WorldCALL: Sustainability and Computer-Assisted Language Learning 9781474248303, 9781474248327, 9781474248365

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WorldCALL

Advances in Digital Language Learning and Teaching Series Editors: Michael Thomas, University of Central Lancashire, UK, Mark Peterson, Kyoto University, Japan, and Mark Warschauer, University of California – Irvine, USA Today’s language educators need support to understand how their learners are changing and the ways technology can be used to aid their teaching and learning strategies. The movement toward different modes of language learning – from presence-based to autonomous as well as blended and fully online modes – requires different skill sets such as e-moderation and new ways of designing and developing language learning tasks in the digital age. Theoretical studies that include practical case studies and high-quality empirical studies incorporating critical perspectives are necessary to move the field further. This new series is committed to providing such an outlet for high-quality work on digital language learning and teaching. Volumes in the series will focus on a number of areas including but not limited to: – task-based learning and teaching approaches utilizing technology – language learner creativity – e-moderation and teaching languages online – blended language learning – designing courses for online and distance language learning – mobile assisted language learning – autonomous language learning, both in and outside of formal educational contexts – the use of Web 2.0/social media technologies – immersive and virtual language learning environments – digital game-based language learning – language educator professional development with digital technologies – teaching language skills with technologies Enquiries about the series can be made by contacting the series editors: Michael Thomas ([email protected]), Mark Peterson ([email protected]) and Mark Warschauer ([email protected]). Titles in the Series Autonomy and Foreign Language Learning in a Virtual Learning Environment, Miranda Hamilton Online Teaching and Learning: Sociocultural Perspectives, edited by Carla Meskill Teaching Languages with Technology: Communicative Approaches to Interactive Whiteboard Use, edited by Euline Cutrim Schmid and Shona Whyte

WorldCALL Sustainability and Computer-Assisted Language Learning Edited by Ana Gimeno, Mike Levy, Françoise Blin and David Barr

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

LON DON • OX F O R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • SY DN EY

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2016 Paperback edition first published 2017 © Ana Gimeno, Mike Levy, Françoise Blin, David Barr and Contributors, 2016 Ana Gimeno, Mike Levy, Françoise Blin and David Barr have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Editors of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978-1-4742-4830-3 PB: 978-1-3500-3956-8 ePDF: 978-1-4742-4836-5 ePub: 978-1-4742-4831-0 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

Series: Advances in Digital Language and Teaching

Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

Contents Foreword

vii

Introduction  Mike Levy, Ana Gimeno, David Barr and Françoise Blin 1 Part 1  Teacher Education and CALL 1

Learning for the Long Haul: Developing Perceptions of Learning Affordances in CALL Teachers  Karen Haines 7

2

Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Sustainable Digitally Based Language Pedagogies in English Teacher Education Programs  Lucas Moreira dos Anjos-Santos and Vera Lúcia Lopes Cristovão 23

3

Creating Pedagogical Knowledge Through Electronic Materials in a Telecollaboration Project for Pre-Service Teacher Trainees  Marcin Kleban and Mª Camino Bueno-Alastuey 39

4

Promoting Student Collaborative Reflective Interaction Using Wikis and VoiceThreads  Sabrina Priego 53

5

How Language Teachers Become Effective Users of CALL for Online Teaching and Learning: A Case Study of Their Developmental Processes in a Transformative e-Training Course  Sandra Morales and Scott Windeatt 78

Part 2  Normalization of CALL 6

Factors that Determine CALL Integration into Modern Languages Courses in Brazil  Claudia Beatriz M. J. Martins and Herivelto Moreira 103

7

Sustainable Interaction-Based Research in CALL  Françoise Blin, Catherine Caws, Marie-Josée Hamel, Trude Heift, Mathias Schulze and Bryan Smith 119

8

Factors in Sustainable CALL  Monica Ward 132

Part 3  CALL Systems 9

From a Vision to Reality: Paving the Way for CALL Sustainability by Harmonizing Theory, Practice and Technology in the Creation of an EFL b-Learning Environment for Chilean Learners  Emerita Bañados 155

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Contents

10 Building and Sustaining Online Communities of Practice Through Language Economy  Jonathan White 176 11 A Student Self-Evaluation System: Sustaining Outside-of-Class CALL Activities in a University Efl Blended Learning Course  Yasushige Ishikawa, Reiko Akahane-Yamada, Misato Kitamura, Craig Smith, Yasushi Tsubota and Masatake Dantsuji 190 Part 4  Mobile-Assisted Language Learning 12 An Evidence-Based Study of Hong Kong University Students’ Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) Experience  Qing Ma 211 13 Students’ Perspectives on the Affordances and Constraints of Using Mobile Devices and Applications for Learning Languages  Caroline Steel 230 14 Mobile App Design for Individual and Sustainable MALL: Implications from an Empirical Analysis  Heyoung Kim 244 15 Improving Learners’ Reading Skills Through Instant Short Messages: A Sample Study Using WhatsApp  Mar Gutiérrez-Colón Plana, Ana Gimeno, Christine Appel and Joseph Hopkins 266 Part 5  Innovation in CALL 16 Eyetracking in CALL – Present and Future  Breffni O’Rourke, Claire Prendergast, Lijing Shi, Bryan Smith and Ursula Stickler 285 17 Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity on Academic L2 Writing  Erifili Roubou 299 18 How to Tell Digital Stories with Handcrafted Video Clips: A (Multi-)Literacies Approach to Foreign Language Teaching  Eva Wilden and Frauke Matz 314 Conclusion  Françoise Blin, David Barr, Ana Gimeno and Mike Levy 327 Index

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Foreword WorldCALL is the worldwide professional association for teachers and educators interested in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). WorldCALL aims to enhance computer-assisted language teaching and learning in the global community by bringing educators from around the world together. As an international organization, it (a) provides a worldwide focus for the promulgation of innovative research, development and practice in the areas of CALL in education and training; (b) enhances the opportunities for knowledge and skills transfer to those nations currently underserved in the areas of CALL; and (c) serves as a forum for exchanging information and forging professional relationships among educators, researchers and industry leaders across the world. As the worldwide organization that is concerned with CALL in all of its manifestations, that is, technology-enhanced language learning, network-based language learning, and information and communications technologies for language learning, WorldCALL is ideally placed to highlight the benefits of emerging technologies. It plays a leading role in promoting a genuinely global perspective and providing a forum for discussing the application of state-of-the-art technologies for language learning, developing the virtual classroom, supplying professional training and development for teachers and, significantly, giving developing countries, through sponsorship, the opportunity to project their culture worldwide and to become involved in the application of new technologies in language learning. One of WorldCALL’s concerns has always been ‘equity and access’, for which reason it established a scholarships programme to enable postgraduate students and junior academics to attend its conferences. The scholarships programme, first introduced in 1998, is a positive way in which WorldCALL brings the experiences of language professionals to colleagues working in developing nations. The exchange of ideas and experiences also promotes the development of international, informal human networks that bridge the gap between technologically advanced countries and those underserved in the areas of technology and CALL. To date, WorldCALL has organized four major international conferences. The first conference was held in 1998 and was hosted by the University of Melbourne, Australia; the second was held in 2003 in Banff, Canada; the third took place in 2008 in Fukuoka, Japan; and the fourth was organized by David Barr – one of the editors of this book – of Ulster University (Northern Ireland) and held at the Scottish Exhibition Centre in Glasgow, Scotland (UK) in July 2013. The theme of the 2013 conference, ‘Sustainability and Computer-Assisted Language Learning’, was chosen to reflect the focus on the future direction and development of CALL. The conference was attended by over 300 delegates from forty-two countries, and a packed three-day programme

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Foreword

saw seven symposia, approximately 200 academic papers and over forty courseware demonstrations and posters. As a result of sponsorship from Ulster University, scholarship bursaries were provided for thirteen language lecturers from thirteen countries to attend the conference. The funding allowed these delegates from regions of the world where CALL has been traditionally underserved, to meet with some of the world’s leading academics in the area and to learn about effective pedagogical practices for teaching languages. The successful scholarship recipients were Rita Zeinstejer (Argentina); Olga Solovyova (Belarus); Carla Arena (Brasil); Mauricio Enrique Arango Velez (Columbia); Hanaa Khamis Abdel Rahman (Egypt); Kalyan Chattopadhyay (India); Hardi Prasetyo (Indonesia); Fatemeh Hedayati (Iran); Nadezhda Kabanova (Russia); Fabrice Karenzi (Rwanda); Shriyananda Rathnayake Danapala Pathirannehalage (Sri Lanka); Isil Boy (Turkey) and Miguel Mendoza Bustamante (Venezuela). Special thanks are due to Tom Robb for his tireless support to the WorldCALL scholarship programme and for his continuous dedication to the scholarship recipients during the conference. Warm thanks are also due to Françoise Blin and Ana Gimeno for co-chairing the conference Programme Committee and who, together with forty CALL specialists who participated in the reviewing process, ensured the high-quality standards of the academic programme. Lastly, special thanks are due too to the chair of the WorldCALL Steering Committee, Mike Levy, who has pioneered the work of the WorldCALL organization and has ensured that these conferences continue to disseminate and extend the work of CALL around the world and, in particular, in countries where CALL has not been traditionally used in language learning and teaching. The work of the WorldCALL conferences is, in itself, an important example of how to ensure the sustainability of Computer-Assisted Language Learning. Ana Gimeno and David Barr

Introduction Mike Levy, Ana Gimeno, David Barr and Françoise Blin

In introducing the concept of sustainability, it is helpful to begin with a definition. Drawing from the broader domain of eLearning innovations, Cathy Gunn defines sustainability as an e-learning ‘product’ or ‘system’ that has ●● ●●

●●

●●

been developed and implemented by one or more higher education institutions; passed a proof of concept stage and has been judged, on the basis of evidence, as beneficial to teaching and learning; produced evidence of potential to be adopted, and possibly adapted, or used beyond the original development environment; a support model where maintenance, use and further development are not dependent on one or a few individuals who created it, to the extent that, if the involvement ceased, future prospects would be compromised. (Gunn and Herrick 2012, p. 3; see also Gunn 2010, p. 90)

While the definition is broad, and is not in any way discipline-specific, as with Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), it is still useful. For our purposes, it gives us these four perspectives to consider. We now discuss each of them in turn and in relation to language learning and technology. Such a discussion involves consideration of the particular attributes of CALL, including its goals and methods, as well as acknowledging its own history and present practices. In this way, we hope to set the scene for a more considered view of the different facets of the idea of sustainability as they may apply to CALL. Chapters in this volume will be referenced as we proceed. First, consider the products and systems developed and implemented by a number of institutions. Sustained attention given to a product or system across institutional boundaries over a period of time provides a momentum, and, typically, attracts human resources and funds for ongoing development and maintenance. By extension, though to a lesser degree, the same may be said of other technology-mediated tools and applications. Thus, like them or not, the well-known Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) and Learning Management Systems (LMSs) such as Moodle and BlackBoard are significant developments, even given their considerable limitations as a platform for language learning. If products or systems are widely used across institutions and contexts, there is a greater likelihood that any shortcomings will be overcome, strategies and techniques for use will be shared, and ongoing development and maintenance will be properly resourced, in both human and financial terms. Importantly also, users – both teachers and students – will know where they stand. They will feel reassured that time spent learning the system or developing resources for it will not be wasted.

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Development and implementation across institutions also reinforce the fundamental importance that wide availability and collaboration have as essential prerequisites for sustainability. Thus, if we broaden the field of view, we see that it is important not only to recognize continuities within our institutions, but also to recognize developments in the wider world where commonalities among developers and users exist. This perspective brings to the fore commercially produced devices and applications, or apps, when they are utilized for the purposes of learning. This is one of the reasons that mobile learning is receiving the level of attention it has attracted in recent years, both in education and in CALL more specifically, because it is available to a wide cross-section of the community. Similarly, language learning apps that show potential deserve our considered attention. In this volume, a number of authors connect with the question of wider application and availability, though with differing angles of attack. For example, Haines (Chapter 1) looks at the selection of CALL tools over time and related concerns for ongoing teacher development. Ward (Chapter 8) considers the increasingly important developments around Open Educational Resources (OER) that are designed to greatly broaden levels of participation, access and availability to learning materials. She also emphasizes the value of well-designed modular software and resources that are usable and reusable, as well as institutional support and training. Bañados (Chapter 9) describes UdeC English Online, which has been specifically designed for English learners in Chile; this large-scale project involves many cross-institutional partnerships across the country. Roubou (Chapter 18) looks at the wider availability of text analysis software to examine the effects of task complexity. As noted above, mobile devices are also increasingly deserving of our attention. They are widely available, and increasingly tools and apps are being designed specifically for language learning. In this regard, Qing (Chapter 13) and Kim (Chapter 15) consider the pedagogical goals and design of mobile language learning tools, the former with students in Hong Kong, the latter in Korea. Steel (Chapter 14) also adds to our understanding of mobile use through a large-scale survey of students in Australia and we begin to see the relative frequency of use and perceived value of different kinds of language learning apps. Both Steel and Kim emphasize the need for design flexibility, especially such that students can configure their applications to match their own personal goals and purposes, often across multiple devices. Both agree that if learners are able to input their own preferences, their motivation will be greatly enhanced over the longer term. Second, it is essential that we evaluate systematically the tools and resources we plan to use with our students. We need to guard against adopting devices, apps or other resources simply because they are new or part of the latest trend. As Gunn and Herrick 2012 rightly point out, we need to make our decisions on the basis of evidence, and this goal, in turn, points towards the need for well-constructed evaluation studies and research. We need to be able to articulate the specific benefits of a course of action. A number of the chapters in this volume help serve this purpose. Specifically, Chwo (Chapter 10) and Gutiérrez-Colón Plana, Gimeno, Appel and Hopkins (Chapter 16) formally evaluate two well-known apps. The former assesses the value and sustainability of using the Livemocha website with university language learners in Taiwan; the latter focuses on a project, also with university students, but this time in Spain, and evaluates the strengths and limitations of the instant messaging

Introduction

3

system WhatsApp for improving the reading skills of EFL students. Importantly, Chwo’s study was conducted over two years, thus reducing the novelty effects so often associated with technological innovations and contributing greatly to our understanding of what it means to have a sustainable initiative in CALL. It is also through research studies that we come to understand the benefits and limitations of CALL in its various forms, and a number of contributions in this volume address this need. At the level of learner interactions, increasingly, different kinds of tracking software are utilized. For example, Hamel, Blin, Caws, Heift, Schulze and Smith (Chapter 7) record learner data using tracking software to help improve the quality of learner interactions. Ishikawa, Akahane-Yamada, Kitamura, Smith, Tsubota and Dantsuji (Chapter 12) report on a study of e-mentoring in an online learning management system, which was designed to develop student capacity for selfregulated learning (SRL). O’Rourke, Shi, Smith, Stickler and Prendergast (Chapter 17) emphasize the importance of researching the details of learner interactions with the computer and thereby knowing what works for the student within a learning program or application. With this goal in mind, they use eye tracking software to gather data and, thereby, evidence for learner behaviour moment by moment as they work on a task. As these examples show, many such research studies are conducted by international research teams that reach beyond individual institutions and national borders. Such collaborative endeavours serve to strengthen the ongoing sustainability of CALL. The theme of collaboration relates very much to the third point in Gunn and Herrick’s list of defining elements for sustainability, which is described above. Contributors to any project representing different contexts, settings, teaching traditions and even cultures help to flatten out minor differences and strengthen the broader application of the idea or innovation. Thus the likelihood of adoption or adaption across contexts is increased. This idea is very important for sustainability in CALL. So often a CALL study is conducted and then reported without sufficient recognition or consideration of how the innovation might work in other similar settings. So, while the idea may work very well in the original development environment, the innovation never moves beyond it. It is here that the CALL journals play an important role, and, of course, conferences such as WorldCALL also contribute greatly. Through the exchange of ideas, networking and collaboration, the whole field is strengthened and sustained over time. A number of the chapters in this volume relate to the theme of adoption and adaptation across contexts through sharable designs, pedagogical methods and curriculum integration. Different models, frameworks and guidelines, even paradigms (see Ward in this volume), can assist transferability. Deeper integration into the course may also help. Along these lines, Martins and Moreira (Chapter 6) assess the factors that determine effective CALL integration in Brazil, and their results are readily accessible to others. Another way in which ideas may be propelled into new settings and the audience enlarged is through teacher development and training. Here, with the longer term in mind, Moreira dos Anjos-Santos and Lopes Cristovão (Chapter 2) introduce and explore the language teachers’ experience with a view to the sustainable integration of digital technology in their professional lives. Morales and Windeatt (Chapter 5) describe the value a training course in online learning will add to the professional needs of language teachers. Through reflective thinking and collaboration

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techniques, participants will be able to transfer and reuse concepts, tools and materials introduced in the course. Innovative methods, if well described, are also potentially generative. A good example is given by Wilden and Matz (Chapter 19) who describe the making of handcrafted video clips; they present the case for a digital storytelling method as a sustainable teaching approach. Such methods or approaches are potentially transportable across contexts. Finally, the fourth point in the definition by Gunn and Herrick (2012) highlights the importance of a ‘support model’ that is sufficiently robust and independent to be able to stand the impacts and consequences of change, especially the loss of key individuals who may have been central in the creation of the model in the first place. A support model of this kind is necessarily multifaceted. A number of elements need to operate or work successfully together over time. In human terms, collaboration is key. In many ways this last point serves to bring all the others together. A support model in all its aspects is central to sustainability in CALL. So often the success or failure of a particular technological innovation, be it method, tool or app, revolves around the energy and commitment of one highly committed individual. When this individual leaves the institution, the initiative falls by the wayside. To counter such outcomes, a support model is critical. And for the support model to operate successfully over time, collaboration is key. In the current volume, three chapters specifically deal with collaboration in practice. Chapter 3 by Kleban and Bueno-Alastuey, which aims at prospective language teachers, examines telecollaboration as a mechanism for sharing skills and expertise beyond a classroom in a single institution. They also look at collaborative preparation of language materials. With a similar audience of teachers Priego (Chapter 4) discusses the use of Wikis and VoiceThreads in ESL teacher education programmes. White’s chapter (Chapter 11), which is also written with a collaborative theme, describes the processes of building and sustaining online communities of practice. The broad definition of sustainability for e-Learning innovations used in this short introduction is merely a beginning. Whatever its exact definition may be, what we do know is that sustainability is important. In education, as in numerous other areas of life, human and material resources are limited. We need to continue to work towards a sustainable future. The contributions in this book, drawn from countries around the globe, offer multiple perspectives on our theme together with varied and creative pathways towards realizing this goal.

References Gunn, C. (2010). ‘Sustainability Factors for eLearning Initiatives’. ALT-J (Research in Learning Technology) 18 (2): 89–103. Gunn, C. and Herrick, R. (2012). Sustaining eLearning Innovations: A Research Study Report. Auckland: The University of Auckland Centre for Academic Development and The Australasian Council for Open, Distance and eLearning (ACODE), available at http://www.acode.edu.au/pluginfile.php/160/mod_resource/content/1/Sustaining_ eLearning_Innovations_Report.pdf

Part One

Teacher Education and CALL

1

Learning for the Long Haul: Developing Perceptions of Learning Affordances in CALL Teachers Karen Haines

1 Introduction 1.1  Nature and scope of investigation In-service teachers need to identify the affordances that a new tool offers for language learning in order to make decisions about which technologies they will choose to support their teaching practice (Chapelle 2006; Chapelle and Jamieson 2008). The term affordance was originally coined by the perceptual psychologist Gibson (1979) to denote action possibilities that exist between a tool in the environment and an organism that perceives the tool in relation to its own capabilities. Over the last thirty years, the concept of affordance has become prevalent in educational technology, particularly in relation to individual tools. In spite of discussions as to the appropriacy of the concept of affordance in educational technology (Boyle and Cook 2004; Conole and Dyke 2004a, b; Oliver 2005), affordance, as a means of describing how we see potential and interact with our environment, has survived and generally been enriched by its adoption across fields. In this study, the term affordance is defined as the potential that teachers perceive in a particular technology tool that will support learning and teaching activities in their educational contexts. The attributes of the tool and the characteristics of the teacher contribute to these perceived affordances.

characteristics of person

perceived a ordance

Teacher characteristics of person

attributes of tool Technology tool

Actions To support teaching and learning

Figure 1.1  Extended definition of affordance.

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1.2  Investigation of affordances in CALL In the field of CALL, studies of affordance frequently focus on how students themselves perceive affordances in specific tools such as multi-player games (Rama et al. 2012), speech recognition (Liaw 2014) or asynchronous voice recording (McNeil 2014). However, fewer studies investigate teachers’ perceptions of technological affordances, although theoretical models identify the importance of acknowledging the possibilities for pedagogy inherent in technology (Guichon and Hauck 2011; Hampel and Stickler 2005; Hubbard and Levy 2006). Being able to perceive affordance in tools is integral to developing the ‘technopedagogical competence’ that Guichon and Hauck (2011, p. 191) advocate, but such perceptions develop over time and are specific to individual teachers and their situated contexts (Hampel and Stickler 2012). Tochon and Black (2007, p. 317) analysed the e-portfolios of preschool teachers and found that they clearly tended to ‘subordinate technology use to pedagogy’, identifying affordances that served educational purposes. While general typologies of affordance have been identified for technology use in learning (e.g. Conole and Dyke 2004b), the kinds of affordance that language teachers perceive in technology have not been specified. This study sought to identify the specific types of affordance that in-service language teachers perceive in new CMC tools over time. The research questions that provided a focus for the study described in this chapter therefore were as follows: ●●

●●

What affordances do teachers see in their use of CMC tools for teaching and learning? Do teachers see similar affordances across different CMC tools?

In the face of the rapid development of technology, teachers can be overwhelmed by the need to be continually be aware of the potential that new tools or environments might allow for interaction that could support better learning and teaching. Adopting every new tool that emerges is clearly unsustainable practice for teachers and their students. To develop an awareness of the kinds of affordances that other teachers see in technology, and not to be afraid to recycle principles of language learning and teaching in relation to new tools are crucial aspects of sustainable teacher development.

2 Method 2.1 Participants This research was based on interviews conducted with sixteen tertiary language teachers in five different institutions in Australia and New Zealand. Four participants taught English in pre-university courses, while the remainder were foreign language teachers working in universities, teaching mainly European languages, with one teacher of Chinese. Snowball sampling was used for selection, and recommendations came from heads of department, with the only parameter being that teachers were recent users of technology in their teaching. Only two participants were male, and all except one teacher were over forty years old. All teachers had more than fifteen

Learning for the Long Haul

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Table 1.1  Tools employed by different teachers in the study Modes

Synchronous

Asynchronous Discussion forum (Bbd) x 7 Blogs x 4 Wikis x 2 Text messaging (SMS) x 1

Text

Text and audio

Wimba x 1

Wimba x 4 VoiceThread x 1 Podcasting x 1

Text, audio and video (and VLE)

Video-conferencing Skype x 1 Virtual world (Second Life) x 1

Social networking system (Ning) x 1 Learning Management Systems Blackboard x 7 Web CT x 1 Moodle x 3

years of language teaching experience, and eleven of the sixteen participants had used technology as part of their teaching for more than five years. Teachers in the study used a variety of different CMC tools as illustrated in Table 1.1. The modes employed for communication included text, audio and video. Only three teachers made use of synchronous communication tools and none of the teachers used ‘chat’ with their students, which would have been a synchronous text tool. Thirteen of the participants alluded to their broader use of institutional learning management systems (in italics in Table 1.1). Clearly, the broad affordance of CMC tools is for allowing communication, but this study identified the kinds of detailed affordances that teachers saw in the tools they were using for supporting their teaching and learning.

2.2  Data collection and analysis Each teacher was interviewed on two or three occasions over a fourteen-month period based on availability. Interviews were semi-structured and approximately an hour in length. Teachers were asked to identify a new CMC tool used recently and then to discuss the knowledge they had acquired through using it. Most had been using their ‘new’ tool for one to two years. While teachers focused discussion on a single tool, they made reference to the other tools that they used. Through inductive analysis of data collected in the first interview, affordance charts were created for each participant in relation to a single tool and respondent feedback sought on these in successive interviews. In addition, new affordances that the teachers had perceived in the tool over time were discussed. Two participants were chosen to demonstrate the differences as well as the similarities evident in the way that they developed their perceptions of the same tool. Sue and Lizette, not their real names, were both over forty years old, and worked in different institutions, using blogs in their courses. In addition to the interview data, Sue volunteered access to her personal reflective journal, which contributed to a richer perspective of her understanding of affordances.

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3 Discussion A first step to the sixteen participants’ learning about a particular tool was to acquire a general understanding of what the tool did and how it could be used for language learning. As Sue commented, ‘You have to find out what it can do first, and then you can decide if it’s useful in teaching or not. … If you don’t know how it works, you can’t really know how it’s useful or not in teaching.’ We can get a sense of how different teachers perceive tools from Sue and Lizette’s experiences with blogs as described briefly in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. Three broad themes that came from the overall findings are then discussed in Sections 3.3–3.5, with reference to Sue and Lizette’s data to illustrate the themes.

3.1  Sue’s perceptions of affordances in blogs Sue had been using blogs with her upper intermediate English students for four years in a course that was repeated each semester. The course focused on written skills, and the general affordances that Sue saw in the blog were related to writing, reading and vocabulary (see Appendix A). The initial attraction of blogs for Sue was the chance to have a website that she could use to communicate with her students, and soon after, she began to see opportunities for learning and teaching if students created their own blogs. Having their own blogs meant that students were producing language for a real audience. Reading each other’s blogs gave them purpose for using language, while Sue identified that writing on their blogs gave some of the shyer students an outlet to express their opinions, which they were less likely to do by speaking aloud in class. Sue also enjoyed being able to embed in the blog images and video files relating to pop culture referred to in the textbook. Sue’s actualization of these affordances centred largely on the noticing that she encouraged her students to do, and on the possibilities that blogs offered for giving feedback on students’ writing. She recognized the affordance of the class blog for her to communicate with students, but appeared to have less interest in students being able to communicate with each other. Time was identified as a constraint in terms of her own ability to respond to the actual content of students’ writing individually online. She was beginning to explore several different screen-casting tools that meant she could give in-depth feedback on the quality of students’ writing. She also found that the class blog was a great medium for her to discuss the processes of writing and model them for students. She used ‘good’ examples of writing from students’ individual blogs as illustrations of structure and language, as well as for demonstrating her own writing process. Colour was used to identify specific features of her writing such as topic sentences or specific verb forms. She observed a shift having occurred over time in her use of blogs – to being less focused on helping her students learn about the technology itself, and more on exploiting it pedagogically. ‘I think the learning has changed more to ... how we can use what the students are producing, to focus on their needs.’

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The few affordances that Sue added as new in the second interview included the potential for students to use blogs collaboratively to create text, and also the possibilities that a blog might offer for her own writing. The fact that these perceptions had only begun to emerge after four years of using blogs with multiple cohorts of students highlights the time it takes for teachers to see and begin to actualize the breadth of affordances of a new tool that works in their contexts. The chance to continue to reuse a single tool over time with different groups of students is crucial to sustainable teacher development and gives teachers the opportunity to recognize further affordances, particularly those that are very specific to individuals’ teaching priorities and needs. Sue’s particular preoccupation with writing as a skill and process, rather than for interactive, and possibly more meaning-oriented, purposes was a clear influence on the affordances that she saw in the tool for her immediate use. Students were encouraged to read each other’s blogs, but the affordance that Sue mentioned in regard to this was that reading their peers’ blogs made students more aware of their own errors, which led to self-correction of their personal postings. While she recognized the generalizable learning affordance of blogs for providing an audience and getting feedback from others (see Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2  Affordances of blogs from entry in Sue’s reflective journal.

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for an extract from her reflective journal), this particular communicative aspect did not appear to play a major part in how she used blogs. Sue realized that there was potential for creating community through the ‘blogroll’ (links to other blogs in the sidebar), but reflected that she had not had ‘the courage to teach them how to do this yet’ (Figure 1.2). She did suggest that blogs offered much potential support for learning a language, but stated that she lacked the time and energy to come up with creative tasks that would allow her to exploit all affordances. For teacher development to be sustainable, teachers need space and time to actualize affordances. Sue did not have the resources to make the most of the potential that she could see for her class use of blogs.

3.2  Lizette’s perceptions of affordances in blogs Lizette was excited when she first came across blogs, because she could see real potential in them for her students to receive more French language input, as well as for giving her and her students a window into current cultural perceptions and attitudes of the foreign country. Students could have ‘a more lively image of France, also from a visual point of view’. A technical expert in the university helped Lizette and her colleague to create a blog that had the functional features that they had noticed by browsing blogs online and would support what they wanted to do in the classroom. The blog became a key feature of a new course they were developing. Initially, the affordances that Lizette perceived in the blog were centred on communication. Like Sue, Lizette started with a class blog. One of the initial uses was for an existing presentation assessment, where students prepared a PowerPoint slideshow to use in their delivery. PowerPoint slides were uploaded to the blog before students gave their individual presentations, and were viewed and discussed, before, as well as after students had given their individual presentations. The animated class discussions that ensued in the comments section of the blog encouraged Lizette to start another blog in a writing course, where students could get feedback from their peers on their autobiographies. She noticed that students’ writing on the blog served as a source of language for other students, giving confidence to students who were initially nervous about the writing task. She suggested that the blog seemed capable of supporting different learning activities. ‘It was interesting that there were two different courses, that focussed on two different abilities, and the blog proved to be a very adaptable tool.’ In other words, there were affordances of the blog for supporting students’ skill development in different ways, according to the needs of different courses or even students’ specific needs. In the first interview, Lizette mainly talked about the affordances that she perceived in blogs and how she had actualized these in several courses that she taught. In two following interviews, she discussed her use of both blogs and Wikis, the latter being a new tool for her that had been recommended by her institutional learning technologies advisor as possibly more suited for a grant-driven project she was about to launch than the blog. Her successful use of blogs guided her exploration of the affordances of Wiki.

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3.3  Teachers perceive different affordances The affordances or action possibilities that the teachers in this study recognized in their individual tools were very idiosyncratic, relating to the attributes of their particular tool, but also to their own personal characteristics and to their varying intentions for use. Sue and Lizette’s experiences with blogs illustrate this effectively. While they both appreciated the general affordance that blogs offer for having an online presence and for communicating in the L2, the individual descriptions of their use of blogs above highlights the different affordances they perceived. Table 1.2 captures some of the differences in the blog affordances that they perceived and actualized in their classrooms. While Sue’s focus on writing as a skill meant she had a somewhat narrow perception of the affordances for learning that the tool offered, Lizette’s perspective was broader. As well as supporting the production of text, she placed emphasis on writing as a medium for interaction. Perceptions of affordance are influenced by individual teachers’ intentions and purposes, which in themselves are frequently a response to their different contexts. Over time, it was evident that Sue and Lizette perceived affordances that related to their individual contexts and to specific needs that they identified in their students’ language development, as well as to their own teaching priorities. Sue had a language output view, which was possibly in response to the course assessments, but which seemed to limit her actualization of the affordances of the blog to developing her students’ writing skills. Lizette, however, took a more sociocultural approach to using blogs, with the affordances that she perceived including language for input, but with her students also writing for communication, as well as learning about culture and through social interaction. Context was also important in understanding the differences between Lizette’s and Sue’s learning about affordances. Sue taught fewer different courses than Lizette did, and repeated each semester the single course in which she used blogs, which may well have contributed to her not investigating different kinds of learning affordance, Table 1.2  Comparing affordances that Sue and Lizette saw in blogs Sue

Lizette

Language focus

Writing – focus on process of writing

Writing – focus on audience

Culture

Local culture could be brought into the class blog, for example, with the use of video files

Students could explore foreign culture through giving appropriate links – sending them out to read for themselves

Interaction

Students could write collaboratively

Students could read and comment on each other’s work

Affective factors

Students could include own photos and videos

Interaction between students and teachers through the blog contributed to course cohesion

Reflection

Students were encouraged to reflect on their own and others’ use of language in the blogs

Students could use excerpts from their blog writing to reflect on language development over the semester

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but instead exploring in depth its affordance for the writing process. Lizette, on the other hand, taught a variety of French courses, some of which only occurred every second year, so she made the most of each new course she taught and the different opportunities it offered for exploring affordance. The teachers’ individual contexts, therefore, contributed to the way they perceived learning affordances. Both teachers explored other tools that might work in tandem with blogs or have better affordances than the blog. As Sue focused on the writing process, she began to make use of other technology tools that she felt would support both her teaching and her students’ writing, such as screen-casts, aggregators and widgets that could be added to the blog. Lizette, in contrast, began to use Wikis rather than blogs, exploring the somewhat different affordances they offered for supporting her students’ learning.

3.4  Perceived affordances become more specific over time Perception of affordance develops over time and with use in learning contexts. With six to nine months between interviews, all the teachers in this study continued to mention other affordances that they had noticed through the use of their CMC tools in class with their students. Lizette, for instance, found that the breadth of affordances she perceived through the use of blogs with students developed as she used blogs in different courses. She identified this sense of ongoing learning when she commented on the affordances that she initially saw in the blog, which were the opportunities out of class time to ‘increase the input of language and increase communication among members of the class … so these were our two aims, but then once we started, other things came up’. One example was how she began to perceive the value of the ‘blogroll’ (or sidebar with links) for teaching and learning. Previously, she had carefully screened websites she felt were particularly useful for students and included them in the course bibliography. The live links in the sidebar made it easier and more likely that students would actually go to the websites suggested. Sue identified new affordances over time but suggested that time and energy were necessary to actually be able to implement them in her specific classroom context. For busy teachers, time and energy are a limited resource. In order to sustain teacher development over time, there needs to be an institutional awareness that one-off workshops are not sufficient for technology implementation. Support involves ensuring time allocation for the ongoing development of materials and tasks, as teachers become more aware of possibilities for implementation. Learning how others actualize affordances in similar contexts also informs teacher development. Another finding of this study was that teachers initially were aware of generalizable affordances, which could be used across a range of educational contexts. Over time and through classroom implementation, teachers described learning affordances that were very specific to their use with particular students in a particular time and place. The affordance charts developed for each teacher mapped the process of their learning over time. Sue’s Perceived Affordance Chart (Appendix A) illustrates the developing of her understandings of the possibilities for learning action that blogs afforded for her and for her students over a number of semesters. While the movement from

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left to right across the chart was not completely linear, the headings of the columns demonstrate the way in which teachers initially became aware of generalizable affordances, and then identified those affordances specific to language learning and, finally, developed an understanding of how the tools could be implemented to support the specific learning needs of students in particular contexts. In her second interview, for instance, Sue was excited about her recent move to get students to use different colours in their blog posts, as a way of getting them to focus on the structure of their writing – a very specific need of these students in her particular context. The affordance charts of teachers demonstrate how they were able to actualize affordances for their students’ learning in ways that suited the needs of these students in this place at this time. The finding that perception of affordance develops through implementing (or actualizing) the tool in particular contexts is hardly surprising. However, the variety of affordances that participants in this study perceived in CMC tools were much more specific than simply the broad affordance of communication. The potential for learning and teaching actions increased as teachers actualized the affordances they had initially perceived and began to notice further potential in the tool. Often, this kind of knowledge developed as a direct result of students’ independent use of the tool for a particular purpose. In Lizette’s implementation of Wikis, she posted photos to the Wiki for illustrative purposes, without intending students to do the same. However, when students did add their own photos to the Wiki, she was quick to identify the potential that images offered for enriching students’ own texts. Initially, teachers appeared to identify learning affordances that were quite general, but over time affordances were seen as much more specific to their classrooms, to particular cohorts or to aspects of curriculum that they prioritized.

3.5  Perceived learning affordances cluster around themes There were similarities in the kinds of affordances that were perceived in the CMC tools used by participants in the study. Constant comparison between the affordance tables of all sixteen participants in the study showed that the kinds of learning affordances that teachers perceived clustered around particular themes. This is evident in Table 1.2, for instance, where the contrasting affordances that Sue and Lizette identified were in relation to similar themes. Both teachers saw affordances that related to writing, to developing students’ awareness of the L2 culture and to other aspects such as affective factors and reflection. Five different kinds of learning affordance were identified as being common across teachers’ affordance tables (see Appendix B for more examples in each category from Sue and Lizette’s interviews). The first two related to the content being taught. Teachers saw affordances that would develop their students’ language, particularly their receptive and productive skills, as well as their vocabulary and grammar. However, there was also a strong emphasis on the potential of the tool to give students input about the L2 culture, a perception that perhaps was a reflection on the high proportion of foreign

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language teachers in the study. Three further kinds of affordance related to how the tools supported students’ processes of learning. Teachers identified affordances in new tools for communication opportunities. They also perceived affective potential in the tools they were using, for example, in the way that technology contributed to student motivation and engagement with learning generally. Finally, new tools allowed students to develop learner autonomy. The different aspects of learning affordances that were common across the group of participants are shown in Figure 1.3 and relate to learning (a) about language and (b) about culture, (c) through communication, (d) involving affective factors such as motivation and (e) being able to learn outside of actual class times. One of the key notions that came from comparing teachers’ affordance tables was the potential of the various tools to engage students. Crook, Harrison, FarringtonFlint, Tomas and Underwood (2010), in a report on secondary school technology integration, argue that understanding the impact of technology in classrooms could be better considered in terms of impact on learning practices rather than on learning outcomes. Light, Cox and Calkins (2009), similarly, characterize engagement as the way in which reflective professionals conceive of teaching as being learning-focused. The learning affordances that the teachers in this study perceived for their students’ language learning were commensurate with their espoused beliefs in relation to student engagement. The notion of engagement, therefore, present in participant conversations, but also prevalent in discussions about teacher learning (e.g. Fisher, Higgins and Loveless 2006), was used to unify the different headings in Row 3 of Figure 1.1. An insight into teacher learning about technology suggested by this study is that these teachers placed importance on technology as allowing students to engage not just with the more traditional ‘content’ of language learning (language skills and learning about L2 culture) but also with aspects of the ‘process’ of language learning. The content and process labels were used more than thirty years ago to frame communicative materials development (Breen, Candlin and Waters 1979).

Perceived learning affordances

Content being taught

students engaged with language

students engaged with culture

Processes of student learning

students engaged through communication

students engaged with learning

Figure 1.3  Teacher-perceived affordances for students’ learning.

students engaged out of class time

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More recently, Levy and Stockwell (2006, p. 238) suggested the value of these two terms for describing the different potential of CALL materials, and hence, identifying affordances as having a content or process focus seems appropriate. CMC tools clearly lend themselves to opportunities for communicating with others in the target language, but teachers felt that students were also engaged with learning from an affective perspective, and that technology afforded the chance for students’ continued involvement with language out of class time. Affordances that promote students’ involvement with the processes of learning can support teachers’ intentions to encourage student autonomy. The study also demonstrated that teachers actualized multiple affordances in their classroom practice with technology, including content and process aspects of learning. Perceived affordances depended on the characteristics of individual teachers as well as the attributes of the tool. Results suggested that different teachers would perceive and actualize different affordances, even if they were working in the same context. Similarly, different tools of the same genre, such as Web 2.0 tools, had different affordances according to their attributes. In cases where teachers had little or no formal training in the use of a particular tool, it took time, and active exploration on the part of the teacher, to perceive a variety of affordances. As a finding, the suggestion that affordances as perceived by teachers cluster round particular themes aligns with the literature that identifies various taxonomies of affordance (Bower 2008; Conole and Dyke 2004b; Kirschner 2002; Song and Fox 2008; Steel 2009). Steel’s (2009) study, for instance, identified that tertiary teachers recognized social justice and administrative affordances in their Learning Management Systems as well as pedagogical affordances. While affordances in relation to content may relate to specific disciplines, affordances in relation to learning processes may well be generalizable across tertiary classrooms.

4 Conclusions The teachers in this study identified affordances in relation to the learning that technology afforded their students and themselves, hence the term ‘learning affordances’. The affordances or action possibilities that the teachers recognized in their individual tools were very idiosyncratic, relating to the attributes of their particular tool, but also to their own personal characteristics and to their varying intentions for use. The value of technology is not inherent in the tool itself or its attributes, or even the tool in a specific context, but in how individual teachers perceive its value and implement this with regard to their individual contexts. Hampel and Stickler’s (2012) study of language learning in a virtual conferencing environment similarly identified that both students and teachers, through the use of tools over time, adapted functionalities to their purposes and to the context. There were, clearly, similarities in the kinds of affordances that were perceived in the CMC tools used by participants in the study. As experienced teachers, participants in this study perceived affordances for students to engage with specific language skills as

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well as with the culture of the target language. While identifying affordances in relation to such ‘content’ areas was somewhat predictable, teachers also identified that CMC tools could be used to support ‘process’ aspects of learning. CMC tools are used for learners to engage in communication with others in the target language, but teachers felt that students were also engaged with learning from an affective perspective. Also, teachers suggested that the use of technology afforded students’ continued involvement with language out of class time. Such perceived learning affordances relate to the ‘process’ of student engagement through communication, with learning and in autonomy. The fact that teachers using a new tool want to be convinced of the value that it offers for them and their students in their particular contexts is not in itself new (Hughes 2005; Lam 2000). However, the concept of learning affordances provides a fresh perspective for in-service teacher development. It acknowledges the importance for teachers of, first, perceiving what a new tool affords for learning and second, working to implement these actions possibilities. Effectively, in focusing on possible learning actions, a learning affordance perspective for teachers positions the tool in relation to pedagogical processes, and also to specific contexts. The results of this study show that rather than asking of a new technology, ‘How does it work?’ or even ‘What does it do?’ an affordance perspective for language teachers asks the question, ‘How can this technology help engage my learners around the content and process areas that are relevant to this particular context?’ For pre-service teachers, this is a ‘sustainable’ question. In other words, the question can be used and reused as teachers are faced with new technologies, in a way that will continue to integrate technology with language learners’ needs, no matter the context or new developments in tools and environments. One of the limitations of this research is that it relies excessively on interviews as a source of data. Also, the small group of experienced participants may have found it easier to identify affordances that engage students in learning than pre-service or beginning teachers. Further research could first confirm whether the typology of learning affordances for CMC tools identified in this study is applicable in wider contexts. There is also room for research that investigates whether students perceive similar affordances in tools to those identified by their teachers. Finally, it would be helpful to look more closely at the degree to which the affordances that teachers perceive are realized in their classroom practice and in students’ learning, and what some of the limiting factors might be. An affordance perspective has useful implications for sustaining the professional development of in-service teachers. All teachers have limited amounts of time and energy at their disposal. A lack of these resources can limit teachers’ implementation of new tools and their affordances, as Sue’s experience testifies. Departments need to identify ways in which teacher development can be supported over time. Considering the action possibilities of a new tool can help teachers focus on a tool’s potential pedagogical value rather than merely concentrating on its technical features. Observing how other teachers implement learning affordances in the classroom in relation to engaging students with content or with culture, or with learning processes themselves, such as autonomy or communication, can help teachers in making decisions as to the

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value of a new tool for different teaching and learning contexts. Making such affordances explicit for the initial use of tools and supporting teachers’ reflective processes as they discover affordances that relate to their individual contexts, curriculum and the needs they identify in relation to their students’ learning are positive ways of sustaining teachers’ ongoing development over time. The five types of affordance highlighted by the participants in this study would be a useful starting point for pre-service teachers developing an appreciation of the value of technology for supporting language learning. Understanding the affordances that tools offer is a first step to being able to use and reuse them. New teachers need to recognize that CMC technologies can be used by teachers in ways that work for them in their particular contexts and with respect to their learners, allowing students to engage not just with the more traditional ‘content’ of language learning (language skills and learning about L2 culture) but also with aspects of the ‘process’ of language learning.

References Bower, M. (2008). ‘Affordance Analysis – Matching Learning Tasks with Learning Technologies’. Educational Media International 45 (1): 3–15. Boyle, T. and Cook, J. (2004). ‘Understanding and Using Technological Affordances: A Commentary on Conole and Dyke’. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology 12 (3): 296–9. Breen, M. P., Candlin, C. N. and Waters, A. (1979). ‘Communicative Materials Design: Some Basic Principles’. RELC Journal 10 (2): 1–13. Chapelle, C. A. (2006). ‘Foreword’. In P. Hubbard and M. Levy (eds), Teacher Education in CALL, vii–viii. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Chapelle, C. A. and Jamieson, J. (2008). Tips for Teaching with CALL. New York: Pearson Education Ltd. Conole, G. and Dyke, M. (2004a). ‘Understanding and Using Technological Affordances: A Response to Boyle and Cook’. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology 12 (3): 301–8. Conole, G. and Dyke, M. (2004b). ‘What are the Affordances of Information and Communication Technologies?’. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology 12 (2): 113–24. Crook, C., Harrison, C., Farrington-Flint, L., Tomas, C. and Underwood, J. (2010). The Impact of Technology: Value-Added Classroom Practice. Coventry: Becta. Fisher, T., Higgins, C. and Loveless, A. (2006). Teachers Learning with Digital Technologies: A Review of Research and Projects. http://www.futurelab.org.uk/ research/lit_reviews.htm. Gibson, J. J. (1979). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Guichon, N. and Hauck, M. (2011). ‘Teacher Education Research in CALL and CMC: More in Demand than Ever’. ReCALL 23 (3): 187–99. Hampel, R. and Stickler, U. (2005). ‘New Skills for New Classrooms: Training Tutors to Teach Languages Online’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 18 (4): 311–26. Hampel, R. and Stickler, U. (2012). ‘The Use of Videoconferencing to Support Multimodal Interaction in an Online Language Classroom’. ReCALL 24 (2): 116–37. doi: 10.1017/ S095834401200002X.

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Hubbard, P. and Levy, M. (2006). ‘The Scope of CALL Education’. In P. Hubbard and M. Levy (eds), Teacher Education in CALL, 3–20. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Hughes, J. (2005). ‘The Role of Teacher Knowledge and Learning Experiences in Forming Technology-Integrated Pedagogy’. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education 13 (2): 277–303. Kirschner, P. (2002). ‘Can We Support CSCL? Educational, Social and Technological Affordances for Learning’. In P. Kirschner (ed.), Three Worlds of CSCL: Can We Support CSCL?, 7–34. Inaugural address: Open University of the Netherlands. Lam, Y. (2000). ‘Technophilia vs Technophobia: A Preliminary Look at Why SecondLanguage Teachers Do or Do Not ...’. Canadian Modern Language Review 56 (3): 389–422. Liaw, M-L. (2014). ‘The Affordance of Speech Recognition Technology for EFL Learning in an Elementary School Setting’. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 8 (1): 79–93. Light, G., Cox, R. and Calkins, S. (2009). Learning and Teaching in Higher Education: The Reflective Professional (Second edn.). London: Sage Publications Ltd. McNeil, L. (2014). ‘Ecological Affordance and Anxiety in An Oral Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Environment’. Language Learning and Technology 18 (1): 142–59. Oliver, M. (2005). ‘The Problem with Affordance’. E-learning 2 (4): 402–13. doi: 10.2304/ elea.2005.2.4.402. Rama, P. S., Black, Rebecca W., van Es, Elizabeth and Warschauer, Mark (2012). ‘Affordances for Second Language Learning in World of Warcraft’. ReCALL 24 (3): 322–38. doi: 10.1017/S0958344012000171. Song, Y. and Fox, R. (2008). ‘Affordances of PDAs: Undergraduate Student Perceptions’. The Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology 4 (1): 19–38. Steel, C. (2009). The Interrelationship Between University Teachers’ Pedagogical Beliefs, Beliefs about Web Technologies and Web Practices. Faculty of humanities and social sciences. PhD thesis. Griffith University. Brisbane. Tochon, F. V. and Black, N. J. (2007). ‘Narrative Analysis of Electronic Portfolios: Preservice Teachers’ Struggles in Researching Pedagogically Appropriate Technology Integration’. In M. A. Kassen, R. Z. Lavine, K. Murphy-Judy and M. Peters (eds), Preparing and Developing Technology-Proficient L2 Teachers. Texas: CALICO.

What possibilities does the tool offer in terms of language learning?

Writing More opportunity to produce language Can edit own writing easily Can give students an audience other than the teacher for their writing Can get feedback from people other than the teacher Shy students are able to have a voice Can work collaboratively to produce text together

What does the tool allow you to do in general?

Blog Can have own website Opportunity for other people to comment on your blog Can embed video/audio files Can add widgets

Future intentions Encourage interactivity

Vocabulary Vocabulary widget – gives dictionary definition of any word in blog

Reading Can read other students’ blogs Have the opportunity to ‘notice’ other people’s writing/language

Learning

Technology tool (blogs)

Generalizable

(No italics = interview 1, Italics = interview 2)

Processes Became more aware of her own learning processes with technology, which has allowed her to identify possible problems that students might have and to pre-empt them Considering setting up her own blog to share what she has learnt, and also to help her collate things together – keen to have all her thoughts in one place Wondering about the possibilities of Twitter for language learning Constraint: Doesn’t have time to read all the Ss’ blogs Constraint: Thinks blogs offer a lot for language learning but needs time to think of creative tasks

Error correction Reading other students’ blog writing made students more aware of their own errors, and they self-corrected in their own blogs

Writing Encouraged students to ‘notice’ topic sentences in their own writing, using different colours to demonstrate understanding Ss colour verb forms – noticing exercise Using photos and audio and links in their writing

Communication with students Class blog was used as a central repository, for example for embedding screencasts giving feedback Having a record of text online (both written and audio) makes it easier for Ts to give feedback Modelling Teacher wrote her own posts and used colour to highlight her accurate use of language Teacher used students’ blogs to demonstrate examples of good use of language

What possibilities does the tool offer in terms of supporting my language learners?

Learners

What possibilities does the tool offer me in relation to my teaching?

Teacher

Specific to this teacher, this context

Appendix A  Sue: Affordance chart

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Lizette

Sue

Students are engaged with … L2 culture

Writing Ss can use L2 to communicate Can comment on each other’s work Can be read by others (audience) Can be read by others at distance

Can get input from authentic websites Learning not limited to classroom resources T can keep up to date with contemporary Italy T can screen sites and make them available to Ss

Ss can use their own Ss have more opportunity to photos and audio and produce language Ss can edit their own writing links in their writing Ss have opportunities to ‘notice’ other Ss’ writing Online record of writing made it easier for T to give feedback T used blog environment to give screencasts with feedback T modelled writing her own posts

L2 content

Can use L2 to communicate Can comment on each other’s work Can be read by others Opportunity for less Tcentred interaction T can get to know Ss better

Ss have an audience other than the teacher for their writing Ss can work collaboratively to produce text together

Communication

Out of class time

Can make the course more interesting for T

Can use excerpts from blog to support reflective practice

Can access blog in their own time

(Sue did not volunteer Ss can read each other’s blogs any affordances that related to this) Ss can get feedback from people other than the teacher Ss can use photos and audio and links in their writing T used Ss’ blogs to demonstrate examples of good use of language

Learning

Appendix B  Similarities between learning affordances perceived by Sue and Lizette in blogs

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Challenges and Opportunities for Developing Sustainable Digitally Based Language Pedagogies in English Teacher Education Programs Lucas Moreira dos Anjos-Santos and Vera Lúcia Lopes Cristovão

1 Introduction The ways in which teachers think about and conceptualize their use of digital technologies are fundamental to their decision as to whether or not to implement digitally based pedagogies in their professional practice (Russel et al. 2003; Snyder 2009; Monte Mór 2013). Teacher education programs should, therefore, create conditions for schoolteachers to experience and deal with digital practices critically and reflexively. These experiences would provide teachers with opportunities to conceive of more nuanced perspectives on the roles digital practices may have in language pedagogy. Teacher educators and schoolteachers would then develop more sustainable practices of digital technology integration in language education collaboratively. Challenged by such an issue, we produced, as part of a larger Brazilian governmentfunded initiative, a didactic sequence in which teachers had to engage with the consumption and production of podcasts during an eight-hour workshop. The choice of podcasts relied on the multimodal affordances it provided teachers with to use this digital practice in their professional and pedagogical lives. In this chapter, we discuss some of the roles digital technologies play in language teacher education. We analyse the didactic sequence we designed to teach English schoolteachers how to use and produce podcasts. Drawing on the analysis, we explore to what extent such experience provided teachers with a sustainable integration of digital technology in their professional lives. The remainder of the chapter is organized as follows: In the first section, we discuss some findings from the literature about the use of digital technologies in language teacher education. We then define and characterize what a podcast is and explain the theoretical framework underlying the didactic sequence in focus. In the third section, we describe the methodological design of this study and our analytical procedures

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to analyse the data. Finally, we present our data analysis and discuss implications for future digitally based teacher education initiatives.

2  Uses of digital technology in language teacher education A critical perspective towards digital technology use in teacher education can be generative for two main reasons. First, it creates conditions for teacher educators to develop more conceptualized ways of dealing with the paradoxes emerging from the uses (young) people make of digital technologies. Such conceptualizations may, in turn, foreground language pedagogies that are more aligned to the digital practices with which youth currently engages. Second, it also points to the challenges teacher educators face when developing formative practices on digitally based pedagogies aimed at in-service and pre-service teachers. These challenges relate to the constant fluidity and heterogeneity of contemporaneous digital literacy practices and their implications for the development of new epistemologies and values (Snyder 2002; Junqueira and Buzato 2013). The previous premises are also in alignment with the claim by Loveless (2011, p. 306) that ‘recognising the potentials and constraints of ICT as a tool which supports and shapes learning requires teachers to have a knowledge of the subject domain and competence in the appropriate use of the technologies’. If such a perspective is assumed, formative practices aimed at a teacher’s education need to go beyond the common courses/units that focus on just discussing the roles of digital technologies in language learning. For teacher educators to develop and implement formative practices with pre-service and in-service teachers, informed and critical conceptualizations and a constant reassessment of their own practice are also required. Loveless (2011, pp. 312–13) reflects upon what teachers know, do and believe when it comes to digital technologies, and points out that: Continuing professional development which fosters effective pedagogy and ICT within the education workforce needs to model such pedagogy in action. It needs to recognise the wider economic, social and cultural context which influences educational policy and the provision of ICT resources for learning and teaching; to reflect an informed and nuanced use of ICT as tools for learning and teaching; and acknowledge the interactive and situated nature of professional knowledge with ICT.

To approach digital technologies only from an instrumental perspective means to neglect the socio-cultural contexts from which they emerge and are taken up by individuals. As a counterbalance, the arguments presented by Loveless call attention to the need of developing situated and critical analysis and actions when it comes to implementing digitally based learning. On the basis of the concept of normalization (Bax 2003), which states that a technology is not fully integrated in teachers’ practice until its use becomes unnoticed, Sumi (2010) investigated the factors that prevented teachers from fully integrating digital technologies into their practices. The research findings pointed towards three factors as impeding teachers from using technologies: the technology factor, the environment factor and the institution factor. The technology factor was related to

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technical problems and the (un)suitability of some digital technologies for learning environments. The environment factor was mainly concerned with classroom size and the arrangement of computers in labs. Such an arrangement, in rows, usually compromises teacher–student and student–student interaction. Finally, the institution factor had to do with the lack of teacher support and training for the use of technology. On the basis of these findings, Sumi (2010) argued that most of the factors that prevent teachers from fully integrating technology might have to do with the instrumental uses of such tools. Teachers usually do not consider the ecologies of technology implementation in language classes and the macro, sociopolitical implications of their use. Likewise, Lankshear and Knobel (2011) discuss a formative teacher education experience in which learning through and with digital technologies takes place informed by social learning theories (Brown and Adler 2008; Gee 2007). Such a perspective assumes that learning takes place in situated activities and that engaging in learning is a matter of interacting with knowledge in social situations. As Lankshear and Knobel (2011, p. 218) explain, based on Brown and Adler (2008), ‘From a social learning perspective, the focus is more on how we learn than simply on what we learn’. Adopting a social view of learning, Lankshear and Knobel (2011) discuss the implementation of a formative course for master students (all of whom are teachers). Students have to produce collaboratively a digital artefact and keep a record of their teamwork activities in order to investigate academically what happens during such a process. This aim derives from the main goal of the unit in question which is to teach students about academic practices of research. As Lankshear and Knobel (2011, p. 232) state: ‘They [students participating in course] learn (together) to produce research within contexts of learning (together) to produce media, as members of teams’. Students are then prompted to engage with different digital technologies deriving from Web 2.0 not only to produce their digital artefact. They also communicate with each other through web-based tools to achieve the goals established by their teams (once the course is both online and face to face). Students gather resources, whenever they think it is necessary, in order to be able to investigate their engagement with digital literacy practices and report their results academically. The students do not become experts in research practices or digital practices; nevertheless, ‘they make noteworthy entrees into forms of reading and writing that are integral to the postgraduate professional formation of teachers under contemporary conditions, and do so within a tight time frame’ (Lankshear and Knobel 2011, p. 245). The brief discussion of these two experiences of Sumi (2010) and Lankshear and Knobel (2011) with in-service teachers aims to highlight and support three arguments that should foreground digitally based pedagogies in language teacher education programs. For language teachers to incorporate and fully explore the affordances of digital technologies in pedagogical practices, they should develop different professional capacities. These capacities would allow teachers:

1. to meaningfully build on experiences of using digital technologies themselves; 2. to critically assess the suitability of the incorporation of digital technologies in language learning pedagogies;

3. to creatively and critically design pedagogical activities to enhance learning/ teaching situations with and through digital technologies.

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Most teachers do not feel confident to use digital technology in their professional practice because sustainable uses of digital technology in teacher education programs are still sporadic. The main goal of these professional capacities, thus, is to provide language teachers with sustainable ways of designing and implementing digital language practices in language education.

3  A theoretical framework for developing digitally based didactic sequences around practices of podcasting The choice of working with podcasts has derived from their being illustrative of the collaborative, participatory and distributed principles that underlie the contemporary practices with digital technologies. Podcasts are audio or video files available online and updated with some frequency. They are usually focused on a specific theme, such as English language learning, for example, and their target-audience can subscribe through syndication feeds to get new episodes (Tulley 2011; Shamburg 2010). Based on a sociocultural view of literacies (Lankshear and Knobel 2011), teachers, and learners, can engage with podcasting practices to discuss, participate in and transform real-world issues. One possible way of developing digitally based pedagogies for in-service and pre-service language teacher education is through a genre-based approach. Genres are social tools that allow individuals to communicate in historically typified ways. Because genres are social in nature, they mediate the human practices and activities with which individuals engage (Bakhtin 1997; Bronckart 2006; Bazerman 2009). The material analysed in this chapter was produced based on the principles of Sociodiscursive Interactionism (SDI). SDI postulates, based on Vygoskty, that language practices are fundamental for human development. Human beings engage in different activities associated with different sociopolitical domains throughout their lives. During such engagements, human beings learn socially and historically situated forms of using language as a tool to mediate their actions. They also develop reflexive capacities on their engagement in the world mediated by such tools. These socially and historically situated forms of using languages are the genres (Bronckart 2003, 2006). Genres are socio-psychological tools that mediate how individuals interact with the world and their own reflexive capacities. However, genres are always materialized in texts that present socio-communicative traces of the communicative situations from which they are produced (Schneuwly and Dolz 2004; Bronckart 2006). To deal with genre teaching and learning, SDI has devised pedagogical tools such as the didactic sequences. They are a set of activities developed around a common goal and a class-project that aim to provide opportunities for learners to effectively use genres (Schneuwly and Dolz 2004; Cristovão 2009). To plan didactic sequences around genres, teachers produce activities that aim to develop the learners’ language capacities:

1. Signification capacities (SC) are related to how genres and texts represent

ideological and social historical struggles that constitute the macro contexts of

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language production. SC are focused on how any language production privileges a certain ideological perspective to the detriment of others and how language practices are always situational and politically oriented. 2. Action capacities (AC) are related to how genres emerge from specific contexts of interaction. AC focus on language context parameters such as the who, when, where, why, how and what that are involved in language interactions. They also focus on socio-subjective parameters such as the social roles individuals assume in language production and the choices they make based on their assessment of contextual factors. 3. Discursive capacities (DC) are related to how genres are textually organized and how such rhetorical moves allow language producers to achieve certain sociocommunicative functions. 4. Linguistic-discursive capacities (LDC) are related to how genres, when materialized in texts, are composed by linguistic choices derived from a language system. Such linguistic choices are always discursive because they are made taking into consideration the context of language production (Cristovão and Stutz 2011). The language capacities are interrelated and work dynamically, and are integrated to allow individuals to appropriate, adapt and transform genres when engaging in language practices. The usefulness of language capacities is that they allow teachers to use them as pedagogical tools to develop didactic sequences aimed at teaching different language practices. The concepts of didactic sequence, genre and language capacities oriented the development of the material under analysis in this chapter.

4  Methodological design of the study This study may be characterized as documentary research of an interpretative nature (Hodder 1994) because it focuses on a didactic sequence that was published as part of a textbook aimed at language teachers. The document under analysis is material evidence of a specific culturally and socially based practice of human engagement in the world. It is also an interpretative study because the analysis is based on categories emerging from the literature review previously discussed and on a dialectical production of meanings about the didactic sequence in focus in relation to the literature review (Hodder 1994; Apple 1993). Such a perspective acknowledges that ‘for every textbook, then, there are multiple texts: contradictions within, multiple readings of it, and different uses to which it will be put.’ (Apple 1993, p. 212).

4.1  The context of the study The didactic sequence under analysis was part of a broader institutional initiative entitled New Talents. It aimed to decrease the gaps among university knowledge producers, government language teachers and students from government schools in Brazil. The English Language sub-project was entitled ‘Toward participation in a

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Table 2.1  An overview of the textbook Connecting Ide@s: Tools for teaching English in a contemporary society MODULE (M)

MAIN GOAL

TIME LOAD

M1: Developing Professional Skills: English and Technology

Discuss the importance of technology integration and provide teachers with tools to use technology first as users and then to foster professional development.

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M2: Have you ever podcasted? Pod … What?

Provide teachers an opportunity to experience a didactic proposal based on a language practice from the digital sphere: podcasting.

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M3: Teaching Technology

Discuss the main theoretical concepts underlying the didactic proposal in M2.

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M4: Let’s Get our Hands Dirty?

Provide teachers with instructions that may guide them through a digitally based genre approach to the production of didactic sequences.

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globalized world: the use of technology in teaching and learning English’.1 Its main goal was to provide opportunities for teachers and students from public schools to critically appropriate and use digital technologies as tools for English learning and teaching. To achieve the sub-project’s goal, five teacher educators developed a workshop for government schoolteachers of English. These teacher educators divided the workshops into four different modules and produced an instructional material to use during classes. An overview of the textbook developed, called “Connecting Ide@s: Tools for teaching English in a contemporary society” (Rios-Registro et al. 2011), is presented in Table 2.1. The textbook Connecting Ide@s was then used in workshops for schoolteachers during the vacation period. The workshop totalled forty hours, happened over a whole week and was offered to three different cohorts. The number of teachers participating varied according to the week. The total number of teachers participating in the workshops was fifty-four (thirty-two in the first week, twelve in the second and ten in the third). The majority of teachers participating in the workshops had difficulties in expressing themselves in English and had very little or basic contact with digital technologies. For most of them, it was the first time they were dealing with digital technologies that were familiar to their students such as Facebook, YouTube, blogs, etc. By taking into consideration this general profile, the tasks proposed in modules I and II aimed to familiarize the teachers with digital technologies and provide them with a vivid experience of engaging with digital technologies.

4.2  Data description The analysis will focus on the second module Have you ever podcasted? Pod … What? This module was produced by a graduate student and a researcher/teacher educator. The graduate student was at that time enrolled in the Language Studies Graduate

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Program, carrying out his master research under the supervision of the researcher/ teacher educator. Both had been involved with digital technologies and English teacher education for about two years. The Have you ever podcasted? Pod … What? conception and design was underpinned by the digital genre-based approach to language teaching and learning discussed earlier. It was developed and organized as a didactic sequence. The snapshot presented in Table 2.2 describes the main characteristics and tasks structuring the didactic sequence. Table 2.2  Snapshot of the module Have you ever podcasted? Pod … What? MODULE 2: HAVE YOU EVER PODCASTED? POD … WHAT? Main Goals ●● ●●

●●

To produce a podcast and publish it online. To reflect upon the restraints and possibilities of the virtual sphere regarding language production and social relationships. To experience a digital genre-based approach. PODCAST PRODUCTION

I – To produce the first version of a podcast whose aim can be to provide other teachers with information regarding a digital genre and its pedagogical uses or to propose a debate regarding a polemical topic regarding teaching as a profession. II – To analyse the first version of the podcast produced in task I and assess it according to the characteristics studied throughout the module. III – To plan and edit a new version of the podcast based on the assessment in task II. IV – To produce and publish the final version of the podcast online. SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES’ EMERGENCE I – To list genres emerging in different social networking sites and the social and language actions they allow. II – To discuss the roles and implications of technology and social networking in contemporary times in language teaching and learning. THE CONTEXT OF PRODUCTION OF PODCASTS I – To surf on podcast profile and answer questions regarding its context of production (who, when, where, what, how and why). II – To listen to a podcast, take notes on its content and relate it to the context of production from task I. III – To discuss and reflect on the importance of analysing the context of production. THE ORGANIZATION OF PODCASTS I – To identify elements that characterize podcasts based on a pre-given list. II – To listen again to the podcast from task II in the previous section and identify how it is organized. III – To watch a videocast and compare similarities and differences regarding organization. IV – To discuss and reflect on the importance of textual organization. THE LANGUAGE RESOURCES EMPLOYED IN PODCASTS I – To listen to a new podcast and put its transcription in order. II – To fill in the gaps in the transcribed podcast with pragmatic markers. III – To discuss the function of pragmatic markers in podcasts. IV – To discuss and reflect on the importance of language resources in textual production. V – To practise pronunciation with regard to rhythm, stress and intonation in English language.

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4.3  Data analysis procedures The analysis of the didactic sequence is approached from two interrelated angles: the principles that may underlie digitally based pedagogies for teacher education programs and the language capacities the activities potentially develop, both discussed earlier.

5  Data analysis and discussion 5.1  Possibilities and constrains of digitally based language pedagogies Due to the social view on language supporting the material, teachers may have opportunities to meaningfully build on experiences using digital technologies themselves when engaging with the activities from the didactic sequence. The didactic sequence starts with teachers planning and producing the first version of their own podcasts. In this task, teachers have to consider the target-audience their podcast will address and choose a socio-communicative situation to engage in. Teachers are not only discussing what podcasts are but they are also themselves engaging with the production of their own podcasts. Such an engagement allows teachers to build situated and cognitive dimensions on what types of affordances the practice of podcasting allows their producers/users to have. The importance of these dimensions is that they may foreground future reflexive capacities from these teachers when they have to design and implement their own digitally based pedagogies. It also points to the importance of designing meaningful and situated uses of digital technology in language education. These uses provide schoolteachers with theoretical and pedagogical knowledge to sustain more effective digitally based language pedagogies. In regard to the promotion of opportunities for teachers to critically assess the suitability of the incorporation of digital technologies in language learning environments, one of the activities focused on how teachers could use their experience with podcasts to sustain more meaningful professional practices of their own. In this activity, teachers, after having produced a first version of their own podcast, listen to three other different podcasts. Then, teachers are asked to read an excerpt of an article that discusses what podcasts are. The task is an attempt to articulate teachers’ experiences as podcast producers and their identities as language professionals. Teachers are encouraged to reflect on how they could, if they wished to, incorporate practices of podcasting in their language pedagogies. One of the limitations of the didactic sequence, however, is related to the lack of sustained opportunities for teachers to conceptualize how wider sociopolitical issues are embedded into digital literacy practices and the implications for language learning (Loveless 2011; Selwyn 2011). The activities also do not promote opportunities for teachers to link their engagement with digital literacy practices with more chances of leveraging their social participation (Braga 2010).

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There are preliminary attempts to foster a critical perspective on digital technologies and their roles in language learning in the activities. Nevertheless, the predominant view throughout the didactic sequence is an instrumental perspective. Issues such as inequality gaps, the purposes of different digital technologies and whom they serve, the way power struggles are embedded in the micro-politics of people’s everyday lives and their engagement with digital technologies (Braga 2010; Selwyn 2011, 2012) are not highlighted or discussed during the activities. In regard to the signification capacities (SC), the didactic sequence prompts teachers to discuss the social, historical and ideological implications of digital technologies in contemporary times. The first activity asks teachers to list genres that may be present in social networking sites and to reflect on their uses. This activity promotes opportunities for teachers to reflect on how social networking sites, and their affordances, influence people’s lives contemporaneously. At the same time, the activity enables teachers to analyse some of the characteristics of different social networking sites and how they could be used in language pedagogies. On the one hand, this first activity seems to provide opportunities for teachers to reflect on the roles of digital technologies in people’s everyday lives. On other hand, more sustained and consistent opportunities for refining such reflections do not appear throughout the didactic sequence. This lack may contribute to instrumental uses of digital technologies in language learning practices that neglect the wider sociopolitical implications of their use in people’s lives. In relation to the action capacities (AC), some activities contribute to teachers’ reflection on the physical and socio-subjective context of podcast production. In these activities, teachers are encouraged to infer context-related information from a podcast they will listen to next. Such inferences are supposed to help teachers to identify how physical and socio-subjective parameters of language production impact on texts as material products of language practices (Cristovão 2009). In addition to this, the questions presented in the section entitled Reflecting about the importance of the context of production help teachers to reflect on how language practices are implicated and related to the socio-communicative contexts they emerge from. The set of activities related to AC stress how important it is to explore the situatedness of language practices. They also highlight how producers of podcasts, by assessing their potential audience, frame the ways they are going to present information and produce a podcast that achieves their goals (Schneuwly and Dolz 2004; Lankshear and Knobel 2011). More importantly, in relation to digital technologies and language practices, the activities on AC provide a basis for teachers to develop new professional strategies. Teachers can think, for example, about the fluid roles participants may perform when engaging with digital literacy practices and how to approach this characteristic in language pedagogies. The podcast that teachers listened to in this case was produced by a teenager and focused on what blogs are, how to get started with one and what to use it for. The choice of such a podcast can potentially contribute to disrupting teachers’ expectations in relation to learners’ roles in language classes. First, it acknowledges a shift in standard or taken-for-granted patterns of language learning relationships: the

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teenager knows better about blogs than teachers in this case. Second, it accentuates the opportunity for teachers to devise future pedagogies that take into consideration more decentralized, participatory and collaborative relationships between learners and teachers (Lankshear and Knobel 2011). These opportunities create spaces for teachers to think in sustainable ways of harnessing the pedagogical potentials of digital practices in language education. With respect to the discursive capacities (DC), they are developed in another set of activities. The activities related to DC focus on calling teachers’ attention to the elements that are constituent of a typical example of podcast and the organization of the webpage in which the podcasts are posted. Their focus is also on how content is organized in the podcast about blogs that teachers listened to and a comparison of the similarities and differences between podcasts and videocasts. The activities allow teachers to evaluate how content is organized in the podcast and how such organization is related to the goals of the podcast’s producer. In the box entitled Reflecting about the importance of organization, teachers are prompted to reflect on the relationships between language production (podcasting in this situation), the organization of the content and its connection to the context of production. The attempt to make teachers compare the different modes put in use when producing podcasts and videocasts is not sustained and/or developed in subsequent activities. There are no opportunities for teachers to experience, analyse and reflect on how different modes, such as still and moving images, audio, written and oral language, corporeal, spatial and so on, may be implicated in different representations and meaning-making practices (Kress 2010). The lack of activities to provide such opportunities is relevant if teacher educators consider the increasing presence of multimodal language practices in contemporary times. There is not only a lack of opportunities for teachers to establish the relationships between the different modes and what types of meanings they may afford more aptly (when comparing podcasts and videocasts). Teachers also do not explore the characteristics of audio as a mode in podcasts. For instance, the tasks do not encourage teachers to think how audio resources may offer producers of podcasts specific ways of representing knowledge. This limitation may apply in digitally based pedagogies that keep focusing predominantly on linguistic, oral and written, knowledge and neglects other modes that are part of meaning-making practices associated with digital technologies. Finally, the activities aimed at developing linguistic-discursive capacities (LDC) in the didactic sequence explore the use of pragmatic markers in podcasts. After listening to a different podcast, published by BBC English about the origins of the internet, teachers are prompted to fill in the transcript of the podcast with some pragmatic markers. To articulate the use of pragmatic markers to the language practice of podcasting, the following activity questions teachers in relation to the reasons why such markers may be important in podcasts. The interrelationship between linguistic elements and their socio-pragmatic functions in situated and specific examples of language practice may help teachers to reflect on the importance of learning language through the social uses people make of it.

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Specifically, in the box entitled Reflecting about the importance of language resources, the questions provide teachers with opportunities to analyse and consider how linguistic-discursive marks are related to the physical and socio-subjective parameters of language production. Such movement potentially contributes to teachers’ thinking of the interconnectedness of language capacities (SC, AC, DC, LDC) when it comes to engaging in language practices. Nevertheless, the activities do not prompt teachers to think how resources from other modes, such as audio, for example, are used in the podcast in focus for meaning making. The lack of activities to explore different modes and their culturally and socially shaped resources are aligned with the predominant linguistic perspective upon which the didactic sequence was planned. The analysis of the activities in relation to the different language capacities points to three important issues. First, the activities are foregrounded on a social perspective of language, the concept of genres. Due to this, there are opportunities for schoolteachers to analyse and reflect on how language practices associated with digital technologies, specifically podcasting, are enmeshed with cultural, social and ideological factors that constitute human activities. Teachers are prompted to develop reflexive capacities so that they can experience the uses of digital technologies as mediational tools for language practices, analyse their experiences and build their own understandings of the uses of these technologies. Second, the activities, mainly through the boxes entitled Reflecting about …, may provide teachers with opportunities to articulate different analytical tools and explore how podcasting embodies principles of collaboration, distribution and participation such as those of Web 2.0 tools. Such opportunities occur in specific moments of the material when teachers are specifically required to consider the implications of these new dispositions (Lankshear and Knobel 2011) underlying digital literacy practices. Third, the activities seem to be focused predominantly on comprehending texts within a linguistic perspective. Such a focus has at times hindered the promotion of opportunities to foster teachers’ capacities to consider how different modes interweave in digital literacy practices. As pointed out by Kress (2010) and Lankshear and Knobel (2011), among others, the contemporary landscape of communication is characterized by language practices that use more and more different modes to represent different meanings. Not dealing with the multimodal aspects of podcasting in the didactic sequence constrains conceptualizations of meaning-making practices that move beyond linguistic perspectives. Perhaps both the theoretical framework and the discursive formations the producers of the didactic sequence come from have acted as constraining lenses for their approach to digital literacy practices. As pointed out earlier, the genre-based approach the didactic sequence was foregrounded on has been developed mainly from a linguistic perspective. In addition to this, both producers of the didactic sequence have academic backgrounds in applied linguistics and language learning and teaching. The discursive formations from which the didactic sequence emerged at the same time allowed a social perspective on language practices and constrained a multimodal view on digital literacy practices.

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5.2 Developing more sustainable ways for integrating digital language practices in teacher education The previous analysis of the didactic sequence for English schoolteachers to learn with, through and about digital technologies has supported its redesigning. Our goal was to provide teachers with more sustainable ways of incorporating digital technology use into their practice. In this section, the discussions surround relevant changes made in the didactic sequence2 taking into account the criticisms the previous analysis points out. One of the things that became relevant from the analysis of the first version of the didactic sequence was the overall instrumental approach to digital technologies that underlay most of the activities. The redesigned section 1, displayed in the beginning of the unit (before teachers produce the first version of their podcasts), is composed of a new set of activities in order to explore more nuanced ways of thinking about digital technologies and their possible roles in language learning. Teachers read other people’s perspectives on how digital technology use may shape language pedagogies. They can also establish relations with their local contexts of professional activity. It highlights the importance of being sensitive to local demands and to the ways to overcome barriers related to digital technology incorporation. Similarly, in the next set of tasks, teachers first listen to four different podcasts and do activities related to their contexts of production. Subsequently, in the section Food for thought, teachers can engage with other experiences of podcasting from their discursive community and reflect on whether such uses can benefit their local realities. This set of activities also attempts to provide opportunities for teachers to make articulations between the use of digital technologies and their social participation (as well as that of their students). Teachers are provided with more sustainable opportunities to engage with critical reflections on the use of digital technologies and their potential for language learning throughout the didactic sequence. Finally, the new set of activities in a section called Exploring different podcasts and their spheres of production and circulation highlights different ways teachers may conceptualize the use of podcasts in their own pedagogical practices. The set of activities attempts to articulate micro concerns of language teachers when using technologies (such as how to start a podcast and activities that can be used in the language classroom) with macro concerns of technology use (such as policy making and engagement in political issues of the professional community). The authors of the didactic sequence also developed new activities to foster experiences and reflections on the uses of different modes. These activities highlight how modes may be assembled in digital literacy practices, such as that of podcasting. Different modes may allow different ways of conceptualizing and representing knowledge, which, in turn, value certain meanings to the detriment of others (Kress 2010). The set of activities prompts teachers to listen to four different podcasts and analyse them deductively in terms of modal resources. Teachers then relate these characteristics to the social and cultural meaning-making practice of podcasting. These

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tasks represent an attempt to allow teachers to experience and reflect on how different audio resources may contribute to meaning making in podcasting. Likewise, teachers are presented with some analytical categories to think of the different uses of sound, music and speech on podcasts. These conceptual categories attempt to foster teachers’ conceptualization of how different modes may interweave in meaning-making practices and how they are articulated to specific social interactions. These activities aim to occupy the previous gaps identified when analysing the didactic sequence. They are attempts to foster two of the main criticisms the analysis of the first version of the didactic sequence pointed towards: (a) the predominant instrumental view of digital technologies and (b) the predominant linguistic view towards digital literacy practices. A new cycle of implementing the new version of the didactic sequence and analysis would definitely provide a more grounded assessment of the extent to which the activities of the authors achieved their aims, specifically to foster particular types of analysis and reflection.

6  Final remarks The aim of this chapter was to investigate the roles digital technologies may have in language teacher education programs. We also analysed how a formative didactic sequence implemented digitally based pedagogies in English teacher education. Drawing on the analysis and discussions from this study, we find three main implications in relation to the roles that digital technologies may have to play in English teacher education programs for sustaining long-term digitally based language pedagogies. First, digital technologies and the language practices associated with their use should be conceptualized in terms of macro social and political issues. Such a perspective highlights how issues of social participation, language learning and digital technologies are interconnected. It may also ferment more participatory and equitable practices in educational systems, from higher education to primary school (see Braga 2010; Selwyn 2011, 2012). Second, if teachers decide they want to implement activities based on digitally mediated language practices, they should foreground their design of activities in sound, analytical learning pedagogies (Snyder 2009). Teacher educators, on the other hand, should not only discuss the roles of digital technologies in contemporary times; they also need to implement pedagogical practices themselves that highlight possible ways of developing sound digitally mediated language learning. Third, an ongoing assessment of the ways teachers conceptualize digital technologies and their relationships to language practices might be productively fomented by an enquiry-based disposition. Such a disposition could be devised as having the following steps:

1. To engage with theoretical perspectives. 2. To design digitally based language learning activities. 3. To implement the activities.

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4. To evaluate their usefulness, their upsides and downsides. 5. To engage again with theoretical perspectives. 6. To redesign the digitally based language learning activities by taking into consideration steps three, four and five.

This process is marked by a constant cycle of going through the steps again and again by teachers. The ultimate goal of engaging in such a process is to provide language learners with better opportunities for participating in digitally mediated language practices and critically analysing the social and political issues embedded in these practices (Braga 2010; Junqueira and Buzato 2013). As a final word, it is worthwhile to highlight that we do not think teachers should produce and implement digitally mediated language learning activities because of external urges or impositions. Rather, the decision of the usefulness of developing and implementing digitally mediated language learning activities should emerge from each teacher’s critical evaluation. An evaluation that takes into account teachers’ local contexts, their learners’ needs and how their decision to adopt or avoid digitally mediated language practices may impact on their learners’ capacities.

Notes 1 Project coordinated by Professor Telma Gimenez from the Department of Foreign Languages of the State University of Londrina. 2 Due to space limits, a new snapshot of the improved didactic sequence has not been provided for readers. However, readers may see the complete improved version at http://www.uel.br/programas/novostalentos/pages/arquivos/Teaching_learning_ S1.pdf.

References Apple, M. W. (1993). ‘Between Moral Regulation and Democracy: The Cultural Contradictions of the Text’. In C. Lankshear and P. L. McLaren (eds), Critical Literacy: Politics, Praxis and the Postmodern, 193–216. New York: State University of New York Press. Bakhtin, M. (1997). Estética da criação verbal [The aesthetics of verbal creation] (M. E. G. G. Ferreira, Trans. Second edn.). São Paulo: Martins Fontes. Bax, S. (2003). ‘Call – Past, Present and Future’. System 31 (1): 13–28. Bazerman, C. (2009). ‘Genre and Cognitive Development: Beyond Writing to Learn’. In C. Bazerman, A. Bonini and D. Figueiredo (eds), Genre in a changing world, 279–94. Fort Collins, Colorado: The WAC Clearinghouse and Parlor Press. Braga, D. (2010). ‘Tecnologia e participação social no processo de produção e consumo de bens culturais: Novas possibilidades trazidas pelas práticas letradas digitais mediadas pela Internet [Technology and social participation in the process of production and consumption of cultural goods: New opportunities offered by digital literacy practices mediated by the Internet]’. Trabalhos em Linguistica Aplicada 49 (2): 373–91.

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Bronckart, J.-P. (2003). ‘Atividade de linguagem, textos e discursos: Por um interacionismo sociodiscursivo [language activity, texts and discourses: Towards a sociodiscursive interactionism]’. Trans. A. R. Machado and P. Cunha. São Paulo: Educ. Bronckart, J.-P. (2006). ‘Atividade de linguage, discurso e desenvolvimento humano [language activity, discourse and human development]’. Ed. A. R. Machado and M. d. L. M. Matêncio. Campinas: Mercado de Letras. Brown, J. S. and Adler, R. (2008). ‘Minds on Fire: Open Education, The Long Tail and Learning 2.0’. Educause Review January/February: 17–32. Cristovão, V. L. L. (2009). ‘Sequências didáticas para o ensino de línguas [Didactic sequences for language teaching]’. In R. Dias and V. L. L. Cristovão (eds), O livro didático de língua estrangeira, 305–44. Campinas: Mercado de Letras. Cristovão, V. L. L. and Stutz, L. (2011). ‘Sequências didáticas: Semelhanças e especificidades no contexto francófono como L1 e no contexto brasileiro como LE [Didatic sequences: Similarities and specificities in the French context as L1 and in the Brazilian context as FL]’. In P. T. C. Szundy, J. C. Araujo, C. S. Nicolaides and K. A. Silva (eds), Linguística aplicada e sociedade: Ensino e aprendizagem de línguas no contexto brasileiro, 17–40. Campinas: Pontes Editores. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good Video Games + Good Learning: Collected Essays on Video Games. New York: Peter Lang. Hodder, Ian (1994). ‘The Interpretation of Documents and Material Culture’. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, 393–402. London: SAGE Publications. Junqueira, E. S. and Buzato, M. E. K. (eds) (2013). New Literacies, New Agencies? A Brazilian Perspective on Mindsets, Digital Practices and Tools for Social Action in and Out of School. New York: Peter Lang. Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. London and New York: Routledge. Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011). New Literacies: Everyday Practices and Social Learning (3rd edn). Maidenhead: Open University Press. Loveless, A. (2011). ‘Technology, Pedagogy and Education: Reflections on the Accomplishment of What Teachers Know, Do and Believe in a Digital Age’. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 20 (3): 301–16, doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2011.610931. Monte Mór, W. (2013). ‘The Development of Agency in a New Literacies Proposal for Teacher Education in Brazil’. In E. S. Junqueira and M. E. K. Buzato (eds), New Literacies, New Agencies? A Brazilian Perspective on Mindsets, Digital Practices and Tools for Social Action in and Out of School, 126–46. New York: Peter Lang. Rios-Registro, E. S., Anjos-Santos, L. M., El Kadri, M. S., Gamero, R. and Cristovão, V. L. L. (2011). Connecting Ide@s: Tools for Teaching English in a Contemporary Society. Londrina: UEL. Russell, M., Bebell, D., O’Dwyer, L. and O’Connor, K. (2003). ‘Examining Teacher Technology Use: Implications for Preservice and Inservice Teacher Preparation’. Journal of Teacher Education 54 (4): 297–310, doi: 10.1177/0022487103255985. Schneuwly, B. and Dolz, J. (2004). Gêneros orais e escrito na escola [Oral and written genres in the school]. Trans. R. Rojo and G. S. Cordeiro. Campinas: Mercado de Letras. Selwyn, N. (2011). Schools and Schooling in the Digital Age. London and New York: Routledge. Selwyn, N. (2012). ‘Making Sense of Young People, Education and Digital Technology: The Role of Sociological Theory’. Oxford Review of Education 38 (1): 81–96, doi: 10.1080/03054985.2011.577949.

