Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job (Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education, 2) 3030790452, 9783030790455

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Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2

Mary Ann Maslak

Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job

Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education Volume 2

Series Editors Brett Elizabeth Blake, St. John’s University, Queens, NY, USA Rob Linné, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA Editorial Board Members Silvia Benard, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, Mexico Robert W. Blake, Towson University, Towson, MD, USA Julie H. Carter, D’Youville College, Buffalo, NY, USA Ineke Edes, University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands Aitor Gomez Gonzalez, Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona, Spain Awad Ibrahim, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada Em Maslak, St. John’s University, Queens, NY, USA Shirley Steinberg, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Stephanie Troutman, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA Mark Vicars, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

About this book series This series explores the shifting landscape of the adolescent experience in schools from a global perspective, and illuminates promising contemporary models of adolescence education around the world. As well as broadening the global perspective, the series addresses issues of adolescence and schooling from outside the typical scope of studies that focus mainly on the biological, neurological, and/or psychological aspects of youth development. The series includes both theoretical and pedagogical works that spotlight a broad range of geographical areas, and examines critical pedagogies, inclusive educational practices, and shifting youth demographics. It emphasizes the socio-cultural, historic, and political nature of adolescence in relation to education and education practices in the 21st century. Author voices include non-western views, perspectives, and practices, as well as out-of-school experiences such as that of the Muslim youth encamped  - and receiving “education”- across the European Union. This series: • provides valuable insights to all professionals united by a commitment to a new vision for the education of adolescents • fills a crucial need for published research outside the more essentialist aspects of adolescence • appeals to a broad audience of scholars, educators, teacher educators, as well as students and youth educators in sport and health education

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15904

Mary Ann Maslak

Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job

Mary Ann Maslak School of Education St. John’s University Queens, NY, USA

ISSN 2522-8269     ISSN 2522-8277 (electronic) Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education ISBN 978-3-030-79045-5    ISBN 978-3-030-79046-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

To my parents, Evelyn and Bill Maslak

Preface

Bishop C. Hunt Jr.’s essay Travel Metaphors and the Problem of Knowledge offers a metaphor for this manuscript’s creation and completion. Throughout a journey, we traverse over many roads. One type of journey entails a physical movement from one place to another. Another includes the psychological movement that leads in one direction, then another, then back to yet another, sometimes crisscrossing along the way. The development of this book, as well as its completion, included both types of journeys. During my two decades of conducting research, I have met many young people who worked in various industries, both in the public and private sectors. Young women finished middle school and immediately started work in the sundry shops, made noodles for their noodle shop, and served guests in a guest house for foreigners in the tiny southern Gansu village. Indian women in New Delhi established roadside stands to sell their freshly cooked food. Tibetan women in Majnu-Ka-Tilla in the northern section of New Delhi opened tourist shops to sell garments and jewelry made by local women in the community. Indonesian women developed tailoring skills to start a small shop that provided services for residents in their communities. Women in Nepal’s hills offered a room in their homes and a hot meal to trekkers in exchange for a few rupees a night. Italian women in Sicily provided house cleaning services for the wealthy. During conversations with these young women, I realized that although they possessed an interest in working and earning an income, they seemed to have little understanding of their respective work environments before entering them. Some women did not create a business plan before starting their businesses. Others did not know how to market their goods. Many did not open bank accounts and complete legal documents that established themselves as legitimate business owners in the government’s eyes. All these young women seemed to learn by trial and error; they observed and listened as they assimilated to the work setting’s culture and tried to succeed in it. Mothers passed their skills to their daughters and sons. Those who were successful offered valuable advice. Those who failed shared tales of struggle with me. In all cases, adolescents in these families supported their mother’s businesses. They learned from their experiences in those shops and along the roadside stands where vii

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their mothers worked long hours. If young people attended school, they assisted their families either before or after school. At work, these youth experienced varying levels of success. Some understood how to manage the work that was assigned to them and efficiently completed it. Others struggled to know how to accomplish their assigned tasks. Even with the guidance of a family member or family friend, all struggled to understand the work setting’s culture. During these travels, I continually asked myself – what were these young people learning in a formal or a non-formal education class to help them in their current work situations? What would they know today that would enable them to succeed in future work environments? Through these years of researching women and education and female entrepreneurship, I looked at curricula. I talked to teachers and administrators. I observed classes. Sometimes this work was in China. Other projects took me to India, Indonesia, Turkey, Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan. Now that I sit back and reflect on those experiences, I realize that the youth I met obtained minimal workforce education to help them in those situations. In short, youth were ill-equipped to enter the workforce with knowledge, skills, and competencies to succeed in the work setting. My reflections of their struggles and these questions provided the impetus to write this book. As I started to map out ideas for this book, I realized that the field of education with which I was so familiar inadequately prepared me to understand workforce education for youth. And when I consulted the business literature to learn about how the field relates to the young person, I realized that most of the literature pertains to adults. In short, neither the apparent disciplines of education nor the area of work helped me understand youth’s education realities for and on the job. That realization became the final deciding factor to sit down and write. At first, I thought that I would write an article. With my colleague’s help and guidance, as well as more time spent conceptualizing and reading, I realized that the ideas that contribute to education for and on the job comprised a diverse set of related ideas that required a purposeful, planned approach to untangle the task, which was a great one. Colleagues at St. John’s University and other universities both in the USA and abroad helped me grapple with the complexities of education for and on the job and ways to approach its study along the way. The resultant book offers new ways to think about the complexity of adolescent growth and development as they relate to education for and on the job. It provides literature reviews of existing scholarship, original conceptual frameworks that advance a field of transdisciplinary research, and suitable materials for use in the educational and work settings that draw on both community experience and educational experience. To understand this work, one must adopt both macroscopic and microscopic perspectives. The macroscopic nature of the book presents understandings of systems and structures related to education, sociology, and work (in the field of business) and the relationships between and among them. The microscopic perspective offers specific information within each of the disciplines that help to explain insights into how the disciplines relate to each other.

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Like James C. Collins says in his book From Good to Great, simplicity remains a critical idea in the journey of creation. This book attempts to follow that adage. Although it includes various perspectives and disciplines, it ends, as it begins, with a message that youth’s education for and on the job remains an essential element of our world today and tomorrow. This work attempts to advance our understandings of how we can advance these fields. Collins, J. C. (2001). From good to great: Why some companies make the leap… and others don’t. Harper Business. Hunt, B.  C. (1976). Travel metaphors and the problem of knowledge. Modern Language Studies, 6(10), 44–47. Queens, NY, USA

Mary Ann Maslak

Acknowledgments

Many individuals in both professional and personal contexts contributed to the completion of this book. My colleague, Dr. Brett Elizabeth Blake, encouraged me to pursue this manuscript because she recognized that my ideas filled a gap in the adolescent literature. Moreover, she invited me to use her as a sounding board, which challenged me to conceptualize my thoughts that honored existing literature and added something new. Colleagues at Hangzhou’s Zhejiang Gongshan University, including Professors Wu Yiping and Xiang Ling, offered support in terms of their encouragement and resources both in New York and Hangzhou. Professor Xiang’s students Mia, Betsy, and Sofia, also at Zhejiang Gongshan University, provided research support. Gong Zhuo, a lawyer in Hangzhou, provided valuable documents and references that enriched my understanding of the complexity of labor law and laws regarding adolescents in China. Dr. Amelia Manuti at the University of Bari in Italy, during both in-person and email conversations, provided information regarding the Italian vocational education system, its challenges, and the state of youth workers in the South. Ms. Dalila Monachino, Dr. Manuti’s doctoral student who was busy collecting her data in Spain at the time, offered helpful suggestions for policy documents and scholarly work for the case study on Italy. During the work that was accomplished on St. John’s Campus in NY, Mike, a graduate student, and Daniella, an undergraduate student, offered research support to search for articles and editorial help to check bibliographic citations. I also thank my Rome campus colleague, Dr. Bill Nester, whose causal conversations about life in Rome helped remind me that balancing professional and personal lives yields great rewards. Toward the end of the writing process, my colleagues in the University’s School of Education and the Provost’s office, respectively, supported the final stages of this research by approving a one-semester research leave to complete it. In the personal context, both family and friends offered support in various ways. During the entire journey, my sisters and parents encouraged me, especially during the difficult days when I thought I could never finish. Friends in various locations also offered levity during multiple stages of the writing process. During one phase of the journey, Sophia and Daniel offered a lovely apartment space where I could write. I offer a special thank you to Marshmallow. Gail offered both a private room xi

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in the heart of Manhattan to work and many opportunities to share ideas. Her English language learning expertise enhanced my understanding of her college students’ cultural and linguistic challenges that focused on bridging cultural divides and language differences in one community college in the Bronx. I adopted some of these ideas for my manuscript. Andrea, my long-time friend, and colleague asked challenging questions that made me think about the criteria for selecting countries for this book’s case study portion. Moreover, during an extended stay in Catania, Maria, my Sicilian friend, neighbor, and barista extraordinaire, and I engaged in conversations about Catania, Sicily, and the adolescent work situation in southern Italy. My Italian teacher, Bianca, offered her knowledge and expertise during private lessons that enabled me to pass three levels of the PLIDA Italian language exam while developing a friendship that included many conversations about life in Italy with her and her family. Finally, this book would not have been possible without help from the editorial staff. Astrid Noordermeer and the series editors at Springer Press supported me throughout the writing process. Anonymous reviewers offered insightful and helpful comments. I am grateful for this support.

Contents

1 An Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 1.2 Advancement for Youth: International Attention������������������������������    2 1.3 Defining the Population��������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.4 Educating the Population������������������������������������������������������������������    4 1.5 The Number of Working for Youth in Select Countries��������������������    5 1.6 The Parts of the Book ����������������������������������������������������������������������    7 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    9 Part I Who Are Adolescents?: The Foundation 2 The Cognitive, Psychological and Social Development of the Adolescent������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 2.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   13 2.2 The Definition of Adolescence����������������������������������������������������������   14 2.3 The Model����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   14 2.3.1 The Elements of Adolescent Development: Cognitive Development of the Adolescent Brain����������������������������������   14 2.4 Psychological Development of the Adolescent Brain����������������������   17 2.4.1 Identity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   17 2.4.2 Self-Esteem ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.4.3 Self-Efficacy ������������������������������������������������������������������������   18 2.4.4 Self-Image����������������������������������������������������������������������������   19 2.4.5 Maturity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   20 2.5 Social Development of the Adolescent Brain ����������������������������������   20 2.6 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   22 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   22

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Part II Country Cases and Realities of Yesterday and Today 3 Vocational Education in China: The Case of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)������������������������������������������������������������������������   27 3.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   27 3.2 The Context for Present-Day Vocational Education ������������������������   28 3.2.1 Contemporary Vocational and Technical Education ������������   30 3.3 Non-formal Vocational Education and the Nongovernmental Organizational System That Offers It: An Organizational Glance ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   38 3.3.1 The Structure and Functions of the NGO ����������������������������   39 3.4 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   42 4 Vocational Education in Italy: The Case of the Republic of Italy ������   47 4.1 An Introduction: The Context ����������������������������������������������������������   47 4.2 The VET System ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   48 4.3 Inconsistencies in the Country’s VET System����������������������������������   52 4.4 Non-formal Education����������������������������������������������������������������������   53 4.5 The School System’s Apprenticeship Programs and the Labor Market ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   53 4.5.1 The Apprenticeship Contract������������������������������������������������   54 4.5.2 Types of Contracts����������������������������������������������������������������   54 4.6 Italian and European Union Guidance for VET��������������������������������   55 4.7 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   57 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   58 5 Vocational Education in the United States of America (U.S.A.): The Case of the United States of America (U.S.A.) ������������������������������   61 5.1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   61 5.2 A History of the Relationships Between Work and Schooling in the U.S.A.��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   62 5.3 The Work Experience and Three Types of Vocational Educational Opportunities for Youth������������������������������������������������   67 5.4 Positive and Negative Outcomes of Work for Youth in the U.S.������   70 5.4.1 Positive Outcomes of Work for Adolescents������������������������   70 5.4.2 Negative Outcomes of Work for Adolescents ����������������������   72 5.5 The Administration of Vocational Programs in the United States����   72 5.5.1 A Compilation of Categories of Vocational Programs in the United States����������������������������������������������   73 5.6 Governmental and Non-governmental Initiatives to Support Vocational Education in the U.S.A.��������������������������������������������������   74 5.6.1 Governmental Initiatives������������������������������������������������������   75 5.6.2 Non-governmental Initiatives������������������������������������������������   75 5.6.3 Curricular Initiatives ������������������������������������������������������������   76

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5.7 Significant Shifts in the Field?����������������������������������������������������������   77 5.7.1 One Example������������������������������������������������������������������������   78 5.8 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   80 Part III The Work Experience: Staff and Communications 6 Rethinking Adolescents’ Work Experiences as Education: The Education Work Model (EWM)������������������������������������������������������   85 6.1 An Introduction: Adolescents and Work ������������������������������������������   85 6.2 Traditional Approaches to Workplace Learning ������������������������������   86 6.3 Work-Education Learning Experiences: Work-­Integrated and Work-Based Learning ����������������������������������������������������������������������   87 6.3.1 Work-Integrated Learning (WIL)������������������������������������������   88 6.3.2 Work-Based Learning (WBL)����������������������������������������������   89 6.4 Types of Workplace Education That Combine the Formal/Non-formal and Informal ����������������������������������������������������   89 6.4.1 The Apprenticeship ��������������������������������������������������������������   89 6.4.2 The Internship ����������������������������������������������������������������������   91 6.4.3 The School-to-Work Partnership������������������������������������������   92 6.5 Informal Learning from Relationships on the Job����������������������������   93 6.6 The Education Work Model (EWM): The Concept of Community for and in the Work Environment����������������������������������   95 6.6.1 Organizational Support ��������������������������������������������������������   95 6.6.2 Managerial Support��������������������������������������������������������������   96 6.6.3 Supervisor Support���������������������������������������������������������������   98 6.6.4 Trainer Support ��������������������������������������������������������������������   98 6.6.5 Mentor and Coach Support ��������������������������������������������������   99 6.6.6 Co-worker and Peer Support������������������������������������������������  100 6.7 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  101 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103 7 Informal Learning and Informal Education for and on the Job: A New Model������������������������������������������������������������������������  109 7.1 Informal Learning Towards Informal Education������������������������������  109 7.2 Informal Education a System: The Model����������������������������������������  110 7.2.1 The First Component: Networks Amongst Individuals and Their Characteristics ����������������������������������  112 7.2.2 Type of Interaction����������������������������������������������������������������  112 7.2.3 Strength of Relationship ������������������������������������������������������  113 7.2.4 Duration of Relationship������������������������������������������������������  115 7.3 The Second Component: Active and Passive Participation��������������  116 7.4 The Third Component: Individuals’ Simple and Complex Reflective Informal Learning������������������������������������������������������������  117 7.4.1 Reflection in Work-Education Experiences��������������������������  117 7.5 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  119 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  119

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Part IV Toward Transdisciplinary Research and Its Practical Application 8 The Transdisciplinary Field of Work and Education ��������������������������  125 8.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  125 8.2 The Fundamentals: The Meaning of Work (MOW) for Adolescents��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  127 8.3 Understandings Necessary to Create Transdisciplinary Research for the Education of Youth for and on the Job����������������  129 8.3.1 The First Component: Adolescent’s Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Development ��������������������������  131 8.3.2 The Second Component: Work, School Settings, and the Environment that They Create������������������������������  133 8.3.3 The Third Component: Networks and Participatory Functioning Within Them ������������������������������������������������  134 8.4 The Use of Human Resource Management (HRM) in the Workplace ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  137 8.5 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  138 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  139 9 Community Works: An Application of Transdisciplinary Research����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  143 9.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  143 9.2 Definition of Non-formal Education����������������������������������������������  144 9.3 The Purposes of NFE����������������������������������������������������������������������  145 9.4 The Concept of Community������������������������������������������������������������  145 9.5 The Concept of Community Education������������������������������������������  146 9.6 Community Works: A New Model of Non-formal Education��������  147 9.6.1 Administrative Oversight��������������������������������������������������  148 9.6.2 Curricular Design��������������������������������������������������������������  149 9.6.3 Instructional Practice��������������������������������������������������������  150 9.6.4 Student Support Services��������������������������������������������������  151 9.7 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  151 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  153 Part V Curriculum Design & Tools for Instruction 10 Curricular Design and Delivery in Community Works for Adolescents’ Education for and on the Job ������������������������������������  159 10.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  159 10.2 Curricular Design����������������������������������������������������������������������������  160 10.3 Cognitive Constructivist Thought for Curricular Design����������������  161 10.4 Toward a Constructivist Curriculum ����������������������������������������������  162 10.5 One Model for the Curriculum ������������������������������������������������������  163 10.5.1 Community Work’s Three Modules: The Core Module, Hard Skills Module, and Soft Skills Module�������� 164

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10.5.2 The Core Module and Its Courses������������������������������������  164 10.5.3 An Introduction to the Hard Skill Module and Its Courses������������������������������������������������������������������  165 10.5.4 An Introduction to the Soft Skills Module and Its Courses������������������������������������������������������������������  166 10.6 Design for Delivery of Instruction��������������������������������������������������  170 10.6.1 Teaching Methods ������������������������������������������������������������  170 10.7 The Organization of SBLEs������������������������������������������������������������  172 10.7.1 Peers as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery�������������  172 10.7.2 Cliques as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery����������  173 10.7.3 Small-Groups as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery ����������������������������������������������������������������������  174 10.8 The Importance of Technology ������������������������������������������������������  176 10.9 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  177 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  177 11 Using the Curricular Map: Developing Syllabi and Writing Lesson Plans for Community Works������������������������������������������������������  183 11.1 Planning to Implement the Curricular Map������������������������������������  183 11.2 The Syllabus������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  184 11.3 Lesson Plan Development��������������������������������������������������������������  185 11.4 Alignment of the Plan: Starts with Goals and Objectives��������������  187 11.4.1 The Condition�������������������������������������������������������������������  188 11.4.2 The Verb����������������������������������������������������������������������������  188 11.4.3 The Criteria ����������������������������������������������������������������������  189 11.5 The Parts of the Lesson Plan����������������������������������������������������������  190 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  192 12 Teaching Strategies for Module Instruction������������������������������������������  193 12.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  193 12.2 Two Modes of Instruction: Passive-Participant Mode and the Active-Participant Mode����������������������������������������������������  194 12.2.1 Passive-Participant Mode of Instruction ��������������������������  194 12.2.2 The Lecture (Passive Participation)����������������������������������  195 12.2.3 The Demonstration (Passive-Participation)����������������������  196 12.2.4 Case Study (Passive Participation)������������������������������������  197 12.3 Active-Participant Mode of Instruction������������������������������������������  198 12.3.1 Case Study (Active Participation) ������������������������������������  198 12.3.2 Writing (Active Participation)������������������������������������������  199 12.3.3 Jigsaw (Active Participation)��������������������������������������������  200 12.3.4 The Presentation: The Model or the Project (Active Participation)��������������������������������������������������������  201 12.3.5 The Debate (Active Participation)������������������������������������  202 12.3.6 Role-Playing (Active Participation)����������������������������������  202 12.3.7 Cooperative Learning (Active Participation)��������������������  203 12.4 Guidelines for Teaching������������������������������������������������������������������  204

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12.5 Grouping for Teaching Success������������������������������������������������������  205 12.5.1 Friendships and Peer Groups��������������������������������������������  206 12.5.2 Small and Large Groups����������������������������������������������������  206 12.6 Quality of Participation in Groups��������������������������������������������������  207 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  208 13 Assessment and Evaluation for Adolescents’ Education for and on the Job������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  209 13.1 Definitions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  209 13.2 Assessment: The Rationale for Its Use ������������������������������������������  210 13.3 Types of Student Assessments��������������������������������������������������������  211 13.3.1 Concept Mapping��������������������������������������������������������������  212 13.3.2 Observations����������������������������������������������������������������������  214 13.3.3 Writing Strategies��������������������������������������������������������������  214 13.3.4 Interview���������������������������������������������������������������������������  215 13.3.5 Performance Tasks and Demonstrations ��������������������������  215 13.4 Evaluation: The Rationale for Its Use��������������������������������������������  216 13.4.1 Types of Student Evaluations��������������������������������������������  217 13.5 Creating Evaluations from Assessments ����������������������������������������  217 13.6 Validity and Reliability ������������������������������������������������������������������  219 13.7 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  219 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  220 14 Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  221 Collaboration����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  225 Communication������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  229 Critical Thinking����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  233 Goal and Objective Setting�����������������������������������������������������������������������������  237 Introduction to the Industry ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  241 Introduction to the Organization��������������������������������������������������������������������  245 Job Interviewing (Part 1)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  249 Job Interviewing (Part 2)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  253 Organizational Skills ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  257 Professional Skills��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  261

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Reading in the Industry����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  265 Resume and CV Writing ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  269 Spoken Language in the Industry������������������������������������������������������������������  273 Work Ethic��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  277 Written Language for the Industry����������������������������������������������������������������  281 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  285

Abbreviations

ANT ACWF ACTE ASCD CTE CTEA CMCA CCP CCSS CYD CVET DECA EWM ESEA EU FCSE FFA GLMP GONGO HERO HEA HR HRM ISP IVET MOOC MOHRSS MOW MoE MIUR NCES

Actor-Network Theory All China Women’s Federation Association for Career and Technical Education Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Career and Technical Education Career and Technical Education Act China Ministry of Civil Affairs Chinese Communist Party Common Core State Standards Community Youth Development Continuing Vocational Education and Training Distributive Education Clubs of America Education Work Model Elementary and Secondary Education Act European Union family and consumer sciences education Future Farmers of America general labor market preparation Government-Organized Non-Government Organization Healthy and Resilient Organizations Higher Education Act Human Resources Human Resource Management Integrated Sociological Paradigm Initial Vocational Education and Training Massive Open Online Courses Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security Meaning of Work Ministry of Education Ministry of Education, University and Research National Center for Education Statistics xxi

xxii

NEA NIMH NEET NFE NGO OECD PRC PES PL SBLE SOE SDG TVET TVE UN USA USAID VET VEA VTE VU WIA WBL WBLE WIOA WIL WILE YDS ZPD

Abbreviations

National Educational Association National Institute of Mental Health Neither in Employment nor in Education and Training Non-Formal Education Non-Governmental Organization Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development People’s Republic of China People’s Republic of China Public Employment Service Public Law School-Based Learning Experiences State-Owned Enterprises Sustainable Development Goals Technical and Vocational Education and Training Technical Vocational Education United Nations United States of America U. S Agency for International Development Vocational Education and Training Vocational Education Association Vocational Technical Education Vocational University Workforce Investment Act Work-Based Learning Work-Based Learning Experiences Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act Work-Integrated Learning Work-Integrated Learning Experiences Youth Development Study Zone of Proximal Development

List of Figures

Fig. 2.1

The model�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15

Fig. 3.1

TVET in the Chinese educational system. https://unevoc. unesco.org/wtdb/worldtvet­database_chn_en.pdf��������������������������   36

Fig. 6.1

The Education Work Model (EWM)���������������������������������������������   96

Fig. 7.1

The Informal Education Model�����������������������������������������������������  111

Fig. 8.1 The transdisciplinary concept�������������������������������������������������������  131 Fig. 8.2 The transdisciplinary model of adolescents’ education for and on the job��������������������������������������������������������������������������  132 Fig. 9.1 A model of the group-learning center for vocational non-formal education for youth����������������������������������������������������  148 Fig. 10.1 The curricular model���������������������������������������������������������������������  164 Fig. 13.1 Concept map: list form (three elements related to each other)��������� 212 Fig. 13.2 Concept map: process form (each element based on the previous)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213 Fig. 13.3 Concept map: process form (each element interacting with another element)������������������������������������������������������������������������ 213 Fig. 13.4 Concept map: cycle form (related elements and corresponding ideas)������������������������������������������������������������������ 213 Fig. 13.5 Concept map: relationship form�������������������������������������������������������� 214 Fig. 13.6 Cycle of assessment. (Modified from https://www.westminster. edu/about/accreditation-­assessment/definition.cfm)���������������������  216 Fig. 13.7 Rubric for essays���������������������������������������������������������������������������  218

xxiii

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Italy’s labor market and education indicators from 2013 to 2018������������������������������������������������������������������������    48 Table 11.1 Bloom’s taxonomy and lesson planning���������������������������������������  191

xxv

Chapter 1

An Introduction

Abstract  This introductory chapter begins by positioning adolescent education in terms of international initiatives that recognize the importance of education and work for youth. Next, it defines the term adolescent and provides an overview of the types of education that youth typically acquire during this period of their lives. That is followed by a section that offers a snapshot of the kinds of work in which youth engage. Finally, recognizing that youth often lack the education and training necessary to succeed in the workplace, the final section of the chapter provides an overview of each of five parts of the book that offer a new approach to education for and on the job for adolescents. Keywords  Adolescent · Vocational education · Non-formal education · Informal education · Youth · Italy · China · United States of America · Cognitive development · Psychological development · Social development · Curricular design · Curricular delivery · Community works · Sustainable Development Goals

1.1  Introduction This introductory chapter begins by positioning adolescent education in terms of international initiatives that recognize the importance of education and work for youth. Next, it defines the adolescent and provides an overview of the types of education that youth typically acquire during this period of their lives. Third, the chapter discusses the number of working youth, recognizing that youth often lack the education and training necessary to succeed in the workplace, the final section of the chapter provides an overview of each of five parts of the book that provides a new approach to education for and on the job adolescents.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_1

1

2

1  An Introduction

1.2  Advancement for Youth: International Attention Advancement refers to actions that result in progress. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide the most current international framework of goals and objectives to plan for advancement. Two goals provide direction for this work on education for and on the job.1 SDG #4, Quality Education “ensure[s] inclusive and equitable quality education and promote[s] lifelong learning opportunities for all” (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4 accessed on November 2, 2020). Its goal reveals the need for access for all, increased participation rates amongst both males and females, and the ability to equip youth with relevant technical and vocational skills to enter the job market for all youth. Indicators set both minimum proficiency standards and targets for both literacy and numeracy competencies and information and communication skills at the secondary levels.2 The document focuses on both education and work. Education offers the foundation for the knowledge, competencies, and skills that youth will require for their future in workplaces. Work prepares youth to assume significant responsibility and a benchmark for an independent adult’s social contribution and financial independence. Whereas SDG 4 addresses the need for education, SDG 8 addresses the importance of work. SDG # 8 “…promotes sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all” (https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg8 accessed March 3, 2019). Its objectives are particularly relevant to youth. Objective 8.6 of SDG #8 states the need to “…reduce the proportion of youth (aged 15–24  years) not in employment, education or training.”3 (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg8 accessed March 3, 2019). The purposeful attention to the field reiterates the importance of the topic for youth today. The field of adolescent education for and on the job offers excellent potential to achieve both Sustainable Development Goals. It provides a stepping-stone into adult roles, which include gainful employment. It also enhances youth’s work experiences when on the job. In this regard, the study of adolescent education links the educational experience with current roles for working youth and future work roles for youth who have yet to join the workforce. It offers the best chances to create an appropriate, meaningful, and comprehensive education for and on the job for youth.

1  Educational research typically focuses on only education-related SDGs. (The Millennium Development Goals, MDGs prior served a similar function.) Instead of merely focusing on the UN’s education goal, as is typically the case of educational research, this work takes an interdisciplinary approach. 2  Targets describe the overarching aims of the goal. The indicators of each target identify particular competencies that measure the target’s effectiveness. 3  SDGs define adolescence as youth ages 15–24.

1.3  Defining the Population

3

1.3  Defining the Population The term “adolescence” is a relatively new one in the long history of educational literature. The Latin origin means “to grow into adulthood.” Larson et  al. (2009, p. 572) state that “[I]n all societies, adolescence is a time of growing up, of moving from the immaturity of childhood into the maturity of adulthood.” This definition emphasizes the qualitative nature of puberty. It ends when individuals transition into adult roles for preparation for the future (Hall, 1902).4 The definition of age in quantitative terms provides a definitive period in a person’s life and is used in academic and legal fields. The academic field typically uses chronological stages to differentiate levels of adolescent education. Laws often refer to age, but unlike the tiered educational system that typically covers only middle and secondary schooling, many international, national, and local laws create a thick and tangled web for identification used to define the adolescent. They often offer contradictory, and hence, confusing points of reference for regulations that pertain to youth. The field of education provides at least one starting point to understand the chronological range of years typically associated with adolescents. Early adolescence is defined as 10–13 years of age. Middle adolescence includes ages 14–17; late adolescence is defined as individuals ages 18–21 years of age (Steinberg, 2017, p. 3). In practice, adolescents are often referred to as “youth,” including individuals ranging in age from 18 to 21 years (see Steinberg, 2017, p. 74, for example). This book purposefully defines adolescence from 13 to 21 years.5 At the same time, it recognizes its challenge to present ideas that correspond to the individual whose education spans middle school through the early college experience. Three challenges exist. First, the definitions and meanings of adolescence vary considerably between cultural spaces.6 Cultural norms include social habits that strongly influence and guide adolescent development. Yet countries neither define nor view the adolescent the same. In other words, cultural differences of youth recognize life stages at various points in a lifetime. Second, legal parameters define the rights, roles, and responsibilities of youth. A quantitative difference in youth age is critical because the developmental levels of youth at 13  years of age differ significantly from the development levels of youth at age 21 years of age, for example. Third, whether using qualitative or quantitative definitions of adolescents, several characteristics of the population remain standard across cultures and ages yet require special attention in the literature. For example, educational psychologists remind us that the adolescent brain does not fully mature at 18 (Steinberg, 2017). Instead, it 4  An American educational philosopher, G. Stanley Hall, focused his research efforts on the study of adolescence. In his flagship work that is still referred to today, by differentiating adolescent development into the physiological, the romantic, the educational, and the criminal, his work provided a model for adolescent development that has implications for twenty-first-century scholarship in the field. 5  This definition combines both the international development agencies’ guidelines and industry. 6  It is beyond this book’s parameters to discuss the concept of adolescence for the case studies discussed later in the book. However, adolescents’ development differences invite analysis.

4

1  An Introduction

continues to develop well into the individual’s early 20s. Therefore, the field requires us to consider the wide range of development for this group.7 Scholarship uses several synonymous for adolescents in the workplace. They include the terms youth, students, and young workers.8 No matter the chronological age of the synonym used to describe the population, individuals’ cognitive, psychological, and social facets of maturation contribute to the lives of youth who will live independently, establish a career path, and qualify for, enter, and maintain employment (Halpern, 1985; Lehman, 2002). The book typically uses the term adolescence when referring to cognitive, psychological, and social development. It uses the term youth when referring to practices related to them in both the school and work settings. The book uses the word students to describe youth in the educational environments of both the secondary school formal vocational school setting and the professional development courses while on the job.

1.4  Educating the Population Education provides the foundation for youth’s success in their adult roles as employees. The widely accepted claim that education contributes to the individual’s development assumes enrollment in and graduation from an educational program (Maslak, 2018). However, enrollment, attendance, and completion rates widely vary by country. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) website (http://data.uis. unesco.org/ accessed on April 20, 2019) provides a data set based on country statistics. The databases use chronological age, grade or class obtained, and immigrant status as three of the many factors measuring educational attainment. Adolescents typically obtain an education in three ways. First, some adolescents acquire knowledge and skills from a vocational educational program.9 This type of formal education is the most referred to in the international education documents.10 A middle school (in the USA) or the lower-level junior school (in Italy and China, for example) provide the initial phase. The upper-level high school in the USA and the senior level in Italy and China offer the second phase of the vocational education

7  Although beyond the scope of this work, two populations of youth deserve special attention. Special education populations of youth require attention to learn and engage in a successful work experience. Similarly, the youth population of migrants and immigrants who lack linguistic proficiency may not achieve at the same rate as their classmates of similar age due to the time required to obtain language proficiency. They, too need education that emphasizes language development. 8  There may be exceptions to these references throughout the book, although the author consistently used the terms in each situation. 9  This work focuses on vocational education, which may be a part of the general education’s standalone program. 10  The task of counting non-formal educational programs remains daunting because each country’s number and unpredictable lifespan.

1.5  The Number of Working for Youth in Select Countries

5

system.11 Second, other adolescents who do not enroll in secondary or post-­ secondary school experiences to acquire knowledge and skills related to work may enroll in non-formal educational (NFE) programs. Non-formal educational programs refer to a set of short-term courses and on-the-job learning experiences that typically do not offer a credential or certificate. Third, although seldom discussed in the education literature, all adolescents obtain an informal education through personal interactions in all social settings in which they live and work.12 Adolescents need these types of education (formal, non-formal, and informal), which are directly related to their development and maturation, to not only succeed in but also to advance through the work environment (Lau & Kwok, 2000; Maslak, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2018; Maslak et al., 2010). The formal, non-formal, and informal educational systems, in different ways, provide high-quality experiences for youth. Traditional vocational education in both secondary and post-secondary settings (of the college or university) offers a general education (sometimes complemented by work programs). It prepares youth for a place in current and potential future work environments. Governmental and non-­ governmental agencies provide non-formal educational programs for literacy and vocational skills for basic needs and entry into the workplace (Akin & Neumann, 2014). In some cases, workplaces provide youth with entry-level opportunities for part-time and full-time positions in industries. However, industries seldom structure an educational experience to complement formal vocational education and non-­ formal course programs. Instead, they offer professional development options directly related to the immediate work setting, not to the adolescent’s previous or current educational program in either the formal or non-formal setting. In short, although options exist to educate youth, a purposeful plan to link all facets of the educational experience with work in the industry has fallen short of SDGs goals. Programs and opportunities that fail to educate on the job may also fail to offer students an appropriate education to find gainful employment after graduation.

1.5  The Number of Working for Youth in Select Countries Youth throughout the world work.13 Both peaks and valleys in world market forces demonstrate growth. Since 2009, for example, a steady increase in labor productivity (measured as GDP per employed person) and record favorable annual growth rates since 2010 signal promise in the workforce. More recently, statistics from  Vocational education provides a general term for all types of programs that offer knowledge, skills, and competencies related to education for and on the job. 12  The business literature devotes far more time to the study of informal education and learning than other fields. 13  The definition of youth varies. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines “youth” as a person between the ages of 15 and 24. 11

6

1  An Introduction

2018, for example, show that the world’s labor productivity increased by 2.1%. This increase indicates the highest annual growth rate since 2010. In the same year, the global unemployment did not increase but instead remained at 5%, that is, pre-crisis level. However, even with the improvement in labor productivity and unemployment statistics, youth remain three times more likely to be unemployed than adults. Working youth do assume positions throughout the world. For example, in the United States, over 50% of youth ages 15–24 (2018) work at least a part-time job (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.1524.SP.NE.ZS?locations=US accessed on April 29, 2019). AmericanProgress.org reports that working youth fill various types of jobs. In the United States, for example, 1.7 million youth work in the hotel and foodservice industry. 1.2 million work in the retail sector. Health care and social services provide 338,000 jobs for youth. 326,000 youth hold positions in the arts, entertainment, and recreation, and another 216,000 work in educational services (https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2018/10/04/ 459038/state-­youth-­u-­s-­labor-­market-­pre-­september-­2018-­jobs-­day-­release/). The People’s Republic of China reports that 40.75% of that same-age population work (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.1524.SP.ZS?locations=CN accessed on April 29, 2019). The International Labor Organization reports that 20–30 million unskilled migrant young people in China dropped out of school in rural areas of China and relocated to urban areas to work there (https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/ groups/public/%2D%2D-­e d_emp/documents/publication/wcms_502338.pdf accessed on April 27, 2019, p.  45). Most migrant workers (which are now most young people) work in middle or large cities (54.9%).14 The ILO reports that males typically work in unskilled labor positions in transportation, construction, and communication; females hold jobs in hotel and food industries and manufacturing in China (https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%2D%2D-­ed_emp/documents/ publication/wcms_502338.pdf p.  44). The Republic of Italy reports the smallest percentage of working youth at 18.123% of the population (between 15 and 24 work) (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.1524.SP.ZS?locations=IT accessed on April 29, 2019).15 Similarly, the OECD reports that the employment rate of Italian youth (15–24-year-olds) rests at 18.6% (that as per the third quarter of 2019) (https://data.oecd.org/emp/employment-­rate-­by-­age-­group.htm#indicator-­ chart accessed on November 2, 2019). In short, there are more than 1.5 billion school-aged children (5–18-year-olds) worldwide (U.S.  Census, 2014). Of that sum, 75.108% of secondary school-age females enroll in secondary schools worldwide; 75.943% of secondary school-age boys enroll in secondary schools across the globe. These students in lower secondary school-ages (12–14 years of age), upper secondary school-ages (15–18 years of age), and young adulthood (19–24  years of age) need knowledge and skills to

14 15

 The Government does not permit youth to enroll in school without legal residency status.  Unreported working youth may increase these percentages.

1.6  The Parts of the Book

7

succeed in current work and prepare for future positions.16 In other words, millions of youth either balance work and school or drop out of school to work.

1.6  The Parts of the Book Education plays a fundamental role in improving the work experience for youth who are currently employed, their futures as employees, and those who hire them (Maslak, 2003, 2011; Tindowen et al., 2017). Planning and implementing developmentally appropriate, intellectually challenging, and beneficial educational experiences that prepare adolescents for the world of work remains a high priority, as evidenced by the SDGs and the countries that support them. Responding to the call made by individual organizations such as the United Nations and industries that seek qualified young workers, educational professionals aim to provide appropriate educational experiences that prepare youth for the workforce. Yet, quite often, adolescents are called upon to perform in a work setting without the education and training needed to succeed in the work environment or possess insufficient education and training before obtaining the position (Maslak, 2014). Moreover, when on the job, they often lack guidance and mentoring to succeed on the job. Why is this the case? The foundations and models used for both school curricula and internship programs, respectively, are typically used and reused through various reincarnations of traditional vocational educational frameworks for the adolescent (Dutt, 2010; Heinrich & Holzer, 2011; Lau & Kwok, 2000; Maslak, 2003, 2011). At the same time, industries rely on tried-and-true models for professional development that seek to meet companies’ needs for the adults that they employ. These informed yet overused traditions in middle, secondary, and tertiary education and the misguided uses of schooling for adults applied to youth on the job result in repeated failures to education for the benefit of all. This book fills a gap in the literature in four ways. First, it recognizes the misalignment of educational and industrial objectives and standards for youth. Second, it addresses that misalignment by proposing a new approach to adolescent education. Third, the book re-examines a set of social systems to re-design models for an appropriate education that meets current and future workplaces’ needs. Fourth, and based on those systems’ study, it proposes a new transdisciplinary field of education and business. It adds to the conceptual models by offering a curricular program that advances adolescents’ workforce education. It also provides practical guidelines and suggestions for teaching, assessment, and evaluation of learned material. This book is divided into five essential parts for studying adolescents’ education for and on the job. After an introduction (this chapter), Part I, Who are Adolescents:

 Youth, defined by UNESCO as a person between the ages of 15 and 24, enroll in secondary education.

16

8

1  An Introduction

The Foundation provides the underpinnings that ground the work. The chapter details major elements that pertain to the adolescents’ development and provides the groundwork that demonstrates the various dimensions of the adolescent developmental process. Part II: Country Cases: Realities of Yesterday and Today, including case studies of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of Italy, and the United States of America USA, reveals the history and essential contributions of each country’s vocational education system. At the same time, these selected cases demonstrate differences. First, adolescents in each of the three countries represent various reasons for the need to work. The concept of “pushed” and “pulled” into work (Maslak, 2011) resonates with the situation for working youth in the educational system. Second, each country supports different political systems, which have implications for their educational systems. Third, each country offers different types of non-formal education, which also contribute to education for each age range of youth (including middle school, secondary school, and post-secondary school) for and on the job. Part III of the book, The Work Experience: Staff and Communications, focuses on work as the critical but understudied focal point of vocational education. Its chapters examine work as an educational experience and grapple with the complex elements of the workspace as a site for understanding how education functions therein. It focuses on the importance of informal education as a legitimate system that enhances our understanding of the learning processes at work and offers a new model for workplace education. Part IV of the book, Toward Transdisciplinary Research and its Practical Application, presents a bold approach to the field. It offers a transdisciplinary vocational education model for youth dependent on work and education’s interrelatedness. It exemplifies the transdisciplinary framework by presenting the original Community Works non-formal educational program designed for and can be used in adolescents’ vocational education either in the educational programmatic setting or the workplace. Its conceptual design offers a fresh approach to the study of vocational education for youth. Finally, Part V, Planning Curriculum & Offering Instruction, provides tools that can be used for practice. It proffers information on curricular design and delivery for adolescents’ workplace education. It proposes specific information on curricular mapping, lesson planning, and teaching for learning environments. Ideas for lesson planning provide the facilitator in both educational and work settings with ideas that enhance instruction. A set of syllabi, one for each course in each of the three modules of the Community Works model, provides useful outlines for immediate use in the field.17 This part of the book also includes information on assessment and evaluation. It offers examples of each for the curriculum. The book ends with a conclusion that presents the newness of the work. In short, all youth benefit from an education that prepares them for and in the workplace. International attention to education and work for youth comes from

 I use facilitator, teacher, and instructor synonymously throughout the book. I also use the terms adolescents, youth, students, and participants synonymously in the text.

17

References

9

agencies like the U.N.  Countries’ education offices seek ways to update existing educational schemes and course work. At the same time, industries and enterprises seek employees who possess contemporary knowledge, skills, and competencies to succeed in the work environment. Despite educational institutions’ interest in offering adolescents an appropriate education for the evolving job market, advancement in the education field has fallen short (Beckem & Watkins, 2012). This book provides a new approach to the study of vocational education for and on the job for adolescents. And in so doing, this book seeks to offer a new vision for the field in multiple and related ways. Instead of a transformative experience for all, it aims to provide a trans-trend for all.

References Akin, I., & Neumann, C. (2014). College and community collaboration for graduate workforce readiness. Journal of College Teaching & Learning (TLC), 11(4), 207–216. https://doi. org/10.19030/tlc.v11i4.8896 Beckem, J. & Watkins, M. (2012). Bring life to learning: Immersive experiential learning simulations for online and blended courses. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 16(5), 61–70. Dutt, S. (2010). Girls’ education as freedom? Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 17(1), 25–48. Hall, G. S. (1902). Adolescence: Its psychology and its relation to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education. D. Appleton. Halpern, N. (1985). China’s industrial economic reforms: The question of strategy. Asian Survey, 25(10), 998–1012. https://doi.org/10.2307/2644177 Heinrich, C. J., & Holzer, H. J. (2011). Young disadvantaged men: Fathers, families, poverty, and policy. In The annals of the American academy of political and social science (Vol. 635, pp. 163–171). Sage. Larson, R., Wilson, S., & Rickman, A. (2009). Globalization, societal change, and adolescence across the world. In The handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 571–590). Lau, S., & Kwok, L. K. (2000). Relationship of family environment to adolescents’ depression and self-concept. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28, 41–50. Lehman, P. (2002). Grand masters series: A personal perspective. Music Educators Journal, 88(5), 47–51. Retrieved January 21, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/3399826 Maslak, M. A. (2003). Daughters of the Tharu: Gender, ethnicity, religion and the education of Nepali girls. Routledge/Falmer Press. Maslak, M. A. (2008). Editor. In The structure and agency of women's education. State University of New York Press. Maslak, M. A. (2011). Education, employment and empowerment: A case study of Muslim women in northwestern China. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6, 1. http:// www.wwwords.co.uk/rss/abstract.asp?j=rcie&aid=4536 Maslak, M. A. (2014). Vocational education of female entrepreneurs in China: A multi-theoretical and multi-dimensional analysis of successful business women’s everyday lives. Routledge. Maslak, M. A. (2018). Education and female entrepreneurship in Asia: Public policies and private practices. Springer.

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Maslak, M. A., Kim, J. H., & McLoughlin, A. (2010). Educational engagement in China: A case from the northwest. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(3), 254–262. Steinberg, L. (2017). Adolescence. McGraw Hill. Tindowen, D. J. C., Bassig, J. M., & Cagurangan, J.-A. (2017). Twenty-first-century skills of alternative learning system learners. Sage Open, 2017(July–September), 108. Creative Commons CC by: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).

Part I

Who Are Adolescents?: The Foundation

Part I provides the foundation for the book by presenting the importance of the adolescent’s cognitive, psychological, and social development. Its Chap. 2 (The Cognitive, Psychological and Social Development of the Adolescent) uses a broader age range than typically used in the education literature (which is usually limited to schooling) to emphasize the informative years from education through the work experience. It also presents a three-part model that includes cognitive processing, psychological attributes, and the social network of interactions to explain the adolescent as a student and worker.

Chapter 2

The Cognitive, Psychological and Social Development of the Adolescent

Abstract  A chasm exists between students’ conceptualization by educational professionals in schools and professionals of young workers by industries. Failure to understand the adolescent’s complexity sets up both a scenario for academic programs and workplaces’ loss. Educational psychology helps to bridge the gap. The field of educational psychology expands our awareness of the complexity of the adolescent. The chapter offers a three-part model that includes cognitive processing, psychological attributes, and the social network of interactions to explain the adolescent student and young worker’s essence. It provides the foundation for formal, nonformal, and workplace learning and education. Keywords  Educational psychology · Adolescents · Cognitive development · Psychological development · Social development · Vocational education

2.1  Introduction A chasm exists between students’ conceptualization by educational professionals in schools and professionals of young workers by industries. Failure of both parties to understand the adolescent’s complexity leads to the inevitable loss of learning and advancement for the adolescent student and young worker. Educational psychology provides a required base of information to educate both entities. It expands awareness of the complexity of the adolescent by defining developmental elements through its well-researched definitions. Drawing on this base of literature enables us to understand adolescents’ ways of thinking and acting, which, in turn, help us to create meaningful educational practices that prepare youth for future employment and help them to succeed once on the job. This chapter aims to emphasize the meaning of adolescent development and create a model to understand it. It begins by explaining the term ‘adolescent’ that builds on its introduction in the first chapter. Second, it offers a three-part model that reveals the components of the adolescent’s make-up, including a cognitive processing element, a psychological factor, and a social network of interactions element. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_2

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Doing so reveals the adolescent’s complexity and the base upon which the remainder of the book is based.

2.2  The Definition of Adolescence Derived from the Latin meaning “to grow into adulthood” (Lerner & Steinberg, 2009 in Steinberg, 2017, p. 3), adolescence defines the time in which an individual matures during the transition from youth to adult. Adolescence can be viewed from both quantitative and qualitative perspectives. In quantitative terms, chronological stages differentiate periods of adolescence. The educational psychology literature states that early adolescence typically ranges from about ages 10–13 years of age in early adolescence, 14–17 years of age for middle adolescence, and 18–21 years of age in late adolescence (Steinberg, 2017, p. 3). UNESCO also utilizes a quantitative definition for “youth” but extends that range to 24  years. This book adopts the 13–21 years of age to define adolescence based on both the educational psychology and international development bodies of literature. Defining age in quantitative terms defines a particular period in a person’s life. Even though this quantitative description clarifies our understanding of the finite age range of adolescents in terms of early, middle and late adolescence (which is often included in the literature on early adulthood), the concept of adolescence is far from simple. From a qualitative perspective, the definition of adolescence assumes a more nuanced approach that includes developmental areas and milestones. The following diagram lays out the complexity of the qualitative aspect of adolescence in three ways.

2.3  The Model The field of educational psychology convincingly argues that the adolescent brain significantly differs from the adult brain. This model draws on that literature to conceptualize adolescent development in cognitive, psychological, and social development (Fig. 2.1).

2.3.1  T  he Elements of Adolescent Development: Cognitive Development of the Adolescent Brain The first element of this model explains how the adolescent brain is different from the adult brain. Whereas the adult has matured in cognitive, psychological, and social development, the adolescent has not. At this stage of life, the adolescent cannot understand, make judgments, and act in ways expected of the adult in the

2.3  The Model

15

declarativeknowledge procedural knowledge conceptual knowledge conditional knowledge

identity

cognitive processing

psychological attributes

self-esteem self-efficacy self-image

social interactionss of networks networkss

maturity

peer relationships

the adolescent’s physical growth

professional relationships adolescent development

Fig. 2.1  The model

workplace. However, adolescence offers a period to obtain knowledge, learn skills, and develop competencies that provide the foundation for a workforce position (Larson et al., 2009). Early research on adolescence indicated full development of the adolescent brain at puberty (Siegler, 1998). However, more recent scholarship clearly shows that parts of the cortex exhibit change during puberty, followed by long periods of quasi-­ homeostasis that can continue into early adulthood (Broderick & Blewitt, 2003, p. 329). In other words, the adolescent brain remains underdeveloped. How might this be actualized in the real-world setting? The adolescent enters a job with a different set of understandings (and abilities to understand) than an adult. Theories of adolescent development help to explain this situation. Biosocial theories view adolescents’ hormones that cause physical development during puberty as the driving force of adolescent development. Hall (1904) and his “theory of recapitulations” and dual systems theories ascribe to this perspective.1 The adolescent brain steadily increases its white matter, which is composed of nerve fibers that serve as connectors in the brain. This increase in white matter in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes multiplies the nerve impulse transmission rate because there is more space for them to function (Fields & Stephens-Graham, 2002). This process, in turn, enables better communication between hemispheres and information processing (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Fields & Stephens-­ Graham, 2002; Kuhn, 2006). In other words, whereas adult brain plasticity involves minor modifications to existing circuitry, the adolescent brain’s developmental plasticity develops as physiological changes occur, which result in the interconnectivity of neurons. During the heightened periods of plasticity, the individual has the

1  Organismic theories, also considered under the biosocial umbrella of adolescent development theories, refer to the importance of the adolescent’s biosocial changes.

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2  The Cognitive, Psychological and Social Development of the Adolescent

potential to learn (Steinberg, 2017). Simultaneously, failing to provide the learner with purposeful instruction and opportunity during this life stage sacrifices his/her learning potential. We know that adolescents who “…exercise their brains by learning to order their thoughts, understand abstract concepts, and control their impulses are laying the neural foundations that will serve them for the rest of their lives” (ACT for Youth, 2002, p.  1). The brain’s malleability can process information (Steinberg, 2017). However, although the brain’s wiring enables adolescents to acquire understanding through learning, behaviors can vary between adolescents. Some adolescents develop earlier than others (Geidd, 2008; National Institute of Mental Health, 2001). Scholarship’s use of the general term ‘learning’ fails to unpack the complex types used to process information. Psychologists typically define four distinctive types of knowledge: declarative, procedural, conceptual, and conditional. Declarative knowledge consists of factual knowledge. It includes simple facts, such as the address of an office or the name of a colleague. Declarative knowledge relates to understanding an objective. For example, declarative knowledge includes vocabulary used in a position, like a plumber, and language learned to create a corporate setting report. For example, Ryan et al. (2017) states that “…[P]rocedural knowledge is the understanding of and ability to execute a series of actions which are intended to achieve a goal” (p. 67). For example, following a manual to fix a plumbing problem uses procedural knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is the reasoning of a topic. Examples of conceptual knowledge include an employee’s ability to understand advancement in a career based on earned licenses in a plumber or promotions through a corporate office. The fourth type of knowledge, conditional knowledge (Paris et al., 1983), refers to “…the understanding of when and how to use other types of knowledge (i.e., procedural and declarative knowledge)” (Ryan et al., 2017, p. 67). This type of knowledge requires the use of higher-order thinking skills to process multiple types of information. All types of information directly relate to working memory. Adolescents draw on three components of working memory as they learn (Baddeley et al., 2011). Ryan et al. (2017, p. 66) notes that the first component is phonological. This component enables the ability to store small pieces of information. Adolescents rely on this type of memory to keep information learned in class and on the job. The second component is the visuospatial sketchpad. This type of working memory “…enables the ability to process images” (Ryan et al., 2017, p. 66). The brain employs this type of memory when storing visual information such as models and diagrams. The third component is the central executive. In this case, the individual engages in the (learning) experience, temporarily stores information related to that process, and then transfers it into long-term memory (Ryan et  al., 2017, p.  66). All three working memory elements’ capacity increases during adolescence (Cowan et  al., 2011, p. 66, in Ryan et al., 2017). Both developmental plasticity and working memory occur within the social space. The individual uses working memory through the processes of accommodation and dissonance in the social setting. Accommodation refers to the use of pre-­ existing understandings to utilize new pieces of information. On the other hand,

2.4  Psychological Development of the Adolescent Brain

17

dissonance refers to constructing new knowledge (or insights) based on pre-existing insights. Cognitive dissonance occurs when new information conflicts with previous understandings, thus causing disequilibrium. The state of equilibrium is reached when the more recent information has been accommodated, in other words, learned and internalized. During stages of development, adolescents develop their ability to postulate and test hypotheses. Whereas young children typically solve problems through trial and error, an adolescent utilizes hypothetical deductive reasoning. Here, the adolescent formulates an idea and then applies reason to conclude that thought. The cognitive aspect of development is not the only way in which and contributor to adolescent learning.

2.4  Psychological Development of the Adolescent Brain Psychological attributes define the second element of this model. Five topics within the field are particularly apropos to education for and on adolescents’ job: identity, self-esteem; self-efficacy; self-image, and maturity.

2.4.1  Identity Social identity theory (Hogg et al., 1995) refers to one’s alignment with the perception of a situation and behaviors related to that situation. Three social-psychological elements and their related processes comprise this theory. “Social categorization” refers to one’s self-identification as a part of various social categories. In other words, individuals do not view themselves as independent of the social structures but rather as parts. Second, “social comparison” refers to the process of assessing the worth of groups in comparison to other groups. In this case, a clique to which an adolescent belongs may hold more value than a group of activists in the community. Third, “social identification” refers to one’s interactions in social settings. In this case, both quality and quantity of interaction are essential. Regarding identity, Erikson (1950, 1968, 1980) specified identity creation as the primary conflict during the adolescent period. Why? According to Harter (1999), children assume unrealistically positive self-representations during early and middle childhood without the ability to distinguish between a realistic and ideal view of self. Constant and continual changes in physical form and psychological and social ideas (and, hence social interactions) create the conflict that adolescents seek to resolve. Over time, specifically during middle to late childhood, the individual becomes increasingly able to differentiate those views through critical self-evaluations. The interrelated social categorization, social comparison, and social identification create identity’s multidimensionality. For example, racial group membership

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can become increasingly crucial to youth at this development stage (Steinberg, 2017; National Middle School Association for Middle Level Education, 2010, p. 59). The individual relates to the racial group category, compares him/herself to others, and identifies with others. Identity refers to self-esteem in terms of perceptions of self.

2.4.2  Self-Esteem Bandura (1997) defines self-esteem as a judgment of self-worth. It is developed first through a genetic predisposition and then through nurturing in the family (Alsaker & Olweus, 1993; McGuire et al., 1999). Specifically, it develops through both the development of competencies and mastery of skills (Grøholt et  al., 2005) and acknowledging those achievements from others (Harter, 1999). Research indicates that membership in groups plays a particularly significant role in the adolescent’s self-concept. Despite the changes that an adolescent experiences, self-esteem fluctuates depending on the youth’s social interactions. A positively valued group appears to significantly increase the individual’s self-concept (Diener & Fujita, 1997; Tesser, 1988). For example, in student achievement, Felson (1984) argued that students admitted into high-level academic classes develop a higher self-concept regarding their academic ability than those placed in lower-level courses. This “labeling effect” resonates throughout the adolescent’s developmental period (Urdan & Pajares, 2002, p. 89). As expected, the adolescent’s self-esteem and self-concept in general shifts during the stages of growth and development from early, middle, and late stages of adolescence caused by maturation (Erol & Orth, 2011; Larson et  al., 2002 in Steinberg, 2017; Trzesniewski et al., 2003). That development and growth directly affect the individual’s self-efficacy.

2.4.3  Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy refers to a person’s sense of confidence to achieve self-professed goals. In other words, it includes one’s ability to set goals and manage one’s behavior within various social environments to accomplish those goals (Lee, 2015). The Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE) asserts that to become a “self-­ actualized person,” adolescents must develop skills and interests at the microscopic (agency) level, and “…recognize their potential contributions to society because of those attributes at the macroscopic (structural) level” (National Middle School Association for Middle Level Education, 2010, pp. 11–12). Youth acquire self-efficacy through both positive peer and adult relationships. They self-actualize as they progress through the socialization process in both school and work settings. The school’s classes and activities offer students chances to

2.4  Psychological Development of the Adolescent Brain

19

interact in an environment that supports their ability to advocate for themselves. Application of understandings in the work setting also provides a reasonable opportunity for self-efficacy. For example, a supervisor provides general positive support. A mentor or a coach offers specific guidance toward meeting goals and objectives set by both the organization and the individual. The individual’s positive and purposeful interactions at work increase the chances of developing the adolescent’s self-efficacy through social interactions. However, the process is a complex one, even though it may take only a matter of minutes. Adolescents recognize a problem, identify its type, think about possible strategies to resolve it, and select one. For example, a positive example of social engagement for self-efficacy, the individual (in collaboration with a school course) sets goals to engage for the practicum experience at work. In this case, the individual meets the mentor and discusses goals. A negative example also references self-­ efficacy. In the case of an argument with a colleague while at work, the adolescent recognizes a problem, identifies its type (for example, a communication problem), think about ways to improve the situation with the colleague, and then determine a plan of action.2 In both cases, the ability to engage in the situation, process information while in the situation, and communicate on one’s behalf exemplifies self-efficacy.

2.4.4  Self-Image Self-image refers to the culmination of our current and future perceptions of self (Burns, 1979). Also referred to as self-schema, the concept represents how the adolescent stores information, which, in turn, influences how they think about themselves. Another perspective of the idea refers to the notion of self-representation (Harter, 1999, p. 3). Harter defines the term as “…attributes or characteristics of the self” that the individual consciously acknowledges through language – that is, how one describes oneself” (p. 3). In other words, traits define a person’s self-image (Rogers et al., 1977). Those traits are developed by and are the result of three conditions. The three conditions relate to each other. First, self-image results from how the individual perceives him/herself. Second, it results from the ways others perceive that individual. Third, it concerns the ways that the individual believes others perceive him/her. These dimensions of self-image vary considerably during early, middle, and late adolescence. The brain decides the extent to which the three conditions matter. Then, it regulates how the adolescent views himself (and others) (Pfeifer & Peake, 2012). As the brain develops physically, it becomes more able to process the psychological changes and vary the weighted conditions’ importance. However, seldom do these processes yield agreement simultaneously. 2  Knowledge-acquisition refers to the development of new information through the process of problem-solving. In this case, knowledge-acquisition refers to that which is learned from the experience. Performance components refer to the ways that individuals carry out the decision.

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2.4.5  Maturity Maturity refers to a state of development. Adolescents’ maturity levels vary considerably, and maturity continually evolves. In the early stages of maturity, youth are disinterested in others outside themselves and their small circle of peers. In this stage of maturity, young adolescents believe social conventions are merely social expectations and, consequently, insufficient reasons for compliance. In other words, they are egocentric, primarily concerned with self rather than others and how they fit into pre-existing social structures which require configuration into them (http:// recapp.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.TheoriesDetail&PageID=336 accessed on September 2, 2019). Adolescents mature as they grow. They become less egocentric, more independent, more confident, and less easily discouraged throughout this development than younger adolescents (Duplass, 2006). They have experienced a variety of social settings that employ these facets of development. Consequently, older adolescents begin to focus on the identification of future goals (Duplass, 2006). This shift offers an ideal opportunity to develop further relationships with other adults, such as those in the workplace (Smetana & Villalabos, 2009; Steinberg, 2017, p. 63). Adolescents at this stage of maturity exhibit less need to conform with peers, for example, and more tolerance for differences such as social settings in the workplace (accessed on September 2, 2019, http://recapp.etr.org/recapp/index.cfm?fuseaction=pages.Theor iesDetail&PageID=336).

