/Mordxy Śexter, ‘D’r Shloyme Birnboym – der shprakhnormirer/D’r Śloimy Biirnboim – der śprax-normirer,’ Yidishe Shprakh/ Iîdiśy Śprax 12/2 (1962): 42−3. 88  Paul Glasser, personal communication. See Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut/ Iîdiśer Visnśaftlexer Institút. Der eynheytlekher oysleyg. Takones fun yidishn oysleyg/Der ainhaitlexer Iîdiśer ous-laig. Takuunys fjn Iîdiśn ous-laig, sixth edition. (NewYork: YIVO and the Yiddish Language Resource Center of the League for Yiddish, 1999). 89  It may also be objected that Birnbaum’s spelling and transcription systems place NEY speakers at a disadvantage because they oblige them to indicate vowel distinctions which they do not hear in their native dialect, effectively requiring them to master the more complicated vocalism of the southern dialects in order to spell and Romanize correctly. As noted above, however, when writing using traditional spelling or SYO, speakers of all dialects must learn both to indicate distinctions they do not normally make in speech and not to make distinctions they normally make. The same applies for the YIVO Romanization system. 90  ‘This [the existence of secular speakers of the language, who use fewer Hebrew-Aramaic elements than religious speakers – KW] is a linguistic indication of the fact that the ‘secularized sections’ have in reality become independent groups and that one ought not, logically, speak of a new development having started in Yiddish, for example, but that it would be more correct to say that Yiddish has begun to split up into two divergent languages.’ (Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar, 14).

3 Solomon A. Birnbaum: An Appreciation of a Lifetime of Scholarship on Yiddish 1

Jean Baumgarten

When Solomon Birnbaum began his research on the Yiddish language in the first decade of the twentieth century, the study of the vernacular of Ashkenazi Jews was still in its infancy. 2 With the exception of some notable contributions – the fruit of still marginal research conducted by isolated scholars such as Alfred Landau3 and Lazare Sainéan4 – Yiddish was considered a secondary branch of Ashkenazi culture. Certainly, inventories of sources and bibliographies did exist,5 as well as brief studies about Jewish folklore that touched upon the popular language of Ashkenazi Jews.6 The history of Yiddish literature had, however, not yet received a proper scholarly treatment. Few critical editions of classic texts existed, and although still widely printed and circulated in Jewish society, Old Yiddish literature remained unknown to the broad public.7 The language itself was associated with a host of stereotypes, most often disparaging, such as its designation as ‘Jargon.’ As the refutation of such prejudices is a prerequisite to all scholarly inquiry, Birnbaum necessarily began his work by rejecting a plethora of erroneous definitions that contradicted the concrete data and facts of the language. The major ones he encountered concerned the relationship between language and race, and advanced the vague notion of national spirit that tended to demean the language by reducing it to the mode of expression of a biologically determined group and the manifestation of an elusive but negative Jewish Volksgeist. During the first decades of the twentieth century, perceptions of Yiddish – both popular and academic – gradually began to evolve. The Jewish nationalist movement lent the vernacular a new political importance in the battle for the recognition of Jewish culture.8 A number of writers, often people estranged from Jewish tradition, also set about exploring the Jews’ rich heritage in general, and Yiddish culture in particular. They assembled anthologies and composed essays, literary histories, and literary works, thereby combining their return to the origins of Jewish tradition with the search for a new aesthetic.9 At the same time, the study

lix  A Lifetime of Scholarship of Jewish folklore and tradition alongside the cultural creations of other peoples of Europe awakened scholarly interest across the continent, from St. Petersburg to Budapest, London, Vienna, and Paris. Jewish as well as non-Jewish intellectuals demonstrated awareness of the importance of studying the Jews’ cultural heritage together with that of other European cultures from a comparativist perspective.10 In the area of philology, they composed a number of pioneering works, testifying to the importance of Jewish languages for understanding both the Ashkenazi world and broader society. Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, an entire cultural continent was slowly revealed, yielding a multitude of sources and questions that would stimulate thought about modern Jewish culture.11 From this galaxy of pioneers and scholars, two great figures emerge – Solomon Birnbaum12 and Max Weinreich.13 Both embarked in the first decades of the twentieth century upon a series of studies that would contribute to the shaping of Yiddish studies as a field in its own right. Thanks to their work, research about Yiddish, long marginalized or subsumed in related disciplines, found scholarly recognition and became a subject of study equipped with its own methodological frameworks, theoretical tools, and analytical models. To be sure, there exist as many commonalities as differences between these two personalities. Both were raised in German-speaking circles and Yiddish was not their first language. Their passion for the language was born during adolescence: for Birnbaum, in the region of Bukovina (around Czernowitz) in the AustroHungarian Empire, and for Weinreich, in the northwestern provinces of the Russian Empire corresponding to today’s Latvia and Lithuania, where Yiddishand German-speaking Jewish communities co-existed. Both published their first research about Yiddish in the early decades of the twentieth century, helping to lay the foundation for its scientific study. Birnbaum published a grammar14 in 1918, and defended his doctoral thesis, Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, at the University of Würzburg. It was accepted Magna cum Laude in 1921.15 In 1923 Max Weinreich published his doctoral thesis, Studien zur Geschichte und dialektischen Gliederung der jiddischen Sprache, which he had defended at the University of Marburg.16 By thoroughly examining Yiddish’s still largely unknown literary heritage, both young scholars sought to create the theoretical frameworks necessary for the scientific description of the Yiddish language. They showed how multiple fields of research – among them, literary history, linguistics, and folklore – could benefit from a systematic analysis of Yiddish. Moreover, these first studies created the template for their future work. Indeed, throughout their careers, they continued to explore the principal research questions that were already taking shape in the studies they authored in their youth. Both men advanced scholarship through successive insights based on conceptual frameworks they developed in the first decades of the twentieth

lx  Jean Baumgarten century. These studies would mobilize their intellectual forces for a lifetime and lead to the publication, only a few years apart, of the two major works of Yiddish linguistics of the twentieth century. In 1979 Birnbaum published Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar, the fruit of a lifetime of research.17 In it he applies a conceptual framework that he first advanced in the introduction to his doctoral dissertation published in 1922. According to this framework of linguistic fusion, Yiddish is composed of different elements (Semitic, Romance, Germanic, and Slavic) that combined over time to form a specific language − a linguistic system of its own.18 In his Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax, which appeared in 1973,19 Weinreich employs a similar model of linguistic fusion (lingvistishe shmeltsung/ lingvistiśy śmélcjng), one that he had also posited in earlier works. Even if he did not use the term, Birnbaum, like historians of his generation, conceived of Yiddish as an expression of an Ashkenazi civilization, postulating its unity beyond cultural differences and geographic fragmentation (YSG, 20). For Birnbaum, Judaism was a ‘way of living for the totality of life’ (22). Yiddish must therefore be studied through a multidimensional approach that principally integrates an abundance of linguistic facts without neglecting extralinguistic data such as Jewish religious traditions, demographic data, statistics, and sociological information in order to understand how Jewish languages take shape and how their speakers create and use specific linguistic forms. Birnbaum emphasized the relationship between the vernacular language and Jewish tradition. He spoke not only of the ‘religious basis of the Jewish languages’ (YSG, 12), but also of the uninterrupted influence on them of speech and writing, connected, among other sources, with the language of the Bible, the Talmud, the Midrashim, the Kabbalah, and the prayers. Sharing this perspective, Max Weinreich showed how deeply rooted Yiddish is in Jewish history, oral traditions, and scriptural sources – essentially the Bible, the Talmud, and the principal rabbinic texts, including the Kabbalah. He adopted the Rabbinic term derekh ha-shas/déiryx haśas (the Way of the Talmud) in order to indicate the consubstantial link that always existed between Jewish tradition, and social and religious life within Jewish communities, on the one hand, and the Yiddish language and its speakers, on the other. There are of course also differences between these scholars’ approaches. These are apparent above all in Birnbaum’s approach to the central question of the relationship of Yiddish to German dialects,20 in his wish to preserve the dialectal diversity of Yiddish beginning with the adoption of an original transcription system,21 in his scheme for the periodization of the language,22 and in his principles for describing the structure of the language.23

lxi  A Lifetime of Scholarship Beyond their differences, these two unparalleled works laid the foundations of the fields of Jewish language studies and Yiddish studies. Transcending the negative conceptions of Yiddish that claimed it was of only minor scholarly interest, Birnbaum – in what represents one of the great comprehensive works on Yiddish – presents a model for the study of the language that integrates a thorough analysis of the most diverse aspects of the language. He endeavoured to determine the languages, linguistic affiliations, and language families to which Yiddish is related. He described its internal structure, its phonetic rules, its Hebrew-Aramaic component, and the relationship between the Slavic and Germanic dialects which contributed to its shaping. He also studied the linguistic geography of Yiddish and its transformations in different historical contexts. He was equally interested in the social dimension of Yiddish and its relationship to the languages and cultures with which Jews were in contact in order to comprehend the phenomena of interference, borrowing, and the sociolinguistics of the language. Birnbaum examines the Yiddish language over the longue durée, along an historical continuum comprising an uninterrupted chain of linguistic traditions. The development of Yiddish, whose origins he locates in medieval Western Europe, is fundamentally linked to the history of the Jews. This is demonstrated in its ties to biblical, Mishnaic, and medieval Hebrew, and to the Aramaic of the Talmud and the Zohar. Yiddish is part of a vast ensemble of Jewish languages and is related to languages with which Jews have been in contact, whether they be Romance, Germanic, or Slavic languages and dialects. Birnbaum addresses, as well, the change in the language in the contemporary era, which is marked by secularization and the linguistic integration of Jews into their non-Jewish surroundings. Yiddish is thus analyzed as a total linguistic system, for which he proposes a through-going study of its fundamental elements. The examination of Jewish languages was for a long time undertaken in only a few scattered studies flawed by mistaken assumptions. They also lacked the necessary scientific basis for the comprehension of the formation and structure of Jewish languages, and to analyze the linguistic creativity of their speakers. Birnbaum therefore described the linguistics of Jewish languages as ‘still virgin soil.’24 Everywhere in the diaspora where they lived, he noted, Jews created their own linguistic tools. These languages were classified under various irregular names that tended to distort scholarly understanding, to impede their rigorous analysis, and to keep them in a state of isolation. The supposed contrast between ‘pure’ languages and ‘corrupt’ dialects served as the basis of almost all scholarly works composed in the nineteenth century.25 This dichotomy referred to the division between, on the one hand, standardized languages equipped with grammars and dictionaries, and on the other, the ‘deviations’ from the norm, which

lxii  Jean Baumgarten were classified under the generic term ‘mixed language’ or its derivatives: ‘creole languages,’ ‘jargons,’ or ‘dialects of majority languages.’ There arose a set of composite terms that testify to the difficulty of philologists in integrating Jewish languages (as hyphenated Judeo-languages) into the large language families and in understanding their genesis and structure. We note, among others, such names as ivre-teutsche, ivri-taytsh, jüdisch-teutsch, Judeo-German, mame-loshn/mamy luuśn, Prost-jüdisch, Jargon, and Jüdisch. Beginning in the twentieth century, attempts to define a Jewish language gave rise to scientific studies and discussions. Birnbaum26 developed a typology of Jewish languages,27 analysed the relations that existed between them, and identified their common features, thus paving the way for the field of Jewish interlinguistics, the comparative study of Jewish languages. He clarified this complex notion by establishing clear definitional parameters necessary for their analysis and classification, and by determining their differences from and similarities with contact languages. He also surveyed the historical, sociological, religious, and linguistic parameters that characterize them in order to propose a model that would foster their recognition in the field of general linguistics. Among specific traits, he first drew attention to the existence of archaisms. In YSG Birnbaum speaks of ‘conservatism in Jewish languages’ and of ‘phonological and morphological features, words and expressions which belonged to an earlier stage of non-Jewish languages and have disappeared’ from them (10−11). He explains, ‘It is therefore a matter of course that Yiddish, Dzidyo and other Jewish languages should contain some forms which have died out in German, Spanish and other non-Jewish languages’ (10). Another feature belonging to Jewish languages as a group, including Yiddish, is the existence of calque translations of the Bible (Taytsh-khumesh/taać-xjmyś), and a rich Hebrew-Aramaic component reflecting Jews’ loyalty to the holy language as well as to the uninterrupted transmission – in both written and oral form – of canonical texts, prayers, and commentaries. Birnbaum’s doctoral thesis (see note 15) dedicated to the Hebrew-Aramaic component of Yiddish testifies to the importance that he attached to this structural feature of Jewish languages.28 He devotes attention to the whole series of developments, phonological and otherwise, connected to the linguistic substrata of Jewish languages. He also considers the history of the Jewish people, as migrations had an impact on the linguistic elements that fused together in Yiddish and on the formation of autonomous spaces favourable to the birth of specific languages. The adoption of a distinct script in manuscripts and printed works testifies to the shaping of a distinct Jewish culture and the separation between the Jewish world and the surrounding culture. In keeping with its overall approach, YSG addresses the study of the historical phases of Yiddish, its internal changes, and their causes. This led Birnbaum to

lxiii  A Lifetime of Scholarship broaden his investigation to include extralinguistic factors. The first exploration concerns awareness of Yiddish as a distinct idiom, which he placed around the sixteenth century, when Yiddish began to be designated and perceived as a linguistic reality of its own in both the Jewish and non-Jewish worlds. But it is above all linguistic criteria, defined on the basis of the analysis of texts from the written and oral corpus, that play a role in the periodization of Yiddish29 and in the determination of dialectal areas. Together, these criteria demonstrate the progressive autonomy of Yiddish from the Germanic substrate. Birnbaum’s scheme, contrary to the periodization schemes and identifications of the area of Yiddish’s origins proposed by other scholars,30 situates the birth of Yiddish in the Rhine area around 900 CE and speaks of a long development up to 1300 in the Middle High German period (1050−1350).31 Phonetic, morphological, or syntactic developments distinguishing Yiddish from non-Jewish dialects of contemporary German could have occurred beginning in the ninth century, but Yiddish took shape toward the beginning of the thirteenth century, ‘the time when phonological evidence shows the separation of Yiddish and German to have already been a fact’ (YSG, 55−6). In order to analyse the subcultures of the Yiddish language, Birnbaum stresses the importance of migrations and human geography, as, for example, the creation of specific places of dwelling, from urban ghettos and Jewish streets or quarters (Judenviertel, Judengasse) in the Middle Ages to small towns (shtetlekh/śtéitlex). Western, Central, and Eastern Yiddish are not only defined as the language of specific linguistic communities or groups of Jews living in the same geographical area, using the same vocabulary, expressions, and phonological features. These divisions also correspond to varying liturgical traditions, religious customs, and popular practices. The creation of a ‘separate cultural entity’ fostered the emergence of a specific Jewish language. Birnbaum also shows the importance of cultural stratification and social organization for the understanding of linguistic behaviour. Anticipating studies from the 1960s and 1970s of speech habits among different social strata, Birnbaum emphasizes the oral and written features of various segments of Jewish society. He points out different sociolects to illustrate the diversity of Yiddish as spoken by the rabbinic intelligentsia of the yeshivas, the working class in New York City, pioneers in the agricultural colonies of Russia, and by immigrants in the Jewish quarters of major European cities. An understanding of the cultural divisions, religious practices, and social stratification in Jewish communities helps one to understand the birth of the vernacular language, its disappearance in Western Europe, and its growth in Eastern Europe. Similarly, Birnbaum’s approach integrates the Jews’ mobility. He postulates a relationship between the crystallization of Jewish vernacular languages and the geographic history of the Ashkenazim. This history includes migrations of Jews since the

lxiv  Jean Baumgarten Hellenistic and Roman eras, the destruction of the Second Temple, and the Jews’ deportation to Rome. It continues with their movement to Western Europe, their settling in the communities of the Rhine valley and southern Germany, and then their migrations toward the East, most notably Poland. The migrations put Jews in contact with several languages from which they adopted or transformed a number of features. Among these criteria Birnbaum also includes relations of the Jews with broader society, which were often marked by periods of tension, crisis, and conflict – indeed, by violent rejections – and in other historical circumstances, by recognition, even encouragement, and the use of the non-Jewish vernacular. In non-Jewish society, the beginnings of interest in Yiddish date to the sixteenth century, when Christian Hebraists turned to the language of the Ashkenazim out of curiosity.32 Although disdainful and full of ambiguity in their relationship to the ‘Jewish jargon,’ the scholars of the Wissenschaft des Judentums of the nineteenth century also evinced an early interest in the Jewish vernacular, intrigued as they were by an Indo-European language containing a Hebrew-Aramaic component.33 But it was particularly in the twentieth century, with the creation of journals, institutes, academic posts, and university departments, that the Yiddish language achieved full recognition as a scholarly field and object of study.34 The period of the Haskalah, the ‘Jewish Enlightenment’ (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), marked the beginnings, chiefly in Western Europe, of a gap emerging between Yiddish and Jewish tradition. First elites, then the masses, distanced themselves from the Jewish vernacular language, which was defined as a ‘corrupt German’ and perceived as the sign par excellence of the Jews’ social particularism. This enabled them to come closer to the majority languages and thus break down the barriers separating the Jewish inside from the gentile outside. Urbanization, westernization, and modernization accelerated the progressive abandonment and decline of the vernacular, which gradually ceased to be spoken in Germany. In Western Europe the use of Yiddish persisted only in rural areas far from urban centres, such as in Jewish village communities in Alsace, Switzerland, and ‘ultraOrthodox’ milieus. But history, in Birnbaum’s words, ‘followed a different path’ (36) in Eastern Europe. There Yiddish continued to be the living language of a very large proportion of the Jewish population. Secularization took the direction of a specific form of Jewish nationalism in which language became a decisive political and cultural factor, as evidenced by the birth of the Yiddishist current. The battle between political movements was punctuated not only by a number of debates, public speeches, and literary creations, but also by intense pedagogic activity and cultural diffusion. One might expect the sociological aspect of Birnbaum’s study to be the part of his work in need of the most extensive updating. However, its relevance remains

lxv  A Lifetime of Scholarship undiminished since the divide between the two principal sectors of Jewish society – its secularist and traditionalist currents – still represents a structural fact of communal life today. For the former current, Yiddish is considered above all a marker of cultural identity without implying religious practice. For the latter, the language is foremost a rampart against the loss of spiritual identity and is the symbol par excellence of the uniqueness of Jewish cultural life based on traditional Jewish values. The originality of Birnbaum’s intellectual approach resides in his having perceived and studied Yiddish as a fundamental component of the eternal heritage of Judaism at a time when the cultural and scholarly environment was dominated by secular Jewish currents. Birnbaum seems to have anticipated the present changes in Jewish society and sensed the sociological evolution of Yiddish, which is transmitted and spoken today mainly in ‘ultra-Orthodox’ circles. Birnbaum focused his research chiefly on the rigorous scientific description of the Yiddish language in its broadest dimensions. Nonetheless, his conception of Yiddish remains influenced by his personal commitments, which are in keeping with the ideas defended by his father Nathan Birnbaum, most notably regarding the bonds between language and Jewish identity.35 Steeped in German culture like many Jewish intellectuals of their time, Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum underwent a slow process of dissimilation. Beginning their journey in the circles of the Central European Jewish intellectual bourgeoisie, which was largely nonpracticing and saturated with European culture and the German language, they arrived at a progressive questioning of the model promoting Jews’ integration into general European society. Nathan (but not Solomon) identified at first with Zionism before they both finally committed to currents within Orthodoxy.36 Birnbaum highlighted the central position of religion37 in the formation of Jewish languages. True, he does not always take into consideration the complexity and the diversity of modern Jewish culture in Western Europe, which was torn between a multitude of antagonistic currents from assimilation to ‘ultra-Orthodoxy,’ and his existential engagement and scholarly argumentation mix, as when he reveals his penchant for Hassidic spirituality (YSG, 23). Yet, these factors do not diminish his place among scholars who have emphasized the importance of religion as a factor in the crystallization of Jewish languages.38 His understanding of the role of religion in language genesis was largely inspired by his father, who affirmed, for example, that ‘Orthodox Jews [were] the original and the true creators of Yiddish.’ In secular Jewish currents, ‘Yiddish was confronted with the danger of losing its true Jewish nature, its distinctive colours,’ to become ‘just a language, just a language.’39 Birnbaum’s analysis therefore concerns not only religious rituals, symbols and practices, but also those Jewish spiritual values that ‘lift man out of the material onto the spiritual plane’ and ‘spiritualize the material sphere’ (22). Birnbaum postulated within the Jewish legal system – which he defined as the

lxvi  Jean Baumgarten ‘foundation,’ the ‘framework,’ (23) and the axis mundi of the Jewish existence – a constant evolution. He also saw in it evidence of the existence of great creativity and inventiveness, especially through the medium of Jewish languages. Even though they belonged to two different intellectual milieus, Birnbaum’s argument parallels Max Weinreich’s consideration of specific features of the Yiddish language. For Weinreich, Yiddish is the direct expression of the derekh ha-shas/ déiryx haśas (the ‘way of the Talmud’40). For Birnbaum too, there exists a strong ‘connection between Judaism and Yiddish,’ (35) and the vernacular is important as a ‘safeguard against loss of spiritual identity and as a symbol of specifically Jewish life upon the basis of Judaism’ (38). The study of the Yiddish language is the direct continuation of his activity for the preservation and transmission of the traditional values of Judaism. He considers religious tradition one of the surest protections against assimilation. Further, without a strong Hebrew-Aramaic substrate, minority Jewish languages, weakened under the pressure of social environments pervaded by secularization, are in danger of both being penetrated by deleterious influences and being slowly absorbed into the majority culture to the point of disappearance. It is thus telling that Birnbaum devotes a paragraph to East Ashkenazi dress (23), stressing its cultural importance. This passage seems to echo the famous Midrash: ‘Israel was saved because they did not change their names, their language’ (Vayiqra Rabba 32, 5) ‘and their dress’ (Midraš Lekaḥ on Parašat Va’yera). He asserts, ‘They [The Jews] have their own religion, their own language, their own literature, their own customs and costumes.’ (19). Dress is not considered a folkloristic sign, but instead plays ‘a significant role’ (23) in the life of East Ashkenazi Jews, especially as the observance of an important religious precept. This consideration led him to introduce a sharp cultural dichotomy, even if it could be relativized by historical and sociological facts, between the West and East Ashkenazi worlds.41 Birnbaum attributes to the former negative qualities, such as assimilation, secularization, separation from tradition, and the destruction of the ‘Jewish national body’ (24), as leading to Jews’ slow absorption into the surrounding society. Estranged as they are from religion, these Jews have adopted the values of the gentile majority. The Western world is portrayed as the negative, ‘dark side’ of Europe, a society in which Jews have lost their ‘national unity’ and their specific identity, and have even ‘jettisoned’ (36) their own language. For westernized Jews, the Yiddish language became the symbol of Jewish separateness that must be abandoned for the sake of integration, and replaced with a majority language such as Polish, Hungarian, German, or Russian. In contrast, the eastern Ashkenazi world was, in his view, more oriented toward religion, mysticism, traditional ways of life, and the preservation of social norms: ‘In the East of Europe, Judaism still existed in an undiluted form,’ he noted (19), and was

lxvii  A Lifetime of Scholarship the repository of living customs and beliefs, of strong ethical values, and of an innovative tradition. In Eastern Europe, Jews perceived the traditional forms of religious life as part of ‘God’s world plan.’ (25)42 Hence, Birnbaum was deeply attracted to Hasidism as a ‘strong barrier against secularization’ (36) and as the symbol of the strength of traditional Jewish values. So strong were these values that even among secularists they did not wholly disappear in Eastern Europe. Rather, Jewish national consciousness there replaced the old notion of an am segula, rendered in the classic English Bible as ‘a peculiar people,’ and became a positive concept in which language, either Hebrew or Yiddish, played an essential role. In assigning a central place to religion in the formation, transmission, preservation, and historical evolution of Jewish languages, Birnbaum anticipated contemporary research about Jewish languages as sociolects or religiolects.43 He summarizes the role of religion in language formation when he explains that ‘language is an expression of group life’ (13). The study of Jewish languages is not limited for him to the collection and analysis of linguistic data alone; rather, they should be studied from a number of sociocultural perspectives. This approach lays the basis for the sociolinguistics of Jewish languages,44 which examines the relationships between different prevailing factors. These include the internal stratification of Jewish society, strategies of collective identity, attitudes toward religious practice, and how Jews present themselves to the outside world. Birnbaum integrates into this general framework of study such phenomena as internal and external diglossia, languages in contact, and linguistic interference between Jews, other minorities, and broader society. He thus expands his investigation of the phenomena of borders, linguistic hybridity, and cultural porosity. Birnbaum does not offer a simple anthology of sources in YSG. Yiddish literature is, first and foremost, viewed in its unity and continuity and the various ways it responds to the specific religious and cultural demands of Jewish society. The anthology of texts45 (146-189) offers a survey of the diverse modes of literary expression originating in the two main streams of Ashkenazi Judaism, Central and Eastern European. It combines linguistic description with the presentation of a representative sample of vernacular texts into a coherent whole in order to provide the basis for a scientific study of Yiddish and its culture, literature, and history. While there were already some anthologies compiled in the nineteenth century, their purpose was to provide simple text fragments for comparison with European popular literature. This approach detached Yiddish literature from its social context, relegating it to study primarily as a minor branch of Hebrew and European literatures.46 The texts Birnbaum presents aim at a combination of scholarly objectives. They demonstrate, first of all, the longevity of Yiddish literature spanning nearly

