Woodworking Techniques before A.D.1500: Papers presented to a Symposium at Greenwich in September, 1980, together with edited discussion 9780860541592, 9781407327235

Citation preview

Woodworking Techniques before A.O. 1500 Papers presented to a Symposium at Greenwich in September, I 980, together with edited discussion

edited by Sean McGrail

National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, Archaeological Series No. 7 B A R International Series I 2 9

1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B .A.R.-S129, 1982: 'Woodworking Techniques before A.D.1500'

©

The Individual Authors and the Nat�onal Maritime Museum, 1982

National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, Archaeological Series

General Editor - Sean McGrail, B.A., Ph.D., Master Mariner 1. 2. J. 4. 5. 6.

Sources and Techniques in Boat Archaeology (BAR-S29) Logboats of England and Wales (BAR 51) The Graveney Boat (B AR 53) Dendrochronology in Europe (BAR-S51) The Archaeology of Ships and Harbours in Northern Europe (BAR-S66) The Brigg 'Raft' and her Prehistoric Environment (BAR 89)

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541592 paperback ISBN 9781407327235 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541592 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age L ist o f I l lustrations

i i

L ist o f Tab les

x i

F oreword by Dr. Bas i l Greenh i l l

x i i i

Ed itor 's I ntroduction

xv

L ist o f Contr ibutors

xv i i

MULT I -PERIOD 1 .

Ancient woodwork ing t echn iques : a rchaeo logy J . M . Co les

t he i mp l ications f or

2 .

Record ing t imberwork o n t he L ondon waterfront Gustav M i lne

3 .

Boatbu i ld ing t echn iques, t echno log ica l c hange a nd a ttr ibute a na lys is S ean McGra i l a nd G eoffrey Denford

Genera l d iscuss ion a nd d iscuss ion o f mu lt i-per iod p apers

1 7 2 5 7 3

PREHISTORIC 4 .

P rehistor ic wood lands a nd woodwork ing i n t he S omerset l eve ls B . J . Orme

7 9

5 .

The Wood Age? The s ign if icance o f wood u sage i n p reI ron Age n orth w estern Europe S . V . E . H ea l

9 5

6 .

The a rch i tectura l woodwork o f t he L ate Bronze Age v i l lage Auvern ier-Nord Beat Arno ld

1 11

7 .

The Donnerup land Ard P eter J . Reyno lds

1 29

D iscuss ion o f P reh istor ic P apers

1 53

ROMAN 8 .

Roman c arpentry j o ints: a dopt ion a nd a daptat ion J ane Weeks

1 57

9 .

Roman m i l i tary t imber bu i ld ings: c onstruction a nd r econstruction W . S . Hanson

1 69

1 0. Roman v eh ic le c onstruction i n t he n orth-west P rov inces Hugh Chapman

1 87

D iscuss ion o f Roman p er iod p apers

1 95

P age MEDIEVAL 1 1.

The Growing a nd Transport o f t imber a nd underwood O l iver Rackham

1 99

1 2. Work ing unseasoned wood R ichard Darrah

2 19

1 3.

2 31

1 0th c entury woodwork ing i n Coppergate, York R . A . Ha l l

1 4. Aspects o f Ang lo-Saxon a nd Ang lo-Scand inav ian l a thet urn ing Caro le A . Morr is

2 45

1 5 .

2 63

Carpentry i n I re land AD 9 00-1300--The Wood Quay e v idence P atr ick P . Wa l lace

1 6. Wooden a rtifacts f rom t he e xcavat ion o f t he med ieva l c ity o f Cork M . Hur ley

3 01

1 7.

3 13

The c onstruction o f med ieva l d oors J ane G eddes

1 8. V ik ing Age b oatbu i ld ing t oo ls Arne Emi l Christensen

3 27

1 9 .

Too lmarks o n s urv iv ing works f rom t he S axon, Norman a nd l ater Med ieva l p er iod C . A . Hew i tt

3 39

2 0.

The t oo ls a va i lable t o t he med ieva l woodworker Ph i l ip Wa lker

3 49

2 1. A g auge u sed f or t he a l ignment o f med ieva l r oofs J ohn McCann

3 57

D iscuss ion o f Med ieva l p apers

3 67

Addresses

3 75

I ndex

3 81

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS

F igure 2 .1 2 .2 2 .3 2 .4 2 .5 2 .6

3 .1 3 .2 3 .3 3 .4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 3 .8 3 .9 3 .10 3 .11 3 .12 3 .13

P age I sometr ic p ro ject ion a nd pho tograph o f s tructure Gil P ho tograph a nd Draw ing : Museum o f L ondon

8

P lan a nd e leva t ion o f a wooden s tructure Drawing : Museum o f L ondon

9

S equence o f a ssemb l ing a wooden s tructure Drawing : Museum o f L ondon

1 1

T imber r ecord s heet Museum o f L ondon

1 4

Edge a nd f ace d raw ings o f c ornerpost Draw ing : Museum o f L ondon

1 5

Woodwork ing t erms Draw ing : Museum o f L ondon

1 8

F err iby b oa t 1—scarf a nd r ing/ray p attern Draw ing : Na t iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 1

Br igg ' raf t ' —r ing/ray p attern Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 1

Convers ion o f p ine p lank ing Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 2

Graveney b oat--ray p attern Photo: Na t iona l Mar i time Museum

3 2

Graveney b oat —stem/kee l-p lank j o int Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 2

F aering r ep l ica —kee l/stem s carf Photo: Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 4

County Ha l l b oat —s trake s carf Drawing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 4

Graveney b oa t —f loor t imber/top t imber j o int Drawing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 4

F err iby b oat 1 --bo ttom p lanking f asten ings Draw ing : Na t iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 6

F err iby b oa t 1 --s ide s trake f as ten ing Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 6

Br igg 'raf t ' —bo ttom p lank ing f asten ings Drawing : Nat iona l Mar it ime Museum

3 6

Br igg ' raf t ' —s ide s trake f as ten ing Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar it ime Museum

3 6

County Ha l l b oat —mode l o f s trake f astenings Photo : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 8

F igure

P age

3 .14

V ik ing Age s trake f asten ings Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 8

3 .15

F err iby b oat 1—transverse t imbers P hoto: Nat iona l Mar i time Museum

3 8

3 .16

B lackfr iars b oat 1 --strake/s ide t imber f asten ings Draw ing : Na t iona l Mar i t ime Museum

3 8

3 .17

S utton Hoo b oat 2 --mode l o f r ibs/p lank ing f asten ing P ho to : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 0

3 .18

Graveney b oa t —treena i l h ead P hoto : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 0

3 .19

Graveney b oat —treena i l w i th w edge Photo : Nat iona l Mar i time Museum

4 0

3 .20

Graveney b oat —str inger/f loor t imber f asten ing Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 0

3 .21

App leby l ogboat--repa ir Pho to : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 1

3 .22

S hor t F erry l ogboat —doveta i l-shaped g roove Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 1

3 .23

G igg lesw ick T arn l ogboat —bow Photo: Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 1

3 .24

G igg lesw ick T arn l ogboat —doub le-dove ta i l-shaped t imber P ho to: Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

4 1

4 .1

Map o f Br i ta in Drawing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

8 0

4 .2

S omerset l eve ls Draw ing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

8 0

4 .3

Sweet t rack, Drove s i te Pho to: J . M . Co les

8 2

4 .4

Coppiced s too l Drawing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

8 3

4 .5

Hurd le f rom Wa lton Hea th t rack Draw ing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

8 3

4 .6

Y ew s tump f rom T inney 's Ground t rack Pho to : J . M . Co les

8 4

4 .7

Roundwood c ut e nds Draw ing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

8 6

4 .8

R econs truct ion o f Sweet t rack a nd M eare Heath t rack Draw ing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

9 0

4 .9

Cross t imbers w i th h o les f rom Meare H eath t rack Draw ing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

9 1

4 .10

Woodwork ing d eta i ls f rom Sweet t rack P ho to : J . M . C o les

9 2

F igure

P age

5 .1

F inds o f p reh is tor ic wood f rom t he Br i tish I s les Drawing : S omerset L eve ls P ro ject

9 7

5 .2

Meso l i th ic p add le Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

9 7

5 .3

Natura l f orms, r oundwood a nd s p l i twood Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i time Museum

1 01

5 .4

Transverse r ad ia l v iews o f r oundwood a nd s p l i twood a nd s tructure o f ad isc whee l Draw ing : Nat iona l Mar i time Museum

1 02

5 .5

S p l i tting a n Ash b o le Pho to: Author

1 04

5 .6

S epara t ing t he t wo h a lves o f a n Ash b o le Photo : Author

1 04

5 .7

F err iby b oat 1 d ur ing e xcava t ion Pho to: Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

1 06

5 .8

Br igg ' raf t ' d ur ing e xcava t ion Pho to : Nat iona l Mar i time Museum

1 06

5 .9

F err iby b oa t 1a f ter e xcavat ion Photo: Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

1 07

6 .1

L ake dwe l l ing o f Auvern ier-Nord Pho to: Mus e c antona l d 'archeo log ie d e Neuchg te l

1 12

6 .2

Too l marks o n al ogboat Pho to : M .C. A.N.

1 12

6 .3

F requency d iagrams f or d ifferent t runk-rad ius D iagram: M .C.A.N.

1 13

6 .4

Types o f b ronze t oo l Draw ing : M .C. A.N.

1 14

6 .5

W id th o f b lade p lotted a ga ins t o vera l l l ength o f b ronze t oo ls D iagram: M .C.A.N.

1 16

6 .6

Too lmarks i n s lo ts a nd g rooves Draw ing : M .C. A.N.

1 18

6 .7

A mortice Draw ing :

1 19 M .C.A.N.

6 .8

S ect ions o f o ak a nd a sh p i les a nd b eams Draw ing : M .C. A.N.

1 21

6 .9

Oak p i les Draw ing :

1 23 M .C. A.N.

6 .10

Uses o f S i lver F ir ( Abies) Draw ing : M .C.A.N.

1 24

6 .11

Boards made f rom S i lver F ir Draw ing : M .C.A.N.

1 26

7 .1

Rep l ica o f t he Hvovs lev Ard Pho to: Author

1 31

•

-

F igure

P age

7 .2

Donnerup land Ard Drawing : Author

1 32

7 .3

P arts o f t he Donnerup land Ard Draw ing : Author

1 34

7 .4

S chemat ic d raw ing o f t he h o le t hrough t he b eam Draw ing : Author

1 36

7 .5

Ma in b eam under c onstruct ion P hoto: Author

1 38

7 .6

Donnerup land Ard r ep l ica Pho to: Author

1 38

7 .7

Deta i ls o f t he Donnerup land Ard P ho to : Author

1 40

7 .8

Dexter c a tt le Pho to: Author

1 40

7 .9

The l ong d raw Pho to: Author

1 46

7 .10

The s hort d raw Pho to: Author

1 46

7 .11

The r ep l ica i n u se Photo: Author

1 47

7 .12

Furrow p rof i les Draw ing : Author

1 48

8 .1

S ke ldergate t imberl ined w e l l Drawing : York Archaeo log ica l T rus t

1 58

8 .2

Custom House waterfront Draw ing : L ondon & M idd lesex Archaeo log ica l S oc iety

1 58

8 .3

The mo le a t Dover Drawing : Author

1 60

8 .4

Whee ls f rom E zinge Drawing : J . B . Wo lters

1 62

8 .5

Deta i ls o f t he Vechten b oa t Draw ing: D . E l lmers

1 62

8 .6

Woodwork ing s cene f rom t he House o f t he Vett i i , P ompe i i Draw ing : Author

1 65

9 .1

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene L I Pho to : Author

9 .2

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene XCII P ho to: Author

9 .3

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene CVIII Pho to : Author

9 .4

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene CXXXVII P hoto: Author

1 75

9 .5

T ra jan 's Co lumn s cene XXII Pho to: Author

1 78

1 73 1 74 1 74

F igure 9 .6

P age Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene CXXXVI Pho to: Author

1 78

1 0 .1

Re l ief o f at wo-whee led c art a nd o xen Pho to : Museum o f L ondon

1 9 0

1 0.2

Mosa ic o f af our-whee led wagon a nd mu le Pho to: Author

1 90

1 1 .1

Wood land i n E ng land i n 1 086, by s ett lement Map: Author

2 01

1 1 .2

Wood land i n Eng land i n 1 086, by a rea D iagram: Author

2 02

1 1 .3

P art o f Bradf ie ld Woods, o ne-and-a-ha lf s ummers a f ter f e l l ing underwood P ho to: Author

2 10

1 1 .4

Trusses f rom t he r oof o f Great L ivermere c hurch Pho to a nd Draw ing : Author

1 1.5

Tongue-and-groove b oards i n c ross-sect ion Draw ing : Author

2 16

1 1 .6

Boards i n med ieva l c hurch d oors Draw ing : Author

2 16

1 2.1

An o ak wedge Draw ing : Author

2 24

1 2 .2

Medu l lary r ays i n o ak Draw ing : Author

2 24

1 2.3

Wedges d amaged i n u se Pho to : Author

2 25

1 2.4

Wedges d amaged i n u se Photo : Au thor

2 25

1 2.5

Wedges d amaged i n u se Pho to: Author

2 25

1 2.6

Wedges d amaged i n u se Photo : Author

2 25

1 2.7

Hew ing a xe Pho to: Author

2 26

1 2.8

G l ip in No. 2 a dze Pho to: Author

2 26

1 2.9

S poonbi t h ead Pho to : Author

2 26

2 10/211

1 2 .10 S tra ight-gra ined o ak Photo: Author

2 26

1 2.11 S p l i tting a n o ff-centre t ree Draw ing : Author

2 27

1 2.12 S p l i tting t hrough a l arge knot Draw ing : Author

2 27

F igure

P age

1 2.13

S tr ike a ng le o f h ew ing a xe Drawing : Author

2 27

1 2.14

S tr ike a ng le o f a n a dze Draw ing : Author

2 27

1 2.15

Natura l s p l i ts Pho to: Author

2 28

1 2.16

Wedge i mpress ion Photo: Author

28

1 2.17

F ibres s panning a s p l i t Pho to : Author

2 28

1 2.18

Too l marks o n ar ad ia l ly c lef t s urface Photo: Author

2 28

1 2.19

Ax ing a l og Photo: Author

2 29

1 2.20

Axe marks P hoto : Author

2 29

1 2.21

S quare-hewn t imber Pho to : Author

2 29

1 3 .1

Ash a nd o ak b ox f rom Coppergate, York Draw ing : York Archaeo log ica l T rust

2 35

1 3 .2

Oak s add le b ow f rom Coppergate, York Draw ing : York Archaeo log ica l T rust

2 35

1 3 .3

Watt le bu i ld ings a t Copperga te Photo : York Archaeo log ica l Trus t

2 37

1 3.4

P lank-bu i lt wa l l a t Copperga te Photo: York Archaeo log ica l Trus t

2 37

1 3.5

Cav i ty wa l l a t Coppergate Photo: York Archaeo log ica l T rus t

2 41

1 3 .6

P lank f loor a t Coppergate Pho to: York Archaeo log ica l Trus t

2 41

1 4.1

S axon p o lelathes r econstructed Draw ing : Graeme Morr is

2 46

1 4.2

Making a wooden b ow l Draw ing : Graeme Morr is

2 48

1 4 .3

Cup c entre a ttachments a nd l a the-turned c ores Draw ing : Graeme Morr is

2 50

1 4.4

oo l L a the-turned c ores f rom York a nd a r a tchet-type t r est Draw ing : Graeme Morr is

2 52

Two unf in ished b ow ls a nd c h ise ls p robably u sed f or

2 55

1 4.5

l a the-turn ing Draw ing : Graeme Morr is

F igure

P age

1 5.1

1 1 th c entury g rounds i l ls. F ishamb le S treet I I Draw ing : Na t iona l Museum o f I re land

2 70

1 5 .2

1 3 th c entury R evetment 1 . Wood Quay Draw ing : Na t iona l Museum o f I re land

2 74

1 5 .3

1 3 th c entury Revetment 1—outer a nd i nner e lements. Wood Quay Draw ing : Na t iona l Museum o f I re land

2 76

1 5.4

1 3th c entury Revetment 1—subway b asep la te. Drawing : Nat iona l Museum o f I re land

2 81

1 5.5

1 3 th c entury R evetment 1—post t enons. Wood Quay Draw ing : Nat iona l Museum o f I re land

2 82

1 5.6

1 3 th c entury R evetment 1—suppor ting b races. Draw ing : Nat iona l Museum o f I re land

2 84

1 5 .7

1 3 th c entury d ra in o r j e tty s pacers a nd f ram ing p osts. Wood Quay Draw ing : Na t iona l Museum o f I re land

2 91

1 6.1

Carved w ooden o b jects f rom Cork Draw ing : Author

3 02

1 6.2

Carved wooden o b jects f rom Cork Draw ing : Author

3 05

1 6.3

Carved wooden o b jects f rom Cork Draw ing : Author

3 07

1 6.4

Carved wooden o b jects f rom Cork Draw ing : Author

3 08

1 7.1

Hadstock, n or th d oor Pho to: Au thor

3 14

1 7.2

P eterborough Cathedra l, w est d oor Photo: Author

3 16

1 7.3

Pyx Chamber, Westminster Abbey Photo : Author

3 17

1 7 .4

W inches ter C o l lege, i nner c our tyard Photo: Author

' 3 17

1 7 .5

W inchester C o l lege, i nner c ourtyard Photo: Author

3 18

1 7 .6

W inches ter C o l lege, i nner c ourtyard Pho to: Author

3 18

1 7 .7

L ichf ie ld Ca thedra l, c entra l d oor, w est e nd Pho to: Author

3 21

1 7.8

S t. Augus tines , Canterbury, g ateway Photo : Author

3 21

1 7 .9

H igham, n or th d oor Photo: Author

3 22

1 8 .1

Boatbu i l :d ing s cenes f rom t he B ayeux Tapestry Photo: Un ivers i tetets O ldsaksam lin .g

3 28

Wood Quay

Wood Quay

F igure

P age

1 8.2

V ik ing Age s haves Draw ing : Un ivers i tetets O ldsaksam l ing

3 30

1 8 .3

Axe marks o n t he Oseberg s h ip 's k ee l a nd a l ut ing c ove i n aK lästad s h ip s trake Pho tos : Un ivers i tetets O ldsaksam l ing

3 32

1 8.4

Bu i ld ing a 4 -oared Nordf jord b oat Photo: Author

3 33

1 8 .5

V ik ing Age t oo ls w i th a n e ar ly med ieva l r ib a nd r ow lock Pho to: Author

3 35

1 9 .1

The l id o f S t. Cuthber t 's c off in P ho to: Dept. o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f Durham

3 40

1 9 .2

S t. Botu lph 's Church, Hadstock —deta i ls o f t he n orth d oor Draw ing • Author

3 42

1 9 .3

Pyx Chamber, Westm inster Abbey —construct ion o f t he d oor Draw ing : Author

3 44

1 9 .4

A s carfjo int i n ab arn a t I mbers, G ood E aster Draw ing : Author

3 46

2 0.1

Twybi l ls, a ugers, t ryp lane a nd r ip-saw Pho to: J ohn Me lv i l le

3 54

2 0.2

L ate med ieva l a xes Pho to: J ohn Me lv i l le

3 54

2 1.1

Deta i l o f r af ter h o le Draw ing : Author

3 58

2 1.2

P os i t ion o f r af ter h o le o n r af ter Draw ing : Author

3 58

2 1.3

A p a ir o f r af ters a ssemb led Draw ing: Author

3 58

2 1.4

Gaug ing a p a ir o f wa l l p lates wh ich a re n o t l eve l Draw ing : Author

3 59

2 1.5

Us ing a s quare t o s cr ibe a r af ter Drawing : Author

3 59

2 1.6

Raf ter s eat ings Draw ing : Author

3 59

2 1.7

Us ing a t emp la te t o s cr ibe a r af ter Drawing : Au thor

3 60

2 1.8

The r af ter h o le i n r e la t ion t o t he wa l l-p late Draw ing : Author

3 60

L IST OF TABLES

Tab le

P age

1 .1

The g enera l u se o f mater ia ls by a nc ient c ommun it ies

2 .1

T imber r ecord ing methods u sed i n L ondon, York, Bever ley a nd Norwich

1 7

3 .1

Deta i ls o f s e lected b oat-f inds f rom Br i ta in a nd I re land

2 8

3 .2

Date r anges f or s e lected woodwork ing t echn iques i n Br ita in a nd I re land

4 4

9 .1

Construct ion methods i n i st c entury bu i ld ings i n Roman Br ita in

1 82

9 .2

Construct ion methods i n 2 nd c entury bu i ld ings i n Roman Br ita in

1 84

S pecies i dent if icat ion o f wooden a rtifacts f rom Cork C ity

3 04

1 6.1

4

FOREWORD

The c onference o n Woodwork ing T echn iques b efore AD 1 500 h e ld a t t he Nat iona l Mar i time Museum o n 2 0 th a nd 2 1st S eptember , 1 980 was a ttended by o ver 1 00 p eop le, a l l o f t hem i nvo lved w i th w ood, but f rom s evera l d ifferent v iewpo ints. Th is m ixture o f i nterests was e spec ia l ly t o b e w e lcomed a s d ocumentary, i conograph ic, e xcavated a nd e xper imenta l e v idence w ere a l l c ons idered, r esu lt ing i n a more c omp lete p icture o f e ar ly woodwork ing t echn iques. I n a dd i t ion, t heoret ica l s pecu la t ions w ere s upported o r c onfounded by t hose w i th p ract ica l e xper ience; a nd t he u se o f woodwork ing t oo ls was d emons tra ted. The i dea o f s uch a c onference a rose a f ter t he publ icat ion i n t he 1 978 v o lume o f t he P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety o f , ' The u se a nd c haracter o f w ood i n p reh istor ic Br i ta in a nd I re land ' by J . M . Co les , S . V . E . H ea l a nd B . J . Orme. Th is s em ina l p aper g ave a much n eeded r eminder t ha t t he s tudy o f wooden a rt ifacts c an make a c ons iderable c ont r ibut ion t o o ur u nderstand ing o f e ar ly man. I t i s p art icu lar ly a ppropr ia te t herefore t ha t P rofessor Co les s hou ld h ave g iven t he o pen ing a ddress a t t he c onference, a nd t hat h is p aper s hou ld b e t he f i rst i n t h is v o lume. Th is was t he s ixth o f t he Museum 's c onferences t o b e c oncerned w i th a n a rchaeo log ica l t op ic. S ome o f t hese h ave d ea lt e xc lus ive ly w i th mar it ime ma tter: but o thers —as w i th t h is Woodwork ing Conference —have t ack led b roader f i e lds o f s tudy. S uch n on-specia l ised c onferences a re e ssent ia l i f ab iased v iew o f Ant iqu i ty i s t o b e a vo ided. Mar i t ime a ct iv it i es a re a h i therto s omewhat n eg lected p art o f Man 's h istory wh ich n eed t o b e s tud ied w i th in a w ider c ontext. Th is w e mar i time s pec ia l is ts unders tand: o ur " land-bound" c o l leagues must c orrespond ing ly b e aware o f t he i mportance o f t he mar i t ime d imens ion.