2.5  Social Development of the Adolescent Brain Social interactions define the third element of the model. The interaction occurs within a social space. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978) provides helpful explanations to understand adolescent development, especially concerning the social relationship between mentor and mentee at work. Vygotsky noted that adolescence represented a crucial period in which complex concepts could be acquired (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed that the idea of scaffolding facilitated that acquisition of understandings. Scaffolding refers to a purposeful “…use of planned events and/or language in a constructed environment that serve to promote the acquisition of a particular skill” (Ryan et al., 2017, p. 57). It requires interaction with more experienced others to promote cognitive development. The concept can be used in both educational and work settings. Concepts related to adolescents’ social education for and on the job pertain to two main peer groups – peers (especially in the school environment) and colleagues (especially in the work environment). Regarding peers in school settings, acceptance plays a significantly important role in social support during development (National Middle School Association for Middle Level Education, 2010, p.  60). Throughout late childhood, youth continually increase the amount of time spent

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each day spent with peers, compared to earlier developmental periods when they spent more time with families. During the early stage of adolescence, friends develop close bonds with each other in terms of cliques. Their mutual responsiveness supports (and possibly encourages) (Ryan et al., 2017). Two separate but related structures shape the clique – number and sex. Two to twelve individuals typically comprise the adolescent clique. Usually, half is of the same sex. Members participate in shared activities (for example, musicians or a group of students who study together regularly). Nevertheless, a clique need not be based on a common interest. The clique can include friends who have known each other since childhood. This small social unit provides the leading and most important social context or adolescents’ interaction during this development period. Several characteristics typify the clique. Group members maintain a good rapport with each other (Steinberg, 2017) and provide a source of motivation (Urdan & Pajares, 2002). Kindermann et al. (1996) found that peer group membership accurately predicted changes in students’ motivational  engagement throughout the school year. Their results suggest that socialization in a peer group also affects academic self-concept. In turn, academic self-concept affects self-efficacy and motivation (Schunk & Pajares, 2002; Urdan & Pajares, 2002, p. 39). Two environments shape adolescents’ social lives. Kimmel and Weiner (1985) recognize that school serves as the centralizing social force in most adolescents’ lives. The school (or the nonformal educational program) offers opportunities for students to acquire academic knowledge and skills in various social settings when teachers provide structured lessons using the concept of scaffolding. For working youth, the work setting offers another space to interact with a regular group of individuals. Although this setting may not provide cliques, it does provide frequent opportunities for colleagues to meet and socialize. A scaffolded environment consists of environments where more able or mature students work with less able or mature students for learning activities. Scaffolding also promotes learning at work. Young adults learn when paired with more experienced co-workers. Interactions between the adolescent and the co-­ workers help adolescents develop appropriate, healthy, and valuable professional skills. At the same time, it may aid the organization’s goals for the individual in that same setting to “…develop communication skills, participate in on-the-job training sessions, actively listen, and discuss and resolve conflicts when they arise” (Powell et al., 2015, p. 229), for example. Bruner’s “communities of practice” concept provides a useful conceptual framework to consider how scaffolding can impact social settings in both school and work settings. Communities of practice refer to the social settings in which adolescents engage. According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), “…the ecological perspective on human development claims that the environment helps to explain development.” In this case, the community of practice provides the space in which learning occurs through the social process of interactions of adolescents with friends at school and workers with adult colleagues at work. Youngblade et al. (2007), for example, noted that this process offers tremendous benefit to adolescents. Their team found that youth who have supportive connections in various communities tend to develop in

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a positive, healthy way. The individual’s position in the relationship (that is, the social network) utilizes peer selection to form that group of individuals or a group of team members to facilitate learning (Terjesen & Vinnicombe, 2016, p.  444). Similarly, Vygotsky also argued that when individuals receive a purposefully planned interaction with one another with more or higher levels of understanding about a particular situation, the learner benefits. In short, when engaging the adolescent with at least one ‘expert’ in the school or work setting’s social structure, specific in situations, under certain conditions, and in particular circumstances, the informal educational process that results can positively affect understandings at school as they prepare for the workplace, and once in it.

2.6  Conclusion The educational, psychological literature has furthered our understandings of the adolescent’s particular facets of development. The adolescent’s cognitive, psychological, and social development contributes to the individual’s maturation. It is anything but simple. As Gilmore and Meersand (2014, p. 14) noted, “[T]his course of individual human development can be best understood as the evolving manifestation of a complex dynamic process…”. The conceptualization of physical growth, cognitive processing, psychological attributes, and social networks provides the necessary base to understand adolescent development. By understanding both the cognitive, psychological, and social systems and the various stages of development within each, we can create meaningful types of educational experiences for youth both in the school and workplace settings. Understanding the systems and their inner functions offer a chance to rethink education for and on the job for youth.

References ACT for Youth. (2002). Research facts and findings. ACT Youth Center for Community Action. Alskar, F. D., & Olweus, D. (1993). Global self-evaluations and perceived instability of self in early adolescence: A cohort longitudinal study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 34, 47–63. Baddeley, A. D., Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2011). Working memory and self-­ regulation. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 204–225). Guilford Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.  H. Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt and Co. Blakemore, S.  J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-­7610.2006.01611.x Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2003). The life span human development for helping professionals. Merrill/Prentice Hall.

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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34(10), 844–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-­066x.34.10.844 Burns, R.  B. (1979). The self-concept: Theory, measurement, development, and behavior. Longman. Cowan, N., et al. (2011). Adolescent development for educators (A.M. Ryan, T.C. Urdan, & E.M. Anderman, Ed., 2017, p. 66). Pearson Education, Inc. Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1997). Social comparisons and subjective well-being. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparative theory (pp. 26–63). Psychology Press. Duplass, J. (2006). Middle and high school teaching: Methods, standards, and best practices. In Including adolescents with disabilities in general education classrooms (p.  204). Houghton Mifflin Company. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. Norton and Company. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton and Company. Erikson, E. (1980). Identity and the life cycle. W. W. Norton and Company. Erol, R., & Orth, U. (2011). Self-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal study. U.  S. National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 101(3), 607–619. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024299 Felson, R.  B. (1984). The effect of self-appraisals of ability on academic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(5), 944–952. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-­3514.47.5.944 Fields, R. D., & Stevens-Graham, B. (2002). Neuroscience: New insights into neuron-glia communication. Science, 298, 556–562. Geidd, J. N. (2008). The teen brain: Insights from neuroimaging. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(4), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.007 Gilmore, K. J., & Meersand, P. (2014). The little book of child and adolescent development. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nle bk&AN=842830&site=ehost-­live Grøholt, B., Ekeberg, Ø., Wichstrøm, L., & Haldorsen, T. (2005). Suicidal and nonsuicidal adolescents: Different factors contribute to self-esteem. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 35(5), 525–535. Hall, S. (1904). Advancements in professional development: Improving training programs across generations. Dissertation manuscript submitted to Northcentral University. Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. Guilford Press. Hogg, M., Terry, D., & White, K. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58(4), 255–269. Retrieved January 16, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/2787127 Kimmel, D.  C., & Weiner, I.  B. (1985). Adolescence: A developmental transition. Wiley. In Helping adolescents and adults to build self-esteem: A photocopiable resource book. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Kindermann, T.  A., McCollam, T.  L., & Gibson, E., Jr. (1996). Peer networks and students’ classroom engagement during childhood and adolescence. In F.  Pajares & T.  Urdan (Eds.), Academic motivation of adolescents. Information Age Publishing. Kuhn, D. (2006). Do cognitive changes accompany developments in the adolescent brain? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(1), 59–67. Larson, R. W., Moneta, G., Richards, M. H., & Wilson, S. (2002). Continuity, stability and change in daily emotional experience across adolescence. Child Development, 73, 1151–1165. Larson, R. W., Wilson, S., & Rickman, A. (2009). Globalization, societal change, and adolescence across the world. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 590–622). Wiley. Lee, C. Y. (2015). Changes in self-efficacy and task value in online learning. Distance Education, 36(1), 59–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2015.1019967

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Lerner, R.  M., & Steinberg, L. (2009). The scientific study of adolescent development. In Handbook of adolescent psychology. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy001002 McGuire, S., Manke, B., Saudino, K.  J., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E.  M., & Plomin, R. (1999). Perceived competence and self-worth during adolescence: A longitudinal behavioral genetic study. Child Development, 70, 1283–1296. National Institute of Mental Health. (2001). Teenage brain: A work in progress. National Institute of Mental Health. www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/teenbrain.cfm National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association. Paris, S. G., Lipson, M. Y., & Wixson, K. K. (1983). Becoming a strategic reader. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8(3), 293–316. Pfeifer, J. H., & Peake, S. J. (2012). Self-development: Integrating cognitive, socioemotional, and neuroimaging perspectives. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2(1), 55–69. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.07.012 Powell, B. J., Waltz, T. J., Chinman, M. J., et al. (2015). A refined compilation of implementation strategies: Results from the Expert Recommendations for Implementing Change (ERIC) project. Implementation Science, 10, 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-­015-­0209-­1 Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(9), 677–688. Ryan, A. M., Urdan, T. C., & Anderman, E. M. (2017). Adolescent development for educators. Pearson Education, Inc. Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2002). The development of academic self-efficacy. In A. Wigfield & J. S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (A vol. in the educational psychology series). Academic. Siegler, R. S. (1998). Children’s thinking (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. Smetana, J., & Villalabos, M. (2009). Social cognitive development in adolescence. American Psychological Association. Steinberg, L. (2017). Adolescence. McGraw-Hill Education. Terjesen, S., & Vinnicombe, S. (2016). Attracting generation Y graduates: Organisational attributes, likelihood to apply and sex differences. Career Development International, 12(6), 504–522. Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In Academic motivation of adolescents: Theories & approaches. Retrieved from http://recap.etr.org/recapp/ indexcfm?fuseaction=pagesTheoriesDetail&PageID=336 Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2003). The stability of self-esteem across the lifespan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 205–220. Urdan, T.  C., & Pajares, F. (2002). Academic motivation of adolescents. Information Age Publishing. Retrieved from https://search-­ebscohost-­com.jerome.stjohns.edu/login.aspx?direct =true&db=nlebk&AN=469693&site=ehost-­live Vygotsky, L.  S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Youngblade, L. M., Gheokas, C., Schulenberg, J., Curry, L., Huang, I. C., & Novak, M. (2007). Risk and promotive factors in families, schools, and communities: A contextual model of positive youth development in adolescence. Pediatrics, 119(1), S47–S53. https://doi.org/10.1542/ eds.2006-­2089H

Part II

Country Cases and Realities of Yesterday and Today

Part II, Country Cases and Realities of Yesterday and Today, relates to the fundamental definition of adolescence of Part I by offering a legal and administrative perspective on adolescent vocational and technical education in three countries. Chapter 3 features the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and reveals the importance of government regulations supporting long-standing formal and non-formal vocational education systems for youth at both secondary and tertiary levels. Chapter 4 on the Republic of Italy details the government’s potential to plan and execute a vocational and technical education program for youth that features apprenticeships and agreements. Chapter 5 presents the United States of America (USA) case by reviewing its long history of youth work and current legislation that seeks to support it.

Chapter 3

Vocational Education in China: The Case of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)

Abstract  The concept of education for the working population has remained a common thread through the history of education in the People’s Republic of China. This chapter presents the importance of the vocational segment of the educational system for youth that addresses the working adolescent’s education. It provides context with a review of terms based on a linguistic interpretation of vocational education, thus emphasizing its long philosophical history of the concept. Then, it reviews the history of vocational and technical education in the country, revealing considerable national attention to its development. It also offers non-formal educational vocational and technical education options for youth. It shows the stark difference between the governmental rhetoric and support, various VTE options in the country, and the gap between governmental plans and local realities. Keyword  People’s Republic of China · Adolescent education · History of vocational and technical education · Vocational and Technical Education (VTE)

3.1  Introduction China reports that 40.75% of the population ages 15–24 work (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.1524.SP.ZS?locations=CN). Approximately 1.5  million adolescents ages 16–19 are full-time working, and about 3.6  million youth work part-time. Of those in the 20–24 age range, approximately 9.5 million work full-time and approximately 4.5 million work part-time (https://www.bls.gov/cps/ cpsaat08.htm accessed on July 7, 2019). The China Daily newspaper reports lower numbers but does not specify between part-time and full-time employment. It estimates that 6 million youth ages 15–24 will work as of 2020 (https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-­11/21/content_27444998.htm accessed on July 7, 2019). Most adolescent workers in the PRC work as skilled laborers. For example, young men in southern Gansu work in transportation, construction, and

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_3

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communication industries (e.g., Maslak, 2011, 2018; Maslak et al., 2010). Young women in that same area work in the hospitality industry (including hotels), the food industry (including restaurants and catering), and manufacturing (in factories) (Maslak, 2018). Another dimension of the skilled labor workforce includes the migrant worker. Of this total, China reports that approximately 20–30 million young people are unskilled (Chung & Mason, 2012 p. 45). Most migrant workers work in middle or large cities (54.9%) (Chung & Mason, 2012). Both local residing and migrant adolescent populations have maintained working status throughout the history of China. At the same time, they have struggled to acquire an education. This chapter emphasizes the Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) long philosophical account that has sought to support working youth. Then, it reviews the trajectory of vocational education in the PRC by tracing both governmental law and local practice. It reveals a stark difference between the governmental rhetoric for programs and various actual VTE options in the country. It also demonstrates how the recent expansion of higher education to include vocational education provides a model for the country’s own vocational and technical education system for postsecondary students.

3.2  The Context for Present-Day Vocational Education The idea of the union of education and work had an early beginning in China. The word labor, or laodong, means “to burn strength” (the first character), and “to act,” “to move” (the second character) (Liu, 1995, p.  322  in Schulte, 2003). In other words, Confucius wrote that “burning strength through action” loosely translates that physical labor was valued because of its life-sustaining function. Later, (c. 372–289 B.C.E.), a division formed between the “working hearts” (laoxin), that is, the thinkers and the “working force” or the laoli (the physical laborers) to serve the upper class.1 The rationalization valued the thinkers’ “…interest in and commitment to moral behavior and ethical concerns” over laborers’ (subordinate) position. This conceptualization of thinkers as valuable (and, subsequently, laborers not) persisted for centuries. It can be blamed, at least in part, for the country’s persistent challenge and struggle to obtain VTE goals for its citizens. China’s formal recognition of the working class’s education (which was different from the upper scholarly class) came in the 1860s. The twentieth century welcomed a significant expansion of schools and their curricula. In 1904, the Kui Mao educational system differentiated vocational schools into elementary, junior, and senior levels. Coursework included studies in agriculture, industry, and the trades; practical skill training complemented the curricula. In 1911, Huang Yanpei, a vocational education leader in China, focused his work on three purposes. First, he believed vocational and technical education should prepare individuals to earn a living.

 This is the period of Mencius.

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Second, it should teach a desire to serve the community. Third, it should promote productivity. A few years later, at the turn of the twentieth century, the Chinese Vocational Education Society/Vocational Education Association (VEA), founded in 1917 by Huang and Tao Xingzhi, culled ideas the pairs’ American education that John Dewey primarily influenced. In 1922, the association joined the national educational system ranks and sought to link both academic and industrial sectors in China. Its work used the term zhiye jiaoyu to define industrial-technical education (Liu, 1997, p. 136 in Schulte, 2003; Huang, 1999). Unlike the classically oriented educational system that served as the foundation for the imperial examination system, vocational education that was promoted from their ideas focused on the workforce’s education. For example, the Technique Training School of Foochow (Warship Manufacturing Bureau in Fujian) and the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau prepared individuals for shipbuilding and manufacturing careers. However, the country’s vast rural agricultural sector posed problems of access to create an educational system for the masses. Despite the challenges, the Qing dynasty continued to grapple with ideas to improve prosperity and strength (fuquiang) through its educational system. One part of the system included specialized schools and “professional working skills training schools.” The other part of the system merged vocational educational institutions and general secondary schools. Although the Government attempted to improve the struggling system, the reconfiguration did not reduce the number of systemic problems. The shift focused on schools in rural areas; however, the urban areas’ lack of attention caused dissatisfaction within the educational system’s ranks. Given that some believed that it did not achieve its goals to create well-rounded, educated students who were ready to serve, the Kuomintang released the VEA of its authority and responsibilities and took control of vocational education (Gewurtz, 1978). Its slogans promulgated by the Government stressed links between nationalism and development. The phrase “shiye jiuguo” or “engage in industry to save the country” became popular in their campaigns to reinvigorate the educational sector. A closer look at the actual words used to describe vocational education reveals its explicit purpose. The dual structure of vocation (that is, zhiye) supports the notion of allegiance to the State in terms of work. In the two-character interpretation, zhi or office radical character (as in written Chinese) uses an “ear” on the left side. This radical’s figurative connotation indicates a government that listens to the masses gauges public opinion, and responds accordingly. The two characters’ right side consists of “sound” and “dagger-ax,” representing an ancient weapon. Together, the idea of results in the concept of a watchtower. The semantic extension of the word relates to the concepts of line and branch, and, later, “occupation,” “profession,” and “industry” (Schulte, 2003, p. 220). The Government attempted to sell the idea as a part of the general educational system. However, the public did not support the notion of shiye jiuguo. Consequently, the Chinese replaced it with the phrase “vocational education.” In this sense, education promotes the idea that a position in a vocation serves the workforce and, ultimately, the country’s development.

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3.2.1  Contemporary Vocational and Technical Education The ideals and values related to VTE did not change with the Marxist-Leninist-­ Maoist canon. Although government officials endorsed the socialist goal of the strength of mental and physical labor, reality did not reflect the initiative (Liu & Chen, 2013). The division between the classes persisted because physical labor’s value never reached the status of the importance of intellectual work. Hence, vocational education continued as the stepchild of the general educational system. The system continued to decrease in significance and importance in Chinese society, but not the Government’s interest to support it. When the highly valued governmental positions called on vocational education to support its function, changes began to occur. The Chinese term danwei assigns a position to every member of society (Zhu, 1996). The government-endorsed vocational education as the means of training that offered specialization for each of those positions. Although this conceptualization lacked broad support from the masses because it discouraged individuals from changing jobs, students began to enroll in vocational education programs, albeit begrudgingly. During the late 1940s and 1950s, President Liu Shaoqi advanced current (and contemporary) political goals that helped recreate the vocational education system to combine work-study programs with a Marxist philosophy of education (Guo & Lamb, 2010). However, by the next decade, all stopped with the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). In short, the period halted education for millions. With lower enrollment than anticipated and desired, the Government continually worked toward making the track more appealing to youth. For example, educational policy linked the completion of vocational education with entry into higher education institutions. This initiative sought to change public opinion from an obsolete to an in-vogue alternative educational system (Schüller, 1999). However, a vague vision statement for the educational system field’s re-imagined sector contributed to the continued unpopularity. The Instructions on Consolidating and Developing Technical Education (1952) reinforced the specialized (but hierarchical) vision of education already unpopular. The document promoted “secondary technical schools,” which appeared to focus on skills. Just 2 years later, possibly recognizing the population’s dissatisfaction with skill-based learning, the Decision of the State Council on Improving Specialized Secondary Education (1954) changed the name to “secondary specialized schools,” which implied occupational specialization. But the strategy may have backfired. Yan (2013) suggests the same educational system with two different names may have further contributed to the unpopularity of (and possible continued confusion regarding) vocational education during this period. Whereas the name would be enough to confuse the masses, the curricular shift might have also contributed to the problem. In 1958, the Great Leap Forward failed to improve the situation. It furthered confused the population with yet another reconfiguration of the system, this time regarding school management. During this era, the Community Party decentralized the secondary technical school system. Although certain institutions remained under

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the Ministry of Education’s auspice in the central Government, the management of the remainder shifted to local sectors and local industries that established their schools. With this decentralization came a deterioration of standards, with the Ministry’s secondary specialized schools maintaining higher standards than the independently operated schools. Deng Xiaoping’s “opening up and reform open door” policies signaled another significant shift for VTE beyond the Chinese borders. His ideas promoted education as the modernizing force for the future of China in the world order. Deng’s Chinese socialism maintained the ideals of Marxism, including social quality and reduction in poverty. In light of this fundamental idea, the educational system needed to address the country’s social and economic inequities. Therefore, he endorsed the 9-year compulsory education system for all, and with it, a reinvigoration of vocational education. Changes continued for vocational education. In April 1978, the National Conference on Education called to revamp and expand the Technical and Vocational Educational system (TVE). The State Council’s approval of the Report on the Structural Reform of the Secondary Education outlined the plan designed by the National Conference of Specialized Secondary Education and the National Conference of Labour and Employment. The documents provided the foundation for the expansion of TVE, including both junior level and senior levels. During this same period, the Chinese State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) administered and operated schools and provided training to their workers to link education, training, and work. The China Education Yearbook of 1984 stated that vocational education: …cultivate[s] qualified primary and middle-level technical personnel with necessary basic knowledge on culture and science as well as on modern technology. (cited in Guo & Lamb, 2010, p. 22)

In 1985, the central Government continued to publish documents regarding educational development, most of them directly related to the National Party Congress’s idea of developing a workforce that could serve state-run industries. The Decisions on the Reform of the Educational System stated adjustments to its secondary education structure toward vocational and technical education. The document acknowledged the need for scientific and technical experts, including engineers, technicians, and management. Simultaneously, it recognized that TVE suffered from challenges. The document identified the need to increase enrollment in both specialized secondary schools (zhongdeng zhuanye xuexiao) and skilled workers’ training schools (ji gong xue xiao) (Yan, 2013). It called for transforming the number of general senior secondary schools into vocational schools. The plans sought to reach a five-year goal to enroll an equal number of students in TVE and general schools. The 1985 Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Education System continued to reaffirm citizens’ need to compete in the global market. The Central Committee identified the specialized secondary schools and skilled workers’ training schools within the vocational education system to respond to that call. Nevertheless, the mandate illuminated the disorganized system’s weaknesses, and hence transition failed (Chan, 2013).

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Recognizing the complex system, the Government, once again, attempted to rectify the varied categories for vocational education and the institutions within them by proposing targets. It initiated a five-year goal to achieve a one-to-one ratio. One student enrolled in vocational and technical schools at the secondary level for every student enrolled in the secondary education high schools. Based on that directive, the Central Committee of the Government created the “vocational high school.” The secondary vocational system, comprised of “…secondary specialized schools, workers’ training schools, vocational high schools, and secondary specialized schools for adults,” sought to offer a myriad of choices that met the need for an education in a “…new global environment” (Yan, 2013, p. 26). Although institutions (to varying extents depending on the country’s geographic location) existed, the difficulty of enrolling students continued to cause concern. At around this same time, the 12th National Party Congress sought to expand and improve the higher education system to align with the country’s strategy of economic modernization, especially in science and technology. The two-tier structure of national and provincial jurisdiction did not (or could not) fulfill the needs of the market-oriented economy. As new industries developed and businesses boomed, they required trained personnel to fill positions (Cheung, 1996). The Government responded by developing vocational universities in major cities, which may be one of the most critical changes for a twenty-first-century education in China, although it was not known at the time. The vocational universities (VUs) differed from Chinese higher educational institutions in several ways. First, local administration and funding come from the city level, where programs link directly to local industries and businesses’ needs. Third, some offer non-degree programs. Although this approach provided new options for many, it also created challenges. Without guidance and policy from governmental authorities, voids in leadership from both academic and industry sides created confusion between its entities (Maslak, 2016). Failure to educate the public about the role of the institutions also created problems. Without a clear and publicized mission, the organizations struggled to support their efforts to provide an education for the workforce. At the same time, governmental policies continued to be published in attempts to strengthen the VE system. The Government’s attention to vocational education persisted, even with the failure of public support and failed attempts at programmatic strategies. In 1991, for example, the State Council issued the Decision on Energetically Developing Vocational and Technical Education. The document stated … that developing vocational education not only is the basis of improving the quality of ideology, ethic and scientific culture of laborers, and realizing the socialist modernization construction but also makes a difference in strengthening the socialist system belonging to the worker-peasant alliance. (State Council of the PRC, 1991, para. 2)

Other documents featured local governments. The Outline on Reform and Development of Education in China created by the CPC’s Central Committee and the State Council in 1993 required local governments to prioritize vocational education. Simultaneously, the China Education Reform and Development Program in

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1993 emphasized VE’s need to fit with its social market economy (Department of Education, PRC, 1993). That same year, the Chinese National Education Reform and Development of Long-term Planning Programs document required vocational schools to link to local development, thus ensuring the socialist marketing economy’s support. Its programs offered employment training. In 1996, the first Vocational Education Law provided legal protection for vocational education development and continuation. A year later, President Jiang Zeming recognized how vocational education addressed goals in the scientific and technological fields (see the 15th National Congress). The Decision on Deepening Educational Reform and Promoting Quality Education (1999) emphasized the link between the socialistic market economy and vocational education at the senior secondary and university levels (Dai, 1991a, b). One of the largest and most influential pieces of legislation of the era was the Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China Act (zhong hua ren min gong he guo zhi ye jiao yu fa, 1996). It included 40 articles related to VET. Articles 1–11 of the Law offer general provisions. Articles 12–16 describe the system of vocational education. Articles 17–25 describe its implementation. Articles 26–38 guarantee access to the vocational education system and outline its conditions. Articles 39 and 40 include addendums.2 The legal system continued to offer the most significant scope of advancement for VET, but not the only one. Since the 1990s, increased attention to curricular reform has proposed inquiry-based methods and practical hands-on experiences, emphasizing the need for applied skills. Yet again, implementation proved challenging, if not impossible. Even with teaching training advancements, policymakers did not modify the gaokao (national university entrance examination). Given this, the upper secondary curricula hardly stood a chance of being implemented because they did not align with the curricula that needed to be mastered to pass the gaokao. Students who opted to study in the vocational system seldom passed the qualifying exam for university entrance, even with the lower score allowed for admission. The challenges did not lie solely in the educational sphere. Industries either not informed or unable to accommodate could not create and sustain the educational system’s supportive systems. In short, although some saw the value in vocational education, its failure to align with university instruction or acknowledgment of its value failed to gather and maintain the same excitement as the possibility of university education for youth. In 1992, the Government reported that it met its goal of fifty percent student enrollment in vocational secondary educational institutions.3 Later, the 1996 Vocational Education Law followed and attempted to reinvigorate the vocational education system’s popularity with its Vocational and Technical Education and Training division. The Law structured the path for vocational education reform. Once again, the reform included a new framework for the system, the revision of

2  Schmidtke and Chen (2012) note that the Law linked vocational educational pursuit of knowledge and skills with both political and moral development. 3  The scholarly literature clearly and consistently questions that statement.

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occupational standards, methods to assess and evaluate students, the information in training and recruiting of teachers, and collaborative partnerships with industry (Xie & Wu, 2001). Precisely, the country’s Vocational Education Law of 1996 echoed the country’s Fifth Development Plan regarding the need for a vocational education system (and an adult education system) but added a prominent link to work. It reads: [V]ocational education is to be developed proactively and the scale of regular senior education should be expanded properly. In order to meet the requirement that vocational education should be more adaptive to the economic restructure and the development of townships, the national Government calls for a new notion that vocational education shall be oriented by employment.

Overseen by the State Council’s National Vocational Education Steering Committee (non-official translation of “国家职业教育指导咨询委员会”), the work reformed “…the vocational higher education institutes, secondary skill schools, vocational high schools (and adult education).” On May 31, 2001, the Government created a list of 85 provincial governments-approved vocational colleges. Some vocational colleges converted to secondary vocational and technical schools. Other institutions of higher education remade themselves into higher education vocational institutions (Cheung, 1996). Possibly because of its repeated shortcomings and failures, the twenty-first century continued to support VET, but without the same enthusiasm at the rates witnessed earlier. The Decision on Promoting the Occupational Education Reform and Development proclaimed five of the same goals of vocational education development as earlier documents noted. The document sought to link the “…vocational education system to the socialist market economic system,” paying particular attention to market demands and labor employment. The National Vocational Education Conference, held in 2004, undertook a (re)organizational effort. It coordinated ministries’ activities related to VET: the National Development and Reform Commission, the Poverty Alleviation Office of the Ministry of Labor; the Ministry of Finance; the Ministry of Personnel; the Ministry of Agriculture; and the Ministry of Education. On its coattails, the State Council issued a new policy document entitled Decision on Accelerating the Growth of VET. This document, amongst other things, offered students admission to upper secondary school using discounted entrance fees (2005). Reforms to the vocational system along the lines of employment and work continually progressed. For example, the People’s Republic of China Vocational Education Law and Reform documentation (http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/ content/2019-­02/13/content_5365341.htm accessed on November 23, 2019, also called the Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China) reiterated the interest to further develop industry by improving the vocational education system. The Education Law specifically sought to address this goal through shifts in management, attention to instruction, revision of curricula, and access for all high school-aged students through recruitment and financial support for students in the educational system, especially those from minority areas. Simultaneously, the efforts also included three types of secondary vocational schools that, to varying extents, cooperated with local industries to provide experiences in the workforce.

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Two-to-four-year vocational schools offered programs for skilled workers, farmers, and managerial and technical employees. Technical schools typically offered four-­ year programs to train those employed in technical fields. Also, Schools for Skilled Workers continued to prepare individuals for positions in production and operations. Although reasonable attempts at improvement, the situation became even bleaker when, in the latter part of the twenty-first century, the word “crisis” began appearing in vocational educational circles (Ling, 2015; Yan, 2013). Low enrollment in vocational education at the secondary level signaled the system’s repeated failure to recognize it as an equal alternative to a general education amongst the public. Today, China offers the most extensive vocational training system in the world. It includes 19 major industries and more than 100 specialties. More than 300 cities and approximately 3000 counties support educational institutions that offer vocational and technical education in the country (Guleva, 2020). The vocational education choices for adolescents include a junior vocational education, a senior vocational education, and vocational college and university. No significant changes to education and training patterns of earlier decades in each system level are evident. Junior vocational education still caters to students residing in rural areas who seek to work in agriculture. Senior vocational education is an umbrella term that includes vocational high schools, technical senior schools, and schools for skilled workers (Wang, 2013). Schmidtke and Chen (2012) report that these schools train managers and technicians for mid-level administrative positions in schools and hospitals. Vocational colleges and universities offer coursework and certificate programs to youth after they have earned a diploma from the secondary system (Yang, 2020). Certificates of this type not only provide specialized programs for work in industry but also technology (Fig. 3.1). Possibly fueled by the global recession of 2008–2009, political leaders have continually advocated for vocational higher education amongst the populace because leadership thought education could help to quell widespread unemployment in China. In the 2009 annual report to the National People’s Congress, Premier Wen Jiabao exclaimed VET as “…the next key target of education promotion” because it was one of the few types of education that could supply qualified technicians and skilled workers. The National People’s Congress in March 2014, led by Premier Li Kequiang, further reinforced the need for a “…modern employment-oriented vocational education system”. In June 2014, a collaborative effort amongst education departments created the Modern Vocational Education System Construction Plan (2014–2020). At this point, China’s VET system maintained distinctive categories. First, its junior vocational education arm of the system provided instruction in agriculture for rural-­ residing residents. The senior vocational education (which included vocational high schools, technical senior schools, and schools for skilled workers) trained adolescents for managerial and technical positions. The programs prepared graduates to work in production as operators, in the service industry as technicians, as supervisors, and as mid-level administrators in schools and hospitals. The continuation of the vocational higher education arm resulted in growth.

3  Vocational Education in China: The Case of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)

Tertiary (ISCED 5-8)

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Tertiary Education

Post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED 4)

Vocational Education Bachelor’s Degree 2-3 years

Upper Secondary (ISCED 3)

Secondary Vocational Education 2-3 years

Lower Secondary Education 3 years

Primary Vocational Education 2-3 years

Primary (ISCED 1)

Upper Secondary Education 3 years

Lower Secondary (ISCED 2)

Higher Vocational Education 2-3 years

Primary Education 6 years

General Education

Compulsory education

TVET

Education pathway

Fig. 3.1  TVET in the Chinese educational system. https://unevoc.unesco.org/wtdb/worldtvet­database_ chn_en.pdf

Its vocational higher education pathway, however, has witnessed the most impressive change. It has continued to increase opportunities for youth throughout the country. The proportion of the age cohort enrolled in higher education increased from 1.2% in 1978 to almost 30% in 2015 (Kapur & Perry, 2015). Between 1992 and 2000, the State combined separate schools into “amalgamated institutions”

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(Liu, 2003 in Kapur & Perry, 2015). As a result, the mergers created a significant increase in enrollment.4 The trend continued and expanded. In early 2014, the State Council approved a policy to convert more than 600 provincial and local public colleges and universities into vocational training centers. Because of this initiative, vocational schools increased the percentage of participants in the higher education system from 55% to 70–80% (http:/news.xinhuanet.com/2014-­03/24c_126305589.htm in Kapur & Perry, 2015, p 11). This initiative has had tremendous consequences for the nation. Its advantages include an educated workforce whose system has purposefully created educational paths that respond to industries’ call. China’s two leading authorities on education, the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security (MOHRSS), share responsibilities for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in China. The MoE oversees the academic course work of vocational and technical education. The MOHRSS manages and supervises skills training. At the local level, both the MoE and MOHRSS control technical and vocational training (https://unevoc.unesco.org/go.php?q=World+TVET+Database&ct= CHN accessed on July 27, 2019). The system utilizes the terms “vocationalism” and “localism” as guiding principles for its current VTET system’s fundamentals. The concepts link the academic content specific to the vocations with occupational skills used in the work environment. As with any expansion, problems ensue. The case of higher education in China is no exception. Several issues continue to plague the operation of vocational and technical education in China. Schmidtke and Chen (2012) note both industry-related and educational-related types of challenges. Regarding industry, serious training problems remain. The actual number of working partnerships between vocational schools and industry is difficult to quantify. Moreover, industry reports difficulty in providing safe spaces for students to engage in work experiences. Yi et al. (2018) report that a substantial proportion of the students who are enrolled in internships “…fail to meet minimum requirements for student safety and well-being” (p. 201). Changes in school curricula do not necessarily reflect a fundamental change in schools (Xu, 2011, 2012). Moreover, the rapid conversion of existing schools into colleges and the development of new colleges that focus on vocational education has created programs that fall short in providing high-quality education. Also, as some institutions become tuition-driven and others remain funded by the State, inequities begin to appear. For example, cash-­ rich schools offer more competitive salaries for staff than those under-funded. Cutting-edge curricula that respond to the current needs of industries may (or may not) be developed. In short, although a significant expansion of the vocational higher educational system is impressive in terms of its growth and potential, its challenges plague the recipients of its structure is in terms of quality and equity. 4  Kapur and Perry (2015) report that the Chinese higher education system enrolled 8.8  million students (10.5% of the age cohort); by 2006, enrolment increased by more than threefold (to 25 million students or 22% of the age cohort).

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In short, vocational education addresses the needs of youth. However, a persistent divide between governmental policy and industrial practice creates challenges. The Government publishes consistent and progressive guidelines that plan a vocational education system. Industries understand their needs and the workforce that helps them to reach their goals. However, the education sector is met with two challenges. First, secondary schools and institutions of vocational higher education educations struggle to link classroom curricula with industry practices. Second, the educational system struggles to maintain high-quality programs that accept qualified applicants and provide a sound educational experience for them (Ashton & Green, 1997 in Kapur & Perry, 2015; Maslak, 2011).5 One alternative to the formal system is the non-formal system.

3.3  Non-formal Vocational Education and the Nongovernmental Organizational System That Offers It: An Organizational Glance Non-formal educational (NFE) programs provide an alternative to public (and private) formal education for youth around the world, especially for those not enrolled in formal programs (Coombs & Ahmet, 1974; Coombs, 1976). Like others in the world, China’s non-formal educational system offers youth another option to complete an education outside the formal system. It usually focuses on courses in the basic skills of reading, writing, and mathematics, instead of the broader range of courses such as those in the hard and soft sciences offered in the formal system. No matter the different academic emphasis, the NGO system (in which non-­ formal educational programs function) seeks to “…create a robust civil society to counter the authoritarian Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and led China to democracy” (Hsu & Jiang, 2015, p. 102; Sacouman, 2012). The general concept of the NGO is a broad one in China (Ma, 2002). Its many divisions create a complicated system. A review of it provides a basic understanding of this alternative type of education for youth who cannot or choose not to enter the formal system. The non-formal vocational educational system echoes the philosophy of the formal vocational education system in the country. It calls on the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to provide education for youth who seek employment. The literal translation of fei zhengfu zuzhi is nongovernment organization. Many NGOs call on this term in their documents (Saich, 2000). The myriad of terms creates confusion. First, the Government is quick to point out that the nongovernment (fei zhengfu) should not be confused with no government (wu zhengfu) or anti-governmental (fan zhengfu) (Saich, 2000, p.  124). 5  For example, current research (see Yi et al., 2018) suggests that 90% of those enrolled in vocational programs fail to gain the required skills.

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However, the confusion does not end there. Numerous terms have been used to define the field. For example, Saich refers to the concept of mass organizations (qunzhong tuanti), “half-private half public” or “semi-official” (banguanbanmin), “popular organizations (minjian tuanti)”, and “illegal organizations (feifa tuanti)” in China. All of which offer “…a continuum of autonomy, spontaneity, and voluntariness”. Complicating the field is the NGO’s concept that defines itself as “grassroots” (caogen zhuzu). Wang and Liu (2009) differentiate these NGOs as government-sponsored and government-funded organizations that exist to advocate for local needs. However, the line differentiating them is anything but straight. The ambiguity of the general concept of nongovernment causes a ripple effect in attempting to define it. In China, the term NGO (fei zhengfu zuzhi) (非政府组织) has neither a clear nor consistent definition. For example, the term is synonymous with the social organization (shehui zuzhi) (社会组织), public benefit organization (gongyi zuzhi) (公益组织), charitable organization (cishan zuzhi) (慈善组织), and popular organization (minjian zuzhi) (民间组织). It has been described as a cooperative, a group, an organization, an agency, or an association that is nonprofit, voluntary, and service- or development-oriented (Ma, 2002; Salamon, 1987; Salamon & Anheier, 1992). In China, NGOs staff their offices by volunteers who conduct activities that aim to accomplish the association’s goals (Chen, 2001; Ngai, 2006).

3.3.1  The Structure and Functions of the NGO6 Chinese Government’s policy standards guide function for NGO creation and development. According to China’s Ministry of Civil Affairs (CMCA) and the Regulation on Registration and Management of NGOs (Government Documents, 1998, no author), NGOs in China register in one of three categories, and educational programs fall under each of these categories. The first registration option is the social organization (she hui zu zhi社会组织, she hui tuan ti, or she tuan 社会团体或社团) category. As a social organization, NGOs are officially defined as … nonprofit organizations which are formed voluntarily by Chinese citizens to realize the shared objectives of their members and which carry out activities according to their charters. (Government Document, 1998; http://www.chinanpo.gov.cn/1202/15483/index.html accessed on June 20, 2016)

The second category of NGOs is the private, non-enterprise unit (min ban fei qi ye dan wei 民办非企业单). This type of NGO includes organizations established by a social agency or an individual and operates according to its charter as a nonprofit agency. The third category of NGOs in China is the foundation (ji jin hui 基金会) or the branches of the overseas foundations (jin wai ji jin hui dai biao ji gou 境外基  Lu ChunPing contributed to the section regarding non-governmental organizations.

6

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金会代表机构) (Chan, 2013).6 This NGO category refers to the nonprofit social welfare group whose administrators are designated by legal authorities to utilize the assets donated to it (http://big5.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.gov.cn/xxgk/pub/govpublic/ mrlm/200803/t20080328_31616.html). The guidelines provide both structure and direction for NGOs to develop charters that adhere to the principle of “…scientific planning, correct guidance, improved legal framework, and normalized development” (Chen, 2001; no page number provided). The Chinese Government, which provides guidance and support for the management and administration, offers legal advice for NGOs’ operations. To support NGOs through the growth process, the Government provides a legal framework within which they are expected to function (Postiglione, 2006). An example of one standard guideline that comprises the framework is the Regulation on Administering Foundations (Government, 2004 http://tradeinservices.mofcom.gov.cn/ en/b/2004-­03-­08/24317.shtml accessed on September 29, 2015).8 The functions of the NGO system echo the Government’s directive to provide educational services to those in need, especially in light of the shifts from the planned to a market economy, which have caused hardship for many adolescents and their families. However, the Government hesitates to permit broad approvals for the industry’s privatization (Ma, 2002). One reason may be the Government’s fear of independence if the leaders of grassroots NGOs do not have a relationship with Government. Another reason may be NGOs’ reliance on other foundations’ support, which may, or may not, be approved by the central Government. The situation creates tension. This tension is within the Government itself. On the one hand, the Government seeks to maintain the idea of the state society. On the other hand, it wants the NGO sector to assume some of the responsibility of services that the public requires (Lu, 2009, p. 90). However, in so doing, the Government recognizes that the non-formal organizations may support causes that do not directly align with its policies (Lu, 2009; Zhang, 2013). In response to that dilemma, the Government created Government-Organized Non-Governmental Organizations (hereafter referred to as GONGOs). A GONGO registers as an organization with the Ministry of Civil Affairs, and a corresponding governmental agency sponsors it. GONGOs have become a popular alternative for support services such as educational programs for youth, especially in the areas of economic development, possibly fearing disassociation from independent NGOs, even with laws and directives to operate them. One of the largest GONGOs is the All China Women’s Federation (中华全国妇女联合会) (hereafter referred to as ACWF). It has been referred to as a “mass organization” that is responsible for advancing, amongst other ideas, education for girls (Ross & Wang, 2012). Sometimes referred to as an NGO and sometimes as a “quasi-governmental” body, the state funds and closely oversees the ACWF. Indeed, the Government-established GONGOs have aided in the transition from a planned economy with direct governmental control of social services to a market

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economy with indirect management of the educational sector (Spires, 2014). This shift has yielded three results. First, GONGOs enable the Chinese Government to procure both funding and technical assistance from multilateral, bilateral, and international sources, which are perceived as legitimate than those without those same connections. Second, GONGOs can provide welfare services (including education) throughout the economic reform process. For example, because of the Government’s distance, GONGOs can explore new areas of work previously impossible for governmental agencies.  Third, GONGOs’ staffing comprises government officials or members of the Chinese Communist Party, either retired or those who lost their jobs either during economic reforms or during the subsequent transition to the society-­ involvement management model. The hiring from this pool assumes that the candidates will help ensure that the Governmental offices’ principles realize the GONGOs’ vision statements and missions. China officially recognizes GONGOs, reflecting the State’s fundamental ideals, and offers educational programs for youth who cannot enter the formal educational system. They include the All-China Women’s Federation (中华全国妇女联合会), the All China Youth Federation (中华全国青年联合会), the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (中华全国工商联合会), the Communist Youth League (中国共产 主义青年团), and the China Association for Science and Technology (中国科学技 术协). Although the Government has relied heavily on its personnel to organize and manage GONGOs, it has shifted its role. Instead of overseer, the Government has slowly separated itself from GONGOs, thus enabling more autonomous and independent operations (Zhang, 2013). One outcome of the shift from a very strict to a moderately strict governmental influence requires staff to determine the mission, vision, policies, and programs for each organization without forgetting that they remain under the Government’s auspice. Although the Government has granted the nongovernmental sector the power to create educational programs for youth who cannot enroll in the public educational system, two fundamental problems exist. First, the complex nongovernmental organizational system that the country supports offers educational programs for youth, but communication informing local rural communities lacks. Second, in existing programs, gaps exist between governmental guidelines that provide the standards for education and the curriculum. The Government outlines standards for programs. For example, it claims that curricula for vocational-technical education and training utilize an active approach to instruction. In its early years, the system mentioned the use of both “practice projects” and “skills training practices” in the curricula (Xu, 2014). Practice projects aim to develop effectiveness in the workplace; skills-­ training practice teaches students to operate machinery and tools. Currently, the system uses both “design-work projects” that use hands-on instructional strategies (Xu, 2014). However, actual curricula and instructors’ implementation fail to follow governmental guidelines due to a lack of resources and training. In short, non-­ formal vocational educational programs offer an alternative to the formal vocational system for youth. However, the complex system varies according to that which each region can and does offer.

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3.4  Conclusion In conclusion, China maintains a rich educational tradition. Early ideology conceptualizations of the system differentiated groups by class. The Government rhetoric repeatedly attempted to deemphasize education’s affiliation with work related to class and instead promulgated its benefits to serve the nation. Later, government policies, laws, and official statements structure rhetoric with corresponding goals. Yet quite often and over the decades, they continually fell short of achieving desired aims (Postiglione, 2006). With its ample and varied programmatic options, the system’s continual revision also failed to accomplish all the Governments’ goals of student enrollment and related work opportunities based on the academic knowledge, skills, and competencies learned in vocational programs. The Government applied the same strategies to its non-formal educational system. In their operational sense, NGOs implement the Government’s welfare service projects, including educational programs for youth, that support economic development (of a particular region, for example). In another way, they maintain capital-­ building capacity, and fund-raise, and use resources to support welfare programs. Third, they provide consultation to the Government. In this capacity, NGOs link the non-formal system with the formal structure for education for advice and consultation regarding connecting students’ system from one to the other. In short, the NGO’s system’s multiple layers  – sponsored by the Government and offered by nongovernmental organizations  – offer thousands of options for educational programs throughout the country, albeit in ways that are inconsistent for all youth. Even with two vast and complex educational systems, significant challenges exist. Continual and concerted efforts in establishing and maintaining structures, policies, and programs while controlling for quality throughout the entire system remains the country’s goal.

References _____. (1952). (1986). Compulsory Education Law on the People’s Republic of China. No. 25. Instructions on Consolidating and Developing Technical Education. _____. (1954). Decision of the State Council in Improving Specialized Secondary Education. Georgia House of Representatives. http://www.legis.ga.gov/Legislation/Archives/19992000/ leg/fulltext/lc271120_ecs.htm#p120 _____. (1986). Compulsory Education Law on the People’s Republic of China. No. 25. _____. (1998, October 25). The regulation of registrations and management of NGOs. 社会 团 体管理条例]. _____. (2004). The purpose of vocational education is to training projects in the city and in the countryside. 孙琳.21世纪我国职业教育发展的政策取向[J].职教论坛, (04), 1–14. _____. (2013). Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Education System. Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. _____. (n.d.). 马驰. China’s labor market: Shrinking workforce, rising wages. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-­11/21/content_27444998.htm

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_____. (n.d). Employment to population ratio, ages 15-24, total (%) (modeled ILO estimate). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.1524.SP.ZS?locations=CN _____. (n.d.). People’s Republic of China Vocational Education Law and Reform. http://www.gov. cn/zhengce/content/2019-­02/13/content_5365341.htm _____. (n.d.). 国家职业教育指导咨询委员会. State Council. National Vocational Education Steering Committee. _____. Decision on Energetically Developing Vocational and Technical Education. State Council. Ashton, D., & Green, F. (1997). Education, training and the global economy (pp.  154–175). Edward Elgar Publishing. In Kapur, D., & Perry, E.  J. (2015). Higher education reform in China and India: The role of the State (Harvard-Yenching Institution Working Paper Series). Harvard. Chan, K. (2013). The rise of civil society in China. In E. Florence & P. Defraigne (Eds.), Towards a new development paradigm in 21s century China. Routledge. Chen, G. (2001). China’s nongovernmental organizations: Status, government policies and prospects for further development. The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law, 3(3). Retrieved from https://www.icnl.org/resources/research/ijnl/chinas-­nongovernmental-­organizations-­ status-­government-­policies-­and-­prospects-­for-­further-­development Cheung, E. (1996). Higher vocational education in China in response to the changing needs of the labor market beyond 2000. Industry and Higher Education, 10(4), 261–263. Chung, C., & Mason, M. (2012). Why do primary school students drop out in poor, rural China? A portrait sketched in a remote mountain village. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(4), 537–545. Coombs, P.  H. (1976). Non-formal education: Myths, realities, and opportunities. Comparative Education Review, 20(3), 281–293. Coombs, P., & Ahmet, M. (1974). Attacking rural poverty: How non-formal education can help. John Hopkins Press. Dai, S. (1991a). The development of higher vocational and technical education in China. Chinese Education, 24(1), 8–26. Dai, S. (1991b). Vocational universities can develop into institutions combining vocational and technical education. Chinese Education, 24(2), 21–34. Gewurtz, M. S. (1978). Social reality and educational reform: The case of the Chinese Vocational Education Association (1917–1927). Modern China, 4, 157–178. Guleva, M. A. (2020). Vocational education in China and prospects of its development. Asia and African Today, 12, 51–57. Guo, Z., & Lamb, S. (2010). Framework for comparing China’s TVET system. Technical and Vocational Education and Training: Issues, Concerns and Prospects International Comparisons of China’s Technical and Vocational Education and Training System, 75–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­90-­481-­8743-­0_5 Hsu, C. L., & Jiang, Y. (2015). An institutional approach to Chinese NGOs: State alliance versus state avoidance resource strategies. The China Quarterly, 221, 100–122. Huang, X. Y. (1999). Origin, use and meaning of “Education” [“Jiaoyu” yi ci de youlai, yongfa he hanyi]. In Q. Baokui (Ed.), Metatheoretical research on education [Yuanjiaoyuxue yanjiu] (pp. 107–128). Zhejiang jiaoyu chubanshe. Kapur, D., & Perry, E. J. (2015). Higher education reform in China and India: The role of the state (Harvard-Yenching Institution Working Paper Series). Harvard. Ling, M. (2015). Bad students go to vocational schools: Education, social reproduction and migrant youth in urban China. The China Journal, 73, 108–131. Liu, L. H. (1995). Translingual practice: Literature, national culture, and translated modernity: China, 1900–1937. Stanford University Press. Liu, G. (1997). Research on late 19th and early 20th century Chinese thought on vocational education [Zhongguo jindai zhiye jiaoyu sixiang yanjiu]. Gaodeng jiaoyu chubanshe. Liu, J. (2003). Gaodeng xuexiao hebing zuzhi de lilun yu shizheng yanjiu [A study of the theory and practice of the amalgamation of higher education schools] (Zhejiang University doctoral dissertation, 2003). In D. Kapur & E. J. Perry (Eds.), (2015). Higher education reform in China

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and India: The role of the State (Harvard-Yenching Institution Working Paper Series). Harvard University. Liu, J., & Chen, G. (2013). Reflections on developing secondary vocational educational in high-­ poverty areas. Chinese Education and Society, 46(4), 68–74. Lu, Y. (2009). Nongovernmental organizations in China. Routledge. Ma, O. (2002). Defining Chinese nongovernmental organizations. Voluntasc, 13(2), 113–130. Maslak, M.  A. (2011). Education, employment, and empowerment: A case study of Muslim women in northwestern China. Research in Comparative and International Education, 6, 1. http://www.wwwords.co.uk/rss/abstract.as0p?j=rcie&aid=4536 Maslak, M.  A. (2016). Deciphering difference: Policy and western China’s Muslim women. In J. C. K. Lee, Z. Yu, X. Huang, & E. Hau-fai Law (Eds.), Educational development in western China: Towards quality and equity. Sense Publishers. Maslak, M. A. (2018). Vocational education of female entrepreneurs in China: A multi-theoretical and multi-dimensional analysis of successful business women’s everyday lives. Routledge. Maslak, M. A., Kim, J. H., & McLoughlin, A. (2010). Educational engagement in China: A case from the northwest. International Journal of Educational Development, 30(3), 254–262. Ngai, N. P. (2006). Welfare development: The role of Government and non-Governmental welfare organizations [福利发展:政府与非政府福利机构的角色. Postiglione, G. A. (2006). Through descriptive and analytical analyses of the PRC Government’s educational policies (mid-1950-present day). In Education and social change in China: Inequality in a market economy. M. E. Sharpe. Ross, H., & Wang, L. (2012). Vocational high schools in China. Chinese Education and Society, 47(5), 3–7. Sacouman, N. (2012). Paths of local development: Culture, context, power and the role of nongovernmental organizations. Foluntas, 23, 889–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-­011-­9234-­0 Saich, T. (2000). Negotiating the state: The development of social organizations in China. The China Quarterly, 161, 124–141. Salamon, L. M. (1987). Of market failure, voluntary failure, and third-party Government: Toward a theory of government-nonprofit relations in the modern welfare state. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 16, 29–49. Salamon, L.  M., & Anheier, H.  K. (1992). In search of the nonprofit sector: The question of definitions. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 3(2), 125–151. Schmidtke, C., & Chen, P. (2012). Philosophy of vocational education in China: A historical overview. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 46(3), 432–448. Schüller, M. (1999). Qualifizierung für den Arbeitsmarkt: Berufsbildungssystem und Beschäftigungschancen. In J.  Hebel & G.  Schucher (Eds.), Der chinesische Arbeitsmarkt: Strukturen, Probleme, Perspektiven (pp. 85–111). Institut für Asienkunde. Schulte, B. (2003). Social hierarchy and group solidarity: The meanings of work and vocation/ profession in the Chinese context and their implications for vocational education. International Review of Education, 49(1–2), 213–239. Spires, A. J., Tao, L., & Chan, K. (2014). Societal support for China’s grassroots NGOs: Evidence from Yunnan, Guangdong and Beijing. The China Journal, 71, 65–90. Wang, L. (2013). Development, vocational education and disadvantaged youth’s future: Lessons learned from China. Paper presented at the AERA Annual Meeting San Francisco, CA, April 26–May 1, 2013. Wang, M., & Liu, O. (2009). Analyzing China’s NGO development system. The China Nonprofit Review, 1, 5–35. Xie, J., & Wu, G. (2001). Training and development in the People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Training and Development, 5(3), 223–233. Xu, J. (2011). Evaluation and revolution in China’s skill formation system. Journal of Education and Work, 24(5), 549–564.

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Xu, X. (2012). Analysis of national policies for entrepreneurship education in China. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 10(3), 403–420. Xu, G. (2014). Philosophy and methods for China’s vocational education curriculum reforms in the early twenty-first century. Chinese Education and Society, 47(5), 57–64. Yan, L. (2013). Crisis in the restructuring of China’s vocational educational system, 1980-2010: A sociological analysis from the viewpoint of new institutionalism. Chinese Education and Society, 46(4), 22–29. Yang, Q. (2020). Promotion and implementation of “1+X” certification system in higher vocational colleges. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 500, 270–275. Yi, H., Li, G., Li, L., Loyalka, P., Zhang, L., Xu, J., Kardanova, E., Shi, H., & Chu, J. (2018). Assessing the quality of upper-secondary vocational education and training: Evidence from China. Comparative Education Review, 62(2), 199–230. Zhang, Y. (2013). Surviving with conflicting institutional demands: A case study of Government run nongovernmental organizations in China. PhD dissertation. University of Hong Kong. Zhu, X.  B. (1996). Cultural forms and vocational education [Wenhua xingtai yu zhiye jiaoyu]. Comparative Education Research, 6, 1–6.

Chapter 4

Vocational Education in Italy: The Case of the Republic of Italy

Abstract  The current volatile economic and employment situation in Italy and the well-established vocational educational tradition offer an interesting juxtaposition and great insights into work and education for youth in Italy. This chapter begins by positioning the working youth situation in terms of national averages and educational attainment and performance. Next, it examines the country’s Vocational Education and Training (VET) system through documents from both Italy and the European Union (EU). It focuses on the apprenticeship system for students and employment agreements for an industry that demonstrates its commitment to the experiential learning process. Keywords  Republic of Italy · Vocational Education and Training (VET) · Italy · European Union (EU) · Apprenticeship system · Experiential learning process

4.1  An Introduction: The Context Italy’s uneven but gradually improving labor market peaked mid-2018 when the unemployment rate stood 10.3% in the third quarter. The downward trend continued during the third quarter of 2018 to 10.2%. However, since government-supported hiring incentives for companies ended at the end of 2016, temporary employment and contracts drive most of the country’s job growth today. Instead of permanent, long-term positions based on long-term contracts, youth assume part-time and temporary positions that are not secure. Table  4.1 provides data on labor market indicators. Undeclared work continues to be another pervasive problem in Italy, most notably in the South, despite its recent “labour inspectorate agency” that has been operational since 2017. According to the Government, the unobserved economy represented about 12.4% of GDP (equivalent to EUR 210  billion) in 2016. Approximately 37.2% of that total was attributed to undeclared work. In short, although the youth unemployment rate has decreased since 2014, the bleak situation of future employment prospects for Italy’s youth gives us pause. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_4

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Table 4.1  Italy’s labor market and education indicators from 2013 to 2018 Labour market and education indicators 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 youth unemployment rate 40.00% 42.70% 40.30% 37.80% 34.70% 32.20% % active population aged 15–24 24.30% 24.30% 24.40% 24.50% 24.20% 24.30% Source: Eurostat, OECD

Education provides one response to the country’s youth labor challenges. However, despite the national educational system’s persistent efforts to enroll and retain students, attendance remains a major concern. More youth choose not to enroll in and stay in school. Regarding attendance, middle and secondary school-­ aged foreign-born (e.g., immigrants) male students enroll in school less often than girls, especially after grade 10 (MIUR, 2018).1 In addition, foreign-born students repeat grades more often (31.3% vs 10%) and leave school earlier (30.1% vs 12%) than local-born Italian students. Moreover, “neither in employment nor in education or training” (NEET) statistic for youth ages 15–24 increased to 20.1% in 2017 from 14.1% in 2016.2 It remains the highest amongst both the Italian and non-Italian populations in the EU. Regarding those still in school, other problems exist. According to the 2018 national data, the South sustains a higher percentage of low achievers than the North (in grade 8, for example, 45% vs. 28% in the Italian language, 67% vs. 27–30% in the English language, 54–56% vs. 28–32% in mathematics). Overall, Italian students rank at the bottom of the EU list of critical competencies and basic skills (see European Commission, 2016). The bleak situation of work for youth in Italy can be addressed through a vocational and technical education system that may directly relate to the work experience. The following section examines the Vocational Education and Training (VET) system in Italy through legal documents that address its various dimensions.

4.2  The VET System Like nations worldwide, Italy supports the individual’s right to compulsory education and training for a minimum of 12 years. The first cycle includes both primary and lower secondary levels’ compulsory education. Primary education (scuola primaria) enrolls students from age six and continues for 5 years. Students must attend the first 2 years of lower secondary education (scuola secondaria di il grado), which begins at the age of 11 and continues through 16. The upper secondary school education (scuola secondaria di II grado) offers two types of course work. The liceo provides a general education program (that can be seen as college prep); vocational

 See Legislative Decree 13/2013 for details on immigration law in Italy.  This phrase is commonly used in the international development agency literature.

1 2

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education (which includes both technical and vocational) prepares students for a trade. Both types of schooling require 5 years to complete. After graduation, students progress through a series of requirements. A passing score on the final exam enables the student to enroll in higher education after upper secondary school. Students choose courses organized by either accredited training agencies or upper secondary schools in the vocational training educational system. After completing 3 or 4  years, students earn a qualification that enables them to pursue the second level of regional vocational courses depending on the program. Theoretically speaking, these types of education help students master fundamentals needed for a future after secondary school. Vocational education and training system that provides high-quality, relevant education in both classroom and work environments facilitate transitions from the school to the workplace setting for youth. The system appears to be working for youth. The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP, 2012) reports that students from countries with effective VET systems, especially those with well-established and well-functioning apprenticeship programs, find employment more often than students who do not pursue the VET course of study. The report also reveals that VET graduates earn higher salaries than general education graduates (accessed on December 1, 2019, at http://wwww.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/publications/20448. aspx p. 1). In 2012, the European Council requested an increase in the number of apprenticeships and traineeships in each EU country. The Bruges Communique outlined objectives related to the call. The continuing challenge remained – how to identify, adapt, and adopt plans to realize their VET commitment. Based on the European Council’s recommendation in 2013, Italy began its “Youth Guarantee Programme” to respond to this call. According to the EU, youth ages 15–29 maintain several rights regarding employment. According to the National Youth Guarantee Plan, individuals ages 15–29 years old maintain … the right to a good quality offer of employment, a place in training or apprenticeship or an offer to return to education within four months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed.

Italy’s legislation approved a comprehensive package of measures aimed at student services on vocational education, apprenticeships, and traineeships. The Youth Guarantee scheme for Italy (2013) offers a database to register for the vocational education system and supports students’ efforts to identify apprenticeships. The program includes both guidance and counseling services. An interview assesses students’ interests. Based on the results, counselors guide interested youth to register on the Youth Guarantee Programme portal Cliclavoro. Registration on the web portal, Cliclavoro, provides initial information regarding employment. Since its initiation in 2014, 1.4  million youth have registered. Of those, the Government reports that 53% have received support. However, the use of the scheme is not consistent across the country. Only 45% of the young took advantage of the South’s strategy compared to 71.1% in the North.

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After registration, the program offers an individual assessment to determine interests. Each registrant chooses from employment services such as general information, guidance; training; and job coaching. Communication generated between the registrant, academic institutions, industry associations (such as the chambers of commerce), employer associations, trade unions for the trades, and youth and third-­party organizations guide the student through the early stages of the employment process. An interview provides a chance for a face-to-face meeting with a career counselor. Support options include initial information, guidance to search for available positions, advice on training agreement contracts, coaching for job interviews, and suggestions for a training program. Financial guidance provides additional services (such as information on vouchers) for programs, such as apprenticeships or traineeships, or start-up funds for an entrepreneurial venture. As of July 2014, the Government reported over 119,000 individuals registered in the youth guarantee web portals. Participants from Sicily topped the registrants at (17%). Campania registered 16.5% of the total number, and Lazio registered 8%. The portal not only offers conversations and interviews to registrants but also matches qualified workers with jobs. The Public Employment Services (PES) contacted 13,770 young people; approximately 28% sat for an initial session/ interview.3 Information gleaned from career counseling identifies qualified applicants who are offered incentives (such as bonus or vouchers) to apply for programs, fill invitations for immediate job placement, and enroll in specialized training and coaching on entrepreneurship. Second, the Programme supports collaborative efforts between and amongst educational institutions, trade unions, and employer associations to realize the guaranteed right of employment, training, and apprenticeship within 4 months of graduation from a state-approved course of study. The Education Starts Again and the I Choose, I Study programs offer additional help. The “Education Starts Again” program (l’istruzione riparte) complements the Youth Guarantee Programme. Launched in 2013, “Education Starts Again” offers guidance-counseling services by teachers and the local guidance network. The program also increases awareness of VET through parent involvement. The I Choose, I Study (Io Scelgo, Io Studio) web portal provides necessary information on various education programs and their options. Its interactive ability enables registrants to interact with experts. Its short videos provide youth with links to interviews with individuals in a variety of industries.4 The country benefits from its status as a member of the European Union (EU), which possesses tremendous political power that shapes its vocational education

3  It is assumed that the north offers a better, or more effective networking system for youth to obtain positions. It is unclear how much nepotism influences their ability to find positions. 4  It should be noted that these government and EU reports describe the programs and opportunities. No evaluations of the effectiveness could be found in the literature.