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Shamburg, C. (2010). ‘DIY Podcasting in Education’. In M. Knobel and C. Lankshear (eds), DIY Media: Creating, Sharing and Learning with New Technologies, 51–75. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. Snyder, I. (2002). ‘Communication, Imagination, Critique – Literacy Education for the Electronic Age’. In I. Snyder (ed.), Silicon Literacies: Communication, Innovation and Education in the Electronic Age, 173–83. London: Routledge. Snyder, I. (2009). ‘Ame-os ou deixe-os: Navegando no parorama de letramentos em tempos digitais [Love them or loathe them: Navigating the literacy landscape in digital times]’. In J. C. Araujo and M. Dieb (eds), Letramentos na web: Gêneros, interação e ensino, 23–46. Fortaleza, Brazil: Edições UFC. Sumi, S. (2010). ‘Voices from EFL Teachers: A Qualitative Investigation of Teachers’ use of CALL’. In M. Levy, F. Blin, C. B. Siskin and O. Takeuchi (eds), WorldCALL: International Perspectives on Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 293–312. New York, London: Routledge. Tulley, C. (2011). ‘Itext Reconfigured: The Rise of the Podcast’. Journal of Business and Technical Communication 25 (3): 256–75, doi: 10.1177/1050651911400702.

3

Creating Pedagogical Knowledge Through Electronic Materials in a Telecollaboration Project for Pre-Service Teacher Trainees Marcin Kleban and Mª Camino Bueno-Alastuey

1 Introduction Telecollaboration has been established as an effective way of connecting learners and teachers for the purposes of developing their language learning and language teaching skills and knowledge. Relevant research studies have demonstrated that distance collaboration adds value to the language learning process in terms of linguistic (e.g. Bueno-Alastuey 2010, 2011, 2013; Tian and Wang 2010) and intercultural competence gains (e.g. O’Dowd 2003, 2007) and that it contributes to the enhancement of trainee teachers’ digital skills (Jauregi et al. 2012; Guth and Helm 2012) as well as to their teaching with technology (techno-pedagogical) skills (e.g. Dooly and Sadler 2013; Ernest et al. 2012), thus more likely contributing to a sustained use of ICT in their future posts at schools. The benefits of telecollaboration are inscribed in current educational theories based on sociocultural views of learning, which underline the dialogic and mediated nature of knowledge development (e.g. Lantolf 2000; Vygotsky 1978). Within such a perspective, distance collaboration projects can be perceived as facilitating learning through the provision of interaction opportunities afforded by computer technologies, which serve as mediating tools between the learners/partners in their dialogic exchanges. The interaction between the participants, the tools they use and the objects of their inquiry may potentially lead to the creation of knowledge. As the knowledge creation metaphor emphasizes, the collaborative effort of developing ‘joint objects of activity’ (Paavola, Lipponen and Hakkarainen 2002, p. 1) lies in the centre of the learning process. Within this view, learning takes place as a result of solving problems, facing challenges or puzzles while students ‘actively engage in collaborative tasks and knowledge-building dialogue’ (Lee, McLoughlin and Chan 2008, p. 509). The inherent belief here is that ‘what the community accomplishes will be greater than the sum of individual contributions and part of broader cultural efforts’ (Scardamalia and Bereiter 2003, p. 1371).

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In the field of teacher training, telecollaboration can serve as a way of providing trainees with a dialogic space which will facilitate the development of their ‘traditional’ pedagogical skills related to planning and designing tasks and evaluating materials and also the improvement of their techno-pedagogical skills (Koehler and Mishra 2009). The demands of the present time are such that teachers need to be prepared to teach with technology (Chapelle and Hegelheimer 2004). In this regard, distance collaboration projects offer pre-service teachers opportunities to experience digital technologies in language education and to reflect on their affordances and the challenges related to their implementation (e.g. Bueno-Alastuey and Kleban 2014). While the development of teaching with technology skills within telecollaboration projects has been given some attention in the previous literature (Antoniadou 2011; Hauck 2007), the idea that telecollaboration can be thought of as a way of enhancing trainee teachers’ online as well as offline language teaching skills has been pursued only in a few studies (e.g. Dooly and Sadler 2013). Since in cases of telecollaboration for teacher training projects, pre-service teachers engage in acts of pedagogical reasoning such as comprehending, transforming of texts and tasks, formulating instructions and reflecting (Shulman 1987), it is worthwhile to investigate how this pedagogical and techno-pedagogical reasoning and actions are developed in the context of distance collaboration. Moreover, although there is evidence that collaboration in telecollaboration leads to positive effects in terms of increased teaching expertise (Dooly and Sadler 2013; Ernest et al. 2012), more studies that explore the nature of distance collaboration are needed. Some questions worth investigating concern the type of collaboration and its degree, and whether such projects give rise to modifications in the objects created by collaborating students, thereby resulting in pedagogical knowledge creation. For these reasons, this study aims to investigate how telecollaboration can help pre-service teachers develop their pedagogical knowledge in terms of both general pedagogical skills such as planning and evaluating lessons, or selecting appropriate teaching materials, and techno-pedagogical skills such as the ability to use online synchronous and asynchronous computer communication tools to foster collaboration while working on an educational project. We first report the type and degree of collaboration which took place between the project participants. Then we study the effects that this collaboration had on the process of teaching materials development and, finally, we comment on how best to design international projects to develop preservice teachers’ pedagogical knowledge.

2  Literature review 2.1 Telecollaboration Telecollaboration projects have been shown to have the potential to offer many linguistic benefits to foreign language students, including non-native pre-service foreign language teachers, such as the improvement of oral (e.g. Bueno-Alastuey 2013; Lee 2007; Tian and Wang 2010) and written language skills (e.g. Guth and Marini-Maio 2010; Wylie

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2010), authentic language practice (e.g. Bueno-Alastuey 2010, 2011; Polisca 2011) and increased motivation (Jauregi and Bañados 2008). They also support the development of intercultural competence giving rise to critical reflections on students’ own as well as other cultures (Helm 2009), and ‘can enrich and internationalize the teaching and learning experience of language and culture, placing it in a real sociocultural context’ (Jauregi and Bañados 2008, p. 202). All the aforementioned benefits can impact non-native pre-service teachers’ linguistic fluency and proficiency in a positive way (Grosbois 2011). Furthermore, telecollaboration endeavours can also contribute positively to the development of teacher trainees’ techno-pedagogical knowledge (Koehler and Mishra 2009). This knowledge has been defined as ‘an understanding of how teaching and learning can change when particular technologies are used in particular ways. This includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and constraints of a range of technological tools as they relate to disciplinary and developmentally appropriate pedagogical designs and strategies’ (p. 65). Telecollaboration projects planned to provide experiential use of technology for language learning in pre-service training courses have noted improvements in technology-related competencies. For instance, Antoniadou (2011) noted teacher trainees’ satisfaction with the positive impact of learning to use specific technology and with ‘experiencing the potential of integrating technology and network-based instruction in their teaching’ (p. 248), and Hauck (2007) reported that students enhanced their general ICT skills as a result of using the digital tools necessary for participating in a telecollaborative exchange. Dooly and Sadler (2013) further stated that telecollaboration may lead to the integration of technology into classroom activities ‘that advance knowledge creation, ownership and responsibility of the learning process, innovation and lifelong learning supported by the use of technological tools’ (p. 25). The first-hand experiences, which pre-service teachers can gain when experiencing telecollaboration, enable them to become aware not only of available communication modes but also of their respective affordances (e.g. Furstenberg et al. 2001; Hauck 2013; O’Dowd 2003, 2007). Moreover, telecollaboration allows teacher trainees to critically reflect on practical applications of diverse communication tools and to enhance their teaching competence (Dooly and Sadler 2013) by increasing pre-service teachers’ awareness of issues related to the design and implementation of telecollaboration projects. Furthermore, studies exploring telecollaboration endeavours involving pre-service teachers support the idea that an inclusion of experiential training into teacher education programs could result in the adoption of telecollaboration into trainees’ own repertoire of teaching techniques (Antoniadou 2011; Dooly 2009; Dooly and Sadler 2013) and its sustained use in language education. However, research on this topic so far has failed to address the issue of the type of collaboration, and has been limited to students’ experiences and the likelihood of future use or the real future use. This has resulted in a lack of studies analysing those telecollaboration projects that include the joint creation of lesson plans using appropriate technological tools and digital materials so that technology can be used for the purpose of authentic online communication and collaboration. The rationale for such projects is to offer pre-service

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teachers real telecollaboration opportunities, which might lead to knowledge creation, and also real experiences related to facing and solving the problems inherent to using technology, which can ‘strengthen [pre-service teachers’] self-confidence in dealing with technical problems and other challenges related to technology integration’ (Schmid and Hegelheimer 2014, p. 10), while trainees are ‘still within a supportive environment’ (Dooly 2009, p. 4). This increased self-confidence can affect the sustainability of their prospective telecollaboration projects when they begin working at schools, so that they do not abandon those projects when faced with their constraints.

2. 2  Collaboration Cooperation and collaboration have sometimes been used synonymously. However, they do not relate to the same concept. While cooperation implies autonomous individual work in the presence of others, followed by a compilation of individually constructed parts to make a unified whole (Donato 2004), collaboration implies that individual contributions enable the group to create something new and different from any individual contribution, which would be impossible for individuals to create on their own (Donato 2004; Cope and Kalantzis 2000). Thus learning takes place through participation in a collective activity (Sotillo 2002) and the final product is a joint effort. Another important distinction regarding collaboration is the one established between local collaboration, which involves ‘two or more learners working … in a self-contained and relatively autonomous mode’ (Lund 2008, p. 49) and distributed collective collaboration, which comprises the joint creation of knowledge among members distributed in diverse geographical locations. Even though telecollaboration projects (Hauck 2007, 2013) have analysed the effect of collaborative practices on some areas related to techno-pedagogical knowledge (awareness of available technologies and their affordances, etc.), no study has analysed the effect expanding local collaboration into distributed collaboration based on lesson planning may have on the development of trainee teachers’ pedagogical and technopedagogical skills.

3  The project 3.1 Context This project was conceived with two objectives in mind. The first objective aimed to improve the perceived shortcomings of a previous telecollaboration project, where low participation levels, lack of awareness of the pedagogical value of telecollaboration and limited data collection instruments to triangulate results had been identified as problematic (see Bueno-Alastuey and Kleban 2014). The second objective, related to the first, sought to provide pre-service teachers with first-hand experience of telecollaboration to contribute to the development of their pedagogical and technopedagogical skills.

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To improve the perceived shortcomings of the previous project, this project had a more specific task with clearly defined steps that were clearly related to the participants’ field of study, higher accountability as it accounted for almost thirty per cent of the final course grade, and various data collection instruments to allow for triangulation of the data. Final reflections on the telecollaboration were also planned to raise students’ awareness of the pedagogical benefits of the experience.

3.2 Methodology The participants in this project were two groups of university students – teacher trainees  – from two European countries: Poland and Spain. Sixteen Polish students enrolled in a course of English Language Teaching Course Design as part of their degree in English Studies and thirteen Spanish students enrolled in a course of Learning and Teaching Languages as part of the Master of Education programme participated in the project. The former were twenty-two to twenty-four years old and had a C1 proficiency level as described by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The latter were twenty-four to forty-five years old with a C1 to C2 proficiency level. The Polish group included an Erasmus exchange Spanish native speaker, and the Spanish group an English native speaker. The course the Polish students were following lasted for six months and was tutored by one of the researchers. The course for the Spanish students was divided into two sections and the second researcher was in charge of the section called ‘ICT applied to Language Teaching’, which was imparted in two four-hour sessions during a threeweek period. The project had a mainly qualitative mixed method design in which some quantitative data were used to support and further explain some of the qualitative findings. The instruments used for collecting the data were four in number: recorded Skype conversations, drafts and final/modified lesson plans and teaching materials, an end-of-project anonymous online survey and reflection reports. The students were grouped into six teams. Each of the groups had two Spanish students and three Polish students, except Group 6, which had three Spanish and two Polish students, and Group 5, which had two Polish students instead of three. The task set for the groups required the students to create two ICT-based lesson plans to be carried out in a class of secondary students along with the materials for their implementation in the classrooms. The task was broken up into six subtasks (see Table 3.1). The first subtask consisted in a Skype-based synchronous online conversation, whose purpose was to give the students opportunities to get familiar with their partners, decide on the target population (age and level) for their lesson plans and plan and divide their workload. These first online synchronous voice-based interactions also had the aim of making students familiar with Skype and the recorder so that they could use it outside the class in the following interactions. The conversations were recorded and stored. Second, the members of each group who were in the same location had to create a draft of an ICT-based lesson plan, upload the draft to the web server Dropbox and comment on the draft version created by this group’s members in the other

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Table 3.1  Subtasks, technology used and data collected Subtask

Aim

Technology

Data collected

1

Familiarize students with their partners Decide target population Distribute workload

Skype and MP3 Skype Call Recorder

Recordings of conversations 1

2

Prepare a draft version of lesson plan and materials Comment on draft of the members in the other location

MSWord document shared in Dropbox Using review features of Word Various other technologies: Edmodo, Power Point, YouTube etc. for materials creation

MS Word document with commentaries

3

Comment orally on the draft versions (Lesson plan and materials) and agree on possible modifications

Skype and MP3 Skype Call Recorder MSWord documents

Recordings of conversations 2

4

Refine lesson plans and materials based on commentaries and oral conversations

Word documents Instructional materials using many ICTs

MS Word Document (second draft)

5

Revise the second draft with commentaries Optional: Skype conversation

MSWord document shared in Dropbox Using review features of Word

Recordings of optional conversations 3

6

Upload final version and materials

Final version MS Word documents and materials

location. The third subtask was to connect online to engage in another synchronous voice-based exchange to comment on the draft versions of the other part of the group located in the partner institution in order to discuss possible modifications. The fourth subtask consisted in refining all lesson plans using the comments of the members of the group and to upload the new version. The fifth included revising the final versions uploaded and adding any final comments or modifications. At this stage the students could also have an optional synchronous oral exchange. Finally, students had to upload the final versions of their lesson plans and the materials to the shared Dropbox folder. Three weeks after the final project’s due date, the students filled in an anonymous survey and wrote group reports summarizing their reflections on this experience. Due to reasons of practicality, the reports were written separately in the Polish and Spanish groups and subsequently uploaded to the common Dropbox folder.

3.3  Data and data analysis In this project we gathered both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data analysed in this study were obtained from the survey and concerned the type and

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quantity of tools the students had used to communicate, the type of collaboration (local vs distributed) they had been involved in and the usefulness they had conceded to each type of collaboration. In our data analysis, building on Lund’s (2008) distinction of collaboration types, we considered the work of partners from the same location as ‘local collaboration’ and the work of groups with members from both locations as ‘international/distributed collective collaboration’. The qualitative data obtained from the survey, the Skype conversations, the drafts, the final lesson plans and the reflection reports were related to the usefulness of both types of collaboration for the development of pedagogical and techno-pedagogical skills as well as for pedagogical reflection and awareness. This kind of data also helped to show the students’ perceptions of the benefits regarding distributed collective telecollaboration.

4  Results and discussion Before we address the question of the nature of the collaboration that took place between the project participants, and comment on the kind of pedagogical knowledge creation triggered by the telecollaboration project, it is worth examining both the kind and the number of tools employed by the students. From the survey data filled in by twenty-three participants (see Table 3.2), Skype stood out as the most popular CMC tool (eighteen admitted using this tool), followed by the revision feature of Microsoft Office Word to provide commentaries to the Word documents stored and shared in the Dropbox folder (fourteen participants), e-mail messages (thirteen participants) and Facebook contacts (mentioned by seven participants). Regarding the number of tools used by the students, the most common was the use of these three tools in various combinations (47.8 per cent). One-third of the students employed only two tools and 21.7 per cent reported having communicated with a single tool. Regarding the type of collaboration that took place, the degree to which students considered they had used local collaboration and distributed collective (international) collaboration was analysed. As the groups consisted of students from both institutions, the task was organized in such a way that they had to work together with their local Table 3.2  Number of tools and ICT used Number

Tools

Students

%

3 tools

Skype, Facebook and comments Skype, e-mails and comments

2 9

47.8

2 tools

Skype and Facebook E-mail and Skype E-mail and comments

4 2 1

30.4

1 tool

Skype E-mail Facebook Comments in Dropbox

1 1 1 2

21.7

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university partners in each group and later with the other university partners. The survey revealed that while working on their part of the task, most students (fourteen (60.6 per cent)) limited their collaboration to the local context, whereas the remaining (nine (39.3 per cent)) engaged in both local and distributed collective (international) collaboration. When the type of collaboration that had taken place was analysed based on the comments students had provided to their groups, it was observed that most of the students (eighteen (78.3 per cent)) had given comments on the lesson plans and materials other members had produced, and sixteen students (69.6 per cent) had received feedback from their international partners. Students’ perception of the usefulness of the comments they received was predominantly positive (ten (43.5 per cent)), though some students (six (26 per cent)) considered such commentaries not very useful. Since the groups collaborated in both local and international contexts, the usefulness students attributed to both types of collaboration was also evaluated. Students’ ratings seemed to point to a higher usefulness of local collaboration in comparison with international collaboration. As can be seen in Figure 3.1, four (17.4 per cent) students evaluated the usefulness of local collaboration as ‘very much’ and six (26 per cent) as ‘much’, while no student considered distributed collective collaboration as ‘very much’ useful and only one considered it as ‘much’ useful. Negative ratings of usefulness were given to local collaboration by six (26 per cent) students (five rated it as ‘little’ useful and one as ‘not at all’ useful), while fifteen (65.2 per cent) rated distributed collective collaboration negatively (eight as ‘little’ useful and seven as ‘not at all’). The fact that students rated local collaboration more positively was also confirmed by the data from the post-project reflections. This higher assessment may be due to the fact that local collaboration was much easier as the local partners of the groups could organize their meetings more effortlessly and more frequently, while the organization of international collaboration was problematic, needed a higher timeinvestment and was greatly limited by time constraints. Consequently, as students

Figure 3.1  Students’ evaluations of the usefulness of distributed/international and local collaboration.

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had to present a final product to be formally assessed in a short period of time, they evaluated the constraints that could affect the process negatively, and thus, considered local collaboration more suitable for the purpose of completing the task as efficiently and quickly as possible. While in their Likert scale survey evaluations most students rated the usefulness of international collaboration negatively, in their more in-depth reflection reports they gave a more positive perspective regarding the project. Among its benefits, students enumerated opportunities for reflection and for improving their lesson plans: ‘The comments we were exchanging helped our groups to reflect on what we did and to modify/improve the lesson plans both in terms of the ideas/activities designed for the lessons and in terms of the CMC tools.’ It seems that the level of awareness of the possible advantages created by international distance collaboration varied among individuals. Even though the students had explicitly been informed about the reflection and awareness opportunities this project could provide, only some of them reported increased reflection and awareness gains. The following quote illustrates the point: I’ve always thought that the best way to learn a language is by living it in real situations. Therefore every action that implies the contact with other people via the target language has always seemed to me a very interesting tool to use as English teacher. Thus, when we were first told about this project, I thought it would be exciting as it is something that we can encourage our students to do in the future, and it is always interesting to first practice what is later going to be taught. So I’m glad we’ve made it as we have seen the pros and cons of the activity and know better nowadays when, how and with whom this type of activities can be carried out.

Here, the student demonstrates exactly the kind of reflection we were hoping to instil in our students. The observed advantages and challenges of this telecollaboration project are useful because they can become valuable experience for future reference. Also, the dialogue between participants representing different educational backgrounds and experiences led to a broadening of pedagogical horizons and a kind of pedagogical scaffolding, as illustrated by the following comment: ‘Thanks to the other university students I recalled how important creativity is when it comes to planning students’ activities. Moreover, I learnt that during the process of reflection the feedback given by “the others” may be very useful, as it often draws attention to the issues one would not notice on one’s own.’ Analysing the reflection reports, we identified a variety of episodes that point to the development of techno-pedagogical skills. The most frequently reported constraints were issues connected with organizing and managing telecollaboration projects such as timetables and collaboration between international groups. Furthermore, the students reported learning about new ICT-based solutions. The students also noticed the specificity of the national groups and how points of view and methodologies varied in each country and, thus, how these projects can contribute to developing intercultural competence, and their pedagogical aims when teaching a foreign language. An increased awareness of a wider range of possible pedagogical solutions that the students learnt through the interaction with their partners in the other university was also declared by some students.

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Since it was possible that the declared awareness gains may differ from the actual actions taken during the project, we analysed the kind of pedagogical and technopedagogical focus of the students’ collaboration while producing the pedagogical materials. The dialogues generally revolved around two themes: the use of ICT tools and pedagogical solutions such as negotiating the lessons’ objectives and lesson organization issues. Evidence of these kinds of conversations came from all the three data sources we used in our study. Skype conversations and commentaries to the lesson plans as well as the post-project reflections all bear witness to the distributed/ international collaboration and the kind of skills development that took place between the groups. As far as techno-pedagogical skills development or ICT tools knowledge applied to teaching is concerned, the students learnt from each other how to employ various technological tools to make the teaching materials fit their pedagogical aims. For example, in one of the groups Polish students instructed their partners how to use Edmodo and HotPotatoes. Another type of dialogue concerned pedagogical solutions. The students exchanged comments in their documents providing suggestions to improve the lesson plans. For example, one Spanish student recalled that ‘it was our idea to use the video about culture differences to generate the interest of students during pre-reading stage’. Also, the students communicated their suggestions for the created materials by proposing improvements to the lesson plans. These concerned concrete pedagogical solutions such as adding more communicative activities to a lesson plan or changing the interaction patterns during a planned lesson. The students also reported sharing pedagogical comments related to lesson organization such as the time distribution of a lesson plan. The fact that international collaboration had an effect on their lesson plans was corroborated by the analysis of the improvements introduced to the pedagogical materials after the dialogue and feedback sessions online. While students’ awareness is by nature ephemeral and difficult to capture directly, the changes to the produced artefacts bring solid evidence of an awareness shift. In the case of our project, five of the six groups modified their lesson plans following the suggestions received from the partner university members of the team. The changes in the designed lessons concerned primarily pedagogical solutions such as the timing or organization of the lesson, and the use of ICT tools and other materials. For example, in one of the groups the Spanish partners suggested using a particular video material in order to enrich the lesson plan. Although students had reported limited participation (nine (39.3 per cent)) in the distributed collective collaborative part of the project, most groups modified their lesson plans so that it seems at least one member of most groups participated in the international telecollaboration. Consequently, considering the many comments regarding pedagogical and techno-pedagogical issues in our data and the fact that most groups modified and improved their lesson plans according to their partners’ suggestions, the project was successful both in bringing reflections related to pedagogy and intercultural development issues, and in providing an increased awareness of the possibilities and constraints ICT and telecollaboration present for language learning and teaching.

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The final part of this analysis is devoted to evaluating whether the changes implemented to overcome some of the problems identified in a previous telecollaborative project (Bueno-Alastuey and Kleban 2014) had resulted in better outcomes. The problems that had been identified were low participation levels and lack of awareness of the pedagogical value of telecollaboration. While the low participation level was overcome by making the task obligatory and an important part of the course grade, the lack of awareness of the pedagogical value of these projects seemed not to have been surmounted, at least if we consider the low ratings of usefulness awarded by students to this type of collaboration. A plausible explanation for the apparent lack of awareness of the usefulness of this kind of project could be offered by analysing the improvements students proposed for future projects. Logistic problems related to misaligned timetables, which made it difficult for the groups to meet synchronously during their class time, delays in the process of creating lesson plans and materials caused by mismatched academic calendars, the ensuing difficulties of arranging meetings online, which resulted in failures to meet the original deadlines, and the slowness of the telecollaboration process all point to the higher effort and investment of time students need to devote to international collaboration. These obstacles made them consider that the negative aspects of this project outweighed its benefits. Additionally, students did not seem conscious and aware of the quantity of pedagogical and techno-pedagogical commentaries present in their conversations and collaborations. Apparently, pedagogical awareness needs a much more explicit approach, probably including a reflection session to analyse both the changes introduced in the materials and lesson plans proposed and the commentaries. In these sessions, teacher trainers might be able to make students aware of their improvements and negotiations, by analysing the initial and final products.

5 Conclusions Our project described an attempt to go beyond the confines of a single classroom in providing students with opportunities to develop their knowledge and pedagogical and techno-pedagogical skills. During the study, we noted evidence of both local and distributed international collaboration that led to the production of high-quality teaching materials. Due to logistic reasons and the resulting ease of communication, local collaboration was more common and valued than distributed international collaboration. However, there is evidence in our data that the latter provided an added value by offering students opportunities to access their international partners’ knowledge and experience resources. This, in turn, might result in the development of their pedagogical and techno-pedagogical knowledge and skills. Specifically, this telecollaboration led to the exchange of experiences and, subsequently, to modifications of the designed lesson plans. Also, it helped the students to raise their awareness of telecollaboration benefits and constraints and enhance their knowledge of ICTbased pedagogical solutions, thereby contributing to making these kinds of projects sustainable in their future school practices.

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While we managed to overcome the problem of task completion rate, which had been identified as a constraint in the previous telecollaboration project, by making tasks obligatory, the other identified constraint, namely the lack of awareness of some of the pedagogical benefits of this kind of projects, was not surmounted. Thus, solutions that incentivize students to engage in more extensive international collaboration need to be developed further in future projects. For example, it would be interesting to investigate whether explicit awareness-raising sessions organized prior to telecollaboration projects could help to increase participation in international collaboration. To conclude, our project offers a case study that might serve as a reference point to facilitate the process of designing, organizing and managing international telecollaboration projects aiming at developing students’ pedagogical and technopedagogical skills and pedagogical knowledge.

References Antoniadou, V. (2011). ‘Using Activity Theory to Understand the Contradictions in an Online Transatlantic Collaboration between Student-Teachers of a Foreign Language’. ReCALL 23 (3): 233–51. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. (2010). ‘Synchronous-Voice Computer-Mediated Communication: Effects on pronunciation’. CALICO 28 (1): 1–25. https://calico.org/html/article_828.pdf (accessed 20 May 2013). Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. (2011). ‘Perceived Benefits and Drawbacks of Synchronous VoiceBased Computer-Mediated Communication in the Foreign Language Classroom’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 24 (5): 419–32. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. (2013). ‘Interactional Feedback in Synchronous Voice-based Computer-Mediated Communication: Effect of Dyad’. System 41 (3): 543–59. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. and Kleban, M. (2013). ‘A (Partially Successful) Telecollaboration Project for Pre-Service EFL Teachers’. A Paper Delivered at EuroCALL Conference, Gothenburg, Sweden, 22–5 August 2013. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. and Kleban, M. (2014). ‘Matching Linguistic and Pedagogical Objectives in a Telecollaboration Project: A Case Study’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 1–19, doi: 10.1080/09588221.2014.904360. Chapelle, C. and Hegelheimer, V. (2004). ‘The English Language Teacher in the 21st Century’. In S. Fotos and C. Browne (eds), New Perspectives in CALL for Second Language Classrooms, 299–316. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (2000). Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures. New York: Routledge. Donato, R. (2004). ‘Aspects of Collaboration in Pedagogical Discourse’. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 284–302. Dooly, M. (2009). ‘New Competencies in a New Era? Examining the Impact of a Teacher Training Programme’. ReCALL 21 (3): 352–69. Dooly, M. and Sadler, R. (2013). ‘Filling in the Gap: Linking Theory and Practice Through Telecollaboration in Teacher Education’. ReCALL 25 (1): 4–29. Ernest, P., Guitert, M., Hampel, R., Heiser, S., Hopkins, J., Murphy, L. and Stickler, U. (2012). ‘Online Teacher Development: Collaborating in a Virtual Learning Environment’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 26 (4): 311–33.

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Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K. and Maillet, K. (2001). ‘Giving a Virtual Voice to the Silent Language of Culture: The Culture Project’. Language Learning and Technology 5 (1): 55–102. http://llt.msu.edu/vol5num1/furstenberg/default.html (accessed 15 June 2013). Grosbois, M. (2011). ‘CMC-Based Projects and L2 Learning: Confirming the Importance of Nativisation’. ReCALL 23 (3): 294–310. Guth, S. and Helm, F. (2012). ‘Developing Multiliteracies in ELT through Collaboration’. ELT Journal 66 (1): 42–51. Guth, S. and Marini-Maio, N. (2010). ‘Close Encounters of a New Kind: The Use of Skype and Wiki in Telecollaboration’. In S. Guth and F. Helm (eds), Telecollaboration 2.0., 413–27. Bern: Peter Lang AG. Hauck, M. (2007). ‘Critical Success Factors in a TRIDEM Exchange’. ReCALL 19 (2): 202–23. Hauck, M. (2013). ‘Empowering Students in Digital Environments: Promoting a Critical Use of Online Language Learning Tools and Applications’. A paper delivered at PL CALL conference, 9–10 May, Warsaw, Poland. Helm, F. (2009). ‘Language and Culture in an Online Context: What Can Learner Diaries Tell Us about Intercultural Competence?’. Language and Intercultural Communication 9 (2): 91–104. Jauregi, K. and Bañados, E. (2008). ‘Virtual Interaction through Video-Web Communication: A Step Towards Enriching and Internationalizing Learning Programs’. ReCALL 20 (2): 183–207. Jauregi, K., de Graaff, R., van den Bergh, H. and Kriz, M. (2012). ‘Native/Non-native Speaker Interactions Through Video-Web Communication: A Clue for Enhancing Motivation?’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 25 (1): 1–19. Koehler, M. J. and Mishra, P. (2009). ‘What is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge?’. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education 9 (1): 60–70. Lantolf, J. P. (2000). Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee, L. (2007). ‘Fostering Second Language Oral Communication through Constructivist Interaction in Desktop Videoconferencing’. Foreign Language Annals 40 (4): 635–49. Lee, M. J. W., McLoughlin, K. and Chan, A. (2008). ‘Talk the Talk: Learner-Generated Podcasts as Catalysts for Knowledge Creation’. British Journal of Educational Technology 39 (3): 501–21. Lund, A. (2008). ‘Wikis: A Collective Approach to Language Production’. ReCALL 20 (1): 35–54. O’Dowd, R. (2003). ‘Understanding the ‘Other Side’: Intercultural Learning in a SpanishEnglish E-mail Exchange’. Language Learning and Technology 7 (2): 118–44. O’Dowd, R. (ed.) (2007). Online Intercultural Exchange: An Introduction for Foreign Language Teachers. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Paavola, S., Lipponen, L. and Hakkarainen, K. (2002). ‘Epistemological Foundations for CSCL: A Comparison of Three Models of Innovative Knowledge Communities’. In G. Stahl (ed.), Computer Support for Collaborative Learning: Foundations for a CSCL Community, 24–32. Hillsdale, NY: Erlbaum. Polisca, P. (2011). ‘Language Learning and the Raising of Cultural Awareness through Internet Telephony: A Case Study’. The Language Learning Journal 39 (3): 329–43. Scardamalia, M. and Bereiter, C. (2003). ‘Knowledge Building’. In J. W. Guthrie (ed.), Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edn, 1370–3. New York: Macmillan Reference, USA.

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Schmid, E. C. and Hegelheimer, V. (2014). ‘Collaborative Research Projects in the Technology-Enhanced Language Classroom: Pre-Service and In-Service Teachers Exchange Knowledge about Technology’. ReCALL 26 (3): 315–32, doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1017/S0958344014000135. Shulman, L. (1987). ‘Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform’. Harvard Educational Review 57 (1): 1–22. Sotillo, S. (2002). ‘Constructivist and Collaborative Learning in a Wireless Environment’. TESOL Journal 11 (3): 16–20. Tian, J. and Wang, Y. (2010). ‘Taking Language Learning Outside the Classroom: Learners’ Perspectives of eTandem Learning via Skype’. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 4 (3): 181–97. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wylie, M. (2010). An Online Cross-Cultural Project in EFL Instruction. Unpublished MA thesis. Krakow: Jagiellonian University.

4

Promoting Student Collaborative Reflective Interaction Using Wikis and VoiceThreads Sabrina Priego

1 Introduction Recent studies on CALL have focused on how best to use Web 2.0 tools such as Wikis and VoiceThreads in educational contexts (Augustsson 2010; Aydin and Yildiz 2014; Bradely, Lindström and Rystedt 2010; Brunvand and Byrd 2011; Chan and Pallapu 2012; Ching and Hsu 2013; Kessler 2009; Lund 2008; Mak and Coniam 2008; McCormack 2010; Millard 2010; Papadima-Sophocleous 2012). Since the Wiki is a web-based collaboration tool that can be easily created, viewed and modified by its members, second language (L2) researchers have started to investigate the collaborative potential of Wikis for cooperative writing and peer editing (Bradley, Lindström and Rystedt 2010; Lund 2008; Mak and Coniam 2008; Papadima-Sophocleous 2012). However, Wikis also enable language learners to post multimedia artefacts that have been produced offline or online, such as a VoiceThread. A VoiceThread is a collaborative, multimedia slideshow that presents images, documents or videos and allows students to leave comments with audio, text or video. According to Millard (2010), the use of VoiceThreads in education deserves empirical investigation for the following reasons: First, since it is being marketed and appropriated as an online learning tool, an empirical investigation of its learning benefits as a social-constructivist learning environment would prove useful. Second, it is a new multimedia web-based tool that may facilitate interaction among the participants. Finally, it is a new digital tool for media presentation, and possibly a convergent media computer-mediated communication (CMCMC). However, there is a lack of empirical studies where both Wikis and Voicethreads have been used as a platform for L2 student interaction. This chapter outlines a research project that aimed to contribute to the existing literature on CALL by investigating what Wikis and VoiceThreads can do as a means to enhance students’ collaborative reflexive interaction when students are encouraged to engage in joint construction of meaning with distant peers. In particular, this study investigated (a) the participants’ use of the technological affordances offered by

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VoiceThread (i.e. audio and text) and by Wiki (i.e. the discussion forum) to interact with their partners, (b) the nature of the students’ interaction in terms of cooperation and collaboration and (c) the ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects. This chapter approaches this project from the perspective of ESL teacher education and identifies a number of key features that appear to be significant in achieving sustainability of CALL collaborative projects. In this work, the notion of sustainability is interpreted in terms of a Web 2.0 project’s life span and its capacity to continue to respond to the needs of the target audience beyond its completion. This chapter concludes that only when a Web 2.0 collaborative project is normalized into the syllabus will students reap its full benefits, and that it is on the basis of this enduring viability that the project can be considered successful.

2  Literature review 2.1  Research on Wikis Previous research on Wikis has analysed the effects of using Wikis as a platform for students’ written interaction (Aydin and Yildiz 2014; Bradely, Lindström and Rystedt 2010; Kessler 2009; Lund 2008; Mak and Coniam 2008). For example, a study by Mak and Coniam (2008) investigated how ESL seventh grade students collaborated on a Wiki and what impact collaboration had on the finished product. The results of this study showed that the text produced was expanded, reorganized and corrected by the students, which resulted in improved coherence. However, it was also found that the students had been reluctant to engage in the peer-review process because it was a new experience for them. Another study by Kessler (2009) investigated the use of a Wiki with pre-service English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers. Their results indicated that the students were more willing to collaborate on aspects of content rather than form in such an environment. Kessler found that even though the students were asked to highlight both content and language in their feedback, they were primarily engaged in contentbased and not form-based feedback. The author concluded that the lack of attention to form was due to the level of grammatical accuracy that was acceptable for the informal context of the Wiki as a writing environment. Bradley, Lindström and Rystedt’s (2010) study of the use of a Wiki with English for Specific Purposes (ESP) students in an engineering programme went further by focusing on patterns of student interaction on the Wiki. To do so, the students’ interaction on the Wiki was investigated by scrutinizing their participation and written contributions. The results of this study showed that these contributions ranged from no visible interaction among group members on the Wiki to a high level of collaborative text alterations. It was found that out of the twenty-five participating groups, five groups posted a full piece of text not showing any cooperation or collaboration on the Wiki. Another five groups were primarily cooperating on the Wiki. In other words, the group members were acting as individuals contributing to their joint texts on the Wiki. Finally, there were fifteen groups where students produced a piece of text each

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by taking turns in contributing to the writing process, but also going back, adding their ideas to their group’s text and editing existing content. This study showed that the nature of the contributions has implications for language learning. It was found that the collaborating groups produced more versions of revised text, with a higher number of edits in their assignments. Unlike previous research on Wikis, the current study also incorporates the use of VoiceThread as a tool for student collaborative reflection.

2.2  Research on VoiceThreads A number of recent studies have started to investigate the potential of VoiceThread to promote the collaborative development of knowledge in higher education (Augustsson 2010; Chan and Pallapu 2012; Ching and Hsu 2013; McCormack 2010). For example, McCormack (2010) explored how to use VoiceThread to help twenty-five pre-service teachers reflect in depth on shared learning experiences and found that the development and implementation of VoiceThread assignments increased pre-service teachers’ reflective response and engagement. Another study by Augustsson (2010) investigated student interaction when using VoiceThread in a university course. He found that the use of VoiceThread supported students’ reflections concerning their own and others’ thoughts and emotions. In a more recent study, Ching and Hsu (2013) examined twenty graduate students’ experiences using VoiceThread for a collaborative activity in an entirely online course. The results of this study revealed that graduate students had very positive experiences using VoiceThread for collaborative learning. Together, these studies seem to suggest that VoiceThread has great potential for fostering high-order thinking and collaborative learning. However, data from these studies were obtained only with semi-structured interviews (Augustsson 2010; McCormack 2010) or openended surveys (Chan and Pallapu 2012; Ching and Hsu 2013). No previous study, to my knowledge, has analysed the nature of the student interaction on VoiceThread in terms of cooperation and collaboration. The current study contributes to the literature by examining whether students use the technological affordances offered by VoiceThread (i.e. audio and text) and by Wiki (i.e. the discussion forum) to interact with their partners, and by investigating the nature of the student interaction on the VoiceThread. It further seeks to explore ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects.

2.3  Collaborative reflective interaction in Web 2.0 environments The studies reported in the previous sections show that the characteristics of easy publishing, sharing and communication of Web 2.0 environments, such as Wikis and Voicethread, foster an opportunity for L2 learners to co-construct knowledge and become engaged in collaborative dialogue with their peers. Yet, in some of these studies, the issues of text ownership and a reluctance to edit the contributions of peers have also been raised. For example, the interview responses in Lund’s (2008) study revealed students’ concerns about inexpert editing and thus showed that students need to get used to this collective ownership when writing. Similarly, Mak and Coniam

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(2008) conclude that students did not fully collaborate in the Wiki because peer reviewing was a new experience for them. In a more recent study, Aydin and Yildiz (2014) also found that although all the participants were computer literate, it was the first time they had used Wikis as a component of their foreign language learning courses. Therefore, the authors conclude that the novelty effect of the tool may have affected student participation in the Wiki-based tasks. These conclusions are in line with Chan and Pallapu’s (2012) study, which argues that when students are unfamiliar with a particular technology or tool, they may hesitate to experiment with it and may display limited openness to its use. In their analysis of the sustainability of CALL projects, Kennedy and Levy (2009) posit that while, in general, much less class time needs to be dedicated now to training in operating a CALL application than in the past, teachers need to be conscious that there can be great disparity between the more- and less-literate students in terms of the training they expect. Furthermore, they argue that training students is not limited to the ‘technical’ or ‘operational’ aspects of using an application, but also about its pedagogical purpose and the recommended ways of using it. In the same order of ideas, Kessler (2009) concludes that Web 2.0 technologies ‘may encourage participation and enhance collaborative creation of information, but it may be necessary that the teacher experiment with a variety of roles (including no role at all) in order to allow competent advanced students to explore topics extensively’ (p. 91). As for the characteristics of the tasks learners are asked to engage in, Aydin and Yildiz (2014) argue that they should be chosen carefully as they clearly bear great importance in constructing the amount of collaborative dialogue and scaffolding among learners. Discussing the collaboration among students in a Wiki, Bradley, Lindström and Rydstedt (2010) state that a distinction between cooperation and collaboration in Web 2.0 environments needs to be made: The concept of co-operation can be explained as individuals working autonomously in the presence of others, where the individually constructed contributions are complied to make a unified whole, at a later stage. Collaboration, on the other hand, takes place when individual contributions to group reasoning enable the group to come to new or changed insights regarded as impossible to gain by the individuals on their own. (p. 250)

These researchers thus claim that the nature of collaboration taking place in Web 2.0 applications when used for language learning deserves further attention. The present study builds on Bradley, Lindström and Rydstedt’s definitions of cooperation and collaboration to analyse the nature of the student interaction on VoiceThread.

3  Research questions The following research questions guided this study:

1. How do participants use the technological affordances offered by VoiceThread

(i.e. audio and text) and by Wiki (i.e. the discussion forum) to interact with their partners?

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2. During their participation on the VoiceThreads, what was the nature of the students’ interaction in terms of cooperation and collaboration?

3. What are ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects?

4 Methodology 4.1  Participants and context A group of twenty-five students in a didactics course in a Bachelor of Education in Teaching English as a Second Language BEALS or Baccalauréat en enseignement de l’anglais langue seconde” programme was paired up with a group of twenty-five university students in an advanced ESL class in a university in Quebec, Canada. This project was integrated into the students’ regular class activities in order to ensure students’ accountability. The project lasted for eight weeks and in both classes, the students’ participation in the project was graded. The didactics course was given in a computer lab, so the pre-service teachers worked on the project in class. The computers were equipped with headsets, but webcams were not available. The ESL class took place in a regular classroom setting, so the students were asked to post their comments out of class time. Being the BEALS students’ teacher, the author of this chapter acted as the Wiki administrator. She created the Wiki that was to be used as a platform to post the VoiceThreads and allowed access for the ESL teacher and students from both classes to become members of the Wiki. Responses to a questionnaire prior to the study showed that none of the students had used a Wiki or a VoiceThread before the project.

4.2 Tasks On the first day of the project, the teachers introduced the Wiki and VoiceThread technologies in their respective classes. Students were asked to join Wikispaces (https:// www.wikispaces.com/) and to register for the project Wiki. Each pair, formed by a BEALS student and an ESL student, was asked to choose and listen to a podcast from a list of thirty podcasts from the CBC radio (http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/features.html) previously selected by the ESL teacher (for the topics, see Table 4.1). After listening to the podcast, each partner chose the three most important ideas and created three opinion-type questions to discuss with the other partners via the VoiceThreads. Each pair of students had a page on the project Wiki. The BEALS students were required to create a VoiceThread (http://voicethread.com) with at least three pictures (as visual support for each of the topics to be discussed) and to post it on their Wiki page. In addition, they could also communicate using the Forum on their Wiki page. Students from both classes were required to post a comment at least once per week throughout six weeks.

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Table 4.1  Topics of podcasts discussed by each of the groups Group

Topic

1

Pleasures of the Flesh

2

The Winding Stair

3

Gilbert Reid’s France, Part 1

4

Gilbert Reid’s France, Part 2

5

Navigating Multicultural Realities

6

The Great Hunger

7

Trail of Tears

8

Chinese Laundry Kids

9

Empire of Illusion

10

Wihtigo

11

Burqas and Bans: Freedom of Oppression

12

Zionism From Within

13

The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World

14

How the West Can Help

15

Amor vs. Roma

16

The Enright Files – Aboriginal Canadians and What Society Owes

17

Playing Through Changes

18

Human Rights and Multiculturalism

19

Never in Anger

20

Being Canadian, Part 1

21

Being Canadian, Part 2

22

Shanghai Ladies

23

Nomad

24

The Tale of Genji

25

Culture Without a Country

5  Data collection and analysis 5.1  Content analysis of the Wiki pages and VoiceThreads As students had the possibility to communicate with their peers using different interaction modes, the Wiki pages and the VoiceThreads were analysed to investigate which communication features the participating students had preferred (Research question #1). As previously mentioned, although VoiceThread allows students to interact with video, when at the computer lab, the students could not use this feature because webcams were not available. In addition, to investigate how each pair of participants communicated and cooperated (Research question #2), students’ discussions on the VoiceThreads were analysed according to three categories, adapted from Bradley, Lindström and Rystedt

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Table 4.2  Taxonomy of the nature of student interaction on VoiceThread Categories

Definitions

1. No visible sign of interaction

Each student posts his comments and/or questions, but without considering his partner’s comments or questions; in other words, each student records or types a monologue.

2. Cooperation

One student asks the questions and the other one answers them.

3. Collaboration

The two students engage in discussing the topic by acknowledging each other’s ideas, providing feedback and refining them.

(2010): (a) no visible sign of interaction, (b) cooperation and (c) collaboration. As the focus of their study was to investigate the students’ interactions on the Wiki while they engaged in joint construction of text, revising and commenting, the definitions of the three categories of student interaction were adapted to the present study (see Table 4.2). Since in this project students had the possibility to leave their comments on VoiceThread with audio or text, the adapted taxonomy includes both modes of interaction.

5.2  The Questionnaire In order to investigate the pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects (Research question #3), a questionnaire with three open-ended questions was administered one week after the end of the project. The pre-service teachers’ responses to the three open-ended questions were examined to group similar comments into themes. Each theme was then given a suitable label. In this chapter, quantitative and qualitative data from the questionnaires will be discussed in relation to the following themes: the use of VoiceThread as a means to enhance teachers’ understanding of the topic dealt with in the podcast; the technological problems they encountered when using Wikispaces and VoiceThread; the communication problems they had with their partners; and their perceived benefits of the project.

6 Results In this section, the results of the content analysis of the Wikis and VoiceThreads, and of the questionnaire responses, are discussed in relation to the aforementioned research questions.

6.1 Students’ use of the communication features offered by Wikis and VoiceThreads The content analysis of the VoiceThreads showed that more than half (68 per cent) of the BEALS students interacted with their peers using audio, 12 per cent (3/25) with text and 20 per cent (5/25) used both audio and text. As for the ESL students, 52 per cent

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(13/25) of them posted their comments using audio, 40 per cent (10/25) used text and 8 per cent (2/25) used both audio and text. The information collected from the questionnaires provided some indications as to why participants had chosen one or another communication feature offered by VoiceThread. Table 4.4 presents verbatim the BEALS students’ responses to Table 4.3  Students’ choice of communication features offered by VoiceThread Communication feature Audio only

BEALS students

ESL students

17 (68%)

13 (52%)

Text only

3 (12%)

10 (40%)

Both audio and text

5 (20%)

2 (8%)

Table 4.4  Students’ reasons for choosing a given communication feature offered by VoiceThread Communication feature used Audio

Reasons ●●

●●

●●

●● ●● ●●

●●

●● ●●

●●

Text

●● ●●

Both audio and text

●●

●●

●●

●●

●●

It is more authentic than written communication and it was interestingly different from the way we are usually working in class. It was quick, easy, motivating and it helped me improve my communication skills. I found it more interesting to listen to someone than to read. Furthermore, I feel that it helped create a sense of closeness to my partner. We can speak to each other and hear each other’s voices. I believed that both my partner and I could use some oral practice. I found it was easier to communicate that way, because writing to each other was impersonal. It was much quicker for me to talk and my ideas are much clearer when I talk simply because I have time to say it all whereas when I write it takes too long and I lose my ideas. I found it was a nice way to communicate. I think speaking makes it more personal and we have fewer opportunities to practice oral skills than written skills. I used the audio because the comment box is really small. When typing, you can correct yourself and your partner more easily. It’s less intimidating than to record your comments. I think a mix of both is a good way to improve speaking skills as well as writing skills. I used writing, and speaking. The writing was more personal. I would use writing to introduce myself, to ask her personal questions, and to conclude the partnership. The speaking was more task-related. I tried to use different methods of communication to make sure my partner chose his favourite method … but it didn’t work … At first, I recorded my voice. Then, when she answered back by writing I continued writing. I began the project using the recording, but my partner answered in the written form. So I answered back in the written form as well.

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the following open-ended question: Which method of communication did you use? Why? As shown in this Table, the students felt that recording their comments was a more authentic and faster way to communicate with their partners. Some students believed that audio discussions saved them time because they could speak faster than they could type. They also felt that having to record their comments had helped them to improve their speaking skills. One student commented that he had not typed his comments ‘because the comment box is really small.’ However, some students felt that typing

Table 4.5  Students’ use of the Wiki discussion forum Pre-service teachers Group

ESL students

Number of messages posted on the Wiki forum

1

5

6

2

4

5

3

5

3

4

2

1

5

1

3

6

6

1

7

5

4

8

2

0

9

1

2

10

1

2

11

5

7

12

3

1

13

6

4

14

3

3

15

8

4

16

5

7

17

8

3

16

2

1

19

1

0

20

8

8

21

1

2

22

1

0

23

2

0

24

4

2

25

2

0

91 messages

69 messages

Total

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their comments was less intimidating than recording them, and that it allowed them to correct their mistakes. Among the reasons mentioned by the students for having used both means of communication was their desire to improve both their writing and speaking skills. Finally, two students mentioned that they had recorded their comments at the beginning of the project, but had switched to writing because that was the way their partners were communicating. Content analysis of the Wiki pages revealed that all of the BEALS students and most (20/25) ESL students also used the Wiki discussion forum to communicate with their partners (Table 4.5). As a group, the BEALS students posted more messages than their partners (91 and 69, respectively). A closer examination of the Wiki discussion forum postings revealed that, following the project guidelines, students from both classes used the forum to introduce themselves, to ask personal questions, to remind their partners about the deadlines, to find out why their partners were not communicating and to conclude the partnership. This information was further confirmed in the end-of-project questionnaire.

6.2  The nature of students’ interaction on Voicethread The students’ interaction was categorized into the forms of interaction that the groups were engaged in throughout the project, from the first to the last comment posted on VoiceThread, regardless of the communication feature used (i.e. audio or text). Results of the content analysis of the VoiceThreads showed that the student interaction ranged from no visible sign of interaction between the two partners to a high level of collaborative work (see Table 4.6). Out of the twenty-five groups, four groups (16 per cent) fell into the category of leaving a comment not showing any cooperation or collaboration with their partners. In other words, the two partners were posting monologues. There were also eleven groups (44 per cent) in which the interaction between the members was of a more cooperative nature. However, the discussion between partners was limited to asking and answering questions. In all of these groups, it was the BEALS student who asked the questions, and the ESL student who answered them. Finally, ten out of the twenty-five groups showed a deep level of collaboration in which the partners contributed to the discussion and thus helped each other to better understand the topic dealt with in the podcast.

Table 4.6  Nature of students’ interaction on VoiceThread Nature of the interaction (n = 25 groups) No visible sign of interaction

Cooperation

Collaboration

4 (16%)

11 (44%)

10 (40%)

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In order to illustrate the way the students interacted on VoiceThread, a representative example of each of these forms of interaction is presented in the Appendix. In the verbatim transcripts of oral comments and the unedited written comments provided, signs of interaction have been highlighted to facilitate reading. Paragraphs that were omitted are indicated with an ellipsis (…).

6.3 ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects 6.3.1 Use of VoiceThread to enhance their understanding of the topic dealt with in the podcast Based on the end-of-project questionnaire, 44 per cent (11/25) of the BEALS students considered that their cultural knowledge of the topic had changed during the discussions with their partner, and 56 per cent (14/25) said that their cultural knowledge had either minimally changed or not changed at all. Sample participant responses are presented in Table 4.7.

6.3.2 Technological problems with Wikispaces and VoiceThread One of the open-ended questions in the end-of-project questionnaire asked participants to identify the problems they had had using the Wiki and VoiceThread. Out of the twenty-five BEALS students, only four (16 per cent) reported not having had any problems with the platforms used in this project. One of these four students specifically commented, ‘Except for the computer bog that happened sometimes when we were too many students logged on the VoiceThread website, there was nothing frustrating and the communication worked really well between me and my partner.’ Another student mentioned that she ‘really liked the fact that we were introduced to new technological tools. We had the chance to get used to VoiceThread and we will then be able to integrate it in our own ESL classrooms.’ The two other students explained that they had not had any problems because they were comfortable using technology in general. Table 4.8 provides a list of the aspects that these pre-service teachers found most frustrating with respect to technology. Six BEALS students (24 per cent) identified their partners’ lack of knowledge about the platforms as being the most frustrating aspect, and four (16 per cent) stressed their own inexperience with regard to these Web 2.0 tools. Three participants (12 per cent) felt that the most problematic aspect of the project had been that the ESL students did not have access to a computer in class, and two (8 per cent) associated this factor with the reason for their delayed responses. Two students (8 per cent) commented on the problems linked to recording their comments, and two (8 per cent) found it difficult to use different modes of interaction. Finally, one student (4 per cent) said that some of the topics dealt with in the podcasts had probably not facilitated the interaction among the participants, and one said that the whole project was too time-consuming.

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Table 4.7  Use of VoiceThread to enhance students’ understanding of the topic dealt with in the podcast Yes/No Yes

Number of students 11 (44%)

Sample responses With the exchanges, I could see that my partner was very interested in the topic. I had a better comprehension of why Zionism is central to Israeli politics. My cultural knowledge of the topic also evolved a lot during the discussions with my partner because he seemed to be very well informed on the subject and I learned many things about Afghanistan when listening to his answers. I also enhanced my cultural knowledge by looking at articles on the internet in order to answer to my partner. My partner studies anthropology and she helped me understand some of the concepts of Islam society. She also helped me to have a different point of view towards other society and their customs. My partner added a lot to what I had already found and shared with her. Therefore, my cultural knowledge of the topic changed because of the complementarity of information in the discussions. By having someone else’s view, it gives you more information and more knowledge of the topic that you may have not thought about. My partner’s field of study is directly link with the podcast subject which really enhanced my cultural knowledge on the aboriginal. In fact, her experience with the subject helped me to clarify different aspects.

No

14 (56%)

I would have liked to have more time to discuss about the subject with my partner since the subject was really interesting and directly related to the culture. We had some technical problems so we did not have much time to change our cultural knowledge. Not much because I was asking different questions to my partner based on the documentary (and I already knew the answers).   It didn’t change much, because I am a Québécoise and so is my partner, I think that it could of changed though if I corresponded with someone from another culture. My partner gave me insights to his thoughts and perceptions about recent topics, but it was nothing that I was not familiar with since it is common beliefs in my culture. I have not learned from my partner as I would have expected. He told me he was French, so I wished he could have told me more about this cultural element with which he is more familiar than I am. He simply confirmed the main ideas of the podcast. It would have been a lot more interesting if he had shared his personal experiences/observations about the topic with me. My cultural knowledge of the topic did not change during discussions with my partner. The only new aspect brought by the discussion was a different point of view on the topic of Canadian culture. It did not change that much as I discussed with my partner because of all the technical problems we had. My partner and I only discussed about what our opinions were on some of the subjects that were mentioned in the podcast.

Table 4.8  Technological problems with Wikispaces and VoiceThread Number of students mentioning this aspect

Sample responses

ESL students’ lack of knowledge about the platforms used

6 (24%)

My partner’s lack of knowledge in regard to the platforms (VoiceThread and Use of forums).

BEALS students’ lack of experience using Wikis and VoiceThread

4 (16%)

I was new with this technology. The fact of not knowing what to do at the start of the semester and having to ask the teacher many questions frustrated me! I just didn’t know how it worked and I wanted my partner to be happy with my collaboration.

ESL students’ lack of access to a computer in class

3 (12%)

The most frustrating aspect in terms of technology was that my partner did not have access to a computer during her class like we do.

Delayed responses

2 (8%)

The inability to communicate with my partner weekly. It took a lot of time to understand how the project worked and what the best ways to communicate were. Because we were not used to working with Wikis and VoiceThread, it was confusing sometimes and I spent a lot of time wondering if my partner had quit her class.

Drawbacks of the recording tool

2 (8%)

Sometimes the sound was not that good. It usually was ok at the university labs, but then it was annoying to talk around other people.

Using different modes of interaction

2 (8%)

At first, I thought it was a little difficult to use, with all the different mediums (Wikis, voicethread, podcast, etc.) It was a bit complicated.

Topic dealt in the podcasts

1 (4%)

The gap of possible communication created by the use of certain podcasts, which impeded introduction of proper discussion topics.

Number of tasks involved in the project

1 (4%)

The whole project is really time-consuming. If we want to create a good project, related discussion and questions, it takes a large number of hours and a lot of organization and research.

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6.3.3  Communication problems with their partners Participants were also asked to identify the problems they had run into when communicating with their partners. Six (24 per cent) BEALS students reported not having had any difficulty in working with their partners. However, nineteen (76 per cent) participants found it difficult to rely on their partners. For example, one participant stated, ‘When you work with a partner, there is interdependency. In fact, if you have done your work and that your partner hasn’t, it penalizes you as well. It often took a long time before my partner wrote back to me.’ Another one made the following comment: ‘I found it frustrating to rely on someone in the sense that in order to progress I had to wait for the other one to answer.’ Finally, some of them found that their partners were not as motivated by the project as they were, as the following verbatim comments illustrate: What I found to be the most frustrating aspect of communicating with a partner was the evident lack of interest towards the project by my (and other) partner(s). We did not share the same expectations and motivation. I think he was minimally engaged, as this project did not have any significant value for him. Whereas for myself, I was fully engaged, I saw this project as positive and rewarding, although it did not result in such outcomes. The most frustrating aspect of working with my partner was the individual difference in motivation and the investment of time from my partner and I.

6.3.4  Pre-service teachers’ perceived benefits of the project The last open-ended question asked participants to share their overall opinion about this project. It is important to note that one participant could list multiple benefits of the project. Table 4.9 provides a list of the mentioned benefits, and some sample responses. The benefits most mentioned were the development of ICT skills and the development of the awareness of possible problems in this type of projects and of how to prevent them. More than half of the BEALS students (60 per cent) also reported having developed an awareness of the pedagogical possibilities of incorporating Web 2.0 projects in the ESL classroom. Eleven students (44 per cent) mentioned that the project had promoted the sharing of information, opinions and thoughts. Finally, eight students (32 per cent) mentioned that ICT projects increase ESL students’ motivation, and two (8 per cent) said that they foster student participation.

7 Discussion In this section, the results of the study are discussed in relation to previous research on Wikis and Voicethreads.

Table 4.9  Pre-service teachers’ perceived benefits of the project Benefit

Number of students mentioning this benefit

Sample responses

23 (92%)

Through the project, both participants learned how to use different platforms of online communication, (Wikispaces and Voicethread).

Develop awareness of possible problems and how to prevent them.

20 (80%)

This project gave me the opportunities to analyse the factors that may have contributed to limited interactions between my partner and I, and the factors that may have influenced the motivation and the involvement of both of us regarding this project.

Develop awareness of pedagogical possibilities in the ESL classroom

15 (60%)

Regarding the pertinence of the project, it is noteworthy that opinions were shared orally and in a written form on music, a highly cultural subject, and that all of this was made with the use of ICTs. Since the objectives in English classes touch all of these elements (communication, culture and ICTs), I believe similar projects are pertinent to use in ESL classroom settings.

Enhance sharing of information, opinions and thoughts

11 (44%)

Despite a few difficulties, I consider the CMC with Sylvie to have been a success. She and I exchanged information, questions and opinions for more than 15 minutes. We did not discuss many questions, but we had interesting exchanges on each of them. Moreover, each post was fairly long and the answers seemed authentic.

Increase students’ motivation

8 (32%)

Motivation is a major factor that plays an important role in learning, and using technology to engage students turns out to be beneficial.

Foster participation

2 (8%)

The space we created on the web was one of open-mindedness and dialogue. Even though the language was correct, the tone was never really formal and official; at no time could we feel any pressure coming from either her or me. Moreover, we could feel that the other person paid attention.

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Develop ICT skills.

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7.1 Students’ use of the communication features offered by Wikis and VoiceThreads The first research question addresses students’ use of the communication features offered by Wikis and VoiceThreads. The content analysis of the Wiki pages and VoiceThreads showed that all the students used VoiceThread to discuss the topic dealt with in the podcast they had been asked to listen to. In both groups, more than half of the students interacted with their peers using audio, followed by text, or by a combination of audio and text. In the questionnaires, students explained that the audio recording was a more authentic and faster way to communicate with their partners, and that it had contributed to improving their speaking skills. Similar results were found by Ching and Hsu (2013). Among the nineteen students who participated in their study, more than half of them used the audio, followed by text and then by video. However, while they found that all individual participants consistently used the same mode to interact with their peers, findings from the present study showed that some students used both audio and text because they wanted to improve both their writing and speaking skills, or because they had switched to the interaction mode used by the student they were interacting with. These results seem to suggest that only some students took advantage of the different features offered by VoiceThread. It was also found that all BEALS students and most ESL students used the Wiki discussion forum to introduce themselves, to ask personal questions, to remind their partners about the deadlines, to find out why their partners were not communicating and to conclude the partnership. This finding shows the importance of using a Wiki as a platform to embed the VoiceThreads. As mentioned by Ching and Hsu (2013), one of the drawbacks of VoiceThread is that the discussions are not collected in one place. Consequently, students in their study were instructed to post the URL to their VoiceThread in a discussion forum. To visit peers’ presentations and make comments on them, learners needed to exit the discussion forum, which was not the case in the present study.

7.2  The nature of students’ interaction on VoiceThread The second research question concerns the nature of the students’ interaction on VoiceThread. Overall, the findings of this study lend some initial support to the idea that Wikis and VoiceThreads can be effective tools for facilitating students’ collaborative reflexive interaction with distant peers. However, the findings also show that although all the participants interacted on the VoiceThreads, only ten showed a deep level of collaboration in which the partners contributed to the discussion and thus helped each other to better understand the topic dealt with in the podcast. These findings demonstrate that, as stated by Donato (2004, p. 285), ‘interaction does not categorically mean collaboration.’ These findings can be explained as follows: First, it was concluded that perhaps the activity itself did not require a high enough degree of collaboration. Indeed, the majority of the students restricted themselves to following the guidelines provided by their corresponding teachers, namely choosing

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the three most important ideas from the podcast and creating three opinion-type questions to discuss with their partners on the VoiceThreads. The effect of task type on students’ interaction on Web 2.0 environments has also been mentioned in previous studies (Arnold and Ducate 2006; Arnold, Ducate and Kost 2009; Aydin and Yildiz 2014; Kessler 2009). For example, in their respective studies on Wikis, Kessler (2009) and Aydin and Yildiz (2014) found that the meaning focus of the tasks may have led students to overlook the grammatical errors as long as they did not interfere with the comprehension of the intended message, which points to the importance of tasks in constructing the amount of collaborative dialogue and scaffolding among learners. In this same order of ideas, the findings of this study underscore the importance of scaffolding student interaction by providing them with examples of successful collaborative exchanges. In this regard, teacher training has a major role to play. While learning about the advantages of Web 2.0 projects, pre-service teachers must equally come to understand that technology is not, in and of itself, automatically collaborative. Second, it was concluded that although students in both classes were of about the same age and level of language proficiency, the lack of collaboration between the two partners could be due to the roles the participating students were expecting to have in this project. On the one side, the ESL pre-service teachers may have believed that their role was to ‘guide’ the discussion and on the other side, the ESL students may have assumed that their role was limited to answering their partners’ questions. The analysis of the students’ introductions posted on VoiceThread showed that several BEALS students offered to help their partners with their English, which indicates that the pre-service teachers presupposed that there would be asymmetries in their mastery of English, as this verbatim introduction illustrates: Hello, my name is Kathleen and I am 24 years old. I’m currently a 4th year student in the BEALS program as I intend on teaching English as a second language in the near future. I will be your partner for this podcast project and I hope that we will learn about new interesting facts together as we communicate in the second language. Regarding this, I noticed that you are an ESL student at Laval so please free to ask me any questions you have regarding some expressions, or vocabulary or stuff like that. If you feel that I’m speaking too fast or too slow please let me know. So I hope we will have a good time together.

Finally, in line with previous research (Aydin and Yildiz 2014; Chan and Pallapu 2012; Lund 2008; Mak and Coniam 2008), it is concluded that students did not fully collaborate on the VoiceThreads because it was the first time they had used Wikis and VoiceThreads as learning components of their courses. Data from the questionnaires showed that six BEALS students identified their partners’ lack of knowledge about the platforms as being the most frustrating aspect, and four stressed their own inexperience with regard to these Web 2.0 tools. These findings point to the importance of training students to use these tools effectively in order to help them to fully collaborate with their partners using Wikis and VoiceThreads.

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7.3 ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects The third research question concerns the ESL pre-service teachers’ perceptions of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in collaborative projects. The results of the questionnaire suggest that pre-service teachers appreciated their participation in this project. Most felt that they had developed their ICT skills, and their awareness of the pedagogical possibilities of incorporating Web 2.0 projects in the classroom, of the possible problems and of how to prevent them. Almost half of them mentioned that the project had promoted the sharing of information, opinions and thoughts. Finally, some students also mentioned that ICT projects increase ESL students’ motivation and foster student participation. This finding is in line with recent studies (Aydin and Yildiz 2014; Ching and Hsu 2013; Kessler 2009). However, the participants also identified several problems they had run into when communicating with their partners via the Wiki or the VoiceThread. Some students acknowledged having become demotivated because of their partners’ lack of knowledge about the platforms, or because of their own inexperience with regard to these Web 2.0 tools. In addition, some found it difficult to rely on their partners and some of them felt that their partners were not as motivated by the project as they were. These results seem to suggest that using Wikis and VoiceThreads to carry out collaborative projects is a potential way to promote students’ collaborative reflective interaction, but it is not enough. Further refinement of this project is necessary to avoid the pitfalls of poor sustainability and diminishing student motivation.

7.4 Achieving normalization: Towards sustainability of Web 2.0 collaborative projects Consistent with Kennedy and Levy’s (2009) views on sustainability and CALL, the findings of the present study underline the importance of envisaging Web 2.0 projects as an iterative process of experimentation, evaluation and enhancement. Indeed, the students’ evaluation of the project helped us to identify not only the benefits of using Wikis and VoiceThreads in ESL education, but also problems that we had not anticipated, and it is largely on the basis of the students’ evaluation that we will be able to modify and enhance the project. In this sense, the sustainability of the project described in this chapter could be achieved by normalizing it into the respective Didactics and Advanced ESL course syllabus. In line with previous research on CALL (Bax 2003; Chambers and Bax 2006; Kennedy and Levy 2009), it is concluded that only when the CALL application becomes fully integrated into a course, and is evaluated and enhanced over time, will it have found its proper place in language education. However, as explained by Chambers and Bax (2006), in order to achieve normalization of CALL projects in any educational context, numerous factors need to be considered. These researchers cluster the main issues that seem to impede normalization of CALL into four groups: (a) Logistics, (b) Stakeholders’ conceptions, knowledge and abilities, (c) Syllabus and software integration and (d) Training, development and support. Based on these factors, I can set out five specific recommendations to achieve normalization

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and thus ensure sustainability of the Web 2.0 collaborative project described in this chapter: First, for normalization to take place, in both classes, CALL facilities will ideally not be separated from ‘normal’ teaching space; that is to say, both groups of students need to have access to computers during class time. Second, for teachers to integrate such a project into their syllabus, they may need additional time for preparation and planning of tasks that promote student collaborative reflective interaction. Third, teachers and students need to have enough knowledge of and ability with Wikis and VoiceThreads to feel confident about using them. Fourth, successful normalization of this Web 2.0 collaborative project requires that it be properly integrated into the syllabus, and that appropriate training is given to both teachers and students. Finally, progress towards normalization may be enhanced by both technical assistance and pedagogical support to teachers and students.

8  Conclusion and future work My goal in this chapter has been to explore the use of Wikis and Voicethreads in ESL education programs. The chapter has outlined a research project that aimed to contribute to the existing literature on CALL by investigating what Wikis and VoiceThreads can do as a means to enhance students’ collaborative reflexive interaction when students are encouraged to engage in joint construction of meaning with distant peers. The chapter has concluded that only when a Web 2.0 collaborative project is normalized into the syllabus will students reap its full benefits, and that it is on the basis of this enduring viability that the project can be considered successful. This study could be replicated within a longer time span to allow the participants to get fully accustomed to the technical features of Wikis and VoiceThreads. In the long term, to ensure the sustainability of this Web 2.0 collaborative project, it would be desirable to normalize the use of Wikis and VoiceThreads into the ESL teacher education curriculum.

References Arnold, N. and Ducate, L. (2006). ‘Future Foreign Language Teachers’ Social and Cognitive Collaboration in an Online Environment’. Language Learning and Technology 10: 42–66. Augustsson, G. (2010). ‘Web 2.0, Pedagogical Support for Reflexive and Emotional Social Interaction Among Swedish Students’. Internet and Higher Education 13: 197–205. Aydin, Z. and Yildiz, S. (2014). ‘Using Wikis to Promote Collaborative EFL Writing’. Language Learning and Technology 18: 160–80. Bax, S. (2003). ‘CALL: Past, Present and Future’. System 31: 13–28. Bradley, L., Lindström, B. and Rystedt, H. (2010). ‘Rationalities of Collaboration for Language Learning in a Wiki’. ReCALL 22: 247–65. Brunvand, S. and Byrd, S. (2011). ‘Using VoiceThread to Promote Learning Engagement and Success for all Students’. Teaching Exceptional Children 43: 28–37.

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Chambers, A. and Bax, S. (2006). ‘Making CALL Work: Towards Normalisation’. System 34: 465–79. Chan, M. and Pallapu, P. (2012). ‘An Exploratory Study on the Use of VoiceThread in a Business Policy Course’. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching 8, Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol8no3/chan_0912.htm. Ching, Y.-H. and Hsu, Y.-C. (2013). ‘Collaborative Learning Using VoiceThread in an Online Graduate Course’. Knowledge Management and Learning 5: 298–314. Donato, R. (2004). ‘Aspects of Collaboration in Pedagogical Discourse’. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24: 284–302. Kennedy, C. and Levy, M. (2009). ‘Sustainability and Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Factors for Success in a Context of Change’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 22: 445–63. Kessler, G. (2009). ‘Student-Initiated Attention to Form in Wiki-Collaborative Writing’. Language learning and Technology 13: 79–95. Lund, A. (2008). ‘Wikis: A Collective Approach to Language Production’. ReCALL 20: 35–54. Mak, B. and Coniam, D. (2008). ‘Using Wikis to Enhance and Develop Writing Skills Among Secondary School Students in Hong Kong’. System 36: 437–55. McCormack, V. (2010). ‘Increasing Teacher Candidate Responses Through the Application of VoiceThread’. International Journal of Arts and Sciences 3: 160–5. Millard, M. O. (2010). ‘Analysis of Interaction in an Asynchronous CMC Environment’. Proceedings of the Web Science Conference 2010, Retrieved from http://journal. webscience.org/391/. Papadima-Sophocleous, S. (2012). ‘CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) Wiki’. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 34: 174–80.

Appendix: Representative examples of forms of student interaction on the VoiceThread1 (a)  No visible sign of interaction: Amélie and Ève-Marie’s2 Voice Thread (Podcast: Trail of Tears, Part 1) ESL student (Marianne)

1

[Audio] Hello and welcome to our conversation about the podcast Trail of Tears. My name is Amélie and I will be the one making conversation with you about the podcast. As you know, it talks about one of the biggest removal in the United States; the Cherokee removal. In 1838, the United States government forcedly removed more than 16,000 Cherokee Indian people from their homeland in Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina, and Georgia, and sent them to Indian territor … tor … territory today known as Oklahoma. The impact to the Cherokee was devastating. Hundreds of Cherokee died during their trip west and thousands more perished from the consequences of relocation. Before we begin, I would like to know what made you choose this podcast. Have you ever heard of this story before? Did you enjoy the podcast?

[No answer]

2

[Audio] For my sake, I would like to thank you for choosing this podcast because I discovered a part of the United States’ history that I did not know and I learned a lot from it. I have to say that I found the podcast very interesting and stimulating. Now, I have a few questions to ask you about the podcast. So, first of all, during the year of 1838, the United States and the Cherokee signed a treaty … a treaty for the independence of the Cherokee, but this treaty was for the removal of the child. After listening to the podcast Trail of Tears, what do you think about this removal? What is fair? Did the Cherokee have other options? Was if for the best?

[Audio] Hi Amélie. My name is Eve-Marie and I will be your partner with the, for the podcast. So, I’ve took you email and as have you mentioned I think the easiest way to talk about the podcast will be by VoiceThread. So, that’s what I will be doing for the next minutes. So, the podcast was talking about the Cherokee that has been forced to move by the government. So, they have to walk and deplace all their tradition and their family away. So, it was really interesting for me to listen to the vodcast … podcast because it was the first time I heard about the story of the Cherokee, but it was also the first time that I heard that they were forced to move, so it was interesting also to see what they have been doing since they were deported and also what they are what they are doing right now to try to preserve the traditions by, for the Cherokee. So it was interesting to see that they have made the Trail of Tears because it help, it help us to remember what happened, but also it help them to remember what happened.

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BEALS student (Sébastien)

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BEALS student (Sébastien)

ESL student (Marianne)

1

[Audio] Hi there. My name is Sébastien. I’ll be the one with whom you’ll discuss about the podcast on the Chinese laundry kids. So there you go. My first question is: How did the Chinese end up in these conditions and do you think there is something the government could have done to get them out of poverty, other than having them work in such places?

[Text] Chinese ended up washing laundry after the railroad companies no longer needed them. The reasons why Chinese men came to North America because, in China, they suffered poverty, famine, and civil war. The illusion they could get rich lured them to come over. After the railroads, laundry washing was their best solution. It needs little knowledge of English and it was a stable income.

[Text] It’s true that it was a logical decision for the China men because of their English level and low income. I believe however that maybe the State could have given, let’s say, English classes for them to get better. Do you believe it was better for society in general to keep them working on clothes?

[Text] When it first start, it was the Industrial Revolution. Suddenly, the class were divided: Rich, Poor, really poor. School weren’t as it is now. The accessibility was reserved to rich people who could send their kids. Chinese man didn’t have that luxury, so the only way to learn english was by working. Only they were isolated for racial matter. You have to remember those times, racism was almost accepted in the society. Almost. But, what is surprising is that I kept being that way until past the 1950’s.

2

[Audio] [Text] So, my second question is concerned with the way people felt about what Chinese man washed the laundry for necessity. They had to earn money to was happening at that time. Did China men seem to feel good, bad or support their family. They felt that their children would have a better life. But, indifferent about washing clothes and how do you think people in the late the Chinese man would never tell the truth to relatives back in China. They 1800’s and early 1900’s felt about China men? Was it only disrespect or was would say they have a cloths store because it is to degrading to say they had to there also something else? do a job normally reserved to women. it was then taking for granted by people around that Chinese people had to wash the laundry.

3

[Audio] My third question is related to the children of the Chinese who first worked in the laundry business. Why did China men such as Howard, who ended up having better jobs such as doing some research for the government, decided to get back to the laundry despite the working conditions? Would you have done the same?

[Text] Howard Wong first work was during the Space program at the NASA. After the great hours of the program, Howard was designated to other kind of job. He realized he was working on prototype that could be weapons of mass destruction or other military equipment. It bothers him enough to quite the job and return to his family business. But it was not before he went back to University, finished a degree and then developed a program that helps for keeping inventory. From my point of view, I think I would have done the same.

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(b)  Cooperation: Sébastien and Marianne’s VoiceThread (Podcast: Chinese Laundry Kids)

(c)  Collaboration: Victoria and Pascale’s VoiceThread (Podcast: Never in Anger, part 2) ESL student (Pascale)

(Continued)

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BEALS student (Victoria)

[Audio] [Audio] Hi Victoria. I am Pascale and I’m finishing my first year of a bachelor in Hi Pascale! My name is Victoria. I’m a second year student in the bac anthropology with a concentration in aboriginal studies. I’m glad to discuss en enseignement de l’anglais langue seconde. I will be your partner for this very interesting subject with you. You told me you never heard about the podcast VoiceThread project and basically we will discuss together those residential schools before. I was basically in the same situation. I our podcast subject through opinion and discussion questions. So, can remember to have heard a little bit about it in my history class in Cégep basically our podcast was about the aboriginal rights and was presented and in a course named Anthropology of Inuit at University. But teachers and sequentially in our video. So, first they introduced the subject historically books only mentioned it without developing the subject. I totally agree with by referring to the residential schools and what aboriginal children you when you said that this video was instructive and interesting. Even if experienced in these schools. I thought it was really interesting because my university degree is focusing on aboriginal people, I didn’t know about I was not aware of the horrible things that these children faced over how hard it had been for native people to pass through those residential 150 years ago. But it quite struggles me in a way that, I did not really schools. Concerning the second part of the podcast, I knew a little bit more understand the way between this horrible experience and the aboriginal about the topic. However, this section offered me different opinion about rights, itself. It might be a misunderstood on my own, of myself of the the aboriginals’ situation and how many problems that they have to solve. video, but I thought, it kind of brought me like really sad emotions to hear Concerning the podcast globally, I found the second section a little bit all these horrible experiences. So, I didn’t thought that, not that it was not more complicated than the first one and I had to listen three or four times a good introduction to the subject, but I did not really understand the link to it to really understand the whole content. You also said that you did between the two. Then, in the video they went on to talk about the Indian not understand the link between aboriginal rights and residential schools. act and aboriginal rights through a kind of conference and conversations. I agree with you when you said that it was not the best introduction Basically, I thought that the subject was really interesting as well. Because to the podcast. However, there is a link between those two different one of my best friend is Indian and she talked to me a lot about the topics. Residential schools have been placed to assimilate aboriginal people aboriginal rights and I always thought that the subject was interesting and and had been said in the podcast to kill the Indian and the child. At the I always wanted to learn a little bit more about it and this video clearly beginning, aboriginal rights, especially the Indian act, had also been a way to gave me the opportunity to learn more about the subject. I also did some assimilate Indians because the act defined Indian and that treaty configured research on my own, because I wanted to have like a kind of a definition local government and mandate reserve land and money in aboriginal of what aboriginal rights are. So, I found this one that I think is what, well communities. So, both residential schools and aboriginal rights were and explaining the subject. So, aboriginal rights are those rights that exist in still are, well for the Indian act, a way to assimilate those first nations. In my recognition of the specific condition of the Indian peoples. This includes opinion, the Indian act should be removing from Canada’s legislation for not only the most basic human rights of physical, survival and integrity, many reasons. At first, the act does not let native people to define their own but also the preservation of their land, language and religion, and other identity. In fact, there is a written description of who can be considered as elements of cultural heritage that are a part of their existence as a people. an Indian or not. Secondly, the act limit the Indian rights to the reserve and So I think that this definition clearly explains the subject and mostly the

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ESL student (Pascale)

part where it is said that is about the preservation of their land, language, religion, and culture. So, I would like basically to know what did you think on your own about the video. Do you agree with me that it was very interesting? That, you know, it gives us the opportunity to learn a little bit more about the subject. So, basically, I really enjoyed the video, the podcast, even though I thought it was a little bit long … you know, I’m quite visual, so usually I need pictures to go with someone that is talking, but here it was only like a podcast so we had to listen to it. But I thought it was quite long, but very interesting. So, basically, my question for you is the following one: I would like to know what do you think about the aboriginal rights in Canada. Do you think they are still actual in 2012 or should they be revised? So, I’m going to wait for your answers. So, I hope you enjoyed our first VoiceThread. So … waiting to talk to you!

some extra territories. But not in the rest of Canada’s land. Finally, the Indian act does not let communities governing themselves. So, aboriginal situation in Canada is a very complicated topic because the government did not want to remove this act and he always tries to take away rights from aboriginal immigrant negotiation they have with the different nation. Finally, you asked me about aboriginal rights in Canada. As I said before, I really think that aboriginal rights should be seriously revised because, currently, negotiation and relation between the Canadian nation and the aboriginal nation are based on colonialist relation where the native people are still fighting to preserve their culture, their language, and their identity. To conclude, I would like to ask you back a question: What do you think about the actual aboriginal situation after listening to the podcast? Did you know about their living condition? I’m waiting for your answer. Have a nice week.