Bas i l Greenh i l l D irector Nat iona l Mar i t ime Museum

EDITOR 'S I NTRODUCTION

The a im o f t he c onference o rgan isers w as t o b r ing t ogether p eop le d ea l ing w i th d ifferent a spects o f wood s o t hat t hey a nd t he v ar ious s pec ia l isat ions t hey r epresented wou ld b enef i t f rom t he i nterchange. Th is m ixture o f i nterest s eems t o h ave b een a ch ieved f or i n t hese p roc eed ings w e h ave p apers s tretching i n t ime f rom t he P a laeo l i th ic t o t he l a te med ieva l p er iod, a nd t he a r t ifac ts d iscussed i nc lude a rds, b oa ts, b ow ls, c arts, d oors , s poons, t racks , waterfronts, w e l ls, a nd a b road s pectrum o f woodwork ing t oo ls. A l though t he p apers g enera l ly c oncent rate o n e v idence f rom Br i ta in a nd I re land , s ome d ea l w i th Sw iss a nd S candinav ian ma ter ia l, r em ind ing u s o f t he v ast p otent ia l o f t he Cont ine nta l e v idence. The p apers a re a rranged i n r ough ly c hrono log ica l o rder, w ith t hree mu lt i-per iod p apers a t t he b eg inn ing . Ed i ted v ers ions o f t he d iscuss ions t ha t f o l lowed e ach p aper a re g iven a t t he e nd o f e ach g roup o f p apers G enera l , P reh is tor ic, Roman a nd Med ieva l. Th is p ub l ica t ion i nev i tably h igh l ights l acunae i n woodwork ing s tud ies a nd r a ises p roblems f or f ur ther c ons iderat ion. I t i s t o b e h oped, h owe ver , t hat i t may i n p art r ect ify t he s i tua t ion P rofessor J ohn C o les d raws a ttent ion t o i n t he f i rs t P aper: t he g enera l ly i nadequate s tudy o f w ooden a rt ifacts. Much d a ta o ver looked i n t he p ast may n ow b e b eyond r etr ieva l but t he o ut look f or r esearch a ppears b r ighter. There a re s evera l i mp ress ive s tud ies o f w ork i n p rogress i n t h is v o lume, a nd f aci l i t ies f or t he c onservat ion o f water logged wood a re b ecom ing i ncreas ing ly a va i lab le, n ot l east a t Greenw ich where l arge t imbers c an n ow b e t reated. The i nadequate s tudy a nd publ ica t ion o f w oodwork ing t oo ls was a lso c ommented o n d ur ing t he Conference. Character ist ics o ther t han s hape mus t b e r ecorded a nd a ttempts must b e made t o d educe t he m ethod o f u se. Degraded a nd i ncomp lete e v idence r ecovered f rom e xcavat ions may make t h is d iff icu lt; n ever the less i t s hou ld b e t he a im o f f uture r esearch. Methods o f r ecord ing wooden a rtifacts, l arge a nd s ma l l, w ere a lso d escr ibed a nd d iscussed. I t i s i mportant t hat r ecord ing s hou ld b e a s c omprehens ive a s p oss ib le ( for e xamp le —types o f j o int, n a i l s pac ing i nterv a ls, s carf g rad ients s hou ld b e n o ted): o n ly i n t h is way c an c haracteri s t ic f ea tures b e r ecogn ised , p oss ib ly l ead ing t o t he i dent if icat ion o f " workshops" a nd r eg iona l t rad i t ions i n woodwork ing. The u se o f f ea ture o r a ttr ibute l i sts f or e ach t ype o f a rt ifact may b e o f h e lp h ere —see P aper 3 . A c ommon t echn ica l v ocabu lary i s ap re-requ is i te t o c ooperat ion b et ween s cho lars , s o t hat t he s ame n ame i s u sed f or t he s ame a ttr ibute, a r tifact, t echn ique o r c oncept. No c omprehens ive g lossary o f woodworki ng t erms f or u se i n t he h istor ica l s ciences i s r ead i ly a va i lab le i n t he Eng l ish l anguage: t he g lossar ies w i th P apers 2 , 3a nd 1 2 a re d ef in it ions i n P apers 5 a nd 1 1 ( inter a l ia) a re t hus a s tep t owards r ect ify ing t h is o miss ion. Shou ld s tandard me thods o f r ecord ing b ecome a cceptab le a nd t erm inol og ies b e a greed, d a ting t echno log ica l c hange w i l l b ecome p rac ticab le : t h is

p o int i s d eve loped h i P apers 2 , 3a nd 1 5 . D endrochrono logy i s o ne i mp ortant d at ing method ( see Dendrochrono logy i n Europe e d. J . F letcher, 1 978, BAR I nternat iona l s er ies 5 1), but s uch c hrono log ies d o n o t y et a ss ist t he p reh is tor ian, e xcept i n c erta in f avoured r eg ions. I t i s f or c ons idera t ion t herefore, t ha t t he n ecessary r esearch b e under taken t o e xtend o ak c hrono log ies a s f ar b ackwards a s p oss ib le. This c ou ld b e e xpens ive i n r esearch t ime, but t he r esu lt ing p rec is ion i n d at ing w ou ld n ot o n ly b e o f g rea t i mpor tance t o t he s tudy o f woodworking t echno logy but c ou ld a lso a dd much d eta i l t o o ur know ledge o f e nv ironmenta l s equences-c l ima to logy a nd s ea l eve l c hanges, f or e xamp le. S tandards o f r ecord ing n eed t o b e a greed, a ttr ibute l i sts c omp i led, i mproved g lossar ies p repared a nd s teps t owards i nterna t iona l c ooperation t aken. I t s eems t herefore t ha t much wou ld b e g a ined by b r ing ing t og ether t hose i nteres ted i n wood a nd wood-use i n a more p ermanen t o rgan isat i on. S ome members o f t he Conference t herefore a greed t ha t aW ood S tud ied Group s hou ld b e s et up t o a rrange p er iod ic m eet ings a nd v is i ts t o s i tes a nd l abora tor ies , a nd t o t ack le s ome o f t he p roblems o ut l ined a bove. Deta i ls may b e o bta ined f rom Veryan H ea l a t t he Nat iona l Mar it ime Museum, Greenw ich. Dr. J ohn F letcher k ind ly a ss is ted me i n t he p reparat ion o f c er ta in Med ieva l p apers f or t he p ress. G i l l ian Hutch inson p repared t he I ndex, a nd I was v ery much a ss isted i n my e d i tor ia l r o le by h er, Mar i l la l a F le tcher a nd Rosemary C larey .

L IST OF CONTRIBUTORS

B . Arno ld Musc le d 'Archeo log ie, Neuchate l, Swi tzer land H . Chapman P rehistor ic a nd Roman Department, Museum o f L ondon A . E . Chr istensen Univers i tetets O ldsaksam l ing , Os lo, Norway J . M . Co les Department o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers i ty o f Cambr idge R . Darrah West S tow Ang lo-Saxon V i l lage Trust, S uffo lk G . T . Denford Archaeo log ica l Research Centre, Nationa l Mar it ime Museum, Greenw ich J . Geddes I nspectorate o f Anc ient Monuments a nd H istor ic Bu i ld ings, L ondon R . A . Ha l l York Archaeo log ica l Trust W . S . Hanson Department o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers ity o f G lasgow S . V . E . H ea l Archaeo log ica l Research Centre, Na tiona l Mar i time Museum, Greenwich C . A . Hewett E ssex County Counci l, Che lmsford M . F . Hur ley Department o f Archaeo logy, Un ivers ity Co l lege, Cork J . McCann Greenh i l l, Hatf ie ld Broad Oak, Herts. S . McGra i l Archaeo log ica l R esearch Centre, Nationa l Mar itime Museum, Greenw ich G . M i lne Department o f Urban Archaeo logy, Museum o f L ondon C . A . Morr is, Department o f Archaeo logy, Univers ity o f Cambr idge B . Orme D epartment o f Archaeo logy, Univers ity o f Exeter 0 . Rackham Corpus Chr isti Co l lege, Univers ity o f Cambr idge P . Reyno lds Butser Anc ient F arm P ro ject Trust, E ast Meon, Hants. P . G . T . Wa lker B eck Barn, The Causeway, Needham Market, Suffo lk

P . F . Wa l lace I r ish Antiqu i t ies D iv is ion, Nat iona l Museum o f I re land, Dublin J . Weeks Conway Mar it ime P ress, Greenw ich

1 .

ANC IENT WOODWORK ING TECHN IQUES : THE I MPL ICATIONS FOR ARCHAEOLOGY J . M . C o les

S u m mary T he v a lue o f a nc ien t w ooden r ema ins i s n ot o f ten r ecogn ized b y a rchaeo log ists , p ar t ly b ecause o f t he o p inions t ha t l i t t le h as s urv ived a nd t ha t e ven l ess c an b e g a ined b y i t s s t udy .

B oth v iews a re i ncorrec t .

T he r e tr ieva l a nd e xa m ina t ion o f a nc ien t w oodworking c an p rov ide n ew i ns igh ts i n to t he w ork ing o f c o mmun i t ies a t b oth a r t ifactua l a nd e nv iron men ta l l eve ls , a nd may a lso h e lp i n e f for ts t o g a in i ns igh t i n to t he s truc ture o f e ar ly s oc iet ies .

I n p rov id ing a b r ief i n troduc t ion t o t h is C onference o n Woodwork ing T echniques , i ti s my i n ten t ion t o a dop t a more c r i t ica l a pproach t han migh t o therw ise b e f e lt a ppropr ia te f or s uch a p aper . T he r eason why It ake s uch al i ne i s b ecause , a s a n a rchaeo log is t who s pends p ar t o f e very y ear w i th t he w eb-footed d enizens o f al arge p ea tbog , Iam aware o f c er ta in a t t i tudes h e ld b y f e l low a rchaeo log is ts who k eep t he ir f ee t d ry , a nd i ti s i mpor tan t t o s ee w hy t he ir c r i t ic is ms a nd i gnorance mus t b e c ountered . O f a l l t he many h undreds o f t housands o f i mp lemen ts , t oo ls , w eapons , h ouses , f ences , t racks , b oa ts a nd wagons made b y a nc ien t p eop les o ver t he p as t t wo m i ll ion y ears , u p t o v ery r ecent t imes when p las t ic a nd o ther a r t if ic ia l s ubs tances r ep laced i t , a sma l l p ercent , l ess t han o ne p ercen t o fo ne p ercen t , w ere made o fw ood — if we b e lieve t ha t wha t h as s urv ived f or u s t oday i s at rue r epresen tat ion o fw hat was made i n t he p as t . T h is s tatement i sn onsense , o f c ourse ( perhaps n o t t he o n ly n onsense i n t h is p aper o r i n t h is C onference ) . What h as s urv ived f or a rchaeo logis ts a nd o thers t o s tudy t oday i s n ot a t rue r epresen tat ion o fw hat was made i n t he p as t . Wood w as e ar ly man 's most v a luab le a nd i mpor tan t r aw ma ter ia l .

I t

f urn ished h im w i th s he l ter , p ro tec t ion , h eat , l i gh t , a nd t oo ls a nd w eapons f or h is d a i ly l i fe a nd f or h is s urv iva l . P erhaps , i n t he b eg inn ing , i tw as t he f i rs t ma ter ia l t o b e u sed f or a ny a r t ifac t , b efore e ven s tone w as w orked . Y e t w ood a s w ood , a s as ubstance i mpor tant i n i t s own r igh t , h ard ly f i gures i n t he minds o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd h is tor ians , a l though t here w as h ard ly a t oo l , w eapon , h ouse o r wagon u sed b y a ny a nc ient E uropean u p t o ac entury a go t ha t d id n ot h ave a w ooden p ar t , o r was e n t ire ly o f wood . T he r eason f or t h is n eg lect b y a rchaeo logis ts i s o bv ious . Wood i s p er ishab le , i ti s b iodegradab le . I td ecays , i tb reaks , i tb urns , i tr ots , i te rodes , i ti s e aten .

F or many a reas

o f western E urope , a nd f or a l mos t a l l a reas o f t he T rop ics , w ood h ard ly a nd b are ly s urv ives .

O n ly i n c ondi t ions o f e x treme w etness , o r e x tre me d ryness ,

1

o r e x treme c o ld , h as a nc ient w ood b een a l lowed t o s urv ive i nq uant i ty f or u s t o r e tr ieve a nd e xa m ine , a nd i n s o d oing t o b eg in t o c o mprehend i t s i mpor tance t o e ar ly s oc ie t ies . I ti s e x traordinary t o me , a s a n a rchaeo log ist who r egu lar ly d ea ls w i th a nc ient w ood o n wa ter logged s i tes , t o h ear f rom my c onte mporar ies who may b e d igg ing o nd ry s i tes t ha t t hey h ave f ound s o me w ooden r e ma ins , i n a sma l l p i t o r d i tch o r w e l l . T he r ar i ty o fs uch a n e vent c rea tes a n i n i t ia l e xc i tement a nd i n teres t , b ut when a sked a bout t he c harac ter a nd q ua li ty o f t he w ood f ound , t he a nswer i sg enera l ly r es tr ic ted t o c o mments a bou t af ew s craps , o r a r o t ten b i t , o r af ew b ranches o r t w igs . R are ly i s t he r ep ly more p rec ise t han t ha t , a nd y e t h ad a s tone t oo l , o r ap ot tery v esse l , b een f ound t hen t he d e ta i ls p resen ted w ou ld b e f ar more p rec ise , aT ype 3 a xe o r aC lass X p ot . Dry a rchaeo logis ts , o r t hose who d ig o n d ry s i tes ( t he t erms a re n o t e xac t ly s ynono mous ) j us t d o n o t c o mprehend t he p oss ib i li t ies , t he p oten t ia li t ies , f or i n format ion f ro m t he ir f ew w ooden r ema ins .

T hey h ave t o b e e duca ted .

A nd e qua l ly d isappoint ing t o w e t land a rchaeo log is ts i s t he r esponse t o o ur own d iscover ies . H ow manyt imes h ave we s pent o ur e nergy i n e xcava t ing s o me q u i te r emarkab le w ooden s truc ture , ab oat , ap la tform , ad ock , at rackway , o n ly t o b e t aken a back when o ur f e l low a rchaeo log ists , o r t he p ub lic , a rr ive t o v is i t—as t hey s tare a t t h is u nique s urv iva l o fo rgan ic ma ter ia l , t he ir f i rs t q ues t ion i s , h ave y ou f ound a ny th ing?

T hey a re c ondi t ioned t o t h ink i n

t erms o f s tone , me ta l , p ot tery , e spec ia l ly c oins a nd j ewe l lery , b u t e ven f l in ts , a nd n ever i n t erms o f t he s ubstance u sed b y a l l a nc ient s oc iet ies , w ood . A v ery r ap id s earch t hrough t he l i tera ture o f t he p reh is tor ic , R o man , S axon a nd V ik ing p er iods o f t he B r it ish I s les s hows wha t l i t t le i n forma t ion we r ea l ly d o p ossess a bout a nc ien t w oodwork ing .

Wooden r e ma ins o f t he Bronze A ge , f or

e xa mp le , a re f ew a nd r es tr ic ted i n c harac ter .

We k now b are ly a ny th ing a bout

S axon w oodwork ing a par t f ro m c er ta in i so la ted f ea tures d educed f ro m t he f ew f i nds o fo b jec ts a nd t oo ls .

R o man woodworking h as t he b enef i t o f s o me w et

s i tes , t he R o man L ondon wa terfron t f or e xamp le , b u t t he i mp lica t ions f or R o mano-Br it ish w oodlands , t he ir e x ten t a nd n a ture , h ave n ot b een e xp lored y e t . I n o ther w ords , t he w ork we d oa nd i n wh ich we a re i n teres ted i s b are ly b egun , a l though many a re aware t ha t a l l a round u s a re t he a reas a nd s i tes t ha t w i l l y ie ld t he e v idence we wan t . Y e t e ven when t h is e v idence d oes emerge , g enera l ly f ro m s uch u nexpec ted we t f i l l , o r ad eep s ounding , wha t p rocedures d o a rchaeo log is ts a dop t? S o me t ake i m media te a c t ion a nd p revent d amage a nd d e ter iora t ion . O thers t ake a n e as ier l i ne , a nd p ut t he w ooden o b jec ts i n p las t ic b ags i n t he h ope t ha t a l l w i l l b e we l l i ft hey c an f i nd s o meone t o o pen t hem . O thers t ake n o l i ne a t a l l , a nd r epor t o n ly t ha t w ooden r e ma ins were s een , b u t c ou ld n ot b e s aved —wha t n onsense . E very e xcava tor h as h is o r h er own p rocedure f or t hese e ven ts , a nd i ti s as ad r ef lec t ion o n o ur p rogress t ha t n o d eta i led g uide o r s ta tement f or t he e xcava t ion , r ecording a nd t rea t men t o f a nc ien t w oodwork i s i n e x istence . C ondi t ions o fw ood may b e w i ld ly v ar iab le , b u t c er ta in b as ic a c t ions w i l l a pp ly t o a l l , a nd c er ta in p recau t ions w i l l b e u n iversa l ly a pp licab le . I ts hou ld n o t b e b eyond u s t o d eve lop s o me g enera l g u ide lines f or a c t ion i fwe c an p ersuade t hose who may b e f aced s udden ly w i th wood r ecovery t ha t t he e f for t i s w or th i t , a nd t he i mpor tance j ust if ies t he e xpense .

2

O ne o f t he ma in s ources f or i n forma t ion a bout a nc ien t w oodwork ing i s t he p ea tbog , whe ther t h is b e t he g rea t b ogs o f c entra l I re land a nd n or th-wes tern G ermany , o r sma l ler b ogs i n many r egions .

T hese a re o f ten i n t he p rocess

o fb e ing c ut a way o r d ra ined away , a nd t he l oss i s c ruc ia l b oth i n w es tern E urope a nd more r ecent ly i n n or thern Amer ica .

B lanke t b ogs o f u p land

r eg ions a re n ot s o s ympa the t ic t o w ood, b u t e ven Dar tmoor , t ha t mos t i nhosp i tab le b og f or a l l manner o f a r t ifac ts , d isso lv ing b one a nd e ven p ot tery , c an y ie ld a nc ient w ooden r e ma ins .

On ly a v ery f ew o f t hese a reas o f p ea t h ave

a ny c ons is tent a rchaeo log ica l p resence a t t he mo ment , a nd t he l oss t o a rchaeo logy i n c en tra l I re land , f or e xamp le , i s t ru ly i mmense . As econd s ource o f e v idence i s r ivers ide , l akeside o r l ake land s i lts a nd muds , a nd h ere , a long t he Thames f or i nstance , o r i n t he l akes o f S w i tzer land , many e x traordinar i ly w e l l-preserved s i tes w i th a bundan t w ooden r ema ins h ave b een i dent if ied .

T he w oodwork a long t he T hames o n t he L ondon wa terfront

i sa n e xce l len t e xamp le . Y e t , a re t hese o ppor tun i t ies b eing s iezed? I n L ondon , Y ork a nd a f ew o ther p laces , p erhaps ; i n S w i tzer land , y es i n p ar t ; b u t a ga in w e k now t ha t i n r ecen t y ears much h as b een l ost . A lthough It h ink t ha t most p eop le w ou ld a gree t ha t l ake a nd r iverside d eposi ts , a nd p ea tbogs , a re ma jor s ources o f e v idence f or o rgan ic r ema ins , t hese a re n o t t he o n ly a reas f rom where n ew e v idence c an b e r etr ieved . I n ar ecen t p aper i n t he P roceedings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty , i t was a rgued a s f orc ib ly a s p oss ib le t ha t p reh is tpr ic wooden r ema ins c an s urv ive a nd h ave s urv ived i n a lmost e very a rea o f t he Br i t ish I s les , i n u nexpec ted p laces a s w e l l a s p red ic tab le a reas . Sma l l p onds , d i tches , w e l ls , d eep p i ts , i so la ted p a tches o f w e tness , a nd t reetrunk c of f ins h ave o f ten y ie lded w ooden a r t ifac ts o f t he p reh istor ic p er iod, a nd t he s ame i s t rue o f more r ecent e p isodes i n t he e ar ly h is tory o f t hese i s lands . T he w ooden t ab le ts f ro m V indo landa a re a p r i me e xa mp le , b ut more r egu lar e ncounters a re t he o rgan ic c on ten t o f w e l ls a nd p i ts i n med ieva l u rban c en tres . I fs o much h as s urv ived f or u s , wha t t hen?

I ti s t o my mind a s orry

r ef lec t ion o n t he s ta te o f museu m a rchaeo logy t oday t ha t c onserva t ion o f w ooden a r t ifac ts h as i ng enera l b een s o i nadequa te .

I n v is i ts t o ma jor museu ms

i n t hese i s lands , a nd e lsewhere , i ti s d isappoint ing t o f i nd o b jec ts o f c ruc ia l i mpor tance t o o ur s tudies , o b jec ts d ep ic ted b y d raw ings i np ub l ica t ions a nd b y p hotographs t aken u pon d iscovery t o r epresent c o mp lete o r g enera l ly i n tac t o b jec ts , n ow o n d isp lay s hown t o b e b ad ly c racked , d is tor ted , a nd h eav i ly p a tched . O f c ourse t here a re e xcep t ions , a nd n one more s o t han i n s o me c ont inen ta l museu ms w here c onserva t ion s ee ms t o h ave b een d eve loped more r ap id ly , a nd where r esu lts , n otab ly f or b oa ts , h ave b een g enera l ly g ood . F or t h is c oun try , i ti s a gain a q ues t ion o f l ack o f p repara t ion , l ack o f i n teres t , l ack o f f ac i li t ies , a nd a n eg lec t o n o ur p ar t i n a sser t ing t he n eed . S hou lp , f or e xa mp le , a n a nc ien t d ock o r o ther s truc ture t urn u p i n o ne o f t he h is tor ic w es t c ountry p or ts , al i ke ly e vent we may s uspec t , t here wou ld b e w idespread c oncern , t he d ev is ing o f emergency measures o nce a ga in , a nd a c onsequent l oss t o ma ter ia ls r equ ir ing i m mediate t rea tment , a nd t o e v idence wh ich we b ad ly n eed .

Wi thou t t hese p repara t ions , wh ich of ten i nvo lve e xper imenta t ion

a nd t herefore t ime , we w i l l h ardly b e b e t ter t han o ur p redecessors who c onserved , i ft ha t i s t he w ord , b y emergency t rea tmen ts o fg lue , t reac le , d ung a nd o ther i mpro mp tu s ubs tances .

T h is i s n ot a c onference o n c onservat ion 3

t echn iques , b ut i f we a re t o s tudy a nc ien t w oodwork ing t echno log ies b o th n ow a nd i n t he f u ture , we mus t h ave p rov is ion f or c onserv ing a nd s tor ing o ur ma ter ia ls , j us t a s much a s f or t he ir e xcava t ion a nd r ecording . Ih ave a lready t ouched o n t he s urpr is ing ly a bundant r e ma ins o fw ooden a r t ifac ts f ro m many p ar ts o f Br ita in a nd n or th-western E urope , a nd o n t he i mprec is ion w i th wh ich a rchaeo log is ts d escr ibe t hese r ema ins .

We h ave

a lready , i np r int , r e marks a s v ague a s ' We f ound 3 f l ints , 2 2 p otsherds , 3 b i ts o f w ood a nd a f ew o ther s craps ', o r ' We h ad s evera l p its l i ned w i th c opp iced w ood ' .

T here i s ad anger i n s uch s ta temen ts , a par t f rom t he f ac t

t ha t n e i ther t e lls u s much o f a ny th ing . t h is?

Why s tudy wood?

Why s hou ld we t ry t o d o b e t ter t han

T he a nswer i s b oth s imp le a nd c omp lex , b ecause

w ood i s as ubs tance i mpor tan t i n i t se lf a nd a p ar t o f mos t o f t he a r t ifacts a nd a c t iv i t ies o f a nc ien t s oc ie t ies . many p ar ts o f t he w or ld;

I t was man 's most a bundant ma ter ia l i n

i t was u sed f or a l l o f t he ma jor a spec ts a nd f unc t ions

o f c o m mun i ty l i fe ( Tab le 1 .1) .

I tc anno t t herefore b e i gnored i n o ur c ons ider-

a t ion o f s uch c o m mun i t ies . P erhaps t he g rea tes t v a lue t ha t a nc ient w ood h as f or u s t oday i s i t s d emons tra t ion t ha t , w i thou t i t , w et o ta l ly l ack i n forma t ion a bout n u merous a spec ts o f a nc ient l i fe . U nusua l w ooden t oo ls a nd w eapons w e may s uspec t t o h ave e x is ted , o f c ourse , s uch a s h and les a nd h af ts , d ugou ts , l ad les a nd b ow ls , b u t t here a re o ther w ooden o b jec ts , s uch a s c arved f i gures , o r d ecora ted a r t ifac ts , w h ich p rec ip i ta te c on jecture a bout a spec ts o f s oc iet ies t ha t o therw ise we w ou ld n o t e ven s uspec t t o h ave e x is ted . A nd l est y ou t h ink t ha t s uch p ecu l iar a nd mys ter ious o b jec ts a re r are a nd u n impor tan t , l e t u s t ake a nother a nd more c o m mon a rchaeo log ica l d iscovery , t he p ostho le . Most a rchaeo log is ts k now

T ab le 1 .1

T he g enera l u se o f mater ia ls b y a nc ien t c o mmun it ies

U ses

Raw Ma ter ia ls

s he lter h ea t/ ligh t

s tones

b ones

+ +

_

me ta ls _

c lays/ear th

woods

+ +

+ ++

-

+

-

+

+ ++

h eavy i ndus try l i gh t i ndus try t rave l/ transpor t

+ + ++ +

+ + _

+ + + +

+ + + _

+ + + ++ + +

b ur ia ls/sacred s i tes

+ ++

_

_

K ey :

H -+

+ =u sed i n a sma l l way f or t he s pec if ied n eed o r p roduc t . =u sed more r egu lar ly . + ++ = u sed e x tens ive ly . - =n ot n orma l ly u sed .

N o te

t he d egrees o fu se a re v ar iab le , a nd a re p resented h ere o n ly a s a g enera l a nd p oss ib ly s ub jec t ive g u ide .

4

+

wha t t o d o w i th a p ostho le—record i t . Wha t t hen? L ook a round t o f i nd n e ighbour ing p os tho les , j o in t hem u p a nd make a h ouse , o r ab arn , o r ap la tf or m , o r a ny th ing e lse t ha t s ee ms a ppropr ia te a nd a t trac t ive . O nce y ou a re a bove g round , i ti so f ten a f ree c ho ice . On ly i f we c an r e tr ieve more e v idence a bou t wha t was a c tua l ly i n t he p ostho le , d iame ter , l eng th , w ood t ype a nd q ua li ty , w i l l w e b e a b le t o d educe t ha t t he f ra meworks o f a nc ien t s truc tures were o f c harac ters s pec if ic e nough f or u s t o a scr ibe f unc t ion . T hese r easons f or s tudy ing w ood a re r a ther s imp le , c oncerned w i th a r t ifac ts , b ut t he ir i mpor tance w i l l Ih ope b e o bv ious . O f e qua l i mpor tance a re t hose s tudies t ha t d ea l w i th w oodwork ing , w ood t echo log ies , w ood land p rac t ices , a nd t he p lace o fw ood i n a nc ien t s oc ie t ies . A l though t here i s ag row ing i n teres t i n woodworking p rac t ices o f t he p as t , i ts eems t o me t ha t a rchaeo log is ts i n g enera l a re n o t u sing t he ir i n forma t ion w ise ly . F or e xamp le , b ecause a f ew a rchaeo log ists , b enef i t ing f ro m t he w ork o f s pec ia lis ts s uch a s O . R ackha m , h ave b een a b le t o s uggest t ha t a nc ient man h ad d eve loped a nd ma in ta ined v ar ious s or ts o fw ood land manage men t , i nc luding r egu lar c opp ic ing o f h aze l a nd o ther p lan ts , c la i ms h ave b een a dvanced b y e xcava tors a nd o thers f or s im i lar manage men ts i n o ther a reas b ut b ased u pon t he most s lender a nd f l i msy e v idence .

T o s o me , f or e xamp le , t he r e tr ieva l o f s evera l l ong s tra igh t

r ods o fh aze l o r a lder r epresen ts c lear e v idence o f c opp ic ing w i th a l l t ha t t ha t i mp l ies f or e cono m ic p rac t ices i n t he p ast .

S uch e v idence r epresen ts n o th ing

o ft he s or t i f we a re t ry ing t o i n troduce s o me measure o f r e l iab i li ty i n to t he s ub jec t . Wha t i s r equired i s o bv ious t o u s a l l—quant if ica t ion o f t he e v idence s o t ha t t he a rgu ment f or t he i den t if ica t ion o f c er ta in w ood land p rac t ices a nd t echno log ies i s b ased o n l arge amounts o f v ar ied e v idence w h ich , t aken t oge ther , c ons t i tu te r easonab le l i ke lihood o f s pec if ic p rac t ices . O n ly s i tes y ie lding l arge q uant i t ies o f ma ter ia l q ua lify f or t h is s pec ia l t reatmen t , s o t ha t n ot o n ly i so la ted f reaks a re e xc luded, b u t a lso n a tura l r egrow ths a re s een t o b e j us t t ha t .