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system. The vocational education system in the 28 Member States of the EU enrolled approximately 10 million youth (Statistics | Eurostat (europa.eu)). Italy accounted for 1.5 million. Italy draws on the definitions and practices from its EU neighbors in its country design. As a member of the European Union, Italy adopts the definition of vocational and education training (VET) from the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP, 2008) to guide its policies and practices. Like other vocational programs, VET in the Italian context provides an educational experience for individuals who include knowledge, skills, and work competencies. Two different forms comprise the system: Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET) and Continuing Vocational Education and Training (CVET). IVET refers to “…training that leads to an initial (upper secondary) vocational qualification” (www.apjce.org accessed on April 2, 2019). Youth ages 16–19 typically enroll in IVET. The IVET curriculum includes work-relevant academic skills, technical hard skills, and soft skills. CVET, on the other hand, refers to education or training either after IVET or after entry into the industry. If the CVET occurs in a school, it aims to improve and update students’ knowledge and skills as part of the academic program. If the CVET occurs in the work setting, it imparts new knowledge and skills to facilitate a change in job level or career. Both public and private schools and organizations offer CVET programs, and related educational administrative offices oversee them as part of academic institutions. A professional association oversees the work setting’s CVET programs (Volmari et al., 2009). Both formal institution-­ based (secondary schools) and apprenticeship training programs offer the qualification. In both cases, goals to support TVET programs for future and current young employees rely on a purposefully planned strategy. The Vocational and Education Training (VET) system links curricula and teaching methods (both in the classroom and on the job) with current labor market demands. Moreover, the VET system creates learning experiences, supports implementation and practices in the work environment, and evaluates both hard and soft skill development, often through an in-depth and long-term training program such as an apprenticeship. Italy recognizes and utilizes the EU’s efforts and subsequent framework for TVET policies. To varying degrees, depending on the region in Italy, the system adopts a “quality assurance framework,” the “qualifications framework,” the “system for credit transfer.” These frameworks offer experts a network to develop knowledge standards and skill competencies of both the academic and industry settings (LeMouillour, 2006). As McGrath notes, however, the EU’s intention is not to create one single model for all countries in the EU, but rather to offer a set of guidelines and tools to modify them that fit the country’s needs. The process for modification and adoption from the EU to member states (such as Italy) rests on the country’s dialogues at the policy level, including conversations between and amongst stakeholders at district and local levels. The frameworks provide specific information for policymakers and educational planners.

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4.3  Inconsistencies in the Country’s VET System Although all systems in Italy seek to advance youth education, two inconsistencies in policy documents create challenges for youth that they try to serve. The first inconsistency is regarding age. Italy’s report on Socio-Economic Value of Youth Work (2006) noted, “[A]ll the laws dealing with this issue, both at the national and regional level, have different concepts of what young people are”. “Each of these laws considers different age ranges to identify the target, depending on the issue dealt with.” Some of the documents define working youth as persons between the ages of 15 and 29. However, other documents describe working youth between 15 and 36. For example, the European Commission uses the phrase “animazione socio-­ educativa”, and the Italian National Youth Council (Forum Nazionale Giovani) uses the term “operatore giovanile.” Without a common definition and translation of the term ‘youth work,’ its use by public authorities in Italy and overseeing agencies in the EU creates challenges for the program administration that oversees those programs and places students in the work setting.5 A second inconsistency is the definition of vocational and technical education. Italian policy documents that use the phrase vocational and technical education prepare students for work in a particular vocational track. Managed by both regions and autonomous provinces (such as Valle d’Aosta in the North), vocational and technical education offers programs for both occupational fields and occupation-specific jobs. They provide a range of government-­recognized designated skill levels, including semi-skilled, skilled, and professional. However, the Italian system is under the direction of policy from the European Union, which does not define vocational and technical education in the same way. The European Union (EU) provides policy guidelines for VET in Europe adopted for use in Italy, but the documents do not align with the Italian ones. For example, whereas the Italian system views VET in terms of programs, the EU views it as a general concept that includes initial vocational education and training (IVET) and continuing education and training (CVET). Upper secondary schools in the European system typically offer initial vocational education and training (IVET), which is acquired before work. IVET occurs in a school setting or a training center. CVET, on the other hand, happens after the initial education and training or after an individual starts to work. Whereas IVET offers fundamental knowledge and skills, CVET helps individuals acquire new professional development skills in the work setting (https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/eu-­policy-­ in-­the-­field-­of-­vocational-­education-­and-­training-­vet_en accessed on November 1, 2020).6

5  The policy documents’ inconsistency referring to ages of youth served in the VET system creates another confusion for program administrators who enroll youth in its programs. 6  The terms have also been written as I-VET and C-VET.

4.5  The School System’s Apprenticeship Programs and the Labor Market

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4.4  Non-formal Education The non-formal educational system is another area where differences exist for both Italy and the EU. In 2013, Italy introduced legislation that recognized non-formal learning. Legislative Decree 13/2013 includes: (a) glossary, principles, institutional duties and responsibilities within the public certification system; (b) process standards: the way certification and validation must be provided; (c) attestation standards: what a certificate contains, what kind of information is being transferred and how it is traceable; (d) system standards: division of responsibilities and quality assurance; (e) a national register of education, training and professional qualifications, which is the unitary national reference framework for certification of competence. The MIUR (Ministero dell’Istruzione dell’Università e della Ricerca, that is, the Ministry of Education, University and Research), in part, oversees these programs.7 Regions assume responsibilities for the programs and define and implement certification/validation systems. The Citizen’s Training Log Book (Libretto formative del cittadino) provides a standardized format managed through the regional Public Skills Audit division.

4.5  T  he School System’s Apprenticeship Programs and the Labor Market CEDEFOP claims that the vocational education systems link more closely to the labor market than other sectors of the educational system in Europe. It seeks to reduce the possibility of unemployment caused by a lack of qualifications for entry-­ level positions. The system offers work-based learning experiences seeking an effortless transition into the workplace as a full-time employee. The goals seem to be achieved. Cedefop (2018), for example, reported that countries with robust VET systems, and especially those with a history of high-quality apprenticeship programs, reported lower percentages of youth unemployment than in countries without robust VET systems. But VET does not happen by accident. The apprenticeship provides one answer. The apprenticeship requires a significant amount of planning between both the educational system and industries. It seeks to link both curricular and instructional goals and objectives of the school with performance goals of the industry in a work environment. Cedefop (2012) found that countries with high-quality VET systems,

7  The EU also recognizes the validity of non-formal learning as a regulatory and operational framework that issues certifications at both the EU and national levels.

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notably those with well-established apprenticeship training programs, tended to perform better in youth employment. Despite the inconsistencies between Italy and the EU regarding programs and definitions, VET in Italy maintains a long and complex history with an impressive list of youth programs. This Italian system provides an ideal illustrative framework for experiential education that supports the tenants of the cognitive constructivist approach to instruction directly related to this work. The apprenticeship system’s purposefully planned and designed facets offer both exemplar depth and breadth for this learning. The national vocational education system, regional offices, and autonomous provinces for the trades regulate apprenticeships’ guidelines through State-­ Region agreements. Both academic content (for formal school instruction) and the number of hours (in the field) structure students’ theoretical and practical learning. Examining the contract provides essential insights into the partnership between education, industry, and their stakeholders.

4.5.1  The Apprenticeship Contract Apprenticeship contracts provide an agreement that links all stakeholders – the student, the school, and the employer. Contracts typically include three elements. First, contracts define each individual’s roles and responsibilities and the terms and conditions of the apprenticeship. During the contract, such as the probationary period, Periods explain expectations of learning related to the description of work performed. Second, the agreement lists details regarding wages paid and expected earned increases based on the student’s satisfactory assessments and evaluations.8 Third, the contract also includes certificates and licensure as well as a schedule for their obtainment. Specific types of user agreements in the form of contracts provide more detail. The following section explains various types of contracts that are used in the Italian system.

4.5.2  Types of Contracts The apprenticeship system includes three types of contracts. The first type of contract provides the terms for work that results in a “professional operator certificate” or a “professional technician diploma” (apprendistato per la qualifica ed il diploma professionale) for youth ages 15–25. A 3- to 4-year training period includes at least 400 h per year apprenticeship program. Successful completion equips the learner

8  Assessments refer to continual checks for understanding. Evaluations refer to ranked performance indicated by a numerical score.

4.6  Italian and European Union Guidance for VET

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with the qualification of the “operator” or “technician” level in 22 various occupational fields. The second type of contract offers certification in the professional apprenticeship category (apprendistato professionalizzante o contratto di mestiere) for 18–29-year olds. The qualification requires two sets of instructions. First, candidates acquire a set of crucial skills (120 total hours obtained during 3 years). Regional education departments, autonomous provinces and their government divisions, and certified training centers offer this part. Companies provide instruction in the second set of training: vocational skills that students acquire during their work in the designated company. Students participate in this type of program for a maximum of 3 or 5 years, depending on the course, and earn a regional certificate. The third type of contract designates “higher education and research” apprenticeships (apprendistato di alta formazione e ricerca). Eighteen to twenty-nine year-olds qualify for this apprenticeship. Through this experience, learners acquire a credential that enables the candidate to research private companies. A second option with this contract includes an apprenticeship that leads to certification in the “liberal professions,” including law, architecture, and business. The collaborative partnerships between regional and autonomous province offices in Italy, and social partners, and public education and training centers collectively decide on the organization of programs to guarantee alignment with school-based curricula and required hours of instruction and practice. The credit system used in higher education (crediti formative universitari) provides a transcript for the learner that documents knowledge and skills gained through workplace training. Although the popularity of the apprenticeship system waned in recent years, the country’s efforts, including the 2011 reform that carefully considered and planned for the ever-changing labor market, may be the reason for its current gain in momentum again. The legal system has guided its progress. The following section on Italian law in the VET system offers a chronological snapshot of legal documents that pertain to this segment of education for the country.

4.6  Italian and European Union Guidance for VET The European Union provides the overarching frame for VET in Italy. A chronological view of Italian and EU documentation presents an overarching view of legal initiatives that support this type of education for youth. The Italian Law 53/2003 (2003) guarantees youth’s fundamental right to study for at least 12 years (before 18). The Law provides specific information on compulsory education during the primary years and details the options at the lower and upper secondary levels (Sect. 2.3.1 of the legal document). Upon completing

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vocational school, students complete an apprenticeship (for those older than age 15) (Sect. 2.6).9 The Bruges Communique (December 2010) provides another early guide for defining the work experience for youth that meets global demand. The Communique outlines both objectives and corresponding actions to “…increase the quality of vocational training in Europe by making it more relevant to the labor market and accessible to the youth that it aims to serve” ­(https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/ content/bruges-­communique accessed on December 1, 2019). Apprenticeships, for example, offer chances for work experience and training in initial VET courses.10 Apprenticeship was part of the Italian Jobs Act. The Jobs Act of 2014 (Law 78/2014) suggested revision to the contracts of employed apprentices who are working toward a professional operator certificate and a professional technician diploma. With the new Act, apprentices receive a salary commensurate with the number of hours trained. Apprentices pay a reduced rate of 5.84% of their income into the country’s social security system. It also took an additional step by including initiatives to improve communication with industries. The goals included simplifying contracts that detail partnerships between businesses, public institutions, and non-profit organizations that more closely responded to the marketplace’s needs. The European 2020 Strategy maintained its position, emphasizing education and training to promote “smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.” Specifically, it outlines the EU’s “…agenda for growth and jobs for the current decade” (https:// ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/europe-­2 020-­i ndicators#:~:targetText=The%20 Europe%202020%20strategy%20is,a%20sustainable%20social%20market%20 economy accessed on December 1, 2019). It requires the EU to create sustainable industries that produce ideas and products that are competitive in the world market. Other EU documents that were published during this same period include the Agenda for New Skills and Jobs (https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1223 accessed on December 1, 2019); Youth on the Move (2014) and the Youth for Europe Action Programme (https://ec.europa.eu/youth/success-­stories/youth-­in-­action_en accessed on December 20, 2020). The youth/job movement continues to get the attention of the EU. The recent European Pillar of Social Rights in 20 Principles (https://ec.europa.eu/commission/ priorities/deeper-­and-­fairer-­economic-­and-­monetary-­union/european-­pillar-­social-­ rights/european-­pillar-­social-­rights-­20-­principles_en accessed May 20, 2019), under the auspices of the European Skills Agenda (https://ec.europa.eu/social/main. jsp?catId=1223&langId=en accessed December 20, 2020), provides a sweeping

9  These documents are supported by early national law 285/1997 (1997) entitled the Provision for the Promotion of Children and Adolescents’ Rights and Opportunities in Italy. In conjunction with regional offices (and their laws), the law supports partnerships between public schools and private industries. Private and religiously inspired organizations offer other, but fewer, options for students. 10  Scholars, policymakers, and practitioners alike have recognized the value of work-based learning in terms of apprenticeships of, as some EU countries refer to them in policy documents “dual training” systems, to facilitate employment for youth and perform better on the job.

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view of youth rights in the EU that reference working youth. It spells out equal opportunities for and access to the labor market that includes …the right to quality and inclusive education, training, and life-long learning in order to maintain and acquire skills that enable them [youth] to participate fully in society and manage successfully transitions in the labour market. (https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/deeper-­a nd-­fairer-­e conomic-­a nd-­m onetary-­u nion/european-­p illar-­s ocial-­r ights/ european-­pillar-­social-­rights-­20-­principles_en accessed on December 1, 2019)

The document also offers specific references to education. [Y]oung people have the right to continued education, apprenticeship, traineeship or a job offer of good standing within 4 months of becoming unemployed or leaving education. (accessed on December 1, 2019 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/deeper-­and-­ fairer-­e conomic-­a nd-­m onetary-­u nion/european-­p illar-­s ocial-­r ights/european-­p illar-­ social-­rights-­20-­principles_en)

Although they do not specify a particular time-range from post-education to employment, the documents also include a time-sensitive element. The EU document states “… the right to timely and tailor-made assistance to improve employment or self-­ employmentprospects.”(https://ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/deeper-­and-­fairer-­ economic-­a nd-­m onetary-­u nion/european-­p illar-­s ocial-­r ights/european-­p illar-­ social-­rights-­20-­principles_en accessed on December 1, 2019).

4.7  Conclusion The challenge in many countries, including Italy, is identifying the need and adapting existing practices, and creating new practice measures. However, existing documents offer two important revelations. First, specific strategies echo the repetitious, general statements of previous documents. They support vocational education’s general ideas but fall short of specifying industries to place youth. Second, documents call for equity; however, they provide no mention of diversity, explaining the need for equity. For example, the European Commission makes several statements, but, at the same time, fails to consider all youth. How? First, documents advise youth policy for social inclusion, yet no mention of special education students who lack intellectual and social skills fit into the system. The documents neglect to strategize for the learning-disabled student, for example. The documents neglect to strategize for the student who suffers from clinical depression controlled with drug therapy. Students identified with special learning needs require modifications to existing admission standards, curricular standards, instructional methods, and graduation requirements. New appropriate standards for the spectrum of special education exceptionalities can address the misalignment between policies and laws that call for equitable, inclusive education for all and current offerings. Second, the documents neglect to illuminate the case of immigrant youth qualified to receive an education yet lack the required language skills to complete it. Non-Italian youth without sufficient language skills fail to enroll and participate in vocational

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education. Modifications to existing curricula help students struggling with Italian as it relates to academic and field successes. The development of new curricula offers opportunities for youth in the country and those seeking permanent residency there. Language courses that focus on reading, writing, speaking, and listening as they relate to the workplace, for example, can enable youth to gain necessary, valuable skills that support their adult careers. Third, the documents call for “stronger participation within democratic processes,” however, the documents do not address the nepotism that invades many dimensions of an industry, which negatively affects youth’s entry into those industries. Honest and open conversations that publicly recognize this situation and a check-and-balance system of the success rates of placement for youth who pass through the job placement agencies without local connections must be offered. Finally, the documents call for investment in the system. A chasm between demands for improved, increased VET and a struggling economy overstretched with existing demands requires new ideas to infuse cash into the system. Given the industry’s call for qualified workers, new ideas that rely on the industry’s financial contribution to program development and implementation can increase coffers. Increased investment from active labor market industries promotes commitment to the educational system in which their current and future employees’ study. The current financial situation in Italy creates a hardship for its realization. The EU maintains responsibility for youth policy and calls on cooperation from member-states to “…mobilise all policies that can help improve young people’s prospects” (EU, 2015, p 10). Italy supports the EU’s guidelines with recognition of them and additional documents to support them. However, there remains a misalignment between labor market policies, appropriate vocational learning, and an open system that considers all candidates within both the Italian system. Despite policy documents and initiatives to strengthen the apprenticeship system for all, youth, especially with an immigrant background, are particularly at risk of poverty or social exclusion due to the lack of vocational training they can receive from the associated systems. With continued attention by the academy and the Government, vocational education will provide an essential educational experience for present and future generations.

References _____. National Law 285/1997 (1997). https://archive.crin.org/en/library/publications/italy-­ national-­laws.html. Accessed 20 Dec 2020. _____. National Law 285 (2007). Youth for Europe Action Programme. https://ec.europa.eu/youth/ success-­stories/youth-­in-­action_en. Accessed 20 Dec 2020. _____. National Law 285 (2012b). European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training Cedefop.europa.eu. Accessed 20 June 2019. _____. National Law 285 (2014a). European Commission. Youth on the move: A Europe 2020 initiative. https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1223. Accessed Dec 2019.

References

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_____. National Law 285 (2018). MIUR, Ministero dell’Istruzione dell’Università e della Ricerca. Accessed December 2019, from https://www.miur.gov.it/ _____. National Law 285 (2019a). The European pillar of social rights in 20 principles. https:// ec.europa.eu/commission/priorities/deeper-­a nd-­f airer-­e conomic-­a nd-­m onetary-­u nion/ european-­pillar-­social-­rights/european-­pillar-­social-­rights-­20-­principles_en. Accessed 20 May 2019. _____. National Law 285 (2019c). Agenda for new skills and jobs. https://ec.europa.eu/social/ main.jsp?catId=1223. Accessed 1 Dec 2019. _____. European skills agenda. European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/social/main. jsp?catId=1223&langId=en. Accessed 20 Dec 2020. _____. Legislative Decree 13/2013. _____. https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2013/02/15/13G00043/sg. Accessed 23 May 2019. Cedefop. (2012). Cedefop.europa.eu. Retrieved December 2019, from https://www.cedefop. europa.eu/ Cedefop. (2018). The changing nature and role of vocational education and training in Europe. Volume 4: changing patterns of enrolment in upper secondary initial vocational education and training (IVET) 1995–2015. Publications Office. Cedefop research paper No. 68. http://data. europa.eu/doi/10.2801/45684 EU. (2015). Communication from the commission to the European parliament, the council, the European economic and social committee and the committee of the regions. Draft 2015 Joint Report of the Council and the Commission on the implementation of the need framework for European cooperation in the youth field (2010–2018). Brussels. European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop). (2008). Terminology of European education and training policy. Retrieved from http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/ Files/4064_en.pdf European Commission. (2014). Your key to European statistics. Retrieved from https://ec.europa. eu/eurostat/web/europe-2020-indicators#:~:targetText= European Commission (EC). (2016). Education and training [online]. Retrieved October 12, 2016, from http://ec.europa.eu/youth/policy/youth_strategy/eat_en.htm LeMouillour, I. (2006). European approaches to credit (transfer) systems in VET: An assessment of the applicability of existing credit systems to a European credit (transfer) system for vocational education and training (ECVET). Cedefop Dossier series; 12. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. MIUR. (2018). MIUR, Ministero dell’Istruzione dell’Università e della Ricerca. Retrieved December 2019, from https://www.miur.gov.it/ Volmari, K., Helakorpi, S., & Frimodt, R. (Eds). (2009). Competence framework for VET professions handbook for practitioners. Retrieved from http://www.oph.fi/instancedata/prime_product_julkaisu/oph/embeds/111332_Competence_framework_for_VET_professions.pdf

Chapter 5

Vocational Education in the United States of America (U.S.A.): The Case of the United States of America (U.S.A.)

Abstract  This chapter begins by providing a history of youth and work in the U.S.A.. Next, it offers a brief history of V.E. in the United States. It discusses both positive and negative outcomes of work for youth. It also reviews both governmentand non-government related organizations’ input into policy development and curricular design for vocational education. Then, it discusses trends in Career and Technical Education (C.T.E.) participation in the U.S.A. It ends with discussing the standards that guide current career and technical education in the United States. Keywords  United States of America (U.S.A.) · History · Vocational education · Positive outcomes · Negative outcomes · Work · Career and Technical Education (C.T.E.)

5.1  Introduction Formal education provides an organized, chronological progression of full-time instruction based on a standardized curriculum for individuals from ages 5 to 25 in schools, colleges, and universities.1 Vocational education, one component of the formal educational system, comprises a chronological set of planned experiences that aim to prepare individuals for employment in industries by obtaining knowledge and skills through both traditional classroom and practical experiences (Burns et al., 2005). Today, some say that a crisis in the American educational system exists because it has primarily failed youths’ ability to function successfully in the work setting. The Corporate Voices for Working Families (2010) organization reports the “…recent high school and college graduates are ill-prepared to join the workforce” (https://corporatevoices.wordpress.com/2013/04/10/new-­demos-­report-­highlights-­ young-­americas-­growing-­jobs-­crisis/). Employers echo these concerns. Industry reports difficulty finding qualified and skilled workers. For example, surveyed business leaders in the U.S. reported that only 24% of college graduates had an exceptional grasp of applied skills. Most were under-prepared in basic writing and math to perform work-related responsibilities © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_5

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(Toland & Carrigan, 2011). The concerns and realizations reveal a gap between employers’ views of necessary fundamental skills for employees in their companies and students’ qualifications to fill those positions.

5.2  A  History of the Relationships Between Work and Schooling in the U.S.A. The vocational education that sought to address the school/work dichotomy in the United States stems from the eighteenth-century philosophies of both Jean Jacques Rousseau and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. They believed that “manual training” contributed to the individual and collective worth. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, children engaged in manual labor, for example, on the family farm, especially in rural America (Kett, 1978).1 A shift occurred in the late nineteenth century. Toward the late 1800s and into the early 1900s, two opposing situations emerged. On the one hand, more senior students stayed in school through the middle school level (Kett, 1978).2 On the other hand, a significant percentage of the U.S. youth from low-income families started to work (Zelizer, 1985). The apprenticeship that families and friends offered provided a structured approach for the education of the population, even as young as eight years of age (Graff, 1995; Kett, 1971, 1978) as they gained skills by working in mills and factories (Hareven, 1982; Smelser, 1959) and earned an income (Graff, 1995; Kett, 1971).3 This industrialization period in America (1870–1916) caught the federal government’s attention (Graff, 1995). Echoing the need for policy to respond to work that youth currently performed, the federal government’s Smith-Hughes Act (1917) provided a legal direction for vocational education due to the schooling/work dichotomy in which many families found themselves. The Act established the states’ principles to offer vocational education in agriculture, trade and industries, and home economics for youth over the age of 14. Formally known as the National Vocational Education Act, it provided an educational experience different from previous generations where family businesses and local apprenticeships served youth. The Act offered to fund a program-specific education. Agricultural, home economics, and industrial-trade vocational education

1  Congress established the United States Office of Education, a division of the Federal Government, within the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1867. The U.S. Office of Education sought to advance the country’s educational system. The Division of Vocational and Technical Education in the Office of Education is responsible for administering the vocational education arm of the system, including funding to states. 2  Between 1870 and 1930, the concept of the “priceless child” emerged in the middle-class community. This idea supported youths’ enrolment in school instead of employment in the labor market (Dreeben, 1968). 3  For example, youth comprised more than 50% of the textile operators in Rhode Island in 1820. Other substantial percentages of youth worked in mills in the south as well (Zelizer, 1985).

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aligned curricula with traditional gender roles. Instead of emphasizing the development of knowledge, competencies, and skills needed to enter the workforce, the approach focused on men’s and women’s roles and the education that the system determined was required to perform responsibilities related to them successfully. The purpose of vocational education shifted slightly during the next sixty years. The early twentieth century’s traditional education sought to educate students for the general workforce (Gordon, 2008). The Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training in the U.S. Department of Labor administered the Fitzgerald Act (also known as the National Apprenticeship Law of 1937). It promoted connections between apprenticeship programs, employers, and state agencies to formulate and regulate apprenticeship standards. On the other hand, the Federal Apprenticeship Act of 1937 created and approved private apprenticeship programs’ standards. During World War II, both apprenticeship programs supported the development of training, which, in turn, addressed the shortage of qualified workers in select industries. Later, the George-Barden Act, enacted in 1946, provided continued vocational education in the U.S. and its territories. One difference was the Act’s “grants-in-aid” funding to states’ vocational programs. Funding for “…agriculture, home economics, distributive education, trade, and industrial education, and vocational guidance” helped states to develop programs. A few years afterward, Title II continued to support the field by supporting occupation-specific educational training. For example, Title II (within the Health Amendments Act of 1956) authorized programs in practical nurse training for occupations in health services. Later, Title VIII of the National Defense Education Act of 1958 (P.L. 85.864) provided funds to support programs deemed essential for the technical training related to national defense. In short, during the 1940s and 1950s, a shift occurred. More adolescents attended school than ever before.4 Market forces of the 1950s seemed to account for the steady increase in youth employment. Students continually increased their participation in the part-time workforce; the proportion of young women was greater than that of young men for the first time in history (Kablaoui & Pautler, 1991). Two reasons contributed to this change. First, young people reported their desire to increase their economic independence. Second, as the retail and service sectors continued to grow, the industries offered more positions (Shanahan & Flaherty, 2001). The Committee on the Health and Safety Implications of Child Labor (1998) supported this assertion with statistics that indicated many U.S. high school students were employed at least some time during the school year. Recognizing the growing trend of youth employment, the National Manpower Council (which was initially established by the Ford Foundation in 1951) created a collaborative. The Council included representatives from various professions, professional associations, and geographic regions to analyze present and future policies related to education and work. The Council identified the problem as they saw it. 4  Whereas less than 5% of the school-aged population graduated from secondary school in 1890, the percentage rose to over 50% in 1940 (Historical Statistics of the United States, 1997). However, these statistics still point to the fact that many families could not afford to or chose not to allow their children to attend secondary school during this period (Kett, 1978).

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There was a need to improve and utilize the human resource potential. The focus of their 1955 conference (that was entitled Improving the Work Skills of the Nation) was the long-term supply of skilled labor to industry. The conference attendees recognized industries’ need to develop long-term plans for the training of new workers. Second, they also emphasized industries’ need to invest in training programs that sought to update their labor force after employees’ initial entry into the position. Several recommendations emerged from the conference. First, the meeting called on educators, industry, and government participation to propose changes to existing high school education. It suggested that two years in general courses and two years in technical subjects replace the four-year academic program. At the conference, leaders suggested that secondary schools advertise vocational opportunities to non-­ college-­bound students. Outside of schools, industry representatives committed to equal opportunity hiring and training practices, regardless of race, creed, sex, and national origin. However, this made no provision for a shift in gender-based work stereotypes both inside and outside the home. In some cases, unions provided oversight of operations for trade positions that could support the apprenticeship system and, in so doing, sought to increase the number of apprentices and improve the experience for them.5 The unions did not address the gender divide in the trade positions, however. Home economics training perpetuated the female role in the home, for example. Although local educational entities (including state and local boards of education) recognized the Council’s work, work to advance vocational and workforce education remained. In 1957, James Coleman convened the Panel on Youth of the President’s Science Advisory Committee to respond to continuing conversations by education and industry. The Panel grappled with the school’s ability to fulfill the multifaceted needs that young people required for the job. As a result, the Panel made several recommendations. One echoed in previous documents called for collaboration between educational institutions and workplace industries so that more students could remain in school while employed. Whereas the federal government primarily designed and planned vocational education up to this time, it began to shift focus. In its advisory capacity, the U.S. National Joint Committee on Apprenticeship (one arm of the federal education offices) included both national employer associations and international unions to discuss the ways to link education and industry. As a result, their collaborative efforts increased new apprenticeship programs and expanded and improved existing ones. In late May 1961, President John F. Kennedy advanced the field even further. He endorsed the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962. It trained and retrained workers who were unemployed because of automation and technological change (https://www.dol.gov/general/aboutdol/history/mono-­mdtatext). Although aimed toward adults, working youth in this situation also benefitted. President

 The Joint Apprenticeship Council took responsibility for this.

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Kennedy also enacted the Vocational Education Act of 1963. The Act authorized federal funding to assist states to “…maintain, extend, and improve existing programs of vocational education…and to develop new programs of vocational education.” Also, it provided financial aid to needy youth who wanted to continue full-time vocational training. The 1970s brought another new era to education in America. The percentage of youth employed part-time from September to June (that is, the academic school year period) continued to rise (Kablaoui & Pautler, 1991). As reported by Kablaoui and Pautler (1991), the increase in employment was because youth wanted economic independence.6 However, even with the resurgent interest amongst working youth, the vocational system’s popularity that could help students excel in positions neither reached the level of popularity of the previous decades nor obtained enrollment. During this period, James Coleman chaired the Panel on Youth of the President’s Science Advisory Committee in 1974. It sought to link public educational programs with the public work environment. Although the document reinvigorated conversations amongst scholars and educational officials, the vocational education system and its programs and courses did not see significant change. Even though the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s witnessed substantial vocational education growth in the United States, many criticized its support of the expansion because of its inequity. Early scholarship by Rosenbaum (1976) revealed how the American secondary educational system’s structure promoted inequality in two ways. First, like the 1950s and 1960s, vocational programs enrolled according to socially expected (and likely acceptable) gender-roles of the era. Boys enrolled in programs for the trades; girls enrolled in home economics (sewing and cooking). Second, racial and economic imbalances differentiated choices of academic and vocational education tracks. The recognition of inequity encouraged the federal government to authorize the Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act in 1984. Reauthorized in 1998, the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act planned for and guided vocational education in the United States. The Act calls for proficiency in academic, vocational, and technical skills per a secondary-school education and a corresponding diploma. But even with new legislation that acknowledged the problems, criticisms of the system did not dissipate. During this period, Oakes (1985) contemplated the disparities in the educational system. She described administrative decisions that “…segregate[d] poor and minority students into occupational training programs in order to preserve the academic curriculum for middle and upper-class students” (Oakes, 1985, p.  153). Citing discriminatory practice, she continued by stating, “[I]t is likely that these programs do not serve the democratic ends most Americans want their schools to achieve” (Oakes, 1985, p.  171). The same sentiment also resonated in the academic literature. For example, Fletcher and Zirkle (2009) echoed charges of inequity through racial imbalance and

 Retail and service sectors offered the most interesting opportunities for youth at this time.

6

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discrimination in secondary schools and vocational programs. They reported a higher percentage of White youth enrolled in secondary schools’ general academic programs than African American youth. Even with justified criticisms, the United States Congress continued to support vocational education. It passed the 1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act, which shifted the focus from education to industry. It advocated more work-based learning opportunities for youth and encouraged greater and broader involvement in school-­ to-­work partnerships by the industry. The Act planned for job-related experiences in two ways. First, it promoted the idea of internships and apprenticeships. Second, it offered specific strategies, such as the student’s role to shadow senior employees at work and employees mentoring students on the job. Since that time, the U.S. Congress continued to authorize pre-existing legislation, including the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), the Workforce Investment Act (WIA), the Higher Education Act (H.E.A.), and the Career and Technical Education Act (CTEA), and the Perkins  Vocational and Technical Education Act (2006). The Government expected these Acts to increase high school education standards and, subsequently, students’ success in the workforce. The concept of vocational education in the U.S. seemed to change once again in recent years. The contemporary term, Career and Technical Education (C.T.E.) shifted the focus of vocational education from education and training for a specific field (where entry into the workforce did not depend on a baccalaureate degree) to a broader academic and vocational education that prepared students for the general work environment. Guided by the Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE, 2007), C.T.E. develops “…foundational skills, core workplace competencies, and specific skill competencies in various occupational areas.” It includes, albeit to widely varying degrees within each state in the United States, several types of on-the-job training. Practical experiences typically offer students’ inclusion in the work environment with minimal hands-on opportunity but chances for observation of workplace practices. Internships typically include more extended periods, including days over months, shadowing, and then taking on responsibilities with a trainer. Apprenticeships provide the most comprehensive experience whereby students apply their academic and technical skills on a regular, longer-term basis, which may result in a basic certification in the occupation. July of 2014 issued in yet another new era in workforce education programs for youth with the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA). The Act is designed to …help job seekers access employment, education, training, and support services to succeed in the labor market and to match employers with the skilled workers they need to compete in the global economy…

It signaled the first legislative reform in the field in more than a decade. Although the language of the Act features “adults,” the document defines an adult as an individual over the age of 18  years, which, as the literature clearly shows, includes adolescents. The WIOA provides an umbrella under which various programs function on behalf of the individuals it served. WIOA provides guidelines for the Youth

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Build,7 the National Farmworker Jobs Program, and programs designed for Native Americans. In addition, WIOA supports both financial and personnel initiatives for working youth. Concerning financial support, the law states that local areas must spend at least 20% of budgets allocated to youth for “…work experience activities such as summer jobs, pre-apprenticeship, on-the-job training, and internships so that youth can are prepared for employment (https://www.dol.gov/agencies/eta/ wioa/about accessed on November 29, 2020). Job Corps, a program under its auspices, creates community networks of employer and labor organizations with local educational programs to support personnel. Local development boards seek to streamline and strengthen the links between and amongst the various stakeholders that create and support education for work that meets industrial needs in local communities. Both state and local boards seek to coordinate workforce programs that respond to employers’ calls for candidates who are qualified for entry-level positions and show potential to benefit from future training. The Department of Education has maintained WIOA resource pages under the Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education site under the heading Adult Education and Family Literacy Act program (Title II of WIOA) that includes these programs and ­initiatives (https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/wioa-­reauthorization. html accessed on November 29, 2020).8 With the increase of private educational choices in the U.S., today comes additional choices for vocational-type education. “Career Academies” provide a relatively recent development in public and private education in the U.S.. These academic programs, certified by each state that accredits and oversees its educational programs, operate within the schools’ physical building but align with a particular industry’s specific demands. In those settings, students enroll in academic and vocational courses and supplement the in-class learning with work that typically occurs during the summer. This experience may lead to full-time employment or as part of a 12-month employment contract with part-time status.9

5.3  T  he Work Experience and Three Types of Vocational Educational Opportunities for Youth The work experience during the twentieth century in the U.S. influenced the vocational educational system’s design and its programs for youth. States generally offered one of three types. First, work experience education, also referred to as  YouthBuild trains participants for construction opportunities.  Another example is Wagner-Peyser employment services which match youth with employment. 9  With both public and private institutions of higher education struggling based on both the slow economic and the effects of the Covid-19 crisis, institution of higher education are grappling with the possibility to offer short-term certificate programs in a variety of fields. The programs seek to increase enrollment, offer necessary certificates for work, and strengthen the financial state of the institutions. 7 8

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occupational experience, includes employment in an educational program. Supervision by both a teacher-coordinator and an employer typically structured the experience. Second, the work-study program offered another type of experience. In this case, the program assigned full-time students (15 to 21 years of age) who demonstrated financial need to work in a position in industry aligned with the approved vocational education program. Third, apprenticeship training refers to a system that educates the individual in knowledge and skills for an occupation. These types of programs typically require a collaborative effort amongst the school and its overseeing management system since students combine understandings from classroom and workplace settings. State and local statutes or agreements regulate the minimum terms and conditions of apprenticeship. Students who either do not qualify or do not express interest in work-related programs during the school day engage in student-oriented vocational organizations. Future Farmers of America (F.F.A.) is one national organization that offers secondary school students with interests in agriculture with an opportunity to meet and share common interests without working in a company or in a farm operation that was associated with the farming industry. The F.F.A. organization promotes “student leadership and character development, sportsmanship, cooperation, service, thrift, scholarship, improved agriculture, organized recreation, citizenship, and patriotism” (Spanton, 1945, p.  14). Supported by the George-Barden and subsequent National Vocational Education Acts, it provided the primary instruction in agricultural education for several decades. Two different organizations provided other leadership chances for youth. The National Future Homemakers of America, popular in the 1940s and 1950s, viewed itself as an organization that offered youth leadership opportunities, especially related to the home. The Future Homemakers of America organization typically associated itself with home economics education programs in secondary schools. Another national organization, the Distributive Education Clubs of America (DECA), provided an opportunity to understand civic awareness, competition, and economic understanding as they relate to careers in retail, wholesale, and service occupations. The Young Farmer Association, another national student-focused group, provided leadership training that bridged the gap between student and professional roles in the agricultural industry. Each of these groups supported the occupational development of adolescent students. More recently, institutions of higher education recognized the demand for career-readiness amongst their student body. The American Association of Colleges and Universities (2007) created a list of twenty-first-century skills that all university graduates should obtain. These included intellectual and practical skills, personal and social responsivity, and interdisciplinary learning (AACU, 2007). Carnevale et al. (2020) recently published a review entitled The Competencies Students Need for Workforce Success (https://www.aacu.org/blog/competencies-­students-­need-­ workforce-­success accessed November 29, 2020). Communication, teamwork, sales, customer service, leadership, and problem-solving and complex thinking are the top five demands by industries for every major occupational group of university graduates (https://www.aacu.org/blog/competencies-­students-­need-­workforce-

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­success accessed November 29, 2020). Although the university provides excellent potential for youth, the United States’ training program’s cornerstone is the community college system. Community colleges enroll approximately 7 million students in credit-bearing courses annually.10 They serve two purposes. First, they provide basic literacy skill development that may not have been learned in the high school setting or not developed to a level expected for employment. Second, community colleges provide a stepping-stone for careers in technical professions such as the health sciences and the trades. One program that benefitted grades of the community-college experience is Project QUEST.  The Project QUEST program in San Antonio, Texas, demonstrates the link between community college and work experience. In this program, employers identify future job openings, and then local industries recruit workers to train for specific positions. Links between remedial education, weekly group meetings that support life skill development, and the work experience prepare adults for the work experience.11 With current trends to online instruction, partly caused by the global health emergency of Covid-19, online courses are gaining popularity; however, they are limited to the course work portion of the learning experience. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) have become a popular alternative for enrolling (Shah, 2019 in Arturo et al., 2020).12 MOOCs refer to unlimited participation via open access to instruction through the internet. They utilize traditional teaching methods, including lectures and notes such as problem sets. They may also include the interaction between both students and instructors. Both the levels and types of education that pertain to work rest on research in the U.S.. A relatively recent area of research has emerged regarding the relationship between adolescents’ perceptions of work and positive and negative outcomes of the work experience. The following section provides a snapshot of both positive and negative consequences of youth work and adolescent development.

 Forty-six percent of students are at least at 22 and are working part-time.  A program evaluation of the Project QUEST program found that “…participants earned significantly more than equivalent control group members who were not randomly selected into the program. By year nine, this gap was over $5000 per year in additional earnings for graduates of the program.” 12  A survey by the U.S.  Government Accountability Office cited by MIT’s the Future of Work report (2020) highlighted the importance of job training programs that help to match those seeking jobs to jobs in local communities (Autor et al., 2020). 10 11

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5.4  P  ositive and Negative Outcomes of Work for Youth in the U.S. 5.4.1  Positive Outcomes of Work for Adolescents A literature review on adolescents and work in the U.S.A. reveals its influence on youth’s identity development in three distinct ways. First, it develops a personal identity. Second, it contributes to a positive social identity. Third, it cultivates a vocational identity. The following section details each of these themes. Regarding personal identity, adolescents reported that work during their high school years helped them formulate future goals in two ways. They identified that which they wanted to accomplish and wanted to avoid (Mortimer et  al., 2002; Zimmer-Gembeck & Mortimer, 2004). Specifically, the work experience aided adolescents’ identity formation, their ability to set goals, and their ability to pursue goals later in life. Another aspect of personal identity is self-efficacy. The self-­ efficacy related to work differed for males and females. Boys’ self-efficacy rose when they felt that they advanced at work and when they did not think that work conflicted with responsibilities that were associated with school (Call et al., 1995). Finch (Finch et al., 1991) reported that girls reported higher self-efficacy when they earned higher hourly wages and charged with the opportunity to help others on the job. Work also contributes to adolescents’ social identity development. Broad or narrow socialization patterns helped adolescents identify and understand parameters in the workplace and how to interact appropriately in the adult setting. Related, later studies in this area distinguished between “open” and “closed” domains of identity exploration that directly related to the selection of activities at work (Meeus et al., 1997). Self-reflection and self-realization resulted in youth’s identity development as they engaged work responsibilities and set goals and objectives for their active participation in the work setting. Research that explored socialization practices and experiences in diverse contexts, such as in part-time jobs (see, for example, the works of Eccles & Barber, 1999; Grotevant & Cooper, 1998) revealed differences amongst participants in the ways that they interacted based on identity. The social identity of youth also stemmed from the family. Research indicates that adolescents who work also engage in family life in two ways. Shanahan et al. (1996) found that adolescent earnings added to the family coffers in rural and urban households. In addition to the family’s economic advantage, data from the Youth Development Study (YDS) revealed that adolescents sought more advice from parents when they perceive themselves in a good work setting (Shanahan et al., 1996). This autonomy translates into engagement in four ways: various communities (such as the home and the school); competence to succeed (in terms of skills); self-­ regulation (to know when to participate with both peers and adults); and autonomy in terms of decision-making skills (Eccles et al., 1997; Gray & Steinberg, 1999). Youth’s development of social capital through socialization is another positive outcome of employment linked to social identity. Young people build relationships

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that can contribute to networks enabling them to access information (Finch et al., 1991). Networks also provide social support through the process of knowledge accumulation in various work settings (Finch et al., 1991). These extra-familial relationships provide youth with role models and mentors. In turn, they encourage young people to develop identities that may relate to developing additional ideas for future occupations (Mortimer & Staff, 2004). Mael et al. (1997) examined the relationship between employment and social capital differently. The team found a positive correlation between task identity, task significance, work-related skill variety, and autonomy with youths’ G.P.A. and attendance in extracurricular activities. Third, work also helps adolescents to develop vocational identity. Scholars study vocational identity in a variety of ways. Grotevant and Cooper (1998), for example, studied links between “…environmental opportunity structures and vocational identity”. This general field includes socio-geographic and cultural-organizational factors as they relate to vocation. Jackson (1995) also studied the various levels of environmental influence on adolescents’ development and their career choices. Outcomes of this research suggest that environmental factors such as the availability of educational programs and limitations of opportunities in various fields contribute to adolescents’ development and subsequent career choices. Similarly, Blustein (1992, p. 175) noted that focus on “…activities [that are] directed toward enhancing knowledge of the self and the external environment” engage students, thus enabling them to be aware of career options and then make career choices. Those factors influence vocational motivations, goals, trajectories, and choices for youth. Research on cross-national or cross-cultural comparisons by Mortimer and Krueger (2000), for example, showed various and significant discrepancies in terms of vocational development amongst the youth.13 Vocational self-efficacy rather than vocational identity provided one focus of this research. The work experience seems to advance adolescents’ views of vocational self-efficacy. Brooks et al. (1995) found both working females and males exhibited higher vocational self-efficacy than youth of the same age who did not work (Mortimer et al., 1991). Also, they demonstrated a more remarkable ability to manage their lives (Finch et  al., 1991) and greater accomplishment in obtaining the desired position after high school (Stern & Nakata, 1991). Lack of control and inability to disagree with a supervisor decreased girls’ self-efficacy and increased their depression (Call et  al., 1995; Shanahan et al., 1991). In sum, the workplace can enhance healthy positive relationships. However, just as work benefits youth, it may also be a source of tensions (Flum, 2001). The following section reveals some of these.

 Single- and multiple-country studies offer great potential to understand youth’s vocational development across cultures. The case studies in this book address one facet of this discussion.

13

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5.4.2  Negative Outcomes of Work for Adolescents Research has revealed adverse outcomes of the adolescent’s work experience. Mental health concerns lead this area of study. High school-aged adolescents who exhibited stress at work also showed lower “…self-esteem, lower self-efficacy, and higher levels [of depression] during high school” (Mortimer & Staff, 2004, p. 1052).14 Another facet of mental health is cynicism. When youth believe that they cannot use skills that they think they have, or when work schedules conflict with school, adolescents exhibit higher cynicism levels than those without those same stresses (Stern et  al., 1990). Cynicism in terms of harmful socialization practices also resulted. Newman (1999) concluded that teens with negativity (caused by various forces) projected that negativity with peers at work more often than youth did not harbor negative feelings. The same occurs in the case of supervisors close in age to the adolescent workers. Although there are both positive and negative results of youth’s work experience, the results are not entirely consistent. One inconsistency relates to parental involvement. The research of both Greenberger and Steinberg (1986) and later Steinberg and Dornbusch (1991) found a negative correlation between working adolescents and time spent with and monitored by parents. However, in earlier studies, working adolescents also confided in parents more than non-working adolescents. The number of hours that adolescents work may not be as important as the type and levels of communication they have at work and the home relationship. In sum, youth work in various capacities and for a variety of reasons. The experience offers excellent positive potential for growth and development; the experience may also cause adverse outcomes. This research further supports the need for a purposeful study of and plans for adolescent vocational education structured on frameworks that include attention to the cognitive, psychological, and social elements of development that align with the experiences with other youth and adults in the work settings.

5.5  T  he Administration of Vocational Programs in the United States Types and advantages of the work experience occur with organized and administered programs. The State Board for Vocational Education assumes the responsibility for states’ vocational educational system’s maintenance of program standards and budgets related to federal and state funding operations. It. The State Director for Vocational Education reports to the Executive Officer of the State Board for Vocational Education. That person and his/her team assume the responsibility for 14

 Stress at work also negatively affects adolescents’ decision-making capability.

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administering vocational education programs in the states. The administrative offices in each of the respective states file annual state reports to the U.S. Office of Education. The reports include enrollment and dropout rates.

5.5.1  A  Compilation of Categories of Vocational Programs in the United States School districts in every state can offer several types of vocational educational programs.15 School-to-work programs describe the first category. In this category, cooperative educational programs function as a unit comprised of the school and employers. Students enrolled in this type of program receive part-time vocational instruction in the school and part-time on-the-job training while employed in a position. The schedule for school and work varies depending on the arrangement made by the school and industry. A second category, agricultural education, refers to a program of instruction for all students both in and out of school and students who have completed the school system and currently work in farming. The program aims to improve agricultural methods and rural living. Objectives include farming techniques, production and efficiency of farm commodities; soil conservation; business management; and rural leadership. The agri-business program provides a broader education in agricultural-related occupations. This type of program offers courses related to the management of "…service, processing, and distribution" activities of farm-related products. The third category, industrial education, or industrial arts education, refers to training in discipline-specific jobs that concern industry, including but not limited to the trades and technical fields. This category varies considerably depending on established partnerships with local industries. The fourth category, business education, refers to a program of instruction that consists of two parts. The first part includes education in office work, including computer technologies. The second part, general business education, refers to a program that provides management training. The health professions, the fifth category, offers several related programs. Practical nurse education refers to a program offering training in approved schools and leading to licensure as a practical or vocational nurse. The trainee is being prepared to (a) give direct nursing care to patients whose health situation is relatively stable, (b) assist qualified professional nurses in caring for patients whose health situation is more complex. The minimum requirements are set by the State Board for Vocational Education while it is accredited by the profession for meeting desirable standards and licensed by the state in order to protect society from malpractice and incompetent individuals.

Vocational rehabilitation refers to “…the service of preparing disabled persons for remunerative employment through diagnosis, guidance, physical restoration,

 Unlike nationalized educational systems in other countries, each state determines the types and number of vocational education programs.

15

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training, and placement.” The final category, and the only one that does not include field placement, is the home-related program category. Home economics education refers to a program of instruction in: “…child development; family relationships; food and nutrition; family economics; home management; and family health”. Other home-related programs include homemaking education, home practice, and family life education programs.16 Graduates of the first five categories assumed various positions. The following describes some of the occupations that qualified students filled. Distributive, agriculture and office occupations enable graduates to work in their desired field. Distributive occupations represent upper- and lower-level employees who work in marketing, merchandising, and services. Businesses, including retailing, wholesale, manufacturing, storage, and transport, hire graduates with this programmatic qualification. Agricultural occupations include a variety of positions in the natural sciences that are related to farming and forestry. The degree program also prepares students to serve in industries related to the plant, soil, and animal sciences, including farm irrigation and soil and water management technicians. Graduates also assume leadership positions. Farm management and agricultural leadership positions require management skills that are acquired through this program. As the farming industry serves one interested in the commercial sector, graduates also qualify for jobs in gardening, equipment and supplies fields, and ground-keeping in the private sector. Office occupations related to the distributive, agriculture, and office fields include data processing and supervising and coordinating office activities. Skills include, for example, typing, accounting (and related auditing), computing, and accounting. Also clustered in this field are personnel and training administration classes.

5.6  G  overnmental and Non-governmental Initiatives to Support Vocational Education in the U.S.A. Historical speaking, students enroll in vocational educational programs to prepare for entry-level jobs.17 Its purpose has shifted during the last 20 years. Whereas many schools throughout the United States still subscribe to a more traditional programmatic plan, vocational education in the U.S.A. refers to a more broadly defined approach to education that seeks to develop academic, vocational, and technical skills. The following section canvases governmental, non-governmental, and curricular initiatives in the U.S.A. concerning vocational and technical education.

16 17

 Schools phase out programs that lose enrollment.  Those jobs do not require a baccalaureate degree.

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5.6.1  Governmental Initiatives The Government’s contemporary term for vocational education, Career and Technical Education (C.T.E.) (also referred to as vocational and technical education or V.T.E.), refers to …organized educational activities that offer a sequence of courses to provide individuals with the academic and technical knowledge and skills for further education and for careers in current or emerging employment sectors (Sec. 3,29 of Perkins III).

It includes … competency-based applied learning that contributes to the academic knowledge, higher-­ order reasoning and problem-solving skills, work attitudes, general employability skills, technical skills, and occupation-specific skills, of an individual (Sec. 3, 29 of Perkins III).

In 2006, the Act coined and used the term Career and Technical Education (C.T.E.) to demonstrate the links amongst traditional academics, vocational content, and technical skills that aimed to offer a relevant education for the current and future job markets (Gordon, 2008). This Act signaled a shift from guidance for education that prepared students for a particular job or position to a more general education that prepared students for the world of work (Gordon, 2008). Specifically, the Act called for access to high-quality instruction and relevant curriculum. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) collects data regarding these governmental-supported programs in an ongoing manner. It makes available significant data sets from a variety of federal databases. It includes information on “… C.T.E. participation, outcomes, and providers at the sub-baccalaureate level” (https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ctes/ accessed on December 6, 2019). The NCES also provides data sets on students’ “work-related attitudes, influences, and expectations” (2012) and “students’ career preparation activities” (2012). In short, the large data sets offer statistics that provide multiple perspectives of current and historical trends within C.T.E. Non-governmental initiatives provide another view.

5.6.2  Non-governmental Initiatives The Corporate Voices for Working Families and the National Education Association (N.E.A.) support the governmental V.T.E. initiative in two different ways. Founded in 2001, Corporate Voices for Working Families is a national business organization that shapes conversations related to the relationship between academic rigor and skill levels for youth in schools (http://cvworkingfamilies.org/ accessed in December 2019). Its website states that as a non-profit, the organization attempts to “… advance innovative policy solutions that reflect a commonality of interests among the private sector both global and domestic, government, and other stakeholders.” The organization also serves as a forum to lead conversations related to employers’

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best practices for youth. Whereas the Corporate Voices for Working Families organization focuses on skills learned in the workplace, the National Educational Association (N.E.A.) takes a different but complementary approach to vocational education for youth. N.E.A.’s mission, as currently stated on the Partnership’s website, is …to serve as a catalyst to position 21st century readiness at the center of U.S. K-12 education by building collaborative partnerships among education, business, community, and government leaders (2011, para. 1).

The N.E.A. initiates, sponsors, and supports numerous activities that seek to realize its mission. Their mission focuses on two outcomes – school-industry partnerships and curricula. In terms of advocacy and networking to promote school-industry partnerships, the organization culls groups of representatives from industries to engage in discussion periodically. Corporate enterprises such as Apple, Dell, Microsoft, and Cisco Systems have represented the tech industry at some meetings. Ford has represented the auto industry in other conferences. Education-related organizations like the Association of School Librarians, the American Federation of Teachers, the Educational Testing Service, and the Pearson Education formed the group’s educational arm. Media groups, including Intel and Oracle Education and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, also attended various meetings. These meetings signify one of the most contemporary approaches to understanding the demands that youth will face upon entry into today’s workplace. Curricular design in vocational education offers another approach to the study of V.T.E.

5.6.3  Curricular Initiatives Historically, vocational education in the United States has traditionally consisted of courses aligned with the labor market demands. For example, general labor market preparation (GLMP) courses include basic keyboarding and the industrial arts (such as agriculture, business, or health care). Those interested in homemaking enrolled in family and consumer sciences education (FCSE) courses. The Organisation for Economic and Co-operation Development’s Partnership (OECD) for 21st Century Skills document currently informs and shapes U.S. vocational education policy on curricula. The OECD defines six “elements” necessary for a vocational education curriculum for today’s students. The elements emphasize both the need for knowledge and skills to help youth achieve in the twenty-first century. The document highlights the core subjects and skills as well as measures to assess outcomes. Related, state-specific “Frameworks for 21st Century Skills” (2009), supported by the Partnership, and echoing the N.E.A.’s conversations amongst various stakeholders, delineated key student outcomes in four general areas. These areas comprise “core subjects and 21st-century themes”; “learning and innovation skills”; “information, media, and technology skills,” “literacy”; and “life and career skills.” The N.E.A. also developed a subset of curricula for instruction in

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soft skills. In it, “learning and innovation skills” described as the 4 Cs (“creativity and innovation, collaboration, communication, and critical thinking and problem solving”) address this shortcoming of students’ education. Even with Acts and initiatives, there remains a persistent call for vocational and technical education relevant to today’s marketplace from both education and industry professionals. One of the most recent charges, this time led by the National Governors’ Association, responded to employers’ continual demands to better prepare youth in American schools. As a result, the National Governors’ Association and the Council of Chief School Officer approved the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) in 2010. The Common Core provides leadership in several areas. First, it gives a scope and sequence of conceptual and procedural knowledge and corresponding skills for students. For example, a Common Core standard for high school math “. . . call[s] on students to practice applying mathematical ways of thinking to real-world issues and challenges. They prepare students to think and reason mathematically”. Second, the Standards necessitate that district and school leaders create “…organizational structures that facilitate interactions among teachers and instructional coaches”. It calls for inner-school collaborations amongst teachers and interdisciplinary teams. It also offers the chance to align school academics with work experiences. Experiential, active learning such as internships and apprenticeships (Gessler, 2019) offers increased educational opportunities. In short, the Common Core provides yet another chance to (re)invigorate vocational ideals and realize them for today’s middle and high school youth and tomorrow’s workforce.

5.7  Significant Shifts in the Field? Even the most cursory glimpse at the history of V.T.E. reveals minimal changes to the field. For example, in the 1990s, documents revealed a shift in terminology from the use of the term “vocational education” (or specific preparation for work) to “C.T.E. (or preparation for broad careers) (Hernandez et  al., 1995). Again, and mostly the same, the goal was to create opportunities for students to meet the new skills demanded of them as they prepare for and enter the workforce in a global economy. Second, and related, the perception of V.T.E. results in its lackluster performance alongside other programs in secondary school settings. Despite its long-standing history, V.T.E. has remained plagued by reports that it offers an inferior education to youth (Fletcher & Zirkle, 2009)18 and has been considered an alternative for students with less interest in academics. Twentieth and twenty-first-century legislation in the U.S. has guided the shift in both the purpose and mission of C.T.E. However, the field still relies on traditional models that prepare youth for a job that requires both a high school diploma as the

18

 China experiences the same problem.

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terminal degree and general knowledge, skills, and dispositions for the workforce (Fletcher & Zirkle, 2009) that have failed to meet expectations. Unlike the standardized systems in European countries that have a long history of the field and use tools such as the apprenticeship, C.T.E. in the United States neither adheres to a shared definition of the area nor maintains realistic plans for implementation (Lasonen, 2010). It does not embrace a nationalized program that purposefully educates students for possible employment after graduation. Even with the Common Core Standards that offer a clear and comprehensive path to plan for and offer C.T.E., U.S. educational institutions have been slow to realize its links to workplaces that include adolescents. However, the situation may be changing. With the struggling economy and criticisms of the educational system to provide work-ready youth with knowledge, skills, and competencies to enter the workforce ready to work, some programs have bridged the gap between schools and work.

5.7.1  One Example As noted earlier, the philosophical work of both Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) lent the original set of ideas that ground V.E.T. practice in the U.S.A. today. Both scholars were proponents of the concept of “manual training.” They believed that manual training would contribute to social and individual improvements. They also thought that a vocational type of education could prepare students with the “…knowledge, skills, and dispositions” to enter the workforce at an entry-level position. Its purpose included a holistic approach to the educational experience that would allow students to join the workforce without entering the university system to earn a baccalaureate degree (Simons et al., 2012). Thus, the 100 + −year history (especially since the enactment of the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917) of vocational education focused on preparing for work (Gordon, 2008). Today, public and private middle and high schools and vocational programs in colleges and universities prepare students to become citizens in and for a global economy. Vocational programs in middle and high schools pair students with industry professionals in on-the-job experiences in vocational education-type programs. Graduation from this type of program can lead to employment in those same establishments. One example is the teacher-education program model. Teacher education candidates typically volunteer in public and private school classrooms during the undergraduate educational experience. They may observe for 10-20 hours/course/ semester while enrolled in the university’s teacher education program. Before graduating from the program with a teaching credential, the teacher education candidate will “student teach” for one semester. The student typically earns six Carnegie credits towards the academic program (whereas a typical course counts for three Carnegie credits). During that student teaching experience, the student reports to the school as a working employee as an unpaid intern. The student begins

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the semester-long student teaching experience by observing in the cooperating teacher’s classroom, and within weeks, transitions into team-teaching and then solo teaching responsibilities.19 Advantages in this type of educational experience exist. Krieg et al. (2015) found that student teaching location in Washington state remains strongly predictive of the first job location. The research team revealed that schools hired one out of six student teachers who interned back to the same school as a full-time employee after graduation. In addition to providing hands-on experience, the teacher education preparatory program qualified students for state-recognized certification.

5.8  Conclusion Over the history of the U.S., adolescents have worked for their families and their financial independence. American education philosophy reflects the importance of experiential learning and provides a sound base for the field. James Coleman’s important forum shifted the conversation to focus on how industry and education could work together to offer purposeful experiential learning for students. Industry and the ever-changing globalized workforce require employees with skills to fill positions. The education system’s public policies and practical approaches, such as the Common Core Standards, provide a frame for knowledge. However, although ongoing attention to both policy development and data collection remains, multiple problems regarding the availability of programs, access for all, and consistent levels of quality exist. To maximize the effectiveness of training programs, employers can take responsibility for several facets of the work. First, they must maintain a stake in the educational system (Autor et al., 2020). Second, they must engage with local educational leaders, informing them of current trends and requirements in the field to guarantee that schools and their related programs offer education and training in those areas. Third, after initial conversations, employers must continually communicate with local education leaders to support the agreed-upon programs and realize their successful operation. And finally, they must continue to offer forward-thinking ideas and trends to educational policymakers and practitioners to update educational policy, make revisions to existing programs, and create new ones.

 Study Abroad programs like that at St. John’s University in New York also provides students with this student teaching situation in which students earn credit by working with teachers and students in local schools in Rome, Italy.