[Audio] [Audio] Hi Pascale. I was glad to see that you answered my first VoiceThread. So, first Hi Victoria. I hope you’re doing well today. I’m glad I made your memory clear about the … between the aboriginal rights and residential schools. of all, thank you for making the link between the residential schools and I like to share information I learned in my classes because it’s a good way the aboriginal rights be clear, because I did not understand it as clearly to appropriate the subject to myself. In fact I’m very glad I can discuss the as that listening to the podcast. So now, everything is more related in my subject with someone who is also interested by aboriginal situation. Well, I head and therefore makes more sense. I was also glad to hear your point know that all this for our English class but I really appreciate the enthusiasm of view on the subject and I really agree with you when you said that and the interest you have for the subject. Thank you for answering my the Indian act should be removed from Canada’s legislation since the question about the living condition of aboriginal people. Like you, I didn’t act does not let the native people defined their own identity because know that some aboriginal communities were so poor. I also didn’t know of evident description which establish who can be considered Indian that it kind a make a social situation where as that as they said in the podcast. or not. I also agree with you when you said that the act does not let the I knew that there was drug, alcohol, suicide and unemployment problems, community comforting themselves. Basically, also, at the end of your but I didn’t know that some communities had third world basic condition. VoiceThread you asked me a question which was the following one: Actually, it made me sad to learn that our government was not able, in 2012, what do you think the actual aboriginal, what do you think about the to provide basic living condition to the entire Canadian population, including actual aboriginal situation after listening to the podcast and did you know aboriginal people. I know that some of them are living far away from cities their living condition? And my answer goes like this. Well, first of all, I in the northern part of our country. But with the technology we have today did not know about their living condition and I learnt a lot in that podcast. the distance and the cold are no longer reasons to let people without drinking However, to be fairly honest, I find it really hard to have a clear opinion on water into their houses. Also, you said it was hard for you to have a clear the aboriginal situation because it varies a lot. In fact, some of the aboriginal opinion on the aboriginal situation because it varies a lot. I agree with does have serious issues concerning their living condition and are victims

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and suffer in many ways. Whereas, on the other hand, other aboriginals, such as my friend, does have the same living conditions as everyone else and is not victim on any parts in society … but still benefits other aspects related to the act, such as not paying taxes and being pay to go to school. So, basically, I don’t think the podcast did provide me enough information to make myself a defined opinion on the subject, on actually the aboriginal, the actual aboriginal situation and their living condition. Because I think there are too many variations implied in this case for me to express like a consistent point of view. So that’s why just I’m not able really to clearly answer the questions with the information I got in the podcast because the only, it seems to me they only provided negative aspects where as there are some other positive aspects. And as I told you I think there are too many like variations to really have a clear defined point of view on that aspect. So, basically, it’s my turn to ask you another questions. So, my second question is the following one: do you think that residential school in the past events experienced by the aboriginal should be considered in the revision of their rights or should the committee only consider their situation today? So here is my second question while I’m waiting for your answer. Thank you. Bye.

you when you said that aboriginal situation is changing from an Indian to another. Like you said, some of them do have the same conditions as all white Canadians. In fact, fifty percent of the entire aboriginals in Canada is living outside the reserves, so there are half of them living basically in the same condition as us. However, the podcast were there to make us aware about the other fifty percent; the ones who are living in reserves. The goal was to tell us that there was a major problem inside a majority of reserves and that the government and Canadian population should work in cooperation with the aboriginal people to make things going better. Thus, I agree with you when you said that the podcast did not gave us enough information to have a clear opinion on Indian living condition. I can only have the opinion I have because I learned plenty of facts and information about aboriginal situation in many different classes I have or had. … So, to answer to your question, I sincerely think that the committee should considerate residential schools and the past event experiences by the aboriginal because it is still a big part of today’s aboriginal situation. In fact, resident schools absolutely need to be included by the committee because if they don’t they will miss a major and crucial part of the actual aboriginal problems. I hope you understood my point of view. If you have any question about what I said, I will be glad to answer it. I will like to have your opinion on this question too. To conclude I have another question for you. What do you think about the part of the aboriginal history in our historical classes, especially in high school and in Cegep. Do you think we receive enough general information about aboriginal people? I’m waiting for your answer, and have a nice week.

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How Language Teachers Become Effective Users of CALL for Online Teaching and Learning: A Case Study of Their Developmental Processes in a Transformative e-Training Course Sandra Morales and Scott Windeatt

1 Introduction Technology develops at an increasingly rapid rate, and because of the internet, in particular, and the availability of Computer-mediated Communication (CMC), the concept of Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) encompasses an increasingly broad range of applications such as social networks and mobile resources (Chapelle 2010). As a consequence, language teachers are able to facilitate their students’ learning beyond the language classroom by integrating CALL in virtual learning environments (VLEs). L2 teachers themselves can network with colleagues using CMC to discuss what Hubbard and Levy (2006) refer to as CALL knowledge, that is, what L2 teachers know about technological resources for language teaching and CALL skills, that is, the ability to make informed decisions about applying this knowledge effectively with language learners. The rapid pace of technological change, however, raises two issues in relation to the design of teacher training courses. The first is how L2 teachers can be trained not only to handle current technology, but also to develop strategies for sustainable CALL personal development (Colpaert 2014) in order to adapt to the inevitable changes in technology they will encounter in future. The second issue relates to the adaptability of the training courses themselves; while the content will have to change as the technology develops, ideally the methodology adopted should need no more rapid change than that on non-technology-based courses. The aim of this study is to investigate how seven (n = 7) in-service English teachers from Chile and Easter Island developed their technological and pedagogical knowledge and skills for online language teaching. The findings contribute to the design of CALL L2 teacher development frameworks that are replicable, sustainable and adaptable to changes in the technology, encouraging standardized training

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practices that support teachers in developing practices that will help them adapt to those changes in technology once the course has been completed. The study adopts a social-constructivist epistemological stance using a case study methodology that seeks to provide an account of the L2 teachers’ experiences in an online L2 teacher training course for CALL, whose design is based upon pedagogy-oriented research principles (Colpaert 2006) linked to Mezirow’s (2000) transformative learning theory in order to foster experiential learning and individual and group reflection. A review of the literature on teacher training in CALL, online communities and transformative learning theory sets out the theoretical pillars that supported the investigation of the L2 teachers’ developmental process, followed by a description of the research methodology and procedures for analysis. We then discuss our findings and present concluding thoughts and suggestions for further research.

2  Literature review 2.1  L2 teacher training in CALL Approaches to second language teacher education (SLTE) have changed over time, as the emphasis has shifted to a more constructivist approach where social and experiential teacher training courses predominate (Freeman 2009; Johnson 2009). Why is the socio-constructive paradigm for L2 teacher training relevant in CALL teacher development? The answer is linked to the foundations of learning as an individual and social activity, and to how the learning/training environment must be properly designed to support trainees’ skill development at these two dimensions. Individual learning is seen as inseparable from the collaborative process in language teacher education (Johnson 2006; Swain 2013) with language teachers collaborating with each other on their professional experiences and dilemmas in order to develop as individuals. This will empower them to solve issues by applying and disseminating pedagogical techniques adapted to their own teaching contexts (Healey et al. 2011). Therefore, if L2 teachers are prepared using social-constructivist approaches, they are likely to be in a better position to apply this framework with their language students. Whyte and Cutrim Schmid (2012) discuss the importance of using social-constructivism for successful CALL pedagogy. In their study of techniques L2 teachers used when applying CALL in the classroom, they found that language instructors generally made use of learning approaches such as behaviourism. They suggest that taking a social-constructivist as an approach in L2 teacher training programs will familiarize teachers with this teaching philosophy and encourage them to apply a similar philosophy when planning CALL activities. In social-constructivist online learning/training environments in particular, additional teaching support is crucial to help learners/trainees establish their roles, interact and collaborate for meaningful learning to occur (Salmon 2011). Recommendations have also been made that L2 teachers should learn how to teach with technology through experiencing technological resources themselves so that they can have a better perspective on what their students would go through in similar learning contexts (Hubbard 2004).

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Therefore, online environments are helpful in creating spaces for an integral CALL teacher training due to the variety of CMC resources (e.g. discussion forum, chat) that can be used to distribute and develop knowledge through different media (Motteram 2001, 2009, 2012). Nowadays, technological resources provide access to a wealth of authentic language materials that allow the L2 teacher to present the contents through a variety of channels in the target language. However, Kern (2006, p. 200) indicates that ‘success in CMC, multimedia authoring and distance-learning projects has been repeatedly shown to depend largely on teachers’ efforts in coordinating learners’ activities, structuring language and content learning, and helping learners to reflect critically on language, culture and context.’ For these reasons, it is necessary to support L2 teachers and guide them in comprehending the role of CALL in online pedagogy and raising awareness about how it can enhance their pedagogical practices (Guichon and Hauck, 2011). In order to do so, it is important to explore the knowledge L2 teachers possess, what can be transferred and how they develop CALL competence as an ongoing process. In his study on CALL teacher development, McNeil (2013) suggests that CALL skills should be observed and documented in terms of how they are enhanced in L2 teacher training courses. His recommendation invites CALL researchers to analyse language instructors’ processes as they develop their CALL competence for online teaching, a rather under-explored research focus that seeks to improve models for L2 teacher training in CALL. This can be achieved by fostering interaction with peers, and through practice and opportunities to teach and apply the acquired knowledge (Levy, Wang and Chen 2009; Orlando 2009).

2.2  Skills for facilitating online teaching How can in-service L2 teachers successfully integrate online resources into their teaching? This concerns the pedagogical and technological skills and knowledge L2 teachers need to acquire in order to use technology more effectively with their learners. In this regard, Hampel and Stickler (2005) present a series of skills, ranging from technological to pedagogical, that teachers should acquire for effective online language teaching. If we analyse Hampel and Sticklers’ taxonomy, it is possible to infer that these skills for online teaching depend on teachers’ prior knowledge and views on language teaching and learning as well as technology, so it is of great importance to further explore the ways in which this knowledge might be incorporated and transformed in CALL training experiences. In Table 5.1, a summary of the skills for online teaching is shown (Hampel and Stickler 2005).

2.3 Community of Inquiry (CoI) in online teaching and learning In order to facilitate learning in VLEs (i.e. digital educational platforms such as Moodle or Blackboard), it is necessary to discuss how online communities are implemented (e.g. course design and resources), and learn and collaborate together (e.g. participants’ background and interaction). For this, Garrison, Anderson and Archer (2000) propose

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Table 5.1  Skills for online teaching Skills

Description

Basic ICT competence

L2 teachers’ familiarity with basic features of technology and their use (e.g. word processor, internet).

Specific ICT competence

L2 teachers’ ability to manage particular resources, such as authoring tools (e.g. Hot Potatoes), to be applied on an online or blended course.

Ability to deal with constraints

Skills L2 teachers might use to overcome technical and pedagogical difficulties.

Promoting online socialization

L2 teachers’ ability to build up and promote interaction (e.g. by including online discussion forums) and sense of community in online environments.

Facilitating communicative competence

In an online learning environment, L2 teachers should be able to promote communication and encourage exchange in the target language among students.

Developing creativity and decision making

L2 teachers should enhance their creativity by using adequate technological resources according to the learners’ needs and profile.

Developing their own style

L2 teachers should be able to modify their teaching profile in order to apply technology effectively in online settings and acquire a ‘personal approach’ when teaching online.

Source: Hampel and Stickler (2005).

a learning framework for online communities of enquiry based upon Dewey’s (1933) dual constructivist learning views: the notion of both ‘individual’ and ‘social’ learning. Lipman (1991) states that in ‘communities of inquiry’, critical thinking is essential to questioning reality, identifying challenges and providing solutions. Therefore, in L2 teacher education in CALL, online communities have been included in online and blended (combination of virtual and face-to-face learning) training programmes, as a means of educating L2 instructors in how to successfully use CALL resources in their teaching (Pawan et al. 2003). Garrison and colleagues (2000) propose that the online community of inquiry should be composed of three dimensions that interact with each other for meaningful online learning to occur. In social presence, group unification should be promoted as a means to foster scaffolding during the online learning experience. Cognitive presence is triggered when reflection takes place in order to gain understanding of information that can later be integrated as new or reinforced knowledge. Finally, teaching presence has to do with the design of an online course. At this level, the contents, goals, tasks and instructions should be clearly defined and organized. Table 5.2 summarizes the community of inquiry dimensions and indicates how they could be identified in textual computer-mediated interactions. In addition to these authors’ proposal, Salmon’s framework (2011) suggests guidelines for successful online learning and teaching. Salmon’s criteria (2011) are not strictly directed to online language teaching, unlike Hampel and Stickler’s (2005); however, her model presents five useful stages that can be complementary to CoI.

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Table 5.2  Community of inquiry indicators Elements

Categories

Indicators (examples only)

Social presence

Affective expression Open communication Group cohesion

Emoticons Risk-free expression Encouraging collaboration

Cognitive presence

Triggering event Exploration Integration Resolution

Sense of puzzlement Information exchange Connecting ideas Applying new ideas

Teaching presence

Design and organization Facilitating Discourse Direct Instruction

Setting curriculum and methods Sharing personal meaning Focusing discussion

Source: Garrison and Anderson (2003).

Salmon’s stages (2011) are access and motivation, online socialization, information exchange, knowledge construction and development. These stages can support online tutors to increase collaboration, interaction and knowledge acquisition in online communities.

2.4 Guiding L2 teachers to build up and sustain their CALL skills and knowledge beyond training experience: Transformative Learning Theory In the context of social constructivist approaches for adult education, Transformative Learning theory promotes critical thinking and allows the problematization of issues based upon existing experiences and actions, in order to make new knowledge and ideas more meaningful (Mezirow 2000). The concept of ‘transformation’ (or ‘change’) in Mezirow’s (2000, p. 19) perspective ‘refers to a movement through time of reformulating reified structures of meaning by reconstructing dominant narratives’. This theory emerges from the work of Dewey (1933) and is aligned to the principles of communities of inquiry, in which critical thinking is central in order to better understand and solve problems through consciousness-raising processes. In the field of general teacher education, Transformative Learning theory uses reflection as a vehicle to promote understanding of teaching principles, strategies and knowledge. Thus, reflective processes encourage teachers to include new teaching techniques and help them to make effective decisions about their teaching. With respect to transformative learning and L2 teacher education in technology, studies indicate that L2 teachers improve their skills in using technological resources and are more likely to discuss the use of technology in language teaching when trained using transformational approaches (King 2002). Therefore, CALL trainers and course developers should pay attention to L2 teacher training models that promote reflection for transformation. Such training experiences may help teachers to improve and sustain their CALL knowledge and skills, resulting in real, long-term benefits for both language teachers and learners. Figure 5.1 summarizes the main points discussed in

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Figure 5.1  Literature review summary.

this literature review and how they are integrated into the methodological design of this investigation.

3  Research context and research methodology 3.1  Research questions The objective of this research was to examine how in-service L2 teachers developed their CALL skills and knowledge during an online teacher training course for online language teaching. The aim of the study was to gather and analyse data in order to make suggestions on the ways L2 teachers can be effectively trained in CALL for a sustainable use of technology. The findings allow us to propose strategies to refine the design of models for L2 teacher development in CALL so that they could be re-applicable and sustained at larger scales. To guide our study, the following research questions were investigated:

1. What pedagogical and technological knowledge in CALL do the L2 teachers bring to the course?

2. How do the L2 teachers develop their CALL knowledge and skills for online

teaching in an online training course for CALL that provides theoretical input, practice and reflection in a community of inquiry? 3. What evidence is there of transformation (changes) in the L2 teachers’ CALL knowledge and skills for online teaching after the online training in the community of inquiry?

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3.2  Methodological approach This investigation took a constructivist/interpretative stance. It used the exploratory case study methodology as the main strategy for research design to investigate how L2 teachers developed CALL competence for online teaching in an online teacher training course. Dornyei (2007) defines the case study as an approach to qualitative research that aims to describe and explore the reality of a defined object of investigation. Van Lier (2005, p. 195) indicates that case studies provide ‘the ability to track and document change’ over time. In case studies for CALL research, investigations can be enhanced by technology as it can provide complementary resources for data collection and analysis. The eclectic analytical perspective of this case study in particular is aligned with current paradigms of Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) (Rogers 2012) which allow researchers to gather and examine the data from different dimensions considering the L2 teachers’ individual processes and also as part of an online community. The information was collected using technology, such as online questionnaires, Skype interviews, blogs and online forum tracking tools from the virtual learning environment Moodle where the online community was implemented.

3.3 Participants The initial participants for the study were twenty-six (n  =  26) volunteer English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers from Chile and Easter Island. The sample was taken from in-service EFL teachers who taught in different educational institutions in Chile such as schools and universities. Homogeneous and snowball sampling techniques were used in order to recruit the participants through social media resources (e.g. Facebook). As all the participants were volunteers, it is relevant to mention that the attrition rate turned out to be quite high (n = 19). The L2 teachers who dropped out of the course indicated that time constraint, due to a heavy workload, was the main reason. The data presented here are therefore taken from the seven (n = 7) participants, six from Chile and one from Easter Island, who completed the course fully. As an ethical consideration, pseudonyms were assigned to these seven L2 teachers. Table 5.3 presents details about the participants.

3.4 Methods In order to examine how the L2 teachers increase their CALL competence for online teaching, an online teacher training course for CALL was designed. This course was delivered on Moodle for eight weeks with one of these researchers as the online tutor. For the design of the course, we first applied a needs analysis survey to identify the L2 teachers’ needs regarding the use of CALL for language teaching and learning. Using this information, we produced the course syllabus (Table 5.4) and organized contents that were transmitted using a variety of resources such as videos on YouTube (e.g. TED talks), journal articles and websites to allow for easy access and flexibility (Colpaert 2006). In order to enhance their CALL competence for online teaching, the participants were expected to reflect critically on theoretical aspects of CALL, complete practical

Degree/English proficiency

Prior formal training in CALL

Prior experience learning in online environments

Employed/Local university

English teacher/Native speaker

None

No

Employed/Local school/university

English teacher/Native speaker

Little

Yes

10 years

Employed/Local university

English teacher/Native speaker

Little

Yes (1 course)

6 years

Self-employed/Private students

English teacher/Native speaker

None

No

EASTER

24 years

Employed/Local school

English teacher/Native speaker

None

No

FRANK

2 years

Employed/Local school

English teacher/Native speaker

None

Yes (1 course)

ALEX

9 years

Employed/Local institute

English-Spanish Translator/FCE level

None

No

Participants

Teaching experience

Employment status

NEKO

1.1/2 years

CECE

10 years

ANDY MEGI

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Table 5.3  In-service EFL teachers’ description

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activities (e.g. a project upon course completion) and actively participate in the online community. Feedback and support from the online tutor was provided weekly. The organization of the online training course was founded on notions explained in the literature review regarding social-constructivism, transformative learning theory and existing teacher training frameworks. The community of inquiry model (Garrison et al. 2000) provided not only the structure to create the online community, but also the indicators to analyse the data from a social, cognitive and teaching presence. In practice, the social constructivist approach of the course promoted construction of knowledge in an experiential manner. The L2 teachers used Moodle as the medium for accessing and working on the course content, materials and practical activities. Blogs and online forums were used to increase opportunities for learning and development. This was complemented by the reflective principle of transformative theory. In both blogs and online forums, the teachers were encouraged (by the online tutor or members of the community) to discuss their views and teaching practices using technological resources in order to find ways to apply them effectively in their own teaching context. In this sense, the community of inquiry model played an essential role. The alignment of online socialization, exposure to CALL contents and reflection allowed the teachers to internalize the course input to enhance their CALL skills and knowledge individually and collaboratively. Table 5.5 summarizes the online course design criteria. Table 5.4  Online L2 teacher training course syllabus Week 1: Electronic Literacy

Week 5: Mobile learning

Week 2: CALL principles and methods

Week 6: Teaching culture through CALL

Week 3: CMC resources

Week 7: Networking and community building through CALL

Week 4: L  earning styles and learner training in CALL

Week 8: Online teaching and learning principles

Table 5.5  Online L2 teacher training course design criteria Online teacher training

Design criteria

Indication of L2 teachers’ needs for online teaching and learning.

Needs analysis (by these researchers)

Training learning environment (Moodle), aims, organization, multimedia materials, practical activities.

Colpaert’s (2006) suggestions on a pedagogical approach for course design.

Theory (CALL content), practice and reflection, feedback to develop CALL knowledge and skills for online learning.

Models for CALL teacher training (Levy et al. 2009)

Self- and shared reflection, development of CALL skills for online pedagogy.

Transformative learning theory (Mezirow 2000)

Experiential learning, social constructivist training environment.

Community of Inquiry (Garrison et al. 2000)

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4  Data collection and analysis Results from seven (n = 7) volunteer participants were analysed in this case study. The instruments used to observe the teachers’ developmental processes on the e-training course for CALL are explained in Table 5.6. Qualitative content analysis was used to explore the data from blogs and discussion forums as well as interviews. Qualitative (and quantitative) content analysis has been commonly used to interpret data from online discussions as established analytical protocols (such as those in the CoI framework, for example) have been proposed to examine not only the frequency of comments, but also the discursive connections of language features and the information contained in textual data (Marra, Moore and Klimczak 2004; Hauck and Warnecke 2013). This type of analysis was applied here in order to transcribe and code relevant patterns and themes that served to explain the teachers’ actions, choices and challenges during the online course. Data from the semi-structured interviews were also examined using qualitative content analysis and reported using Motterams’ (2006) transformative education scale for distance learners. This instrument (Table 5.7) helped to explain the teachers’ transformation in their own voice in pre-/post-course conversations, as it mirrors Mezirow’s (2000) perspectives on individual change. Quantitative information from pre/post course questionnaires, which measured teachers’ CALL views, knowledge, needs and opinions on the online training, was used to support the qualitative data.

4.1  Online discussion forums and blogs analysis All the entries of the participants in the discussion forums (eight discussion topics, 120 posts in total, considering the online tutor’s comments) and blogs (twenty-seven posts in total) were examined to analyse development regarding cognitive, social and teaching presence in the online community. In this study, qualitative content analysis Table 5.6  Summary of data collection and analysis methods Summarized research questions

Data collection instrument

Data analysis instrument

1. Existing CALL competence

Online questionnaire (Google docs) Interview (Skype)

Descriptive statistics Transformative education scale for distance learners.

Prior CALL knowledge, practices, needs

2. Developmental processes for CALL skills and knowledge

Online community (Blogs and forums)

Community of Inquiry Model

Social, cognitive and teaching presence

3. Transformation of CALL skills and knowledge during/ after the online course

Interview (Skype) Online questionnaire (Google docs)/

Descriptive statistics Transformative education scale for distance learners

Teachers’ changes regarding CALL competence for online teaching

Unit of analysis

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Table 5.7  Transformative education scale for distance learners 1. Getting an overview

Read input materials (new ideas); become acquainted with new ideas and new skills, reflect on these in terms of own experience.

2. Supporting knowledge and skills development

Try out new skills with the support of tutors. Discuss ideas with peers and tutors online, reflect on new experiences and progress with further reading.

3. Gaining independence

Try out new ideas in own professional context.

4. Going it alone

Establish a personal view and become confident with new skills.

5. Transferring knowledge and skills to others

Innovate and inspire others to change ideas.

Source: Motteram (2006)

was used to explore data from the participants’ blogs and online forums according to the categories from the community of inquiry framework (Garrison et al. 2000). In this model (Table 5.2), ‘triggering events’ indicate dilemmas and questions that participants may have about the topics of discussion in the online community. As knowledge develops, ‘exploration’ comments should emerge. These statements are linked to personal experiences and knowledge that can be shared in the blogs of forum threads. The developmental progression leads to ‘integration’, where participants should show signs of reflection, awareness and incorporation of new knowledge (e.g. references to theoretical input). Finally, in the ‘resolution’ phase, the participants provide solutions, plans or ideas in order to suggest changes or ways to cope with challenges more effectively. In this case study, first, these indicators were analysed and quantified. Social presence was examined as well in order to determine the unity of the online community by identifying discourse indicators of collaboration, banter and support (Table 5.2). Teaching presence was also explored in terms of course organization and the online tutor’s role in the online community. Initially, a question about a teaching situation was posted by the online tutor (or a member of the online community) in order to start (and facilitate) the discussion on the forums and promote reflection in the blogs. For example, one of the initiating questions proposed when one of the teachers was running the forum had to do with the importance of the ‘digital professor personality’ in an online teaching course, so the discussion revolved around issues related to online tutors’ strategies to run online courses. This is connected with the pedagogical skills suggested by Hampel and Stickler (2005) regarding fostering socialization and communication in online courses. For the blogs, one of the issues suggested by the online tutor for individual reflection had to do with the online resources L2 teachers choose to develop cultural competence in the L2 classroom. In this context, the teachers used the blogs for a more personal reflection on their teaching and how it could be improved by integrating the contents and suggestions from the online community. The blogs on Moodle were individual journals; however, they were public to the online community, so the information could also be accessible to peers.

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5 Findings 5.1 What happened to the L2 teachers in the online training course for CALL? According to the data that emerged from the study, the members of the online community were categorical as regards how important technology is to meet students’ language learning demands. However, it was found that they were still using it rather instinctively, as Cece’s data shows in Table 5.8. Consequently, it might be inferred that Cece was not entirely confident about how or why she was applying technological resources with her learners. ‘Wanting to learn more’ was a constant concern for the L2 teachers, probably caused by the fact that technology is continually changing and they might find it difficult to keep pace. Also, the ‘technologically competent’ L2 teacher profile required by educational institutions nowadays adds extra pressure on L2 teachers to be in continuous professional development. This is why it is essential to support in-service L2 teachers (and pre-service teachers in early training) with CALL sustainable knowledge and skills, such as those proposed by Hampel and Stickler (2005). Training opportunities with technology are significant to foster CALL competence; as Hubbard (2004) suggests, this can help L2 instructors to feel more prepared in order to avoid feelings of insecurity and encourage them to continuously develop their knowledge. What is interesting in the issue of the teachers’ existing CALL skills is that their personal perception of their CALL competence seemed to be linked to their individual concept of technology. For instance, in the pre-course interviews, the participants tended to have a relatively ‘elementary’ conceptualization of technology, as they mentioned tools such as the data overhead projector, radio, CDs and Power Point as the resources they usually used at schools. Table 5.9 presents some of the teachers’ comments. Therefore, if they do not have support, L2 teachers may remain with a restricted view on how they can formulate, and re-formulate, their ideas and use online teaching as a space to promote and construct effective language learning. In addition, it was observed that the teachers already made use of different methodological techniques (Table 5.10) to implement technology-mediated learning, which corresponded with what Whyte and Cutrim Schmid (2012) claimed in their study about L2 teachers and the use of interactive whiteboards. This is a positive starting point for planning activities using online resources, as L2 teachers can make decisions based on their prior knowledge in language teaching. Nevertheless, considering the benefits for individual and collaborative

Table 5.8  Pre-course interview data (Cece) Teacher

Data

Cece

‘I can learn or maybe to correct something that I have been doing, maybe I am not doing it like exceptional, so maybe I can improve all my classes.’

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Table 5.9  Pre-course interview data (Cece and Alex) Teacher

Data

Cece

‘I feel confident with managing basic things such as downloading files, using Youtube videos and the web, music …’

Alex

‘I don’t know much about technology but I know there is a few software [sic] available on Internet but I don’t know how to use it exactly to really take advantage of using them.’

Table 5.10  Pre-course interview data (Frank and Cece) Teacher

Data

Frank

‘I always use principles of communicative language teaching approach for any activity.’

Cece

‘I try to use technology because I know that it is important for the students. It is a good idea to get to them and use this affective filter, you know, Krashen …’

learning that technological resources provide, they should also be informed about learning approaches, such as social-constructivism, in order to make online activities more useful for their L2 students. Also, regarding the L2 teachers’ existing online teaching practices and criteria, they reported that their CALL activities were based on transferred knowledge from regular users of technology (e.g. online resources they used in their daily lives), intuition (e.g. tasks that would increase motivation among L2 learners) and model-based activities (e.g. ready-made activities from textbooks). In relation to their CALL professional development, they indicated that most of their knowledge was self-acquired. Also, they stated that it is difficult to engage their colleagues in using technological resources with L2 learners, so they usually feel ‘isolated’ in their work environment. This was, in part, the reason why they decided to become members of this online community, as they were able to share ideas and learn from peers with similar interests. Furthermore, the CALL skills and knowledge developed here encouraged them to motivate their colleagues at work to implement online teaching in their classes.

5.2  Dialogues from the L2 teachers in the online community The model for analysing the data in the online forums and blogs on this online L2 teacher training course was based upon the Community of Inquiry framework proposed by Garrison and colleagues (2000). Taking this into consideration, here we present findings regarding social, cognitive and teaching presence. Social presence: In order to encourage socialization in the online community, a ‘getting-to-know you’ forum was set up prior to the starting of the online course. As the participants did not know each other and taught in different locations in Chile, this was crucial to encourage interaction. The objective was to create a safe environment in

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the online community and, in general, the L2 teachers felt comfortable with it, as Neko states in Table 5.11. In addition, this friendly atmosphere gave the teachers space to share ideas not only about the topics of the course, but also about experiences from the ‘outside’ (there was an IATEFL Chile conference at the time of the course) that could be linked to what they were learning in the online course, thereby supporting cognitive presence. In this sense, having a strong social presence in the community helped to reinforce the teachers’ CALL skills development beyond the online community. We agree with Hauck and Warnecke (2013) that the teachers’ willingness to interact with the community is essential (actually, the teachers themselves wanted more participation from their colleagues), and the results here show that success in the online community was greatly helped by the three dimensions of social, teaching and cognitive presence proposed by Garrison et al. (2000). In Figure 5.2, we can see that the elements of social presence, group cohesion, dominated the forum posts (vertical axis = comments (eighty-one)) during the eight weeks (horizontal axis = discussion forums (eight)). Open communication was also a constant, making the online community a viable learning context. Cognitive presence: This dimension was examined considering the way participants produced comments through triggering events (questions), exploration (personal Table 5.11  Post interview data (Neko) Teacher

Data

Neko

‘It was good because nobody was like, no you are wrong, what you say is wrong, you don’t know anything about this. No, there was nothing like this.’

Figure 5.2  Social presence.

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experiences), integration (internalization of learning input) and resolution (proposition of plans for future activities). Questions were not as common as personal experience comments in forums, though, perhaps due to the fact that the online tutor posted an initial question and then the teachers answered directly rather than creating their own threads. This is part of what it is recommended online moderators should do to guide and encourage participants’ cognitive development (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes and Shing Fung 2010); however, it is difficult to motivate and encourage students to post their own queries to start debating. The range of posts conveying integration of knowledge in the discussion forums was similar to that in exploration, mostly as the course progressed, so the participants built up their competence as the input was being provided. With regard to resolutions in the online forums, it is interesting to note that the teachers did not seem to use this resource as much to discuss their future teaching plans. While Garrison and Vaughan (2008) suggest that text-based discussions may give online learners more time to digest the input they receive in order to produce high-quality responses, in this online training course this is debatable. It is true that they had a great degree of flexibility to think about and discuss the materials and topics, but they were not able to immediately present concrete outcomes. Analysis of the teachers’ blogs made it possible to observe that their patterns of cognitive presence were very similar to those in the discussion forums: there was a large amount of personal descriptions and a reasonable integration of contents. Nevertheless, in the blogs, the teachers seemed to be more likely to mention their resolutions for future application in online teaching for their L2 learners. They pointed out that the private space of the blog encouraged them to study the course contents further and express themselves individually. These findings concur with those in Akyol and Garrison (2011), who indicate that online learners perceive resolutions as a more personal process that would be unveiled as a final product of their learning outcomes. For example, in our study, Megi went from 0 resolution in the discussion forum to 5 in

Table 5.12  Cognitive presence Indicator

Data

Triggering event

‘I remember a question from Professor Joaquim Triandafilide in one of his talks; how crucial are oir senses for information processing?’ (Frank-Forum)

Exploration

‘I always try to keep up, but I think my younger colleagues are always beyond and new generations are learning new strategies and they improve their knowledge about technology.’ (Cece-Forum)

Integration

‘The transformative learning online training course is an example of this methodology. Currently, all of us are engaged in an online community participating in debates related to virtual connections. What is the teacher’s role in this process?’ (Easter-Forum)

Resolution

‘Considering that my students are teachers to be, I think, I am trying to answer the question now, that one of the best tools I can use with them is a blog/ padlet.’ (Andy-Blog)

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her blog. In Table 5.12 we display examples from the cognitive presence categories retrieved from the teachers’ blogs and forums. Qualitative evidence demonstrated that the participants managed to internalize the input provided in the course materials and then incorporate it in their reflections in the online forums. However, they relied heavily on personal experiences to connect the information. How did these L2 in-service teachers move towards understanding in the online training? This brings us back to the theory-practice-reflection approach that supported the design of the course. The findings showed that, in the discussion forums, for example, the level of engagement was initially very high and it fluctuated as the course developed. This may have occurred because of the relevance of the contents as, according to the teachers, some of the topics and materials (e.g. videos as opposed to readings) were more popular than others. For example, mobile learning was quite a novelty for the participants as they indicated that they had not considered mobile phones as a medium to extend language learning. This may be related to the aforementioned elementary understanding of technology the teachers brought to the course and how that was expanded during the online training course. As reflection was prompted by the online tutor in both blogs and forums, this may have had an influence on the teachers’ initiative to post or may have led to a rather ‘mechanical’ threading tendency, but it was necessary as a means to activate critical thinking. For this reason, reflection, whether dialogic or individual, encouraged the teachers to be engaged in constant self-analysis and to examine the ‘why’ of using online resources in order to re-formulate ideas, share knowledge and organize their future teaching actions. Teaching presence: Was the online tutor an expert, assessor or participant? The ‘human’ factor included in this online training course was positively perceived by the participants and considered crucial for their CALL skills knowledge development. As the nature of the course was asynchronous, in order to compensate for face-toface interaction, the online tutor posted introductory videos every week to guide the teachers. Also, Skype meetings and e-mail availability for feedback were organized. Table 5.13 shows post-course interview data related to this matter. Salmon (2011) discusses the relevance of online tutor–learner relationships in online environments and indicates a series of skills ranging from personal to degree of expertise in the taught field that may have an influence on the course progression. This is relevant if we consider that to promote teaching presence, online tutors have to organize the course, facilitate discussions, adapt materials to meet their students’ needs and provide proper feedback. In our investigation, the online tutor had a background in English teaching and training and CALL, and thus, the participants stated they could communicate with her in a ‘similar language’. This encouraged the Table 5.13  Teaching presence Teacher

Data

Cece

‘You made us participate and you never obligated us to do something, you encouraged us to do it. You always gave us your opinion first, so that was good because in the other platforms that I have been to before, I have never seen that.’

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Figure 5.3  Online tutor’s participation.

sense of inclusion in the online community, as the teachers said that nothing was imposed and students’ opinions were validated and complemented in order to foster their CALL skills and knowledge. This poses questions related to the characteristics of online teacher trainers for CALL (e.g. someone with a teaching and/or educational technology background) and how that can influence the effectiveness of an online training experience. As can be noted in Figure 5.3 (vertical axis = tutor’s posts (thirty-nine), horizontal axis = discussion forums (eight)), the online tutor’s participation varied as the course developed. During the first three weeks, the tutor’s presence was high as it was important to help build the online community to foster participation. From week four onwards, the online tutor’s involvement shifted to a more secondary role. The fact that the online tutor reduced her presence in the online community towards the end of the course can be interpreted positively for the teachers’ development. Consequently, as the online community grew more cohesive in time, the teachers became more independent and were able to maintain interaction in order to scaffold and make knowledge sustainable until training completion. Nevertheless, the ‘instant’ nature of online resources makes the online tutor’s assisting tasks laborious in terms of expectations (e.g. teachers’ motivation, participation) and strategies regarding how to deal with challenges that the teachers experience in online teaching. In this investigation, efforts were made by the online tutor to tackle constraints such as motivation (i.e. reinforcement of the relevance of online teaching), time (flexibility with activities) and course design (including materials to meet their needs).

5.3  Post-online L2 teacher training changes: ‘Digital self-esteem’ Most of the teachers in the online course were, to some extent, familiar with technology; however, they started this course with a feeling of uncertainty about how to integrate

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online pedagogy effectively with their L2 students. This, they said, was mostly because they either felt insecure regarding how technological resources would enhance their L2 classes or they lacked the CALL competence to choose, create, adapt and implement online materials. This led us to examine the literature regarding confidence in CALL and its effect on teacher’s pedagogical decisions (Egbert, Paulus and Nakamichi 2002; Kessler and Plakans 2008). We concluded that what the in-service L2 teachers in our research experienced was something we may call low ‘digital self-esteem’. What we mean here is that digital selfesteem has to do with how teachers perceived and felt about themselves in relation to using online teaching with L2 learners. It is a sentiment that leads to high or low levels of confidence, which has to do with how well they are able to apply online teaching. In our study, the L2 teachers indicated that their CALL knowledge and skills for online teaching were strengthened in the online community, which supported a reflective and transformative design (Table 5.14). This experience enabled them to enhance their digital self-esteem and that of others in relation to their roles, materials and teaching objectives, which would help them to overcome technological and pedagogical insecurities related to online teaching in the future. In the pre-/post-course questionnaires, the teachers were asked to evaluate themselves in the use of CALL for language teaching and learning. The options, based on Compton’s (2009) taxonomy, were basic (able to identify, adapt technological resources), proficient (able to identify, adapt and produce technological resources) and expert (able to identify, adapt, produce and evaluate technological resources). As noted in Figure 5.4, there is an increase in the number of teachers who consider themselves proficient and expert after the course. This concurs with the qualitative data above and indicates that the teachers were conscious about their CALL competence development. Therefore, they completed the online training feeling more comfortable with their technological and pedagogical skills to integrate online teaching in their L2 lessons. In fact, they recognized the online training itself as a model with tools, contents and practices they could use with their L2 learners. This may also suggest a development in their creativity and teaching style (elements in the final stages of Hampel and Stickler’s (2005) model) in putting their CALL competence into practice. As the participants said, the starting point for effective use is to ‘get involved’ with technology and increase awareness of options in order to make informed and pedagogical decisions for online language teaching and professional development beyond the end of the Table 5.14  ‘Digital self-esteem’ Teacher

Data

Alex

‘From the technical point of view now I am more aware of what I can do in my classes and what kind of activities do with my students … pedagogical, not it is easy to understand what to do exactly and how to implement technology, some materials in classes.’

Frank

‘I feel stronger … I can handle … I have trained myself with Edmodo, social networks, videos …’

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Figure 5.4  Pre/Post course teachers’ self-evaluation on the use of CALL for L2 teaching and learning.

course. Consequently, we could say that the instructional design of an online teacher training course becomes crucial not only to transmit knowledge, but also to effectively cater to teachers’ backgrounds and needs, so that they feel comfortable with what they are learning and are more likely to actually use what they have learnt with their students.

6  Conclusions and further work The aim of our research was to report on how seven (n = 7) in-service L2 teachers from Chile and Easter Island developed their CALL skills and knowledge for online teaching (Hampel and Stickler 2005) in an online teacher training course lasting eight weeks. The observations in this case study allowed us to explore the L2 teachers’ developmental process and identify elements that could be included in the design of future online teacher training courses for CALL in order to create effective and sustainable models. The findings show that, in order to foster the continued use of technology among L2 teachers once the course has been completed, CALL teacher training course developers should pay careful attention to the methodological design of the course in order to make it reusable, adaptable and sustainable as technology evolves. In this sense, allowing flexible access to materials (such as, in this case, on Moodle) and creating opportunities to develop reflective thinking through the use of blogs and forums are instrumental in helping to develop, primarily, cognitive presence for CALL knowledge and skills. Teachers trained through a course based on these principles will be equipped to use reflection in their teaching contexts, particularly when continuing their professional development in online environments. As a result of gaining this CALL competence by means of the online training course, the L2 teachers are now more likely to enhance their ‘digital self-esteem’, which in turn will help them to feel more comfortable with technology and use it both in their teaching context and for professional development purposes. In terms of professional development, enhanced ‘digital self-esteem’ and an increase in the teachers’ CALL confidence, knowledge and skills will help to foster social presence and willingness to be an active member of online communities. By engaging and interacting with

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other members of such communities, teachers will benefit from the greatly enhanced training experience, which will support the teachers in developing greater autonomy in their professional development and pedagogical practices in relation to CALL, both within the online community and in their teaching contexts. Another significant lesson learnt in this study has to do with teaching presence and the roles and strategies the online tutor used to encourage development. The fact that the online tutor’s presence was strong at the beginning of the course helped the teachers to engage with the dynamics of the online community, mostly in the case of those who had not been online learners before. For example, the online tutor had to identify opportunities where the discussion could be developed in the online forums (i.e. comments or questions that could be useful for the teachers) in order to trigger cognitive presence and interaction. In addition, the feedback the teachers received from the online tutor (on technical to pedagogical issues) was useful in promoting the L2 teachers’ learning independence. As the course progressed, however, the online tutor’s involvement in the online community was reduced as a result of the teachers becoming more autonomous and the group more cohesive. The teachers increasingly triggered discussion of problems and proposed possible solutions themselves, and as their ability to manage the problemsolving task by themselves increased towards the end of the course, the online tutor increasingly stepped back from her leading role in these discussions. Not only did this make the course easier to manage, providing evidence in support of the importance of this aspect to the instructional design, but feedback from post-course interviews also suggested that the teachers were more aware of how to tackle problems, and more able to continue to develop their CALL competence beyond the end of the course. The fact that there was a reduction in the online tutor’s presence and a change in her role in the online course is encouraging for the future of teacher development in CALL, mainly for the sustainability of L2 teachers’ CALL competence and the possibilities of successful implementation of online teaching. For example, by becoming more autonomous in the online course, the L2 teachers now are more aware of technology and its resources. This can certainly help them to independently seek solutions to dilemmas and challenges that may arise when applying CALL in the L2 classroom. Consequently, the chances of abandoning CALL projects for lack of confidence or knowledge can be reduced. In addition, L2 teachers’ CALL independence is particularly important to sustain their CALL knowledge and skills, mostly due to the evolving nature of technological resources. If, by engaging in continuous development, L2 teachers are able to prevent their CALL knowledge and skills from becoming obsolete, they will be more prepared to face the difficulties digital novelties may pose. Also, L2 teachers who have had online training experiences will be able to replicate such tutoring schemes in future CALL professional development activities in online communities. This will be useful not only for the teachers, but also for their colleagues and will ensure that their peers also acquire and maintain CALL technological and pedagogical skills in ways that allow them to promote sustainable use of online resources with language learners. As noted in this discussion, the role of the online tutor is highly relevant for L2 teachers’ CALL knowledge and skills development, mostly to foster sustainable CALL competence

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and practices. As a result, CALL teacher development in online communities should be implemented as a means to educate and stimulate independent L2 teachers. This way, we will be able to encourage sustainable CALL practices and future-proof the integration of technology in language teaching and learning, regardless of technological advances or challenges. This investigation has helped us to identify how in-service L2 teachers can develop and transform their CALL skills and knowledge in a social constructivist online learning environment. The outcomes discussed here regarding their developmental processes – L2 teachers’ digital self-esteem, the way they reflect, interact and modify their CALL knowledge and skills in an online community of inquiry, and the behaviour of the online tutor – suggest areas for further research, which, in turn, will support ongoing and sustainable CALL L2 teacher development.

References Akyol, Z. and Garrison, R. (2011). ‘Understanding Cognitive Presence in an Online and Blended Community of Inquiry: Assessing Outcomes and Processes for Deep Approaches to Learning’. British Journal of Educational Technology 42 (2): 233–50. Chapelle, C. (2010). ‘The Spread of Computer-Assisted Language Learning’. Language Teaching 43 (1): 66–74. Colpaert, J. (2006). ‘Pedagogy-Driven Design for Online Language Teaching and Learning’. CALICO Journal 23 (3): 477–97. Colpaert, J. (2014). ‘Discussing 12 CALL Challenges. Learning2gether with Professor Jozef Colpaert’. In Electronic Village Online event for Week 4 (Clustering) in MultiMOOC EVO session and as a Connecting Online 14 conference event (CO14). Sunday, February, 9th 2014. [Online] Available from https://www.wiziq.com/online-class/1562914-co1412-call-challenges (Accessed on 3 October 2014). Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. New York: D.C. Health. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Egbert, J., Paulus, T. and Nakamichi, Y. (2002). ‘The Impact of CALL Instruction on Classroom Computer Use: A Foundation for Rethinking Technology in Teacher Education’. Language Learning and Technology 6 (3): 108–26. Freeman, D. (2009). ‘The Scope of Second Language Teacher Education’. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds), The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education, 11–20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Garrison, R. and Anderson, W. (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Garrison, R. and Vaughan N. D. (2008). Blended Learning in Higher Education: Framework, Principles and Guidelines. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Garrison, R., Anderson, T. and Archer, W. (2000). ‘Critical Inquiry in a Text-Based Environment: Computer Conferencing in Higher Education’. Internet and Higher Education 2 (2–3): 87–105. Garrison, R., Cleveland-Innes, M. and Shing Fung, T. (2010). ‘Exploring Causal Relationships among Teaching, Cognitive and Social Presence: Student Perceptions of the Community of Inquiry Framework’. Internet and Higher Education 13 (1–2): 31–6.

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Guichon, N. and Hauck, M. (2011). ‘Teacher Education in CALL Research and CMC: More in Demand than Ever’. ReCALL 23 (3): 187–99. Hampel, R. and Stickler, U. (2005). ‘New Skills for New Classrooms: Training Tutors to Teach Languages Online’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 18 (4): 311–26. Hauck, M. and Warnecke, S. (2013). ‘Materials Design in CALL: Social Presence in Online Environments’. In M. Thomas, H. Reinders and M. Warschauer (eds), Contemporary Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Contemporary Studies in Linguistics Series, 95–115. London and New York: Continuum. Healey, D., Hegelheimer, V., Hubbard, P., Ioannou-Georgiou, S., Kessler, G. and Ware, P. (2011). TESOL Technology Standards: Description, Implementation, Integration. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Hubbard, P. (2004). ‘Learner Training for Effective Use of CALL’. In S. Fotos and C. Browne (eds), New Perspectives on CALL for Second Language Classrooms, 45–68. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hubbard, P. and Levy, M. (eds) (2006). Teacher Education in CALL. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Pub. Co. Johnson, K. (2006). ‘The Sociocultural Turn and its Challenges for Second Language Teacher Education’. TESOL Quarterly 40 (1): 235–57. Johnson, K. (2009). ‘Trends in Second Language Teacher Education’. In A. Burns and J. C. Richards (eds), The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education, 20–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kern, R. (2006). ‘Perspectives on Technology in Learning and Teaching Languages’. TESOL Quarterly 40 (1): 183–210. Kessler, G. and Plakans, L. (2008). ‘Does Teachers’ Confidence with CALL Equal Innovative and Integrated Use?’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 21 (3): 269–82. King, P. (2002). ‘Educational Technology Professional Development as Transformative Learning Opportunities’. Computers and Education 39: 283–97. Levy, M., Wang, Y. and Chen, N. (2009). ‘Developing the Skills and Techniques for Online Language Teaching: A Focus on the Process’. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 3 (1): 17–34. Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marra, R., Moore J. and Klimczak, A. (2004). ‘Content Analysis of Online Discussion Forums: A Comparative Analysis of Protocols’. Educational Technology Research and Development 52 (2): 23–40. McNeil, L. (2013). ‘Exploring the Relationship between Situated Activity and CALL Learning in Teacher Education’. ReCALL 25 (2): 215–32. Mezirow, J. (2000). Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Motteram, G. (2001). ‘The Role of Synchronous Communication in Fully Distance Education’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology 17 (2): 131–49. Motteram, G. (2006). ‘ “Blended” Education and the Transformation of Teachers: A LongTerm Case Study in Postgraduate UK Higher Education’. British Journal of Educational Technology 3 (1): 17–30. Motteram, G. (2009). ‘Social Computing and Teacher Education: An Agenda for Course Development’. Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning 3 (1): 83–97. Motteram, G. (2012). ‘Re-Aligning Research into Teacher Education for CALL and Bringing it to the Mainstream’. Language Teaching 47 (3): 119–31. Orlando, J. (2009). ‘Understanding Changes in Teachers’ ICT Practices: A Longitudinal Perspective’. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 18 (1): 33–44.

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Pawan, F., Paulus, T., Yalcin, S. and Chang, C. F. (2003). ‘Online Learning: Patterns of Engagement and Interaction Among In-Service Teachers’. Language Learning and Technology 7 (3): 119–40. Rogers, Y. (2012). ‘HCI Theory. Classical, Modern and Contemporary’. In John M. Carroll (ed.), Synthesis Lectures on Human-centered Informatics 5 (2): 1–129. Salmon, G. (2011), E-Moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online. London: Routledge. Swain, M. (2013). ‘The Inseparability of Cognition and Emotion in Second Language Learning’. Language Teaching 46: 195–207. Van Lier, L. (2005). ‘Case study’. In E. Hinkel (ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, 195–208. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Whyte, S. and Cutrim Schmid, E. (2012). ‘Interactive Whiteboards in State School Settings: Teacher Responses to Socio-Constructivist Hegemonies’. Language Learning and Technology 16 (2): 65–86.

Part Two

Normalization of CALL

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Factors that Determine CALL Integration into Modern Languages Courses in Brazil Claudia Beatriz M. J. Martins and Herivelto Moreira

1 Introduction The relevance of CALL in foreign language (FL) teaching is undeniable. However, as in other areas of education, the integration has not occurred as expected (Gillespie 2008; Hegelheimer 2006). Levy and Stockwell (2006) define integration as a process and a goal: ‘The ways in which the various elements influencing the use of new technology in language learning are brought together and managed in order to create a successful CALL environment.’ (p. 228). Integration is sine qua non for CALL to exist (McCarthy 1999) and, consequently, for its sustainability. In spite of this, CALL is generally of secondary importance in classroom settings, being used to provide additional activities or to complement instruction. True and meaningful integration is still in the early stages in several educational institutions (O’Bryan and Hegelheimer 2007). We are still quite far from Bax’s (2003) normalization stage or Integrated CALL approach, that is, when CALL is invisible and embedded in everyday practice (Motteram and Stanley 2011). Integration is a complex issue that involves multiple variables. Yet, the teachers play an important role since they are the ones who determine whether or not the use of CALL will occur (Hubbard 2008; Kern 2006). And this decision is influenced by several factors: teacher education, age and context, among others. Although several researchers mention these factors, there are no specific and comprehensive models in CALL to study the integration of technology in the classroom by FL teachers (Hong 2009). The Spherical Model of L2 Teachers’ Integration of CALL Technology into the Classroom was developed by Hong (2009) to try to overcome this need. This was the framework that guided this research as well as Bax’s (2003) concept of normalization. The objective of this chapter is to report the results of a study on CALL integration into the classrooms of universities and colleges of the state of Paraná, Brazil. The research was conducted with 152 FL teachers from thirty-three Modern Languages Courses and tried to determine what makes these teachers integrate CALL in their

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classrooms. A quantitative methodological approach was employed to collect data and a survey questionnaire was also developed. The use of technology in the classroom was not considered as a unitary construct, but rather as multifaceted, to avoid analytical constraints in cases where teachers use technology for different instructional purposes (Hong 2009).

2  Bax’s (2003) concept of normalization Bax’s (2003) concept of normalization has been widely cited and used in research and discussions on the role of technology in language teaching since 2003. According to Hubbard (2009), this is one of the two more influential views in the CALL field. In Bax’s (2003) own words, normalization is ‘the stage when a technology is invisible, hardly ever recognised as a technology’ (p. 23). Normalization can be seen as the last step of Integrated CALL – the third and last approach of Bax’s (2003) analysis of CALL (Bax’s (2003) reassessment of Warschauer’s (1996) three phases of CALL). It is hardly reached and some educational institutions are still very far from this objective. The importance of this concept, however, is that it offers the CALL field a clear goal and an agenda for research and development, mainly to find ways to reach such a normalized state (Chambers and Bax 2006). Nevertheless, research that uses normalization as its framework should include a broad and balanced analysis of the different factors that interact to lead to CALL normalization (Bax 2003; Chambers and Bax 2006).

3  The Spherical Model of L2 Teachers’ Integration of CALL Technology into the Classroom (Hong 2009) On the basis of previous studies on CALL that show that technology integration by FL teachers is multidimensional, Hong (2009) developed the Spherical Model of L2 Teachers’ Integration of CALL Technology into the classroom. The model synthesizes these previous findings and shows that there are three sets of factors that represent the essence of this integration: CALL technology education, teachers’ individual factors and contextual factors. The author graphically represented the model, as can be seen in Figure 6.1. This graphical representation shows in a simple way all the complexity involved in the process of CALL integration into the classrooms. Hong (2009) recognizes that it is not possible to place the importance of these factors in a sequential order with absolute certainty. However, he states that past research (Hubbard 2008; Hubbard and Levy 2006) suggests that CALL teacher education is a factor relatively more significant than individual factors and contextual factors. That is why the orbital factor CALL teacher education is orbiting around the centre of the sphere. CALL teacher education is close to teachers’ individual factors showing that it is also likely to influence teachers’ individual factors (attitude, literacy skills, etc.). Contextual factors are orbiting far

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Contextual Factors

Individual Teacher Factors

L2 Teachers' Integration of CALL Technology into the Classroom

CALL Teacher Education

Figure 6.1  The Spherical Model of L2 Teachers’ Integration of CALL Technology into the Classroom (Hong 2009, p. 28).

from CALL teacher education since they are relatively independent of CALL teacher education. The model in itself does not answer what determines CALL integration. However, it provides the necessary elements so that a detailed analysis can be conducted.

4 Method According to Hong (2009), previous studies on CALL integration have methodological and analytical limitations. Methodologically, most of them used primarily qualitative research methods based on small samples. Analytically, they tended to consider teachers’ use of technology as a single generic construct and used descriptive methods. Based on this, the study described here employed a quantitative methodological approach to collect data from different higher education institutions in the state of Paraná, Brazil. It also considered teachers’ use of technology as multifaceted, which allowed new dimensions of integration to be analysed and avoided the analytical constraints mentioned by Hong (2009). Using the elements from Hong’s (2009) Spherical Model, a survey questionnaire was also developed. The general objective of this study was to analyse what makes higher education FL teachers integrate CALL into their classrooms. Its specific objectives were to: ●● ●●

●●

Identify FL teachers’ different uses of technology; Verify if previous CALL/technology education influences the different uses of technology; Verify if individual factors (attitude/beliefs/digital literacy) influence the different uses of technology;

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Verify if personal characteristics and workload influence the different uses of technology; Verify if context influences the different uses of technology; and Determine which of the three sets of factors has more influence on CALL integration.

Statistical analyses were performed to examine the relationship between the three sets of factors from the Spherical Model and the multifaceted uses of technology made by teachers.

4.1  The questionnaire The questionnaire underwent a careful creation process to avoid the problems and flaws that authors often point out occur in CALL survey instruments (Debski 2003; Levy and Stockwell 2006; Vandewaetere and Desmet 2009). Its development involved several steps (Figure 6.2). Several other questionnaires (Albirini 2004; Bebell, Russell and O’Dwyer 2004; Hernández-Ramos 2005; Hong 2009; Kessler 2007; O’Dwyer, Russell and Bebell 2004; Russell et al. 2004; Vandewaetere and Desmet 2009) were analysed to develop the instrument. All of them were written in English, since in Brazil, studies specifically on CALL integration are rare. There are no questionnaires in Portuguese to ground

Figure 6.2  Flowchart of the process of development of the questionnaire.

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the development of a new instrument. For this reason, special attention was given to the translation process, an issue that, ironically, has usually been treated as an addendum in questionnaire design by foreign language researchers (Dörneyi and Csizér 2012). The final version of the instrument was a questionnaire with 110 items and comprising six parts: (1) Use of technology; (2) Beliefs and attitudes towards the use of computers/technology for language teaching; (3) Digital literacy1; (4) Prior experience: use of computer/technology; (5) Technology environment in the institution; and (6)  Demographic variables. Parts 1, 2 and 3 used 5-point Likert-type scales. It had three different versions: printed, online and a PDF fillable file. Six specific aspects pertaining to teachers’ use of technology were included in Part 1: (1) technology for delivering instruction (TDI); (2) technology for class preparation (TCP); (3) technology for professional communication with colleagues and students (e-mail, Facebook, etc.) (TFC); (4) technology for administrative record keeping (grades, attendance, etc.) (TRK); (5) teacher-directed student use of technology to perform tasks (STPT); and (6) teacher-directed student use of technology during class time (STCT). These six uses were included based on the research by Russell et al. (2004).

4.2  The participants and data collection The process to determine the population took three months. The questionnaire was sent to 270 FL teachers from thirty-three institutions. The response rate was 56 per cent (152). This rate was considered satisfactory (Rea and Parker 2000) since this was a small population.

4.3  Data analysis Multivariate analysis methods, as well as descriptive statistics, were used to analyse the data. A series of logistic and linear regression models were also estimated. The internal consistency of Parts 1, 2 and 3 of the questionnaire was confirmed by high values for Cronbach’s alpha: 0.90, 0.93 and 0.94, respectively. The Mahalanobis distance – used for multivariate outlier detection – showed no outliers (an observation that deviates very much from other observations) for these three parts, which could lead to incorrect results. Part 1 of the questionnaire comprised the dependent variables. TDI use was measured using a single indicator. In previous analyses (Hong 2009; O’Dwyer et al. 2004), no other variables were identified that could be used in conjunction to create a composite. The variable was based on a response to the question ‘How often do you use the computer to deliver instruction?’ on a 5-point ordinal scale (Never  1, Less than once a week  2, Once a week  3, 3 times a week  4 and Daily  5). This item had the answers re-categorized for analysis and originated a binary variable, that is, the 5-point Likert scale was dichotomized to ‘Not frequently used’ (which included the answers Never and Less than once a week) and ‘Frequently used’ (which included the other alternatives). This was based on Hong’s (2009) study.

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Factor analysis was performed for the other five uses of technology (TCP, TFC, TRK, STPT, and STCT). These five uses consisted of twenty-four items on a 5-point Likerttype scale (Never  1, Rarely  2, Sometimes  3, Frequently  4 and Always  5). Since the instrument was adapted and translated from previous questionnaires, factor analysis had to be done to investigate its real dimensions. This type of analysis was chosen because it allows the reduction of variables and most of the information from the original variables is retained. Factor analysis ‘explores the interrelationships of the items and tries to find patterns of correspondence – that is, common underlying themes  – among them’ (Dörnyei and Csizér 2012). The result is a small number of dimensions, often called factors or components. Before factor analysis is conducted, it is necessary to verify the suitability of the data. Bartlett’s test of sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy are commonly used to test if the data are suited for structure detection (Hair et al. 2009). In this study, the results of Bartlett’s test and the KMO were satisfactory and showed that factor analysis could proceed. After factor analysis was performed, the results revealed a three-factor solution: Technology for class preparation (TCP); Teacher-directed Student use of Technology to Perform Tasks (STPT); Teacher-directed Student use of Technology during Class Time (STCT). TCP clustered together the original items for the TCP, TFC and TRK uses, which makes sense since all these variables are related to teachers’ activities that are done before or after class time. The following analyses were then performed using these three factors plus the TDI use, the binary variable. In short, four dimensions of teachers’ technology use were employed throughout the present analysis: TDI, TCP, STPT and STCT. According to Hong’s (2009) Spherical Model, the three sets of factors that influence CALL integration into the classroom are teachers’ individual factors, CALL/technology education and contextual factors. In this study, the set individual factors comprised the demographic variables (age, gender, etc.) provided in Part 6 of the questionnaire and also by the scales from Parts 2 and 3. The set CALL/technology education was composed of the items from Part 4. The set contextual factors was composed of the items from Part 5. A series of regression models were fitted to analyse the influence of these three sets of factors – the independent variables – on the four dimensions of teachers’ technology use. Two statistical techniques were used: Multiple Linear Regression and Logistic Regression. Hair et al. (2009) explain that multiple linear regression is a statistical technique used to analyse the relationship between one dependent variable and several independent variables. It is the usual procedure for this type of analysis, since it creates a mathematical model that may be used to make predictions. In this study, multiple linear regression was used to examine the relationship between TCP, STPT and STCT uses and the three sets of factors. For each use of technology, a multiple linear model was fitted. According to Hair et al. (2009), logistic regression is a special type of regression where the dependent variable is binary. The authors state that despite some interpretation

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differences, it is, in general, similar to multiple linear regression. Since TDI is a binary variable, logistic regression analysed its relationship with the three sets of factors. For all the fitted regression models a 5 per cent significance level was chosen, that is, the influence of a certain factor on one of the technology uses was considered statistically significant when the observed p-value2 was less than 5 per cent. All the multiple linear regression models had the assumptions of normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and independence of residuals checked to be satisfactory. Before fitting the regression models, it was necessary to prepare the independent variables of each set of factors: Individual factors Parts 2 and 3 of the questionnaire used 5-point Likert-type scales and together had forty-two variables. Factor analysis was then performed to reduce the number of variables. The results of Bartlett’s test and the KMO measure showed that the data were suited for structure detection. Four factors were extracted: (1) Beliefs and attitudes; (2) Digital literacy: basic use; (3) Digital literacy: technical skills; and (4) Digital literacy: advanced use. Three items could not be explained by the four factors and for this reason were analysed separately in the regression models. They are: ‘I can operate a database program (e.g. Access).’ (ODP); ‘I can operate a spreadsheet program (e.g. Excel).’ (OSP); and ‘Computer courses should be mandatory for language teachers.’ (CCMLT). Part 6 items were analysed separately in the regression models. Therefore, the independent variables that represent the individual factors set are beliefs and attitudes; digital literacy: basic use; digital literacy: technical skills; digital literacy: advanced use; ODP; OSP; CCMLT and the following items from Part 6: gender, age, degree; years of teaching; number of classes per week (current semester/year); number of groups (current semester/year); average number of students in classes; and years of computer use for personal objectives. In sum, fifteen independent variables comprised the set individual factors for the regression models.

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CALL/technology teacher education Part 4 of the questionnaire consisted of sixteen items related to the factor set CALL/ technology teacher education. The regression models were initially fitted using the sixteen original variables. However, high values of the Variance Inflation Factor3 (VIF) were observed, some of them exceeding thirty, which is not acceptable. The most commonly recommended value in the literature is a value of 10 as the maximum level of VIF (Hair et al. 2009). The variables had then to be treated to avoid multicollinearity and guarantee reliable estimation for the parameters. In brief, CALL/technology teacher education comprised three variables: % of theoretical and practical courses (content), usefulness of the courses (sum) and course hours (total).

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Contextual factors The set contextual factors was composed of the fourteen variables from Part 5. For the models, eight items were used: ‘Do the classrooms have a computer for the teacher?’; ‘Approximately how many computers do the classrooms have for the students?’; ‘How many computer labs does your department have?’; ‘Approximately how many computers are there in each lab?’; ‘Can students access the lab whenever they want

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to use it?’; ‘How many technicians are available?’; ‘My department is supportive in using computers/technology in the classrooms.’; and ‘My department is supportive in purchasing instructional software resources for language teachers.’

5  Results and discussion The results of the descriptive analyses of each part of the questionnaire are the following: The teachers (part 6) As in previous studies, most of the teachers are female (78 per cent). They are more than forty years old (57 per cent), have a master’s degree (53 per cent), are in an advanced career stage (thirteen or more years of teaching) (63 per cent) and most of them (55 per cent) teach English. In this study, the teachers have approximately 13.4 hours of classes a week and have on average four groups with about 16.8 students in each one. This cannot be considered a heavy workload, at least for the Brazilian context, but usually, higher education teachers have other activities at the university that increase their workload. Teachers have been using the computer for personal use for an average of fourteen years and the average number of hours per day of computer use at home is almost five hours and at work approximately three and a half hours. So, the computer has already been a part of their lives for a good amount of time and continues to be so. Teachers’ multifaceted use of technology (part 1) The results from Part 1 showed that TCP, TFC and TRK uses are the highest. Activities such as creating tests, doing research for classes, etc., using the computer are close to Bax’s (2003) normalization. Integration in this case is almost complete. STCT use appeared as the lowest. It means that teachers rarely or never ask their students to use technology in the classroom. So, their students – future FL teachers– make little or no use of technology in class during their pre-service years (four years in Brazil). The only exception was the item ‘During class time, how often do you ask students to make a presentation to the class using a computer?’ = 3.8. In this case, students probably use software such as PowerPoint. The mean score for the TDI use was 3.6. Examining teachers’ responses at the item level is informative and it may reveal interesting patterns across items. Nevertheless, it is easier to identify patterns when items that focus on related uses of technology are combined into a single measure. For this reason, an aggregate score for each category of use was calculated by summing each teacher’s response across the survey items related to that category. The aggregate scores are presented in Figure 6.3. By analysing these results, it becomes clear why TCP, TFC and TRK clustered together into one factor in factor analysis. Studies that investigate the multifaceted use of technology in the CALL field are scarce. Thus, it was not possible to compare the results of this study with those of previous work in the area. Hong’s (2009) research could be a possibility, but the contexts are completely different and the author analysed four uses of technology and did not report the results of one of them.

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Figure 6.3  Degree of use for six uses of technology.

Beliefs and attitudes towards the use of computers/technology for language teaching (Individual Factors) (part 2) Overall, the teachers showed a moderate attitude towards computer technology (M = 3.8). Five items had responses that indicate a positive attitude towards technology with mean scores between 4.3 and 4.1. The other items had scores that varied between 3.1 and 3.9. One item with the highest mean score was ‘The use of computers can help improve language learners’ communication skills.’ (M = 4.3). It is interesting to observe this result because in relation to the frequency at which teachers ask students to use resources on the internet for their foreign language speaking tasks, the result was low (M = 2.9). Teachers agree that computers are important for communication, but do not ask their students to make use of them for this purpose. The item with the lowest mean score was ‘Computers increase the amount of student-student interaction in the classroom.’ (M = 3.1). It seems teachers still have concerns that technology can prevent classroom interaction. Previous studies (Akcaoğlu 2008; Albirini 2004) report FL teachers’ positive attitudes towards CALL, but the scores are, in general, higher. Part 3: Digital literacy (part 3) The highest mean scores (11 items) varied between 4.7 and 4.1 and were related to basic tasks involving technology (using a printer, operating word processing programs, etc.). Eleven other items had mean scores between 3.9 and 3.2. The lowest mean scores varied between 2.9 and 2.7. Basic tasks are no obstacles to teachers; however, social software (Wikis, blogs), which have important pedagogical uses for language teaching, are still a problem. Prior experience: use of computer/technology (part 4) The percentage of teachers who had prior experience of technology education during the pre- and in-service periods was low and the duration of the courses was not very long (Table 6.1). In all cases, the general content of the courses was predominantly both theoretical and practical and the general perception was that the courses were useful. One possible

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Table 6.1  Teachers’ prior experience of technology CALL courses

General technology courses

Pre-service period

9.8% (15)

17.7% (27)

In-service period

30.2% (46)

36.1% (55)

CALL courses duration

General technology courses duration

Pre-service period

less than 30 hours = 66.6% (10) more than 60 hours = 33.3 % (5)

less than 30 hours = 33.3%(9) more than 60 hours = 66.7% (18)

In-service period

less than 30 hours = 58.7% (27) more than 60 hours = 41.3% (19)

less than 30 hours = 63.6% (35) more than 60 hours = 36.3% (20)

explanation for the small number of teachers taking in-service CALL courses can be the fact that CALL was still beginning in Brazil when most of the participants were studying to be teachers. Anyway, this small number also shows that formal preparation is not responsible for teachers’ digital literacy. Technology environment in the institution (part 5) The results show that 48 per cent of the teachers work in classrooms that have computers for them. However, only 7.9 per cent of the classrooms have computers for students. Most departments (84 per cent) have an average of two labs, with approximately twenty computers in each. In 31 per cent of the labs, students can access them whenever they want to use them. In 53 per cent of the institutions, there are approximately 1.4 technicians. Nevertheless, in 38 per cent of the institutions, teachers have no technical support. The attitude of the departments towards technology is moderate: mean score = 3.5. The results of the regression models are shown and discussed below. Individual factors and the four uses of technology Three multiple linear regression models were fitted for the TCP, STPT and STCT uses to examine the impact of the fifteen independent variables from the individual factors set on each use. The three models were statistically significant: p-value = 0.003, 0.0001 and 0.0001, respectively. As for TCP use, the variable beliefs and attitudes had a statistically significant positive effect (p-value  =  0.000): the more positive teachers are towards the use of technology, the more they will use technology to prepare for classes. The other variable with a significant positive impact on TCP use was the ODP item (p-value = 0.003). It suggests that the knowledge of this type of software, which is not so common, increases the use of technology for class preparation. The doctoral degree also had a statistically significant positive impact (p-value = 0.04). Teachers holding a doctoral degree tend to use more technology for class preparation than the others. It was also observed that age had a statistically significant negative effect on TCP, indicating that the older the teachers are, the less they use technology to prepare for their classes. Maybe this is related to the experience they already have.

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The four factors (Beliefs and attitudes; Digital literacy: basic, technical and advanced uses) showed a statistically significant positive impact (p-value = 0.01, 0.04, 0.00 and 0.05, respectively) in relation to STPT use. The results suggest that the more teachers have positive attitudes towards technology use and the higher their digital literacy, the more they ask their students to perform tasks using technology. The variable gender (female) had a statistically significant negative effect on STPT use (p-value  =  0.01), indicating that female teachers ask their students less to do their assignments using technology. Beliefs and attitudes had a statistically significant positive effect (p-value 0.001) on STCT use. The more favourable teachers are towards the use of technology in language teaching, the more they ask their students to use technology during class time. The variables ODP and OSP were also statistically significant (p-value  =  0.03 and 0.04, respectively), indicating that teachers who know how to use programs such as Access and Excel are the ones who are more likely to ask their students to use technology during class time. The variable ‘average number of students in classes’ had a statistically significant positive impact (p-value = 0.00). The higher the number of students in their classes, the more teachers ask them to use technology during class time. It seems, then, that teachers find technology helpful in situations when they have large classes. As to the variable ‘years of computer use for personal objectives’, it also had a statistically significant, but negative, effect on STCT use, (p-value = 0.02). Teachers who have been using technology for personal objectives for a shorter time are the ones who are more likely to ask their students to use technology in class. This could indicate that these teachers are the younger ones, but the variable age was not significant. A logistic regression model was developed to analyse the impact of the fifteen independent variables from the individual factors set on TDI use. The model was statistically significant (p-value  =  0.016). The variables ‘digital literacy: basic use’ and ‘digital literacy: technical skills’ presented a statistically significant positive impact (p-value = 0.00 and 0.05, respectively). By analysing the odds ratio, it was possible to see that a one-unit increase in the variable ‘digital literacy: basic use’ increases the odds of teachers using technology to deliver instruction 2.31 times. A one-unit increase in the variable ‘digital literacy: technical skills’ increases the odds of teachers using technology to deliver instruction 1.63 times. It seems that it is necessary to invest in basic skills to improve teachers’ use of technology to deliver instruction. These findings show that individual factors are important predictors of teachers’ four uses of technology. CALL/technology education and the four uses of technology Three multiple linear regression models were fitted for TCP, STPT and STCT uses to examine the impact of the three independent variables from the CALL/ technology education set on each use. None of the models was statistically significant (p-value = 0.51, 0.41 and 0.47, respectively). A logistic regression model was developed to analyse the impact of the three independent variables from the CALL/technology education set on TDI use. Likewise, the model was not statistically significant, (p-value = 0.84).

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Differing from previous studies, the results here suggest that CALL/technology education is not an important predictor of teachers’ four uses of technology. In Hong’s (2009) study, the findings show that teachers need at least 150 hours of technology education. The duration of the courses taken by the teachers in this study was shorter than this, a fact that could explain the results. Maybe they need more hours, more CALL education. It also has to be taken into consideration that the number of teachers who took previous CALL/technology courses is small and it may affect the statistical analysis. Contextual factors and the four uses of technology Three multiple linear regression models were fitted for TCP, STPT and STCT uses to examine the impact of the eight independent variables from the contextual factors set on each use. One model was not statistically significant: TCP use (p-value = 0.31). It is possible to conclude that contextual factors do not influence teachers’ use of technology for class preparation. This makes sense, since teachers in Brazil usually prepare for their classes at home and not at their institutions. The other two models were statistically significant: STPT use (p-value  =  0.004) and STCT use (p-value = 0.003). The variables ‘average number of technicians’ and ‘the department support in using technology in the classroom’ had a statistically significant positive impact on STPT use (p-value = 0.00 and 0.02, respectively). That is, the higher the number of technicians and the greater the department support, the more likely teachers are to ask their students to use technology to do their assignments. It seems that teachers need technical support and department encouragement to require these kinds of tasks from their students. The variable ‘number of computer labs’ showed a statistically significant positive impact on STCT use (p-value = 0.03). The more labs the department has, the more likely teachers are to ask students to use technology during class time. This can be explained by the fact that for teachers to ask their students to use technology during class time, they need to have the necessary equipment available for use, which normally happens in Brazil only in computer labs. A logistic regression model was developed to analyse the impact of the eight independent variables from the contextual factors set on TDI use. The model was statistically significant. (p-value = 0.004). This result was expected since teachers need to have the technological infrastructure to deliver instruction using ICTs. The variable ‘Do the classrooms have a computer for the teacher?’ had a statistically significant positive effect on TDI use (p-value  =  0.05). The odds ratio was 2.48, that is, when there is a computer available in the classroom, the odds of teachers using technology to deliver instruction is 2.48 higher than when there is no computer. Technology availability facilitates, and is an impetus for TDI use. Besides the contextual factors seen, we wanted to analyse another contextual feature: the technological climate (overall teachers’ technology education, i.e. the total number of hours that the FL school teachers devoted to courses and workshops during their pre- and in-service period divided by the number of teachers in each school). However, it was not possible to determine if the technological climate of the institution

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influenced the uses of technology, because of the small number (M = 4.6) of teachers in each institution and the low percentage of prior technology education experience.

6 Conclusions The objectives of this research were accomplished. FL teachers’ different uses of technology were identified. The three sets of factors from Hong’s (2009) model were analysed to verify their influence on CALL integration and it was possible to determine the important predictors. FL teachers from Modern Languages Courses in the state of Paraná use technology for four different objectives. TCP is already part of their routine, and we can say that its use is normalized. TDI showed moderate results. STPT and STCT showed the lowest frequency. This means that teachers use technology for class preparation but do not ask their students to make use of it. If future FL teachers are not prepared to see the myriad of CALL possibilities, do not have role models or do not study and exercise pedagogic integration of technology into their practice, CALL may take a long time to be part of the reality of FL classrooms in this Brazilian context. This vicious circle should be broken to allow change to happen if we want to have true and meaningful integration, and, consequently, a successful CALL environment. There are many possible answers to why teachers use technology for some goals but not to prepare their students for CALL integration (No technological pedagogical knowledge? No confidence? Lack of time? Students’ rejection? And so on.). However, the questionnaire does not provide these reasons. It does not specify what exactly teachers’ TDI use is (PowerPoint presentations? Videos? Oral interaction with foreign students? And so on.). The study of the multifaceted uses of technology allows us to have a better understanding of CALL integration and provides more possibilities of finding answers and establishing strategies to improve CALL integration. However, further investigation is necessary. Contrary to Hong’s (2009) model and previous studies, prior CALL/technology education does not influence any of the four teachers’ technology uses in the present context. Another finding was that the number of teachers who had prior CALL/ technology education was very small. Nevertheless, they see themselves as digitally competent. This means that they are probably learning about technology informally. Kessler (2007) states that this is positive, but warns that ‘to rely solely upon such a fragile and unpredictable system of professional development does not seem like an ideal long-term solution (p. 184)’. Additionally, it also became noticeable that teachers are not taking advantage of some important technological resources for FL teaching, such as social software. Results showed that the two most important predictors of CALL integration are individual factors and contextual factors. Contextual factors seem to have an influence on three uses and individual factors are likely to affect the four uses of technology. This

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can help develop practical strategies to increase CALL integration. Universities and their Modern Languages Courses have to get to know their teachers and their beliefs and attitudes towards technology, how much they know about CALL and their personal characteristics. There should be more investment in the human factor. By getting to know higher education FL teachers we are going to be implementing CALL integration and planning ahead since they are the ones who are going to prepare future FL teachers. CALL integration is an important research topic that needs more studies, mainly here in Brazil, so that by getting to know the reality in the classrooms, measures can be taken to guarantee CALL’s future and sustainability. Otherwise, CALL will continue to be ‘a peripheral interest in the language teaching community as whole, … the domain of the CALL enthusiast’ (Levy 1997) as it was in 1997 and move away from the much desired normalization. The present research is based on statistical analyses, on tests and numbers. The results, then, are indications, hints, possibilities; they do not give the causes or explain the Brazilian educational context. They are also based on a 56 per cent response rate, so caution has to be taken in interpreting them and making generalizations. A second qualitative phase is recommended to deepen these results and to try to provide answers to the issues raised here that could not be explained.

Notes 1 We used ‘digital literacy’ in a general sense, meaning teachers’ usual competencies in using computers. We are aware of the several discussions about the topic, but it is not our objective here to focus on them. For further information, see Lankshear and Knobel (2005). 2 The value of the p-value may fall anywhere between 1 and 0. It represents a decreasing index of the reliability of a result. The higher the p-value, the lesser we can rely on the observed relation/difference between variables. It represents the probability of error that is involved in accepting an observed result as valid. It indicates if a finding is likely to have occurred by chance. Researchers traditionally use a cut-off point of p = 0.05. If it is lower than 0.05, the observed result is due to chance in only 5 per cent of the times (‘Conceitos’, 2013; Levin and Fox 2004). 3 ‘Indicator of the effect that the other independent variables have on the standard error of a regression coefficient.’ (Hair et al. 2009, p. 151) In multiple regression, the VIF is used as an indicator of multicollinearity. Multicollinearity is observed when two or more independent variables are highly correlated. The presence of multicollinearity may adversely affect the estimation of regression statistics and impact the accuracy of standard errors. For this reason, researchers desire lower levels of VIF, as higher levels of VIF are known to adversely affect the results associated with a multiple regression analysis.

References Akcaoğlu, M. (2008). Exploring technology integration approaches and practices of preservice and in-service English language teacher. Masters dissertation, Middle

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East Technical University, Ankara. Retrieved from http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/ upload/12609579/index.pdf. Albirini, A. (2004). An Exploration of the Factors Associated with the Attitudes of High School EFL Teachers in Syria toward Information and Communication Technology. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, Ohio. Retrieved from http://etd.ohiolink. edu/view.cgi?acc_num=osu1092688797. Bax, S. (2003). ‘CALL – Past, Present and Future’. System 31 (1): 13–28. Bebell, D., Russell, M. and O’Dwyer, L. (2004). ‘Measuring Teachers’ Technology Uses: Why Multiple-Measures are More Revealing’. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 37 (1): 45–63. Chambers, A. and Bax, S. (2006). ‘Making CALL Work: Towards Normalisation’. System 34 (4): 465–79. Conceitos elementares de estatística (n.d.). Retrieved on 10 January 2012, from http:// www.inf.ufsc.br/~marcelo/intro.html. Debski, R. (2003). ‘Analysis of Research in CALL (1980–2000) with a Reflection on CALL as an Academic Discipline’. ReCALL 15 (2): 177–88. Dörnyei, Z. and Csizér, K. (2012). ‘How to Design and Analyze Surveys in Second Language Acquisition Research’. In A. Mackey and S. M. Gass (eds), Research Methods in Second Language Acquisition: A Practical Guide, 74–94. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Gillespie, J. (2008). ‘Mastering Multimedia: Teaching Languages through Technology’. ReCALL 20 (2): 121–3. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E. and Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados. Porto Alegre: Bookman. Hegelheimer, V. (2006). ‘When the Technology Course is Required’. In P. Hubbard and M. Levy (eds), Teacher education in CALL, 117–33. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Hernández-Ramos, P. (2005). ‘If Not Here, Where?: Understanding Teachers’ Use of Technology in Silicon Valley Schools’. Journal of Research on Technology in Education 38 (1): 39–64. Hong, K. H. (2009). L2 Teachers’ Experience of CALL Technology Education and the Use of Computer Technology in the Classroom: The Case of Franklin County, Ohio. Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 2009. Retrieved on 12 January 2012, from http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi?acc_num=osu1243917839. Hubbard, P. (2008). ‘CALL and the Future of Language Teacher Education’. Calico Journal 25 (2): 175–88. Hubbard, P. (2009). ‘General Introduction’. In P. Hubbard (ed.), Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Critical Concepts in Linguistics. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcc/callcc-intro.pdf. Hubbard, P. and Levy, M. (eds) (2006). Teacher Education in CALL. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kern, R. (2006). ‘Perspectives on Technology in Learning and Teaching Languages’. Tesol Quarterly 40 (1): 183–210. Kessler, G. (2007). ‘Formal and Informal CALL Preparation and Teacher Attitude Toward Technology’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 20 (2): 173–88. Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2005). Digital Literacies: Policy, Pedagogy and Research Considerations for Education. Opening Plenary Address to ITU Conference. Oslo, Norway. Retrieved from http://reocities.com/lanbeltalks/Oslo.pdf. Levin, J. and Fox, J. A. (2004). Estatística para ciências humanas. São Paulo: Pearson Prentice Hall. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. Oxford: Clarendon Paperbacks.

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Levy, M. and Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL Dimensions: Options and Issues in ComputerAssisted Language Learning. New York: Routledge. McCarthy, B. (1999). ‘Integration: The Sine Qua Non of CALL’. CALL-EJ Online 1 (2), Retrieved from http://www.ict4lt.org/en/McCarthy.htm. Motteram, G. and Stanley, G. (2011). ‘[Guest editorial preface]. Special issue on Web 2.0 and the Normalisation of CALL’. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching 1 (2): i–vi. O’Bryan, A. and Hegelheimer, V. (2007). ‘Integrating CALL into the Classroom: The Role of Podcasting in an ESL Listening Strategies Course’. ReCALL 19 (2): 162–80. O’Dwyer, L. M., Russell, M. and Bebell, D. (2004). ‘Identifying Teacher, School and District Characteristics Associated with Elementary Teachers’ Use of Technology: A Multilevel Perspective’. Education Policy Analysis Archives 12 (48): 1–33. Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/203. Rea, L. M. and Parker, R. A. (2000). Metodologia de pesquisa: do planejamento à execução. São Paulo: Pioneira. Russell, M., O’Dwyer, L., Bebell, D. and Miranda, H. (2004). Technical Report for the USEIT Study. Boston, Ma: Boston College, Technology and Assessment Study Collaborative. Retrieved from http://www.intasc.org/PDF/useit_r11.pdf. Vandewaetere, M. and Desmet, P. (2009). ‘Introducing Psychometrical Validation of Questionnaires in CALL Research: The Case of Measuring Attitude towards CALL’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 22 (4): 349–80. Warschauer, M. (1996). ‘Computer-Assisted Language Learning: An Introduction’. In S. Fotos (ed.), Multimedia Language Teaching, 3–20. Tokyo: Logos International. Retrieved from http://www.ict4lt.org/en/warschauer.htmhtml.

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Sustainable Interaction-Based Research in CALL Françoise Blin, Catherine Caws, Marie-Josée Hamel, Trude Heift, Mathias Schulze and Bryan Smith

1 Introduction Interactions in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) have been the central point of many empirical and extensive studies. In many cases, the research focused on one aspect of the interaction paradigm, either the tool, or the learner or the task. However, as technology permeates nearly every aspect of life and as capabilities offered by the computer become more and more complex, it seems fit to delve into a more holistic mode of investigation. We posit here that research into interactions in CALL can be enriched and rendered more sustainable by applying principles and methods that are specifically adapted to complex dynamic systems and that take into account the various affordances and constraints of such systems. These methods can take many forms: analysing learner data over multiple instances of interactions with a specific tool (Heift 2002) or observing learners’ behaviours using eye tracking or screen capture technologies (Hamel 2012; Smith 2010). While tracking learner data is not new (see Chapelle 1997), understanding exactly what learners do when they are interacting with computers (see Fischer 2007; Raby 2005; Chun 2013) and recycling these data to improve interactions within CALL (see Caws and Hamel 2013) constitute our prime objective. To do so, this chapter offers a critical reflection on interaction-based research, in particular data and elicitation methods within a sustainable ergonomic context. First, we explore the basic tenets of Complexity Theory, Activity Theory and Theory of affordances. Then we investigate the possibilities offered by CALL ergonomics, before focusing our discussion on specific tools and methods to illustrate the concept of sustainable interaction-based research.