Q uant if i-

c a t ion o f ma ter ia l f ro m S w iss s i tes , f or e xamp le , a l lows t he r ecogni t ion o f s e lec t ion o f s pec if ic s pec ies o f t ree f or c er ta in t asks , i den t if ica t ion o f v ary ing f e l ling a nd c arpentry t echniques , a nd a ssoc iat ion o f i nd iv idual a r t i facts t hrough t ree-ring s tudies w h ich a l lows s truc tures t o b ed iscerned . Work i n t h is a rea , a nd i n af ew o ther r egions s uch a s t he S o merse t L eve ls , i s as tar t a long t he way t owards a g rea ter u nders tanding o ft he p lace o fw ood t echno logy i n a nc ient s oc ie t ies .

B u t Is hou ld n ot a rgue t ha t t he q ua li ty o f woodwork ing i n e i ther o f

t hese a reas n ecessar i ly r epresen ts q ua l i t ies e lsewhere , o n d ry land s i tes . J ust a s c er ta in t rees w i l l b e u nder-represented i n wa ter logged d eposi ts ( because t hey a re more p rone t o d ecay t han o ther t rees ) , s o d if ferent e nv ironmen ts s uppor t v ar iab le r anges o f t rees , a nd h uman c o mmuni t ies e xer t t he ir own p references i n s e lec t ion a nd u se o f t rees . T he who le c oncep ts o fw oods a nd wood lands i n a nc ient t imes h ave r ece ived l i t t le e xamina t ion , a nd i tw ou ld b e wrong t o r efer t o s urv ivals a s p rovid ing p recise g u ides t o o veral l p ract ices. We a re n ot c oncerned i n t h is C onference w i th a nother a spec t o f w ood — i ts t ree-r ing a na lyses .

B ut i ti s i mpor tant t o r eme mber t ha tt he a b i li ty t o l i nk

v ar ious s pec ies o f w ood f ro m a c o mp lex s er ies o f s truc tura l r e ma ins i sn ot o n ly a ma jor c hrono log ica l a id , i ta lso r ef lec ts t he ways b y wh ich t he t rees were d iv ided a nd v ary ing p ar ts u sed i n d if feren t a reas o f t he s i te .

Tree-r ing

a na lyses a re n ot mere ly d endrochrono log ica l s tudies , t hey h ave v a lue i n o ur u nderstanding o fw ood land t echno log ies . 5

I n l ook ing f or o ther ways b y wh ich we may g a in s o me i ns igh t i n to a nc ient w oodwork ing , af ew a rchaeo log is t h ave t urned t o t ha t p ecu liar a pproach c a l led e xper i men ta l a rchaeo logy . N ow h ere i s as ub jec t o pen t o a l l who c an w ie ld a n a xe o r o ther u nfami liar t oo l . I n r ead ing a bou t t he many e xper imen ts c ond uc ted w i th o r u pon w ood i n t he p ast d ecades , we c an h ard ly f a i l t o b e i mpressed b y t he s ingu lar l ack o f s uccess o f mos t e xper imenters i n a ch iev ing e ven a s emb lance o fa uthen t ic i ty i n w ha t t hey p roduce . T imed t r ia ls w ith t he a xe , f or e xa mp le , p oint o ut t he a pparen t s lowness w ith wh ich a s tone a xe c an f e l l at ree when c o mpared w i th a modern s tee l a xe . T he me thod o f h and ling , t he a ng le o f c ut , h af t ing a nd b ind ing , a l l a re u nfam i l iarto u s t oday—a l l were f am i l iar t o t hose o f t he p ast w ho h ad n o o ther mater ials , who d id n ot t h ink a s t hey c hopped away h ow much b e t ter t hey migh t d o i ft hey h ad a s tee l a xe , o r ac ha in s aw f or t ha t ma t ter . T he p oin t i s o bv ious—we who e xper i ment must n o t a ssu me o ur r esu lts t o b e v a lid f or e ar ly man;

a l l t hey c an d o i s h e lp u s

a pprec ia te t he q ua li ty a nd c harac ter o f e ar ly t oo ls , a nd t he e xper imen ts a s e xper i men ts p rove n oth ing . F ina l ly , Ic o me t o w ha t Ic onsider t o b e ac ruc ia l i ssue .

B ecause s o l i t t le

w ood h as s urv ived o n a nc ien t s i tes , a rchaeo log is ts may b e t e mp ted , a nd i n f ac t a re a lways t e mp ted , t o a ssu me t ha t wha t h as s urv ived , n a me ly b ones , s tones , p ots , p i ts , b anks a nd d i tches , h ear ths a nd p ostho les , c an r epresent t he b as ic s truc ture o fn ot o n ly t he i ndus try , n o t o n ly t he h ouse p os i t ions , n ot o n ly t he s e t t le men t , b u t a lso t he s truc ture o f s oc ie ty i t se lf . Th is i s t he b asis o f much o fn ew a rchaeo log ica l t h ink ing , i n a t temp ts t o s hake o f f s o me o f t he f oss i l ized o ld a pproaches a nd t o c ons truc t n ew a venues o f s tudy . Where d oes w ood a nd w oodwork ing f i t i n to t h is? O n ly i nsofar a s we c an d ocu ment w ood , w oodwork ing a nd wood manage ment a s i mpor tant e lements i n a ny a nc ient s oc ie ty .

I fw e c an d ocu men t t h is , a nd It h ink we c an , t hen we h ave a p owerfu l

t oo l f or b oth o ld a nd n ew a rchaeo log ica l s tudies .

I ft he t heory o f t he n ew

a pproaches i s ar easonab le o ne , t ha t b eh ind t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f a n a nc ien t s oc ie ty t here r es ts a p erce ivab le e lemen t o f i t s s oc ia l o rganiza t ion a nd s truc ture , t hen a ny s oc ie ty wh ich was h eav i ly d ependent u pon wood , f or i t s ma ter ia l e quip ment , i t s h ea t a nd l i gh t , s he lter a nd p rotec t ion , c an o n ly b e p ercept ib le i f we c an r ecover , o r d educe t hrough t he t oo ls , t he q ua li ty a nd c harac ter o f i t s ma jor r aw ma ter ia l , wood .

I fa l l o f t ha t w ood h as p er ished ,

o r h as b een i gnored , i f we d o n ot e xam ine h ints f ro m t he s urv iv ing i norganic t oo ls , t hen o ur a t te mp ts t o i n terpre t t he o rgan iza t ion o f t he s oc iety mus t f a lter a nd f a i l . T he c ons truc t ion o f e cono m ic a nd s oc ia l mode ls must b e t he w eaker , i ft he d o minan t ma ter ia l u sed i s o fu nknown c harac ter . Ih ave s een n o a ck now ledge men t o f t h is c ons tra int i n my r eadings o f t he n ew a pproaches . Y e t we s hou ld n o t f orge t t he o vera l l c ons tra in ts o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . N o s tudies , s ing ly o r c o mb ined , c an f u l ly i l lu m ina te t he c harac ter o f a nc ient c o mmuni t ies . T he s tudy o f w oodwork ing t echno log ies w i l l a t t he v ery v ery l east o pen o ne w indow u pon t he d arkened s tructure o f e arly s oc ie t ies, a nd t he a rchaeo log is t who n eg lec ts s uch a no bv ious s ource o f i l lu m ina t ion must b e p repared t o o pera te i n u nnecessary g loo m .

6

2 .

RECORD ING T I MBER WORK ON THE LONDON WATERFRONT G ustav M i lne

S u mmary R ecent e xcava t ions c onduc ted b y t he Museu m o f L ondon 's Depar tment o f Urban Archaeo logy h ave e ncountered much wa ter logged t imberw ork , mos t n o tab ly o n t he C i ty 's wa terfron t s i tes .

S ince i t was n o t

p ass ib le t o p reserve t he s truc tures t he mse lves , as yste m was d eve loped t o p rov ide a n a dequa te r ecord o f t h is mater ial .

T he method

o fr ecording a dop ted b y t he D epar t men t i ncorporates wr it ten d escr ipt i ons , p lans , e leva t ions , e dge a nd f ace t imber d raw ings a nd p hotog raphy .

T ree r i rg a na lys is a nd t he s tudy o f j o inery d e ta i ls a re s een

a s t he mos t p rof i tab le a venues o f r esearch i n to w oodwork ing t echn iques .

T he p os t-war

r edeve lop men t o f t he L andon wa ter front p rov ided a rchae-

o log is ts w i th a u n ique o ppor tuni ty t o e xa m ine t h is h is tor ica l ly i mpor tant a rea i n wh ich e xcep tiona l lydeep ly s tra t if ied l eve ls o f R o man , S axon a nd Medieva l d a te h ave b een e ncountered ( M i lne & M i lne 1 979) .

T he c os t a nd p rac t ica l

p rob le ms i nvo lved i n a t te mp t ing t o c onserve a nd p ermanen t ly s tore t he s ubs tant ia l t imberwork e xcava ted f ro m t hese s i tes was c onsidered t o b e b eyond t he r esources o f t he D epar t men t .

Wi th t he e xcep t ion o f t he f i ve t imbers f ro m

T r ig L ane s tored a t t he N a t iona l Mar i t ime Museu m , n one o f t he t imbers h ave b een k ep t .

T he f i e ld r ecord i s t herefore a l lt ha t s urv ives , a nd t h is i s n ow

t he p r i mary s ource o f i nforma t ion f or t he s truc tura l a nd w oodwork ing t echn iques emp loyed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t hese i mpor tan tf ea tures .

Any e va lua t ion o f

t hese t echn iques t herefore d epends u pon t he q ua l i ty o f t he t imber r ecording me thod , a nd t h is p aper o ut lines t he s ys te m d eve loped i n t he f i e ld b y t he Depar t men t o f U rban Archaeo logy ( DUA ) . A t t he i n terna t iona l s ympos iu m o n B oa t Archaeo logy h e ld a t Greenw ich i n 1 976, C o l in Mar t in s ta ted t ha t ' i t was v i ta lt ha t e xcava tors , r ecorders o fb oa t i nforma t ion o r i ndeed a ny s or t o f a rchaeo log ica l i nforma t ion s hou ld s ta te t heir me thods o f r ecording , a nd t he s tandards o f a ccuracy t hey s e t o ut t o a chieve , a nd b e h ones t a bout t he d egree o f a ccuracy wh ich t hey h ave a ch ieved ' ( McGra i l , 1 977 , 2 01) .

A lthough a rchaeo log ica l r ecord ing t echn iques i n g enera l

h ave b een r ecent ly d iscussed i n p r in t b y s evera l a uthors ( f ar e xamp le , B arker ( 1977 , 1 39-168) , H irs t ( 1976) , B oddington ( 1978) a nd J ef fr ies ( 1978) ) , l i t t le h as y et b een p ub lished b y u rban a rchaeo log is ts s pec if ica l ly o n t he r ecording o ft imbers a nd p reserved t imber s truc tures . By c ontras t , n aut ica l a rchaeo log is ts h ave r ev iewed t he ma t ter a t s o me l eng th ( McGra t h 1 977 ) :

t he e xpos i ton o f C ru m l in-Pedersen 's me t icu lous

7

F ig .

2 .1

I sometr ic p ro ject ion o f s tructure s hown i n pho tograph. The c arefu l s e lect ion o f t he a ng les a nd v iewpo int h as max im ised t he i nforma t ion d isp layed.

P LAN

F ig.

2 .2

P lan a nd e levat ions d rawn i n t he f i e ld r educed t o t he s ame s ca le. An i sometr ic p ro ject ion c ou ld p res ent a l l t h is i nformat ion i n a s ing le d raw ing ( see F ig . 2 .1) .

2 m

E LEVAT IONS E a s t

Wes t

# 1

7 -,= -

1 1111 1J 1 1 \ ii1 1

S ou th

N o r th

9

s tandards i n t he p roceedings o f t he 1 976 s ymposium i s a ne xce l lent e xamp le ( Cru m lin-Pedersen 1 977) . T he f undamenta l p r inc ip le u pon wh ich h is s ys tem i s b ased i s t ha t t he r ecords s hou ld b e a b le t o b e u sed f or f u ture r econs truc t ion o f t he v esse l a s mode ls o r a t f u l l s ca le ' w i th a f u l l k now ledge o f t he l im i ts b e tween f ac ts a nd f i c t ion ' ( Cru m lin-Pedersen 1 977 , 1 73 ) . T o mee t t hese e xac t ing r equire men ts f or a s truc ture a s c omp lex a s ab oat , t he r ecording s ys tem i s d es igned t o b e a ccura te ' t o t he l as t f ew mi llime tres ' P edersen 1 977 , 1 71) .

( Cru m lin-

T echn iques s uch a s r ecording t imberwork a t as ca le 1 : 1, d raw ing d eta i ls o f t imber-working o b jec t ive ly a nd p ho togram me try a re t herefore emp loyed b y n aut ica l a rchaeo log ists o fn ecess i ty , b u t a re n o t p ar t o f t he s tandard DUA s ys tem .

T he r eason f or t h is d if ferent a pproach i s t hat , a l though an u mber o f

s h ip f i nds h ave b een made ( Marsden 1 979 ) , av ar ie ty o f l ess c o mp lex t imber s truc tures a re a lso e ncoun tered i n L ondon s uch a s w e l ls , d ra ins a nd r iverf ront r eve tments wh ich d o n ot s ee m t o r equ ire s uch minute ly d eta i led a t ten t ion t o b e f u l ly u nders tood . I n a ddi t ion , t he s ys te m h as t o b e f l ex ib le e nough t o b e o pera ted n ot o n ly i n t he a pparen t c a lm o f ac on tro l led e xcava t ion b u t a lso o n t he mos t d ras t ic o f s a lvage s i tes w i th in t he s everes t l im i ta t ions o f t ime a nd r esources . T he b as ic min i mu m r ecord o f at imber s truc ture may b e d ef ined a s t he c o l lec t ion o f s uf f ic ient d ata : a )

t o e s tab lish i t s s tra t igraph ic p os i t ion a nd s i tua t ion i n r e la t ion t o o ther f ea tures o n t he s i te ;

b ) c )

t o e stabl ish i t s .f orm w i th in t he l im i ta t ions o f t he e xcava t ion; t o e nab le t he s truc ture t o b e d rawn u p a s a n i some tr ic p ro jec t ion ( F ig . 2 .1) ;

d ) e )

t o d e term ine , where r e levan t , i t s o rder o fa sse mb ly ( F ig .2 .3); t o e nab le i tt o b e d ated .

T o a ch ieve t h is , p lans a t 1 :20 a nd e leva t ions a nd s ec t ions a t 1 : 10 a re d rawn o n t rans lucent p last ic f i lm o ver-pr inted w i th a me tr ic g r id , p rov id ing a r ecord a ccurate t o b e tween 1 0 mm a nd 2 0 mm ( F ig . 2 .2 ) . The g eneral d irec t ion o f t he g ra in i s i ndicated, n ot ing t he p os i t ion o f k not h o les i ft here i s t ime , b ut n o a t te mpt i s made t o p or tray t he t ree r ings r ea list ica l ly , a s s uch a n e xerc ise i s t oo t ime c onsu m ing . I fe nd s ec t ions s how ing t he r e la t ive p os i t ions o f p i th , h ear twood a nd s apwood a re r evea led , t h is i n forma t ion i s a lso r ecorded i n a s tandard ised f orm . Ad escr ipt ion o f e very s truc tura l me mber i s wr i t ten o n ac on tex t s heet ( F ig .2 .4 ) s ta t ing i t s s i tua t ion , s hape i n s ec t ion , d i mens ions a nd s pec ies ( w i th i den t if ier 's i n i t ia ls ) . A l l measure men ts a re r ecorded i m mediate ly o n t he i n i t ia l e xposure o f t he t imber , a s i ts ubsequent ly s hr inks r adia l ly ( i .e . i n w idth ) b y u p t o 2 5% . T he t h inner t he t imber , t he g reater t he s hr inkage —a t enon w i l l t herefore s hr ink more t han t he r est o f t he t imber , wh i le i t s a ssoc ia ted mor t ise w i l l o f ten o pen u p o n d ry ing , a nd may t hus b e w ider a t t he e nd o fa n e xcava t ion t han a t t he b eginning .

T he e dges , f aces a nd e nds o f

e ach t imber a re b r ief ly d escr ibed , n ot ing a ny e v idence o f t oo l marks , d eta i l ing j o ints , p eg h o les e tc , a nd whether t he e nds a re d ressed , s evered , b roken o r d ecayed . 1 0

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I ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t an u mber o f 1 : 10 t imber d raw ings ( F ig . 2 .5 ) a re p roduced i n a ddi t ion t o t he wr i t ten r ecord , p lans a nd e leva t ions .

T he t imber d raw ing

o f as truc tura l me mber wh ich w as r ec tangu lar i n s ec t ion s hou ld s how : a )

t he o u t line o fb oth e dges a nd f aces , d rawn h or izon ta l ly o ne b e low t he o ther , w i th j o in t d e ta i ls ( i f a ny ) , a nd g enera l d irec t ion o f t he g ra in a nd p os i t ion o fk no t h o les i ndica ted;

b )

b oth e nd e leva t ions , mark ing t he p os i t ion o f p i th , h ear twood , s apwood .

T he d raw ings s hou ld b ear a ddi t iona l wr i t ten n o tes t o s how wh ich w as t he u pper o r l ower f ace e tc . ,a reas o f t oo l mark ing , a nd t o d if ferent iate b e tween a xe c ut o r d ecayed e nds a nd s o f or th . T he l as t t wo p oin ts a re o f p ar t icu lar i mpor tance , a s a t temp ts t o d raw t h is t ype o f i n forma t ion n a tura lis t ica l ly r equires t ime a nd a r t is t ic t a lent , a t tr ibu tes wh ich e xcava tors c anno t b e g uaranteed t o h ave a t t he ir d isposa l .

Af undamen ta lp r inc ip le o f t hese s imp lif ied

t echn ica l d raw ings o f s truc tura l me mbers i s t hat t hey c an b e p roduced q u ick ly a nd a ccura te ly b y u n-ar t is t ic p eop le s uch a s t he a uthor , u sing t apes a nd/or a p lann ing f rame . I fa s truc ture i s e ncoun tered i n wh ich t he s ame s truc tura l e lemen t i s r epea ted s evera l t imes , o n ly t wo e xa mp les o f e ach e le ment a re u sua l ly d rawn u p a s e dge a nd f ace d raw ings , b ut i fa l l t he s truc tura l e lemen ts a re d if ferent , o r s urv ive i n marked ly d if feren t c ondi t ions , t hen e ach o ne s hou ld b e d rawn .

A

p ro jec t ion o f t he t imber i s au sefu l a ddi t ion ( F ig . 2 .5 ) . A l though i tc ou ld b e d rawn u p a f ter t he e xcava t ion i s c o mp le ted , i ti s a dvan tageous t o b e a b le t o c heck t he r esu lt w i th t he r ea l t h ing b efore t he l a t ter i s s awn u p f or d endro s a mp les . E dge a nd f ace d raw ings a re a n i ndispens ib le p ar t o ft he r ecord a s t hey p rov ide t hree-di mens iona l i n forma t ion a bou t t he s tructure a nd i t s j o in t d e ta i ls w h ich a re n ot e xp lic i t o n p lans , e leva t ions o r c ontex t s hee ts . P hotography i s t ime c onsu m ing i n t he u ncongen ia l c ondi t ions o f ad ark d amp wa terfront s i te , s o i s r are ly u sed t o r ecord e phermera l d e ta i ls s uch a s t oo l marks i n s i tu . H owever , ag ood p hotograph ic c overage o f s truc tura l d e ta i ls a nd o ft he s t ruc ture a s a who le i s o bv ious ly e ssent ia l . P hotographs h ave a lso b een t aken d ur ing t he c arefu l d is man t ling o f t he more c o mp lex f ea tures , a s t he s equence o f s hots o b ta ined p rov ide u sefu l e v idence o f t he s uggested o rder o fa sse mb ly when p resented i n r everse o rder ( M i lne R z M i lne f or thco ming ) . Ac ruc ia l e le men t o f t imber r ecording i s t he t ree r ing a na lys is o f s amp les f ro m a s many t imbers i n as truc ture a s p oss ib le . T h is c an p rov ide i n format ion o n s truc tura l a nd c ons truc t iona l a spec ts b y s tudy ing t he t imber a s t imber ( i . e . w orked w ood) , a nd o n e nv iron men ta l a nd d endrochrono log ica la spec ts b y s tudy ing t he t imber a s w ood ( i .e . p ar t o f at ree ) . s uggest : a )

S uch a n a na lys is c an

t ha t t he s truc ture was o fo ne b u i ld o fp r imary t imber f ro m a s i ng le s ource , o r t ha t t here w ere i nstances o f r epa irs o r r e-used t imbers ;

b )

h ow many s pec ies w ere i nvo lved;

c )

t he a ge o f t he t imber u sed i n t he s truc ture when c ut ;

1 2

d )

h ow t he t rees were c onver ted i n to t he r equ ired t imber , e .g . h a lved , q uar tered, r adia l ly s p l i t o r s awn;

e )

w hat t he m inimu m n u mber o f t rees r equ ired t o b u i ld t he s truc ture was;

1 )

w ha t t he s ize o ft hose t rees were;

g )

whe ther o r n ot t he t rees were c ut f ro m managed w ood lands

T he d eta i led t ree r ing a na lys is o f t he p reh is tor ic wood f ro m t he S omerse t L eve ls h as d emons tra ted h ow v a luab le s uch s tudies c an b e , when s uf f ic ien t s a mp les a re t aken ( see Orme , P aper 4 , t h is v o lu me 7 9-94) . Work o n t imber f ro m t he L ondon wa terfron t h as a lso p rov ided much u sefu l i nforma t ion . F or e xa mp le , D ona ld Bre t t h as s hown t ha t a t l east t wo o f t he G il b ack-brace b ase p lates were c ut f ro m t he s a me t ree , wh ich s trong ly s ugges ts t ha t p r imary t imber was b e ing u t i lised i n t ha t p ar t icu lar s truc ture ( Bre t t &M i lne 1 978 , 2 34 ) . T he f e l ling d a te o f t he t imber u sed i n t he G 12 s truc ture was s hown t o b e c . 5 0 y ears l a ter t han t ha t s ugges ted f or t he u nder ly ing G 10 s tave w a l l , i ndica t ing t wo q ui te d ist inc t s truc tura l p hases , wh i le t he c orner p os t o f t he G 10 r evetmen t was a lso s een a s ar epa ir , s ince t ree r ing a na lys is d e mons tra ted t ha t i t was c onte mporary w i th t he s ubs tan t ia l ly l a ter G 12 p hase ( M i lne & M i lne 1 978, 1 00 ) .

I n t h is way , an u mber o f c onstruc t iona lp rob lems c an b e r eso lved .

I ti s n ow o f ten p oss ib le t o p rov ide b oth r e la t ive a nd a bso lute d a tes f or t imber s truc tures b y t he c ross ma tch ing o f t he mean c urve f ro m o ne s truc ture w i th t ha t f ro m a nother f ea ture o r w i th a ' master c urve ' , a s J enn ifer H i I lam a nd R uth Morgan h ave o f ten s hown ( Morgan & S chof ie ld 1 978;

H i I lam 1 980 ;

H i Ila m & Morgan 1 981). T he r ecording s ys tem o ut lined i n t h is p aper w as d eve loped o ver s evera l y ears b y a n u rban e xcava t ion t ea m p r imar i ly c oncerned w i th r ecording a nd e xcavat ing s i tes wh ich c ou ld i l lu m ina te s truc tura l a nd t opograph ica l a spec ts o f t he d eve lop men t o f L ondon f ro m wh ich e cono m ic o r h is tor ica l i mp l ica t ions c ould b e d rawn .

W i th in t he r es tr ic t ions o f t ime a nd money t o wh ich t he

Depar t men t 's w ork i s s ub jec t , t he s ys tem was d es igned t o p rov ide a b as ic mini mu m r ecord ( a s d ef ined a bove ) c o mpa t ib le w i th t h is a im . T here w as n ever a ny e xp lic i t s uggest ion t ha t t he r ecord w ou ld b e u sed f or f u l l s ca le r econs truc t ion o r e ven f or sma l ler s ca le mode l mak ing o f t he s truc tures d iscovered . T h is i s n ot t o s ay t ha t t he r ecord c ou ld n ot b es uccessfu l ly u sed a s ab lue p r int , b u t t ha t t h is was n ot t he o r igina l i n ten t ion .

T he o n ly ' t hree d i mens iona l '

r econstruc t ions a t temp ted o r a t p resent a n t ic ipa ted a re a s l i ne d raw ings r educed t o p age s ize , f or wh ich r e lat ive ly g enerous marg ins o f e rror i n f i e ld d raw ing , i fn ot w e lco med , c an a t l eas t b e t o lera ted . A lthough n ot d esigned s pec if ica l ly t o r ecord d e ta i ls o f t imberwork ing t he s yste m d oes i nc identa l ly p rov ide c ons iderab le d a ta o n t h is s ub jec t . T he v a lue o f t ree r ing a na lys is c annot b e s tressed t oo h igh ly , f ox s uch a s tudy c an p resent d e ta i led e v idence o f t he c hoice o f t imber a va i lab le t o t he c arpenters ( i ts a ge s ize , s pec ies ) a nd o f t he me thods emp loyed t o c onver t t hese t rees i n to t he s truc tura l me mbers r equired .

F or e xamp le , t he ma jor i ty o f t he

t rees f e l led f or u se i nt he 1 3th a nd 1 4 th c en tury r evetments a t Tr ig L ane , L ondon were l ess t han 8 0 y ears o ld , wh i le t hose u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t he R o man wa ter fron t s truc tures a tt he N ew F resh Wharf a nd C usto m H ouse 1 3

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1 5

s i tes were o f ten i n e xcess o f 1 50 y ears o ld . A n e xamina t ion o f t he s amp les f ro m t he s tave me mbers o f t he G roup 1 0 ( c . 1 360 ) a nd G roup 1 ( 2 .1380 ) r evetments a t Tr ig L ane s howed t ha t t he f ormer were c ut f ro m h a lved s p li t t imbers , w hi le t he l a t ter were c ut f ro m s awn t imbers . P ar t icu lar a t ten t ion i sp a id t o j o in t d e ta i ls i n t he d rawn r ecord .