lxviii  Jean Baumgarten seven centuries of existence. The oldest extant written text, a blessing inserted into the manuscript Mahzor of Worms, dates back to 1272. Birnbaum also transcribed excerpts from the Cambridge Codex, which dates from 1382 and was found in the Cairo Geniza.47 The most recent text is a 1955 article by Isaac Nachman Steinberg. The sources may be seen from multiple angles, as a testimony to a cultural tradition at the crossroads of rabbinic sources and contemporary creations, as well as documents in the service of history, anthropology, and sociology. They thus link cultural factors and linguistic data. The choice of fragments according to the three broad dialect areas of Yiddish helps to make the collection a language laboratory for the study of variants of Yiddish. Although the collection can only be based on written sources, the rigorous transcription of texts from the Middle Ages to the twentieth century allows for lexical, phonemic, and syntactic analysis, as well as for the study of the script and the diachronic evolution of language. The selection of excerpts, as well as their accompanying philological notations, complements the other parts of the work, thus encouraging correlations, comparisons, and thematic connections. The first part links the birth of the Yiddish literary tradition to Western Yiddish,48 indicating the multitude of types of texts and their scripts. It also points nonetheless to the importance of works created in Eastern Europe, such as the homiletic commentary of Jacob ben Isaac Ashkenazi of Janow, the Tsenerene/Cénerény (written late sixteenth century, first printed edition Hanau, 1622), which was reprinted in Poland from the late sixteenth century on, and the commentary on the prophetic books Sefer ha-Maggid (Seyfer ha-Magid/ Saifer ha-Magyd) (Lublin, 1623−7). The collection begins with the transcription of the oldest texts, which are fragments of biblical epics or glosses of biblical manuscripts. This is a tradition that continued with the printing of excerpts of literal adaptations of the Bible49 (Taytsh-khumesh/Taać-xjmyś) until the full version was published in Amsterdam in the seventeenth century. Added to these are prayers, an excerpt from a book for moral instruction, a responsum, official documents50 including court testimony and community edicts, religious poems, a courtly song, and a satirical poem by the great Jewish humanist Elijah Bahur Levita.51 The Central Yiddish dialect is mainly represented by a sample of letters preserved in Prague. The anthology shows the migration beginning in the eighteenth century of Yiddish literature from Western Europe to Eastern Europe52 and later to the United States, especially through the works of the three classic Yiddish writers Mendele Moykher-Sforim,53 Sholem Aleichem, and Yitskhok Leybush Peretz. Meanwhile, Western Yiddish is represented in the twentieth century only by the oral memoirs of Jews in Switzerland and the regions of Baden and Alsace. Each author represents a commitment and a unique contribution within this general picture of modern Jewish literature; some authors, including Mendele Moykher-Sforim

lxix  A Lifetime of Scholarship who wrote in both Hebrew and Yiddish, are located at the intersection of two cultural streams, making for a remarkable synthesis. In thus sketching a history of Old and Modern Yiddish literature, Birnbaum shows the main areas of creation and the specific cultural space in which Yiddish literature unfolded in contact with European literature and works in Hebrew. In his conceptual framework, he connects vernacular literature to canonical and Rabbinic texts. Yiddish literature is not defined as merely a ‘popular’ and ‘minor literature’ or as a simple putative branch of Hebrew literature. Instead, it is presented as a direct expression of Jewish tradition (Masorah). In this way, the sacred and the profane are combined into a single creative unity. Birnbaum views Modern Yiddish literature as a direct result of secularization, which, in his words, ‘succeeded in breaking up the Jewish community … destroying the Jewish national body’ (24). He illustrates in the literary domain the dichotomy between Jewish literature by western Jews, who were more affected by the influences of the surrounding society, and the literature of ‘traditional East Ashkenazi Jewry’ (24), which kept strong links to religion, faith, and traditional Judaism. Recent studies have significantly relativized this cultural opposition, showing the cultural porosity between the Jewish world and Eastern European culture in general and the forces of secularization at work in Eastern European society since the late nineteenth century.54 Nonetheless, Birnbaum, taking up an idea that ran through many scholarly and literary works of the early twentieth century, describes Judaism in Eastern Europe55 as less susceptible to external influences and mixing, given its more traditional content. He saw it as a bulwark against the forces of atomization, dilution, and absorption, as well as an important domain for the expression of the world of tradition. In contrast with the Jews of the western world, where writers and artists were more influenced by the dominant literary models of European culture, the Jews of Eastern Europe chose a path leading to the creation of a literature rooted in traditional texts, and an involvement in Jewish political and national awareness movements. Birnbaum therefore gave a prominent place to religious songs and to the creation, adaptation, and translation of scriptural sources. Above all, he assigned a major role to Hasidism and its founder the Besht (the Ba’al Shem Tov), whose teachings he reproduced. He thus included a Kabbalistic allegory excerpted from Keter Šem Tov56 and the Holy Epistle (Iggeret ha-qodeš), which recounts the ascension of the Besht’s soul and his dialogue with the Messiah.57 To these fragments he added a tale by R. Nahman of Bratslav, often considered the first author of modern Jewish literature. Traditional texts remain an important branch of Yiddish’s cultural heritage. This is symbolized by the inner strength of Ḥasidut, which he viewed both as a mighty defense that combines mysticism and piety, and as an answer to contemporary materialism.

lxx  Jean Baumgarten A new Jewish literature emerged during the period of the Haskalah. In Yiddish it was more oriented to political and social issues and the formation of a secular diaspora culture. In Hebrew it tended toward nationalism and Zionism. The main opposition in it was between traditionalism, which used Yiddish as an integral part of the Orthodox way of life, and Yiddishism, for which secular national trends were essential. Two significant events symbolize this process of returning to the sources of Ashkenazi tradition and calling into question its cultural heritage and its future: on the one hand, the Czernowitz Conference in 190858 where heated debates took place to define the national language of the Jewish people, and, on the other, the creation in 1925 of YIVO, the Jewish Scientific Institute which contributed greatly to achieving academic recognition for Yiddish.59 Birnbaum actively contributed to contemporary debates about nationalism, secularization, Jewish identity, and the future of the Jewish people, thereby offering rich material for reflection on the role of Jewish languages and ​​ on changes in a Jewish society. Birnbaum, as seen in his correspondences, his contacts with many leading scholars, and his scholarly achievements, was at the heart of Yiddish studies in his generation. He participated in many debates and academic discussions, as well as achieved recognition for this field in Jewish Studies, dialectology, and sociolinguistics. Because of his scholarly choices – above all the use of his own system of Romanization – he occupies a unique place in the field. His academic research is particularly remarkable because he investigated a great variety of domains in order to give a comprehensive picture of the language, its history, its culture, its structure, and its social functions. In his work, Yiddish is not seen as a closed system, but is integrated into a network of Jewish languages and is permeated with the linguistic influences of its surroundings. Birnbaum’s work reminds us that the scientific study of Yiddish must consider the multi-faceted expression of religious practices and beliefs, literary traditions, a common cultural heritage, social structures, and shared ways of living that, in conjunction with linguistic features, provide the basis for the unity and diversity of Jewish languages.​ Birnbaum based his original thinking on such data, imparting to this magnum opus a broad analytical perspective that has lost nothing of its scholarly relevance. Translated from the French by Kalman Weiser. NOTES 1

In this text, the page numbers in parentheses refer to the pages in the main text of Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar (YSG). Salomo/Solomon Asher Birnbaum is abridged to Birnbaum.

lxxi  A Lifetime of Scholarship   2 I am very grateful to Prof. Eleazar Birnbaum and to David Birnbaum, Director of the Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives in Toronto, for providing me with valuable information about the life and work of Solomon A. Birnbaum.   3 Alfred Landau, ‘Die Sprache der Memoiren Glückels von Hameln,’ Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Jüdische Volkskunde 34 (1885): 20−68.   4 Lazare Sainéan, ‘Essai sur le judéo-allemand et spécialement sur le dialecte parlé en Valachie’ in Mémoires de la Société de Linguistique, 1903, 90−138 and 187−96.   5 These include, among others, the contributions of Moritz Steinschneider, ‘Jüdische-deutsche Literatur,’ Serapeum, 1848, 1849, 1864, 1866 and 1896, pag. div. Note also the pioneering work of Ber Borochov/Béir Buurexov, especially ‘Di oyfgabn fun der yidisher filologye/Di ofgabn fjn der Iîdiśer filolgiy,’ in Der Pinkes/Der Pinkys, Shmuel Niger/Śmjjl Niger, ed. (Vilna: B. Kletskin, 1913) 1, 1913, 1−18.   6 See, for example, the works of Moritz Grünwald and folklorists in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Jüdische Volkskunde (Vienna, 1898−1929).   7 The first history of Yiddish literature is Leo Wiener, The History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth Century (London: Nimmo, 1899); on Old Yiddish literature, see Max Erik/Maks Erik, Di geshikhte fun der yidisher literatur fun di eltste tsaytn biz der haskole-tkufe/Di gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer literatúúr fjn di éltsty caatn biz der haskuuly-tkjjfy (Warsaw: Kultur-lige/ Kúltúúr-ligy, 1928).   8 Emanuel S. Goldsmith. Architects of Yiddishism at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century, a Study in Jewish Cultural History (Rutherford, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1976) (Reprinted with an additional chapter: Modern Yiddish Culture, the Story of the Yiddish Language Movement, New York: Fordham University Press, 1997).   9 Dan Miron, A Traveler Disguised, a Study in the Rise of Modern Yiddish Fiction in the 19th Century (New York: Schocken, 1973). 10 Itzik Gottesman, Defining the Yiddish Nation, the Jewish Folklorists of Poland (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2003). 11 Delphine Bechtel, La Renaissance culturelle juive en Europe centrale et orientale, 1897–1930: langue, littérature et construction nationale (Paris: Belin, 2002). 12 Erika Timm, Eleazar Birnbaum and David Birnbaum, eds. Salomo/Solomon A. Birnbaum, Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft/A Lifetime of Achievement, vol. 1: Linguistics, vol. 2: Palaeography (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2011). 13 Paul Glasser ‘Max Weinreich,’ in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe (New Haven: Yale University Press; New York: YIVO, 2008), vol. 2, 2014−2016.

lxxii  Jean Baumgarten 14 Salomo Birnbaum, Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache für den Selbstunterricht (Vienna, Leipzig: Hartleben, 1918; new, enlarged editions: Hamburg: Buske, 1966, 1979, 1984, and 1988). 15 The work was published in 1922 in Kirchhain by the printers Zahn and Baendel: Inauguraldissertation verfasst in der philosophischen Fakultät der bayer. Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg zur Erlangung der philosoph Doktorwürde vorgelegt am 10. Juni 1921. The thesis was republished with an introduction by Walter Röll (Hamburg: Buske, 1986). 16 His book Shtaplen: Fir etyuden tsu der yidisher shprakhvisnshaft un literaturgeshikhte/Śtaplyn: Fiir étiudn cj der Iîdiśer śprax-visnśaft jn literatúúr gyśixty (Berlin: Wostok, 1928) contains elements from his thesis. The thesis was republished as Max Weinreich, Geschichte der jiddischen Sprachforschung, ed. Jerold Frakes (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1993). 17 Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979). Some of these developments can be found in previous books and articles, especially in Die Jiddische Sprache: ein kurzer Überblick und Texte aus acht Jahrhunderten (Hamburg: Buske, 1974; second enlarged edition, 1986; third edition, 1997, with an introduction by Walter Röll). These revisions and additions inform us about the evolution of Birnbaum’s method of work, which deepened and broadened his linguistic, sociological, and literary investigations over the years. Thus, for example, the analyses contained in the article, ‘The Age of Yiddish’ (Transactions of the Philological Society, London, 1939, 31−43) appeared again in YSG (44−57), but with differences, notably in the transcriptions of Old Yiddish texts. 18 See note 15. We read (4): ‘Das Jiddische besteht der Hauptsache nach aus drei zu einer Einheit verschmolzenen Elementen: einem germanischen, einem semitischen und einem slavischen.’ (‘Yiddish consists mainly of three elements fused into a unity: Germanic, Semitic, and Slavic’). 19 Max Weinreich, Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax (New York: YIVO, 1973). (Two volumes of text, two volumes of footnotes.) See the partial English translation, History of the Yiddish Language. Trans. Shlomo Noble with the assistance of Joshua A. Fishman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980). A complete translation was published (2 vols., New Haven: Yale University Press; New York, YIVO, 2008). 20 S.A. Birnbaum, ‘The Origins of the German Elements in Yiddish’ in The Field of Yiddish, ed. Uriel Weinreich, vol. 1 (New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1954), 63−9 (Repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit. vol. 1, 121−9).

lxxiii  A Lifetime of Scholarship 21 The YIVO system adopted in 1937 is based on the traditional Yiddish spelling system, which is pan-dialectal. Uriel Weinreich maintained that the correspondence between the Northeastern dialect and the written form is greater than that between the southern dialects and the written form. Birnbaum disagreed with this assertion. His transcription system is based on central and southeastern Yiddish. For him, the YIVO system, by standardizing the transcription of the language, has the defect of not adequately taking into consideration the dialectal richness of Yiddish. See Birnbaum, ‘Standard Yiddish’ in The Field of Yiddish, ed. Uriel Weinreich (New York: Linguistic Circle of New York, 1954), 69−72 (Repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit. vol. 1, 277−9). On the subject of Yiddish spelling, see Weiser’s essay in this volume. 22 On periodization, see note 30. 23 Max Weinreich used the term ‘component.’ See Max Weinreich, Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax, vol. 1, 32−41. Birnbaum employed the term ‘elements.’ In his YSG (58), we read, ‘The immediate predecessor of Y[iddish] was Zarphatic [Birnbaum’s term for the Jewish language based on Old French], which the Jews had brought from Northern France. From this, the new language which was born in Germany inherited an element of Semitic origin. Zar[phatic], of course, did not disappear without a trace. Thus it may be said that Y[iddish] at its birth consisted of three elements: Semitic, Romance and Germanic.’ Solomon Birnbaum and Max Weinreich both use terms and metaphors borrowed from chemistry. At the beginning of his ‘Synthesis’ (YSG, 82), Birnbaum writes, ‘The words “element” and “reaction,” taken from chemistry, seem to provide a suitable metaphor for the linguistic processes in question. Thus “element” is preferable to the term “component” which was introduced some time ago as a substitute. However, “components” suggests things placed side by side without “interaction.”’ 24 YSG 14. 25 Leo Wiener, in his The History of Yiddish Literature, uses some stereotypes associated with Yiddish, calling it ‘an arbitrary and vicious corruption of the language of their country’ (13), and is considered by German scholars ‘a careless corruption of the German,’ (17) and ‘less known to the world than that [the language] of the Gypsy, the Malay or the North American Indian’ (33). 26 S. Birnbaum, ‘Jewish Languages,’ in Essays in Honour of the Very Rev. Dr. J.H. Hertz, eds. Isidore Epstein, Ephraim Levine, and Cecil Roth (London: Goldston, 1944), 51−67; see also his ‘Jewish Languages’ (a different article) in The Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 10, 1971 edition only, cols. 66−9; repr.

lxxiv  Jean Baumgarten

27 28 29 30

31

32

in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 1−5. A large part of the articles in volume I is devoted to typology and to linguistic corpus studies of Jewish language. This is especially true of his ‘The Jewish Languages of the Jewries at the Edge of Eastern Europe’, 305−30. There are articles about Judezmo/Jidyo/Jidic (especially letters in the language of the Sephardim of Sarajevo [Bosnia] and of Ragusa [Dubrovnik]; about Maaravic and Maghrebinian of Fez [Morocco]; and about the language of the Jews of Bukhara, Central Asia [‘Bukharic Language of Samarkand’]). For Bukharic, there is notably the facsimile, the original text, accompanied by the Yiddish transcription and the English translation of a poem from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century, Xudaidad. These articles are of the greatest importance not only as linguistic studies of the spoken and written languages of the Jews of Oriental communities, but also as valuable testimonies to Jewish languages that are almost or actually no longer extant. S. A. Birnbaum, ‘Tables of Jewish Languages and Scripts,’ in ibid., vol. 1, 7−18. See also the summary, ‘Hebräisch und Jiddisch’ in Actes du XVIIIe Congrès International des Orientalistes (Leiden, 1932), 169. Solomon Birnbaum, ‘The Age of the Yiddish Language,’ in Transactions of the Philological Society (1939), 31−43 (Repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 97−108). On the periodization of Yiddish, see Weinreich, Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax, vol. 2, 383−97; Nathan Süsskind (Nosn Ziskind/Nuusn Ziiskind), ‘Batrakhtungen vegn der geshikhte fun yidish/Batraxtjngyn véign der gyśixty fjn Iîdiś,’ Yidishe shprakh/Iîdiśy śprax 13 (1953): 97−108; Dov-Ber Kerler, The Origins of Modern Literary Yiddish (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999), 255−6; on the geographic origins of Yiddish, there exist two main opposing theories: that of Rhineland origins (S. A. Birnbaum [see YSG 106] and Max Weinreich) and that of Bavarian origins (Robert King). See Robert King, ‘Proto-Yiddish Morphology,’ in Origins of the Yiddish Language, ed. Dovid Katz (Oxford: Pergamon, 1987), 73−81. On the relationship between Yiddish and Bavarian dialects, see Birnbaum, ‘Bayrisch und Jiddisch,’ in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit.. vol. 1, 108−19. In YSG (106) Birnbaum writes, ‘The ninth century must be regarded as the birth date of the new language … [by] 1382 the Jewish vernacular had undergone about five centuries of development.’ 1382 is the date of the Cambridge manuscript of Avrom Ovinu/Avruum Uviinjj (TS 10 K22), one of the oldest sources of Old Yiddish literature. Jerold Frakes, The Cultural Study of Yiddish in Early Modern Europe (New York: Palgrave, 2007).

lxxv  A Lifetime of Scholarship 33 Diana Matut, ‘Steinschneider and Yiddish,’ in Studies on Steinschneider. Moritz Steinschneider and the Emergence of the Science of Judaism in Nineteenth-Century Germany, ed. Reimund Leicht and Gad Freudenthal (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 283−409. 34 Cecile Kuznitz, ‘Yiddish Studies,’ The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies, ed. Martin Goodman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 541−71. 35 On Nathan Birnbaum’s work, life, and thought, see Jess Olson, Nathan Birnbaum and Jewish Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press 2013); Solomon A. Birnbaum, ‘Nathan Birnbaum,’ in Men of Spirit, ed. Leo Jung (New York: Kymson, 1964), 517−49; Joshua Fishman, Ideology, Society and Language: The Odyssey of Nathan Birnbaum (Ann Arbor: Karoma, 1987); ‘Nathan Birnbaum’ in Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1972, 2003; The Bridge: Selected Essays, ed. Solomon A. Birnbaum, trans. Irene R. Birnbaum (London: Jewish Post Publications, 1956); Joshua Shanes, ‘Nathan Birnbaum,’ in The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, vol. 1, 286. 36 See Kalman Weiser’s essay in this volume. 37 In his article ‘Jewish languages’ (Encyclopaedia Judaica, vol. 10, 1971 (only), col. 68; repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, A Lifetime of Achievement, vol. 1, 3), Birnbaum states, ‘The Jewish languages are creations of the group-forming factor of religion.’ 38 See, for example, Matthias Mieses, Die Entstehungsursache der jüdischen Dialekte, mit einer Einleitung von Peter Freimark (Hamburg: Buske, 1979) (facsimile of the 1915 edition published in Vienna by Löwit). 39 See Nathan Birnbaum, ‘A mol un atsind/A muul jn acind,’ in YIVO, Di ershte yidishe shprakh-konferents/Di éirśty Iîdiśy śprax-konferénc, (Vilna: YIVO, 1931), ix; on the ties between Yiddish, religion, and Jewish tradition, see Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘Geule fun loshn/Gjly fjn luuśn,’ in Never Say Die, ed. Joshua A. Fishman (The Hague: Mouton, 1981), 181−95. 40 This expression is used by Max Weinreich (Weinreich/Vaanraax, Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax, 2, 2008, 174−246) to denote the cultural-historical way of life of the Ashkenazi world and Yiddish as a linguistic repository of the main components of the Jewish tradition. The term, as used in traditional Jewish sources, means the way the Talmud develops an argument, e.g., Shabbat 1436, Tosafot.  41 This cultural opposition is also found in the works of many Jewish intellectuals of his time, such as Franz Rosenzweig and Martin Buber, and in the thought of his father, Nathan Birnbaum (see, for example, ‘Die Emanzipation des Ostjudentums von Westjudentums’ in his Ausgewählte Schriften zur jüdischen Frage (Czernowitz: Birnbaum, Kohut, 1910, 13−33). 42 This idea is also expressed in Nathan Birnbaum’s Gottes Volk (Vienna: Löwit, 1918).

lxxvi  Jean Baumgarten 43 On the concept of religiolect, see Ora Schwartzwald, ‘Morphological Aspects in the Development of Judeo-Spanish,’ Folia Linguistica 27/1−2 (1993): 29; Shlomo Morag speaks likewise of socioglossia, thus highlighting the coexistence in Jewish languages of fragments of the corpus of classic Jewish texts and of a Hebrew-Aramaic component integrated into the structure of the language, especially at the lexical level. See S. Morag, ‘The Study of the Language Traditions of the Jewish Communities of the Diaspora, Vena Hebraica in Judaeorum Linguis, ed. S. Morag, M. Bar-Asher, M. MayerModena (Milan: Universita degli Studi; Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1999), 3−13. 44 See on this subject the work of sociolinguist Joshua Fishman catalogued by Gella Schweid Fishman, ‘Joshua A. Fishman’s Bibliographical Inventory,’ in Ofelia García, Rakhmiel Peltz and Harold Schiffman: Language, Loyalty, Continuity and Change: Joshua Fishman’s Contributions to International Sociolinguistics (Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd.), 125−77. 45 A first version appeared in The Field of Yiddish II, ed. Uriel Weinreich (The Hague: Mouton, 1965), 1−23. 46 Max Grünbaum, Jüdischdeutsche Chrestomathie (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1882); Willy Staerk and Albert Leitzmann, Die jüdisch-deutschen Bibelübersetzungen (Frankfurt: Kauffmann, 1924). 47 It is the epic poem Avrom Ovinu/Avruum Uuviinjj inspired by the Bible and the Midrashim. Birnbaum participated in the publication of the manuscript of the Old Yiddish version of the epic Dukus Horant. See his palaeographic analysis, S. Birnbaum, ‘Excurs,’ Dukus Horant, ed. F. Ganz, F. Norman, and W. Schwarz (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1964), 7−14; repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit.,vol. 2, 387−93. 48 The phonological analysis of the manuscript of Dukus Horant placed its origins in the Rhine region in the thirteenth century. See Ganz, Norman, and Schwarz, Dukus Horant, 130−1. 49 Note two transcriptions of Psalm 6, a manuscript version (no. 8 in the collection of texts, Berlin, Staatsbibliothek Or.Qu. 310) and a printed version (no. 21 in the collection, by Joseph bar Yakar, published in Ichenhausen in 1544). Birnbaum included these versions in two articles that trace the history and study the language of Psalms in Yiddish in the work Die Psalmenverdeutschung von den ersten Anfängen bis Luther, ed. Hans Vollmer (Potsdam: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion,  1932−1933), 4−5, 8−9, 19 (reprinted in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 177−96); and Shloyme Birnboym/Śloimy Biirnboim, ‘Zeks hundert yor tilim af yidish/ Zéks hjndert iuur tilym af Iîdiś’ in For Max Weinreich on his

lxxvii  A Lifetime of Scholarship

50

51 52 53

54

55

56 57

Seventieth Birthday: Studies in Jewish Languages, Literature and Society (The Hague: Mouton, 1964), 526−600. They were collected for the first time in Raphael Strauss, ed. Urkunden und Aktenstücke zur Geschichte der Juden in Regensburg 1453−1738 (München: Beck, 1960), 455−62; repr. in Timm, Birnbaum, and Birnbaum, op. cit., vol. 1, 197−205. Twenty-four texts out of twenty-nine, thus showing the importance of socioreligious factors in the shaping of Yiddish literature. This development was studied by Dov-Ber Kerler, The Origins of Modern Literary Yiddish (Oxford: Clarendon, 1999). Birnbaum translated three novels by Mendele Moykher-Sforim/Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym (published in Berlin by Jüdischer Verlag 1924): Die Mähre (from 1873), Schloimale (1901) and Der Wünschring (1865). They were collected, together with other novels translated by Alexander Eliasberg and Efraim Frisch, in Mendele Moicher Sfurim, Werke (Olten/Freiburg im Breisgau: Walter), 2 vols., 1961−2. The work includes a glossary and afterword by, among others, Klaus Wagenbach, one of the great biographers of Franz Kafka. Wagenbach draws a parallel between Mendele MoykherSforim/Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym and Wilhelm Raabe. Nathan Cohen shows the diversity of Jewish literary and cultural currents, especially secular ones in Warsaw prior to the Second World War. See Natan Kohen (Nathan Cohen), Sefer, sofer ve-iton, merkaz ha-tarbut ha-yehudit be-varša, 1918−1942 (Jerusalem: Magnes, 2003). See also Ḥana Šmeruq (Chone Shmeruk), ‘Ivrit, yidiš, polanit, tarbut yehudit tlat lešonit,’ in Ben šte milḥamot ha-olam, peraqim me-ḥayyei ha-tarbut šel yehude polin lilšonotehem (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1997), 9−33. For example, to mention only the best known, Franz Kafka, Martin Buber, Sh. Agnon, and Joseph Roth. On the history of this cultural rupture, see Steven E. Aschheim, Brothers and Strangers: the East European Jew in German and German Jewish Consciousness 1800–1923 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982). Keter Šem Tov (Crown of a Good Name, Zolkiew, 1794) is an anthology of the Ba’al Shem Tov’s teachings by Rabbi Aharon ha-Kohen of Zhelikhov, gleaned from the works of Rabbi Yaakov Yosef of Polonoye. In his introduction to the life and work of the Besht, (Leben und Worte des Balschemm nach chassidischen Schriften, Auswahl und Übertragung von Salomo Birnbaum (Berlin: Welt-Verlag; Leipzig: von Spamer, 1920; English translation by Irene Birnbaum, New York, 1933), Birnbaum contrasts Westjuden with Ostjuden, describing the latter as the ‘Hauptkerngruppe

lxxviii  Jean Baumgarten des jüdischen Volkes.’ The work contains a glossary of Hasidic terms in Birnbaum’s transcription system based on the dialect of southern regions of Eastern Europe (südlichen Dialektes des Jiddischen), the Yiddish spoken by the Besht. 58 Kalman Weiser and Joshua A. Fogel, eds., Czernowitz at 100: The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical Perspective (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2010). 59 Cecile E. Kuznitz, ‘Yivo,’ The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, vol. 2, 2090−6.