2  Language learning as a complex system Chaos Theory (Complexity Science/Dynamic Systems Theory) was heralded as the new science in the 1980s (Gleick 1987; Williams 1997) and soon took root in the

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(social) sciences. In 1997, Larsen-Freeman argued that language learning is best understood as a complex dynamic system, and the last decade has seen a wealth of complexity-scientific research in Applied Linguistics (e.g. de Bot, Lowie and Verspoor 2007; Ellis and Larsen-Freeman 2006; Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008). We argue that viewing language learning as a complex dynamic system can give a new impetus to interaction-based research in CALL and yield new insights into language learning. A complex systems approach necessitates a non-reductionist, empirical analysis of learner data over time. Of course, observing what learners do with technology, how they learn and use the language(s) and with what outcomes is one of the major tenets of CALL research (Fischer 2007). Observing the whole system of interacting (collective) variables in context over a period of time, however, has not been a mainstay in CALL. Snapshot efficacy studies of technology use in language learning and pre-/post-test designs with a one-off, short-term pedagogic intervention have all too often produced contradictory results. As a fruitful alternative, complex systems research combines the strengths of qualitative and quantitative methods – contextualized ‘thick descriptions’ (Geertz 1973) and the formal generalizability of inferential statistics. Teachers and researchers have long known that language learning does not progress linearly, that collective variables such as proficiency, motivation and learning preferences are not static and undergo change because they interact with other variables over time. With a complexity-scientific approach, researchers can overcome the limitations of linear-process metaphors and static variables, still seen in some CALL research; individual learners are considered in the context of the group, but the group’s data is not used to linearize or level. Complex systems research requires longitudinal data of sufficient density and, ideally, data points at regular intervals. CALL is most suited to this approach to data gathering: for example, students’ language practice in a virtual learning environment over the course of a semester, text iterations in a collaborative Wiki or data from writing processes in online chat can all be used to analyse the changing variables in second language development (Verspoor, De Bot and Lowie 2011) and the data are tracked and saved unobtrusively and in an analysable format. The analysis of data sets in the context of the nonlinear, dynamic, complex system of language learning is more challenging than simplistic data reduction. However, to study attractor basins (states in which the observed variable can be found often) and repellor areas (states in which the variable has never been observed), the system’s sensitivity to initial conditions and its fractality and the changing interaction of variables – all yield new, valid insight into language-learning processes in CALL. Viewing language learning processes in CALL both as a complex dynamic system and as an activity system (Lantolf and Thorne 2006; Leontiev 1981; Vygotsky 1978) enables researchers to take both a process and a product perspective on computermediated learner interaction. The components of the activity system – the learners, the abstract and material artefacts they are using, their activity’s goal and their community with its rules and division of labour – are considered in context and as a complex system of variables interacting and changing over time. Ecological issues such as affordances, ergonomics and usability in CALL can be addressed in this way, resulting in research

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findings that can have a sustained impact on CALL development and practice. We will address affordances, ergonomics and usability in turn in subsequent sections.

3  Theory of affordances The theory of affordances (Gibson 1977, 2013) has been at the forefront of debates within the Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) community since the late 1980s (see e.g. Baerentsen and Trettvik 2002; Kaptelinin and Nardi 2012). Central to interaction design principles, the concept of affordance is also frequently called upon by educational technologists and CALL researchers (Conole and Dyke 2004; Guichon, Bétrancourt and Prié 2012; Jauregi et al. 2012). However, this concept is often ill-defined in the CALL literature. Furthermore, the realization and the emergence of affordances in technology-supported language learning environments are rarely analysed. Yet, they can provide useful information on human–machine and human–human interactions and therefore on the complex dynamic system of language learning and the learners’ developmental trajectories. The term affordance was initially coined by Gibson (1979, 2013). Affordances are action possibilities offered by the environment to organisms: they are ‘what [the environment] offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or ill’ (Gibson 2013, chapter 8, para. 2). Possibilities for action in an environment are determined by both the objective properties of the environment and by the action capabilities of the actor (Kaptelinin and Nardi 2012, p. 968). Affordances can only be realized ‘in the interaction between organisms and objects in the environment’ and are thus emergent properties of the material world (Baerentsen and Trettvik 2002, p. 52). In order to be realized, affordances need to be perceived by the observer, who must possess the required physical or mental capabilities to enact them. Adopting an activity-theoretical (Leontiev 1978) approach to HCI, Baerentsen and Trettvik (2002) argue that the ‘objective features’ of the environment become affordances only when they are related to the actors’ (or users’) needs and activities (p. 54). A theory of affordances for CALL should not be reduced to the technological dimension. Rather, it should relate the latter to educational and social affordances. Following Kirschner (2002), Lee (2009) defines educational affordances ‘as the relationships between the properties of an educational intervention and the characteristics of the learner that enable certain kinds of learning to take place’ (p. 151). Discussions on social (or communicative) affordances can be found in the literature associated with activity-based and ecological approaches to language learning. For example, van Lier (2004) introduces the concept of language affordances, which he defines as ‘relations of possibility between language learners [that] can be acted upon to make further linguistic action possible’ (p. 95). The features or objective characteristics of CALL environments and, in particular, of those making use of Web 2.0 applications offer educational, technological and linguistic affordances, which are distinct, yet interrelated. Some of these affordances have been consciously engineered by course designers; others will emerge as learners interact with objects, fellow students or teachers. Using both quantitative and qualitative methods

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to trace and interpret the realization (or non-realization) of ‘designed’ and emergent affordances can assist us in enhancing our design of digital pedagogic artefacts and communicative tasks for successful language learning mediated by technology.

4  CALL ergonomics CALL ergonomics plays an important role in interaction-based research by providing a conceptual framework that looks specifically at the relationship between the user and the instrument. Considering the ubiquitous role of computers in today’s society and within learning environments, we take the view that they (computers) have become embedded cultural artefacts with which individuals interact naturally and regularly to perform common and routine tasks (e.g. Selber 2004; Verillon and Rabardel 1995). Thus, a better understanding of the role played by these artefacts is critical for the improvement of their design. As noted by Raby (2005), their successful integration in language learning requires a holistic approach to scientifically understand what learners do when working with technology. Many questions still require empirical investigation: To what extent do these artefacts enhance or transform our basic human abilities and in particular our abilities to communicate, interact and work with others? What types of interactions occur when a learner is connected to a mobile or static device? How does the design of a tool and/or a language task affect the learning experience? All these questions can be explored within ergonomic research with the goal to create a sustainable, iterative process of data analysis. What we define as CALL ergonomics is both a methodological process and a theoretical underpinning. As explained by several scholars (e.g. Bertin and Gravé 2010; Raby et al. 2003), CALL ergonomics presents several advantages to CALL research. As a scientific process, educational ergonomics ‘combine human expertise with technological potential’ (Bertin and Gravé 2010, p. 6) and seek to integrate the social, political and cultural relationships with the technological dimension. Traditionally, the field of ergonomics studies individuals at their work place to ‘describe and interpret these men/machines interactions’ (p. 3) in order to ‘find better ways of adapting machines or technical environments’ (p. 3) to the users’ characteristics (Raby et al. 2003). Because the user plays a central role in influencing the interactions, ergonomics will value a human factor (i.e. the usage) while at the same time paying a special attention to the tool (the design) (Rabardel 1995). Within the context of interaction-based research, the researcher adopts a usercentred approach that is grounded in activity theory and focuses on technological mediation (e.g. Raby 2005). The basic precept of these theories is that human beings adapt, change and learn through their interaction with machines, tools or other human beings. In other words, these interactions are socially and culturally constructed (e.g. Leontiev 1981; Rabardel 1995; Vygotsky 1978). When exploring the cognitive and functional effects of new CALL systems and e-learning tasks, CALL ergonomics research not only places the user at the centre of the investigation, but also focuses on the processes of learning rather than relying solely on outcomes. A focus on processes is crucial to better assess the learners’ changing ability to work with the technology on

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the language learning task. For example, some ergonomics research on CALL systems, which appeared to be user-friendly at first glance, showed that learners were not always performing well because the technology had not been adapted to their needs (e.g. Hamel 2012; Caws 2013). By analysing a ‘work situation (or an association of a subject and a task in set conditions)’ (Raby 2005, p. 184), data that are collected (physical and verbal behaviour, performance and processes) can later be recycled into new learning processes and technological design (Caws and Hamel 2013). This recycling mechanism ultimately creates a sustainable learning ecosystem. CALL ergonomics offers many advantages to researchers and learners alike by focusing on both individual and group interactions and by leading to the discovery of mechanisms (cognitive and functional) that may greatly improve our learners’ experience with CALL. Central to ergonomics research is the observation of user behaviour during CALL activities. This is commonly done through tracking, the gathering and analysis of activity data such as logins, mouse clicks, page views, resource use, help requests, etc. By analysing these data, CALL ergonomics digs deeper within the cognitive and functional effects of new systems and the effects that new e-learning tasks may have on human cognition and behaviours.

5  Eye tracking Tracking learner behaviour in CALL research is not a new idea. Prominent figures in CALL have called for the collection and analysis of tracking data for quite some time (Chapelle 1997; Garrett 1991). Researchers have not always been quick to pursue projects that make use of tracking technology, however. Why is this so? For one thing, tracking learner behaviour can be an arduous and time-consuming task, requiring very careful planning and preparation as well as piloting to resolve potential technical problems. Further, tracking often yields a mountain of data, which must be subsequently coded and analysed. Nevertheless, more and more CALL researchers are recognizing the importance of tracking learner behaviour in both learner–computer and technology-mediated learner–learner interaction. Why is tracking learner behaviour so important? Fischer (2007) points out that unless we know what students really do when they use a particular program, we run the risk of operating in a theoretical vacuum. This is obviously important when trying to evaluate claims of the effectiveness of certain software components, for example. At a minimum, we need to know whether or not students use certain program features, and if so, in what manner. Surveying students regarding their use of specific features of the software may be a tenuous choice. Chun and Plass (1996) examined students’ use of different types of annotations (text, picture and movie) in a multimedia reading program designed for second-year German students. They found weak correlations between the types of annotations students said they consulted and the types of annotations they actually consulted in the program. If students’ self-reports on the use of program features are unreliable, then their judgements of the instructional value of those features must be considered suspect as well. At the core of eye tracking is the eye–mind assumption: this states that ‘the eye remains fixated on a word as long

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as the word is being processed’ (Just and Carpenter 1980, p. 330). In eye tracking, an individual’s eye movements are measured, which allows the researcher to know at any given time where and for how long a person is looking. It also shows the sequence in which his or her eyes are shifting from one location to another (Poole and Ball 2006). Eye movements during reading are used to infer moment-by-moment cognitive processing of a text by the reader (Just and Carpenter 1980). These eye movements are considered empirical correlates of processing complexity, which allow us to make inferences about perceptual and cognitive processes. Tracking learners’ eye movements can add a new and robust dimension to the data collected in both human–computer and human–human interaction environments. Eyetracking technology has been employed as a tool in psychological L1 reading research for over 100 years and has recently gained currency in SLA studies. For example, Sagarra and Ellis (2013) employed eye tracking to explore aspects of the associative learning theory. Godfroid and Uggen (2013) used eye tracking in examining L2 learners’ attention to verb morphology. And Winke (2013) used this technique to test the claim that input enhancement (Sharwood Smith 1993) is a relatively unobtrusive technique to promote learner attention to targeted linguistic forms. As CALL researchers strive to incorporate multiple theoretical perspectives, data collection modalities and methodological techniques into their research, eye tracking technology presents itself as a viable and potentially powerful tool that seems less likely than, say, think-aloud protocols to interfere with the participants’ cognitive processing (Godfroid, Housen and Boers 2010). Also, since it is an online measure, it may be more robust in some ways than retrospective techniques such as stimulated recall. We are now seeing the application of eye tracking in human–human interactional settings in addition to those human–computer studies mentioned above. There seem to be several immediate applications that eye tracking can offer CALL. For example, eye tracking records can provide insights into what learners attend to in the linguistic input and their own output during synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC). Indeed, a handful of CALL studies have explored attention to form using eye gaze records (Kuhn 2012; O’Rourke 2008, 2012; Smith 2010; Smith and Renaud 2013; Stickler and Shi 2015). Each of these studies suggests that eyetracking is suitable to use as an instrument for measuring the noticing of written text in CALL environments. We can also use eye tracking to confirm or disconfirm the efficacy of other, more established data collection measures in SLA such as stimulated recall and think-aloud (Smith 2012). Researchers are also employing eye tracking to explore how interactional processes affect L2 development. For example, Michel and Smith (2014) used learner eye gaze data to examine the nature of alignment and structural convergence in task-based SCMC interaction. They found that the eyetracking data adds to our understanding of the specific context SCMC creates for lexical and structural alignment among upper level L2 learners in a task-based SCMC environment. Of course, eye tracking can not only be used to investigate interactional processes in computer-mediated communication, but can also be employed in the fine-grained analysis of the interaction of the learner with the machine. From the perspective of a CALL designer/developer, this method plays a role in usability tests of CALL tools.

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6  Usability tests Usability is a core term in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI), since ‘how to measure usability is an important question in HCI research as well as in user interface evaluation’ (Hornbaek 2006, p. 79). Usability is a property conferred on any object humans use for specific tasks. It has been formally described as ‘the effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with which specified users can achieve goals in particular environments’ (ISO 1998, p. 2). Bevan (1995) refers to usability as ‘quality in use’ which illustrates its process-oriented nature. Quality attributes such as learnability (time to learn), efficiency (speed of performance), memorability (retention over time), (rate of) errors (by users) and (subjective) satisfaction (Nielsen 1993; Shneiderman 1998) are measurable aspects of usability. Emergent technologies such as video screen capture and eye tracking facilitate the development of robust and valid measures of usability. In the context of CALL research and design, video screen capture and eye tracking have been employed for process observation of learner–task–tool interaction in real time and in a less intrusive manner (Fischer 2007; Hamel 2012; Chun 2013). In order to obtain a valid measure of usability, a user interface needs to be tested iteratively and over time, with a focus on learning and retention attributes (Hornbaek 2006). The user experience has to be taken into account when measuring usability and one of its prime indicators is user satisfaction. Evaluation criteria will go beyond usefulness and likeability as an interface must be considered ‘acceptable’ by the users. They must clearly see the value and potential of the interface, must be able and willing to use it and need to make it part of their current practice (Hémard 2003, p. 40). The most common method employed to measure satisfaction is through post-intervention questionnaires and semi-formal interviews. Satisfaction can also be assessed during use with a think-aloud protocol. Talk-after protocols (stimulated recalls) constitute another method that can provide information on the quality in use, helping disambiguate certain aspects of the interaction (e.g. silences, hesitations, decisions). Correlations between measures of usability – objective and subjective, quantitative and qualitative – can be made to gain a deeper understanding of the interaction (Hamel 2013a). This way, it can be established how efficiency contributes to effectiveness or how learnability influences satisfaction. In her study on the use of questionnaires to inform usability tests conducted on a CALL dictionary prototype, Hamel (op. cit.) argues that ‘a blended approach to CALL tool evaluation, that is, an approach combining observed and perceived data about the process and the product of the user-task-tool interaction at the computer can enable CALL researchers to draw meaningful conclusions about the quality of this interaction’ (p. 56). Her results show, for instance, that there is a correlation between dictionary use and task success as well as perceived success. High efficiency scores signified more effort devoted to consulting the dictionary functions while completing language tasks. Interestingly enough, students with high efficiency scores completed these tasks more successfully, and thus achieved high effectiveness scores as well. High efficiency and effectiveness scores also provided students with a metacognitive perspective. They became fully aware of the positive effects of using the dictionary on their success. Experienced users, students who stated they had already

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used several online lexical resources, were found seeking information in the dictionary prototype easy. Usability tests are context-sensitive. Their results should put forward recommendations for improving aspects of a user interface that do not meet usability requirements originally formulated as goals. Conditions for a sustainable integration into the users’ natural routines, that is, ‘normalization’ (Levy 2013) should also be identified. Conducting usability tests in CALL contexts can serve as an effective method to elicit information about learner behaviour, shed light on the process of the learner– task–tool interaction and, ultimately, support it better. Empirical findings can be recycled in language learning (Caws and Hamel 2013). For example, expert as well as coping models of interaction (e.g. video screen captures of successful and less successful dictionary searches during writing processes) could be shown to learners in order to help them better reflect on their own interaction (Hamel 2013b). A common method for designing usability tests is to select representative users as well as representative (micro and macro) tasks and to pay attention to successes achieved and difficulties encountered with the user interface, for example, of a CALL tool, resource or an environment, during the interaction process. Selecting representative learners is not only important for usability tests but also in interaction-based research in CALL in general. Archetypal users of a learning tool that represent the needs of larger groups of users in terms of their goals and personal characteristics are called personas (Cooper 1999).

7  Learner personas The usefulness of personas in defining and designing interactive applications is based on the ideas of Alan Cooper (1999) expressed in his book The Inmates are Running the Asylum. With the concept of personas in CALL, we are aiming at capturing and clustering similarities and differences among learners (see Colpaert 2004; Levy and Stockwell 2006). Once the similarities and differences have been determined, the learning process can be modelled to enhance the learner–computer interaction with an individualized, adaptive CALL environment. For instance, instructional alternatives with respect to learning objectives, tasks and media, or the use of learning tools can be provided. In addition, this kind of information can be static and hard-wired into the learning tool, or dynamic in the sense that it changes over time and adjusts to our learners as they develop over time. Possibly, this knowledge can also be negotiated with the learner and manipulated accordingly. Personas are abstract; however, they are based on the knowledge of real users. Thus, in order to define different personas, some form of research that tracks learners’ interactions with a CALL system must be conducted to better understand how our learners most effectively use the learning tools that we construct for them. Interactionbased research ensures that the personas we design represent real end-users rather than the opinion of the person writing the personas. Without close monitoring of what users do, we otherwise might end up with a learning tool built for what we think language learners are like and do, rather than for what the learners really are like and for the way they use and interact with CALL programs. Naturally, a learning tool can

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also be designed with predefined personas and then tested and revised to confirm or reject the designer’s assumptions about the personas. In any case, observational, interaction-based learner data are required to establish and/or confirm the personas we construct. But what kind of interaction-based data do we need to define different personas? An effective CALL environment requires ethnographic user data gathered from both qualitative and quantitative research into learner assessment, usability testing, interviewing students, conducting surveys – all of these will determine in what ways we need to individualize instruction. For instance, we need to consider learner demographics that are important along with the design features that go with them. Naturally, the only time they really matter is when the demographics directly affect learner behaviour. The same applies to general learner preferences. The difference between personas must then be based on deeper issues, for instance, what learners do (actions or projected actions) and why they do them (goals and motivations) and not so much on who the learners are (see also Saffer 2005; Calabria 2004; Goodwin 2001). However, the number of personas should be reasonably small to keep them distinct. For example, a study by Heift (2002) identified three different learner types: browsers, peekers and adamants based on their interactional patterns with regard to system navigation, error correction behaviour and learner variables. Results indicate that browsers were predominantly beginning-level learners who frequently browsed through the exercises without providing any input or making an attempt to respond to the task. In contrast, peekers generally attempted to correct their input by making frequent use of system help options; however, these mainly beginning- to intermediatelevel learners also peeked at the correct answer(s) provided by the system more often than they actually attempted to correct their errors. Finally, adamants never requested a correct answer from the system but instead worked through the error correction process adamantly; they also made far less use of system help options and turned out to be advanced learners in the language. In studying learner behaviour and use of CALL programs, it is important to determine which interactional patterns have an impact on learning and, therefore, need to be considered while constructing an adaptive CALL environment. In Heift’s study, if the browsers, for instance, never get any language practice due to the fact that they predominantly skip exercises, they presumably will not succeed in learning the foreign language by using the software. Accordingly, these interactional patterns prompt suggestions with respect to effective CALL system design and they tell us which learner variables, learning tools, design features, etc. warrant an individualized, adaptive learning environment. CALL research has undoubtedly made much progress in observing learners and determining their working behaviours, attitudes and preferences. However, in order to obtain a more sustainable CALL environment, the results must then be reflected in the CALL environments we construct for our learners.

8 Conclusion As seen through the lens of theoretical concepts and various methods and the data described therein, interaction-based research in CALL is a multifaceted area of

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research. We aimed at giving an overview of specific theories and methods in order to solicit a broader discussion about the potential of the field, as well its challenges. Within the wider CALL context, our chapter has served to illustrate the extent to which strong conceptual frameworks, such as the ones described here, can guide researchers in producing sustainable CALL research methods, data and tools. Emergent technologies and techniques, largely borrowed from the web industry, facilitate the collection and analysis of empirical data on learner interaction processes online. Such data reveal behaviours hidden up to now, opening a window on learners’ actions and decisions in cyberspace when languaging. A major challenge ahead for CALL researchers is to develop valid and reliable (quantitative and qualitative) measures of analysis based on these new observables that will be applicable to wider contexts and over time. Also, because observation data have great potential as teaching and learning tools (e.g. video screen capture), it is the responsibility of researchers to help teachers foresee these tools’ affordances and to make learner interaction data available to them in an accessible and usable format so that both tools and data can be reused in a sustainable manner.

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Jauregi, K., de Graaff, R., van den Bergh, H. and Kriz, M. (2012). ‘Native/Non-Native Speaker Interactions through Video-Web Communication: A Clue for Enhancing Motivation?’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 25 (1): 1–19. Just, M. A. and Carpenter, P. A. (1980). ‘A Theory of Reading: From Eye Fixations to Comprehension’. Psychological Review 87: 329–54. Kaptelinin, V. and Nardi, B. (2012). ‘Affordances in HCI: Toward a Mediated Action Perspective’. In J. A. Konstan, E. Chi, E. and K. Hook (eds), Proceedings of the 2012 ACM annual conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 967–76. Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2208541. Kirschner, P. (2002). ‘Can We Support CCSL? Educational, Social and Technological Affordances for Learning’. In P. Kirschner (ed.), Three Worlds of CSCL: Can We Support CSCL?, 7–47. Heerlen: Open University of the Netherlands. Kuhn, J. (2012). ‘The Noticing of Correct and Incorrect Forms in Lengthier Texts: An ESL Eye-Tracking Investigation’. In G. Kessler, A. Oskoz and I. Elola (eds), Technology Across Writing Contexts and Tasks, 237–53. San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Lantolf, J. P. and Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). ‘Chaos/Complexity Science and Second Language Acquisition’. Applied Linguistics 18 (2): 141–65. Larsen-Freeman, D. and Cameron, L. (2008). Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee, M. (2009). ‘How can 3D Virtual Worlds be Used to Support Collaborative Learning? An Analysis of Cases from the Literature’. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society 5 (1). Retrieved from http://je-lks.org/ojs/index.php/Je-LKS_EN/article/view/300. Leontiev, A. N. (1978). Activity, Consciousness and Personality. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Leontiev, A. N. (1981). ‘The Problem of Activity in Psychology’. In J. V. Wertsch (ed.), The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psychology, 37–71. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Levy, M. (2013). ‘Design-Based Research and the Quest for Normalization’. In J. C. Rodriguez and C. Pardo-Ballester (eds), Design-Based Research in CALL, 31–40. CALICO Monograph Series, 11. Levy, M. and Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL Dimensions: Options and Issues in ComputerAssisted Language Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. van Lier, L. (2004). The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Michel, M. and Smith, B. (2014, March). Alignment and Structural Convergence During SCMC: An Eye Tracking Study. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics conference, Portland, OR. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. O’Rourke, B. (2008). ‘The other C in CMC: What Alternative Data Sources can Tell us about Text-Based Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication and Language Learning’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 21: 227–51. O’Rourke, B. (2012). ‘Using Eye Tracking to Investigate Gaze Behaviour in Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication for Language Learning’. In M. Dooly and R. O’Dowd (eds), Researching Online Interaction and Exchange in Foreign Language Education: Methods and Issues, 305–41. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Poole, A. and Ball, L. J. (2006). ‘Eye Tracking in Human-Computer Interaction and Usability Research: Current Status and Future Prospects’. In C. Ghaoui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 211–19. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

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Rabardel, Pierre (1995). Les hommes et les technologies: approche cognitive des instruments contemporains. Paris: A. Colin. Raby, F. (2005). ‘A User-Centered Ergonomic Approach to CALL Research’. In J. L. Egbert and G. M. Petrie (eds), CALL Research Perspectives, 179–90. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum A. Raby, F., Baillé, F., Bressoux, P. and Chapelle, C. (2003). ‘Ergonomic Theory and Practice: What Language Learners Do in a Self-Access Room’. ASp, n° spécial Recherches et pratiques en centre de langues 41–2: 67–85. PDF available at http://webcom.upmfgrenoble.fr/sciedu/baille/RBBC.pdf. Saffer, D. (2005). ‘Persona Non Grata’. Adaptive Path. Online journal available at: http:// www.adaptivepath.com/publications/essays/archives/000524.php (Accessed 1 June 2013). Sagarra, N. and Ellis, N. C. (2013). ‘From Seeing Adverbs to Seeing Morphology. Language Experience and Adult Acquisition of L2 Tense’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 35: 261–90. Selber, S. (2004). Multiliteracies for a Digital Age. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). ‘Input Enhancement in Instructed SLA: Theoretical Bases’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15: 165–79. Shneiderman, B. (1998). Designing User Interface. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Smith, B. (2010). ‘Employing Eye-Tracking Technology in Researching the Effectiveness of Recasts in CMC’. In F. M. Hult (ed.), Directions and Prospects for Educational Linguistics, 79–98. New York: Springer. Smith, B. (2012). ‘Eye Tracking as a Measure of Noticing. A Study of Explicit Recasts in SCMC’. Language Learning and Technology 16 (3): 53–81. Smith, B. and Renaud, C. (2013). ‘Eye Tracking as a Measure of Noticing Corrective Feedback: In Computer-Mediated Instructor-Student Foreign Language Conferences’. In K. McDonough and A. Mackey (eds), Interaction in Diverse Educational Settings, 147–65. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Stickler, U. and Shi, L. (2015). ‘Eye Movements of Online Chinese Learners’. CALICO Journal 32 (1): 52–81. Verillon, P. and Rabardel, P. (1995). ‘Cognition and Artefacts: A Contribution to the Study of Thought in Relation to Instrumented Activity’. European Journal of Psychology of Education 10 (1): 7–101. Verspoor, M., De Bot, K. and Lowie, W. (2011). A Dynamic Approach to Second Language Development: Methods and Techniques. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and Society: The Development of Higher Mental Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Williams, G. P. (1997). Chaos Theory Tamed. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. Winke, P. (2013). ‘The Effects of Input Enhancement on Grammar Learning and Comprehension: A Modified Replication of Lee, 2007, with Eye-Movement Data’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 35: 323–52.

8

Factors in Sustainable CALL Monica Ward

1 Introduction CALL development is difficult and it is hard to develop sustainable CALL resources. CALL is not a new discipline, but only a few projects have managed to break through the research ceiling, while many have floundered when trying to survive in the real world. CALL development consists of many elements: learner need/teacher ideas, different pedagogies, a multidisciplinary team, financial resources, software development, deployment issues and the time to develop the resources. Many CALL articles discuss the use of a particular technology in a particular context (e.g. Mobileassisted Language Learning (MALL), blogs). In many cases, the researchers are using general software tools rather than CALL-specific resources. Their focus is on how the technology can support the language learning process, rather than how the software was designed or developed. However, it is important to provide knowledgeable input where possible if software resources, and particularly CALL-specific resources, are to be useful for learners and actually used by leaners in the real world. It is helpful for CALL researchers to have an understanding of the complexities involved in CALL development, the potential stumbling blocks and how to overcome them in order to develop sustainable CALL resources. Sustainable implies being efficient and balancing short- and long-term needs and goals. Sustainable Open Educational Resources (OERs) and sustainable software feed into sustainable CALL. When considering sustainability, it is useful to learn from the past; Davies (1997) and, more recently, Kennedy and Levy (2009) provide a useful review of the lessons from the past. Many of them still apply today and may do so in the future. The process of designing, developing and implementing CALL resources that will be used outside of the research environment for a sustainable period of time is complex. There are several key factors that can contribute to the long-term success of a CALL project. They include learner need, well-designed modular software and resources that are usable and reusable. Institutional support, training and deployment issues are also key factors to consider. It is important to ensure that there is a real, underlying need for the CALL resources and not just a ‘need-to-test-a-theory’ motivation behind the project. Colpaert’s (2004a) ADDIE model and especially his

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Global-Local-Differential-Targeted grid in the Analysis phase of a project can help in this area. Will the targeted end-users be able to use the resources? Will they have the means to do so? Is there institutional will behind the project (or is it a solo-run by a limited number of people)? The design has to be structured, but this does not mean that it has to be overly complex. Colpaert (2004a) provides comprehensive design guidelines, but these can be adapted to local requirements. Sometimes a CALL resource may be wonderfully designed, but it never manages to be used in the target deployment context. This may be due to training issues, deployment issues or lack of institutional uptake, among other reasons. These issues need to be understood and planned for in advance so that their potentially negative impact can be minimized. The agile methodology (Martin 2003) is an iterative and incremental development paradigm that, combined with the traditional ADDIE model, can provide a useful hybrid that can address some of these issues and facilitate the development of sustainable CALL resources. Davies (1997) first outlined key lessons for (sustainable) CALL in 1997, but many of them are still relevant for the development of sustainable CALL today. This chapter reviews the factors that make it more likely that a CALL project may succeed, but without which success is unlikely.

2 Background There are many components that make CALL development difficult. These include the myriad of pedagogies and scenarios for language teaching and learning, the multidisciplinary nature of CALL, financial considerations, the software development process, deployment considerations and time issues. CALL design and development is difficult. The impetus behind many CALL materials comes from language teachers who have an idea of CALL resources that they would like their students to use. These ideas are often based on students’ needs that they have identified during the teaching and learning processes. They may be aware of CALL, but may not have fully understood what it can and cannot do. There are many different pedagogies and paradigms in language teaching and learning. Moreover, there are also many different scenarios for learning including teacher-led, guided and self-directed, and all of these influence CALL development. CALL design and development usually require a multidisciplinary team, which can include teachers, pedagogical experts, de-signers, linguistics, learners, developers, pedagogical experts, state bodies and commercial bodies. Indeed, it is the multidisciplinary nature of CALL that makes it a particularly challenging field. Obviously, not all CALL projects will need or have access to each of these players, but each project will need several of them in order to be successful. Often, what initially appears to be a relatively simple project will turn out to be more difficult. Lack of financial resources is another problem in CALL development, as it is often difficult to get commercial funding for CALL projects. Even in other domains, it is hard to secure funding, as many internet/app users expect resources and apps to be free or of very low cost. In reality, apart from the Most Commonly Taught Languages (MCTLs), for example English and Spanish, there is little commercial

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incentive to develop and maintain CALL resources. Downes (2007) has outlined some alternative sources of funding. These will vary depending on location and often will provide funds for initial development, but not for ongoing development and maintenance, which is where the real costs often lie. Wood (2008) suggests that CALL development is more difficult now than in the past due to time and financial constraints. Software development is one of the key elements in CALL resources and is not an easy task (Loka 2007; DeMarco 2009). Just as there are many different approaches and methodologies in language teaching and learning, there are different paradigms and strategies in software development. It is a complex process and involves many different technologies and methodologies (Sommerville 2010). Apart from the actual software development, there are also other design issues to consider. For example, User Interface (UI) design is an important component in any CALL resource and should be designed with the target audience in mind. Particularly in the CALL context, the interface language is a key consideration. There are software engineering methodologies available to CALL teams, but often the teams may not be aware of them, or they may find it difficult to understand how they are used and to apply them on a CALL project. Pedagogically sound resources are crucial in CALL. There is no point in using technology for technology’s sake. CALL researchers are constantly considering how they can use technology to help language students learn a language (Stockwell 2007). Does Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) help? Do blogs have a positive impact on learning? Regardless of the technology, the motivation is usually the same – to improve the teaching and learning process. However, having pedagogically sound, usable CALL software does not automatically imply that the CALL software will actually be used. The deployment context is an important make-or-break component in sustainable CALL. CALL software must be designed with the usage context in mind. CALL resources may work well in a university or software development department – but what about the real-world usage environment? Will the software be used in a classroom situation or individually? Will the learners be guided or self-paced? Will the computers be high-spec or low-spec machines? If the resources are to be used over the internet, the broadband capacity of the deployment context needs to be taken into account. All these factors can influence the success and sustainability of CALL. Chambers and Bax (2006) identify key factors in CALL normalization. They point out the importance of the deployment context in this regard. Time is a factor in sustainable CALL. Obviously, the development of software resources takes time (Gibbs 1994), but the length of time required to design and build good, suitable CALL resources may be underestimated or be wildly inaccurate and this can cause frustration for those involved in the process and for the CALL end-user. There is the ‘invisible’ time spent in the germination of an idea, which is very difficult to quantify. Once the idea has taken shape, it is necessary to plan the project. It takes time to do project planning, raise the necessary finance and research the deployment issues. Of course, there is the time required to design, develop and test the CALL software. While it may not be immediately obvious, the time it takes from identification of need and germination of the idea, to the delivery, installation and deployment of the CALL

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Table 8.1  Summary of CALL development difficulties Component

Explanation

Need/idea identified

Mapping from idea to CALL resource is difficult

Different pedagogies

Different paradigms/frameworks/scenarios make decisions complex

Multidisciplinary team required

Multidisciplinary team not available

Financial resources

Financial resources not available

Software development

Complex and multifaceted

Deployment issues

Deployment context difficulties often underestimated

Time

Process is usually longer than initially envisaged

resources, can contribute to the downfall of CALL software. If there is an inordinate delay in acquiring the software on the part of end-users, then they may lose interest in the software, their needs may change or they may think of other institutions to meet their requirements. Thus, time delay can be a major factor in CALL sustainability. Table 8.1 provides a summary of why CALL development is difficult.

3 Sustainability Sustainability implies that something can be maintained at a certain level or rate, taking into account the resources that are available. This section looks at Sustainable Open Educational Resources (OERs), sustainable software and sustainable CALL. They embody the central concept of sustainability, which is to make efficient use of available resources and to consider short- and long-term needs and goals.

3.1  Sustainable Open Educational Resources Sustainable Open Educational Resources (OERs) are not a new phenomenon, but they are gaining more traction in recent years (Downes 2007; Peña-López 2007). Educational Resources (ERs) can include learning resources, resources to support teachers and resources to assure the quality of education and educational practices (Johnson 2005). ‘Open’ is not just the difference between commercial and noncommercial (Walker 2005); it also implies freedom to use the resources in whatever way the user sees fit, including perhaps ways not initially envisaged by the original developers. Stephenson (2006) points out that there is also an obligation on developers to make their educational resources available to others, to contribute back to the community. Wood (2008) believes that academics should contribute to the advance of society as a whole, and this includes making software, as well as research results, publically and freely available. Sustainable OERs are often viewed as free resources, but there is actually a cost involved and that is usually borne by the provider (Zalta 2005). OER developers provide their resources for their own reasons. They may be technological, cultural or altruistic,

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but they are developed with the aim of sharing them and making them available to others. Sustainable implies long-term viability and this includes meeting not only the learners’, but also the providers’, objectives. It is obviously better if these are aligned, but this may not be the case in all situations. There are also ancillary costs associated with OERs, including training, which is a key element with any CALL materials. UNESCO (2002) have looked at the impact of open courseware on higher education for developing countries and noted the need for contextualization for language and cultural differences. Infrastructure needs are also an important consideration, and this includes both the physical hardware and connectivity issues. Downes (2007) analysed the sustainability of OERs from funding, technical and content perspectives. He notes that there are many different funding models apart from the purely commercial ones, including endowment, membership, donations, conversion (from free to pay) and contributor-pay. Other funding models include sponsorship, and institutional and/or governmental partnerships and exchanges. He states that some of these may not be traditionally considered as funding models, but they are a way to help OERs. Partnerships and exchanges tend to be ad-hoc and bilateral, but can be productive, especially in the CALL domain. It is not sufficient that OERs are made available – they must also be discoverable, modular and interoperable (Friesen 2001). The concept of download, adapt and send back is also important (Stephenson 2006). Resources should be free to use, locally adapted and then the resulting resources sent back as new OERs for the community. This implies the need for repositories for the OERs and some quality control mechanism to be in place (Larsen and Vincent-Lancrin 2005). In terms of content, Beshears (2005) postulates that courses have a lifespan of approximately eight years, although Davies (1997) shows that well-designed resources can last much longer. For content to be sustainable, it must be glocal, that is, it must be adaptable to local needs or conditions. Reuse is also important in terms of OER content (Petrides et al. 2008). Atkins et al., (2007), D’Antoni (2009), and Richter and McPherson (2012) provide a good overview of open educational resources.

3.2  Sustainable software The aim of sustainable software is efficiency and having a balance between short-term and long-term needs. Tate (2005) says that this involves doing the right amount of work in the short-term while at the same time employing practices that address the long-term needs. Sustainable software aims to produce software that has the highest possible value to the client. As Repenning and Sterman (2001) state, the aim is to work smarter rather than harder. A virtuous cycle of software development (where the team is improving and better able to deal with challenges) should help to avoid a software death spiral or vicious cycle (where the team works harder for longer hours with diminishing results). Sustainable software should be well designed and modular. Well-designed software is a software in which the function of each component is clear and well defined. Where possible, components should be loosely coupled and have a high cohesion. Loose coupling means that there are limited dependencies between components, while high coupling means that the elements of a component belong

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together. Loose coupling and high cohesion help to develop software that is robust, reliable, reusable and understandable. Modular software design makes is easier to make changes in isolation, without affecting other parts of the system. It also helps to compartmentalize development.

3.3  Sustainable CALL Sustainable CALL involves developing software that addresses a real learner need. It aims to develop usable and reusable resources. Usable resources are those that can be used by the target end-user, while reusable resources imply the resources can be adapted to suit a different environment or context without too much difficulty. Another feature of sustainable CALL is that real learners use the resources as part of their normal learning activities and that the resources are blended seamlessly with their usual classroom learning. This seems straightforward, but in practice it is difficult to achieve. Chambers and Bax (2006) outline the issues involved in CALL normalization, which is a core element of sustainable CALL.

4  Lessons from the past One of the main aims of any community of researchers is to learn from others, see what has worked in the past and what has not, so that the successful features are adopted (or adapted) and difficulties avoided where possible. Several CALL researchers have provided overviews of CALL (e.g. Levy 1997; Warschauer and Healey 1998; Bax 2003; Levy and Stockwell 2006). This section looks at lessons from the past, including points from Davies (1997) and Kennedy and Levy (2009). For CALL to be sustainable, it is important to learn from what has happened in the past, and to try to repeat the successes and avoid things that did not work (Levy 1997). Davies (1997, updated 2011) outlined lessons from the past and for the future and many of these still apply today. It is interesting to read his reflections in 2011 of his original lessons from 1997 and to see that many of the points are still valid (an example, perhaps, of sustainability itself). Kennedy and Levy (2009) provide an overview of CALL research and practice in a university over a twenty-five-year period and they have some interesting insights that have universal relevance. Davies (1997) placed great importance on ongoing training for all the parties involved in CALL, including teachers, learners and administrators, and this is one of the key components of sustainable CALL. This is still a key issue (Hubbard 2004; Hubbard and Levy 2006), because if the teaches and learners do not know how to use the CALL resources or do not feel comfortable using them, they will not use them in their practice. In particular, the issue of teacher training, in the sense of making teachers aware of CALL, is one of the important areas of focus in CALL in recent years. Indeed, Hegelheimer (2006) suggests that technology training should be incorporated into teacher education courses. Davies (1997) noted that technology is not a panacea and even with the technological advances since 1997, this is still true. Technology is an aid, not a silver bullet. Although

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he stated that the hardware choices are not as critical as in the past, with different devices available to users, it is still a consideration for CALL developers, with which Stockwell (2007) concurs. Kennedy and Levy (2009) point out that applications may last longer than initially envisaged and that the need to upgrade or change technology may be overestimated. Colpaert (2006) states that the idea and context of a CALL resource can be separate from the technology, and that it is specification and not the technology that is important. When Artificial Intelligence (AI) first became a possibility, it seemed that it would make a big contribution to CALL. However, this has not been the case, and while it has a role to play in CALL, up to now it has not become as mainstream as originally envisaged. ICALL (which combines Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) modelling into CALL) is a growing research area. There are several difficulties in uniting NLP and CALL, including the standard/correctness of the language being processed and the lack of pedagogical fit between NLP resources and the language learning process. Borin (2002) cites cultural differences, misunderstandings and language learning ideology as hindering factors in ICALL. However, things are continually improving and Heift and Schulze (2007) provide some interesting examples of NLP that can be used in CALL. Speech technology is one area that has shown potential, and NLP-related technologies could become more applicable to CALL as awareness of the capabilities and needs of both domains increase. One of the most important of Davies’ lessons is that ideas are paramount and this continues to be the case. Regardless of what technology is available, how it will be used for teaching and learning is the most important consideration. CALL researchers have consistently identified the importance of the idea, pedagogy over technology (e.g. Levy 1997, 2004; Colpaert 2006). The topic of teachers developing their own CALL resources is an interesting one. Teachers are probably best placed to know the needs of their students, but they can often find it hard to develop their own CALL resources. There are tools available to help them in this regard (e.g. Hot Potatoes 2013 – a very useful tool for basic language exercises), but they often underestimate the difficulty involved. Sometimes what might seem obvious to (CALL) authoring tools developers may not be so transparent to teachers actually producing CALL resources. Furthermore, building CALL materials is not just about the actual development process; it also involves pedagogical considerations and training. Authoring tools may help in the development of CALL resources, but only after these other, more important, considerations have been addressed. Davies’ final observation was about the internet. Even though it has a role to play, its usage in CALL is complex. Today this point could be expanded to include texting, MALL and other Web 2.0 resources. In summary, many of Davies’ observations still hold true today and have implications for sustainable CALL. The ideas and motivation behind CALL resources are key considerations and the technology should be seen as an aid and not the main driving force. Table 8.2 provides a summary of Davies’ CALL lessons from the past. Many CALL artefacts reported in the literature are prototype systems (Naumann and Jenkins 1982) that do not usually survive in the real world. For some systems, this

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Table 8.2  Davies’ CALL lessons (1997, 2011) Lesson (1997)

Davies (2011)

Comment

1. Importance of ongoing training

Still important

Often overlooked

2. Technology is not a panacea

Usage more important than the tools

Aid, not a silver bullet

3. Choose the right hardware

Perhaps less of an issue

Still an issue

4. A little bit of control is enough

AI and ICALL may have a role

Improving all the time

5. Ideas are paramount

Still valid

Definitely

6. Do it yourself is not the answer

An option but not that easy

Help required

7. Beware of the internet hype

Useful but complex

Usage important

is to be expected as they are designed to test a certain hypothesis and are not intended for real-world deployment. Furthermore, it is difficult and not recommended to extend a prototype into a real product as, often, issues of scale and required resources are ignored when developing a prototype. However, there are CALL prototype systems that could be useful outside the research environment, but they are not deployed externally. CALL researchers’ and developers’ time is limited, and it would be good for all parties if their CALL materials could break through the research ceiling and be used in the real world. If a CALL project is based on a real need, designed in conjunction with the teacher and learners and aligned with the real-world deployment context, it has a relatively good chance of being sustainable. Given the limited resources available, it is important that they are used wisely, preferably to develop sustainable CALL materials.

5  Factors that hinder CALL sustainability However, there are several stumbling blocks in the way of CALL sustainability. A review of the literature points to several problems (e.g. Lee 2000; Chambers and Bax 2006). These include the difficulty of software development (Loka 2007; DeMarco 2009), lack of financial and human resources (Wood 2008), the disjoint between research CALL resources and real learner need (Hémard and Cushion 2006), the deployment issues (Chambers and Bax 2006) and the time delay in delivery (Gibbs 1994). CALL software must be based on learner need (Hoven 1999). If it does not address a real need, the CALL resources will probably not be used. If software is not well designed and modular, it will be hard to fix problems and maintain the software. With badly designed, non-modular software, it is difficult to make changes and they may have unintended consequences. Even if CALL resources address a real need and are well designed, if they are not usable by the target end-user, they are not sustainable. There are several reasons why CALL resources may not be usable by learners, including User Interface (UI) issues, language level or pedagogical mismatch.

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If the underlying software of the CALL artefact is not well designed and modular, it will be difficult to modify it when problems are encountered or modifications are required. Software is not static and changes are nearly always required. However, if the design is haphazard or not structured, it will be time-consuming, frustrating and perhaps not worth the effort to modify the software. Badly designed and badly structured software do not lead to sustainable CALL. Usability and reusability are also important considerations. Even if the underlying technology or software is good, if it is not usable by the target end-users, it is unlikely to be successful or sustainable. Not all users are the same, and their varying needs and abilities must be understood and factored into the CALL development process. Otherwise, the CALL artefacts will have a limited reach and will be underutilized. Reusability is a key component of sustainability. It should be more efficient to reuse an existing resource, rather than building one from scratch. However, if the software is not designed with reusability in mind, if it does not have an accessible way of interaction with other resources, or if its existence is not publicized, then it will not be reused. Many potentially useful CALL artefacts are not reusable for these reasons and this limits their sustainability. Another issue to consider is institutional support. If a CALL project involves one teacher on a solo run, then it is unlikely to be sustainable. If that teacher moves to a different role or leaves the organization, then it is unlikely that other teachers will use the CALL resources. Chambers and Bax (2006) point out that institutional support has many facets, including technology, infrastructure, classroom and lab logistics, and support for teachers in terms of technical and pedagogical training, as well as allocating them extra time for the preparation and planning of resources. Lack of support from an institution will hinder CALL sustainability. Training is a pivotal factor in successful CALL. It is not sufficient to develop usable CALL resources – it is important that the users can, and actually do, use them, and this involves training. There are several issues to consider when planning training, including who is to be trained (teacher, learners, administrators), their level of computer/CALL skills, the complexity of the CALL resources and the time available for training. If there is no provision for training, it is less likely the resources will be used. The training may not need to be long and drawn out, but lack of training will impede CALL sustainability. The final issue to consider is the deployment context. This needs to be taken into account when designing CALL resources. It does not make sense to develop CALL resources that need high-spec machines, with good graphics and sound cards, if the school or institution uses old, low-spec machines. It is not a good idea to assume internet connectivity, if in reality the school does not have good internet access. Designing and developing resources that will not work in the intended environment is not in anyone’s best interest. It might seem obvious that all these issues should be taken into consideration when designing CALL resources. However, this may not always be the case. Moreover, CALL researchers may assume a more normalized (Bax 2003) CALL environment than what actually exists and this will cause deployment issues. Table 8.3 provides a summary of factors that hinder sustainable CALL.

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Table 8.3  Factors that hinder sustainable CALL Factor

Role

Learner need

Key component must be identified and addressed

Well-designed, modular

Facilitates good practice, delivery and re-usability

Usable (and re-usable)

Learners have to be able to use the resources, and developers should be able to reuse them if possible

Institutional support

Key players must support CALL for it to be successful

Training

Teachers, learners and support staff must be trained and comfortable with using the resources

Deployment issues

Need to be taken into account when designing resources

6  Possible solutions to sustainability issues No one sets out to develop resources that are not sustainable. CALL researchers want learners to use their CALL resources over an extended period to help them in the language learning process. This section looks at possible solutions to the problems identified above. It provides a very brief overview of traditional and agile software development, as both have useful features that can contribute to CALL sustainability.

6.1  Traditional CALL development Some CALL development is ad-hoc and a little unstructured, sometimes undertaken by amateur developers (Colpaert 2004b). This may be because the focus is on the development of the CALL resource and the end-goal, rather than on the development methodology. However, software development and CALL development have generally used the traditional software engineering methodology of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE). In software engineering, it is often referred to as the Waterfall method (Royce 1970), as the output of one stage is the input to the next. This approach involves analysing the CALL environment before moving on to the design. The aim of the design phase is to specify what the system should do, before proceeding on to the development phase in which the software is actually built. Once the system has been developed and tested as required, it is installed and used by the learners in the implementation phase. In some general software projects, the process may terminate at this stage, but in CALL, it is useful to have an evaluation phase. In this phase, the software is evaluated by all the stakeholders and, ideally, suggestions for improvement should be made for future systems. Colpaert (2004a) provides a comprehensive overview of how the ADDIE methodology can be used in CALL. He advocates the use of a structured approach and gives a very detailed description of how this can work in CALL. While Colpaert’s model is based on general software engineering ideas, his Global Local Differential Targeted (GLDT) grid and persona identification in the Analysis phase in particular are especially useful in CALL (see Section 6.3 for more details). He also recommends a Research-

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based Research Output (RBRO) approach, whereby research findings feed back into the development process.

6.2  Agile methodology The agile paradigm is not new, but has become more popular in recent years (Ambler 2009). Takeuchi and Nonaka (1986) outlined the need for speed and flexibility in product development. The agile manifesto (Fowler and Highsmith 2001) outlines the key components of the agile approach. It involves iterative and incremental development. It has a flexible and rapid response to change. The aim is to deliver working software, during rather than at the end of the project. Not all the functionality will be delivered initially, but the philosophy is to deliver some working software continuously as the project progresses. It has the concept of a backlog list, which is a list of tasks to complete and this helps to prioritize what to work on next. Another feature of the agile paradigm is close collaboration with the user (Chamberlain et al. 2006). In many traditional software projects, the user is involved in the analysis phase and, to some extent, in the design phase. The interaction with the client during the development process is usually limited. This means that the developers do not have access to the client’s expertise and opinion when it may be needed. Sometimes, there may be a ‘them-and-us’ attitude and developers may be reticent to consult with clients for contractual or other reasons. In contrast, regular interaction with the clients can foster a more cooperative approach and help to avoid or minimize errors. Some CALL researchers have previously identified elements of the agile paradigm as important in CALL. For example, Kennedy and Levy (2009) recommend tailoring (to the context), integration (into the course) and an iterative development process as an approach to CALL projects. They state that it is important to be aware that a project may develop and grow, based on the steps (testing, piloting, evaluating and refining) in the CALL development life cycle. While they may not have an agile methodology as the basis of their CALL projects, they do use some agile paradigms. Farmer and Gruba (2006) provide a concise overview of the topic and its potential role in CALL. They highlight the differences between the agile methodology and traditional software engineering. These include the quantity and timing of documentation, how the requirements analyses are carried out, the design process, and the role and timing of testing and (the purpose of) maintenance.

6.3  Possible solutions While acknowledging the real problems in developing sustainable CALL, it is important for developers to look at how these problems can be overcome. This section looks at some possible solutions, along with examples from the CALL literature. A) Learner need There are several strategies to help understand the learner needs. Colpaert’s (2004a) Global Local Differential Targeted (GLDT) grid provides a comprehensive mechanism for analysing the CALL space. It forces the CALL designer to consider the global,

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local, targeted and differential findings for learners, teachers, pedagogy, technology, content and other actors. Often, only a few of these elements are considered in CALL development and this hinders the development of sustainable CALL. Using Colpaert’s GLDT grid, the CALL designer has to clarify exactly what learning need the CALL resources aim to address. It makes the designer look at all the relevant components so that a bigger-picture perspective is available from early on in the project. This means that it is less likely that some relevant factor will be overlooked. Colpaert’s grid also helps the designer in identifying and distilling the relevant research findings from the global context, through the local, the differential and, finally, the targeted context. In some CALL projects, the research findings that influenced the CALL design may be in place, but using Colpaert’s grid, they become explicit. Ward (2007) and Greene (2013) have used Colpaert’s GLDT grid successfully to develop CALL resources in a realworld setting. Figure 8.1 shows Colpaert’s GLDT template, with the six actors that should be considered when analysing needs in a CALL project. Several CALL researchers have identified the importance of end-user involvement in the design process (e.g. Watts (1997), Hémard and Cushion (2001), Hérmard (2006), Farmer and Gruba (2006) and Nesbitt (2013)). Watts (1997) outlines how learner needs could be helpful in software design. Hérmard and Cushion (2001) propose a ‘user walkthrough’ method in which the users (learners) talk as they work with the CALL software. They focus on getting user feedback on clarity of learning objectives, interface design, ease of use and whether the design met user expectations. Hérmard (2006) argues for a conversation between learners and designers who have common goals. Farmer and Gruba (2006) discuss the role of model-driven end-user development in CALL. Nesbitt (2013) outlines how learners can be involved in the design process in three phases – pre-, mid- and post-design. Indeed, the involvement of learners in the evaluation process (e.g. Nesbitt (2013)) provides input for future development work and feeds neatly into the Research-Based-Research-Output (RBRO) approach advocated by Colpaert (2004a). In some contexts (e.g. with adult or advanced learners), this can be feasible and useful, but with other learner groups (e.g.  young or novice learners), this may not be the case. Other CALL researchers (Komori and Zimmerman 2001; Boud and Prosser 2002) distinguish between learner need and teacher need, noting that often the focus is on the needs of the teacher and not the students. This is an important distinction to consider when looking at learner needs. There has been General

Local

Differential

Learner Teacher Pedagogy Technology Content Other actors Figure 8.1  Colpaert’s (2004a) Global Local Differential Targeted grid.

Targeted

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recent interest in using end-user design in CALL, for example, the workshop on agile user-centred design in CALL at EUROCALL 2014 (Bish et al. 2014). B) Well-designed, modular software Traditional software approaches provide many mechanisms to help software developers produce well-designed and modular software (Sommerville 2010). In general, selfcontained units (e.g. modules, procedures and functions) with a small, limited set of functionalities are conductive to well-designed software (Ghezzi et al. 2003). It is important to have a working system, but perhaps not all the features have to be in place at the beginning. With an agile methodology, features can be added over time. Once the basic components are in place, the learners will be able to use the system and they can avail of the new features once they are incorporated into the CALL resources. This incremental approach is a key component of the agile paradigm. This incremental approach is preferable to having the learners wait until all the features are in place before they can use any part of the system. A combination of traditional and agile methodologies can work well in the context of CALL development. C) Usable and reusable software Usable software means that it can be operated by the client or learners. In order to ensure this, it is important that the CALL developer is aware of the learner capabilities at the design phase, so that realistic assumptions are made about their abilities. Both traditional and agile approaches can help in this regard. There are many guides and heuristics available for usable software, particularly in the area of User Interface (UI) design. For example, Nielsen (1999a, 1999b), Shneiderman (1992) and Shneiderman and Ben (2003) provide guidelines for ensuring that the UI of a system is consistent and assessable by users. Chapelle (2001) and Colpaert (2004a) provide evaluation criteria for CALL usability. These include factors such as language learning potential, learner fit and practicality. Reusable software means that the software can be used again in another context or application. In order to facilitate reusability, each software unit should avoid any hardcoded information where possible. For example, text messages should be configurable so that the software can be customized to different languages. If the software is well designed, with a clear functionality, it can be reused in other applications. Given time and financial constraints, Wood (2008) suggests that reusability may be the only feasible paradigm to adopt for development. Some CALL researchers may worry that the effort required to develop CALL resources may not be worth it, especially if the resource has a short lifespan. However, as Davies (1997) and Kennedy and Levy (2009) point out, well-designed resources can last a lot longer. Furthermore, resources that are planned with sustainability and reuse in mind can potentially have a much longer lifespan. The area of standards is an emerging theme in recent years. There are standards for educational resources, including the IMS Global Learning Consortium standards (IMS 2014) and Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards (SCORM 2013). The aim of these standards is to indicate to developers what they must provide so that their resources can be reused and to help increase awareness of what resources

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are available for use by others. Increasing availability and awareness of such resources is of benefit to the CALL community. Currently, it is difficult to use NLP software in CALL applications, as they may not have been designed with CALL in mind. Cunningham et al. (2002) released the General Architecture for Text Engineering (GATE) as a framework for text processing. GATE provides a toolkit that is suitable for a large number of NLP tasks and Wood (2008) suggests that its role can be expanded for use by the Intelligent CALL (ICALL), Natural Language Processing (NLP)/CALL community. D) Institutional support Institutional support or buy-in is a key component of sustainable CALL. For CALL software to have an impact, it must have the support of stakeholders other than the CALL development team. Kennedy and Levy (2009) note that institutional support for their projects (CALL for Italian) contributed to their success. Chambers and Bax (2006) provide criteria for the normalization of CALL, and these include institutional support issues. They note that the institution should have a philosophy that supports CALL and recognizes the extra demands on teacher time including extra time for preparation and planning. Something as basic and core as classroom/lab layout is important to CALL success and an institution ought to provide suitable locations for CALL usage. The agile method advocates close and continuous contact between developers and clients and this can help to create a positive environment for CALL deployment. The institution can see the CALL resources being used in a relatively short period of time, and this can foster institutional support for CALL. Furthermore, the agile paradigm fosters a collaborative (rather than a conflictive or confrontational) atmosphere between the developer and the client (or institution) and this can help to foster institutional buy-in. E) Training Training is often overlooked in software implementation. It can be considered as a nuisance, as time-consuming or as an unnecessary component. However, if training is factored in at the planning phase, it is more likely to happen. If the software resources are intuitive for the users, the training time required may be reduced. If the software developers are aware of learner abilities, limitations and prior knowledge (if any), there should be a good fit between the learners and the software resources. Levy and Stockwell (2006) point out the benefits of horizontal integration, which takes advantage of the fact that learners are already familiar with certain technologies, and this can reduce the training load. Furthermore, designing for the target learners and adopting a user-centred design approach (Maguire 2001) as advocated by Farmer and Gruba (2006) should help to minimize problems and the need for further training. An interesting consequence of the agile approach of gradually adding functionality is that the learners do not have to learn all the functionality at once (it may not be available in any case), and this can help with training. A short training session may be needed, or perhaps the students may be familiar with the look and feel of the resources and no training session may be required. In terms of teacher training, Chambers and Bax (2006) recommend collaborative (peer-to-peer) training, not ‘top-down’ training. They report that teacher training is

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Table 8.4  Possible solutions to sustainability problems Factor

Possible solution

Learner need

Colpaert’s Global-Local-Differential-Targeted grid

Well-designed, modular

Combination of traditional and agile software paradigms

Usable (and re-usable)

User centred design + agile approach

Institutional support

Sustained involvement in project (agile approach)

Training

Planning and trying to make resources as intuitive as possible

Deployment issues

Working continually with end users (agile approach)

often given by technology enthusiasts who do not consider the needs of reluctant teachers. They say that teachers’ worries about technology problems have to be addressed and that pedagogical as well as technical assistance should be provided. Hubbard (2004) and Hubbard and Levy (2006) provide interesting insights into the area of CALL and teacher and learner training. F) Deployment issues Many CALL resources do not succeed as they fail to take into account the difficulties and limitations of the deployment context. Colpaert (2012) laments the fact that important software activities (e.g. context analysis and implementation) fall outside the traditional CALL research methods and perhaps there is less awareness of the area than there should be. One way to overcome the issue of ‘unexpected’ deployment problems is to consider explicitly these elements at the beginning of the project. Using Colpaert’s (2004a) GLDT grid forces the designer to look at the development context at an early stage of a CALL project. With the agile method, there is constant and continuous interaction with the client and therefore the CALL developer should have a good understanding of the constraints and limitations of the deployment context. Using a combination of both approaches can help to minimize any nasty surprises when the CALL resources are actually installed in the real-world environment. Kennedy and Levy (2009) also note the importance of being aware of the deployment context and tailoring CALL applications to a specific context. Table 8.4 provides a summary of possible solutions to CALL sustainability problems.

7  A hybrid approach A hybrid approach to software development combines both the ADDIE and agile approaches. The traditional software and agile methodologies are not without their problems, but they can be combined together to do what is best for a project. The ADDIE model has the disadvantage of no working software being produced until after the development stage. With this model, it is also difficult to handle changes between stages. For example, using the ADDIE model, it is difficult to retro-modify the design once the project is in the development phase. The agile approach also has some problems in that it can focus on delivery over quality, development over

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planning ad collaboration over management (Moczar 2013). The two methodologies can be considered to be polar opposites, but in recent years the concept of hybrid or Agile Software Engineering has evolved (Aitken and Ilango 2013). This uses the best of both approaches to deliver a working software product to the client. Colpaert’s GLDT grid from the traditional approach is very useful for analysing user needs and understanding the context. The agile approach brings the concept of iterative and incremental development, which means that there are regular software releases, that increases functionality as time progresses. This means that the learner can use the system from an early stage in the process. As extra features are implemented, the learner can be made aware of them and trained to use them as necessary. In an environment with many unknowns, the agile methodology provides a way of checking that the CALL developer understands the project requirements and helps to provide a more panoramic view of the main dynamics in the CALL design space. Using a hybrid approach can lead to the development of well-designed, modular software. It can help to ensure that real learner needs are identified and addressed. It can deliver working software to the learner, often in a timelier manner than with the traditional approach. CALL projects usually have several constraints to consider. The resources must be usable without too much ‘hassle’. The teacher may not be familiar with or have limited experience of CALL and the CALL researcher may be new to the domain. The team usually has very limited time to spend on the project and may try to reuse existing resources where possible. Often, there is no external help available. Furthermore, there are the time constraints of the educational setting. Within each day, week and term, there is a schedule to follow. The resources have to fit in or blend with this schedule (Chambers and Bax (2006). A hybrid approach can help to work around these constraints. Colpaert’s (2004a) GLDT grid can be used to understand the learning context and the specific learning needs of the target learner group. His use of personas can help to clarify what types of students are in the domain of the project or institution and provide an insight into classroom and scheduling logistics. The agile development paradigm can be used to provide resources in a timely manner. The agile approach is often used in a team development situation, but it can also be used on an individual basis to gain the same benefits. An agile strategy is to use an incremental development framework to provide basic functionality first and add new functionality regularly (e.g. weekly, bi-weekly, monthly). The development is iterative and the developer can meet with the teacher on a regular basis to decide on the priority items for development and delivery. The approach is flexible and there can be a rapid response to requests for change, with most bugs being fixed in the next release of the software. The key feature is to deliver working software and to make sure that the software works for each new release. There needs to be continual interaction with the teacher and the students. In line with the aim of working smarter, it is useful to use existing resources where possible. One such resource in the CALL domain is Hot Potatoes (Hot Potatoes 2013). Hot Potatoes is a good example of an open, reusable resource in the CALL domain. The Hot Potatoes’ mix, match and cloze exercises can be adapted for the target learners and it is possible to save the learner data for analysis. Using this hybrid approach, working, usable and reusable CALL software can be developed for the target learners in a relatively quick and efficient manner.

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8 Conclusions Sustainability is one of the current buzzwords. It has become important in recent years, as there is a growing awareness of the need to balance what is used/needed with what will be used/needed in the future. Sustainable agriculture and sustainable energy are two emerging areas, where the aim is to maintain consumption (food/energy) at a certain level, while taking into account the (limited) resources available. In education (and CALL), there is a similar theme emerging. There are constraints on the resources for CALL development and it is important to use them wisely in order to produce materials that will be used and be of value in both the short term and long term. Several factors impede CALL sustainability. They include the clear identification and understanding of learner need, problems with software design and (re)usability, lack of institutional support, lack of teacher and learner training and lack of consideration of the deployment context. A hybrid or agile software development paradigm can help to ensure that the need actually exists and that usable CALL materials are developed and delivered to the target learners in their real-world setting. It can help to integrate training into the process and foster institutional support. Given the difficulties in CALL development (pedagogical matters, multidisciplinarity, financial considerations, software engineering issues, time and deployment considerations), it is hard to develop sustainable CALL resources. However, an awareness of the issues involved and some possible solutions can go some way to moving along the continuum from one-off, ad-hoc CALL resources to sustainable resources, used by real learners on a regular basis over an extended period of time.

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Part Three

CALL Systems

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From a Vision to Reality: Paving the Way for CALL Sustainability by Harmonizing Theory, Practice and Technology in the Creation of an EFL b-Learning Environment for Chilean Learners Emerita Bañados

1 Introduction The notion of English as the world’s international language for global communication has prompted a revision and innovation of traditional teaching and learning methods for creating EFL environments that can more efficiently tackle the challenge of advancing rapidly in the formation of advanced human capital with mastery of communication skills in English. Nowadays, communicating in English proficiently has become an essential skill for the integration of citizens in the global network and for a successful confrontation of personal, academic and professional career challenges and opportunities in a globalized workforce. As language professionals, CALL practitioners and researchers, we are challenged daily to use our creativity to meet our local context needs, relying on our theoretical knowledge bases, our classroom teaching experience and the capabilities of technology to create conditions that may achieve better learning outcomes. However, the body of CALL research studies available in the last decade for a sound CALL pedagogy, with robust common ground guidelines for creating conditions that may entail optimal second language learning environments, seems not to be sufficiently paired yet with the overwhelming rate of demands and new technologies constantly emerging. The striking necessity for effectiveness leads us to renew our commitment to advance duly, working interdisciplinarily, utilizing theoretical knowledge, and human and technical resources to design more effective language learning environments, starting by analysing our local learners’ needs and then combining and managing elements and actors to meet them successfully. As there is no one-fits-all environment, it is crucial to go through continuous revision cycles to find a productive balance of elements and actors to achieve the language learning goals set, identifying, through ongoing evaluation, which elements work and which ones should be modified for the benefit of our learners.

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2 Background Chile, along with more than half of the countries in the Latin American region, has strikingly low levels of proficiency in English. A study carried out by Education First, in 2013, ranked Chilean adult citizens with a ‘very low proficiency in English index’1 (A1 in the CEFRL). Only 2 per cent of Chiles’ adult population speaks English fluently, as also indicated in a recently published report by the Inter-American Bank.2 On the other hand, the English proficiency levels demanded by the work market are increasing significantly: a B1 intermediate level, preferably certified through a minimum of 550 points on the TOEIC test, is the lowest acceptable. Nevertheless, poor English remains one of the key weaknesses and a big handicap to competitiveness. It is evident that the Chilean state school system still fails to produce an adequate level of English proficiency to enable students to communicate efficiently using this language. This may be mainly due to a shortage of qualified EFL teachers, crowded classrooms, lack of motivation and too few opportunities to practice the language in real contexts, among other reasons. The problem starts in schools, but the task continues to fall to higher education institutions. Chilean universities are concerned about offering their students access to worldwide academic knowledge, international mobility and competitiveness for employability; nevertheless, these goals are hindered by the lack of proficiency in English of both students and faculty. Faced with this reality, in 2001 the Universidad de Concepción authorities decided to allocate human resources to create a technology-supported EFL programme; thus, EFL faculty were asked to explore the potential of ICT to improve language learning processes and to increase access to English language learning on campus.

3  UdeC English Online UdeC English Online has been developed on the basis of a needs analysis, considering learners’ personal interests, goals, their motivation to learn English, academic and workforce requirement skills, learners’ study preferences, and our concerns about how to tackle typical linguistic difficulties of Spanish learners learning English. This kind of information was collected through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with target users, and was used to design the whole programme. Thus, we arrived at the decision of focusing on developing integrated communicative competence skills, with an emphasis on aural comprehension, oral production and intercultural competence through authentic communicative interaction on the basis of a meaningful contextualized topic-based and learner-centred syllabus. We aimed at providing learners with the tools they would need to be able to communicate in English and to manage themselves comfortably in diverse social, academic, and professional contexts. The complete Communicative English Programme is made up of four modules implemented in an online web platform, going from ‘Basic User’ to ‘Independent User levels’ (A1/A2/B1/B2 CEFR levels), which was envisioned as the backbone for the EFL

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b-learning environment. Each online module encompasses 130 to 170 hours of work with CALL materials and tasks, depending on learners’ individual learning rhythms, which is usually covered over an eighteen-week period. The modules are flexible, and thus they can be adapted in the number of hours and weeks to a faster or slower track, according to the time availability of different users.

4  The UdeC English Online b-learning environment The UdeC English Online programme has been implemented in a b-learning pedagogical model (Bañados 2004, 2006; Bañados and Ripoll 2006; Bañados 2007, 2008, 2013), with a proportion of 76 per cent autonomous learning and 24 per cent face-to-face classes. Since there are many conceptualizations of b-learning […], and as many b-learning models as there are diverse needs to be met in particular educational contexts, it is worth stating what we understand as b-learning. We define b-learning as a formal instructional programme that combines the benefits of e-learning, for delivering multimodal L2 input content, with the advantages of face-to-face instruction to achieve language learning outcomes, seeking a balance between flexibility and quality. All the elements combined in this b-learning model are interconnected. Thus, what the students learn autonomously online supports their face-to-face work with their EFL teacher–tutors and native speakers, and vice versa. We have attempted to integrate thoroughly researched factors claimed to promote optimal conditions for language learning achievements (Egbert, Chao and HansonSmith 1999).

5  What elements do we combine in our EFL b-learning environment? (a) Independent learning with the interactive multimedia UdeC English Online platform Learners are expected to study independently in order to learn and practice their L2 language skills through diverse CALL tasks and materials. The web platform unifies all the tools and CALL interactive multimedia contents for L2 input delivery, with 24/7 access. There are twenty-four lessons divided into 4 modules. Each lesson presents learners explicit objectives and friendly guidance to go through twelve pedagogically structured and sequenced sections (see Figure 9.1) to be completed over a two-week period. CALL materials have been designed attempting to trigger cognitive processes that may favour language retention, recall and learning, using multimodal channels to reach heterogeneous learning styles. The possibilities for effective learning are supported by a large display of graphic and interactive media seeking to create an attractive and friendly didactic environment that may encourage learners to explore the contents extensively, at their own pace, providing them with materials for more

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Figure 9.1  Example of sections and objectives in a lesson.

than 600 hours of autonomous work. The four modules contain seventy-three videos, more than 5,000 animations and over 9,000 audio files recorded in Chile by foreign students and faculty. (b)  Online monitoring through EFL teacher–tutors and native speakers Learners are coached through online and face-to-face tutoring by EFL instructors, who guide them to achieve their language learning goals. Their lesson work is checked, selectively revised and graded by their instructors, and they are given feedback in their personal online portfolios. Instructors can monitor their learners’ progress first hand, as they check their assignments. They can spot learners’ common difficulties, identify weak learners and help them in the face-to-face classes and, if necessary, also support them through meetings for remedial work. (c)  Face-to-face classes with EFL teachers Learners attend a weekly face-to-face class with an EFL teacher-tutor, who designs communication-based activities and leads diverse interaction dynamics for practising the thematic, functional and linguistic contents of a given lesson, promoting active participation of all learners at the same time. During these classes, learners can clarify any doubts they may have from their independent online work and teachers can verify students’ progress. Class activities are based on TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching), PBL (Problem-Based Learning) (Savery and Duffy 1995) and collaborative learning. The face-to-face classes, for each of the four modules, are repeated in different schedules over a two-week period, offering learners the flexibility to choose a class group according to their schedule availability.

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(d)  Face-to-face classes with native speakers of English Learners attend a weekly face-to-face class with a native speaker instructor, who focuses on pragmatic sociocultural aspects of the English language and vocabulary through fun activities, for authentic communication and sociocultural immersion. Learning activities include games, role-plays and simulation of customs and traditions. The classes are meant to reduce learners’ anxiety levels and help them overcome the fears arising from Chileans’ shy nature to speak in English lest they appear ridiculous in front of others. During these sessions, they learn pragmatic issues, day-to-day expressions related to the topic of a given lesson, and discuss sociocultural similarities or differences between Anglo and Chilean contexts. (e) Video-web communication with an international English-speaking audience network Our b-learning model methodology integrates computer-mediated video-web interaction to optimize immersion opportunities, engaging learners in authentic social and cultural contexts, placing them in an international community of significant collaborative learning, as they actively interact with local and foreign partners, onsite and at a distance, through CMC functionalities, for promoting a creative use of the target language and enrichment of intercultural relations. Video-web interaction sessions are carried out with a network of higher education institutions in the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia. Learners engage in telecollaboration and teletandem projects (Telles 2009) with English-speaking partners, who are willing to learn and practise Spanish in return. Telecollaboration allows learners to immerse themselves in authentic English-speaking sociocultural contexts, thus enabling the learning of the target language together with cultural aspects through their interaction with their foreign peers. Integrating video-web communication has enriched, empowered and injected life and motivation in our b-learning environment. Learners gain an understanding of, and tolerance and respect for different sociocultural contexts, working collaboratively to achieve their personal and language learning goals, situating their language learning experience in a broader international context (Jauregi, Bañados and Salazar 2007; Jauregi and Bañados 2008, 2010). (f) Oral and online assessment as indicators to account for learning outcomes The whole evaluation system has been conceived as an indicator for accountability of language learning outcomes. Learners’ initial L2 proficiency level is assessed through an oral interview with a native speaker, and through a pool of online tests aligned with standard proficiency levels. These results are later compared with a similar product evaluation, which is carried out at the end of each module to measure learners’ improvements. The learning process is assessed through periodic online tests, taken every two weeks after a lesson is completed, and through a midterm oral interview. The online tests have an automatic grade-reporting system. Process evaluation allows learners to become aware of their learning achievements and offers them possibilities to identify

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their weaknesses and strengths. Furthermore, teachers can monitor their learners’ progress and have a clear view of their improvements and further needs.

6  The interactive multimedia environment overall framework The theoretical framework underlying the online multimedia environment draws from cognitive, sociocognitive and interactionist perspectives on SLA (Krashen 1981, 1982; Skehan 1998; Chapelle 1998, 2001, 2003, 2005; Ellis 1999; Gass 1997; Long,1996; Sharwood 1993; Robinson 1995; Warschauer 1997), CALL conceptualization (Levy 1997), design engineering principles and pedagogical approaches for the creation of language courseware (Colpaert 2004, 2006), methodological principles for task-based language teaching in distance learning (Doughty and Long 2003), criteria for CALL task appropriateness and design issues for CASLA materials (Chapelle 1998, 2001, 2003), conditions for optimal CALL environments (Egbert and Hanson-Smith 1999; Salaberry 2001; Levy and Stockwell 2006; Hubbard 2009) and a range of teaching methodologies for network-based language teaching and e-learning pedagogy (Chapelle 2003, 2005; Chapelle and Jamieson 2002; Chun and Plass 2000; Warschauer 1997; Warschauer and Kern 2000; Warschauer, Shetzer and Meloni 2000; Felix 2003). All software materials have been built on these grounds, using the capabilities of ICT functionalities, multimedia applications and CMC to support the language learning processes. The online content-based instruction integrates a combination of task-based language learning approaches with computer-supported collaborative learning (Flowerdew 1993; Long and Crookes 1992; Nunan 1989; Pica et al. 1996; Doughty and Long 2003; Warschauer 1997; Warschauer and Kern 2000; Warschauer, Sheltzer and Meloni 2000). The theoretical principles put into practice in the design of the CALL materials are multimodal L2 input delivery and exposure, learner-fit contextualized content, enhanced input, focus on meaning and form, and opportunities to produce L2 output. Design issues for CASLA (Computer Applications for Second Language Acquisition) such as management, control, input, content and feedback (Chapelle 2003) have guided the web platform design. Thus, for a question of management and control, for example, detailed instructions are displayed on a screen before a task is presented to learners. Learners may carry out a task only after the instructions have been read. This has been done because experience and advice have shown us that otherwise learners may not understand or follow instructions or may finally do nothing. The other issues mentioned are discussed later in this chapter. Tasks are crucial in shaping interaction processes and promoting learning. Thus, we have considered CALL tasks as units of analysis (Doughty and Long 2003) and have taken into account theoretical criteria to design them (Chapelle 2003; Doughty and Williams 1998). Thus, tasks have been judged for their language learning potential, that is, whether they provide learners opportunities to practise using the language and to focus on form while they are doing them. Tasks have been designed to fit our learners’ needs and idiosyncrasies, as well as to provide them with opportunities to focus on

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meaning, allowing interlocutors to communicate in information gap activities where they have some new information to exchange and can learn from those exchanges. We have attempted to design authentic tasks, similar to what those learners may face in the real world and which may have a positive impact on them, either because they are motivating and/or because they encourage a positive attitude and openness towards the L2 language and culture. Tasks have been organized to be practical, that is, to be adequate for the resources available to support them in our educational context. They have been designed to provide learners opportunities for negotiation of meaning, co-construction of meaning and focusing on form, as they speak and get feedback from their instructors and peers, or get automated immediate corrective feedback while they are working online. Feedback is a key issue in the design of CALL materials. Research findings related to effective corrective feedback strategies suggest that elicitation, metalinguistic cue, clarification request, and repetition feedback types may lead to student-generated repair more successfully, and learners are thus more able to initiate negotiation of form (Lyster and Ranta 1997). We have attempted to implement these findings in the tasks. The environment design approach considers that the value of ICT lies in the fact that it provides CALL designers, language teachers, SLA software developers, practitioners and researchers with tools that can be used creatively in the cognitive and social processes involved in language learning. Technology is particularly valuable because of the opportunities for interactional activity it offers (see figure 9.2). It is our challenge to think of how to use these tools to create, enhance and empower these opportunities

Figure 9.2  Value of ICT and CALL tasks in SLA processes.

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for learners to acquire the language more efficiently. We have considered CALL tasks from the perspectives of the cognitive and social processes they create, particularly the input they provide learners, the interactions they offer and the opportunities for linguistic production they present, as pointed out by Chapelle 2003 (p. 40). We have devised ways to use technology to put theoretical concepts into practice, considering what theory and research identify as good conditions and beneficial opportunities for language learning and have sought to create these conditions through tasks.

7  Interactional activity Interactionist theory suggests that interaction provides a good impetus for language acquisition. Therefore, the language learning tasks have been designed seeking to engage learners in interactional activity that may create opportunities for interpersonal interaction of two types: (a) between people, both face to face and through CMC, and (b) between learner and computer. We have also sought to create opportunities for an intrapersonal type of interaction, which refers to the interaction that takes place within the learner’s mind (Chapelle 2003; Ellis 1999). Chapelle (2003, p. 56) summarizes the potential benefits claimed to be attained through these types of interaction from three perspectives: the interaction hypothesis, the sociocultural theory and the depth of processing theories. From the perspective of the interaction hypothesis, the benefits might be characterized as opportunities for promoting negotiation of meaning, for obtaining enhanced or modified input, and for directing attention to linguistic form. From the sociocultural theory perspective, the hypothesized benefits can be expressed as opportunities for co-constructing meaning, for obtaining help in using the language, and for stimulating learners’ internal mental voice. The benefits to be attained through interaction from the perspective of depth of processing theories are prompting attention to language and cognitive processing of input. These three perspectives offer a starting point for considering the value of the interactions that learners can engage in through the use of technology (Chapelle 2003, p. 56).

8  Face-to-face and computer-mediated interaction The face-to-face classes with EFL instructors and native speakers are intended to create opportunities for learners to co-construct meaning and to engage them in sociocognitive processes while they work in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in problem-solving tasks with their peers. They allow learners to negotiate meaning, to focus on form and to advance further in their understanding of the language as they obtain feedback from their classmates and instructors who help them perform the tasks speaking solely in English. Research findings have shown that developing a positive attitude towards the target language culture in the learner’s mind, or an integrative orientation focusing on the similarities between L1 and L2 cultures, facilitates language acquisition; thus, the face-to-face classes with native speakers focus

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on developing cultural awareness and on learning the target language together with features of its culture (Canale and Swain 1980; Byram and Fleming 1998). Some of the task-based activities demand both face-to-face and computermediated interaction with classmates, and with foreign peers on campus or from the global community. Thus, learners’ interaction that starts in the face-to-face sessions may continue after class through CMC. Additionally, CMC tasks may entail further discussion in the face-to-face class sessions. The computer-mediated collaborative tasks provide learners with opportunities to use the four basic linguistic skills, with a greater demand on their listening for meaning and oral production, in an artistically designed, highly motivating online multimedia environment. Learners work with CALL tasks, which require them to play different roles, to share information, which they have to figure out individually, and to work collaboratively towards an outcome. For example, a given task requires learners to search for information, discuss and decide on a plan to go together on a study-abroad programme by enquiring about the different options, interacting with peers from the local and global communities, reaching an agreement, making arrangements and actually going through the complete application process.

9  Learner–Computer interaction The following guidelines have been taken into account in the design of learner– computer interaction materials and tasks:

1. Make key linguistic characteristics salient. 2. Offer modifications of linguistic input. 3. Provide opportunities for comprehensible output. 4. Provide opportunities for learners to notice their errors. 5. Provide opportunities for learners to correct their linguistic output. 6. Support modified interaction between the learner and the computer. 7. Provide opportunities for the learner to act as a participant in L2 tasks. All the semantic and linguistic syllabus contents are delivered through seventythree home-produced videos, depicting real characters interacting in contextualized situations related to the key topics of each lesson and the module’s central theme. These videos provide learners with ample opportunities for L2 multimodal input exposure, through different channels (aural, visual and written), and offer modifications of L2 input to support their heterogeneous learning styles. Diverse salient feature devices have been used to enhance selected key phonological, morphological and syntactic linguistic features of the L2 input in order to direct learners’ attention to them. Multimedia animations with motivating visual materials have been created to help learners understand meaning by any means that may facilitate it, while they are engaged in a listening or reading activity. Recording devices have been built into the software to offer possibilities to focus on L2 oral output. Learners can listen, repeat, record, compare and correct themselves through these devices.

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10  Opportunities for obtaining enhanced L2 input Different salient feature devices have been devised to accomplish explicit input enhancement of the three general types claimed to be beneficial to learners (Chapelle 2003, p. 40): salience, modification and elaboration. These devices may create conditions for learners to notice specific linguistic features in the L2 input while they are interacting with the software materials. It is hoped that they may increase the likelihood of the learners noticing specific features in the aural and/or written L2 input addressed in a lesson to positively influence their acquisition (Sharwood Smith 1993; Schmidt 1990; Chapelle 1998, 2003; Chapelle and Jamieson 2002; Robinson 1995; Skehan 1998; Doughty 1991). Thus, selected L2 input features are enhanced interactively on the screen by means of special effects, such as marking specific aural or written forms using different colours; stressing phonological features in the oral input, using enlarged highlighted letters, syllables, words and/or phrases; and using movement, sounds, animations, images, glosses, hypertext, modification and/or elaboration. In Figure 9.3A, for example, the number of syllables in a word is represented by blue bars. As learners listen to the pronunciation of a word, by clicking a play button, the stressed syllable is enhanced by turning a blue bar into red and enlarging it to show its position in the word (first, second or third syllable). Figure 9.3B directs learners’ attention to word formation by using suffixes; thus they can see how a verb becomes a noun by adding the suffix ‘-ing’, which is highlighted in blue and enlarged while they are reading and listening to the explanation of this. Figure 9.3C illustrates how learners’ attention is directed to focus on verbs related to household chores by highlighting them in blue and enlarging the entries of a dialogue as learners listen to it in the vocabulary section of a lesson related to daily activities.

10.1  L2 input salience Different salient feature devices for explicit L2 input salience have been used to emphasize the key linguistic features that learners are expected to notice in a given lesson. These features were selected while writing the course syllabus. However, when choosing them we were also aware of the fact that our attempts to make

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Figures 9.3A–C  Examples of enhanced input.

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learners notice them might not always work as planned, since L2 input that has been planned to be salient might not always be salient for all learners (Chapelle 2003); on the other hand, L2 input that has not been planned to be salient might become salient for learners for many different reasons that are not under instructors’ control. Considering this, we implemented a personal online ‘Wordbook’ to give learners opportunities to manage L2 linguistic input, which might become salient for them while they are listening or reading for meaning. Thus, learners can enter vocabulary items or favourite expressions from a lesson and organize them in categories such as semantic fields, favourite words, synonyms, antonyms, verbs of movement, etc. They can write definitions that work for them, with their own examples of use; they can also add images to facilitate recall.

10.2  Marked L2 input Figure 9.4 illustrates examples of explicit input enhancement in the pronunciation section of the software, accomplished by marking morphological and phonological forms in a word. In example 4A, learners are expected to notice how a word may function as a noun or a verb by changing its stress pattern. Marking is done by enlarging and turning into red colour a bar, which represents the stressed syllable; learners can see this on the screen as they listen to the pronunciation of each word. In example 4B, learners are expected to notice differences between spelling and pronunciation. We have particularly selected words that may have L1 interference and which are therefore expected to cause problems for Spanish speakers. For example, in Spanish the letter ‘l’ is pronounced in the word ‘salmon’, whereas in English it is not. Therefore, we attempt to draw learners’ attention to this feature in the L2 input by marking the letter that is not pronounced with a slanted line, so that they can actually see a line crossing the letter ‘l’ in the word ‘salmon’ as they listen to its pronunciation.