S ecre t

n o tched l ap j o ints h ave b een i dent if ied i n as tructure d a ted t o c .1 240 f ro m t he Merma id T hea tre s i te ( H i l lam & H erber t 1 980 ) . A t Tr ig L ane t he e dge h a lved b r id le b ut ted s car fd a ted t o c .1380 i s t he e ar lies t e xa mp le o f t h is j o in t y e t r ecorded ( M i lne & M i lne 1 978, f i g . 1 0 ; H ewet t 1 977 , 2 95 ) , wh i le t he t usk t enon r ecorded o n t he Group 1 2 r eve tmen t i s a pparent ly t he l a tes t d a ted e xamp le o f i t s t ype ( M i lne& M i lne 1 978, 9 6 , f i g . 1, 1 02 ) . T he r e markab le w ork o f C ec i l H ewet t h as s hown t ha t t he d eve lopment ( and d ec line ) o fw oodwork ing t echniques c an b e t raced t hrough t he e v idence o f t he j o ints u sed ( Hewe t t 1 969; H ewe t t , P aper 1 9 , t h is v o lu me ) . H owever t he b u lk o f h is e v idence h as o fn ecess i ty b een d er ived f ro m a s tudy o f s tanding b u i ldings s uch a s c a thedra ls , c hurches , b arns a nd d o mes t ic b ui ldings c onstruc ted f or t he h igher s oc io-econo m ic g roups o f t he medieva l p er iod . T here i s n ow amp le e v idence t o d e mons tra te t ha t t he med ieva l r iverfron t r eve tmen ts i n L ondon were n ot c onstruc ted o n c iv ic , e cc lesiast ica l o r r oya l a u thor i ty , b u t were t he r espons ib i li ty o f t he o ccup ier o f e ach r iverfront p roper ty ( M i lne & M i lne 1 978) , a nd were b u i lt b y t he s ame c arpen ters who w orked o n aw ide r ange o f v ernacu lar b u i lding e lsewhere i n t he C i ty ( see f or e xa mp le S alz man 1 952 , 4 34 c on trac t 1 6 a nd 4 67 c on trac t 4 1) . T he r ange o f j o in ts r ecorded ö n t he t wen ty f i ve r iverfront r eve t ments f rom L ondon t hus p rov ides awe lco me a nd we l l-da ted a ddi t ion t o o ur k now ledge o f v ernacu lar t imber b u i ld ing a nd t imber working t echniques . T he Depar tment h as r ecen t ly r ecorded a n umber o f s ec t ions o f R o man t imber r iverfront s truc tures a t Mi les L ane ( superv ised b y L . Mi l ler ) Thames S tree t T unne l ( K . F lude ) a nd t he P eninsu lar H ouse s i te ( G . M i lne ) , i n a ddi t ion t o t hose p rev ious ly e xcava ted a t N ew F resh Whar f , S ea l H ouse ( Hob ley & S chof ie ld 1 977 ) a nd C us to m H ouse ( Ta t ton Brown 1 974 ) . A we l l-preserved R o man t imber f l oor was r ecorded a t P en insu lar H ouse , a nd a r epor t o n t imber f ra med we l ls f ound i n t he C i ty o f L ondon i s b e ing p repared b y T . W i l mot t . I ti s h oped t ha t t he c o mpar ison o f t h is s ubs tan t ia l c orpus o f R o man j o ints a nd t echniques w i th t he med ieva l ma ter ia l w i l l h igh ligh t t imberwork ing f ea tures wh ich a re s pec if ic t o e ach p er iod . T h is i s c lear ly a d es irab le a nd v a lid o b jec tive a nd i ts hou ld b e p ossib le t oa t temp t t h is w i th t he d a ta t o h and r ecorded b y t he s yste m d escr ibed i n t h is p aper . H owever , a l l p rac t ica l s ugges t ions a s t o h ow t he r ecord c ou ld b e i mproved w ou ld b e warm ly w e lco med . T he me thod o f r ecording u sed i n L ondon i s s u mmar ised i n Tab le 2 .1, t oge ther w i th a n o u t l ine o f t he method emp loyed i n Y ork , B ever ley a nd N orw ich b ased o n i n forma t ion k ind ly s upp lied b y R ichard H a l l , P e ter Arms trong a nd Br ian Ayers . T he Y ork A rchaeo logica l Trust h ave d es igned a nd u se a s pec ia l t imber r ecording s hee t o n wh ich i n for ma tion o n i ndiv idua l s truc tura l me mbers i s r ecorded . I n a ddi t ion t o t he d a ta s hown i n t he t ab le , j o inery d e ta i ls a re d rawn a t as ca le o f 1 : 1 i n b o th Y ork a nd B ever ley .

1 6

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T imber R ecording Methods u sed i n L ondon ,York , B ever ley a nd N orw ich . L ondon

Y ork

B ever ley

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( Ha l l Gar th )

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S ca le f or R ecording T i mber S truc ture : P lan

1 :20

1 :20

1 :20

1 :20

S ec t ion

1 : 10

1 :10

1 :20

1 : 10

E leva t ion

1 :10

1 :10

1 :20

1 :10

T i mber Draw ing : me mbers n ot

a s many a s

a l l me mbers

p rac t ica l

n o t s hown o n

s hown o n

1 :10

e leva t ions 1 :10

e leva t ions

a s many a s p rac t ica l 1 :10

Wr i t ten Descr ip t ion o n C on tex t S hee t/Fea ture C ard : E very s truc ture

y es

y es

y es

y es

E very t imber

y es

y es

y es

y es

S truc ture a s who le

y es

y es

y es

y es

S truc tura ld e ta i ls

y es

y es

y es

y es

n o

n o

y es

n o

P hotography :

E very t imber T oo l marks

n ot u sua l ly

o ccas iona l ly

n o

o ccas iona l ly

T ree R ing Ana lys is : S a mp le e very s tr uct ure S amp le e very t imber

y es

y es y es

i fp oss ib le

y es i fp ossib le

y es n o

P reserva t ion : N o s truc-

A l l p lank

A l l s truc tur-

N o s truc ture

t ures o r

s truc tures

a l me mbers

o r l arge

f ro m b r idge

s truc tura l

large l arge s truc- & t ura l me m-

s truc tura l

b ers

me mbers

me mbers

Acknow ledge men ts T he f igures i n t h is p aper were k ind ly p repared b y C hr iss ie M i lne , a nd a l l i l lus tra te a spec ts o f t he Group 1 1 r iver fron t r eve t men t d a ted t o c .1380 , e xcavated a t Tr ig L ane i n t he C i ty o f L ondon ( M i lne & M i lne 1 978 : Mi lne f or thco ming ) .

1 7

Mi lne &

a

i m

F ig.

2 .6

D iagram t o i l lustrate woodwork ing t erms

1 8

T he work o f t yp is t J u l ie F lude , t he DUA P hotograph ic D epar tment , a nd DF H arr ison who t ook t he p hotograph i n F ig . 1 , i s a lso g ra tefu l ly a cknow ledged . An u mber o f u sefu l c o m ments f ro m c o l leagues i n t he DUA h ave b een i ncorpora ted i n to t h is p aper , a nd s pec ia l t hanks must g o t o Br ian Ayers , P eter Arms trong a nd R ichard H a l l f or t he ir g enera l c o m men ts a nd f or s upp ly ing t he i nforma t ion s hown i n t he t ab le .

APPENDIX 2 .1 G lossary o f t erms u sed i n t he r epor t o n t he Tr ig L ane r eve tments , a dap ted f ro m M i lne & M i lne ( f or thco ming ) .

Much o f t he t erm ino logy h as b een t aken

f ro m H ewe t t ( 1969 , 9 -19 ) . BARE-FA CED

aj o in t w i th o n ly o ne s hou lder t ha t w ou ld n orma l ly p osses t wo :

B IRD 'S MOUTH

c f .

F ig . 2 .6 ( h a nd j ) .

d ef ines a ny j o in t t he p rof i le o f wh ich r ese mb les a n o pen b eak .

BRACE ( or s hore )

d iagona l ly s e t me mber s uppor t ing a v er t ica l r evet men t me mber .

BUTT

t ermina l p oint .

CLADD ING

t he e x terna l c over ing a pp lied t o wa l l o r r oof . T he mos t c o m mon c ladding f or t he r eve t ments was h or izon ta l p lank ing l a id e dge t o e dge .

EDGE AND FACE

ad ressed t imber w i l l u sua l ly h ave t wo f aces w ider t han i t s t wo e dges u n less i th as b een l i tera l ly ' squared ' .

T he ' bestface ' i s t he s urface

mos t r adia l t o t he c irc le o f t he l og p r ior t o c onv ers ion .

F or e xa mp le , i n F ig . 2 .6(a ) , t he b est

f ace i s t he u pper o ne .

T h is i s t he s urface f i rst

p repared , f ro m wh ich j o ints a re marked a nd f ro m wh ich p egs a re d r iven . EDGE-TRENCH ING

ac u t o r t rench i n t he e dge o f at imber i n to wh ich as i mi lar ly e dge-trenched me mber may b e s e t . T he e xa mp les f ro m t he Group 1 1 r evet men t i ncorpora ted t wo v er t ica l me mbers w i th t renches c ut i n t he ir a but ting e dges t hrough wh ich a n e dget renched h or izonta l me mber was p assed .

T h is

p rov ided a s trong u nw ithdrawab le j oint ( F igs . 2 .3 a nd 2 .6 g ) . HEART WOOD

t he p ar t o f t he t ree b e tween t he p i th a nd s apwood . I t c onta ins n o l i v ing c e l ls , a nd i s o f ten i mpregna ted w i th s ubs tances s uch a s t annins , mak ing i t more r es istan t t o d ecay t han t he s urrounding s apwood .

GRO WTH R INGS

c oncen tr ic r ings s how ing e x ten t o f o ne y ears g row th , c o mpr ising t he l arge e ar lywood v esse ls a nd t he sma l l l a tewood v esse ls . 1 9

JO ISTS

f ra med f l oor me mbers .

T he f ra med f eature b u i lt

i n t he s ou th-west c orner o f t he Group 1 r eve t men t i ncorpora ted t hree c o m mon j o ists o n to w h ich t he f l oor p lanking was n a i led ( F ig . 2 .3) . JO WL

t he e nd o f at imber wh ich s we l ls o ut s o t ha t t he s treng th o f i t s e nd j oint may b e e nhanced , e g . t he Group 1 1 c orner p os t (F ig . 2 .5) .

LAP JO INTS

ac a tegory o f j o ints i n wh ich o ne p ar t o f at imber o ver laps a no ther .

T hey c ou ld b e e i ther f aceto-

f ace ( F ig . 2 .6 ( a ) , ( b ) ) o r e ndto-face j o ints ( F ig . 2 .6 ( c ) , ( d ) ) . H a lv ing :

t he r e mova l o f h a lf t he d ep th o f t wo

t imbers s o t ha t t hey may c ross e ach o ther a t a ny a ng le w i thout a ny v ar ia t ion i n t h ickness .

U sed

o n t he b ack-braces o f t he G roup 3 r eve tment ( F ig . 2 .6 ( a ) ) . n otched l aps :

d if fer f ro m s tandard s qu int l aps

( see b e low ) i n t ha t t hey h ave a ' V ' s haped n otch wh ich p reven ts t he ir w i thdrawa l ( F ig . 2 .6 ( d ) ) . A s ecre tnotchedlap :

h as a n a dd it iona l w eb o f

w ood o n t he o u ter f ace o f t he n otched me mber wh ich o bscures t he n otch f ro m v iew when i n p os i t ion , r ender ing i t' secre t ' ( F ig . 2 .6 ( c ) ) .

S uch

j oin ts were a pparent ly c o m mon f ro m t he 1 3th c entury t o t he o pen ing o f t he 1 4th ( Hewe t t 1 969 , 5 9) a nd h ave b een u sed i n r eve t men t c ons truc t ion t o t i e t he f oo t o f ab race t o t he b ase-p la te (M i lne 1 979 , 1 48) . S qu int l aps : 9 0° .

a re l aps s e t a t a n a ng le o ther t han

T he p a ir i l lustra ted i n F ig . 2 .6 ( e ) were

c ut i n at imber s ubsequent ly r eused a s ab asep la te , b u t s een h ere i n t he ir p robab le f or mer u se . T he l ap-dove ta i l i lus tra ted i n F ig . 2 .6 ( f ) i s f ro m t he Group 4 r evetmen t . MORT ISE AND TENON

C a tegory o fj oin ts b as ic t o p os t- N orman c onques t c arpen try a nd j oinery i n wh ich a t ongue ( t enon ) a t t he e nd o fo ne me mber i s h oused i n as lot ( mor t ise ) i n t he e dge o r f ace o f a nother ( F ig . 2 .6 h ) .

C o m mon ly u sed t o j oin t he f eet o f t he p os ts

t o t he p r inc ipa l b ase p la tes . A c hase- mor t ise h as o ne v er t ica l e nd a nd o ne i nc l ined e nd t oa ccep t t he t enon o f a member d es igned t o r un d iagona l ly f ro m t he mor t ised t imber , e .g . Fe . 2 .6( i ) .

C o m mon ly u sed i n

f ron t-braced r eve tmen ts t o j o in t he h ead o f t he b races t o t he h ead o f t he p osts . Bare-faced t enons h ave o n ly o ne s hou lder r a ther t han t wo ( F ig . 2 .6 ( j ) ) .

2 0

At usk-tenon i s o ne wh ich e x tends b eyond t he f ur thes t f ace o f t he t imber i tt ransf ixes , a f ter wh ich i ti s i mp laed w i th a p eg o r k e 3 ;. '( F ig . 2 .6 ( k ) ) . Af ree-tenon i s a sma ll p iece o f w ood b ur ied a t b oth e nds i n mor t ises c u t i n to a d jacent e dges o f a but t ing t imbers . P ITH

t he c en tre o f t he t ree .

I n l i v ing t rees i t s f unc t ion

i s c oncerned w i th t he s torage o f f ood s ubs tances . PLATE

h or izonta l t imber a t t he t op o r b ot to m o f af ram ing . T he p la te i n to w h ich t he p r inc ipa l r eve tment p os ts a re t enoned i n t he Group 3 r evetmen t i s t he P r inc ipa l B ase-P la te , wh i le t he p la te a ga ins t wh ich t he f ee t o f t he b races b u t i s t he S ubs idiary Base-P la te .

RAYS

t h in wa l led c e l ls r unn ing r adia lly a nd h or izonta l ly f ro m t he c entre o f t he t ree o u twards .

REVETMENT

af ac ing o r masonry , c oncrete , t imber , s ods e tc . s uppor t ing o r p rotec t ing a b ank o r embankmen t .

T he ' ver t ica l t radi t ion ' o f r eve tment c on-

s truc t ion i ncorporates s t ruc tures i n wh ich t he p r inc ipa l p os ts o r f rame members a re v er t ica l ly s et .

T he ma jor i ty o f t he t imbers a re d ressed

s quare a nd a re u sua l ly h ardwoods , s uch a s o ak . T h is c ategory i nc ludes a l l t he Tr ig L ane r eve tments . T he ' h or izon ta l t radi t ion ' i ncorpora tes s truc tures i n wh ich t he p r inc ipa l f rame me mbers a re h or iz onta l ly l a id . T he t imbers c ou ld b e u ndressed l ogs o f ten o f s of twoods s uch a s p ine . S AP WOOD

t he o utmos t p ar t o f t he t ree b enea th t he b ark , wh ich , i n l i v ing s pec imens , c onta ins l i v ing c e l ls a nd a ss is ts i n w ater c onduc t ion . B ecause i ti s p rone t o d ecay a nd t o h arbour d isease e tc ., i ti s u sua l ly s tr ipped o f f l ogs d ur ing t he ir c onvers ion i n to t imber .

S CARF

aj o in t d es igned t o make o ne l ong t imber f ro m t wo o r more s hor ter l eng ths b y j o in ing t he ir e nds . As car f i s b y d ef in it ion a nd e nd-to-end j oint . T he most c o m mon s carf u sed t o j o in t he Tr ig L ane r eve tmen t b ase-p la tes was t he e dge-ha lved s carf w i th s quare v er t ica l b ut ts ( F ig . 2 .6 ( e ) ) . T he p la tes l a id o n t op o ft he Group 1 0 s taves were j o inted w i th t he s carf s hown i n,F ig . 2 .6 ( m ) . T he t hrough-sp layed a nd t ab led s carf s hown i n F ig . 2 .6(n ) was r ecorded o n t he C us to m H ouse s i te ( Tat ton Brown 1 974 , 1 34 ) a nd t he e dge h a lved s carf w i th b r id led b u t ts i s f ro m t he G roup 1 r eve tment ( F ig . 2 .6 ( o ) ) .

2 1

S OFF IT

u nders ide .

T he l ap-dove ta i l i n F ig . 2 .6 ( 1 ) i s

c ut o n t he s of f i t o f t he t imber wh ich p asses o ver t he b ase-p la te . T IE-BACK

h or izonta l ly s e t me mbers t i ed a t o ne e nd t o t he p r incipa l v er t ica l me mbers o r p lates o f af ra me . S ee f or e xa mp le me mber marked ' a ' F ig .2 .1 .

T IMBER

' mere m iu m ' i n medieva l L a t in was t he ma ter ia l o f as ize s u i tab le f or h eavy c ons truc t ion w ork , s uch a s t he r eve t men t s truc tures .

WOOD

o r ' boscus i was t he sma l ler ma ter ia l s uch a s p o les o r b rushwood s ui tab le f or l i gh t c ons truc t ion w ork o r f irewood ( Rackha m1976, 2 3 ) .

REFERENCES Barker , P ., 1 977 .

T echn iques o f Archaeo log ica l E xcava t ion .

B odding ton , A ., ( nd , b ut 1 978) . T he e xcavat ion r ecord : N or than ts C ounty C ounc i l Occ . P apers 1 .

p ar t 1 , s tra t if ica t ion .

B ret t , D ., & Mi lne , G ., 1 978 . ' Tr ig L ane ' i n Morgan & S chof ie ld 1 978 , 2 346 C ru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 977 .

' So me p r inc ip les f or t he r ecording a nd

p resenta t ion o f a nc ient b oa t s truc tures ' , i n McGra i l 1 977 , 1 63-77 . H ewe t t , C . A ., 1 969 .

T he d eve lop ment o f c arpen try 1 200-1700 :

a n E ssex

s tudy . H ewe t t , C . A ., 1 977 .

' Scarf j o int ing d ur ing t he l a ter 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en tur ies ' ,

Archaeo l . J . 1 34 , 2 87-296 . H i l la m , J . &H erber t , P ., 1 980 .

' Tree r ing d a t ing :

t he Merma id T hea tre

s i te , C i ty o f L ondon ' , L ondon Archaeo l , 3N o . 1 6 . H i l la m , J . & Morgan , R ., 1 981. a rchaeo logy? '

'What v alue d endrochrono logy t o w a terfron t

i n G . Mi lne & B . Hob ley ( eds.) Water front a rchaeo logy i n

Br i tain a nd Nor thern Europe CBA Res. Rep . 4 1 , 3 9-46 . H irs t , S . ,1 976 .

R ecording o n e xcava t ions 1 :

t he wr i t ten r ecord

RESCUE

n o . 7 . H ob ley , B . & S chof ie ld , J ., 1 977 .

' Excava t ions i n t he C i ty o f L ondon 1 974-5 ' ,

A nt . J . 5 7 , 3 1-66 . J ef fer ies , J ., 1 978 .

E xcava t ion r ecords — techniques i n u se b y t he C entra l

E xcava t ion U n i t ( DoE ) . Marsden , P ., 1 979 .

' The Medieva l s h ips o f L ondon ' i n McGra i l 1 979 , 8 3-92 .

McGrai l , S . ( ed .) , 1 977 .

S ources & T echniques i n b oa t a rchaeo logy , BAR

I n t . S er ies 2 9 . McGra i l , S . ( ed .) , 1 979 .

Medieva l S h ips a nd H arbours i n n or thern E urope ,

BAR I n t . S er ies 6 6 . 2 2

M i lne , G . &M i lne , C ., 1 978 .

' Excava t ions o n t he Thames wa terfron t a t

Tr ig L ane L ondon , 1 974-6 ', Med . Archaeo l . 2 2 , 8 4-104 . M i lne , G ., 1 979 .

' Medieva l r iver front r eve t men t c ons truc t ion i n L ondon ',

i n McGra i l 1 979 , 1 45-153 . M i lne , G . &M i lne , C ., 1 979 .

' The mak ing o f t he L ondon wa ter front '

C urren t Archaeo l . 6 6, 1 98-204 . M i lne , G . &M i lne , C .

( f or thco ming ) .

Med ieva l wa ter front d eve lop ment a t

Tr ig L ane , L ondon , LA MAS S pec ia l P aper . MoL , 1 980 .

Archaeo logica l s i te manua l , P ar t1 :

t he wr i t ten r ecord ,

Museu m o f L ondon DUA p ub l ica t ion n o . 2 . Morgan , R . &S chof ie ld , J ., 1 978 .

' Tree r ings a nd t he a rchaeo logy o f t he

Tha mes wa ter front i n t he C i ty o f L ondon ' , i n J . F le tcher ( ed .) , Dendrochrono logy i n E urope , BAR I n t . S er ies 5 1, 2 23-238 . R ackha m , 0 ., 1 976 .

T rees a nd wood land i n t he Br i t ish l andscape .

S a lz man , L . F ., 1 952 .

B u i lding i n E ng land d own t o 1 540 .

T a t ton Brown , T ., 1 974 .

' Excava t ions a t t he C usto m H ouse s i te , 1 973 '

LA MAS , 2 5 , 17-219 . LA MAS = L ondon a nd Midd lesex Archaeo logica l S oc ie ty .

2 3

3 .

BOATBU ILD ING TECHN IQUES , TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE AND ATTR IBUTE ANALYS IS S ean McGra il a nd G eof frey D enford

S u mmary I ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t b oa t-f inds s hou ld b e r ecorded i n d e ta i l a s amongs t t he t echn iques u sed t o b u i ld a b oa t a re s o me t ha t may p rove t o b e d iagnos t ic o f i ndiv idua l b oa tbui lding t radi t ions . E xa mp les o f w oodwork ing t echniques r ecorded o n we l l-provenanced p reh istor ic a nd medieva l B r i t ish a nd I r ish w ooden b oats a re d escr ibed . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he u se o f A t tr ibute l i sts w ou ld min im ise d a ta l oss a nd make d a ta s torage , r e tr ieva l a nd a na lys is more e f f ic ient . S uch a s ys te ma t ic a pproach w ou ld ma ter ia l ly a ss ist t he r ecogni t ion a nd o b jec t ive d ef ini ton o fb oa tbu i lding t radi t ions . I n c on junc t ion w i th ad a t ing p rogra m me , ac hrono logy o f t echno log ica l c hange may a lso b e o b ta ined . Ap rov is iona l A t tr ibute l i s t f or o pen , p lank b oa ts i s g iven .

I NTRODUCT ION A wooden b oa t ( even o f t he mos t b asic f orm )i s ac o mp lex a r t ifac t b oth t o b u i ld a nd t o r ecord .

N ever the less , c lear , u namb iguous d escr ip t ions o f b oa t-

f i nds a re e ssent ia l i fw e a re t ou nders tand t he e ar ly h is tory o f b oa tbu i lding a nd t he d eve lop ment o fw oodworking t echniques . Much i nforma t ion a bout a b oa t-f ind c an b e r ecorded o n i n s i tu p lans a nd p rof i les , b ut i n t he s earch f or a ny u nder ly ing p a t terns i n h u man b ehav iour i ti s t he d etai ls o f b oa tbui ld ing t hat ma t ter ( a s B ea t Arno ld ( 1 977) h as r em inded u s ) a nd , t o r ecord s uch d e ta i ls , f am i l iar i ty w i th a w ide r ange o fw oodworking t echniques i s e ssen t ia l a nd a h igh s tandard o fp os t-excava t ion r esearch i s r equ ired .

I n t he p as t , e xcava tors

o fb oa ts h ave n ot a lways b een f am i liar w i th w oodwork ing a nd , o n o ccas ions , p ost-excava t ion w ork h as b een o f av ery e lementary k ind . A me thod o f r ecord ing a l ogboa t ( =d ugou t c anoe ) f i nd , wh ich may b e o f u se t o t hose o n ly moderate ly f a mi liar w ith b oa ts o r i ndeed wood , h as b een d escr ibed b y McGra i l ( 1 978A , 1 40-2 , 3 31-7) .

Th is i nvo lves t he u se o f al i s t

o f 1 20 a t tr ibutes , e ach w i th t wo o r more s ta tes . T hese a t tr ibutes may b e g rouped u nder e igh t ma in h eadings ( 1 978A , 1 40-2 , 3 31-7) wh ich a re e qua l ly a pp l icab le t o t he d escr ip t ion o fp lank b oa ts : D a te ;

R eg ion;

S ize;

F unc t ion;

B oa tbui lding t echn iques ; P ropu ls ion a nd s teer ing;

2 5

F orm; S peed .