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2016 SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY SUPPLEMENTARY ABBREVIATIONS (supplement to abbreviations on pages 311−18)

*An asterisk indicates that the publication is not a periodical or part of a series. ACRWS

Advances in the Creation and Revision of Writing Systems (Ed. J.A. Fishman) AJLAC Association of Jewish Libraries: Annual Convention AJS AJS Review Al Aleph Asch Aschkenas Aug AUGIAS BETWE BGdSL BIAY BjcT BNF BPJ BZIH CB CC Ch

A Bibliography of East European Travel Writing on Europe (Ed. W. Bracewell, A. Drace-Francis)* Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur The Bible in/and Yiddish (Ed. Shlomo Berger)* Bibel in jüdischer und christlicher Tradition. Festschrift für Johann Maier zum 60. Geburtstag (Ed. Helmut Merklein et al.)* Beiträge zur Namenforschung Bibliographies of Polish Judaica. International Symposium, Cracow 5−7 July 1988: Proceedings (Ed. K. Muszyńska)* Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego The circum-Baltic languages (Ed. Ö. Dahl, M. KoptjevskajaTamm)* Cahiers du CREDYO Chilufim

392  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography CJ CL  CMC CYA

Les Cahiers du Judaïsme Cahiers du Lacito Les Cahiers de la Mémoire Contemporaine La culture yiddish aujourd’hui*

D DB

DYL

Diachronica David Bergelson: From Modernism to Socialist Realism (Ed. J. Sherman, G. Estraikh)* Dialektologie: Ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung (Ed. W. Besch et al)* Dus Iîdiśy vort (New York) Dialektsyntax (Ed. W. Abraham, J. Bayer) (=LingB, Sonderheft 5) Dialects of the Yiddish Language (Ed. D. Katz)*

EDB EJJ2 EJJS EMM ESCOL EurJ

Ehime-doitsu-bungaku Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jerusalem), 2007 edition European Journal of Jewish Studies Evreï v meniaiuščemsia mire* Proceedings of the Eastern State Conference on Linguistics European Judaism

FL For FoY

Folia Linguistica Der Forvérc (New York) The Field of Yiddish

Ga GAGL GnL GTMHYL

Gal’ed Groninger Arbeiten zur Germanistischen Linguistik General Linguistics Gender and Text in Modern Hebrew and Yiddish Literature (Ed. N. Sokoloff, A. Lapidus Lerner, and A. Norich)* The Gaon of Vilnius and the Annals of Jewish Culture (Ed. I. Lempertas)*

DHDAD DIV DS

GVAJC HEL Hen HIA HL HL 1999

Histoire, Épistémologie, Langage Henoch Hebrew in Ashkenaz: a language in exile (Ed. L. Glinert)* Hebrew Linguistics History of Linguistics 1999: Selected Papers from the Eighth International Conference on the History of the Language Sciences, 14-19 September 1999 (Ed. A. Sylvain)*

393  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography HUCA HYS

Hebrew Union College Annual History of Yiddish Studies (Ed. D. Katz)*

IATH

Issues in the Acquisition and Teaching of Hebrew (Ed. A. Feuer, S. Armon-Lotem, and B. Cooperman)* Iîdiśer Bjjx-Almanax Iyyunim ba-sifrut. Devarim še-ne’emru ba-erev likhvod Dov Sadan bi-mlot lo šemonim ve-ḥameš šana International Folklore Review Insights into Germanic Languages (Ed. I. Rauch, G.F. Carr. vol. 1) (=Trends in Linguistics 83) International Journal of Lexicography International Journal of the Sociology of Language Iîdiśy Kultúúr Issues in Linguistics* Il mio cuore è a Oriente. Studi di linguistica storica, filologia e cultura ebraica dedicati a Maria Luisa Mayer Modena = libi ba-Mizraḥ (Ed. F. Aspes et al)* Insiders and outsiders. German-Jewish, Yiddish and German and culture in contact (Ed. D. Lorenz, G. literature Weinberger)* Iérjśelaamer almanax Ha-ivrit safa ḥaya Internationale Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik

IBAx IbS IFR IGL IJL IJSL IK ILi IMCO IO IrA ISḤ IZD JA JaS JCGL JEMA JFER JGL JH JHM JIDG JIDH JIPA JLib

Juifs d’Alsace: huit siècles d’histoire* Jews and Slavs Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages (Tenth to Fifteenth Centuries). Proceedings of the international symposium held at Speyer, 20-25 October 2002 (Ed. C. Cluse)*  Jewish Folklore and Ethnology Review Journal of Germanic Linguistics Jewish History Jewish History and Memory. Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (Ed. E. Carlebach, J. Efron, D. Myers)* Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte Jiddistik Heute = Yiddish Studies Today = Leket; yidishe shtudyes haynt (Ed. M. Aptroot)* Journal of the International Phonetic Association Judaica Librarianship

394  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography JLR JM JMMD JNCJL JP JPCL JRos JSDI JSocling JSoS JSQ JSS

Jewish Language Review Jiddistik-Mitteilungen Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development Jewish and Non-Jewish Creators of ‘Jewish’ Languages (Ed. P. Wexler)* Jiddische Philologie Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages Judaica Rossica Jahrbuch des Simon-Dubnow Instituts Journal of Sociolinguistics Jewish Social Studies Jewish Quarterly Review Journal of Semitic Studies

KHŻ

Kwartalnik Historii Żydów

LA LaS LCAAJ

Linguistic Analysis Language and Society The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry (Ed. M. Herzog et al). I: Historical and Theoretical Foundations (1992); II: Research Tools (1998); III: the Eastern Yiddish-Western Yiddish Continuum (2000) Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry, Beihefte Linguistische Berichte La Linguistique  Language in Society Linguistique des langues juives et linguistique générale (Ed. F. Alvarez-Péreyre, J. Baumgarten)* Language Language planning. Focusschrift in honor of Joshua A. Fishman on the occasion of his 65th birthday vol. 3 (Ed. D. Marshall)* Language Problems and Language Planning Language Sciences Language Variation and Change

LCAAJB LingB Lingq LiS Lljlg Lng LPJF LPLP LS LVC M Maca MAP

Muttersprache Mille ans de cultures ashkénazes (Ed. J. Baumgarten, I. Niborsky, R. Ertel, A. Wieviorka)* Ke-Minhag Aškenaz u-Folin: Sefer Yovel le-Ḥana Šmeruq: Qoveẓ meḥqarim be-tarbut yehudit. Studies in Jewish Culture in honor of Chone Shmeruk (Ed. I. Bartal, E. Mendelsohn, Ḥ. Turniansky)*

395  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography Mas MedLR MH MJLIB MJS MJSA Mm MQ MR MWF

Masorot Mediterranean Language Review Monatshefte Modern Jewish Literatures, Intersections and Boundaries (Ed. S. Jelen, M. Kramer, L. Scott Lerner)* Modern Jewish Studies Modern Jewish Studies Annual Miqqedem umiyyam Mankind Quarterly Medieovo Romanzo Multiple Wh-fronting (Ed. C Boeckx, K. Grohmann) (=Linguistic Aktuell 64)

Nordisk Judaistik ND NDKKJ Nieme dusze?: Kobiety w kulturze jidysz (Ed. J. Lisek)* NjBF Nachrichten für den jüdischen Bürger Fürths  NLLT Natural Language and Linguistic Theory Natural Language Semantics NLS NSD Never Say Die! (Ed. J. Fishman)* NSL Non-Slavic Languages Nurinst Nurinst 2006. Beiträge zur deutschen und jüdischen Geschichte. Band 3 (Ed. J.G. Tobias and P. Zinke) OBDP OHJS OI OŚ OYL

Ot biblii do postmoderna (Ed. V. Močalova)* The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Studies (Ed. M. Goodman)* Oksforder Iîdiś Ofn Śvél Origins of the Yiddish Language (Ed. D. Katz)*

Pam Pén PSAMBLS

Pa‘amim Di Pén Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (Ed. K. Hall)* Pir – trapeza – zastol’e v slavianskoï i evreïskoï kul’turnoï traditsii (Ed. O.V. Belov) The Politics of Yiddish (Ed. D. Kerler)*

PTZ PY RAGL RC RCJA

Recent advances in Germanic linguistics (Ed. R. Lippi-Green, J. Salmons)* Religion Compass Regards sur la culture judéo-alsacienne (Ed. G. Bischoff)*

396  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography RLC RMI ROCHJS RSB RSJL RSM Rwb RWD Rwh

Reconstructing languages and cultures. Papers from a symposium on Indo-European studies ... Berlin 1992 =Trends in Linguistics 58 (Ed. E. Polome, W. Winter) Rassegna Mensile di Israel Report of the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies Razdeliriuščiï sviatoe i budničnoe Readings in the Sociology of Jewish Languages (Ed. J. Fishman)* Rassegna Mensile di Israel Röllwagenbüchlein. Festschrift für Walter Röll zum 65. Geburtstag. (Ed. J. Jaehrling et al)* Rotwelsch-Dialekte (Ed. K. Siewert)* Rozdział wspólnej historii: studia z dziejów Żydów w Polsce: ofiarowane profesorowi Jerzemu Tomaszewskiemu w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin (Ed. J. Żyndul)*

Š Šalem S Sprachwissenschaft  Sb Sandbjerg 85. Dem Andenken von Heinrich Bach gewidmet (Ed. F. Debus, E. Dittmer)* Salomo/ Solomon A. Birnbaum: Ein Leben für die WissenSBLW schaft/ A Lifetime of Achievement: Wissenschaftliche Aufsätze aus sechs Jahrzehnten/ Six Decades of Scholarly Articles (Ed. E. Timm, E. Birnbaum and D. Birnbaum)* SCJ Studies in Contemporary Jewry SGJB The Schocken Guide to Jewish Books (Ed. B. Holtz)* Shf Shofar Shvut Shvut SiČ Svoï ili čužoï? Evrei i slaviane glazami drug druga. Sbornik stateï (Ed. O.B. Belov)* Studies in Jewish Civilization (Ed. L. J. Greenspoon) SJC SJCHCS Studies in Jewish Culture in Honour of Chone Shmeruk (Ed. I. Bartal, E. Mendelsohn, and Ch. Turniansky)* Studies in Language SL Sl Slovo Slavica Hierosolymitana SlH SlR Slavic Review Slv Slavianovedenie SO Studia Orientalia SoS Studies on Steinschneider: Moritz Steinschneider and the Emergence of the Science of Judaism in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Ed. R. Leicht, G. Freudenthal)*

397  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography SPSNL SSGL SSL SSp ŠSY SYL SYLF SymT SYYD

Sociolinguistic Perspectives on Soviet National Languages: Their Past, Present and Future (Ed. I.T. Kreindler)* Studies in Semitic and General Linguistics in Honor of Gideon Goldberg (Ed. T. Bar and E. Cohen)* Substance and Structure of Language (Ed. J. Puhvel)* Studia Spinozana Šenaton ha-sefer ha-yehudi Studies in Yiddish Linguistics (Ed. P. Wexler)* Studies in Yiddish Literature and Folklore* Symbiose und Traditionsbruch. Deutsch-jüdische Wechselbeziehungen in Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa (19. und 20. Jahrhundert) (Ed. H. Hecker and W. Engel)* Al bria ve-al yezִira ba-maḥševet ha-yehudit: Sefer ha-yovel likhvodo šel Yosef Dan bi-mlot lo šivim šana. Creation and re-creation in Jewish thought: Festschrift in honor of Joseph Dan on the occasion of his seventieth birthday (Ed. R. Elior and P. Schäfer)*

Ta TM

Tarbiz Theoretical Morphology. Approaches in Modern Linguistics (Ed. M. Hammond and M. Noonan)*

URB

Under the Red Banner: Yiddish culture in the communist countries in the postwar era (Ed. E. Grözinger and M. Ruta)* Undoing and Redoing Corpus Planning (Ed. M. Clyne)* Úvod do studia judaistiky: sborník přednášek (Ed. J. Guzuir)*

URCP USJ VEU VGIdM Vhjl VM VSP Wj WoK

Vestnik Evreïskogo universiteta Die Vermittlung geistlicher Inhalte im deutschen Mittelalter (Ed. T. Jackson, N. Palmer and A. Suerbaum)* Vena Hebraica in Judaeorum Linguis. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Hebrew and Aramaic Elements in Jewish Languages, (Ed. S. Morag, M. Bar Asher, M. Mayer-Modena)* Verb Movement (Ed. D. Lightfoot, N. Hornstein)* Verb Second Phenomena in Germanic Languages (Ed. H. Haider, M. Prinzhorn)* Westjiddisch: Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit =Le Yiddish occidental: actes du colloque de Mulhouse (Ed. A. Starck)* The World of the Khazars: new perspectives (Ed. P. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai and A. Róna-Tas)* 

398  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography YCW

Yiddish in the Contemporary World: papers of the first Mendel Friedman International Conference on Yiddish (Ed. G. Estraikh, M. Krutikov)* YEJEE YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe* YIK Yudaya-isuraeru-kenkyu YLCTN Yiddish Language and Culture Then and Now (Ed. L. Greenspoon) =SJC 9* YQ Yad le-qore YT Yiddish Theatre: New Approaches (Ed. J. Berkowitz)* Z Zutot ZW Żydzi Warszawy: materiały konferencji w 100. rocznicę urodzin Emanuela Ringelbluma (21 listopada 1900 - 7 marca 1944 (Ed. E Bergman, O Zienkiewicz)*

1  YIDDISH AS A JEWISH LANGUAGE 45.01  shlomo morag. Oral Tradition as a Source of Linguistic Information (SSL: 127−46) 1969 45.02  p aul wexler. Jewish Interlinguistics: Fact and Conceptual Framework. (Lng 57: 99−149) 1981. Reprinted (JNCJL: 1−52) 2006 45.03  d  avid l. gold. Language as a Criterion of Ethnic and Geographic Identification: A Note on ‘Language = People, Nation’ (Orb 31: 190−3) 1985 45.04  f rank alvarez-péreyre. Linguistique et traditions orales: La langue des communautés juives (CL 2: 157−72) 1987 45.05  š elomo [shlomo] morag. Ha-milim ha-ivriyot bi-lšonot ha-yehudim: mispar hebetim klaliyim (Mm 5: 101−14) 1992 45.06  c hava turniansky. Les langues juives dans le monde ashkénaze traditionnel (Maca: 419−26) 1994 45.07  jean baumgarten and sophie kessler-mesguich (ed.). La linguistique de l’hébreu et des langues juives (HEL 18, no. 1) 1996 45.08  s hlomo morag. Lo studio delle tradizioni linguistiche delle comunita ebraiche della Diaspora (Hen 19, no. 1: 69−79) 1997. In English, as The study of the language traditions of the Jewish communities of the Diaspora (Vhjl: 3−13): 1999 45.09  m  oshe bar-asher. Paramètres pour l’étude des judéo-langues et de leurs littératures (Lljlg: 69–86) 2003 45.10  jean baumgarten. Langues juives ou langue des juifs: esquisse d’une définition (Lljlg: 15–42) 2003 45.11  d  avid bunis. The Names of Jewish Languages: A Taxonomy (IMCO: 415– 33) 2008

399  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 45.12  sarah bunin benor. Towards a New Understanding of Jewish Language in the Twenty-First Century (RC 2, no. 6: 1062–80) 2008 45.13  s olomon birnbaum. Old Yiddish or Middle High German? (SBLW: 79–95) 2011. Reprint of No. 39 45.14  s olomon birnbaum. Jewish Languages (SBLW I: 1–5) 2011. Reprint of No. 42

2  INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGE AND THE TEACHING OF YIDDISH 74b.01  josef weissberg. Jiddisch, eine Einführung. Berne, 1988 74b.02  śymyn sandler (semen sandler), samoučitel iazyka yidiš/iîdiś lérnbjjx far ouslérnyn zex zélbstśténdik. Moscow, 1989 74b.03  s heva zucker. Yiddish: An Introduction to the Language, Literature and Culture 1–2. New York. 1994–2003 74b.04  w  .b. lockwood. Lehrbuch der modernen jiddischen Sprache. Mit ausgewählten Lesestücken. Hamburg, 1995 74b.05  l eonard prager. Yiddish Studies in Israel Face the Twenty-First Century (RMI 62, no. 12: 451–64) 1996 74b.06  d  avid goldberg. Yidish af yidish. Grammatical, Lexical, and Conversational Materials for the Second and Third Years of Study. Iîdiś of Iîdiś: gramatiśy, leksiśy jn śmjés-materialn farn cvaitn jn dritn lérniuur. New Haven, 1996 (first edition), 2012 (second edition). Review see No.75b.07 74b.07  r ogier nieuweboer. Review of No. 75b.06 (SL 22, no. 2: 523–4) 1998 74b.08  u  riel weinreich. College Yiddish: an Introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish Life and Culture, 6th revised ed. New York, 1999. See No. 637, 1949; 1971 74b.09  m  arion aptroot. Yiddish Studies in Germany Today (YCW: 43–55) 1999 74b.10  jean baumgarten and david bunis (eds.). Le yiddish: Langue, culture, société. Paris, 1999 74b.11  m  iriam weinstein. Yiddish: A Nation of Words. New York, 2001 74b.12  m  arion aptroot and holger nath. Einführung in die jiddische Sprache und Kultur. Hamburg, 2002, (2nd ed. 2013) 74b.13  c ecile e. kuznitz. Yiddish Studies (OHJS: 541–71) 2002  ordxy śexter [mordkhe schaechter]. Yiddish II. An Intermediate and 74b.14  m Advanced Textbook. Iîdiś cvaj: a lernbjjxl far mitndiky kúrsn. New York, 1st ed., 1986; 2nd ed., 3rd ed., 1995, 4th ed. 2003. Review see No. 112.44 74b.15  jean baumgarten. L’enseignement du Yiddish dans les universités israéliennes (CYA: 38–59) 2004

400  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 74b.16  simon neuberg. Le Développement et l’orientation des études yiddish en Allemagne (CYA: 60–7) 2004 74b.17  e wa geller. Yiddish for Academic Purposes: the Polish Perspective (KHŻ 218: 212–21) 2006

3 GRAMMAR 112.01  jean lowenstamm. Relative clauses in Yiddish: A case for movement (LA 3: 197–216) 1977 112.02  ijjdl [yudel] mark. A Grammar of Standard Yiddish. Gramatik fjn der Iîdiśer klal-śprax. New York, 1978. Review see No. 112.38 112.03  s alomo [solomon] a. birnbaum. Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache; Mit einem Wörterbuch und Lesestücken. New and enlarged editions of No. 80: Hamburg, 1979 (third), 1984 (fourth), 1988 (fifth); Munich, 2011 [unauthorized reproduction of first edition] 112.04  s olomon a. birnbaum. Yiddish: A survey and a grammar. [1st edition]. Toronto, 1979. Reviews see Nos. 112.05, 112.06, 112.07, 112.09, 112.11, 112.13 112.05  e liuuhjj śulman. A grjnt-vérk véign Iîdiś (For 11 Nov) 1979. Review of No. 112.04 112.06  joshua fishman. Review of No. 112.04 (LPLP 4, no. 2: 157–9) 1980 112.07  d  ovid katz. Review of No. 112.04 (JSS 26, no. 1: 171–6) 1981 112.08  d  an slobin. Some aspects of the use of pronouns of address in Yiddish (NSD: 709–19) 1981 112.09  d  avid l. gold. Review of No. 112.04 (JEGP 81, no. 4: 532–5) 1982 112.10  z elda kahan-newman. An annotation of Zaretski’s Praktishe Yidishe Gramatik. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1983 112.11  w  alter röll. Review of No. 112.04 (JIDG Beiheft 6: 108–10) 1983 112.12  m  oshe taube. Langues avoir, langues être et le Yiddish (Orb 33, nos. 1–2: 222–35) [1984] 1989 112.13  w  erner weinberg. Review of No. 112.04 (ZDL 51, no. 3: 377–80) 1984 112.14  h  oward aronson. On Aspect in Yiddish (GnL 25: 171–88) 1985 112.15  m  ordkhe schaechter. Aktionen im Jiddischen: ein sprachwissenschaftlicher Beitrag zur Bedeutungslehre des Verbums. Dissertation, 1985. Review see No. 112.28 112.16  h  ans den besten and corretje moed-van walraven. The syntax of verbs in Yiddish (VSP: 111–35) 1986 112.17  s alomo [solomon] a. birnbaum. Die jiddische Sprache. Ein kurzer Überblick und Texte aus acht Jahrhunderten. 2nd ed., Hamburg, 1986; 3rd ed.,

401  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1997 (mit einem Vorwort und Literaturverzeichnis von Walter Röll). See No. 74 112.18  c hristopher hutton: Negation in Yiddish and historical reconstruction (OYL: 27–37) 1987 112.19  d  ovid katz. Grammar of the Yiddish Language. London, 1987 112.20  r obert d. king. Proto Yiddish morphology. (OYL: 73–81) 1987 112.21  m  oshe taube. The development of aspectual auxiliaries in Yiddish (Wo 38, no. 1: 13–25) 1987 112.22  d  avid perlmutter. The split morphology hypothesis: Evidence from Yiddish (TM: 79–100) 1988 112.23  e llen prince. Yiddish wh-clauses, subject-postposing, and topicalization (ESCOL ’88: 403–15) 1989 112.24  m  olly diesing. Verb movement and the subject position in Yiddish (NLLT 8: 41–79) 1990 112.25  p aul glasser. A distributional approach to Yiddish inflection. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1990 112.26  r obert d. king. On the origins of the s-plural in Yiddish (SYL: 47–53) 1990 112.27  e llen prince. Syntax and discourse. A look at resumptive pronouns (PSAMBLS: 482–97) 1990 112.28  r obert rothstein. Review of No. 112.15 (SYL: 143–53) 1990 112.29  n  eil g. jacobs. A reanalysis of the Hebrew status constructus in Yiddish (HUCA 62: 305–27) 1991 112.30  d  ovid katz. The children of Heth and the ego of linguistics:  a story of seven Yiddish mergers (TPS 89, no. 1: 95–121) 1991 112.31  josef weissberg. Der Aspekt in abgeleiteten jiddischen Verben. Dargestellt anhand der korrelierenden Konverben iber- und ariber-. Eine kontrastive jiddisch-deutsch-slawische Darstellung (IZD 58: 175–95) 1991 112.32  a  ndrew l. sunshine. Opening the Mail: Interpersonal Aspects of Discourse and Grammar in Middle Yiddish Letters. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1992 112.33  b eatrice santorini. Variation and change in Yiddish sub-ordinate clause word order. (NLLT 10: 595–640) 1992 112.34  b eatrice santorini. Jiddisch als gemischte OV/VO-Sprache (DS: 230–45) 1993 112.35  e llen prince. On the discourse functions of syntactic forms in Yiddish: expletive es and subject-postposing (FoY 5: 59–86) 1993 112.36  b eatrice santorini. The rate of phrase structure change in the history of Yiddish (LVC 5: 257–83) 1993