10.3  Repetition of L2 input Repetition of target L2 linguistic forms increases input frequency, which is claimed to be one of the factors that may influence noticing of input (Chapelle 2003; Skehan 1998). Thus, a play button to manage repetition has been built into the animations so

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Figures 9.4A–B  Examples of explicit input enhancement by marking.

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Figures 9.5A–D  Repetition of L2 input.

that learners can see and hear the input, as many times as they wish, by clicking on it; they may also do this by sliding the mouse over each word. Learners can revisit the tasks and do the activities again and again by clicking an arrow on the instruction screens. Discrimination and pronunciation of the English vowel sound system is a challenging task for Spanish speakers, since they have to go from a five-vowel sound system in Spanish to a thirteen-vowel sound system in English. Thus, to facilitate learners notice the differences vowel phonemes produce in meaning in minimal pairs, we have implemented repetition through videos and images, as illustrated in Figures 9.5A and 9.5B. Learners can listen to the pronunciation of minimal pairs and see an image that illustrates their meaning; they can focus on form by listening, repeating and recording them and then comparing their own pronunciation with what they hear on the screen. To practise the pronunciation of vowel phonemes in words in context, we have created cartoons that contain the focused phonemes in all the content words of a given sentence (see Figure 9.5D). They can revisit the cartoons by moving an arrow back and forth.

11  L2 Input modification Input modification devices have also been built into the materials to provide learners the modifications they may need to understand the meaning by any means that may facilitate it. To accomplish this, we have used images, videos, L1 translations,

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L2 dictionary definitions, simplification, elaboration, reference material and/or input mode change. In the examples illustrated in Figures 9.5A and 9.5B, we offer opportunities for input modification by making learners choose to either listen to or to read and listen to an explanation given by the pronunciation coach. They can also choose to listen to explanations in English or in Spanish.

11.1 Images The use of an image, an animation or a video can be effective in helping learners understand the meaning of vocabulary items. Figure 9.6 illustrates the type of activities presented to learners to help them get the meaning of the L2 input they are exposed to. In Figures 9.6A and 9.6C, learners can see images of words or sentences related to rooms in a house and to household chores; they can also read a definition of their meaning. In Figure 9.6B, learners can read verbs and see animations that describe the actions they stand for by sliding the mouse over the words while they are reading and/or listening, to facilitate the process of making connections between meaning and form. Figure 9.6D illustrates an activity in which learners are asked to listen and follow the instructions they see written on a message on the fridge door in the kitchen. As they read and listen to the message with instructions to carry out specific chores, they have to identify the object in the kitchen that is used to do the specific chore by clicking on it. As learners click on the corresponding object, they can see an animation of the action performed by the object on the screen, which shows them that the instruction was followed correctly.

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Figures 9.6A–D  Use of images and animations for input modification in module 1.

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11.2  L1 translations and L2 definitions L1 translations and L2 definitions have been used for providing input modification, as a way to facilitate learners’ immediate access to the meaning of vocabulary items in the input that they may not understand while they are listening to a dialogue. Glosses have been used for translations in L1, while completing a listening task or a reading activity. For example, the word ‘share’ in Figure 9.7A is displayed in a different colour to show learners there is a translation of the word that they can see by placing the cursor over it. We have also implemented a vocabulary tool, called ‘Vocabtool’, in the listening section of all the lessons. ‘Vocabtool’ is an in-house built device, that scrolls down when it is clicked on, which provides learners with the definition of a lexical item, an example of its use in context, a Spanish translation, and an image that illustrates it, which can be enlarged by clicking on it (see Figures 9.7B, 9.7C). Learners can also access an online dictionary, and a glossary that contains the main vocabulary items to be learnt in a lesson.

12  Input elaboration Input elaboration, to help learners understand the meaning of a text, is accomplished through glosses and hypertext that add restatements or grammatical clauses, as illustrated in Figure 9.8. Learners can also access a built-in grammar reference for obtaining simplified explanations of the L2 grammatical forms focused on in a lesson.

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Figure 9.7A–C L1 translation glosses and Vocabtool available for learners while listening.

Figure 9.8  Input elaboration.

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13  Intrapersonal interaction The CALL tasks and skill-practice materials have been designed to prompt valuable interactional activity within the learners’ mind, stimulating learners’ inner voice in order to create opportunities for deeper processing of L2 input. This is accomplished by directing learners’ attention to focus on form while listening or reading through input enhancement.

14  Interaction between person and computer with opportunities for focusing on L2 oral output A virtual role-play recorder, which contains all the dialogues learners have to practise in the speaking section of a lesson, is used for providing them an inexhaustible source of conversation practice. This device allows for different levels of difficulty in the speaking tasks; thus, an easy type of activity requests that learners choose a role in a dialogue and record a repetition of the script. A more challenging activity requests that learners answer questions asked by a video character with their own information in replies that show their use of all the linguistic contents they have studied in a lesson. They are expected to demonstrate their mastery of the contents focused on in a lesson and to speak fluently in their recordings. For example, Figure 9.9 illustrates a dialogue between a doctor and a learner who performs the role of a patient. As patients, learners have to explain all the symptoms they feel so that the doctor can diagnose what is wrong with them. The creation of this type of branching dialogue script has been very challenging, because all question and comment entries have to fit coherently whatever answers learners may provide. These activities also support learners to overcome their shy Chilean nature to speak in English by giving them the chance to interact with video characters until they obtain enough practice and feel more confident using the language. Another recording device has been built into the pronunciation section so

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Figure 9.9A–C  A speaking tool to focus on L2 output with input mode change.

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that learners can listen, repeat, record and compare their output with the original L2 input provided. The speaking and pronunciation tasks request that learners record and save their different interactions with video characters and submit their audio files to their personal online portfolios. Instructors can listen to them, grade them and give personal feedback. The speaking and pronunciation tasks are compulsory within the program. Speaking tasks also offer learners possibilities for input mode change; thus they can choose to either listen to questions asked by the characters on the videos (see Figure 9.9 A, B) or to read and listen to them as they record their replies (see Figures 9.9A, 9.9C).

15  Opportunities for immediate corrective feedback When students answer a question incorrectly, they are guided towards the correct response through corrective feedback strategies such as elicitation, metalinguistic cue, clarification request and repetition in a more human-like dimension, going beyond the typical ‘that’s right/that’s wrong’ type. Research reports that these feedback types may lead to student-generated repair more successfully, and learners are thus more able to initiate negotiation of form (Lyster and Ranta 1997). Feedback is usually provided immediately after an incorrect response, with the hope that learners may be more effectively helped towards repair while their focus of attention is on the item they have failed to answer correctly. This is based on the assumption that effectiveness tends to diminish, the more distance there is between triggering event and feedback (Doughty and Long 2003). For example, in Figure 9.9A, learners are instructed to click on the verb expression that corresponds to the direction the car is taking in the animation that they can see by clicking on the start button on the screen. Figure 9.9B illustrates the type of corrective feedback they may receive on a wrong answer to lead them to repair their wrong choice. Furthermore, after finishing a task, learners get global automatic feedback consisting of a written or spoken comment given by the section coach, which includes an emotional reaction empathizing with the learner (coach smiling, jumping, nodding, etc.), as well as the score obtained in the activity using the Chilean 1 to 7

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Figure 9.10A–C  Immediate corrective feedback.

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grading scale. Learners are prompted to do the activity again and again until they obtain the maximum score of 7.

16  Paving the way for sustainability We started by considering our learners’ needs, interests and goals and by analysing macro and micro context demands in order to create an EFL programme that would allow our students to shape a sustainable professional future by acquiring the language skills necessary to meet the requirements of the national and global workforce and for lifelong learning. We innovated our teaching practices by using technology creatively in a b-learning environment that would combine the benefits of face-to-face instruction with the advantages of autonomous online learning, and we sought to put into practice theoretical issues claimed to promote optimal conditions for language learning. We conceived roles for instructors, technology and learners, and devised the dynamics for the different elements and actors in the environment. We have struggled through thick and thin for the endurance of our language learning environment. This has encompassed a number of things, like demonstrating the effectiveness of our system to stakeholders in our organization through observable and measurable evidence of learning outcomes, which we have done by doing beforeand-after video recordings of all our learners’ oral performances and through results obtained in tests aligned with international standards. During this decade, our students themselves have been promoting our programme among their peers through word-of-mouth communication. Nowadays, with the support of stakeholders in our organization, ours has become the official formal programme for teaching EFL. Our modules have been integrated into the curriculum of seventeen study programmes in our three university campuses. This number will be increasing substantially from 2015 onwards, expanding to all study programmes that renew their curriculum webs. To ensure feasibility, we have been training more teachers in our organization through a Diploma in teaching EFL through our b-learning environment. We have already trained eleven EFL instructors from the Foreign Language Department, who are applying our methodology, coordinated by our programme, in the study programmes served by the Department. We know EFL adult learners want relevant, stimulating and authentic learning opportunities; therefore, we take care of their needs, going through revision cycles to judge the elements, tasks and materials we need to change, leave out or add. We update our didactic materials through collaborative work sessions, considering the feedback we obtain from our users through satisfaction surveys and focus groups. We have currently upgraded our platform and software materials into open source technology and into more compatible formats. We wish to ensure that our system can be accessed anytime, anywhere, by means of any device, in view of ubiquitous learning. We are always seeking for new partnerships with international universities to work in cooperation for mutual benefits in English/Spanish telecollaboration projects, providing our students possibilities for authentic communication with Englishspeaking partners. Our programme ensures equal opportunities for all: disabled

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students who are blind, have speaking handicaps and other special needs have been able to learn to communicate in English successfully. We created our environment through Ministry of Education project funding. After the project funding, faculty salaries became a complex issue since our organization expected the programme to be financed by its own resources, which became a heavy burden on our backs and which finally did not turn out to be possible, contrary to our expectation. We are currently financed by the university and partly by the resources we obtain through projects and services.

17 Results In ten years, more than 18,000 learners, including undergraduate and graduate students, faculty, staff and enterprise professionals, have joined the UdeC English Online community and are now able to communicate in English successfully. The results have shown a remarkable impact on learners’ communicative competence and high satisfaction levels with the overall b-learning environment. The programme has contributed to the development of lifelong learning skills such as autonomy by acquiring strategies for independent learning, responsibility to control the learning agenda, and collaborative work through active participation in group tasks involving problem solving through interaction with local and foreign peers.

18 Conclusions Today what was once a vision has become a reality: our EFL b-learning environment is an official programme within our organization. We have to achieve more difficult goals and have many tasks ahead to complete, such as the implementation of new modules for human capacity building in academic writing and advanced public speaking, and for training on international test taking for accessing a wider range of academic and career opportunities worldwide. We hope that by sharing the way we have attempted to harmonize theory, practice and technology, we may contribute to encouraging further discussion and advancing collaboratively in our goal of improving proficiency in communicative competence in English.

Notes 1 Full report: http://www.ef-chile.cl/__/~/media/efcom/epi/2014/full-reports/ef-epi2013-report-mx.pdf 2 http://www.ilovechile.cl/2011/11/30/president-piera-announces-6000-corfo-englishlanguage-scholarships-2012/40839

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References Bañados, E. (2004). ‘Issues in the Creation of a Network-based, Interactive Multimedia Program for Learning English as a Second Language’. In Alan Pulverness (ed.), Conference Selections IATEFL 2004, 150–2. Canterbury: University of Kent. Bañados E. (2006). ‘A B-Learning Pedagogical Model for Teaching and Learning EFL Successfully through a Networked Interactive Multimedia Environment’. CALICO Journal 23 (3): 533–50. Special Issue. What does it take to teach online? Towards a Pedagogy of Online Teaching and Learning. Bañados, E. (2007). ‘Integrating Input, Interaction, and Production through CALL Tasks in an Online Task-based Multimedia Environment for EFL/ESL’. Proceedings: TBLT 2007, 2nd International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching: Putting Principles to Work. P. 25-. University of Manoa, Honolulu, Hawaii. Bañados, E. (2007). ‘Managing Multimedia Environment for EFL to provide Opportunities for Input, Interaction and Production. P. 69‐69’. Proceedings EUROCALL 2007: Mastering Multimedia: Teaching Languages Through Technology. University of Ulster, Coleraine Campus, Northern Ireland. Available in http://www.eurocall2007.com/ Bañados, E. (2008). ‘Integrating Theory into Practice in the Design and Development of an Interactive Multimedia CALL Platform in a B-Learning Environment for EFL’. Proceedings of the XIII International CALL Conference (23-5). Available in http://www. ua.ac.be/download.aspx?c=.CALL2008&n=60755&ct=59191&e=175696. Bañados, E. (2013). ‘Program and Abstract Book WorldCALL 2013. From a Vision to Reality: Paving the Way for CALL Sustainability Harmonizing Theory, Practice and Technology creation of a b-learning Environment for Learning English as a Foreign Language’, 14–15. http://www.arts.ulster.ac.uk/worldcall2013/userfiles/file/ worldcallv14.pdf. Bañados, E. and Ripoll M. (2006). ‘ICT and CALL Interactive Multimedia B-Learning Environments for Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign/Second Language’. Current Developments in Technology-Assisted Education 1 (3): 479–83. Formatex. Available in: http://www.formatex.org/micte2006/CoverTOC1.pdf. Bonk, C. J. and Graham, C. R. (2006). The Handbook of Blended Learning Environments: Global Perspectives, Local Designs. San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass/Pfeiffer. Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (1998). Language Learning in Intercultural Perspectives: Approaches through Drama and Ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). ‘Theoretical Basis of Communicative Approaches to Second Language and Testing’. Applied Linguistics 1 (1): 1–47. Chapelle, C. A. (1998). ‘Multimedia CALL: Lessons to be Learned from Research on instructed SLA’. Language Learning 2 (1): 22–34. Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition: Foundations for Teaching, Testing and Research. Cambridge University press. Chapelle, C. A. (2003). English Language Learning and Technology: Lectures on Teaching and Research in the Age of Information and Communication. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. Chapelle, C. A. (2005). ‘Interactionist SLA theory in CALL Research’. In J. Egbert and G. Petrie (eds), Research Perspectives on CALL, 53–64. Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates. Chapelle, C. and Joan Jamieson (2002). Paper from the Conference on Less Commonly Taught Languages, Sponsored by CLEAR at Michigan State University, February 1–3, Arlington, Virginia.

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Colpaert, J. (2004). Design of Online Interactive Language Courseware: Conceptualization, Specification and Prototyping. Research into the Impact of Linguistic-Didactic Functionality on Software Architecture (Doctoral dissertation, University of An- twerp). UMI micropublication number 3141560. Also available at http://www.didascalia.be/ doc-design.pdf. Colpaert, J. (2006). ‘Pedagogy-Driven Design for Online Language Teaching and Learning’. CALICO Journal 23 (3): 477–97. Special Issue. What does it take to teach online? Towards a Pedagogy of Online Teaching and Learning. Council of Europe (2002). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chun, D. C. and Plass, J. L. (2000). ‘Networked Multimedia Environments for Second Language Acquisition’. In M. Warschauer and R. Kern (eds), Network-Based Language Teaching: Concept and Practice. Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series, 151–70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Clark, D. (2003). Blended Learning: An EPIC White Paper. Available in http://www. scribd.com/doc/84278560/Clark‐ D‐Blended‐Learning. Doughty, C. J. (1991). ‘Second Language Instruction does make a Difference: Evidence from an Empirical Study of SL Relativization’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13 (4): 431–69. Doughty, C. and Williams, J. (eds) (1998). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Doughty, C. J. and Long, M. H. (2003). ‘Optimal Psycholinguistic Environments for Distance Foreign Language Learning’. Language Learning 7 (3): 50–80. Egbert and Hanson-Smith, E. (eds) (1999). CALL Environments: Research, Practice, and Critical Issues. Alexandria: TESOL. Ellis, R. (1999). Learning a Second Language through Interaction. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Felix, U. (2003). ‘Teaching Languages Online: Deconstructing the Myths’. Australian Journal of Educational Technology 19 (1): 118–38. Flowerdew, J. (1993). ‘Content-Based Language Instruction in a Tertiary Setting’. English for Specific Purposes 12 (1): 121–38. Friesen, N. (2012). Report: Defining Blended Learning. Available in http://learningspaces. org/papers/Defining_Blended_Learning_NF.pdf. Gass, S. (1997). Input, Interaction, and the Second Language Learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Graham, C. R. (2006). ‘Blended Learning Systems: Definition, Current Trends, and Future Directions’. In C. J. Bonk and C. R. Graham (eds), The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs, 3–21. San Francisco: JosseyBass/Pfeiffer. Hubbard, P. (ed.). (2009). ‘Computer Assisted Language Learning, Volume 1: Foundations of CALL’. Critical Concepts in Linguistics Series. New York: Routledge. Jauregi, K. and Bañados, E (2008). ‘Virtual Interaction through Video-Web Communication: A Step towards Enriching and Internationalizing Language Learning Programs’. ReCALL JOURNAL, An International Journal on Technologies and Language Learning 20 (2): 183–207. Jauregi, K. and Bañados, E. (2010). ‘Case Study: An Intercontinental Video-Web Communication Project between Chile and The Netherlands’. In Sarah Guth and Francesca Helm (eds), Telecollaboration 2.0. Language, Literacies and Intercultural Learning in the 21st Century. Telecollaboration in Education. Peter Lang publishers. Jauregi K., Bañados, E. and Salazar, O. (2007). ‘Negotiation of Intercultural, Pragmatic and Formal Meaning in Virtual Foreign/Native Speaker Interaction through

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Videoconferencing: Experiences and Results. P. 163-. Proceedings EUROCALL 2007: Mastering Multimedia: Teaching Languages Through Technology. University of Ulster -Coleraine Campus, Northern Ireland. Krashen, S. (1981). Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Levy, M. (1997). Computer assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. New York: Oxford University Press. Levy, M. and Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL Dimensions:? Options and Issues in Computerassisted Language Learning. L. Erbaum Associates. Lyster, R. and Ranta, L. (1997). ‘Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake: Negotiation of Form in Communicative Classrooms’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19 (1): 37–66. Long, M. H. (1996). ‘The Role of Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition’. In W. C. Ritchie and T. K. Bhatia (eds), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 413–68. San Diego: Academic Press. Long, M. H. and Crookes, G. (1992). ‘Three Approaches to Task-Based Syllabus Design’. TESOL Quarterly 26 (1): 27–56. Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, Paninos, F. D. and Linnell, J. (1996). Language Learners’ Interaction: How does it Address the Input, Output, and Feedback needs of L2 Learners?’ TESOL Quarterly 30 (1): 59–84. Robinson, P. (1995). ‘Attention, Memory, and the Noticing Hypothesis’. Language Learning 45 (2): 283–331. Salaberry, R. (2001). ‘The Use of Technology for Second Language Learning and Teaching: A Retrospective’. The Modern Language Journal 85 (1): 39–56. Savery, J. R. and Duffy, T. M. (1995). ‘Problem Based Learning: An Instructional Model and Its Constructivist Framework’. Educational Technology 35 (1): 31–8. Schmidt, R. (1990). ‘The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning’. Applied Linguistics 11: 17–46. Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). ‘Input Enhancement in Instructed SLA: Theoretical Bases’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 15: 165–79. Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stalker, H. and Horn, M. B. (2012). Classifying K–12 Blended Learning. Mountain View, CA: Innosight Institute, Inc. Available in http://www.innosightinstitute.org/innosight/ wp‐content/uploads/2012/05/Classifying‐K‐12‐blended‐learning2.pdf. Telles, João A. (Org.) (2009). Teletandem: Um contexto virtual, autónomo e colaborativo de aprendizagem de línguas estrangeirasnpara o século XXI. Campinas: Pontes Editores. Warschauer, M. (1997). ‘Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: Theory and Practice’. The Modern Language Journal 81: 470–81. Warschauer, M. and R. Kern (2000). Network-Based Language Teaching Concepts and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Warschauer, M., Shetzer, H. and Meloni, C. (2000). Internet for English Teaching. TESOL, Inc. US.

10

Building and Sustaining Online Communities of Practice Through Language Economy Jonathan White

1 Introduction This chapter discusses processes for economizing the English language in computermediated communication, and how we can conclude on the basis of them that learner discourse communities are being formed and sustained. There are two economization processes that are in focus here, reduced forms and ellipsis. A typical example of ellipsis is the following question-and-answer sequence: (1) Q: Where did you see him?

A: Over there.

The answer can naturally be a full sentence, I saw him over there. However, due to the linguistic context of the question, it is possible to utter just the required information answering the question phrase where, here the preposition phrase over there. The other economization process is that of reduced forms, which includes cases where the full signifier is reduced in size phonetically or orthographically such as clippings like info instead of information, and homophonous forms like r instead of are. The categories recognized in the analysis will be presented in more detail later. The data analysed consists of text chatlogs from a distance MA programme in English Linguistics run by a Swedish university. The students are non-native speakers of English from Vietnam and Bangladesh. These students are novice or near-novice internet users, even in their native languages. Thus, they have not been very much exposed to the conventions of computer-mediated communication in general, and of such communication in English in particular. As a result, their linguistic behaviour is of great interest to see how their language use develops. More details on the course and students will be given in the Data section below. The theoretical background below takes up economization processes in more detail, concluding with the classification of these processes adopted here. The processes of adopting norms are discussed in relation to the notion of community of practice. The role and functions of interaction in community-building and community-sustaining will also be considered.

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2 Background 2.1  Language economization processes As mentioned in the introduction, the focus here is on two processes of language economization, reduced forms and ellipsis. Much research in CMC discourse, and especially genres such as textchat and text messaging, has gone into identifying processes for speeding up communication. For example, Werry (1996, pp. 52–61) notes the following, among others: (2) abbreviation (pro-drop as in must go; ellipsis as in I agree; acronyms as in imho for in my humble opinion) paralinguistic and prosodic cues (orthographic marking of intonation like soooo or STOP; phonetic spelling like u)

Abbreviation for Werry involves both syntactic, and orthographical or morphological reduction. Murray (2000, p. 402) lists a similar set of strategies: (3) abbreviations (clipped forms and acronyms, as in plane)

simplified syntax (subject or modal deletion, as in got to go)

Murray’s list covers basically the same sorts of processes as Werry’s. Regarding abbreviation as a term, Murray uses it to focus specifically on orthographical or morphological reductions. Thus, her definition corresponds more closely to our definition of reduced form, mentioned in the Introduction. Syntactic economization processes form a separate category. Lee (2002, pp. 8–10) goes into more detail into the types of reduced forms (which she calls shortenings, like Murray distinguishing orthographical or morphological reductions from syntactic ones, which she calls grammatical errors): (4) acronym of sentence (brb meaning be right back)

letter homophone (u meaning you)



number homophone (4 meaning for)



combination of letter and number homophone (b4 meaning before)



reduction of individual word (coz meaning because)



combination of letter initial and letter homophone (oic meaning oh I see)

Lee does not mention clippings specifically (although she does mention acronyms and initialisms), but we can easily add them to the set of word reductions in the penultimate category. In terms of ‘grammatical errors’, Lee discusses the omission of subjects, typically subject pronouns. She notes that there are two possible explanations for this, since the data she uses is from Cantonese English. One is the influence of Cantonese on English, in that Cantonese is a null subject language. As Murray also argues, usernames being explicitly given before each contribution in CMC textchat

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entails that all participants are identified, and therefore pronouns are unnecessary in one-to-one communication. Lotherington and Xu (2004, p. 314ff.) consider CMC in English and Chinese, and adapt Lee’s classification to the following: (5) acronyms emoticons

abbreviations (these include homophones in English like 4 meaning ‘for’)



hybridized codes (rebus writing like b4 mentioned above)



innovations in capitalization (no capitals for proper nouns)



homophones (mostly in Chinese)

variant stylistic spelling (emotions expressed in writing like soooo) and synonymy (different ways of expressing emotions, like :) or :-) for the smiley face)

Apart from some different categorizations, the list is the same as Lee’s. The only syntactic convention mentioned is sentential acronyms like gtg or g2g (got to go). Finally, we can mention Yus (2011, pp. 176–9) who categorizes what he calls ‘text deformations’ in CMC as follows: (6) orthographic mistakes phonetic orthography (phonetic spellings, colloquial spellings, regiolectal spellings, prosodic spellings, interlingual spellings, homophone spellings)

abbreviations, acronyms, clippings

ellipsis

With the exception of ellipsis and orthographic mistakes, Yus (2011) mentions the same categories as Lee (2002) and Lotherington and Xu (2004). The following simplified system for reduced forms will be adopted for this analysis based on the common categories in the above classifications: (7) clippings (using pl for please, plus acronyms and abbreviations)

homophonous spellings (using 4 for for)



reductions of formality (using yeah for yes)

The focus is specifically on the reductions in orthography and morphology here, although we mention formality as well, as we see that these mark a particular type of discourse community (cf. White 2011, 2014 for more details). Other categories, such as the orthographic expression of emotion and intonation, and so on, are important features of CMC in textchat, but they are not of interest in this work. Such classes of examples that Lee, Lotherington and Xu, and Yus recognize would be part of an overall classification system as well, but we stick with the simpler categories in (7) for the purposes of this analysis.

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Now, we move on to discuss the concept of communities of practice and the role of interaction in language learning and in sustaining such communities.

2.2  Building and sustaining communities of practice Lave and Wenger (1991) proposed the concept of community of practice as a way of explaining learning. People learn by doing something as a social process within a community (very much related to Vygotsky’s sociocultural model of learning). Similarly, Benson (2001) claims that learner autonomy requires a social autonomy, insofar as learning is a social process. Thus, groups of learners, or communities of practice, take collective responsibility for their individual learning. Wenger (1998, p. 73) describes three factors involved in setting up such a community: mutual engagement, a joint enterprise and a shared repertoire. The latter can refer to discourse norms, which is particularly relevant for the discussion of reduced forms. Communities are built and sustained through the interactions between their members. As Warschauer (1997) argues, computer-mediated education can be seen to promote reflection and interaction, key features of learner autonomy. Recently, Mohd Nor et al. (2012) have argued that online forum discussions exhibit strong features of interaction, and therefore can be seen to contribute to the creation of social autonomy for the groups of learners they studied. Stockwell and Levy (2001) do the same for e-mail exchanges between native and non-native speakers of English. Similar features have been identified in chat language. Peterson (2009) analysed data from textchat contributions by Japanese learners of English. He found evidence that the students were engaged in collaborative interaction, which aided their socially based learning processes. The strategies they used included requests for and provision of assistance, continuers, off-task discussion, and self- and other-initiated correction (Peterson 2009, p. 305). Assistance is described as having a positive effect within interaction and, therefore, the asking for and receiving of assistance are good strategies to employ. Continuers refer to the back-channel support that encourages others to continue their interaction. Off-task discussions often create a social framework for the group, and reduce any anxiety at their being required to interact in a foreign language. Finally, corrections initiated by the one making the mistake or by another are also positive strategies for learning. As Peterson notes, these strategies create a sense of social cohesion and help establish and sustain discourse communities, although it must be noted that correction can be face-threatening. Darhower (2002) suggests greetings/leave-taking, intersubjectivity, humour, sarcasm/insults and the use of the L1 as strategies. Intersubjectivity here refers to a shared orientation on a strand of interaction. Thus, developing the discussion on a particular topic or negotiating understanding by asking questions constitute examples of intersubjectivity. It should be mentioned that there are no examples of humour and sarcasm/insults involving ellipsis, so they can be discounted. There is much Vietnamese L1 use in the data analysed, particularly in the affective phase of greeting and socialization before the seminar discussion begins. Our focus here is on English language data, though, so this has also been discounted. Repetition is a communicative strategy mentioned by a number of authors in the literature. For example, both Cogo (2009, p. 260) and Mauranen (2012, chapter 7)

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discuss the role of repetition by non-native speakers in ELF contexts. Cogo argues that repetition demonstrates alignment and solidarity with a fellow speaker, and Mauranen suggests that it is a good strategy for those interacting with ELF speakers, as repetitions help with the processing of discourse and mark sections of discourse clearly. In the next section, the data that were analysed and the informants will be presented.

3 Method Textchat data have been analysed from learners of English as a second language. The learners (twenty-eight in total) were students on a distance MA programme in English Linguistics run by a university in Sweden. As mentioned in the introduction, the students had generally limited internet experience even in their native languages, and so it is unlikely that they will have had access to native speaker norms in English computer-mediated communication. Almost all of them were teachers of English at universities and colleges, and required an average IELTS score of 7.0 to be admitted into the programme. The course from where the data was taken was an introduction to core topics in English linguistics. These topics included phonetics, morphology and different sociolinguistic topics, and the course was run in Autumn 2007. The data were gathered from discussions in either student-only pre-seminar groups or larger seminar discussions with one of the two teachers, who were native speakers of American and British English, respectively (each seminar was about ninety minutes long, although some pre-seminars involved much shorter discussions). Students divided themselves into four groups, and arranged pre-seminars where they discussed the material, which consisted of readings on the relevant topics and data analysis. These discussions took place through Skype textchat (although some used MSN). The chatlogs from these pre-seminars were sent to the teachers, and these guided the discussion in the seminars, which also took place through Skype textchat. All students have been made anonymous in the presentation of the data, and are referred to as, for example, Student 15. Typographical errors have been preserved. In the next section, the data analysis is presented.

4 Results The two types of data are considered separately, starting with ellipsis. We focus on the interactive functions ellipsis displays, and then move onto norm-building with reduced forms. Both provide evidence, we argue, that a community of practice is being built and sustained.

4.1  Functions of ellipsis The interactive functions found in our ellipsis data are Intersubjectivity, Continuers, Corrections, Repetitions and a new function proposed in White (2013), Comments.

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The difference between the latter and Continuers will be made clear in the analysis below. The relevant parts of the data have been put in bold type to make the features clearer.

Intersubjectivity We start with examples of Intersubjectivity, and, specifically, answers to questions: (8) Student 6 says: Student 6 says: Student 2 says: Student 6 says: Student 3 says: Student 6 says:

oh, where can I find Difference theory ??? in chapter 5 not found yet page 90 yeah, thx

[Language and gender pre-seminar, Spring group]

Student 6 is asking where in the textbook to find a particular theory, and Students 2 and 3 give her the information. Understanding of this theory will be promoted by such an interaction, so it is a clear case of Intersubjectivity. Similarly, there are many follow-up questions: (9) Student 9 says: yes, Student 9 says: I am frank in giving my own opinion Student 9 says: and you can see much interruption in w/m’s conversation Student 10 says: so do I my husband said I am too frank so cannot be leader Student 9 says: Why? [Language and gender pre-seminar, Summer group]

Here, Student 9 questions why Student 10 is not considered to be a leader according to her husband. Student 9 needs more information to be able to understand this point, and so seeks that from Student 10. This is a negotiation of understanding, and so this again is clearly Intersubjective.

Continuers We have a split in the types of examples that are comments on contributions, which is why there are two separate sub-sections related to them. Consider the first case below: (10) Student 4 says:  In some conferences, seminars, meetings. men tend to contribute more information and opinion, while women contribute more agreeing. Do u think so Student 1 says: Absolutely right [Language and gender pre-seminar, Spring group]

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Student 4 makes a suggestion about men’s and women’s language, and asks if the others agree, and Student 1 says she does. This is done with a bare adjective phrase, absolutely right. This is a comment on Student 4’s contribution, and serves as back-channel support for Student 4. Thus, we analyse it as a Continuer.

Comments Consider the next example below: (11) Student 8 says: i type slowly Student 9 Student 9 says: focus on the birth information first Student 9 says: ok, no problem [Language and gender pre-seminar, Summer group]

In this case, Student 9 is commenting on Student 8’s statement that she types slowly, and uses the simple phrase no problem. This does not provide support for Student 8 to continue with this thread of discourse, and so is not a Continuer. White (2013) proposes that this should have its own category, Comments, and we follow this view here.

Repetition In the following example, we have a situation where students repeat a phrase to confirm that a previous contribution was on the right lines: (12) Student 4 says: men always base on the reality and women base on the ... [... two contributions missing …] Student 6 says: feeling Student 6 says: Student 4 Student 4 says: thanks Student 6 Student 7 says: on their own feelinng s. It is right? Student 4/ Student 6 says: her own feeling abr life Student 1 says: Yes, her own feelings [Language and gender pre-seminar, Spring group]

The phrase own feelings is repeated by Students 7, 6 and 1, after Student 6 mentioned it earlier. It is quite intersubjective, as the repetition serves to reinforce the understanding of the particular point. The phrases are being expanded to make the point clearer by Students 7 and 1. However, since the discourse is not developed in the way we see in the examples of Intersubjectivity, we treat it as Repetition. Mauranen (2012) discusses the differences between pure repetition and repetition plus development, but we will not take this up further here. We also find repetition used for confirming points of analysis: (13) Teacher 2 says: so, what about question 2 from the handout? what allomorphs are there of PLURAL and PAST morphemes?

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Student 25 says: s, es Student 1 says: regular; irregular and zero morphs Student 24 says: s, es, ed Student 25 says: ed Student 20 says: is it -s and -ed Student 7 says: plural e, es Student 10 says: ed, -s Student 7 says: past ed [Morphology seminar]

Here, we find students in a seminar answering a question, and they repeat after one another in giving and confirming the same answers.

Repair/correction Finally, we have a common category where students repeat specific words or phrases only in order to repair or correct previous contributions. Consider one representative example: (14) Student 5 says: gender refer to social catagory [... one contribution missing …] Student 1 says: Yes, Student 5 [... one contribution missing …] Student 5 says: some cases that’s tue [... one contribution missing …] Student 5 says: true [Language and gender pre-seminar, Spring group]

In this case, Student 5 repairs her own mistyping of true. In the corpus, there were only self-corrections of language errors. Since the point of the seminars was to discuss linguistic topics rather than English language proficiency, it is not surprising that others did not correct errors. Also, the face-threatening nature of other-initiated correction suggests that in a community of practice being built and sustained, such a potentially divisive strategy would be avoided. Students do correct one another’s analytical errors, though, which is to be expected from an academic discussion.

4.2  Final comments on ellipsis What we have seen are a variety of functions for elliptical contributions. These clearly, we feel, demonstrate that the students are interacting, and that therefore their community of practice is being built and sustained, in particular through functions like Continuers and Comments. In other work on this data (White 2013), we discuss the frequency at which the functions appear. It is seen clearly from Table 10.1 that Intersubjectivity is the most frequent function (White 2013, p. 57). In an institutional academic setting such as an MA course, it is not surprising that developing discussions and negotiating understanding are predominant. However,

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Table 10.1  Number of examples of each function per session of the course InterSubj Media

416

Continuers

Correction

60

6

Repetition 40

Comments 135

Politics

306

63

10

21

106

Gender

398

88

16

15

110

Phonetics

133

15

4

14

24

Phonology

158

24

3

28

23

Morphology

728

156

21

286

130

Syntax Total (/3698)

66 2205 (59.63%)

34

4

440 (11.90%)

64 (1.73%)

2 406 (10.98%)

55 583 (15.77%)

there is a strongly affective side to ellipsis, as Continuers and Comments are the next most common functions. Repetition is very common, with the majority coming in the Morphology session because of the amount of analysis in that session, and the students are repeating one another’s answers a lot to confirm them. Corrections are the least popular, due partly to the face-threat of corrections referred to above. However, due to the high-speed nature of computer-mediated communication, and given the expectation to communicate at speech-like speed, there is little time for the reviewing of contributions required to identify an error, and therefore it is not unexpected to find such errors. Also, the frequency of Continuers is highest at the beginning when the community of practice is being formed, but the numbers do not drop off too much by the end, suggesting that the community of practice is being sustained by back-channel support. Now we move on to the other topic of analysis, reduced forms, to look for similar evidence of community-building and -sustaining.

4.3  Reduced forms In this section, we look at the process of negotiating which reduced forms are set as community norms. This will provide further confirmation that this is a functioning community of practice, and that the community is being sustained by these norms.

Norms as evidence for community-building In the data, we can clearly see the process of norms being set. Consider Table 10.2, which shows the different reduced forms for thanks over the course (White 2014, pp. 117–18). Pre refers to pre-seminars, and sem to seminars; S1-3 in the second column, for example, means that Student 1 used this form three times: Even though we do see alternatives appearing by the end of the course, we can conclude that tks is being set as the norm for the community. The alternatives appear infrequently, and generally specific individuals are responsible for them: Student 25 for thx, Student 1 for thks, and Student 5 for thnk(s). It is clear, we hope, that a normsetting process can be seen even in this small data set.

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Table 10.2  Reduced forms for thanks tks

thx

Media pre

5 (S1-3, S3-2)

Media sem

9 (S1-4, S3-5)

Politics pre

1 (S3-1)

Politics sem

8 (S1-5, S3-3)

Gender pre

2 (S1-1, S20-1)

Gender sem

14 (S1-7, S3-6, S25-1)

Phonetics

8 (S1-3, S3-3, S4-2)

Phonology

11 (S1-6, S3-5)

Morph pre

5 (S1-3, S3-2)

Morph sem

12 (S1-7, S3-5)

Syntax

11 (S1-8, S3-1, S4-1, S14-1)

1 (S25-1)

Total (/107)

86 (80.37%)

9 (8.41%)

thks

thnk(s)

1 (S5-1) 1 (S1-1) 2 (S25-2) 3 (S1-3) 4 (S6-4)

4 (S5-4) 1 (S3-1)

2 (S25-2) 1 (S5-1) 1 (S3-1) 7 (6.54%)

5 (4.67%)

Students do generally support each other in setting norms. In the first example below, Student 8 uses lang as the reduced form for language, which Student 9 supports twice in the next contribution: (15) Student 10 says: so we should call the art of use languge [… five contributions missing …] Student 8 says: danger become safe throughout her lang Student 9 says: also he indicated that politicians are so wise in using lang., they knew how to take advatage of the strong points of lang. [Language and the media pre-seminar, Summer group]

Once again, in a community that is being built and sustained, we might expect members to be generally cooperative and supportive. However, we do also find examples of students persisting in their own norms: (16) Student 1 says: I think that we have a very interesting discussion today. hope some could satisfy your need but for some that we have’t found out the answers, plz leave themm for the next seminar Student 4 says: It’s too late now Student 3 says: when is our next seminar?? Student 2 says: Student 1 set up the next seminar plse Student 7 says: How can I find the text to read Student 5. Tell me plz [Language and the media pre-seminar, Spring group]

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Student 1 and 7 use plz, which appears to be the norm for the community (White 2014). Still, Student 2 persists in using plse. As noted in discussions of Complexity Theory (Larsen-Freeman and Cameron 2008; Larsen-Freeman 2012), this persistence in using individual forms is a feature of systems undergoing change. Before a norm is set, users assert their individuality. Thus, such variation is in itself evidence that norms are being negotiated. Of course, such variation can be found in stable communities as well, with certain individuals taking the role of outsiders in the community. In both situations, we can argue that communities are being developed and roles negotiated. An important point about the pre-seminar groups not mentioned before is that they select their own leaders, who then have a high status within the group. Leaders seem to influence non-leaders in the setting of norms, as we see in the following discussion from Autumn group: (17) Student 12 says: the importance is that Bush and Blair seem to have the same idea of these conflicts Student 25 says: I think he mean ‘he can see what is good and what is bad’ Student 25 says: and what he’s doiing is for the good Student 12 says: both of them I think Student 11 says: I agree Student 12 says: he? Student 12 says: who is he? Student 25 says: Blair Student 11 says: Blair Student 20 says: B [… 12 contributions missing …] Student 25 says: Ok, so I think here Paxman wants to imply that Blair is totally on the same side as Bush Student 11 says: no discrimination Student 12 says: B means that you are unnecessary to have this feeling [Language and politics pre-seminar, Autumn group]

Student 12 talks about the language of Tony Blair and George Bush Jr, and Student 25 comments on this using the pronominal he. Student 12 picks up on the ambiguity of he and asks who is being referred to. Students 25 and 11 give the full name Blair, but the group leader, Student 20, reduces this to B, and Student 12 follows her. We can find cases where non-leaders influence leaders. These are rarer, but the following is a representative example: (18) Student 21 says: I’ve sent you a mess, Student 20, do u see? Student 11 says: do we have to wait Student 23 and Student 12? Student 21 says: In skype Student 11 says: or do we start now? Student 20 says: no, Student 21 Student 20 says: sorry

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Student 20 says: i am connected Student 20 says: waitn a second [… seven contributions missing …] Student 20 says: Student 21, no mess on my sky [Language and gender pre-seminar, Autumn group]

At the end of the pre-seminar, Student 21 asks the leader, again Student 20, if she can help him with setting up Skype, using a reduced form for message. Student 20 responds to this with the same reduced form mess. We do see many examples where non-leaders persist in their use of certain forms despite the fact that the others, including the leader, are using a different form. Consider the following example: (19)

Student 1 says: I think that we have a very interesting discussion today. hope some could satisfy your need but for some that we have’t found out the answers, plz leave themm for the next seminar Student 4 says: It’s too late now Student 3 says: when is our next seminar?? Student 2 says: Student 1 set up the next seminar plse Student 7 says: How can I find the text to read Student 5. Tell me plz [… four contributions missing …] Student 4 says: THe chapter? the contents? the timetable pzl? [Language and the media pre-seminar, Spring group]

In this extract, Student 2 uses the reduced form plse for please even though the leader Student 1 has earlier used plz, and this is followed by the other students. As noted above when mentioning Complexity Theory, this is to be expected, as individuals assert their independence before the setting of a group norm. Even though different individuals take the lead in setting norms and individual users promote their own norms, norm-setting is still a sign of a functioning community of practice

4.4  Final comments on reduced forms To sum this section up, we see that norms are being negotiated, although users can assert their individuality by using alternative forms. Generally, though, members are supportive of one another. As mentioned in the background, norm-setting is mentioned by Wenger (1998) as evidence that the community is being formed and sustained. Thus, the results in this sub-section provide extra support for the conclusion that a community of practice is being built and sustained.

5 Conclusions Using textchat data, we have argued in this chapter that the setting of norms for the use of reduced forms and the interactive functions of ellipsis are evidence that there is

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a functioning and sustainable online community of practice. The interactions between members through elliptical contributions functioned to develop discourse and support other members in their contributions to discussions, among others. Norm-setting was also seen to be a cooperative process, which is one of the signs that a community of practice has been built. Although members can persist in promoting their own norms, this was argued to be a natural part of the process of systems in change. Thus, while norms are being set, greater individual variation can be found. To conclude, we hope we have presented convincing evidence that these economization processes do build and sustain learner communities. This research can be developed in many directions. For example, interaction can be analysed in non-elliptical contexts to see if ellipsis is a special case. A comparison with spoken language might also reveal differences in the use of ellipsis. A more in-depth analysis can also be performed to identify the functions in more detail, that is, subcategories of Intersubjectivity and the other functions. Similarly, a longitudinal study can be performed on the same community of practice to see norm-setting over a longer term.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank the reviewer for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this chapter. This research has been made possible by a stipend from Birgit och Gad Rausings Stiftelse for Humanistisk Forskning, and grants from Åke Wibergs Stiftelse and the Culture, Identity and Representation research group at Högskolan Dalarna.

References Benson, P. (2001). Autonomy in Language Learning. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Cogo, A. (2009). ‘Accommodating Difference in EFL Conversations: A Study of Pragmatic Strategies’. In A. Mauranen and E. Ranta (eds), English as a Lingua Franca: Studies and Findings, 254–73. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Darhower, M. (2002). ‘Interactional Features of Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication in the Intermediate L2 Class: A Sociocultural Case Study’. Calico 19 (2): 249–77. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012). ‘Complexity Theory’. In S. M. Gass and A. Mackey (eds), The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 73–87. Oxford: Routledge. Larsen-Freeman, D. and Cameron, L. (2008). Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lee, C. (2002). ‘Literacy Practices in Computer-Mediated Communication in Hong Kong’. The Reading Matrix 2 (2): 1–25. Lotherington, H. and Xu, Y. (2004). ‘How to Chat in English and Chinese: Emerging Digital Language Conventions’. ReCALL 16 (2): 308–29. Mauranen, A. (2012). Exploring ELF: Academic English Shaped by Non-native Speakers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Mohd Nor, N. F., Hamat, A. and Embi, M. A. (2012). ‘Patterns of Discourse in Online Interaction: Seeking Evidence of the Collaborative Learning Process’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 25 (3): 237–56. Murray, D. (2000). ‘Protean Communication: The Language of Computer-Mediated Communication’. TESOL Quarterly 34 (3): 397–421. Peterson, M. (2009). ‘Learner Interaction in Synchronous CMC: A Sociocultural Perspective’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 22 (4): 303–21. Stockwell, G. and Levy, M. (2001). ‘Sustainability of E-Mail Interactions between Native Speakers and Non-Native Speakers’. Computer-Assisted Language Learning 14 (5): 419–42. Warschauer, M. (1997). ‘Computer-Mediated Collaborative Learning: Theory and Practice’. The Modern Language Journal 81 (4): 470–81. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Werry, C. (1996). ‘Linguistic and Interactional Features of Internet Relay Chat’. In S. C. Herring (ed.), Computer-Mediated Communication: Linguistic, Social and CrossCultural Perspectives, 47–63. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. White, J. R. (2011). ‘Reduced Forms in Chat Language’. In A. Ylikiiskilä and M. Westman (eds), Language for the Future: Papers from the ASLA Symposium in Falun, 12–13 November, 2010, 231–47. Falun: Högskolan Dalarna. White, J. R. (2013). ‘Interaction in Glocal Learner Communities Online’. Academic Exchange Quarterly 17 (4): 53–9. White, J. R. (2014). ‘Standardisation of Reduced Forms in English in an Academic Community of Practice’. Pragmatics and Society 5 (1): 105–27. Yus, F. (2011). Cyberpragmatics: Internet-Mediated Communication in Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

11

A Student Self-Evaluation System: Sustaining Outside-of-Class CALL Activities in a University Efl Blended Learning Course Yasushige Ishikawa, Reiko Akahane-Yamada, Misato Kitamura, Craig Smith, Yasushi Tsubota and Masatake Dantsuji

1  Introduction: Sustaining e-learning The e-learning sustainability issue addressed in this chapter is the sustained use of online learning materials outside of class by university students learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) on a regular weekly basis throughout an academic year. This chapter reports on a project conducted in a blended learning (BL) course called English for Certified Tests in which researchers in Japan explored ways to effectively implement the provision of out-of-class online learning tasks, which had been designed to improve university students’ scores on the TOEIC Listening and Reading Test in a way that the student use of the online materials was sustained. There are limitations to the capability of online communication to engage students in sustained learning activities (Salmon 2004; Thompson, Jeffries and Topping 2010). This is true for EFL learners in Japan. Mochizuki and Katagiri (2003) conducted a study of students engaged in e-learning in a Faculty of Foreign Studies at a university in Japan, which found that only 0.8 per cent of the students continued their outsideof-class study for one academic year. BL, a combination of face-to-face instruction and e-learning (e.g. Osguthorpe and Graham 2003) may provide the support students need to use e-learning materials more often for a longer period of time. In the research project discussed in this chapter, BL is defined as a combination of in-class activities and out-of-class activities integrated in a single learning environment by a www-based courseware, ATR CALL BRIX (http://www.atr-lt.jp/ products/brix/index.html), which featured a learning management system (LMS). The LMS contained a variety of learning materials to prepare students for the TOEIC Listening and Reading Test (Ishikawa et al. 2014). The use of online courseware outside of class was intended not only to help improve students’ TOEIC scores, but also to nurture self-regulated learning (SRL). SRL is defined as a set of proactive study processes that students use to manage their own learning by making decisions

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about their own learning goals, by selecting and deploying learning strategies and by self-monitoring their own effectiveness as learners (Zimmerman 2008). The use of self-evaluation logs in which students identify their own learning strengths and weaknesses, as well as the progress they make in independent study time, is a fundamental practice in the development of self-regulated learning skills (Ramdass and Zimmerman 2011). An aim of the project was to explore whether the online courseware used in the BL environment would help students develop SRL skills because it was anticipated that a capacity for SRL would contribute to sustained use of the online learning materials. In order to create a constructive link between the two phases of the BL practices, a student self-evaluation system was implemented that combined outside-of-class e-mentoring and weekly in-class self-evaluations. E-mentoring can be defined as similar to traditional mentoring but accomplished through ICT communication. It is also known as virtual mentoring, telementoring or cybermentoring. E-mentoring utilizes computer-mediated communication tools such as e-mail, listservs, chat groups and computer conferencing (Bierema and Merriam 2002; Harrington 1999; Switzer, Stanley and Switzer 2012). E-mentoring may establish a computer-mediated, mutually beneficial relationship between a mentor and a learner if the mentor advises and encourages the learner by modelling effective learning behaviour in ways that are boundary-less, egalitarian and qualitatively different from traditional face-to-face mentoring (Bierema and Merriam 2002). These e-mentoring characteristics can be used to support SRL by developing in learners a strong sense of self-efficacy, and by helping them to build relationships with peers and teachers that contribute to effective learning (Norton 2005; Chang 2004; McKenzie and Ozkan 2006). However, other research has found that although the use of digital communication channels to supplement face-to-face communication is cost- and time-efficient, exclusive reliance on e-mentoring may not result in student satisfaction (Salmon 2004; Thompson, Jeffries and Topping 2010). This problem may be favourably dealt with by in-class teacher mediation (Chang 2005). Thus, this project explored the effects of making teacher–student communication a key component of the in-class student selfevaluation system by linking it with online e-mentoring.

2  Research questions Compared to exclusively online courses, BL courses offer in-class means of encouraging students to engage in e-learning. Although the ultimate aim of the use of the BL project materials was to help students improve their scores on a standardized EFL proficiency test, the research questions were related to possible means of achieving one necessary pre-condition for project success: the sustained use of the online learning materials by students outside of class. The learning materials addressed specific English language learning needs, but more importantly, the materials were designed to nurture the development of SRL. In this project, SRL is defined as the willing, long-term, independent engagement of

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students in their own learning. This project explored the BL potential of sustaining student satisfaction with online learning by combining e-mentoring with in-class teacher-mediated student self-evaluations. Thus, answers were sought to the following research questions:

1. Would there be an improvement in the sustained use of the online learning materials?

2. Would there be an observable development in student attitudes, skills and behaviour that characterize successful SRL practices?

3. Would the teacher–student communication component of the in-class student

self-evaluation system contribute to student satisfaction with the outside-of-class e-mentoring system?

3 Background 3.1  E-mentoring within a blended learning environment The key reason for online mentoring, called e-mentoring, being identified as important in recent research (Lahti, Marjomaa and Littleton 2003; Horstmanshof 2004) is its potential to assist students with the transition to unfamiliar e-learning environments by enhancing teacher presence in the learning tasks and, thus, to improve online learning participation rates. Moreover, e-mentoring may help students navigate transitions from secondary school to university where more independent learning skills are required, and into courses that use online resources (Kim 2008; Stone 2004; Horstmanshof 2004; Naismith 2007; Nix and Keegan 2006). The student–teacher and student–student relationships in e-learning environments are very different from traditional classroom interactions. E-learning environments often require learners to be more independent in managing their own learning processes. Thus, for e-learning to be effective, teachers should consider how to achieve a productive balance between efforts to achieve the benefits of cost and time efficiency gained through the provision of online learning opportunities, and the educational needs of students. Effective e-mentoring communication, although possibly more costly for educational institutions and more time-consuming for teachers than online communication with limited e-mentoring, may give students the support they need to succeed as online learners. However, e-mentoring has been adopted by companies, educational institutions and community programs where face-to-face or synchronous mentoring is not readily accessible, for example, where there is a substantial distance between the mentor and the learner (Harrington 1999). In BL courses, e-mentoring may close the affective distance between the online and in-class learning tasks. Compared to e-coaching where the focus is on a single goal or a specific area of performance, e-mentoring advice is provided over an ongoing period of time in order to support an individual’s development in a more general sense; for example, the advice may be related to the achievement of career goals (Harrington 1999). Within an educational setting, e-mentoring can cover both academic and non-academic needs

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of the learner; the former may include the provision of advice regarding the retention of knowledge and enhanced academic performance, and the latter may be personal messages of encouragement such as advice when human relationship problems interfere with study. The term online-tutoring, in contrast, is used when the focus of support is limited to academic areas (Matsuda 2008). Thompson, Jeffries and Topping (2010) believe that BL could enhance e-mentoring communication. They investigated different combinations of communication for e-mentoring in a two-year academic course where the focus was set on online teacherstudent communication utilizing a web-based chat room for e-mentoring once a month, supplemented by a few face-to-face meetings. In a post-course survey, a majority of the mentors and the mentored students stated that more frequent face-to-face contact in the initial stages of the course would have been useful. While the logistical benefits of e-mentoring – reducing time and location burdens – are important, face-to-face meetings are recognized as key factors in teacher–student relationship building and their collaborative problem-solving efforts. Wang’s study (2011) was conducted in a BL environment that provided online assignments to university students who attended face-to-face classroom lecture sessions and did web-based assignments. They investigated the impact of e-mentoring in terms of learner satisfaction and self-efficacy. The results showed that in terms of student satisfaction, the provision of information about the correct responses that included a volitional message was more effective than messages limited to information about whether their answers were correct or not. It was concluded that there was a positive correlation between learning self-efficacy and course satisfaction. The need for a degree of intimacy, which may be achieved through constructive face-to-face contact in interpersonal communication, is a fundamental human desire (Lahti, Marjomaa and Littleton 2003). This need may be satisfied in online communication; however, due to the potential for anonymity, the development of a constructive degree of intimacy is not inevitable. Furthermore, online communication can alter the norms of group dynamics, and it is essential, through innovative studentcentred personal communicative approaches, to build a constructive rapport between teachers and students in learning environments (Horstmanshof 2004). Kim (2008) summarized the benefits of using technology in an e-mentoring message capacity: (1) the specific and changing needs of learners can be considered; (2) interpersonal connectivity is facilitated; (3) interpersonal skills are built; (4) the development of cognitive strategies, reflection and planning is encouraged; (5) interest is raised and participation is improved; and (6) anxiety decreases. These benefits, if realized in this project, would help sustain students’ engagement in online learning outside of class.

3.2  Characteristics of effective e-mentoring How can the benefits of e-mentoring described by Kim (2008) be achieved? As a response to the lack of conventional face-to-face teacher–student contact in online learning, many studies have investigated the importance of teacher presence in alternative forms within the learning environment. Teacher presence has been defined

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as contact between the student and teacher and as direct instruction given by the teacher (Babb, Stewart and Johnson 2010). Studies have confirmed the common intuitive view that if students feel noticed and cared for by their teachers, there is a constructive impact on their interest, and participation, in learning. Simply expressed, if students appreciate their teacher’s efforts on their behalf, their independent willing participation in learning increases; on the other hand, if they do not feel that they are being supported by their teacher, their motivation is affected and, consequently, they take a less active part in their own learning (Wise, Chang and Del Valle 2004; Xiao 2012; Christophel 1990). A common concern is related to the type of written online teacher–student communication that simulates advisory oral face-to-face communication in function. Misunderstandings can arise, and persist, if the opportunities for immediate resolution through the familiar interactive problem-solving strategies of face-to-face communication are not available. Although online communication can save time when contacting a large number of people, generous amounts of time are often required to develop good individual and whole-group personal relationships, especially if there is little or no face-to-face contact between the mentor and group members. Thus, the time efficiency of online communication may be overvalued if quality of the communication is not taken into consideration. Wise, Chang and Del Valle (2004) conducted a study in which instructors provided all of the participants with the same quantity of feedback on communication events and the same amount of information in the feedback, while the quality of the teacher presence cues in the e-mentoring was varied. With the low teacher-presence group, the instructor provided encouragement and feedback to students in a formal, efficient way but avoided using intimate social presence cues. In contrast with the high teacherpresence group, the interaction was enhanced by making the communication more friendly and personal. The results showed that a teacher’s heightened social presence had a constructive impact on the whole learning environment by encouraging more students to take an active role in their own learning. To create effective communication systems, previous studies have highlighted important ‘design’ features. A key finding is the need for a ‘personal touch’; for example, e-mail communication may create productive bonds between teachers and students through personalized attention (Kim and Keller 2008) if teachers demonstrate interest in their students by addressing them by name (Jones, Edwards and Reid 2009). Keil and Johnson (2002) also carried out research on non-face-to-face feedback to students in the form of e-mails and voicemails sent as attachments to e-mails, to see if the e-mail communication could effectively replace physical teacher presence. The study hypothesized that the voicemails would provide a higher level of social presence and, thus, a more satisfactory form of feedback for students. The results indicated that although the students in the voicemail group appreciated the higher social presence of that medium, the students in the e-mail-only group also appreciated receiving the text-based feedback for practical reasons: it could be printed and then, later, accessed and referenced. Due to the need to maintain teacher presence in e-learning environments, teachers need to develop effective online communication skills for interaction with

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students. Herrera, Mendoza and Maldonado (2009) identified the ‘Specific Abilities of a Distance Professor,’ which include clear oral and written communication skills, the ability to be assertive in communication with a large number of participants, skills related to optimal use of e-learning platforms, and the degree of quality of imagination and creativity required to produce effective and appealing online messages. Failure to communicate properly in online communication channels can be due to a lack of appropriate teacher training and teachers’ perceptions that the use of this media for student welfare is unreasonably burdensome (Mueller 2004; Kim 2008). Moreover, some online communication channels may be considered by students to be too informal for educational mentoring. This view may make it difficult for students to contact instructors comfortably, and students may not like being contacted by instructors through a medium that they use to maintain their private social relationships (Jones, Edwards and Reid 2009; Stone 2004; Horstmanshof 2004). Furthermore, the timing and frequency of teacher–student online communication may be important. Naismith (2007) conducted a questionnaire to get opinions from students on the effectiveness of e-mail communication with their teachers. The timing of when the messages were sent and received was important in terms of time of day and the day of the week, and also in terms of the timing related to requests in the messages; for example, approximately a 48-hour gap between the reception of an instruction and the deadline for a required action was considered to be ideal timing. In addition, the relevancy of the information sent, and its personalization, was seen as important. A direct relation between the content of the message and the recipient was appreciated. In terms of frequency, a rate of three to five messages per week was seen as acceptable by students. Moreover, there was a preference for messages from someone known and trusted by the recipients rather than from an automated anonymous sender. Kim and Keller (2008) suggested a model for message design in their study on motivational and volitional e-mail messages, which would capture the attention and interest of a recipient. Important ways to increase the relevance of e-mentoring as perceived by students are the use of personal names, a direct relationship between message and the recipient, signs that the messages have been individually tailored for the recipient, and elements in the message that work on improving the recipient’s confidence and volitional strategies such as encouragement to reach goals and advice on how to manage their learning environment.

3.3 Sustaining self-regulated learning: A self-evaluation component of e-mentoring A teacher-mediated student self-evaluation system was explored in this project as a generator of SRL skills. Students’ individual differences in learning outcomes may result, in part, from varying degrees of meta- and social-cognitive awareness of their own learning limitations and a lack of awareness of possible means of finding individual solutions.

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Students who set personal goals engage in SRL over longer periods of time than those who do not clarify their own goals. Focusing on goals helps learners adapt better to their learning environment by making them more self-aware and, thus, better at recognizing the need to develop and effectively implement intervention strategies to overcome difficulties in learning online, such as debilitating feelings of isolation (Chang 2007). The goal setters have higher levels of self-efficacy, as well as abilities to regulate their own learning by identifying the areas that require improvement. To overcome learning problems, successful learners’ self-management skills include the capacity to enhance their own motivation by employing learning strategies to efficiently manage the learning burden; by employing time-management techniques to complete tasks on progress-focused schedules; by using short-term self-evaluation techniques to prepare and refine learning strategies; and by developing individual long-term self-evaluation skills to maintain constant effort and achievement levels (Wood and Bandura 1989; Zimmerman 2002, 2008). Chang (2007) carried out a study with EFL students in an e-learning course to discover whether self-evaluation methods have different effects on students with different proficiency levels of English. After logging on to a web-based materials site, the experimental group was directed to a page with a self-monitoring form for recording study time, the location of study and the learners with whom they studied. They were also required to predict their quiz scores, and then after the quiz, to record their actual scores, and any distractions from learning that they had experienced during their study time. Thus, the learners created a detailed personal picture of their own learning process. Each time they logged in, they were shown their learning history before they went on to the next quiz or assignment. The results of the study were that both high- and low-level students performed better on comprehension and motivation checks than the control group; however, the positive impact was greater on the lower-level students. EFL learners at lower proficiency levels are often unable to self-evaluate accurately, because they are either too harsh or too easy on themselves. Additional feedback information from a teacher, and from other students, has the potential to help learners sustain focus on their own goals and their own performance, which may increase selfattribution accuracy and, thus, self-efficacy (Zimmerman 2002; Birney, Beckmann and Wood 2012; Schunk 2003). According to these studies, teacher-mediated self-evaluation may help EFL learners at all proficiency levels manage the learning process through an examination of the learning environment in ways that can lead to improvements in sustainable motivation, accurate attribution of the causes of learning experiences and improvements in selfefficacy levels.

4  The research project: A student self-evaluation system and sustained self-regulated learning This research project was carried out in two parts with the same students: Study 1 in the first semester of an EFL skill building course and Study 2 in the second semester

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of the same course. In the first semester for Study 1, students were assigned to three classes randomly, and not by English proficiency level. At the beginning of the second semester, for Study 2, students were placed in three groups – high, middle and low – according to their TOEIC scores. It was important to use the same students in Study 1 and Study 2 in order to discover whether the learning materials could contribute to sustainability in the Japanese university EFL context. The studies were conducted in two one-semester parts for three reasons: (1) Many of the EFL courses are two semesters long in Japan. (2) There is a trend for initial high levels of effort to fall off through the course of the year, especially in the second semester. (3) Students typically do little outsideof-class independent study. The two semesters allowed a comparison of the same students’ outside-of-class online study without, and then with, an e-mentoring system. Investigations of the motivation of Japanese EFL university students reveal low levels of motivation for any kind of outside-of-class study. Irie (2003) identified three motivation types most typical of Japanese students: ‘instrumental motivation’ is employed to sustain study to pass university entrance exams and to get high scores on EFL proficiency tests when seeking employment; ‘mastery motivation’ is used to sustain study to achieve an understanding of English grammar and vocabulary; and ‘extrinsic motivation’, which is a response to meet the expectations of other people, such as teachers and parents. ‘Instrumental motivation’ is reported to be most common due to the demands of the exam-driven learning environment in Japan (Irie 2003; Berwick and Ross 1989; Kimura, Nakata and Okumura 2000; O’Donnell 2003). Several studies have shown that the domination of the university entrance exam in Japan influences how English is taught, learnt and used. It may have a negative impact on the capacity to sustain motivation for English study after students enter university (O’Donnell 2003; Okuno 2007; Berwick and Ross 1989). Thus, the two studies in this project included a short-term goal of test preparation, which could draw on instrumental motivation resources; and encouragement to set long-term educational goals through the provision of learning materials intended to develop SRL skills that might help students sustain instrumental motivation by means of independent study. Thus, a self-evaluation process was a feature of the weekly class in both semesters. The students reflected on their previous goals and set new goals for the following week in consultation with their peers and the classroom teacher. In addition, a student selfevaluation system in the second semester combined e-mentoring in the LMS outside of class and weekly in-class self-evaluations as part of the course routine. An e-mentor team of one teacher and a teaching assistant sent different need-based messages of advice and encouragement weekly to the mobile phones of the students in each of the three groups, according to how well the students completed the LMS learning materials. Figure 11.1 shows the flow of the tasks of participants in both semesters and of the students and the e-mentor team in the second semester. Table 11.1 (which follows Figure 11.1) describes the messages sent by the e-mentor team.

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Figure 11.1  Flow of tasks of the participants and the e-mentor team in the system. Table 11.1  Messages sent by the e-mentor team Message type

Time when the message was sent

Advice related to the in-class activities

The day after the in-class activities were conducted

Encouragement

Before and after weekends

Troubleshooting

When the students had problems using the learning materials

4.1  Study 1 4.1.1 Participants Twenty-nine first-year EFL students (19 females and 10 males) who were enrolled in a blended learning course called English for Certified Tests at a university in Japan participated in Study 1. The participants’ scores at the beginning of Study 1 on the TOEIC Listening and Reading Test in April 2012 ranged from 245 points to 660 points, with an average score of 385 points.

4.1.2 Method The participants were provided with the courseware materials in May 2012. The materials were designed to be completed in eight weeks. Each week, the records of the seven tasks on the LMS materials were compiled. An online self-regulated learning

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questionnaire (OSLQ) was administered in May and in September. The OSLQ covered six key SRL constructs (Barnard-Brak, Lan and Paton 2010): setting goals, structuring the learning environment, creating learning strategies, managing time, seeking help and conducting self-evaluations. The OSLQ consisted of twenty-four items, which measured the six SRL constructs. A 5-point Likert scale ranked student responses to statements from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1).

4.1.3  Results and discussion As shown in Table 11.2, student scores on five of the six SRL constructs – environment structuring, task strategies, time management, help seeking and self-evaluations  – decreased significantly from the beginning to the end of the course. Many of the students were not able to find a comfortable place and time to use the online materials. They reported that they did not take notes for their online learning as carefully as they did in regular classroom study. The students also did not allocate sufficient study time for online learning although they knew in advance that it would be time-consuming. Moreover, the students did not find anyone to consult with when they needed help, and they seldom communicated with their classmates in order to discuss their problems and to find out how other students had been doing in their online learning. The overall student experience with goal setting was different. The participants in Study 1 originally recorded intentions in their study logs to use the online materials frequently and to develop plans to reach personally set TOEIC score targets. However, the study log in the LMS of the courseware showed that they used the materials, on average, for only 6.4 minutes per week. A typical comment of the participants was ‘I have little time to study the materials because I have so many other assignments from teachers in my other courses to do every day.’

4.2  Study 2 In contrast to the procedure in Study 1, the student self-evaluation system that was implemented in Study 2 combined e-mentoring outside of class and weekly selfevaluations in class. Otherwise, the same learning materials were used.

Table 11.2  Results of OSLQ in May and September OSLQ (May)

OSLQ (September)

p

r

Goal setting

3.30

2.86

0.065

0.34

Environment structuring

3.78

3.14

0.020*

0.57

Task strategies

3.08

2.40

0.000**

0.73

Time management

3.47

2.68

0.001*

0.63

Help seeking

3.30

2.13

0.000**

0.85

Self-evaluation

3.34

2.53

0.001*

0.64

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

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4.2.1 Participants The 29 students who participated in Study 1 took part in Study 2. The participants’ scores on the TOEIC Listening and Reading Test in September 2012 ranged from 295 to 650, with an average score of 482.59. They were placed in high, middle or low classes according to their TOEIC scores. It should be noted that while the highest TOEIC score in the group was 10 points lower than before the course started in April, the lowest TOEIC score in the group was 50 points higher, and the average score increased by approximately 100 points. It was expected that the online learning materials would help sustain student effort throughout the first semester; however, a decline in the use of the materials was expected in the second semester. Thus, one additional means of support, an e-mentoring system, was added to the Study 1 learning materials in Study 2.

4.2.2 Method Between September 2012 and January 2013, the participants were provided with the same online out-of-class courseware learning materials that were used in Study 1. Each week, the records of the seven LMS materials were compiled in the same way as in Study 1. The same OSLQ as in Study 1 was completed by the students in September and again in January. In addition, a student self-evaluation system was implemented in Study 2, which combined e-mentoring outside of class with teacher-mediated weekly self-evaluations as part of the class routine between September 2012 and January 2013. A questionnaire on the messages sent each week by the e-mentor team was conducted at the end of January. The questionnaire consisted of four 5-point Likert scale questions and one open-ended question. In addition, pre- and post-TOEIC testing were conducted in September 2012, at the beginning of the semester, and in January 2013, at the end of the semester.

4.2.3  Results and discussion The students used the materials for two hours and six minutes per week on average. Scores on four out of the six SRL constructs significantly increased as described in Table 11.3. The results indicate that the messages that the e-mentor team sent weekly Table 11.3  Results of OSLQ in September and January OSLQ (September)

OSLQ (January)

p

r

Goal setting

2.86

3.26

0.002*

0.57

Environment structuring

3.14

3.55

0.030*

0.56

Task strategies

2.40

2.45

1.000

0.00 0.66

Time management

2.68

3.20

0.000**

Help seeking

2.13

2.05

0.523

0.12

Self-evaluation

2.53

2.83

0.043*

0.38

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

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to the participants and the self-evaluation form in which the participants reflected on their goals of the week and set new goals for the following week were likely effective in encouraging SRL behaviour. Task strategy creation and help-seeking SRL behaviours showed no significant positive changes in score level; in fact, help-seeking scores decreased. A possible explanation could be that the courseware LMS gave the participants adequate advice and explained which materials should be used to overcome weaknesses in their study plans in order to improve their TOEIC scores. Support for this supposition was given in ten of the student statements that expressed appreciation of the LMS: the following comment was typical – ‘The LMS is so nice. It shows me what I can do to improve my TOEIC score.’ The questionnaire about the messages sent each week by the e-mentor team was administered at the end of the semester. All the participants answered the questions. The reliability rate was high (a = 0.81). Table 11.4 shows the results of the four questions. The open-ended question asked students for comments on their feelings about the weekly e-mentor team messages. The students’ feelings about the messages sent by the e-mentor team were positive (Item 4, Mean: 4.05). The students read the messages sent by the e-mentor team (Item 1, Mean: 4.50) and they felt that the messages encouraged them to use the learning materials in the LMS (Item 2, Mean 4.50). The following were typical comments about the messages: ‘I am so happy to read the words of encouragement. I like those words,’ and ‘I was encouraged by your messages to use the materials. I really was!’ However, seven students believed that they would have used the learning materials even if they had not received the e-mentor team messages. The following comment was typical: ‘I was so pleased to have the message from you but sometimes I was irritated. I read the message and said to myself that I already know I haven’t used the LMS so much!’ Furthermore, the result of the pre- and post-TOEIC testing, as shown in Table 11.5, revealed that the students in the project significantly improved their TOEIC scores (p  0.01; r = 0.49) by approximately 37 points in Study 2, ranging from 320 points to 765 points, with an average score of 520 points.

Table 11.4  Results of the questions Item

Mean (SD)

1. I read the messages sent by the e-mentor team.

4.50 (0.88)

2. The messages sent by the e-mentor team encouraged me to use the learning materials in the LMS of the ATR CALL BRIX.

4.50 (0.88)

3. I would not have often used the learning materials in the LMS of the ATR CALL BRIX without the messages sent by the e-mentor team.

3.45 (0.74)

4. The messages sent by the instructor were necessary to successfully do the outside-of-class activities.

4 .05 (0.91)

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Table 11.5  Results of pre- and post-TOEIC testing TOEIC score (SD) Pre-TOEIC

Post-TOEIC

482.59 (91.01)

520 (116.02)

Gain

p

r

37.41

0.009**

0.49

**p < 0.01

5  Answers to the research questions 5.1  Research question 1 Would there be an improvement in the sustained use of the online learning materials? In the second semester during the course of Study 2, the students used the online learning materials for two hours and six minutes per week on average, compared to 6.4 minutes on average per week in the first semester during the course of Study 1. The remarkable increase in the time spent online in the second semester could be a result of feelings of success in the first semester that resulted in a gradual formation of a class culture in the second semester, which celebrated individual outside-of-class SRL in the in-class activities; for example, students talked to each other about what they had done and about the e-mentoring advice. The realization that the TOEIC scores of class members had improved when they were tested at the beginning of the second semester and that they would be tested again at the end of the semester was likely motivating. The length of time the online materials were used in the second semester was greater than expected. Even in a BL environment, Ishikawa, Kondo and Smith (2009) found that some students did not access e-learning materials provided in EFL classes outside of class. This is a common finding. According to a survey carried out with 48,233 Japanese university students (Center for Research on University Management and Policy, The University of Tokyo 2007), approximately one out of four university students believe that everything needed to pass courses should be taught in class and that they should not have to study independently outside of class. The heavy reliance of students on in-class study may account for findings that teacher intervention plays a dominant role in the learning of Japanese university students (Kondo 2009; Takeuchi 2008). However, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan recommends, according to the Standards for Establishment of Universities (1956), which is currently used as a guideline, that university students engage in study about 8 hours a day, including in-class and outside-of-class activities. A survey conducted by Center for Research on University Management and Policy, The University of Tokyo (2007), found that on average only 4.6 hours per day were spent on study: 2.9 hours of in-class activities and 1.7 hours of outside-of-class activities. Thus, it is essential to explore ways to encourage students to spend more time on outside-of-class learning activities and to sustain that learning over long periods of time. Innovative e-learning systems and the development of SRL skills may improve

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the current conventional learning patterns in which students spend relatively little time in independent study as autonomous learners.

5.2  Research question 2 Would there be an observable development in student attitudes, skills and behaviour that characterize successful SRL? The flexible nature of BL also appears to be a key factor in SRL development because students are able to learn when and how they choose, factors that give them control over, and responsibility for, their own learning. Scores of four of the six SRL constructs in the fall semester increased significantly, while in the spring semester scores on five of the six SRL constructs decreased significantly. These findings along with findings on the first research questions provide some evidence that, over time, efforts to improve SRL bear results.

5.3  Research question 3 Would the teacher–student communication component of the in-class student selfevaluation system contribute to student satisfaction with the outside-of-class e-mentoring system? Research studies have also pointed out areas for consideration in regard to the different types of motivation people have, and how individual motivational factors can vary in BL as time and space limitations are reduced (Auld, Blumberg and Clayton 2010). Andrade and Bunker (2009) advocated the need for affective strategies to handle negative emotions during distance learning. Individualized e-mentoring may be a means of securing long-term student commitment to e-learning programs. The open-ended question on the survey completed by students at the end of Study  2 indicated that some of the students appreciated the opportunity to reflect on their learning and the encouragement provided by the e-mentoring system. The following comments from three students are representative of the positive views of eighteen of the twenty-nine students in Study 2: ‘I thought that reflecting on what I did last week in the class and setting a new goal next week was important and I was able to continuously use the materials outside-of-class because of the advice.’ Another comment supported the BL experience: ‘There are many things that I can’t solve for myself outside-of-class. I can get ideas from advice online about what I should ask the teacher in class,’ and ‘I was so happy to have the encouragement from you. If the message is not from you but someone that I haven’t met, I am not so happy. And I found that reflection in class was important because I can get some advice from you and then set a new goal.’ The results of the two studies showed that a BL approach to learning with an LMS, which included a means of student self-evaluation of the individual learning process as a component of the online courseware, may have contributed to the increase in average TOEIC scores from 385 points to 520 points in one academic year.

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The results of Study 2 revealed that the project’s student self-evaluation system, which combined e-mentoring outside of class and weekly teacher-mediated selfevaluations, may have contributed to a continued improvement in TOEIC scores – an average of thirty-seven points – in the second semester in which student engagement in learning in general, and especially in online learning, declines until just before the final examinations. Thus, the linking of the LMS with the online mentoring system and an in-class self-evaluation system in Study 2 may be important components in a BL plan that is intended to encourage SRL development.

6  Further directions The results of the two studies indicate that the in-class activities may be sufficient to provide opportunities to increase test scores, as shown in Study 1. However, the addition of e-mentoring in Study 2 appeared to have contributed to the increase in the time the students used the e-learning courseware. Other studies should be conducted to compare the results of the use of the LMS alone for an academic year and the results of a program as conducted in Study 2 for one year. However, the results of Study 2 indicate satisfactory levels of student engagement in their own learning in the second half of the school year. Research should be conducted to investigate the type of support needed by instructors who have never conducted e-mentoring and are accustomed to advising students in conventional classroom situations to learn to adapt their teaching skills. Furthermore, research should be conducted to investigate effective means of supporting students’ learning by means of online communication conducted at the same time as face-to-face communication in class. Effective ways of creating and sustaining good student–teacher relationships in a blended learning environment with multiple channels of communication should be investigated. In addition, research should attempt to identify which particular types of e-mentoring may be most effective in encouraging SRL.

7 Conclusion The attrition rate, often cited as high for BL courses and an indicator of low motivation, is actually sometimes lower than, or similar to, that of face-to-face courses. Potentially, with the comparatively flexible nature of BL in terms of time and space constraints, and as course design improves driven by the financial benefits of lower delivery costs, the attrition rate could become significantly lower than that in other delivery systems (Bonk and Graham 2004). This paper reported research that showed student use of outside-of-class learning materials, designed to be used in combination with in-class learning tasks and teacher communication in blended learning courses, may be sustained by the use of self-evaluation systems that combine e-mentoring outside of class and regular student self-evaluations. Sustaining student engagement in the use of online learning

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materials is a problem commonly faced by online course developers. The key factor in sustaining student outside-of-class efforts was related, in this study, to the development of constructive SRL attitudes, skills and behaviour. This development was enhanced by a style of e-mentoring that overcame typical student frustrations with exclusively online communication by establishing a more personal teacher– student educational e-mentoring relationship. Effective e-mentoring needs to be personalized because, by definition, SRL is an individual matter in which students learn to manage their own learning. Teachers in BL environments will need to learn how to add the skills and talents of supportive e-mentors to their roles as in-class advisors.

Acknowledgements This study was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (#23242032) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. The data presented, the statements made and the views expressed are solely the responsibility of the authors.

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Part Four

Mobile-Assisted Language Learning

12

An Evidence-Based Study of Hong Kong University Students’ Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) Experience Qing Ma

1 Introduction With the rapid advance of mobile and online technologies in the last decade, mobile devices such as netbook, smartphones, mobile phones, PDA, Tablet PC, etc., are ubiquitous and pervasive in the life of learners; they are credited with ‘learning anytime, anywhere’ (Chan et al. 2006) and are seen as ‘seamless learning’ (Wong and Looi 2011) in higher education. The same holds true for mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), especially in the higher education settings where mobile devices are most commonly compared with other educational settings (Wu et al. 2012). MALL, as the name suggests, can be defined in two ways: (1) learning a language with mobile devices and (2) learning a language with mobility, following the key definitions for general mobile learning (Kukulska-Hulme and Shield 2008). MALL research in recent years has mostly focused on evaluating the effectiveness of using MALL applications (e.g. Oberg and Daniels 2013; Sandberg, Maris and de Geus 2011; Li and Hegelheimer 2013) or comparing the learning effect of language learning via light mobile devices to that via heavier PCs or laptops (e.g. Stockwell 2007; Kim et al. 2013). Such focused investigations or comparative studies help us understand the benefits of using mobile devices for language learning as compared with traditional learning or PC-based contexts; they also enable us to gather certain learner characteristics or perceptions specific to certain mobile learning contexts. But research is lacking in the MALL literature regarding how language learners use mobile devices voluntarily and naturally across different contexts and locations, inside or outside classrooms, in or out of educational institutions, in formal or informal learning, etc. In addition, MALL researchers are left with little knowledge as to how learners self-manage their language learning, mediated with mobile devices, without the presence or guidance of a MALL researcher or teacher. In this sense, it is imperative to conduct some exploratory studies that investigate how language learners explore resources and devices for MALL and how they self-regulate their learning experience in natural contexts in their daily life.

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This chapter begins with a brief literature review in which a few emerging issues in MALL research are discussed. It then reports a case study that investigates a group of twenty-five Hong Kong university language learners, making use of an array of rich data from multiple sources as well as concrete evidence of the learning process supplied by the participants themselves.

2  Literature review The majority of existing MALL research features an intervention study approach where MALL applications/systems are implemented with experimental groups while some control groups use a different learning approach, which is similar to what has taken place in the general field of mobile learning in education (Wu et al. 2012). This is understandable since MALL is a young field and researchers are eager to establish its effectiveness. These previous or ongoing experimental or quasi-experimental studies accumulate valuable knowledge, expertise and understanding about MALL and make it grow as a prolific sub-field of CALL. However, there are several inherent problems with this primarily experimental or quantitative approach to MALL. First, such studies typically collect directly observable student learning evidence in an attempt to demonstrate MALL effectiveness, such as test scores or Likert scale ratings; this can help tell us what students have learnt and what they have not learnt using MALL applications. What is missing is the why-data: why have they learnt or why have they not learnt? As with the majority of intervention studies, most MALL studies are researcher- or teacher-led. In other words, student behaviours in MALL tasks in these situations are more related to formal learning, that is, the courses organized by the institutions. It is believed that learners can use mobile devices for learning at home, in the classroom, in a social space, on field trips, in museums and art galleries, in work contexts or as part of everyday learning (Kukulska-Hulme 2006). When it comes to MALL, it seems that the out-of-school language learning, mostly driven by the personal interests of the students, is relatively under-explored given that the majority of studies feature the researcher- or teacher-led experimental approach. If early MALL development focuses more on the mobility of the technology, researchers need now to focus more on the mobility of the learner (Sharples 2006), seeing that mobile devices are becoming lighter, easier to carry, more sophisticated and, more importantly, more available to the general public due to the drop in costs and the widely increasing network coverage in parts of the world. For this reason, Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008) call for studies to shift the focus from teacher–learner interaction to learner–learner collaboration, that is, how learners manoeuvre mobile technologies in learning and interact with others naturalistically in their daily life as ‘educators and researchers also have to stay informed about how learners use personal technologies as members of communities that may be social, work-related or educational.’ (Kukulska-Hulme et al. 2011, p. 19). The same can be said for learners engaging in MALL. Regarding the mobile devices used in language learning, they may include ‘any device that is small, autonomous and unobtrusive enough to accompany us in every

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moment’ (Trifanova et al. 2004, p. 3). Traditionally, mobile devices include only handheld devices. However, if we need to emphasize the mobility of the learners where learning takes place, it makes sense to include comparatively light laptops as mobile learners tend to make use of both hand-held devices and mobile computers such as netbooks or laptops as shown in the current study. Most MALL research investigates the use of mobile phones, for example Thornton and Houser (2005), Chen and Chung (2008), Hsu (2013), Sandberg, Maris and de Geus (2011), Wang and Smith (2013) and Gutiérrez-Colon et al. (2015) in this book. A number of limitations are reported in Thornton and Houser (2005) regarding slow processing speed, simplistic control functions and screen size of mobile phones. Stockwell (2008) discusses the psychological, pedagogical and environmental issues related to the use of mobile phones for language learning. Kim et al. (2013) alert readers’ attention to a number of issues and difficulties associated with using mobile phones, regarding accessing learning content, difficulty in typing and commenting, or uploading videos via mobile devices. As technologies advance rapidly, the old mobile phones are now being replaced by the more powerful, sophisticated smartphones. Moreover, with the increasing availability and affordability of mobile devices, students may use one, or more, computing device, or devices, together with some equipment embedded with microprocessors (Chan et al. 2006), thus changing the way they learn. It would be worthwhile to investigate what attitudes language learners hold regarding the usefulness and effectiveness of emerging mobile devices, particularly the smartphones. Recently, as with the constant updates of mobile devices such as smartphones, Tablet PCs and netbooks, the fast development of language learning software/apps has led to ‘apps on the rise’ (Godwin-Jones 2011). Now apps are increasingly available as a result of promotion by Android, Safari, Windows and Google. iPhone and Android apps, including flashcard programmes, bilingual or multilingual language dictionaries and phrase books, support and assist language learning in various ways (GodwinJones 2011). All these have greatly enriched students’ language learning experience in higher education. The situation in Hong Kong is even more advanced due to the wide availability of relatively cheap data packages for smartphones with internet access. Google conducted its first-ever user survey of smartphone usage around the globe in 2011,1 and this has provided a glimpse into some of the Hong Kong-focused statistics and trends. Below are some of the key findings related to Hong Kong’s use of smartphones.