19

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Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1998). Individuality and connectedness in adolescent development: Review and prospects for research on identity, relationships, and context. In E. Skoe & A. von der Lippe (Eds.), Personality development in adolescence (pp. 3–37). Routledge. Hareven, T. K. (1982). Family time and industrial time: The relationship between the family and work in a New England industrial community. Cambridge University Press. Hernandez, V.  M., Phelps, A., Jones, J., & Holub, T. (1995). Voices of diversity in emerging vocationalism: Student perspectives on school climate. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED383906). Jackson, S. (1995). Adolescent identity development and social context: Towards an integrative perspective. In A.  Oosterwegel & R.  A. Wicklund (Eds.), The self in European and North American culture: Development and processes (pp. 33–44). Kluwer. Kablaoui, B.  N., & Pautler, A.  J. (1991). The effects of part-time work experience on high school students. Journal of Career Development, 17(3), 195–211. https://doi. org/10.1177/089484539101700305 Kett, J. F. (1971). Adolescence and youth in nineteenth-century America. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 2, 283–298. Kett, J. F. (1978). Curing the disease of precocity. American Journal of Sociology, 84, S183–S211. Krieg, J., Theobald, R., & Goldhaber, D. (2015). A foot in the door: Exploring the role of student teaching assignments in teachers’ initial job placements. CEDR Working Paper. WP #2015-2. The Center for Education Data & Research, University of Washington Bothell, Seattle, WA. Lasonen, J. (2010). The status of vocational education and training. International Encyclopedia of Education, 429–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-­0-­08-­044894-­7.00792-­2 Mael, F. A., Morath, R. A., & McLellan, J. A. (1997). Dimensions of adolescent employment. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 351–368. Meeus, W., Dekovi, M., & Iedema, J. (1997). Unemployment and identity in adolescence: A social comparison perspective. The Career Developmental Quarterly, 45, 369–380. Mortimer, J. T., & Krüger, H. (2000). Pathways from school to work in Germany and the United States. In M.  Hallinan (Ed.), Handbook of sociology of education (pp.  475–497). Kluwer Academic/Plenum. Mortimer, J. T., & Staff, J. (2004). Early work as a source of developmental discontinuity during the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1047–1070. https://doi. org/10.1017/S0954579404040131 Mortimer, J. T., Dennehy, K., & Lee, C. (1991). Work experience and other influences on adolescents’ occupational values: Evidence from a prospective longitudinal study. Paper presented at the American Vocational Association convention, Los Angeles, CA: December. Mortimer, J. T., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Holmes, M., & Shanahan, M. J. (2002). The process of occupational decision-making: Patterns during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 439–465. Newman, K. (1999). No shame in my game: The working poor in the inner city. Russell Sage Foundation and Vintage Books. Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Popular Educational Classics. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-­1-­4539-­1735-­0/29 Perkins, C. D. (1984). Perkins vocational and technical education act. Perkins, C. D. (2006). Vocational and applied technology education act, 20 U. S. C. Rosenbaum, E.  J. (1976). Making inequality: The hidden curriculum of high school tracking. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED139857 Shah, D. (2019). Year of MOOC-based degrees: A review of MOOC stats and trends in 2018. http://www.classcentral.com/report/moocs-­stats-­and-­trends-­2018/. Accessed 5 Oct 2020. Shanahan, M. J., & Flaherty, B. P. (2001). Dynamic patterns of time use in adolescence. Child Development., 72, 385–401. [PubMed: 11333073] Shanahan, M. J., Finch, M. D., Mortimer, J. T., & Ryu, S. (1991). Adolescent work experience and depressive affect. Social Psychology Quarterly, 54, 299–317.

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Shanahan, M. J., Elder, G. H., Burchinal, M., & Conger, R. D. (1996). Adolescent paid labor and relationships with parents: Early work-family linkages. Child Development, 67(21), 8–22. Simons, L., Fehr, L., Blank, N., Connell, H., Georganas, D., Fernandez, D., & Peterson, V. (2012). Lessons learned from experiential learning: What do students learn from a practicum/internship? International Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education, 24(3), 325–334. Smelser, N. J. (1959). Social change and the industrial revolution. University of Chicago Press. Spanton, W. T. (1945). Farm youth and tomorrow’s agriculture. School Life, 15–16. Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Negative correlates of part-time employment during adolescence: Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 27, 304–313. Stern, D., & Nakata, Y. (1991). Characteristics of high school students’ paid jobs, and employment experience after graduation. In D.  Stern & D.  Eichorn (Eds.), Adolescence and work: Influences of social structure, labor markets, and culture (pp. 189–233). Erlbaum. Stern, D., Stone, J. R., Hopkins, C., & McMillion, M. (1990). Quality of students’ work experience and orientation toward work. Youth and Society, 22, 263–282. Toland, J., & Carrigan, D. (2011). Educational psychology and resilience: New concept, new opportunities. School Psychology International, 32(1), 95–106. Zelizer, V.  A. (1985). Pricing the priceless child: The changing social value of children. Basic Books. Zimmer-Gembeck, M.  J., & Mortimer, J.  T. (2004). Selection processes and vocational development: A multi-method approach. Advances in Life Course Research, 11. https://doi. org/10.1016/S1040-­2608(06)11005-­9

Part III

The Work Experience: Staff and Communications

Part III of the book builds on the fundamentals of the adolescent experience (Part I) and the cases of Italy, the PRC, and the USA (Part II) with the dedicated discussion of the work experience as a critical link for adolescents’ workforce education. This part of the book fills a void in the educational research that fails to explore how the actual work experience educates youth. Chapter 6 presents the original Education Work Model. It builds on the oft-used Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE) from the business sciences literature and the School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) from the educational literature, formatting necessary links between the two for students’ practicum, internship, and apprenticeship experiences. Chapter 7 extends the field and reveals how informal education contributes to adolescents’ learning experiences through networks, participation, and reflection of the model.

Chapter 6

Rethinking Adolescents’ Work Experiences as Education: The Education Work Model (EWM)

Abstract  The job site provides a rich environment for education on the job for adolescents. The chapter begins by offering a brief review of two traditional workplace learning approaches  – Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) and Work-Based Learning (WBL). It relates those types to the experiential learning for adolescents in apprenticeships, internships, and school-to-work partnerships. Based on the traditional and useful but insufficient plans for education for and on the job for youth, the chapter offers a new model, the Education Work Model (EWM), which provides a detailed framework for learning in work environments. Keywords  Adolescents · Work · Education · Types of workplace education · Apprenticeship · Internship · Work-integrated learning · Work-based learning · Vocational education and training · Career and technical education · Work placement · Project-based education

6.1  An Introduction: Adolescents and Work Who are the stakeholders in the work experience for youth? An employee refers to one’s active involvement in meaningful activities for pay or profit. On the other hand, employers refer to the individuals or institutions that invite an individual to work for pay. Both employees and employers comprise the labor force. The labor force refers to working-age persons who supply labor to produce goods and offer services during a specified period. The extent to which adolescents contribute to the labor force and the types of work they engage in it vary significantly around the world. In emerging nations where industrialization has yet to develop fully, and the percentage of poor is greater than percentages of the middle and wealthy classes, most adolescents enter full-time employment by age 13 or 14, and, in some cases, younger. In more industrialized nations, youth enter the job market with part-time work and full-time employment

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that may (or may not) be permanent around the age of 16 or 17.1 In both cases, youth enrolled in trade and higher education may participate in work experiences that offer chances to learn about the industry and company. The work environment provides a variety of experiences that advance understandings. Workplace learning requires consideration and inclusion of multiple, complex, and interdependent components related to acquiring knowledge, skills, and competencies that relate to job performance. If effective, workplace learning advances the adolescent’s education and contributes to the development of the company. The chapter begins by offering a brief review of two traditional workplace learning approaches  – Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) and Work-Based Learning (WBL). It relates those types to the experiential learning for adolescents in apprenticeships, internships, and school-to-work partnerships. Based on the traditional and useful but insufficient plan for education for and on the job for youth, the chapter offers a new model, the Education Work Model (EWM), which provides a detailed framework for the function of learning in work environments.

6.2  Traditional Approaches to Workplace Learning The learning process relies on the evolution of its philosophy, guiding principles, and innovations that address its recipient’s current and future needs. Learning in the workplace typically includes the use of two formal approaches. In the first traditional approach, employees report to a separate space, typically outside the workplace, for training (Sambrook, 2005). In the second conventional approach, industries offer training programs and development courses at the workplace whose material is necessary to meet the industry’s demands (Broderick & Blewitt, 2003, p. 134). These approaches typically include didactic interaction (see the works of Beckett & Hager, 2002; Hager, 2004). Didactic instruction, also called direct instruction, has been thoroughly researched and one of the least effective teaching and learning models for adults and adolescents (Ekeler, 1994). Simultaneously, the (business) literature reminds us that informal education and informal learning provide two critically important elements of the work setting. Yet, education scholars seldom investigate them as legitimate forms of knowledge acquisition. In short, formal education and workplace learning may not always lead to a symbiotic relationship between the individual’s cognitive, social, and emotional needs and performance indicators while on the job. To determine how to advance their value for the adolescent, two types of workplace education deserve attention. Informal learning offers individuals a chance to increase their understanding of

1  In the United States, Steinberg (2017) notes that American high school students typically work in an after-school job before graduating, for example.

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on-­the-­job information and skills with colleagues’ conscious and subconscious help (see Butler et  al., 2004) outside of the workplace’s formal educational setting through active engagement in the work setting. The following section discusses two learning experiences based on informal learning –Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) and Work-Based Learning (WBL).

6.3  W  ork-Education Learning Experiences: Work-­Integrated and Work-Based Learning Twenty-first-century industries recognize the challenge for secondary schools to offer an education that meets the continually changing sets of knowledge and skills required for success in the work setting. Given this, both educators and employers recognize the value of practical experience to provide both knowledge and skills for the workplace (Jacobs & Park, 2009). Work-education learning experiences refer to learning and work (Gardner & Bartkus, 2014). However, a review of the relevant literature suggests that names for the experience vary, but little consistency amongst those definitions and examples exists. For instance, McCurdy and Zegwaard (2009) use the term work-integrated learning. Burke et al. (2009) refer to the experience as work-based learning. Collier and McManus (2005) use the general name of vocational education and training. Lambeth et al. (2009) describe it as a career and technical education. Gibson and Busby (2009) call it work placement, and Danford (2006) refers to it as project-­ based. Numerous other examples exist. In short, scholars use a variety of synonyms to define the process of engagement whereby an individual acquires understandings about and at work. While each may differ regarding the scope of their classification and the emphasis on either the educational institution or the work environment as the primary space for the learning experience, all share the fundamental belief that the experiential process contributes to acquiring knowledge, skills, and competencies. John Dewey’s early works (1916, 1938) significantly influenced the field of experiential education. The Association for Experiential Education (https://www.aee.org/who-­ we-­are accessed on July 22, 2019) echoes Dewey’s ideas. It defines experiential learning in terms of methods that are used to engage individuals in active experiences. This type of participation and reflection “…increase[s] knowledge, develop[s] skills, clarify values, and develop[s] people’s capacity to contribute to their communities” (https://www.aee.org/who-­we-­are accessed on July 22, 2019). In the work experience, Eyler (2009) recognizes that the traditional nature of education and instruction treats students as passive learners and echoes the conventional types of workplace learning. Experiential education helps the learner bridge the gap between the traditional role as a passive learner in the instructor-centered corporate or secondary school classroom and the new role as an active learner in the employee-oriented organization (Eyler, 2009). In this case, individuals shift

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experiences and acquire knowledge from active engagement rather than from passive participation. Education must provide opportunities to develop knowledge and skills for the workplace. Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) and Work-Based Learning (WBL) offer two complementary examples of the experiential process. WIL refers to the literal and figurative links between educational programs that prepare youth for the workplace. WBL, on the other hand, refers to the process of knowledge and skill acquisition on the job. Scholars have used various labels and definitions to describe the two concepts as differentiated here (see Atkinson et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2004; Johnson, 2000; Rossin & Hyland, 2003). The following section parses out these terms as they apply to the adolescent’s case as community members preparing for the work environment and strives to excel in it.

6.3.1  Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) refers to the collective educational and industry-­ sponsored experience that links academic course work with an industrial field experience. This book relates to academic and professional skills acquired in the formal or non-formal vocational educational setting for future use in the work setting. In other words, the learning that occurs in secondary schools and vocational colleges and universities includes elements that directly relate to the work environment. Against a backdrop of broad political changes, many governments have advanced educational reform to prepare for longer-term growth that links higher education and industries. In the early part of the decade, individuals sought an advantage by enrolling in higher education courses (Kariwo et al., 2014; Yob, 2014). For example, in the early twentieth century, European countries led by the United Kingdom established a vocational higher education system that specifically responded to societal demands to design, develop, and deliver adult and higher education programs based on the immediate needs of current workforce development (Tynjälä, 2008). Since that time, Wall & Jarvis (2015), amongst others, has called for action by practitioners and policymakers to respond to contemporary demands. Charges include both ways to promote responsibility and sustainability in workplace programs and the development of emancipatory approaches to reflection in WIL (Wall & Jarvis, 2015, p. 311). Similarly, Bravenboer and Lester (2016, p. 409) have acknowledged this charge and particularized it to both the higher educational and industrial educational organizations. They note that …universities and professional bodies both have a role in recognizing the knowledge, understanding and skills of individuals…This increasing concern with professional proficiency and accountably coincided with countries’ initiatives…

In different ways, China and the United States have developed and offer higher education opportunities for WIL.  In short, WIL generally refers to “…multiple

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programs and systems for providing students in educational institutions with work-­ based applied learning opportunity” (Lee, 2007, p. 38). If effectively implemented, its teaching methods and practices can link course work to employment for current students and future employees.

6.3.2  Work-Based Learning (WBL) Whereas educational institutions provide WIL direction, Work-Based Learning (WBL) refers to acquiring knowledge, skills, and competencies gained on the job. Like Work-Integrated Learning, definitions and corresponding examples of work-­ based learning vary considerably. Clarke and Copeland (2003), Williams (2010), and earlier, Raelin (1997) describe it as learning from work. Clarke and Copeland (2003) and Gallagher (2004) link it to acquiring professional knowledge. They argued that work-based learning occurs during the action of a collective activity of invested workplace stakeholders. Little and Brennan (1996) and Dewar and Walker (1999) echo that work. They suggest that WBL refers to experiential learning on the job. WBL provides a suitable chance for individuals to enhance employability and industries to increase competitive edge by staffing a knowledgeable and trained workforce. Three types of education experience exemplify WBL: the apprenticeship, the internship, and the school-to-work partnership.

6.4  T  ypes of Workplace Education That Combine the Formal/Non-formal and Informal 6.4.1  The Apprenticeship The function of apprenticeships has merged with new charges, especially in higher education institutions in recent years. The development of the Apprenticeship Degree in England, for example, marks a shift in higher education that holds promise (Gribble et al., 2015) for WBL as a model for many higher education models that require a fixed work experience. In England, Degree Apprenticeships bridge the academic and vocational divide and reframe the meaning of occupational and professional competence in and through the workplace (Lester & Costley, 2010; Rowe et al., 2016). Degree Apprenticeships, strongly endorsed by British industries since 2015, have and continue to develop in the fields of nursing, social work, teaching, engineering, and digital technology positions. In England, the Government manages a skills system that engages higher education personnel in designing and creating programs that deliver course work that seeks to prepare a professionally competent and highly skilled workforce (Bravenboer & Lester, 2016)

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apprenticeships. Although the curricula may be designed and implemented by faculty, the work experience portion of the initiative places students in the work setting. It expects performance results that align with the workplace.2 Although a leader in this field, England is not the only country with a keen interest in the development of WBL. The political reform of apprenticeships is attracting renewed interest across the globe. The review by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) of 450 educational policy reforms (2008 and 2014) found that 29% specifically targeted vocational education and training (OECD, 2015). The policies offer structures within which programs can be designed, planned, and implemented. For example, Bravenboer and Lester (2016, p. 58) claim “…the emergence of higher and degree apprenticeships offers professions a framework within which to develop the partnerships and structures needed to facilitate work-based entry routes.” The PRC’s higher educational system has also devoted considerable planning and funding to this effort in terms of vocational universities. China’s vocational universities (VUs) are higher education institutions that provide both tertiary and sometimes quaternary education. Also referred to as a university of applied sciences, a technological educational institute, a polytechnic university, or a college of higher vocational studies, the institutions maintain the authority to grant degrees in undergraduate and graduate education.3 Although educational professionals have designed the programs like England’s case, the focus is learning in the work setting. Whether used as a work experience option in the higher education system or the secondary education system, apprenticeship remains a popular type of WBL (Tynjälä, 2008). It has maintained a long history throughout the world and provides one of the most common models for work experience initiated by educational institutions and the trades (Simons et  al., 2012). It offers individuals the chance to acquire job skills by adapting to a workplace that includes communication with colleagues and levels of knowledge and performance skills. The three countries that are the focus of this work integrate the apprenticeship experience in their educational offerings. China, Italy, the USA offer various apprenticeship opportunities for youth. China’s National Medium and Long-Term Talent Development Plan 2010–2020 provides a highly structured plan for its VET system’s apprenticeships. Its heavily tiered, highly regulated system offers a highly specialized academic content and technical skill curricula that relate to the work experience. Its on-the-job placements in apprenticeships vary greatly depending on 2  Although professional development is one outcome of the Degree Apprenticeship programs, research also indicates increased opportunities for employment for under-represented groups of individuals who have completed Degree Apprenticeships into technical, professional, and managerial occupations. 3  China provides the largest vocational education system in the world. In 2018, China had a total of about 11,700 vocational schools in the country (PRC, MOE, 2020). The case of the U.S. is not as advanced, although the American Association of Colleges and Universities (2007) offered a set of twenty-first-century skills which include “…intellectual and practical skills, personal and social responsibility and interdisciplinary learning” that could be acquired through on-the-job education (AACU, 2007; Dede, 2010).

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the region. After completing vocational education, graduates from secondary and tertiary education and on-the-job training programs earn credentials. China’s system compares to the Italian formula in concept and practice. A long and established vocational education system that links national policy with the EU offers a well-established structure in Italy. Italy’s nationalized educational system differentiates both academic and vocational tracks for adolescents’ education. Although one can argue that its development varied according to region, its design and the policies that support it serve as a model for organizational structure. With course work, the field’s complexity links to industries, and checks and balances for both throughout the country remain a challenge for Italy yet provides more regulated structures than the USA’s case. As the section on apprenticeships and contracts in its case study chapter revealed, Italy maintains a highly developed and somewhat regulated system for apprenticeship experiences. The USA’s highly unstandardized system varies considerably from the governmentally designed, regulated, and monitored systems in Italy and China. Youth in the United States can participate in vocational training in schools and apprenticeships through industries. Still, given the educational system’s independent nature that State Boards of Education primarily run, state-specific programs and opportunities vary enormously. The apprenticeship in the U.S. refers more often to the entry into a trade and its union (e.g., the American Postal Workers Union; Sheet Metal Workers International Association; and the Transport Workers Union of America) than the secondary school experience apprenticeship model like those of Italy and China. In short, the apprenticeship offers an opportunity for both educational agencies and employers to work collaboratively for the benefit of young people. National governments provide structure and support. The Ministry offices in China manage its system. Italy benefits from both regional EU and national levels of support. Considerably different is the United States case wherein each state structures the practice of the apprenticeship for youth. Yet, the apprenticeship is not the only type of work-related learning experience.

6.4.2  The Internship The internship offers a variation on the apprenticeship model. Like the apprenticeship case, a collaborative agreement amongst all stakeholders, including the educational institution and the enterprise, company, or firm, for example, outlines the terms of the internship and the contract for those directly involved (Littke, 2004, p. 67). Unlike apprenticeships, the internship provides worked-based educational experiences that help students relate to their specific professional goals but may not include particular skill development, such as carpentry, electrical, and plumbing. A placement agreement signed by representatives from both the provider and the school, and, in some cases, the student participant, outlines both parties’ general expectations and responsibilities. In the best-case scenario, the manager or

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designated employee responsible for the adolescent establishes initial communication with the student and provides a continual oversight of conditions and assignments; both parties seek to achieve objectives developed from and conform to required industry standards. Additionally, employers typically request a supervisor from the educational institution to the student intern before work (Orchowski, 2005). A rich collection of literature documents the advantages of the internship. Gilroy (2014) found that students seeking ways to gain employment with more than their degree sought out and completed internships as another avenue for entering an increasingly competitive job market. Similarly, Simons et al. (2012) indicated that experiential learning in the workplace setting provides an advantage in the job market to secure permanent, full-time employment (Orchowski, 2005). The internship experience advantages students in the competition for jobs because they enter the workforce with some industry awareness (Gilroy, 2014). For example, Aldas et al. (2010) cite the National Survey of Student Engagement that shows an internship experience employs hands-on experience to acquire both knowledge and skills. Like the apprenticeship, the internship program remains a significant element of the WBL field; it offers an essential link between academic studies and practical experiences, albeit in a different way. Whereas the apprenticeship caters to the student with a particular interest in and a set academic concentration for work, the internship provides a more exploratory experience. The internship enables students to “professionally dabble” in the field to gauge interest in that industry. The internship option remains a possibility for students whose schools incorporate vocational education programs for skilled and semi-skilled trades. Still, this type of program remains smaller and lesser developed in the United States than in Asia and Europe. Alfeld et al. (2013, p. 3) found that the United States students ranked lowest compared to 12 other nations’ students in time engaged in work in both internships and apprenticeship.4 On the other hand, internships, especially throughout Europe, provided chances for youth to enter various workplaces and observe which industries have to offer and how they operate (Alfeld et al., 2013).5

6.4.3  The School-to-Work Partnership The school-to-work partnership offers a work-integrated and work-based experience to link the middle and high school (in the American context) or secondary school and vocational college and university experience (in the Italian and Chinese contexts) workplace. School-to-work partnerships include part-time work programs. In their simplest form, these types of partnerships provide an agreement between an educational institution such as a school or non-formal educational  The study controlled for availability.  The same holds for funding internships. Both Asian and European ministries of education financially support internships (Hoffman, 2011). The case is not the same for the United States. State and federal funding support its growth and development. 4 5

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program and an employer. They offer a plan whereby the student in an academic program works under an employer’s supervision. Typically, these programs have the fewest structured goals and objectives, including knowledge and skill development. They may but need not include a training program for youth in the work setting. When the school-to-work partnership includes a long-term vision for the student, the program also consists of a transition between graduation from the educational setting and entry into the workplace. The transition from full-time student to full-­ time employee can provide the core of the school-to-work partnership. Designated adults from both the academic program (that is, the school) and employment (that is, the company) supervise and evaluate students’ school-to-work experience.6 In short, both work-integrated and work-based learning experiences, including apprenticeships, internships, and school-to-work partnership educational programs, offer opportunities for the adolescent to learn. However, two problems exist. First, learning is assumed. The lack of a systematic and purposeful study of how learning occurs fails both the field and those it serves. Second, qualitative differences exist between experiences in each location within each country. The extent of coordination of available and knowledgeable personnel from both the educational and supporting industries varies widely. Without specific attention to how personnel’s coordinated effort occurs, we fail to understand the learning process. This work delves into the importance of informal learning toward an informal education.

6.5  Informal Learning from Relationships on the Job Partnerships present challenges to employees. For example, all generations can and do learn from each other in the work setting, yet generational differences can create possible workplace problems (Ahmad & Tarmudi, 2012). Kapoor and Solomon (2011), referring to Haeberle’s (2009) work, noted that differences in communication, technology expertise, and work experience create disagreements between and disputes with employees. Relationships with adult and peer colleagues offer the chance to learn through informal channels. This learning contributes to accomplishing both the individual’s goals in and for the workplace and the organization’s goals as a company (Cross, 2011; Hoffman, 2005; Kim & McLean, 2014; Merriam et al., 2007). In other words, interactions and feedback improve individual performance (Gielen et  al., 2010). The positive benefits of workplace learning, grounded in a positive and supportive 6  Twenty-one years ago, the 1999 School-to-Work Opportunities Act in the United States called for partnerships between schools and employers. At that time, 25% of surveyed companies reported participation in a school-to-work program. Of those, 42% reported the use of one formal learning activity on the job with student participants. Without the same survey today, we cannot assume an improved picture; however, expanded experiences in the U.S. may provide an increase in participation amongst both school student bodies and industries in that country.

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work environment, serves all individuals and the organization (Billett, 2004; Collin, 2002; Järvinen & Poikela, 2001; Sambrook, 2005; Svensson et al., 2004). Informal learning opportunities provide employees with chances to acquire both hard and soft skills. Hard skills, that is, knowledge of the field can be developed with individuals’ interactions with others in the workplace. Hard skills include math and oral and written language skills related to the job’s technical aspects, which may consist of new vocabulary, the use of machines and equipment, and computers and software.7 Soft skills, on the other hand, include personal skills. Lippman’s team (2015) identified four soft skills that prove essential for this work in the adolescent worker’s case: “social skills; higher-order thinking skills; self-control; and self-concept.”8 Social skills include a demonstration of respect for others and socially appropriate behaviors. Higher-order thinking skills require analytic and evaluative skills. Self-control requires an individual to “…delay gratification, control impulses, pay attention, manage emotions, and regulate behaviors” (p.  11). Finally, self-concept refers to self-confidence, self-efficacy, self-awareness, self-­ esteem, and a sense of well-being and pride. Both hard and soft skills enhance individual performance at work and collaborative partnerships with others (Svensson et al., 2004).9 The environment enables the social support needed to attempt tasks and learn from others while doing so. Both proficiency in hard skills required for the job and soft skills facilitating relationships at work yield a positive work setting where colleagues help and collaborate. Simultaneously, the positive work environment amongst employees creates a trusting and supportive space where individuals can ask for guidance and direction in a safe space and gain confidence on the job (Kahn, 1990; Tannenbaum, 2002). Joo and Ready (2012, p. 289) found that the development of employee skill and expertise gained from informal learning experiences better enable individuals to confront challenges in the work setting and, at the same time, increase the probability for future employment that requires knowledge and skills gained from the experience. In short, “[a]utonomy-supportive practices allow adolescents [in the intern, apprentice, or employee capacity]…to take initiative and generate their own solutions to problems” (Ryan et al., 2017, p. 166). This process does not occur automatically. The adolescent learns through the social support characterized by positive relationships between colleagues that require relying on colleagues, acquiring information from them, and understanding a situation (Houkes et al., 2003, pp. 427–450).

7  Oral language includes the use of both receptive and expressive language skills. Receptive language refers to the comprehension of what is said or written (Frazier, 2011). Expressive language, on the other hand, refers to the ways that the adolescent expresses himself/herself using spoken and written language (Frazier, 2011). 8  The report also notes the importance of “…decision-making skills, including the ability to identify problems and suggest solutions” and communication skills (2015, p. 5). Included communication skills in the hard skill category because of the outputs that are required to demonstrate mastery. 9  Lower-than-expected reading levels caused by learning disabilities and/or English language learning (ELL) of immigrants should also be considered. This topic extends beyond the parameters of this manuscript but should be studied.

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This work presents a new model for adolescents’ workforce education that draws on all chapters to advance the field.

6.6  T  he Education Work Model (EWM): The Concept of Community for and in the Work Environment The Education Work Model (EWM) offers a frame for adolescents’ guidance in the workplace utilizing a partnership between individuals and professionals. The concept of ‘community’ provides a new perspective on the relationships between adolescents and adults at work. In EWM, community refers to both the internal hierarchical order of employee positions that structure the work setting and the individual roles in those positions. It echoes from previous work (see, for example, Back & Pratt, 2007; Pratt & Kelly, 2007) that focuses on understanding a particular situation. It adds to that body of literature by recognizing how adult groups’ actions and interactions, in multiple situations and locations in a work setting, create spaces for learning. Simultaneously, the model also identifies the adolescent’s cognitive, social, and psychological states that differ considerably from the adult’s mature development. From this perspective, the model focuses on the relationships between employees’ hierarchical structure in the workplace and the young worker who is developing skills. How, exactly? According to Vygotsky, the Zone of Proximal Development space enables the “expert” to guide the adolescent through the learning process. The roles of the adults within the establishment (e.g., manager, supervisor, colleague, etc.) influence learning through purposefully defined, regularly executed, and continually assessed communication amongst the student, the educational program, and the workplace. The following explains each of the parts of the model (Fig. 6.1) on the following page.

6.6.1  Organizational Support The organization possesses the ability to formulate a collective culture that enables each level of the system to work with the others. The collaborative culture includes regular and effective communication between and amongst employees. Organizational support refers to the administrative teams’ level of advocacy for workplace learning activities within and between groups. Asking for advice, listening to ideas, observing actions, discussing new ideas and reviewing old ones, consulting with colleagues, and sharing ideas create an environment in which the collaborative process benefits the individual and the organization and its goals and objectives (Collin, 2002). The second component of the model is the educator. The educator serves as the liaison between the company, the professionals in it, and the adolescent working there. The education professional provides a variety of

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workplace managerial support

workplace supervisor support

educational representative who communicates with each of the industrial professionals

coworker ort support

the adolescent worker

workplace trainer suppo support workplace coach support coworker support

coworker support

coworker support

peer peer

coworker support

peers-in-theworkplace support peer

Fig. 6.1  The Education Work Model (EWM)

support.10 In short, creating a collaborative culture enhances the chance for informal learning between and amongst individuals in the workplace (Eraut, 2007; Tynjälä, 2008).

6.6.2  Managerial Support As Bratton and Gold (2012, p. 302) suggest, the manager-employee link remains a tradition; its function provides a critically important component in the success of education in the workplace. As leaders in the organization, managers interact and ultimately influence employees. Their competency as an effective leader contributes 10

 Each of these roles and responsibilities is discussed in the remainder of the book.

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to a positive work environment. The favorable climate consequently motivates employees to become involved in and remain engaged in the organization’s work (see the works of Van der Sluis, 2004; Vera & Crossan, 2004; Alonderiene, 2010 for more on this point). Managers maintain influence to maximize employees’ strengths and assign work in a balanced and equitable way (Sambrook, 2005, p. 115). In this model, managers purposefully select colleagues who will work with the student worker or recent graduate, thus providing the best chance of success at work (Hawkins & Shohet, 1989). For example, the manager’s educative role requires identifying employees’ strengths and weaknesses to maximize the adolescent’s learning potential in the workplace setting, keeping in mind the diverse cognitive, social, and psychological levels of development.11 The manager’s selection of personnel to fill this role helps to ensure success. After selecting employees, manager support promotes the youth’s learning (Eddy et al., 2005, pp. 392–393). For example, during paired or group work between or amongst colleagues, managers’ monitoring requires a regular assessment (a check for understanding). It may also include an evaluation (that is, a quantitative ranking of achievement or success on a particular task). Through both facilitating and monitoring, the manager continually shapes (and reshapes) the work environment, thus seeking to accomplish institutional goals of the organization and personal goals for the young employee, apprentice, or intern. Shaping in this regard refers to the purposeful action of structuring the work setting to maximize all employees’ potential.12 In the adolescent worker case, managers may opt to pair and group younger employees with adult employees. In this case, the manager purposefully oversees the setting. In short, as Bratton and Gold (2012, p. 302) importantly noted, the manager/adolescent employee relationship dictates the learning climate of an organization.13 The business literature demonstrates the importance of the managerial role in organizations that offer work-based learning experiences. Over 30 years ago, the 1981 Manpower Services Commission’s New Training Initiative identified two inter-related components of work-based learning experiences that the manager guides. First, purposeful planning of both personal and physical space encourages (or discourages) individuals to participate in the learning process (Alonderiene, 2010). The spaces motivate and connect employees, heighten motivation, and result in enrolling in on-job training courses and off-job training sessions, enrichment courses of existing knowledge bases, and entry-level courses for new job-related material (Levy et  al., 1989, p.  4). Second, managers monitor progress and, thus, challenge employees to learn more. Effective communication between management  This step may include the need for information sessions that provide understandings about adolescent development for adult employees. 12  Whereas adults may seek out an individual or group to help to facilitate the requirements of a position, the adolescent is unlikely to pursue those same channels due to lower levels of cognitive, psychological, and social development. 13  In this case, the “employee” can also be the student intern, apprentice, or young employee. 11

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and employees builds positive relationships amongst members of the organization (Eraut, 2011; Fuller & Unwin, 2011), thus providing safe spaces to engage in meaningful educational activities (whether formal or informal) that can add to the knowledge and skill set of the worker. The instructor/administrator (the black arrow in the EWM) provides support as needed. The manager is not the sole motivator in a work setting, however.

6.6.3  Supervisor Support Whereas the manager may (but more likely may not) have direct contact with individuals, the supervisor does. In this second layer of the model, scholars suggest that supervisors’ most significant role is to guarantee employees’ support (Nonaka et al., 2000, p. 28). Supervisors support employees’ academic, psychological, and social dimensions needs (Clarke, 2004; Russ-Eft, 2002). Cohen and Ball (1990) found that supportive supervisors offered a more functional approach for individuals’ learning than those with less supportive supervisors. The link between the educational representative and the work supervisor helps the adolescent to thrive in the work setting. In this case, the educational institution’s instructor/administrator offers instruction and guidance on adolescent development. At the next level of the model, the trainer and coach offer support differently.

6.6.4  Trainer Support Trainers in an organization’s professional setting offer support and guidance for both the individuals’ personal and organizational goals in specific ways. Trainers typically teach and use a prescribed curriculum developed by the company and administered according to a fixed calendar schedule to teach a particular skill. Although typically considered mandatory for all employees, the adolescent employee is not usually required to attend. For example, scheduling conflicts may prohibit adolescents from attending a session due to a class at school. In this case, the instructor/administrator may communicate the information from the session to the (group of) student(s). Therefore, understandings related to adolescent development are essential for the employee in the instructional/trainer role. Why? As part I of the book explained, the adolescent brain maintains different characteristics than the adult brain. Those differences in information processing, such as the amount of information that can be communicated in any one session, how the information is transmitted and retained, recognizing errors, and the speed of dignifying errors, are different for adolescents than adults. Hence, the trainer position

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requires familiarity with adolescent development if the company strives to create an effective learning environment for the young employee.14 The instructor/administrator from the educational institution can provide support for the trainer (that is, in this case, an adult educator). For example, discussion of curricula and teaching methods provides an opportunity for shared conversation. Suppose a co-teaching opportunity presents itself or is requested by either/both parties. In that case, employees may benefit, especially given each instructor/administrator’s diverse backgrounds and knowledge of each instructor/administrator from the educational setting and the industry trainer.15

6.6.5  Mentor and Coach Support Whereas trainers teach, mentors and coaches provide a less formal source of support for the adolescent worker. A mentor offers a time-intensive relationship between junior (the adolescent/youth) and senior (adult) members of the work environment (Chao, 1997). The mentor’s observation and resultant guidance, support, and advice increase learning opportunities for youth who are the recipients of the mentor experience (Ensher & Murphy, 2011; Welsh & Wanberg, 2009). On the other hand, a coach offers opportunities for the young employee to learn, develop, and use skills in and for the workplace (Bowerman & Collins, 1999). Both mentors and coaches enable the young employee to identify strengths and weaknesses. The young workers include that information in goal and objective statements/plans. Today’s workplaces offer different types of mentorship programs. Traditional mentorship involves the partnership between one more and one less experienced employee. In this case, the more experienced employee may share information with the new employee; the less experienced employee may learn both hard and soft workplace skills through the experience. Also, a more contemporary arrangement for the partnership involves pairing employees with different areas of expertise. For example, Schullery (2013) noted that one experienced employee teams to share knowledge of the company and strategies to succeed in some corporations. The reciprocal relationship offers two benefits. First, teaming senior and junior employees educates each employee based on the strengths of the other. For example, the senior employee may be more versed in politics as they apply to accomplish organizational goals; the younger employee may be more versed in the company’s

 The same applies to the case of emotional development. Killgore and Yurgulen-Todd (2006) conducted a study that demonstrates this difference. The researchers asked the study’s participants to respond with an interpretation of a picture of a frightened face. All adults said fear. Fifty percent of the students responded with responses such as confusion, sadness, or shock. This finding implies the possibility and probability of the adolescent’s inability to gauge emotional cues in the social setting in the work environment. 15  It should be noted that diversity also creates challenges in differing opinions, knowledge, and presentation. This topic goes beyond the scope of this work. 14

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software. Second, the working relationship may “…reduce stereotypes and build relationships” between members of the organization (Wolfson et al., 2014). A long-­ term commitment to a partnership offers both time and space to interact, develop trust, and strengthen relationships (Wolfson et al., 2014). Several everyday experiences define the partnership. First, the individuals meet regularly to discuss topics deemed necessary by either the organization or the employees involved in the mentor/mentee relationship. Second, they define goals and objectives. Third, both parties, especially in the mentorship that involves two employees with different skill sets, offer guidance and support. In short, the mentorship need not be limited to a generational difference between employees nor a oneway learning experience. Although that traditional model remains a successful workplace education strategy, contemporary strategies such as the one presented here also utilize the skilled pair to teach each other. The case of coaching is slightly different. In this case, the coach assumes expertise in a particular knowledge base and skill. The junior employee (youth) pairs with the coach to obtain the information that the coach transmits. For example, instruction in the use of a tool at work requires specific instruction. Once mastered, the coach’s role ceases. The mentor and the coach’s role includes working with a company’s human resource (HR) team manager or superior to determine suitable matches. It also may involve assistance to monitor the accomplishment of the goals and objectives, which may be directly tied to academic course credit and credentials. Like earlier cases, the mentors and coaches rarely, if ever, develop expertise in youth development. Hence, the instructor/administrator from the educational institution helps employees in the company link existing curricula and teaching strategies with the relatively unknown understanding of adolescent youth for the adult audience in work setting to accomplish the pre-determined goals and objectives of both parties.

6.6.6  Co-worker and Peer Support Berg and Chyung (2008) contend that employees may still seek knowledge and skills in organizations without a mentorship program that provides a formal structure for informal learning. Professional relationships with colleagues, in particular, play a critical role in workplace learning (Ashton et al., 2004) in three ways. First, “individuals in the workplace usually learn from their work, and from the people with whom they work” (Strimel et  al., 2014, p.  49). The spontaneous process of asking questions and receiving answers enables colleagues to resolve queries immediately (Lohman, 2005; Eraut, 2011). In this way, informal learning materializes within the small ‘community’ of the interpersonal relationship (Rowold & Kauffeld, 2008). Second, interactions between trusted co-workers can help identify a performance problem and resolve it by offering support (Strimel et al., 2014). For example, colleagues help colleagues with goal setting and feedback on progress (Hawley & Barnard, 2005). This action assists the colleague to create specific, achievable

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goals. Also, the effort to face a challenge requires confidence to overcome the challenge. Eraut (2007) found that meeting and dealing with challenges depends on colleagues’ support (Eraut, 2007, p. 417). In yet another example, the path to navigate the complicated (and sometimes convoluted) situations in the workplace rely on colleagues helping colleagues (Parker et  al., 2008, p.  489). Tikkanen (2002, p. 93) asserts, “…collegial support is a key organizational-level factor to stimulate individual learning by knowing that the collegial environment includes help when needed.” In sum, positive interactions between and amongst employees at work offer tremendous value to the organization. Colleagues who act as facilitators for co-workers’ relations shape learning activities to benefit other colleagues’ specific needs (Broad, 2006; Rowold & Kauffeld, 2008; Eddy et  al., 2005). In all these cases, the individual relies on communication skills to seek help, ask questions, understand responses, and implement suggestions. The company seldom recognizes peers as a colleague, yet remain a valuable source of information and support in the work setting. Although the educational literature recognizes the importance of friendships and peers amongst adolescents, this concept seldom links to the business literature. The EWM model includes peer support in two ways. First, trained and paid “near-age” peer mentors matched by the instructor/administrator complete interactive coursework and practicum experiences.16 Second, after training, peer mentors matched with other youth based on interests and expertise provide an ideal team in the work setting because of the same benefits seen in friends and cliques. Health professions implement the idea. For example, peers with similar diagnoses and histories of mental health treatment have helped youth in similar situations (Swallow et al., 2001; Williams, 2010). Thus, if applied in the work setting, peers could offer potentially useful and valuable support. Friendships amongst individuals of similar age at work are not the only ways that peers promote learning in the workplace within this educational model. Peer mentors provide knowledge and encouragement in the work setting. They help the young worker develop soft skills needed in the workplace because of their trusting relationship.

6.7  Conclusion Managers, supervisors, trainers, mentors, and coaches informed of strategies empower individuals to take action (Kyndt et al., 2009; Williams, et al., 2006). For example, feedback helps the adolescent worker (Ellström, 2001) to believe in selfacts and motivates one to do more. Cognitive feedback provides the employee with information (Balzer & Sulsky, 1992), which leads to knowledge development.  A variety of peer mentoring programs have been used in a variety of settings, including but not limited to education. The principles that are used in those programs could be applied to the work setting. A minimum score on both academic and clinical evaluations qualifies youth to work in this capacity.

16

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Motivational feedback pertains to supporting employees’ efforts to improve performance (Battaglia, 2020). Employees typically welcome positive cognitive and motivational feedback. However, feedback need not always be positive. The workplace can produce potential sources of conflict, frustration, and failure (see, e.g., Flum, 2001). For example, in the adolescent worker’s case, interactions between generations of individuals create challenges for the adolescent worker and those supervising. The generation gap creates differences in opinion and function (for example, technology) between the two groups (Ahmad & Tarmudi, 2012). In this case, negative feedback that recognizes the challenging situation can encourage new goals and strategies for accomplishment (Frese & Altmann, 1989).17 Employers and educational institutions recognize these dimensions of human engagement and can engage youth in purposeful and meaningful learning opportunities on the job. Discussions amongst the stakeholders result in regulatory frameworks that provide the plan for and conditions of the apprenticeship, internship, or school-to-work partnership – the roles and responsibilities offer a coherent plan for the experience. Industries typically utilize one of two models to structure the work experience for employees attempting to meet institutional and personal goals. A “competence model” outlines benchmarks previously established by the company for an employee to prepare for and complete tasks related to work by demonstrating mastery. The “reflective model,” on the other hand, takes a different approach. The reflective model develops the mentor/mentee relationship as a tool to promote reflective practices. In this case, the mentor guides the mentee through a series of steps to acquire basic skills and procedural understandings. Those understandings directly relate to the position’s requirements and successfully integrate a new employee into the work environment. In the two models, employees’ roles and the relationship between the adult and the adolescent assume success. Given that adolescents do not learn at the same rates as adults, we are charged with abandoning adult models of workplace learning and creating new ones that specifically meet the adolescent’s needs who seek to learn from those in the work setting. Learning theory highlights the importance and influence of shared experiences in social settings to promote learning (see, for example, Pound, 2019; Roth & Jornet, 2017; Simon, 1987; Valsiner & Van der Veer, 1993). Vygotsky’s work proffers a sound theoretical structure for the education/work experience. According to Vygotsky, the adult-guided work setting creates the Zone of Proximal Development space in which the more knowledgeable adult ‘pulls’ the adolescent into and through the learning process.18 This relationship does not happen naturally. Although the concepts of WIL and WBL help us to identify the sources of sites of learning, they alone fall short in understanding the actual settings in which learning occurs. A guided field-based component of the vocational experience aims to

 The following chapter addresses ways to respond to challenges.  The demonstration by tan ‘expert’ and practice opportunities by the adolescent in the work setting offers an ultimate opportunity for education (Collins, 2006; Linn & Eylon, 2006).

17 18

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“…help students develop transferable and work-related skills in ‘real’ workplaces” (Cornelius et al., 2008, p. 288). In other words, international educational agencies support the aim of academic programs in both formal and non-formal settings to update students’ knowledge, skills, and competencies in programs that address the dynamic work environment. National and local agencies and institutions offer options. The original Education Work Model (EWM) responds to realizing that adult learning models may not be the most beneficial for youth in the work setting.19 The purpose of the model is to integrate both Work-Integrated and Work-Based Learning for adolescents with formal and non-formal education with the assistance of trained personnel whose positions require both teaching and administration through informal channels. It offers international, national, and local entities with a schematic that includes job titles and responsibilities that enable adolescents’ learning experience. Using informal learning that links the adolescent with the professionals in the work setting, this work elevates the conversation with pragmatic, useful, and necessary tools for implementing the adolescent work experience.

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Hoffman N. (2011). Schooling in the workplace: How six of the world’s best vocational education systems prepare young people for jobs and life. Harvard Education Press. ERIC Number: ED526789. Houkes, I., Janssem, P. P. M., de Jonge, J., & Bakker, A. B. (2003). Specific determinants of intrinsic work motivation, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intention: A multi-sample longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76(4), 427–450. Jacobs, R., & Parks, Y. (2009). A proposed conceptual framework of workplace learning: Implications for theory development and research in human resource development. Human Resource Development Review, 8(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484309334269 Järvinen, A., & Poikela, E. (2001). Modelling reflective and contextual learning at work. Journal of Workplace Learning, 13(7/8), 282–290. Johnson, D. (2000). The use of learning theories in the design of a work-based learning course at master’s level. Innovations in Education and Training International, 37(2), 129–133. Joo, B.  K., & Ready, K.  J. (2012). Career satisfaction: The influences of proactive personality, performance goal orientation, organizational learning culture, and leader-member exchange quality. Career Development International, 17(3), 276–295. Kahn, W.  A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287 Kapoor, C., & Solomon, N. (2011). Understanding and managing generational differences in the workplace. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 3(4), 308–318. https://doi. org/10.1108/17554211111162435 Kariwo, M., Gounko, T., & Nunu, M. (Eds.). (2014). A comparative analysis of higher education systems: Issues, challenges, and dilemmas. Sense. Killgore, W. D. S., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2006). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects. Neuroscience, 7, 140. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.7.2.140 Kim, S., & McLean, G. (2014). The impact of national culture on informal learning in the workplace. Adult Education Quarterly, 64(1), 39–59. Kyndt, E., Dochy, F., & Nijs, H. (2009). Learning conditions for non-formal and informal workplace learning. Journal of Workplace Learning, 21(5), 369–383. Lambeth, J. M., Elliot, J., & Joeger, R. (2009). A new vision for CTE research: The national CTE research agenda logic model. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 84(4), 50–55. Lee, S. A. (2007). Increasing student learning: A comparison of students’ perceptions of learning in the classroom environment and their industry-based experiential learning assignments. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 7(4), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/153132202033310 Lee, T., Fuller, A., Ashton, D., Butler, P., Felstead, A., Unwin, L., & Walters, S. (2004, June). Workplace learning: Main themes and perspectives (Learning as Work Research Paper No. 2). Lester, S., & Costley, C. (2010). Work-based learning in higher education level: Value, practice and critique. Studies in Higher Education, 35(5), 561–575. Levy, M., Oates, T., Hunt, M., & Dobson, F. (1989). A guide to WBL terms: Definitions and commentary on terms for WBL in vocational education and training. FE Staff college WBL project. Linn, M. C., & Eylon, B. S. (2006). Science education: Integrating views of learning and instruction. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 511–544). Erlbaum. Lippman, L., Ryberg, R., Carney, R., & Moore, K. (2015). Key “soft skills” that foster youth workforce success: Toward a consensus across fields. Child Trends. Retrieved from www. childtrends.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/2015-­24AWFCSoftSkillsExecSum.pdf Littke, D. (2004). The big picture: Education is everyone’s business. Association for Supervision and Curriculum. Little, B., & Brennan, J. (1996). A review of work-based learning in higher education. Department for Education and Employment. Lohman, M. C. (2005). A survey of factors influencing the engagement of two professional groups in informal workplace learning activities. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16(4), 501–527.

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Chapter 7

Informal Learning and Informal Education for and on the Job: A New Model

Abstract  Most scholars focus on either formal or non-formal education when discussing preparation for and on the job. This chapter expands typical educational research and extends the previous chapter by focusing on informal education as a legitimate and necessary system that organizes youth’s learning process. The system’s model includes three components that function simultaneously: networks amongst individuals, the participation of individuals, and reflection by individuals. Research on networks typically used in the business literature enriches the education field by grappling with how adolescents relate to and benefit from others. Participation extends the educational engagement literature by arguing that active and passive involvement involves adolescents learning. Reflective processing of information yields measurable results for the adolescent. Keywords  Informal education · Informal learning · Informal education system · Adolescents · Networks · Participation · Reflection

7.1  Informal Learning Towards Informal Education Informal education has been used synonymously with informal learning.1 This work differentiates the two. Here, informal education refers to the systemic conceptualization, organization, and usage of information gained through active and passive participation in all settings (Choi & Jacobs, 2011; Marsick & Volpe, 1999; Marsick & Watkins, 1990). It is a system of interactions created and experienced by the individual and demonstrated in both active and passive ways in social situations. This chapter offers a model that uses informal education to be applied to all learning environments. Informal learning, on the other hand, takes place within the informal 1  Formal education occurs in pre-determined, structured settings and provides both theoretical information and practical applications in terms of practice activities in the classroom that contribute to success in the workplace (Brockman & Dirkx, 2006). It includes a schedule of courses that prepare students with both knowledge and skills.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_7

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educational system. It refers to the acquisition of understanding based on a process that utilizes experiences in an everyday situation (Kolb, 1984). In other words, individuals gain insights as they make sense of social interactions during their daily life (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). It is the accumulation of understandings based on the interaction of individuals in social settings. Vygotsky’s social-cultural view (1978) relates to the concept. He noted that learning is a natural activity that results as the learner engages in the social process. Activities that occur in cultural contexts yield experiences that situate the individual in terms of a particular culture (of customs and norms). As individuals interact in that culture, the outcome of those interactions yields specific understandings. This is the root of informal learning.2 Whereas some of Vygotsky’s work focuses on the relationships between and amongst learners, Kolb (1984) specifically studied facets of learning for the individual that inform the informal workplace learning model presented later in this chapter. Kolb (1984) identifies four aspects of the learning experience: “concrete experience; reflective observation; abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation.” Concrete experience (CE) includes the actual behaviors demonstrated by the individual in the workplace. Reflective observation (RO) is the rumination of actions and interactions during the workday. Abstract conceptualization (AC) is the planning for future action. Active experimentation (AE) concerns trials by the individual in the work setting (p. 6).

The four facets may coincide. The cyclical process’s active experimentation begins and ends the cycle of informal learning. Although Kolb’s work on informal learning is important, especially in the adolescent learner whose social settings provide some of the most important sites for learning, it is insufficient to explain its application. By merely relying on informal learning to explain adolescents’ acquisitions of knowledge and skills in an educational program or the workplace, one fails to consider how the individual relates in the social setting, processes information retrieved from it, and grapples with it towards understanding. In other words, informal learning is part of an informal educational system, a system of components that facilitate understanding. The following section offers a model for this system.

7.2  Informal Education a System: The Model Given the status as a young junior employee (as an intern or apprentice), an opportunity for learning varies significantly from both the individual developmental perspective and the group social perspective. At the same time, employers continually

2  The use of the term culture in this case represents a specific setting in which the norms, behaviors, and values are shared by the members of a group. In the case of the work setting, culture refers to the norms that guide ideals, appropriate and inappropriate behaviors, and individuals’ beliefs about work in that setting.

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demand improved and increased sets of academic, technical, and workplace skills for new employees. For the adolescent worker, the educational system typically provides instruction in a group of academic standards that are appropriate for an entry-level position. That education, especially from a vocational formal or nonformal educational program, is based on a curriculum that aims to offer knowledge that promotes success on the job. The potential of the informal education system that occurs during the practicum, internship, work-study, and apprenticeship offers tremendous learning potential to develop hard and soft skills, as well as competencies and skills while on the job.3 This work proposes that three components comprise the informal educational system. Networks amongst individuals form the first component. Second, active and passive participation of individuals in social settings engage students. Individuals’ complex, reflective information processing provides a wide range and depth of results for the adolescent intern, apprentice, or worker as the third component of the system. The following diagram shows how the components of the model simultaneously function (Fig. 7.1).

networks & their characteristics

informal education active and passive participation

reflective & non-reflective practice

Fig. 7.1  The Informal Education Model 3  Many types of experiences provide examples of this concept. For example, co-op programs and internships maintain a set of goals and objectives linked to academic qualifications related to the educational accrediting agency. The students complete academic course work as part of the program. Simultaneously, the program links to a pre-designed program for practice in the industrial setting.

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7.2.1  T  he First Component: Networks Amongst Individuals and Their Characteristics The first element of the informal educational system is networks. Networks are groups of two or more individuals joined temporarily or permanently and provide a critical element of informal education. Coleman’s (1988) early work demonstrates the importance of the socialization process that creates networks for adolescents’ understanding of resources in social situations. For example, Scribner and Cole (1973) note that social gatherings do not provide specific activities to educate an individual. Instead, one’s ability to interact within social groups enables the acquisition of basic skills, values, and attitudes independently. The informal learning success depends on the “…quality of the interactions” in informal settings such as social gatherings (Eraut, 2004, p 268; Lucas & Moreira, 2009, p. 334). The network provides a critical element of the engagement process that links two or more people. Informal interactions also enable “networks-as-resources” (Campbell & Hurlbert, 1986). Networks-as-resources refer to purposeful groups that advance a goal. Some networks are created via organizational membership. For example, in the adolescent worker case, networks create relationships for individuals in the work setting. They may be intentional (as in the mentor’s case with the adolescent employee) or unintentional (such as an unplanned conversation with a co-worker). The actions that occur in the work setting’s environment are dependent on the relationship between the groups in that physical setting. A common purpose provides the conduit that links activities and experience. Networks of individuals offer the structure for communication within and amongst the group members. The individual’s position in a social network of relationships will determine the type of interaction that the adolescent can expect. But no matter the role, healthy relationships require individuals to listen carefully, communicate willingly, and negotiate successfully (Jurasaite-Harbison & Rex, 2010). In his social-cultural view of the education process, Vygotsky argues that activity of this nature promotes learning. The following section discusses the types of relationships between adolescents and individuals in various work situations.

7.2.2  Type of Interaction Rummel’s work provides valuable insights for this work. Social interactions, he notes, “…are the acts, actions, or practices of two or more people mutually oriented towards each other” in some way (https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/TCH. CHAP9.HTM accessed on Nov. 30, 2019). Five types of social interactions typically define the field. These include exchange, competition, cooperation; conflict; and coercion. These types of interactions rely on the adolescent’s level of confidence to communicate.

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The behavior of those who interact in the network has the chance to influence. The level of success to influence behavior depends on the degree of trust in the outcome. In the case of a collaborative, cooperative work setting, networks help individuals accomplish a goal (retrieved from https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/TCH. CHAP9.HTM on Nov. 30, 2019). An ontological distinction provides a useful set of tools to understand how influence and trust relate to social interactions. First, “manifest social interactions” include specific behaviors. For example, an office worker turns on a computer to a flickering monitor. He exclaims, “Oh no! My computer has a problem!” The adolescent who is shadowing that day says, “I think that I know what’s wrong. Let me look at the computer’s connections.” He crawls under the desk to look at the back of the computer and its wiring. He recognizes a faulty connection and repairs it. The discrete behaviors unify their underlying and interrelated complex transformation of actions and result in a meaning (adapted from https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/ TCH.CHAP9.HTM on Nov. 30, 2019). Second, latent actions provide “…causal and functional unity” to the manifestations. Latency refers to the cognitive process of attaching meaning to an action or set of actions. In the office team and the computer with the faulty connection, the adolescent worker applied understanding of the situation to the problem’s solution. Latent actions result in an impromptu repair session (adapted from https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/TCH.CHAP9.HTM on Nov. 30, 2019). As was demonstrated in the faulty computer connection situation, social interaction requires a reciprocal event between two individuals. The exchange may be organized or controlled. It may be spontaneous or unstructured. This definition of social interaction draws from Weber’s work. For Weber, social interaction is described as the meaning that individuals give to the event. He provides a graphic example. Two cyclists bump into each other during a race. The event is not social interaction; the resulting argument will be (adapted from https://www.hawaii.edu/ powerkills/TCH.CHAP9.HTM on Nov. 30, 2019).

7.2.3  Strength of Relationship This original framework extends Weber’s idea by noting the importance of the strength of a relationship. Strength of relationship refers to the degree of trustworthiness with others (see Maslak, 2018). A random occurrence typically results in a fragile level of trust. As a history of interaction develops, levels of trust can (but need not) increase. For example, if the mentor initiates an interaction with the adolescent worker, and the adolescent engages in the interaction, a positive relationship may develop. If the adolescent rejects the interaction, the relationship either maintains the same level or decreases in trust (accessed on http://jasss.soc.surrey. ac.uk/15/4/3.html on Nov. 30, 2019). Whereas the qualitative, descriptive approach provides information about a relationship’s strength, a quantitative approach could be equally helpful in other situations (see Maslak, 2018). From this view, extremely

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strong’, ‘very strong,’ ‘somewhat strong,’ and ‘slightly strong’ provide a categorical system to measure them. The strength of the relationship also has implications for colleagues. Levels of trust can enable the individual to “…establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups through communicating, listening actively, cooperating, negotiating conflict constructively, and seeking and offering help when needed” (https://empoweringeducation.org/what-­is-­sel/ accessed on October 2, 2018). For example, Armstrong and Taylor (2014, p. 305–306) argue that formal interventions create informal learning chances. This anonymous participation in an event by a group of people offers the opportunity to develop trust based on one’s association with those presenting the information. (Eraut, 2004; Lucas & Moreira, 2009). A more conventional approach to trust comes with the interaction between individuals. Casual conversations offer another chance to build trust but may take a different form than passive participation in a large-group meeting. Vygotsky (1978) believes that language is the primary means of communication between humans in the social setting. Baker et al. (2002) and earlier Thomas (1994) illuminated that casual conversation plays a vital role for youth. Conversation offers chances for in-person exchanges of information and ideas. It includes talking and asking questions, and receiving answers (Baker et al., 2002). This concept relates to the idea of the bidirectional relationship between learners and their environment. The bidirectional relationship offers a chance to learn through conversation (Applebee, 1993). Conversations with a desired or intended outcome, on the other hand, require asking the right question at the right time and anticipating a positive interaction. When one asks for specific information, it is assumed that the person to whom the question is addressed knows more than the person asking the question. For example, interactions such as a request for information from a supervisor offers the adolescent an opportunity to interact using specific information. A supervisor’s request for an update on daily progress on a project requires the adolescent to formulate information in both a logical sequence and specific vocabulary appropriate to the situation. These examples of informal learning, referred to as “…a form of experiential learning, involve a process of interpreting and understanding human experience” (Baker et al., 2002, p. 78). The casual conversation may not have the desired result, but that does not mean that a conversation without a goal to gain knowledge or information is not useful. In this element of the framework, individuals gain information regardless of the depth of the relationship. There may not be a positive correlation between the length of the relationship and the relationship’s strength. For example, an individual’s passive participation in the work environment where a boss gave an impromptu talk could influence an individual’s learning than a regular weekly meeting with a mentor over many years. The strength of the relationship also has implications for supervisors. For example, when individuals interact with colleagues, they ask questions, receive answers, and ultimately learn based on those interactions (Lohman, 2005; Eraut, 2011).

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7.2.4  Duration of Relationship Duration refers to the length of time that the individual has maintained a relationship. Rowold and Kauffeld (2008, p. 92) relate the importance of continuous interactions to individuals in the workplace. For example, colleagues have similar situations as a part of their workday. When engaging in pleasant situations or resolving problematic ones, sharing ideas can benefit from continual interactions that enable the trust to develop between the pair (or small group working together), assuming they employ effective communication strategies. However, lack of study with the adolescent population leaves us to conjecture the importance of relationships with youth at work. Frequency refers to the number of times over a particular period that the adolescent communicates with the other person or group. In the EWM model, supervisors, mentors, and coaches are equipped with the power to create reoccurring experiences for youth to network on the job. In these cases, adolescents engage in the interaction and can benefit from the resources as a result. For example, establishing a regular meeting between a team of colleagues or an adolescent with a mentor provides the framework for frequent interactions, resulting in positive benefits for adolescent and adult colleagues. Planned experiences may include an orientation meeting for new employees in a company and then a follow-up training session that reviews or teaches the presented content in that meeting. The duration can also relate to unexpected and unintentional network opportunities. For example, when colleagues share the same shift or workspace, random conversations continually occur. In both situations, colleagues’ repeated interactions with and for adolescents demonstrate how the network of individuals functions in the work setting. Although networks and their characteristics provide the fundamental underpinning of the informal education model presented here, the importance of the spaces in which the networks occur should not be underestimated. Various types of spaces enable the relationships between and amongst individuals in the workplace. Those on this discussion include the secondary school, the non-formal education class, the vocational higher education setting, and the workplace. Physical structures offer spaces that support the informal educational system. The classroom environment offers one structured setting. Hallways create spaces for interactions amongst peers and the adults in the same setting. Courses offer another. In these situations and settings, administrators, teachers, staff, and students interact, sharing informal learning opportunities. Non-formal educational settings also provide the same chances for networks but on a smaller scale. Non-formal education programs typically offer a course, or several smaller in scale than the typical middle or secondary school or vocational university setting. The work environment provides a third chance for networking. For example, the physical spaces of the desk, the office, the lunchroom, the meeting room, the floor of the shop, store, or the factory provide networking opportunities for all. In short, individuals learn in different physical spaces as s/he interacts with others (García-Peñalvo & Conde, 2014, p.  686–687). The individual’s position in a

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social network of relationships, the type of the interaction, and the strength of the relationships between those concerned determine the outcome of an adolescent’s interaction.

7.3  The Second Component: Active and Passive Participation The second element of the informal educational system is participation. Participation includes the involvement in the learning experience, which, in turn, contributes to meaning-making (Kolb & Fry, 1975; Ord, 2012). Every experience begins with the individual’s unique history. Prior knowledge, anticipated expectations of the experience before entering into it, attitudes toward initiating the experience, and emotional balance entering it influences the experience (Boud et al., 1993). Once in the experience, the individual processes information in one of two ways. Active participation refers to direct engagement in the action. Passive participation refers to inactive engagement in the action. During active participation, individuals construct their experience by participating. Various methods define the active participation experience: the illustrative-­ demonstrative form; the experimental approach; the experiential learning method; peer-learning; mentor-focused learning; and project-based learning. The illustrative-­ demonstrative method includes a live application of a technique. In this case, an opportunity to practice gives the adolescent a chance to engage in the action. The experimental method offers participants in the group to explore possible solutions to a problem. It may include trial-and-error processes (and changes made based on those processes). In this case, the desired outcome may not be set, as in the illustrative-­demonstrative method. In this method, instead, the individual or team shares a set of circumstances and explores possible outcomes. The experiential learning method refers to active participation (that is, physical engagement in the activity). Whereas the illustrative-demonstrative method can pair any two or more employees in an exercise, the peer-learning opportunity joins friends in the workspace. This method highlights the ways that friends (especially important amongst adolescents) contribute to the work setting. The mentor-focused learning setting pairs youth with more knowledgeable employees for help and guidance. A supervisor or manager assigns the project-based learning experience typically planned and executed by those in the organization. Finally, a project-based learning experience includes the adolescents in a group project with defined roles and responsibilities for participation in that group. Passive participation, on the other hand, is the silent, non-interactive presence in the setting. Passive experiences provide an informal learning component of the informal educational system (Boud et al., 1993). Passive engagement is the presence in but non-verbal, non-physical participation with others. For example, passive engagement includes observation. It may consist of activities such as being an audience member at a company meeting or a team meeting with a smaller group of

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colleagues. In another example, an individual’s passive attendance in a class where an influential speaker gives a talk offers another example of this type of passive participation. Similarly, the verbal-textual method (that is, ‘chalk and talk’ or lecture) provides another example of passive participation in the school’s formal classroom setting or the professional development work course. An active and passive participation in the workplace alone fall short in describing the process of understanding. Reflection is part of the process.