402  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 112.37  edward stankiewicz. The Yiddish thematic verbs (FoY 5: 1–10) 1993 112.38  hérśl gléizer [paul glasser]. Obzervaciys véign Ijjdl Marks śprax-normativer śity ofn smax fjn zaan Gramatik fjn der Iîdiśer klal-śprax (IB N.S. 2: 259–80) 1994. Review of No. 112.02 112.39  b eatrice santorini. Some similarities and differences between Icelandic and Yiddish (VM: 87–106) 1994 112.40  k  laus eggensperger. Modale Nebenverben im Jiddischen: eine korpusgestützte Untersuchung zu ‘soln’ und ‘wolt’. Osnabrück, 1995 112.41  n  eil g. jacobs. Diminutive Formation in Yiddish: a syllable-based account (IGL: 169–84) 1995 112.42  jean baumgarten. Histoire de la grammaire yiddish (XVIe–XXe siècle). (HEL 18, no. 1: 127–49) 1996 112.43  m  olly diesing. Light verbs and the syntax of aspect in Yiddish (JCGL 1, no. 2: 119–56) 1998 112.44  r ogier nieuweboer. Review of No. 75b.14 (Lng 74, no. 1: 235–6) 1998 112.45  jerrold sadock. A vestige of verb final syntax in Yiddish (MH 90, no. 2: 220–36) 1998 112.46  s imon neuberg. Pragmatische Aspekte der jiddischen Sprachgeschichte am Beispiel der ‘Zenerene.’ Hamburg, 1999 112.47  m  olly diesing. Aspect in Yiddish: The Semantics of an inflectional head (NLS 8, no. 3: 231–53) 2000 112.48  m  olly diesing. On the nature of multiple fronting in Yiddish (MWF: 51–76) 2003 112.49  r oland gruschka. Einige Beobachtungen zur Grammatik im Jiddisch von Mendel Lefin Satanowers Bibelübersetzungen (JM 32: 1–26) 2004 112.50  n  eil g. jacobs. Yiddish: a Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge, 2005. Review see No. 912.19 112.51  k  yrill a. schischigin. Präfixverben mit ‘on-’ in den Werken von Scholem Aleichem (JM 33–34: 1–12) 2005 112.52  s teffen krogh. Zur Sprache der jiddischen Version der ‘Schivche ha-Bescht’ (1815). (AIGK 11: 61–7) 2007 112.53  s teffen krogh. Zur Syntax in der jiddischen Version der ‘Schivche ha-Bescht’ (1815) (BGdSL 129, no. 2:187–219) 2007 112.54  m  oshe taube. How imperfect can a cleft sentence be? Focusing ‘dos-’ and ‘es-’ sentences in Yiddish (SSGL: 345–77) 2007 112.55  e rika timm. Der ‘s’-Plural im Jiddischen (AIKG XI: 29–35) 2007 112.56  a  dam c. albright. Base-driven leveling in Yiddish verb paradigms (NLLT 28, no. 3: 475–537) 2010 112.57  s teffen krogh. Zu Form und Gebrauch des Partizips Präsens in der Geschichte der ostjiddischen Schriftsprache: mit einem Ausblick auf das

403  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography moderne ultraorthodoxe Schriftjiddisch Satmarer Prägung (ZDPh 129, no. 3: 358–413) 2010  oshe taube. On the relative marker ‘vos’ and Yiddish postmodifiers 112.58  m (JIDH: 467–81) 2012 112.59  b ernard vaisbrot. Grammaire descriptive du yidiche contemporain. Paris, 2012

4  THE LINGUISTIC INHERITANCE OF YIDDISH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 139.01  josef weissberg. Language Development: On M. Weinreich’s The History of the Yiddish Language (ZDPh 99, no. 1: 100–10) 1980. See No. 846b 139.02  d  ovid katz. Explorations in the history of the Semitic component in Yiddish. Dissertation, University of London, 1982  lice faber and robert king. Yiddish and the settlement history of Ash139.03  a kenazic Jewry (MQ 24: 393–425) 1984 139.04  d  ovid katz. Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish (RSJL: 85–103) 1985 139.05  e dward stankiewicz. The Slavic expressive component of Yiddish (SlH 7: 177–87) 1985 139.06  h  ans blosen. Teilweise unorthodoxe Überlegungen zu einigen Problemen des Jiddischen (Sb 85:161–87) 1986 139.07  u  lrike kiefer: Das deutsch-jiddische Sprachkontinuum: neue Perspektiven (AIGK VII: 28–52) 1986 139.08  a  lice faber. A tangled web: Whole Hebrew and Ashkenazic Origins (OYL: 15–22) 1987 139.09  l eo fuks. The Romance Elements in Old Yiddish. (OYL: 23–5) 1987 139.10  d  ovid katz. The proto-dialectology of Ashkenaz (OYL: 47–60) 1987 139.11  r obert d. king. Proto-Yiddish morphology (OYL: 73–81) 1987 139.12  james marchand. Proto Yiddish and the glosses (OYL: 83–94) 1987 139.13  n  athan süsskind. A Partisan History of Yiddish. (OYL: 127–34) 1987 139.14  p aul wexler. Explorations in Judeo-Slavic Linguistics. Leiden, 1987 139.15  p aul wexler. Reconceptualizing the genesis of Yiddish in the light of its non-native components. (OYL: 135–42) 1987 139.16  h  ans blosen. Jiddisch als deutscher Dialekt (Aug 31: 23–43) 1988 139.17  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Das hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache. Mit einem Nachwort von Walter Röll. Second edition. Hamburg, 1986. Reprint of No. 115 139.18  b ettina simon. Jiddische Sprachgeschichte. Versuch einer neuen Grundlegung. Frankfurt am Main, 1988, revised edition 1993

404  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 139.19  paul wexler. Three heirs to a Judeo-Latin legacy: Judeo-Ibero-Romance, Yiddish and Rotwelsch. Wiesbaden, 1988 139.20  p aul wexler. Yiddish – The fifteenth Slavic language. A study of partial language shift from Judeo-Sorbian to Yiddish (Focus article in IJSL 91: 9–150) 1991. Including comments by several authors and a rebuttal essay (pp.151–225) 139.21  r obert d. king. Migration and linguistics as illustrated by Yiddish (RLC: 419–39) 1992 139.22  p aul wexler. The Balkan substratum of Yiddish: a reassessment of the unique Romance and Greek components. Wiesbaden, 1992 139.23  e wa geller. Jidysz: język Żydów polskich. Warsaw, 1994 139.24  y  aron matras. Sondersprachliche Hebraismen: Zum semantischen Wandel in der hebräischen Komponente der südwestdeutschen Viehhändlersprache (RWD: 43–58) 1996 139.25  e wa geller. Hidden Slavic structure in modern Yiddish (JP: 65–89) 1999 139.26  s teffen krogh. Das Ostjiddische im Sprachkontakt: Deutsch im Spannungsfeld zwischen Semitisch und Slavisch. (LCAAJB 3) 139.27  jean baumgarten. La composante hébraïque en yiddish : repères historiques et outils théoriques. (Vhjl: 221–41) 1999 139.28  a  lexander beider. The birth of Yiddish and the paradigm of the Rhenish origin of Ashkenazic Jews (REJ 163 nos. 1–2: 193–244) 2004 139.29  e rika timm. The early history of the Yiddish language (JEMA: 353–64) 2004 139.30  d  avid marc bunis. A theory of Hebrew-based fusion lexemes in Jewish languages as illustrated by morphologically derived animate nouns in Judezmo and Yiddish (MedLR 16: 1–115) 2005 139.31  m  arc miller. Hebrew element verbs in modern Yiddish. (HL 58: v–xiii) 2006 139.32  p aul wexler. A German–Slavic bilingual unknowingly knows Yiddish and modern Hebrew quite well: why and what? (JNCJL: 740–79) 2006 139.33  p aul wexler. A mirror-image comparison of languages in contact: verbal prefixes in Slavicized Yiddish and Germanicized Sorbian (JNCJL: 141–76) 2006 139.34  p aul wexler. Slavic influence in the grammatical functions of three Yiddish verbal prefixes (JNCJL: 603–13) 2006 139.35  s imon neuberg. Zum frühen romanischen Einfluß auf das Jiddische (AIGK 11: 19–27) 2007 139.36  e rika timm. Der Einfluß der aschkenasischen Bibelübersetzungstätigkeit auf die jiddische Gemeinsprache (BIAY: 21–41) 2007 139.37  p aul wexler. Yiddish evidence for the Khazar component in the Ashkenazic ethnogenesis (WoK: 387–98) 2007

405  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 139.38  ewa geller. Jidysz ‘od kuchni’: polszczyzna we współczesnej koszernej kuchni żydowskiej (JaS 21: 40–55) 2008 139.39  b enjamin harshav. Multilingualism (YEJEE I: 991–6) 2008 139.40  d  ovid katz. Yiddish (YEJEE I: 979–87) 2008 139.41  t svi sadan. The Hebrew component in Yiddish:  research possibilities (IMCO: 547–59) 2008 139.42  a  lexander beider. Yiddish proto-vowels and German dialects (JGL 22, no. 1: 23–92) 2010 139.43  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Bayerisch und Jiddisch (SBLW I: 109– 19) 2011 139.44  s olomon a. birnbaum. The Origins of the German Elements in Yiddish (SBLW I: 121–9) 2011

5 PHONOLOGY 189.01  james lee haines. The phonology of the ‘Bovo-Bukh’. Contribution to the history of East Franconian Yiddish. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1979 189.02  jean lowenstamm. Topics in syllabic phonology. Dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1979 189.03  d  ovid katz. The wavering Yiddish segolate: a problem of sociolinguistic reconstruction (IJSL 24: 5–27) 1980 189.04  r obert d. king. Final Devoicing in Yiddish (FoY 4: 371–430) 1980 189.05  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Zur Geschichte der u-Laute im Jiddischen (ZDPh 100 Sonderheft Jiddisch: 4−42) 1981. Reprinted (SBLW I: 131–76) 2011 189.06  s .c. heilman. Sounds of modern orthodoxy: the language of Talmud Study (NSD: 226–53) 1981 189.07  w  olf moskovich. The Great Dictionary of the Yiddish Language: design and prospects (ZDPh 100 Sonderheft Jiddisch: 55–78) 1981 189.08  e rika timm. Graphische und phonische Struktur des Westjiddischen unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Zeit um 1600. Tübingen, 1987. See review No. 189.09 189.09  c hristoph correll. Review of No. 189.08 (LingB 121: 241–5) 1989 189.10  n  eil g. jacobs. Economy in Yiddish vocalism: A Study in the interplay of Hebrew and non-Hebrew components. Wiesbaden, 1990 (=PhD. Dissertation, Economy in Yiddish vocalism: The case of Central Yiddish. Columbia University, 1984) 189.11  n  eil g. jacobs. The faces of a raising rule in Yiddish (SYL: 23–33) 1990 189.12  n  eil g. jacobs. Central Yiddish breaking and drawl: The implications of fusion on a phonological rule (FoY 5: 99–119) 1993

406  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 189.13  dovid katz. East and West, ‘khes’ and ‘shin’ and the origin of Yiddish (SJCHCS: 9–37) 1993 189.14  d  ovid katz. The phonology of Ashkenazic (HIA: 46–87) 1993 189.15  n  eil g. jacobs. Toward a phonological description of l-palatalization in Central Yiddish (RAGL: 149–68) 1996 189.16  a  ne kleine. Florilegium zur jiddischen Phonetik:  eine Zeitreise (JP: 51–63) 1999 189.17  m  ark louden. Contact-induced phonological change in Yiddish: Another look at Weinreich’s riddles. (D 17, no. 1: 85–110) 2000 189.18  z elda kahan newman. The Jewish sound of speech: Talmudic chant, Yiddish intonation and the origins of early Ashkenaz (JQR 90, nos. 3–4: 293–336) 2000 189.19  a  ne kleine. The pronunciation of ‘Argentinean standard Yiddish’ (Z 1: 158–64) 2001 189.20  a  ne kleine. Standard Yiddish (JIPA 33, no. 2: 261–5) 2003 189.21  s imon neuberg. Noch einmal die ‘Bney-Hes’:  (be)hesemen (JM 29: 10–13) 2003 189.22  a  nna sorokina. O xaraktere slavianskix leksičeskix zaimstvovaniï i kalek v iazyke idiš (SiČ: 187–99) 2003 189.23  jürg fleischer. Westjiddisch in der Schweiz und Südwestdeutschland: Tonaufnahmen und Texte zum Surbtaler und Hegauer Jiddisch. Tübingen, 2005 189.24  s imon neuberg. Ein ‘Rückumlaut’:  ‘barg/berg; harz/herzer’ (JM 37: 10–16) 2007 189.25  a  ne kleine. Phonetik des Jiddischen: historische aspekte und akustische analysen. Hamburg, 2008  189.26  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Der Vokalismus des Talmuds (SBLW I: 19–34) 2011

6 SPELLING 211.01  śloimy u. biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum]. Der tradicionalistiśer ouslaig fjn Iîdiś in Poiln (DIV 23, no. 195: 31–2) 1977 211.02  d  uvyd kac [dovid katz]. Klal-takuunys fjn Iîdiśn ous-laig. Oxford, 1992 211.03  g  ennadii [gennady] estraikh. Soviet Yiddish orthography: an iron logic or coincidence? (Shvut N.S. 1–2 [17–18]): 218–41) 1995 211.04  m  ordxy śexter [mordkhe schaechter]. Fjn folkśprax cj kúltúúrśprax. An iberblik iber der historiy fjnym ainhaitlexn Iîdiśn ous-laig. New York, 1999. In one volume with sixth edition of Iîdiśer Visnśaftlexer Institút. Der ainhaitlexer Iîdiśer ous-laig. Takuunys fjn Iîdiśn ous-laig. See No. 203.

407  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography  211.05  kalman weiser. The ‘orthodox’ orthography of Solomon Birnbaum (SCJ 20: 275–95) 2004  211.06  m  ixail iosifovič nosonovskiï. ‘Knižnaia’ leksika v evreïskom iazyke u orfografiia (RSB: 75–96) 2005  211.07  joshua a. fishman. Planning and Standardization of Yiddish (YEJEE I: 987–91) 2008  211.08  s atoko kamoshida. The variations of Yiddish orthographical systems in the present Hasidic newspapers (EJJS 2, no. 2: 299–312) 2009

7 TRANSCRIPTION  223.01  paul wexler. Ashkenazic German (1760–1895) (IJSL 30: 119–30) 1981  223.02  zachary baker. Some problems of Ladino-Judezmo Romanization (JLib 9, nos. 1–2: 48–56) 1994–1995  223.03  d  aniel s. lovins. German in Hebrew type: a case of language misrepresentation in library catalogs (AJLAC 35: 34–8) 2000  223.04  h  ugh denman. Riflessioni sulla traslitterazione dello Yiddish (RSM 71, nos. 2–3: 283–92) 2005  223.05  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Die Umschrift des Jiddischen (SBLW I: 61–78) 2011. Reprint of No. 158

8  DIALECTS AND REGIONAL MATTERS 291a.01  steven lowenstein. The Yiddish written word in nineteenth-century Germany (LBIYB 24: 179–92) 1979 291a.02  r achel erlich. Politics and linguistics in the standardization of Soviet Yiddish (NSD: 699–709) 1981 291a.03  f lorence guggenheim. Die Surbtaler Pferdehandlersprache (ZDPh 100: 43–55) 1981 291a.04  g  eorge jochnowitz. Bilingualism and dialect mixture among Lubavitcher Hasidic children (NSD: 721–37) 1981 291a.05  d  ovid katz. Zur Dialektologie des Jiddischen (DHDAD: 1018–41) 1983 291a.06  r akhmiel peltz. The dehebraization controversy in Soviet Yiddish language planning: Standard or symbol? (RSJL: 125–50) 1985 291a.07  r akhmiel peltz and mark kiel. Di yidish-imperye: The dashed hopes for a Yiddish cultural empire in the Soviet Union (SPSNL: 277–309) 1985  avid [dovid] goldberg. Nequdat ha-mifgaš ben dialeqt le-ḥaruz 291a.08  d be-yidiš (Sif 35–36: 220–27) 1986 291a.09  d  ovid katz. Josef Herzens ‘Esther’: Zentral-Westjiddisch in Fürth (NjBF Sept: 24–7) 1986

408  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 291a.10  jean jofen: The origin of the o vowel in southeastern Yiddish (OYL: 39–46) 1987 291a.11  d  ovid katz. The proto dialectology of Ashkenaz (OYL: 47–60) 1987 291a.12  e llen prince. Sarah Gorby, Yiddish Folksinger: A Case Study of Dialect Shift (IJSL 67: 83–116) 1987 291a.13  m  arion aptroot. Dutch impact on Amsterdam Yiddish prints (DYL: 7–11) 1988   291a.14  s hmuel hiley. An overlooked feature in Yiddish phonology; ‘hajs flejsh mit klajne bejne’ (DYL: 13–19) 1988 291a.15  c hristopher hutton. Early Yiddish texts and Western Yiddish dialectology. (DYL: 21–6) 1988 291a.16  jean jofen. The first American attempt to produce a Yiddish language atlas (DYL: 27–37) 1988 291a.17  d  ovid katz. Origins of Yiddish dialectology (DYL: 39–55) 1988 291a.18  d  evra kay. Words for ‘God’ in seventeenth century women’s poetry in Yiddish (DYL: 57–67) 1988   291a.19  d  ov-ber kerler. East meets West: the dialectal climate of two early Eastern European Yiddish prints (DYL: 69–84) 1988 291a.20  r obert d. king. Two of Weinreich’s four riddles revisited. (DYL: 85–98) 1988 291a.21  m  oshe n. rosenfeld. Early Yiddish in non-Jewish books (DYL: 99–103) 1988 291a.22  d  avid schneider. Is there a ‘mystical dialect’ in modern Yiddish drama? (DYL: 105–19) 1988 291a.23  n  eil g. jacobs. Northeastern Yiddish gender-switch: abstracting dialect features regionally (D 7, no. 2: 69–100) 1990 291a.24  u  lrike kiefer. Interlinguale Sprachgeographie: Distributionelle Strukturen im deutsch-jiddischen Kontinuum. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1990 291a.25  r akhmiel peltz. Spoken Yiddish in America: variation in dialect and grammar (SYL: 53–73) 1990 291a.26  m  iriam isaacs. Haredi, haymish, and frim: Yiddish vitality and language choice in a transitional multilingual community (IJSL 138: 9–30) 1991 291a.27  d  uvyd kac [dovid katz]. A śtékaly araan, a śtékaly arous, di daaćmeriśy gyfar iz - ous. (IK 53, no. 5: 24–31) 1991. See No. 631, 291a.30 291a.28  y  aron matras. Zur Rekonstruktion des jüdischdeutschen Wortschatzes in den Mundarten ehemaliger ‘Judendörfer’ in Südwestdeutschland (ZDL 58, no. 3: 267–93) 1991 291a.29  m  aks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Ruuśy-prukym fjn a déskriptiver Iîdiśer dialéktologiy (IB N.S. 1: 9–68) 1991

409  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 291a.30  hérśl gléizer [paul glasser]. Far vus daaćmeriś iz nox alc a sakuuny. An éntfer Duvyd Kacn (IK 54, no. 1: 44–9) 1992. See No. 291a.27 291a.31  c hristopher hutton. Normativism and the notion of authenticity in Yiddish linguistics (FoY 5: 11–57) 1993 291a.32  n  eil g. jacobs and joseph c. loon. Yiddish linguistic geography and the application of Geography Information System (GIS) technology (VID 1: 203–39) 1993 291a.33  h  irś-duvyd kac [dovid katz]. Tiknai takuunys: Fragn fjn Iîdiśer stiilistik. Oxford, 1993 291a.34  u  riel weinreich. Multilingual Dialectology and the New Yiddish Atlas (AL 35. Nos. 1–4: 143–57) 1993 291a.35  n  eil g. jacobs. On a structural ‘Fifth Column’ in sociolinguistic change: The diffusion of a Standard Yiddish feature in Yiddish dialects (NSL 7: 133–50) 1994 291a.36  n  eil g. jacobs. Structure, Standardization, diglossia: The case of Courland Yiddish (IO: 89–99) 1994 291a.37  d  uvyd kac [dovid katz]. Naaiy gilgjjlym fjn alty maxloikysn: di litviśy normy jn di sixsjjxym vus arjm zex (IB N.S. 2: 205–57) 1994 291a.38  a  strid starck. Westjiddisch. Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit. Aarau, 1994 291a.39  h  érśy-duvyd kac [dovid katz]. Der goirl fjn Jriiyl Vaanraaxs izuuvn: der éirśty band fjnym Atlas jn di ruuśy-prukym (OI III: 889–916) 1995. Review of LCAAJ I 291a.40  g  ennady estraikh. Soviet Yiddish vernacular of the 1920s: Avrom Abchuk’s Hershl Shamaj as a socio-linguistic source (Sl 7.1: 1–12) 1994 291a.41  s teven lowenstein. Center and periphery: The shifting boundary between eastern and western Jewry (JSoS 4, no. 1: 60–78) 1995 291a.42  jerrold sadock. Review of LCAAJ I (JPCL 10, no. 1: 201–3) 1995 291a.43  h  érśy-duvyd kac [dovid katz]. Der cwaiter band fjnym Atlas (Pén 26: 34–6) 1996. Review of LCAAJ II 291a.44  r akhmiel peltz. The undoing of language planning from the vantage of cultural history: Two twentieth century Yiddish examples (URCP: 327– 56) 1997 291a.45  e ckhardt eggers. Sprachwandel und Sprachmischung im Jiddischen. Frankfurt am Main, 1998. See reviews Nos. 291a.55, 291a.65 291a.46  d  ovid katz. The religious prestige of the Gaon and the secular prestige of Lithuanian Yiddish (GVAJC: 187–99) 1998 291a.47  r akhmiel peltz. The politics of research on spoken Yiddish (PY: 63–73) 1998 291a.48  r akhmiel peltz. From Immigrant to Ethnic Culture: American Yiddish in South Philadelphia. Stanford, 1998. See reviews Nos. 291a.56, 291a.63