1. Hong Kong is among the top ten countries in the world to most likely have made an e-commerce transaction on their phone.

2. Hong Kong has the third highest smartphone penetration (35 per cent) in the APAC region.

3. Hong Kong is on a par with Mainland China (35 per cent) in terms of smartphone penetration.

4. Hong Kongers are more likely to use their phone’s internet multiple times a day. 5. Hong Kongers are more likely to have searched for restaurants or bars. 6. Hong Kongers are more likely to read a newspaper while on their smartphone. 7. Hong Kong smartphone users own an average of thirty apps, which is a higher figure than for their counterparts in Taiwan and Mainland China.

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The proliferation of mobile devices used in Hong Kong definitely attracts a great number of language learners, particularly in higher education settings. Based on the issues reviewed above, the current study aims to address the following research questions in order to provide a holistic and updated picture regarding how a group of Hong Kong university students engage in language learning via their mobile devices:

1. What mobile devices do students perceive to be most helpful for language learning?

2. What online resources do students access for language learning via mobile devices?

3. What evidence of the learning process do students present regarding their MALL?

4. How do students engage in MALL inside and outside the classroom? 5. How do students self-regulate their MALL experience?

3  The study 3.1 Method A case-study approach is adopted for this study in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of how mobile devices/technologies contribute to Hong Kong university students’ language learning while creating a meaningful, personalized learning experience. As mentioned earlier, many existing intervention or experimental studies that adopt a quantitative approach only yield the learning evidence pertaining to the outcome with little why-data that attempts to understand the learning process. The case-study approach can provide valuable why-data due to its exploratory nature as well as its long history of examining learners’ learning processes. In order to obtain a picture with not only a probing depth but also a wide dimension, this case study is not limited to a single-case study but involves a group of twenty-five university students from various study backgrounds.

3.2 Participants All participants were studying in a higher institution in Hong Kong. Invitations were sent to students from different departments and studying in different years of their bachelor programmes. Twenty-five students responded and participated in the study. They were studying a variety of majors: Social Science, Psychology, Education, Early Childhood Education, English Language, Chinese Language, Mathematics, Visual Arts and Computer Science. There were seventeen females and eight males; this ratio reflects the gender composition of their higher institution, which is educationoriented and where most of the students would become school teachers after graduation. Twelve of the participants were local and their L1 was Cantonese; fourteen were from Mainland China; one was an exchange student from Switzerland whose

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Table 12.1  Participant information Gender

17 females; 8 males

Year of study

18 Yr 1; 6 Yr 2; 1 Yr 3

L1

12 Cantonese; 14 Mandarin; 1 German

L2

25 English; 7 Mandarin; 8 Cantonese; 1 French; 1 Korean

Mobile devices used

25 (laptop); 24 (smartphone); 9 (MP3/MP4 player); 6 (hand-held electronic dictionary); 4 (Tablet PC); 2 (mobile phone); 0 (PDA)

L1 was German. To some extent, the L1 information also mirrors the demographic background of the students in this higher institution. As the Hong Kong Government is aiming for the internalization of higher education, it is becoming more and more common to see students from Mainland China or other international exchange students on Hong Kong university campuses. All students were learning English as an L2; they also learnt Mandarin (local students), Cantonese (mainland students and the exchange student), French and Korean. See Table 12.1 for a summary of participant information.

3.3  Instruments and procedure A case study typically collects data from multiple sources in order to accumulate rich evidence to triangulate data (Yin 2009). This study made use of questionnaires, interviews, guided self-reflections and concrete learning evidence provided by students themselves. The researcher met each student individually and briefed the student on the purpose of the study. Then the student was provided with a selfdesigned questionnaire (Questionnaire 1; see Appendix 1) composed of two parts. Part I asked for the background information of the participants and part II collected information with close-ended questions about how they used mobile devices for language learning, such as which mobile devices they used and which ones they thought were most useful for language learning, what online resources/materials they used for improving their reading, listening, speaking and writing, and how frequently they accessed these resources. They also needed to indicate at what locations they used mobile devices for language learning. About five minutes were needed to fill in the questionnaire. After completing Questionnaire 1, the researcher interviewed the students using a semi-structured interview guideline. Some of the questions were related to students’ answers to questions in Questionnaire 1, aiming to provide more detailed information. The students were asked about the websites they often browsed for language learning and in what ways they found these websites useful. The researcher asked what language learning software/apps/tools were installed in their mobile devices. They were also asked about the typical locations where MALL takes place and about their collaborative language learning experience via mobile devices by giving concrete examples. Each interview lasted 30–40 minutes.

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At the end of the interview, the researcher provided the students with a task sheet (Reflection Task) in which they needed to provide four pieces of concrete learning evidence. They needed to provide (1) the name of the learning evidence, (2) a short description of the evidence and (3) a picture of the evidence, such as screen shots of websites, apps, self-made vocabulary lists, self-testing results, e-notes, etc. In addition, they needed to provide a reflection of the strengths and areas that needed improvement regarding their way of making use of mobile technologies for language learning. An e-mail with the task sheet attached was sent to all students and they were told to submit the task sheet within two weeks. After sending the task sheet with concrete learning evidence, another e-mail accompanied by a self-regulated mobile learning questionnaire (Questionnaire 2) in Likert scale was sent to the students who returned the questionnaire within one or two weeks. This questionnaire was adapted from the questionnaire used in Lai and Gu (2011) that includes six constructs of self-regulation in light of technology-enhanced language learning: (1) goal commitment, (2) metacognition, (3) affection, (4) social connection, (5) resource and (6) culture learning.

4 Results 4.1  The devices perceived as most useful for language learning The data from Questionnaire 1 show that laptops and smartphones were selected as the two most useful devices for language learning among all the devices participants used. See Figure 12.1 for details. The majority of participants (19; 76 per cent) believed that the laptop is most useful for language learning, followed by the smartphone (16; 64 per cent). A few participants also selected the MP3/MP4 player (5; 20 per cent), the hand-held electronic dictionary (4; 16 per cent), and the Tablet PC (3; 12 per cent). In the subsequent interview,

Figure 12.1  Most useful devices for language learning.

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students were asked to elaborate on their choice. Quite a few students mentioned that they used a laptop to do academic study, conduct group projects and access an online dictionary. This is seen from the following comments: As for laptop, I will use it to check emails and read academic stuff. (S3, Interview) Er, for the lap top, I will choose a laptop, because in the university, I will always bring the lap top for me to do the project. (S9, Interview) Usually we have a very good program [online dictionary], it’s called ‘leo-po-gard’ … it is to … for searching for words. … It’s very easy. … It’s for students. And you can go internet so fast … (S6, Interview)

As most of the courses use English as the medium of instruction in Hong Kong universities, it is quite common for students to be given articles or materials in English. Thus, they can improve their English as their L2 while engaging in academic study. Regarding the reasons why they perceived the smartphone to be a useful tool for language learning, they mostly valued the multifunctions, the convenience afforded by the smartphone and the dictionary apps available on the smartphone, as indicated by the following students: There are many functions in the smartphone: you could make a call or send a text message … when I read an article, I could listen to songs. If someone sends me a message, I could text back. I could do three things at a time. (S1, Interview) I can use the smart phone to look up the dictionary easily and the application is very well organized and well developed. (S11, Interview) Because for smartphone, you can bring it out everywhere and everytime. … I would like to use the smart phone for reading and I will check the dictionary. (S9, Interview)

4.2  Online resources/tools for language learning Results from Questionnaire 1 show that students reported accessing different online resources/tools via mobile devices for different language skills. For improving reading skills, they mainly accessed websites (22; 88 per cent), downloaded and read academic articles (15; 64 per cent), used social network sites such as Facebook (15; 60 per cent), and read e-news (11; 44 per cent). As for listening skills, they watched movies or listened to songs (21; 84 per cent), watched online TV (13; 52 per cent), and video clips (e.g. YouTube) (12; 48 per cent). Regarding how to practise writing, they overwhelmingly used text messages available on their smartphones (23; 92 per cent), wrote e-mails (21; 84 per cent) and posted messages on Facebook (18; 72 per cent). As for practising speaking, they usually relied on mobile phone conversations (14; 56 per cent) and voice chatting devices such as Skype (7; 28 per cent). Their preferred online resources for each language skill are summarized in Table 12.2. In order to find out how frequently students accessed the online resources/tools, they were also asked to indicate the frequency of making use of these resources/tools in Questionnaire 1. The frequency ranged from ‘several times a day’ to ‘less than once

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Table 12.2  Students’ preferred online resources/tools for each language skill Online resources/ tools

Reading

Listening

Speaking

Writing

Websites (88%)

Movies and songs (84%)

Mobile phone conversation (56%)

Text message (92%)

Academic articles (64%)

Online TV (52%)

Voice chatting (28%)

Emails (84%)

Facebook (60%)

Video clips (48%)

Facebook (72%)

E-news

Figure 12.2  Frequency of using online resources/tools per language skill.

a month’. See Figure 12.2 for the frequency of using online resources/tools for each language skill. As can be seen from Figure 12.2, a considerable proportion of students accessed the resources for reading several times a day (10; 40  per  cent) or once or twice a day (8; 32 per cent). Regarding resources for listening, the frequency was mainly a few times a week (11; 44 per cent), once or twice a day (8; 32 per cent) and several times a day (6; 24 per cent). The frequency for practising writing was mainly several times a day (11; 44 per cent) or a few times a week (8; 32 per cent). As for practising speaking, the highest frequency was a few times a week (9; 36 per cent). It was also noted that some students made very little or no use of online resources for speaking: four reported a frequency of less than once a month and two reported never using it. The general tendency was that students accessed the resources for reading and listening, and for practising writing more frequently. The least frequent was to practise speaking via mobile devices. In the interview, when students were asked why they focused more on reading and less on speaking while using online resources via mobile devices, they usually answered that they had to do a lot of English reading for their academic studies via their laptops (occasionally via their smartphones) and that they preferred to practise speaking with others directly rather than via mobile

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devices such as phone conversations. See below for two representative statements made by students. [for each lecture], the lecturer would give us quite a lot of readings and asked us to study them [after class]. No matter which course I take, I could learn some vocabulary or sentence structures from the passages I read. (S8, Interview) I think practicing speaking, is mainly speaking with someone, and I seldom use mobile phone to speak English or Mandarin with my friends or classmates, or family, so I seldom use this to practice … (S11, Interview)

4.3  Student MALL experience inside and outside the classroom The interview data were studied carefully in order to elicit the pattern for in-class and outside-class language learning mediated by mobile devices. The framework developed by Benson (2011) was adapted to give meaning to the interview transcripts. Three of his conceptualizations for defining language learning beyond the classroom, location, formality and locus of control, together with one added dimension, that is, evaluation, were used to analyse the interview data. A differentiation can be made at level 1 or 2 for each dimension; see Table 12.3 for details. In this study, location was divided into inside or outside the classroom. Students could learn not only in the classroom under teachers’ instruction but also in many outside-classroom locations such as the library, café, dormitory and social spaces.

Table 12.3  In-class and outside class language learning Level 1 Location

Formality

Level 2

inside classroom outside classroom formal (32%) informal (68%)

Total

11 (24%) 35 (76%) 46

resources dictionary tools resources dictionary tools practices and social communications

20 (18%) 15 (14%) 43 (39%) 12 (11%) 20 (18%)

Total

110

Total

86 (70%) 38 (25%) 6 (5%) 130

Total

65 (73%) 16 (18%) 81

Locus of control what & how self-regulation learning style Evaluation

Frequency/%

technology resource

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Now, with the ubiquitousness and mobility brought by mobile technologies, students can engage in learning in a much wider area of space by making use of many ‘dead’ time slots such as travelling and waiting. Formality refers to ‘the degree to which learning is independent of organized courses leading to formal qualifications.’ (Benson 2011, p. 10). In this study, formality was divided into ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ at level 1. Formal learning refers to what students do that is directly related to the course study such as learning during a lecture or reviewing notes/doing homework after the lecture; informal learning consists of those activities that will not affect the course work directly but could benefit student learning in different ways or lead to the development of other skills or knowledge related to the coursework. At level 2, formal has two categories: ‘resources’ and ‘dictionary tools’; informal also has these two categories plus one, namely, ‘practices and social communications’, for example, using the L2 to speak with friends or relatives in other countries via Skype. Locus of control is similar to ‘ “independent”, “self-directed” and “autonomous” language learning’ (Benson 2011, p. 12). It can be interpreted as the decisions that learners make as to what and how to learn. In this study, locus of control was divided into three categories: ‘what & how’, ‘self-regulating’, and ‘learning style’. ‘What & how’ refers to what learning activities the learner conducts and the ways of carrying out these activities; for example, a student mentioned that he liked to watch movies online to improve his L2 and he would spend some time reading the abstract of the story prior to watching the movie in order to better understand the episodes while watching them. ‘Self-regulation’ is whether students make any learning plan, monitor the plan, organize the learning and evaluate the learning outcome; for example, a student recalled his experience in making a plan to listen to audio files every evening before going to bed in order to improve his scores in listening in a high-stakes exam. ‘Learning style’ is the student analysis of their own preferred ways of language learning such as self-instruction, naturalistic learning or collaborative learning. Finally, quite a number of interviewees evidenced certain explicit evaluation or analyses of either the mobile devices/technologies or the learning resources that influenced their decision making. Using this coding scheme, the researcher coded all interview transcripts and assigned events to the appropriate categories as shown in Table 12.3. Then an experienced senior research assistant recoded everything using the same coding scheme. There were a few mismatches and the two researchers discussed them and negotiated till an agreement was reached. The results revealed in Table 12.3 clearly show that it is much more likely for students to use mobile devices for language learning outside the classroom (76 per cent). As a corollary, they tend to engage in informal learning using mobile devices, that is, retrieving online resources, using dictionary tools or practising language use or making social communication outside the organized courses. A student recalled a recent event when learning took place outside classroom learning: I believe the most common situation [to use mobile devices for language learning] is when I wait for buses. Because I feel bored while waiting, I use my smartphone to kill the time. Meanwhile, I open some apps and I could learn some English. (S25, Interview)

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Regarding locus of control, it is clear that most of the time students know how to make the decision as to what and how to learn. By contrast, there is limited awareness of the importance of self-regulation (25 per cent), that is, planning, organizing and monitoring their language learning.

4.4  Concrete learning evidence provided by students After calculating the learning evidence provided by students in the Reflection Task, all the evidence was examined and tabulated, amounting to eighty-four items in total. An initial content analysis of these eighty-four pieces of evidence yielded eleven categories, such as ‘e-news & e-books’, ‘learning websites’ and ‘dictionary apps’. In conceptualizing the role of the computer in language learning, Levy (1997) first made a distinction between a tool and a tutor; a tool only serves to facilitate learner performance whereas a tutor evaluates and guides learner performance. Using this differentiation between tutor and tool, further analysis of the eleven categories led to five broad types: online or e-resources, online or e-tools (dictionary/concordance), online tools for communication, online or e-tools/tutors, and organizing & monitoring e-learning. See Table 12.4 for all categories with concrete examples. These five types of learning evidence reflect the main functions of online/e-learning mediated by mobile technologies. The majority fall into the online or e-resources (42 per cent) and e-tools categories (42 per cent). This suggests that students use mobile technologies mainly to search and access online learning resources and then use online dictionaries or dictionary apps to help decode the meaning of the resources. A limited amount of evidence (7 per cent) is related to how students self-regulate MALL, that is, organize or monitor their learning, which corresponds to the results in the previous section where the students demonstrated a relatively low proportion of self-regulation in locus of control. It is clear from the table that currently mobile devices perform a predominant role as a tool and rarely as a tutor.

4.5  Students’ self-regulation of their MALL experience Questionnaire 2 measured six dimensions of self-regulation in MALL: goal commitment, metacognitive, affective, social, resource and culture. The results show that these students were overall very positive about their ability to self-regulate their MALL experience, with the ratings ranging from 5.05 to 4.24 out of 6. See Table 12.5 for details. Of the six dimensions, resource was rated the highest (5.05 out of 6) by students, which indicates that most of them were fully aware of the opportunities that mobile devices bring for language learning. The metacognitive dimension, mainly concerning those planning, organizing and monitoring aspects, received a relatively high mean, 4.74, with the lowest standard deviation (0.45). This is encouraging and shows that the students were cognizant of the importance of metacognition in self-regulating their MALL. On the other hand, the interview transcripts revealed that students only made a plan for language learning when they were faced with high-stakes examinations such as the IELTS because they were required to pass that exam in order to graduate.

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Table 12.4  Categorizing the learning evidence for engaging in MALL Type

%

Category

Examples

Online or e-resources

42

E-news and e-books

BBC, China Daily, Holy Bible, Skysports, etc.

Learning websites

BBC Learning English, Wikipedia, etc.

8

Videos and movies

YouTube

5

Music apps

Music downloader, 天天動聽, 酷狗音乐

4

Miscellaneous

DVD/iPod/MP3 files

Dictionary apps

Power Word, Merriam Webster, 粤音字库, etc.

19

Online dictionary/concordancer

Oxford, You Dao, ICIBA, Google translator, Word Neighbours

16

Hand-held electronic Dictionary

好易通 (HYT)

2

42

(dictionary/concordancer)

12

4

Online tools for communication

5

Social communication apps

Facebook, Whatsapp, etc.

4

Online or e-tools/tutors

5

Language learning apps

Tourist Language, VOA special English, etc.

4

Organizing and monitoring e-learning

7

E-vocabulary list and e-testing records

Self-made vocabulary list, e-dictionary built- in list (in dictionary), self-testing records

6

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Online or e-tools

Frequency

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Table 12.5  Students’ self-regulation of their MALL experience Self-regulating dimensions

No. of items

Sample items

Mean (Max = 6)

SD

Goal commitment

4

e.g. I believe using mobile devices can help me achieve my language learning goals more quickly and efficiently

4.83

0.56

Metacognitive

5

e.g. I know how to use mobile devices to effectively monitor myself to achieve the learning goals at different stages

4.74

0.45

Affective

5

e.g. Using mobile devices makes me enjoy learning the language more

4.82

0.61

Social

5

e.g. I use mobile devices to connect with peer learners all over the world

4.24

0.82

Resource

5

e.g. I use mobile devices to increase opportunities to learn and use the language

5.05

0.55

Culture

4

e.g. I use mobile devices to understand the target culture better

4.68

0.79

However, the plan was usually quite general and, without clearly identified step-bystep goals. There was comparatively less evidence of students monitoring or evaluating their learning progress, as shown earlier in both the interview data and the learning evidence. In short, there was a gap between the students’ perceived self-regulating capacity and their actual capacity, as shown in both the interview data and the concrete learning evidence they submitted in the Reflection Task.

5 Discussion 5.1 Mobility and multifunctions of mobile devices and Hong Kong university students’ outside language learning Hong Kong university students’ favourite mobile learning devices are the laptop and the smartphone due to the mobility, convenience and multifunctions these devices offer. These tools are playing an increasingly important role in mediating Hong Kong students’ language learning, particularly outside the classroom in informal learning. This echoes with the finding that primary school students made more use of mobile applications in informal learning (Sandberg, Maris and de Geus 2011). Learners now are not limited to one single learning environment and can create their own learning environment when they move about while switching from formal to informal learning contexts or vice versa, creating more personalized learning (Wong and Looi 2011). Due to the economic situation in Hong Kong, the majority of Hong Kong students own a smartphone, which now plays an irreplaceable role in their language learning, in reading academic-related information and checking unknown vocabulary items.

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They  have stopped using paper dictionaries and predominantly utilize online dictionaries or dictionary apps on their mobile devices. In addition, they cherish the multifunctions of the smartphone whereby they can combine academic study, language learning, entertainment (e.g. listening to music) and communicating with others (e.g. sending and replying to text messages), thus creating a personalized and multitasking learning scenario. Previous studies that investigated both mobile phones and PCs usually show that participants prefer to do language learning activities on PCs instead of mobile phones due to the small screen size and slow speed of the mobile phone (Thornton and Houser 2005) or learners’ psychological, pedagogical and environmental issues and concerns (Stockwell 2008). This result does not hold true for the current study where the students think highly of the potential of language learning afforded by their smartphones. This is perhaps due to the different nature and contexts of their studies in comparison to the current study as well as the advances in smartphones in comparison with the previous generation of mobile phones. Previous studies that investigated mobile phone learning were often teacher- or researcher-led and the participants were required to complete specific language learning exercises/tasks on mobile phones as part of their formal study. However, the students in this study voluntarily chose to use smartphones to facilitate their academic studies and also to actively engage in language learning in informal learning contexts. In this sense, students in this study utilized the smartphone to engage in mainly ‘incidental learning’ whereas previous studies focused more on ‘intentional learning’ (Gutiérrez-Colon et al. 2015 in this book; Stockwell 2007, 2008). Hong Kong university students do not solely make use of smartphones but employ other devices including laptops or desktop computers. It follows that smartphones, due to their technological advantages, have great potential to play a key mediating role that allows students to learn while moving from one device to another across different contexts and locations. This is the mobility that mobile devices make available to language learners.

5.2 Online resources/tools or tutors for Hong Kong university students Language learning mediated by mobile technologies mostly takes place in the manner of ‘incidental learning’ in university settings in Hong Kong, suggesting that students mainly access reading resources via mobile devices. This study shows that the participants mainly use the online resources and tools and rarely make use of the tutor functions such as some dedicated tutor-like language learning apps (see Table 12.3). This is again due to the nature of ‘incidental learning’ associated with mobile learning as well as to the policy of using English as a medium of instruction adopted in Hong Kong universities. Apart from accessing diverse online resources, Hong Kong university students make frequent use of online dictionaries or dictionary apps to facilitate either their subject or their language learning. This finding foregrounds the key role of utilizing e-dictionaries/lexical tools to help learners engage in MALL as expounded by Ma (2013). Any new learning of language, be it incidental or intentional,

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begins with noticing and accessing the meaning of the unknown vocabulary items. A well-designed and user-friendly dictionary app is needed to decode the meaning of unknown words by using the mouse-click-display function to shorten the time involved in this process. A major disadvantage of incidental learning is the low retention rate, particularly at the productive level. It would be ideal for dictionary apps to be equipped with the functions of recording and self-testing the words checked by learners in order to create opportunities to push them to learn vocabulary to a productive level.

5.3  Self-regulating behaviours of Hong Kong students The study also shows that there is a gap between the students’ perceived self-regulating capacity and that of the actual picture as revealed in the interview data as well as the concrete learning evidence collected. While the students are actively engaged in utilizing online resources/tools in a seamless manner both inside and outside classroom learning, they rarely make a concrete step-by-step plan and even less organize, monitor or evaluate their learning. Previous research shows that students’ self-regulating behaviour decreases quantitatively and qualitatively when they are left on their own after teacher intervention (Kondo et al. 2012). Self-regulating capacity, like many other learner characteristics, is a kind of learner trait, but it is also subject to changes due to some external factors such as schooling or learning experience (Dörnyei 2005). Teachers could provide some training to help students attune their attention to a higher level of metacognition or create opportunities to ‘support learner-learner collaborative development of SRL [self-regulated learning] knowledge and behavior’ (Kondo et al. 2012, p. 185). On the other hand, language app developers could embed metacognitive or self-regulating training in their apps with more intelligent tutor-like or tool-and-tutor-combined functions to develop learners’ self-regulating capacity while they access or interact with rich online resources or diverse tools.

6 Conclusion This case study made use of data from multiple sources (close-ended questionnaire, Likert scale questionnaire, interviews, self-reflection, student process learning data) and investigated a group of Hong Kong university students’ MALL learning experience. Since most of the university courses are given in English, which turns out to be the first L2 for all the participants, this has an important implication and impact on how mobile devices/technologies are employed by students in learning their L2 in Hong Kong. To conclude, there is strong evidence for ‘seamless learning’ as students engage in language learning actively with mobile devices, especially in informal learning after class. Mobile devices are mediators and tools for students to access various online or e-resources for acquiring both the subject knowledge and the target language, that is, English. Students make much more use of dictionary apps than other apps; developing multiple-function or user-friendly dictionary apps would

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be welcomed. Finally, mobile devices plunge students into a kaleidoscope-like sourcerich world; more intelligent apps that are tutor-like or tool-and- tutor combined should be developed to help students plan, monitor and evaluate their language learning.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to the University Grants Committee (UGC) of the Hong Kong SAR Government who provided funding for this chapter as part of a Community of Practice Project (CoP: 05074).

Note 1 Source of the information: http://www.techinasia.com/hong-kong-smartphone-users/

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Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2006). ‘Mobile Language Learning now and in the Future’. In P. Svensson (ed.), From Vision to Practice: Language Learning and IT, 295–310. Härnösand, Sweden: Swedish Net University. Kukulska-Hulme, A. and Shield, L. (2008). ‘An Overview of Mobile assisted Language Learning: From Content Delivery to Supported Collaboration and Interaction’. ReCALL 20 (3): 271–89. Kukulska-Hulme, A., Pettit, J., Bradley, L., Carvalho, A. A., Herrington A., Kennedy, D. M. and Walker, A. (2011). ‘Mature Students using Mobile Devices in Life and Learning’. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning 3 (1): 18–52. Lai, C. and Gu, M. (2011). ‘Self-Regulated Out-of-Class Language Learning with Technology’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 24 (4): 317–35. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-Assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. New York: Oxford University Press. Li, Z. and Hegelheimer, V. (2013). ‘Mobile-Assisted Grammar Exercises: Effects on SelfEditing in L2 Writing’. Language Learning and Technology 17 (3): 135–56. Ma, Q. (2013). ‘Computer Assisted Vocabulary Learning: Framework and Tracking User Data’. In P. Hubbard, M. Schulze and B. Smith (eds), Learner-Computer Interaction in Language Education: A Festschrift in Honor of Robert Fischer, 230–43. San Marcos, TX: Computer Assisted Language Instruction Consortium (CALICO). Oberg, A. and Daniels, P. (2013). ‘Analysis of the Effect a Student-Centred Mobile Learning Instructional Method has on Language Acquisition’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 26 (2): 177–96. Sandberg, J., Maris, M. and de Geus, K. (2011). ‘Mobile English learning: An EvidenceBased Study with Fifth Graders’. Computers and Education 57 (1): 1334–47. Sharples, M. (ed.) (2006). ‘Big Issues in Mobile Learning: Report of a Workshop by the Kaleidoscope Network of Excellence Mobile Learning Initiative’. University of Nottingham, England, http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/19/02/54/PDF/Sharples_ Big_Issues.pdf (accessed 3 February 2015). Stockwell, G. (2007). ‘Vocabulary on the Move: Investigating an Intelligent Mobile PhoneBased Vocabulary Tutor’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 20 (4): 365–83. Stockwell, G. (2008). ‘Investigating Learner Preparedness for and Usage Patterns of Mobile Learning’. ReCALL 20 (3): 253–70. Thornton, P. and Houser, C. (2005). ‘Using Mobile Phones in English Education in Japan’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 21 (3): 217–28. Trifanova, A., Knapp, J., Ronchetti, M. and Gamper, J. (2004). ‘Mobile ELDIT: Challenges in the Transitions from an E-Learning to an M-Learning System’. Trento, Italy: University of Trento, http://eprints.biblio.unitn.it/archive/00000532/01/paper4911.pdf (accessed 3 February 2015). Wang, S. and Smith, S. (2013). ‘Reading and Grammar Learning through Mobile Phones’. Language Learning and Technology 17 (3): 117–34. Wong, L. H. and Looi, C. K. (2011). ‘What Seams do We Remove in Mobile-Assisted Seamless Learning? A Critical Review of the Literature’. Computers and Education 57 (4): 2364–81. Wu, W. H., Wu, Y. C., Chen, C. Y., Kao, H. Y., Lin, C. H. and Huang, S. H. (2012). ‘Review of Trends from Mobile Learning Studies: A Meta-Analysis’. Computers and Education 59 (2): 817–27. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

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Appendix 1: Survey on Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (Questionnaire 1) Part I: General information (Please circle the choice or provide the information if requested) 1.1. Sex: A. Female  B. Male 1.2. My major: ________ 1.3. My current year of study:_______________________ 1.4. My first language(s):_________ _______ 1.5. I am currently learning the following language(s) as my second language(s): _____________________ _____________________ 1.6. So far I have spent most of my time in (one choice only) A. Hong Kong  B. Mainland China  C. Other country___________________ (please specify) Part II: Using mobile devices for language learning (You can have more than one choice for each question unless specified differently; you may add necessary information if requested; you could leave the question unanswered if it is not applicable to you) 2.1.

Among the following mobile devices, which one(s) do you currently use? A. ordinary mobile phone  B. smartphone (e.g. iPhone, Galaxy) C. PDA (e.g. palmtops, pocket computers)  D. MP3/MP4 (e.g. iPod) E. Tablet PC (e.g. iPad, Samsung Tabs)  F. laptop  G. hand-held electronic dictionary  H. others _____________________ (please specify)

2.2.

Which one(s) do you think are most useful for language learning/using? A. ordinary mobile phone  B. smartphone (e.g. iPhone, Galaxy) C. PDA (e.g. palmtops, pocket computers)  D. MP3/MP4 (e.g. iPod) E. Tablet PC (e.g. iPad, Samsung Tabs)  F. laptop  G. hand-held electronic dictionary  H. others _____________________(please specify)

2.3. Using mobile devices, I have read the following materials to improve my reading skill in a second language A. Websites (excluding news, blogs, Facebook, etc.)  B. e-books C. e-news   D. academic articles  E. blogs  F. Facebook  G. Twitter H. Google+   I. others _____________________ (please specify) 2.4. How often do you access the above reading materials via your mobile devices? (one choice only) A. several times a day  B. once or twice a day  C. a few times a week  D. once a week  E. once a month  F. less than once a month  G. never

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2.5. Using mobile devices, I have listened to/watched the following materials to improve my listening skill in a second language A. audio news  B. audio books  C. songs  D. podcasts  E. online TV F. movies  G. video clips (e.g. Youtube)  H. others __________________ (please specify) 2.6. How often do you access the above listening materials via mobile devices? (one choice only) A. several times a day  B. once or twice a day  C. a few times a week  D. once a week  E. once a month  F. less than once a month  G. never 2.7. Using mobile devices, I have used the following means to improve my speaking skill in a second language A. Voice chatting in MSN or Skype)  B. mobile phone conversations  C. others _____________________ (please specify) 2.8. How often do you use the above means for practice speaking via mobile devices? (one choice only) A. several times a day  B. once or twice a day  C. a few times a week D. once a week  E. once a month  F. less than once a month  G. never 2.9. Using mobile devices, I have practised writing in a second language via the following means A. text chatting in MSN or Skype  B. emails  C. text messages (e.g. SMS, Whatsapp, Line)  D. Cloud documentation system (e.g. Google documents)  E. Facebook  F. Twitter  G. blogs  H. Wikipedia  I. others _____________________ (please specify) 2.10. How often do you use the above means for practising writing via mobile devices? (one choice only) A. several times a day  B. once or twice a day  C. a few times a week  D. once a week  E. once a month  F. less than once a month  G. never 2.11. Among all language skills, I focus on the following skill(s) in using mobile devices for a learning purpose: A. reading  B. listening  C. speaking  D. writing 2.12. I use mobile devices for language learning in the following situations: A. during the lecture  B. in the library  C. on the bus/train  D. at home/dormitory  E. while waiting and queuing  F. while travelling  G. others _____________________ (please specify)

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Students’ Perspectives on the Affordances and Constraints of Using Mobile Devices and Applications for Learning Languages Caroline Steel

1 Introduction Acquiring foreign languages requires motivation and commitment alongside frequent opportunities to connect with the target language (Kukulska-Hulme 2012). In fact, many language students who have researched their own learning agree that time-ontask is a highly influential factor (Steel 2014, p. 343). As class contact time is limited, establishing a regular connection with the target language is more challenging for foreign language learners. Additionally, there are fewer opportunities to experience continuity across time, different contexts and locations. This means that there is a greater onus on foreign language learners to find routine opportunities to interact with their target language throughout their day. Yet, time itself is a precious resource for busy university students who now work, on average, nearly fifteen hours per week (Coates 2011) as well as juggling family, social and other commitments. Therefore, foreign language students need convenient, time-efficient ways to integrate learning into their daily routines. In 2008, Kukulska-Hulme and Shield signalled a rapid evolution in mobile learning. Recent increases in mobile device ownership (Stockwell 2012; Traxler 2011) combined with rapid expansion in the commercial mobile application (apps) market (GodwinJones 2011) means that evolution is upon us. For language learners equipped with personal mobile devices, commercial mobile applications offer new possibilities. Particularly, language learners can now utilize their ‘everyday life-worlds as learning spaces’ (Pachler, Bahmair and Cook 2010, p. 6). Significantly, these developments have the capacity to change, or at least influence, students’ informal language learning practices. Including students’ perspectives on the affordances and constraints of using their mobile devices and applications for language learning is illuminating for several reasons. First, as Kukulska-Hulme suggests, ‘by reviewing individual learner experiences in learner-determined contexts, researchers and the language teaching

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community can work together to build up a picture of emergent practices’ (2012, p. 3). Extending this idea, involving students as ‘co-enquirers’ adds a meaningful and sustainable dimension to this vision. Second, many language teachers are relatively disengaged with the potential of mobile devices and applications. Learning from their students would better position teachers to promote in-class discussion about how they can be used for maximum impact on learning. And finally, garnering user-perspectives provides insights into how contemporary students experience informal language learning beyond the classroom and via their portable devices. For commercial language app designers, user feedback can shape future development to better suit learners’ needs and preferences. This chapter reports on language students’ perspectives on the affordances and constraints of using mobile devices and applications for language learning. The research was conducted within a Constructivist theoretical framework that acknowledges learning as an active and creative process (Bruner 1996) and foregrounds the student voice.

2  Research aims and method The aim of the study reported in this chapter was to gain an understanding of students’ perspectives on the affordances and constraints of using mobile devices and applications for language learning. Mobile devices and language learning applications are developing so rapidly that it is nearly impossible for most language teachers to maintain an up-to-date knowledge of their potential and limitations. Arguably, the inclusion of learner experiences and perspectives will contribute productively towards our knowledge of, and future sustainability, of CALL. The data used in this chapter was drawn from a larger study that involved two complementary research projects. The first project was a large-scale survey of foreign language students called ‘The beliefs and experiences of language students in their early years of transition to university-level study’. The online survey was conducted at an Australian university from May to August in 2011. A unique survey link was distributed to 2,114 language students studying one or more of ten foreign languages, and had a response rate of approximately 28 per cent (n = 587). In one section of the survey, students were asked to identify the technologies they used to support their language learning (inside and outside of class) and then rank the top three technologies they perceived as most beneficial to their language learning when used outside their formal class settings. Mobile applications were among the top five technologies reportedly used and were ranked as the fifth most beneficial technology (out of twenty technology types). Apart from the quantitative results obtained, qualitative comments were contributed by the students regarding the learning benefits they perceived from the three technologies they ranked most highly. These qualitative comments were analysed inductively. Data were handled interpretatively through different levels of coding, categorization and reduction until clear themes emerged. The quantitative results are presented descriptively. The second research project provided a more in-depth opportunity to explore students’ perceptions of the affordances and constraints of various technologies for

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language learners. Student perceptions were collected in 2011, 2012 and 2013 from an undergraduate class in the same university. The course and research were conceived of within a Constructivist theoretical framework that acknowledges learning as an active and creative process that seeks to connect new knowledge and skills with current and past knowledge (Bruner 1996). Collaborative co-inquiry, in particular, was a key concept. Collaborative co-inquiry means both teachers and learners are engaged in a process of defining objectives and finding answers (Wells 1999). As an elective, the course attracted a diverse range of undergraduate students at different year levels (Semester 1, year 1, to final semester in year 5) and from various degrees, for example, students studying a Bachelor of Arts, Arts/Law, Education, Engineering, Commerce, Science, IT, Business as well as a Diploma of Languages, which can be completed alongside a core degree. The common factor was that they were studying a foreign language. The variety of languages under study was also diverse, with students studying French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Russian, Korean, Indonesian, Japanese, Chinese and English (as a foreign language). During the course, language students undertook an enquiry-based task to self-select and then evaluate the affordances and constraints of a technology for language learning. Working in pairs or individually, they were encouraged to use the theoretical lenses of learning, language acquisition and affordance theories to inform their evaluation and produce radio-style podcasts to disseminate their findings. The podcast format had several advantages. First, podcasts provided students with an accessible, informal and creative method to broadcast their findings to their target audience of language teachers. Second, the task gave them authority to voice their perspectives to this audience in an educative way. And finally, compared to traditional assessment tasks, creating podcasts offered students a multimodal form of expression that was more congruent with their contemporary life experiences outside of university. Students found the conversational, radio-style format fun and engaging. It also gave them the freedom to explore counter-points from different perspectives, at times challenging one another and/or reaching consensus. The findings themselves are richer for the exploratory nature of student conversations. Over three iterations of the course, 66 language learners, out of a total of 114 (nearly 58 per cent) selected commercial mobile applications and/or mobile devices as their topic of inquiry. Previous papers have reported some analysis of students’ perspectives on the affordances of mobile applications from the survey data (Steel 2012, 2013). However, this chapter provides a more in-depth analysis that includes the student-generated podcasts in the data set and also addresses constraints.

3 Findings 3.1  Survey (2011) Table 13.1 provides a snapshot of the top ten technologies students reported using inside and outside of class as well as those that they ranked as their top three most beneficial technologies. The ten lesser used technologies (in descending order of

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Table 13.1  Top ten technologies reportedly used by language students

1.

Technologies

Student use (n = 587)

Only inside class

Online dictionaries

501 (85.34%)

14

Only outside class 316

Ranked Both inside 1, 2 or 3 and outside as most class beneficial 171

316

2.

Web-based translators

484 (82.45%)

10

339

135

248

3.

YouTube, online movies

402 (68.48%)

40

230

132

149

4.

Social networking sites

336 (57.24%)

4

303

29

92

5.

Mobile phone applications

331 (56.39%)

9

201

121

134

6.

Conjugation websites

330 (56.22%)

14

224

92

176

7.

Mp3 devices

309 (52.64%)

16

257

36

89

8.

Online language games

294 (50.08%)

26

209

59

80

9.

Flashcards

255 (43.44%)

20

194

41

71

Podcasts

238 (40.55%)

20

190

28

49

10.

student use) were instant messaging, discussion forums, Skype, Wikis, blogs, lecture recordings, iTunesU, chat rooms, micro-blogging, video conferencing and virtual worlds. Of the 587 foreign language students, 331 (56 per cent) students reported using mobile applications and 134 (23 per cent) students ranked mobile applications in the three technologies they perceived as most beneficial to their language learning. Of these 134 students, 127 students provided comments about their perspectives on the benefits of using mobile applications for language learning. Perhaps predictably, there was overlap between mobile applications and other technologies that are offered online and via a mobile app. For example, among the 127 comments, 70 students mentioned dictionaries, 36 mentioned translators and 22 mentioned flashcards. The quantitative survey results highlighted that the technologies students now have at their fingertips are varied and powerful. While online dictionaries and web-based translators were most used (82 per cent–85 per cent), our language learners’ toolkit was enriched by a number of technologies that were not developed specifically for language learning but nonetheless offered exceptional opportunities to access language specific resources and to listen to, watch and interact with the foreign languages. Overall, language learners were less reliant on institutionally provisioned technologies, and in 2011 commercial mobile applications were clearly a technology to watch out for. It should be noted that students were not asked to comment on the constraints of technologies in the survey. The affordances they identified are summarized in the following sub-sections under the categories of ‘fitting learning into life’ and ‘specific language learning affordances’.

3.1.1  Fitting learning into life: Affordances The practical benefits associated with convenience, portability and being able to learnon-the go were important benefits for language learners who wanted to fit learning in and around their lives. As one student commented [N110], ‘It’s language tools

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whenever I need them, wherever I need them and that makes it really useful to have’. Most learners who ranked mobile applications highly reported being able to achieve learning tasks quickly and easily, spontaneously and habitually. Students’ reported: [N120] ‘They are easy to access and use’ and [N114] ‘It’s much faster than leafing through a dictionary or reference book in class.’ Practical aspects such as saving time were perceived as valuable: [N13] ‘Most of these applications are very practical and save time and money’. Some mobile applications enabled students to personalize their learning, which meant that reviewing class content was made easier and could be simply completed in any location. [N166] ‘Allowed me to build custom decks of kanji & vocab cards, which I can review nearly anywhere’. Using their mobile applications anytime and anywhere meant that they could more readily immerse themselves in their target language. [N136] ‘Gets me thinking in German outside the classroom’. For some students, the gamification of mobile applications was attractive. [N144] ‘If it is a kind of game style, we do not get bored learning’. Together, these benefits were perceived as profitable for language acquisition. [N166] ‘It’s turned my transit time into 80 per cent study time – a huge reclamation’. Being able to learn on the go using one small, portable device meant that learning languages was less tethered to time and place and, consequently, less compartmentalized. [N321] ‘I use many Japanese language learning apps on my iPod everyday – I take it with me everywhere I go and the apps are my number one reference’. The ability to practise language anywhere and anytime was a strong theme in the student comments. This mobility gave students the ability to create a more immersive experience for themselves. [N311] ‘Successful language learning occurs mainly in immersive type environments, so I think that mobile apps are most beneficial because they bring more exposure and engagement with the language than just the time spent in the classroom’. Students appreciated the flexibility and convenience of using their applications to meet their personal learning needs and to connect more frequently with their target language. Their portable devices loaded with language learning mobile applications provided an efficient way to utilize their out-of-class learning time.

3.1.2  Specific language learning affordances Students who contributed to the survey commented on language learning affordances that were specific to language skills and knowledge areas. Predominantly, students reported learning affordances associated with vocabulary while applications that helped reading, writing, grammar and translation tasks were also reported as beneficial. The versatility of applications for different language tasks meant that they offered a range of affordances. [N124] ‘I have flashcard apps, conjugation apps, translations apps, and dictionaries for both languages.’ [N110] ‘Phone apps can be used as dictionaries, help with verb conjugation, hanja help (chinese characters)’. Particularly for character-based languages like Chinese and Japanese, mobile applications offered learners opportunities to practise their writing and to utilize a variety of input options to locate characters and vocabulary. [N12] ‘New applications allow users to handwrite simplified or traditional characters on the screen as an

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input option for dictionaries, along with pin yin or English typing.’ For languages where word gender can be challenging, some applications [N314] ‘help memorise gender of nouns – these are really helpful’. For other grammar challenges such as verb conjugation, the conjugation application offered solutions. [N147] ‘I use it purely to conjugate my verbs, I have yet to come across a verb that it does not store.’ Some students mentioned mobile applications that offered a variety of activities that combined to address a range of language skills. [N18] I use a Japanese for beginners app. It has structured lessons and includes grammar, reading, writing, listening and vocab. I can go over things such as the sentence structures learnt in class at my own pace.

For more advanced learners, being able to extend their language skills according to their interests and preferences was also important. [N26] ‘Being able to read updated news in German at the touch of a button is very useful’. However, for language students, by far, the most highly reported learning affordance was associated with vocabulary. Many students found dictionary applications particularly useful as they could quickly and easily check vocabulary. [N148] ‘If I hear a word that I don’t know i can just easily look it up’. This immediacy of look-up combined with contextual settings afforded some students the capacity to learn more. [N132] When i want to know what a certain word may be for a situation and i am out and about i can look it up straight away. I find i remember it better because i can remember the situation as well, so i am constantly expanding my vocabulary.

Many dictionary applications offer learners functionality that sees a convergence of technologies such as translators, verb conjugators, flash cards and other games. [N155] ‘I have a dictionary app on my iPod that I use for translating’. [N153] ‘They feature memory reinforcement games to learn Spanish vocabulary’. Students appreciated the increasing versatility of these applications. [N161] I have a mobile phone app that does everything. its a dictionary for both jap to english and then english to jap. it also shows examples of words in a sentences, you can look up kanjis, it shows functions and grammar formats. its just extremely helpful and i use it all the time. [N121] I have an app on my phone which works exactly like an electronic dictionary for Japanese, except better. I can store vocabulary lists on it and it will make an automatic flash card game to help me memorise new vocabulary.

Vocabulary acquisition through mobile devices has been emphasized in other studies of mobile language learning (e.g. Levy and Kennedy 2005; Thornton and Houser 2005, Stockwell 2007, Gutiérrez-Colon et al., Chapter 15 in this book). However, few studies, with the exception of Song and Fox (2008), have reported on students’ personal use of mobile devices to acquire new vocabulary (Kukulska-Hulme 2012). While the survey data provided an indication of some of the learning affordances of mobile applications for language learning, learning constraints were not canvassed. Additionally, students’ rather short comments limited the information collected on

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students’ perceptions of their mobile applications for learning purposes. For this reason, data from students who explored mobile applications in a more in-depth way during an undergraduate class offered a means to extend the survey findings and triangulate the reported affordances.

3.2  Student podcasts (2011–13) The second data source comprised sixty-six undergraduate language students who participated in one of three iterations of an undergraduate course between 2011 and 2013 and conducted an assessment task related to mobile applications and devices. The task required students to work in pairs or individually select one or more technologies to evaluate their potential for language learning and teaching. The inquiry task culminated in students creating radio-style podcasts. In 2011, fifteen out of twentynine students (51 per cent) self-selected mobile applications and/or devices as their topic of inquiry. By 2013, twenty-eight out of forty students (70 per cent) selected mobile applications and/or mobile devices. A total of thirty-six podcasts were produced on these topics over the three years. In parallel, student device ownership increased with each cohort to reach 100 per cent in 2013, with many students owning two or more devices. Their assessment task required students to use the theoretical lenses of learning, language acquisition and affordance theories to inform their evaluation. Student data were coded according to the affordances and constraints that students identified. The mobile applications types were categorized into different types in order to see where student interests lay (see Table 13.2). Language programs of various kinds that were available in a mobile application format were most popular. These typically included structured multimodal language lessons with audio, graphics, video, a gamification aspect and the ability for the student to track progress. Twelve students also evaluated the potential of mobile devices more generally, often in combination with a specific language program application. Some of the technologies that appeared in the top ten technologies from the survey such

Table 13.2  Technologies evaluated and reported through 36 podcasts Technology type

Evaluations

1

iBooks

1

2

YouTube app

1

3

Translators

5

4

Flashcards

6

5

Podcasts

7

6

Dictionaries

7

Devices

12

8

Language program apps

20

Total

59

7

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as dictionary applications, podcasts, flashcards and translation applications were also evaluated. Coding revealed commonalities with the survey data in students’ assessments of the affordances of their devices and applications. These commonalities were congruent with the categories of ‘Fitting learning into life’ and ‘Language specific affordances’. The podcast task also encouraged students to evaluate the constraints of their mobile devices and applications. Thus, a third theme articulated the practical and pedagogical constraints that students faced in their podcasts.

3.2.1  Fitting learning into life: Affordances In step with the 2011 survey data, undergraduate student podcasts between 2011 and 2013 emphasized many of the same affordances that helped students to fit language learning into their lives. The affordances of convenience, portability and learning on the go were compelling. Referring to both the variety of applications available and students’ ability to use them anytime and anywhere, students perceived them [P1] ‘just like a classroom on the go’. Many students expressed high levels of enthusiasm about the affordances that their pocket-sized devices loaded with mobile language applications offered them: [P11] I don’t know about you, but I love my phone. Sometimes I feel like it’s a fifth limb. Phones are great for language learning because they allow you to take what could be several reference books and listening equipment, reduce it down to the size of a decent steak, and then shove it in your pocket. [P31] Smartphones have countless affordances. To name a few, they are portable, able to connect to the internet, have a readable screen, they are widely available and can be used in any way and anywhere and are very user friendly.

Portability was extremely important to students who often commented that their lightweight devices meant they no longer had to carry heavy books like language dictionaries around. Speed of access, efficient input methods for searching for information were also important. [P29] ‘You don’t need to carry a heavy paper dictionary and you can quickly search a word you are looking for by just typing.’ There was a great deal of enthusiasm about the range of mobile applications that could enrich students’ language learning toolkit: [P26] There are numerous multilingual applications used for learning a language ... These include the newest edition language learning dictionaries, translators, games, voice recording, flash cards, word of the day and podcast. There are also applications such as Skype, video chat and FaceTime that allow you to communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world.

Students appreciated mobile applications that were able to be used across platforms and on multiple devices. When this kind of flexibility was not offered in individual applications, students identified such limitations as constraints. In their assessment of individual applications, most students highlighted the affordances of ease of use, the capacity for interactivity, multimodal learning features

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and, especially, gamification, as affordances they believed were important and made learning more fun and enjoyable. [P33] Duolingo’s game based learning approach makes the software really addictive, with elements like skill points, lives and a community leader board. Users soon realise that their heightened sense of competition, play and fun while using Duolingo mirrors their experience with non-educational games that they enjoy playing.

Many of the language program, flashcard and dictionary applications included some kind of gamified feature as well the ability to personalize or customize students’ learning and to track and monitor their performance. [P25] My favourite feature is that it can accurately track the words and phrases that you most commonly make mistakes on, which, to me, provides this massively useful metacognitive tool to see where I make the biggest mistakes so I can focus on rectifying them.

Most students also recognized the benefits that mobile applications offered to enhance students’ ability to track and monitor their learning, get [P33] ‘instant feedback’ on their performance, self-evaluate their learning progression and generally develop skills associated with learner autonomy. [P9] Mobile learning is a ground-breaking approach as it differs from the usual pedagogical approaches and teacher-based learning. This is done by creating a student-centred personalized learning experience where the responsibility of learning is in the hands of the learner.

Overall, most students found their language applications to be motivating and fun, which meant they were motivated to interweave language learning throughout their life spaces, thus enabling a more immersive language experience. [P2] ‘It’s hard to get this exposure (to language) when living in an Anglophone society.’

3.2.2  Language specific affordances In contrast to the survey comments, many more of the students who created the podcasts went beyond seeking applications just to extend their vocabulary. They found applications that were suited to speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar, pronunciation and cultural aspects of language learning. However, vocabulary acquisition was certainly still a genuine concern for many language students at all levels. Students who evaluated dictionaries and flashcards, in particular, highlighted some specific desirable affordances. Students appreciated flashcard applications that could be personalized and where ready-made decks were also available. They highlighted the ability to incorporate sound, graphics and video and their use across multiple devices was well received. The settings that enabled spaced repetition and self-monitoring of progress were particularly impressive. [P7] ‘Anki is like its own brain – it remembers whether you found a word particularly difficult or easy’. Some flashcards offered plug-ins to further customize them, for example, plug-ins to generate Pinyin for students learning Mandarin. Such flexibility was also

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well received for application-based dictionaries. There was a strong appreciation of dictionaries that offered a convergence of technologies in one application. Excerpts from one podcast about a Spanish dictionary application (Spanish Everywhere) demonstrate this well: [P23] [It] has a multilingual dictionary translating Spanish to English and vice versa.  … over 15,000 word translations. … useful phrases organised into specific categories in the situations tab … Another cool feature is the text to speech where you simply click on a word to listen to its pronunciation thereby providing great listening and pronunciation practise. … a great vocabulary learning tool where you learn a new word every day and keep track of your own progress. … has flashcards with the capability of being able to create your own … I was ever so thankful for the verb conjugator and de-conjugator as now I don’t have to carry a chunky conjunction textbook around. Of course it wouldn’t be complete without a couple of games … Word Scramble and Hangman.

Reading and writing skills were often addressed in both language program applications and some specific applications such as dictionaries and translators that enabled learners to hone their skills, for example, applications that enabled students studying character-based languages to practise writing characters as well as provided support to help them read passages of text. Here, interactivity was highlighted as a key affordance that helped students stay motivated. For listening, podcast applications offered students the opportunity to self-select from a range of podcasts that were suited to their interests and skill levels. [P5] ‘Podcasts allow a mixture of authentic and pedagogical content in one short entertaining and easily accessed recording’. For students on the go, it also [P5] ‘feels less like study’. Affordances included the ability to stop, rewind, replay and listen again, and store for later. The wide range of quality podcasts available, and the ability to hear different accents, learn about the culture and combine with other resources (transcripts, listening comprehensions, activities and websites) meant that they were versatile and could help with other language skills as well. Speaking and pronunciation were sometimes incorporated into language program applications that offered voice to text or the opportunity to evaluate speaking and pronunciation in comparison to native speaker voices. In some languages, such as Mandarin, students appreciated the affordances of tone trainers to help them evaluate the tones that were most difficult for them and then to practise these with the support of native speaker voice files. However, in some cases, applications would [P33] ‘dictate phrases to you in a computerised voice with a native accent, which, at the same time, can be difficult for learners to understand.’ Students gave mixed reviews about the capabilities of mobile applications for grammar. Some students perceived that their devices could help them understand grammar when used in class. [P10] ‘Teachers are saving time by not having to explain basic stuff such as grammar because students can look it up themselves on their smartphones’. Some applications were purposefully designed to assist with grammar challenges such as gender and verb conjugation. One particularly innovative application allowed` students to [P29] ‘post a piece of writing online and NS [native

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speaker] or other language learner corrects; people leave comments and can ask you questions about the corrections.’ On the other hand, some popular applications were criticized for their approaches. [P11] ‘It assumes you understand sentence structure and grammar in Spanish, but then strangely reverts to teaching you very simple and brief concepts.’

3.2.3  Practical and pedagogical constraints Given the diversity of students in the course, the quality of critique of mobile devices and applications varied. Additionally, in 2012–2013 students engaged more with investigating the pedagogical design of applications due to more in-class time devoted to exploring second language and general learning theories as well as the use of exemplar podcasts from previous course iterations. Practical concerns, though, were articulated throughout. Students were concerned about mobile applications that chewed up their data allowance and battery power, needed constant connectivity and were pricey. [P23] ‘A lot of data to download that took ages –but didn’t need internet connection after that’. [P23] ‘Need data allowance or internet connection, … pricey – $8.49.’ Students generally expected mobile applications to be free or to come at a very minimal cost. [P13] ‘Not all of them are free, you have to pay for the really good ones.’ Conversely, some students identified that some mobile applications represented good value for money. [P13] ‘The app costs around $3 but compared to the $40 you might spend on a paper dictionary that’s nothing.’ While students were sensitive about price, data, connectivity and battery life, they clearly appreciated the usefulness of having an enormous variety of applications available on their devices. At the same time, they recognized that their mobile devices could distract them from their learning: [P31] However popular and useful smartphones are, there are still some limitations, particularly their lack of durability, cost and limited battery life. Most significantly, though, they can be extremely distracting for students.

Another constraint for students was that many language program applications were designed for beginner to intermediate learners. With many students studying more than one language, they were disappointed when applications were [P9] ‘not suited to advanced levels’. A further concern was that often minority languages (such as Indonesian or Russian) were not supported. However, the programming and structure of some applications meant that when they catered to different language types they did so without really considering the characteristics of the language. For example, one podcast that evaluated a very popular mobile application that offered romance and Asian languages commented that it was [P30] ‘more suited to languages similar to English as it seems to translate more word for word and doesn’t differentiate different levels of formality.’ The types of programming that dominate mobile applications also meant that many developers resorted to using algorithms and programming that limited the pedagogical use of mobile applications. Given that students actively explored different pedagogies in class, they were aware of the shortcomings of the pedagogical designs

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on offer. Many students commented on the dominance of audio–lingual approaches, grammar translation methods and behaviourist approaches. [P13] Most apps support the grammar translation and audiolingualism learning approach. These mainly help students learn vocab, grammar, spelling listening and pronunciation skills … the focus is on drill, repetition, practice and error corrections. [P25] What it does with grammar translation it does well, but it fails to utilise the modern advances in language learning pedagogy that are used in modern language classrooms. It is stuck about 50 years in the past with its focus on grammar translation and behaviourism as its core teaching theories. As such, it doesn’t really provide a well rounded education.

Students recognized that the pedagogical design could limit their learning experiences: [P25] Repetition, repetition, repetition, no printouts, no flashcards, no set up to be integrated into a class environment, doesn’t help to gain a deeper understanding of the language and its use.

Students had come to understand the benefits of communicative and task-based pedagogical approaches. However, few mobile applications were designed with these pedagogies in mind. Some students had suggestions for future directions. [P11] We’re yet to see apps that really embrace task-based language learning or communicative language teaching theories. I mean, your app, was close, but you still only observed a conversation between Ange and Brad about how Jennifer is jealous that they’re dating. Your app asked, who is jealous, rather than letting you interact with the characters and discover that Jennifer has a devious plot for revenge.

4  Discussion and conclusions The 2011 survey findings revealed that students found mobile applications fast, easy to use, portable and accessible anywhere and anytime. Using applications reportedly helped students to more routinely engage with their language by fitting it in around their life worlds. These affordances point towards the need for CALL to aspire to be more flexible, mobile and focused on the user experience as key qualities that will sustain it into the future. For students, the versatility of having many language applications on one device was highly convenient and efficient. For example, for those studying characterbased languages, the ability to input, practise and search for characters in multiple ways provided time and learning efficiencies. Students could also locate specific affordances that enabled them to concentrate on certain language skills. However, not all language levels or language skill areas were accommodated in the available language applications. Affordances associated with acquiring vocabulary skills were the most highly reported in the survey data. In sustaining CALL for the future, more attention might be given to the varying learning needs of our language students. Student podcasts emphasized similar affordances to those distilled from the survey data. Students expanded more fully on the affordances of interactive, multimodal

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and gamification aspects of mobile applications and reported these as motivating and fun. Similar findings related to gamification are reported in Chapter 15 of this book (Gutiérrez-Colon et al. 2015). Students appreciated learning through contextualized examples, graphics, sound and videos. When available, access to feedback and tracking their progress helped them self-regulate their learning. Also, the capacity to use applications across multiple devices and platforms was highly desirable. These design features and their implications for learning are important for sustaining CALL. Language students expect to enjoy the ways they can interact with CALL and learn both incidentally and purposefully. [P11] The interactivity of your phone allows language learning to take off in a different context. You can touch, swipe, scroll, replay. Its fun. I mean I hate going to class but I like playing with my phone.

However, on closer examination, students considered app development to be still immature, with limited pedagogical variance. Students commented on the dominance of audio–lingual, grammar translation and behavioural approaches over those that supported social learning or the capacity for authentic language tasks. Student assessments of mobile devices and applications indicate that previous claims about the potential of mobile language learning are now being realized. That is, emergent informal learning practices are being influenced by the portability, convenience and the versatility of mobile applications. Applications empower students to associate with their target language more frequently and resourcefully across time and space. Future evolution in language applications is likely to transform student practices even further. However, for CALL to be sustainable, the messages for developers and teachers are clear. Students want applications that can be configurable to their personal goals, purposes and multiple devices. They want motivating, pedagogically diverse and gamified options that are entertaining and help monitor their learning. They are also seeking more in-class discussion about what applications are most effective and why. Overall, students were overwhelmingly positive about the affordances of their mobile devices and mobile language learning applications. Although student podcasts identified some important constraints, even during these more in-depth evaluations, students most often appeared more enthusiastic than not. The constraints they did identify were important ones, though. For those considering language application development, these constraints should be seriously considered as we move towards the next generation of mobile applications and CALL, more generally.

References Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Coates, H. (2011). Working on a Dream: Educational Returns from off-Campus Paid Work. AUSSE Research Briefing, v.8 March 2011. Godwin-Jones, R. (2011). ‘Emerging Technologies: Mobile Apps for Language Learning’. Language Learning and Technology 15 (2): 2–11.

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Gutiérrez-Colon et al., (2015). Improving Learners’ Reading Skills through Instant Short Messages: A Sample Study using WhatsApp, chapter 15 in this book. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). ‘Language Learning defined by Time and Place: A Framework for Next Generation Designs’. In J. E. Diaz-Vera (ed.), Left to My Own Device: Learner Autonomy and Mobile Assisted Language Learning, 3–20. Innovation and Leadership in English Language Teaching, 6. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Kukulska-Hulme A. and Shield, L. (2008). ‘An Overview of Mobile assisted Language Learning; From Content Delivery to Supported Collaboration and Interaction’. ReCALL 20 (3): 271–89. Levy, M. and Kennedy, C. (2005). ‘Learning Italian via Mobile SMS’. In A. KukulskaHulme and J. Traxler (eds), Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers, 76–83. Wiltshire: The Cromwell Press. Pachler, N., Bachmair, B. and Cook, J. (2010). Mobile Learning: Structures, Agency and Practices. New York: Springer. Steel, C. H. (2012). ‘Fitting Learning into Life: Language Students’ Perspectives on the benefits of Using Mobile Apps’. In M. Brown, M. Hartnett and T. Stewart (eds), Ascilite 2012: Future Challenges, Sustainable Futures, 875–80. Wellington: Massey University. Steel, C. H. (2013). Students’ Perspectives on the benefits of Using Mobile Apps for Learning Languages. Paper presented at the Global Perspectives on Computer-Assisted Language Learning: World CALL 2013. Steel, C. H. (2014). ‘The Learning Challenge: Discovering the Power of Digital Practices’. In B. Hegarty, J. McDonald and S.-K. Loke (eds), Ascilite2014: Rhetoric and Reality: Critical Perspectives on Educational Technology, 335–47. Dunedin, New Zealand. Stockwell, G. (2007). ‘Vocabulary on the Move: Investigating an Intelligent Mobile Phonebased Vocabulary Tutor’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 20 (4): 365–83. Stockwell, G. (2012). ‘Working with Constraints in Mobile Learning: A Response to Ballance’. Language Learning and Technology 16 (3): 24–31. Thornton, P. and Houser, C. (2002). ‘M-Learning in Transit’. In P. Lewis (ed.), The Changing Face of CALL, 229–43. The Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger. Traxler, J. (2011). ‘Education and the Impact of Mobiles and Mobility’. In B. Bachmair (ed.), Medienbildung in neuen Kulturräumen (trans. Media Literacy in New Cultural Spaces), 103–13. Weisbaden: VS-Verlag für Sozialwissenschaft.

14

Mobile App Design for Individual and Sustainable MALL: Implications from an Empirical Analysis Heyoung Kim

1 Introduction Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) has emerged as a major component of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) in a very short period of time. Many CALL professionals have made efforts to define the unique nature of MALL, which can be differentiated from both CALL and Mobile Learning (ML). This endeavour has been quite successful, and some key concepts such as ‘portability,’ ‘interactivity,’ ‘flexibility’ and ‘authenticity,’ have been identified. Likewise, the affordances and limitations of MALL have also been specified by many studies (Chinnery 2006; Hoven and Palalas 2012; Kukulska-Hulme 2009, 2012; Stockwell 2010; Stockwell and Hubbard 2013). The unique functions of mobile devices, namely, ‘anytime anywhere’ access (KukulskaHulme 2009), ‘push and pull’ mechanism (Stockwell 2013) and automatic speech recognition (Chinnery 2006; Liakin, Cardoso and Liakina 2013) have been reviewed in a L2 learning context. On the other hand, several researchers have attended to the problems such as small screen sizes, inconvenience of typing, high cost, insufficient battery power and memory capacity, and slow loading time as barriers to MALL (Choi and Kim 2006; Kukulska-Hulme 2009; Stockwell and Hubbard 2013). However, effective MALL concepts and design principles in the aforementioned literature still remain broad in scope and somewhat abstract, and, thus, might not be specific enough for learners, practitioners and content developers to refer to in their work. Moreover, more substantial L2 theoretical and contextual discussion needs to begin. As with the previous attempts involving CALL software and task evaluation criteria (Chapelle 2001; Hubbard 2006, 2011), there should also be more concrete and systematic design and evaluation guidelines for sustainable MALL practice. In particular, establishing design criteria for smartphone applications (in short, apps), which represent the majority of mobile ESL materials for individual learning, seems urgent because thousands of mobile apps are now ready to replace existing CALL resources. According to a recent report,1 however, one in four mobile apps once downloaded are never used again. Then, why do they fail to satisfy L2 learners’ needs and expectations?

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Therefore, in order to ensure the sustainability of individual and informal MALL, elaborate evaluation guidelines must be created by considering the unique nature of MALL. Kim and Kwon (2012) introduced design and evaluation criteria for mobilebased ESL software that were an adapted version of the ‘Integrated Framework for CALL Courseware Evaluation,’ (Hubbard 2006, 2011). Based on these new criteria, they analysed the strengths and weaknesses of eighty-seven ESL apps and concluded that currently available ESL apps need to be improved by realizing mobility as a more situated, fielddependent and collaborative form of learning whereas they currently seem effective in providing a learner-centred learning opportunity with ubiquitously accessible practices. However, the findings of the previous studies, including Kim and Kwon (2012), are mostly conceptual and ‘judgmental’ (Chapelle 2001), and empirical user data from longitudinal studies have rarely been provided as an actual reference to the application design. The findings of two types of mobile app evaluation, judgmental and empirical, should be compared and considered in an integrated way. What apps do L2 learners actually choose and use for MALL? Are the findings from the two types of evaluation similar or different? Does the effectiveness of app design guarantee the sustainability of individual users’ MALL practice? Therefore, the purpose of this research is (1) to evaluate smartphone app content and design with empirical data from L2 learners who have utilized mobile apps for language learning and (2) to suggest implications for informal and sustainable MALL design. To achieve this purpose, this qualitative research investigated twentytwo Korean college students who utilized smartphone applications individually for their language learning over fifteen weeks by analysing their weekly mobile logs and interviews in order to recognize their selection and use pattern and factors that sustain or inhibit their mobile practice as well as preference in terms of contents and functions of smartphone apps. The following research questions were addressed: ●●

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What type of mobile application content and design did the college EFL learners select and use, and what were their criteria? How did they use the apps? Which L2 activities and approaches did they employ, and for what purposes? What factors affected the students’ decision to either continue or discontinue MALL?

2  Background of this study 2.1  The key nature of MALL Understanding the unique nature of MALL is a key to success in designing effective and sustainable mobile applications. From the early literature, Kim and Kwon (2012, p. 35) summarize effective MALL as follows: ●●

●●

Effective MALL enables students to more easily and more promptly access language learning materials and to communicate with people at any time, from anywhere. Effective MALL facilitates students’ participation in both collaborative and individualized language learning activities synchronously and/or asynchronously, allowing rapid development of language skills.

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Effective MALL provides various resources and tools for language learning that encourage learners to be more motivated, autonomous, situated (site-specific/ field-dependent) and socially interactive.

More studies regarding effective MALL have recently been completed. Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) address three key issues associated with MALL in the physical, pedagogical and psycho-social domains. By adapting concepts from the rich discussion on ML and CALL, including Elias (2011)’s eight principles of mobile learning, and considering the cross-field relationship with MALL, they (2013) also offer their own ten principles for MALL summarized as follows: According to Stockwell and Hubbard (2014, pp. 8–10), MALL should distinguish both the affordances and limitations of the mobile device and mobile learning environment, considering second language learning theory and approaches: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●●

●●

●●

Limit multitasking and environmental distraction. Push, but respect, boundaries. Strive to maintain equity. Acknowledge and plan for accommodating language learner differences. Be aware of language learners’ existing uses and cultures of use. Keep mobile language learning activities and tasks short and succinct. Let the language learning task fit the technology and environment and let the technology and environment fit the task. Some, possibly most, learners will need guidance and training to effectively use mobile devices for language learning. Recognize and accommodate multiple stakeholders.

The ten principles focus on ‘general lessons’, not specified in L2 learning research and theory, as indicated in their study (2013). Additional guidelines should be considered from the L2 learning and teaching perspective.

2.2 Kim and Kwon’s mobile app design and evaluation guideline (2012) Kim and Kwon (2012) attempt to provide a design and evaluation guideline (Table 14.1) for effective MALL by employing Hubbard’s widely used software review criteria, ‘Integrated Framework for CALL Courseware Evaluation’ (2006, 2011) and modifying it for mobile app content and design review. They use these criteria as the basis of an analytical framework to evaluate eighty-seven mobile ESL apps and determine the strengths and weaknesses of the current trend of app content and design. As a result, they (2012) report that the majority of applications deal with short language data information such as vocabulary lists (42 per cent) or short grammar lessons (12 per cent), most of which require a cognitive language learning style. They also point out that ESL apps are designed for personal, perceptual and field-independent learning, and that their L2 approaches are usually form-focused, audio-lingual or task (test)-based. According to Kim and Kwon’s argument, the currently available ESL apps provide personal and learner-centred learning opportunities, which possibly

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enhance L2 learners’ motivation and autonomy in MALL, but on the other hand, they are weak in realizing mobility as a more situated, field-dependent and collaborative learning opportunity. They conclude that more active use of authentic context, socially interactive tasks, timely and situated materials is needed.

2.3  MALL for individual learning MALL highlights learner-directed learning without traditional time and place boundaries and formal curriculum. This type of informal and individual learning requires self-regulation and independent learning habits. Some studies hold that the affordances of mobile devices, such as fast and ubiquitous access, social networking, field-specific information and the push mechanism can foster learner autonomy and motivation for individual learning. However, not much research has been conducted to investigate L2 learners’ mobile use in the informal or individual learning setting. Kukulska-Hulme (2012) recently emphasized that new language learning is defined by time and place. As mobile technology can provide anytime and anywhere ‘personrelevant’ materials and practice (p. 3), she argues that learners can select the content and interact with the patterns of their personal preferences, situations and routine without any formal authoritative system. Thus, learner-initiated or learner-managed practice might complement formal lessons and learners can play a more active role in determining the relevance of their learning practice based on their learning situation and needs (Kukulska-Hulmes 2012). Along with emphasizing the importance of understanding new learning practice, she suggests a conceptual framework for nextgeneration designs for MALL in informal settings (Figure 14.1). Time

Place

Specific time or anytime? Routine or spontaneous? Instant access or leisurely? How much available time? Dependent on sufficient time? Interruptible?

Specific location or anywhere? Private or public place? Relaxing or energising? Stationary or moving? Walking or running? Driver or Passenger?

Next generation MALL designs Activity

Challenging or easy? Suitable for multitasking? Receptive or productive? Involves speaking aloud? Writing or gestures? Individual or social?

Figure 14.1  Conceptual framework for next generation designs for MALL in informal settings (Kukulska-Hulmes 2012, p. 9).

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Another recent research regarding individual MALL was conducted by Stockwell (2013). He points out that learners’ informal, out-of-class mobile engagement has not been examined much, although learners’ attitude towards mobile use outside class might be closer to the reality than in a controlled environment. Thus, he tracked fifty Japanese college students’ out-of-class use of mobile devices for language learning activities to observe a pattern for when and where they complete activities and how the push effect helps their use. He concludes that there was no clear-cut usage pattern in terms of preferred time, duration and location, but that the learners completed their mobile-based tasks in a more unplanned and spontaneous way compared with PC-based tasks. The push mechanism, e-mail reminders on mobile phones in his study, did not help the learners to undertake their work right away, but they seemed to see it as being useful.

2.4  Sustainability and MALL Sustainability in education is a comprehensive and ‘multi-level concept that comprises individual learning as well as group, organizational, and societal learning.’ (Hansmann 2010, p. 2877). A recent attempt to build a sustainability framework for mobile learning is Ng and Nicholas’ person-centred sustainable model (2013). They argue that mobile learning is, by its nature, unsustainable since it does not conform to the basic assumptions of formal education, and so, in order to reconcile mobile learning with formal education, human factors such as students, teachers, parents and their interrelationships should be involved at its centre. Ng and Nicholas (2013) suggest five elements, in addition to Cisler’s (n.d., recited from Ng and Nicholas 2013) four-element model for sustainability of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), namely, economic, social, political, technological and pedagogical sustainability. According to their argument, pedagogical sustainability refers to ‘teaching/learning practices that support the long-term goals of the mobile learning program.’ (p. 698). This is related to the role of teachers and learners and preparation for and practices of mobile learning, as well as other unique pedagogical features of mobile devices such as social learning and informal learning. On the other hand, technological sustainability, according to Cisler’s definition, is a matter of selecting appropriate technology types (functions, design and modes) that can satisfy institutional or individual needs and goals for an extended period of time. The discussion of pedagogical sustainability and technological sustainability is closely related to previous effective MALL studies and also to this study in terms of determining best practices for successful learning and best design elements and functions that meet learners’ longitudinal needs and goals. In sum, sustainable MALL means mobile learning that can continue till individual learners achieve their language learning goal in an effective way and in a given environment. It seems a far more complex task than effective MALL because pedagogically sound MALL must be necessary, but might not be satisfactory, for sustainable MALL. Other elements such as personal, physical or social factors should be considered simultaneously. Meanwhile, MALL research also needs to

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Pedagogical Formal Informal Learning Learning (contents, approaches) (contents, approaches)

The scope of this study

Needs Learning Technological (devices, Life functions, Patterns connections, designs, etc.)

Physical

Styles

Learner Learning factors Purposes Economical

Preferences Teachers Psychology Peers

Environmental (Time, location, etc.)

Sociopolitical

Figure 14.2  A framework to define sustainable MALL and the scope of this study.

be more systematically conducted from the multifaceted perspective. Therefore, this study presents a framework to define sustainable MALL by drawing together findings from the previous literature in Figure 14.2. In this framework, the learner factor, the most critical and primary element, is centred and so all other factors, physical, social and pedagogical, are also investigated and defined partly in the learner domain. The scope of the current research is limited on the left hemicycle of the framework: that is, informal learning, technological, environmental factors based on learner data. Thus far, most MALL studies have been short-term experiments, which is not sufficient to discuss sustainability. For example, in terms of mobile app design, Chen and Chang (2011) investigated the modality effect of content presentation modes (audio vs. audio  +  texts) on students’ cognitive load and listening comprehension across their language proficiencies in a mobile context. They concluded that a dual mode was more effective for students to ensure better performance on mobile listening tasks. Agca and Özdemir (2013) also investigated the effect of 2D barcode technology in mobile content in learning vocabulary. Two groups (barcode vs. paper) of students learnt eighty-four words for two weeks and took pre- and post-vocabulary achievement tests. They insist that the MALL environment increased the students’ vocabulary knowledge for the target words. Some other recent MALL research involved short-term quantitative studies (Chang and Hsu 2011; Rahimi and Miri 2014), or comparatively longer-term studies (sixteen sessions or ten weeks), and involved comparison (mobile vs. PC vs. paper) experiments to test the effectiveness of the mobile modality (Huang et al. 2012; Lin 2014). Accordingly, the effects found in these studies do not predict

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the sustainability of L2 learners’ mobile learning. In conclusion, a more longitudinal qualitative approach is needed to determine L2 mobile users’ behavioural patterns, the long-term goals of their MALL, and the type of features that would ensure that they continued their practice.

3 Method 3.1  The participants The participants involved in this study were twenty-two Korean college students at a university in Seoul. They were sophomores or juniors, from various departments such as English education, law, engineering and nursing, and their self-reported English proficiency varied from low intermediate to high intermediate. They were highly motivated L2 learners currently studying for a TOEFL or TOEIC test or working towards a study-abroad plan. According to the pre-survey analysis, all of the participants were smartphone owners (fourteen androids and eight iOS), thirteen of them enjoyed mobile functions and apps very much, and eight of them used them for over three hours per day. The analysis also shows that the participants used their mobile devices mostly during their commuting time, before sleeping or during break time between classes, with the most frequent usage periods being time on the bus or subway (56 per cent) or at home (28 per cent). The students voluntarily attended a MALL workshop advertised and provided by the researcher and decided to participate in the MALL project. They agreed to use mobile apps to learn English by their own choice for one semester and to report their usage on a weekly basis through a social networking service (SNS). Thirty-one previously reviewed free or paid apps designed to develop various language skills were introduced in the workshop (see Appendix), but the students were allowed to use any mobile tools or resources for their own language learning purposes. If they chose paid apps, the researcher provided the funds for them. Four of them stopped participating in the middle of the semester and, thus, eighteen of them continued with MALL on a regular basis for fifteen weeks.

3.2  Data collection methods Data were collected through three sources: a pre-survey, weekly student logs and interviews. Timeline of the data collection procedure in this study is presented in Figure 14.3.

3.2.1 Pre-survey The ten-question survey was conducted during the workshop to collect the participants’ background information such as their academic year, English proficiency and mobileuse habits. Twenty-two workshop participants responded to the questionnaire. The data were all logged in a spreadsheet so that the researcher could have the participants’ background information in advance.

Mobile App Design for Individual and Sustainable MALL Recruiting Participants MALL Workshop & Survey

1 hour

First Interviews Weekly Log 6 weeks

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Second Interviews Weekly Log 7 weeks

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Figure 14.3  Timeline of the data collection procedure in this study.

3.2.2  Weekly student logs The participants sent a mobile-use log to the researcher by mobile SNS on a weekly basis by answering a message from the researcher, which included such questions as, ‘how did you use the apps this week? Please write about your use in terms of (1) Where (2) How long (3) What apps and (4) In what way.’ A total of 121 logs were collected and sorted by person in one document file for pattern analysis.

3.2.3 Interviews Two interviews were conducted with the participants twice in their L1. The first round of interviews involved seventeen students after six weeks of MALL and the second round involved fourteen students in the 15th week. They were semi-structured interviews confirming their weekly logs and asking (1) the reasons why they did or did not use certain apps or functions and (2) their preferences or beliefs about MALL and app design. The interviews generally lasted fifteen minutes each. All the interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim in Korean, and only the quoted parts were translated into English, as literally as possible.

3.3  Data analysis The data were qualitatively analysed to explore various facets of the participants’ selfinitiated mobile learning. The data sources were cyclically reviewed and compared with each other to identify common patterns and themes as follows: First of all, all the logged data, from the surveys, student logs and interviews, were repeatedly reviewed and annotated in the open-coding stage (Strauss 1994). The researcher carefully wrote keywords, researcher’s comments and questions for each paragraph in the margin. Thinking units (Lofland and Lofland 1984) generated by open coding and two conceptual frameworks, Kukulska-Hulme’s informal MALL (Figure 14.1) and Kim and Kwon’s effective MALL (Table 14.1), yielded five analytical categories and ten subcategories: (1) ‘routines (time and place),’ (2) ‘preference (content and technological features),’ (3) ‘L2 approaches (focus skills, methods activities),’ (4) ‘perception of MALL (purpose and benefits)’ and (5)‘sustainability (motivating and demotivating factors). Table 14.2 shows the categories and subcategories to encode and analyse the data as follows:

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Table 14.1  Mobile app design and evaluation guideline (Kim and Kwon 2012, p. 39) ……

Content/Design Target ●●

Target Learners – age (children, young adult, adult) – interest (general, ESP) – proficiency level (beginner, intermediate, advanced)

●●

Content – topic – organization – content size (number of units, topics, sentences, words, etc.)

●●

●●

……

Learning styles (recognition, recall, comprehension, experiential learning etc.) Learning strategies (field-dependent/independent, deductive/inductive reasoning, collaborative, etc.)

Procedure and Approach (Pedagogy and SLA) ●●

Activities – Instructional (tutorials, drills, text(voice) reconstruction) – Individual (test, quiz, game) – Facilitative (dictionary, database, verb conjugator, spell/grammar checker, pronunciation)

●●

Focus – Linguistic focus (discourse, lexis, grammar, spelling, pronunciation) – Language skill focus (reading, listening, writing, speaking) – Sociolinguistic focus (form/meaning focused, information gathering, authentic tasks)

●●

……

Methodological approaches (audio-lingual, situated, task-based, structural etc.)

Technological Features ●●

Multimedia (videos/ graphics/Sound/Music/Resolution Size )

●●

Exploitation of mobile potential – Web 2.0 features (SNS, Wiki, blog, podcasting etc.) – Other Functions (memo pad, voice recording, speech synthesizing, speech/text recognition)

Next, the data were coded and sorted using the five categories based on the thinking points listed in Table 14.2. The thinking points, most of which were wh-questions, guided the researcher to understand the participants’ behavioural patterns (Strauss and Corbin 1996). The themes that emerged were compared across the data sources, between the first and the second interviews or by informants or among informants. Some of the quantitative data, such as frequencies, duration, the number of apps or types of apps were encoded in a spreadsheet. Figures and charts were also used to display data in order to yield findings from more in-depth analysis (Huberman and Miles 1994).

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Table 14.2  Categories used for data analysis in this study Categories

Subcategories

Thinking points

Routines

Time

●● ●●

Place

●●

●●

Preferences

Content

●●

Technological Features

●●

●●

L2 Approaches

Focus skills, Methods

●● ●●

Activities

●● ●● ●●

Perception

Purposes for MALL

●● ●●

Continuity

When, how long, how often do they use MALL? Routine or spontaneous? Where do they use MALL? Specific location or anywhere? Private or public place? Topic, organization, content size (number of units, topics, sentences, words, etc) Multimedia (videos/ graphics/sound/music/resolution size ) Exploitation of mobile potential (Web 2.0, Other functions) Reading, listening, writing or speaking? Audio-lingual, situated, task-based, structural etc? Instructional, individual, or facilitative? Challenging or easy? Receptive or productive? Individual or social? Why do they choose MALL? Schooling or personal? Serious or fun?

Benefits of MALL

●●

What benefits do they find during MALL?

Motivating factors

●●

What makes them continue MALL?

Demotivating factors

●●

What makes them quit MALL?

4  Findings and discussion Most of the participants used the mobile apps to study English more or less regularly for fifteen weeks, except during the two exam periods. According to the analysis of the weekly logs and interviews, students used their smartphones to study English at least once a week, and six students (30 per cent) among them studied English with their mobile device almost every day (five days per week, not on the weekends). The average amount of time per use was approximately fifteen minutes. Their MALL session occurred most often on the subway or bus during their commuting time as well as during their breaks between classes or after lunch or dinner. The average number of apps they used was 3.8 per person in the first six-week period and then four apps per person in the second seven-week period. The data triangulation also reveals that on the whole, the participants’ MALL session lasted a similar amount of time for the whole fifteen weeks, and that only four students’ sessions were shorter in the second usage period than in the first one. This study intends to present and discuss the findings based on the research questions, instead of separate conceptual categories, because most of the findings emerged in the process of mixing and matching keywords across the categories.

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RQ1. What type of mobile application content and design did the college EFL learners select and use and what were their criteria?

4.1  Selected Content and Design The participants used various apps according to their preferences in terms of topics (e.g. news or drama), language skills (e.g. vocabulary or listening), presentation types (e.g. texts, audio or video) and reasons for their choices, etc. However, some common patterns emerged while analysing the data from the participants in terms of their selection of the materials. First of all, most of the participants preferred ‘light’ materials. The data analysis shows that ‘light’ means ‘short,’ ‘easy,’ ‘requiring less attention’ and ‘fun.’ Most of the participants selected pop-up news, short drama episodes, video clips or speeches at the beginning. One of the most repeated sub-themes was ‘short’. The participants often mentioned a preference for ‘short’ such as short loading or downloading time, short video clips or short texts. ●● ●●

●●

CNN (pop-up news) is really good because it’s fast (loading) ... (reading) ebooks? maximum ten minutes or fifteen minutes? … (about CNN news) yes, yes shorter shorter … A short clip of American drama and conversation interpretation (in Korean) ... if there is anything like that ... (I will choose it)

In terms of language, ‘light’ meant listening practice to most of them and reading to some of them. In particular, the data triangulation revealed that less proficient learners preferred listening (e.g. video or audio) activities to reading, grammar or vocabulary, etc. From the first interview, one student said, ‘I usually listen because my English is not good.’ Another student said that he changed an app from reading to listening because he could put on earphones and comfortably listen to it even while walking. He defined mobile language learning as follows: Yes ... so window time … or a time when just lightly … wearing earphones ... . I think that is (MALL) apps!