7.4  T  he Third Component: Individuals’ Simple and Complex Reflective Informal Learning The third element of the informal educational system is reflection. Marton and Saljo (1984) and Gibbs (1992a, b, in Bogg & Challis, 2013, p. 27) contend that “…the quality of learning outcomes is crucially affected by how individuals approach their learning.” Reflection offers one approach to learning. The concept of reflection remains a well-researched and readily accepted element of the educational process (Clarke, 2005; Cope & Watts, 2000; Eraut, 2007; Fuller & Unwin, 2003; Jurasaite-­ Harbison, 2012).

7.4.1  Reflection in Work-Education Experiences Both WIL and WBL offer opportunities for students to employ metacognition in the learning process. Reflection provides the conduit for metacognition. Reflective learning refers to contemplating an experience and the resultant understanding based on that thinking process without reference to the broader social reality (Jarvis, 1994). Adolescents’ reflections enable them to remember information, grapple with a problem, assess the situation, and determine response actions. This work presents various leveled reflective processes that occur during the informal learning actions. Simple reflective learning refers to processing information that requires the use of lower-order thinking skills. It requires rethinking an observed or practiced action that does not need higher-order thinking skills. Marton and Saljo (1984) and Gibbs (Gibbs, 1992a, b) note that lower-order thinking skills include rote learning of facts. In this case, Jarvis contends that individuals acquire simple skills through imitation and memorization, that is, through the rote practice of skills. The work setting might include a task such as stamping a timecard upon arrival at the workplace. On the other hand, complex reflective informal learning refers to a purposeful cognitive process that includes higher-order thinking skills. Bloom’s taxonomy (see Agarwal, 2019; Byrd, 2019) helps to identify both simple and complex cognition related to informal learning. For example, remembering and understanding are two

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lower-order thinking skills. Applying, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, and creating are examples of higher-order thinking skills.4 Both simplistic and complex reflective informal learning occurs in the context of networks between and amongst individuals. The individual’s engagement in networks, and the resources they offer, facilitate learning (Terjesen, 1998, p.  444). Norms and values of the group influence the networking experience. Norms provide general directions of understanding for youth in work positions. Values determine (and possibly prioritize) actions. In other words, the norms and values vary. Some give rise to planned events; others are unplanned. In both cases, individuals who engage in reflective practice reach a state of equilibrium. Equilibration refers to the process of making sense. When one is faced with information that is not understood, the individual seeks to figure out or makes sense of the information (Jurasaite-Harbison & Rex, 2013). Social psychologists refer to this as cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is the process whereby the individual faces new information that counters or differs from prior knowledge. Consequently, that new material causes uneasiness, which, in turn, may cause the individual to attempt to resolve the conflict (Festinger, 1962). Cope and Watts (2000) maintain that reflection affords individuals to create a new understanding of situations. The new understandings resulting from cognitive dissonance include new skills that can be used in response to a situation. Schön’s (1983) notions of “reflection-in-­ action” and the “reflective practitioner” relate this idea to the application in real-­ world practice. Unlike the positivist origins of technical rationality that focus on problem-solving, Schön examined reflective learning to grapple with individual complex situations in everyday experiences. His work tested models whereby individuals attempted to understand unique situations, constructed a new description of them, and considered alternative, peer-generated solutions as a way of determining the most critical elements toward a solution (Schön, 1983). Education uses the concept of “reflection-in-action.” Teachers employ reflection in instructional practices. Reflection is “…a process by which knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 27). Schön (1983) argues that reflective practice purposefully reveals the event of importance (such as a teaching strategy) and mechanisms to assess the occurrence. Reflection in work-education experiences that occurs spontaneously is different from the reflection guided by an expert or expert. Spontaneous reflection in the workplace occurs naturally, as it does in any social situation. On the other hand, guided reflection refers to the instructor’s purposeful use of questions and experiences that help the adolescent focus and reflect on a particular social experience aspect. Reflection can concern all parts of the work experience. In this case, the mentor, coach, or instructor plans the goals and objectives with the young employee or mandates goals and performance objectives. Then, to achieve the goal,

4  The categories differ depending on the hierarchy of thought. Bloom’s ideas are one of the most widely recognized and used in educational research.

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purposeful, thoughtful reflection provides the adolescent with specific points to think about and discuss with that mentor. Through regular and systematic reflections, one can accomplish goals and objectives in the workplace more quickly and efficiently than if left to the individual.

7.5  Conclusion Scholars show that employees learn through informal processes in numerous settings (Burns et al., 2005; Enos et al., 2003; Kwakman, 2003). Informal learning in the workplace satisfies “… mutual interest both from the individual and organizational perspectives” (Kim & McLean, 2014, 45–51). Joo et al. (2012, p. 289) assert that “…when employees develop their capabilities and expertise from their informal learning experience at work, they can increase their employability and ability to tackle work-related internal and external challenges”. This work grappled with the concept of informal learning. It defined it as part of a system inclusive of networks amongst individuals, individuals’ participation, and reflection by individuals to offer a better-developed understanding of it. It includes the explicit processing of information (see the works of Brown & Duguid, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991) that occurs in particular social contexts. Within these spaces, and during and after the experience, reflective practice, although recommended but not necessarily spontaneous, offers a chance for learning.

References Applebee, A. N. (1993). Beyond the lesson: Reconstructing curriculum as a domain for culturally significant conversation. National Research Center on Literature Teaching and Learning, University at Albany, State University of New York. Agarwal, P. K. (2019). Retrieval practice & Bloom’s taxonomy: Do students need fact knowledge before higher order learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(2), 189–209. https://doi. org/10.1037/edu0000282 Armstrong, M., & Taylor, S. (2014). Armstrong’s handbook of human resource management practice (13th ed.). Kogan Page. Baker, A.  C., Jensen, P.  J., & Kolb, D.  A. (2002). Conversational learning: An experiential approach to knowledge creation. Quorum Books. Bogg, D., & Challis, M. (2013). What is portfolio-based learning, in evidencing CPD: A guide to building your social work portfolio (p. 27). Critical Publishing. Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Walker, D. (1993). Using experience for learning. SRHE and Open U.P. Brockman, J., & Dirkx, J. M. (2006). The work, the worker, and the machine: Learning through communities of practice in manufacturing. In Proceedings of the Midwest Research-to competencies. Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing and Community Education23, IUPUI. Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1991). Organizational learning and communities-of-practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning, and innovation. Organization Science, 2(1), 40–57. https:// doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2.1.40

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Burns, J. Z., Schaefer, K., & Hayden, J. M. (2005). New trade and industrial teachers’. Perceptions of formal learning versus informal learning and teaching proficiency. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 12(3), 66–87. Byrd, V. (2019). Using Bloom’s taxonomy to support data visualization capacity skills. In S.  Carliner (Ed.), Proceedings of E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (pp.  1039–1053). New Orleans, Louisiana, United States: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved November 22, 2020 from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/212809/ Campbell, K., & Hurlbert, J. (1986). Social resources and socioeconomic status. Social Networks, 8(1), 97–117. Choi, W., & Jacobs, R. L. (2011). Influences of formal learning, personal learning orientation, and supportive learning environment on informal learning. Human Development Quarterly, 22(3), 257–271. Clarke, A.  E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985833. Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. Cope, J., & Watts, G. (2000). Learning by doing: An exploration of experience, critical incidents, and reflection in entrepreneurial learning. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 6, 104–124. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552550010346208 Enos, M. D., Kehrhahn, M. T., & Bell, A. (2003). Informal learning and the transfer of learning: How managers develop proficiency. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14, 369–387. Eraut, M. (2004). A wider perspective on assessment. Medical Education, 38(8), 803–804. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-­2929.2004.01930.x Eraut, M. (2007). Learning from other people in the workplace. Oxford Review of Education, 33, 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980701425706 Eraut, M. (2011). Informal learning in the workplace: evidence on the real value of work-based learning (WBL). Development and Learning in Organizations, 25(5), 8–12. Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93–106. from www.jstor. org/stable/24936719 Fuller, A., & Unwin, L. (2003). Learning as apprentices in the contemporary UK workplace: Creating and managing expansive and restrictive participation. Journal of Education and Work, 16(4), 407–426. García-Peñalvo, F. J., & Conde, M. Á. (2014). Using informal learning for business decision making and knowledge management. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 686–691. Gibbs, G. (1992a). Improving the quality of student learning. Technical and Educational Services Ltd.. Gibbs, G. (1992b). What is portfolio-based learning? In Bogg, D. and Challis, M. (2013). (Eds.) Evidencing CPD: A guide to building your social work portfolio (p. 27). Critical Publishing. Jarvis, P. (1994). Sociological perspectives on lifelong education. Educational Considerations, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.4148/0146-­9282.1661. Joo, K. B., Song, J. H., Lim, D. H., & Yoon, S. W. (2012). Team creativity: The effects of perceived learning culture, developmental feedback, and team cohesion. International Journal of Training and Development, 16(2), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-­2419.2011.00395.x Jurasaite-Harbison, E., & Rex, L.  A. (2013). Teachers as informal learners: Workplace professional learning in the United States and Lithuania. Pedagogies, 8(1), 1–23. Jurasaite-Harbison, E. (2012). Workplace learning in informal contexts: Transnational comparison of teacher professional growth in Lithuania and the United States. In M. Ginsburg (Ed.), Preparation, practice, and politics of educators: Problems and prospects in comparative perspective (pp. 79–100). Sense Publishers. Jurasaite-Harbison, E., & Rex, L. A. (2010). School cultures as contexts for informal teacher learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 267–277.

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Kim, S., & McLean, G. N. (2014). The impact of national culture on informal learning in the workplace. Adult Education Quarterly, 64(1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713613504125 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall. Kolb, D. A., & Fry, R. (1975). Towards an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group process. John Wiley. Kwakman, K. (2003). Factors affecting teachers’ participation in professional learning  activities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0742-­051X(02)00101-­4 Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511815355 Lohman, M. C. (2005). A survey of factors influencing the engagement of two professional groups in informal workplace learning activities. Human  Resource Development  Quarterly, 16(4), 501–527. Lucas, M., & Moreira, A. (2009). Bridging formal and informal learning: A case study on students’ perceptions of the use of social networking tools. In U.  Cress, V.  Dimitrova, & M.  Specht (Eds.), Learning in the synergy of multiple disciplines: 4th European conference on technology enhanced learning (pp. 325–337). Springer. Marsick, V. J., & Volpe, M. (Eds.). (1999). Informal learning on the job: Advances in developing human resources. Berrett-Koehler. Marsick, V.  J., & Watkins, K.  E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. Routledge. Marton, F., & Saljo, R. (1984). Approaches to learning. In F. Marton et al. (Eds.), The experience of learning (2nd ed., pp. 39–58). Scottish Academic Press. Maslak, M. A. (2018). Education and female entrepreneurship in Asia: Public policies and private practices. Springer. Nonaka, I., & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge-creating company: How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. Oxford University Press. Ord, J. (2012). John Dewey and experimental learning: Developing the theory of youth work. Youth and Policy, 108, 55–72. Rowold, J., & Kauffeld, S. (2008). Effects of career-related continuous learning on competencies. Personnel Review, 38(1), 90–101. Schön, D. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books. Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1973). Cognitive consequences of formal and informal education: New accommodations are needed between school-based learning and learning experiences of everyday life. Science, 182(4112), 553–559. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.182.4112.553 Terjesen, M. D. (1998). Comparative efficacy of brief Rebt and parent training with parents of special education preschoolers in treating childhood noncompliance. PhD Dissertation. Thomas, A. (1994). Conversational learning. Oxford Review of Education, 20(1), 131–142. Vygotsky, L.  S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.

Part IV

Toward Transdisciplinary Research and Its Practical Application

Part IV of the book extends the book’s previous sections by presenting new transdisciplinary field research for youth and a new model for its use. Transdisciplinary research refers to the new body of scholarship dependent on the combined understandings of multiple disciplines’ bodies of knowledge, theory, and practice. Using insights from this book’s earlier chapters, including educational psychology, policy studies, and business, Chap. 8, lays the groundwork for the transdisciplinary field based on youths’ Meaning of Work (MOW) and human resource management’s role in the educational process for youth. Then it offers an original program, Community Works, that uses the transdisciplinary perspective for implementation in adolescents’ education.

Chapter 8

The Transdisciplinary Field of Work and Education

Abstract  The rapidly changing cultural, social, and economic climates worldwide demand that organizations adapt. Discipline-specific models typically focus on adults to study the workforce education. Yet, an examination of the young worker revealed that success in that workplace is dependent on multiple, intersecting facets of human development. Based on earlier chapters, this chapter further advances the field by proposing a transdisciplinary field of education and work to understand the inseparable connections between academic disciplines used to explain adolescents’ education for and on the job. It calls on and combines human resource, business, sociology, and education disciplines and offers the field’s framework. Keywords  Adult workforce · Transdisciplinary · Human resource management · Integrated sociological paradigm · Methodological relationism · Active participation, passive participation · Actor network theory

8.1  Introduction The swift and profound transformation in the current labor market couched within the rapidly changing cultural, social, and economic climates around the world demand that organizations adapt and change to meet current and future needs. Organizations must explore new markets, experience corporate reorganizations and business expansions, and endure contractions. These changes cause the need to reform organizations’ strategic vision, cultural norms, and internal practices for their employees. They also yield two outcomes. First, they provide organizations with an opportunity to grow and change as necessary to remain competitive. Second, and simultaneously, they require management to understand f individual development and group accomplishment, and future possibilities for growth, which will

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_8

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help the organization meet the continuous change in a productive fashion (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011).1 The sustainable development of the evolving organization relies on the innovation of systems and their functions that promote ideas and actions based on existing conditions; employees provide the backbone of any organization’s structure.2 An emerging transdisciplinary area of research in sustainability sciences to understand work integrates organizational psychology and the sustainable development processes as one means to grapple with the complexities of industrial change in general and personnel in particular. As a result, the field attempts to enhance the organization’s human resource potential (Berg et al., 2013; Briscoe et al., 2006). Two gross oversights of this field are the assumption that individuals learn and that learning promotes change. This limited perspective perpetuates two fundamental problems in transdisciplinary research. First, it lacks an explanation of how individuals understand human relations between and amongst personnel in an organization. Second, it fails to explain how understandings are practiced, become an educational system of knowledge, and are subsequently used on the job. This work grapples with a new field of transdisciplinary research – education and work for adolescents. It argues that it advances our understanding of youth in the workplace and provides an in-depth understanding of how learning contributes to change and subsequent development at work, previously assumed in the literature. This chapter begins by providing the context of the field by discussing youth’s meaning of work. Next, it uses sociology’s methodological relationism and the Integrated Sociological Paradigm to lay bare the relationship between its parts and wholes. Then it provides three dependent and interdependent components: adolescents’ cognitive, psychological, and social development; the physical environment; and the participatory function of networks that link the individual to the setting. It relates this framework to Actor Network Theory (ANT) that strengthens the framework’s explanations of relations at the transdisciplinary work’s root.

1  I prefer the term “leadership” instead of management. Leadership suggests the awareness of existing circumstances and conditions and their application in the work setting that are applied to achieve personal and organizational goals. Management suggests the use of existing variables to execute pre-determined objectives for the organization. The explanation of this difference goes beyond the scope of this work but warrants in-depth study. 2  The term organization refers to a wide variety of places of employment. It includes small- to large-scale enterprises. It includes but is not limited to small shops, stores, corporations, multi-­ national corporations, conglomerates.

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8.2  T  he Fundamentals: The Meaning of Work (MOW) for Adolescents Manuti and Giancaspro (2019) found that organizational management practices (often led by Human Resource offices) could determine the positive organizational behaviors of employees (Manuti & Giancaspro, 2019).3 While this may be the case when examining the situation from an administrative point of view, the leadership team that does not understand youth, or does not have authority to design and shape an enterprise considering youths’ developmental parameters, may fail to meet organizational goals set for all employees. The Human Resource Management (HRM) division can guide this area. Adolescents’ meaning of work provides a necessary entry point because, as constructive educational theory proffers, entry into a field requires understanding the starting point. Today’s youth are categorized into groups. Youth known as the millennial generation, also known as Generation Y, or Gen Y, are born between 1981 and 2000. Generation Z succeeds Millennials. Those in this group are born between the mid-to-late 1990s through the early 2010s. Recently, both scholarly literature and popular culture, including primary news sources, have devoted considerable attention to the generations’ understandings of the meaning of work (MOW) (Manuti et al., 2018; Smola & Sutton, 2002). First, the group typically defines work as the paid or unpaid act of contributing to a for- or not-for-profit agency, organization, or company. Second, the group believes that their early experiences relate to work’s meanings (Scholarios et al., 2003). According to the lifespan model of career development (Super, 1980), young people generally start to develop interests and notions of their career very early during their educational experience.4 Third, youth also view work as both an entry point into a career and a steppingstone throughout one. In other words, they do not assume that they will enter into and retire from the same organization. Adolescents’ MOW does not remain static, however. The ever-changing shifts in economic, cultural, and social facets of the world and their understandings for local communities have created new norms that have caused shifts in adolescents’

3  This work, although not focused on youth, has the potential to be applied to the case of youth in the workplace. 4  These understandings of youths’ perceptions of work are coupled with their attributes. Young people are more individualistic than collective (Burke & Ng, 2006). Although their internal motivation enables them to accomplish tasks, they also expect organizations (both schools and workplaces, for example) to offer regular reinforcement of their expressed encounters, wishes and wants (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010; Hershatter & Epstein, 2010).

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interpretations of the world around them and the meanings they associate with work. At the same time, adolescents’ views of the workplace itself have also changed. Scholars such as Baruch (2003), Burke and Ng (2006), Hall (2002), and King (2004) have studied the various ways in which individuals’ acceptance of societal norms relate to meanings of work for adolescents. One particularly significant outcome of that body of scholarship is youth’s perspectives of careers today and the myriad of ways to obtain positions in those fields (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2011; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). Manuti and Curci (2018) applied the MOW constructs to Millennials starting their first work experience. They studied work centrality, work goals, societal norms about work, and work outcomes. The team defined work centrality as “…the degree of general and relative importance that work has in the life of individuals”.5 Work goals refer to “…the values sought and preferred by individuals in their working lives” (Lawler & Porter, 1966). Societal norms refer to “…a set of normative assumptions about what individuals should expect from working (opportunities or entitlements), and what they should expect to contribute through working (obligations).” Working outcomes refer “…to the general outcomes sought from working and the relative importance of each of these goals”.6 The team found the importance of work (that is, centrality) to be a key proponent in Millennials’ definition of the work experience. The MOW, grounded in the field of psychology, directly links to the field of education. As the psychological MOW literature demonstrates, the field draws on constructive cognition whereby youth’s prior knowledge serves as the building block for utilizing existing skills and honing new ones. However, the field of education is taken for granted in this body of literature. Organizational psychologists who identify prior knowledge that is acquired through youth’s education fail in four ways. First, some conflate the concepts of education and learning. Second, some fail to unpack the educational system’s meanings and significance, which, as this work demonstrates, includes formal education, nonformal education, and informal education. Third, some fail to grapple with how learning occurs for the adolescent, which, as this work also reveals, is significantly different from learning for the adult. Fourth, the field vastly underestimates the power of the learning process’s social dimension, which is different for youth than adults. For example, cognitive constructivism recognizes the importance of personal circumstances and conditions related to environmental situations that provide the primary building blocks upon which future knowledge rests (Dewey, 1916; Piaget, 2001; Vygotsky, 1978). The individual’s cognitive process functions in the social settings of the work setting. Links between the education gained by the individual’s psyche and the social 5  They measured work centrality both as an absolute value (that is, “how much work means to me”) and as a relative (how much work means to me in relation to other life domains). 6  This construct stems from the work of Kaplan and Tausky (1974). They distinguished six fundamental reasons for working. They are “…acquiring status and prestige, providing income, providing interesting social contacts, keeping people occupied, serving society, and being intrinsically interesting and satisfying.”

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environment relate to “communities of practice” (Wenger & Snyder, 2000), significantly influencing the youth’s education for and at work. This understanding provides the groundwork for the transdisciplinary field of education and employment (Wenger, 2000).

8.3  U  nderstandings Necessary to Create Transdisciplinary Research for the Education of Youth for and on the Job As Maslak (2008, 2014) has previously argued, the debate between macroscopic (structure) and microscopic (agency) theories fail to explain a sociological phenomenon. On the one hand, the macro model discounts the vital role of individuals’ experience during cultural, social, and economic change. On the other hand, the micro paradigm discounts the importance of the social systems and organizational parameters that shape how people live and work. In other words, support of either the macro-structural perspective (i.e., the social facts paradigm) or the micro-­ individual perspective (i.e., the social behavior paradigms) results in a challenge. The choice of one or the other fails to explain existing forces, circumstances, situations, and conditions that account for sociological phenomena and individuals’ interactions (Maslak, 2018). By examining the connections between social structures vis-a-vis relationships of the individual and groups of individuals, simultaneously considering the importance of both cognitive and psychological facets of the individual and the dynamic interaction in the socialization process, the scholarship may provide a complete understanding of existing theory and practice for adolescents’ education for and at work. Methodological relationism offers a valid reference point. Methodological relationism is a metonym for the micro (agency) and macro (structural) elements and the interaction between the two (Maslak, 2014; Ritzer & Gindoff, 1994). Its purpose is “…to identify, comprehend, and explain existing phenomena, as well as predict future occurrences based on the information extrapolated from past experiences” (Maslak, 2014, p. 24). It provides a starting point for this discussion on adolescent education on the job. “It asserts that a social phenomenon can be fully understood by investigating the dynamic conditions, circumstances, and situations of individuals in a particular situation.” How? First, the idea starts with concepts of both individuals and wholes. “Individuals” include members of the population, who, to varying degrees, recognize (to varying extents) expectations of them in the social system and relationships between individuals in the social network. In the education context, this includes but need not be limited to the adolescents, teachers, and supervisors in the school setting, and colleagues, coaches, mentors, and supervisors in the work setting. The “wholes,” on the other hand, are the systems in which social structures function. In the social structural context, education includes both the wholes of the school and the work contexts. Second, to understand a social phenomenon between individuals and wholes within the

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organization, one must analyze the relationships between the two parts. In this case of education and work, both educational and business contexts need to be considered. Schools and education programs and the adolescent who functions within those social structures, and industries and professionals who work there, comprise the macroscopic and microscopic parts of the methodological relationism framework. In short, methodological relationism posits that both parts (individuals) and wholes (the social structures that function in society) explain a social phenomenon. Despite the value of methodological relationism, it lacks an essential element that helps explain the educational process for adolescents preparing for the workforce and the formal and informal on-the-job training they gain while at work. The Integrated Sociological Paradigm (ISP) offers another, complementary way to view the intersection between education and employment. It shows macroscopic and microscopic levels of structures of the conditions, circumstances, and workspace situations that provide learning opportunities. It also shows how interactions between the groups enable learning between and amongst stakeholders (Maslak, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2011, 2014; Ritzer & Gindoff, 1994). The ISP (Ritzer, 1975a, b, 1979, 1991) and its foundation, methodological relationism, offer ways to examine education and work. It uses microscopic, macroscopic, subjective, and objective dimensions that form the transdisciplinary field of education and work. Scholars (Maslak, 2018; Ritzer, 1975a, b, 1979) define the quadrants in the following manner. The Macro-­Objective quadrant simply identifies maintenance systems. In this context, these refer to organizations and institutions that define society’s structural parameters such as the educational institution and workplace’s public spaces. The Micro-­Objective quadrant includes the patterns of observable actions and interactions between individuals in the organizations or institutions. These interactions have formal and nonformal learning settings in educational programs, the workplace, and the spontaneous informal ones between instructors, administrators, colleagues, and youth. Here, non-verbal and verbal interactions between and amongst individuals in every setting of every community define this dynamic. The MacroSubjective quadrant includes representations that constitute structural constraints and opportunities. This transdisciplinary model element has values and norms possessed by communities of practice that cause structural conditions and enable options in both the educational institution (formal and nonformal) and the workplace. The Micro-Subjective level reflects individuals’ perceptions of, attitudes toward, beliefs about, and valuations of the Macro-Objective structural parameter of both the educational and work settings. In this way, the model integrates both sociological and psychological elements into the design, which, this work argues, is necessary to understand the phenomena (Fig. 8.1). The figure provides the graphic representation of the main ideas presented herein. The transdisciplinary discipline shows the relationship and links between fields.7

7  This work was developed on the heels of several publications that have developed this concept and model. For further information, see Maslak, 2003, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2018.

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complementary fields of study

transdisciplinary scholarship & new field development relationships between fields of study

Fig. 8.1  The transdisciplinary concept

In sum, the microscopic and the macroscopic dimensions of transdisciplinary thought provide the platform to think about the union of education and work. The simple assumption that individuals at work learn shortchanges learning’s complicated process. We are obliged to consider both formal and informal communications and how they enable learning. The educational process advances the individual’s knowledge in the workplace. Whether a course in a professional development training module or a casual conversation between colleagues, the education process defines the realization of understanding. Combining both fields of education and work yields greater understandings and insights for the future that can promote change, growth, and sustainability through planned and guided learning for the individual (and the related organization). In so doing, it proffers excellent potential for advancements in the workplace. Human Resource Management provides a structured way to formalize the union of education and work. The following Fig. 8.2 presents the model for adolescents’ education for and on the job.

8.3.1  T  he First Component: Adolescent’s Cognitive, Psychological, and Social Development Adolescents’ cognitive, psychological, and social development define the first component of the conceptual framework.8 Intellect enables the ability to understand and process information (for example, see Augustyniak, 2014). Declarative, procedural,  Chap. 2 discussed these elements of development.

8

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Individual’s Cognitive Development

Individual’s Psychological Development

Individual’s Social Development

The Work Setting

The School Setting

networks of friends & associates

active and passive participation in educational and work settings

knowledge, hard & soft skills & competencies for and in the work place

Fig. 8.2  The transdisciplinary model of adolescents’ education for and on the job

conceptual, and conditional cognitive processing relates to cognition and cognitive processing. Attitudes toward and beliefs about identity, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-image, and maturity relate to adolescent development’s psychological attributes. The relationships with peers and co-workers provide the social structures and experiences for individuals. These three elements serve as the first component in the model.

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8.3.2  T  he Second Component: Work, School Settings, and the Environment that They Create The physical spaces of the environment define the second component of the model. Adolescents typically obtain an education in three primary locations. Many adolescents acquire knowledge and skills from the formal education of a vocational program. Other adolescents (who do not enroll in a formal program in a middle or high school setting) acquire knowledge of and skills related to working from job training in nonformal educational programs. These two systems, both offering a different schema of information through various channels, provide the adolescent with understandings that are directly related to their development and maturation to not only accomplish course work and succeed in and advance through the work environment (Maslak, 2003, 2008, 2014, 2018; Maslak et al., 2010; Waintrup & Unruh, 2008). International educational literature focuses on formal and nonformal educational systems simply because of their ubiquitous presence throughout the world. They typically provide both course work and practical experiences to learn for and on the job. This framework acknowledges the importance of physical environments. First, it acknowledges that setting refers to the physical space in which the activity occurs. For example, classrooms, hallways, and places where students eat meals (including but not limited to the cafeteria, for example, in the U.S. context) provide environments in the formal education setting. Nonformal educational programs offer smaller classroom spaces and common areas that encourage interaction. It extends that argument by identifying the importance of the work environment as a critically important setting and environment for adolescents’ education. In the workplace, settings include but are not limited to shared spaces, offices, warehouses, workshops, and public areas. They can also include the classroom space in the office. The relationship between an establishment and the physical space that it occupies, such as a building or space in a building, indicates the establishment’s strength, growth, and success (Vischer, 1996). Vygotsky (1978), a well-known proponent of the contextual approach, believed that individuals could not be separated from the social spaces they live and work. Actor Network Theory’s (ANT) concept of spatiality digs deeper to understand that idea. ANT refers to “…the relationships between different kinds of space and place, including the network space of relations and objects” (McGregor, 2004, p.  347). The material objects of space and sets of tools such as a curriculum and machinery used to apply it serve active purposes in the educational process (Latour, 2005). In the case of education for and on the job, material objects in the classroom and workspace mediate the transference of knowledge between the facilitator and the course participants. Scholars’ acknowledgment of the relationship between conceptions of space and places illustrates changes in contemporary thinking in the educational literature. Space involves the complex, dynamic location, both figurative and literal, in which humans and non-human elements function. Space provides basic needs that enable

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work. Proper lighting, heating, cooling, and ventilation create a temperate climate in which activity can occur. It may also include furniture in the room, carpet on the floor, and art on the walls. Thus, physical space may influence the mood of employees and effort toward and engagement in work. The physical setting of the workspace affects the people who work there. On the other hand, place refers to the concrete location in which active and passive involvement occurs. It maintains a vital space, a “site of authenticity” (Massey, 1994, p.  5) because of its direct involvement with the educational process. Both elements maintain a critically important place when considering education for adolescents on the job.

8.3.3  T  he Third Component: Networks and Participatory Functioning Within Them Equally important is the human factor within those spaces. Groups and individuals’ associations within them are commonplace in the work setting. Networking (both in the professional development classroom and in the office) contributes to the learning process. The instructor plays a critical role in the course setting. In both locations, individuals communicate with each other, influence each other, and learn from each other. Effective communication enhances the positive interactions for fruitful advantage. The networks that form in and between groups and associations create communities of practice. As Lave and Wenger (1991) conceptualized them, “….communities of practice are generally spontaneous and informally bound by expertise and joint enterprise, which may also link spatially distant individuals” (p.  27). Individuals belong to different communities of practice. The networks within those communities refer to the connections between and amongst individuals in those groups and associations. The definition offered by Lave and Wenger is particularly apropos for the case of the adolescent who begins social development in terms of networks outside the work environment. Peer networks typify adolescents’ social parameters. Peers provide a significant source of socialization during adolescence (Steinberg, 2017). In the American context, Steinberg found that more than 50% of an adolescent’s free time is spent with peers than only 15% of their time spent with adults. The percentage of time spent with peers and the adolescent’s peer groups provide a potentially significant source of networking value for education for and on the job. They influence the adolescents’ activities, behaviors, and self-conceptions (Birkeland et al., 2014; Dijkstra & Veenstra, 2011). The concept of networks, such as those detailed in the EWM between the individual and the level of leadership and colleagues, provides the structure for the HRM team’s efforts to create positive spaces for change and address challenges in the changing organization. Networks support everyone’s plan and directly relate to

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the employee’s needs and desires to improve/increase hard and soft skills to advance individual and organizational goals. At the same time, HRM oversees plans for teams of individuals to accomplish the same. Under ideal conditions, networks, which are units of two or more individuals, support and advance the individual’s goals and groups within the workplace. Actor-network theory (ANT) both extends and strengthens the foundation of the individual and social elements of space and place that methodological relationism helps to parse out. A brief background adds to this understanding. The actor-network theory (ANT) originated in the Centre de Sociologie di l’Innovation (CSI) by Michel Callon and Bruno Latour of the Ėcole nationale supėrieure des mines de Paris in the early 1980s.9 John Law, a colleague of Callon and Latour, described the theory using a “material-semiotic” method. This method refers to a system to organize the relationships between materials (that is, concrete objects and non-human elements) and semiotics (that is, humans’ concepts of ideas). It focuses on how knowledge was analyzed and interpreted through interactions within networks. Law (2007) claims that [A]ctor network theory is a disparate family of material-semiotic tools, sensibilities, and methods of analysis that treat everything in the social and natural worlds as a continuously generated effect of the webs of relations (p. 1).

ANT rejects the notion of defined vertical and horizontal distinctions between and amongst parts without clearly defined multiple, complex, and varied elements. This is important because ANT recognizes the quadrants of the ISP model yet does so in a way that shows the process, the movement, between them. Pre-1990, scholars utilized ANT primarily as an analytic tool in a myriad of disciplines. Since the 1990s, ANT has been used in a wide range of material-semiotic approaches to analyze heterogeneous relations. Other scholars used the theory in empirical case studies to analyze technological developments and their relationships to industries’ political and legal facets.10 Callon (1991) explains this in terms of the “morphology of relations.” ANT uses the morphology of relations concept to explain networks. Two basic assumptions of the theory exist. First, networks of relations encompass all human and non-human elements of the social space. Second, humans, non-humans, and technology assume equal positions in the relationship when they exist. Regarding the education and work model, humans include adolescents, their teachers, and all individuals in the work setting. Regarding the non-human elements, books and materials used in the school settings (both formal, nonformal, and on the job) constitute this segment of the theory. For example, supplemental

9  Latour’s work in the field spans 25 years with an early publication in 1987. Others followed in 1991, 1996, and 2005. 10  For example, the applied disciplines use ANT. Farias and Bender (2010) used the theory in their work in urban studies. In the community, urban, and rural planning studies, Beauregard (2012), Rydin (2012), and Tate (2013) call on the theory.

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materials, including books and resources or tools and instruments, serve equally important roles as the human instructor in the school or coach in the work setting. ANT views both the human and non-human elements as both intermediaries and mediators in the network system. Intermediaries link or move one idea or action to another, both literally and figuratively. For example, a textbook stands alone, yet its messages transport information through the participant’s reading. Mediators, on the other hand, refer to entities that multiply differences. For example, a textbook and an instructional video provide essential means of idea transmission in this work. One instructor may prefer using a text in a course; another instructor may choose an instructional video in the class. In educational terms, these tools cluster in the same category of educational resources. Yet if viewed as mediators, both the textbook and the instructional video need to be analyzed in more specific terms to understand their value and usefulness in the educational setting.11 In another example, objects such as tools and equipment in a factory contribute to systems of learning. Both instances provide networks for understanding. The textbook, videos, or tools and equipment in the work setting complement each other.12 As the adolescent develops and assumes a position in an organization, that network structure broadens. For example, colleagues offer a source of socialization for the adolescent, and networks form. In this case, close and distant relationships are built on the purposeful (or not) configuration in which the adolescent functions develop.13 In informal settings, colleagues share a lunch or engage in casual conversations. Colleagues network to learn new information. In this case, colleagues share information regarding work and the work setting. Through both social and professional circles, networks reveal their complexity from both microscopic and macroscopic perspectives. For example, a network-­ based theory of social capital identifies social relations patterns, intensity, and reciprocity. In this case, the organization’s collective identity (such as a work unit) provides a sense of belongingness and an identity that serves as the grounding for social relations. Lin (1986) takes a different but equally important approach. She differentiates three layers of social relations, from general to intimate. In the first layer, individuals experience a close relationship characterized by a shared sentiment between people; they find support from individuals included in this layer. The second layer offers a space in which individuals share information and resources. Relationships are characterized as strong and weak, and direct and indirect. The outer or third level illustrates the most general type of relationship. In this case, the

 It is beyond the scope of this work to analyze all intermediates and mediators for and in the school and work settings. 12  The general concepts of figurative and literal networks from actor-network theory have been used extensively in the educational literature, especially in educational policy and reform. Frankham (2006), for example, points to the popularity of learning networks to think about both educational policy and practice. Regarding policy, network metaphors map out ideas and connect those ideas amongst itheir parts (Edwards, 2002). In terms of practice, scholars use ANT to discuss educational reform (Fenwick, 2010, 2011). 13  See Chap. 5 for the different roles of adults in the workplace. 11

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“shared membership and identity” refers to people’s broad categorization in a particular group. The culture of the phenomenon includes both norms of the organization and the values of individuals. Norms refer to the standardization of conduct and way of behaving in a social space. Values refer to “conceptions of the desirable,” as Kluckhohn claims (1951, p.  395  in Wuthnow, 2008, p.  334). Williams (1951, p.  375  in Wuthnow, 2008) extends this definition as “things in which people are interested – things that they want, desire to be or become, feel as obligatory, worship, enjoy” (p. 334 in Wuthnow, 2008). As such, through the influence of values, human behavior is organized. Networks of persons in the workplace create interactions. Friendships, peer groups, and small and large groups typify the network experience. They contribute to the education of adolescents for and on the job.

8.4  T  he Use of Human Resource Management (HRM) in the Workplace The HRM team’s existence in an organization supports employees who function in the organization as they strive to achieve both personal and organizational goals through performance in anticipated roles. HRM refers to the administrative oversight of the hiring, development, training, and evaluation of employees. The organization’s commitment and effort to link the “personal and organizational” assumes that personnel’s positive teams take a particular responsibility in the workplace and gain satisfaction from the job when they work, whether independently or collaboratively. This realization and principle require a commitment to an organizational plan and an investment in human resource practices. As a result, the approach may provide more efficient and productive outcomes for the industry (Manuti & dePalma, 2010; Wright & Cropanzano, 2007). However, efforts to link the “personal and organizational” do not merely happen. As Manuti and Giancaspro (2019) note, Healthy and Resilient Organizations (HEROs) recognize the value and endorse the use of the network and its related systems (Collins & Clark, 2003; Lepak & Snell, 1999). This humanistic approach of management purposefully creates opportunities for interaction. Thus, management believes that employees’ work, teamwork, and organizational processes and outcomes improve and contribute to the positive, sustainable development of an organization (or company), for example (Duffy, 2007). Scholars distinguish HERO organizations from non-HERO organizations in three ways. First, HEROs contribute useful organizational resources that aim to create productive work environments, especially during turbulence and change (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Second, assuming the first point’s success, HEROs cultivate healthy employees who demonstrate mastery of soft skills. Finally, these points’ interaction results in “healthy organizational outcomes” such as high performance and reputation in the industry.

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The sustainable developmental effects of HEROs are not the only advantages. HEROs are also “resilient” (England & Whitely, 1991; Fouad & Arbona, 1994). They understand how to manage change, adjust to challenging and unpredictable situations, and maintain desirable outcomes. However, meeting the challenges of any organization does not occur spontaneously. The purposeful advancement of understanding relies on the educational process whereby lessons learned are incorporated into repetitive practices. However, the work literature that advances the importance of HRM offices assumes this process. The recognized, collective, strategic coupling of education and work offers more significant potential for future students and youth. How, exactly? The HRM team’s educational sector provides critical instruction and guidance that can help employees achieve desired outcomes. Its related processes offer necessary advice to advance individuals’ efforts toward meeting both sets of those goals. Educational divisions of HRM (whether they be provided through a partnership with an educational agency or as a part of the HR department) offer chances for formal and nonformal programs that provide socialization opportunities that lead to learning, growth, and subsequent change. Groups (pairs or small teams, for example) planned by the HRM office’s educational division, in conjunction with stakeholders in the office, offer the opportunity to shape beliefs, values, and objectives of individual priorities about future working.

8.5  Conclusion Although adults comprise most of the workforce, youth presently in and entering the workforce possess a different set of knowledge, skills, and competencies than the adult sector. In some ways, this description of youth frames them as inferior to their adult colleagues, having less advanced knowledge, skills, and competencies of that labor pool. However, youth also enter the workforce with more contemporary sets of skills than adults.14 As a result, apparent differences co-existence between the two generations that maintain a diverse pool of knowledge and skills. Recognition of the importance that youth play as a contributing and future member of the workforce challenges industries to develop new policies and corresponding goals and objectives, strategies, practices, and processes that address the changing workplace inclusive of a younger generation (Arthur, 2014; Barnard, 2004; Baruch, 2003). At the same time, industries shoulder the responsibility to help youth achieve on the job while contributing to the organization’s goals. Traditionally speaking, research that examines youth in the workplace typically calls on social theory used to test practices (e.g., in quantitative analysis) or used to explain findings (e.g., in qualitative research.) Scholars have used vocational education’s conceptual framework to think about the educational process for the working

14

 One example is technology.

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adolescent. However, the traditional vocational education models of both formal and nonformal education fall short in two ways. First, they fail to consider how the adolescents’ developmental elements relate to education for and at work. Second, they do not consider the complexity of social settings for adolescents and how they interact with others and function in that work setting. Moreover, as the earlier chapters presented, youth view work differently from adults and do not possess the same knowledge, skills, and competencies as their adult co-workers. To develop a comprehensive framework for adolescents’ education for and on the job, we considered and included the developmental and social facets of adolescents’ lives, the situations of a wide range of stakeholders within multiple environments in which they interact, and how they interact (adapted from Bocken et al., 2015, p.  70). The conceptual framework described a system’s organization and enabled us to formulate, organize, and synthesize knowledge in a field and across fields. The transdisciplinary model presented herein offers a fresh and essential perspective to study youth and work. The model offers potential for both industry and education. Institutions use it to set goals for organizational learning. Organizational learning refers to the enterprise’s acquisition, process, and use of knowledge (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). In this case, the organization collects and interprets information (Argyris & Schon, 1978). Its result benefits the organization through recognizing opportunities to explore new ventures, for example. The model also adds to the field of workforce education. The social process of organizational learning occurs through interactions that involve both tacit and explicit information processing of the learning process (Brown & Duguid, 1991; Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). The recognition of the value of repetitive positive information processing increases both the organization and the individual’s ability to identify and use routine-based systems that are successful in and for that workplace that promotes learning. These systems reveal behaviors exhibited through employees’ processing while actively (or passively) engaged in the work experience. In short, the framework, inclusive of three elements of the model, contribute to both adolescents’ and organizational learning.

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Chapter 9

Community Works: An Application of Transdisciplinary Research

Abstract  Despite both the long history of nonformal educational programs and the international and national policies that support them, the adolescent education field struggles to offer long-term and long-lasting solutions to youth’s alternative academic choices. This chapter extends the earlier information of both theory and concept by providing a transdisciplinary model for NFE that links education and adolescents’ work. It extends the idea of Community Youth Development (CYD) that promotes community-wide initiatives rather than those sponsored by individual programs or organizations typical of the international and comparative education literature to present a new “Community Works” model of education. Based on theories that demonstrate education and work as a constructivist field of scholarship, the model links local resources and the educational system. It offers grouplearning centers that draw on local resources, a curricular design of hard and soft skills, instructional practice methods for hands-on learning, and administrative oversight for its partnerships. The chapter ends with a section on how Community Works adds a much-needed model to existing national and international educational policy. Keywords  Community youth development · Nonformal education · Sustainable Development Goals · Adolescent education · Community · Group learning centers · All-China Women’s Federation · European Union · United States Agency for International Development

9.1  Introduction Educational institutions worldwide seek to equip students with skills required for the twenty-first-century workplace through a formal academic structure of primary, middle, and secondary schools and the college and university experience. Yet even with all these options, a formal education fails to provide a panacea for all youth. Some young people do not possess the intellectual ability to succeed in the formal

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_9

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educational system because of a learning disability (Ellison & Vitak, 2015). In other cases, family circumstances require additional income, which adolescents are required to provide. In that case, hours at work in the morning, afternoon, or evening prevent attendance in a school experience (e.g., see Mortimer, 2010). As a result, youth fail to enroll in or drop out of the formal system and fail to obtain twenty-first-century skills that enable them to enter into and succeed in the workplace (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004). A nonformal educational system grapples with these challenges by providing an alternative option for individuals to obtain an education when formal schooling is not available or is not an option (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004; Werquin, 2010, 2012). This chapter extends the long history of nonformal education by presenting a new idea to shift the field. It extends the concept of Community Youth Development (CYD) by offering “Community Works,” a model for adolescents’ education. Community Works promotes the idea of community-wide initiatives created and implemented by it rather than from those sponsored by individual programs or organizations which have dominated the long and rich history of the field.1 Community Works links education and work for adolescents by drawing on local resources that emphasize skill development in both coursework and the workplace. Local resources work in group-learning centers to provide the educational program’s core. Also, the model’s curricular design highlights both hard and soft skills. Administrative oversight manages the group learning centers’ daily operations and assesses and evaluates future partnerships’ success and plans. The chapter ends with a section on how Community Works adds a much-needed model to existing international educational policy. In so doing, the Community Works model demonstrates the constructivist, transdisciplinary field of scholarship.

9.2  Definition of Non-formal Education Nonformal education refers to an organized, structured, and systematic learning system that uses a set curriculum that is flexibly designed to offer in-class and on-­ the-­job learning experiences (Pantea, 2016; Thompson, 2001) yet may not issue a

1  A rich collection of research conducted over the last 50 years offers valuable insights into NFE’s design and operation. Seminal studies such as Coombs and Ahmed (1974); Coombs (1976) and Grandstaff (1976) offer a broad and valuable web of information to understand its theory and its redesign using new or revised conceptual and theoretical approaches (e.g., see Kedrayate, 2012; LaBelle, 2007). Those works influenced more current scholarship by contemporary scholars and development practitioners who have advanced the field. For example, the academy has researched new programs (e.g., see Monkman et al., 2003; Monkman et al., 2007; Stacki & Monkman, 2003), curricula (Harris et al., 2004), program outcomes (e.g., see Bolea, 2012), and job skills that result from the completion of non-formal educational programs (e.g., Sperandio, 2011). All, in various ways, have supported the field with both practical and necessary insights.

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diploma. Thompson (2001, p. 8) extends this definition and describes the system as one that is … delivered outside the framework of the formal school system to a specific segment, group or sub-group of the population for a specific objective, at low cost in terms of both time and resources…

9.3  The Purposes of NFE Nonformal education maintains two general objectives. It offers a pathway for adolescents who cannot enroll in and complete formal education and provide basic literacy skills necessary for successful adult life. The credential qualifies an individual to work. In this case, it is considered an alternative. Second, for those who become able to move between the formal and nonformal educational system, it offers a transition to the country’s traditional educational system. In this way, NFE offers a supplementary educational experience. Third, NFE may offer a credential or certificate program that the formal system is unable to deliver. In this case, it provides a complementary educational experience for youth. In all cases, NFE offers an education that trains individuals to work toward future employment (Hoppers, 2006; Werquin, 2010, 2012). In these ways, nonformal education is a type of lifelong learning (Hoppers, 2006) that offers an additional layer to the government-approved and operated formal educational system. In all cases, NFE’s outcomes directly link to its purpose related to work because it increases adolescents’ chances to join and flourish in the labor market. Participation in a NFE course improves knowledge, develops skills, and refines attitudes. For example, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) recognizes the nonformal education’s focus on workplace skills (Schleicher, 2012). The community setting provides the foundation.

9.4  The Concept of Community The community provides a fundamental unit of operation in the daily socialization practices of individuals. Scholars conceptualize community in terms of value (Smith, 2001; Tett, 2010).2 One value includes concepts of solidarity, commitment, and trust. Solidarity refers to a relationship that results in a union. Commitment relates to dedication. Trust relates to confidence in repeated action by another person. Other values include two categories: place and interest. Community as place

 This refers to its macro-subjectivity (Maslak, 2005) in the case of the former, and micro-­objectivity in the case of the latter.

2

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relates to space, that is, a common geographic location. The community refers to a group interested in a particular purpose, such as employment in an enterprise (Smith, 2001; Tett, 2010). In practice, all community values function in conjunction with each other (Galbraith, 1995; Smith, 2001). In youth’s social community, the environment offers a place for youth to grow and develop. In the educational community, the individuals in it can view it as a hierarchical and static system that might socially repress advancement or a dynamic system that encourages social change from the members it serves. Although seldom does such a narrow and rigid dichotomy exist, this idea provides a stepping-stone toward the concept of community education because it allows for a new and contemporary approach to meet the changing needs of a community based on the current expertise available in it.

9.5  The Concept of Community Education As young people mature, they become an integral part of the active community (Lacey, 1987). The macro and microeconomic communities of business offer yet another space within which youth can learn and work. But these opportunities do not happen without planning and effort. Community education as it relates to NFE provides one way to organize and promote learning. It also wields the power to influence the design of new and cutting-edge programs that enable the acquisition of knowledge and skills through the social space where individuals live and work. In this regard, community education’s primary aim is to promote community members to be both autonomous and collective members of the educational community (Tett, 2010). In this case, an independent aim refers to a young person’s individual learning needs who seek to work. Mastery of such prepares youth for the work experience. The collective objective addresses the application and value of the educational experience’s outcome on the community, which is seen as the generating force behind the educational process’s critical element. However, the literature demonstrates inconsistencies and confusion regarding the goals of community education. Some argue that community education is a self-­ contained entity; others say that it is an extension of community development. In either case, a community’s educational programs, civic organizations, and community educators link individuals, institutions, and other society members. In short, community education includes an evolutionary experience of sorts, whereby participatory and democratic relationships between educators and their constituencies identify, implement, and continually develop a partnership that meets the established goals.

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9.6  Community Works: A New Model of Non-formal Education CYD calls on youth-related organizations and local community development agencies and their related offices to design and create opportunities for adolescents to develop personal and academic skills to serve their community (Ryan et al., 2017). Although an altruistic model because of the links between education and the community that supports it, the CYD’s impetus rests on international agency funding sources to design, plan, implement and, sometimes, evaluate its programs.3 The Community Works model differs from CYD. In this new model, Community Works, a collaborative partnership between both education and industry, enables the ability to offer a sound educational experience for the youth. Community Works grounds its guiding principles in the collaboration between academic standards that structure government-recognized programs and employers’ local knowledge, skills, and expertise. It begins with the understanding that a community reflects common characteristics such as religious beliefs and linguist choices that support education for youth (Smith, 2001; Tett, 2010).4 Next, rather than conceptualizing and formulating a program and its curricula without input from the community, this model requires organization from community members to determine the needs of its youth and services of adults toward education. It identifies, develops, promotes, and supports local knowledge and skills for a nonformal educational opportunity for the youth that it serves. It links the local expertise with educational planners and instructors in a purposeful attempt to provide a meaningful education for youth that prepares them for entry into the work setting and continued employment in the community system as the administrative team.5 The team offers curricula that meet the educational institutional country laws and local industry needs. Finally, it provides continual student services that support the needs of future and current students. The following sections describe each of these parts (Fig. 9.1). Several steps guide the implementation of the model. At the most basic level, each interested industry (or company or enterprise) completes a Community Works proposal based on four elements (administrative oversight; curricular design; instructional practice; and student support services) and submits it to the community board (including both members of the economic and educational communities) for review and approval.6 The following section explains the background and importance of each part.

 For example, USAID is a giant in this field that promotes education.  Countries typically require at least a middle school level education. In some cases, country law requires the completion of secondary education. 5  Inclusive of this perspective, acknowledgment of collaborative partnerships requires tremendous effort given the natural process of agreements and disagreements amongst and between entities. 6  The community offers regularly scheduled, organized sessions that assist local enterprises to collaborate with local educational leaders to formulate a proposal. 3 4

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• alignment of curricula and instruction toward both industry-recognized vocational and academic-institutional standards • updates of programs deemed necessary by industry-level accreditation organizations; • evaluation of personnel in group-learning centers to maintain excellence • selection and admission of students

• orientation for new students • communication of students' assessments and evaluations

• design of industry-specific vocational standards to applied practice

Administrative Oversight

Student Support Services

• support for academic and field work

Curricular Design

Instructional Practices

• application of design into each course in each module as determined by instructors • design and implementation of academic benchmarks approved by accrediting agencies and/or governmental bodies overseeing vocational education and training

• teaching of industry-specific vocational standards to applied practice • determination of teaching methods for courses; • availability of professional development sessions for instructors; • assessment and evaluation of student performance

Fig. 9.1  A model of the group-learning center for vocational non-formal education for youth

9.6.1  Administrative Oversight Although centers require planning and execution, they do not operate continually without the administration of both instructional and physical plant elements. Instructional oversight requires several sequential steps. First, the administration determines a set of qualifications for applicants. Second, a call for applications invites potential students to apply for the program. A team of administrators reviews applications and determines the acceptance or rejection of each applicant. The administration also communicates the applicant’s acceptance decision and registers the student for the courses. Once enrolled, assessments (continual checks for understanding that do not include a score) and evaluations (summative and formative tests of competency that demonstrate achievement using a numerical system) provide the student (and his/her family) with an indication of performance.7 In addition to the administrator’s day-to-day responsibilities, the administrative team supports the continual operation of Community Works. It provides continual program updates that are deemed necessary by industry-level accreditation

7  These tools help students to set their own benchmarks for performance, thus enabling them to take responsibility for their actions which contribute to the successful completion of the program and future employment possibilities.

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organizations. The executive team also evaluates personnel in group-learning centers to maintain excellence. Continual networking with companies in the field (for example, in the primary automobile manufacturing plant itself and mechanic shops in a city where the automotive manufacturing plant is located) recurrently invites new opportunities for partnerships. Whereas the academic, administrative team provides direction for the educational program, the physical plant team upholds standards and ensures the physical plants’ smooth and safe operation. For example, personnel maintains buildings’ heating and cooling systems. Electrical and plumbing functions must continually operate safely. Outside of the school setting, safety codes for all affiliated businesses must be checked and maintained to ensure student and instructor safety.

9.6.2  Curricular Design Another responsibility of the administrative team and its facet of the model is the curriculum. The core, hard skill, and soft skill modules presented in Part V of the book offer the curricula. The section provides outlines (and syllabi) for courses. The courses provide flexibility to tailor requirements to meet the company’s needs. The concept of group-learning centers provides the physical structure used by local industries in the community for the Community Works’ curricula.8 The group-­ learning center provides a physical location that grounds the concept. In the Community Works model, a trade, a small business, or a division of the service industry uses its physical structure for instruction and skills practice. For example, in the automotive industry, a physical space for classroom instruction, such as a factory where automobiles are manufactured, new and used car dealerships, or a mechanic’s repair shop provides the three related structures where the educational program could take place. With the support of the educational group-learning center personnel, the group-­ learning center leaders determine the curricula by aligning them with both industry-­ recognized vocational and academic-institutional standards in conjunction with requirements for accrediting bodies (in both the industry and the educational system). Representatives from both the group-centers (that is, industry professionals) and the education center9 select and develop courses from the curricular map (in Part V of the book) to serve as their program’s framework. This process and eventual alignment ensure the group-learning centers’ ability to apply for the opportunity to offer graduates of the center a certificate-of-­  Group-learning centers stem from existing, operational businesses in the community. Thus, they do not require external funding. 9  The education center may be comprised of administration from the national, regional, and/or local divisions of education offices. 8

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accomplishment recognized in the field. Benchmarks for performance link the curricula to established goals and objectives for the model. In other words, assisted by educational professionals, industry leaders align community needs with educational plans (and modules described in the next section of the book) that meet industry standards approved by the enterprise’s accrediting agencies and academic benchmarks approved by accrediting agencies.

9.6.3  Instructional Practice Experiential learning centers promote education that serves the workforce (Zupančič, 2018, p. 117). This instructional practice element of the model includes professional development sessions for instructors that support the industry professions who may not be familiar with the curriculum and instructional practices. The professional development sessions offer continual engagement of and support for industries that contribute to the model’s sustainable facet. In other words, instead of an outside organization dictating a course of study and curriculum for it, the group-centers of the community, together with educational personnel, complete curricular templates and adapt syllabi to meet the needs and requirements of each industry that is participating in the Community Works program.10 Also, specific teaching methods for the courses in each of the three modules demonstrate the instructors’ use of experiential learning techniques. Characteristics of instruction in this vein include passive-­ participatory and active-participatory strategies.11 Instructors in the classrooms who teach the modules use these techniques, as do the professionals in the work setting, including but not limited to supervisors and mentors. Meetings organized by the educational institution offer a chance for community members to learn about the concept. After an agreement with the district, community leaders and academic organizers select appropriate courses that engage youth enrolled in the Community Works model to gain knowledge, skills, competencies, and experience in both the classroom and work settings. The selections made directly relate to the community’s perception of the future needs of the community. In this regard, the collaborative process proffers both knowledge and skills that will link both the adolescents’ need for education with the need for skilled youth in the community (Lacey, 1987). Group-Learning Centers offer a specific function of the community in this regard.

 International organizations typically set the curriculum for nonformal educational programs throughout the world today the courses in each of the modules are designed with great flexibility to appropriate fit the industry in which the Community Works model has been adopted. Syllabi that show the flexibility of content are provided in Part V. 11  These are explained in detail in the following section of the book. 10

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9.6.4  Student Support Services Student services comprise the final component of the Community Works model. Responsibilities in this sector include three elements. First, orientation programs provide introductions for students and instructors alike. The orientation programs communicate the purpose, framework, expectations, assessments, and evaluations to the newly enrolled students. Simultaneously, but in separate meetings, newly hired instructors (those from the participating industries) attend orientation sessions to learn about developing courses and modules, existing modules (explained in the next section of the book), and content. For those without teaching experience, short courses in teaching strategies, assessment, and evaluations provide the teaching team’s necessary information. Second, after the student is accepted and enrolled in Community Works, regular meetings with the student services staff member will share progress reports with the student and guide him/her through the remainder of the program. Information including but not limited to expectations of the apprenticeship experience helps students to continue through the program. Third, once the student enters the apprenticeship experience, the regularly scheduled meetings with the student services staff member continue. These meetings allow the student to discuss the experience and share challenges and accomplishments with the staff. Guidance and support when the student is in the field help the student link the academic course work with the field practice, thus promoting success.

9.7  Conclusion The long history of its international policy supports nonformal education. A brief review of international policy documents about nonformal education provides a frame of reference for the critical role that Community Works plays in the global context.12 An early paper, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, 1989), set the stage for the right to an education for all. Later, the Dakar Framework (2000) further developed ideas for youth education. The United Nations also recognized the importance of NFE in the Millennium Development Goals. More recently, two of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-­development-­ goals/) provide a more current and specific rationale for the need for a nonformal educational system, especially when the formal system fails to provide an “education for all” (Maslak, 2005). Especially pertinent in this case are goals 4 and 8. Goal 4 “…[e]nsures inclusive and equitable quality education and promotes lifelong

12  This is especially important for those in adolescent education who are unfamiliar with the international developmental literature.

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learning opportunities for all.” Objective 4.4 states that by 2030 there will be a substantial increase in “… the number of youth … who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship.” Goal 8 also pertains to the adolescent and work. It [P]romote[s] “sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all.” Objective 8.5 states that [B]y 2030, the world will…achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value.

Its objective 8.6 states that “[B]y 2020, the world will …substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training” (accessed on November 9, 2019, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300). In short, the international community remains attentive to the need for education for all. UNESCO’s educational divisions’ broad and longitudinal reach work to develop nonformal education develop and advance policy, design curricula and programs, and monitor and evaluate academic progress to link youth, educational experiences, and industry stakeholders. In so doing, they seek to increase opportunities for education and work. Successful completion of the partnerships leads to successful transitions into adulthood. At the same time, country-level governments and local providers design, plan, implement and evaluate NFE programs positioned under the international umbrella guidelines. For example, the United States funds nonformal education programs with the U. S Agency for International Development (USAID). Italy relies on the European Union (EU), promoting the European Voluntary Service (EVS). EVS offers EU youth opportunities to volunteer while acquiring foreign language skills and work experience. EVS links its mission to “lifelong” and “life-­ wide” learning by including both youth and young adults (ages 17 to 30) to participate (UNESCO, 2005). China also provides nonformal educational opportunities for youth. One women’s rights organization initially entitled the All-China Democratic Women’s Foundation, and renamed the All-China Women’s Federation (ACWF) (中华全国妇女联合会, or Zhōnghuá Quánguó Fùnǚ Liánhéhuì) in 1957, promoted government policy and oversees programs in  the People’s Republic of China. Both international and national entities have made considerable efforts to design, plan, implement, and, in some cases, evaluate nonformal educational programs for youth. Current models utilize international and national policies that provide general guidelines to design, plan, implement, fund, and evaluate nonformal educational programs. Yet despite both the long history of nonformal educational programs and the international and national policies that support them, the field struggles to offer long-term solutions to alternative educational chances for youth. Although there are “success stories” regarding the positive results of programs supported by each of those levels, many programs fail. The field generally recognizes

References

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that common causes of closure include changes in supportive high-level decisionmakers change (move to other agencies, other departments, or leave the position entirely) and reduced funding. In other words, programs that originate outside of the community that they serve and are dependent on outside forces face numerous challenges for success outside the community’s scope. At the same time, adolescents still do not enter or fail to finish vocational programs in the formal academic system. Decades of reviews of nonformal educational programs show that an outside agency typically designs, implements, and (sometimes) evaluates most nonformal educational programs for youth. A model that emanates from the very community it serves and that will benefit from its successes (the programs’ graduates) may reverse this trend. The Community Works model offers a group-learning approach based on local expertise. It offers courses and on-the-job experiences of nonformal educational programming based on the community’s strengths and needs, not the interests of the (international) educational organization. In so doing, Community Works offers a realistic alternative to nonformal education that applies local knowledge, skill, and competencies to educate youth for future jobs. Unlike the UNESCO’s International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training model that responds to developing and strengthening such training worldwide, the Community Works model calls on local experts. They develop curricula that reflect the community’s workforce needs, based on an educationally sound model and implement active teaching techniques for students’ engagement. In short, echoing the work of Ferber et  al. (2002, p.  1) who stated …the realization that positive development of young people is good economic development [and that] the skills they build today will define future competitiveness in a global economy tomorrow[.]