F orm ( t ha t i s , t he s hape o f t he e nds , t he f l are o f t he s ides , t he f l a tness o r o therw ise o f t he b ot to m , e tc . ) , s ize —and p o ten t ia l s peed t ranscend t radi t ion , t he c hoices h ere b e ing g enera l ly d e termined b y e nv ironmen ta l f ac tors a nd o pera t iona l r equiremen ts ( McGra i l , 1 981A, 6 ) . D if feren t f orms a nd s izes may a lso b e u sed w i th in o ne t radi t ion t o mee t d if ferent t asks , w i th s peed b e ing ad er ived a t tr ibute d eterm ined b y t he p ropu lsive p ower a va i lab le a nd t he c hosen f orm o f t he b oa t . F unc t ion i s a lso l i ke ly t o v ary w i th in o ne t radi t ion : a s oc ie ty w i l l g enera l ly h ave s evera l d if feren t f unc t ions t o b e met b y wa ter t ranspor t , many o f wh ich w i l l a lso b e f ound i n o ther t radi t ions . O n t he o ther h and , ap re lim inary a na lys is o f t he b oatbui lding t echniques u sed i n v ar ious t imes a nd p laces s ee ms t o i ndica te t ha t t he c ho ice o fb oa tbui lding t echn iques ( i nc luding t he d e ta i led a rrange men ts c hosen f or p ropu ls ion a nd s teer ing) may b e s pec if ic t o ap ar t icu lar t rad i t ion . E v idence f or a r es tr ic ted c ho ice o f f orm , s ize o r f unc t ion w i th in o ne t rad i t ion may h e lp t o d ef ine t ha t t radi t ion : n evert he less , i ti s t hose a t tr ibutes g rouped u nder t he h eading o f b oa tbu i lding t echn iques , many o f t he m w oodwork ing p rac t ices , wh ich s eem mos t l i ke ly t o b e d iagnos t ic . T o d a te , f ew a nc ien t b oa tbui lding t rad i t ions h ave b een d ef ined i n ar igorous manner . T h is i s p ar t ly d ue t o t he l ack o f d etai l i n e ar ly e xcava t ion r epor ts , b u t i s a lso d ue t o t he l ack o f a na lys is . T he f u ture w idespread a pp l ica t ion o f a t tr ibute a na lys is , e ven t ov ery i nco mp le te r ecords , s hou ld e nab le b oa tbu i lding t radi t ions t o b e r ecogn ised a nd d ef ined i n a s o b jec t ive a manner a s i s p oss ib le w i th t he e v idence n ow a va i lab le . A lthough r igorous a t tr ibute a na lys is h as n ot y e t b een u nder taken t he t hree mid-2nd mi l lenn iu m b c F err iby b oa ts ( Wr igh t , 1 976) p robab ly c ons t i tu te a p o ly the t ic g roup ( C larke , 1 968 , 3 7) o n t he b as is o ft he ir b oa tbu i lding t echn iques ; t hey a re p robab ly b es t t hough to f a s t he p roduc t o f as pec if ic " boa tyard" ( e qu iva lent t o " workshop" f or o ther a r t ifac ts ) , p oss ib ly av ar iant o f a more g enera l b oa tbu i lding t radi t ion wh ich c annot y e t b e d ef ined . T he Br igg ' raf t ' a nd t he B r igg a nd App leby l ogboa ts were f ound i n t he s ame v a lley w ith in c . f i ve mi les o f e ach o ther , a nd t he ir r ange i n t ime , b ased o n t he c entra l d a tes o f r adiocarbon d e termina t ions , i s a bou t 4 50 y ears . They h ave c er ta in a t tr ibutes i n c o m mon , b ut a s t hese a re ma in ly " coarse" f ea tures , s uch a s t he u se o f s ew ing a nd t he c hoice o fo ak , t he p resen t s ta te o f r esearch a l lows u s o n ly t o n o te s o me a f f in i ty a nd n ot t o d ef ine a c loser r e la t ionsh ip . On t he o ther h and , ag roup o f 1 2th c entury AD l ogboa ts f ro m t he R . Mersey r egion w i th many c o m mon a t tr ibu tes ( most ly w oodwork ing t echn iques) h ave b een r ecogn ised a s members o f al oca l t radi t ion o r " boa tyard" ( McGra i l a nd S w itsur , 1 979 ) .

T h is mus t b e t en ta t ive , h owever , a s t here a re i nsuf f ic ient

d a tes s o f ar a va i lab le t o j us t ify t he a na lys is o fo ther p oten t ia l l ogboa t g roups i n Br ita in a nd I re land a nd o n ly when t h is i s d one c an t he c harac ter is t ics o f t he Mersey g roup b e s hown t o b e s pec if ic t o ac er ta in t ime a nd p lace . N o o ther c lear g roup ings c an b e r ecognised f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i n Br i ta in . I n t he n or th a nd wes t o f E uropeanV ik ing A ge t radi t ion o fb oa tbu i lding h as b een i dent if ied b y C ru m l in-Pedersen ( 1 978) , a nd a 1 2 th/ 1 3 th c en tury C og t radi t ion p ostu la ted b y E l lmers ( 1 979) a nd C ru m lin-Pedersen ( 1979 ) . A R o mano-Ce lt ic t radi t ion i nt he l ower R h ine/Fr is ian r eg ion may a lso b e ap oss ib i li ty ( McGra i l , 1 981A , 2 2-24) .

2 6

Apar t f ro m t he w ork d escr ibed a bove , t he s tudy o f w oodwork ing t echno logy u sed i n p rehis tor ic a nd med ieva l b oa tbui lding i s g enera l ly a tt he d a ta c o l lec t ion r a ther t han t he a na ly t ica l s tage .

We n eed t o r ecord a nd d a te many more b oa t-

f i nds s o t ha t t hose t radi t ions t en ta t ive ly i dent if ied may b e c onf irmed o r r e jec ted , a nd o ther t radi t ions , a nd e ven i ndiv idua l " boa tyards" , r ecogn ised ( McGra i l , 1 981A,10 ) .

R esearch w i l l t hen p rogress f ro m t he s tudy o f i ndiv idua l b oa t-f inds

t owards a more c o mprehens ive s tudy o fa nc ien t mar i t ime a f fa irs . And , a s many b oa tbui lding a t tr ibu tes a re w oodworking t echn iques , ac orresponding b ody o f r e l iab le d a ta w i l l b eco me a va i lab le t o s tuden ts o fw oodwork ing . D esp i te t he g enera l p auc i ty o f d a ta i n Br i ta in a nd I re land t here a re s evera l we l l-recorded a nd d a ted f i nds , a lbe i t most ly i so la ted i n t ime a nd s pace . Twen ty o ne o r s o o f t hese a re l i s ted i n T ab le 3 .1 .

S o me w e l l-da ted l ogboa ts

a re omi t ted f ro m t h is t ab le a s t hey c ontr ibu te o n ly marg ina l ly t o t he s tudy o f w oodwork ing ( or e ven b oa tbu i lding ) t echn iques ( see McGra i l , 1 978A , 3 32-3 a nd McGra i l a nd S w i tsur , 1 979 f or d e ta i ls ) ;

o therw ise T ab le 3 .1 i nc ludes

t hose Br i t ish a nd I r ish b oa t-f inds f ro m wh ich a l mos ta l l k now ledge o f wooden b oa tbui lding i n t hese i s lands b efore AD 1 400 i s d er ived . Where a b oa t i s a bandoned , wrecked o r r e-used i s n ot n ecessar i ly where s he was b u i lt ;

n ever-

t he less , t here a re r easons f or b e liev ing t ha t mos t o f t hese f i nds were b u i lt i n Br ita in o r I re land ( see r eferences g iven i n Tab le 3 .1) : t he mos t l i ke ly e xcept i on , o n p resent e v idence , i s t he N ew F resh Whar f f i nd; b u t t here i s a lso t he p oss ib i li ty t ha t t he C oun ty H a l l a nd G raveney f i nds may h ave b een b u i lt o n t he n or th w es t c oas t o f c on t inenta l E urope . I ff u ture s tudies r esu lt i n t he i dent if ica t ion o fw e l l-def ined t radi t ions , i ts hou ld t hen p rove p oss ib le t o r ecognise f i nds wrecked o r a bandoned away f ro m t he r eg ion i n wh ich t hey were b u i lt . WOOD WORK ING TECHN IQUES B ui lders o f a l l t ypes o fw ooden b oa ts h ave a tl east o ne p rob lem i n c o m mon : h ow t o c onver t t he l og i n to u sefu l t imber ; b u i lders o fp lank b oa ts h ave t he p rob le m o f f as ten ing t he p lanks t oge ther o r t oo ther s tructura l me mbers; t b u i lders o fb oa ts w i th k ee ls h ave t o j o in k ee l t o s te ms . S o lut ions t o t hese a nd o ther p rob le ms c an b e t raced i n t he d a ta a va i lab le a bou t t he b oa ts i n T ab le 3 .1. The d iscussion w hich f o l lows i sn ot a c o mprehens ive s urvey o f s uch b oa tbui lding t echniques : f or e xa mp le , methods o f f asten ing p lank ing t o s te m a nd me thods o fp ropu ls ion a nd s teer ing h ave n o t b een c ons idered; a nd s o me o f t he e xc lusive ly l ogboa t t echniques h ave b een om i t ted . Wi th t hese e xcep t ions , h owever , t he i n forma t ion g iven u nder e ach o f t he e igh t h eadings i nc ludes a l l r e liab le d a ta p ub l ished a bout Br i t ish a nd I r ish wooden b oa ts d a ted t o t he p er iod C . 2 000 BC t o c . AD 1 400 . A uthors o fp apers d escr ib ing b oa t-f inds g enera lly u se s imp le , o f ten i mp rec ise , t er ms t o d escr ibe s carfs a nd j o ints . T here i s a n o bv ious n eed f or as tandardised , a na ly t ica l n o menc lature a nd t herefore , wh i ls t r e ta in ing t he t radi t iona l t erms , w e h ave a t temp ted i n t h is p aper t o u se t he d escr ip t ive t erms g iven i n t he Museu m o f L ondon 's i l lustra ted g lossary ( see P aper 2 ) wh ich i s b ased u pon t he t erm ino logy u sed b y H ewe t t ( 1969 , 9 -19 ) .

We h ave

a lso c onsu lted C urr ie ( 1972 ) , C orkh i l l ( 1979 ) , a nd t he B r i t ish S tandard I nst i tute 's G lossary o f Woodwork ing T erms ( BS , 5 65 : 1 972 ) . Ag lossary o f s pec ia lised b oa tbu i lding a nd r e la ted t erms i s a tA ppendix 3 .2 . 2 7

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3 .1 P art o f E . V . Wr ight 's measured d raw ing o f F err iby b oat 1 , s how ing t he s carf i n t he c entra l b o ttom s trake a nd t he r ing/ray p attern o f t he o ak p lank ing .

F ig .

3 .2 D iagrammat ic r epresen tat ion o f a n e ar ly s tage i n bu i ld ing t he Br igg ' raf t ': n ote t he o r ientat ion o f t he p lank i n t he p arent h a lflog .

3 1

F ig . 3 .3 Method o f c onvert ing p ine ( P inus s p.) l ogs i nto p lanks. A f ter O lsen a nd Crum l in-Pedersen, 1 967 , f ig. 6 2.

F ig . 3 .4 A s ect ion t hrough o ne o f t he o ak ( Quercus s p.) p lanks o f t he Graveney b oat s howing t he r ay p a ttern.

F ig .

3 .5 Method o f f as ten ing s tem t o k ee l-p lank o f t he Graveney b oat.

C onver t ing a l og T here a re t wo b asic me thods o f t urning a l og i n to a l ogboa t : u se o f t he who le l og , o r u se o fo ne h a lf o f al og s p li t l ong i tudina l ly . T he e ar lies t c er ta in u se i n Br i ta in o f t he l a t ter t echn ique i s t he S hapw ick l ogboa t o f c .3 55 b c , a l though t he 9 th c entury b e S hor t F erry b oa t may a lso h ave b een p roduced i n t h is way ; t here a re f our o thers , t he l a tes t e xamp le b e ing Warr ing ton 1o f c . a d 1 190 . A who le l og was u sed f or t he B r igg l ogboa t ( 2 .834 b e ) ; f i ve o thers a re k nown t he l a test b eing t he l ogboat f ro m G igg lesw ick T arn ( 9 _ . a d 1 335) . T hese b oa ts were a l l made o fo ak ( Quercus s p . )e xcept f or G igg lesw ick w h ich was a sh ( Frax inus s p . ) P lanks h ave

. l so b een f ash ioned f ro m o ak h a lflogs ;

o n p resent e v idence

t h is i s ap reh istor ic t echn ique s een i n t he F err iby b oats ( F ig . 3 .1 ) a nd t he Br igg ' raf t ' ( F ig .3 .2 ) . C onver t ing l ogs i n t h is way e nsures t ha t maximu m b readth o fp lank ing i s a ch ieved —fro m n ear t he d iame ter o ft he l og—and v er t ic a lly p ro jec t ing c lea ts , t hrough wh ich t ransverse t imbers a re s ubsequen t ly p osi t ioned , c an b e p roduced i n tegra l w i th t he p lanking .

I n p ass ing , w e n ote

t ha t o ne e le men t o f F err iby b oat 2 h as b een c onver ted f ro m a h al f l og i n a n ' unconven t iona l ' o r ienta t ion ( Wr igh t , 1 976, f i g . 8 ) . P ossib le r easons f or t h is w i l l b e p ub lished e lsewhere . A me thod o f c onvers ion c o mparab le t o t he F err iby/Br igg t echnique f or o ak l ogs was u sed t o o b ta in t he p ine ( P inus s y lvestr is ) p lank ing u sed i n t he l a te 1 2 th c en tury AD Wood Q uay b oa ts ( F ig . 3 .3 ) . Max imu m b readth o fp lank ing was a lso t he a im h ere .

T he o ak p lank ing f ro m Wood Q uay , o n t he o ther h and ,

a nd t ha t f ro m t he G raveney ( F ig . 3 .4 ) a nd K en tmere b oa ts was o b ta ined b y s p li t t ing l ogs r ad ia l ly . T h is me thod n ot o n ly makes u se o f t he n a tura l t endency o fo ak t o s p li t a long t he medu l lary r ays , b ut a lso r esu l ts i n ap lank t ha t i s s tronger t han o ne f ash ioned i n a ny o ther way , o ne t ha t s hr inks l ess i n b readth a s i td r ies o ut f ro m t he g reen s ta te , i s l ess l i ab le t o warp , c heck o r s p l i t , a nd i s l ess r eadi ly p ene trab le b y d ecay f ung i . I n a dd it ion , t h is me thod o f c onvers ion min im ises t he n u mber o fp lanks w i th s treng th-reduc ing k no ts ( McGra i l , 1 974 , 4 2-4 ) . F asten ing s te ms t o k ee ls B oa t f i nds f ro m Br i ta in w i th k ee l a nd s tems a re d a ted t o t he R o man p er iod o r l a ter ;

n ever the less t he f ash ion ing o f a" stem" i n t he s o l id e nd ( bow ) o f

t he P oo le l ogboa t ( c . 2 95 b e ) , where i ts erved n o f unc t iona l p urpose , d oes i ndica te p reh istor ic awareness o fp lank b oa ts w i th s te ms ,a l though t hese were n ot n ecessar i ly i ndigenous . I n t he ' t radi tona l ' d esign t he s tem i s a n e x tens ion o f t he k ee l , a lbe i t w i th a g radua lchange i n d irec t ion , a nd t hus t he j unc t ion h ere i s as car f . T he e ar l ies t e xamp le k nown i n B r ita in i s t he ' h or izon ta l ' o r ' t hrough-sp layed o n e dge , f ace-na i led ' s carf . T h is i s d educed t o h ave b een u sed i n t he l a te 6 th c entury S ut ton H oo 2b oa t .

A v ar ian t o f t h is , ' s top-sp layed '

r a ther t han ' t hrough-sp layed ' , i s f ound o n t he l a te 9 th c ent ury Graveney b oa t ( F ig .3 .5 ) . Th is s carf was f as tened b y i ron n a i ls c lenched b y d eforming t he t i p o ver a r ove i nboard; t he S u t ton H oo s carf i s t hough t t o h ave b een s im i lar ly f astened . The s econd t ype o fk ee l/s te m s car f i s k nown a s a' ver t ica l ' s car f b ut i n a na ly t ica l t erms i ti s a lso ' t hrough-sp layed o n e dge , f ace-na i led ' w i th t he 3 3

F ig .

3 .6 S carf b etween k ee l a nd F . tem o f t he Greenwich f aer ing r ep l ica.

.

. _ I

F ig . 3 .7 A s carf i n as trake o f t he County Ha l l b oa t. A f ter R i ley, 1 912, 7 .

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F ig . 3 .8 One e nd o f aG raveney b oat f l oor t imber . A t op t imber was f as tened t o i t by t reena i l t hrough t he e dge-ha lfed s carf .

f aces o ft he t imbers i n t he v er t ica l p lane , whereas t he S ut ton H oo a nd Graveney s te ms a nd k ee ls h ave t he ir f aces ( i . e . t he ir b roader s urfaces ) i n t he h or izon ta l p lane .

T h is s carf i s a lso f ound o n t he G oks tad f aer ing ( F ig .3 .6 ) a nd o ther

V iking A ge b oa ts a nd i s t ypica l o f t hose f ound a t Wood Q uay where t he a verage g radien t i s c1 :3 c o mpared w ith t he s ha l lower g radients o f 1 :7 t o 1 : 12 u sed b y modern b oa— t bu i lders ( McGra i l , 1 974 , 3 8) . T hus , " hor izonta l" a nd " ver t ica l" s carfs a re c ons truc t iona l ly a nd a na ly t ica l ly s im i lar , w i th t he f as ten ings b e ing ' d r iven t hrough f ace s ur faces where more n a i ls c an b e a cco m modated, r a ther t han t hrough e dge s urfaces . " ,v er t ica l"

Whe ther t he s car f was t o b e " hor izonta l" o r

t herefore mus t h ave b een d ec ided n o t b y j o inery c r i ter ia , b ut b y

s truc tura l a nd o pera t iona l r equiremen ts t o h ave t he k ee l t imber w i th i t s g rea ter c ross-sec t iona l d imens ion e i ther v er t ica l ( at rue k ee l) o r h or izon ta l ( ak ee l-p lank ) . P lank s carfs T he B r igg ' raf t ' p robab ly h ad s i ng le p iece b ot to m s trakes( McGra i l , 1 981B ) , b ut o ther p reh is tor ic a nd medieva l b oa t-f inds i n wh ich s uch d eta i ls h ave b een r ecorded h ad a t l eas t o ne s trake c ons ist ing o ft wo o r more p lanks j o ined e nd t o e nd a t as carf .

T he c en tra l b ot to m s trake o f F err iby 1h ad t wo p lanks

meet ing i n a n 'edge-ha lved s carf w i th s quare v er t ica l b u t ts '(F ig . 3 .1) ; were n o s car ff as ten ings , o n ly e dge f as ten ings t o a d join ing s trakes .

t here T he 3 rd

c entury AD C oun ty H al l b oat h ad p lank s car fs wh ich were ' s top-sp layed o n f ace ,, e dge-na i led ' ( F ig . 3 .7) a t ype u n-paral le led i n B r i ta in . T he S u t ton Hoo e v idence f or p lank s car fs h as b een i n terpre ted a s av er t ica l s car f , i .e . ' t hrough-sp layed o n e dge , f ace-na i led ' , w i th t hree mid s trake n a i ls c lenched o ver r oves i nboard . S i mi lar s carfs , w i th v ary ing n umbers o f mid s trake n a i ls , h ave b een f ound i n t he p lank ing o f t he Graveney , Wood Q uay a nd K entmere b oa ts :

t he g radients

h ererange f ro m c .1 :4 t o 1 :5 . S carfs i n r ibs T he 4 th c en tury AD N ydam b oa t ( Aker lund , 1 963) h as s ing le p iece r ibs e x tending f ro m t op o f s ide t o t op o f s ide a nd s e t a ga ins t t he i nboard s urface o f t he p lank ing .

S ubsequent r ound-hu l led b oa t-f inds i n E urope h ave c o mposi te

r ibs o r as ys te m o fa lterna t ing p ar t-r ibs , r ef lec t ing t he f ac t t ha t t imbers w i th a n a ppropr ia te n a tura l d oub le c urve a re n ot r eadi ly f ound . T he c o mpos i te r ibs u sed i n t he Graveney b oa t a nd B lack f r iars 3 e ach c onsis t o f af l oort imber a cross t he b o t to m p lank ing w ith t op t imbers e x tend ing u p e ach s ide . T he Graveney t op t imbers were s carfed t o h er f l oor t imbers b y ah or izon ta l s carf f as tened b y t reena i ls ( F ig . 3 .8) . T here i s s o me d if f icu lty i n c hoos ing t he r igh t a na ly t ica l d escr ip t ion f or t h is s car f a s , i n g enera l, t he Graveney f l oor t imbers a re g rea ter i n d ep th ( mou lding ) t han i n b readth ( s id ing ) .

H ow-

e ver , a t t he e nds o f t hese f l oor t imbers , b y t he s carfs , t he d ep th i s g eneral ly l ess t han t he b readth a nd t hus t he s carf may b est b e t ermed ' e dge-ha lfed , t reena i led t hrough f ace ' .

B lackfr iars 3 a ppears t o h ave h ad s o me th ing s imi lar

( Marsden , 1 979 , f i g . 5 .5 ) . S trake f as tenings w i th wa ter t igh t j o int A l lt he b oa ts u nder d iscuss ion ( excep t B lackfr iars 1 ) were b u i lt i n s he l ls equence w i th e dge f as tened p lank ing , t hese f as ten ings b eing a n e ssen t ia l p ar t 3 5

F ig . 3 .9 Method o f f asten ing s ide s trake t o o uter b ottom p lanks o f F err iby b oat 1 ; t he j o int b etween o uter b o ttom p lanks a nd k ee l p lank i s s im i lar. A f ter Wr ight, 1 976, F ig . 3 .

MOSS

F ig. 3 .10 Con jectura l method o f j o in ing t he F err iby i st a nd 2 nd s ide s trakes. A f ter Wr ight, 1 976, f ig . 6 ( mod if ied),

L ATH

• -• •' - MOSS S TRAKE 4

STRAKE

F ig. 3 .11 Method o f f as ten ing Br igg s trakes by s ew ing o ver moss a nd a l ong i tud ina l l ath.

F ig. 3 .12 Con jectura l method o f f asten ing Br igg s ide s trakes a nd o uter b ottom s trake ( strake 5 ).

3 6

3

o f making t he s he l l o f t he b oa t wa ter t igh t . S ew ing i s t he e ar l ies t t echn ique r ecorded f or p lank f as ten ings . T he o uter b ot tom p lank a nd t he l owes t s ide s trake o f F err iby 1 i n ter locked a s s hown i n F ig .3 .9 , a nd were f as tened a nd made wa ter t igh tb y y ew ( Taxus s p . )s t i tches o ver a c au lk ing o f moss c apped b y al ong i tudina l l a th o fo ak o n t op o f t he s eam . I td oes n ot a ppear p oss ib le t o d escr ibe t h is j o in t b y a ny t erm i n u se t oday , e xcep t l oose ly a s ' t ongue a nd g roove ' . T he s ewn j o int b etween t he f i rs t a nd s econd s i de s trakes o n t h is b oa t may , o nt he o ther h and, b e d escr ibed a s ' edged h al f l ap ' ( F ig . 3 .10) .

A

m i l lenn iu m o r s o a f ter t he F err iby b oats , t he Br igg ' raf t ' a lso h ad s ewn b o t to m p lank ing , b u t w i th a b ut ted j o in t r a ther t han a n i n ter lock ing o ne ( F ig . 3 .11) ; ac o mparab le s equence o f moss , h aze l ( Cory lus a ve l lana ) l a th a nd w i l low ( Sa lix s p . )t hread made t he s eam wa ter t igh t .

T he B r igg f i rs t a nd

s econd s ide-s trakes w ere g enera l ly f astened t oge ther b y s ew ing o ver a b eve l o r ' e dge-sp layed l ap j o int '; wh i ls t t he f i rs t s trake w as f as tened t o t he b ot to m p lank ing i n as i mp le o ver lap j o int ( F ig . 3 .12 ) . T he 3 rd c entury AD C oun ty H a l l b oa t 's p lank ing w as a lso l a id e dgeto-edge , b u t h ere t he b ut ted p or t ion e x tended o ver t he f u l l t h ickness o f t he p lank ing i n c on tras t t o t he r educed s urface i n c on tac t b e tween t he B r igg b ot to m p lanks ( F ig .3 . 1) . T he C ounty H a l l p lanks were f astened t oge ther b y t he i nser t ion o ff ree o r l oo.s e t ongues o r t enons ( ca l led " draw-tongues" i n t he o r ig ina l r epor t ) i n to mor t ices c ut a t G in ( 152 m m ) i n terva ls i n o ppos in g e dges , w i th in t he t h ickness o f e ach p lank ( F ig .3 .1 3 ) .

T hese t ongues were t hen p egged i n

p os i t ion b y t reena i ls d r iven t hrough t he m a t r igh t a ng les .

T h is t ype o f j o int

h as b een f ound i n s evera l Medi terranean wrecks o f t he C lass ica l p er iod, w i th d if ferent s izes o f t ongues a nd w i th v ary ing i n terva ls b e tween t hem . A par t f ro m t he P un ic s h ip e xcava ted b y F ros t ( 1 973 , 4 4 ) , t here a re n o r epor ts o f a ny c au lking ma ter ia l b e ing u sed i n t hese c raf t :

i tmay b e t hat o ther e xcava tors

h ave o ver looked t he e v idence , o therw ise i t mus t b e p resu med t ha t t he s eams w ere made wa ter t igh t b y g ood w orkmansh ip a nd t he n atura l s we l l ing o f t he t imber when i m mersed i n wa ter . Medieva l f i nds h ad o ver lapp ing ( c linker ) p lank ing w i th a b eve l ( ' edge s p layed l ap ') , g enera l ly f as tened b y i ron n a i ls wh ich w ere d r iven f ro m o u tboard a nd c lenched i nboard ( F ig .3 .14 ) . S ut ton H oo 2 , Wood Q uay , K entmere 1 a nd B lackfr iars 3 h ave t h is t ype o f j o int , b ut w i th d if ferent s izes a nd s hapes o f n a i ls a nd r oves , a nd d if ferent n ai l s pac ing . T he G raveney b oat p lank ing i s s im i lar ly c lench f as tened b u t ( u n ique ly f or Br i ta in ) t he i ron n a i ls a re d r iven t hrough p rev ious ly i nser ted t reena i ls : o ne e xamp le o ft h is t echn ique h as b een f ound a t Wood Q uay b u t i ti s n ot a g enera l f ea ture t here a nd t he s ing le f i nd was p robab ly a r epa ir t o ap ar t icu lar e n larged n a i l h o le . Au n ique f i nd i n B r i tain i s t he r e-used , 8 -9 th c en tury AD o ak p lank ing e xcavated a t N ew F resh Wharf i n L ondon , wh ich i s f as tened b y t reena i ls w i th wedges i n t he ir i nboard e nd ( Marsden , 1 979 , f i g . 5 .2 ) . T here i s ac au lking o f moss , a ma ter ia l w h ich h as a lso b een f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t reena i l p lank f as tenings o n s evera l medieva l f i nds f ro m c on t inenta l E urope ( McGrai l , 1 981A , 2 9 , 3 4, 3 7 , 3 9 ) .

3 7

0

5cm

F ig. 3 .14 Genera l method o f f asteni ng a d jacent s trakes o n V ik ing Age a nd o ther n orth European E ar ly Med ieva l f inds. Af ter Christensen 1 968 a ,f ig. 8 .