Another student who downloaded one ESL storybook, but did not use it, explained his reasoning as follows: Because I am in the subway, reading is a bit uncomfortable … so listening seemed more comfortable. That is why.

Some other reasons the participants preferred listening materials are (1) listening requires less attention in an anytime-anywhere context, (2) there is not much comprehension pressure because repetition is possible and (3) barriers to developing other language skills with mobile devices such as difficult typing, tired eyes, making noise in the public place do not exist in listening. The theme ‘light’ also seems to include the meaning ‘less serious’ or ‘demanding less attention.’ Many students selected and continued using Big City Small World (see Figure 14.4), a recommended drama episode app for ESL listening, because they

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Figure 14.4  An example of ‘Light’ materials.

reported that it was not difficult and not serious. Some participants reported that they always clicked less serious titles on the updated news list window. Students said: I avoided a political issue. It’s difficult, boring … so like travel, health, or something a little bit light. For example, danger of hamburger ... this is this is a very easy topic. So I listen to easy news rather than difficult one and in politics or world news, for example, same-sex marriage ban. ... This topic was easily approachable. … The titles in the middle of CNN Latest News list are very light. There is a lot of light content such as an interview with a twelve-year-old- boy who bought a house. … There are a lot of light interviews, so I just watched them.

Although many students chose news apps, they did not want serious topics. They preferred ‘light’ even in selecting topics, which demanded less thought and attention. Second, the participants also showed a clear preference for applications that provide ‘various’ selections in terms of topics, amounts and functions. For example, they chose regularly updated news, or episodic series with a list of many links to choose such as CNN popup-news, TED talks or Good Morning Pops (a daily radio show archive). A TOEIC app used by six students consisted of numerous sample questions for each test section. As Figure 14.5 shows, ‘news and information’ was the preferred app category. This type of preference pattern was also applied to choosing mobile readings. Although many participants initially selected storybooks (graded storybooks), in the end only two students continued reading and finished more than one book. Many students quit using them. They explained the reasons as follows: ●●

●● ●●

●●

I wanted to read something so the Dracula app looked great, (omission). … I don’t like to read one for a long time. I did not read it much. ... I just wanted to know how ebooks work. I prefer paper books. … I want to read web information through my phone, but not book. I read it once in a while. … An eBook is to read at home.

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Other ESL 11% Word Study 12%

News Listening 38%

Test Prep 17% Story reading & Listening 22%

Figure 14.5  The distribution of students-selected application categories.



Figure 14.6  Two types of mobile reading.

The data analysis indicates that the participants wanted to read one short appealing reading text and then to quickly choose another, but that eBook reading, that is, longer text reading, does not seem to fit their mobile-learning habits (see Figure 14.6). Third, many of them wanted more language scaffolding devices, such as bilingual scripts, a dictionary, more varied audio control functions or a customized notepad, etc. in order to reduce their language barriers. They frequently articulated very specific functional needs for the apps. ●● ●● ●●

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A speed controller would be great. It’s too fast, so it’s difficult. The speed should be slower. TED is as fast as CNN. So the speed should be slower or I should be able to listen and stop sentence by sentence. It would be good to have a repetition function by pausing. I want to listen right next to what I had listened to, but (on a certain app) I need to go back from the beginning. I need a sort of bookmarking. I want to listen to the audio both with and without a script.

Students mentioned some apps such as GMP or iListen as having good language scaffolding functions (see Figure 14.7). It was observed that these apps offer almost all the functions that the participants pointed out in the interviews.

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Five speed types

257

Speed controller Section repetition

Start here Finish here

Sleeping mode

Speed controller

Figure 14.7  An example of a powerful language scaffolding device.

Many students reported that they also downloaded the TED i-subtitle app that was not introduced in the workshop. It provides subtitles for each lecture in English. As already discussed, students preferred listening, especially authentic listening, so it seems that they wanted some functions that make listening easier. RQ2. How did they study? Which L2 activities and approaches did they employ, and for what purposes?

4.2  L2 Approaches From the student logs and interviews, apparent and congruent patterns in the ‘L2 approaches’ category were consistently affirmed regarding the participants’ approaches to MALL. First, the students employed audio–lingual methods, such as repetition, memorization and drill practice. Most of them saw MALL as an activity for input building or fluency development. During the interviews, many students reported that they listened to the same passages repeatedly: First of all, I download a TED talk and if I listen once, I can understand only a part, so I listen repeatedly ... many times ... about ten times? Not at one time, about two times a day, and later I listen twice ... Yes, I take notes on the memo pad and listen and repeat after the voice.

In addition, according to students’ logs, the most common MALL activities were (1)  listening repeatedly, (2) repeating after listening, (3) listening and reading the script, (4) word list memorization and (5) solving test questions. April 28, 2012 12:31 PM I studied with CNN about 10 min. every day. I did shadowing with a video file. It’s a practice to repeat after the video talk while listening. It helps listening, intonation and stress. (from a student log)

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In sum, the participants usually attempted to use the mobile apps to develop listening and reading fluency through repetition and drill practice. One more distinctive pattern in this category was that the participants showed ‘Concrete’ language learning styles (Willing 1988). Many of them preferred video (or at least sound)-embedded texts. When they were asked about which news titles they had chosen, the majority of them answered ‘titles with videos.’ They read ‘only video news.’ I personally like books more than movies, but in case of language learning, I prefer videos … (omission). It seems to help more with concentration. I clicked the title and I left if there was no video. (Why?) because I don’t like reading texts (oh, you don’t like reading?) Um..videos are a little more comfortable.. (is there any reason that you prefer video?) Because I use it while commuting, It is just more comfortable. I can understand a lot better if I see their mouth.

Second, they seldom attempted to communicatively interact with others although they knew that good opportunities existed, especially through the use of SNS. There was an apparent resistance to collaborative MALL. (I did not use SNS in CNN apps because) I don’t think people will read articles that I send there. (I don’t use ‘scrap’ or ‘favorite’ because) I am not going to read them again. It’s unnecessary. (I don’t tag it to my FB because) it is open to all my friends. They would see something unnecessary for them. It looks like I’m a showoff … a lot of friends there (Facebook), so I am just watching FB or talking with friends. I don’t like to show what I have … no reason why they have to bother with my own study ...

None of them attempted to study together or share questions or what they had learnt through mobile networking although they were using SNS very actively for building social relationships. This finding is supported and explained by Lee and Kim’s study (2014) describing Korean L2 learners’ new media identity. According to Lee and Kim (2014), Korean university students use SNS mostly for the purpose of building social rapport with other Koreans, such as friends and family, and, thus, they believe that writing in English or talking about EFL is improper in this context.

4.3  Purpose for MALL Their purpose in selecting MALL seemed to be as an additional study method or spare-time activity. The virtue of MALL perceived by all the participants is its being an ‘extra-work’ or a ‘time-saving’ aid. This perception seemed to affect the participants in their selection of L2 activities and approaches as well as content and design.

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I feel like I am doing something during my wasted time I don’t intend to use apps for serious study ... not the major purpose of my English study ... I am utilizing my little spare time It’s additional … I feel it’s better anyway for me to do one more extra thing. So I don’t feel any pressure. I think, in fact, the best time I use mobile apps is during commuting time because at home it is a second choice, for example, there are school assignments or other English study materials like books for TOEIC and TEPS.

Most of the participants viewed MALL positively because they regarded MALL as a supplemental study, but not as a replacement for their current study. For that purpose, their MALL practice seemed to easily satisfy their expectations. The benefits of mobile learning such as ‘time saving’ have been discussed in some early studies (Clough et al. 2007; Denk, Weber and Belfin 2007), and also some studies (e.g. Evans 2008) view mobile learning as a supplement to formal education. However, it seems an additional finding is that students regard spontaneous informal MALL as only a supplement to their individual learning. Learner-defined MALL is meaningful because in new learning for the next generation, it is learners who determine the relevance of their learning practice based on their learning situation and needs (Kukulska-Humes 2012). RQ3. What factors affected the students’ decision to either continue or discontinue MALL?

4.4  Motivating or Demotivating Factors The most critical motivating or demotivating factors seemed to come primarily from learners, their life patterns, learning styles or mobile routine. First of all, there was a clear pattern that the students who had longer commuting time spent more time using mobile apps. According to the analysis of student logs, two students who reported using a smartphone in bed at night or in the morning spent much less time on MALL compared with other students. For the first six weeks, students A and B spent ten to fifteen minutes and forty minutes on MALL per week, respectively, whereas the other sixteen students spent an average of approximately 100 minutes per week. In addition, both of them refused the second interviews due to a lack of mobile learning. Student B, at her first interview, complained that there was no time for MALL except at bedtime. I promised to use a smartphone (for language learning with the researcher). And I thought I had to use it because I downloaded it. So at first, I thought ‘I should do it at home.’ So I did it lying on the bed. 10 min? 15 min.? I do not take a bus or something because I live near the campus. I always rush to school after having breakfast… . When I had tutoring or went to a science museum, for 20-30 min on the bus, I thought ‘probably it’s better to study English than listening to music.’ So I listened ... And two weeks ago when I was a little bit free of school assignments, I did it by putting it(mobile device) on top of it (handle?) while riding a bike … you know, indoor bicycle …

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Considering her opinion from this excerpt, student B believes that MALL is just a subway-time or, at least, a free-time activity. The reason why she could not participate in MALL very much is because she has no commuting time. Second, as a demotivating factor, some students reported that they could not give up their mobile routines such as listening to music or clicking applications such as SNS, which they visit whenever they turn on their smartphones. Actually, while commuting by bus or subway, I always turn on the music and while listening, only if it (MALL) occurs to me, probably I will do it. But, otherwise, I think I won’t do it well. … In fact, I cannot do it well, not as much as I thought because I unconsciously do something I always do. Unless I consciously think of it, I won’t do it.

From the data analysis, it can be seen that other participants also have a similar mobileuse pattern. The majority of the students reported that they are on the bus or subway for about two hours every day, but their MALL time was mostly within twenty minutes per use. Another critical motivating or demotivating factor is materials. App content and functions seem to affect the learners in terms of their continuing or discontinuing MALL. First of all, language difficulty level critically influences the continued use of apps. The participants selected and used various apps, such as word lists, TOEFL, TOEIC, storybooks, grammar, TED Talks, CNN news, etc., based on their current goals and the apps’ reputations at first, but sooner or later they quit or switched to linguistically less challenging or less demanding apps (with no serious requirements or problems to solve). As shown in Figure 14.8, from the student log analysis, at the beginning of their MALL experience, thirteen students chose to use the CNN news app, but two months later, after the midterm exam, only six of them were still using it, while the rest of them had changed to less challenging ESL apps such as One Touch Listening or ESL Pod. This finding can also be confirmed by the students’ app selection patterns in the ‘preference’ category, which shows a liking for factors such as the ‘light’ principle. Thus,

15 ESL

# of Students (total=18)

13

11 10

ESL 6

6

5

March~ April

May ~June

Figure 14.8  Changes in students’ choice of listening apps between the first and second two months.

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the participants discontinued the use of apps if they thought they were ‘uncomfortable’, which meant ‘linguistically not easy’, in this study. Analysing the individual students’ app selections with student logs and interview transcripts, this study found that learners’ perception of the degree of language difficulty in the MALL context is somewhat different from that in other learning environments, such as PC-based or offline. They want less challenging input, for example, i -1 rather than i +1 (Krashen 1982), which they would find acceptable in a normal L2 learning situation. Also, engaging elements of the materials such as timely and field-dependent information, and fun stories or needs-satisfying references were also a determining factor in their choice of whether or not to continue working with the apps. The top five apps in this study were CNN (13), Bookworm Series (8), TED (7), 1000 TOEIC Test (6) and Big City Small World (5). As shown in Figure 14.3, students preferred regularly added authentic content (information, talks or stories) or goal-driven materials (test preps or word study). However, their initial preferences did not last very long. As discussed earlier, without short content items, varied selection or good language scaffolding devices, these engaging elements do not seem to guarantee sustainable use. The participants often discontinued using them in this study. One more distinctive factor affirmed by this study is that the participants recognized that the push mechanism (Stockwell 2012) was beneficial and, in fact, influenced their decision to continue using apps. In the interviews, students showed positive feelings towards and satisfaction with pop-up reminders and reported that pop-ups really assisted them in continuing to use the apps. During the interviews, the interviewer did not specifically ask about this, but rather the informants brought it up themselves: While I was playing with a smartphone, the news popped up, so I couldn’t help reading. Because a news pop-up always reminds me I was able to read without forgetting. News pop-ups are good. That made me use CNN the most.

Although it is not clear whether they clicked the news pop-ups and read the articles right after being reminded, the participants mentioned that the push reminders helped them to continue using the apps.

5 Conclusions In conclusion, from the Korean college EFL learner’s perspective, MALL implies ‘subway-time study.’ Probably, this might be a truly unique feature of MALL (at least informal or individual MALL) indicated by some early MALL researchers (KukulskaHulme and Shield 2008), and also very similar to ‘language learning defined by time and place’ (Kukulska-Hulme 2012). For this reason, their preferences with respect to MALL content, style and design seemed to deviate a little from the concept of effective MALL in the literature including Kim and Kwon’s findings (2012) and even more significantly from contemporary CALL (Reinders and Hubbard 2013). In other words, meeting effective MALL principles does not necessarily guarantee the sustainability

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of individual MALL. There are many other factors involved in the continued use of mobile learning. First of all, mobile design matters. The participants showed very specific preferences for the content, functions and presentation methods of their mobile learning materials. The findings shown in this study are good examples of Kukulska-Hulme’s new language learning defined by time and place (2012). Based on the research findings, this study suggests some important design principles for sustainable individual MALL: (1) satisfy a ‘lightness’ principle, (2) identify learners’ language learning needs and preferred content in mobile learning (3) include a sufficient language scaffolding device, (4) provide field-dependent and updated contents and (5) suggest as many individual options as possible. Mobile content developers need to consider the details from the empirical analysis in this study. Second, the learner factor is truly pivotal. In addition to their learning motivation and learning style, their life patterns and mobile routines remarkably affect the sustainable use of MALL. In addition, from the perspective of pedagogical sustainability and an effective MALL framework, the L2 approaches and activities employed by the participants in this study, such as drill-and-practice, cannot be seen as the best MALL practice that can continue over time. Probably, this might be the nature of individual MALL, but another possible interpretation must be that there is still not enough appropriate mobile content, or that a wider MALL community has not yet been generated. Thus, a mobile learning environment that suits students’ life patterns and also fosters social interaction should be developed. It is admitted that the findings in this study are closely related to Korean college students’ digital identity, which has been shaped in a particular cultural and educational context (Lee and Kim 2014). Moreover, since the participants represented only a small number of well-motivated college students living in a big city with ubiquitous Wi-Fi zones, mobile use patterns and MALL practices could well be very different among other groups of people in different contexts. However, the twenty-two participants’ individual learning processes shown in this study provide meaningful and context-rich implications for mobile-based material design to promote sustainable MALL.

Note 1 MobiThinking report http://mobithinking.com/mobile-marketing-tools/latestmobile-stats

References Agca, R. K. and Özdemir, S. (2013). ‘Foreign Language Vocabulary Learning with Mobile Technologies’. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 83: 781–5, doi: 10.1016/j. sbspro.2013.06.147.

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Chang, C. K. and Hsu, C. K. (2011). ‘A Mobile-Assisted Synchronously Collaborative Translation-Annotation System for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Reading Comprehension’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 24: 155–80. Chapelle, C. (2001). ‘Computer Applications in Second Language Acquisition: Foundations for Teaching, Testing, and Research’. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chen, I.-J. and Chang, C. C. (2011). ‘Content Presentation Modes in Mobile Listening Tasks: English Proficiency as a Moderator’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 24: 451–70, doi: 10.1080/09588221.2011.577749. Chinnery, G. M. (2006). ‘Emerging Technologies Going to the MALL: Mobile-Assisted Language Learning’. Language Learning and Technology 10 (1): 9–16. Choi, E. and Kim, J. (2006). ‘The Effects of Mobile Learning Contents Use on the Vocabulary Learning’. English Teaching 61 (4): 297–320. Clough, G., Jones, A. C., McAndrew, P., and Scanlon, E. (2007). ‘Informal Learning with PDAs and Smartphones’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 24 (5): 359–71, doi: 10.1111/j.1365–2729.2007.00268.x. Denk, M., Weber, M. and Belfin, R. (2007). ‘Mobile Learning – Challenges and Potentials’. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation 1 (2): 122–39. Elias, T. (2011). ‘Universal Instructional Design Principles for Mobile Learning’. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 12 (2): 143–56, http:// www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ920738.pdf (accessed 10 June 2014). Evans, D. (2008). ‘The Effectiveness of M-Learning in the Form of Podcast Revision Lectures in Higher Education’. Computers and Education 50: 491–8. Hansmann, R. (2010). ‘Sustainability Learning: An Introduction to the Concept and its Motivational Aspects’. Sustainability 2: 2873–97, doi: 10.3390/su2092873. Hoven, D. and Palalas, A. (2011). ‘(Re)conceptualizing Design Approaches for Mobile Language Learning’. CALICO Journal 28 (3): 699–720, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11139/ cj.28.3.699-720. Huang, Y. M., Huang, Y. M., Huang, S. H. and Lin, Y. T. (2012). ‘A Ubiquitous English Vocabulary Learning System: Evidence of Active/Passive Attitudes vs. Usefulness/Easeof-Use’. Computers and Education 58: 273–82. Hubbard, P. (2006). ‘Evaluating CALL Software’. In L. Ducate and N. Arnold (eds), Calling on CALL: From Theory and Research to New Directions in Foreign Language Teaching, 313–34. San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Hubbard, P. (2011). ‘Evaluation of Courseware and Websites’. In L. Ducate and N. Arnold (eds), Present and Future Promises of CALL: From Theory and Research to New Directions in Foreign Language Teaching, 2nd edn, 407–40. San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Huberman, A. M. and Miles, M. B. (1994). ‘Data Management and Analysis Methods’. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, 428–44. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Kim, H. and Kwon, Y. (2012). ‘Exploring Smartphone Applications for Effective MobileAssisted Language Learning’. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning 16 (1): 31–57. Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). ‘Will Mobile Learning Change Language Learning?’. ReCALL 21 (2): 157–65. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). ‘Language Learning defined by Time and Place: A Framework for Next Generation Designs’. In J. E. Díaz-Vera (ed.), Left to My Own Devices: Learner Autonomy and Mobile assisted Language Learning. Innovation and

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Leadership in English Language Teaching, 6, 1–13. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S2041-272X(2012)0000006004. Kukulska-Hulme, A. and Shield, L. (2008). ‘An Overview of Mobile Assisted Language Learning: From Content Delivery to Supported Collaboration and Interaction’. ReCALL 20: 271–89. Lee, J. and Kim, H. (2014). ‘An Exploratory Study on the Digital Identity Formation of Korean University EFL Learners’. English Teaching: Practice and Critique 13 (3): 149–72. Liakin, D., Cardoso, W. and Liakina, N. (2013). ‘Mobile Speech Recognition: A Tool for Teaching Second Language Pronunciation’. International Journal of Information Technology and Computer Science 8 (2): 58–65. Lin, C. (2014). ‘Learning English Reading in a Mobile-assisted Extensive Reading Program’. Computers and Education 78: 48–59. Lofland, J. and Lofland, J. (1984). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Ng, W. and Nicholas, H. (2013). ‘A Framework for Sustainable Mobile Learning in Schools’. British Journal of Educational Technology 44 (3): 695–715, doi:10.111 1/j.1467-8535.2012.01359. Rahimi, M. and Miri, S. (2014). ‘The Impact of Mobile Dictionary Use on Language Learning’. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 98: 1469–74. Reinders, H. and Hubbard, P. (2013). ‘CALL and Learner Autonomy: Affordances and Constraints’. In M. Thomas, H. Reinders and M. Warschauer (eds), Contemporary Computer assisted Language Learning, 359–75. London: Continuum Books. Stockwell, G. (2010). ‘Using Mobile Phones for Vocabulary Activities: Examining the Effect of the Platform’. Language Learning and Technology 14 (2): 95–110. Stockwell, G. (2013). ‘Tracking Learner Usage of Mobile Phones for Language Learning Outside of the Classroom’. In P. Hubbard, M. Schulz and B. Smith (eds), LearnerComputer Interaction in Language Education: A Festschrift in Honor of Robert Fischer, 118–36. San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Stockwell, G. and Hubbard, P. (2013). Some Emerging Principles for Mobile-assisted Language Learning. Monterey, CA: The International Research Foundation for English Language Education, http://www.tirfonline.org/english-in-the-workforce/mobileassisted-language-learning (accessed 14 May 2014). Strauss, A. (1994). ‘Grounded Theory Methodology’. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds), A Handbook of Qualitative Research, 273–85. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1996). Grounded Theory. Grundlagen Qualitativer Sozialforschung. Weinheim: Beltz. Willing, K. (1988). Learning Styles in Adult Migrant Education. Australia: NCRC Research Series.

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Appendix List of the thirty-one language learning mobile apps introduced in the MALL workshop Word & Grammar (8)

News and Broadcast (6)

Stories (6)

Smart words

TED

Dracula

Words to learn by

CNN

Idiom attack

NYT

Public speaking speech prep Alice in Wonderland IELT’s speaking success A+ English

Practice your English grammar

Good morning pops

Fluent English

Grammar express

iListen

Big city Small world

One touch listening clinic

College girls voice blog

English grammar in use English grammar

Test Prep (7)

TOEIC listening

Scott’s English Success Listening Prepare for TOEIC 1000 TOEIC Test Kaplan TOEIC Vocabulary

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Improving Learners’ Reading Skills Through Instant Short Messages: A Sample Study Using WhatsApp Mar Gutiérrez-Colón Plana, Ana Gimeno, Christine Appel and Joseph Hopkins

1 Introduction Pownell and Bailey (2001) distinguish four phases in the evolution of educational technologies. The first phase started in the early 1970s and the second one came along with the appearance of desktop computers, while the third one began in the late 1990s with the advent of the internet. It was in the year 2001 when the fourth phase commenced with the emergence of laptops and, soon after, mobile phones. For Stockwell (2007), this last stage would be included in what Warschauer and Healey (1998) described as integrative CALL, which means that students use a number of technological tools to support language learning. Additionally, foreign language learning does not solely take place in a lab or a classroom, but it is first and foremost a constant and continuous activity. It is also believed that the popularity of mobile phones is due to their fast spreading on the market, lower prices (in comparison with laptops) and the simplicity of their use. Even though mobile phones do have certain drawbacks – the most common one being their relatively small screen (Stockwell 2007) – many teaching institutions consider them the most appropriate and sustainable technological tools for m-learning.

1.1  The use of mobile phones in learning and teaching The idea of using mobile phones as a classroom tool was introduced into the field of education approximately ten years ago, but the first pilot studies appeared in 2008, conducted by researchers such as Lu (2008), Levy and Kennedy (2005), Cavus and Ibrahim (2009). Thornton and Houser (2005) state: Teachers must make difficult choices about how to use that limited time [class time] to promote language learning. Since foreign language students usually have

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opportunities to speak and hear the target language only in the classroom, it makes sense to use as much class time as possible in communicative activities. This means that other kinds of practice and exposure must be provided in other ways. We believe that mobile technology can help extend learner opportunities in meaningful ways. (p. 218)

Traxler (2009) believes that the book format limits learning due to its linear characteristics, while formats based on the internet present knowledge in a richer, more attractive way due to the fact that all the bits of information are interconnected with a vast number of information sources. He also claims that mobile technology has a direct impact on knowledge in our society: how it is created, transmitted, evaluated and used. On the other hand, the use of mobile devices in education has proved to be personal and spontaneous, their main characteristic being their ubiquitous nature. As Crescente and Lee (2011) point out, ‘The main objective of m-learning is to provide the learner [with] the ability to assimilate learning anywhere and at any time’ (p. 112). These features increase the feeling of control that the learner has over his or her learning process. What is more, it can also act as a supplement to any teaching methodology. In this sense, what is especially interesting is the possibility of adapting it to any number of learning and teaching scenarios and approaches. So (2009) points out that we cannot assume that all the students own a laptop. But we can be sure that the majority do own a mobile phone that they mainly use for voice communication and instant messaging. This is why, if we bear in mind how easy it is to connect to the internet with a smartphone, we realize the numerous possibilities at hand to support language learning and teaching in a sustainable way that does not imply an added financial burden for the learner. Smartphones, which are currently the most ubiquitous and stable technologies, no doubt have an enormous potential in education. They are reliable, among other things, because even if the telephone is turned off or out of range, instant messages are saved on servers and accessible through the mobile device as soon as it is available again. Thus, information is never lost and the communication channel is never entirely cut off.

1.2 Education policies and mobile learning: UNESCO and the European Commission In UNESCO’s ‘Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning’ (2013), m-learning is defined as follows: ‘Mobile learning involves the use of mobile technology, either alone or in combination with other information and communication technology (ICT) to enable learning anytime and anywhere’ (p. 6). It is important to highlight that UNESCO defines mobile learning as one of the branches of ICT. This is a crucial fact since, not so long ago, some language instructors still thought that the use of iPads or mobile phones in class was ‘not serious enough’ and so would never be considered as educational technologies. UNESCO’s Policy Guidelines (2013) assess mobile learning in a favourable way. Moreover, the document includes twenty-six pages describing

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the advantages of mobile technologies in the field of education. Some of these are summarized below: ●●

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Owing to the fact that this new technology is affordable for the users, and that it can be personalized and portable makes it possible for the contents to be adjusted to its users’ needs. This technology allows data collection as well as users’ data analysis, which enables personalization of learning according to the needs of the student. Millions of people already own a mobile phone. This provides the students with great flexibility when it comes to the rhythm of learning and learning opportunities. Mobile technology is by far more affordable than any other technological device with connection to the internet. This implies that the traditional models of the use of technology and its implementation should be reestablished. Mobile technology allows immediate replies and error correction. Due to the fact that we carry around our mobile phones at all times in all places, learning can also take place at any time in any place. This was not conceivable with previous learning models. This new technology has created learning communities that did not exist before. The borders between formal and informal learning have been blurred and students have access to all kinds and sources of information in order to continue with their formal learning processes. Because of its great capacity to enlarge fonts, translate texts, indicate the whereabouts of the users by the use of coordinates, text into voice conversion, etc., mobile technologies have opened up doors for learners with physical, visual or auditory impairments.

Due to this potential and the great increase in the use of mobile phones in education, UNESCO also provides advice in order to reach a responsible model of educational policies in each country to provide educational institutions with the correct use of this tool. That is to say, UNESCO (2013) has a very clear notion regarding the benefits of implementing these emerging technologies in the field of education and it suggests a number of actions for their correct use. The following summarizes some of them: ●●

●● ●● ●●

●●

●●

●●

Due to the fact that the policies created for the use of ICT in education were created in the ‘pre-mobile era’, new ones should be created. The potential of this new technology should be studied in depth. Radical banning of the use of mobile phones in classrooms should be avoided. It is highly probable that not all teachers have been formally prepared to use this technology in their classes. It is hence necessary to create training programmes that would cover that need. Open-source programs should be used since these allow each and every person to make use of mobile technologies. Students should be permitted to bring their own mobile phones into the classroom whenever possible. It is also necessary to inform students of the appropriate use of their mobile phones in a classroom environment.

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According to another document entitled ‘Rethinking Education: Investing in skills for better socio-economic outcomes’, prepared by the European Commission (2012), initial research on linguistic competencies carried out in the European Union reveals that all the effort put into education by many EU countries is not enough and that ‘Faster reform is needed by Member States, based on new methodologies and technologies for teaching both the first and second foreign language …’ (p. 5). Additionally, the Commission recommends that ‘Large-scale pilot studies in real-life environments should define how, when and where ICT can be used effectively in pedagogical and assessment approaches.’ The document in question concludes with a section entitled ‘Priorities for Member States.’ It is here that six actions are presented in order to initiate an educational reform at all levels. It is important to mention that the fifth numbered action refers to the need to support ICT-based teaching and assessment practices. During the last few years, the European Commission has funded a number of research projects focusing on mobile technologies. According to UNESCO’s ‘Turning on Mobile Learning in Europe’ (2012), the United Kingdom is the country in which educational projects based on mobile technology have been most prevalent. This was possible because of mobile technology in education being strongly supported by the government and, crucially, by research groups in that country that has provided decisive results. Key projects in the UK include the following: Handheld Learning Resources Project (School of Engineering’s Education Technology Research Group at Birmingham University)1; MOBIlearn2; eMapps (Motivating Active Participation of Primary Schoolchildren in Digital Online Technologies for Creative Opportunities through Multimedia)3; M-Learning Programme4; MoLeNET5; and the University of Wolverhampton’s MELaS project.6 According to the same source, The Netherlands is another country that has funded several m-learning projects. Some such projects are the Geo-Information for Integrating Personal Learning Environments (GIPSY) programme and the Manolo project (Wentzel et al. 2005), and a mobile learning project called ARena, which focused on augmented reality. As well as funding several m-learning projects, in 2011 the Danish government issued a new ICT strategy for the country, called the ‘Digital Path to Future Welfare’, which was revised in January 2012 by the incoming government. Part of the investment was to be dedicated to developing digital learning materials and creating more efficient online and mobile platforms to distribute them. According to the document in question, EU Member States have shown great interest in the development of mobile technology, at least at the legislative level. However, this document also depicts some of the major disadvantages regarding mobile technologies such as lack of support at the political level, insufficient (or nonexistent) government investment, as well as negative attitudes towards this technology shown by both politicians and parents. Although the number of projects based on mobile technologies has slowly increased, those that focus their research on improving reading comprehension skills in English for Specific Purposes (ESP), such as the one presented here, are scarce. The findings that will be presented in this chapter focus on the results of a project conducted with university students in Spain to explore the benefits and drawbacks of using instant short messaging systems such as WhatsApp to improve learners’ reading skills in ESP.

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2  Rationale and research questions The study is contextualized within recent theories dealing with ubiquitous learning and the idea of using a mobile phone as a support tool for working alone on assigned tasks, as sustained by researchers such as Lu (2008), Kennedy and Levy (2009), and Cavus and Ibrahim (2009). Based on Gu et al.’s (2011) guidelines, the study was organized according to the following design principles regarding (a) content, (b) activity and (c) usability. The content (a) has to be practical and concise. By ‘concise’, we mean that the content has to address a learner’s practical needs and be organized into learning objects. These self-contained and granular learning objects have to be suitable for mobile delivery and fit into small slots of time. The activity (b) has to be quick and simple; that is, each activity should be made possible through one action ‘such as listening, reading or pushing a button to input feedback.’ The usability (c) has to be consistent and simple. The activities should focus on the need to keep learners’ attention and to keep content fresh in their minds. These considerations will be achieved in the design by highlighting, repetition and feedback, along with having small content chunks and short media presentation times (Gu 2011, p. 207). According to Burston (2011), ‘On the basis of past experience, it is clear that if mobile phone technology is to provide an effective language learning platform, it will need to meet the following criteria: ●● ●● ●● ●●

Its use cannot be intrusive. Its cost must be minimal. Its practical technological constraints must be reduced to a minimum. Its learning programs must be based on pedagogical methodologies grounded in second language acquisition research.’

Taking these considerations and the fact that ‘usability’ is an ever-emerging issue in m-learning into account (Kukulska-Hulme et al. 2007; Churchill and Hedberg 2008), the authors designed a survey in order to explore the potential use of WhatsApp to help learners of English improve their reading comprehension skills, including vocabulary acquisition and retention. The guiding objectives were based on the following assumptions: (a) learners enjoy using a mobile phone to communicate; (b) the novelty of using their smartphone to carry out assigned tasks is motivating; and (c) since most users have a flat telephone rate, using a smartphone represents a sustainable teaching option as it does not imply an added cost for learners or for the institution. Based on these objectives the survey was designed to find answers to the following research questions: ●●

●● ●●

●●

What were the students’ habits and attitudes towards reading in English prior to participating in the project? Did students’ attitudes change after the project? If so, in what ways did they change? Did the students feel that their reading comprehension skills had improved as a result of participating in the project? If so, in what ways had they improved? What were students’ views regarding the method utilized for practising reading skills?

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In the following sections we shall describe the method used to implement the study, present the results and discuss our findings.

3 Method The participants in this study were ninety-five learners studying English as part of their degree at the University Rovira i Virgili in Catalonia. Their target level was B2 according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe 2001). Of the ninety-five students, sixty-five were male and thirty female, and student ages ranged from eighteen to twenty-three. Participants replied to a call for volunteers among students registered in the course mentioned above. A requirement to participate was to have a smartphone with an internet connection and the instant messaging system WhatsApp installed. Students who did not register for the study in the targeted B2 EFL course were administered the same contents on paper in order not to put them at a disadvantage. The study took place over twelve weeks during which students were to receive, via WhatsApp, messages with short reading activities three times a week. To this end, microactivities were designed using texts belonging to the Quantum LEAP7 online learning environment. This source had already been pedagogically tested with EFL learners (Arnó et al. 2009). The twelve texts used were then segmented into three parts and a reading comprehension question designed for each of them. Exercises included a balanced number of typologies: twelve multiple choice, twelve gap-filling, twelve True/False, plus one open-ended question, adding up to a total of thirty-seven. During the twelve-week period, three exercises were regularly sent each week – on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. Approximately 50 per cent of the texts delivered included two different exercise types. For ease of delivery, the texts and comprehension questions were administered through a link to a SurveyMonkey survey sent out in a WhatsApp message. Students could then click on the link to view the text and exercise/s. On submission of the answers to the exercises, students received immediate automatic feedback, thus keeping learner input quick and simple to avoid discouragement (Gutiérrez-Colon Plana et al. 2012). The images below illustrate a text fragment and a multiple-choice question (Figure  15.1) and its corresponding immediate feedback with the correct answer (Figure 15.2). Participants in the study were assigned to WhatsApp groups of approximately twenty students for two reasons. One was to ensure that despite different term start dates for participants in different faculties, they all received the texts within twelve weeks after receiving the initial instructions. The second reason was to avoid large groups of students, thus making interaction among students in the group manageable. There were no instructions given prior to the study that students should use the WhatsApp group as a communication space, although we anticipated that this kind of communication might spontaneously emerge. In the end, participants made no use of these groups for messaging the rest of the group members and used it solely to access the links for the activities.

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Figure 15.1  First text and a multiple choice question.

Figure 15.2  Feedback.

The data collected for the analysis of the study include student responses to the exercises with a date and time stamp. In addition, an initial questionnaire was sent to participants to gather information on their reading habits in English. A final survey upon completion of the twelve-week period was also carried out to explore student satisfaction. In the following section we shall discuss some of the findings.

4 Findings 4.1  Participation and response rate to questionnaires As stated earlier, a total of ninety-five students volunteered to take part in the project and subsequently received reading exercises via WhatsApp three times weekly over the three-month period. Of these, eighty-eight responded to the initial questionnaire, administered at the outset of the project. However, as can be seen in Figure 15.3, the number of students actually completing the reading tasks received on their mobile devices declined steadily over time, with only thirty-three students responding to the final task. Similarly, only thirty-three participants responded to the post-questionnaire.

4.2  Habits and attitudes prior to the project In response to the initial questionnaire, 58.1 per cent of the students replied that they sometimes read in English, and 55.8 per cent responded that they felt at ease when doing so. This questionnaire also contained an open question asking students for details about their reading habits in English. As can be seen in Table 15.1, besides reading for

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Figure 15.3  Rate of participation over the three-month period. Table 15.1  Students’ reading habits in English prior to the project Purpose

Frequency

Browsing the internet

24

University studies

14

Pleasure (books)

13

English class

9

Computer games

8

News

7

Subtitles of movies/TV programmes on the Web

6

Technical manuals

5

Song lyrics

4

Comics/mangas

3

the formal academic contexts of university and language courses, participants reported that they also read in English informally for many other purposes, such as for browsing the internet and reading books for pleasure. Furthermore, the types of texts mentioned illustrate a wide range of reasons for reading in English in addition to their studies, such as reading instructions for computer games or watching movies or television programmes online with subtitles in English.

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4.3  Attitudes before and after the project At the outset of the project, students were asked about their attitudes towards reading in English. Subsequently, in the post-questionnaire they were asked if their attitude had changed as a result of their participation. As can be seen in Table 15.2, the vast majority of respondents (87.9 per cent) reported a more positive attitude towards reading in English after the project, regardless of whether their initial disposition was positive or negative. Only 12.1 per cent of the respondents indicated that their attitudes had remained unchanged, whereas all of the students who had reported an initial negative attitude reported a more positive disposition at the end of the project. Furthermore, 90.63 per cent of the respondents acknowledged that their participation in the project had increased their motivation towards reading in English. Examination of the responses to open-ended questions revealed that ten students felt more confident and were no longer afraid to read in English. Three respondents indicated that the experience of receiving short texts via WhatsApp had increased their motivation by demonstrating that they were able to read in English in an impromptu, more spontaneous, manner, without the aid of a dictionary. Illustrating this view, one participant, who in the initial questionnaire had indicated that he found reading in English to be particularly burdensome, wrote the following in the post-questionnaire: I now pay more attention to the texts and analyse the words that I don’t understand. The project has helped me to interpret them and to find a possible meaning according to the context.8

Indeed, this student had written in the initial questionnaire that he felt the need to look up every word he did not know when reading in English. When receiving short texts on his mobile device, however, he was forced to focus his attention on contextual cues in the text in order to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items. Similarly, two other students also reported the perception of increased attention after taking part in the project: I actually feel more comfortable and confident. Now I have the feeling that I pay more attention when reading in English. Now I’m paying more attention to the details. Not only do I try to understand the general idea of the text attempts to convey, but also the way in which this is done.

Table 15.2  Attitude towards reading in English before and after the project Attitude before project

More positive after project?

Number of students (N = 33)

Percentage

Positive Positive

Yes

25

75.8%

No

4

12.1%

Negative

Yes

4

12.1%

Negative

No

0

0%

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With regard to students who indicated that their attitude towards reading in English had not changed, there is, nonetheless, some indication that they still benefitted in some way from the experience. For example, the following student found the activity to be enjoyable: I think that my comprehension of texts in English has always been good, but it has been a fun experience.

Likewise, another student who reported that his attitude had not changed did indicate, however, that his reading comprehension had improved: My understanding has got better but not my attitude since reading in English is still a chore for me.

It should be recalled that the project was carried out over a relatively short period of time. It would seem plausible, therefore, that the above student’s disposition towards reading in English would improve if he was given more opportunities for reading practice.

4.4  Perceived improvement in reading comprehension A majority of the participants (84.8 per cent) reported in the post-questionnaire that taking part in the project had helped them improve their reading comprehension in English. The specific ways in which students felt they had improved are provided in Table 15.3, where one can observe that the most frequently mentioned benefit was learning new vocabulary and expressions.

4.5 Participants’ perceptions of the use of mobiles for reading comprehension practice Regarding the method utilized for practising reading skills, the post-questionnaire asked participants to list what they viewed as positive aspects of the project. These are provided in Table 15.4, along with the frequency with which they were mentioned. Table 15.3  Improved aspects according to participants Improved aspect Vocabulary and expressions

Frequency 12

English in general

8

More attention to details

4

Comprehension in general

4

Reading habits

2

Reactivated knowledge

1

Quick reading

1

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Table 15.4  Positive aspects mentioned by participants Positive aspect The design of the project was simple.

Frequency 12

I liked the fact that the exercises were sent by WhatsApp.

6

You could answer the exercises quickly.

6

There was a good variety of texts to read.

6

I could participate at any time, anywhere.

4

I liked the multiple-choice questions.

3

I found the photos that accompanied the text motivating.

3

I liked the fact that there was feedback for most questions.

2

The readings were short.

2

The readings were interesting.

1

Table 15.5  Negative aspects mentioned by participants Negative aspect

Frequency

The fill-in-the-blank questions were difficult and no feedback was provided.

4

The project created more work for me.

3

My mobile connection was slow.

3

There were some periods without messages.

3

Some of the questions were poorly formulated.

2

The texts were too short.

2

The increase in difficulty of the texts was not progressive.

2

The period of the project was too short.

2

There were few exercises.

1

There is no way to go back to the text once you’ve finished the exercise.

1

As can be observed, respondents valued the simple design of the project, the mode of delivery of the exercises via WhatsApp, the variety of texts used and the fact that they could do the exercises quickly at any time or place. On the other hand, the drawbacks encountered by participants are provided in Table 15.5. There were comments relating to the frustration of not knowing the correct answer to a comprehension question and the fact that the actual reading texts sent were short excerpts of a whole text, which negatively affected comprehension. The gapfilling items were reported to be the most difficult exercise type, possibly because it was the only activity that required students to write some text themselves to answer the comprehension question. Two students also suggested that each exercise should build upon the next, progressively increasing the language level in order to increase the challenge of responding correctly to the questions. This comment could be seen as relating to the gaming culture, where progressing to the next level is subject to specific achievements.

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5 Conclusions 5.1  Research questions revisited We shall now return to the four research questions that guided this study and briefly discuss the relevant results. ●●

What were the students’ habits and attitudes towards reading in English prior to participating in the project?

The results showed that most students in the study read in English (58.1 per cent) and that they felt fairly confident when doing so (55.8 per cent). In addition to reading texts specifically for language classes and university courses, these students read in English outside of academic contexts, such as for browsing the Web, reading books for pleasure or playing computer games. These results are a reflection of the fact that most of today’s university students are receiving reading practice in the language(s) they are studying not only in the classroom, but also from numerous sources, especially from the internet. ●●

Did students’ attitudes change after the project? If so, in what ways did they change?

An overwhelming majority of participants completing the project (90.9 per cent) reported a more positive disposition towards reading in English after receiving the exercises on their mobile phones. Specifically, participants wrote that the experience had helped them to become more confident and feel less intimidated, thus leading to increased motivation overall to read in the L2. Indeed, by having to complete reading comprehension exercises ‘on the fly’, without the aid of a dictionary or any other support tools, students were forced to attend to contextual elements of the texts in order to extract meaning, rather than focusing on individual lexical items, which might have been the case if they had had a dictionary by their side. The fact that they discovered they were able to comprehend texts in this way no doubt contributed to students’ improved attitude towards reading in English. This finding represents an affordance stemming from the ubiquitous nature of m-learning (see Crescente and Lee 2011), which had a positive effect on learner motivation. It should be noted, however, that the participants did have access to other information sources, such as online dictionaries. Nevertheless, despite the fact that the exercises were delivered within the interconnected context of the internet (Traxler 2009), it appears that students did not avail themselves of the additional resources available, perhaps because of the difficulty of working with multiple windows on a mobile phone. Instead, they relied solely on contextual cues within the texts themselves to infer the meanings of unknown lexical items. ●●

Did the students feel that their reading comprehension skills had improved as a result of participating in the project? If so, in what ways had they improved?

The vast majority of participants who completed the project (84.8 per cent) believed that their overall competence in reading comprehension had improved. Specifically, many students noted that their ability to recognize certain vocabulary items and

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expressions had been enhanced. It should be stressed, however, that this perception reflects a non-specialist view of L2 reading comprehension, in which knowledge of lexis is typically viewed as the most essential factor affecting understanding of a written text. Nonetheless, as was noted previously, thanks to the experience of deducing the meaning of unknown lexical items and expressions from the context, learners received practice in an important strategy that they can utilize for improving their overall reading comprehension in the future. ●●

What were students’ views regarding the method utilized for practising reading skills?

Regarding the method utilized, the participants valued the following design aspects of the project: the mode of delivery of the exercises via WhatsApp, the variety of texts used and the fact that they could do the exercises quickly at any time or place. This latter finding is very important, since it reinforces the idea that m-learning tasks should be methodologically simple in design so that the students feel comfortable with the technology and can easily engage with it.

6 Limitations Regarding the limitations of this study, we should note that the benefits in terms of attitudes and learning are based on student perceptions from those who completed the project. Only slightly over one-third of the students finished the project and filled out the post-survey. The perceptions of the students who dropped out along the way are not part of the study. In addition, it was not possible in the context of the study to measure learning gains independently from perceptions. In addition, with respect to the actual process of implementing this reading comprehension reinforcement method, what prominently stood out was the need to create a teacher-independent application to automatically send all the text messages and exercises to avoid relying on a teacher’s constant availability to send the messages according to a set schedule. Without this application, scaling up the implementation of this activity is not realistic in terms of teacher workload.

7  Future research The popularity of smartphone applications will no doubt vary with time. In order to scale up the use of such practices, a web application is needed to facilitate the creation of contents and delivery. The combinations of applications such as SurveyMonkey and WhatsApp served the purpose of this study, but one of its outcomes is determining the features that such a web application should have, the ability to schedule automatic distribution of messages being a crucial priority. Another factor that became obvious at the outset of the project was that the length of the texts that students are willing to read varies depending on a number of factors,

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one of which is again related to the actual technology itself, that is, the size of the mobile phone screen and, therefore, the ease with which certain text lengths can be read. The study described in this chapter observed a high level of student dropout, the reasons for which are not clear. It would be interesting, therefore, to replicate the study and analyse the reasons why this may occur, since the medium of delivery and the limitations of exercise typology may be important factors. Another aspect deserving further investigation is the use of instant messaging applications to encourage communication among students related to a particular reading task, thus fostering spontaneous exchanges and interaction.

8  Considerations regarding sustainability In order to ensure sustainability of particular m-learning activities, such as the ones reported in this chapter, a number of factors must be carefully considered. First of all, within the European context of this study, we could assume that most students would have smartphones with internet access, either through data packages purchased from their mobile service providers or via free Wi-Fi hotspots in public places, which are increasingly more available. This, however, is not the case in many parts of the world. In addition, in our setting we could expect that students would have WhatsApp installed on their devices, whereas in other areas this particular instant messaging application might not be popular or simply not obtainable. Furthermore, given the fast-paced nature of technological developments, it is not clear how long users will have access to WhatsApp or whether they will continue to use it if something more attractive becomes available, in which case the learning activities developed might need to be adapted. The cost for users of instant messaging applications and price schemes for different Operating Systems should also be taken into account when mainstreaming the use of mobile devices for a language programme. In this case, at the time of the study, iPhone users had to pay a minimal fee for the download of WhatsApp and use was free for the first year for Android and Blackberry users. Finally, bearing in mind different Operating Systems is also important with respect to a web application for the creation and delivery of contents. For this to be sustainable, there must be easy access for students, teachers and authors of materials. A key issue here, however, aside from the cost of development, are the decisions that must be made regarding which Operating Systems the application is developed for and the cost of maintaining separate updates for each one.

Acknowledgements This project was co-funded by the Universitat Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain) and Banco Santander as a part of the LINE Programme (Ref. LINE1104). It has been granted the 2013 University Council Award: Premi del Consell Social de Qualitat Docent 2013.

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Notes 1 http://www.eee.bham.ac.uk/handler/default.asp 2 http://www.mobilearn.org 3 http://www.learningfrontiers.eu/?q=tel_project/EMAPPS.COM 4 http://www.m-learning.org 5 http://www.molenet.org.uk 6 http://www.wlv.ac.uk/default.aspx?page=15227 7 http://www.quantumleap.cat 8 All quotes have been translated from the original Catalan or Spanish.

References Arnó, E., Rueda, C. and Soler, A. (2009). ‘Designing a Virtual Learning Environment for EAP Students: “Quantum LEAP (Learning English for Academic Purposes)”. In I. González-Pueyo, C. Foz Gil, M. Jaime Siso and M. J. Luzón Marco (eds), Teaching Academic and Professional English Online, 57–82. Oxford: Peter Lang. Burston, J. (2011). ‘Realizing the Potential of Mobile Phone Technology for Language Learning’. IALLT Journal of Language Learning Technologies 41 (2): 56–71. Cavus, N. and Ibrahim, D. (2009). ‘M-Learning: An Experiment using SMS to Support Learning new English Language Words’. British Journal of Educational Technology 40 (1): 78–91. Churchill, D. and Hedberg, J. (2008). ‘Learning Objects Design Considerations for SmallScreen Handheld Devices’. Computers and Education 50: 881–93. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crescente, M. L. and Lee, D. (2011). ‘Critical Issues of M-Learning: Design Models, Adoption Processes, and Future Trends’. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineers 28 (2): 111–23. European Commission (2012). Rethinking Education: Investing in Skills for better Socio-Economic Outcomes. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/news/ rethinking_en.htm (last accessed 17 July 2014). Gu, X., Gu, F. and Laffey, J. M. (2011). ‘Designing a Mobile System for Lifelong Learning on the Move’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 27: 204–15. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, M., Gallardo Torrano, P. and Grova, M. E. (2012). ‘SMS as a Learning Tool: An Experimental Study’. The EUROCALL Review 20 (2). Retrieved from http://eurocall.webs.upv.es/index.php?m=menu_00&n=news_20_2#sms on 03/06/2013. (last accessed 17 July 2014). Kennedy, C. and Levy, M. (2009). ‘Sustainability and Computer-assisted Language Learning: Factors for Success in a Context of Change’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 22: 5, 445–63. Kukulska-Hulme A., Traxler, J. and Petit, J. (2007). ‘Designed and User-Generated Activity in the Mobile Age’. Journal of Learning Design 2: 52–65. Levy, M. and Kennedy, C. (2005). ‘Learning Italian via Mobile SMS’. In A. KukulshkaHulme and J. Traxler (eds), Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers, 76–83. London: Routledge.

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Lu M. (2008). ‘Effectiveness of Vocabulary Learning via Mobile Phone’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 24: 515–25. Pownell, D. and Bailey, G. (2001). ‘Getting a Handle on Handhelds: What to Consider before you Introduce Handheld Computers in Your School’. American School Board Journal 188 (6): 18–21, 48 Supplement, June 2001. So, S. (2009). ‘The Development of a SMS-Based Teaching and Learning System’. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange 2 (1): 113–24. Stockwell, G. (2007). ‘Vocabulary on the Move: Investigating an Intelligent Mobile Phonebased Vocabulary Tutor’. Computer Assisted Language Learning 20 (4): 365–83. SurveyMonkey (2012). Available from http://www.surveymonkey.com. Thornton, P. and Houser, C. (2005). ‘Using Mobile Phones in English Education in Japan’. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 21: 217–28. Traxler, J. (2009). ‘Learning in a Mobile Age’. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning 1 (1): 1–12. UNESCO (2012). Turning on Mobile Learning in Europe. Illustrative Initiatives and Policy Implications. Working Paper Series on Mobile Learning. Retrieved from http:// unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002161/216165E.pdf (Last accessed 17 July 2014). UNESCO (2013). Policy Guidelines for Mobile Learning. 2013. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0021/002196/219641e.pdf (last accessed 17 July 2014). Warschauer, M. and Healey, D. (1998). ‘Computers and Language Learning: An Overview’. Language Teaching 31: 57–71. Wentzel, P., van Lammeren, R., Molendijk, M., de Bruin, S. and Wagtendonk, A. (2005). Using Mobile Technologies to Enhance Students’ Educational Experiences. ECAR Case Study2. Boulder, Colo., EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research (ECAR). Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ers0502/cs/ecs0502.pdf (last accessed 17 July 2014).

Part Five

Innovation in CALL

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Eyetracking in CALL – Present and Future Breffni O’Rourke, Claire Prendergast, Lijing Shi, Bryan Smith and Ursula Stickler

1 Introduction Proving the sustainability of CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning) applications and CALL research relies on evidence. Where traditional observation and experimental research are not sufficient, novel techniques are employed by CALL researchers, often in innovative ways. Capturing as closely as possible learners’ interaction with the computer and via the computer is essential in this type of research. Only if we can convincingly show in which way CALL supports the learning of languages can we hope to build a recognized field of pedagogy and research around CALL, ICT in language learning or digital technologies for language teaching. Eye tracking is one of the research techniques used to capture Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) as it enables the detailed study of a person’s gaze movement. The exact position and duration of fixation at a given point on a screen or in a recorded environment is captured by one of various methods (commonly using corneal reflections) and can be visualized in the format of video or static images (Poole and Ball 2006). The technique offers an insight into cognitive processing to the extent that point of gaze coincides with attentional focus. According to the eye-mind hypothesis, people usually think about what they are looking at. Although this hypothesis has been challenged, it is less controversial when people are concentrating on a particular task, as they are usually paying attention to this (Nielsen and Pernice 2010). Reading research pioneered the technique of eye tracking over 100 years ago (Just and Carpenter 1976). Since then, it has been extensively used for first and second language research, in information processing (Rayner 1998, 2009) and in usability research (Jacob and Karn 2003; Nielsen and Pernice 2010). Relatively recent is the application of eye tracking to SCMC (Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication) research both in text-based settings (O’Rourke 2008, 2012; Smith 2010, 2012) and in multimodal settings (Stickler and Shi 2015): promising avenues of research that will be described in more detail later in this chapter. What is the particular benefit eye tracking can add to the palette of methods employed for CALL research? In general, it can facilitate research into users’ interactions with computer interfaces of any kind used in CALL, but in this chapter our

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interest is twofold. First, it can help to produce a clear picture of learners’ attentional focus during synchronous online language learning sessions. CMC studies often rely exclusively on self-reported data or output logs. As suggested by CALL researchers (Chun 2013; Fischer 2007), finding out what learners actually do when they learn online is an essential step in advancing our knowledge about CALL or CMC for online language learning. Second, triangulating eye tracking with other data collection methods provides a unique opportunity for online learners and teachers to reflect on their learning and allows the researcher to find information on learning processes (e.g. decision making, learning strategies, etc.), thereby advancing our understanding of online pedagogy. Stimulated recall is often recommended to ascertain learners’ rationalization of their learning (Gass and Mackey 2000; Nielsen and Pernice 2010). By watching the visualization of online interaction with superimposed gaze plots as a stimulus, learners are encouraged to recall and explain what they were doing, thinking and intending during their online interactions. CALL researchers generally approach language learning from one of three different perspectives: a cognitive SLA perspective mainly interested in mental processes, progress and acquisition; a sociocultural or ecological perspective that takes interaction with others, a culturally based development of understanding and communication as its agreed starting point; and finally, an action research perspective interested in pedagogical outcomes rather than the more analytical or experimental approaches generally associated with SLA research. We want to claim in this chapter that eye tracking can be fruitfully employed for any of these perspectives. In addition, by collaborating across two continents, three countries and four institutions, the five authors of this chapter want to show that multiple perspectives can enhance a fairly new research strand in CALL, making it a viable option for other researchers interested in contributing to the field, and adding to the evidence not only that CALL has an undeniable presence in language teaching today but also that CALL research has a promising future.

2  Methodological advantages and disadvantages of eye tracking 2.1 Advantages Eye tracking provides process-based data, which affords a level of ecological validity to the study in that it allows us to obtain evidence about what is happening during the comprehension of a sentence moment by moment, as processing unfolds, without significantly altering the normal characteristics of either the task or the presentation of the stimuli (Dussias 2010). For example, by using eye tracking, O’Rourke (2012) was able to establish several different types of monitoring learners performed during chat interaction. Eye tracking mitigates the uncertainty of what learners attend to (at some level) during interaction. That is, simply because a linguistic form appears on the learners’ screen it does not mean that they have attended to it. The eye tracking

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data provide a clear record of learner eye movements onto targets. Eye tracking (using remote, non-contact, as distinct from head-mounted, systems) is not likely to interfere with participants’ cognitive processing as do many other methodologies such as stimulated recall or concurrent think-aloud protocols. Finally, eye tracking can help SLA/CALL researchers test out the purported benefits of SCMC such as enhanced attention to form, processing advantages over spoken input and benefits of increased planning time, among others. For example, DeKeyser (2005) suggests that aspects of morphosyntax such as gender- and participant-verb agreement are strongly resistant to instructional treatments because learners are faced with recognizing and learning a complex underlying system of syntactic, semantic, morphological and phonological rules. Eye tracking records of learner interaction may help us determine whether the text-based medium affords an advantage for noticing things like grammatical gender.

2.2 Disadvantages 2.2.1 Cost Perhaps the biggest drawback to using eye tracking in research is the cost of many eye trackers and the accompanying software. The cost of remote eye tracking systems has come down drastically in the last few years with a low end of $99 from TheEyeTribe (for developers only) to consumer products of about $495 from Gazepoint for the GP3 hardware and basic software. More advanced eye tracking systems, such as those from EyeLink and Tobii, will cost multiple tens of thousands of dollars. Special software is required as well, though there are several open-source options that are compatible with various low-cost systems.

2.2.2 Accuracy The lower cost eye trackers also have a slower sampling rate (around 30Hz), with the most sophisticated systems using 1000–2000Hz. The higher sampling rate is needed in order to capture the most detailed information of very rapid eye movements such as those during reading or neurological studies. The sampling variation across different eye trackers may pose challenges when making comparisons across studies.

2.2.3 Design A researcher with one eye tracker can track the eye gaze of only one participant at a time, which is time intensive just for the data collection. Though collecting eye tracking data is fairly straightforward, moving or dynamic screen content poses challenges to data analysis. Synchronous chat tasks are not only reading tasks, but also visual search tasks. For example, when using eye tracking in chat interaction, the researcher cannot predict what learners will write and, therefore, cannot set up areas of interest (AOIs) in advance. Though this can be done after the chat data have been recorded, it is still time intensive as there will be different AOIs for each participant. For this reason, it may be more economical to avoid AOIs altogether and gather eye gaze information on linguistic targets as they occur – or as they are

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referred back to – by manually scanning the chat interaction video file and pinpointing eye fixations on targets one by one. Eye tracking software produces lots of data and analysing these data can be challenging. For example, it is not clear what relative importance measures such as first fixation duration, total viewing time, gaze duration, number of fixations on targets, regression to target and scan path have for SCMC interaction.

3  Domains of eye tracking research: SCMC For eye tracking research into SCMC, perhaps the principal challenge is ecological validity (realism). In this respect, it falls between cognitive-psychological research and traditional CMC research. At the most controlled but least realistic end of the spectrum  – in cognitive psychology – eye tracking participants engage in tasks designed or tailored for the lab. At the most realistic but least controlled end, much SCMC research involves descriptive analysis of the logs of chat sessions that would have taken place in any case, involving settings and software set-ups familiar to participants, perhaps even of their own choosing. The use of eye tracking data for reflective or pedagogic research, for example, action research, teacher training or learner preparation for CALL is in its infancy. This low-key application of eye tracking can support the drive towards sustainability of CALL by feeding the data acquired through research back into application with little effort required on the part of users. Unlike eye tracking in psychological research, SCMC eye tracking seeks to explore not low-level cognitive processing, but cognitive and interactive processes as they unfold in a familiar communicative activity. But unlike other paradigms of SCMC research, lab-like set-ups are currently unavoidable. Given that data gathering is to some extent obtrusive, there is still a decision to be made between experimental and descriptive designs, and that decision must be informed by the research questions. Hence Smith (2010, 2012) investigated participants’ attention to specific categories of conversational moves within an interactionist framework, and generated them by instructing the native speaker participants to seed their chats with relevant moves, such as recasts, while O’Rourke (2008) attempted to describe reading behaviours that were inevitably going to occur in any online chat, and thus involved minimal intervention. Stickler and Shi (2015) use eye tracking as part of a mixed-method study where the eye tracking data becomes the stimulus for subsequent reflective interviews. To foreground the reflective and pedagogic value of the research, the tasks and tools used should match real-life online classes as closely as possible. In all cases, the question arises as to which kind of SCMC program ought to be used for the study, and this has consequences for generalizability. SCMC studies that focus on discourse rather than on individual attention have greater licence in this regard: within limits, it can be assumed that the content of SCMC dialogue is not shaped in detail by the medium used. But differences in interface architecture can certainly affect the phenomena investigated by eye tracking: users’ attentional and reading behaviours. For example, an important distinction that has emerged with mobile computing is

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between instant-messaging (IM) type systems and chatroom type systems. In IM, both on computers and smartphones, communication is not a ‘ring-fenced’ activity but is interwoven with other tasks (device-based or otherwise), blurring the synchronous/ asynchronous distinction. In more traditional chat, users can largely be assumed to be engaged in the chat interaction in a dedicated chat ‘session’, that is, a clearly temporally and visually demarcated setting. In multimodal online environments, the additional complication of an overlap of modes (e.g. spoken and typed exchanges) needs to be taken into account. Finally, although the nature of the activity in general is likely to be familiar to participants, the nature of the task may not be so, and, again depending on the research questions, investigators need to decide what participants are to be asked to do. In experimental research, this is likely to be tightly defined, whereas in descriptive research it may be less restrictive. At any rate, the caveats regarding the importance of the nature of the task (context) on learner process and outcomes apply quite clearly to eye tracking research (see Yarbus 1967).

4  Findings from SCMC research using eye tracking 4.1  Findings from text-based SCMC studies Properties of SCMC said to promote language learning include visual salience, persistence of output and reduced conversational tempo. Much work on SCMC for language learning made the a priori argument that these properties should facilitate focus on L2 form within an overall focus on communication, a focus greater, it was implied, than that afforded by spoken interaction. Opportunities for focus on form occur within negotiation routines, corrective feedback outside negotiation routines (including recasts), unprompted noticing of forms in partner’s input and monitoring of one’s own output. Some research (e.g. O’Rourke 2005) attempted to investigate the occurrence of focus on form indirectly, by looking at language-related episodes and negotiation for meaning in output logs. But although such evidence can be suggestive, and allows us to characterize at least the kind of focus on form that is made overt in dialogue, only direct observation of learners’ real-time behaviour can show us whether the supposed attentional affordances of SCMC are actually exploited. O’Rourke (2008, 2012) and Prendergast (2011) sought direct evidence of attentional allocation (noticing) in SCMC using gaze triangulated with other evidence like self-editing and output modelled on previously occurring words. They identified several cases where gaze evidence demonstrated noticing that could not otherwise have been inferred, or where gaze evidence provided strong corroboration of noticing that could otherwise have been only tentatively inferred. O’Rourke (2012) also investigated recurring reading patterns, suggesting that chat participants do not consistently read their completed messages before sending them (by pressing the Enter key), but do tend to read them after sending them, unless a new message has appeared from the partner (a form of monitoring), and that while waiting for turns from their partners, participants often

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engage in ‘browsing’ behaviour, reading back through the section of prior dialogue visible in the output pane. O’Rourke (2012) further demonstrated that eye tracking allows us to reconstruct the participants’ experience of the turn-order, which often deviates from the order of the output logs, and which can disambiguate or clarify the connections across turns (i.e. which turns respond to which). Exploring the notion of attention and noticing of corrective feedback (CFB) during SCMC, Smith (2010) asked whether eye tracking technology could help determine what learners attend to in an L2 SCMC task-based environment. Recasts were chosen as the specific type of CFB. Results showed that learners noticed about 60 per cent of the intensive recasts they received by a native speaker interlocutor. Lexical recasts were much easier for learners to notice, retain and accurately produce on subsequent chat interaction and delayed written post-tests than were grammatical recasts. Using heat map records and stimulated recall records, Smith (2012) explored the relationship between noticing of recast target items and post-test scores for these same items. He also examined the relationship between the linguistic category of the recast target and noticing. Smith found that both stimulated recall and eye tracking records were favourable predictors of learner noticing, with the heat map record being slightly more discriminating in its ability to predict immediate post-test success. In terms of linguistic category of the recast, there was no significant relationship between this variable and noticing in the eye tracking condition. However, in the stimulated recall condition, learners were much more likely to report having noticed recasts targeting semantic features than morphological recasts. Smith and Renaud (2013) examined the relationship between the nature of eye fixation and post-test scores on items targeted by the teacher in the form of recasts during task-based SCMC tasks. They also explored the relationship between the nature of the recast itself and whether or how long learners fixated on the target. They found that whereas fixation (over 200ms) on a targeted item occurred quite often (72 per cent) and predicted a significantly higher delayed post-test score than where no fixation occurred, this post-test success was moderate (about 19 per cent correct). There was also evidence that it is the number of fixations (3) on a target that positively predicts post-test success rather than other factors such as the linguistic focus on the recasts, estimated difficulty of the item, total fixation duration or number of possible targets in a given recast.

4.2  Findings from a multimodal SCMC study Synchronous online language tutorials are becoming commonplace. During such tutorials, multiple levels of interactions take place between teachers, learners and the computer, using different modes (e.g. spoken, written and graphic) and modalities (e.g. audio, text and emoticons). Combining eye tracking and stimulated recall interviews, one study (Stickler and Shi 2015) investigated learners’ attention during synchronous online language learning in a multimodal environment to find out learners’ attention focus in reading and interactive tasks during online Chinese tutorials. The ten participants were learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language at beginner or lower-intermediate level at the

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Open University, UK. While the learners took part in online reading and interaction activities, their gaze focus was tracked, and in subsequent stimulated recall interviews, the learners reflected on their engagement with the screen and their intention while reading online or speaking with others online. In terms of learners’ attention focus during online reading activities, the heat maps (a type of eye tracking visualization, see Figure 16.1) of all the participants show similar features: they predominately focus on the whiteboard area where Pinyin1, characters and comprehension questions are displayed. Variations in length of fixation can be broadly categorized according to the language level of individual learners. There is no attention focus on the social areas and only very occasional glances at the technical areas. The stimulated recall interviews revealed participants’ reasons for paying attention to Pinyin, which can be classified as: (a) simply because it was available (convenience), (b) using it for confirmation, and (c) relying on it for comprehension. The eye tracking data show that in interactive tasks, the learners’ gaze is drawn to content (e.g. Pinyin sections of the whiteboard), social (e.g. the names of fellow participants, emoticons) and technical (e.g. the microphone button) areas. By calculating duration of fixation on the three different areas mentioned above, it can be shown that the content areas account for approximately 70 per cent of the overall fixation duration, social areas for approximately 20 per cent and technical areas for approximately 10 per cent. Participants’ gaze focus during the interactive tasks shows concentration on names as one of the visual representations of interlocutors in online learning environments. When recalling their interactions, participants mention their need to ‘see who’s speaking’, ‘check who it was’, etc., verbalizing their interpretation of social presence indicators. Stickler and Shi’s (2015) findings confirm that from the learner’s point of view, social areas play a significant role in their online learning, whether they are relevant for the immediate task or not.

Figure 16.1  Reading task, heat map of participant 苏山 (Su Shan)’s gaze focus.

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Deploying eye tracking with stimulated recall interviews has proved worthwhile by deepening our understanding of the language learning processes from a sociocultural perspective. Eye tracking enables the researcher to scrutinize language learners’ attention during online synchronous tutorials; at the same time, stimulated recall helps to establish the reasons for learners’ attention to the specific areas. Additionally, watching the eye tracking video allows participants to reflect on and to explore their own learning experience, be it the interaction with the computer or the more complex interaction with other participants online. Expertise in understanding online language learning is thus shared with the users and can lead to a more effective application of learning principles and strategies in online environments.

5  Factors to consider when planning and setting up an eye tracking CALL study 5.1  Practical and technical issues Tracked participants will need to be briefed before the session begins, and there will typically be a short calibration routine. Some eye trackers may have difficulty tracking the gaze of participants with spectacles, heavy mascara or piercings. In such cases, the researcher must decide whether to continue regardless or to abandon the session. In the case of SCMC, the chat partner(s) must be available and ready for the participant to begin the session by indicating that they are attending and ready to start. Assuming the eye tracker is a remote type, the researcher will need to ensure that the tracked participant remains within the tracker’s effective tracking area. Slouching or repositioning the chair may result in loss of tracking data. For this reason, participant chairs with no rollers are preferred. Of course, if the task requires off-screen materials (dictionaries, prompts, diagrams), it should be noted that tracking will be lost when the participant is looking away from the screen. The challenges of using eye tracking to follow the gaze of learners engaged in Synchronous Multimodal Online Communication tutorials are multiple. To allow for a close approximation to a real online tutorial, the same software learners use for their courses should be employed in the research setting. The researchers need to make sure that this is compatible with the eye tracking set-up or make the necessary adjustments, for example, provide different log-in names, and place instructions for joining the online session on an introductory screen. In most lab settings, only one or two desktop eye tracking computers will be available. This means that only one online participant can be tracked at a given time; therefore, the logistics of having multiple participants joining a series of online tutorials from different venues at different times are quite daunting. Because of the lab setting, even a semi-realistic tutorial will never catch exactly what students would do if they joined the tutorial from their own home, in a comfortable environment and using their learning aids. This possible negative influence on the learning experience needs to be taken into account during the stimulated recall interviews.

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Technical challenges of recording Synchronous Multimodal Online Communication include the changing images on the screen, and the overlap of spoken interaction with other modes of communication. Limitations of concurrent eye tracking recordings also mean that online interaction can only be traced for one participant. Data collected during Synchronous Multimodal Online tutorials, even if limited to a small number of participants and short duration, will be extensive and selections need to be made for data analysis. A further challenge for drawing comparisons between learners is their different level of ICT skills and language competence. This is unavoidable in research that tries to capture realistic learning situations.

5.2 Generalizability A key question for research of this kind is whether we should claim to be learning about L2 interaction in general, or whether findings are generalizable, even tentatively, to spoken interaction. Long (2010) suggested in passing that Smith (2010) and O’Rourke (2008) bolster the case for the effectiveness of recasts in general (assuming they are sustained by further research). As one of the most convincing arguments for CALL would be the proof that learning a language online can be as effective as face-to-face classroom practice, if not more so, such research is obviously of great use to the future of CALL. But caution is needed here. First, SCMC provides different kinds of opportunities for noticing compared with speech. Processing of speech proceeds under limitations of attention, memory and time. All of these constraints are somewhat loosened in SCMC, since output is visual and persistent and the pace of production slower. This means that noticing in SCMC can (and frequently does) involve regressive  – backward-looking – gaze fixations, and also multiple fixations. It is doubtful that either regressive or multiple fixations have an analogue in speech processing, where all that is available for subsequent consideration is a quickly fading trace in the phonological loop component of working memory (Baddeley 2007). Second, the nature of the noticed linguistic form differs across modalities: in SCMC, it is visual and orthographic; in speech, acoustic and phonological. It is conceivable that, for example, visual salience of written words may lead to stronger long-term memory traces than acoustic/phonological forms in the phonological loop. So for both of these reasons – differences in noticing opportunities, and differences in noticing targets – caution is advised in generalizing eye tracking findings regarding focus on form beyond the domain of SCMC.

5.3  Realism and validity In CALL studies using eye tracking, it is generally preferred to use remote systems whereby nothing attaches to the participant. The reason for this is twofold. First, when using head-mount devices, or those requiring participants to place their chin on a chin rest, no claims can be made about pedagogical applications of any findings as such devices are far removed from the classroom experience. Care should be taken to recreate a situation in which learners interact with software or interlocutors in a way that at least resembles how they might do so under normal classroom

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conditions or in less structured settings. In both human–computer and human– human interaction via the computer, learners are essentially positioned in front of a computer screen and keyboard of some sort. Remote systems, which are known to the learner yet unobtrusive, are clearly the better choice as learners can focus on the task at hand rather than the device. The second reason is one of internal validity. When investigating SLA-related questions such as the nature of learner attention to form in CALL environments, it is impossible to estimate the impact of such devices on one’s attention to the task, task directions, their own or interlocutor’s input, feedback from the computer software, etc. When using remote systems, this danger is minimized. Eye tracking, if done with care and attention to real-life applications of CALL, can support a more realistic understanding of HCI in language learning, the development of more effective CALL tasks and more reflective teacher training for online language teaching. Overall study design will be constrained by the study’s research questions: matters such as the kind of SCMC activity that participants are asked to engage in, the kind of chat, IM or video-conferencing program used, the length of the session and so on. Since descriptive studies tend to aim at maximal realism, tasks and programs familiar to participants are advisable. Whether participants are co-located or in separate locations should be determined by the kind of set-up being investigated: if the research domain is in-class chat, then it makes sense to have participants in the same room, but for remote chat, partners should be separated. Research into multiparty (more than two participants) online conferencing should ideally involve at least three participants, though this may not be practical.

6  Data collection and analysis Eye tracking software can automatically generate visualizations and detailed numerical information on, for example, fixation counts and fixation duration. These are the most widely used measures of eye movements that have been developed in reading research (Duchowski 2003). When engaged in a quantitative study, one needs to determine what aspects of the vast amount of eye tracking data will be helpful. For example, most eye tracking software allows the user to determine (in milliseconds and pixels) at which point a series of closely grouped gaze data-points should count as a fixation. Where one sets these thresholds may very well be influenced by one’s research questions. For example, even if the number of fixations on a target is more important than the duration of each fixation for a specific study, one will still need to determine at what point the system ‘counts’ a fixation. The CALL researcher will also need to determine whether, say, the non-CALL reading research (using eye tracking) is helpful in this regard. In contrast, if one is more interested in correlating total viewing time with some outcome, then one would count all fixations, no matter how brief, in the total. Because eye trackers can be used only by one participant at a time, such studies typically have a relatively low participant number. This requires the researcher to carefully consider the statistical analysis that will be performed on the data.

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As the data from online spoken interaction is extensive, data analysis should be limited to salient points, for example, cutting off preparation tasks and focusing on elements of the interaction that are comparable between different participants. Investigators should consider which tools they intend to use for data analysis and ensure beforehand that the tools are appropriate for their data. Most eye tracker software will allow direct or indirect export of numerical data (time-stamped gaze coordinates, keyboard and mouse events, etc.) to programs like Excel and SPSS. Gaze replay in video format may be annotated using packages such as ELAN.2 Qualitative data from the stimulated recall interviews and follow-up questionnaires (see below) can likewise be analysed using CAQDAS (Computer-assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software). Qualitative findings can complement the quantitative results provided by eye tracking. Alternatively, qualitative elements can also form the basis of an action research cycle, leading to changes in online pedagogy.

7  Stimulated recall as supplementary data It is usually possible to follow the tracker software’s representation of gaze on a second monitor in real time, allowing researchers to take notes during the session and use these for follow-up questions afterwards. For example, repeated fixations on a particular word or output line may well call attention to themselves, and what prompted this gaze episode might be obscure or ambiguous. If the time stamp is noted, gaze replay can be used immediately afterwards in a stimulated recall interview. Other episodes might not be so readily observable, and follow-up interviews should be as close to the eye tracking session as possible. This additional cycle of data collection is vital in projects set up to focus on pedagogy and reflection. Here too, stimulated recall interviews should take place immediately after the eye tracking session, when participants still have their intentions and strategies clear in their mind, and can report in detail on their learning experience with the help of eye tracking visualizations. In addition, follow-up questionnaires to enquire after the longer-term effects of reflecting on one’s own learning can be used. These should contain open-ended questions to allow the voice of participants to come through.

8  Current work on eye tracking in SCMC Stickler and Shi focus their research around pedagogy and reflective practice; as such, a next step in their eye tracking research will be to capture the teacher’s perspective during online synchronous tutorials. Not only will this facilitate a deeper understanding of the challenges of online teaching, but data collected during such research can also function as stimuli for recall or reflection. As a pedagogic tool, visualizations of both teachers and learners engaging in online tutorials can be utilized in training programmes, leading to reflection on learners’ and teachers’ challenges in online communication, and discussions of best practice. Eventually, with the

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more widespread availability of eye trackers and eye tracking visualizations, these pedagogic tools will provide support for autonomously conducted teacher and learner preparation for online teaching and learning, for example, in the format of online selftraining activities. The descriptive studies of O’Rourke (2008) and Prendergast (2011) are based on tandem-style data gathered expressly for the purpose: that is, the participants were not otherwise engaged in SCMC for formal language learning. On the other hand, work described in O’Sullivan, Martin and O’Rourke (2011), and Martin, O’Sullivan and O’Rourke (2013) deals with chat sessions in telecollaborative groups focused on intercultural learning (a project called Speakwise), and has so far relied on output logs alone. This situation provides an opportunity for applying the techniques of descriptive eye tracking to an independently existing pedagogical set-up, which would provide greater ecological validity to the SCMC eye tracking research, and richer and more fine-grained detail to the Speakwise research. Michel and Smith (2014) are currently investigating the nature of alignment and structural convergence during SCMC. The overarching research question in this study asks what insights eye tracking technology can offer us about alignment and structural convergence that chatlogs and screen recordings alone cannot. Eye gaze records (coupled with screen capture) are able to help us distinguish true alignment and convergence from coincidence of co-occurrence during interaction. The eye gaze record also provides rich information about the nature of single-word and multiword units, and structural alignment among interlocutors during task-based chat interactions. For example, eye tracking affords us the opportunity to see the number of ‘visits’ one makes to a ‘model’ word, phrase or structure as well as the duration of each fixation on the model. Such information may help us determine where (and where not) alignment and convergence are likely to occur.

9 Outlook As eye trackers become more available and easier to use, researchers will increasingly employ the methods afforded by these tools to supplement or advance their studies of online language learning. It will be interesting to revisit the issues discussed in this chapter in a few years’ time to compare approaches and findings. We expect that findings from eye tracking studies will help to maintain a positive trend for CALL applications and CALL tasks. Eye tracking can help to provide evidence for the effectiveness of CALL as well as to support the deeper understanding and more reflective approach of CALL users, both teachers and learners, in online language learning environments. Finally, as proved by this joint chapter, collaboration between CALL researchers in different countries using eye tracking technology in a variety of different ways, and sharing their expertise and findings, can enrich our field, provide us with new ideas for future research avenues and enhance our understanding of CALL.

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Notes 1 Pinyin is a transcription method for Chinese characters using Roman letters to help learners of Chinese with the pronunciation of the syllables. 2 http://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/

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Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity on Academic L2 Writing Erifili Roubou

1 Introduction Over the last decades, researchers in the fields of second language acquisition (SLA) and second language (L2) pedagogy have argued that tasks present a valid alternative unit to sequence the language process as opposed to linguistically defined syllabi (Prabhu 1987; Robinson 2005; Skehan 1996). A major issue in task-based language teaching (TBLT) is how task characteristics affect task performance. Task difficulty is typically measured on the basis of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) constructs. The current study is situated in Robinson’s (2005) Triadic Componential Framework for Task Design (TCFTD), which is motivated by the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson and Gilabert 2007) and the Limited Attentional Capacity model (Skehan 1998; Skehan and Foster 2001). In the TCFTD model, Robinson (2001, 2005, 2007) suggests that task complexity should form the basis for proactive pedagogic task sequencing in task-based syllabi. Task complexity consists of two key dimensions: resource-directing and resource-dispersing. The model predicts that if the cognitive demands of a task increase along resource-directing dimensions, accuracy and complexity will be affected positively while fluency will be affected negatively. Increasing task difficulty along resource-dispersing dimensions will lead to less accurate, less fluent and less complex language production as more demands are made on learners’ attentional and memory resources. On the other hand, the Limited Attentional Capacity model advocates tradeoff effects among aspects of language production in more demanding tasks. Based on those models of task complexity, the following research questions were addressed: RQ1: How does proficiency in the English language affect fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index in simple versus complex tasks? RQ2: What are the effects of increasing task complexity on fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index?

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2  Theoretical background Task-based language teaching and second language acquisition research motivate this study with respect to task complexity, which is interpreted on the basis of Robinson’s (2001, 2005, 2007), Skehan’s (1998) and Skehan and Foster’s (2001) models of task complexity described below.

2.1  Task-based research The beginning of task-based language teaching can be traced to the 1970s when scholars emphasized the importance of authentic language in language instruction through the use of meaningful tasks (Skehan 2003). It was first popularized by Prabhu who taught secondary classes in India in the 1970s (Shehadeh 2005). TBLT emerged as a reaction to former approaches that emphasized grammar and structure over meaning. TBLT is an approach that promotes the use of authentic language in the completion of meaningful tasks in the target language. In particular, task-based approaches to second language teaching focus on learners’ ability to perform real-world tasks without any explicit instruction on grammatical rules (Rahimpour 2008). In this context, students engage in meaningful and goal-oriented tasks that reflect real-life situations such as booking a hotel, giving directions or visiting a doctor. Within this approach, the focus is on the outcome and communicative success of the task rather than on language structure. Skehan (1998, p. 98) notes that in TBLT ‘meaning is primary ... the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome’ and stresses that task-based instruction is not concerned with language display. Considering the above, it is apparent that TBLT partly originates from and is influenced by the principles of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which prioritize meaningful interaction and communicative intent over explicit teaching of language forms and structure. The main unit in TBLT is the ‘task’. Various definitions have been proposed to date (Ellis 2003; Nunan 2004; Prabhu 1987; Skehan 1998). Nunan (2004, p. 4) defines tasks as a ‘piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form’. The task however, as a unit of curriculum planning and teaching, gained increasing interest due to the attention it received from another area of study, that of second language acquisition.

2.2 Task-based language teaching and second language acquisition The history of second language acquisition can be divided into two stages. In the first stage, which covers the late sixties and seventies, researchers focused on how a second language is acquired. However, the conclusions and observations remained largely empirical and lacked theoretical foundations. In the second stage, from the 1980s

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 301 onwards, researchers wanted to test various hypotheses based on L2 acquisition theories (Ellis 2003). At this point, tasks became central in SLA and second language pedagogy as potential research tools (Kuiken and Vedder 2008). Long (1981) was among the first to introduce tasks in order to investigate input and interaction in SLA. The rationale was to investigate the cognitive processes that parallel naturalistic learning through real-life tasks as researchers started to question the effectiveness of formal grammar instruction. SLA researchers believed that the use of tasks in the L2 classroom had the potential to activate the cognitive processes that occur when learning a language in naturalistic situations out of the confines of language classrooms.

2.3  Task complexity Task complexity refers to the task’s intrinsic cognitive load, which affects performance and interlanguage development. Robinson (2001, p. 29) provides the following definition: ‘Task complexity is the result of the attentional, memory, reasoning, and other information processing demands imposed by the structure of the task to the language learner’. In addition, Ellis (2003) defines task complexity as ‘within’ learner variability in the sense that the same learners may perform differently when assigned tasks of varying complexity. The importance of task difficulty lies in the fact that it can affect the allocation of cognitive resources. The effects of varying levels of task complexity can be manipulated to direct attention to both meaning and form, which can promote interlanguage development and successful language learning. In the field of SLA, the most common dimensions of describing L2 performance are complexity, accuracy and fluency, collectively referred to as CAF. Those constructs have been measured and interpreted in various ways, yet they can all serve as an indicator of proficiency in the L2.

2.4  Models of task complexity Two of the most prominent theoretical frameworks proposed for measuring cognitive task complexity include the Limited Attentional Capacity Model (Skehan 1998; Skehan and Foster 2001) and the Triadic Componential Framework, also known as the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson 2001, 2005, 2007). These frameworks have been proposed to explain how task complexity results in variations in learner performance.