The model is well-positioned within the international development field to support youth and the communities in which they live and work toward advancement for all.

References _____. (2005). E-learning. European Commission. UNESCO. Retrieved August 5, 2020. http:// www.elearningeuropa.info/doc.php?1ng=l&id=1195&doclng=1 Bolea, P. S. (2012). Cross-cultural service learning with Native Americans: Pedagogy for building cultural competence. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 32(3), 284–299. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/08841233.2012.687684 Colardyn, D., & Bjornavold, J. (2004). Validation of formal, nonformal and informal learning: Policy and practices in EU member states. European Journal of Education, 39, 70–89. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.0141-­8211.2004.00167.x

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Coombs, P.  H. (1976). Nonformal education: Myths, realities, and opportunities. Comparative Education Review, 20(3), 281–293. Coombs, P., & Ahmet, M. (1974). Attacking rural poverty: How nonformal education can help. John Hopkins Press. Ellison, N. B., & Vitak, J. (2015). Social network site affordances and their relationship to social capital processes. In S. S. Sundar (Ed.), The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 203–227). John Wiley and Sons. Ferber, T., Pittman, K., & Marshall, T. (2002). State youth policy: Helping all youth to grow up fully prepared and fully engaged. The Forum for Youth Investment. Galbraith, J. R. (1995). Designing organizations: An executive briefing on strategy, structure, and process. Jossey-Bass. Grandstaff, M. (1976). Nonformal education: Some indications for use. Comparative Education Review, 20(3), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1086/445903 Harris, R., Miske, S., & Attig, G. (2004). Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating inclusive learning-­friendly environments. ED496229. Hoppers, W. (2006). Nonformal education and basic education reform: A conceptual review. International Institute for Educational Planning. Kedrayate, A. (2012). Nonformal education: Is it relevant or obsolete? International Journal of Business, Humanities & Technology, 2(4), 11–15. Labelle, M. (2007). Immigration, culture et question nationale. Classiques Des Sciences Sociales. https://doi.org/10.1522/24908195 Lacey, D. R. (1987). Jesus as mediator. Journal for the Study of the New Testament, 9(29), 101–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142064X8700902906 Maslak, M. A. (2005). Higher education and women: Deconstructing the rhetoric of the Education for All (EFA) Policy. Higher Education in Europe, 30(3–4), 277–297. Monkman, K., MacGillivray, L., & Hernandez, D. (2003). Literacy on three planes: Infusing social justice and culture into classroom instruction. Bilingual Research Journal, 27(2), 245–259. Monkman, K., Miles, R., & Easton, P. (2007). The transformatory potential of a village empowerment program: The Tostan replication in Mali. Women’s Studies International Forum, 30(6), 451–464. Mortimer, J.  T. (2010). The benefits and risks of adolescent employment. NIH Public Access, 17(2), 8–11. Pantea, M. C. (2016). On entrepreneurial education: Dilemmas and tensions in nonformal learning. Studies in Continuing Education, 38(1), 86–100. Ryan, A. M., Urdan, T. C., & Anderman, E. M. (2017). Adolescent development for educators. Pearson Education. Schleicher, A. (2012). It all starts with building the right skills. [online] http://clutteredeclecticmind.blogspot.com/2012/05/it-­all-­starts-­with-­buildingright-­skills.html. Accessed 12 Oct 2016. Smith, T. (2001). Discrete trial training in the treatment of Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), 86–92. Sperandio, J. (2011). Context and the gendered status of teachers: Women’s empowerment through leadership of nonformal schooling in rural Bangladesh. Gender and Education, 23(2), 121–135. Stacki, S. L., & Monkman, K. (2003). Change through empowerment processes: Women’s stories from South Asia and Latin America. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 33(2), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305792032000070057 Tett, L. (2010). Community education, learning and development. Dunedin Academic. Thompson, E. J. D. (2001). Nonformal education in urban Kenya: Findings of a study in Kisumu, Mombasa and Nairobi. German Agency for Technical Co-operation. United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations.

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Werquin, P. (2010). Recognising nonformal and informal learning: Outcomes, policies and practices. OECD Publication. Werquin, P. (2012). The missing link to connect education and employment: Recognition of nonformal and informal learning outcomes. Journal of Education and Work, 25(3), 259–278. Zupančič, V. M. (2018). Taxonomy of teaching methods and teaching forms for youth in nonformal education in the national youth council of Slovenia. CEPS Journal, 8(1), 117–137.

Part V

Curriculum Design & Tools for Instruction

Part V of the book extends the theoretical and conceptual models of earlier parts by offering pragmatic suggestions for curriculum and instruction. Chapter 10 canvases curricular design and delivery for adolescents’ education. Using both School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) and Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE), the chapter offers a curricular map that differentiates core, hard skill, and soft skill modules. It also provides designs for the delivery of instruction. Chapter 11 includes specific information on syllabi construction and lesson planning. Chapter 12 offers teaching strategies and tips for their use for professionals. Like the modules, the teaching strategies presented here provide a mix-and-match opportunity to execute purposeful, meaningful lesson plans for module participants. Chapter 13 ends Part V with a review of the differences between both assessment and evaluation. It provides definitions of both terms and communicates the importance of each for education and work for youth. The book ends with a conclusion (Chap. 14) that presents the newness of the work.

Chapter 10

Curricular Design and Delivery in Community Works for Adolescents’ Education for and on the Job

Abstract  The chapter extends the useful but insufficient international and national standards for curricular design and delivery for education for and on the job and applies the latest information to Community Works’ operation. It highlights the importance and relevance of the constructivist thought for adolescents’ education for and in the workplace as it applies to curriculum design and delivery. Next, it uses those ideas to the idea of a constructivist curriculum. That is followed by a curricular design for Community Works, which differentiates three modules: one module for core courses, one module for hard skill courses, and one module for soft skill courses. This curricular design’s mix-and-match approach offers flexibility for two curricular delivery types, both School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) and Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE). It extends the educational literature by rethinking curricular design and delivery from literature, psychology, education, and business. It ends with a section on the importance of technology for today’s youth in the model. Keywords  Constructivism · Curriculum design · Curriculum delivery · Adolescents’ education · Workplace learning · Constructivist curriculum · Core courses · Hard skills · Soft skills · School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) · Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE) · Peers · Small-group instruction

10.1  Introduction Middle and high school, and college and university student learning occur in various types of educational settings. Formal and nonformal vocational educational programs offer academic instruction. Work-based experiences provide additional learning opportunities that give students time and space to apply existing knowledge and develop and use new knowledge and skills practiced in an authentic work setting (Rampersad, 2015). In other words, these types of instruction and experience, together, develop the young student into a knowledgeable and competent employee (Rampersad, 2015 in Orazbayeva et al., 2019). © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_10

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Those concerned with the economy, and its projections for future positions in the workforce, lead discussions of how to best prepare youth for an education that equips them with knowledge, skills, and competencies. Schools offer formal education; nonformal educational programs offer literacy and training courses. Work-­ based learning opportunities offer chances to participate in real-world environments. Yet, despite the offerings from both academic and industrial entities, two problems exist with the current situation. First, not all educational institutions (both formal and nonformal) are ready and able to adopt a particular curriculum that meets the student’s needs as a future employee. Second, human resources, and specific human resource departments, when they exist in industries, seldom have time and expertise to create and implement a curriculum that meets the adolescent worker’s needs in the workplace. In response to these two pressing concerns for adolescents’ education for and on the job, this chapter extends the useful but insufficient international and national standards for curricular design and delivery. It highlights the importance and relevance of the constructivist thought for adolescents’ education for and in the workplace as it applies to curriculum design and delivery. Next, it uses those ideas to the idea of a constructivist curriculum. Then, it presents the curricular structure of Community Works and its three modules: two core courses (in the first module), three hard skill courses (in the second module), and ten soft skill courses (in the third module). Each administration’s mix-and-match approach of this curriculum design offers flexibility in the two types of curricular delivery. School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) and Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE) offer both schools and industries choices of delivery types. It ends with a section on the importance of technology for today’s youth in the Community Works model that can span across two kinds of experiences.

10.2  Curricular Design Curricular design in workforce education aims to prepare youth as current and future employees for the work experience by planning a direct link of a scope and sequence of knowledge and skills pertinent to educational and industrial standards. Ideally created and disseminated by educational institutions in tandem with businesses, the curriculum purposefully aligns the goals for student learning to the industry’s plans (Ishengoma & Vaaland, 2016; Lawson et  al., 2011; Pujol-Jover et al., 2015). It supports the concept of lifelong learning, which refers to the variety of employment activities for professional purposes beyond graduation from secondary school, the NFE program, or the vocational college or university program (Orazbayeva et al., 2019). The link between knowledge and skills for and on the job requires a framework grounded in and committed to active, experiential learning that is part of education for the workforce. In their many forms, including vocational education, contemporary educational programs still rely on a competency-based approach/framework to curricular design.

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For example, governments and their corresponding ministries in countries with a nationalized educational systems, such as those in Italy and China, dictate the required set of academic standards. The United States’ educational system grants both individual states and local school districts within them the freedom to design curricula based on the Common Core State Standards (http://www.corestandards. org/ accessed on September 2, 2019). Although recent educational reform efforts seek to shift curricular design for vocational education towards a more industry-inclusive one, U.S., the Republic of Italy, and the People’s Republic of China fall short in linking education and industry to prepare adolescent-aged students for the workforce. If committed to the idea that schooling uses a stepping-stone approach to adolescents’ teaching, that is, the accumulation of knowledge and skills from childhood, through adolescence, and into adulthood, constructivism proffers a meaningful foundation.

10.3  Cognitive Constructivist Thought for Curricular Design Constructivism argues that active participation creates the space within which knowledge is constructed (Phillips, 1995). It rests on the assumption that both individual and collective experiences in various social settings provide the foundation for creating knowledge (Fosnot, 1996; Steffe & Gale, 1995). The early works of philosophers, including but not limited to Vico and Kant (in the eighteenth century), and Hegel (in the nineteenth century), and Dewey and Von Glaserfeld (in the twentieth century), influenced the three essential epistemological tenets of the theory that are commonly accepted today. First, cognitive processing requires active engagement. Second, the outcomes generated through the learning process may be different depending on the environment in which that learning occurred. Third, the individual’s perception (that is, attitudes and beliefs) of a situation defines the ‘reality’ within which learning occurs. The field distinguishes three comprehensive divisions of cognitive development. They include Cognitive Constructivism, Social Constructivism, and Radical Constructivism. A cognitive constructivist perspective provides the most appropriate framework for adolescents’ workforce education because it organizes and synthesizes research into meaningful concepts.1

1  Brown et al. (2011) and earlier, Doolittle and Camp (1999), for example, have applied cognitive constructionism principles to research in career education.

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10.4  Toward a Constructivist Curriculum A cognitive constructivist framework employs five generally agreed-upon factors for curricular design.2 First, real-world environments guide the content for the learning process. Whether reconstructing accurate representations of a real-world issue or problem, creating new models using a participatory group approach, or working individually, the student’s experience is an essential factor in the process. Therefore, the learner requires authentic, real-world situations and experiences. For example, in the case of the adolescent, volunteer or paid work experiences offer the opportunity to create understandings while on the job. Second, the curriculum must require assignments that require the learner in appropriate social settings and provide chances to negotiate and mediate situations in those settings when disturbances arise. An example of social interaction is when the student converses with an employee in various formal and informal social situations. The experience reinforces prior understandings and creates new ones. In cases where disagreement or misunderstandings exist, the learner must work to understand and accommodate. In this daily social interaction, professionals in the work setting expect socially acceptable responses. Third, relevant academic content and practical skills must relate to the work setting. When on the job, all student interactions, passive or active, offer chances to learn both the content and skills in the required curriculum when at work. Prior knowledge serves as the basis upon which the content and skill sets are developed. In vocational education, the teachers and business professionals plan instruction that begins with students’ prior understandings challenges. Fourth, formative assessments embedded in the curriculum gauge students’ current and continuing understandings of the course work for both the classroom teacher and adolescents’ supervisors. Fifth, classroom lessons and on-the-job experiences that relate to the curriculum incorporate self-regulation and self-awareness strategies. Active engagement requires students to “…regulate their own cognitive functions, mediate new meanings from existing knowledge, and form an awareness of current knowledge structures.” (Doolittle & Camp, 1999, no page number, https://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ ejournals/JVTE/v16n1/doolittle.html accessed on January 5, 2020). These five elements align with the tenants of a constructivist curriculum for an education that prepares one to perform successfully at work. These elements require guidance from teachers and mentors and practice in both classroom and work settings. The use of a cognitive constructivist framework for the curriculum calls on all adults with whom the student works to facilitate and guide. Adults influence and create purposeful experiences to obtain goals through tangible objectives. More than 15 years ago, von Glaserfeld (2005, p. 7 in Accardi, 2013, p. 82) stated that “… the task of the educator is not to dispense knowledge but to provide students with opportunities and incentives to build it…” (p. 7). The same holds for the mentor in the work setting. A skilled mentor recognizes the chances for 2  Volumes of scholarly information list, define and describe these factors. This compilation provides an overview of that literature as the topic relates to adolescents’ vocational education.

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an adolescent’s growth and engages in conversations that help the individual recognize, realize, and learn from the situation.

10.5  One Model for the Curriculum The cognitive constructivist viewpoint elements that can ground vocational and technical education emphasize learning as the purposeful use of both knowledge and skills in both academic and work settings. The design of a curriculum that includes input from both an educational institution and industrial body that use a cognitive constructivist viewpoint provides the best chance to prepare students for a successful work experience. The constructivist model requires academic fundamentals and practical skills based on the student’s prior knowledge and current understandings (Doolittle & Camp, 1999). The design of a curriculum that offers engaging, developmentally appropriate sets of varied experiences based on students’ prior knowledge provides the springboard to introduce and practice new content.3 Three approaches offer choices in the curriculum development to a curriculum. First, the educational institution alone creates the curricula and request that industries abide by them. Second, the professional association that is related to the industry makes the curricula. Third, and the one advocated in this model, the educational institution and the industrial sector jointly design curricula. After confirmation of the curriculum development approach for the educational institution and the industries in the select community, four elements guide its expansion: type of courses; approaches to teaching; time of course; and length of study. First, various courses (that are explained below) offer youth chances to study multiple subjects. Second, instructors use different teaching techniques that provide students with individualized instruction and small and large-group learning. Third, time in-class sessions, linked to academic and industrial accrediting guidelines, enables adolescents to acquire and share knowledge. Some courses may meet for a shorter time several times a week; other courses may be offered for an extended timeframe one day of the week, for example. Fourth, an appropriate and reasonable length of time for the program ensures adequate time for learning. Like the time in class, the program’s length may relate to state and industry standards and requirements. In sum, curricular planners consider multiple facets in the development of curricula for and in the workplace. The following section describes the course framework, which offers flexibility for each industry.

 Scaffolding links knowledge and skills between classmates and instructors (Healy, 2014).

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Core Courses

Hard Skill Courses

Soft Skill Courses

Communication Introduction to the Industry Introduction to the Organization

Reading in the Industry Written Language for the Industry Spoken Language in the Industry

Resume and CV Writing Job Interviewing I & II Collaboration Goal & Objective Setting Work Ethics Organizational Skills Professional Skills Critical Thinking Skills Creativity

Fig. 10.1  The curricular model

10.5.1  C  ommunity Work’s Three Modules: The Core Module, Hard Skills Module, and Soft Skills Module Modules in the Community Works model can be used in one of two ways. A program can adopt all the modules for use. Alternatively, a program can use any one or two of the modules for usage. No matter the number of modules used, each of the modules offers a variety of courses for curricular planners and human resource offices. One module pertains to core courses; one module pertains to hard skills; one module pertains to soft skills. The following figure provides the organizational structure of modules and a list of related courses and their descriptions (Fig. 10.1).

10.5.2  The Core Module and Its Courses Introduction to the Industry The purpose of this course is to offer basic information related to the industry. The course includes a historical view of the founding principles of the industry. It also reviews changes over time based on political, economic, and social changes and their relationship to the global industry. It couples the historical perspective with philosophical principles that undergird the sector. It also examines the divisions of

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the industry as they relate to the country using the course. Students will understand the complexity of industry through this course.4 Introduction to the Organization This course reviews essential elements of the organization. It begins by outlining the principle objectives of the organization (company). Next, it details principles that are related to its area of specialization within the industry. Third, using the scalar principle presents an organizational flowchart of personal, authority, and responsibilities.5 It reveals the reality of communication between persons of the same level and one level higher (or lower) with whom the young worker is likely to communicate. Enterprises use this “channel system” to facilitate productive exchanges of information between and amongst employees in an organization. Detailed job descriptions for each of the organization members promote uniformity within a workplace and provide the “map” that links employees to each other for communication purposes.

10.5.3  A  n Introduction to the Hard Skill Module and Its Courses The Global Employment Trends for Youth 2017 report states that “…youth must obtain the appropriate hard skills … in order to qualify for positions post-­graduation.” At the same time, industries rightly assume that graduates will enter the workforce with a minimum set of literacy skills to perform well. Literacy skills in this hard skill module include reading, writing, and speaking. The following section offers three courses in the hard skill module. Reading in the Industry This course focuses on reading the technical vocabulary of the industry. It provides the learner with a specific set of terms that enable the ability to understand company procedures, follow a manual of practices, and engage in particular industry-specific tasks. The specific vocabulary that it teaches equips students with content-specific language that is required in the field. Writing Language for the Industry This course teaches the writing process related to industry standards to create both simple and complex written work. It uses prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing stages in developing the written piece. Instruction in both simple standard form completion and more complex expository (fact-based report) and

4  It is assumed that the curriculum for this course will be written by the industry professional because of their expertise in the field. 5  The scalar principle used in a classic management system implies the hierarchical chain of command at every level of an organization.

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persuasive writing types provides the participant with tools for written language in and for the work setting. Spoken Language in the Industry This course focuses on appropriate spoken language in and for professional settings. It reviews protocol for both formal and informal social interactions in a variety of workspaces. It examines the roles of both speakers and listeners in the causal conversational context in the workplace. It also teaches skills for formal presentation, including but not limited to an exciting launch, its critical components, and a conclusion that presents both the newness of the pitch and its value.

10.5.4  A  n Introduction to the Soft Skills Module and Its Courses Both industries and academics claim that soft skills are some of the most critical factors that gauge the applicant’s success on the job and retain a position (Adecco Staffing USA, 2013; Nealy, 2005). For example, the National Soft Skills Association (2015) culled data from an early twentieth century Carnegie Foundation in the United States concluded that 85% of the job related to soft skills. Similarly, Robles (2012) found that most job success relies on employees’ soft skills and is most critical for the adolescent and early adult populations (Lippman et al., 2015). Yet even though industries report the correlation between soft skills and workplace success, industries report that new employees lack the same skills. In the United States, the State of the Economy and Employment Survey (Adecco Staffing US, 2013) says that 44% of executives in the United States lack the soft skills necessary for success at work.6 In this context, Schulz (2008) noted that the German Engineering Association recommended that soft-skill instruction encompassed at least 20% of the curriculum 50 years ago. Research from the USA echoed these sentiments.7 Despite the importance of soft skills and their support by both industries and academic programs, two problems exist. Enterprises typically assume that the employee enters the workforce with the required skills. Second, students graduating 6  This failure of new employees to meet employee expectations has spurred investment for employees’ professional development in and by industries. The National Soft Skills Association (2015) reports that U.S. businesses dedicated more than 25% of the collective budget for employee soft skills training, for example. 7  At the national level, the International Youth Foundation in the United States provides training for work (Francis, 2012). This program teaches skills that are aimed to improve performance in a job interview. At the state level, Kentucky’s Work Ready program provides soft skill instruction to high school-age students. Kentucky also created a Soft Skills Certification for high school students. The program includes skills such as responsibility (Campbell, 2014). At the city-level, Sacramento, California school systems utilize student evaluations that show mastery of skills like collaboration in its soft skills curriculum (Robles, 2012).

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from secondary school lack training in soft skills (Levasseur, 2013). As Stovall and Stovall (2009) hypothesize, one reason for this is that students lack time to interact with adults in formal settings during their education. This means that students who accept internships and apprenticeships enter the work setting without soft skills needed to perform well on the job. Second, although employers repeatedly recognize and call for employees’ need to demonstrate soft skills, the lack of a universally recognized set of soft skills may be one reason they seldom find a place in curricula. In short, soft skill development and practice benefit all, yet individuals’ lack of skills and failure to offer a curriculum and subsequent soft-skill training in classrooms fail youth. This realization grounds the following section, that is, the third module. The soft skills presented in the next module are loosely based on the work of Levasseur (2013), who identified four distinct groups that are used in this work: personal skills (such as communication; critical thinking; goal setting; integrity; optimism; problem-solving; and self-advocacy); interpersonal skills (such as adaptability; decision making; and time management; and empathy); group skills (such as independence; resilience; teamwork; work ethic), and organizational skills (such as creativity; time management).8 The soft skills presented in these courses could be used in educational programs and industries as part of the Community Works model. Communication Communication provides a fundamental underpinning for soft skills (Levasseur, 2013) and fundamental during adolescence (Erozakn, 2013). Students (and adults) utilize two sets of skills – receptive and expressive language skills – in the communication process. Receptive and expressive language requires individuals to engage and process information in different ways. Receptive language refers to the ability to understand information input. For example, that which is spoken requires one’s ability to understand the spoken word and remember it long enough to process it. On the other hand, expressive language refers to expressing oneself in verbal and written forms. It includes the ability to know the vocabulary and create a logically oriented passage of speech or text. The communication course is divided into two sections. The first part of the course’s curriculum includes listening exercises whereby students develop short-­ term memory skills and learn to ‘read’ the speaker for intent. The second part of the course requires the learner to engage in situations, relate to them, and respond to them using listening and verbal and written communication skills. Resume Writing and CV Writing The resume and the curriculum vitae (CV) provide different but complementary types of information that potential employers use to create a list of exceptional applicants for follow-up interviews. In the first part of the course, students learn about the differences between the two documents. Next, participants identify documents required for a variety of fields and styles of writing them. In the final part of

 See Adams, 2012; Balcar, 2014; Bray, 2015; Crosbie, 2005; Isaacs, 2016; & Khasanzyanova, 2017 for more on this.

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the course, students write, revise, edit, and ‘publish’ different types of resumes and CVs that relate directly to the jobs that they would like to obtain. Job Interviewing I In some cases, youth maintain unrealistic and unclear understandings about a career path choice and that path’s relationship to job opportunities for them. This course employs the “professional informational interview” model, which helps students explore jobs that align with their interests and personalities. The model provides a way to educate students about various career fields (Crosby, 2002, 2010; https:// www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01488376.2018.1532943 accessed on Dec. 27, 2019). After mock interviews, students reflect on the interview, thus gaining information about the industry, which may lead to a formal interview with a company in that field and a potential job in the future.9 Job Interviewing II Once the student narrows interest in a particular industry, field, and possibly with a specific company, additional opportunities for interviewing can provide the student with guidance for a successful interview in that field. The course offers a variety of role-play exercises whereby students serve in both employer and potential employee roles. Using a set of questions to guide the conversation, students learn about expected behaviors during an interview, including appropriate dress, and practice answering content-specific questions. They also develop a set of questions to ask the future employer. For example, students develop questions about expectations once in the position, potential workplace challenges, and specialized training required for the job. After the series of mock interviews, students reflect on the process. Collaboration Chandler-Olcott and Hinchman (2019) suggest that synergies enable individuals to share understandings and, in so doing, develop new ideas. Youth benefit from such experiences when they engage in active, collaborative, and experiential environments (Cao et al., 2009; Twenge, 2006). Successful accomplishment of this benefit does not occur automatically. It requires instruction in collaboration. Collaboration refers to the act of shared communication. It guides both online and in-person collaboration skills by utilizing written and verbal communication strategies, respectively. It teaches group participation skills, such as leading and participating in paired, small group, and large group activities. Goal and Objective Setting Goals and objectives provide adolescents with a structure to accomplish academic and professional aims. Instruction in goal and objective setting enhances adolescents’ cognitive development; its effects continue through the individual’s life span 9  Man and Lun (2020, p. 131) found these exercises helpful. They examined the “…impact of an informational interview assignment on students’ understanding of the human services field and their educational and career plans.” They found that the exercise helped students to “…gain an understanding of the field; increase their attitude toward the field; and refine their educational and career goals.”

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(e.g., see Bandura, 1997). Numerous theories shed light on goal and objective setting effects in heightened self-efficacy and positive social networking (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). This course helps students to develop both goals and objectives. It defines goals as general statements of overarching aims. Students create both performance goals (which correspond to one’s desire to improve, increase or change behavior) and mastery goals (related to job-related task-specific activities). Students also create objectives that are related to their goals. Objectives refer to tangible, specific, measurable, realistic, and time-defined strategies related to each goal. The course also requires students to monitor the accomplishment of their performance and mastery goals and objectives. Work Ethics Work ethic refers to the belief that one’s participation in and for the work environment contributes to the individual’s self-worth as a professional community member. This course includes discussions of appropriate behaviors that demonstrate a positive work ethic for employees. It uses case studies and discussion to grapple with conditions, circumstances, and situations where work ethic is tested. It includes conversations on but not limited to: taking responsibility to honor a contract that provides a job description, making individual and shared contributions about the required responsibilities associated with the position, and attempting to plan for future contributions for the organization’s good. It also includes developing a contract that provides a visual review of the student’s commitment to particular goals and enables tracking completion. Organizational Skills Organization is the act of coordinating elements to maximize efficiency. This course examines five concepts and relates each to the adolescent. First, time management is a self-regulation skill that enables the success of the attempt. Second, plans for the short- and long-term empowers the individual to assign time to accomplish the desired objectives. Third, schedules realize the short- and long-term goals in tangible, marked periods. Fourth, the organization of resources, including but not limited to virtual and non-virtual ones, maximizes efficiency. Fifth, the management of tasks sets priorities of importance. Like the work ethic course, this course offers various strategies for students to use tools to develop and use effective organizational strategies. Professional Skills Professionalism refers to the achievement of competencies and demonstration of behavior in formal settings. This course discusses professionalism for and at the job for adolescents. It includes discussing knowledge sets required in industries and improving skill sets in areas below administratively set expectations. Students learn about professional associations that guide fields’ accreditations and certifications, continuing professional development courses, and industry-related events such as conferences and trade shows.

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Critical Thinking This course focuses on critical thinking through its five elements: identification and interpretation; analysis; evaluation; inference; and findings and explanation of a given situation. Students participate in activities related to each of the following elements—identification and interpretation include the unbiased recognition of a situation or problem and its description. Analysis requires examining ideas, identifying arguments, and the expressed resultant similarities and differences. The evaluation includes the formulation of ranking based on the pre-determined criteria. Inference consists of forming hypotheses and deducing conclusions based on the presented material. Explanation calls on communication skills to explain (or justify) results given contextual, theoretical, methodological, logical, and artistic foundations.

10.6  Design for Delivery of Instruction Students develop hard and skills in various ways in a program. The hard-skills curriculum provides instruction in academic tasks that meet the adolescent preparing to enter the workforce and those that s/he needs to excel once in it. The soft-skill curricula require instructors to teach about real-world situations and appropriate humanistic responses to those situations. In both cases, students participate in a variety of educational experiences. The design for the delivery of both hard and soft skill curricula requires purposeful attention. The following section focuses on the plan for the delivery of instruction. The courses in each of the modules provide a wide range of possibilities and a mix-and-match approach for a curriculum adapted to any workforce education program’s needs. Yet, whereas classroom teachers understand both curriculum and instruction, professionals in companies who work directly with middle and secondary schools and vocational colleges and universities are not. Therefore, a collaborative partnership between the professionals in educational and industrial locations offers training for the professionals to provide a sound educational experience for adolescents in the work setting. The following section provides a design for instruction that can be used by Community Works administration and industry professionals as they plan and implement Community Works for their particular community.

10.6.1  Teaching Methods Teaching methods are “… theoretically justified and empirically tested modes of action” that are used to accomplish the goals and aims of the educational plan (Kramar, 2009 in Zupančič, 2018, p. 120). Educational programs typically employ both student-focused and instructor-focused teaching methodological approaches. In student-focused methods, the adolescent student assumes either the facilitator’s

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crucial role or a supportive contributor to the activity. One example of a student-­ focused teaching method is the “problem-and-solution” approach. The problem-­ and-­solution approach requires students to work in groups to resolve complex dilemmas (Allen et al., 2011). In cases where students work in pairs and groups, both individual and group assessments and evaluations record completion of both individual and group goals and objectives. Another example is project-based learning (Musa et al., 2012). This approach to instruction includes hands-on or practical experience on the job (Levasseur, 2013). The project-based learning approach helps students participate in a meaningful learning process (Musa et al., 2012). On the other hand, instructor-focused methods emphasize information transmitted by the instructor to the student (Stes & Van Petegem, 2014).10 In this case, direct instruction is often used. Although not the most effective instruction method, it is the easiest because the instructor commands the audience and manages the information transmitted. Students in the course remain passive participants in the learning process. Whether student- or instructor-focused, Boud et al. (1993) explains the tenants of effective instruction particularly appropriate for the workplace. A general guide concerns active engagement. The first tenant is reflection. A personal reflection of the experience creates meaning for the individual. A group reflection improves group dynamics and function. Critical reflection enables the examination of the situation and a response to it. For example, a problem-solving activity in the classroom or a real-life situation at work requires the ability to identify elements, consider relationships between and amongst them, and offer suggestions to resolve the problem. For example, Mulligan (1993) suggests differentiating reflective practices such as reasoning improves students’ ability to process information that uses that reflective process. A second tenant refers to experiences in the classroom. Playing roles in the cooperative learning group, for example, enable the adolescent to practice self-initiation skills. In this case, success assumes both facilities with language (and vocabulary) and the social setting’s many and varied norms. The third tenant is activities in authentic social environments that include diverse sets of linguistic practices, cultural norms, and individual values. For example, instructors in Australia used cooperative learning practices particular to the work setting that required interpersonal skills to teach leadership. As a result, students reported higher confidence levels and a heightened sense of empathy (Dyson & Plunkett, 2012). These general ideas provide an essential foundation for specific examples related to both the school and the work experience. The concepts of School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) and Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE) provide two separate but equally essential strategies for instruction. The next section of this chapter revisits the two concepts of School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) and Work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE) to show their applicability in the curriculum design and delivery in terms of peers, cliques, and small groups.  These methods typically include and are limited to lectures. Decades of academic research reveals the prevalence of but limited usefulness of this technique. Industries typically utilize this approach, especially in workshops and training sessions, and, hence, important to recognize here.

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10.7  The Organization of SBLEs Educational programs offer instruction in both hard and soft skills. Instructors use a variety of techniques to engage students in the learning process. Regardless of the extent to which programs standardize curricular goals and objectives, students benefit from School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE) that capitalize on the peer group’s importance in youth lives. SBLEs refers to in-school academic instruction in both hard and soft skills. Advocated by educational professionals but not guaranteed in everyday practice, a curriculum (either teacher-centered or student-­centered) outlines content-specific courses that align with hard skills (e.g., reading, writing, and math) to meet the standards that are required by an educational program’s accrediting body. In the case of Italy and China, the respective governments provide guidelines for this content. In the USA’s case, the Common Core and a professional organization’s standards provide both scope and sequence of necessary skills that guide curricular design. But SBLEs are not limited to the curriculum and instruction that are commonly discussed in the literature. This work extends that body of research by focusing on the peer’s importance in the adolescent’s life and positions that relationship within the teaching setting. This section begins by reviewing the importance of friends and friendships. Next, it offers the advantages of designing groups with students’ peers in mind. Finally, it addresses ways that small group instruction can be designed to meet the adolescent learner’s needs by considering both peers and friends’ role.

10.7.1  Peers as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery The educational experience can be one of the most compelling social experiences in the life of an adolescent. We know that adolescents spend more time in the company of youth their age than adults. Therefore, this situation behooves us to examine adolescents’ social experience and adapt it for use in the academic setting to maximize student learning. The experience offers opportunities to develop knowledge and skills useful (and required) for a future career (Kimmel & Weiner, 1985). Friendship refers to a mutual, voluntary relationship between two people. Friendships provide the possibility of acceptance for others, validation of meaningful relationships, and satisfaction for all involved in the relationship. Positive friendships are especially important during adolescent development, especially when transitioning from childhood to adulthood. Levitt et al. (1993) found that adolescents believe that friendships offer chances for long-lasting relationships that are more egalitarian than those that they can have with adults, such as parents and teachers (Kimmel & Weiner, 1985, p. 376). Youth engage in more intense relationships with friends during the teen years than in any other time of life. Today, youth engage in both in-person and virtual friendships. In-person friendships refer to adolescents’ relationships in a shared

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physical space such as in school or at work. On the other hand, virtual friendships refer to relationships created through an online venue, such as many social media platforms and tools. Whereas in both cases, self-disclosure enhances individuals’ social connectedness and general well-being, Kraut et al. (2002) found that online communication increases (rather than decreases) social connectedness. Because adolescents positively correlate self-disclosure with quality friendships, the increased level of self-disclosure in the online social space could be related to the quality of friendship and its continual formation (McKenna & Bargh, 2000; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).

10.7.2  Cliques as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery Cliques refer to small groups of similarly aged individuals, sometimes of the same sex, who share a common interest in an activity or friendship.11 For adolescents, the clique provides the primary social space for adolescents to interact. Cliques have various levels of acceptance. Some cliques welcome outsiders more readily than others. Yet, no matter the level of acceptance, one common characteristic amongst all cliques is that they believe that they know each other better than those not in the clique (Steinberg, 2017). How do youth develop cliques? First, research suggests the tendency for adolescent groups to exhibit homophily. Friends form peer groups as a source of identity and reinforcement. Those strong social connections, created by sharing common characteristics and communicating regularly, provide the foundation for a tightly-­ knit group.12 Second, youth both influence and select individuals to form peer groups (Cohen, 1977; Kandel, 1978 in Broderick & Blewitt, 2003). They frequently interact with one another (Steinberg, 2017). The cliques’ homogeneous construction maintains substantial control over individuals in the group (Cohen, 1977; Kandel, 1978 in Broderick & Blewitt, 2017). In other words, socialization provides a space to support common ideas, engage in shared activities, and influence each other over time. This socialization holds positive (and negative) implications for learning. The group influences the adolescent in two ways. First, the group maintains significant influence in the development of the adolescent’s self-development. For example, its impact affects self-perception, self-awareness, creativity, and self-­ efficacy (Birkeland et al., 2014; Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011; Dijkstra & Veenstra, 2011 in Steinberg, p.  133). Erozakn (2013) found social self-efficacy correlated with communication skills in small groups for high school students. He also found that high school students’ social self-efficacy within the group resulted in positive problem-solving approaches and increased self-confidence and willingness to solve

11 12

 Typically 3–12 individuals define this type of social relationship.  Similar dress by members of a peer group (or clique) provides one example of this.

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interpersonal problems. Second, the influence of the group affects participation in social spaces. For example, involvement in positive supervised activities that are highly organized enrich socially acceptable behaviors for everyone in the group. As a result, the group attracts those interested in the demonstrated actions and, thus, promotes healthier activities (influence) (Broderick & Blewitt, 2003), which, in part, are based on communication skills (Arends et al., 2011).

10.7.3  S  mall-Groups as an Organizational Strategy for Delivery Small groups offer chances for peers to influence and support the learning of each other.13 Small group instruction addresses the adolescent learner’s needs by purposefully pairing friends and assembling positive peer groups and cliques. Research suggests that by the start of adolescence, peer collaboration based on experience within the group leads to group cohesiveness (Tolmie et al., 2010). As adolescents engage in group work (with peers that have been purposefully selected to participate in the group), they can develop this type of cohesiveness. This, in turn, may contribute to their ability to work in teams and ability to effectively problem solve. Theorists agree that individuals’ cognitive and social processes function simultaneously and ensure effective group instruction (e.g., Leman, 2015; Leman & Björnberg,  2010). According to Slavin (1996), an individual benefits from group interaction and collaboration with other group members by offering additional information and resources that contribute to the learning process. Students placed in teams based on interests, for example, yield higher achievement than those randomly placed on teams. Abrams et al. (2004) found that in-group dynamics play a significant role in knowledge acquisition and understanding. In other words, youth’s collaborative processes with their peers in small-group settings advance understanding (Baines & Howe, 2010). One strategy, cooperative learning, offers specific insights into the process. Cooperative learning provides one example of a small-group instructional approach for effective instruction (Motaei, 2014; Terenzini et al., 2001). A set of roles (and their description) assigned by the instructor provides the guidelines for the students’ tasks in the given group. The instructor or facilitator purposefully assigns individuals to a collaborative group (and there may be several in the specified classroom or workspace functioning simultaneously) based on the assignment’s role requirements. Projects should be related, so the final product is based on completing each element of the assignment. Evaluation measures the achievement of the group members and the group. Collaborative learning activities require a more complex evaluation system by their

 A variety of teaching techniques are effective for adolescents’ learning (e.g., see Robinson et al., 2013).

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very nature than a graded assignment that is completed solely by the individual. Two segments of evaluations prove necessary in this method of instruction. First, an individual evaluation judges and ranks the student’s performance as one group member. Second, a collaborative learning group evaluation judges and organizes the completed project. These two main elements each include two different and essential components that comprise the student’s grade.14 They have a grade for hard skills15 and soft skills.16 Individual hard skills refer to the individuals’ contribution to the academic content of the assignment. Soft skills refer to the individuals’ ability to work collaboratively with group members, including independence, resilience; teamwork; and work ethic. The formal or nonformal educational setting offers ideal opportunities for teachers and instructors to utilize the power of peer friendships in the learning process to facilitate immediate acceptance. In sum, learning hard and soft skills in the classroom and at work occur “…in the midst of action and dedicated to the task at hand” (Raelin, 1997). Both WBL and WIL contribute to the learning and acquisition of both soft and hard skills. Soft skills typically reinforce existing personal skills of human interaction and communication. Cooperation skills demonstrate one type of soft skill that is employed in the work setting. Regarding hard skill development, job-specific tasks may include both reading and math.17 They show finished products that require academic content that is assembled and presented. Industries recognize that the requirements to enter and be successful in the workforce continually change. Educational experts (including teams of policymakers, development specialists, and curriculum planners) and industries (and their professional organizations and leaders in the field) strive to respond to those changes, thus providing an appropriate education for youth in or soon to enter the workforce. Linking school and industry for both content and experiences using student-­ centered, experiential learning in small purposefully meet the individual’s educational needs and advance the field. Despite the awareness, attention, and subsequent actions to provide a sound education for and on the job for youth in soft and hard skills, today’s educational and industrial spaces require familiarity with and knowledge of technologies. The following section highlights the importance of technology in the education of adolescents in the workplace.

 In the cases where the skills include more than one element, a rubric should be developed for each element. 15  Hard skills include reading, writing, and/or math skills that the individual used to complete the project. 16  This includes but need not be limited to personal skills (such as communication; critical thinking; goal setting; problem-solving; and self-advocacy); interpersonal skills (such as adaptability; decision-­making; and time management; and empathy); and organizational skills (such as creativity; time management). 17  Reading a training manual or numerical reports both require literacy skills (Taylor, 2018). Higher-level positions that require simple (or complex) data analysis also require pre-existing math skills. 14

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10.8  The Importance of Technology Technological advancement has influenced educational systems and curricula throughout the world. For example, the twentieth and twenty-first centuries’ Industrial Revolution introduced a range of new technologies that integrated digital and physical engineering facets (Lauder et al., 2020). Digital Taylorism marked its initial phase (Brown et al., 2011). This phase included the simplification, codification, digitization, and globalization of information. The phase sought to disseminate information through industrial production and training (Bessen, 2015). In the second phase, industrial production and training innovations integrated artificial intelligence (AI). During this phase, industries have developed AI and incorporated it into platforms that play a central role in technological design and integration for production, distribution, and evaluation. While the phases of technical advancement have supplemented more traditional venues for learning, they are part of social, political, economic, and organizational factors as any educational system. Students use digital and physical elements of technology in studies in and for the work experience. At its most basic level, technologies provide the possibility of mobility that enables learners to engage in interaction in both local and remote environments, such as various locations in a school or the workplace, or between the school and the workplace (Abilock, 2001; Bitter & Pierson, 2005; Comeaux & Huber, 2001). Instructional technologies, including the tools such as interactive kiosks and handheld probe-ware, enable the transmission of information between and amongst parties in  local, regional, and international settings. For example, schools’ instructional technologies offer synchronous and asynchronous access for formal vocational school and nonformal program students (Hug et  al., 2005). Informal technology (IT) also defines applications of various forms of technology intended for information acquiring, storage, organizing, processing, presenting, and disseminating (Balint, 2003, pp. 211–213) most often in the work setting. In these ways, technologies help advance and realize the curriculum’s goals and objectives for the program (Ardoin, 2006; Clayton, 2003; Sobel, 2004) and productivity in the workplace. The umbrella of e-learning includes three functions. Early studies identified e-learning as online learning with the help of media (Eickhoff, 2008) and acquiring information through an application that consists of the internet (Döring, 2005). For example, workplace announcements are communicated through technology’s general use, no matter what the company chooses to use. Later, e-learning included both hardware and software to deliver content through a source of electronic media. For example, a course in technology hardware used in the company and software packages for various work functions enable and enhance productivity. AI provides another new horizon for educational and industrial use that offers potential for youth but and challenges for education and implementation in both academic and work environments.

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10.9  Conclusion Adolescents volunteer, intern part-time, engage in apprenticeships, and work full-­ time in any one of numerous sectors. They include employment in: agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors; mining, quarrying, and utilities; hotel and food services, transport, storage, and communications; manufacturing; construction; wholesale and retail merchandising; financial industries; real estate, insurance, and business services; health and social work; and public administration. Preparation for work in these industries require both formal and informal learning. The relationship between the two is a symbiotic one (Choi & Jacobs, 2011). Formal learning addresses theoretical and conceptual understandings. Informal learning provides opportunities to practice interactions in groups (Kim & McLean, 2014, p. 45). Skills in both fields equip youth with the tools they need to enter and succeed in the work setting.

References _____. (2017). Global employment trends for youth 2017: Paths to a better working future. International Labour Office. Abilock, D. (2001). Using technology to enhance student inquiry. In J. F. LeBaron & C. Collier (Eds.), Technology in its place: Successful technology infusion in schools (pp.  3–15). Jossey-Bass. Abrams, D., Hogg, M. A., Otten, S., & Hinkle, S. (2004). The social identity perspective: Intergroup relations, self-conception, and small groups. Small Group Research, 35(3), 246–276. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1046496404263424 Accardi, M.  T. (2013). From punitive policing to proactive prevention: Approaches to teaching information ethics in the college classroom. In M. Deyrup & B. Bloom (Eds.), Successful strategies for teaching undergraduate research (pp. 77–87). Scarecrow Press. Adams, C. J. (2012). Soft skills pushed as part of college readiness. Education Week, 32(12), 1–14. Adecco Staffing, USA. (2013, September 30). Lack of soft skills negatively impacts today’s U.S. workforce. Retrieved February 23, 2017, from https://www.adeccousa.com/ about-­adecco-­staffing/newsroom/pressreleases%20/lack-­of-­soft-­skills-­2013/ Allen, D. E., Donham, R. S., & Berhhard, S. A. (2011). Problem-based learning. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 128, 21–29. Ardoin, S. P. (2006). The response in response to intervention: Evaluating the utility of assessing maintenance of intervention effects. Psychology in the Schools, 43(6), 713–725. https://doi. org/10.1002/pits.20181 Arends, L., Kleingeld, A., & van Mierlo, H. (2011). The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(6), 1289–1304. https://doi. org/10.1037/a0024315 Baines, E., & Howe, C. (2010). Discourse topic management and discussion skills in middle childhood: The effects of age and task. First Language, 30(3–4), 508, 534. https://doi. org/10.1177/0142723710370538 Balcar, J. (2014). Soft skills and their wage returns: Overview of empirical literature. Review of Economic Perspectives, 14(1), 3–15. Balint, L. (2003). Didactica generala a educatiei fizice si sportului (pp.  104–111). Editura Universitatii Transilvania.

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Chapter 11

Using the Curricular Map: Developing Syllabi and Writing Lesson Plans for Community Works

Abstract  The process of planning and offering a successful educational experience relies on a purposely planned organization of materials. Syllabi provide information regarding the course, its requirements, and expectations. Lesson plans offer concrete guidelines for instruction. The chapter extends the curricular map by offering fundamentals of syllabi writing. It also provides approaches to lesson plan development, definitions of each section of the lesson plan, and suggestions for its content for students to employ both lower and higher-order thinking skills through the activities explained in it. Keywords  Curricular map · Syllabi · Modules · Courses

11.1  Planning to Implement the Curricular Map Curriculum mapping for Community Works refers to a structure for the decision-­ making process used to develop, plan, and execute course work for an enterprise. In this case, modules offer a range of types of courses. Curriculum mapping provides a valuable resource to plan the schedule of modules as companies evolve and recognize new bodies of knowledge, competencies, and skills that their employees require in the workforce. The following guiding questions provide human resource professionals in an organization with the first stop in Community Works’ curricular mapping. • Who should be included in meetings to discuss the educational advancement of employees? • If the group meetings occurred in the past, will they remain the same or change? If they change, how? • Can and should the meetings be conducted in-person? Or can they, or should they be achieved using an online format, especially if the industry wants or needs to connect individuals such as those from human resource offices from companies that are not located in close physical proximity to each other? If using an © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_11

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online format, what portal works best for all stakeholders? Will a combined approach to meetings offer the best opportunity to map the curriculum? Afterward, three considerations include the schedule, the grouping of learners, and the grouping of personnel. • Schedule (Schedule includes determining the specific dates, time, and place that the course(s) will take place. Also, a long-term plan for the module schedule provides instruction for the spring and the fall, for example.) • Grouping (Grouping refers to the determination of individuals in classes). Group learning centers in the community or classrooms in the work setting provide the physical space for classes. • Grouping of personnel (Grouping of personnel refers to teams and/ departments and the roles individuals play from each department.) This case requires two considerations. First, teams offer a tremendous resource to hear varied voices and make a collective decision when necessary.1 Second, problem-solving requires identifying the problem and selecting a group of people to solve it. (http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104011/chapters/Curriculum_ Mapping_as_a_Hub@_Integrating_New_Forms_of_Data,_Decision-­Making_ Structures,_and_Staff_Development.aspx accessed on Nov. 15, 2019).

11.2  The Syllabus The syllabus is the guide to ensure successful instruction. The syllabus, designed by the group-learning center instructor who is in charge of the course, and possibly in conjunction with the educational office and other industry professionals, is used by the instructor and provides a range of information. It includes but need not be limited to the following listed below.2 Detailed information about the course (This includes the facilitator’s name and contact information, the model title, the dates, and times that the course meets.) 1. Time Requirement (The organization or the accrediting body may determine this.) 2. Course Description (This is a short description of the course.) 3. Course Goals (Goals provide the overarching aims that the facilitator seeks to accomplish in the course. Goal statements may include verbs such as ‘understand’ and ‘seek.’) 4. Course Objectives (Objectives refer to specific, measurable actions that the course participant executes to demonstrate achievement of the goal. Objective statements may include verbs such as create, discuss, or report, for example.)  This assumes that the members of the teamwork effectively and efficiently with each other.  The order of this material may be different depending on the instructor who wrote it and/or the institution that uses it. 1 2

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5. Required Materials required for the course. (This may include a textbook, documents, a notebook, or equipment such as safety goggles) 6. Attendance to earn credit for the course. (A statement about the make-up of missed work may also be included here.) 7. Course assignments (Assignments include both in-class and out-of-class activities that result in a submitted product. The product may be used for the instructor to assess the course’s participants’ understanding and progress. The product may be used for evaluation. The resultant grading scale informs students of benchmarks for grades. A rubric for each assignment at the end of the syllabus offers course participants clear understandings related to each assignment’s grading.) 8. Assessment (A continual check for understanding. This facet of the teaching process enables the facilitator to understand both the number of participants who understand the material.) 9. Evaluation (Evaluation refers to a numerically graded outcome that provides the individual with a numerical rank compared against the published scale. It also ranks participants in order of achievement.) 10. Supplemental resources (Supplemental resources may include but need not be limited to books, manuals, articles, online materials, equipment, and websites that offer information specific to the course.) 11. Rubrics for Assignments (Rubrics refer to the specific information that defines each element of the assignment and how it will be graded.)

11.3  Lesson Plan Development Two United States-based professional organizations offer helpful information for lesson plan development. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD), a professional organization for curriculum and administration in education, provides general information to lesson planning. The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) recommends that the lesson plan’s design includes the awareness of integral considerations. Although some endorse a step-by-step process to write the plan, the following offers a list of factors contributing to a well-developed lesson plan. Instead of a strict and fixed procedure for this purpose, the index provides essential information for the syllabus. Part 1 of Lesson Plan Development • Describe the rationale for the lesson and a purpose. • Identify participants’ prior knowledge. • Determine goals (consider institutional standards such as a state or professional organization that may be required to use in the plan) and create specific objectives for each goal. • Consider and plan for relevant links to real-life situations.

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Part 2 of Lesson Plan Development • Understand key concepts, including vocabulary. • Identify possible misconceptions. Part 3 of Lesson Plan Development • • • •

Include a variety of meaningful activities. Include assessments that check for understanding. Include time to practice. Conclude the lesson in an obvious manner.

Ullman (2011) offers another perspective on the lesson planning process. It enables the facilitator to plan for instruction and a guide as the lesson progresses (http://www.ascd.org/publications/newsletters/education-­u pdate/oct11/vol53/ num10/How-­To-­Plan-­Effective-­Lessons.aspx). The eight steps for planning effective lessons: • Identify the purpose of the lesson. • Select relevant and purposeful activities. (Activities that directly relate to the objectives provide the best chance for achieving the course goals.) • Select relevant and purposeful in-class and out of class assignments. (Industry-­ specific activities and projects heighten engagement and learning because of direct application to the work setting.) • Create space for participant thinking and discussion. (In this case, the facilitator must ensure a safe space for conversation between and amongst course participants. After the safe, comfortable/accepting space has been created, facilitators ask open-ended questions that provide the chance for discussion. Depending on the lesson, that discussion can occur between a pair of people, a small group, or half the class for a debate activity, for example. • Incorporate participant interests into lessons. (Particularizing content based on industry-specific information related to the adolescent yields greater participant interest because the course content refers to the job in the workplace.) • Encourage participants to think deeper. (Planning instruction by scaffolding using questions that are based on Bloom’s taxonomy and assigning participants in heterogeneous groups, for example, offer participants the chance to think deeper. Heterogeneous groups may be fundamental in this setting because junior and senior employees will possess a different skill set. Whereas senior colleagues have obtained more technical knowledge from experience in the industry, for example, youth may possess greater technological skills and expertise based on their use and familiarity of tools.) • Make time for reflection on learning. In-class activities and out-of-class homework offer a chance to contemplate that which was presented and learned. (Reflection can be accomplished through conversations that begin with a guiding question.) • Refine lessons based on feedback. (Most of the guidelines above refer to the facilitator-initiated practices. In this case, module participants can offer valuable

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feedback for the instructor throughout and at the end of the course. The facilitator requests feedback to improve class sessions.)

11.4  Alignment of the Plan: Starts with Goals and Objectives Alignment provides the critical link between the course’s plan, the course’s goals and objectives that drive instruction, the learning activities that support that instruction, the assessments that gauge understanding, and the evaluations that measure knowledge. The critical start to lesson planning includes the construction of goals and objectives. The goal refers to an overarching aim.3 This text uses this definition to differentiate it from objectives, measurable criteria that demonstrate mastery of the goal.4 Goals form the structural foundation for an entire course or a curriculum of study. A course goal refers to an overarching statement of intent. For example, the intent can be to “understand.” Yet how do we know that one “understands”? We recognize understanding through the objective. Objectives provide tangible evidence that demonstrates how students achieved or mastered the goal. Objectives serve two purposes. First, they provide a specific description of the intended outcome through a particular means. Second, they provide the criteria for a minimum standard. For example – the student will participate in a debate by offering five pros and cons of the argument in a logical, sequential presentation of the facts during the 15-minute presentation. Mager’s guide, Preparing Instructional Objectives (1962), was among the first resources used by instructors in the United States to formulate and write objectives. Writing meaningful objectives requires knowledge of the subject matter, including vocabulary needed. Moreover, internal and external consistency with that body of content structures the lesson plan’s meaningful design. Internal consistency refers to scaffolding learning. Lesson plans that use Bloom’s taxonomy create a leveled progression of activities. External consistency refers to a qualitative or quantitative description of mastery. In this case, the type or number of desired outcomes are indicated. The internal and external consistency of the learning objective includes three parts. The condition of the action is the first facet. The verb that describes the action is the second facet. The third facet contains the criteria. Criteria refer to the degree to which the participant must perform, thus demonstrating an acceptable level of accomplishment. For example, given a list of the 20 vocabulary terms that were 3  Numerous resources refer to goals and objectives synonymously. This work differentiates the terms goal and objective. 4  The facilitator or instructor may choose to use only goals or objectives in lesson planning. In this case, either must include measurable items that can demonstrate mastery of content and should include a minimal level/rate/rank of proficiency to determine the passing score for the assignment or course.

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used in the first three class sessions (condition), the participant will define (verb) at least fifteen accurately (criteria). A more in-depth description of each follows.

11.4.1  The Condition The condition is a statement that specifies the circumstances and commands. The conditions part of an objective usually begins with a simple declarative statement such as the following: Upon request, the participant will … (this means the participant is given an oral or written request to do something). The condition can also begin with a statement. For example, given the advancement of technology use amongst youth, junior employees in the course will… This approach (that is, the condition) offers a context for the objective.

11.4.2  The Verb The verb in a learning objective describes the behavior executed in the activity(ies). A behavioral verb refers to an observable action. Three examples of behavioral verbs are recall, select, and explain. If embedded in a statement, the participant links the two actions. For example, “[S]tate the law of freezing point depression and demonstrate it in an experiment.” In this case, the behavior (demonstration) is contextual (within the law of freezing point depression). Sometimes called a learning verb, the action verb is the most important part of a learning objective. The action verb explicitly states what a participant will be able to do following the instructor’s instructions. The following provides a list of examples of verbs and ideas for activities for each. This entire list of verbs and their descriptions come directly from http://www.adprima.com/wlo5.htm (accessed on Jan. 2, 2020). The list is not exhaustive; it merely provides some ideas for the instructor or facilitator. This list supplements Bloom’s Taxonomy list of verbs for objective writing (adapted from http://www.adprima.com/wlo5.htm. Accessed on Jan. 2, 2020). CLASSIFY: To arrange items into categories according to defined criteria for each category. COMPOSE: To create in written, spoken, or artistic form. CONSTRUCT: To make a drawing or model that identifies a designated object or set of conditions. DEFINE: To specify necessities for an object, word, or situation in a category or class. DEMONSTRATE: To act in written, verbal, theatrical, or musical form. DESCRIBE: To name all the necessary categories of objects, object properties, or event properties relevant to the description of a designated situation.

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DIAGRAM: To construct a labeled drawing with a specified organization or structure to demonstrate that organization’s knowledge or design. DISTINGUISH: To identify between existing conditions. ESTIMATE: To guess the dimension of an object or series of objects without applying a standard scale or measurement. EVALUATE: To classify and rank objects, situations, people, and conditions, according to defined criteria of quality. IDENTIFY: To select of an object of a class in response to its class name by pointing, picking up, underlining, or marking. INTERPRET: To translate information through data analysis in terms of observation, charts, tables, graphs, or other written material. LABEL: To stipulate a response to a given object, drawing, or composition that contains information relative to the known but unspecified structure of the items, pictures, or pieces. LOCATE: To stipulate the position of an object or event to other specified objects, places, or events. MEASURE: To apply a measuring device to an object, series of things, or events according to practices accepted by those skilled in using the device or scale. NAME: To supply a title in oral or written form for an object, class of things, persons, places, conditions, or events. ORDER: To place two or more items or events per stated criteria. PREDICT: To apply a principle to assume an outcome or to infer some consequence. REPRODUCE: To recreate an item previously presented. SOLVE: To determine a solution to a problem. STATE A RULE: To issue a declaration that communicates the meaning of a rule. TRANSLATE: To transcribe one symbolic form to another maintaining the same or similar meaning.

11.4.3  The Criteria The criteria refer to a statement that specifies how well the participant must perform the behavior. For example, will the participant define at least 60% of the vocabulary accurately? Will s/he classify given information into five categories based on a theoretical framework studied in the course? The following offers section of the chapter provides ideas for inclusion in the lesson plan.5

5  The syllabi that follow will offer a slightly different format to demonstrate other options for the information included in the syllabus.

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11.5  The Parts of the Lesson Plan 1. DESCRIPTIVE FRONT-PAGE INFORMATION: A lesson plan’s descriptive data includes information that identifies details about the course. Information includes the name of the course, the instructor’s name, and its purpose. 2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES: Goals have been defined in different ways. This book describes goals as overarching aims that provide an umbrella for the main ideas that the facilitator seeks to teach in the module. Objectives refer to the action that participants demonstrate that can be objectively measured to indicate achievement. 3. RATIONALE: The rationale refers to explaining why the course is essential to the participant’s professional development. It may include a certification requirement or a professional development opportunity for employees to develop knowledge and skills that are not required but helpful for the job. 4. MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT: Materials and equipment include instructional supplies and resources such as books, internet links, handouts, and other supplies or equipment necessary to accomplish the lesson objectives. The number of each material ensures that the instructor is adequately prepared for all the course participants. 5. PROCEDURE: The lesson plan’s procedure section refers to the specific steps to execute the module’s instructional activities.6 It includes a systematic list of actions that the facilitator takes throughout each instructional period. It consists of an introduction to the course, the lesson’s activities, and a conclusion that typically summarizes the lesson goal and objectives and the participants’ understanding. The following table provides a source of information that relates to verbs for goal and objective writing and links to the lesson plan’s procedure section that will include the activities in which the students engage (Table 11.1). 6. ASSESSMENT: Assessment does not need to be included in every lesson plan, but when it is, it details how the facilitator will check for understanding (that are not assigned a point value to determine the rank of achievement of the participants). 7. EVALUATION: Evaluation does not need to be included in every lesson (plan), but when it is, it details the valuation of the material learned. In conclusion, high-quality planning of curricula and implementation of lesson plans requires alignment. Four main steps help to create an aligned learning environment. First, the team determines courses within each module that need to be taught and plans an implementation schedule to offer them. Second, the facilitator must link goals and learning objectives within the course that correspond to its description. Third, the facilitator uses a lesson plan template to develop exciting and meaningful lessons based on the course description, goals, and objectives with a

6  Some lesson plans also require the instructor to write the students’ expected or anticipated outcomes of those instructions.

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Table 11.1  Bloom’s taxonomy and lesson planning Bloom’s taxonomy of six levels of cognition That which is accomplished Knowledge recognizing or recalling information from memory

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Action/Learning verbs that the facilitator uses in the objectives cite, count, choose, complete, cite, define, describe, identify, indicate, list, locate, match, name, quote, recall, recite, recognize, select, sequence, state, tell, write demonstrating understanding change, classify, convert, defend, describe, discuss, estimate, expand, explain, generalize, infer, interpret, paraphrase, predict, recognize, retell, summarize, & translate adapt, apply, calculate, catalogue, chart, carrying out or using a procedure through executing, compute, consolidate, demonstrate, develop, discover, dramatize, exhibit, or implementing modify, operate, participate, perform, plan, predict, relate, show, simulate, solve, interview, produce, role-play, show, sketch, use, utilize. breaking material or concepts analyze, categorize, characterize, classify, compare, contrast, correlate, debate, into parts, determining how deduce, diagram, differentiate, discover, the parts relate or interrelate to one another or to an overall discriminate, extrapolate, group, identify, illustrate, infer, inquire, organize, outline, structure or purpose relate, separate, subdivide arrange, assemble, categorize, classify, putting elements together to form a coherent or functional combine compile, compose, constitute, whole; reorganizing elements compose, conclude, construct, create, into a new pattern or structure design, develop, devise, diagnose, through generating, planning, formulate, generate, integrate, invent, organize, justify, modify, predict, produce, or producing re-arrange, reconstruct, revise, synthesize validate appraise, argue, assess, choose, compare, making judgments based on criteria and standards through conclude, consider, contrast, criticize, decide, discriminate, estimate, evaluate, checking and critiquing explain, interpret, judge, justify, predict, rank, rate, recommend, relate, revise, standardize, support, validate

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plan for the activities therein. Finally, the facilitator must create and use an evaluation that accurately and objectively measures achievement.