410  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 291a.49  jean baumgarten. The Origins of Modern Literary Yiddish (HEL 21, no. 2: 172–4) 1999. Review of No. 291a.54 291a.50  jean daltroff. Particularités du yidich lorrain des Juifs de Niedervisse (CC 3: 77–87) 1999 291a.51  Le yidich occidental en Alsace-Lorraine: état des lieux (CC 3: 9–17) 1999 291a.52  e ckhard eggers. Review of LCAAJ II (IF 104: 317–20) 1999 291a.53  g  ennadi [gennady] estraikh. Soviet Yiddish: Language Planning and Linguistic Development. Oxford, 1999. See reviews Nos. 291a.64, 291a.66, 291a.67 291a.54  d  ov-ber kerler. The origins of modern literary Yiddish. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. See reviews Nos. 291a.49, 291a.57, 291a.60, 291a.62 291a.55  a  nne szulmajster-celnikier. Réflexions sur ‘Sprachwandel und Sprachmischung im Jiddischen’ de Eckhard Eggers (Lingq 35, no. 2: 193–200) 1999. Review of No. 291a.45 291a.56  d  an ben-amos. Review of No. 291a.48 (AL 42, no. 2: 291–3) 2000 291a.57  joshua a. fishman. Review of No. 291a.54 (JMMD 21, no. 4: 353–4) 2000 291a.58  e wa geller. The Jews of Warsaw as a speech community:  homage to Warsaw Yiddish (ZW: 111–28) 2000 291a.59  s imo muir. Yiddish in Helsinki and its Swedish component (ND 21, nos. 1–2: 139–48) 2000 291a.60  w  endy pfeffer. Review of No. 291a.54 (LPLP 24, no. 3: 297–9) 2000 291a.61  a  nna verschik. Estonian Yiddish and its contacts with coterritorial languages = Eesti jidiš ja selle kontaktid Eestis kõneldavate keeltega. Tartu, 2000 291a.62  m  iriam isaacs. Review of No. 291a.54 (JSocling 5, no. 1: 97–108) 2001 291a.63  m  iriam isaacs. Review of No. 291a.48 (JSocling 5, no. 1: 97–108) 2001 291a.64  m  iriam isaacs. Review of No. 291a.53 (JSocling 5, no. 1: 97–108) 2001 291a.65  n  eil g. jacobs. Review of No. 291a.45 (JGL 13, no. 1: 68–77) 2001 291a.66  r obert d. king. Review of No. 291a.53 (LS 30, no. 1: 118–21) 2001 291a.67  y  urei kleiner and natalia svetozarova. Review of No. 291a.53 (SL 25, no. 2: 368–77) 2001 291a.68  e wa geller. Od żargonu do  języka standardowego, czyli co  jest obecnie obiektem badań jidyszystyki (rozprawka socjolingwistyczna) (Rwh: 395–409) 2001 291a.69  e wa geller. Warschauer Jiddisch. Tübingen, 2001. See Review No. 291a.76 291a.70  n  eil g. jacobs. Yiddish in the Baltic region (CB: 285–311) 2001 291a.71  a  strid starck. Le yidich alsacien et l’alsacien (RCJA: 179–94) 2001 291a.72  a  nna verschik. On the dynamics of article use in Estonian Yiddish (FL 35, no. 3–4: 337–69) 2001

411  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 291a.73  paul wexler. Review of LCAAJ III (LaS 31, no. 2: 294–300) 2002 291a.74  eckhard eggers. Review of LCAAJ III (IF 108: 341–5) 2003 291a.75  m  iriam isaacs. La transmission du yiddish dans les milieux hassidiques (CYA: 16–24) 2004 291a.76  p aul wexler. Review of No. 291a.69 (BGdSL 126, no. 2: 321–5) 2004 291a.77  m  ixail iosifovič nosonovskiï. Dialekty standartnyï idiš i aškenazskie varianty drevneevreïskogo: centralizaciia protiv stixiïnosti (RSB 97–111) 2005 291a.78  m  arie krappmannová. Jidiš (nejen) v Čechách a na Moravě (USJ: 49–69) 2006 291a.79  b art wallet. ‘End of the jargon-scandal’: the decline and fall of Yiddish in the Netherlands (1796–1886) (JH 20, nos. 3–4: 333–48) 2006 291a.80  p aul wexler. Evaluating Soviet Yiddish language policy between 1917– 1950: (from the vantage point of a non-traditional theory of the origin of Yiddish) (JNCJL: 780–92) 2006 291a.81  g  ennadi [gennady] estraikh. Khayim Zhitlovsky on localism in Yiddish (Yd 15, no. 3: 74–8) 2008 291a.82  a  sya vaisman. English in the Yiddish speech of Hasidic women (Yd 15, no. 3: 17–28) 2008 291a.83  b art wallet. Een taal die niet mocht bestaan:  West-Jiddisch in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden (1796–1839) (CMC 8: 175–92) 2008 291a.84  s hlomo berger. Jüdisch-Deutsch as a written dialect of Yiddish in the Netherlands (SR 41: 53–63) 2009 291a.85  h  ans den besten. Yiddish ‘mokum + x’ toponyms in Bargoens, partially contextualized (Z 6, no. 1: 141–7) 2009 291a.86  h  olger nath. The Passive in Soviet Yiddish (GAGL 49: 182–99) 2009 291a.87  f reddy raphaël. Langue du passage et de la rencontre: le jeddich-daitch des Juifs d’Alsace (JA: 165–216) 2009 291a.88  a  leksandra polian. Dialektnye i literaturnye rifmy v poezii amerikanskix inzixistov: k probleme formirovaniia literaturnogo iazyka idiš v amerike i ego poetičeskogo registra (OBDP: 352–68) 2009 291a.89  d  alit berman-assouline. The emergence of two first-person plural pronouns in Haredi Jerusalemite Yiddish (JGL 22, no. 1: 1–22) 2010 291a.90  d  alit berman-asulin [assouline]. Ma‘avarim ben yidiš ve-ivrit bi-lšon daršanim ḥarediyim be-yisrael (Mas 15: 1–24) 2010 291a.91  d  alit berman-asulin [assouline]. Pe‘alim mi-moẓa ivri be-yidiš ha-ḥaredit be-yisrael (ISḤ 5: 27–45) 2010 291a.92  jürg fleischer. Le Yiddish occidental suisse et la diglossie (CC 5: 95–110) 2010 291a.93  g  eorge jochnowitz. The Western Yiddish of Cattle Dealers in Orange County, New York State (CC 5: 5–15) 2010

412  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 291a.94  beatrice silverman weinreich. Une visite chez les juifs en Suisse rurale = Cj gast baa dorfsIîdn in der Śvaac (CC 5:125–54) 2010: Yiddish part 1–24 291a.95  u  riel weinreich. Zur Aufnahme AG 18J des Sprachatlas der deutschen Schweiz (CC 5: 111–23) 2010 291a.96  s olomon a. birnbaum. Soviet Yiddish (SBLW I: 281–96) 2011. Reprint of 291a 291a.97  s olomon birnbaum. Standard Yiddish (SBLW I: 277–80) 2011 291a.98  s teffen krogh. Cwai alt naaiy Iîdiśy romanyn fjn der xaraidiśer svivy. Batraxtjngyn fjn a lingvistiśn śtandpúnkt (IrA 29: 308–35) 2012 291a.99  s teffen krogh. How Satmarish is Haredi Satmar Yiddish? (JIDH: 483– 506) 2012 291a.100  k  almyn vaazer [kalman weiser]. Di debaty arjm arousréd in der Iîdiśer veltlexer śúl in mizrex-airopy (IŚ 39: 17-43) 2013

9  VOCABULARY, ETYMOLOGY, SEMANTICS 382a.01  w. b. lockwood: Herabsetzendes shm im Jiddischen (ZVSF 92, nos. 1–2: 300–5) 1978 382a.02  joël cahen. Verklarende woordenlijst, Jiddisje, Hebreews en andere vreemde woorden in Een Hoofdstuk uit de nieuwste geschiedenis van de Haagse Joden. Jaarboek Die Haghe. The Hague, 1979 382a.03  groiser vérter-bjjx fjn der iîdiśer śprax. New York (Ed. Y. Mark, J.A. Joffe). Vol. 4, 1980. See No. 355 382a.04  joshua waletzky. Topicalization in Yiddish (FoY 4: 237–315) 1980 382a.05  l aibl kan (leybl kahn). Der terminologiśer of-tjj fjn Iîvuu (IB 46: 229– 41) 1980 382a.06  m  ordxy śexter (mordkhe schaechter). Dym Iîvuus Iîdiś-of-tjj: ruuśy-pruukymdiky obzérvaciys jn sax-haklyn cj a ioivl-daty (IB 46: 192–228) 1980 382a.07  w  olf moskovich. An important event in Soviet Yiddish cultural life: the new Russian-Yiddish dictionary (SJA 14, no. 3: 31–49) 1984. See No. 382a.08 382a.08  m  .a. shapiro, i.g. spivak and m. ia. shulman. Russko-evreïskiï (idiš) slovar’/Rjsiś-Iîdiśer vérterbjjx. Moscow, 1984. Reviews see No. 382a.07, 382a.16. See No. 382a.59 382a.09  m  ordxy śexter (mordkhe schaechter). Laatiś mamy-luuśn. New York, 1986. Review see No. 112.44 382a.10  s olomon a. birnbaum: Two methods: I. Palaeography: Manuscripts in Old Yiddish. II. Etymology: davənən (OYL: 7–14) 1987. I Reprinted

413  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography (SBLW II: 395–400) 2011; Yiddish translation see No. 382a.23. II Reprinted (SBLW I: 231–5) 2011 382a.11  p aul wexler. Interdialectal translation as a reflection of lexical obsolescence and dialect distance. (The West Yiddish Bible translation of 1679 in the Biblia pentapla of 1711) (IJSL 67: 7–26) 1987 382a.12  a  lyksander harkavi [alexander harkavy]. Iîdiś-Éngliś-Hébréiśer vérter-bjjx. Second edition (See No. 326), reprint with an introduction by Dovid Katz. New York, 1988; New Haven, 2005 382a.13  m  ordxy śexter [mordkhe schaechter]. Éngliś-Iîdiś vérterbjjxl fjn akademiśer terminologiy. English-Yiddish Dictionary of Academic Terminology. New York, 1988. Review see No. 382a.14 382a.14  d  avid b. guralnik. Review see No. 382a.13 (IJL 3, no. 2: 146–7) 1990 382a.15  r onald lötzsch. Jiddisches Wörterbuch. Leipzig, 1990; Mannheim, 1992. Review see No. 382a.22 382a.16  m  ordxy śexter [mordkhe schaechter]. Der naaier rjsiś-Iîdiśer vérterbjjx (GK 130: 160–172) 1990a. Review of No. 382a.08 382a.17  m  ordxy śexter [mordkhe schaechter]. Trugn, hubn jn friiky kinder-iuurn. Pregnancy, Childbirth and Early Childhood: An English-Yiddish Dictionary. New York, 1990 382a.18  d  ovid katz. A late twentieth century case of ‘katoves’ (HYS: 141–63) 1991 382a.19  m  ordkhe schaechter. Yiddish military terminology. A case of non-institutionalized language standardization. (LPJF: 259–80) 1991 382a.20  s iegmund a. wolf. Jiddisches Wörterbuch: Wortschatz des deutschen Grundbestandes der jiddischen (jüdischdeutschen) Sprache. 2. durchgesehene Aufl. Hamburg, 1993. See No. 356; See review No. 382a.48 382a.21  iosyf [yosef] guri and śoiel [šoyel] ferdman. Korcer Iîdiś-hébréiśéngliśer vérter-bjjx = Milon yidi-ivri-angli kaẓar. Jerusalem, 1994 382a.22  b enjamin ben-zadok. Review of No. 382a.15 (M 105.3: 280–2) 1995 382a.23  ś loimy u. biirnboim (solomon a. birnbaum). Alty ksav-iadn of Iîdiś (OI 3, cols. 925–30) 1995. Yiddish translation of No. 382a.10 part I 382a.24  h  enrik blau and károl láng. Szájról-szájra: Magyar-Jiddis szógyűjtemény = Iîdiś-Jngeriś vérter-bjjx. Budapest, 1995 382a.25  g  ennadii [gennady] estraikh. Soviet Yiddish and Soviet German: different words for the same world (ZS 40, no. 1: 60–7) 1995 382a.26  s imon neuberg. Zur Geschichte des jiddischen Wortes ‘makeinen’ (Asch 4 no. 2: 469–73) 1995 382a.27  ïicxyk niborskii [yitskhok niborski] and śymyn noïberg [simon neuberg]. Vérter-bjjx fjn luuśn-koideś-śtamiky vérter in Iîdiś. Paris, 1997; third and enlarged edition, 2012

414  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 382a.28  iosyf [yosef] guri. Vi kjmt di kac ibern vaser? Touznt Iîdiśy idiomyn fartaaćt of hébréiś, éngliś jn rjsiś. Jerusalem, 1997 382a.29  r obert rothstein. Klezmer loshn (Jdm 47, no. 1: 23–39) 1998 382a.30  iosyf [yosef] guri. Kljg vi Śloimy hamailex: 500 Iîdiśy folksfarglaaxjngyn fartaaćt of Hébréiś, Éngliś jn Rjsiś. Jerusalem, 1999 382a.31  w  alter röll. Vorüberlegungen und erste Schritte zu einem Wörterbuch des älteren Jiddischen (JP: 33–50) 1999 382a.32  g  eorg schuppener. Zu jiddisch ‘zeyger’ ‘Uhr’ (JM 21: 1–6) 1999 382a.33  a  nna verschik. On the lexicon of Estonian Yiddish (SO 85: 55–73) 1999 382a.34  h  ans peter althaus. ‘Nebbich’ (JM 22: 5–16) 1999; (JM 23: 10–25) 2000 382a.35  s amuel kerner and bernard vaisbrot. Dictionnaire français-yiddish. Paris, 1989, 2000 382a.36  ś loimy u. biirnboim (solomon a. birnbaum). A vérter-ryśiimy: daacmériś-Iîdiś (OŚ 320: 6–9) 2000 382a.37  v  elvl černin. K probleme slavianskix gloss v xudožestvennoï literature na idiše (VEU 24: 145–62) 2001 382a.38  iosyf [yosef] guri. Vus darft ir mér? 2000 Iîdiśy bilderiśy ousdrjkn fartaaćt of Hébréiś, Éngliś jn Rjsiś. Jerusalem, 2002 382a.39  d  avid l. gold. On Eastern Yiddish ‘tsivildivit’ and its eastern Ashkenazic English reflex (or, Can we catch the mistakes before Yiddish-less English lexicographers legislate them into ‘fact’?) (S 27, no. 4: 417–22) 2002 382a.40  ïicxyk niborskii [yitshok niborski] and béierl vaasbrot [bernard vaisbrot]. Iîdiś-Francaiziśer Vérter-bjjx/Dictionnaire Yiddish-Français. Paris, 2002. Review see No. 382a.46 382a.41  l . gorodecskiï. Etimologiia ‘dav(e)nen’ u ‘prapodina’ vostočnogo dialekta idiš (JRos 2: 175–181) 2002 382a.42  h  ansjörg roth. ‘Guten Rutsch!’ (JM 28: 12–15) 2002 382a.43  e rika timm. Verwandtschaftsbezeichnungen im Jiddischen, kontrastiv zum Deutschen betrachtet (Rwb: 443–64) 2002 382a.44  jacobo isías lerman and isidoro niborski. Diccionario yidish-español. Girona, 2003 382a.45  h  ans peter althaus. Chuzpe, Schmus & Tacheles: jiddische Wortgeschichten. München, 2004 382a.46  jerold c. frakes. Review of No. 382a.40 (MJS 14: 110–15) 2004 382a.47  a  lfred klepsch. Westjiddisches Wörterbuch: auf der Basis dialektologischer Erhebungen in Mittelfranken. Tübingen, 2004 382a.48  w  alter röll. Das jiddische Wörterbuch Siegmund A. Wolfs (JM 31: 1–10) 2004. Review of No. 382a.20 382a.49  iosyf [yosef] guri. Lomir hérn gjty psjjrys: Iîdiśy bruxys jn kluulys. Jerusalem, Moscow, 2005

415  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 382a.50  michael wex. Born to kvetch: Yiddish language and culture in all its moods. New York, 2005 382a.51  a  nna sorokina. S’edobnoe-nes’edobnoe: etrog b idiś frazeologii (PTZ: 202–208) 2005 382a.52  e rika timm. Ex oriente ‘loksch’: aber der Orient ist weit (JM 34: 1–14) 2005 382a.53  h  ans peter althaus. Tinnef (JM 33–4: 13–23) 2005; (JM 35: 17–28) 2006 382a.54  iosyf [yosef] guri. Ofn śpic cjng: 500 Iîdiśy śprix-vérter. Jerusalem, 2006 382a.55  e rika timm and adolf beckmann. Etymologische Studien zum Jiddischen: zugleich ein Beitrag zur Problematik der jiddischen Südost- und Ostflanke. Hamburg, 2006 382a.56  s tephen m. cohen. Chemical literature in Yiddish: a bridge between the ‘shtetl’ and the secular world (Al 7: 183–251) 2007 382a.57  julia makosz. Słownik polsko-jidysz, jidysz-polski =Iîdiś-Poiliś, Poiliś-Iîdiś vérter-bjjx. Krakow, 2007 382a.58  a  liaksandar astravukh. Idysh-belaruski sloŭnik. Iîdiś-vaasrjsiśer vérterbjjx. Minsk, 2008 382a.59  w  olf moskovich. The Russian-Yiddish dictionary of 1984 and the problems of the maintenance of Soviet Yiddish after the Second World War (URB: 231–8) 2008. See 382a.08 382a.60  d  avid l. gold. Studies in etymology and etiology with emphasis on Germanic, Jewish, Romance and Slavic languages. Alicante, 2009. Review see No. 382a.64 382a.61  h  ans den besten. Soddem/Sodem, the Yiddish nickname for the Dutch town of Winschoten (Z 7, no. 1: 89–94) 2010 382a.62  a  ne kleine. Historische jiddische Phraseologie: Herausfoderungen und erste Erträge (JM 44: 1–20) 2010 382a.63  a  gata kondrat. Matki, żony i kochanki w języku Jidysz (NDKKJ: 107– 29) 2010 382a.64  r olf bergmann. Review of No. 382a.60 (BNF 46, no. 3: 337–8) 2011 382a.65  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Zur Etymologie von jiddisch graaz ‘Fehler’ (SBLW I: 237–41) 2011

10 ONOMASTICS 418.01  david l. gold. Some Problems of Jewish Anthroponymy and Genealogy (JLR 6: 65–93) 1986 418.02  a  lexander beider. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Kingdom of Poland. Teaneck, 1996

416  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 418.03  alexander beider. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from the Russian Empire. Teaneck, 1993 418.04  e rika timm. Matronymika im aschkenasischen Kulturbereich: Ein Beitrag zur Mentalitäts- und Sozialgeschichte der europäischen Juden. Berlin, 1999 418.05  a  lexander beider. A Dictionary of Ashkenazic Given Names: Their Origins, Structure, Pronunciation, and Migrations. Bergenfield, 2001 418.06  r obert singerman and david l. gold. Jewish Given Names and Family Names: A New Bibliography. Leiden, 2001 418.07  a  lexander beider. Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia. Teaneck, 2004

11  TEXTS IN TRANSCRIPTION a

/ from earlier periods

450.01  maks (max) érik. Di gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer literatúúr, fjn di éltsty caatn biz der haskuuly-tkjjfy. Warsaw, 1928. Reprint of No. 962: New York, 1979 450.02  e rika timm. Zur Frage der Echtheit von Rashis jiddischen Glossen (BgDSL: 45–81) 1985 450.03  w  alter röll. Die Bibelübersetzung ins Jiddische im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert (VGIdM: 183–96) 1996 450.04  jerold c. frakes (ed.). Early Yiddish Texts 1100–1750 with an Introduction and Commentary. Oxford, 2004 450.05  jean baumgarten and jerold frakes (eds.). Introduction to Old Yiddish Literature. Oxford, 2005 450.06  e rika timm. Historische jiddische Semantik: Die Bibelübersetzungssprache als Faktor der Auseinanderentwicklung des jiddischen und des deutschen Wortschatzes. Tübingen, 2005 450.07  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Die jiddische Psalmenübersetzung (SBLW I: 177–96) 2011. Reprint of No. 432 450.08  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Regensburger Jiddische Urkunden von 1453 bis 1551(SBLW I: 197–205) 2011. Reprint of No. 434 450.09  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Specimens of Yiddish from Eight Centuries (SBLW I: 207–30) 2011. Reprint of No. 441 b

/ from modern times

504.01  mogens dyhr and ingeborg zint. Lubliner Jiddisch: ein Beitrag zur Sprache und Kultur der Ostjiddischen im 20. Jahrhundert anhand eines Idiolekts. Tübingen, 1988 (reprint 2011)

417  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 504.02  ulrike kiefer. Gesprochenes Jiddisch, Textzeugen einer europäisch-jüdischen Kultur. Tübingen, 1995 504.03  jean baumgarten. Les traditions orales de batḥonim en langue yiddish (Lljlg: 349–384). Paris, 2003

12  TEXTS IN HEBREW CHARACTERS 534a.01  chone shmeruk. Research Collections on Microfiche: Jewish Studies, Yiddish Books (formerly entitled, Yiddish Books on Microfiche). Zug, Leiden, 1976 534a.02  w  ulf-otto dreessen and hermann-josef müller. Doniel: Das altjiddische Danielbuch nach dem Basler Druck von 1557. 2 vols. Göppingen, 1978 534a.03  y  aaqov [jacob] maitlis (ed.). Midraš le-Pirqe Avot be-yidiš qama’it le-Anshel Levi. Jerusalem, 1978 534a.04  m  oshe n. rosenfeld (Intro.). The Book of Cows: A Facsimile Edition of the Famed Kuhbuch, from a unique copy in a private collection, Verona, 1595. London, 1984 534a.05  h  ava ̣ [chava] turniansky. Ẓeror iggerot be-yidiš mi-yrušalayim mi-šnot ha-šiššim šel ha-me’a ha-16 (Š 4: 149–208) 1984 534a.06  t heresa friedrichs-berg. Die ‘Historie von dem Kaiser Octaviano’. Überlieferungsgeschichtliche Studien zu den Druckausgaben eines Prosaromans des 16. Jahrhunderts und seiner jiddischen Bearbeitung aus dem Jahre 1580. Hamburg, 1990 534a.07  john anderson howard (ed.). Fortunatus: Die Bearbeitung und Umschrift eines spätmittelalterlichen deutschen Prosaromans für jüdisches Publikum. Würzburg, 1991 534a.08  s igrid riedel (ed.). Moses Henochs Altschul-Jeruschalmi ‘Brantspigel,’ Transkribiert und ediert nach der Erstausgabe, Krakau, 1596. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1993 534a.09  e li katz (ed.). Book of Fables, The Yiddish Fable Collection of Reb Moshe Wallich, Frankfurt-am-Main. Detroit, 1994 534a.10  e rika timm and gustav adolph beckmann (eds.). Paris un Wiene: Ein jiddischer Stanzenroman des 16. Jahrhunderts/Elia Levita. Tübingen, 1996 534a.11  m  ichael stanislawski. The Yiddish ‘Shevet Yehuda’: a Study in the ‘Ashkenization’ of a Spanish-Jewish Classic (JHM: 134–49) 1998 534a.12  a  chim jaeger. Ein jüdischer Artusritter: Studien zum jüdisch-deutschen ‘widuwilt’ (‘Artushof’) und zum ‘Wigalois’ des Wirnt von Gravenberc. Tübingen, 2000 534a.13  s imon neuberg (ed.). Das schwedesch lid: ein westjiddischer Bericht über Ereignisse in Prag im Jahre 1648. Hamburg, 2000

418  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 534a.14  rivka ulmer (ed.). Turmoil, Trauma and Triumph: The Fettmilch Uprising in Frankfurt-am-Main (1612–1616) according to Megillas Vintz: A Critical Edition of the Yiddish and Hebrew Text Including an English Translation. Bern, 2001 534a.15  w  ulf-otto dreessen. Lilith und der Artusritter (JM 29: 1–9) 2003 534a.16  a  strid starck (ed. and transl.). Un beau livre d’histoires. Eyn shön Mayse bukh: Facsimilé de l’editio princeps de Bâle (1602), 2 vols. Basel, 2004 534a.17  y  aaqov [jacob] elbaum and h ava ̣ [chava] turniansky. Musar ba‘ale ha-battim: Sefer Sam Ḥayyim le-R’Avrom Ashkenazi Apoteqer me-Ludmir. (SYYD: 111–45) 2005 534a.18  n  oga rubin. Sefer Lev Tov by Isaac ben Eliakum of Posen, Prague 1620: A Central Ethical Book in Yiddish. Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2006 534a.19  c hava turniansky (ed. and transl. from the Yiddish). Glikl, Memoires 1691–1719. Jerusalem, 2006 534a.20  e dward fram (ed.). My Dear Daughter: Rabbi Benjamin Slonik and the Education of Jewish Women in Sixteenth-Century Poland. Cincinnati, 2007 534a.21  c laudia rosenzweig and anna linda callow (eds. and transl.). Due canti Yiddish: rime di un poeta ashkenazita nella Venezia del Cinquecento/ Elye Bokher. Arezzo, 2010 534a.22  n  athanael riemer and sigrid senkbeil (eds.). Be’er Sheva by Beer and Bella Perlhefter. An Edition of a Seventeenth Century Yiddish Encyclopedia. Wiesbaden, 2011 534a.23  h  arry fox and justin j. lewis (ed.). Many Pious Women: Edition and Translation. Berlin, 2011