2.4.1  The Triadic Componential Framework The dimensional and factorial structure of the Triadic Componential Framework is based on the Cognition Hypothesis proposed by Robinson (2001, 2005, 2007). The theoretical foundations of the Cognition Hypothesis lie in the theories proposed by Long (1996), Schmidt (2001) and Wickens (1992). The Cognition Hypothesis states that pedagogic tasks should be designed and sequenced on the basis of increases in the cognitive demands they make on learners (Robinson and Gilabert 2007). The fundamental pedagogic claim of the Cognition Hypothesis is accommodated by the Triadic Componential Framework, which offers a taxonomy of task characteristics. In

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particular, Robinson’s model consists of three task components: task complexity, task conditions and task difficulty (see Figure 17.1). Task conditions refer to participation and the participants. Task difficulty concerns learners’ perception of task demands as a result of their abilities and affective responses, and, therefore, contributes to interlearner variation. Finally, task complexity refers to intralearner variation. Although all components are equally important for L2 task design, Robinson argues that it is task complexity that should form the basis for proactive pedagogic task sequencing in taskbased syllabi (Robinson 2005; Robinson and Gilabert 2007). Task complexity consists of two key dimensions, resource-directing and resourcedispersing. Resource-directing dimensions include parameters such as ± few elements and  ± here-and-now. Increasing task complexity along these dimensions affects accuracy and complexity positively and fluency negatively. Resource-directing tasks ‘have the potential to direct learners’ attentional and memory resources to the way the L2 structures and codes concepts, so leading to interlanguage development’ (Robinson 2005, p. 4). On the other hand, increasing complexity along resourcedispersing dimensions hinders learners from accessing their already established L2 Task complexity (cognitive factors)

Task conditions (interactional factors)

Task difficulty (learner factors)

(Classification criteria: cognitive demands) (Classification procedure: information-theoretic analyses)

(Classification criteria: interactional demands) (Classification procedure: behaviour-descriptive analyses)

(Classification criteria: ability requirements) (Classification procedure: ability assessment analyses)

(a) Resource-directing variables making cognitive/ conceptual demands e.g., ±here and now ±few elements ±spatial reasoning ±causal reasoning ±intentional reasoning ±perspective taking

(a) Participation variables making interactional demands e.g., ±open solution ±one-way flow ±convergent solution ±few participants ±few contributions needed ±negotiation needed

(a) Ability variables and task-relevant resource differentials e.g., h/l working memory h/l reasoning h/l task-switching h/l aptitude h/l field independence h/l mind/interactionreading

(b) Participant variables making interactant demands e.g., ±same proficiency ±same gender ±familiar ±shared content  knowledge ±equal status and role ±shared cultural  knowledge

(b) Affective variables and task-relevant state-trait differentials e.g., h/l openness to experience h/l control of emotion h/l task motivation h/l processing anxiety h/l willingness to communicate h/l self-efficacy

(b) Resource-dispersing variables making performative/procedural demands e.g., ±planning time ±single task ±task structure ±few steps ±independency of steps ±prior knowledge

Figure 17.1  The triadic componential framework for task classification.

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 303 knowledge. This is because resource-dispersing tasks cause learners to disperse their memory and attentional resources to different aspects of the task placing a burden on learners’ working memory. As resources are not directed to any particular aspect of the linguistic system, learners resort to their already established interlanguage system (Bialystok 1994). As a result, fluency, complexity and accuracy are all likely to be affected negatively in complex tasks. Although resource-dispersing parameters are expected to affect all constructs of task complexity negatively, they should not be dismissed. As Robinson (2005, p. 7) claims, increased complexity along those dimensions serves to simulate the processing conditions under which real-time language is often used and as a result, practice along them could be argued to ‘facilitate real-time access to, and control of, an already established and developing repertoire of language, rather than to facilitate new formfunction mappings in the L2’. Therefore, increasing task complexity along resourcedispersing dimensions, although it does not promote interlanguage development, facilitates faster and easier access to an already established repertoire of knowledge. As a matter of fact, varying the cognitive demands of tasks either along resource-directing or resource-dispersing parameters has the potential to benefit learners, albeit in a different manner.

2.4.2  The Limited Attentional Capacity model The Limited Attentional Capacity model, proposed by Skehan (1998) and Skehan and Foster (2001) is based on theories of working memory. Skehan (1998) distinguishes in his model three dimensions of task complexity: (a) Code complexity, which refers to linguistic demands of the task, (b) Cognitive complexity, which consists of cognitive processing and cognitive familiarity and (c) Communicative stress, which describes aspects of performance such as time limits and speed of presentation (see Figure 17.2). The model is based on the premise that human cognitive capacity is limited and that increasing the complexity of tasks makes more demands on learners’ attentional resources, a state that inevitably results in trade-off effects among the three dimensions of performance: complexity, accuracy and fluency. Skehan (1998) argues that when there is an increase in the cognitive demands of tasks, learners tend to prioritize

Code complexity

Cognitive complexity

Communicative stress

Vocabulary load and variety Redundancy and density

Cognitive familiarity Familiarity of topic and its predictability Familiarity of discourse genre Familiarity of task Cognitive processing Information organization Amount of computation Clarity and sufficiency of information given Information type

Time limits and pressure Speed of presentation Number of participants Length of text used Type of response Opportunities to control interaction

Figure 17.2  The limited attentional capacity model.

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meaning over processing language form. The remaining attentional resources left for form are shared between complexity, accuracy and fluency. From a comparison of the Triadic Componential Framework and the Limited Attentional Capacity model, the following conclusions can be drawn. Using Robinson’s (2001, 2005, 2007) terminology, both models predict that increasing task demands along resource-dispersing parameters will have negative effects on complexity, accuracy and fluency. However, models diverge in their predictions with respect to resourcedirecting parameters. Skehan (1998) proposes that an increase along those parameters leads to less accurate, less complex and less fluent language production while Robinson (2001, 2005) claims that such an increase results in reduced fluency but more complex and accurate language. This discrepancy is due to differing theories underpinning the models. Although Skehan believes that attentional resources are limited and that demanding tasks lead to trade-off effects, Robinson argues that attentional resources are not limited and that learners can access different, non-competing pools of cognitive processes while performing a task.

3 Method This section describes the participants and the data collection method as well as the data analysis process and the measures of task complexity used in the study.

3.1  Participants and data collection The participants of the study were twenty-three first-year university students in the department of English Language and Literature of Aristotle University. Research was conducted in the spring term. The study included both male and female students and their ages ranged from nineteen to twenty-one. At the outset of the study, proficiency in the language was measured using the Quick Placement Test (QPT). This is an adaptive test of English language proficiency, developed by Oxford University Press and Cambridge ESOL, which caters to all the levels of language mastery (A1-elementary to C2-proficiency) as defined in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The pen and paper version that has been used in the study consists of 60 items divided into two parts. The first part includes items 1–40 and is for all candidates who are at or below intermediate level. The second part consists of items 41–60 and is only for higher ability students who obtained a score of at least 35 out of 40 in the first part. All questions are in multiple-choice format and administration time is thirty minutes. The participants of the study completed both parts of the test. Students’ proficiency ranged from B2 level (upper-intermediate) to C2 (mastery). In the following sessions, students were asked to complete two writing tasks under conditions that differed in terms of complexity and cognitive load. The writing genre in question was that of advert analysis, which has not been used before in similar research projects. In the first task, students were presented with an advert from a magazine. First, class discussion on the intended message and connotations of the advert was

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 305 initiated (±  prior knowledge). Analysis of the typical format of the advert analysis genre followed in order to activate the (±  task structure) parameter. Students were then allowed ten minutes’ planning time (± planning time) and twenty minutes for writing up. In the second task, students were simply presented with an advert and were asked to write an analysis in twenty minutes.

3.2  Data analysis Tasks were uploaded on UsingEnglish.com, which provides an advanced text analysis tool. Task complexity was studied through measures of fluency (Fluency I and Fluency II), lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX (Laesbarhedsindex) readability index. Fluency I, lexical variety and the LIX index were all provided automatically by the text analyser while analysis of Fluency II and syntactic complexity was carried out manually.

3.2.1  Fluency measures Fluency in the written tasks of students was measured in two ways: Fluency I (total number of words) and Fluency II (total number of T-units). For the first measure, the total number of words of each task was counted as an indicator of overall fluency. Fluency II involved breaking down the text in terminable units or T-units as they are commonly called. The term T-unit was first introduced by Hunt (1965) in an attempt to measure the smallest word group that can be considered a grammatical sentence. A T-unit consists of a main clause and all subordinate clauses attached to it (Hunt 1965, p. 20). Therefore, a T-unit should not be confused with a sentence, although it can be represented by a single one.

3.2.2  Lexical variation and syntactic complexity measures Type-token ratios (TTR) were used for examining lexical variation. This measure is obtained by the following equation: TTR =

Number of types ´ 100 Number of tokens

Types refer to the number of different words in a text while tokens represent the number of all words. Therefore, tokens can be repeated in a text. Mean length of T-unit (MLTU) served as an indicator of syntactic complexity. In order to calculate MLTU, the total number of words in a text is divided by the total number of T-units. Ortega (2003) claims that in writing research, mean length of T-unit is the most employed measure of global syntactic complexity.

3.2.3  Readability index LIX (Laesbarhedsindex) measures the difficulty of reading a foreign text. It was preferred over other readability indexes because it was developed and used for Western European languages. LIX scores are interpreted on the basis of four categories: easy, standard, difficult and very difficult.

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4 Results The results presented in this section illustrate the effects of proficiency in the L2 on performance when completing tasks of varying cognitive demands, and also how task complexity affects aspects of performance. The first research question addressed in the study was: RQ1: How does proficiency in the English language affect fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index in simple versus complex tasks? A one-way between-subjects ANOVA was conducted to determine the effect of level of proficiency in English on fluency measures, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index. Table 17.1 presents the descriptive statistics of the effects of proficiency on the aspects investigated for both Task 1 and Task 2. The results showed that there was a significant effect of level of proficiency at the p  0.05 level on the mean length of T-Unit (MLTU2) [F (2, 20) = 4.07, p = 0.033], which is an indicator of syntactic complexity, and on the LIX readability index (RI2) [F (2, 20) = 6.89, p = 0.005] for the second, more complex task. These findings suggest that students’ proficiency in the L2 significantly affected structural complexity and the difficulty of reading a text in the second, more cognitively demanding, task. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test were conducted to examine between which groups of language proficiency there were significant differences for the MLTU2 and RI2 measures. The results indicated that with respect to MLTU2, the mean score for the B2 level (M = 14.28, SD = 2.88) was significantly different from the score for the C1 level (M = 18.7, SD = 3.67, p = 0.026), with the latter outperforming the first. This finding suggests a relationship between L2 proficiency and syntactic complexity as advanced students produced significantly more structurally complex writing than the B2, upperintermediate level. Considering RI2, significant differences were found again between the B2 (M = 1.57, SD = 0.535) and C1 levels (M = 2.70, SD = 0.823, p = 0.006) as well as the C1 and C2 levels (M = 1.83, SD = 0.408, p = 0.048). Since LIX is a readability measure indicating the difficulty of reading a text, the findings show significant differences in the degree of difficulty both between the B2 and C1 levels, and the C1 and C2 levels. The readability index results show a strong trend towards the C1 level as it performed significantly better in the more cognitively demanding task than the other two levels. The second research question was the following: RQ2: What are the effects of increasing task complexity on fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index? Examining the second research question, paired sample t-tests were conducted to compare fluency measures, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index in the simple- and complex-task conditions. With respect to fluency, two measures were used as an indicator: total number of words (TW) and total number of T-units (TTU). Analysis showed that there was a significant difference in the total number of words produced between the first, simple task, TW1 (M = 269.29, SD = 82.87) and the more complex task, TW2 (M = 319.52, SD = 85.12), (t (22) = –2.87, p = 0.009). Significant differences for the two tasks were also found in the total number of T-units, which constitutes the second measure of fluency in the study: TTU1 (M

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 307

Table 17.1  Descriptive statistics of effects of level of proficiency N

M

Total number of words I

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

255.00 250.80 316.67 269.26

SD

Total Number of words II

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

321.43 321.20 314.50 319.52

74.68 97.96 88.70 85.116

Total Number of T-Units I

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

15.43 13.20 17.67 15.04

6.52 5.92 2.87 5.59

Total Number of T-Units II

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

23.71 17.90 17.33 19.52

8.61 6.62 5.64 7.31

Type-token ratio I

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

51.81 55.45 50.18 52.97

6.80 6.15 2.50 5.90

Type-token ratio II

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

44.85 48.88 50.91 48.18

6.14 7.12 4.85 6.49

Mean length of T-Unit I

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

17.78 19.64 18.11 18.67

4.56 4.53 3.12 4.13

Mean length of T-Unit II

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

14.28 18.72 17.01 16.92

2.88 3.67 2.35 3.56

Readability index I

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

2.29 2.40 2.50 2.39

.951 .516 .548 .656

Readability index II

B2 C1 C2 Total

7 10 6 23

1.57 2.70 1.83 2.13

.535 .823 .408 .815

65.92 104.63 40.42 82.87

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= 15.04, SD = 5.56) and TTU2 (M = 19.52, SD = 7.31), (t (22) = –2.99, p = 0.007). Surprisingly, the more cognitively demanding task led to a more fluent production for both TW and TTU measures. Considering lexical variety, there was a significant difference in the type-token ratio, TTR1 (M = 52.97, SD = 5.9) and TTR2 (M = 48.19, SD = 6.49), (t (22) = 3.43, p = 0.002), which shows that contrary to fluency, lexical variety decreased in the more cognitively demanding task. Examining the mean length of T-unit measure, which constitutes a measure of syntactic complexity, analysis showed that performance on this aspect was non-significant. However, it is worth mentioning that the result was very close to being statistically significant: MLTU1 (M = 18.67, SD = 4.13) and MLTU2 (M = 16.92, SD = 3.56), t (22) = 2.06, p = 0.051. Finally, no significant differences were found for the LIX readability index (RI) between the two tasks (p = 0.393).

5 Discussion The aim of this study was twofold: first, to investigate the effects of level of proficiency on cognitive constructs in simple versus complex tasks; second, to examine whether increasing the cognitive demands of tasks affects performance on those constructs in written production. With respect to the first question, based on the Quick Placement Test, students were assigned to three levels of proficiency according to the CEFR: upper-intermediate (B2), advanced (C1) and mastery (C2). The results indicated that there were significant differences in the mean length of T-unit and the LIX readability index in the second more cognitively demanding task. A post hoc analysis showed that with respect to MLTU there were significant differences between the B2 and the C1 levels as the latter produced significantly longer T-units in their writing. It appears that as the task became cognitively more complex, the performance of the B2 and the C1 levels differentiated as the C1 group was more advanced and, therefore, more linguistically ready to respond to the increase in cognitive load due to their already established level of proficiency. The same result was obtained with respect to the readability index, indicating that the more advanced level produced writing that is significantly more difficult to read compared to that of the upper-intermediate level when task difficulty increased. Considering the LIX index, differences were also found between the C1 and the C2 levels as the score for the C1 group was significantly higher than that for the C2. Although the results show a strong trend towards the C1 level, the result is not surprising as both the C1 and C2 levels are representative of a very fluent and advanced command in a foreign language and are better prepared to deal with tasks of increased difficulty than the B2 level, which is an upper-intermediate stage of proficiency. The Council of Europe describes students in the B1 and B2 levels as ‘independent users’ and those in the C1 and C2 levels as ‘proficient users’. Therefore, the C1 and C2 levels can be considered to be closer in performance than the B2 and the C1. The second research question examined the effects of increasing task complexity on fluency, lexical variety, syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index. Complexity was increased along ± prior knowledge, ± task structure and ± planning

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 309 time dimensions, all of which constitute resource-dispersing parameters according to Robinson’s (2005) model. With respect to fluency, two measures were used in the study: total number of words (TW) and total number of T-units (TTU). The results showed that students performed significantly higher in both measures in the more complex task. Therefore, as the cognitive demands of the task increased, students produced more fluent writing both in terms of quantity and in terms of terminable units, which represent a main clause and all subordinate clauses attached to it. This finding is not in agreement with Robinson’s (2001, 2005, 2007) Triadic Componential Framework and Skehan’s (1998) and Skehan and Foster’s (2001) Limited Attentional Capacity models, which predict that increasing task complexity along resourcedispersing parameters is expected to affect fluency as well as accuracy and complexity negatively since it prevents learners from accessing their current repertoire of L2 knowledge. There are two possible explanations for this improved performance. First, it is a very common strategy on the part of students to produce more writing when dealing with difficult tasks as a way of increasing the chances of providing the appropriate content or answer for the task. Another common misconception among students seems to be that a lengthy answer shows more knowledge and effort on their part, especially when there is no word limit. This strategy seems to reflect the belief that writing more leads to better chances of pleasing the examiner or the teacher in terms of both quantity and quality. Besides the empirical explanation, SLA researchers also account for such differences. Foster and Skehan (1999) argue that more complex tasks lead to more fluent production as attention is diverted from form to context. In a similar vein, VanPatten (1990) claims that when learners are free to allocate attention, they tend to prioritize content over form. The findings of this study are in agreement with relevant studies, which also found increased fluency in more complex tasks (Ishikawa 2006; Ong and Zhang 2010; Rahimpour and Hosseini 2010). Significant differences were also found for lexical density, measured by the typetoken ratio (TTR). Yet, unlike fluency measures, students’ performance was significantly lower as the processing load of the task increased. Similar results were obtained by Ong and Zhang (2010) who found greater lexical complexity in the more complex task. This result is indicative of a trade-off effect between aspects of performance and corroborates Foster and Skehan’s (1999) claim discussed above that complex tasks lead to more fluent production, favouring content at the expense of form. Discussing syntactic complexity, no significant differences were observed between the simple and the more cognitively demanding task as in Ishikawa’s (2006) study. However, it must be noted that the value obtained was very close to significance (p = 0.51) and this is at least indicative of the effects of cognitive load on students’ performance on the mean-length of T-unit. As in the other constructs, the same explanation that content is prioritized over form applies to the MLTU measure, which has been negatively affected by increasing cognitive load. The final measure of reading difficulty, the LIX index, was also non-significant, showing that reading difficulty is not significantly affected under more cognitively demanding conditions. On the whole, with the exception of fluency measures, which increased along resource-dispersing parameters in the more complex task, the results lend partial

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support to Robinson’s (2001, 2005, 2007) Triadic Componential Framework and Skehan’s (1996, 1998) Limited Attentional Capacity models as they predict that performance along those parameters decreases for more cognitively demanding tasks.

6  Contribution and limitations of the study The contribution of this study lies, first, in the fact that research on task complexity to date has largely focused on oral production as relatively few studies have investigated the effects on written performance (Ishikawa 2006; Kuiken and Vedder 2007, 2008; Ong and Zhang 2010; Rahimpour and Hosseini 2010). In addition, studies investigating L1 and L2 writing have mainly dealt with resource-directing parameters and only a very small number have dealt with resource-dispersing ones (Ellis and Yuan 2004; Kellog 1990; Ong and Zhang 2010). Moreover, text analysers are not typically used in studies of task complexity. Hopefully, the introduction of this tool will encourage more educators to carry out research in the field in their own contexts as it speeds up the time-consuming process of data analysis, especially when large numbers of participants are involved. Text analysers also automatically provide readability index scores that are not typically used as indicators of task complexity despite their potential. This study also differs from current research with respect to the genre researched, that of advert analysis, which represents a purely academic genre. Common genres used to date include mainly narrative (Foster and Skehan 1999; Ishikawa 2006; Rahimpour and Hosseini 2010) and argumentative (Sadeghi and Mosalli 2012) ones. Finally, little research has examined level of proficiency with respect to cognitive task complexity (Abdollahzadeh and Kashani 2011; Kuiken and Vedder 2004). The type of text-analysis software used in this study may also contribute to the sustainability of similar research projects. Since many text analysers are available online for free, along with an abundance of similar applications and software, sustainability is partly ensured, especially when considering that there are no advanced computer knowledge requirements on the part of the researcher. If it is not bought as a software package, there is no need for extensive upgrading either, as it only requires a recent browser version. Further to this, text-analysis applications provide automated data analysis through fixed mathematical formulas, which largely remain constant over time and, therefore, unless dictated by different analysis needs, standard versions of text analysers can be used over long periods of time. As such applications are readily available, are user-friendly and also greatly speed up the data analysis process, more researchers or teachers might be encouraged to engage in similar projects. Considering the limitations of the study, future studies could include a larger sample of participants and also produce longitudinal research including more task comparisons so as to examine the effects of task complexity on simple versus complex tasks over longer periods of time. Learner characteristics such as motivation, working memory capacity and aptitude could also be considered as they constitute factors that affect performance.

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7  Conclusion and pedagogical implications This study investigated the effects of L2 proficiency on constructs of task complexity and how such constructs are affected when the cognitive demands of tasks increase. Two models of task complexity formed the theoretical background to the study: Robinson’s (2001, 2005, 2007) Triadic Componential Framework, Skehan’s (1998), and Skehan and Foster’s (2001) Limited Attentional Capacity model. The models differ in their predictions on increasing task complexity along resource-directing variables but converge on resource-dispersing variables as both predict that complexity, accuracy and fluency are affected negatively when the cognitive load increases. The results of this study, which dealt with resource-dispersing parameters, suggested that syntactic complexity and the LIX readability index can be significantly affected by the level of proficiency in the L2 when task complexity is increased. Regarding different aspects of task complexity, both fluency measures, that is, total number of words and total number of T-units, were significantly higher in the more cognitively demanding task while lexical density was significantly higher in the simpler task. There were no significant differences for the LIX readability index or syntactic complexity although the result for the latter was very close to being significant. The results lend partial support to the models as most aspects were affected negatively. However, since fluency measures were higher in the complex task, they seem to point more towards a trade-off effect between different aspects of written production, which suggests that certain areas receive more attention at the expense of others when students are faced with an increased concurrent cognitive load. More specifically, content seems to be prioritized over form (Foster and Skehan 1999). Research on task complexity is important as knowing the demands a task makes on learners allows manipulating learners’ attention between form and meaning so as to help interlanguage development. In this light, this study carries pedagogical implications for syllabus and task designers as well as researchers and language teachers while the use of online text analysers could potentially encourage sustainability in academic or EFL classroom-based research projects.

References Abdollahzadeh, S. and Kashani, F. A. (2011). ‘The Effect of Task Complexity on EFL Learners’ Narrative Writing Task Performance’. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning 8: 1–28. Bialystok, E. (1994). ‘Analysis and Control in the Development of Second Language Proficiency’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16: 157–68. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. and Yuan, F. (2004). ‘The Effects of Planning on Fluency, Complexity, and Accuracy in Second Language Narrative Writing’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 26: 59–84. Foster, P. and Skehan, P. (1999). ‘The Influence of Source of Planning and Focus of Planning on Task-Based Performance’. Language Teaching Research 3 (3): 215–417.

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Hunt, K. (1965). Grammatical Structures written at three grade levels, NCTE Research report No. 3. Champaign, IL, USA: NCTE. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_ nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED113735&ERICExtSearch_SearchType _0=no&accno=ED113735. Ishikawa, T. (2006). ‘The Effect of Manipulating Task Complexity Along the [+/- Hereand-Now] Dimension on L2 Written Narrative Discourse’. In M. P. Garcia Mayo (ed.), Investigating Tasks in Formal Language Learning, 136–56. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Kellog, R. T. (1990). ‘Effectiveness of Prewriting Strategies as a Function of Task Demands’. American Journal of Psychology 103: 327–42. Kuiken, F. and Vedder, I. (2004). ‘De relatie tussen cognitieve taakcomplexiteit en linguïstische performance bij het schrijven in T1 en T2’ (The relationship between cognitive task complexity and linguistic performance in L1 and L2 writing). Toegepaste Taalwetenschap in Artikelen 72 (2): 23–32. Retrieved from http://www. narcis.nl/publication/RecordID/oai%3Auva.nl%3A167886/coll/person/id/129/ Language/EN. Kuiken, F. and Vedder, I. (2007). ‘Task Complexity and Measures of Linguistic Performance in L2 writing’. International Review of Applied Linguistics 45 (3): 261–84. Kuiken, F. and Vedder, I. (2008). ‘Cognitive Task Complexity and Written Output in Italian and French as a Foreign Language’. Journal of Second Language Writing 17: 48–60. Long, M. H. (1981). ‘Input, Interaction and Second-Language Acquisition’. In H. Winitz (ed.), Native language and foreign language acquisition: Vol. 379. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 259–78. New York: New York Academy of Sciences. Long, M. H. (1996). ‘The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition’. In W. Ritchie and T. Bjatia (eds), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, 413–68. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Nunan, D. (2004). ‘Task-Based Language Teaching’. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ong, J. and Zhang, L. J. (2010). ‘Effects of Task Complexity on Fluency and Lexical Complexity in L2 Writing’. Journal of Second Language Writing 19 (4): 218–33. Ortega, L. (2003). ‘Syntactic Complexity Measures and their Relationship to L2 Proficiency: A Research Synthesis of College-Level L2 Writing’. Applied Linguistics 24: 492–518. Prabhu, N. S. (1987). ‘Second Language Pedagogy’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Rahimpour, M. (2008). ‘Implementation of Task-Based Approaches to Language Teaching’. Research on Foreign Languages Journal of Faculty of Letters and Humanties 41: 45–61. Rahimpour, M. and Hosseini, P. (2010). ‘The Impact of Task Complexity on L2 Learners’ Written Narratives’. Journal of English Language Teaching 3: 198–205. Robinson, P. (2001). ‘Task Complexity, Task Difficulty, and Task Production: Exploring Interactions in a Componential Framework’. Applied Linguistics 22: 27–57. Robinson, P. (2005). ‘Cognitive Complexity and Task Sequencing: Studies in a Componential Framework for Second Language Task Design’. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 43: 1–32. Robinson, P. (2007). ‘Criteria for Grading and Sequencing Pedagogic Tasks’. In M. P. Garcia-Mayo (ed.), Investigating Tasks in Formal Language Learning, 7–27. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Using Text Analysers as an Aid to Examining the Effects of Task Complexity 313 Robinson, P. and Gilabert, R. (2007). ‘Task Complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis and Second Language Learning and Performance’. International Review of Applied Linguistics 45 (3): 161–76. Sadeghi, K. and Mosalli, Z. (2012). ‘The Effect of Task Complexity on Fluency and Lexical Complexity of EFL Learners’ Argumentative Writing’. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature 1 (4): 53–66. Schmidt, R. (2001). ‘Attention’. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction, 3–32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shehadeh, A. (2005). ‘Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching: Theories and Applications’. In C. Edwards and J. Willis (eds), Teachers Exploring Tasks in English Language Teaching, 13–30. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Skehan, P. (1996). ‘A Framework for the Implementation of Task-Based Instruction’. Applied Linguistics 17 (1): 38–62. Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: OUP. Skehan, P. (2003). ‘Task-Based Instruction’. Language Teaching 36: 1–14. Skehan, P. and Foster, P. (2001). ‘Cognition and Tasks’. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction, 183–205. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. VanPatten, B. (1990). ‘Attending to Form and Content in the Input: An Experiment in Consciousness’. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12: 287–301. Wickens, C. D. (1992). ‘Engineering Psychology and Human Performance’. New York: Harper Collins.

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How to Tell Digital Stories with Handcrafted Video Clips: A (Multi-)Literacies Approach to Foreign Language Teaching Eva Wilden and Frauke Matz

1 Introduction This chapter sets out to present the handcrafting video clips method to tell digital stories in the computer-assisted foreign language classroom. It specifically targets language teachers using new technologies as well as CALL designers and researchers. The main argument will be that this particular digital storytelling method (Ohler 2013) is a sustainable teaching approach that fosters learners’ (multi-)literacies (NLG 1996; Kalantzis and Cope 2012), and thus supports learners in becoming literate produsers1 (Bruns 2008) and active designers of their futures (NLG 1996, p. 60). The handcrafting video clips method was devised following a small-scale and non-representative empirical study indicating that EFL teachers (in the German context) appear to disregard their pupils’ media habits and active participation in Web 2.0 (Wilden 2013a, pp. 34–5): a survey among advanced German EFL student teachers (N  =  204) suggests that this next generation of EFL teachers have hardly any experience in using mobile media for the purpose of language learning as pupils or as teachers themselves. This implies that there is a severe discrepancy between foreign language teaching practice and today’s pupils’ media habits: The so-called JIM study, an annual representative study researching the media habits of adolescents in Germany (age twelve to nineteen), repeatedly gives evidence for the prominent role that mobile media and the internet play in young people’s lives. For example, the most recent JIM study (MPFS 2013, pp. 51–9) revealed a dramatic increase in the possession of smartphones in this age group (from 25 per cent in 2011 to 72 per cent in 2013). Moreover, 49 per cent of the adolescents stated that they had already shot a video clip, 28 per cent of whom had done so in their free time and only 22 per cent at school. Thus, the handcrafting video clips method was devised during a project seminar in order to fill this gap between teaching practices and learners’ needs regarding mobile media in education. This was done based on the assumption that if schools wish to meet the key goal of educating their pupils for active, responsible and critical participation in

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society, teachers ought to integrate modern digital media into their teaching as pupils need guidance and support to become literate produsers (Bruns 2008). This chapter is structured as follows: After characterizing the handcrafting video clip method, the authors discuss how it addresses the goals of a pedagogy of (multi-) literacies (Kalantzis and Cope 2012; NLG 1996) to educate literate produsers. This is followed by the analysis of various product and process samples from the eight projects (which included both secondary school pupils and EFL teacher students) that have been put into practice while using this method so far. The chapter concludes by giving practical suggestions for adapting this method in diverse classrooms across the world.

2  The handcrafting video clips method for digital storytelling Handcrafted video clips are short video clips based on a low-tech approach to filming. No special technical equipment or expertise is necessary; rather, participants use handcrafted props and ubiquitous mobile media such as smartphones or digital cameras (see Figure 18.1) to create their own digital story (Ohler 2013). Besides producing such video clips, the method also consists of a preparatory stage that includes, for instance, storymapping, handcrafting the props and acquiring the basic technological knowhow such as using video editing freeware, uploading video clips to the internet and transferring video clips from smartphones to computers. Various authors have suggested the production of video clips as a creative method for language teaching (e.g. Godwin-Jones 2012; Henseler, Möller and Surkamp 2011, pp. 141–6; Sevilla, Serra and Gimeno 2012), most notably Ohler (2013), who suggests various digital storytelling activities for the first language literacy classroom, in his

Figure 18.1  Handcrafting a video clip.

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popular book on digital storytelling. However, its full potential for the development of multiliteracies in the foreign language learning context has not yet been exploited. To date, the handcrafting video clips method has been employed in eight projects,2 which include both secondary school pupils and EFL student teachers, and has proved to be very adaptable to various teaching contexts, target groups and learning objectives. It has been successfully used, for example, for trans- and inter-cultural learning (Wilden 2013b), and developing narrative skills and audio-visual literacy (Wilden 2013a) in a task-based language learning setting (Matz and Wilden, in preparation).

3  Handcrafting video clips and the pedagogy of (multi-)literacies3 The pedagogy of (multi-)literacies as developed by The New London Group (NLG 1996) – and by Kalantzis and Cope in particular (2000, 2012) – acknowledges the changes in the ways we communicate due to developments in society and the use of digital media. By recognizing the fact that meaning is made in multimodal ways, it implies a ‘significant pedagogical shift’: students are encouraged to learn in collaborative and creative ways in order to produce new media-based texts (Mills 2011, p. 2), thus enabling them to participate in multimodal discourses. The authors have adapted this interdisciplinary approach for the purpose of foreign language teaching and learning with the intention of developing ‘functional, visual, multimodal, and digital literacies, transcultural competence, language awareness and critical-reflective thinking skills’ (Elsner, Helff and Viebrock 2013, p. 8, adapted from Elsner 2011). To date, we have used short stories as a starting point for handcrafting digital stories in seven of the eight projects so as to give the students a familiar frame of reference. Short stories can help to scaffold the students’ digital storytelling process, as both formats share features such as brevity and a limited number of characters, and a plot to which the students can refer. In transforming short stories into handcrafted video clips, learners deal with two kinds of designs, a written and an audio-visual format, that can help them to realize that ‘[m]eaning making is a process of representation (sense-making) and communication (in which a message prompt is interpreted by another person)’ (Kalantzis and Cope 2012, p. 173). Visualizing activities during the reading process can also serve as a starting point, helping the students to plan the transformation of the printed short story into an audio-visual design. While comparing their own redesigned meanings to the original story, as well as to the designs of others, students should be encouraged to realize that narrative mode, perspectivation and medial staging have an effect on the presentation of a narrative and its message (Nünning and Surkamp 2010, p. 27). Thus, it is one way of training students’ media competence and audio-visual literacy. In this context, the (multi-) literacies approach not only offers a theoretical basis for fostering students’ multimodal literacies, but also helps to structure the learning and teaching process. For the purpose of handcrafting short stories into video clips, it is important that students read the story with the actual transformation task in mind, as the intended learning outcomes are to foster the aforementioned literacies, competences and skills,

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and thus help the learners to become literate produsers (Bruns 2008). Furthermore, the teaching and learning process should be made transparent to the students, enabling them to identify the range of knowledge outcomes they have demonstrated (Kalantzis and Cope 2012, p. 360). For this purpose, the (multi-)literacies approach suggests four processes – experiencing, conceptualizing, analysing and applying – that can help to structure lessons and sequence the learning outcomes (Kalantzis and Cope 2012).4 Although they will be explained separately, it is important to note that these four elements should not be viewed as isolated steps that appear in a rigid sequence, but rather as learning processes that are fluid and interchangeable (Kalantzis and Cope 2000, p. 239). The first of these, which encompasses what Kalantzis and Cope (2012, p. 356) call ‘knowledge processes’, is the experiencing process (situated practice), and bears similarities to top-down processing: students refer to both the known, that is, their own prior knowledge and world experience to make sense of the short story (which can be viewed as the new element in their learning) and their technical knowledge to interpret the task at hand (see Table 18.1). At this stage, the students ‘experience’ the story as readers, interpret it according to their own views and perspectives, and thus formulate the scenes that are of special importance to them and the perceived message of the story that they would also like to convey through their video clips. In the conceptualizing process (overt instruction) that follows, learners gain a more conscious understanding of the design of both the short story and the handcrafted video clip, first by naming design elements such as setting and plot as well as characters and their use of language, then by theorizing, as they form first concepts of their own transformation of the story. This step is similar to the bottom-up process, as the focus now shifts from the learners to the actual story and the connected task. The next element in this knowledge process, the analysing process (critical framing), lets students view both the story and the digital storytelling task functionally from a more global perspective. Ideally, they should now be able to understand how the short story works and to build schemata in relation to the story’s structure and the function of literary devices that they can adopt for their own transformation by putting them into the overall context. They critically evaluate their own perspectives and plan their own digital retelling of the story accordingly. In the EFL context, this process can also help to foster inter-/trans-cultural learning, as students can analyse, compare or contrast cultural perspectives in the short story and discuss whether they would like to retell their digital story within its original cultural framework or transform and adapt it to another cultural context (e.g. one closer to their own lives). The last process, which is called applying process (transformed practice), is the actual handcrafting of a video clip and is ‘the climax of the multiliteracies pedagogy’ (Mills 2011, p. 44). By making their own meaning, their own interpretation of the short story within their appropriated context, learners creatively demonstrate their understanding in their final product. In the context of our projects, students transformed stories in the sense that they took the meaning of the short story to ‘another, real-world context and making it work,’ while also adding their own ‘voice’ in addressing their own interest in the story as well as adding new elements themselves (Kalantzis and Cope 2000, p. 248). In this process, the meaning making becomes important as it is the ‘[d]esigning that changes the designer.

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Table 18.1  The four knowledge processes in the story-based handcrafting video clips projects ‘Learning by design’ terminology

Explanation of the knowledge processes

Task of handcrafting video clips on the basis of a short story

Experiencing (Situated Practice)

The known: Activation of students’ prior knowledge, world experience

– Reading a short story and making sense of it based on learners’ own experiences

The new: Providing cultural grounds and social contexts, immersion into a new situation Synthesis: Establishing personal links between the known and the new (Similar to top-down processing) Conceptualizing (Overt Instruction)

By naming: Ordering, classifying, defining By theory: Understanding the design, concept formation (Similar to bottom-up processing)

Analysing (Critical Framing)

Functionally: Global perspective, contextualizing, schema-building Critically: evaluation of own & others’ perspectives, interests and motives

Applying Appropriately: transfer of knowledge (Transformed Practice) to different context

– Understanding the design of the short story (register, intended audience etc.) – Discussing design elements of the short story – Deciding on design elements for the video clip – Discussing the intentions behind the short story – Deciding on own intentions – Inter-/Trans-cultural issues – Handcrafting Video Clips

Creatively: making own meaning through creating a multimodal text Source: (Kalantzis and Cope 2012, 356).

This means learning as transformation, with the student becoming a new person by being able to do new things’ (ibid.). Adopting this (multi-)literacies approach in our projects has proved very helpful in the teaching and learning processes of developing students’ multimodal literacies, as will be illustrated in the following section. Furthermore, as our learners dealt with authentic texts, the project was also supportive of students’ transcultural competence (Wilden 2013b) and language awareness, as they had to adopt the story in terms of cultural context as well as language use into their own designs, critically reflecting both in the process.

4  Multiliterate produsers and their digital stories: Process and product samples In this section, several samples of handcrafted video clips that have been created by both school pupils learning English as a foreign language and EFL teacher trainees to

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date will be discussed and analysed regarding (a) their potential for foreign language learning in a global perspective and (b) fostering multiple literacies among produsers (Bruns 2008). In order to provide a variety of illustrative samples, all clips have been made accessible online (see first footnote). The language learning potential of the handcrafting video clip method is demonstrated by providing data from one of the three school projects that were carried out in a year seven EFL class (aged approx. twelve to thirteen). Upon completion, the pupils were asked about their perception of foreign language learning with regard to the project. The results in Table 18.2 show that although the pupils tended to consider this project a fun thing to do (items 1 and 2), they did not see it as something that supported their EFL learning (items 3 and 4). However, Kiesel (2013, pp. 65–6) analysed the language produced by these year seven pupils while they were handcrafting video clips based on a short story they had read in class. She found that out of sixty-eight language chunks (approx. = sentence) only seven were copied directly from the original story, four were adaptations of story chunks and fifty-seven were ‘free’ language chunks (i.e. language entirely produced by the pupils without quoting from the original text). Thus, the majority of the language produced by the pupils can be classified as free speech production. In spite of having no explicit vocabulary teaching in the unit prior to the video clip production, the pupils actively used many words unknown to them before the unit. The pupils also produced a number of texts in preparation of their video clip production, such as story maps, story boards or dialogues. The disparity between pupils’ perception and the analysis of their language production might be due to the productive and holistic dimension of the handcrafting video clip project. The pupils seemed so engaged in this creative and complex videoshooting task that they probably did not realize that they were practising and learning language in the process.5 The potential of the handcrafting video clips method for fostering (multi-)literacies will be illustrated by the analysis of the video clip ‘Dear Tadpole Remixed’, which was produced by students at the Ruhr-University of Bochum, Germany, as part of a handcrafting video clip project in 2013 (accessible online; see first footnote). This Table 18.2  Year 7 pupils’ perception of their language learning in the handcrafting video clips project a. Strongly disagree

b. Disagree

c. Agree

d. Strongly agree

Totals

1. I had a lot of fun in the video project.

–

3

10

7

20

2. I would have preferred to read the story without the video project.

8

8

2

2

20

3. I learnt a lot of English in the video project.

2

11

7

–

20

4. The video project helped me to understand the story better.

3

8

4

5

20

Item

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digital story serves as an example of the great aesthetic variety of all clips produced so far and it depicts the creative potential of the handcrafted video clip method, which the participants in all eight projects have enthusiastically embraced and exploited to date. This particular clip retells the short story Dear Tadpole by Katie Dale (2011), in which the main protagonist, a teenage boy who lives with his pregnant mother and her lesbian partner, reflects on his troubles in finding his own gender identity. As the story itself is told in the form of an e-mail diary in which the male protagonist writes to his unborn sibling on his smartphone, it certainly offers an interesting angle to teaching multimodal texts. The students first experienced the short story as readers with the task of handcrafting their own video clip in mind. After reading the short story, they discussed both the story’s plot and the character’s views and feelings and compared them to their own views and experiences. Then they decided on the scenes that they considered important and that they wanted to include in their video clips. They also discussed the overall message of the story that they wanted to convey. During the conceptualizing process, the students further discussed the general design elements of both the short story and their video clip. The story map and the chart illustrating the story core (Figures 18.2 and 18.3) demonstrate that this knowledge process gradually turned into the analysing process as students began to view story and task from a more global perspective throughout their discussion. Both visuals clearly display their thorough understanding of the story in terms of structure and function of literary devices. Furthermore, it demonstrates the students’ ability to adopt the character’s perspective and empathize with his thoughts and feelings. During the applying process, the students handcrafted their own video clip, thus providing evidence for successful learning in multiple ways. The video clip not only demonstrates the learners’ in-depth understanding of the story, but also shows their immense creative potential, media competence and audio-visual literacy. The students

Figure 18.2  The story core of ‘Dear Tadpole Remixed’ (see Ohler 2013, p. 98; created by Julia Wagner).

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Figure 18.3  The story map of ‘Dear Tadpole Remixed’ (Ohler 2013, p. 105; created by Julia Wagner).

decided to adopt the design of an e-mail diary in the voice-over by partly quoting from the actual short story and partly devising their own narrative while simultaneously following the character’s register and line of thought. This helps the viewer to understand the character’s thoughts and feelings in the same way as the narrative design of the story aids the reader to empathize with the protagonist. For the actual visual production, this learner group decided on a mix of different designs; while following the conventions of a chronological film, concluding with a display of the words ‘The End,’ they used paper cut-outs and thought bubbles, which are usually used in cartoons or comic books. The paper cut-outs represent the characters in a slightly stereotypical way, which lends the film the same humorous note that can also be found in the actual short story. The thought bubbles support the narrative in the voice over, displaying the protagonist’s thoughts. Overall, this genre-mix of diary entry, chronological short film and graphic novel concludes with a reminiscence of a fairy-tale design, as a ‘And they lived happily ever after’ voice over is added at the very end of the film. Thus, this handcrafted video clip is a truly multimodal design (see Figures 18.4 to 18.6).

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Figures 18.4 to 18.6 Screen captures from the handcrafted video clip ‘Dear Tadpole Remixed’ produced by EFL teacher students at the Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany.

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These are just a few of the many examples that show this method’s potential for creative and action-oriented language learning as well as the reflective development of (multi-)literacies, educating pupils to become active and critical produsers.

5  Conclusion: Practical suggestions for adapting the method in diverse classrooms across the world This section provides practical suggestions for implementing this CALL method in foreign language classrooms across the world. Besides suggesting how to adapt this method depending on teaching contexts and target groups, this part highlights the low-tech requirements of this method and encourages language teachers and learners who do not (yet) consider themselves particularly ‘tech-savvy’. As demonstrated above, adopting the (multi-)literacies approach is very helpful for both planning and sequencing these CALL projects and giving the learners a transparent overview of their own learning processes. It can certainly be very helpful to further sequence the project structure according to task-based language learning (TBLL) principles and use cooperative learning in order to organize group work (Matz and Wilden, in preparation). In terms of an original design, we chose to give our students a short story as a reference and starting point: the short story not only proved helpful in scaffolding the learning process, but it also served as a design format that was familiar to our students. However, it is also possible to work with different designs such as picture books for younger students or poetic forms such as sonnets for more advanced learners (Matz and Rogge 2014). Even tasks that guide students to retell an event they have experienced themselves can be helpful. More advanced students could also be asked to design an entire digital story themselves (Ohler 2013). In terms of progression, it is certainly advisable to choose more complex designs as the learners’ language level progresses. Although the experiencing, conceptualizing and analysing processes are very important steps that help students to undergo the learning process, they should be kept relatively short in comparison to the final process, as the applying process (i.e. the actual handcrafting of a video clip) proves to be the most time-consuming process. For our projects, we usually allocated a six- to eight-hour ‘project day’ to give our students several hours to focus on their video clips. In two of the projects, the students had three double lessons spread over three weeks (plus homework) to handcraft their video clips. Parts of the preparation (such as finding or creating props, writing texts or designing story maps) are suitable as homework. As the requirements for this method are low-tech, teachers only need to bear a few preparatory steps in mind. Although many students own smartphones, it might be helpful to have extra digital cameras at hand. It is especially important to test how to copy photos and video clips from the smartphones and cameras to a computer before shooting the clips. Teachers also need to make sure students know how to save their data – and ensure it is done after each lesson. In one of our school projects, one of the clips captured by a pupil’s phone was lost because the students had not taken this precaution. Furthermore, teachers ought to note that a parental or – depending on

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school policy and the students’ age – student consent form might be needed for both bringing a smartphone to school and taking part in filming and uploading the film onto video streaming websites such as YouTube. There are several free video editing software programs such as Windows Moviemaker, iMovie or Cinerella, with which images or short video clips can be sequenced into a film. Teachers should make sure that they are pre-installed on school computers beforehand. For the actual digital storytelling, students can choose between different formats: live action shorts and animated short films, which also include stopmotion films. Live action shorts are brief film sequences in which the learners either act themselves or use props to act out the story (see ‘Dear Tadpole Remixed’), whereas animated shorts consist of single photographs that can be sequenced into a film with the help of video editing software. Paper cut-outs, (Lego or clay) figures or puppets are photographed in slightly changed positions, which – when put together – give the impression of movement. With video editing software learners can also add a soundtrack and voice overs to complete their audio-visual story. However, in order to avoid copyright infringement, it is advisable to use free sound effects and free music samples that are available on various non-commercial websites. Video portals accept all kinds of video formats and aid in uploading the videos, should the students wish to do so. Overall, this digital storytelling method has proved to be a sustainable CALL method due to several reasons: In terms of practicality, it is straightforward and does not require the students or teachers to have any specialized knowledge about using technology – hence, it is highly adaptable to different contexts and can be used in educational settings over the long term. Regarding the use of technology, it demonstrates to students how they can use their everyday devices in a larger and more creative context and it can help to widen students’ media literacy. Hence, once students have become familiar with this method, they might wish to experiment more or even use digital storytelling in their own free time for their own personal interests. In any case, once they have worked with this method successfully, they will have developed their own (multi-)literacy even further and can use this knowledge beyond their school life. The creativity of our students’ handcrafted video clips – as well as their extremely positive feedback on the overall learning process – have motivated us to continue with this project in order to further foster learners’ (multi-)literacies as well as encourage other teachers all over the world to adapt this effective method to their particular teaching contexts; and we firmly believe that due to its practicality and adaptability it will help assist the sustainability of CALL in language classrooms in the long term.

Notes 1 The term ‘produsers’ was coined by Bruns (2008) to illustrate that in the age of the Web 2.0, users of the internet are also producers of online content. 2 For samples of handcrafted video clips, visit the digital stories section of this website: www.evawilden.de [retrieved: 8 December 2014].

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3 The title of the latest contribution to the field of (multi-)literacies, Literacies by Kalantzis and Cope (2012) implies that it is time to subsume everything ‘required by the communication demands of the twenty-first century’ (p. 13) under the term ‘Literacies’. Hence, we refer to the prefix ‘Multi’ in brackets, agreeing with the shift to the terminology ‘Literacies’. 4 Please note that Kalantzis and Cope (2012) renamed these four processes, which were originally called situated practice, overt instruction, critical framing and transformed practice (see, for example, Kalantzis and Cope 2000) to make them even more applicable for today’s classrooms, so that teachers can share these learning objectives with the students in a transparent way. We will adopt this new terminology, as we also consider this new terminology helpful for teaching and learning purposes, but we also refer to the original formulation (in brackets) for the sake of completeness. 5 Another explanation for the discrepancy between pupils’ perception and language analysis might be that pupils’ concept of what constitutes ‘language learning’ does not match such a creative and action-oriented project. In other words, perhaps pupils think of vocabulary and grammar learning when they are asked about what constitutes ‘language learning.’ Thus, the wording of the questionnaire items might have to be revised.

References Bruns, A. (2008). Blogs, Wikipedia, Second Life, and Beyond: From Production to Produsage. New York: Peter Lang. Dale, K. (2011). ‘Dear Tadpole’. In T. Bradman (ed.), How to be a Boy, 57–85. London: Walker. Elsner, D. (2011). ‘Developing Multiliteracies, Plurilingual Awareness & Critical Thinking in the Primary Language Classroom with Multilingual Virtual Talkingbooks’. Encuentro 20: 27–38. Elsner, D. and Viebrock, B. (2013). ‘Developing Multiliteracies in the 21st Century: Motives for New Approaches of Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages’. In D. Elsner, S. Helff and B. Viebrock (eds), Cultural Studies Meets TEFL: Teaching Multiliteracies with Graphic Novels, Films & Visual Art, 17–32. Münster: LIT Verlag. Elsner, D. and Viebrock, B. (2013). ‘Developing Multiliteracies in the 21st Century: Motives for New Approaches of Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages’. In D. Elsner, S. Helff and B. Viebrock (eds), Films, Graphic Novels & Visuals: Developing Multiliteracies in Foreign Language Education – An Interdisciplinary Approach, 7–13. Münster: LIT Verlag. Godwin-Jones, R. (2012). ‘Emerging Technologies. Digital Video Revisited: Storytelling, Conferencing, Remixing’. Language Learning and Technology 16 (1): 1–9. Henseler, R. Möller, S. and Surkamp, C. (2011). Filme im Englischunterricht: Grundlagen, Methoden, Genres. Seelze: Klett/Kallmeyer. Kalantzis, M. and Cope, B. (2000). ‘A Multiliteracies Pedagogy: A Pedagogical Supplement’. In B. Cope and M. Kalantzis (eds). Multiliteracies: Literary Learning and the Designs of Social Futures, 239–48. London: Routledge. Kalantzis, M. and Cope, B. (2012). Literacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kiesel, L. (2013). ‘Digital Storytelling im Englischunterricht der Sekundarstufe I. Ein Videoprojekt zur Förderung von Audio-visual Literacy in Klasse 7’ (Unpublished master’s thesis), Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany.

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Matz, F. and Rogge, M. (2014). ‘Shakespeare in Shorts: A Multiliteracy Approach to Teaching Shakespeare’. In M. Eisenmann and C. Lütge (eds), Shakespeare in the EFL Classroom, 315–30. Heidelberg: Winter. Matz, F. and Wilden, E. (in preparation, 2015). ‘Die Entwicklung narrativer und audiovisueller Kompetenzen durch selbstgemachte Videoclips im Englischunterricht der Sekundarstufe I’. In C. Becker, G. Blell and A. Rössler (eds), Web 2.0 und komplexe Kompetenzaufgaben im Fremdsprachenunterricht. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Mills, K. (2011). The Multiliteracy Classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. MPFS (2013). JIM-Studie 2013. Jugend, Information, (Multi-)Media. Basisuntersuchung zum Medienumgang 12- bis 19-Jähriger. Stuttgart: Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest. NLG (The New London Group) (1996). ‘A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures’. Harvard Educational Review 66 (1): 60–92. NLG (The New London Group) (2000). ‘A Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures’. In B. Cope and M. Kalantzis (eds), Multiliteracies: Literary Learning and the Designs of Social Futures, 9–38. London: Routledge. Nünning, A. and Surkamp, C. (2010). Englische Literatur unterrichten 1: Grundlagen und Methoden. Seelze: Klett/Kallmeyer. Ohler, J. (2013). Digital Storytelling in the Classroom: New Media Pathways to Literacy: Ohler (2nd edn). Corwin: Thousand Oaks. Sevilla-Pavón, A., Serra-Cámara, B. and Gimeno-Sanz, A. (2012). ‘The Use of Digital Storytelling for ESP in a Technical English Course for Aerospace Engineers’. The EUROCALL Review 20 (2): 68–79. Coleraine & Valencia: EUROCALL/Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. Wilden, E. (2013a). ‘Handcrafting Video Clips to Foster Audio-Visual Literacy’. Babylonia 12 (3): 34–9. Wilden, E. (2013b). ‘Kultur und Identität im fremdsprachlichen Literaturunterricht. Ein Projekt zur Förderung der transkulturellen Kompetenz von angehenden Fremdsprachenlehrkräften’. In A. Wildemann and M. Hoodgarzadeh (eds), Sprachen und Identitäten, 132–45. Innsbruck: Studien-Verlag.

Conclusion Françoise Blin, David Barr, Ana Gimeno and Mike Levy

As mentioned in the Introduction, the theme of sustainability in CALL has been explored in various ways throughout the chapters in this book. The chapters highlight interconnected and complementary core issues in the development of sustainable CALL: the importance of ensuring that the use of CALL in learning and teaching approaches will enable pedagogical approaches and methodologies that are sustainable and that these attendant approaches will facilitate sustained research and development in the area. The importance of normalizing the technology to prolong teacher usage has been identified as one major factor in ensuring sustainability. Karen Haines (Chapter 1), Priego (Chapter 4), Beatriz Martins (Chapter 6) and Wilden (Chapter 18) conclude that where there are clearly quantifiable benefits of using technology in the student learning experience, this convinces the teachers of the value of using such approaches in their teaching and, therefore, ensures the reusability of such tools. It may sound obvious to state but where the pedagogic worth is unclear, the long-term prospects of teachers wanting to use the tools and resources are limited. This, in turn, means that the likelihood of the technology being used effectively by students is low. Normalizing the technology does not only involve the teachers and tutors; students are a key part of the process too. Where students understand the benefits that the use of technology brings to their learning and are empowered by its use, this has resultant implications for the effectiveness of the technology. Morales (Chapter 5), Chwo (Chapter 10), White (Chapter 11), Ishikawa (Chapter 12), Ma (Chapter 13) and Kim (Chapter 15) all explore the perceived benefits, both implicit and explicit, that the technologies bring to the learner as a key element of sustainability. Designing for sustainability should, therefore, be at the core of both teacher education and language learning programmes. Sustainable pedagogies need to be developed, implemented and evaluated. Moreira dos Anjos-Santos and Lopes Cristovão (Chapter 2) and Kleban and Bueno-Alastuey (Chapter 3) show the significant impact that the design of pedagogical tasks may have on the sustainable integration of digital technologies in teachers’ language teaching practice. Sustainable pedagogies and learners’ sustained engagement with their language learning process and effort need to be supported by sustainable CALL resources and applications, as clearly demonstrated by Steel’s study (Chapter 14). Ward (Chapter 8) proposes design principles and methods that draw on agile software development techniques while Bañados-Santana (Chapter 9) gives a comprehensive and critical overview of a concrete design process

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and outcome. Both highlight barriers to sustainability that are located at the macro level (i.e. at the institutional or societal level) as well as at the micro level. If our pedagogical and technological designs are to ensure the sustainability of CALL, they need to be underpinned by appropriate theoretical frameworks and findings from studies that use methodologies that are commensurable with those theories. Novel techniques and the availability and ease of use of research instruments are also instrumental in helping researchers to adopt research designs that are replicable in, and applicable to, a variety of contexts over time. Roubou (Chapter 18), and O’Rourke, Shi, Smith, Stickler, Prendergast (Chapter 17) and Blin, Caws, Hamel, Heift, Schulze, and Smith (Chapter 7) present new methods and techniques that are likely to lead to research findings that will have a sustained impact on CALL development and practice. It is perhaps axiomatic to say that without teacher or student acceptance of the technology or without clearly defined pedagogical benefits of using technology, there is a risk that some CALL projects could become short-lived technological trials that are unlikely to become embedded into the learning and teaching experience. The short shelf lives of such trials have implications in terms of the wider sustainability of CALL because, in an educational context that is becoming increasingly focused on output, impact and value-for-money, projects that are not seen as having reusable or transferable potential may suffer from loss of funding in future. This, in turn, has implications for the valuable research and development work related to such problems, not least in eliminating what does not work. In a similar way, while there is widespread acceptance that learners are becoming increasingly adept users of a range of technologies, not least mobile and portable technologies, it does not necessary follow that they inherently know how to make effective use of technology to enhance their learning. One of the most remarkable conclusions that we can draw about the sustainability of CALL is in the interpretation of the term. Blin, Jalkanen and Taalas (forthcoming) define sustainable CALL as development initiatives and practices that can be maintained and prolonged, and that have the capacity to meet present and future needs of language teachers and learners. The chapters in this book focus, in the main, on ways of ensuring that CALL technologies, resources and pedagogies remain sustainable. In other words, the research reports on ways in which projects have been developed to ensure that they can be maintained and prolonged in the original context or in similar ones. The primary focus for such sustainability is the normalization of CALL, a concept discussed by Bax in 2003, whereby the technology becomes seamless and invisible. However, sustainable CALL tends to be discussed at a micro level, that is, at the level of a given application or a given language course. A macro-level discussion of sustainability is likely to reveal wider areas for consideration. While the need to future-proof the technological tools is a fundamental consideration, less obvious considerations focus on the need to ensure that the holistic infrastructure is reusable. Drawing on ecological and systemic approaches to sustainability, and more particularly to sustainable development, Blin et al. (forthcoming) propose four interacting ‘pillars’ of sustainable CALL development, namely environments and tools for learning, pedagogical and professional development, community and knowledge building, and organizational structures, which interact across multiple timescales. Drawing on Lehtonen (2004), they argue that ‘organisational structures should

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be in the service of all actors in the learning environment, while ensuring that the technologies, tools and language artefacts are adequately maintained and developed in response to the changing needs of teachers and learners’ (Blin et al., forthcoming). Organizational structures need, however, to be driven by communities and pedagogical development while being ‘submitted to the ultimate environment constraints’ (Lehtonen 2004, p. 202). This is important in ensuring the appropriateness of CALL to the learning needs of those studying languages, which are affected by governmental or national priorities and needs. The provision of appropriate pedagogical and professional development is essential if proficiency in the use of emergent technologies is to be sustained over time. In this context, it is not just a question of ensuring that training is provided to show students and teachers how to make effective use of the technology but also one of ensuring that those leading the development of CALL are given a sufficient reward to incentivize their continued involvement. This incentivization can take varying forms, including career progression opportunities, and time, space or funding to support CALL work. The creation of opportunities for community and knowledge building is another core foundation of sustainable CALL. This is, perhaps, the most difficult of all areas to achieve as it focuses on the ethos of learning and works back from the desired learning outcomes. In other words, it looks at the learning need first and then considers how this might be achieved. In the last analysis, the findings of this book point towards further research in the area of these four pillars of sustainable CALL. These are not new principles. Indeed, they mirror the historic criteria developed to assess the impact of CALL software that is still used in the present (from Hubbard 1988 to Leakey 2011). As they are faced with constantly evolving technologies, the move towards increased portability and the omnipresence of learning opportunities, it is sometimes easy to feel that CALL technologies can only be sustained when they adapt to evolutionary technological changes. Nonetheless, the most important constant in history is the underlying reason for CALL technologies to exist – the learning experience. Perhaps one of the most important lessons to be learnt about the sustainability of CALL is that, to restate a well-known statement in CALL research, if the focus is on the pedagogy driving the technology, this will enable sustainability.

References Bax, S. (2003). ‘CALL—Past, Present and Future’. System 31 (1): 13–28. Blin, Jalkanen and Taalas (forthcoming). ‘Sustainable CALL Development’. In L. Murray and F. Farr (eds), Handbook of Language Learning and Technology. Oxon: Routledge. Hubbard, P. (1998). ‘An Integrated Framework for CALL Courseware Evaluation’. CALICO Journal 6 (2): 51–72. Leakey J. (2011). Evaluating Computer Assisted Language Learning: An Integrated Approach to Effectiveness Research in CALL. Bern: Peter Lang. Lehtonen, M. (2004). ‘The Environmental–Social Interface of Sustainable Development: Capabilities, Social Capital, Institutions’. Ecological Economics 49 (2): 199–214.

Index Page references in italics refer to tables. abbreviation 177 action capacities  27, 31–2 activity theory  120–1 adamant-type learners  127 ADDIE methodology  132–3, 141, 146–7 advert analysis  304–10 affordances 121–2 attentional 289–90 CMC tools  8–9, 15–19 educational 121–2 fitting learning into life  233–4, 237–8 generalizable 14–15 language  121, 234–6, 238–40 learning  17, 234–6, 238–9 (see also learning affordances in blogs) MALL  232–3, 241–2, 244, 246, 259 notion of  7, 121 and podcasting practices  30 technological 59–62 agile methodology  133, 142, 144, 146–7 analyzing process of (multi)literacies approach  317–18, 320 applying process of (multi)literacies approach  317–18, 320 artificial intelligence modelling  138 assistance, in communities of practice 179 attentional affordances of synchronous computer-mediated communication 289–90 attitudes and beliefs towards ICT use, and CALL integration  111, 112–13 audio-visual literacy  316–17, 320–1 Bartlett’s test of sphericity  108, 109 Bax, S.  24, 103, 104, 110 Benson, P.  219–20 b-learning notion of  190

online mentoring within  192–3 b-learning ESL programme in Chile  156–7 elements of  157–60 interactional activity  162–3 learner-computer interaction design criteria for  163–71 overall framework of  160–2 sustainability of  171–2 b-learning ESL programme in Japan  190–1 impact on self-regulated learning  203 individual motivational factors in  203 sustained self-regulated learning in  191–2, 196–202, 204–5 blended learning. See b-learning Blin, F.  328, 329–30 blogs  86, 87–8 cognitive presence in  92 learning affordances in (see learning affordances in blogs) social presence in  90–1 teaching presence in  93–4 browsers 127 CAF constructs. See complexity, accuracy and fluency constructs CALL (computer assisted language learning) 1 benefits and limitations of  3 contextual factors  109–10, 114–15 eye-tracking applications  124 L2 teacher training in  79–80 multidisciplinary nature of  133 CALL development. See sustainable CALL resources development CALL for online learning and teaching  78–9, 96–8 knowledge and skills for  78

332

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knowledge and skills development for 83–8 online community of inquiry  80–2, 86 online training course for  89–90 teacher’s digital self-esteem  94–6 and transformative learning  82–3 CALL integration. See integration of CALL into classrooms case study  214 notion of  84 clippings  177, 178, 184–7 CMC. See computer-mediated communication code complexity  303 cognition hypothesis  299, 301–2 cognitive complexity  303 collaboration 3–4 vs. cooperation  42 vs. cooperation in Web 2.0 environments 56 in MALL, Korean students’ resistance to 258 in textchats  179 on VoiceThreads  62–3, 68–9, 75–7 in Web 2.0 environment  53–4, 55–6, 70–1 in Web 2.0 environment, sustainability of 56–9 Colpaert, J.  132–3, 141, 142–3, 146, 147 comments, and communities of practice 182 communicative stress  303 communities of practice, building and sustaining 179–80 community of inquiry, in online teaching and learning  80–2, 86, 90–4 commuting time, and MALL use  258–60, 261 complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) constructs 301 effects of increasing task complexity on  306, 308–10, 311 effects of L2 proficiency levels on  306, 307, 308, 310 complexity theory and individual reduced forms  186 and language learning  119–21 computer-assisted language learning. See CALL

computer-mediated communication (CMC), and language economization 176–9 computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools and affordances  8–9, 15–19 for online mentoring  191 conceptualizing process of (multi)literacies approach  317–18, 320 content analysis  59 continuers, in communities of practice  179, 181–2, 184 Cooper, A.  126 cooperation vs. collaboration  42 vs. collaboration in Web 2.0 environments 56 on VoiceThreads  62–3, 74 corrective feedback in communities of practice  179, 183 during SCMC  290 in L2 b-learning environment  161, 170–1 in MALL  238 cost factor in eye-tracking research  287 in MALL  240, 279 Davies, G.  137–9 depth of processing theory  162 design criteria for ESL mobile applications  245, 246–7, 252 for interactive multimedia framework 160–2 for learner-computer interaction in b-learning environment  163–71 for MALL  244–5 for next generation MALL  247 dictionary applications (apps)  217, 221, 222, 224–5, 235, 238, 239 didactic sequences  26 didactic sequences around podcasting 26–30 and language capacities  26–7, 31–3 limitations of  30 digital literacy of teachers  116 n.1 and CALL integration  109, 111–12, 113

Index digitally based pedagogy in teacher education and training discursive capacities  27, 32 impediments 24–5 possibilities and constraints  30–3 role and uses  3, 23–6, 35–6 sustainable integration of  34–5 ‘digital self-esteem’  94–7 digital storytelling formats for  324 and sustainability  324 through handcrafted video clips  314, 315–23 distributed collective telecollaboration 45–6 notion of  45 usefulness of  47–8 Dornyei, Z.  84 educational affordances  121–2 EFL (English as foreign language). See English as second language ellipsis 177 interactive functions of  180–3, 188 notion of  176 email communication  45 and effective use of online learning materials  194–5, 201, 203 e-mentoring. See online mentoring end-user involvement, in sustainable CALL resources development  142, 143 English as foreign language (EFL). See English as second language English as second language (ESL) learning. See also headings beginning Second language ... b-learning (see b-learning ESL programme in Chile; b-learning ESL programme in Japan) handcrafted video clips for  318–23 mobile applications for (see mobile applications for English as second language learning) smartphones for  2–3, 270, 278–9 English as second language (ESL) teachers CALL competency development for online teaching  83–8, 96–8 CALL competency training course 89–94

333

‘digital self-esteem’ of  94–7 face-to-face tutoring in b-learning environment  158–9, 162–3 nature of interactions on VoiceThreads  62–3, 68–9, 73–7 perceptions of benefits of using VoiceThreads and Wikis  66, 67, 70 perceptions of using VoiceThreads 63, 64 readings skills and WhatsApp use  2–3, 270–5 technological problems in use of Wikis and VoiceThreads  63, 65 use of mobile media  314 use of VoiceThreads  59–62, 68 use of Wikis  61, 62, 68 English fluency measures  305 effects of increasing task complexity on  306, 308, 309 effects of L2 proficiency levels on  306, 307, 308 English for specific purposes (ESP) students, use of Wikis  54–5 English proficiency  155 assessment of  159–60 in Chile  156 effect on cognitive constructs  306, 307, 308 in Japan  197 Korean students  250 environment design approach  161 ergonomics 122–3 error correction  127 ESL. See English as second language ESP. See English for specific purposes European Commission, m-learning research projects  269 experience process of (multi)literacies approach  317–18, 320 exploratory case study  84 extrinsic motivation  197 eye-tracking 285 and learner behaviour  3, 123–4 methodological advantages of 286–7 methodological disadvantages of 287–8 and usability tests  125

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Index

eye-tracking in synchronous computermediated communication research  124, 285–6 applications of  288–92 current research  295–6 data collection and analysis in  294–5 generalizability  288, 293 practical and technical issues  292–3 realism and validity of  293–4 Facebook 45 face-to-face tutoring, in L2 b-learning environment  158–9, 162–3 factor analysis  108, 109 flashcards 238–9 focus on forms  289–90 foreign language teachers and teaching beliefs and attitudes towards ICT use  111, 112–13 and CALL integration  3, 103–4, 115–16 and CALL integration, influencing factors 105–10 digital literacy of  109, 111–12, 113, 116 n.1 multifaceted use of technology by  110, 113 (multi-)literacies approach to  319–23 and technology environment in institution 112 formal learning, notion of  220 funding and CALL development  133–4 of sustainable OERs  136 gamification of mobile applications  234, 238 GATE framework. See General Architecture for Text Engineering framework General Architecture for Text Engineering (GATE) framework  145 generalizability, in eye-tracking SCMC research 293 genre(s) 26 genre teaching and learning, pedagogical tools  26–7, 31–3 global local differential targeted (GLTD) grid  132–3, 141, 142–3, 146

GLTD grid. See global local differential targeted grid grammar, mobile applications for  239–40 grammatical errors  177–8 Gunn, C.  1, 4 handcrafted video clips method  314 for digital storytelling  315–16 foreign language learning potential of 319–23 and (multi-)literacies approach 316–18 prerequisites for  323–4 homophonous spellings  178 Hong, K. H.  104, 105, 108, 114, 115 Hot Potatoes  147 ICALL 138 images, for L2 input modification  167 IMS Global Learning Consortium standards 144–5 incidental learning, and MALL  224–5 in-class learning in b-learning environment  190–1, 202–4 MALL experience  219–21 independent learning, with interactive multimedia 157–8 individual factors (teachers’), and CALL integration  109, 111, 112–13 individual MALL  247–8 inductive data analysis  9 informal learning, notion of  220 input elaboration  168 input enhancement  164–6 input modification  166–8 in-service teachers education and training digitally based pedagogies  3, 23–6 digitally based pedagogies, sustainable integration 34–5 learning affordance perspective  14, 18–19 podcasting practices, didactic sequences around  26–30 podcasting practices, possibilities and impediments  24–5, 30–3 institutional support for sustainable CALL resources development  140, 145

Index for sustainable teacher development 14–19 instrumental motivation  197 integration, notion of  103 integration of CALL into classrooms  3, 115–16 CALL/technology teacher education  109, 113–14 contextual factors  109–10, 114–15 individual factors  109, 111, 112–13 influencing factors  105–10 spherical model  103, 104–5, 108 interaction-based research  3, 119, 127–8 and CALL ergonomics  122–3 interaction hypothesis and communities of practice  179–80 and language learning  162, 169–70 interactive multimedia framework, L2 b–learning environment  160–2 international telecollaboration. See distributed collective telecollaboration internet 138 and MALL experience  240 interpersonal interaction, in L2 b-learning environment  162, 169 intersubjectivity in communities of practice  179, 181 notion of  179 interview method  8, 9, 215, 251 Jalkanen, J.  328, 329–30 JIM study  314 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure  108, 109 Kim, H.  245–7, 252 KMO measure. See Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure Kwon, Y.  245–7, 252 Laesbarhedsindex (LIX) readability index 305 effects of increasing task complexity on 308 effects of L2 proficiency levels on 306, 307, 308 language affordances  121, 234–6, 238–40

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language capacities, and genre teaching and learning  26–7, 31–3 language economy classification of  177–9 in CMC  176 language learning, as complex system 119–21 language programme mobile applications  236–7, 240 laptops  216, 217 leaders, in communities of practice  186–7 learner behaviour, through eye tracking  3, 123–4, 285–6 learner-computer interaction  162, 163. See also eye-tracking design criteria  163–71 learner motivations in b-learning ESL programme  203 for English reading through smartphones  274, 277 Japanese students’  197 for MALL use  259–61 learner needs, and sustainable CALL resources development  142–4 learner personas  126–7, 147 learner types  127 learning affordances  17 specific to language skills and knowledge  234–6, 238–9 learning affordances in blogs perception  10–12, 21 perception of different affordances 13–15 research 8–10 similar perception  15–18, 22 learning management systems (LMS)  1, 3, 9, 190–1, 197, 198–201, 203–4 learning practices, impact of classroom technology 16–17 Lee, C.  177–8 Lee, M.  121 lesson plans, telecollaboration impact  48 Levy, M.  103 lexical variation effects of increasing task complexity on  308, 309 effects of L2 proficiency levels on 306, 307, 308

336 measure of  305 van Lier, L.  103 limited attentional capacity model  303–4, 309 linguistic-discursive capacities  27, 32 listening online resources for, accessed via mobile devices  218, 239, 254 podcast applications for  239 LMS. See learning management systems local telecollaboration  45–6 notion of  45 usefulness of  46–7, 49 location of language learning  219–20 learning on-the go  233–4, 237–8 locus of control, in language learning  219, 220, 221 logistic regression  108–9 Lotherington, H.  178 L2 ... See headings beginning second language ... MALL in Hong Kong  214–16, 225–6 experiences inside and outside classrooms  219–21, 223–4 most used devices  216–17 students’ self-regulation  221, 223 MALL (mobile-assisted language learning)  2, 93, 211, 230–1 affordances  231–2, 241–2, 244, 246, 259 constraints in  231–2, 240, 246 devices used for  212–13 effectiveness of  245–7 as free time activity  258–60, 261 for individual learning  247–8 intervention studies on  212 next generation designs for  247 notion of  211, 244 pedagogical constraints  240–1 podcasts on  236–7 studies 211–14 sustainability (see sustainable MALL) ubiquitous nature of  233–4, 237–8, 277 marked input enhancement  165 mastery motivation  197 media competence  316–17, 320–1 m-learning 266–7. See also MALL

Index actions for correct use of  268 advantages of  267–8 notion of  267 research projects on  269 ubiquitous nature of  267 mobile applications for English as second language learning content and functions impact on usage of  260 Kim and Kwon design and evaluation criteria  245, 246–7, 252 Korean students’ approaches to  257–8 Korean students’ motivating and demotivating factors for use of  259–61 Korean students’ preferences in  253–5 Korean students’ purpose for  258–9 Korean students’ use of  250–3, 261–2, 265 mobile applications for language learning  213, 217, 234 design and evaluation criteria for 244–5 flexibility of  237–8 gamification of  234, 238 types of programming for  240–1 mobile-assisted language learning. See MALL mobile learning. See m-learning Moodle  9, 80–1, 84, 86, 96 motivations. See learner motivations MSWord documents  44, 45 (multi-)literacies pedagogy for foreign language teaching and learning 316–18 processes of  317–18, 323 through handcrafted video clip method 319–23 multimodal synchronous computermediated communication studies, using eyetracking 290–2 multimodal texts  320–1 multiple linear regression, notion of  108 multivariate analysis methods  107–8 Murray, D.  177 natural language processing  138, 145 Netherlands, m-learning projects  269

Index news and information mobile applications 254–5 Ng, W.  248 Nicholas, H.  248 normalization  145, 328 and multifaceted use of technology  110, 327 notion of  24, 104 and sustainability of Web 2.0 collaborative projects  70–1 norms, and communities of practice 184–8 OERs. See open educational resources off-task discussions, in communities of practice 179 online assessment, of L2 learning outcomes in b-learning  159–60 online communication, teacherstudent  194–5, 201, 203 online dictionaries  217, 221, 222, 224–5, 233 online discussion forums  86, 87–8 cognitive presence  91–3 interactions in  179 social presence  90–1 teaching presence  93–4 online learning and teaching community of inquiry  80–2, 86 development of CALL competency for  78–9, 83–8, 96–8 and ‘digital self-esteem’  94–7 Salmon’s criteria  81–2 skills to facilitate  80, 81 training course for CALL competency for  89–94 online learning resources access cost of  240 accessed via mobile devices  217–19, 221, 222, 225–6 Hong Kong students’ preference for 224–5 sustained use of  190–1, 197–205 online mentoring. See also online tutors and tutoring effectiveness of  193–5 notion of  191 and teacher-student online communication  194–5, 201, 203

337

within b-learning environment  192–3 online monitoring, in L2 b-learning environment 158 online tutors and tutoring. See also online mentoring difference between online tool and 221 and effectiveness of online training programs  93–4, 97 and L2 b-learning environment  158 open educational resources (OERs)  2. See also online learning resources sustainability 135–6 outside classroom learning, and MALL  212, 220–1, 223–4, 248 pedagogical sustainability, notion of  248 peeker-type learners  127 peer review, and collaborative reflective interaction 55–6 perceived learning affordances  10–12, 21 differences 13–15 similarities  15–18, 22 personas  126–7, 147 person-centred sustainable model  248 podcasts 26 digitally based didactic sequences 26–30 on MALL  236–7 possibilities and constraints  30–3 portability, and MALL  234–5, 237, 242, 244 pre-service English as second language teachers nature of interactions on VoiceThreads  62–3, 68–9, 73–7 perceptions of benefits of using Wikis and VoiceThreads  66, 67, 70 perceptions of using VoiceThreads 63, 64 research on Web 2.0 environment use by 56–9 technological problems in use of Wikis and VoiceThreads  63, 65 use of VoiceThreads  59–62, 68 use of Wikis  54, 61, 62, 68 pre-service teachers education and training development of techno-pedagogical skills  41–2, 47–8

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Index

local and international telecollaboration 46–8 telecollaboration 40 telecollaboration benefits  40–2 telecollaboration research  42–5 prototype systems of CALL  139 questionnaire method  59, 106–7, 125–6, 215, 216, 228–9 quick placement test (QPT)  304 readability index  305 reading mobile reading  255–6 online resources for, accessed via mobile devices  218, 239 patterns in chats  289–90 reading skills of English as second language students habits and attitudes  272–5 motivations for improvement of  274, 275–6, 277 WhatsApp impact on  2–3, 270–2, 276, 278 recasts  288, 289, 290, 293 reduced forms classification of  177–8 norm-setting 184–7 notion of  176 reductions of formality  178 reflection for transformation, training models promoting  82–3, 86, 87–8, 93, 95, 96 repetition and communities of practice  179–80, 183–4 in ESL b-learning environment  165–6 in ESL MALL  257–8 resource-directing 302–3 resource-dispersing 302–3 re-usability of CALL resources  134, 137, 144–5 Robinson, P.  301–3, 304, 311 salient input enhancement  164–5 Salmon, G.  81–2 scaffolding devices  256–7, 316 SCMC. See synchronous computermediated communication

SCORM standards. See Shareable Content Object Reference Model standards second language acquisition (SLA). See also headings beginning English as second language ... task-based approaches to  300–1 and tracking learner behaviour  124 second language input in b-learning environment elaboration 168 enhancement 164–6 modification 166–8 second language teachers, and CALL integration  103, 104–5 second language teachers training in CALL  79–80, 96–8 cognitive presence  91–3 ‘digital self-esteem’  94–7 online community of inquiry  80–2, 86 online training course  89–90 skills 80, 81 skills development  83–8 social presence  90–1 teaching presence  93–4 and transformative learning  82–3 self-correction in communities of practice  179, 183 in MALL  238 self-evaluation of second language teachers, in CALL competency  94–6 self-evaluation of students  195–6 impact on ESL proficiency levels  196 research 196–202 self-regulated learning (SRL) and flexible nature of b-learning environment 203 Hong Kong students’  225 MALL experience  221, 223, 247 notion of  190–1, 191–2 and student self-evaluation  196–202 and sustained use of online learning materials  3, 191, 204–5 Shareable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards  144–5 shortenings 177. See also reduced forms signification capacities  26–7, 31 Skype 43, 44, 45 SLA. See second language acquisition

Index smartphone(s) applications used for L2 learning  245, 250–8 for language learning  216, 217, 224 for learning  266–7 for L2 learning  2–3, 270, 278–9 for L2 learning, motivating and demotivating factors  259–61 for L2 learning, perceptions of use of 275–6 prevalence of  314 usage in Hong Kong  213–14 social learning perspective, of digitally based pedagogy  25 socio-constructivist approach, for CALL pedagogy  79, 86, 90 socio-cultural approach in blog usage  12, 13 and language learning  162 sociodiscursive interactionism and genre teaching and learning  26–7 notion of  26 software design and development in CALL development 134 agile methodology  142, 144, 145 deployment issues  146 difficulties in  134, 139–40 hybrid approach  146–7 usability and reusability  144–5 speaking mobile applications for  239 online resources for, accessed via mobile devices  218–19 Speakwise project  296 SRL. See self-regulated learning stimulated recall  286, 292, 295 Stockwell, G.  103 support models  4 survey  231–3, 250 sustainability  1–4, 56, 327–9 of communities of practice  179–80 and digital storytelling method  324 notion of  1, 135 of online learning materials usage  190–1, 202–5 of UdeC English Online  171–2 of Web 2.0 collaborative projects  70–1 sustainable CALL resources development  132–3, 148

339

challenges in  133–5 deployment context  140, 146 hindering factors  139–41 hybrid approach  146–7 past lessons  137–9 solutions to challenges in  141–6 by teachers  138 traditional methodology  141–2 sustainable integration of digital technology, and teacher education  3, 23–4, 34–5 sustainable interaction-based research 119 sustainable MALL  244–5, 248–50 person-centred model  248 sustainable open educational resources (OERs) 135–6 sustainable software  136–7 synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) research. See eye-tracking in synchronous computer-mediated communication research synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) tools  9, 43–4 syntactic complexity effects of increasing task complexity on 309 effects of L2 proficiency levels on  306, 307, 308 measures of  305 syntactic economization  177 Taalas, P.  328, 329–30 talk-after protocols  125 task-based language learning and (multi-)literacies approach  323 for SLA  160–1 task-based language teaching (TBLT)  299, 300 and SLA  300–1 task-based synchronous computermediated communication tasks 290 task complexity  299 dimensions of  302–3 effect on CAF constructs  306, 308–11 models of  301–4

340

Index

notion of  301 research 304–5 task(s) 160–1 notion of  300 TBLT. See task-based language teaching teacher education and training  3–4. See also in-service teachers education and training; preservice teachers education and training in CALL  104–5, 109, 113–14 role and uses of digitally based pedagogy in  3, 23–6, 35–6 in use of CALL resources  137, 145–6 teacher-perceived affordances. See perceived learning affordances teacher presence importance of  194–5 notion of  193–4 teacher-produced CALL resources  138 teacher-student online communication, impact on student’s use of online learning materials  194–5, 201, 203 technological affordances, of VoiceThreads and Wikis, use of  59–62 technological sustainability, notion of  248 technology environment in institution, and CALL integration  112, 114 technology in classroom. See also CALL; MALL impact on learning practices  16–17 techno-pedagogical knowledge creation, through telecollaboration  41–2, 47–8 telecollaboration  4, 39 awareness of pedagogical value of  49 benefits of  39 in L2 b-learning environment  159, 163 telecollaboration in teacher training  40 linguistic benefits of  40–1 research on  42–5 and techno-pedagogical knowledge development  41–2, 47–8 types  45–8, 49 text analysis software  305, 310 text-based synchronous computermediated communication studies, using eyetracking 289–90

textchats collaborative interactions in  179 and communities of practice  180–8 reading patterns in  289–90 text deformations  178 text ownership, and collaborative reflective interaction 55–6 think-aloud protocols  125 time, and CALL design and development 134–5 total number of words measure  305, 309 tracking learner behaviour  3, 123–4 training on CALL resources  140, 145–6 on online learning  3–4 transformative learning theory, and L2 teacher education in CALL  82–3, 86, 87–8, 93, 95, 96 triadic componential framework, Robinson’s  301–3, 304, 309 TTR. See type-token ratios T-units  305, 308, 309 type-token ratios (TTR)  305, 308, 309 UdeC English Online  2, 156–7 elements of  157–60 overall framework of  160–2 sustainability of  171–2 UNESCO, policy guidelines on m-learning 267–8 United Kingdom, m-learning projects 269 usability and re-usability of CALL resources  137, 144–5 usability tests  125–6 UsingEnglish.com 305 video screen capture  125 vocabulary acquisition. See also dictionary applications; online dictionaries through mobile devices  235, 238–9, 249 VoiceThread nature of interactions on  53–4, 62–3, 68–9, 73–7 notion of  53 perceptions of benefits of using  66, 67, 70 perceptions of using  63, 64 research on  55

Index technological problems with  63, 65 use of communication features of  59–62, 68 web-based translators  233 Web 2.0 collaboration in  53–4, 55–6, 70–1 collaboration in, research on  56–9 collaboration in, sustainability of 56–9 Werry, C.  177 WhatsApp, and English reading skills  2–3, 270–2, 276, 278 Wikis 12 nature of interactions on  53–4 perceptions of benefits of using  66, 67, 70 perceptions of using  63

341

research on  54–5 technological problems with  63, 65 use of communication features of  61, 62, 68 writing advert analysis  304–10 on blogs  10–11, 12, 13–14 collaborative 55–6 frequency of practise  218, 229 learning affordances  15, 21, 22 mobile applications for  234–5, 239–40 online resources/tools used to practise 217, 218, 229 in Wikis and VoiceThread  59–62 Xu, Y.  178 Yus, F.  178