F ig. 3 .13 Mode l s howing t he method o f f asten ing a d jacent s trakes o n t he County Ha l l b oat.

1 0CM

F ig . 3 .15 P art o f F err iby b oat 1 s how ing t ransverse t imbers p ass ing t hrough c leats o n t he b ottom p lanki ng.

F ig. 3 .16 Method o f f aste n ing t he s trakes o f B lackfr iars 1 t o t he s ide t imbers ( s ide f rame) by d r iv ing a n i ron na i l t hrough a t reena i l ( wooden p eg). Af ter Marsden, 1 976, f ig. 1 8 .

F astening r ibs t o p lank ing A lthough n o t c orresponding p rec ise ly t o t he r ibs f i t ted i n to r ound-hu l led c raf t , t he t ransverse t imbers i n t he F err iby b oa ts a nd t he Br igg ' raf t ' d id minimise r e la t ive l ong i tudina l movemen t b e tween i nd iv idua l b ot to m p lanks a nd may a lso h ave h ad a c ons truc t iona l r o le ( McGra i 1 ,1981B ) . T hese t imbers p assed t hrough t he mor t iced h o les i n t he c lea ts o n e ach p lank ( F ig .3 .15 ) a nd were h e ld i n p os i t ion b y w edges . T he r ibs o f B lackfr iars 1were f as tened t o t he p lank ing b y i ron n a i ls d r iven f ro m o utboard t hrough p re-pos i t ioned t reena i ls . T hese n a i ls were c lenched i nboard b y t urning t hepoint o f t he n a i l t hrough t wo r igh t a ng les s o t ha t i tr ee n tered t he t imber ( F ig .3 .16) . Th is me thod o f c lench ing i s u n ique i n Br i tain ( apar t f ro m t he p ar t ly e xcava ted N ew G uy 's H ouse b oa t—see Marsden , 1 976 , 4 9 ) b u t h as b een f ound 'i n t he l ower R h ine/Fr is ian a rea o n wrecks e v ident ly o f R o mano-Ce lt ic o r ig in ( MeGra i l , 1 981A , 2 3/4 ) .

Dr iv ing c opper n a i ls t hrough

t reena i ls t o f asten r ibs i s k nown f ro m s evera l c lass ica l wrecks , f or e xamp le t he T i tan wreck ( Beno i t , 1 961) . I ron n a i ls c lenched o ver r oves were u sed t of as ten t he u pper e nds o f t he S u t ton H oo 2 r ibs ( F ig .3 .17 )b u t t he r e ma inder o ft he r ib f astenings were w ooden t reena i ls a s were t hose u sed i n t he C ounty H a l l b oa t . T he h eads o f t he Graveney w i l low ( Sa l ix s p . )r ib/p lank ing t reena i ls ( F ig . 3 .18) were d omed a nd p rotruded o u tboard o ft he p lank ing ; a n o ak s l ip ( F ig .3 .19) .

t he i nboard e nds were wedged w i th

T reena i ls o n B lackfr iars 3 a nd o n t he Wood Q uay b oats

a lso h ad wedges . T he s hape o f B lackfr iars 3 t reena i ls h as n ot y e t b een p ubl i shed; t hose f ro m Wood Q uay g enera l ly h ave s l igh t ly e xpanded h ead , a s d o t he K en tmere 1 t reena i ls . F astening l ong i tudina l t imbers t o r ibs De ta i ls o f s uch f asten ings h ave r are ly b een r ecovered .

B lackfr iars 3

e v ident ly h ad l ong i tudina l s tr ingers ( Marsden , 1 979 , f i g . 5 .5 ) b u t d e ta i ls o f h ow t hey w ere f as tened a re n ot a va i lab le . T he Graveney b oa t s tr ingers w ere l e t i n to a n otch i n e ach r ib a nd l ocked b y at reena i l ( F ig . 3 .20 ) . R epa irs S p li ts i n t he B ronze Age F err iby b oa t 1 , t he A pp leby l ogboat a nd t he B r igg ' raf t ' were p u l led t oge ther b y y ew o r b irch ' t hread '; t h is was h e ld f irm b y o ak wedges i n t he s ew ing h o les o ft he App leby b oa t . Wedges may a lso h ave b een u sed i n t he o ther c raf t b ut t hey w ere n ot r ecovered o n e xcava t ion . Moss was p robab ly u sed a s ac au lk ing ; t h is w as n o t f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r epa irs b u t i t was f ound i n o ther s ea ms o f t he Br igg ' raf t 'a nd F err iby b oa t I .

T he Br igg l ogboa t h ad w ooden p a tches w ith moss c au lk ing s ewn a cross

s p li ts ;

t he l onges t o f t hese p a tches h ad t hree c lea ts c arved i n t he s o l id w h ich

were e v ident ly w edged o n t he i nside o f t he s p li t ( McGra i l , 1 978A , f i g . 8 6) . F ig . 3 .21 s hows p ar t o f ar ecess s haped t o t ake a d oub le-headed f l a t wooden k ey wh ich h e ld t oge ther t he e dges o f a nother s ec t ion o f t he l ong i tudina l s p li t i n t he App leby l ogboa t . T he S hor t F erry l ogboa t o f c .8 46 b e h ad a t ransverse g roove o f d ove ta i l c ross s ec t ion u nder o ne e nd a cross a l ong i tudina l s p li t ( F ig .3 .22 ) .

A s w i th t he App leby b oat , t he ( presu med ) w ooden i nser t h as

3 9

F ig. 3 .17 Mode l s howing t he method o f f asten ing t he r ibs o f S utton Hoo 2t o t he p lanking.

F ig. 3 .18 Head o f a b roken t reena i l f rom t he Graveney b oat, w ith a wooden g rommet t o make i t watert ight. S ca le c ent imetr ic.

F ig. 3 .19 I nboard e nd o f a Graveney w i l low ( Sa l ix s p.) t reena i l w ith i nserted o ak ( Quercus s p.) wedge 6 5 mm i n l ength.

F ig . 3 .20 Method o f f asten ing l ong it ud ina l s tr ingers t o t he f loor t imbers i n t he Graveney b oat.

F ig . 3 .21 S hape c ut i nto t he b ottom o f t he App leby l ogboa t t o t ake a f lat wooden k ey wh ich wou ld h o ld t he s ides o f t he s p l i t t ogether. S ca le c ent imetr ic.

F ig . 3 .22 P art o f t he S hort F erry l ogboat s howing a d oveta i l-shaped g roove underneath t he s tern.

A fter T hompson 1 952 M ET RE

FE ET

3

F ig . 3 .24 The a sh ( Frax inus s p.) t imber o f d oub le-doveta i l s hape made t o f i t a cross t he b ow o f t he G igg lesw ick b oat. ( F ig . 3 .23.) Treena i ls w ere t hen d r iven t hrough h o les V a nd W . F ig . 3 .23 Vert ica l v iew o f t he b ow e nd o f t he G igg lesw ick Tarn l ogb oa t. S ca le c ent i r netric.

n ot s urv ived .

A l though n ot s tr ic t ly a r epa ir , i ti s a ppropr ia te t o d iscuss h ere

af i t t ing o n t he f i nd f ro m G igg lesw ick T arn , wh ich was d es igned t o f ores ta l l r epa ir b y p revent ing t he e nds o f t h is l ogboa t s p li t t ing . Ad oub le-dove ta i l n ega t ive o r r ecess h ad b een c ut a cross t he b ow ( F ig .3 .23 ) t o t ake a n a sh t ransverse t imber w i th d ove ta i l-shaped e nds ( F ig .3 .24 ) :

t he d ove ta i ls h ere

a re p egged i n p os i t ion b y v er t ica l t reena i ls . R ound-headed , i ron n a i ls w i th s quare s hanks w ere u sed a s s p ikes t o f asten al ead p a tch a cross a s p l i t i n t he c .2 30 b c H o lme P ierrepont 1 l ogboa t ( McGra i l 1 978A , f i g . 9 0 ) . T he K entmere 1b oa t o f c . a d 1 300 was s im i lar ly r epaired ( McGra i l , 1 978A , f i g . 2 6) .

I n t hese t wo r epa irs n owlos t c au lking w as p robab ly

u sed i n c on juhc t ion w i th t he p a tches . I th as b een d educed t ha t i ron n a i ls were u sed t o c lench-fas ten aw ooden p a tch o n S ut ton H oo 2 . I ron n a i ls were a lso u sed t o f as ten t he N Ao od Q uay r epa ir p a tches ( w ith h a ir a sc au lking ) , b ut a l though s o me w ere c lenched o ver r oves , o thers were n ot , a nd s o me n a i ls d id n o t p ene tra te t hrough t he p lank ing a nd t hus w ere u sed a ss pikes . A s p l i t i n t he G raveney b oa t 's k ee l-p lank h ad b een c au lked w i th s trands o f woo l a nd t he e dges f orced t ogether b y o b l ique ly d r iven i ron n a i ls c lenched o ver r oves ( Fenw ick , 1 978, f i g .8 .6) . R epa irs h ave a lso b een n o ted t o t he b ot to m p lank ing o f t he 1 5 th c en tury AD B lackfr iars 3b oa t , b ut d e ta i ls a re n ot a va i lab le . DAT ING TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE T ab le 3 .2 l i s ts t he w oodwork ing t echn iques d iscussed a bove , w i th t he ir e ar lies t a nd l a tes t d a tes w i th in t he p er iod u nderd iscuss ion . F rom t h is i t a ppears t ha t c er ta in t echn iques were u sed i n B r i ta in a nd I re land o ver a l ong t imespan : f or e xamp le , s ew ing f ro m c .1 500 b c t o c .6 50 b e; a nd t reena i ls a nd i ron f astenings f ro m l a ter p reh is tor ic t imes u nt i l t he e nd o ft he medieva l p er iod .

B ut w ere p reh is tor ic t reena i ls t axono m ica l ly t he s ame a s t hose o f

l a te medieva l t imes?

Was t he Br igg s ew ing t he s ame a s t ha t o f F err iby?

F err iby o ak p lanks a nd Wood Q uay p ine p lanks were b o th f ash ioned f ro m h a lf al og , b u t c an t hey b e c lassif ied t oge ther?

.

A s af ur ther e xamp le o f t h is c lass if ica t ion p rob lem we may e xamine t he e v idence f or t he u se o fd ove ta i ls i n e ar ly b oa tbui lding .

T he G lossary o f t he

Br i t ish S tandards I nst i tu te ( 1 972 , 5 2) , d ef ines d oveta i l a s , " A s p layed s hape c u t u pon t he e nd o f a me mber where i ti s j o ined t o a no ther , w ider a t t he e x tre me e nd t han a t t he s hou lder , s o t ha t when f i t ted i n to a r ecess o f c orresp onding s hape i tw i l l r es is t w i thdrawa l b y t ens ion i n t he d irec t ion o f i t s l eng th ." T he f l a t d oub le-headed k ey a ssoc ia ted w i th t he r epa ir t o t he A pp leby l ogb oa t o f C . 100 b e ( F ig .3 .21) i s n ot s p layed , b u t o therw ise i tf i ts t h is d ef ini t ion o fd ove ta i l a nd u ndoub ted ly h ad as im i lar f unc t ion .

T his i nser t may t hus b e

d escr ibed a s ap rototype d oub le-dove tai l . T he f i rs t t rue d ove ta i l s hape i s f ound o n t he . ‚ S hor t F erry .b oat ( F ig . 3 .22) o f c . 8 46 b c . B y t he 1 4th c en tury AD we h ave a d oub le-dove tai l t ransverse t imber ( F ig . 3 .24 ) o n t he G igg lesw ick T arn l ogboat , h e ld i n p os i t ion b y v er t ica l t reena i ls .

T here a re o ther , u nda ted ,

e xa mp les o fd ove ta i ls u sed b y b oa tbu i lders i n B r i ta in ( Ho l me P ierrepont 3 l ogboat—see McGra i l , 1 978A , f i g . 9 2 ) , i n I re land ( McGra i l , 1 978A , 3 7) , a nd i nc on t inen ta l E urope ( Vaa ler Moor l ogboa t—see McGra i l , 1 978A , f i g . 1 62 ) ; a nd d oub t less t here a re o thers n ot y e t p ub lished . 4 2

When t hese e xamp les o fd ove ta i ls a re d escr ibed i n d e ta i l i ti s s een t ha t t hey a re d iss im i lar i n o ne o r more f ea tures :

t he a ng le o f s p lay ;

t he u se o f

t reena i ls; t imber o fd if feren t c ross s ec t ion b e tween d oub le-dove ta i ls ; t he t h ickness o f t he d ove ta i ls; t he t imber s pec ies e tc . I fwe a re t o r ecognise t echno log ica l c hange a nd d a te i t s p rogress d ove ta i l i s t hus t oo b road a h ead ing : t h is a t tr ibute n eeds t o b e r ep laced b y s evera l o thers o r s evera l d if ferent s ta tes , s hou ld b e d ef ined . I n as ense a l l d ove ta i ls a re u n ique a nd d if fer f rom e ach o ther , h owever t he d iv is ion o f ' d oveta i l ' p roposed i n t he A t tr ibu te L is t a t Appendix 3 .1 ( no . 1 29 a nd 1 30 ) , s eems j ust if iab le a s af i rs t a pprox ima t ion o f t he c orrec t o rder o fd is t inc t ion : more u sefu l s cheme .

e xper ience w i l l c onf irm t h is o r s ugges t a

I t may b e t ha t t here was i n f ac t n o l og ica l p a t tern o f

c hange i n t he t ypes o fd ove ta i l u sed i nd if feren t p er iods , b u t u n less d e ta i ls o f e ach f i nd a re r ecorded i n t he way s ugges ted a bove , we w i l l n ot b e i n ap os i t ion t o r ecogn ise a ny p a t tern s hou ld o ne e x is t . Tab le 3 .2 t hus g ives a v ery b road p ic ture o f t echnolog ica l c hange i n b oa tb u i lding i n Br i ta in a nd I re land . F u ture r esearch b ased o n t he r ecording o f p rec ise ly-def ined a t tr ibu tes a nd o n a ccura te d a t ing s hou ld r esu lt i n a more d e ta i led h is tory o fb oa tbu i ld ing , p oss ib ly l eading t o t he a b i li ty t o d a te b oa t f i nds b y t echno log ica l c hange w i th in f i ne l im i ts .

T h is s hou ld h ave a n a pp lica t ion

t o o ther f or ms o f w oodwork ing . I ti s c lear t ha t c hanges i nb oa tbu i lding t echno logy c anno t b e u nders tood i n i so la t ion : d e ta i led r ecording a nd d a t ing must b e e x tended t o t he s tudy o f t he who le r ange o fw ooden a r t ifac ts ( see C o les e t a l . ,1 978) .

By t h is means t he

f i rst u se o f ap ar t icu lar w oodwork ing t echn ique w i th in a r eg ion may b e d a ted a nd i t s s ubsequen t u se , a dap ta t ion , modif ica t ion o r s upercess ion c har ted . ATTR IBUTE ANALYS IS We d raw t wo ma in c onc lus ions f ro m t he B r i t ish a nd I r ish e v idence f or w ooden b oa tbu i lding . a )

T he c orpus o f we l l-recorded a nd d a ted w ooden b oa ts i s minute : t wen ty o r s o f i nds s panning s o me 3 500 y ears , a nd n oth ing e ar l ier t han c .2 000 BC .

S o me o f t he e ar lier f i nds were p robab ly u nder-

r ecorded b y t he ir e xcava tors a nd, b ecause o f t he f rag i le , a l mos t e phe mera l , n a ture o f wa ter logged wood , i t may n ow b e i mpossib le t o l earn a ny th ing more f rom t he d egraded t imbers wh ich s urv ive ( McGra i l , 1 979 , 1 59 ) . N ever the less a s ys te ma t ic e xam ina t ion o f t he o r ig ina l r ecords s hou ld b e u nder taken , i nc ludingde ta i led e xami na t ion o f t he t imber , i fa ppropr ia te . b )

B oa tbu i lding t echn iques , i nc luding w oodwork ing p rac t ices , a re more l i ke ly t o b e c orre la ted w i th s pec if ic t radi t ions t han a re o ther v ar iab les ; s uch a t tr ibu tes n eed t o b e d ef ined a nd t he ir o ccurrance d a ted w i th p rec is ion .

T he r esu ltan t d a ta c an b eco me t he b as is f or c lass if ica t ion

s tudies t o d e ter m ine whe ther v a lid p a t terns o r g roup ings i n t ime a nd s pace c an b e r ecogn ised . We s ugges t t ha t t hese c onc lus ions p oint t owards t he u se o f a n A t tr ibute l i s t ( Doran & H odson , 1 975 , 9 9-104 ) . S uch l i s ts s hou ld i nc lude , i n ter a l ia , a l l woodwork ing t echn iques k nown t o h ave b een a ssoc ia ted w i th t he b u i ld ing

4 3

1 300 a d ±1 20—Kentmere 1

1 190 a d ±6 0—W a rr ington 1

1 335 a d ±6 0 —Gigg lesw ick T arn

L a tes t Da te

a >

O 0

a ) C I

4 . )

t i )

c r i

C Z

; • 4

; •4

'5

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; i

"— r ' . ,

c • o, . 2

i i

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C Z

L I )

C n

ce

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; . . i

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I

0 ,9

I

I I , _ , . 1

c z )

c n

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+ ä 0

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M

Z 0

c ) c )

Z

c ▪ t

ce D 0

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P T I

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c d

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+ 3

" 7 : 2

E ar l ies t Da te

Da te r anges f or s e lec ted w oodwork ing t echn iques i n B r i ta in a nd I re land

. • • • • • .

7 (1 ) 1

C . ) u • C

C D 0 t r D C . ) ‘ 1 ) +I C . ) C . )

CD 0 ▪ t r Z L O

▪

c n

( 1 )

C q

C . )

4 5

E ar l ies t Da te

i ron f astenings ) c ont inued t o

a re t he l a test

L ates t Date

o f wooden b oa ts . I t migh t b e t hough t i mpossib le t o l i st " every a t tr ibute" b ut D oran a nd H odson ( 1 975 , 1 01) a re u ndoub ted ly c orrec t when t hey s ta te t ha t t h is p rob le m c an b e s o lved b y mak ing a c lear d is t inc t ion b e tween a t tr ibutes ( mutua l ly e xc lus ive g enera l d escr ip t ive t erms e .g . T imber s pec ies ) a nd a t tr ibute s tates ( spec if ic d escr ip t ive t erms e .g . o ak , a sh e tc . ) ; r edundant a t tr ibu tes ;

b y e l im ina t ing

a nd b y t he u se o f c o m mon s ense i nn ot g o ing o u t o ft he

way t o s eek o bscur i ty . A dvantages i n t he u se o fA t tr ibute l i s ts i nc lude : a )

Ac o mp leted l i s t d escr ibes a b oa t-f ind c o mprehens ive ly a s f ar a s t he s urv iv ing e v idence a l lows .

D is t inc t ion c an b e made b e tween

d a ta d irec t ly r ecorded a nd d a ta d er ived f ro m h ypothe t ica l r econs truct i ons , mode ls , e xper imen t o r c a lcu la t ions . b )

Many a t tr ibute s ta tes c an b e u n ique ly d ef ined b y r eference t o a p ub lished d raw ing , d escr ip t ion o r g lossary . F or e xamp le t he s evera l d if ferent me thods o f f astening a boa t 's s trakes c an b e d ef ined b y r eference t o F ig . 2 6 i n Greenh i l l ( 1 976) . A nd t he s hape o f ab oa t c an b e d escr ibed b y r eference t o n u mbered d raw ings o f s tandard s hapes o f t he i ndiv idua l p ar ts ( McGra i l , 1 978A , f i g . 2 05 ) . S ee a lso t he g u ide t o t he r ecording o f s tone t oo ls p ub l ished b y t he B r i t ish C o lu mb ia Museu m ( Loy & P owe l l , 1 977) , a nd C elor ia 's ( 1 980) s tudy o f p ot tery c lass if ica t ion t erm ino logy , f ro m wh ich much c an b e l earned b y a na logy .

A t tr ibu te s ta tes a re mutua l ly e xc lus ive , a nd, i n s um , i nc lude

a l l l ogica l p oss ib i li t ies f or a p ar t icu lar a t tr ibu te .

I fu se d e mons tra tes

t h is i s n ot s o , t hen e n tr ies c an b e modif ied . C )

T he l i s t a c ts a s a n a ide memoir s o t ha t n o a t tr ibu te i s o ver looked when r ecording a f i nd . N ew a t tr ibutes c an b e d ef ined a f ter e va lua t ion o f f ur ther e v idence .

d )

L ists c an b e made c o mpa t ib le w ith a uto ma ted d a ta s torage a nd r e tr ieva l s ys te ms . C o mp le ted l i s ts c ons t i tu te a d a ta b ank , ab as is f or c lass if ica t ion s tudies a nd o ther f orms o f a nalys is .

e )

D er ived a t tr ibu tes s uch a s i ndices ( e .g . L eng th/Breadth r a t io) c an p rov ide g u idance i n t he i n terpre ta t ion o f f unc t ion a nd t he e st ima t ion o fp erformance . M isunders tandings d ue t o i ncorrec t t rans la t ion o f t echn ica l t erms a re r educed .

Da ta b eco mes c o mpa t ib le i n terna t iona l ly .

Ap rov is iona l A t tr ibute L ist f or L ogboa ts was p ub lished b yMcGrai l ( 1978A , 3 50-8) :

t h is h as b een a dded t o i n p apers o n t he G igg lesw ick T arn l ogboa t

( McGra i l , 1 978B ) , a nd l ogboa ts o ft he R . Mersey ( McGra i l a nd S w i tsur , 1 979) . At en ta t ive A t tr ibute L is t f or p lanked b oa ts i sg iven a t A ppend ix 3 .1. T h is h as b een t r ied o n t he Br igg ' raf t ' , t he G raveney b oa t a nd t he Greenw ich f aer ing r ep lica ( McGra i l , 1 974 ) .

We a re aware o f s o me i l log ica li t ies w i th in

t h is L is t wh ich f ur ther w ork migh t r eso lve , n ever the less we b e lieve t ha t t he n ext s tage i n i t s d eve lop men t i s t ha t i ts hou ld b e t es ted o n f i nds f ro m o u ts ide B r i ta in .

I fi n terna t iona l a gree men t c an b e r eached o n s o me f u ture e di t ion o f

t h is L is t , a nd a lso t he o ne f or l ogboa ts ( t he t wo may p rof i tab ly b e c o mb ined ) , t here w i l l b e a n a greed b asis f or c o mprehensive s tudies o fp reh istor ic a nd

4 6

medieva l b oa tbu i lding t echno logy .

T h is w i l l b e v a luab le i n i t se lf , b ut t here

w i l l a lso b e a n u ndoub ted g a in t o o ur k now ledge o f w oodwork ing t echniques . I ti s f or c ons idera t ion t ha t as im i lar a pproach b e c ons idered b y t hose i nves t iga t ing o ther w ooden a r t ifac ts , w here t h is d oes n ot a lready e x is t . F or o n ly b y p oo ling a l l i n forma t ion o n w oodwork ing c an w e a pproach t he i rreducab le mini mu m o f miss ing d a ta .

4 7

Appendix 3 .1 PROV IS IONAL ATTR IBUTE L IST FOR OPEN PLANKED BOATS

A t tr ibute A .

S ta te

G enera l

1 .

U n ique N o .

N u mer ica l

2 .

N ame

F ree t ex t

3 .

L oca t ion o f f i ndspot

F ree t ex t

4 .

N . G . R .

N u mer ica l

5 .

L a t i tude a nd L ong i tude

N u mer ica l

6 .

R e ma ins e x tan t

Y es/N o

7 .

R e ma ins a ccess ib le

Y es/N o

8 .

R e mains l i f ted

Y es/N o

9 .

L oca t ion o f r ema ins n ow

F ree t ex t

1 0 .

R e ma ins r ebur ied

Y es/N o

1.

B oatf ind

Y es/N o

1 2 .

R e-used t imbers

(B r i tain )

( 1 )a r t icu la ted ( 2 ) n ot a r t icu la ted

1 3 .

R e-used t imbers

( 1 ) wa terfron t s truc tures ( 2 ) t rackways o r h ards tandings

1 4 .

S h ip b ur ia l

( 1 ) o rgan ic r e ma ins ( 2 ) i mpress ion o n ly

1 5 .

V ot ive d epos i t

Yes/N o

1 6 .

Anc ient s i te t ype

( 1 ) S ea ( 2 ) F oreshore ( 3 ) E s tuary ( 4 ) T ida l r iver ( 5 ) N on-t ida l r iver ( 6 ) F ormer w atercourse 4 8

A t tr ibute

S ta te ( 7 ) L ake ( 8 )U nprovenanced

1 7 .

I conograph ic C ategory

( 1 ) S tone-carv ing

( Farre l l , 1 979 , 2 27-246)

( 2 ) Graf f i t i ( i n s tone w ood a nd p las ter ) ( 3 ) Mode ls ( 4 ) Manuscr ipt i l lu m ina t ion ( 5 ) Wood c arv ing ( 6 ) T apes tr ies ( 7 ) Mosaics ( 8 ) S ta ined g lass ( 9 ) C oins ( 10 ) S ea ls ( 1 1) T okens ( 12) Mura ls ( 13) Meta lwork ( 14 ) P or tab le o b jec ts ( 15 ) O ther ( 1 6) N o

1 8 .

R epresenta tion o f a

( 1 ) C er ta in

p lank b oa t

( 2 ) Probab le ( 3 ) P ossib le

1 9 .

S trakes d e l inea ted B .

Y es/N o

Da te

Age d eterm ined b y : 2 0 .

r adiocarbon

Yes/N o

2 1.

a ssoc ia t ion

Y es/N o

2 2 .

h is tor ica l means

Y es/N o

2 3 .

d endrochrono logy

Y es/N o

2 4 .

o ther

F ree t ex t

2 5 .

Da te (s) d e term ined

N u mer ica l

C . 2 6 .

harac ter is t ics G enera l C ons truc t ion C

B u i lding S equence

( 1 )S he l l ( 2 ) S ke le ton

( Greenh i l l , 1 976 , 6 0-88; McGra i l , 1 981A , 4 3 ) 2 7 .