References Mager, R. R. (1962). Preparing instructional objectives: A critical tool in the development of effective instruction (3rd ed.). Center for Effective Performance. Ullman, E. (2011). How to plan effective lessons. The Education Update, 53(10). Accessed at http://www.ascd.org/publications/newsletters/education-­update/oct11/vol53/num10/How-­ To-­ Plan-­Effective-­Lessons.aspx

Chapter 12

Teaching Strategies for Module Instruction

Abstract  Effective instruction enables youth to function in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains that will lead them toward achieving the pre-established goals and objectives of the course. The cognitive domain refers to performing actions that involve thinking or thinking-related actions. The affective domain requires learners to make an emotional judgment. The physical domain refers to psychomotor skills and consists of performing physical activity. This chapter aims to present teaching strategies that engage students in each of these domains for each course. Like the modules and the courses therein, the teaching strategies here provide a mix-and-match opportunity to execute purposeful, meaningful lesson plans for course participants. It ends with tips for grouping students to achieve effective instruction. Keywords  Curriculum design · Curriculum mapping · Curriculum planning · Learning · Cognitive domain · Affective domain · Physical domain · Psychomotor domain · Teaching strategies

12.1  Introduction Students’ learning domains should guide all instructional choices. The cognitive domain refers to performing actions that involve thinking or thinking-related actions. The affective domain requires learners to make an emotional judgment. The physical domain refers to psychomotor skills and consists of performing physical activity. For the students to function in these domains, instructors use teaching strategies that lead the learner’s thinking in an organized, purposeful way to meet the course’s pre-established goals and objectives. This chapter aims to present teaching strategies that can be integrated into a course by the instructor for the participants and tips for their use in the Community Works model. Like the model’s modules, the teaching strategies presented in this chapter provide a mix-and-match opportunity to execute purposeful, meaningful lesson plans for course participants.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_12

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12.2  T  wo Modes of Instruction: Passive-Participant Mode and the Active-Participant Mode 12.2.1  Passive-Participant Mode of Instruction Instructors plan activities that help to meet the needs of the participant in the instructional setting. It is a generally accepted belief that the purposeful selection of teaching methods enables student learning.1 Two distinct choices or modes of strategy exist. The first mode, the passive-participant mode (known as the didactic or traditional style), facilitates knowledge from one who knows to those who do not know. This strategy helps participants build on prior knowledge and obtain new knowledge, skills, and competencies through the instructor’s lead. The second mode is the active-participant mode. This mode is designed to help participants build on existing prior knowledge and obtain new knowledge, skills, and competencies through the student’s active participation in the lesson (instead of the passive listening role used in the passive-participant mode). Both modes of delivery benefit the learner. The strengths of the passive-­ participant mode include: (a) a significant quantity of content can be convened in a relatively short space of time; (b) the facilitator remains in control of the content that is presented2; (c) the facilitator determines the amount of time that is devoted to each part of the content; (d) the facilitator employs a non-threatening and confrontational approach; (e) an evaluation of learning outcomes relate to specific content enables teachers to gauge participant learning. However, weaknesses of the mode also exist. They include: (a) participants have little control over the pace of their learning; (b) participants engage superficially and passively; (c) the facilitator does not know the extent to which the participant understands the material, which prohibits change of pace of instruction; (d) students’ prior knowledge and understandings may not be made if a set curriculum is taught;

1  The terms learner, student, and participant are used synonymously here. The term student is more commonly used when referring to the person in the middle school, secondary school, vocational college or university setting, or non-formal classroom settings. The term participant is more commonly used to describe the worker in the professional development model. The terms are used synonymously here. 2  I use the terms facilitator and instructor synonymously.

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12.2.2  The Lecture (Passive Participation) The lecture has been one of the most popular teaching strategies teachers, instructors, and facilitators use. It remains an important strategy to impart information. The following list offers a set of tips for optimizing the benefits of the lecture (adapted from http://www.gmu.edu/resources/facstsaff/part-­time/strategy.html): (a) plan lectures with the audience in mind (that is, novice, intermediate, or advanced prior knowledge of the topic; age; interests, etc.); (b) focus on one topic per lecture. Develop a set of linked lectures if more than one topic needs to be covered; (c) provide the participant with an outline of several significant points that will be covered in the lesson before the lecture, thus enabling participants to follow along without reading the entire presentation; (d) allow time for notetaking, whether hard-copy or by the computer; (e) determine a way to organize the information and plan the lecture according to that idea (e.g., macroscopic/microscopic ideas; chronological, procedural, etc.) (f) use a “hook” (e.g., a cartoon, a graphic, a story, etc.) that immediately engages the listener in the lesson; (g) use examples or illustrations to explain the point. Consider the use of sans-serif font on all written slides for ease of reading; (h) use visuals to help the listener to follow the line of thought and presentation. In this case, integrate simple yet meaningful slides and accompanying data with bullet points to focus the listeners’ attention; (i) create a detailed and thoughtful plan for critical questions during the lesson. A short check-sheet lists items for an informal assessment of understanding; (j) plan to call on all participants. The facilitator may want to match the question’s type or complexity to the participant’s ability and knowledge. Even the most seasoned facilitators’ common mistake is to call on the first person who raises a hand. This practice permits others the time they need to process the question. It may result in the same person answering all the facilitator’s questions, thus not enabling equal participation amongst all participants in the module. (k) request feedback from participants on presentation: the pace of voice and overall lecture; clarity of voice; the level of engagement; clarity of main ideas; and number of examples (too few or too many) (l) consider affect during the presentation (How are you dressed? Is it appropriate for the venue and the audience? Are you an interesting speaker, indicated by a change of tone of voice, for example)? (m) notice how and the extent to which to engage with the audience. For example, how often are questions asked and when during the lecture? How is this managed? For example, do individuals spontaneously ask questions during the lecture? Or do they write their questions, send them to the facilitator (possibly electronically), and the facilitator answers them at the end of the session or the next course period?

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(n) review all responses for accuracy. When correct, praise appropriately. When incorrect, ask the question differently. Other strategies include acknowledging that part of the answer is correct. This strategy keeps the responder engaged and, at the same time, helps the learner understand that the entire answer was not complete. Acknowledging effort, then opening the question and answer to all participants enables the ability to get the correct answer from one or more participants.

12.2.3  The Demonstration (Passive-Participation) Another facilitated-centered mode of instruction is the demonstration. The purpose of the demonstration may include: (a) establishing problem recognition and identifying a solution to a problem; (b) bringing an individual in closer physical proximity to the lesson for observation purposes; (c) demonstrating a skill that the individuals in the course will replicate; (d) allowing participants an opportunity to participate in active learning; (e) reviewing material; Several important considerations should be made when incorporating the demonstration. The following list of tips will help to ensure success. (a) practice with all materials before the demonstration to ensure success. Practice provides assurance that the facilitator assembles, brings, and uses all necessary materials, equipment, etc. It also allows the facilitator to troubleshoot problems as they arise in practice sessions rather than when teaching. (b) plan to either give an objective to the participants or not. If an objective is given, revisit it periodically throughout the presentation. If the demonstration’s objective is not provided, a carefully, purposefully constructed set of questions that lead the participants to this conclusion (objective) should be made.3 If time and interest (of the facilitator) permit, two mini demonstrations of the same content can be presented, with one missing a critical element. Participants then, either as a group or individually, hypothesize which went “wrong” or what was “missing” during the demonstration. (c) consider the pace of the demonstration. For example, during the demonstration, allow for wait time for the participants to process what they see and hear. For

3  Some curricular approaches require the facilitator to include an objective for all students in the course to see immediately upon the start of the lesson. Other curricular approaches promote the idea of realization through the lesson. In this case, the students are not informed of the objective of the lesson at its start. Rather, the instruction should be organized so that the learner understands the main idea through the lesson’s activities.

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active engagement in the learning process, the facilitator asks the group the same questions about the method used to solve it. (d) consider steps for safety. If the demonstration includes safety issues, the facilitator must take steps to ensure safety. Measures include the assurance of safe space between the demonstration and the students, the number of participants in the room at the time, and the participants’ distance to the demonstration’s actual physical elements. Wearing safety goggles, using fire-safety equipment, and installing a protective piece of material between the demonstration table and the participants should be made when necessary. Both the lecture and the demonstration are teacher-/facilitator-led in which the learner assumes a passive role. A teaching strategy that requires more student involvement in the passive-participant mode is the case study.

12.2.4  Case Study (Passive Participation) Cases typically present a real-world situation in which a problem or situation calls for solutions. The case study method provides an opportunity for participants to apply theory and knowledge of a subject matter to a real-life experience. This teaching strategy engages participants to read a case, that is, a story that contains one or more main ideas or characters that relate to one of the topics in the course. The case poses a critical issue, question, or problem in the industry’s context in general, or the organization or the department within the organization. A case study can be created by the instructor or written by a publisher. When making an original case study, the instructor should ask the following questions during the planning process (adapted from http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/ guides-­sub-­pages-­case-­studies/). (a) What is the objective of the case? In other words, what does the instructor want the participants to learn? (b) What prior knowledge do the participants possess? That information should be written into the case as a starting point. (c) Is there any prior preparation that the participants need to complete before reading the case, discussing, and answering the questions in class? If so, when will the instructor inform the participants of this expectation? (d) How will the facilitator divide the students into groups to discuss the case? Homogenous groups? (Defined by what terms? e.g., age; years of experience in the organization, etc.) Heterogeneous groups? (Defined by what terms?) Also, number? Pairs? A group of three? Or four? And why? (e) Are there any directions that the course participants need before starting the case study activity? If so, have the directions been distributed to every group or group member? (f) How will the facilitator introduce the case?

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(g) What issues may be raised in the discussion after everyone reads the case? A guide, such as a set of questions to identify the problems, could be given to the participants. Questions may but need not be limited to the characters in the case, the dialogue between/amongst them, the issue(s) or the problem(s), and strategies to resolve it/them. (h) How much time will be devoted to the activity? Is it necessary to give the participants time to read or review the case before they discuss it? If so, how much? (i) Do the questions at the end of the case guide students to think about the problem or situation and solve it?4 Case studies offer three advantages to the learning experience. First, problem-based situations allow participants to assume roles and work through challenges that they are likely to incur in the work setting. Second, they also offer reflection and critical analysis of the situation, problem, or dilemma within the workplace’s cultural context by using theory or theoretical principles that are applied to the real-life experience after the case is acted out or discussed. Third, the case study provides a link in the curriculum between the Community Works program with the real-life workforce setting.

12.3  Active-Participant Mode of Instruction Whereas the passive-participant mode engages in the cognitive process, the active-­ participant mode adds activity to the facilitator’s collection of techniques for the course participant’s learning process. The seminal work of Bonwell and Eison (1991) defined teaching strategies that included students’ active participation as that which “… involve[es] students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing” (Bonwell & Eison, 1991, p. 7). There are numerous types of active-­participant modes of instruction. These are discussed in the following section.

12.3.1  Case Study (Active Participation) After students are familiar with the case study method (and possibly theory related to the facets of the case), they can create case studies for others to solve. This approach to case study personalizes the learning experience to a potential real-life situation. In this example, students work together to create a scenario and roles related to that scenario based on their present position in a company. Then, they create a text (written or spoken) that reflects the organization’s actual situation.

4  One example of a sample resource for instructors to create cases is https://vol10.cases.som.yale. edu/selco.

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Like the passive case study design, students engage with members of a small group to solve problems of the case by asking each other questions, debating solutions, and making predictions of the solutions’ potential success. As a result, they conclude and can share their findings with others to discuss similarities and differences in solving the “case” (Williams, 2010 in Gardner & Bartkus, 2014). The discussion requires students to talk about the case’s points, try to make sense of the situation posed, and resolve its tensions (Lee, 2012). But unlike the passive version of the case study method, this type of case study requires the students to create (write) the case. In short, the case study teaching strategy, often associated with problem-based learning, personalizes the learning process by reflecting on a purposefully planned case that could exist in the real-life environment. In business, a case study instructional strategy works well. For example, students can work on a case study that chronologically details a business’s success or failure. Students are guided (by the instructor’s pre-prepared list of questions distributed to the students prior to the start of the class period) to apply business principles learned in the course to solve the challenge presented in the case. The link between the real-world struggle and the tested theory of the topic equips students with the necessary materials to create hypotheses and make informed decisions about beneficial strategies to address the situation that the case presented.

12.3.2  Writing (Active Participation) Writing is another type of active assignment that holds great value. Five different types of writing activities offer opportunities for demonstration of mastery in both content and creativity. First, writing a story that positions the non-fiction topic as the main idea engages the writer by linking content knowledge with creative expression. Second, letters to political leaders such as a congresswoman or a less formal one to the local newspaper editor encourage students to make a passionate plea through communication with the written word. Third, an action plan that includes a summary of the situation or problem and a plan for action to address it engages the learner in understanding the problem and creating a workable solution. A research paper is the fourth way to engage the student in the study of a particular topic. In this case, the inclusion and analysis of credible sources provide a review of current literature in the field. The facilitator should guide the writing process. Relevant questions include: (a) What do students know about the writing process? For example, what is brainstorming? How does it contribute to the second stage, the draft? During the draft stage, are participants writing by hand or by a computer? Does it matter? Have they made positive changes to the piece of writing? In the revision stage, do module participants pair with another student to share and discuss work? Does the facilitator guide key points to be addressed in terms of both content

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and mechanics of each writer’s writing piece for the writing process’s revision stage? In the editing stage, does the participant create a new document to share? Finally, in what form does the facilitator require the published product? Is it printed from a computer? Is it offered in a verbal format? (b) Is time given during the course period to write? If so, how much time? If not, what stages, if any, are completed in the classroom? (c) Have the participants brainstormed viable venues for the publication of their works? For example, would they submit it to the department in which they work? Would it contribute to a company document that is being prepared? (d) Will the facilitator see the writing project through to completion/publication? Or is it enough to simply ask the students to draft and revise a manuscript without publishing it? Is this important? If so, why? If not, why?

12.3.3  Jigsaw (Active Participation) The jigsaw teaching strategy refers to an organizational teaching technique that focuses on reading and sharing. In the first part of the activity, the instructor assigns one article and divides it into a specific number of pieces. Each member of the class is assigned one role. That person reads the part, typically as an out-of-class assignment, and becomes an “expert” on the material included in that reading. Then, a small group of individuals who read that section form a group. They discuss the main points and refine that which they understood from that section. In other words, they become an “expert.” In the second part of the activity, most likely the next class period, the class is re-organized. The instructor (or facilitator) creates groups formulated with one person assigned to each part of the written piece. Then, in the appointed order of the reading, “teaches” the other group members the material/information that s/he obtained in that reading. By the end of the exercise, all group members have presented a section and understand the complete text. The activity culminates in completing the “jigsaw,” that is, the assemblage of all parts. Several questions that the facilitator may ask during this lesson plan stage includes: (a) What is the assigned reading? (b) How many parts should be used to analyze this piece? (c) How are participants assigned a particular part to read? Randomly? Purposefully? Why? (d) Will the participant be given guidelines for reading and, ultimately, the presentation? For example, does the facilitator need to review main ideas and supporting details with the course’s participants? Will a timeframe be determined for the presentation? (For example, will five minutes be enough time for the presenter to offer the summary of which s/he read and share it with the group?)

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(e) How will sharing be managed in the classroom? Is it timed? If so, by whom? Will there be questions asked at the end of the group’s presentations? If so, will those questions come from the group’s participants? Or will the facilitator ask questions of each group?

12.3.4  T  he Presentation: The Model or the Project (Active Participation) The model and project are two related instructional strategies that require students/ participants to engage actively in the course. The process to design, plan, create, and present the model and the project offers many chances to develop the final product. This strategy requires the course participants to locate, gather, and sort through the information needed to complete the work. Participants also must possess social skills to initiate in some cases, support in other cases, and consistently demonstrate collaborative teamwork. Several guiding questions help in the development of the lesson plan that uses this teaching strategy. They follow. (a) What are the goals and the objectives of the lesson? Do the objectives include the content solely? Do the objectives also include the physical artifact(s) that are used during the presentation? Will objectives also relate to the presentation skills of the presenter? (b) Will the facilitator determine the topic of the presentation? Alternatively, will the participant choose from a selection of ideas? If so, is a list of possible ideas presented to the groups for selection? Or are the groups required to determine their topic? And if so, will these topics be approved by the instructor? (c) Will the facilitator define the scope of the presentation? (e.g., roles for the participants, etc.) (d) How much time do participants have to develop the argument and practice its presentation? (e) How many minutes will participants have to make the presentation once in its final version? Will the creators discuss it or demonstrate it for the group, or simply present it for others to view? (f) Will the instructor provide materials, documents, etc., for the participants? Is there any restriction on the types included? If so, what are they? (g) Will the instructor or the students form groups? If so, how many? (h) If groups are made, will each participant assume a particular role? If so, what are those roles? (For example, will one person research for content? Will another person create the physical exhibit?)

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12.3.5  The Debate (Active Participation) The debate is an active-participatory teaching strategy that engages students in the cognitive process to develop an idea and its presentation. The following questions guide the facilitator’s plan for this instructional strategy. (a) Will the debate topic be determined by the facilitator? Will the participants choose the debate topic? (b) How many individuals will be on each side of the debate? (In other words, how many debate teams will be created? If there are more than two teams that debate, will each team debate the same topic? Or will there be various topics for each team?) (c) How much time will be necessary out of class time to create the arguments and presentation of the arguments? (d) Does the facilitator provide research that is used in the debate? And/or, do the participants collect information for the debate? Are there any guidelines for materials that can and cannot be used? If so, what are they? (e) Are roles assigned by the facilitator? Alternatively, do the participants determine their roles of timekeeper, mediator, etc. of the debate.) (f) Who defines the debate’s rules (the time for each side to present; immediate or delayed rebuttals; etc.?) (g) If there are multiple teams (and debates), is there ample physical space for course participants to gather to discuss? And if there is only one topic but numerous teams, is there enough space to adequately separate each group so that each group retains some degree of privacy when formulating their arguments?

12.3.6  Role-Playing (Active Participation) Role-playing is another active-participant teaching strategy that engages the learner. Role-playing activities include the learner in a realistic case that concerns a situation or a problem, its conditions, and circumstances. Through the act of representing a character in a real-life situation, learners recognize the numerous factors and forces at play in the roles concerning and solution for the scenario. The factors include but need not be limited to content knowledge of a subject, social skills and communication, and psychological awareness such as empathy to understand and resolve the issue. The activity can be especially enlightening when participants play roles that are opposite to a personal stance. The teaching strategy provides opportunities for the course’s participants to grapple with real-world topics, challenges, and actions in one of two ways – individual role-playing and interactive role-playing. Individual role-playing techniques include one person. Interactive role-playing techniques include more than one person. Both techniques can use structured and unstructured formats. In the structured sense, the facilitator creates and distributes

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scripts that include information about the lines spoken and acted out by the actor(s). The actor(s) study(ies) his/their roles. In the unstructured approach, the facilitator offers cards that contain ideas to the individual or the groups of individuals. The individual or group either pre-plans or spontaneously acts out a scene created from the card prompts. During this process, either the facilitator or group members determine the setting. Lines are reviewed (in the case of the structured format) or created (in the unstructured format.) After practice time, a presentation follows. The activity meets several goals. Role-playing activities help participants to become self-aware. Second, they allow participants to problem-solve. Third, they assist in the communication and teamwork processes (Blatner, 2002). Fourth, they help the presenter to gain the confidence to speak in front of a group. As a result, research indicates that participants are more likely to construct knowledge by creating understanding based on a problem-solving cognitive process than if they were passive recipients of an instructor’s lecture (Duveen & Solomon, 1994). Several tips provide the facilitator with ideas to plan meaningful role-play activities. (a) The facilitator decides if the individual, group, or both will be used in the activity. (b) The facilitator purposefully selects individuals for each part, whether the individual or group, depending on ability, personality, and previous work experiences that may (or may not) relate to the scenario that will be presented. (c) The facilitator creates the script or locates a publisher-made one for the participants. (d) The facilitator provides guidelines for preparing the presentation, including procedures for the time that each presentation will take. (e) The facilitator creates a set of guidelines for audience members, including preparing questions for discussion after the presentation. Role-playing, especially the group format, provides a steppingstone for the next instructional strategy, cooperative learning. It assigns a particular role and holds the participant responsible to complete the task associated with that role.

12.3.7  Cooperative Learning (Active Participation) Cooperative learning proves to be one of the most effective teaching strategies to help participants learn. It encourages students to participate, communicate, and collaborate in small groups to reach their goals. How? The facilitator assigns a learning activity that requires everyone in the group to produce an individual component of the activity related to the group project that will be the collective work outcome. The components, often assigned by the facilitator, relates to four roles. The group facilitator role refers to the group leader who solicits and monitors group members’ input. This person also ensures that each group member performances his/her assigned task. The recorder role refers to the individual who records all group

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activities and processes. The person also may be charged with the responsibility to assess the progress of each of the processes. The materials manager role refers to the person who obtains, maintains, and returns all materials (including written documents used) to their rightful places. The timekeeper role refers to the person who monitors the time taken for each part of the cooperative learning activity and reminds group participants of the timeframe to complete the task. Johnson and Johnson (2013) distinguish five distinctive parts of cooperative learning. They include: (a) positive interdependence amongst group members; (b) in-person interaction whereby group members encourage and support; (c) individual and group accountability through assessment and evaluation; (d) interpersonal skills amongst small groups of participants (communication, trust, leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution); (e) group processing of information as parts and the whole The following includes a list of tips for using the cooperative learning teaching technique. (a) provide students a specific set of instructions that include roles and responsibilities of all group members; (b) create a specific activity that includes sets of instructions for each group member; (c) provide students with guidelines regarding the time that the group can use to accomplish their tasks; (d) provide examples of presentation strategies (for the group, as a ‘museum walk’ experience whereby the final product is put on display for all to see as the participants visit each group’s work); (e) select participants to work together, and assign roles based on the facilitator’s assessment of their strengths and weaknesses.5

12.4  Guidelines for Teaching Inclusive of the varied approaches to instruction mentioned here, successful teaching requires a thoughtful, planned approach to execution. This chapter concludes with several guidelines that facilitators can follow to maximize effectiveness. (a) Be aware of formal and informal speech. Formal speech refers to the language used to present the lesson. Informal speech refers to the comments regarding attention, motivation, and clarification. (b) Vary strategies and activities frequently. Facilitator-centered instruction (that is, the delivery mode) serves multiple purposes. It offers a quick and relatively 5  In some cases, the facilitator may want to assign the role of each group member based on his/her strengths. In other cases, the facilitator may want to assign participants roles that help to develop skills that are not their strengths.

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easy way to communicate large amounts of information. It provides an organized presentation of information to which participants can refer throughout the following activities. In this case, the facilitator should use a set of notes to guide the facilitator’s presentation. (c) Carefully plan the talk to include essential elements and the amount of necessary time to present each. (d) Rehearse and pace the talk to complete it within the required time allotted. (e) Use multisensory stimulation throughout the talk. (f) Plan wait time for participants to think about that which has been presented. (g) Monitor the delivery of the talk. The speaker’s voice should be interesting and varied. In addition, move throughout the class space instead of standing in one position throughout the entire speech. (h) Give thoughtful and intelligent consideration to participant diversity. How many native English speakers are in the module? What prior experiences that relate to the module do the participants have? What previous experiences does the participant have that do not relate to the model? How are these important for learning and your presentation? For example, if the English language and/or vocabulary are unknown to the participants, additional attention to vocabulary development will need to be offered. In another example, if a participant has worked in a different but related field, that prior knowledge can contribute a significant, meaningful component to the new lesson. That information can be used solely by the participant by providing a foundation for the new material that the course will present. The instructor could use the prior knowledge of one (or more) course participants as a steppingstone into a lesson. (i) Use context-specific examples and analogies to help participants make relevant connections from their lives and experiences of the content of the course. (j) Establish and use eye contact frequently. (k) Ask questions of the participants when possible. In this case, be aware of the person who answers the question. This person may want to dominate the class period. That person may simply know all the answers. If the instructor wants to hear from more individuals in the class period, a purposeful selection of those individuals must be made.

12.5  Grouping for Teaching Success Another responsibility of the instructor of the course relates to the physical grouping of students in the course. The instructor has many options. The following section discusses the best for the adolescent.

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12.5.1  Friendships and Peer Groups As previously discussed, both friendships and peer groups play important roles in the educational process for youth. Friendships refer to the mutual, close, and voluntary relationship between two people (Ryan et al., 2017, p. 203). Given that adolescents spend more time with friends than any adult group understanding the friendship’s construction advances the possibility of a better, more effective educational experience. The peer group refers to two or more individuals who frequently interact. Peer groups (or cliques) amongst adolescents are generally homogeneous. This degree of similarity of behavioral or attitudinal attributes unifies group members. Hence, adolescents use purposeful and careful selection when establishing and joining groups (Cohen, 1977; Kandel, 1978; Broderick & Blewitt, 2003). The group, then, influences the functions of the individuals in the group, their behaviors, and self-conceptions (Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011). The process holds tremendous consequences for peer group networks in the workplace. Friendships and peer groups include the voluntary formation of relationships between two or more people outside the educational setting. Instructors utilize both friendships and peer groups in classroom activities.

12.5.2  Small and Large Groups Small and large groups are another way to create learning communities for instruction in a Community Works group-learning center classroom. Lounsbury (1991) stated that the concept of teaming provides the most characteristic form of grouping for youth. Small teams of teachers and students create a community of learners that share time during the educational process and spaces in academic activities. Depending on the instructional strategy, the teacher (associated with direct instruction) or a student (associated with cooperatives learning) assumes primary responsibility for facilitating the group’s effort to achieve goals and objectives. The same concept applies to the small team concept in the work setting. One individual takes (or is assigned) responsibility for the team. That leader delegates responsibility and facilitates individual and group processes that seek to achieve the group’s goals and objectives. In another way, a supervisor’s assignment of mentors and coaches provides an option for a small team’s collaborative process in the work setting. Herein, the concept of “community” links stakeholders in both conceptual and practical ways. Instead of following the formulaic approach of ticking off achievements based on a list provided by the company, this model enables the mentor with the flexibility to pair or group those with similar needs. This arrangement offers chances to share information, thus benefiting both the individual and the organization (García-Peñalvo & Conde, 2014). In another example, a mentor outlines job responsibility and offers suggestions for completing the required tasks efficiently and productively in various work settings. The young employee may find

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him/herself. A co-worker paired with that individual or small group may offer spontaneous advice and instruction for the individual or the group. A team organized by purpose is how a small group can be beneficial for adolescents in the workplace. For example, youth who work in sales in a department store can be grouped with employees from other departments (outside of the immediate floor) to learn about one sales facet. Selling women’s coats, for example, may require a different set of skills than selling men’s coats. The increase of understanding about fashion, the soft skills needed in sales to women (instead of men), and practice in marketing to women occur within an educational process that results in learning. The small group configurations of staff/employees create learning opportunities. Large group configurations remain slightly different and provide a chance to engage in the educational process as well. The large-group settings of the course offered at the group-learning center engage participants autonomously. Examples of this include large class sizes of students registered for an introductory course. Introductory courses typically enroll many students to benefit from a direct instruction experience whereby the instructor presents general information. In the work setting, team meetings call together employees wherein supervisors disseminate information. These may be conducted weekly for the group. In other work settings and organizations, large meetings may only be called when a particular topic needs to be presented. However, the adolescent determines the extent to which s/he feels a part of the group and a commitment to it. In short, learning takes place in different contexts, such as the group-learning center in the Community Works model, where small and large groups provide learning opportunities through interactions (Ord, 2012). Adolescents participate in the networks of friendships and peer groups and small and large groups.

12.6  Quality of Participation in Groups Participation in highly organized and supervised activities and spontaneous ones enables, further, and enriches the whole’s adjustment. The whole (a friendship, a peer group, and the small and large group) offers the macroscopic frame (or structure) for participation. Positive experiences, that is, the microscopic action created within the network, engage the individual, thus gaining insights and understandings. The effect of the involvement in groups convincingly confirms the understanding of their importance. Wentzel et al. (2004) found that sixth-grade students with at least one friend maintained higher academic achievement scores and a greater number of positive social behaviors than those without one friend. Throughout the next two years of the follow-up study, the residual effects further accentuate the interactive process’s importance. The quality of the relationship also determines value. Stable, supportive relationships with socially competent and mature individuals enhance adolescents’ social development (Hartup & Stevens, 1999, p. 15).

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In sum, teaching strategies offer a myriad of options for the facilitator to support learning and reach both goals and objectives. Effective instruction requires knowledge of planning for their use. A committed effort and presentation of planned and varied teaching strategies result in learning for all.

References Blatner, R. (2002). https://www.blatner.com/adam/pdntbk/rlplayedu.htm. Accessed 18 Nov 2019. Bonwell, C.  C., & Eison, J.  A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports). Clearinghouse on Higher Education. ED 336 049. Brechwald, W., & Prinstein, M. (2011). Beyond homophily: A decade of advances in understanding peer influence processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 166–179. Broderick, P. C., & Blewitt, P. (2003). The life span human development for helping professionals. Merrill/Prentice Hall. Cohen, J. M. (1977). Sources of peer group homogeneity. Sociology of Education, 50, 227–241. Duveen, J., & Solomon, J. (1994). The great evolution trial: Use of role-play in the classroom. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(5), 575–582. García-Peñalvo, F. J., & Conde, M. Á. (2014). Using informal learning for business decision making and knowledge management. Journal of Business Research, 67(5), 686–691. Gardner, P., & Bartkus, K.  R. (2014). What’s in a name? A reference guide to work-education experiences? Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 15(1), 37–54. Hartup, W.  W., & Stevens, N. (1999). Friendships and adaptation across the life span. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(3), 76–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-­8721.00018 Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (2013). Cooperation in the classroom. Interaction Book Company. Kandel, D. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84(2), 427–436. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/2777857 Lee, D. (2012). Apprenticeships in England: an overview of current issues. Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning, 2(3), 225–239. Lounsbury, J. H. (1991). As I see it. National Middle School Association. Ord, J. (2012). John Dewey and experimental learning: Developing the theory of youth work. Youth and Policy, 108, 55–72. Ryan, A. M., Urdan, T. C., & Anderman, E. M. (2017). Adolescent development for educators. Pearson Education. Wentzel, K. R., Barry, C. M., & Caldwell, K. (2004). Friendships in middle school: Influences on motivation and school adjustment. ERIC. Williams. (2010). Understanding the essential elements of work-based learning and its relevance to everyday clinical practice. Journal of Nursing Management, 18(6), 624–632.

Chapter 13

Assessment and Evaluation for Adolescents’ Education for and on the Job

Abstract  Assessment and evaluation provide essential information for students, instructors, and administration in all types of educational settings, including the group-learning centers in the Community Works model. This chapter begins by defining assessment and offers a rationale for its use. Examples of tools used to gather data to assess student learning and a cycle of assessment that informs instruction follow. The second part of the chapter defines evaluation and provides a rationale for its use. It offers information on types of evaluations and rubrics for them. That is followed by a section on validity and reliability in evaluative tools. The chapter ends with a conclusion. Keywords  Assessment · Evaluation · Validity · Reliability · Instructors · Participants

13.1  Definitions Assessment and evaluation provide essential information in the secondary vocational education settings, the non-formal educational settings, and the professional development settings in industries. Individuals and program directors use the information to describe and better understand an issue. This chapter focuses on student learning in terms of both assessment and evaluation.1 Despite the two different terms, the close relationship between the terms assessment and evaluation has led some scholars and practitioners to use them

1  Program assessment and evaluation offer a different and complementary field of study but are inappropriate here because of the pilot study nature of the proposed models. For example, assessments and evaluations for certification serve both the program and the organization that sponsors it. At the organizational level, an accreditation body, like a professional board, requires the certification of a program. When a program is assessed, it offers a snapshot of progress (but does not rank or rate anything). On the other hand, when a program is evaluated, it earns a score, typically associated with passing or failing.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_13

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synonymously. However, they maintain two separate foci. Assessment refers to the multi-step, systematic process of collecting data, analyzing it according to predetermined expectations, interpreting it (by the student or the instructor), and utilizing the information to increase student learning through reflections on teaching (Erwin, 1991). The inclusion of a diverse set of data sources regarding knowledge, skills, or competencies in an assessment enables the instructor to develop a deeper understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge (Huba & Freed, 1999). It provides checks of understanding for both instructors and participants. On the other hand, evaluation refers to administering and grading a written or oral performance that demonstrates required knowledge, skills, and/or competencies in ranked order of student performance compared with others inside and outside the group. The score informs the student of achievement and the instructor with a review of achievement for the group. The information provides instructors with insights to advance student understanding. Both assessment and evaluation tools measure a hierarchy of knowledge using six key ideas (http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html accessed on November 24, 2019). The six ideas include facts, concepts, principles; laws; hypotheses, and theories. Fact refers to a verifiable idea. Concepts refer to the combined characteristics of an idea that can be substantiated. Principles refer to fundamental law or truth. Laws refer to an established system or set of rules. Hypothesis refers to a proposition or a set of propositions to explain and occurrence of an action. Theories refer to a coherent set of tested propositions whose proposed explanation remains available for future experimentations (adapted from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html accessed on November 24, 2019). These classifications are important because they are channels through which the course participant can understand the presented material (http://www.edpsycinteractive. org/topics/intro/sciknow.html accessed on November 24, 2019). Students look for and make connections between sets of information that are provided with these fundamental underpinnings. Successful connections result in learned material.

13.2  Assessment: The Rationale for Its Use Why do we assess the hierarchy of knowledge? Assessment informs both instructors and students. Regarding instructors, the assessment provides a starting point. Assessment during the first class session (or before, if possible) offers valuable information for the instructor to understand students’ current understanding. At the entry stage of learning, such as at the beginning of a course, the instruction can ask, ‘What is the student’s prior knowledge?’ ‘What does the student need to know?’ ‘To what extent is the student ready to learn the material in the course?’ In other words, must I teach, and where do I begin? Does my determined starting point start with the students’ knowledge and/or competencies and skills? By gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data, assessments provide instructors with information about gaps in

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student learning and/or deficits in students’ understanding of course material directly related to teaching before starting the course. The assessment also informs teaching practice once the course has begun. For example, an instructor’s questions are: What strategies are proving successful for student learning? Should I continue what I am doing, or should I change something? If so, what? A method of instruction? The pace of my instruction? Also, in which direction should we go next? Do we need to review or repeat material in some way? Do students have sufficient understanding to go ahead? In other words, the assessment provides an on-going process that continually informs the instructor of students’ learning. Simultaneously, it provides clues for things and ways to change to maximize student learning. Also, constructive feedback on students’ progress enables students to apply those understandings to future learning. The assessment also helps the learner. The assessment provides information regarding students’ understandings. For example, participants can ask: Do I understand what the teacher/instructor is saying? Do I understand what I am supposed to be learning? In this way, the assessment provides diagnostic feedback at various stages of the individual’s learning process. An assessment also signals to the participant if s/he needs additional help (before evaluating that material). As students engage in the course and understand how both in-class and out-of-class assignments align with the course’s goals, objectives, and expectations, they recognize what they know and what they need and want to know.

13.3  Types of Student Assessments Two main types of assessments support student learning: formative and summative assessments. Formative assessments refer to a process that “…involves the gathering and analysis of assessment-elicited evidence to determine when and how to adjust instructional activities or learning tactics to achieve learning goals” (Popham, 2011, p. 14). In this case, pre-assessment refers to a check of prior knowledge. One example of this type of formative assessment is the KWL chart. The KWL chart is a simple yet useful tool for students to engage in the learning process as a check. The group often completes this strategy. A blank space below each letter provides space for students to write responses. K represents that which “I” know. W represents “what I want to know.” L means that which I “learned.” Instructors revisit the KWL chart at the end of the unit. Another type of assessment is continual formative assessment. Continual formative assessments occur throughout a unit of study or a course. Formative assessment is essential because the material in a course typically links from one week to the next. Understanding if, or when, students do not understand a concept, for example, will aid the instructor to make modifications to the lessons at that time, rather than recognizing the problems at the of the unit or course. On the other hand, summative assessments provide feedback on student learning at the end of a defined period. That period could be a unit of the course or at the end of a course.

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Purposeful contemplation of the course’s goals and objectives define questions for the instructor-made assessment. In this way, the instructor concludes the period with information on content or skill acquisition for current and future use. However, what instruments can an instructor use to collect information about students’ understandings of course material? The following section offers a variety of types of assessments that instructors can use to understand student learning.

13.3.1  Concept Mapping Concept maps provide a flexible, useful tool to gauge students’ understandings of relationships. The diagram comprised of a set of simple (few) or detailed (many) cells provides students with a “slate.” The slate can be blank or partially completed. Students fill in the blank boxes that demonstrate main ideas and supporting details. This graphical representation of knowledge enables students to review their current understandings (http://tutorials.istudy.psu.edu/testing/testing6.html accessed on July 3, 2019). The instructor decides whether to distribute a blank map or a partially completed one in each example below. The format for the concept map depends on the assessment’s objective. See Figs. 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, and 13.5.

Fig. 13.1  Concept map: list form (three elements related to each other)

element 1

element 2

element 3

• related idea • related idea

• related idea • related idea

• related idea • related idea

Fig. 13.2  Concept map: process form (each element based on the previous) Fig. 13.3  Concept map: process form (each element interacting with another element)

element

element

element

Fig. 13.4  Concept map: cycle form (related elements and corresponding ideas)

• related idea

• related idea

• related idea

element

element

element

element • related idea

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primary element

secondary element related element related element

related element

related element

tertiary element

related element

related element

Fig. 13.5  Concept map: relationship form

13.3.2  Observations Observations provide a fundamental, general understanding of participation. Raising a hand or using a clicker, for example, offers two examples of that which an instructor can observe. In this case, the instructor cannot guarantee understanding simply because of the instructor’s action (a student raises a hand or clicks a clicker). That action of raising a hand or clicking a clicker may indicate a simple response to a prompt, without a purposeful response to the prompt. In other words, differentiation between mimicking other classmates’ behavior and responding to a question based on a personal answer are two different actions. However, observation can include a more valid measure of understanding. For example, two students solve a problem on the whiteboard. One uses one technique. The other student uses another technique. The students in the class make comments about the problem-solving strategy used. The ensuing discussion reveals students’ understanding. After hearing from the group of students in the class, a thumbs up or a thumbs down action related to their vocalized responses provides a more valid representation of understanding.

13.3.3  Writing Strategies Four different types of writing samples help to gauge student understanding. First, a “quick-write” strategy provides a fast and straightforward means to gather information. In this case, the instructor distributes a sheet of paper or opens a page on the course’s website. After the prompt, which is usually an open-ended question, students use one minute to write responses. Second, “five-minute-papers” refer to the same type of activity. The only difference is additional time to write and may require a more in-depth answer. In this case, the prompt may be more specific to the main question’s

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two or three elements. Third, a “reflection write” provides another chance to gather information about students’ understanding. In this case, the students answer one or more short questions: What did you learn in class today? What was unclear during today’s lesson? Fourth, a “reflection paper” offers the chance for the communication of more in-depth understandings. In this case, students create an essay regarding the designated topic. Reflections can be structured, with an introduction and rationale for the essay, a body that provides content, and a conclusion that presents the newness of the work related to students’ understanding. In an unstructured essay, students are not given and need not follow a format for completing the assessment.

13.3.4  Interview Interviews between the instructor and the student offer a quick and direct means to collect information. Despite the important information collected through the process, it has three disadvantages. First, it is a time-consuming approach. Second, the instruction must plan for an alternative assignment for those not involved in the interview or interview outside of the class time. As with any interview, it is possible (and probable) that the interviewee will get off track. Third, the amount of data that the instructor gathers may need to be reviewed several times to assess understanding.

13.3.5  Performance Tasks and Demonstrations Students in the trades often (but not always) need to demonstrate competencies related to the field. For example, a plumber must demonstrate an understanding of the tools of the trade. In this case, student demonstrations provide a way to observe how the student understands the task.2 Performance tasks and demonstrations need not be limited to the trades, however. All students can demonstrate an understanding by presenting a model or project to describe what which s/he learned. In sum, no matter the type of instrument or method used to assess instructional practice or student understanding, assessment refers to a cyclical process that continually informs both facilitators and participants. This model, adapted from the University of Westminster (https://www.westminster.edu/about/accreditation-­ assessment/definition.cfm accessed on August 1, 2019), provides a corresponding graphic to questions that guide the instructor (Fig. 13.6). The first step is the “plan.” The instructor asks, “What do I want students to learn?” The second step is the “do.” How do I teach effectively? In this stage, the instructor develops or selects assessment strategies and experiences that lead to outcomes. Third, instructors check for “understanding.” Here, a review of obtained outcomes is noted. The fourth step is the “action.” Questions at this stage can include: How do I use what I have learned? (https://www.westminster.edu/about/accreditation-­ assessment/definition.cfm). The following figure provides a snapshot of the stages.  It does not rate the performance of the material on the test.

2

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Reflect and Plan What do I need to change and how do I continue?

Plan What do I want students to learn?

Act How do I use what I've learned?

Do How do I teach effectively?

Check Are my outcomes being met?

Fig. 13.6  Cycle of assessment. (Modified from https://www.westminster.edu/about/accreditation-­ assessment/definition.cfm)

13.4  Evaluation: The Rationale for Its Use An evaluation provides ranked results of accomplishment (http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html accessed on November 24, 2019). Three general reasons to evaluate exist. First, evaluation provides the fundamental comparison of data to a standard that determines mastery. Second, evaluation offers instructors feedback about student learning. Low results indicate areas or topics that require additional instructional time.3 Third, evaluation provides students with an understanding of their progress and compared to others in the group4. Instructors’ syllabi reflect a variety of types of evaluation. The following section reviews two of the most used.

3  Course material varies in terms of complexity. The results of a thoughtfully planned evaluation provide the instructor with not only a sense of what is not understood but also how teaching enhances understanding. For example, reading about the assemblage of a machine is different from assembling the machine. 4  Student learning is partially dependent on the students’ perceptions of the quantity and quality of information that they must retain. Clearly outlined objectives and evaluation information in the syllabus prepare students with that information.

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13.4.1  Types of Student Evaluations Like assessments, formative and summative evaluations provide essential information for the teacher and the student. However, unlike assessments, evaluations provide rated and ranked information that differentiates students by level of achievement. Formative evaluations provide detailed comments in terms of a sum score. A formative evaluation may be given after the class period, which would be in the form of a graded quiz in any of the Community Works modules courses or on a test after several weeks of instruction before completing a unit of study. Summative evaluations provide the same information as formative evaluations, except at the end of a unit or course, instead of periodically throughout them as in formative evaluations. They can be in the form of multiple-choice, matching, and/or true and false questions. They also may but need not include short and long essays.

13.5  Creating Evaluations from Assessments Evaluations can also be created from assessments if they include a rubric. The term rubric refers to a scoring guide used to measure achievement. It consists of the performance criteria, a rating scale, and indicators to ensure met performance. For example, writing assignments can use a rubric that demonstrates mastery of two performance criteria  – content and mechanics. Content refers to the inclusion of information that pertains to the main ideas of the lesson, unit, or course. Mechanics refers to the extent to which the writing rules are followed, including but not limited to grammar, spelling, and punctuation. A rating scale (from 1 to 4, for example) indicates the level of mastery. A 1 indicates unsatisfactory achievement of skills associated with that task; a 2 indicates below-average achievement of skills related to that task; a 3 indicates above-average achievement of skills related to that task; a 4 indicates expert mastery of skills with that task. The following example of a rubric for a written essay could be adapted in a course (Fig. 13.7). Both formative and summative evaluations use a criterion-referenced format. Criterion-referenced evaluations measure achievement regarding a specific set of information (https://www.onlineassessmenttool.com/knowledge-­center/assessmentknowledge-­center/what-­are-­the-­types-­of-­assessment/item10637). Formative and summative evaluations can include but do not need to include a pretest or a posttest. 5

5  Norm-referenced evaluations compare a student’s performance against other students of a national group (or norm). Norm-referenced tests are typically those used in the secondary school setting for English and math exams.

a.) sometimes uses general word choice b.) uses active and passive verbs equally c) usually uses correct grammar and spelling d) mostly cites when necessary and accurately e) uses many strong topic sentences throughout the work; f) uses supporting details throughout most paragraphs in the work;

a.) always uses accurate, general word choice

b.) uses active verbs with few passive verbs

c) uses correct grammar and spelling

d) always cites when necessary and accurately

e) always uses a strong topic sentence throughout the work;

f) uses supporting details in all paragraphs in the work;

The writing:

3

d.) sometimes provides logical connections (transitions) between paragraphs and sections

d ) always provides logical connections (transitions) between paragraphs and sections

4

c.) provides main ideas but analysis is lacking in some of the sections of the body of the paper;

c.) provides main ideas with complex analysis in each of the sections of the body of the paper;

The writing:

b.) includes most necessary, relevant information but goes off the topic occasionally;

b.) includes all necessary and relevant information;

The writing: a.) stays focused throughout most of the work;

The writing:

3

a.) stays focused throughout the entire work;

Fig. 13.7  Rubric for essays

Mechanics & Style

Content

4

f) seldom uses supporting details throughout paragraphs in the work;

e) seldom uses a strong topic sentence throughout the work;

d) seldom cites when necessary and accurately

c) often does not use correct grammar and spelling

b.) uses more passive verbs than active verbs

a.) seldom uses accurate work choice

The writing:

2

d.) seldom provides logical connections (transitions) between paragraphs and sections

c.) provides main ideas but lacks analysis in most of the sections of the body of the paper;

b.) includes some necessary, relevant information;

a.) stays focused through some of the work;

The writing:

2

f) never uses supporting details in paragraphs in the work;

e) never uses a strong topic sentence throughout the work;

d) never cites when necessary and accurately

c) seldom uses correct spelling and grammar

b.) does not use active verbs

a.) never uses accurate word choice

The writing:

1

d.) fails to provide logical connections (transitions) between paragraphs and sections

c.) fails to analyze ideas in all of the sections of the body of the paper;

b.) includes little or no use of relevant information;

a.) includes little or no focus;

The writing:

1

218 13  Assessment and Evaluation for Adolescents’ Education for and on the Job

13.7 Conclusion

219

13.6  Validity and Reliability Measures must accurately represent the construct or content being measured. Two concepts reflect the levels of accurate representation: validity and reliability. Validity and reliability provide the information that is needed to ensure excellence in evaluative tools. Validity is a measurement of the extent to which the evaluation measures that which it was expected to measure. Three commonly referred to types of validity differentiate the concept: face validity, content validity, and criterion validity. Face validity refers to a measurement of subjective value. Content validity is the extent to which a measure includes all dimensions of the construct that is being measured. Third, criterion validity refers to the extent to which the individual’s score relates to the score on a measure that correlates with other criteria (variables) (https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-­and-­validity-­of-­measurement/). On the other hand, reliability refers to the “consistency of a measure” (https:// opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/reliability-­and-­validity-­of-­measurement/). Standardized tests (such as in the trades when the exam is normed within the population of those qualified to take it) typically include three types of consistency. The first type of consistency is test-retest reliability. The second type of consistency refers to “across items.” Another name for this is internal consistency. The third type of consistency is “across different researchers” or inter-rater reliability. In sum, both assessments and evaluations serve purposes for the course participants, the facilitators of those courses, for the internal administrators. They oversee the program and, possibly, external parties. Both processes serve different functions and inform individuals in the organization. Collecting data (performing the assessment), quantifying that data (measuring the answers on the evaluation), making judgments (evaluating the results to rank order respondents), sharing results (reporting outcomes such as grades) offer students, instructors, and administrators a wealth of information about learning. Its outcomes (understanding the data that could generate research in the field) serve the educators to maximize learning for the future (http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html accessed on November 24, 2019).

13.7  Conclusion Both assessment and evaluation are critically important elements of an educational program. Before the start of the course, the instructor or facilitator wants to understand students’ prior knowledge. That knowledge helps the facilitator enter the course at the students’ level and plan and execute an instruction. At the end of the course, an assessment also helps the facilitator and the students hypothesize the possible application of learned material to the work setting. Given that the assessment process is continual (or can be), and both the instructor and the student can perform informally, both parties can check continually for understanding.

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Evaluation, on the other hand, is different. Evaluation, such as those used in a four-week course in the Community Works model, measures participant achievement in the course. In this case, a return to curricular mapping could include a test schedule based on the times and series of courses. No matter the testing schedule, the evaluation represents individual accomplishment. The score may remain internal for the benefit of the department or organization. However, depending on the type of evaluation, scores may be used for an external agency, such as an accrediting agency that requires documentation of professional development coursework.

References _____. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/intro/sciknow.html. Accessed 14 Nov 2019. _____. http://tutorials.istudy.psu.edu/testing/testing2.html Erwin, T. D. (1991). Assessing student learning and development: A guide to the principles, goals, and methods of determining college outcomes. Jossey Bass. Huba, M. E., & Freed, J. E. (1999). Learner-centered assessment on college campuses: Shifting the focus from teaching to learning. Pearson. Popham, J. (2011). Transformative assessment in action: An inside look at applying the process. ASCD.

Chapter 14

Conclusion

As requirements for entering and excelling in a work environment continually change, educators are charged with the formidable task of providing relevant learning experiences for students to acquire the knowledge, skills, and competencies required for the work setting. The education field has traditionally addressed job readiness and occupational preparedness for students through a vocational education system that provides the learner with the tools to enter and succeed in the workplace. Historically speaking, vocational education (and its various reincarnations of vocational and technical education) has focused on the secondary educational system, including middle schools, high schools, and secondary schools. More recently, the college and university settings have adopted similar philosophies and curricula and offered a vocational and technical education track or course work for older adolescents entering into the adult work setting. Although traditional vocational education has sought to prepare youth for work, industries have continually stated that youth enter the work setting unprepared to succeed. Recognizing this situation, professional development courses offered in an industry have provided employees with updated information in the field. Other sectors offer continuing education courses for those in a trade that requires re-­ certification regularly. However, there remains a chasm between educational and industrial circles that educate youth for and in the workplace setting. Although vocational education and workplace courses offer learning opportunities, both systems have fallen short of providing the adolescent the knowledge, competencies, and skills to enter a job with required skills and teach once in on the job. By examining education, sociology, psychology, and business bodies of literature, two striking findings resulted. First, no field solely offers an adequate explanation of how youth learn for and in the work setting. Second, the models and programs that have attempted to explain the learning process and its educational system fall short. This book recognizes these shortcomings and accepts the challenge of addressing them in three ways. First, the book acknowledges that present and future education for youth requires a purposeful re-examination of existing educational, © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2_14

221

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psychological, and sociological frameworks that relate to learning to meet the needs of both youth and their employers in current and future workplaces. Second, it reveals the need for industries to recognize how young employees differ from their senior colleagues. It also calls on sectors to re-examine their models for professional development that, in many cases, are inadequate and outdated. Third, it recognizes the complex relationships between disciplines that can offer both education and industries with models and tools necessary to understand and plan for an appropriate education for youth who prepare for and work in those industries. In so doing, the book offered a breadth of ideas that contribute to the cause. First, this text recognizes the importance of the individual’s cognitive, psychological, and social elements that is limited mainly to educational psychology and applies their understandings to the workforce education for youth. That realization and explanation provide a primary underpinning for this work. The cognitive, social, and psychological forces model offers factors to consider for both the educational system (which already uses it) and industry (which is not familiar with it). Hence, the first part of the book provides the conceptual framework for workforce education for adolescents. In so doing, it reveals the importance of the conceptual framework for possible future use in large-scale quantitative studies that uncover differences between youth and various industries and the diverse populations of working youth. Second, the case studies in part II of the book offer both similarities and differences of three countries that illuminate particular and essential understandings of the field. The historical overviews of vocational education in each country demonstrate how country-level policies and initiatives and public sentiments have shaped the current situation. In general, the United States and Italy’s poor and middle-class populations supported vocational education in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries when adolescents supported the family and learned a trade from an apprentice-like system. The case of China differed. There, youth (and their families) minimized the importance of vocational education at the secondary level. At the tertiary level, both Italy and China offer a long history and wide range of programs both with and without certification that qualifies young adults for work. The United States maintains policies for workforce education in various ways and at multiple levels, but implementation, especially at the tertiary level, remains exceptional. All countries are concerned with quality, yet the complex system for adhering to guidelines demonstrates differences across countries with assessments and evaluations. Each of the country’s policy reviews revealed governments committed to the vocational education system but did little to change reform drastically and improve the existing system. Laws, reports, and initiatives, albeit with different names, cycled (and recycled) through the decades of policymakers’ attempts to offer a system that met industry demands. For example, all three countries’ governmental support revealed extensive campaigns to develop the formal vocational plan and enroll students in vocational educational programs. Moreover, the cases demonstrate that policies and practices provide fundamental building blocks for all countries. Despite substantial effort and resources at the national policy levels, federal enrolment and graduation goals have not met expectations. The situation in each of the three

14 Conclusion

223

countries continues – the government, to varying extents, supports the educational system’s arm. Still, students are hesitant to enroll in the programs for several reasons. First, the stigma associated with a non-academic track education continues to persist. Families seek a college education for children; parents believe that enrolling a child in a vocational program diminishes if not prevents the possibility of a college education. Second, programs that lack both trained personnel and material resources (such as relevant curriculum to link academic content with on-the-job training) can prove frustrating if not an insurmountable hurdle to students and their families seek that type of education. Not all adolescents can or want to pursue formal secondary education. In this case, and where they exist, non-formal education choices exist. These, however, are dependent on the level of development. China’s well-developed non-formal education system leads the efforts and realities of both Italy and the USA. In short, both formal and non-formal educational opportunities link the learning experience with work with different levels of success. The third part of the book strengthens the education literature by focusing on youth’s work experiences as a part of the educational process. This work’s Education Work Model demonstrates the inseparable link between education and business for youth. When considering the educational process’s complexity coupled with the work experience for the adolescent whose developmental levels have yet to reach adults, human relations within networks provide the foundation for learning. Unlike many before it, the book grapples with how informal learning offers a complete educational experience system. Also, it shows how informal learning is specifically linked to the many stakeholders in both the education and work settings. In so doing, it reveals the complexity of the union of disciplines with the idea of transdisciplinary scholarship. It shows the co-dependent relationships between education and business for youth on the job and seeking work in the future in the original Community Works model. The Community Works model also offers practical and valuable tools for professionals. It sets the groundwork for further theoretical and empirical studies in this presently understudied field of adolescents and work. Fourth, in addition to the theoretical and conceptual information, the book also offers practical information that adds to the business literature on work in the last section of the book that describes each Community Works model. The book’s curriculum design of Community Works, an original model that calls on community learning centers of professionals and education specialists, offers an original framework. Its core, hard skill, and soft skill modules layout a series of courses that group learning centers offer adolescents both in schools and at work. Syllabi that correspond to each course offer goals, objectives, and content provide instruction in the knowledge, competencies, and skills needed for the workforce. Simultaneously, the mix-and-match approach to the courses in each of the three modules offers considerable flexibility to offer one course, several courses, or the entire curriculum. Just as the work offered new ideas, it also reveals omissions. These omissions provide ideas for future consideration of research and reporting. For example, from an instructional perspective, youth identified with learning challenges (intellectual, psychological, social, or physical) want to work and can, yet require specialized plans beyond this work scope. Language acquisition, in the case of minority

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populations, rightfully requires yet other, additional attention. Specific planning, especially in language development, helps to meet the language learner’s needs and the social settings of school and work in which that individual functions. From a political angle, on the macroscopic scale, the work also uncovered the need to consider how economic systems – within government, industry, and education – plan, fund, regulate, evaluate, and continue programs, as well as the personnel who work in and for them. On the microscopic scale, nepotism’s concept and existence were not addressed, yet it plays an influential role in the hiring and firing of youth. Countries with unions that regulate the trades often invite new members based on experienced employees. In other cases, industries send out a “silent invitation” to select employees with children or family members to join the organization. In sum, the book yields new ideas, both broad and specific, by casting the net of literature net across fields, analyzing it by culling relevant insights from related theories and practices in those fields. It offers a fresh approach regarding both theory and practice for adolescents’ workforce education.

Collaboration

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Communication enables individuals to share ideas and to develop new ones. However, the communication process requires guidance to maximize potential. Collaboration refers to the act of planned and shared communication. This course focuses on strategies for successful performance in a collaborative environment. It guides both on-line and in-person collaboration skills by utilizing written and verbal communication strategies. It teaches group participation skills, such as leading and participating in paired, small group, and large group activities. Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the collaborative process. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the various roles that individuals play in the collaborative process. 3. Participants will develop an understanding of the differences between projects completed by small and large collaborative groups. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

225

Collaboration

226

Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of the collaborative process by role-playing. 4. Participants will construct a model that shows how communication patterns in the collaborative setting contribute to the completion of the task. Required Textbooks and Materials Adams, K., & Gananes, G. (2018). Communicating in groups: Applications and skills (10th ed.). McGraw Hill. Beebe, S. A., & Masterson, J. T. (2015). Revel for communicating in small groups: Principles and practices. Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class & attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Topic: Week 1 Collaboration: What is It When Will We Use It?: An Overview of Benefits and Advantages Week 2 Collaborative Groups in the Organization

Readings and assignments due

(continued)

Collaboration

Date: Topic: Week 3 Defining Individuals’ Roles in the Collaborative Process: What to Say and When In-Person and Virtual Setting Week 4 Practicing the Collaborative Process

227 Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources Engleberg, I. N., & Wynn, D. R. (2017). Revel for working in groups: Communication principles and strategies. Pearson. Galanes, G., & Adams, K. (2019). Effective group discussion: Theory and practice (15th ed.). McGraw Hill. Rivera, J. W. (2010). Essential guide to intercultural communication. Macmillan. Tubbs, S. (2012). A systems approach to small group interaction (11th ed.). McGraw Hill. Wiemann, M. O., & Davis, A. M. (2018). Essential guide to group communication. Macmillan. https://www.forbes.com/sites/benjaminwolff/2018/08/14/the-­future-­of-­work-­is-­ creative-­collaboration/#6e9277ba3228 https://hbr.org/2007/11/eight-­ways-­to-­build-­collaborative-­teams https://www.nutcache.com/blog/the-­i mportance-­o f-­c ollaboration-­i n-­t he-­ workplace/ Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Communication

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  The communication process requires both receptive and expressive language skills. Receptive and expressive language requires individuals to engage and process information in different ways. Receptive language refers to the ability to understand information input. Expressive language, on the other hand, refers to the ability to express oneself in verbal and written forms. This course offers instruction and practice in both types of language communication skills. Course Goals 1. Participants will understand the importance of body language in the workplace. 2. Participants will understand how body language communicates ideas to co-­ workers and superiors. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

229

Communication

230

2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will act out scenarios using body language that typifies different emotions. Required Textbooks and Materials Cheesebro, T., O’Connor, L., & Rios, R. (2007). Communication skills: Preparing for career success. Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of the class are attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of your grade will be based on the following: Participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Topic: Week 1 Communication & Cultural Differences in Body Language in U.S. Companies Week 2 Communication through Body Language in the Workplace: Cultural Differences in Facial Expressions, Eyes, Mouth Week 3 Communication through Body Language in the Workplace: Cultural Differences in Gestures Week 4 Communication through Body Language in the Workplace: Arms, Legs, Posture, & Personal Space

Readings and assignments due

Communication

231

Supplemental Resources Adler, R., & Elmhorst, J. M. (2012). Communicating at work: Strategies for success in business and the professions (12th ed.). McGraw Hill. Baney, J. (2004). Guide to interpersonal communication. Pearson. Beebe, S.  A., Mottet, T.  P., & Roach, K.  D. (2013). Training & development: Communicating for success (2nd ed.). Pearson. Cardon, P. (forthcoming). Business communication: Developing leaders for a networked world (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. DiSanza, J. R., & Legge, N. J. (2017). Business and professional communication: Plans, processes, and performance (6th ed.). Pearson. Floyd, K. (2018). Loose leaf for communication matters (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill. Hass, J.  W. (2015). Business and professional communication in the information age. Macmillan. Hybels, S., & Weaver, R. (2015). Communicating effectively (11th ed.). McGraw Hill. McCornack, S., & Morrison, K. (2018). Essential guide to interpersonal communication. Macmillan. McCornack, S. (2015). Interpersonal communication and you: An introduction. Macmillan. O’Hair, D., & Wiemann, M. O. (2007). Essential guide to interpersonal communication (2nd ed.). Macmillan. O’Hair, D., & Wiemann, M. (2014). Communication and you: An introduction. Macmillan. Rentz, K., & Lentz, P. (2018). Business communication: A problem-solving approach (1st ed.). McGraw Hill. Thill, J.  V., & Bovee, C.  L. (2020). Excellence in business communication (13th ed.). Pearson. Worley, D. W., & Worley, D. A (2012). Communication counts in college, career, and life (2nd ed.). Pearson. https://www.rpi.edu/dept/advising/american_culture/social_skills/nonverbal_communication/reading_exercise.htm https://online.pointpark.edu/business/cultural-­d ifferences-­i n-­n onverbal­com­mu­nication/ https://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/bsad560/NonVerbal.html https://www.helpguide.org/articles/relationships-­c ommunication/nonverbal-­ communication.htm https://www.apa.org/research/action/speaking-­o f-­p sychology/nonverbal-­ communication https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/psychpedia/nonverbal-­communication https://blog.disabilitycanhappen.org/positive-­body-­language-­for-­the-­workplace/

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Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Critical Thinking

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Cognitive, emotional, and psychological development include the ability to critically analyze a situation, process its meaning, and, if necessary, take action. This course teaches critical thinking by focusing on its five elements: identification and interpretation; analysis; evaluation; inference; and findings and explanation of a given situation. Identification and interpretation include the unbiased recognition of a situation or problem and the description of it. Analysis requires the examination of ideas, the identification of arguments, and the expressed resultant similarities and differences. The evaluation includes the formulation of ranking based on the pre-determined criteria. Inference includes the ability to draw reasonable conclusions, form hypotheses, and/or deduce conclusions based on the presented material. Explanation calls on communication skills to explain (or justify) results given contextual, theoretical, methodological, logical, and/or artistic foundations.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Critical Thinking

234

Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the need for critical thinking on the job. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the various elements of the critical thinking process. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of critical thinking by participating in activities that use each of the elements of the critical thinking model. Required Textbooks and Materials https://hbr.org/2019/10/a-­short-­guide-­to-­building-­your-­teams-­critical-­thinking-­skills https://collegeinfogeek.com/improve-­critical-­thinking-­skills/ Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2

Topic: Identification and Interpretation Analysis & Evaluation

Readings and assignments due

(continued)

Critical Thinking Date: Week 3 Week 4

235 Topic: Inferences & Findings Explanation & Evaluation

Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources https://www.thelawofattraction.com/develop-­critical-­thinking-­skills/ https://www.business.com/articles/building-­critical-­thinking-­skills-­at-­work/ https://www.irishjobs.ie/careeradvice/critical-­thinking/ https://www.e-­education.psu.edu/geog882/node/2073 https://www.utc.edu/walker-­center-­teaching-­learning/teaching-­resources/ct-­ps.php https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-­thinking/ https://library.louisville.edu/ekstrom/criticalthinking/inferences https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-­critical-­thinking/766 Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Goal and Objective Setting

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Goal setting enhances cognitive development, and its effects continue through the individual’s life span. This course helps students to develop both goals and objectives that help them to formulate concrete aims and tasks for work. It defines goals as general statements of overarching aims. Performance goals correspond to one’s desire to improve, increase or change a behavior. Mastery goals relate to job-related task-specific activities. It defines objectives tangible specific, measurable, realistic, and time-defined strategies that relate to each goal. Objectives provide tangible evidence of accomplishment. Objectives refer to. They are created for both performance and mastery goals. The course also requires students to monitor the accomplishment of their performance and mastery goals and objectives.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

237

Goal and Objective Setting

238

Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s fundamental principles as they relate to the individual. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of political, economic, and social changes in the industry in terms of its current or potential future global prospects and the ways that these changes may affect the individual. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will create goals and objectives as they relate to the organization. 4. Participants will construct a model that demonstrates mastery of both goals and objectives. Required Textbooks and Materials https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikalbelicove/2013/09/27/understanding-­g oals­strategies-­objectives-­and-­tactics-­in-­the-­age-­of-­social/#6a7e8e574c79 Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Goal and Objective Setting

239

Course Calendar Date: Topic: Week 1 Performance Goals: What are They and How do They Relate to Me? Week 2 Mastery Goals: What are They and How do They Relate to Me? Week 3 Objectives: Writing them for both Performance and Mastery Goals Week 4 Tracking Performance and Mastery Goal Accomplishments: When and How to do It

Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources https://medium.com/@wiobyrne/goals-­s trategies-­o bjectives-­a nd-­t actics-­ 94319e8f6748 https://smallbusiness.chron.com/business-­difference-­between-­objectives-­goals­21972.html https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-­tc3-­management/chapter/the-­nature-­of­goals-­and-­objectives/ https://beckinstitute.org/goal-­setting-­engage-­adolescents/ https://people.wou.edu/~girodm/100/mastery_vs_performance_goals.pdf http://www.bu.edu/ssw/files/2010/10/Fostering-­a-­Mastery-­Goal.pdf Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views, and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participates or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. Student does not attend class.