13  ABOUT TEXTS 593.01  simon hopkins. Qeta geniza šel Pirqe Avot be-yidiš atiqa (Ta 52: 459–67) 1983 593.02  a  gnes romer segal. Yiddish Works on Women’s Commandments in the Sixteenth Century (SYLF 7: 37–59) 1986 593.03  jerold c. frakes. The Politics of Interpretation: Alterity and Ideology in Old Yiddish Studies. Albany, 1989 593.04  m  arion aptroot. Bible Translation as Cultural Reform: The Amsterdam Yiddish Bibles (1678–1679). Dissertation, University of Oxford, 1989 593.05  g  abriel l. strauch. Dukus Horant: Wanderer zwischen zwei Welten. Amsterdam, 1990 593.06  c hava turniansky. On Old-Yiddish Biblical Epics (IFR 8: 26–33) 1991 593.07  jean baumgarten. Les manuscrits yidich de la Bibliothèque nationale de France (FoY 5: 121–51) 1993

419  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 593.08  erika timm. Formen der Bibelvermittlung im älteren Jiddisch. Zur jiddischen Forschung der letzten siebzig Jahre (BjcT: 299–324), 1993 593.09  h  ana ̣ šmeruq [chone shmeruk]. Ha-qria le-navi, meḥqare historiya ve-sifrut. Jerusalem, 1999 593.10  jozeph michman and marion aptroot (eds. and trans.). Storm in the Community: Yiddish Polemical Pamphlets of Amsterdam Jewry, 1797–1798. Cincinnati, 2002 593.11  c laudia rosenzweig. Il poema yiddish in versi ‘Bovo d’Antona’ in una versione manoscritta del XVI secolo (MR 26, no. 1: 49–68) 2002 593.12  w  alter röll, gabriele brünnel et al. (eds.). Die jiddischen Glossen des 14.–16. Jahrhunderts zum Buch ‘Hiob’ in Handschriftenabdruck und Transkription. Tübingen, 2. Vols., 2002 593.13  jerold c. frakes. The Cultural Study of Yiddish in Early Modern Europe. New York, 2007 593.14  n  athanael riemer. Zwischen Tradition und Häresie: ‘Beer Sheva’ - eine Enzyklopädie des jüdischen Wissens der Frühen Neuzeit. Wiesebaden, 2010. See No. 534a.22

14  VARIOUS LINGUISTIC AND PHILOLOGICAL MATTERS 660.01  david m. bunis. A Comparative Linguistic Analysis of Judezmo and Yiddish (IJSL 30: 49–70) 1981 660.02  d  avid l. gold. Jewish Intralinguistics as a Field of Study (IJSL 30: 31–46) 1981 660.03  m  ax weinreich, (jerold frakes, ed.). Geschichte der jiddischen Sprachforschung. Atlanta, 1993 660.04  d  ovid katz. Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish. New York, (1st ed.) 2004, (2nd revised and expanded ed.) 2007 660.05  k  alman weiser and joshua fogel (eds.). Czernowitz at 100: The First Yiddish Language Conference in Historical Perspective. Lanham, 2010 660.06  s olomon birnbaum. The Age of the Yiddish Language (SBLW I: 97–108) 2011. See No. 632 660.07  s olomon birnbaum. Table of Jewish Languages and Scripts (SBLW I: 7–18) 2011

15 MISCELLANEOUS 878b.01  solomon birnbaum. Institutum Ascenezicum (SBLW I: 297–304) 2011. Reprint of No. 837 879b.02  m  ax weinreich (Transl. shlomo noble and joshua fishman, ed. paul glasser). History of the Yiddish Language. 2 vol. New Haven and London, 2008. This is a full translation, including notes, of No. 846a

420  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography

16  INFLUENCE OF YIDDISH ON OTHER LANGUAGES 912.01  deborah tannen. New York Jewish conversational style (IJSL 30: 133–49) 1981 912.02  m  aria brzezina. Polszczyzna Żydów. Warsaw and Krakow, 1986 912.03  d  avid gold. An introduction to Jewish English (JLR 6: 94–120) 1986 912.04  l eo rosten. The Joys of Yinglish. New York, 1989 912.05  c haim (jonathan) weiser. Frumspeak: The first dictionary of Yeshivish. Northvale, NJ and London, 1995. Review see No. 912.08 912.06  x  ackl lémxn [ch. lemchenas]. Di haśpuuy fjn litviś ofn Iîdiśn dialékt in lity (OI 3: 6–130) 1995. See No. 138a 912.07  janet hadda. Yiddish in contemporary American culture (YCW: 93–105) 1999 912.08  s am weiss. Review of No. 912.05 (IJSL138: 180–7) 1999 912.09  r obert allen rothstein. How it was sung in Odessa: At the intersection of Russian and Yiddish folk culture (SlR 60, no. 4: 781–801) 2001 912.10  m  osze altbauer and maria brzezina. Wzajemne wpływy polsko-żydowskie w dziedzinie językowej. Kraków, 2002 912.11  h  ans peter althaus. Zocker, Zoff & Zores: jiddische Wörter im Deutschen. Munich, 2002 (1st ed.), 2003 (2nd ed.), 2010 (3rd ed.) 912.12  h  ans peter althaus. Kleines Lexikon deutscher Wörter jiddischer Herkunft. Munich, 2003 912.13  s arah bunin benor. ‘Talmid chachams’ and ‘tsedeykeses’:  language, learnedness, and masculinity among Orthodox Jews (JSoS 11, no. 1: 147–70) 2004 912.14  a  nna verschik. Baltendeutsche und jiddische Sprachkontakte im Baltikum (SymT: 123–34) 2004 912.15  d  mitriï šmorgin. Vliianie idiša na amerikanskiï sleng u ego otraženie v slovariax amerikanskogo slenga (EMM: 217–25) 2005 912.16  a  nna sorokina. K probleme slaviano-evreïskix iazykovyx kontaktov v slavistike i iudaike (Slv 5: 78–85) 2005 912.17  k  arl-heinz best. Quantitative Untersuchungen zu den Jiddismen im Deutschen (JM 36: 1–14) 2006 912.18  h  ans-rainer hofmann. Schopflocher Lachoudisch:  jüdischdeutsche Sprache aus dem Hebräischen (Nurinst 2006: 135–49) 2006  ovid katz. Review of No. 112.50 (AJS 20, no. 2: 471–73) 2006 912.19  d 912.20  a  ndreas nachama. Jiddisch im Berliner Jargon. Berlin, 2007 912.21  jakob krystian schleicher. Jiddisch und Deutsch:  Eine wechselhafte Geschichte gegenseitiger Beeinflussung und Abgrenzung (Ch 2: 155–68) 2007

421  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 912.22  anna verschik. Jewish Russian and the field of ethnolect study (LiS 36, no. 2: 213–32) 2007 912.23  g  ilad z uqerman ̣ [ghil’ad zuckermann]. Yisraelit safa yafa: az ezo safa ha-yisraelim medabberim. Tel Aviv, 2008. Translated from the English by Maya Feldman. 912.24  justus van de kamp. Jodenhoeks: the Amsterdam Jewish dialect and its influence upon the Dutch language (EurJ 42, no. 2: 34–46) 2009 912.25  á  gota nagy. Jiddische Phraseologismen im Czernowitzer Deutsch (JM 43: 1–24) 2010 912.26  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Hebräisch und Jiddisch (SBLW I: 35–42) 2011 912.27  s alomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Der Mogel (SBLW I: 243–75) 2011. Reprint of No. 894

17a  FOLKLORE AND CULTURE 939.01  erika timm. Die ‘Fabel vom Alten Löwen’ in jiddistischer und komparatistischer Sicht (ZDPh: 109–70) 1981 939.02  c hone shmeruk. The Esterke Story in Yiddish and Polish Literature: A Case Study in the Mutual Relations of Two Cultural Traditions. Jerusalem, 1985 939.03  b eatrice weinreich (ed). Yiddish Folktales (Trans. Leonard Wolf). New York, 1988 939.04  d  ebra kay. Words for ‘God’ in Seventeenth Century Women’s Poetry in Yiddish (DYL: 57–67) 1988 939.05  r obert rothstein and halina rothstein. Food in Yiddish and Slavic Culture: a Comparative/Contrastive View (YLCTN=SJC 9: 305–28) 1998 939.06  z elda kahan newman. Women’s badkhones: the Satmar Poem Sung to a Bride (IJSL 138: 81–99) 1999 939.07  m  arion aptroot. Western Yiddish, ‘yontev bletlekh’: Facing Modernity with Humor (JSQ 15, no. 1: 47–67) 2008 939.08  jeremy dauber. Thinking with Shedim: What Can We Learn from the ‘Mayse fun Vorms’? (JSQ 15, no. 1: 19–46) 2008 939.09  g  ershon d. hundert (ed.). The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. New York, New Haven, 2 vols., 2008. Online: http://www.yivo encyclopedia.org/ 939.10  jordan finkin. Jewish Jokes, Yiddish Storytelling and Sholem Aleichem: A Discursive Approach (JSS 16, no. 1: 83–106) 2009

422  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography

17b SOCIOLOGY 939.12  joshua a. fishman. The Sociology of Yiddish after the Holocaust: Status, Needs and Possibilities (FoY 4: 475–98) 1980 939.13  joshua a. fishman. The Sociology of Yiddish: a Foreword (NSD: 1–97) 1981 939.14  joshua fishman: The Sociology of Jewish Languages from a General Sociolinguistic Point of View (RSJL: 3–21) 1985 939.15  b enjamin harshav. The Meaning of Yiddish. Berkeley, 1990 939.16  joshua a. fishman. Yiddish: Turning to Life. Amsterdam, 1991 939.17  e manuel s. goldsmith. Modern Yiddish Culture: The Story of the Yiddish Language Movement. New York, 1st ed., 1997, and reprints. Expanded edition of No. 44 939.18  jeffrey shandler. Adventures in Yiddishland: Postvernacular Language & Culture. Berkeley, 2006 939.19  m  iriam isaacs. Hebrew-Yiddish Bilingualism among Israeli Hasidic Children (IATH: 139–54), 2009 939.20  s ara bunin benor. Becoming Frum: How Newcomers Learn the Language and Culture of Orthodox Judaism. Piscataway, 2012 939.21  t atjana soldat-jaffe. Twenty-First Century Yiddishism: Language, Identity, and the New Jewish Studies. Eastbourne [U.K.], 2012

18  LITERATURE (including also theater and films) 1033.01  śmjjl [shmuel] niger, iaankyv śacki [jacob shatzky] et al. Léksikon fjn der naaier Iîdiśer literatúúr. New York, 8 vols., 1956–1981. See No. 1047a 1033.02  irving howe, eliezer greenberg (ed.). Ashes Out of Hope: Fiction by Soviet-Yiddish Writers. New York, 1977 1033.03  y  osef bar-el. Milon yidiš ivrit le-šu’’t gedole aškenaz. Meot 13–15 mešivim nivḥarim. Ramat Gan, 1978 1033.04  ḥ  ana šmeruq [chone shmeruk]. Maḥazot miqra’im be-yidiš (16971750): Yiddish Biblical Plays (1697–1750). Jerusalem, 1979 1033.05  l eonard prager and alfred a. greenbaum. Yiddish Literary and Linguistic Periodicals and Miscellanies: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Darby, 1982 1033.06  b éierl kagan, léksikon fjn iîdiś-śraabers: mit hoisufys jn tikjjnim cjm léksikon fjn der naaier iîdiśer literatúúr jn 5,800 psévdonimen. NewYork, 1986 (Online at: http://www.archive.org/details/nybc213586)

423  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1033.07  ruth wisse (ed.). A Shtetl and Other Yiddish Novellas. 2nd ed. Detroit, 1986 1033.08  chone shmeruk. Can the Cambridge Manuscript Support the Spielmann Theory in Yiddish Literature? (SYLF 7: 1–36) 1986 1033.09  irving howe, ruth r. wisse and chone shmeruk (ed.). The Penguin Book of Modern Yiddish Verse. New York, 1987 1033.09a  x  uuny śmeruk [chone shmeruk] (ed.). A śpigl of a śtain. Antologiy. poéziy jn prozy fjn cvélf farśnityny Iîdiśy śraabers in Ratn-farband. Jerusalem, 1987 1033.10  x  uuny śmeruk [chone shmeruk]. Prukym fjn der Iîdiśer literatúúr-gyśixty. Tel-Aviv 1988 1033.11  h  ạ va [chava] turniansky. Le-toldot ha-Taać-Xjmyś: ‘Xjmyś mit xiber’ (IbS: 21–58) 1988 1033.12  irving howe, eliezer greenberg (ed.). A Treasury of Yiddish Poetry. New York, 1976, (repr) 1989, (rev. and updated) 1990 1033.13  james hoberman. Bridge of Light: Yiddish Film between Two Worlds. New York, 1991, (repr.) 1995 1033.14  e rika timm. Wie Elia Levita sein Bovobuch für den Druck überarbeitete: ein Kapitel aus der italo-jiddischen Literatur der Renaissancezeit (GRM 72: 61–81) 1991 1033.15  r uth wisse. I.L. Peretz and the Making of Modern Jewish Culture. Seattle, 1991 1033.16  e rika timm. Blitz und Witzenhausen. (MAP: 39-66) 1993 1033.17  f rieda forman et al. (ed.). Found Treasures: Stories by Yiddish Women Writers. Toronto, 1994, repr. 1995, 1996, 1997 1033.18  k  en frieden (ed.). Classic Yiddish Fiction: Abramovitsh, Sholem Aleichem, and Peretz. Albany, 1995 1033.19  d  avid g. roskies. A Bridge of Longing: The Lost Art of Yiddish Storytelling. Cambridge, MA, 1995 1033.20  jute baum–sheridan. Studien zu den westjiddischen Estherdichtungen. Hamburg, 1996 1033.21  d  an miron. A Traveler Disguised: The Rise of Modern Yiddish Fiction in the Nineteenth Century. Syracuse, 1996. See No. 1014 1033.22  n  ahma sandrow. Vagabond Stars: A World History of Yiddish Theater. Syracuse, 1996 1033.23  a  aron kramer (ed. and trans.). The Last Lullaby: Poetry from the Holocaust. Syracuse, 1998, repr. 1999 1033.24  c hava weissler. Voices of the Matriarchs: Listening to the Prayers of Early Modern Jewish Women. Boston, 1998

424  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1033.25  nahma sandrow (ed. and trans.). God, Man, and Devil: Yiddish Plays in Translation. Syracuse, 1999 1033.26  d  an miron. The Image of the Shtetl and Other Studies of Modern Jewish Literary Imagination. Syracuse, 2000 1033.27  joachim neugroschel (ed. and trans.). The Dybbuk and the Yiddish Imagination: A Haunted Reader. Syracuse, 2000 1033.28  jules chametzky et al. (ed.). Jewish-American Literature: A Norton Anthology. New York, 2001, repr. 2005 1033.29  h  enry goodman (ed. and trans.). The New Country: Stories from the Yiddish about Life in America. Syracuse, 2001 1033.30  joel berkowitz. Shakespeare on the American Yiddish Stage. Iowa City, 2002 1033.31  joachim neugroschel (ed. and transl.). No Star Too Beautiful: Yiddish Stories from 1382 to the Present. New York, 2002   1033.32  joel berkowitz (ed.). Yiddish Theatre: New Approaches. Oxford, 2003 1033.33  k  en frieden (ed.). Classic Yiddish Stories of S.Y. Abramovitsh, Sholem Aleichem, and I.L. Peretz. (Transl. Ken Frieden, Ted Gorelick and Michael Wex). Syracuse, 2004 1033.34  s hlomo berger. Yiddish on the Borderline of Modernity: Language and Literature in Early Modern Ashkenazi Culture (JSDI 6: 113–22) 2007 1033.35  b enjamin and barbara harshav.(eds. and transl.). American Yiddish Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology. Berkeley, 1986; reprint, Stanford, 2007 1033.36  c hone shmeruk and leonard prager. Yiddish Literature (EJJ2 21: 338– 53) 2007 1033.37  a  melia glaser. From Polylingual to Postvernacular: Imagining Yiddish in the Twenty-First Century (JSoS 14, no. 3: 150–64) 2008 1033.38  m  arie schumacher-brunhes. Le jeu des langues chez Y. L. Peretz (CJ 23: 19–27) 2008 1033.39  m  ikhail krutikov. Yiddish Literature after 1800 (YEJEE 2: 2065–84) 2008 1033.40  c hava turniansky. Yiddish literature before 1800 (YEJEE 2: 2059–65) 2008 1033.41  c hava turniansky. Yiddish and the Transmission of Knowledge in Early Modern Europe (JSQ 15, no. 1: 5–18) 2008 1033.42  jeremy a. dauber. In the Demon’s Bedroom: Yiddish Literature and the Early Modern. New Haven, 2010 1033.43  jordan d. finkin. A Rhetorical Conversation: Jewish Discourse in Modern Yiddish Literature. University Park, 2010 1033.44  a  nita norich. Hebraism and Yiddishism: Paradigms of Modern Jewish Literary History (MJLIB: 327–42) 2011

425  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1033.45  astrid starck. Un récit de vie en yiddish alsacien: Henry Schwab de Gerstheim, Bas-Rhin (Y 16: 135–51) 2011 1033.46  d  iana matut. Steinschneider and Yiddish (SoS: 383–409) 2012

19  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL WRITINGS 1063.01  wulf-0. dreessen, walter röll and erika timm. Jiddisch Drucke vor 1800, Hilfen für den Umgang mit einem neuen Quellenverzeichnis (ZDA 105, no. 4) 1976 1063.02 moiśy-sxariy béker [zachary baker] Dus Iîdiśy bjjx (JBA 36: 181–201) 1977–1978; (JBA 37:214–34) 1978–1979; (JBA 39: 225–46) 1980– 1981; (IBAx 43: 259–72) 1984–1985; (ŠSY 44: 268–83) 1985–1986; (IBAx 45: 255–69) 1986–1987; (IBAx 46: 290–302) 1987–1988; (IBAx 47: 255–64) 1988–1989; (IBAx 48: 277–88) 1989–1990; (IBAx 49: 237– 49) 1990–1991; (IBAx 50: 337–49) 1992–1993; (IBAx52: 290–301) 1993–1994; (IBAx 53: 287–96) 1994–1995; (JBA 54: 275–92) 1996– 1997; (JBA 55–6: 381–97) 1997–1999 1063.03  z achary baker. Bibliographic research and organization of Yiddish literature: Some problems and prospects (Yd 4, no. 2: 21–7) 1980 1063.04  d  avid g. roskies. An annotated bibliography of Ayzik-Meyer Dik (FoY 4: 117–84) 1980 1063.05  d  avid neal miller. Bibliography of Isaac Bashevis Singer, 1924–1949. New York, 1983 1063.06  d  ina abramowicz. Yiddish acquisitions: the YIVO experience (JLib 1, no. 2: 85–91) 1984 1063.07  b asmat even-zohar. Yidiš ve-yaḥasim ben yidiš le-ivrit be-Ha-Sifrut 1968–1983 (1‫–א‬32). (Sif 3–4 [35–36]: 263–65) 1986 1063.08  józef korzeniowski. Bibliografia czasopism żydowskich wychodzących w PRL (1944–1950) (BZIH 139–40: 143–54) 1986 1063.09  joan bratkowsky. Yiddish Linguistics: A multilingual bibliography. New York and London, 1988 1063.10  m  arian fuks. Prasa żydowska w Bialymstoku (1918–1939) (BZIH 145– 46: 145–52) 1988 1063.11  d  avid l. gold. A new bibliography of Yiddish linguistics (JQR 80, nos. 1–2: 148–55) 1989. Review of No. 1063.11 1063.12 References and bibliography of Yiddish linguistics, 1979–1988 (SYL: 187–216) 1990 1063.13  d  avid neal miller. Bibliography as ideology (Yd 8, no. 1: 63–74) 1991 1063.14  z achary baker. History of the Jewish collections at the Vernadsky Library in Kiev (Shf 10, no. 4: 31–48) 1992

426  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1063.15  kathryn hellerstein. Gender studies and Yiddish literature (GTMHYL: 249–55) 1992 1063.16  d  avid g. roskies. Yiddish literature (SGJB: 259–73) 1992 1063.17  c hone shmeruk. Yiddish literature in Poland and Lithuania until the 1648/1649 war (BPJ: 11–25) 1993 1063.18  d  avid m. bunis and andrew sunshine. Yiddish linguistics: a classified bilingual index to Yiddish serials and collections, 1913–1958. New York, 1994  1063.19  k  aren l. polster. Abraham Cahan: an annotated bibliography of literary criticism, 1970–1993 (MJSA 9: 43–60) 1994 1063.20  l aizer [leyzer] ran and duvyd fiśman [david-eliezer fishman]. Bibliografiy fjn Zalmyn Raizins verk (IB N.S. II: 99–125) 1994 1063.21  m  ikhael rigler. Mafteaḥ ha-mafteḥot le-khitve et ve-šenatonim ivriyim u-ve-yidiš: rešima šelišit metuqqenet u-murḥevet (YQ 28.3–4: 29–40) 1994 1063.22  a  strid starck. Bibliographie du yidich alsacien (Wj: 173–84) 1994 1063.23  m  aria kühn-ludewig. Blick auf den jiddischen Buchmarkt 1929 (JM 14: 1–18) 1995 1063.24  t homas soxberger. Zur Geschichte der jiddischen Publizistik in Wien: eine kommentierte Bibliographie (JM 15: 1–10) 1996 1063.25  x  any [eleanor] gordon mlotek. Hoisufy cj der Maks Vaanraaxbibliografiy (IB N.S. 3: 370–440) 1997 1063.26  t homas soxberger. ‘Vos Vin farmogt’:  jiddische Drucke des 16.–18. Jahrhunderts in der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek (JM 24: 1–9) 2000 1063.27  b rad sabin hill. Dissertations in Yiddish studies, University of Oxford (ROCHJS: 101–7) 2001 1063.28  b rad sabin hill. Yiddish bibliography at Oxford (ROCHJS: 98–132) 2001 1063.29  k  onrad schröder. Die skandinavischen und baltischen Sprachen sowie Jiddisch und Rotwelsch: ein Verzeichnis der Lehr- und Lernmaterialien 1500–1800 einschliesslich der Neudrucke und ausgewählter Sekundär­ literatur: mit Standortnachweisen. Augsburg, 2001 See No. 75b.13 1063.30  r oberta saltzman. Isaac Bashevis Singer: A Bibliography of His Works in Yiddish and English, 1960–1991. Lanham, 2002 1063.31  joel berkowitz. Bibliography (YT: 221–55) 2003 1063.32  b ruce j. mitchell. A bibliography of Yiddish literature for Haredi children and young adults (Yd 13, no. 2–3: 139–52) 2003 1063.33  k  ay schweigmann-greve. Spinoza in jiddischer Sprache (SSp 13: 261– 95) 1997. Reprinted separately, Würzburg 2003

427  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1063.34  roberta saltzman. A bibliography of David Bergelson’s works in Yiddish and English (DB: 306–36) 2007 1063.35  m  ikhail borisovich kizilov. Hebrew and Yiddish travel writing (BETWE: 229–41) 2008 1063.36  a  manda (miryem-khaye) seigel. Nahum Stutchkoff’s Yiddish play and radio scripts in the Dorot Jewish Division, New York Public Library (JLib 16–17: 55–82) 2011 1063.37  š emuel (shmuel) verses. Moše Štaynšnayder ve-ha-paradoqs šel yeẓirato be-ivrit ve-al yidiš (Pam 129: 201–23) 2011 1063.38  e rika timm. Schriftenverzeichnis Salomo (Solomon) A. Birnbaum (SBLW 1: xxix–xlviii) 2011 1063.39  m  ikhail krutikov and gennady estraikh. Yiddish Studies (YWMLS 73: 415–24) 2013

20  YIDDISH STUDIES COLLECTIONS 1064  gennady estraikh and mikhail krutikov (eds.). The shtetl: image and reality: papers of the second Mendel Friedman International Conference on Yiddish. Oxford, 1999 1065  g  ennady estraikh and mikhail krutikov (eds.). Yiddish and the Left: Papers of the third Mendel Friedman International Conference on Yiddish. Oxford, 2001 1066  joseph sherman (ed.). Yiddish after the Holocaust. Oxford, 2004 1067  joseph sherman and ritchie robertson (eds.). The Yiddish presence in European literature: inspiration and interaction: selected papers arising from the Fourth and Fifth Mendel Friedman Conferences in Yiddish. Oxford, 2005 1068  s hlomo berger (ed.). The multiple voices of modern Yiddish literature. Amsterdam Yiddish Symposium 2. Amsterdam, 2007 1069  joseph sherman and gennady estraikh (eds.). David Bergelson: from modernism to socialist realism. London, 2007 1070  m  agdalena ruta (ed.). Nusech Pojln: studia z dziejów kultury jidysz w powojennej Polsce. Krakow, 2008 1071  s hlomo berger (ed.). Yiddish storytelling. Amsterdam Yiddish Symposium 4. Amsterdam, 2009 1072  g  ennady estraikh and mikhail krutikov (eds.). Yiddish in Weimar Berlin: at the crossroads of diaspora politics and culture. London, 2010 1073  g  ennady estraikh et al (eds.). Translating Sholem Aleichem: history, politics and art. London, 2012 1074  d  aniela mantovan (ed.). Yiddish poets and the Soviet Union, 1917–1948. Heidelberg, 2012