( 3 ) Mixed ( 4 ) U nknown

C en tra l l ongitudina l me mber t h icker t han o ther b ot to m p lanks

Yes/N o

A t tr ibu te 2 8 .

S tate

I l lus tra t ion

C entra l l ongitudina l me mb er o f b ot to m - m idsh ips c ross-sec t ion

d ep th

( 1 ) 1 .00

( 5 ) N one 2 9 .

C entra l l ong i tudina l me m-

( 1 ) T -shaped

O lsen & C rum l in-

b er o f b ot to m - m idsh ips

P edersen , 1 967,

c ross-sec t ion

f i g .4 7, s ub-f ig . 4 . • ( 2 ) R ec tangu lar I

O lsen 8 / C ru m linP edersen ,1967 ,

( 3 ) S quare

w i th r abbets

f i g .2 9 .

( 4 ) Trapezo ida l ( 5 )R ec tangu lar 1 ( 6 ) S quare 3 0 . K ee l/bow t rans i t ion t imber

Y es/N o

t imber

Y es/N o

3 2 .

S te mpos t

Y es/N o

3 3 .

S ternpos t

Y es/N o

N ico laysen ,1882

O lsen & C ru m lin-

R abbe ts f or s trakes o n K ee l

r abbets

P la te 1 . f i g .6

3 1. K ee l/S tern t rans i t ion

3 4 .

w i thout

Y es/N o

P edersen , 1 967 , 11 .

3 5 .

S te m t ype

( 1 ) Type 1 ( 2 ) T ype 2

C hr is tensen ,

( 3 ) T ype 3

1 959 , f i g .3 .

( 4 ) T ype 4 ( 5 ) O ther 3 6 . 3 7 .

P lank ing s p l i t r adia l

Y es/N o

F ig . 3 .4 F igs .3 . 1a nd

P lank ing f ro m ( near ) d ia meter

Y es/N o

3 8 .

P lank ing t angen t ial

Yes/N o

3 9 .

P lank ing s awn r ad ia l

Y es/N o

3 .2 a nd 3 .3 .

McGra i l , 1 974 , f i g . 4 2 .

4 0 .

P lank ing s awn t angen t ia l

Y es/No

McGrai l , 1 974 , f i g . 4 2 .

4 1 .

P lank ing s haped b y b end ing Yes/No

4 2 .

P lank ing s haped b y h ew ing

Y es/N o

5 0

A t tr ibu te 4 3 .

S ta te

I l lus tra t ion

P lanks p er s trake ( mean a nd S .D )

N u mer ica l

4 4 .

T h ickness o fp lank ing

N u mer ica l

4 5 .

T ransit ion s trake ( be tween b o t to m & s ides )

( 1 ) L -shaped

c ross-sec t ion

( 2 ) C urved

• M•6 1.

Arno ld, 1 975 , f i g . 2 . L eh mann , 1 978 , f i g .3 .

( 3 ) ' Meg inhufr '

Greenh i l l ,1 976 f i g . 1 38 .

( 4 ) O ther ( 5 ) N o t u nusua l 4 6 .

T op s trake 's c ross-sec t ion s ign if icant ly d if ferent f ro m o thers

4 7 .

y es/N o

N o . o f s trakes b e tween t rans i t ion s trakes ( i nc . c entra l o ne-29) ( i .e . b o t to m p lanks )

N u mer ica l

4 8 .

B ot to m p lanks e dgejoined

Y es/No

4 9 .

N o . o f s trakes a bove

^

t rans i t ion s trake ( on o ne

5 0 .

s ide ) ( i .e . s ides trakes )

N u mer ica l

S trakes a bove t rans i t ion

( 1 ) S o me

s trakes e dge-fas tened

( 2 ) a l l ( 3 )N one

S trakes e dgejoined ( 5 1-66) 5 1 .

N a i ls c lenched o ver r oves ( McKee 1 7 )

F ig . 3 . 1 4 a nd Yes/N o

Greenh i l l , 1 976 , f i g . 2 6 .

5 2 .

Me ta l n a i ls h ooked o ver r oves ( McKee 1 8)

5 3 .

Greenh i l l, 1 976, Y es/N o

Me ta l n a i ls h ooked o ver

Greenh i l l , 1 976,

s o a s t o r e-en ter p lanks ( McKee 1 9 ) 5 4 .

5 5 .

f i g . 2 6 . Y es/N o

N a i l p o ints t urned o ver t o l i e f l a t • (McKee 2 0 )

f i g . 2 6 .

Greenh i l l , 1 976 , Y es/N o

S uccess ive n a i ling w ith

F ig . 2 6 . Greenh i l l , 1 976 ,

n a i ls d r iven o b lique ly i n to

f i g . 2 6 .

a d jo ining p lank t hrough r ecess ( McKee 2 6, 9 ) 5 6 .

Y es/No Greenh i l l , 1 976 ,

Wooden p egs o r t reena i ls ( McKee 1 6 )

Yes/N o 5 1

f i g . 2 6 .

A t tr ibute 5 7 .

Meta l c la mps

S tate Yes/N o

( McKee , 2 7 , 2 8)

I l lus trat ion Greenh i l l, 1 976 , f i g . 2 6 a nd B . S .I . G lossary , f i g . 1 8 .

5 8 .

D owe ls w i th in t h ickness ( McKee , 2 9 )

5 9 .

6 1 .

f i g . 2 6 .

Y es/N o

F ig .3 .1 3 .

Draw-tongue j o in ts t enon t reena i led

6 0 .

Greenh i l l, 1 976 , Y es/No

Draw-tongue j oin ts w i thout t reena i ls

Yes/ it )

F lush i nser ts ( McKee , 3 2 )

Y es/No

Greenh i l l, 1 976 , f i g . 2 6

6 2 .

6 3 .

S ewn ( McKee , 2 4 , 2 1, 2 2 )

F igs . 3 .9 a nd

S ee F ootnote 5 .

3 . 1 0 .

L ashed ( McKee 2 3 , 2 1, 2 2 ) Y es/N o

Greenh i l l , 1 976 , f i g .2 6 .

6 4 . P lank ing n a i ls d r iven t hrough t reena i l

F enw ick , 1 978 , Y es/N o

f i gs .8 .1 8 a nd 8 .2 1b .

6 5 .

B o t to m p lank ing e dgef as ten ings ma in ly d r iven f ro m

( 1 ) i ns ide t o o u tside ( 2 ) o uts ide t o i ns ide ( 3 ) N o

6 6 .

S ide p lanking e dgef asten ings ma in ly d r iven f ro m

( 1 ) i ns ide t o o uts ide ( 2 ) o uts ide t o i ns ide ( 3 ) N o

Method o f f as ten ing ( 67-77 ) 6 7 .

F ig .3 .2 2 a nd

S trakes/r ibs b y wooden p egs o r t reena i ls

Y es/N o

F enw ick , 1 978 , f i g .8 .2 0 .

6 8 .

S trakes/r ibs b y me ta l n a i ls t urned t w ice t o r e-en ter p lanks

6 9 .

Y es/N o

F ig .3 . 1 6

S trakes/r ibs b y n a i l p o in ts t urned o ver t o l i e f l a t .

7 0 .

Yes/N o

S trakes/r ibs b y me ta l n a i ls c lenched o ver r oves

Y es/N o

5 2

F ig . 3 . 1 7

A t tr ibute 7 1.

I l lus tra t ion

S trakes/r ibs b y me ta l n a i ls h ooked o ver r oves

7 2 .

S tate

Y es/N o

S trakes/r ibs b y me ta l s p ikes ( i .e . d r iven i n to Umber b lind )

7 3 .

7 4 .

7 5 .

S trakes/r ibs l ashed

N ico laysen , 1 882 ,

t hrough c lea ts o n s urface o fp lank ing a nd h o les t hrough

P l . I V ,4 ; G reenh i l l , 1 976,

t imber

Y es/N o

f i g . 1 38 .

Y es/N o

L and s trö m , 1 970 , f i g .8 6 .

S trakes/r ibs l ashed a round t imber S trakes/r ibs f as tened b y o ther means

7 6.

Y es/N o

S trakes/r ibs f as ten ings d r iven f ro m

Y es/No ( 1 ) i ns ide ( 2 )o uts ide ( 3 ) b oth

7 7 .

S trakes/r ibs f as tened b y n a i ls d r iven t hrough t reena i l

Y es/N o

7 8 .

R ibs

Y es/N o

7 9 ,

R ibs-fashion ing

F ig . 3 .16

( 1 ) g rown ( 2 ) h ewn a cross g rain ( 3 )ben t ( 4 ) o ther

8 0 .

R ibs—sheer t o s heer i .e . s ym me tr ica l d oub le c urve ( s ing le p iece )

8 1.

1 968B , 2 1 . Y es/N o

R ibs—sheer t o s heer : f l oor t imber p lus t wo s ide t imbers .

8 2 .

C hr is tensen ,

Yes/N o

H a lf-r ibs mee t ing o n c entre line .

Y es/N o

8 3 .

H a lf-r ibs —a l terna t ing

Y es/N o

8 4 .

L -shaped r ibs p lus s ide-t i mbers

Y es/N o

d e Weerd, 1 978, f i g . 1 9c .

P a ired L -shaped r ibs

Y es/No

d e B oe , 1 978 ,

8 5 .

f i g . 2 9 8 6 .

F loor t imbers o n ly

Y es/N o

5 3

A t tr ibute 8 7 .

R ibs o r f l oor t imbers a rranged

S tate

I l lus tra t ion

( 1 ) s ing ly ( 2 ) i n p a irs

d e Weerd , 1 978 .

( 3 ) i n t hrees ( 4 ) o ther 8 8 .

C ross s ec t ion o f r ibs

( 1 ) r ound ( 2 ) r ec tangu lar ( 3 ) o ther

8 9 .

N o . o f r ibs p er me tre

N u mer ica l

9 0 .

U nders ide o f r ibs j ogg led

Y es/No 1

9 1.

9 2 . 9 3 .

L imber h o les o n u nders ide o f r ibs .

Y es/N o

C ross b ea ms

Y es/No

S ing le b ea ms a bove e very f l oor t imber/r ib

9 4 .

f i g .6 9 .

Y es/N o

C hr is tensen , 1 968B ,3 4

Y es/No

O lsen & C rum linP edersen , 1 967 ,

S evera l b eams a bove e very f l oor t imber/r ib

O lsen a nd C rum linP edersen , 1 967 ,

f i g . 1 5 . 9 5 .

B eams p ro jec t t hrough p lank ing t o e x ter ior

9 6 .

o fb oat

Y es/N o

B eams s ecured w i th k nees

( 1 ) v er t ica l ( k nees t g i h ang ing k nees ) ( 2 ) h or izonta l ( l odg ing k nees ) ( 3 ) v er t ica l a nd h or izon ta l ( 4 ) N o

Method o ff as ten ing ( 9 7-102 ) 9 7 .

B ea ms t o k nees b y w ooden p egs o r t reena i ls

9 8 .

9 9 .

1 00 .

Y es/N o

B ea ms t o k nees b y me ta l n a i ls h ooked o ver t o r e-en ter p lanks

Yes/N o

B ea ms t o k nees b y n a i l p o in ts t urned o ver t o l i e f l a t

Y es/N o

B ea ms t o k nees b y me ta l n a i ls c lenched o ver r oves

Y es/N o

5 4

O lsen & C rum l inP edersen ,1967 , f i g . 1 5

A t tr ibute 10 1.

S tate

B ea ms t o k nees b y me ta l n a i ls h ooked o ver r oves

10 2 .

I l lus tra t ion

Yes/N o

B ea ms t o k nees b y me ta l s p ikes ( i . e . d r iven i n to t he t imber b l ind)

10 3 .

Y es/N o

P i l lars ( sne l le ) b e tween

O lsen & Cru m lin-

f l oor t imber a nd c ross -,

1 04 .

b ea m

Yes/N o

B ot to mboards ( ce i l ing )

( 1 ) F ixed

P edersen ,1 967 , f i g . 1 5 .

( 2 ) l oose ( 3 ) b oth ( 4 ) n one I n terna l l ongi tudina l me mbers ( s tr ingers/wa les ) ( 10 5-1 0 8) 1 05 .

-a t t op e dge

Yes/N o

1 06 .

-u nder c rossbea m

Y es/N o

1 07 .

-a t wa ter l ine

Y es/No

1 08 .

-o ther p os i t ion

Yes/N o 1

O lsen & C ru m linP edersen , 1 967 , f i g . 1 5 .

E x terna l l ong i tudina l me mbers ( 10 9-113 ) 1 09 .

-a t t op e dge

Yes/N o

10 .

-u nder c rossbeam

Y es/N o

11.

-a t wa ter l ine

Yes/N o

^

Wi lson , 1 966, f i g . 3 0 .

12 .

-o therpos i t ion

Yes/N o

13 .

Ou tr iggers

( 1 ) s ing le ( 2 ) p a ired ( 3 ) N o

D . 14 .

S carfs a nd o ther J oin ts

K ee l/ste m s carf

( 1 ) t hrough-sp layed o n e dge ( ver t ica l ) ( 2 ) t hrough-sp layed o n e dge ( hor izonta l ) ( 3 ) t ab led ( hooked) a nd t hrough-sp layed o n e dge ( ver t ica l ) ( 4 ) t ab led ( hooked) a nd t hrough-sp layed o n e dge ( hor izonta l )

5 5

F ig .3 .6

A t tr ibute

S ta te

I l lus tra t ion

( 5 )s top-sp layed o n e dge ( ver t ica l ) ( 6 ) s top-sp layed o n e dge ( hor izonta l)

F ig .3 .5

( 7 ) s top-sp layed o n f ace ( Hor izon ta l ) ( 8 ) o ther 1 15 .

Gradien t o f 14

1 16 .

Wa terproof ing i n s carf 1 14

1 17 .

S carf 14 f as tened b y

N u mer ica l

Y es/No •( 1 ) t reena i ls ( 2 ) meta l s p ikes ( 3 ) c lenched n a i ls ( 4 ) o ther

1 18 .

K ee l/stern s carf

s ta tes a s f or 1 14

19 .

G radien t o f 1 18

N u mer ica l

1 20 .

Waterproof ing i n s carf 18

1 21 .

S car f 18 f as tened b y

1 22 .

P lank s carfs

Y es/No 's tates a s f or 17 ( 1 ) e dge-ha lfed

F ig .3 .1

( 2 ) s top-sp layed o n f ace

F ig .3 .7

( 3 ) t hrough-sp layed o n

Bruce- M i tford ,

e dge ( ver t ical )

1 975 ,f ig . 2 86 ( Oseberg )

( 4 ) o ther 1 23 .

Gradient o f 1 22

1 24 .

Wa terproof ing i n p lank s car fs

1 25 .

P lank s carfs f as tened b y

N u mer ica l

Y es/N o ( 1 ) t reena i ls ( 2 ) c lenched n a i ls

Bruce -M i tford , 1 975 , f ig . 2 86 .

( 3 ) meta l s p ikes ( 4 ) o ther 1 26 .

P lank f as tening j oints

( 1 ) i n ter lock ing

F ig .3 .9

( 2 )e dge h a lflap

F ig .3 .1 0 F ig .3 . 1 1

( 3 )but ted ( par t t h ickness )

ig .3 . 1 3 ( 4 ) b ut ted ( who le t h ickness ) F ( 5 ) e dge-sp layed l ap

F ig .3 .1 2 a nd F ig .3 . 1 4

( 6) other

5 6

A t tr ibu te 1 27 .

F loor t imbers/ top t imbers

I l lus tra t ion

S ta te ( 1 ) e dge-ha lfed

F ig .3 .8

( 2 ) o ther ( 3 ) N o 1 28 .

N o tch w i th t reena i l

Yes/N o

F ig .3 .2 0

1 29 .

D ove tai l

( 1 )s ing le

F ig .3 .2 2

( 2 ) d oub le

F ig . 3 .2 1

( 3 )s ing le w i th t reena i l ( 4 ) d oub le w i th t reena i ls

^

F ig .3 .2 4

( 5 ) N o 1 30 .

S p lay a ng le o f 1 29

( 1 ) 1 800

F ig .3 .2 1

( 2 ) 1 79 - 1 10° ( 3 )109 - 7 0° ( 4 ) 6 9 -5 0°

F ig .3 .2 3

( 5 )l ess t han 5 0° 1 31.

L oose t ongue j o in t

( 1 ) w i th t reena i l

F ig . 3 .1 3

( 2 ) w i thou t t reena i l ( 3 ) N o 1 32 .

I n terva ls b etween j o in ts i n 1 31

( 1 )

6 0 mm

( 2 ) 6 1 -9 0 mm ( 3 ) 9 1 -1 20 m m ( 4 ) 1 21 - 3 00 m m ( 5 )

E . 1 33 .

>3 00 m m

Me ta l f as ten ings

P lank ing n a i ls

( 1 ) r ound h ead, c ircu lar

Bruce- M i tford ,

c ross s ect ion ( 2 ) f ace ted h ead , c ircu lar

1 975 , f i g . 2 79 .

c ross s ec t ion ( 3 ) r ound h ead , s quare c ross s ect ion ( 4 ) f ace ted h ead , s quare c ross s ect ion ( 5 ) N one 1 34 .

P lank ing n a i ls d ia me ter o r d iagona l o f s hank c ross-

1 35 .

s ec t ion

N u mer ica l

P lank ing n a i ls

( 1 )f orged ( 2 ) d rawn ( 3 ) c ut

1 36 .

S pac ing o fp lank ing n a i ls S ee F ootnote 4 .

N u mer ica l

( om i t t ing g arboa.r ds a nd t ops trakes )

5 7

F ig . 3 .1 4

A t tr ibu te 1 37 .

S hape o f r oves

S ta te

I l lus tra t ion

( 1 ) c ircu lar ( 2 )s quare ( 3 ) d iamond ( 4 )f ace ted ( 5 ) o ther

1 38 .

P lank ing/ in terna l s uppor t

( 1 ) r ound h ead , c ircu lar

s ystem n a i ls o r s pikes

c ross s ect ion ( 2 ) f ace ted h ead , c ircu lar c ross s ect ion ( 3 ) r ound h ead , s quare c ross s ect ion ( 4 ) f ace ted h ead , s quare c ross s ec t ion ( 5 ) N one

1 39 .

P lank ing/ in terna l s uppor t s ystem n a i ls o r s p ikes d ia me ter o r d iagona l o f s hank c ross s ec t ion

1 40 .

N u mer ica l

P lank ing/ in terna l s uppor t

( 1 ) f orged

s yste m n a i ls o r s p ikes

( 2 ) d rawn ( 3 ) c u t

F .

Treenai ls

1 41 .

P lank ing f astening t reena i ls diameter o f s hank o r h o le N u mer ica l

1 42 .

P lank ing f astening t reenai ls —has p i th

1 43 .

1 44 .

Y es/N o

P lank ing f astening t reenai ls —do mehead

Y es/N o

F ig . 3 .18

P lank ing f asten ing

( 1 ) wedged i nboard

F ig . 3 .19

t reena i ls

( 2 ) wedged o utboard ( 3 ) wedged i n a nd o ut ( 4 ) n ot wedged

1 45 .

P lank ing/ in terna l s truc ture t reena i ls— d ia meter o f s hank o r h o le

1 46 .

N u mer ica l

P lank ing/ in terna l s truc ture t reena i ls— h as p i th

1 47 .

Y es/N o

P lank ing/ in terna l s truc ture t reena i ls — d o mehead

Y es/N o 5 8

Attribute 148.

Planking/internal structure treenails

State (1) wedged inboard (2) wedged 9utboard (3) wedged in and out (4) Not wedged

Illustration Fig. 3. 17

G. Watertightness methods 149.

Plank seam watertightness (1) dry (2) bruised (McKee 33) (3) Caulking before fastening (McKee 34) Greenhill, 1976, fig. 26 (4) Caulking after fastening (McKee35) (5) Paying (McKee 36 & 37) (6) Plugging (McKee 38). (7) other

150. Material of 149.

(1) Moss (2) Hair (3) pitch (4) wool (5) hide (6) bark (7) twigs (8) other

151. Method of securing 149

(J) nails (2) metal 'clamps' (3) stitching (4) lath and metal clamps (5) lath and stitch (6) other

152.

Nail of 149 driven into

(1) both planks (2) one side only

153.

Material of 150 inserted

(1) inside (2) outside

Figs. 3. 9 & 3. 11 Fig. 3. 14

(3) both

154.

Treenails made watertight (1) grommet (2) other

155.

Nails made watertight H.

Fig. 3. 18

(1) grommet (2) other

Repairs

156.

Stitched repair

Yes/No

McGrail, 1978A, Figs. 2, 80.

157.

Flat insert repair

Yes/No

Fig. 3. 21

59

A t tr ibute 1 58 .

Wa terproof ing ma ter ia l

S ta te

I l lus tra t ion

( 1 ) Moss ( 2 ) H a ir ( 3 )p itch ( 4 ) woo l ( 5 ) h ide ( 6 ) b ark ( 7 ) t w igs ( 8 ) o ther

1 59 .

Meta l p a tch

Y es/N o

McGra i 1 ,1978A , f i g . 9 0 .

1 60 .

Wooden p a tch

Y es/N o

McGra i 1 ,1978A , f i g . 8 6 .

1 61 .

p a tch s ewn o n

Y es/N o

1 62 .

p a tch t reena i led o n

Y es/N o

1 63 .

P a tch i ron n a i led o n

( 1 ) n a i ls c lenched ( 2 ) s p ikes ( 3 ) o ther

1 64 .

P a tch f as tened i n a nother way I .

•Y es/N o

T oo l marks

T oo l marks o bserved : 1 65 .

Axe

Y es/N o

1 66 .

A dze

Y es/N o

1 67 .

S aw

Y es/N o

1 68 .

Wedge

Yes/N o

1 69 .

C h ise l

Yes/N o

1 70 .

Drawkn ife

Y es/N o

1 71 .

P lane

Y es/N o

1 72 .

A uger

Yes/N o

1 73 .

O ther

Y es/N o

J . F unc t ion 1 74 .

L ake c raf t

( 1 ) c argo ( 2 ) men ( 3 ) c argo a nd men ( 4 ) g enera l p urpose/f ish ing ( 5 ) misce l laneous

1 75 .

R iver c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74 .

6 0

A t tr ibute

S tate

1 76 .

T ida l r iver c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74

1 77.

E s tuar ine c raf t

S tates a s f or 1 74

1 78.

I nshore c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74

1 79 .

C oasta l c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74

1 80 .

S ea c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74 .

1 81.

Ocean c raf t

S ta tes a s f or 1 74

1 82 .

Associa ted c argo

Yes/No

1 83 .

H o ld

Yes/No

1 84 .

L eng th o f h o ld/overa l l l eng th

I l lus trat ion

N u mer ica l

K . Genera l F or m 1 85 .

L eng th o vera l l ( L )

N u mer ica l

1 86 .

Breadth maxi mu m ( B )

N u mer ica l

1 87 .

Depth ( bot to m o fk ee l t o l owes t p oint o f s heer line) ( D )

N u mer ica l

1 88.

L /B

N u mer ica l

1 89 .

L /D

N u mer ica l

1 90 .

B /D

N u mer ica l

1 91.

S y m metry c oef f ic ient ( McGra i l, 1 978A , 1 39)

1 92 .

N u mer ica l

P os it ion o f maxi mu m b ea m c oef f ic ient ( McGra i l, 1 978A, 1 39 ) L .

1 93.

N u mer ica l

Morpho logy

S tern p lan

( 1 ) r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 ) p ointed ( 4 ) t ranso m

1 94 .

S tern e leva t ion

( 1 )r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 ) i nc l ined ( 4 ) t ranso m

1 95 .

S tern t ransverse s ect ion

( 1 ) r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 )f lared ( 4 ) r ounded k ee led

6 1

As a g enera l g u ide , u se McGrai l , 1 978A , f i g . 2 05

A t tr ibute 1 96 .

B ody p lan

S tate

I l lu s tra t ion

( 1 ) p ara l le l s ided ( 2 ) t apered ( 3 ) " boat-shaped" ( curved )

1 97 .

1 98 .

B ody e leva t ion

B ody t ransverse s ec t ion

As a g enera l

( 1 ) p ara l le l ( 2 )s heer

g u ide , u se

( 3 ) r ocker

McGra i l , 1 978A

( 4 ) s heer w i th r ocker

f ig . 2 05 .

( 1 ) r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 ) f l ared ( 4 )r ounded k ee led

1 99 .

B ow p lan

( 1 ) r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 ) p o inted ( 4 ) t ranso m

2 00 .

B ow e leva t ion

( 1 )r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 ) i nc lined ( 4 ) t ranso m

2 01 .

B ow t ransverse s ec t ion

( 1 ) r ec tangu lar ( 2 ) r ounded ( 3 )f lared ( 4 ) r ounded k ee led

M . 2 02 :

P ropu lsion & S teer ing

Oar p ivot t ype

( 1 ) c rutch

McGra i l & F arre l l , 1 979 , f i g . 2 .

( 2 ) r ow lock

McGra i l & F arre l l , 1 979 , f ig . 3 .

( 3 ) o arpor t

McGra i l & F arre l l , 1 979 , f i g . 4

( 4 ) t ho le p ins

McGra i l & F arre l l , 1 979 , f i g . 1 .

( 5 ) s ing le t ho le a nd b u l l

H orne 1 1 ,1946, f i g . 1 7 d& e

( 6 ) s ing le t ho le a nd g ro m met

McGra i l & F arre l l ,1 979 , f i g . 6 .

( 7 ) g ro m met ( 8 ) o ther

6 2

A t tr ibute 2 03 .

2 04.

S tate

I l lus tra t ion

N o . o f o ar p ivots e ach s ide

N u mer ica l

Oar p ivots

( 1 ) f u l l l eng th ( 2 ) a t e nds o n ly

2 05 .

L oose t hwar ts

Yes/No

2 06.

B ea ms u sed a s t hwar ts

Yes/No

2 07 .

T hwar ts

( 1 ) d oub le b anked ( 2 ) s ing le b anked

2 08 .

D istance b e tween t hwar ts

2 09 .

R ow ing p ower c oef f icient ( see F ootnote 2 )

N u mer ica l

N u mer ica l

, -t o ta l N o . o fo ar p ivots D isp lace men t v o lu me 2 10 .

2 , 11.

2 12 .