Introduction to the Industry

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  A macroscopic view of industries that contribute to the economies of the world, the nation, the state, and local communities provide the young worker with a broad perspective of industries. The particular ways that the ________ industry functions provides the the young employee with a foundation for work in the field. The purpose of this course is to offer fundamental information related to the ________ industry. The course includes an historical view of the founding principles of the ________ industry. It also reviews changes over time based on political, economic, and social changes in the country and its relationship to the industry in terms of its current or potential future global prospects.

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Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s fundamental principles. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s historical progression from inception to present. 3. Participants will develop an understanding of political, economic, and social changes in the industry in terms of its current or potential future global prospects. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of the industry by selecting websites that support the fundamental elements of the industry. 4. Participants will construct a model that describes past and current facets of the industry. 5. Participants will examine industry standards that are specific to the industry through the review and discussion of related material. Required Textbooks and Materials Bovee, C., & Thill, J. V. (2020). Business in action (9th ed.). Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

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Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2

Week 3 Week 4

Topic: Introductions to Ourselves and the Module Industrial Standards: What are they for Our Industry? Standards, Certifications, and Approvals Industrial Standards: How are Standards Created and Decided? Industrial Standards: Why Do We Have Them?

Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2537IDR2018_FULL_ REPORT_1.pdf https://hbr.org/1983/11/industrial-­policy-­it-­cant-­happen-­here https://www.iso.org/home.html https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-­c ontent/uploads/sites/45/ WESP2020_FullReport.pdf https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/Global%20Trends_Mapping%20the%20 Global%20Future%202020%20Project.pdf The following table provides examples of some of the organizations that could be affiliated with the Organization. Organization name European Standards (ENs)

Purpose ENs are documents that have been ratified by one of the three European Standardization Organisations (ESOs) – CEN, CENELEC or ETSI.

EtherCAT Technology Group (ETG)

The ETG brings EtherCAT device manufacturers, technology providers, and users together to further the technology and keep it open for all potential users. The ETG is an official partner of the IEC The IEC is the international standards and conformity assessment body for electric and electronic products, systems and services, collectively known as electro-technology. IEEE is the world’s largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology through its publications, conferences, technology standards, and professional and educational activities.

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

Examples EN 50155 ensures rail system interoperability and covers the electronic equipment used on rolling stock for railway applications. EtherCAT are IEC Standards

IEC 61850-3 enables the intelligent electronic devices in electrical substation automation systems to communicate.

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) specifications for implementing wireless LANs across several frequency bands.

(continued)

Introduction to the Industry

244 Organization name International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)

ODVA

Underwriters Laboratories (UL)

Purpose ISO is an independent, non-­ governmental international organization that promotes worldwide proprietary, industrial, and commercial standards. ISO develops voluntary, consensus-­ based, market relevant international standards. EMA is the largest trade association of electrical equipment manufacturers in the U.S. NEMA has published more than 600 standards, application guides and technical papers. ODVA is a global trade and standard development organization whose members are suppliers of devices for industrial automation applications. UL is a global independent safety science company and has developed more than 1500 standards. UL supports the responsible design, production, marketing and purchase of goods, solutions and innovations.

Examples ISO 14000 is a family of standards related to environmental management to help companies minimize their negative impact on the environment.

NEMA TS-2 covers traffic signaling equipment used to facilitate and expedite the safe movement of pedestrians and vehicular traffic. ODVA oversees technology and standards for EtherNet/IP, DeviceNet, CompoNet, ControlNet, Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) and Conformance. The UL 60950-1 standard is applicable to information technology equipment designed for use as telecommunication terminal equipment and network infrastructure equipment in order to reduce the risk of injury or damage.

Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Introduction to the Organization

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 n-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Organizational structure of companies varies according to type, age, and location. At the same time, a successful work experience in the organization requires a thorough understanding of the ways that it is organized. This course reviews essential elements of the company. It begins by outlining the principle objectives of the organization (company). Next, it details principles that are related to its area of specialization within the industry. Third, using the scalar principle, it presents an organizational flowchart of personal, their authority, and responsibilities. It highlights communication patterns between persons. Enterprises use this “channel system” to facilitate productive exchanges of information between and amongst employees in an organization. Detailed job descriptions for each of the members of the organization not only promote uniformity within a workplace but also provide the “map” that links employees to each other for communication purposes.

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Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s fundamental principles. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s historical progression from inception to present. 3. Participants will understand the main divisions within the organization. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of the organization, its principles, and objectives, by selecting websites that relate to the organization. 4. Participants will construct a model that demonstrates the organizational structure of the organization. 5. Participants will use the Scalar principle to outline levels and communication patterns of all divisions of the Organization. Required Textbooks and Materials Industry-generated manual Professional association-related websites Organization’s policy manual Organization’s procedures manual Introduction documentation from each department Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

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Course Calendar Readings and assignments Date: Topic: due Week 1 Organizational Structures and Behaviors within the Industry Week 2 The Strategic Plan of the Organization Week 3 The Scalar Principle: What is it and Why is it Important? Week 4 The “Channel System” and Positions within the Organization

Supplemental Resources Ebert, R. J., & Griffin, R. W. (2019). Business essentials (12th ed.). Pearson. McNamara. (2006). Field guide to consulting and organizational development: A collaborative and systems approach to performance, change and learning. Authenticity Consulting. https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/management-­p rinciples-­v 1.0/s11-­ organizational-­structure-­and-­c.html https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-­of-­contents/structure/organizational-­structure/overview/main http://www.css.edu/the-­sentinel-­blog/what-­is-­organizational-­behavior-­learn-­more-­ about-­the-­human-­side-­of-­business.html https://ils.unc.edu/daniel/405/Montana11.pdf Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Job Interviewing (Part 1)

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  The interview serves two purposes. It provides the employer with a chance to engage with the prospective employee on multiple levels. These interactions serve as one criterion for evaluation that contributes to a job offer. The interview also provides the applicant with the ability to engage with future employers thus demonstrating interest, enthusiasm, motivation, knowledge, competency, and skills that the job requires. This course covers three basic but essential elements of the interview. First, it examines the purpose and function of interviews. Next, it provides an analysis of different types of interviews. Third, it provides opportunities to practice for both telephone pre-screening interviews and informational in-person interviews. It includes activities such as mock interviews that prepare future employees for the interview experience.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Course Goals 1. Participants will understand the importance of the interview. 2. Participants will understand the different facets of the interview. 3. Participants will understand communication patterns and styles for different types of interviews. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read the information that provides a basic description of the purpose of the interview. 2. Participants will pair with another student and participate in mock interviews. 3. Participants will and discuss each step of the process. 4. Participants will differentiate types of interviews. Required Textbooks and Materials Mathison, D., & Finney, M. I. (2010). Unlock the hidden job market: 6 steps to a successful job search when times are tough. Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: Participation in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Job Interviewing (Part 1)

251

Course Calendar Readings and Date: Topic: assignments due Week 1 Interviewing: Why they are Important and What Employers Seek Week 2 Types of Interviews: Structured, Unstructured Week 3 Telephone Prescreen Interviews Week 4 Direct In-Person Interviews: Behavioral and Competency Approaches

Supplemental Resources Bloch, J. (2011). Teaching job interviewing skills with the help of television shows. Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 74(1), 7–21. Wanberg, C. R., Ali, A., & Csillag, B. (2020). Job seeking: The process and experience of looking for a job. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 315–337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-­ orgpsych-­012119-­044939 Interview Tips: 10 Tips to Improve Interview Performance. https://www.monster. com/career-­advice/article/boost-­your-­interview-­iqub https://www.shrm.org/LearningAndCareer/learning/Documents/Behavioral%20 Interviewing%20Guide%20for%20Early%20Career%20Candidates.pdf https://www.oxy.edu/sites/default/files/assets/job-­interviews.pdf https://www.careeronestop.org/JobSearch/Interview/interview-­tips.aspx https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/interviewingskills/types-­of-­interviews/1/ Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Job Interviewing (Part 2)

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  The job interview is a complex set of social interactions that can be industry- and organization-specific. The individuals with whom one interacts during the interview, the conversations that occur during the interview, that which is expected of the applicant during the interview, and the social interactions before, during, and after the actual interview require understanding. This course extends the job interviewing curse (part 1) from a general to a specific focus. The course offers a variety of role-play exercises whereby students serve in both employer and potential employee roles in the ________ field. It also discusses appropriate social practices with future employers in the professional setting before, during, and after the interview, and appropriate dress for the interview.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Job Interviewing (Part 2)

Course Goals 1. Participants will understand the importance of the industry-specific interview process. 2. Participants will understand social practices that contribute to a successful interview experience. Course Objectives 1. Participants will participate in mock interviews. 2. Participants will practice industry-specific vocabulary in the interview process. 3. Participants will identify industry-specific professional dress for both women and men. Required Textbooks and Materials Bloch, J. (2011). Teaching job interviewing skills with the help of television shows. Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 74(1), 7–21. Interview Tips: 10 Tips to Improve Interview Performance. https://www.monster. com/career-­advice/article/boost-­your-­interview-­iqub Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: Participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Job Interviewing (Part 2)

255

Course Calendar Date: Topic: Week 1 Preparation for the Interview in the _____ Industry: Revising your CV, Hypothesizing Questions, Preparing Answers Week 2 Interviewing in the _____ Industry: Situations, Questions and Answers Week 3 Social Practices during the Before, During and After Interview Week 4 Dressing for Success: Clothes Make the Employee

Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources Wanberg, C.  R., Ali, A.  A., & Csillag, B. (2020). Job seeking: The process and experience of looking for a job. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 7, 315–337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-­ orgpsych-­012119-­044939 https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/students/graduate/before-­during-­ and-­after-­interviewing.html https://www.uidaho.edu/current-­students/career-­services/students-­and-­alumni/ interviews/common-­questions https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/VETS/files/DOLEW-­Participant-­Guide.pdf https://www.careereducation.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/DYNS%20 Single%20Page%20PDF%20Form.pdf https://www.betterteam.com/situational-­interview-­questions Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Organizational Skills

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Organization is the act of coordinating elements to maximize efficiency. This course examines five concepts and relates each to the learner. First, time management is a self-regulation skill that enables the success of the attempt. Second, scheduling realizes the short- and long-term plans in marked periods. Third, the organization of resources, including but not limited to virtual and non-­ virtual ones, maximizes efficiency. Fourth, priority management of tasks set priorities of importance. Like the work ethic course, this course offers a variety of strategies for students to use that enable them to develop and use effective organizational strategies.

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Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s fundamental principles. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s historical progression from inception to present. 3. Participants will develop an understanding of political, economic, and social changes in the industry in terms of the industry and company. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this module. 2. Participants will participate in informal discussions of topics during each class session. Required Textbooks and Materials Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Topic: Planning for the Short- and Long-Term Prioritizing Short- and Long-Term Strategies Time Management & Scheduling Organization of Resources

Readings and Assignments Due

Organizational Skills

259

Supplemental Resources https://www.leadingage.org/case-­studies/strategic-­planning-­and-­strategic-­it-­planning-­ long-­term-­and-­post-­acute-­care-­ltpac https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED501312 http://prairielandsbsa.org/assets/files/Goal_Setting_Time_Management.pdf https://www.edutopia.org/blog/prioritizing-­a-­critical-­executive-­function-­judy-­ willis http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104135/chapters/Classroom-­Management-­ and-­Organization.aspx Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Professional Skills

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Professionalism refers to the achievement in the level of competencies and conduct that is expected and required for an employee. Although the skill is learned throughout one’s career, youth may neither understand the concept nor exhibit the necessary behaviors to demonstrate it. This course discusses professionalism for and on the job for adolescents. It includes the discussion of knowledge sets that are required in industries and ways to increase and/or improve skill sets in areas that fall below set expectations. Students learn about professional associations that guide respective fields’ accreditations and certifications, continuing professional development courses, and industry-related events such as conferences and trade shows.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the concept of professionalism. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the myriad of resources available to develop professionalism. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will review websites for professional organizations in their interest area. Required Textbooks and Materials Casey, M. (2015). Content strategy toolkit: The methods, guidelines, and templates for getting content right. Pearson. Cook, G. O. (2011). Guide to business etiquette (2nd ed.). Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Professional Skills

263

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Topic: Knowledge Sets in Industries: Science, Math, Literature Origins Ways to Increase & Improve Skill Sets Professional Associations, Accreditations & Certifications Conferences and Trade Shows

Readings and assignments due

Supplemental Resources Borg, J. (2010). Body language. Pearson. Dodd, C. H. (2012). Managing business & professional communication (3rd ed.). Pearson. Jordan, L. (2021). Techniques of visual persuasion. New Riders. Pearson. Richmond, V. P., McCroskey, J. C., & Hickson, M. L. (2012). Nonverbal behavior in interpersonal relations (7th ed.). Pearson. https://www.dol.gov/odep/topics/youth/softskills/Professionalism.pdf https://www.counseling.org/docs/default-­source/ethics/ethics-­columns/ethics_ june_2018_compassion-­professionalism.pdf?sfvrsn=b1dc522c_4 https://www.wes.org/advisor-­blog/upgrading-­skills-­improves-­career-­prospects/ Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Reading in the Industry

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Becoming skilled readers requires ample opportunity for practice, authentic reasons for communicating, and effective instructional support. Instruction and practice then provide the coaching and feedback necessary to gain competence. Increased competence inspires continued motivation to engage. This course focuses on reading and understanding materials that are related to the industry. It provides the learner with a specific set of terms that enable the ability to understand company procedures, follow a manual of practices, and engage in specific tasks that are industry-specific with colleagues. Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s fundamental principles. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the industry’s historical progression from inception to present. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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3. Participants will develop an understanding of political, economic, and social changes in the industry in terms of its current or potential future global prospects. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of the industry by selecting websites that support the fundamental elements of the industry. 4. Participants will construct a model that describes past and current facets of the industry. 5. Participants will examine industry standards that are specific to the industry through the review and discussion of related material. Required Textbooks and Materials https://www.excellentesl4u.com/esl-­work-­vocabulary.html. This website provides vocabulary that may be unfamiliar to the new employee whose first language is not English. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Your contract The Manual from the Field (if applicable) Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: Participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; and participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Reading in the Industry

267

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Readings and Topic: assignments due Essential Job Vocabulary for the Workplace: In the Industry and Company Essential Job Vocabulary for the Workplace: Practices in Your Division and Department Essential Job Vocabulary for the Workplace: Practices in Your Position Essential Job Vocabulary for the Workplace: Practices to Strengthen Your Position in the Workplace

Supplemental Resources Organization’s policy manual Organization’s procedures manual https://www.wes.org/advisor-­blog/literacy-­can-­impact-­your-­career/ https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10862969009547693 https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/NCSI_Effective-­Coaching-­Brief-­508.pdf https://infed.org/mobi/informal-­non-­formal-­and-­formal-­education-­a-­brief-­overview­of-­some-­different-­approaches/ https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED495405.pdf Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Resume and CV Writing

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  The resume and the curriculum vitae (CV) provide different but complementary types of information that potential employers use to create a list of exceptional applicants for follow-up interviews. The glance at the document by the employer not only yields information regarding but also a representation of the applicant. This course focuses on writing the CV and the resume. In the first part of the course, students learn about the differences between the two documents. Next, participants identify documents required for a variety of fields and styles of writing them. In the final part of the course, students write, revise, edit, and ‘publish’ different types of resumes and CVs that relate directly to the jobs that they would like to obtain. Course Goals 1. Participants will understand the importance of the CV. 2. Participants will understand the parts of the CV for different industries. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Resume and CV Writing

270

3. Participants will understand the importance of the resume. 4. Participants will understand the parts of the resume for different industries. 5. Participants will understand how to create a CV and resume. Course Objectives 1. Participants will create a resume and a CV by brainstorming, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. 2. Participants will pair with another student and discuss each step of the process. Required Textbooks and Materials Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Topic: The Curricula Vitae (CV) and Cover Letter Resume Sections: Personal Information, Career Goals, Education, Former Employment, Accomplishments Writing a Relevant CV for the Target Workplace Publishing CVs: Appearance and Writing Style

Readings and Assignments Due

Resume and CV Writing

271

Supplemental Resources https://www.jobscan.co/resume-­writing-­guide https://www.monster.com/career-­advice/article/Resume-­Critique-­Checklist https://www.monster.com/career-­advice/article/companies-­hiring-­now https://www.monster.com/career-­advice/article/five-­steps-­for-­updating-­your-­resume­hot-­jobs https://www.monster.com/career-­advice/article/resume-­buzzwords-­0417 https://www.monster.com/career-­advice/article/top-­resume-­skills-­list-­0317 https://www.glassdoor.com/blog/guide/how-­to-­write-­a-­resume/ https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/career-center/undergraduate/resumes_ coverletters https://www.job-­hunt.org/resumes/resumes-­for-­right-­audience.shtml https://www.careeronestop.org/ExploreCareers/Assessments/skills.aspx Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Spoken Language in the Industry

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Youth develop their ability to express themselves in various settings through spoken language. The spoken language used in peer groups and with family utilizes a different set of structures than that which is used with colleagues and superiors for and on the job. This course teaches appropriate spoken language for both informal and formal settings in a variety of workspaces. It reviews the roles of both speakers and listeners in the causal conversational context in the workplace. It also teaches skills for formal presentations, including but not limited to an interesting launch of the presentation, its critical components, and a conclusion that presents both the newness of the work and the value to the audience. Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the importance of formal spoken language in the work setting. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the importance of informal spoken language in the work setting. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

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Spoken Language in the Industry

274

Course Objectives 1. Participants will create and present a formal presentation to classmates that resembles expectations for such in the work setting. 2. Participants will practice appropriate informal conversations with classmates that could be used on the job. 3. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. Required Textbooks and Materials Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: Participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; and participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Topic: Week 1 Spoken Language Skills: Speaking and Listening in the Workplace with Superiors Week 2 Spoken Language Skills: Speaking and Listening in the Workplace with Colleagues Week 3 Spoken Language Skills: Creating and Giving a Formal Presentation Week 4 Spoken Language Skills: Speaking at a Meeting

Readings and assignments due

Spoken Language in the Industry

275

Supplemental Resources Floyd, K., & Cardon, P. (2020). Business and professional communication. McGraw Hill. Griffith, D.  B., & Goodwin, C. (2013). Conflict survival kit: Tools for resolving conflict at work (2nd ed.). Pearson. Organization’s policy manual Organization’s procedures manual Introduction documentation from each department http://springinstitute.org/wp-­content/uploads/2020/03/10-­Listening-­Skills-­in-­the-­ Workplace.pdf https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/english-­at-­work-­full-­report.pdf https://www.extension.harvard.edu/professional-­d evelopment/blog/10-tips-­ improving-­your-­public-­speaking-­skills https://post.edu/blog/2018/06/7-­t ips-­f or-­d eveloping-superior-workplacecom­munication-­skills/ Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Work Ethic

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Work ethic refers to the belief that one’s participation in and for the work environment contributes to the self-worth of the individual as a member of a professional community. This course includes discussions of appropriate behaviors that demonstrate a positive work ethic for employees. It uses case studies and discussion to grapple with conditions, circumstances, and situations where work ethic is tested. It includes conversations on but not limited to: taking responsibility to honor a contract that includes a job description, and making individual and shared contributions about the required responsibilities; and attempting to plan for future contributions for the good of the organization. It also includes the development of a contract that provides a review of the student’s commitment to goals and objectives and enables the tracking of completion.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

277

Work Ethic

278

Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the concept of work ethic. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of ways work ethic is demonstrated in the work setting. Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will participate in informed discussions of topics during each class session. 3. Participants will demonstrate knowledge of work ethic. 4. Participants will create a personal plan that identifies elements of work ethic that the individual wants to address. Required Textbooks and Materials Cox, B. G., Hunt, R. W., & Hunt, M. B. (2005). Ethics at work. Pearson. Hooker, J. (2011). Business ethics as rational choice. Pearson. Wicks, A., Freeman, R. E., & Werhane, P. H. (2010). Work ethics. Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect your grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, building on the conversation at hand using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities A 100–90

B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Course Calendar Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Topic: Definitions of Work Ethic Ideas of Ethical Professionals at Work Actions of Ethical Professionals at Work Demonstrating My Work Ethic: A Management System

Readings and assignments due

Work Ethic

279

Supplemental Resources https://medium.com/workethics/elements-­of-­strong-­work-­ethics-­66a6c4d71ff6 https://www.slideshare.net/DerejemitikuUNVolunt/7-­elements-of-­a-strong-­work­ethic https://www.paycor.com/resource-­center/7-­characteristics-­good-­work-­ethic https://simplicable.com/new/work-­ethic https://www.saintleo.edu/blog/how-­to-­develop-­a-­good-­work-­ethic-­in-­5-­easy-­steps Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Written Language for the Industry

Facilitator: Contact information: Time and Place: Location: Format: Credits:

Spring 2022 Jane Doe [email protected] Monday, Tuesday, & Wednesday from 5:00 to 7:00 PM Room 123 In-person 1 professional credit

Time Requirement  The (New York) State Professional Development Office for the XXX industry requires that each course meet requirements. For one professional development credit, the State requires XXX (number) of contact hours, XXX hours of class instruction, and XXX hours of supplementary activities outside the classroom. Course Description  Employers require employees to write. Some of the text is simple; other times it requires a more complex structure. In the cases of the former, the completion of a form, for example, requires minimal skills. In the case of the latter, a proposal to change an established practice or create a new opportunity for development requires a written document that clearly and convincingly communicates the idea. This course teaches the writing process as it relates to industry standards to create both simple and complex written work. It uses the process of prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing stages in the development of the written piece. Course Goals 1. Participants will develop an understanding of the writing process and its steps. 2. Participants will develop an understanding of the ways that writing is used in and for the workplace. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

281

Written Language for the Industry

282

Course Objectives 1. Participants will read literature that relates to the topics addressed in this course. 2. Participants will complete exercises and activities in class that teaches each stage of the writing process. 3. Participants will employ the writing process for expository (factual/report) writing. 4. Participants will employ the writing process for persuasive writing. Required Textbooks and Materials Bailey, E. P. (2011). Writing & speaking at work (5th ed.). Pearson. Maslak, M. Writing process: Theory and practice. Unpublished manuscript. Taylor, S. (2012). Model business letters, emails and other business documents (7th ed.). Pearson. Industry-generated manual Professional Association-related websites Attendance and Participation Guidelines Regular and prompt attendance is expected of all participants. Active involvement in verbal and written communication is an integral part of each class session. On-time arrival and departure of class and attendance at all class sessions are expected. Absence from class does not excuse a participant from work missed. Erratic attendance and/or lateness will negatively affect the final grade. Course Assignments 1. Class Participation The class participation portion of the grade will be based on the following: Participating in in-class discussions, listening to classmates’ ideas, and building on the conversation at hand, using both information from the textbook and personal ideas and experiences; participating in all activities. 2. Final Exam (20 points total) (cumulative of all class material and teaching information)

A 100–90 B 89–82

C 81–70

D 69–62

F 61 and below

Written Language for the Industry

283

Course Calendar Readings and assignments Topic: due Types of Formal and Informal Writing in the Organization The Writing Process: Its Steps The Writing Process: Using it in Expository Writing for the Organization Week 4 The Writing Process: Using it in Persuasive Writing for the Organization

Date: Week 1 Week 2 Week 3

Supplemental Resources Graham, S. (2010). Teaching writing. In P. Hogan (Ed.), Cambridge encyclopedia of language sciences (pp. 848–851). Cambridge University Press. Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communication. Arnold. Organization’s policy manual Organization’s procedures manual Documentation from each department https://newprairiepress.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=ebooks https://status.net/articles/formal-­communication-­informal-­communication/ https://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/formal-­or-­informal.html http://www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/sol/standards_docs/english/2010/lesson_plans/ writing/6-­8/52_6-­8_writing_writing_process_persuasive_writing.pdf Participation Rubric  Points Criteria 2 The student is an active participant in all classroom discussions/activities both voluntarily and when called upon. The student shows a thorough understanding of required readings and makes thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation, shows interest in and respect for others’ views and participates actively in small groups. 1 The student participates in most class discussions/activities voluntarily and when called upon, but not consistently. Responses indicate some evidence of completing required readings that may advance the conversation. The student participates in small group work. 0 The student either does not participate or rarely participates in class discussions/ activities voluntarily. The student may not show understanding of required readings, and/or does not make thoughtful contributions that advance the conversation. The student does not attend class.

Index

A Abilock, D., 176 Abrams, D., 174 abstract conceptualization, 110 Accardi, M.T., 162 ACT for Youth, 16 active-participant mode, 194, 198–204 active participation, 70, 116, 161, 194, 198–204 Actor network theory (ANT), 126, 133, 135, 136 Adams, C.J., 167 Adecco Staffing, USA, 166 administrative oversight, 137, 144, 147, 148 adolescence, 2–4, 14–16, 18–21, 134, 161, 167, 174 adolescent development, 3, 8, 13–17, 20, 22, 69, 97–99, 132, 172 adolescent education, 1–3, 7, 129, 151 adolescents, vii, viii, 1–5, 7–9, 13–22, 27, 28, 35, 40, 63, 66, 68–72, 78, 79, 85–86, 88, 91–95, 97–103, 110–119, 126–137, 139, 143–145, 147, 151–153, 159–177, 186, 205–207, 209–224, 261 adolescents’ education, 7, 91, 129, 131–133, 139, 144, 159–177, 209–220 affective domain, 193 Agarwal, P.K., 117 Ahmad, M.A., 93, 102 Ahmet, M., 38 Akin, I., 5 Akkerman, S.F., 126 Aldas, T., 92 Alfeld, C., 92

All China Women’s Federation (ACWF), 40, 41, 152 Allen, D.E., 171 Alonderiene, R., 97 Altmann, A., 102 Anheier, H.K., 39 Applebee, A.N., 114 apprenticeship, 49–51, 53–58, 62–64, 66, 68, 77, 78, 86, 89–93, 102, 111, 151, 167, 177 apprenticeship system, 54, 55, 58, 64 Arbona, C., 138 Ardoin, S.P., 176 Arends, L., 174 Armstrong, M., 114 Arthur, M.B., 138 Ashton, D., 38 Ashton, M.C., 100 assessment, 7, 8, 50, 54, 97, 148, 151, 162, 171, 185–187, 190, 195, 204, 209–220, 222 Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE), 18, 20 Atkinson, L., 88 Augustyniak, K.M., 131 Autor, D., 69, 79 B Back, J., 95 Baddeley, A.D., 16 Baines, E., 174 Baker, A.C., 114 Bakker, 126 Balcar, J., 167

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. A. Maslak, Working Adolescents: Rethinking Education For and On the Job, Global Perspectives on Adolescence and Education 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79046-2

285

286 Balint, L., 176 Ball, D.L., 98 Balzer, W.K., 101 Bandura, A., 18, 169 Barber, B.L., 70 Bargh, J.A., 173 Barnard, J.K., 100 Barnard, W., 138 Bartkus, K.R., 87, 199 Baruch, Y., 128, 138 Beauregard, R., 135 Beckett, D., 86 Bender, T., 135 Berg, J., 126 Berg, S.A., 100 Bessen, J., 176 Billett, S., 94 biosocial theory, 15 Birkeland, M.S., 134, 173 Bitter, G.G., 176 Bjornavold, J., 144 Björnberg, M., 174 Blakemore, S.J., 15, 169 Blatner, R., 203 Blewitt, P., 15, 86, 173, 174, 206 Blustein, D.L., 71 Bocken, N.M.P., 139 Bogg, D., 117 Bolea, P.S., 144 Bonwell, C.C., 198 Boud, D., 116, 171 Bowerman, J., 99 Bozionelos, N., 128 Brain, 3, 14–21, 98, 199 Bratton, J., 96, 97 Bray, L., 167 Brechwald, W., 173, 206 Brennan, J., 89 Briscoe, J., 126 Broad, M.L., 101 Brockman, J., 109 Broderick, P.C., 15, 86, 173, 174, 206 Bronfenbrenner, U., 21 Brooks, L., 71 Brown, J.S., 119, 139 Brown, P., 161, 176 Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, 63 Burke, N.J., 87 Burke, R., 127, 128 Burns, J.Z., 61, 119 Burns, R.B., 19 Busby, G., 87 Butler, P., 87 Byrd, V., 117

Index C Call, K.T., 70, 71 Callon, M., 135 Campbell, K., 112 Campbell, S., 166 Camp, W.G., 161–163 Cao, Q., 168 Career and Technical Education (CTE), 66, 75, 77, 78, 87 Career and Technical Education Act (CTEA), 66 Carrigan, D., 62 case study, 3, 8, 71, 91, 135, 169, 197–199, 215, 222, 277 cedefop, 49, 51, 53 Challis, M., 117 Chandler-Olcott, K., 168 Chan, K., 31, 40 Chao, G.T., 99 charitable organization, 39 Chen, G., 30, 39, 40 Chen, P., 33, 35, 37 Cheung, E., 32, 34 China, vii, 4, 6, 8, 27–42, 77, 88, 90, 91, 152, 161, 172, 222, 223 Chinese Vocational Education Society/ Vocational Education Association (VEA), 29 Choi, W., 109, 177 Choudhury, S., 15, 169 Chung, C., 28 Chyung, S., 100 Clarke, A.E., 117 Clarke, D., 89 Clarke, N., 98 Clark, K.D., 137 Clayton, S., 176 cliques, 17, 21, 101, 171, 173–174, 206 coach support, 99 cognitive development, 14–17, 20, 161, 168, 237 cognitive domain, 193 Cohen, D.K., 98 Cohen, J.M., 173, 206 Colardyn, D., 144 Cole, M., 112 Coleman, J.S., 64, 65, 79, 112 collaboration, 19, 64, 77, 147, 166, 168, 174, 225–227 college, 3, 5, 34, 35, 37, 48, 61, 64, 68, 69, 78, 88, 90, 92, 143, 159, 160, 170, 177, 194, 221, 223 Collier, K., 87 Collin, K., 94, 95

Index Collins, A., 102 Collins, C.J., 137 Collins, G., 99 Comeaux, P., 176 communication, 2, 6, 8, 15, 19, 21, 28, 41, 50, 56, 68, 72, 77, 90, 92–95, 97, 101, 112, 114, 115, 131, 134, 148, 165, 167, 168, 170, 173–175, 177, 199, 202–204, 215, 225, 226, 229–230, 233, 234, 238, 242, 245, 246, 250, 258, 262, 266, 270, 274, 278, 282, 283 communities of practice, 21, 129, 130, 134 community, vii, viii, 17, 21, 29, 41, 67, 69, 70, 76, 87, 88, 95–101, 127, 129, 130, 134, 135, 144–153, 163, 169, 170, 184, 206, 223, 241, 277 community education, 146 Community Works, 8, 143–153, 159–177, 183–193, 198, 206, 217, 220, 223 Community Youth Development (CYD), 144, 147 concept mapping, 212 conceptual knowledge, 16 concrete experience, 110 Conde, M.Á., 115, 206 condition, 19, 22, 33, 54, 68, 92, 102, 126, 128–130, 135, 169, 187, 188, 202, 277 conditional knowledge, 16 constructivism, 128, 161 constructivist curriculum, 160, 162–163 Continuing Vocational Education and Training (CVET), 51, 52 Coombs, P., 38, 144 Coombs, P.H., 38, 144 cooperative learning, 171, 174, 203–204 Cooper, C.R., 70, 71 Cope, J., 117, 118 Copeland, L., 89 core courses, 160, 164 core module, 164–165 Cornelius, S., 103 Corporate Voices for Working Families, 61, 75, 76 Costley, C., 89 courses, 4, 5, 8, 9, 18, 19, 22, 37, 38, 48–50, 55, 56, 58, 64, 65, 67, 69, 73, 75, 76, 78, 86, 88, 89, 91, 97, 100, 109, 111, 115, 117, 131, 133, 134, 136, 144, 145, 148–151, 153, 160, 162–172, 176, 183–190, 193, 195–202, 205, 207, 210–212, 214, 217, 219–221, 223, 225–227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 237–239, 241–243, 245–247, 249–251, 253, 254,

287 257, 258, 261–263, 265–267, 269, 270, 273, 274, 277, 278, 281–283 co-worker, 21, 96, 100–101, 112, 132, 139, 207, 229 criteria, 170, 187–189, 191, 217, 219, 227, 233, 235, 239, 244, 247, 251, 255, 259, 263, 267, 271, 275, 279, 283 critical thinking, 77, 167, 170, 175, 233–235 Cropanzano, R., 137 Crosbie, R., 167 Crosby, O., 168 Crossan, M., 97 Cross, J., 93 cultural norms, 3, 125, 171 Curci, A., 128 curricular delivery, 159, 160 curricular design, 8, 76, 144, 147, 149–150, 159–177 curricular map, 149, 183–192, 220 curriculum delivery, 160 curriculum design, 160, 171, 223 curriculum mapping, 183, 184 curriculum vitae (CV), 167–168, 255, 269–271 D Dai, S., 33 Debate, 129, 186, 187, 191, 202 Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on the Reform of the Education System, 31 Decision on Accelerating the Growth of VET, 34 Decision on Deepening Educational Reform and Promoting Quality Education, 33 declarative knowledge, 16 Dede, C., 90 De Hauw, S., 127, 137 demonstrations, 94, 102, 169, 188, 196–197, 199, 215–216 dePalma, P.D., 137 De Vos, A., 127, 137 Dewar, J., 89 Dewey, J., 29, 87, 128, 161 Diener, E., 18 Dijkstra, J., 134, 173 Dirkx, J.M., 109 Doolittle, P.E., 161–163 Döring, N., 176 Dornbusch, S.M., 72 Duffy, R., 137 Duguid, P., 119, 139 Duplass, J., 20

288 Dutt, S., 7 Duveen, J., 203 Dyson, M., 171 E Eccles, J.S., 70 Eddy, E.R., 97, 101 education, viii, 1, 13, 27–42, 47–58, 61–79, 85–103, 109–119, 125–139, 143, 159–177, 185, 209–221 educational psychology, 13, 14, 22, 222 Education Work Model (EWM), 85–103, 115, 134, 223 Edwards, R., 136 Eickhoff, A., 176 Eison, J.A., 198 Ekeler, W.J., 86 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), 66 Ellison, N.B., 144 Ellström, P.E., 101 England, G.W., 138 Enos, M.D., 119 Ensher, E.A., 99 Epstein, M., 141 Eraut, M., 96, 98, 100, 101, 112, 114, 117 Erikson, E.H., 17 Erol, R., 18 Erozakn, A., 167, 173 Erwin, T.D., 210 European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP), 49, 51, 53 European Pillar of Social Rights in 20 Principles, 56 European Union (EU), 48–58, 91, 152 evaluation, 7, 8, 50, 54, 69, 97, 101, 137, 148, 151, 166, 170, 171, 174–176, 185, 187, 190–192, 194, 204, 209–220, 222, 233–235, 249 Eyler, J., 87 Eylon, B.S., 102 F facilitator, 8, 101, 133, 170, 174, 184–188, 190–192, 194–205, 208, 215, 219, 225, 229, 233, 237, 241, 245, 249, 253, 257, 261, 265, 269, 273, 277, 281 Farias, I., 135 Federal Apprenticeship Act, 63 Felson, R.B., 18 Fenwick, T., 136

Index Ferber, T., 153 Festinger, L., 118 Fields, R.D., 15 Finch, M.D., 70, 71 Fitzgerald Act, 63 Flaherty, B.P., 63 Fletcher, E., 65, 77, 78 Flum, H., 71, 102 foreign-born students, 48 formative assessment, 162, 211 Fosnot, C.T., 161 Fouad, N.A., 138 Francis, R.W., 166 Frankham, J., 136 Frazier, M.S., 94 Freed, J.E., 210 Frese, M., 102 friendship, 101, 137, 172, 173, 175, 206, 207 Fry, R., 116 Fujita, F., 18 Fuller, A., 98, 117 G Galbraith, J.R., 146 Gale, J., 161 Gallagher, S., 89 García-Peñalvo, F.J., 115, 206 Gardner, P., 87, 199 Geidd, J.N., 16 George-Barden Act, 63 Gessler, M., 77 Gewurtz, M.S., 29 Giancaspro, M.L., 127, 137 Gibbs, G., 117 Gibson, P., 87 Gielen, S., 93 Gilmore, K.J., 22 Gilroy, M., 92 Gindoff, P., 129, 130 Goals, 2, 5, 16, 18–21, 28–34, 38, 39, 42, 51, 53, 56, 70, 71, 77, 91, 93, 97–102, 111–114, 118, 119, 126–128, 135, 137–139, 146, 150–152, 160, 162, 167–172, 175, 176, 184–190, 193, 201, 203, 206, 208, 211, 212, 222, 223, 225, 229, 234, 237–239, 242, 246, 250, 254, 258, 262, 265, 269, 270, 273, 277, 278, 281 Gold, J., 96, 97 Gordon, H., 63, 75, 78 Government-Organized Non-Governmental Organizations (GONGOs), 40, 41 Graff, H.J., 62

Index Grandstaff, M., 144 Grassroots, 39, 40 Gray, M.R., 70 Great Leap Forward, 30 Greenberger, E., 72 Green, F., 38 Gribble, C., 89 Grøholt, B., 18 Grotevant, H.D., 70, 71 grouping, 184, 205–208 group learning centers, 144, 148–150, 184, 206, 207, 223 growth, viii, 2, 5, 6, 18, 22, 35, 37, 40, 47, 56, 65, 72, 88, 92, 125, 127, 131, 133, 138, 152, 163 Guleva, M.A., 35 Guo, Z., 30, 31 H Haeberle, K.S., 93 Hager, P., 86 half-private half public, 39 Hall, D.T., 128 Hall, G.S., 3 Hall, S., 15 Halpern, N., 4 hard skill module, 165–166 hard skills, 51, 94, 149, 160, 164–166, 170, 172, 175, 223 Hareven, T.K., 62 Harris, R., 144 Harter, S., 17–19 Hartup, W.W., 207 Hawkins, P., 97 Hawley, J.D., 100 Healthy and Resilient Organizations (HERO), 137, 138 Healy, K., 163 Heinrich, C.J., 7 Hershatter, A., 127 higher education, 28, 30, 32, 34–38, 49, 55, 67, 68, 86, 88–90, 115 higher education and research apprenticeships, 55 high school, 4, 32, 34, 35, 61, 63, 64, 66, 69–72, 77, 78, 86, 92, 133, 159, 166, 173, 221 Hoffman, B., 93 Hogg, M., 17 Holzer, H.J., 7 Hoppers, W., 145 Houkes, I., 94 Howe, C., 174

289 Hsu, C.L., 38 Huang, X.Y., 29 Huba, M.E, 210 Huber, R., 176 Hug, B., 176 Human Resource Management (HRM), 127, 131, 134, 135, 137–138 Hurlbert, J., 112 Hyland, T., 88 I informal education, 5, 8, 86, 93, 109–119, 128 informal learning, 86, 87, 93–96, 100, 103, 109–119, 223 Initial vocational education and training (IVET), 51, 52 instruction, 8, 30, 33–35, 41, 54, 55, 61, 68, 69, 73–76, 86, 87, 98, 100, 111, 138, 149, 150, 159, 162, 163, 165, 166, 168, 170–172, 174, 175, 184, 186–188, 190, 193–208, 210, 211, 215, 217, 219, 223, 225, 229, 233, 237, 241, 245, 249, 253, 257, 261, 265, 269, 273, 277, 281 instructional practice, 118, 147, 150, 215 instructors, 8, 41, 69, 87, 98–101, 118, 130, 134, 136, 147–151, 163, 170–172, 174, 175, 184, 185, 187, 188, 190, 193–195, 197–201, 203, 205–207, 210–212, 214–216, 219 Integrated Sociological Paradigm (ISP), 126, 130, 135 interaction, 5, 13, 15, 17–22, 69, 77, 86, 93–95, 100–102, 109, 110, 112–116, 129, 130, 133–135, 137, 139, 162, 166, 174–177, 204, 207, 253 internship, 7, 37, 66, 67, 77, 86, 89, 91–93, 102, 111, 167 interview, 49, 50, 166–168, 191, 215, 249–251, 253–255, 269 Isaacs, D.G., 167 Ishengoma, E., 160 Italy, 4, 6, 8, 47–58, 79, 90, 91, 152, 161, 172, 222, 223 J Jackson, S., 71 Jacobs, R., 87 Jacobs, R.L., 109, 177 Järvinen, A., 94 Jarvis, P., 117 Jiang, Y., 38 Jigsaw, 200–201

Index

290 job interviewing, 168, 249–251, 253–255 Johnson, D., 88, 204 Johnson. R., 204 Joo, B.K., 94 Joo, K.B., 119 Jornet, A., 102 K Kablaoui, B.N., 63, 65 Kahn, W.A., 94 Kandel, D., 173, 206 Kaplan, H., 128 Kapoor, C., 93 Kapur, D., 36–38 Kariwo, M., 88 Kauffeld, S., 100, 101, 115 Kedrayate, A., 144 Kelly, P., 95 Kett, J.F., 62, 63 Khasanzyanova, A., 167 Killgore, W.D.S., 99 Kimmel, D.C., 21, 172 Kim, S., 93, 119, 177 Kindermann, T.A., 21 King, Z, 128 Kluckhohn, C., 137 Kolb, D.A., 110, 116, 118 Kramar, M., 170 Kraut, R., 173 Kuhn, D., 15 Kwakman, K., 119 Kwok, L.K., 5, 7 Kyndt, E., 101 L Labelle, M., 144 Lacey, D.R., 146, 150 Lambeth, J.M., 87 Lamb, S., 30, 31 Larson, R., 3 Larson, R.W., 15, 18 Lasonen, J., 78 Latour, B., 133, 135 Lauder, H., 176 Lau, S., 5, 7 Lave, J., 110, 119, 134 Law, J., 135 Lawler, E., 128 Lawson, R., 160 learning, viii, xii, 2, 13, 30, 51, 66, 86–89, 93–95, 109–119, 126, 144, 159, 184, 193, 203–204, 209, 221

lecture, 69, 117, 171, 195–196, 203 Lee, C.Y., 18 Lee, K., 88 Lee, S.A., 89 legal parameters, 3 legislation, 33, 49, 53, 65, 66, 77 Lehman, P., 4 Leman, P.J., 174 Lepak, D.P., 137 Lerner, R.M., 14 lesson plan, 183–193, 200, 201 Lester, S., 88–90 Levasseur, R.E., 167, 171 Levitt, M.J., 172 Levy, M., 97 Linn, M.C., 102 Lin, V., 136 Lippman, L., 94, 166 Littke, D., 91 Little, B., 89 Liu, G., 29 Liu, J., 30, 37 Liu, O., 39 Lohman, M.C., 100, 114 Lounsbury, J.H., 206 lower secondary education, 48 Lucas, M., 112, 114 Lun, A., 168 Lu, Y., 40 M Mael, F.A., 71 Mager, R.R., 187 managerial support, 96–98 Manuti, A., 127, 128, 137 Man, W., 168 Ma, O., 38–40 Marsick, V.J., 109 Marton, F., 117 Maslak, M.A., 4, 5, 7, 28, 32, 38, 113, 129, 130, 133, 145, 151 Mason, M., 28 Massey, D., 134 mass organizations, 39, 40 maturity, 3, 17, 20, 132 McCurdy, S., 87 McGrath, S., 51 McGuire, S., 18 McKenna, K.Y.A., 173 McLean, G.N., 93, 177 McManus, J., 87 meaning of work (MOW), 126–129 Meersand, P., 22

Index Meeus, W., 70 member states, 51, 58 mentor, 19, 20, 71, 99–102, 112–116, 118, 119, 129, 150, 162, 206 Merriam, S.B., 93 middle school, vii, 3, 4, 8, 62, 147, 194, 221 Millennials, 127, 128 model, 3, 7, 8, 13–17, 20, 28, 41, 51, 71, 77, 78, 85–103, 109–119, 127, 129–133, 135, 139, 144, 147–153, 160, 162–170, 184, 188, 193, 194, 201, 205–207, 209, 215, 220–223, 226, 234, 238, 242, 246, 266 modules, 8, 131, 149–151, 160, 164–170, 183, 184, 186, 190, 193–208, 217, 223, 258 Monkman, K., 144 Moreira, A., 112, 114 Mortimer, J.T., 70–72, 144 Motaei, B., 174 Mulligan, R., 171 Murphy, S.E., 99 Musa, F., 171 N Nakata, Y., 71 National Vocational Education Act, 62, 68 Nealy, C., 166 negative outcomes, 69–72 networks, 13, 22, 50, 51, 67, 71, 111–113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 126, 129, 133–137, 206, 207, 223 Neumann, C., 5 Ng, E., 127, 128 Nonaka, I., 98, 110, 139 non-formal education (NFE), viii, 4, 5, 8, 21, 38, 42, 53, 92, 103, 111, 115, 128, 133, 139, 144–153, 160, 175, 209, 223 non-formal educational system, 38, 42, 53, 133, 144, 145, 151 nongovernmental organization (NGO), 38–42 O Oakes, J., 65 objectives, 2, 7, 16, 19, 39, 49, 53, 56, 70, 73, 92, 93, 95, 99, 100, 111, 118, 119, 126, 130, 138, 145, 146, 150, 152, 162, 165, 168–169, 171, 172, 176, 184–190, 193, 196, 197, 201, 206, 208, 211, 212, 216, 223, 226, 229, 234, 237–239, 242, 245, 246, 250, 254, 258, 262, 266, 270, 274, 277, 278, 282 observations, 66, 99, 110, 196, 214

291 Olweus, D., 18 Orazbayeva, B., 159, 160 Orchowski, P., 92 Ord, J., 116, 207 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 6, 76, 90, 145 organizational skills, 167, 169, 175, 257–258 organizational support, 95–96 Orth, U., 18 Outline on Reform and Development of Education in China, Vocational Education Law, 32 P Pajares, F., 18, 21 Pantea, M.C., 144 Paris, S.G., 16 Parker, P., 101 participants, 8, 37, 50, 67, 69, 70, 91, 93, 99, 116, 133, 136, 166, 167, 171, 184–190, 193–205, 207, 210, 211, 215, 219, 220, 225, 226, 229, 230, 234, 238, 242, 246, 250, 254, 258, 262, 265, 266, 269, 270, 273, 274, 278, 281, 282 participation, 2, 58, 63, 64, 69, 70, 75, 87, 88, 93, 109, 111, 114, 116–117, 119, 145, 161, 168, 169, 174, 194–204, 207–208, 214, 225–227, 230, 232, 234, 235, 238, 239, 242, 244, 246, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 258, 259, 262, 263, 266, 267, 270, 271, 274, 275, 277–279, 282, 283 passive-participant mode, 194–198 passive participation, 88, 109, 111, 114, 116–117, 195–198 Pautler, A.J., 63, 65 Peake, S.J., 19 peer groups, 20, 21, 134, 137, 172–174, 206, 207, 273 peers, 18, 20–22, 70, 72, 93, 100–101, 115, 132, 134, 137, 171–175, 206, 207 People’s Republic of China (PRC), 6, 8, 27–42, 90, 152, 161 performance tasks, 215–216 Perkins, C.D., 65, 66, 75 Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act, 65, 66 Perry, E. J., 36–38 Peter, J., 173 Pfeifer, J.H., 19 Phillips, D.C., 161 physical domain, 193 Piaget, J., 128 Plunkett, M., 171

Index

292 Poikela, E., 94 Popham, J., 211 popular organizations, 39 Porter, L., 128 positive outcomes, 70–71 Postiglione, G.A., 40, 42 Pound, L., 102 Powell, B.J., 21 Pratt, N., 95 presentation, 99, 166, 187, 195, 196, 200–205, 208, 273, 274 Prinstein, M., 173, 206 procedural knowledge, 16, 77 professional apprenticeship, 55 professional operator certificate, 54, 56 professional skills, 21, 88, 169, 261–263 professional technician diploma, 54, 56 project-based, 87, 116, 171 psychological development, 17–20, 233 psychomotor domain, 193 puberty, 3, 15 Pujol-Jover, M., 160 R Raelin, J.A., 89, 175 Rampersad, G.C., 159 Ready, K.J., 94 reflection, viii, 87, 88, 117–119, 171, 186, 198, 210, 215 reflective observation, 110 relationship, viii, 18, 20, 22, 40, 62–67, 69–72, 74, 75, 86, 93–95, 97–102, 110, 112–116, 126, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 145, 146, 164, 168, 171–173, 177, 206, 207, 209, 212, 214, 222, 223, 241 reliability, 219 Report on the Structural Reform of the Secondary Education, 31 Republic of Italy, 6, 8, 47–58, 161 resume writing, 167–168 Rex, L.A., 112, 188 Ritzer, G., 129, 130 Robinson, R., 174 Robles, M.M., 166 Rogers, T.B., 19 role-playing, 202–203, 226 Rosenbaum, E.J., 65 Ross, H., 40 Rossin, D., 88 Roth, W.M., 102 Rowe, L., 89 Rowold, J., 100, 101, 115

Russ-Eft, D., 98 Ryan, A.M., 16, 20, 94, 147, 206 Rydin, Y., 135 S Sacouman, N., 38 Saich, T., 38, 39 Salamon, L.M., 39 Saljo, R., 117 Sambrook, S., 86, 94, 97 scaffolding, 20, 21, 163, 186, 187 schedule, 54, 72, 73, 98, 109, 147, 151, 169, 183, 184, 190, 220 Schleicher, A., 145 Schmidtke, C., 33, 35, 37 Scholarios, D., 127 Schön, D., 118, 139 school-aged children, 6 School-Based Learning Experiences (SBLE), 160, 171–175 school-to-work partnership, 66, 86, 89, 92–93, 102 Schüller, M., 30 Schullery, N.M., 99 Schulte, B., 28, 29 Schulz, B., 166 Schunk, D.H., 21 Scribner, S., 112 self-efficacy, 17–19, 21, 70–72, 94, 132, 169, 173 self-esteem, 17, 18, 72, 94, 132 self-image, 17, 19, 132 self-worth, 18, 169, 277 Shah, D., 69 Shanahan, J., 63, 70, 71 Shanahan, M., 70, 71 Shanahan, M.J., 63, 70, 71 Shohet, R., 97 Siegler, R.S., 15 Simon, J., 102 Simons, L., 78, 90, 92 Slavin, R.E., 174 small-group instruction, 172, 174 small-groups, 115, 168, 171–175, 186, 199, 200, 203, 204, 207, 225–227, 232, 235, 239, 244, 247, 251, 255, 259, 263, 267, 271, 275, 279, 283 Smelser, N.J., 62 Smetana, J., 20 Smith-Hughes Act, 62, 78 Smith, T., 145–147 Smola, K., 127

Index Snell, S.A., 137 Snyder, W.M., 129 Sobel, D., 176 social development, 4, 13–22, 97, 126, 131–132, 134, 207 social identity, 70 social identity theory, 17 social organization, 39 Socio-Economic Value of Youth Work, 52 soft skill module, 149, 223 soft skills, 51, 77, 94, 101, 111, 135, 137, 144, 149, 160, 164, 166–170, 172, 175, 207, 223 Solomon, J., 203 Solomon, N., 93 Spanton, W.T., 68 Sperandio, J., 144 Spires, A.J., 41 Stacki, S.L., 144 Staff, J., 71, 72 State Council, Decision on Promoting the Occupational Education Reform and Development, 34 Steffe, L.P., 161 Steinberg, L., 3, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21, 70, 72, 86, 134, 173 Stern, D., 71, 72 Stes, A., 171 Stevens, N., 207 Stovall, D.C., 167 Stovall, P.S., 167 Strimel, G., 100 student support services, 147, 151 Sullivan, S.E., 128 Sulsky, L.M., 101 Super, D., 127 supervisor support, 98 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2, 4, 5, 7, 151 Sutton, C., 127 Svensson, L., 94 Swallow, V., 101 syllabi, 8, 149, 150, 183–192, 216, 223 syllabus, 184–185, 189, 216 T Takeuchi, H., 110, 139 Tannenbaum, S., 94 Tao, L., 29 Tarmudi, S.M., 93, 102 Tate, L, 135 Tausky, C., 128

293 Taylor, C., 175 Taylor, S., 114 teaching, 7, 8, 33, 51, 69, 78, 79, 86, 89, 99, 100, 103, 118, 150, 151, 153, 161, 163, 170–172, 174, 185, 193–208, 211, 216, 226, 230, 234, 238, 242, 246, 250, 254, 258, 262, 266, 270, 274, 282 teaching methods, 51, 69, 89, 99, 150, 170–171, 194 teaching strategies, 100, 118, 151, 193–208 Technique Training School of Foochow, 29 technology, 31, 32, 35, 73, 76, 89, 93, 102, 138, 160, 175, 176, 188 Terenzini, P.T., 174 Terjesen, M.D., 118 Terjesen, S., 22 Tesser, A., 18 Tett, L., 145–147 Thomas, A., 114 Thompson, E.J.D., 144, 145 Tikkanen, T., 101 Title II, 63, 67 Toland, J., 62 Tolmie, A., 174 trainer support, 98–99 training, 1, 2, 7, 21, 28–35, 37, 41, 48–58, 62–69, 73, 74, 78, 79, 86, 87, 90, 91, 93, 97, 115, 130, 131, 133, 137, 152, 153, 160, 166–168, 170, 171, 175, 176, 223 transdisciplinary research, viii, 8, 126, 129–137, 143–153 Trzesniewski, K.H., 18 Twenge, J., 168 Tynjälä, P., 88, 90, 96 types of workplace education, 86, 89–93 U Ullman, E., 186 United States Agency for International Development (USAID), 147, 152 United States (US)/United States of America (USA), viii, 4, 6, 8, 61–79, 86, 88, 90–93, 133, 152, 161, 166, 172, 185, 187, 222, 223 university, viii, 5, 32, 33, 35, 37, 53, 61, 68, 69, 78, 88, 90, 92, 115, 143, 159, 160, 170, 194, 221 Unruh, D., 133 Unwin, L., 98, 117 upper secondary school education, 48 Urdan, T.C., 18, 21

Index

294 V Vaaland, T.I., 160 validity, 53, 219 Valkenburg, P M., 173 Valsiner, J., 102 Van der Sluis, L.E., 97 Van der Veer, R., 102 Van Petegem, P., 171 Veenstra, R., 134, 173 Vera, D., 97 verb, 184, 187–189 VET system, 35, 48–53, 55, 90 Villalabos, M., 20 Vinnicombe, S., 22 Vischer, J.C., 133 Vitak, J., 144 vocational and education training/vocational education and training (VET), 33–35, 48–58, 87, 90 vocational and technical education (VTE), 28, 30–38, 48, 52, 74, 75, 77, 163, 221 vocational education, 4, 5, 8, 9, 27–42, 47–58, 61–79, 87, 88, 90–92, 138, 139, 160–162, 209, 221, 222 Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China Act, 33 vocational identity, 70, 71 Volpe, M., 109 Von Glaserfeld, E., 161, 162 Vygotsky, L.S., 20, 22, 95, 102, 110, 112, 114, 128, 133 W Waintrup, M., 133 Walker, E., 89 Wall, T., 88 Wanberg, C.R., 99, 251, 255 Wang, L., 35, 40 Wang, M., 39 Watkins, K.E., 109 Watts, G., 117, 118 Weber, R.A., 113 Weiner, I.B., 21, 172 Welsh, E.T., 99 Wenger, E., 110, 119 Wenger, E.C., 129 Wentzel, K.R., 207 Werquin, P., 144, 145 Whitely, W.T., 138 Williams, C., 89, 101

Williams, E.A., 101 Williams, R.M., 137 Wolfson, N.E., 100 work, vii, 1, 18, 27, 47, 61–72, 85–103, 109, 125–139, 143–153, 159–177, 183–192, 198, 215, 221, 226, 230, 234, 237, 241, 245, 250, 254, 257, 262, 266, 270, 273, 277, 281 work-based learning (WBL), 56, 66, 86–90, 92, 93, 97, 102, 103, 117, 160, 175 work-Based Learning Experiences (WBLE), 53, 93, 97, 160, 171 work ethics, 167, 169, 175, 257, 277–278 workforce, viii, 2, 5, 7, 15, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 37, 38, 61, 63, 64, 66, 67, 77–79, 88, 89, 92, 95, 130, 138, 139, 150, 153, 160, 161, 165, 166, 170, 175, 183, 198, 222–224 Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA), 66, 67 Workforce Investment Act (WIA), 66 working class, 28 working youth, 1, 2, 6, 8, 21, 28, 52, 57, 64, 65, 222 Work-integrated learning (WIL), 86–89, 102, 117, 175 workplace, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 15, 20, 22, 41, 49, 53, 55, 58, 64, 66, 68, 70, 71, 76, 78, 86–97, 99–103, 109–111, 115, 117–119, 126–128, 130, 131, 133, 135–139, 143–145, 160, 163, 165, 166, 168, 171, 175, 176, 186, 198, 206, 207, 221, 222, 229, 245, 273, 281 workplace learning, 86–87, 93, 95, 100, 102, 110 work placement, 87 work placement, project-based education, 87 Wright, T.A., 137 writing, 38, 58, 61, 165–168, 172, 175, 183–192, 199–200, 214–215, 217, 269–270, 281, 282 writing strategies, 214–215 Wu, G., 34 Wuthnow, R., 137 X Xie, J., 34 Xu, G., 41 Xu, J., 37 Xu, X., 37

Index Y Yang, Q., 35 Yan, L., 30–32, 35 Yi, H., 38 Yob, I.M., 88 Youngblade, L.M., 21 youth, viii, 1, 2, 5–7, 13, 27, 47, 61, 67–72, 85, 114, 126, 129–137, 143, 160, 186, 206, 221, 261, 273 Youth Guarantee Programme, 49, 50 Youth Guarantee scheme, 49

295 Z Zegwaard, K., 87 Zelizer, V.A., 62 Zhang, Y., 40, 41 Zhu, X.B., 30 Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J., 70 Zirkle, C., 65, 77, 78 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), 20, 95, 102 Zupančič, V.M., 150, 170