428  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography 1075  marion aptroot and björn hansen (eds.). Yiddish Language Structures. Berlin, 2013 1076  y  israel bartal et al (eds.). Ḥut šel ḥ̣en. Šai le-Ḥava Turniansky. Jerusalem, 2013 1077  l ara rabinovitch, shiri goren, and hannah s. pressman (eds.). Choosing Yiddish: new frontiers of language and culture. Detroit, 2013

21  SOLOMON BIRNBAUM’S LIFE AND WORK 1078  hugh denman, Terumato šel Šelomo Birnbaum le-balšanut yidiš (Sif 3–4 (35–6): 252–62) 1986 1079  e lazar broyner [brauner]. Banu vaḥarta mi-kol am ve-lašon. Li-demuto šel ha-r’r d’r Šelomo Ašer Birnbaum z’l, gadol ḥoqre ha-lešonot ha-yehudiyim – le-yom ha-šelošim (Ha-Modia 7 Shevat/2 February) 1990 1080  h  ilel zaadman [hillel seidman]. Di fénomenale pérzénlexkait fjn d’r Śloimy Biirnboim. Cj di sloiśim (Algymainer źúrnal 26 January: 12, 19) 1990 1081  h  ilel zaadman [hillel seidman]. D’r Śloimy Biirnboim. Gylérnter, talmyd-xuxym jn śriftśteler nifter gyvoorn (Algymainer źúrnal 5 January: 14ff) 1990 1082  Obituaries Solomon A. Birnbaum (LBIYB 35: 499) 1990 1083  y  osef fridnzon [joseph friedenson]. D’r Šelomo Birnbaum u-sefat ha-yidiš (Diglenu Adar-Nisan) 1990 1084  iosyf [yosef] fridnzon [joseph friedenson]. D’r Śloimy Biirnboim z’l (DIV, Tevet-Shevet/Jan-Feb: 29–31) 1990 1085 Solomon Birnbaum (The Independent, London, 4 January) 1990 1086 Solomon Birnbaum, Scholar, 98 (The New York Times, 3 January) 1990 1087  l .k. In memoriam Dr. Solomon Birnbaum. Er klassifizierte die Schriftrollen von Qumran (Israelitisches Familienblatt für die Schweiz, 19 January) 1990 1088  s hmuel hiley. Solomon A. Birnbaum (HYS: 3–13) 1991 1089  h  irśy-duvyd kac [dovid katz]. Śloimy Biirnboim 1891–1989 (OI 2: 271–6) 1991 1090  d  uvyd kac [dovid katz] (ed.) Cvélf briiv fjn Śloimy Biirnboim. (OI 3, cols. 938–62) 1995 1091  ś jjkl fiśman [joshua fishman]. Lezykúrn r’ Śloimy Biirnboimyn (OŚ 320: 3–5) 2000 1092  m  ordxy śéxter [mordkhe schaechter]. Doktor Śloimy Biirnboim (OŚ 320: 1–2) 2000 1093  w  alter röll. Meine Korrespondenz mit S.A. Birnbaum, 1964–1968. (JM Sonderheft: 1–22) 2004

429  2016 Supplement to the Bibliography See No. 211.05 1094  eleazar and david birnbaum. A Preliminary Note by the Author’s Sons (SBLW I: ix–x) 2011 1095  e rika timm. Schriftenverzeichnis Salomo (Solomon) A. Birnbaum (SBLW I: xxix–xlviii) 2011 1096  e rika timm. Solomon Birnbaums Leben und Werk (SBLW I: xi–xxvii) 2011; in English: Solomon Birnbaum’s Life and Work (SBLW II: ix–xxv) 2011

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GENERAL INDEX TO THE 2016 EDITION Note: Roman numerals in boldface denote preliminary pages that also appeared in the 1979 edition of Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar Abbreviations xv Abramovitch, Sh.Y. 26, 175 Accent system, Ashkenazic 65 Aemilius, P. 46 Africa 15 Afrikaans 4, xxxiv Africa, North 9 Age criteria: practical 44; psychological 45; linguistic 46; sociological 57 Agnon, Sh.Y xxvii n55 Agriculture 17 Agudat Israel (Agudes Yisroel/Agjdys Ïisruul) xxxv Aharon ha-Kohen of Zhelikhov lxix, lxxvii n56 Aibiker Iîd, Der 177 Ainhaitlexer ous-laig. See Standard Yiddish Orthography Ainhoorn/Ajnhorn, D. 182 Ainśtains rélativitéits-téoriy 184 Akẹẹdys Ïicxyk 157 Alemannic 7, 55, 56 Algymainy Énciklopédiy 187 Alphabet 9, 13, 198 Alsace 34, 35, 95, 165, lxiv, lxviii Amphibrach 65 Amsterdam 162, 164 Analogy 88 Anapaest 65 ‘Ancient treasures’ 11 Andalusia 7 Anglo-Saxon 11 Anshel Levi 157 Anschluss xvii

Anti-traditionalism 25 Arabic language 13 Arabic, Maghrebinian 7 Arabic script 9, 13 Arabo-Turkish script 9 Aramic element in Yiddish. See Semitic Element in Yiddish Aramic (Jewish Aramaic) 60, 66, 200, xxx, xxxi, lxi; East/West 15 Archaisms 10 Archives Nationales (Paris) 119 Armenia 15 Armenian crypto-Jew 24 Arvic 15 Aś/Asch/Ash 179 Asceticism 29 Aschheim, S. lxxvii n55 Ascher Leb 161 Asher Anshel b. Joseph 169 Ashkenaz 60n Ashkenazim 11, 60n, 197n, xxvii, xxxv, xxxvi, lx, lxiii, lxiv Ashkenazim, East-/West- 16-30, 18, 19, 22–6, lxvi, lxvii, lxix Asia 15 Aspects, verbal 193, 258, 269, xxvii, xxxii Assimilation 35, lxv, lxvi Assimilationists 11 Atatürk, K. 14 Auerbach, S. 167 Augsburg 46 Austria 16 Austria-Hungary (Habsburg Empire) 97n, xi, xii, xxviii, xxix, lix

432  General Index to the 2016 Edition Avroom oviinu 146, lxxiv n31, lxxvi n47 Azoi hot ys zex uun gyhoibn 187 Baal/Ba’al Shem Tov. See Israel Baal Shem Tov ‘Bach’ 171 Baden 165, lxviii Baghdad 121 Baḥya 174 Bais Iaankyv/Beys-yankev/Beth Jacob schools. See Byt Y‘qb Balkans 16 Baltic countries 33 Baltic languages xxx Barditchever, L. I. 30 Bar-Asher, M. lxxvi n43 Baruch b. Isaac 149 Baumgarten, J. vii, viii Bavaria 16, lxxiv n30 Bavlic 121 Bayis Khudosh 171 Bechtel, D. lxxi n11 Belgium 24 Bendit 161 Benjamin Altorf 161 Berberic 15 Berdytchev 172 Bergen-Belsen 187 Berlin 182, 184, xii, xxix Berlin: University xxii n4, xxxi, xxxiii Berlin: Staatsbibliothek 116, 122, 151, 152 Bernstein, I. vii Besht. See Baal Shem Tov Bessarabia 17 Beth Jacob. See Byt Y‘qb Bialik, Ch.N. 180 Bible 13, 59, 124, xxxiv, lx, lxvii, lxviii, lxxvi n47; concordance

169; recitation 60; translations 67, 120, 154 Biblical books: Sam. 46, Ruth 120, Ps. 119, 151, 152, 162, 170, lxxvi n49, Prov. 119 Bibliothek der Sprachenkunde xl Bibliothèque Nationale 115–118, 149, 157 Biimyn 161 Bilder fjn der Iîdiśer literatúúrgyśixty 185 Bioxemiy 187 Birnbaum, D. vii, xiv, xx, xxii n1, xl, xli, xlviii n1, xlix n12, lvi n76, n79, lxxi n2 Birnbaum, E. vii, xiv, xx, xxii n1, xli, xlviii n1, lvi n76, lvi n79, lxxi n2 Birnbaum, I. viii; translations by 21-23 n3, 26-28 n3, xxi, lxxvii n57 Birnbaum, J. xiv, xli Birnbaum, M. xv Birnbaum, M.M. xlix n20 Birnbaum, N. vi, xi, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, xlix n20, lxv, lxxv n35, n39, n41, lxxvi n42 Birnbaum, R. vi, xxviii Birnbaum, S.A. xi and Austro-Hungarian army xii, xxxii, xxxiii Bais-Iaankyv schools 200n2, xvii, xxxviii−xxxix, and Berlin xii, xxix and British postal censorship, Liverpool xiv, xix and the Czernowitz Conference xi, xv, lix, xxix Dead Sea Scrolls dating 23, xiii, xxii and dissimilation lxv

433  General Index to the 2016 Edition flight to Holland, England xii, xvii, xxiv, xxxix Die Freistatt xxx and German Yiddish scholars, post−Second World War xl−xli in Hamburg xxxiv, xxxv. See also University of Hamburg hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, Das xii, xvi, xxxiv and Hebrew palaeography xi, xiii, xxii, xxiv, xxxiv Hebrew Scripts, The 33n2, xiv, xxi, xxii, xl Institutum Germano-Judaicum/Insti­ tutum Ascenezicum xvi, xxi, xxxiv−xxxv, li n31 Jewish languages (other) 15, xii and Jewish religious observance xii, xxxv Jiddische Sprache, Die viii, xl, lxxii n17 Leben und Worte des Balschemm/ Life and sayings of the Baal Shem xxxv, liv n56, lxxvii n57 lectures by xix, xxiii, xx, xxxix, lxi and linguistic purism xxxvii, xliii Max Weinreich’s relationship with xxxviii−xxxix, xli, li n36, lv n71 Modern Hebrew and Hebraism xxxvi−xxxvii and Nathan Birnbaum xiv Origins of the German Elements in Yiddish lxxii n20 and palaeography 123; Ashkenazic xxii plans for Yiddish institute. See Institutum Germano-Judaicum Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache xii, xxiv, xxviii,

xxxi−xxxiv, xxxix, xl, lix, lxxii n4 and secular Yiddish and Yiddishism xxvi, xxix, xxxvi, xxxviii− xxxix, xli Solomon A./Salomo Birnbaum: Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft/A Lifetime of Achievement xii, xxii n1, l n27, lxxi n12 spelling and transcription systems xvii, xviii, xxx, xxxii, xxxiv, xxxv, xxxviii, xxxix, xlii−xlvii, lii n45, lvii n89 standard pronunciation of Yiddish 100-101, xxv, xxxvi−xxxviii, liv n62, n64, n65, lv n67 at Technische Hochschule Vienna xi in Toronto xiv, xli Universities of: Berlin xxii n4, xxxi, xxxiii; Hamburg 39, xi, xii, xiii, xvi, xxiv, xxxiv; −, Habilitations xvi, xxiii; London 40, viii, xi, xii, xvii, xix, xx, xxxix; Trier xx, xxiii, xli, lvi n81; Vienna xxii n4, xxxiii; Würzburg xii, xxii n4, xxxiii; Zürich xxii n4, xxxiii in Vienna xi, xii, xxix Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar 1979 vii, xvii, xx, xxii, xxiv, xxv−xxviii, xl−xlii Yiddish and other Jewish languages xi, xiii; Yiddish Language, The xxxix Birnbaum, U. xii, xv Black Death 33, 55; persecutions 55 Black Sea 16 Blacks 4 Bljmgartn, I.S./Bloomgarden, J.S. 178 Bodleian Library 114–20, 122, 158

434  General Index to the 2016 Edition Bohemia I, 17, 33, 35 Bollag, E. 164 Bologna 119 Borchling, C. 39, xii, xxxiv Borochov/Borokhov/Buurrexov, B. xxviii, liv n64, lxxi n5 Boston 176 Bovo ďAntona 161 Braslav/Braslyv 172 Braunschweig, D. 164 Breslau: City Library 170 Buber, M. lxxv n41, lxxvii n55 Bucharic/Bukharic language 15, xiii, lxxiv n26 Bucovina/Bukovina 37, xi, xxix, xxxviii, lix Budapest lix Büeberl 161 Buovo d’Antona 158 Buczacz xxix Burgenland 168 Buske, H. xl, li n34 Byelo-Russia/Belarus 17, 33, 54, 55, lv n65 Byelo-Russian element 78 Byman 161n Byt ḥdś 171 Byt Y‘qb (Bais Iaankyv Schools) 200n2, xvii, xxxviii–xxxix Bytuxn 182 Byzantine Jews 16 Byzantium 15 Cabbala 66 Cairo Geniza lxviii Caitlin 179 Cambridge Manuscript, The 106, 109 n, lxviii, lxxiv n31 Cambridge: University Library 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 120, 138

Canada 17, xxiv Carpathians 17 Carpatho-Russia. See Ruthenia Carpatho-Ukraine. See Ruthenia Casimir 169 Caspian Sea 16 Catalan 78 Catalanic 15, 120 Caucasus 15 Cénerény: 171, lxviii Central German element 71 Central Yiddish (CY) 96, 99, 101–5, 166–9, xxvii, xxxii, xxxviii, xlii, lvii n85, lxviii Chassidim 17, 23, 26–30, 36, 81, xxxv, xxxvii, xliii, xlix, lxv, lxvii, lxix, lxxviii n57 Chemistry terminology 82n, lxxiii n23 Christian, Christians 12, 13, 14, 56, 76 Christian Hebraists lxiv Ci iz méiglex a fonétiśer ous-laig far der Iîdiśer literariśer śprax? 181 Ciśo (Céntraly Iîdiśy śúl-organizaciy) xxxv City College xxv Cj a folkistiśer bavéigung 185 Class 17 Clermont-Tonnerre 35 Clusters 220 Cockney 6 Cohen, N. lxxvii n54 College Yiddish xxiv, xxv, xxvii Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Köln 113, 115, 152 Columbia University xxiv, xxv Components. See Elements of Yiddish Conference on behalf of Yiddish, The 37, xxix, lxx Conservatism 10 Constantinople 120, 121

435  General Index to the 2016 Edition Corrupted language 5, lxi, lxiv Court documents 153, 155, 169, 171 Cracow 18 Creolized languages 13, lxii Crimchak 15 Crimea 15 Croatian language 13 Croats 41 Crusades 33 Crypto-Jews 24 Cultural autonomy 19 Cyrillic script 13 Czech: language 41, 78; element 77, 79 Czernowitz xi, xxix, lix Czernowitz Conference. See Confer­ ence on behalf of Yiddish, The Czernowitz at 100: The First Yiddish Lan­guage Conference in Historical Perspective xxii n8, lxxvii n58 Daaćmerizm. See Germanism Dacians 4 Dactylus 65 Danube 16 Dead Sea Scrolls. See Qumrân Scrolls Denman, H. xlvi Denmark 34 Demographic data 40–2, lx Dental accretion 56 Deutsches Auslandsinstitut xxxiv Deutsche Akademie xxxiv derekh ha-shas/déiryx haśas (Way of the Talmud) lx, lxvi, lxxv n40 Devanagari script 13 de Vaux, R. xiii Dialect 6, lxi, lxii, lxiii, lxviii Dialect map of Yiddish 95 Dialect, Northern/Southern 54, 55, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, xxvi–xxvii,

xxxii, xxxvii–xxxviii, xli–xlii, liv n57, lxxiii n21 Dialect, Silesian German 76n Dialect statistics of Yiddish 99 Dialect table of Yiddish Phonology 101 Dialects, Names of 97 n, lvii n85 Dialects of Yiddish 6, 94–105, xxxii, xliii, lx, lxiii, lxviii Diglossia lxvii Diskúrs 164 Dissimilation lxv Divine: names 28; services 18 Doctoral theses 39 Double U/waw/yodh 112 Drama 177 Dravidian languages 15 Dreessen, W.-O. 157 Dress 17, 23, lxvi Dukus Horant lxxvi nn47, 48 Dürmenach 165 Dutch language 4, 6, 41, 78, xxxiv Džidezmu/Džidyó 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 120, xxxi, lxii, lxxiv n26 East Aramic 15 East Ashkenazim: 7, 16, 81, lxvi; cultural structure 18; social structure 17 East Rome 16 East Yiddish 34, 51, 96–9, 169–89, xlviii n2 Eastern Europe 15, 16, 36, 80 Eastern European Jews 16–30, 36–8, xxvii, xxviii, xxx, xxxiii Eastern Jews 16 Éfroïkin, I. 181 Egypt 15 Ehrlich, C. xlviii n1 Einhorn, D. See Ainhoorn, D. Einstein, A. 184

436  General Index to the 2016 Edition Elbe 33 Elements of Yiddish 58–81, 82 n1, lxi, lxxiii n18, n23 Elia Levita (Elijah Baḥur Levita) 158, 161, lxviii Eliasberg, A. lxxvii n53 Elijah (prophet) 28 Emancipation 12 Endingen 164 England 39, xi, xxiv, xxxix English language 3, 4, 58, 79, xliii Enlightenment 34–6, 79, 198, xxviii, xxxii, xxxv–xxxvi, xxxvii, lxiv Epic 46, 47, 48, 49 Erik, M. lxxi n7 ershte yidishe shprakh-konferents, Die (1931) xv, xxiii n9, xxiii, lxxv n39 Essays 179, 181, 185 Ésterky 182 Estonian language 17 Europe, Eastern/Western 34 Falk, F. vii Farmers 17 Farśaat Haabl, A 183 Far vuus hobn nit Litviśy Iîdn dym naitraln miin? 185 Féider, Z. 187 Fiction 172, 175, 176, 179, 181, 183 Fiderholc/Fiderholtz 159 Finnish Gulf 16 First Yiddish Language Conference. See Conference on behalf of Yiddish Fishman, J.A. xli, lxxv n35, n39, lxxvi n44 Fishman, G. S. lxxvi n44 Florianów 171 Fogel, J.A. xxii n8, lxxviii n57

Folklore, lix Folksongs 22, 42, 43, 44, 45 Fraand, Der 183 Frakes, J. lxxii n16, lxxiv n32 France 33, 56 Franco-German 8 Franconia 35 Frank, C. xxii n4 Frankfort/M 114 Freimark, P. xvi, xxiii, lxxv n38 Freistatt, Die xxx, xxxi Fremder, Der 177 French language 4, 8, 11, 14, 65 French, Medieval 142 Friesian language xxxiv Freudenthal, G. lxxv n33 Freytag, W. xxii n4 Frisch, E. lxxvii n53 Fusion, linguistic (lingvistishe shmeltsung/lingvistiśy śmélcjng) lx, lxxii n18 Galicia 17, 37, xxviii, xxix, xxxiii, xlix n20 Gallo-Latin 8 Galxys 46, 107n Ganz, P. F. lxxvi n48 Gauls 4 Gemara 13 Genocide 41 Geographical factor (in the development of Yiddish) 12 Geometry 184 Georgia 15 German Jews 17, xxx, xxxiii, xxxiv German language 17, xxvii, xxxiv, lxvi German, Low 6, 71 German, Middle High: 63, 67, 106, 108n; connections with Yiddish 51–4, xxxii; spelling 111

437  General Index to the 2016 Edition German philologists 107, xxviii German spelling in Yiddish 198, xxxiii German/Germanic element in Yiddish 58, 60, 66, 67–76, xxvii, lx, lxxii n18; New High 79, 81 Germanization 79 Germanisms 80, xxxvii German-speaking Jews xxvi, xxviii, xxx, xxxiii Germany 7, 9, 11, 15, 16, 33, 34, 40, 55, 56, 57, 60n, 76, 106, 122, xxiv, xxv, xxxiv, xxxix, xl, liii n50, lxiv, lxxiii n23 Gerschel, P. 165 Gerzon, J. vii Geshikhte fun der yidisher shprakh/ Gyśixty fjn der Iîdiśer śprax lx Geyer, R. xxii n4 Ghetto 12, 18, xxvii, xxix, xxxii, lxiii Gininger, Ch. vii, lv n67, lvi n82 Ginsburg, M. vii Glasser P. xlviii n1, lvi n82, n88, lxxi n13 Glosses 149, 151, 153 Göc/Götz 159 Goldsmith E.S. lxxi n8 Gompertz, H. xxii n4 ‘Gothic’ script 9 Gottesman I. lxxi n10 Grammarian 158 Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache, xii, xxiv, xxv, xxviii, xxx, xxxi–xxxiv, xxxix, xl, li n36, lix, lxxii n14 Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache xxii n2, lii n37 Great Britain 17 Greco-Turkish 9 Greece 15 Greek language 41, 59

Greek-Latin element 78 Grohmann, A. xxii n4 Group-forming factor 13 Grünbaum, M. vii, lxxvi n46 Grünwald, M. vii, lxxi n6 Güdemann, M. vii Gurjic 15 Guttentag, E xiv Gydaxt 181 Gyklibyny dixtúngyn 182 ‘Gypsy’ language lxxiii n25 Gyzamlty liider 178 Gyzamlty liider 182 Haggada 122 Ha-maggid/Ham-magid 170, lxviii Ha-mavdil 158 Hamburg 6, 33, xxxiv, xxxv Hamburg: Staats- und Universitäts­ bibliothek 114, 116, 156 Hamburg: University 39, xi–xiii, xvi, xxiv, xxxiv Hanna b. Rẹẹzyl/Resel 167 Habsburg Monarchy. See AustriaHungary Harkavy, A. vii Hartleben, A. xxxi–xxxiii, xl Hasidism. See Chassidism Haskala/Haskalah. See Enlightenment Hausheer xxii n4 hebräische und aramäische Element in der jiddischen Sprache, Das xii, xvi, xxxiv, lix, lx Hebraism xxviii, xxxvii Hebrew alphabet 197n2, 198–9 Hebrew, Ashkenazic 60, xxxiv Hebrew element in Yiddish. See Semitic Element in Yiddish Hebrew language 14, 26n, 34, 36, xxviii, xxix, xxxi, xxxvi, xliii, lxi, lxvii

438  General Index to the 2016 Edition Hebrew language, Medieval 59, lxi Hebrew literature, modern 26 Hebrew palaeography 67, 123, xx, xxii, xxiv, lxviii Hebrew pronunciation xxx Hebrew script 13, 38, 67 Hebrew script, Ashkenazic type 197 n3, lxviii Hebrew Scripts, The 33n2, xiv, xxi, xxii, xl Hebrew vowel signs 214, xlii Hellas 26 Hellenic 15 Hellenistic era lxiv Heller, P. 161 Hénely Kirchhaan 163 Hertz, N. 172 Herzl, T. xxviii Hesse 35, 163n Ḥešeq Šelomo 120 Hindi 13 Hindu 13 Historiśy Śriftn fjn Iîdiśn Visnśaftlexn Institút 175 Hitler, A 40, 42, xvii, xxi Hochschulalltag im dritten Reich xxiii Holland 24 Holocaust 42 Hoschel/Höśyl 161 Hostility to Yiddish 4, 35, 37, xxvii–xxviii, xxxi Hwbwt hlbbwt 174 . Hungarian: language 79, lxvi; Jewry 17 Hungary 17 Iambus 65 Iberian Peninsula 15 Ichenhausen 162, lxxvi n49 Iidiś jn xsiidiś 186 Iîdiśkait xxxvi, xlii

Iîdiśkait jn luuśn 202 n2 Iîdiśy Śprax xli Iîdiśy Kultúúr 37 Iîvuu-ous-laig. See Standard Yiddish Orthography Iggeret ha-qodeš (Holy Epistle) lxix Imber, S.I. 182 ‘Immigrants’ language 57, lxiii In śap 176 In vald 181 India 15 Indo-European languages 15, lxiv Indo-European element in Yiddish 198 Infinitive, Absolute 92 Ingolstadt 46 Innsbruck: Landesregierungsarchiv 155 Institut für die Geschichte der Deutschen Juden xvi Institutum Germano-Judaicum/ Insti­tutum Ascenezicum 39–40, xvi, xxi, xxxv, li n31 Ioslin Vicnhauzyn 162 Iouxynyn Roufy 164 Iranian languages 15 Isny 161 Isolation 85 Israel Baal-Shem Tov (Besht) 26, 28, xxxv, liv n56, lxix, lxxvii n56, n57 Israel Isserlin b. Petahiah 113, 114 Israelitisches Wochenblatt für die Schweitz xxxiii Istanbul. See Constantinople Italkian language 12, 15, 116, 119 Italy 33, 34 Ivri/Ivre-taytsh lxii Iyhoiyś 178 Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi 170, 171, lxviii Jaffe, J. See Joel Serkes

439  General Index to the 2016 Edition Japanese language 3 Jargon 6, 37, 106, l n21, lviii, lxii, lxiv Jerusalem: Jewish National and University Library 115, 149 Jerusalem: S. D. Sassoon 122 Jewish Arabic. See Judaeo-Arabic Jewish Aramaic. See Aramic Jewish customs lxiii, lxvi, lxvii Jewish language/s 3–15, xii, xiii, xxiv, xxvii, xxix, xxxi, lx, lxii, lxiii, lxv, lxvi, lxxiii n26, lxxv n37 Jewish legal system (Halakha) 23, lxv Jewish linguistics 14; interlinguistics lxii Jewish ‘particularity’ 34 ‘Jewish persuasion, Germans of the’ 35 Jewish quarter and street (Judenviertel, Judengasse) lxiii Jewish Theological Seminary of America 118, 121 Jewish tradition (masorah) 23, lxix Die jiddische Sprache: Ein kurzer Überblick und Texte aus acht Jahrhunderten viii, xl, lxxxii n17 Jidic/Jidyo. See Džidezmu/Džidyó Jiriczek, O. xxii n4 Joel Serkes b. Samuel Jaffe 171 Joffe, J.A. vii Jopson, N. xiv, xvii, xix, xxxix Joseph b. Moses 113 Joseph b. Yakar 162, lxxvi n49 Joseph Mordecai b. Gershon 169 Joy in religion 29 Judaeo-Arabic, xxxi. See Arvic, Bavlic, Maaravic, Temanic Judaeo-Arabic, Maghrebinian. See Maaravic Judaeo-Aramaic. See Aramic Judaeo-Catalan. See Catalanic Judaeo-French. See Zarphatic

Judaeo-German 8, xxvi, lxii Judaeo-Latin. See Latinic Judaeo-Persian. See Parsic ‘Judaeo-plus’ languages 7 Judaeo-Spanish 8, xxxi. See also Džidezmu/Džidyó Judah b. Abraham 175 Judaism 22, 25, 35; role in shaping Yiddish 13, 14, 35, 38, 57, xxvii, lx, lxv, lxvii, lxxv n37, n39 Jüdischdeutsche Texte xxxiv Jüdische Renaissance xxix Judezmo/Judezmu. See Džidezmu/ Džidyó Jüdisch/Jüdisch-teutsch lxii Jung, L. lxxv n35 Kabbalah lx, lxix Kafka, F. lxxvii n53, n55 Kahanović/Kahanowitch, P. 181 Kaiser Wilhelm II xxx Kalmanović/Kalmanowicz, Z. 181 Karaite languages 15 Karlsruhe: Badische Landesbibliothek 151 Katz, D. xlix n16, 17, liii n54 Kaufmann, F. M. xxx Kazimierz 169 Kéinigsberg, D. 184 Kerler, Dov-Ber lxxiv n30, lxxvii n52 Keter Šem Tov lxix, lxxvii n56 Ketubat hatTora 120 Khazar empire 16 Kiev 16, 24 King, R. lxxiv n30 Kirchhaan/Kirchhain 163 klal-Iîdiś. See Standard Yiddish Kloss, Heinz xxxiv, liii n50 Königsberg, D. 184 Koouzmer 169

440  General Index to the 2016 Edition Koran 13 Kretschmer, P. xxii n4 ‘Ksav min kol kôxys hahakozy vehavridin’ 152 Kunst der Polyglottie, Die xxxi Kuuzmark 169 Kuznitz, C. lxxv n34, lxxviii n59 Ladino 67 Landau, A. vii, 166 Landau, L. vii, lviii, lxxi n3 Landau, R. 167 Language 6, 8, 13, lx Language: loyalty 11; mixed 3, lxii; nationalists 11; nationalism 36, xxviii; families of lxi, lxii Latin 4, 59, 67, 126, 142 Latinic 67, 109n, 142 Lauttenschlaher 161 Latvia lix Leftwich, J. vii; translations by 20n1, 29n1, 30n1 Leghorn 120, 122 Lehman, J./Léiman, I. 184 Leipzig: Universitätsbibliothek 151 Lemberg 175 Lengnau 164 Length opposition of vowels 220 Leningrad: Publichnaya Biblioteka 121 Lettish language 79 Letts 17 Leqeṭ hayYošer 113 Leqeṭ hazZohar 120 Letters 27, 155, 159, 170 Levi Isaac Barditchever 30 Levine, E. lxxiii n26 Liiby 179 Linguistic borrowing lxi; interference lxi, lxvii Linguistic geography of Yiddish: 94–105, lxi

linguistic purism 3, 4, 5, xxxvii, xliii Linguistics 46, 185, lix Lintz, Z. 167 Literary pronunciation. See Standard pronunciation of Yiddish Lipps, G. xxii n4 Literature, Modern Hebrew 25 Literature ‘Rabbinic’ 66 Literature, Modern and Traditional Yiddish 25, 80, xxvii, lxix Literature, Yiddish 23, 25, xxix, xxx, xxxiv, lxvii, lxviii Lithuania 17, 33, 54, 55, lv n65, lix Lithuanian language 79 Lithuanians 17 Lithuanian Yiddish. See Northeastern Yiddish Liturgy 59, lxiii Litviś. See Northeastern Yiddish Liverpool xiv, xix Loan words 58, 80 Lombardy 157 London xxxix, xl, lix London: British Library 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 153 London: University viii, 40, xi, xii, xvii, xix, xx, xxxix School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) xi, xii, xix, xx, xxxix; School of Slavonic and East European Studies (SSEES) viii, 40, xi, xii, xvii, xix, xxxix University College xix Lorch, M. 161 Loutyn Ślager 161 Lublin 170 Lucerna, M. 166 Luuśn-koidyś xxxvi ‘Luther’s German’ 67 Lviv 175

441  General Index to the 2016 Edition Maaravic7, 12, 15, lxxiv n26 Maasy my-ha-śivy béitlers 172 Maghrebinian of Fez lxxiv n26 Magyars 16 Mahzor of Worms 149, lxviii Maier, D. 165 Maitlis, J. J. vii Maltese language 13, lxxiii n25 Man. See Méndyl Mame-loshn/mamy luuśn lxii Mantua 119 Maor Katan 166 Marbe, K. xxii n4 Marburg University li n36, lix Marek, P. vii Mark, I/Y. vii Mashait 195 ‘Maskilic’ spelling. See German spelling in Yiddish Mattersburg/Mattersdorf 168 Matut, D. lxxv n33 Maximilian, Emperor 156 Mayer-Modena, M. lxxvi n43 Meam loez 120 Medicine 152 Mediterranean countries 7, 15 Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym/Mendele Moicher Sfurim 26, 175, lxviii, lxxvii n53 Mendyl 159 Mergam/Meriam 161 Mesopotamia 15, 121 Meyer, E. xxii n4 Meyer-Benfey, H. 39, xii Middle High German. See German Midrashim lx, lxvi, lxxvi n47 Mieses, M. lxxv n38 Migration 11, 33, 34, lxii, lxiii, lxiv Minsk 179 Miriam b. Moses 166

Miron, D. lxxi n9 Mishna 13 Mittwoch, E. xxii n4 Mixed languages 3, lxii Modern English-Yiddish/YiddishEnglish Dictionary xxvi Moldavia 17 Mọọśy Loutyn Ślager 161 Moośy Nürbek 161 Morag, S. lxxvi n43 Moravia 16, 17, 33, 35, 168 Morphology 53, 54, 55, 74, 75, 82, xxxii, xxxiv, xxxvii, xliii Mosche Lorch 161 Mosse Lauttenschlaher 161 Mrkbt hmṡnh lqwnqwrdsyw 169 Müllheim 165 Munich 6, 155 Munich: Bayerische Nationalbibliothek 115; Bayerisches Hauptsta­atsar­ chiv 113; Kreisarchiv 159 Mysiirys néifyś 176 Mysticism 26, lxvi, lxix Nachman of Braslav 28, 172, lxix Nahuatl 3 Names, First xxxii Nathan and Solomon Birnbaum Archives, Toronto xiv, xv, xix Nathan Birnbaum and Jewish Modernity: Architect of Zionism, Yiddishism and Orthodoxy xxii Nathan b. Naphtali 172 National spirit 9, 10, lviii Nationhood 35 Nationalism 24, 36, 80, xxviii–xxix, xxxiv, lviii, lxiv National-Socialism 36, 41, xii, xxxix Naxmyn Braslyver. See Nachman of Braslav Near East 9

442  General Index to the 2016 Edition Neo-paganism 26 Netherlands 34, 35 New York 18, 185, 187, xiv, xxv, xxvi, xxxv, xli, lxiii Niger, S. vii Niqqudot. See Hebrew vowel signs Nister, Der 181 Noble S. lxxii n19 Norman, F. lxxvi n48 Norman-Anglo-German 8 North American Indian lxxiii n25 Northeastern Yiddish (NEY) 97, 102–5, xxvii, xlviii n6, li n36, liv n62, lv n65 Number of Yiddish speakers 1931 (table) 41 Nürnberg 46n, 161 Ofn śvél 185 Old Yiddish 106, 108, 109, 146–55; spelling system 109, 109n6 Olson, J. xiv, xxii, lxxv n35 Olŝvanger/Olsvanger, E. 184 Oośer br Iuudy 161 Opatoshu/Opatośú/Opatovski, J. 183 Oriental Jews 16, 65 Orientalistische Literaturzeitung xxxiii Orthodox Jews 19, xxvi, xxviii, xxxv, xxxviii, xxxix, xliii ‘Orthodox’ Orthography 200, xxvii, xxxv–xxxvi, xlii–xliii, xliv, lvii n89. See also spelling systems, Yiddish Palestine 15, 117, xxviii ‘Pan-Jewish’ movement xxx Péiryc, I.L. 176 Peltz, R., lxxvi n44 Pennsylvania Dutch xxxiv Penultimate 65

Peretz, J.L. 176, lxviii Persia 15 Persian language 3, 4, 8, 9 Philology vii, 4, 39, lix, xxviii Philosophy 174 Phoneme inventory 218 Phonetical remarks 211 Phonology 51–3, 55, 56, 60–4, 67–9, 70–5, 77, 200, xxvii, xxxii, xxxiv, xxxvii, xlii, xlix n16 Pines, M.J. vii Pinman 161 Pinski/Pinsky, D. 177 Plene spelling 200 Podolia 17 Poems 20–2, 30, 146, 149, 154, 156– 8, 161, 163, 176–80, 182, 184, 186, 187, lxviii, lxix Poetry 59, xxvii, xxx Poéziy 180 Pogroms 24 Poland 16, 17, 33, 39, 54, 55, 56, 77, 200, xvii, xxv, xxxv, xxxviii, lxiv Poles 16 Polish element in Yiddish 77, 79 Polish Jewry 17 Polish language 78, lxvi ‘Polish’ Yiddish. See Central Yiddish Political aspect 38 Portuguese language 4, 78 Portuguesic language 15 Praktische Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache xii, xxiv, xxv, xxviii, xxx, xxxi–xxxiv, xxxix, xl, li n36, lix, lxxii n4 Prague 166, 167, lxviii Prayers 18, 28, 60, lxviii Prayer book 59, 119, 121, 162 Press 81 Preterite 11

443  General Index to the 2016 Edition Prilúcki/Prilutzky/Prylucki, N. vii, 166, lvi n82 Prost-jüdisch lxii Protestantism 67 Provence 15 Proverbs 168 psqym wktbym 113 Pyman, Pymann 161n Qumrân Scrolls 123-126, xiii, xxii, xl Raabe, W. lxxvii n53 Rabinovitch, Sh. 176 Race 9, lviii Ragusa (Dubrovnik) lxxiv n26 Raizin, A. 177 Raizin, Z. lvi n82 Rashi 109, 122 Ratisbon 155, 159, 161 Reading exercises 209, 213, 215 Regensburg. See Ratisbon Registration note 156 Reininger, R. xxii n4 Reisen, A. See Raizin, A. Reisen, Z. See Raizin, Z. Relativity, Theory of 184 Religiolect lxvii, lxxvi n43 Religion 13, 19, 22, 34, 58, 81, xxv, xxxiv, lx, lxv, lxvi, lxxv n39, lxxvii n51 Religious experience 26 Religious terms 13n, 59 Reminiscences 164, 165 Rhineland 16, 95, 106, lxiii, lxiv, lxxiv n30 Rhythm 65 Roback/Robak, A.A. 185 Röll, W. xxii, xl, lxxii n15, n17 Rome 161 Roman empire 33

Roman times 150, lxiv Romance element in Yiddish 56, 58, 66, 79, lxxiii n23 Romance Languages 66, 68, lx Root of word 66 Ropczyce/Ropśic/Ropshitz xlix n20 Ropśicer/Ropshitzer Rebbe xlix n20 Rosenberg, F. vii Rosenfeld, M. 176 Rosenzweig, F. lxxv n41 Roth, C. lxxiii n26, Roth, J. lxxvii n55 Roufy 164 Roznfeld, M. 176 Rumania 17, 33, 39 Rumanian Jewry 17 Rumanian language 41, 79 Rumanians 16 Russia 24, 36, 38, xxxiii, lix, lxiii Russian element in Yiddish 78 Russian language 77, lxvi Russian revolution 16 Ruthenia 17 Šʼryt Ywsp 169 Sabysdiker luuśn lv n65 Sachau, E. xxii Sainéan, L. vii, lviii, lxxi n4 St Petersburg lix Salfeld, S. 46 Salonica 120 Samaritan language 15 Samarkand lxxiv n26 Samson b. Abraham 119 Samuel Book/Epic 46, 47, 48, 154 Sarajevo xii, lxxiv n26 Satirical poem lxviii Scandinavian 78 Schinz, M. xxii n4 Science 187

444  General Index to the 2016 Edition Schaechter, M. vii, lvi n82 Schiffman, H. lxxvi n44 Schindler, E. 186 Schoeffel, R.M. viii Schwartz, W. lxxvi n48 Schwartzwald, O. lxxvi n43 Script: Cursive Hebrew 195; Cyrillic 13; Hebrew 9, 13, 107, 195; ‘Rabbinic’ 195n4; Roman 9, 13, 107 Scriptio defectiva 198 Scriptio plena 198 Seclusion, compulsory 12 Secularization/modernization 14, 24, 36, xxxv, lxi, lxiv, lxv, lxvi, lxvii, lxix Secularized language 81, xxvi, xxviii, xxxvi, xliii, lvii n90 Sefer ha-Maggid. See Ha-Maggid Semantics 83, 86 Semitic element in Yiddish 13, 56, 58–66, 79, 214, xxx, xxxii–xxxiv, xxxvi, xlii, xliv, xlvi, lx, lxi, lxii, lxiv, lxvi, lxxii n18, lxxiii n23 Semitic grammars 60 Semitic languages 15 Sephardim 7, 11, 67, 120, lxxiv n26 Serbian 41 Serkes. See Joel Serkes Shambat 24 Shanes, J. lxxv n35, liii n53 Shatzki, J. 163 Shewa 64, 142 Shîn/Sĩn, pronunciation of 142 Shmeruk, C. lxxvii n54 Shneur, Z. 179 Shondlin 113 Shtetl/śtéitl lxiii Shtif, N. 159 Shuadit 15 Shulem Alaichem/Sholem Aleichem 176, lxviii

Signatures 161 Silesia 33 Simeon b. Yoḥai 123, 125 Simḥa b. Judah 149 Simxys ha-néifyś 163 Simxys-Toiry 178 Śindler, L. 186 Sipjjry maasys 172 Slavonic element in Yiddish 56, 63, 76, xxvii, lx, lxxii n18 Slavonic regions 33 Slavs 4 Śloimy réb Xaaiyms 175 Slovak language 79 Slovakia 17 Slovaks 16 Śmjjl-bjjx, Dus. See Samuel Book/Epic Śnaier, Z. 179 Sociolinguistics of Yiddish lx, lxi, lxiii, lxvii Socialism 26 Solomon/Salomo A. Birnbaum: Ein Leben für die Wissenschaft/A Lifetime of Achievement xiv, xxii n1, l n27, lxxiii n26 Songs of the Ghetto 176 South Africa 39 Southeastern Yiddish (SEY) 97, 101– 5, xxvii, xxix, xlvi n3, lvii n85 Sovétiśer ous-laig. See Soviet Orthography Soviet Jewry 17, xiv, xli Soviet orthography 217, xxxv–xxxvi Soviet Union 39, xxxv, xli Spain 7, 11 Spaniards 8 Spanish language 4, 8, 11 Spelling and Transcription system comparison table xliv–xlvii Spelling, Phonetic 181 Spelling system, Ancient Semitic 200

445  General Index to the 2016 Edition Spelling systems, Yiddish 200, xxx, xxxii, xxxv, xxxviii–xxxix, xlii– xlvii, lv n71, lvi n82, lvii n89. See also ‘Orthodox’ Orthography Spires: Archiv der Stadt Speyer 115 Spivak, E. lvi n82 Spranger, E. xxii n4 Staerk, W. lxxvi n46 Śtainbérg/Steinberg, I.N. 185, lxviii Stalin 39 Standard Yiddish 101, xxv–xxvi, xxxvii–xxxviii, xli–xliii, lxxiii n21 Standard pronunciation of Yiddish (orthoepy) 100–1, xxv, xxxvi, xxxvii–xxxviii, liv n62, n64, lv n65, n67 Standard language 6, 7, 10, 101, xxviii, xlviii n6, lxi Standard Yiddish Orthography (SYO) xxvii, xxxv–xxxvi, xlii, xliv, lvii n89 Statistics of Yiddish 40–2, lx Steinschneider, M. vii, lxxi n5, lxxv n33 Stem of word 66 Stern, M. 46 Śtif, N. 159 Stöhr, A. xxii Strack, H.L. xxii n4, xxxi, xxxiv, li n30, liii n48 Strasbourg 165 Strasbourg: Université 118 Strauss, R. 155, lxxvi n50 Streck, M. xxii n4 Stress 65, 217 Strong inflection 54 Śtub, E. 189 Studien zur Geschichte und dialektischen Gliederung der jiddischen Sprache lix Śuulym Alaixym 176, lxviii

Surbtal 164 Süsskind (Ziskind, Ziiskind), N. lxxiv n30 Switzerland 95, lxiv, lxviii Śyairis Iosyf 169 Symbols, Religious 22 Symon von der Freyenstat 161 Syntactical shifts 91 Synthesis of elements in Yiddish 82–5 Synthesis of German elements in Yiddish 76 Syria 117 Talmud (Gemara) 13, 23, 59, 66, 122, 123, lx, lxi Tatic language 15 Tasks of Yiddish Philology, The xxviii Temanic language 15, 122 Territorial concentration 18 Tiberian vocalization 62, 63, 64n Timm, E. xiv, xxi Tog/Tug, Der xvii Toponymical list 135–41, xxvii Toronto xi, xli Toronto: University xx, xli Tradiciy, caixns jn simboln 181 Traditional Jewry 36, xxvi Traditionalism 37, 81, lxv, lxvi ‘Traditionalist’ Spelling System. See ‘Orthodox’ Orthography Transcribing 137 Transcription vii, 107–11, 137, 201, xxx, xxxv, xlii–xliv, xlv–xlvii, lvii n89, lx Transcription alphabet 216 Transcription alphabet for Old Yiddish 109–11 Translation of the Bible (Taytshkhumesh/taać-xjmyś) lxii, lxviii Transliteration 108, xxxii Trwmt hdsn 113

446  General Index to the 2016 Edition Tsarfat 33 Tsennerenne/Tsenerene. See Cénerény Trier: University xx, xli, lvi n81 Tübingen xl Turkey 14 Turkic languages 15 Turkish 3 Typesetting, Yiddish xvii, xviii, xxxiii Ukraine 16, 17, 33 Ukrainians 4, 17 Ukrainian element in Yiddish 78 ‘Ukrainian’ Yiddish. See Southeastern Yiddish Ulm 153 ‘Ultra-Orthodox’ xxxvii, xxxviii, xliii, lxiv, lxv United States of America 17, xxx, lxviii University of Toronto Press viii, xli, lxii Urdu language 13 Urkunden und Aktenstücke zur Geschichte der Juden in Regensburg 155 Uuśer Anćl b. Iosyf 169 Utrecht 164 Uvnt-klangyn 177 Vaanraax/Vaynrakh, M. See Weinreich, M. Vaanraax, J. See Weinreich, U. Vail, I. 113, 114, 153 Vallachia 17 Valuation 4 Vatican 115 Venice 119, 120 Venosa Catacomb 117 Vicynhauzyn, I. 162 Vienna 37, 120, xi, xii, xxvi, xxxviii, xxix, xxxi, lix

Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien 114, 115 Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv 114, 115 Vienna, University of 37, xxii n4, xxxiii Villages 35 Vilna/Vilnius 79, xxv, xxvi, xxxvii, xxxviii, xli, liv n64 Vocabulary 11, 58, 74, 78, 90 Vogelein/Vögylain 161 Volhynia 17 Volksgeist lviii Vollmer, H. lxxvi n49 Vowel letters 142 Vowels, long 228 Vuld 161 Vus darf Ïisruuyl tjjn in der ictiker caat fjn xévly Myśiiex? 179 Wachstein, B. 161 Wagenbach, K. lxxvii n53 Wagenseil, J.Ch. 44 Warsaw 17, 176, 179, 183, xxvi, xxxviii, liv n64, lxxvii n54 Weil, J. 113, 114, 153 Weinreich, M. vii, 112n, 185, viii, xv, xxv, xxxvii, xxxviii–xxxix, xli, li n36, lix, lxvi, lxxiii n23, lxxiv n30 Weinreich, U. vii, xxiv, xxvi, xlii, xlviii n6, lxxiii n21 Weinryb, B. 170 Weiser, K. vii, viii n*, lxx, xlvii n4, lxxviii n58 Weissenburg 165 West Yiddish 12, 46–51, 94–6, 146– 69, xlviii n2, lxviii Western world, Jews of 19, 24, 25, 34, 35, lxix

447 General Index to the 2016 Edition White Russia. See Byelo-Russia Wiener, L. vii, 175, 176, lxxi n7, lxxiii n25 Wissenschaft des Judentums lxiv Witzenhausen, J. 162 Word formation 84 Word order 92 Words, development of new 90 Working class 17, lxiii World War I: interest in Yiddish xxx–xxxi Worship 29 Writing exercise 224 Wroclaw: City Library 170 Würzburg: University xii, xxii n4, xxxiii /x/, pronunciation of 56 Xéźbn ha-néifyś, A 181 Xiiryk-luuśn xlvii Xoivys halvuvys 174 Xudaidad lxxiv n26 Yaakov Yosef of Polonoye lxxvii n56 Yefroikin, I. 181 Yemenite. See Temanic language Yeshiva lxiii Yevanic language 15, 33 Yevreyski language 39 Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar (1979 ed’n) vii, xvii, xx, xxiv, xxvi–xxvii, xli–xliii, liv n62, lvii n90, lx; (2016 ed’n) xli Yiddish, borderlines of 16 Yiddish, Dialects of. See Dialects of Yiddish. Yiddish, interest in studying 39–40, xxiv, xxviii, xxx–xxxi, xxxiii– xxxv, xl–xli, xliii

Yiddishism/Yiddishists 37–8, xxvi, xxix, xxxvi, xxxvii, xli Yiddish Language, The xxxix Yiddish literature. See Literature, Yiddish Yiddish, old names for lx, lxii Yiddish, periodization of 44, lx, lxiii, lxxiv n30 Yiddish Scientific Institute 38, 100, xv, xx, xxiii, lxxiii n21, lxxv n39 Yiddish studies vii, 14, 39–40, xvi, xxvii, xl–xli, xlix n17, lxi, lxiv Yiddish transcription of English 109n YIVO. See Yiddish Scientific Institute YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe viii YIVO’s Romanization of Yiddish viii, xliv–xlvi Yoslin. See Joseph Zamljng fjn kacét- jn géto-liider 187 Zanvel Lintz 167 Zarephat 33 Zarphatic element in Yiddish 58, 79, 126 Zarphatic language 15, 33, 56, 58, 67, 115, 118, 149, 150, 151, 200, lxxiii n23 Zarphatic pronunciation of Hebrew 150 Zarphatic spelling system 108n, 126, 150 Zeitlin, H. 179 Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie xl Zimlin 153 Zionism xxviii–xxix, lxv Ziwy, A. 165 Zjnyn-Jntergang 178 Zohar lx Zurich 156 Zurich, University of xxii n4, xxxiii