N o . o f o ars u sed b y e ach o ars man ( McGrai l &

( 1 ) One

F arre l l , 1 979 , 1 57-162)

( 2 ) Two

P osture o fo ars men ( McGrai l & F arre l l

( 1 ) s i t

1 979 , 1 57-162 ) .

( 2 ) s tand

L everage a ct ion ( McGrai l

( 1 ) p ush

& F arre l l , 1 979 , 1 57-162)

( 2 ) p u l l ( 3 ) s tern s cu lling

2 13 .

D irec tion o ars men f ace

( 1 ) b ow ( 2 ) s tern

2 14 .

D irec tion o f b oat

( 1 ) f orward

move ment ( i conograph ic )

( 2 ) a stern

De ta i ls o f t he o ar ( 215-218) 2 15 .

-l ength o f l oo m ( i nc . g r ip) N u mer ica l

2 16 .

-l ength o f s haf t a nd b lade

2 17 .

N o . o f men t o a n o ar

N u mer ica l

( McGrai l a nd F arre l l ,

2 18 .

1 979 , 1 57-162 ) .

N u mer ica l

N o . o f t i ers

( 1 ) s ingle ( 2 ) Two o r more

2 19 .

HDp

N u mer ica l -

2 20 .

VHp

N u mer ica l

2 21.

HDh VHs

2 23 .

VH t

R ow ing g eo me try

N u mer ica l N u mer ica l N u mer ica l_

^

A t tr ibute

S ta te

I l lu s tra t ion

P osi t ion o f masts ( 224-7) 2 24 . —

0 a s ap ropor t ion o f

2 25 .

o vera l l l eng th f ro m

2 26.

s te m

2 27 . 2 28 .

-0 .2 5

0 .2 5 -0 .5 0 .5 - 0 .75 0 .7 5 1. 0

Mast s tep

( 1 ) i n l ong itudina l t imber ( 2 ) i n t ransverse t imber

2 29 .

Mas t

( 1 ) s ai l ing ( 2 ) t ow ing

2 30 .

S a i l ( Footnote 6 )

( 1 ) s quare

Moore, 1 970 , f i g . 1

( 2 ) l a teen

Moore , 1 970 , f i g . 2

( 3 ) s pr it

Moore , 1 970 , f ig . 3 .

( 4 )gaf f

Moore , 1 970 ,

( 5 ) l ug

Moore , 1 970 ,

f i g . 4 f i g . 5 . ( 6 )other 2 31.

Padd led

2 32 .

P addle-power

Y es/No

c oef f ic ient c f . 2 09 .

N u mer ica l

2 34 .

P o led

Y es/No

2 35 .

Gangway f or p oling

Y es/No

2 26 .

N u mber o fp ivoted s teer ing o ars

( 1 ) 0 ( 2 ) 1 ( 3) 2

2 37 .

P osi t ion o fp ivoted

( 1 ) p or t

s teer ing o ars

( 2 ) s tarboard ( 3 ) P or t a nd S tarboard ( 4 ) C en tre-line

2 38 .

B ow s teer ing o ar

Yes/N o

2 39 .

R udder

( 1 ) median ( 2 )N o .

N . 2 40 .

R aw Mater ia ls

Wood s pec ies o fp lanking

( 1 ) Oak ( Quercus s p . ) ( 2 ) E lm ( U l mus s p . ) ( 3 ) Ash ( Frax inus s p . ) 6 4

A t tr ibute

S tate

I l lus tra t ion

( 4 )P ine ( P inus s y lves tr is ) ( 5 ) F ir ( Ab ies s p . ) ( 6 ) W i l low ( Sa lix s p . ) ( 7 ) Y ew ( Taxus s p . ) ( 8 ) H aze l ( Cory lus a ve l lana ) ( 9 ) o ther 2 41.

Wood s pec ies o fk ee l

S ta tes a s f or 2 40

2 42 .

Wood s pec ies o f s te ms

S ta tes a s f or 2 40

2 43 .

Wood s pec ies o f t ransverse S ta tes a s f or 2 40 me mbers

2 44 .

Wood s pec ies o f t reena i ls

2 45 .

Wood s pec ies o fl ash ings/

S ta tes a s f or 2 40

s ew ing 2 46 .

S ta tes a s f or 2 40

Wood s pec ies o f l ong i tudina l me mbers

S ta tes a s f or 2 40

Acknow ledge men t G . H utch inson a nd A . F arre l l h e lped i n t he c o mp i la t ion o f t h is L ist .

NOTES 1 . Af ree t ex t s hor t d escr ip t ion c ons ists o f e le ments o f t he f o l low ing : Da te ( B ) ;

R eg ion ( A) ;

F or m ( K a nd L );

B oa tbu i lding c harac ter is t ics ( C t o Ia nd N ) ;

S ize ( K ) ;

F unc t ion ( J ) ;

Propu ls ion a nd S teer ing ( M ) ;

S peed ( M ) . 2 . I fa gree men t c an b e r eached o n ad ef in i t ion o f s tandard d raf t o r f reeboard o ther a t tr ibutes r e la t ing t o f unc t ion a nd p erformance may b e d ef ined : s ee McGra i l ( 1981B , 2 45-7);

c o mpare a lso t he l ogboa t a t tr ibute l i st

( N os . 8 7-109 ) i n McGrai l ( 1978A) . 3 . Ad is t inc t ion mus t b e made b e tween d a ta r ecorded f or ma ter ia l f ound o r o bserved a nd d ata d educed b y h ypothe t ica l r econs truc t ion , c a lcu lat ion , e xper i men t a nd s o o n .

S ee A t tr ibu te L is t f or Br igg ' raf t ' i n McGra i l

1 981B . 4 . E n tr ies a ga ins t s uch A t tr ibu tes a s 1 36 ( spac ing o f p lank n a i ls ) s hou ld b e g iven a s mean v a lue ( w i th s tandard d ev ia t ion , where a ppropr ia te ) . 5 . S uch b road a t tr ibutes a s 6 2 ( s trakes e dgejo ined b y s ew ing ) w i l l n eed t o b e r e-def ined a nd g iven s evera l s ta tes a s e xper ience i s g a ined a nd more a na ly t ica l w ork i s d one . 6 . N on-European s a i ls r e ma in t o b e d ef ined .

6 5

APPEND IX 3 .2 G lossary ARR IS

t he c orner , e i ther o btuse o r a cu te i n a ng le , where t he f ace a nd e dge o f at imber mee t .

BAULK

at ree t runk wh ich h as b een r ough ly s quared .

BEVEL

as urface w h ich h as b een a ng led t o make a f i t w i th a no ther .

B eve ls i n c er ta in p laces

h ave s pec ia l n a mes s uch a s s p lay , s nape , b earding e tc . BL IND FASTEN ING

af as tening whose p oint d oes n ot b reak t hrough .

BL IND HOLE

o ne wh ich d oes n ot p ierce t he t imber .

BOLE

t he s te m o r t runk o f at ree .

BUTT

b ase o ft he ma in t runk o f at ree .

BUTTED JOINT

aj oint where t he e nds o f t he t wo t imbers a re s quare , w i th n o o ver lap .

BUTTRESS

a bove g round s we l ling o fb o le • b eg inn ing o f r oot s ys te m .

CAULK ( v )

i nser t ma ter ia l b etween t wo me mbers a nd t hus make t he j unc t ion wa ter t igh t . Whe ther _ ot h is i s d one b efore o r a f ter p lanking i s a sse mb led may b e a n important d iagnost ic t ra i t .

CHECK ( v )

t o c u t an o tch t o f i t t he e nd o f a nother me mber .

CLEAT

ap ro jec t ion t o wh ich o ther f i t t ings may b e f as tened .

CLENCH ( v )

d eform t he e nd o f af as ten ing s o i tw i l l n ot d raw o ut .

CL INKER

af orm o f b oa tbu i ld ing i n wh ich t he s trakes a re p laced s o t ha t t heypar t ly o ver lap o ne a nother—usua l ly u pper s trake o utboard o f l ower .

CROOK

n a tura l ly c urved t imber , wh ich h as g rown i n to a s hape u sefu l f or b oa tbu i lding .

May

a lso b e k nown a s c o mpass t imber . DUBB ( v )

t o smooth away t he f aces o f at imber w i th a n a dze t o make i ts ui tab le f or u se .

6 6

FEATHER-EDGE

t aper ing t o n oth ing .

F IBRE-SATURAT ION PO INT

at heore t ica l s tage i n w ood-wa ter r e la t ions when a l l t he wa ter ( f ree wa ter ) h as b een r e moved f ro m t he c e l l c av i t ies , b u t n one f ro m t he c e l l wa l ls .

F or mos t t imbers t h is

i s a t a mo is ture c on tent o f 2 5% t o 3 0% . FLOOR T IMBER

t he l ower p ar t o f ac o mposi te r ib ( or f ra me ) .

FREE TENON

a sma l l p iece o f w ood b ur ied a t b o th e nds i n t he mor t ises o f t wo o ther t imbers ;

i t may

b e p egged t o b oth . GRAIN

t he g enera l d irec t ion o f t he t imber f i bres r e la t ive t o t he ma in a x is o f t he t ree .

HALFED JO INT

aj oint i n wh ich h a lf t he t h ickness o f e ach t imber i s r e moved s o t ha t t he t imbers o verl ap w ith in t he j oin t .

HEART WOOD

t he i nner p ar t o f at ree b e low t he s apwood wh ich n or ma l ly d oes n ot c onta in l i v ing c e l ls .

JOGGLE ( v )

t o c u t o u t an o tch i n ap iece o f t imber s o t ha t i tw i l l f i t c lose a ga ins t a nother me mber .

KERF

t he c ut p roduced b y as aw .

KEY

ap iece o f h ardwood i nser ted i n aj o in t ( or a cross a s p l i t ) t o p revent move ment o f t he a d jacen t s urfaces .

KNEE

an a tura l ly g rown c rook u sed a s ab racke t b e tween t wo me mbers s et a ta bout r igh t-ang les t o e ach o ther .

LEG

l onger a rm o f c rook :

MOISTURE CONTENT

we igh t o f wa ter i n as pec i men o f w ood e xpressed a s ap ercen tage o f t he o ven-dr ied we igh t .

MORTICE

ac av i ty , u sua lly r ec tangu lar , c ut i n to t he s urface o f ap iece o f t imber t o r ece ive t he s haped e nd ( t enon ) o f a nother p iece a nd s o f orm a j oin .

OVERLAP JO INT

aj o int i n wh ich t he t imbers p ar t ly o ver lap . Ah a lved j o int i s o ne v ar iant ;

c l inker work

i s a nother . P ITH

t he midd le c ore o f as te m .

QUARTER-SA WN

b oard s awn s o t ha t t he a nnua l r ings c u t t he s urface a t 4 5° o r more ( see Rad ia l s p li t ) .

RABBET ( REBATE )

ag roove o r c hanne l worked i n a me mber t o a ccep t a no ther , w i thou t al i p b e ing f ormed .

6 7

RAD IAL PLANE

ap lane a t r igh t a ng les t o at ree 's g row th r ings p ass ing t hrough t he p i th .

RAD IAL PLA NK ING

T he p lane o f t he p lank 's s urfaces a re a t r igh t-ang les t o t he g row th r ings i .e . p ara l le l t o t he r ays ( see Rad ia l s p li ts ) .

RAD IAL S PL ITS

p lank ing o f wedge-shaped c ross s ec t ion o b ta ined b y s p li t t ing a l og a long r ays .

A lso

k nown a s c loveboard ( see a lso R adia l p lank ing ) . R IVE ( v ) ROOVE ( ROVE )

t o s p l it , a s t imber r iven a long i t s g ra in . a washerl ike p iece o f me ta l , wh ich i s f orced o ver t he p o int o f an a il b efore i ti s c lenched .

ROUND WOOD

w i th a c o mp le te c ross s ec t ion o f s tem o r b ranch .

S AP WOOD

t he o uter p ar t o f at ree t runk , i ns ide t he b ark , wh ich c onta ins t he l i v ing c e l ls i n ag row ing t ree .

S CA N 'r L INGS S CARF

t he f i nished d i mens ions o f ap iece o f t imber . a leng then ing j oint wh ich d oes n ot i ncrease t he c ross-sec t ion a rea .

SHELL-SEQUENCE

Ame thod o f b oa tbui lding i n wh ich t he wa tert i ght s he l l ( s te ms , k ee l a nd p lank ing ) i sb ui l t o r p ar t ly b ui lt b efore t he f l oor t imbers o r o ther i n terna l s truc ture a re f i t ted .

STRAKE

as ing le p lank o r c o mb ina t ion o f p lanks wh ich s tre tches f ro m o ne e nd o f ab oa t t o the o ther

S TR INGER

al ong itudina l s treng th me mber a long t he i ns ide o f t he p lanking .

TA NGENT IAL PLANK ING

t he p lane o ft he p lank 's s urfaces a re t angen t ia l t o t he g row th r ings i .e . a t r igh t a ng les t o t he r ays .

TA NGENTIAL PLA NE

ap lane t angen t ia l t o at ree 's g row th r ings a nd a t r igh t a ng les t o t he r ays .

TENON

t he e nd o f a me mber wh ich h as b een w orked s o a s t o b e ac lose f i t i n ac av i ty o r mor t ice i n a nother me mber

TH ICKNESS GAUGE

( see F ree t enon ) .

h o les b ored t o p re-se t d ep ths i n to a l og wh ich i s t o b e h o l lowed , t o o b ta in t he r equ ired t h ickness o f b ot to m ( and s ides ) .

THROUGH AND THROUGH

b oard f ro m al og wh ich h as b een s awn w i th a l l t he c uts p ara l le l t o o ne a nother .

6 8

THROUGH FASTEN ING

af as ten ing wh ich p asses t hrough a l l p ar ts b e ing j oined a nd h as a h ead o n b oth e nds . C lenched o r h ooked n a i ls , a nd d oub le wedged t reena i ls a re a n e xa mp le .

TONGUE

af i l le t , a long t he e dge o f ap lank , t o f i t i n to ag roove , t ongue-and-groove , o r t ongue-and- • s ocke t .

O f t oo g rea t aw idth t o b e d ef ined a s

at enon . TOP T I MBER

t he u pper mos t p ar tof a c o mpos i te r ib ( or f ra me ) .

TREENAIL

w ooden p eg o r t hrough-fas ten ing u sed t o j oin t wo members .

I t may b e s ecured a t e ach o r

e i ther e nd b y t he i nser t ion o f awedge . ( TREE ) RAYS

( medu l lary r ays ) :

t h in v er t ica l s hee ts o f

p arenchy ma c e l ls , o ne o r more c e l ls w ide , r adia l ly d isposed i n t he wood s uch t hat t heir l onger a xes a re i n t he h or izonta l a nd r adia l p lane . ( TREE ) R INGS

( Grow th R ings ) :

r ings v is ib le o n t he c ross

s ec t ion o f as te m wh ich d enote t he p er iod ic g row th o f t he t ree —usua l ly a nnua l . WA NE , WA NEY

r ounded e dge o r ig ina l ly b eneath b ark o f l i v ing t ree a nd o f ten p oss ib le t o d is t inguish a s e dge wh ich i s n ot s quare;

r epresents d a te o f

f e l ling .

Acknow ledge men t E r ic K ent ley h e lped i n t he c o mp i la t ion o f t h is g lossary f ro m s evera l s ources .

REFERENCES Äker lund , H ., 1 963 . Arno ld, B ., 1 975 .

N yda mskeppen , G öteborg . ' The G a l lo-Ro man b oa t f ro m t he Bay o f B eva ix , L ake

N eucha te l , S w i tzer land ' , U NA, 4 . Arno ld , B ., 1 977 .

1 23-6 .

' Co m men t ' i n McGra i l , S ., ( e d) S ources a nd T echniques

i n B oa tArchaeo logy , 2 98 .

NM M G reenw ich A rchaeo log ica l S er ies 1 .

BAR ( Oxford) S .2 9 . Ba i l l ie , M . G .

L ., 1 978 .

' Da t ing o f s o me s hips ' t imbers f ro m Wood Q uay ,

D ub lin ' i n F le tcher , J . ( e d) Dendrochrono logy i n E urope , NMM Archaeo log ica l S er ies 4 . B enoi t , F ., 1 961 .

BAR ( Oxford ) S .5 1, 2 59-262 .

Lt epave d u Grand C ong loueä Marse i l le 1 4 th s upp le ment

t o Ga l lia , P ar is .

6 9

Bruce- M i tford , R ., 1 975 . C e lor ia , F ., 1 980 . i n Archaeo logy ' .

S ut ton H oo s h ip b ur ia l , V o l . 1 ,• Br it ish Museu m .

' An e xaminat ion o f t erm ino logies f or p ot tery c lass i f icat ion S c ience a nd Archaeo logy , 2 2 , 3 5-54 .

C hr is tensen , A . E ., 1 959 .

' Faer ingen f ra Goks tad ' , V ik ing , 2 3 , 5 7-69 .

C hr is tensen , A . E ., 1 968A .

' S j9 lvo l len S h ip ' , V ik ing , 1 968, 1 31-153 .

C hr is tensen , A . E ., 1 968B .

B oa ts o f t he N or th , Os lo .

C larke , D . L ., 1 968 .

Ana ly t ica l Archaeo logy .

C o les , J . M ., H ea l , S . V . E ., a nd Or me , B . I . , 1 978 .

' Use a nd c harac ter

o f wood i np reh istor ic Br i ta in a nd I re land ' , P . P . S . ,4 4 , 1 -45 . C orkh i l l , T . ,1 979 .

AG lossary o f Wood .

C ru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 977 .

' So me p r inc ip les f or t he r ecording a nd

p resenta t ion o f a nc ient b oa t s truc tures'

i n McGra i l , S . ( e d) S ources a nd

T echn iques i n B oa t Archaeo logy , NM M Archaeo log ica l S er ies 1 .

BAR

( Oxford) S . 2 9 , 1 63-177 . C ru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 978 .

' Sh ips o f t he V ik ings ' i nAndersson , T . a nd

S andred , K . I . ( e d) The V ik ings , 3 2-41. C ru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 979 .

U ppsa la .

' Dan ish C og-f inds ' i n McGra i l , S . ( e d )

Medieva l S h ips a nd H arbours i n N or thern E urope . S er ies 5 .

NM M Archaeo log ica l

BAR ( Oxford) S .66 , 1 7-34 .

C urr ie , C . R . J ., 1 972 .

' Scarfjo in ts i n t he N or th B erksh ire a nd Oxf ord

a rea ' Oxoniens ia , 3 7 , 1 77-186 . d e B oe , G ., 1 978 .

' Ro man b oa ts f ro m a sma l l r iver h arbour a t P o m meroeu l ,

B e lg iu m ' i n T ay lor , J . d u P . a nd C leere , H . ,1 978 , 2 2-30 . d e Weerd , M . D ., 1 977 .

R ö merze i t liche t ranspor tsch if fe u nd e inbau me a ns

N igru m P u l lu m , Zwa m merdam , I PP P ub licat ie , 1 87 . d e Weerd, M . D ., 1 978 .

' Shops o f t he R o man P er iod a t Zwa m merdam ' i n

T ay lor , J . d u P . a nd C leere , H ., 1 978, 1 5-21 . D oran , J . E . a nd H odson , F . R ., 1 975 .

Mathe ma t ics a nd C o mputers i n

Archaeo logy , E dinburgh . E l l mers , D . ,1 979 .

' The C og o f Bre men a nd r e la ted b oa ts ' i n McGra i l , S .

( ed) Med ieva lSh ips a nd H arbours i n N or thern E urope , NM M Archaeo logica l S er ies 5 . BAR ( Oxford ) S .66 , 1 -15 . F arre l l , A . W . ,1 979 .

' The U se o f I conograph ic ma ter ia l i n Medieva l s h ip

a rchaeo logy ' i n McGra i l ( e d) Medieva l S h ips a nd H arbours in n or thern E urope , BAR 6 6 , 2 27-246 . F enw ick , V ., 1 978 .

T he Graveney B oa t , NM M Archaeo logica l S er ies 3 ,

BAR ( Oxford) 5 3 . F letcher , J ., 1 981 ,

' Ro man a nd S axon D endro D ates ' , C urrent Archaeo logy ,

7 6 , 1 50-2 . F ros t , H ., 1 973 .

' F irs t s eason o f e xcavat ion o n t he P un ic wreck i n S ic i ly '

I JNA , 2 , 3 3-49 . 7 0

Greenh i l l , B ., 1 976 .

Archaeo logy o f t he B oa t .

H ewe t t , C . A ., 1 969 .

Deve lop men t o f C arpenty 1 200-1700-an E ssex S tudy

N ew ton A bbot . H orne l l , J ., 1 946 .

Water Transpor t .

L ands tro m , B ., 1 970 .

S h ips o f t he P haraohs .

L eh mann , L . T h ., 1 978 . N e ther lands ' I J NA , 7 .

' The f l a t-bot to med R o man b oa t f ro m Dru ten , 2 59-267 .

L oy , T . a nd P owe l l , G . R ., 1 977 .

Archaeo log ica l Da ta R ecord ing G u ide ,

Br i t ish C o lu mb ia P rov inc ia l Museu m . McGra i l , S ., 1 978A .

L ogboa ts o f E ng land a nd Wa les ,NM M Greenw ich

Archaeo log ica l S er ies 2 . McGra i l , S ., 1 978B .

BAR ( Oxford) 5 1.

' Medieva l l ogboa t f ro m G igg lesw ick Tarn , Y orksh ire '

i n Ann is , P . G . W . ( ed) I ngr id a nd o ther S tudies , NM M Greenw ich Monograph 3 6 . McGrai l , S . ,1 979 .

' Preh is tor ic b oats , t imber a nd woodwork ing t echno logy '

P . P . S . ,4 5 , 1 59-163 . McGrai l , S ., 1 981A , R af ts , B oa ts a nd S h ips , NM M Greenw ich/H MSO . McGra i l , S . ,1 981B .

Br igg ' raf t ' a nd h er

Greenw ich Archaeo log ica l S er ies 6 .

p reh istor ic e nv iron men t , NM M

BAR ( Oxford ) 8 9 .

McGrai l , S . a nd F arre l l , A . W ., 1 979 .

' Row ing :

a nd i conograph ic e v idence ' , I J NA, 8 .

1 55-166 .

McGrai l , S . a nd McKee , E ., 1 974 . a nc ien t b oat :

B u i ld ing a nd t r ials o f t he r ep l ica o f a n

t he Gokstad f aer ing .

McGrai l S . a nd S w i tsur , R ., 1 975 .

a spec ts o f t he e thnograph ic

NMM G reenw ich Monograph 1 1.

' Ear ly Br i t ish b oa ts a nd t he ir c hrono logy '

I J NA, 4 , 1 91-200 . McGra i l , S . ,a nd S w i tsur , R ., 1 979 .

' Medieva l l ogboa ts o f t he R . Mersey '

i n McGra i l , S . ( e d) Medieva l S h ips a nd H arbours i n N or thern E urope , NM M G reenw ich Archaeo log ica l S er ies 5 . Marsden , P ., 1 972 .

BAR ( Oxford) S .66 , 9 3-115 .

' B lackfr iars wreck 3 , ap re li m inary n ote ' , I JNA 1 , 1 30-

1 32 . Marsden , P ., 1 976 .

' Boa t o f t he R o man p er iod f ound a t Bruges , B e lg iu m i n

1 899 a nd r e la ted t ypes ' , I J NA , 5 , 2 3-55 . Marsden , P ., 1 979 .

' Medieva l s h ips o f L ondon ' i n McGra i l , S . ( ed ) Medieva l

S h ips a nd H arbours i n N or thern E urope , NM M Greenw ich Archaeo log ica l S er ies , 5 .

BAR ( Oxford) , S .66, 8 3-92 .

Moore , A ., 1 970 .

L ast d ays o f mas t a nd s a i l .

N ico layson , N ., 1 882.

T he V ik ing s h ip d iscovered a t G okstad, N orway ,

C hr is t iania . O lsen , 0 .

& Gru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 967 .

Archaeo log ica 3 8 , 7 3-174 .

7 1

' Sku lde lev s h ips I ' Ac ta

R i ley , W . E ., 1 912 .

S h ip o f t he R o man p er iod d iscovered o n t he N ew C ounty

H a l l s i te 2 nd e di t ion .

L ondon C oun ty C ounc i l .

T ay lor , J . d u P . a nd C leere , H ., 1 978 ( ed .) .

R o man s h ipping a nd t rade ,

CBA R esearch R epor t 2 4 . Wa l lace , P . a nd McGrai l , S ., 1 976 . Wi lson , D . M ., 1 966 .

'Wood Quay , Dub l in ', I JNA , 5 , 1 80.

' Medieva l b oa t f ro m K entmere , West mor land ' ,

Medieva l Archaeo logy , 1 0 , 8 1-8 . Wr igh t , E . V ., 1 976 .

N or th F err iby b oa ts , NM M Greenw ich Monograph 2 3 .

I JNA = I nterna tiona l J ourna l o f N au t ica l Archaeo logy PPS = P roceedings o f t he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty .

7 2

GENERAL D ISCUSS ION AND D ISCUSS ION OF MULT I-PER IOD PAPERS

C ru m lin-Pedersen

Av ery g ood way o fd e term ining t he s tandard o f r ecording r equired i s t o c ons ider w hat i nforma t ion a c o mpe ten t mode l b u i lder w ou ld n eed t o b u i ld a mode l o f t he s truc ture s o t ha t i ti s c orrec t i n a l l d e ta i ls . a nd c onsu lt a mode l b u i lder .

Y ou

s hou ld w ork w i th

T he d e ta i l n ecessary f or

a wa terfron t s truc ture w i l l b e d if ferent f ro m t ha t o f a c l inker-bu i lt b oa t where e ach e le ment h as a s pec if ic s hape a nd t hese a re j o ined t oge ther t o d ef ine t he f orm o f t he h u l l wh ich d e term ines t he c onf igura t ion o f t he l i nes . T he d ocu men ta t ion o f a wa terfront s truc ture s hou ld b e s uf f ic ien t ly d e tai led t o e nab le t he n ex t g enera t ion t o u nderstand n ot o n ly t he g enera l f ea tures b ut a lso t he d e ta i ls o f t he s truc ture . B arber

Many o f t he w ooden o b jec ts t ha t c o me f ro m e xcava t ions a re o bv ious ly warped a nd d is tor ted b u t s o me a re c lear ly f ash ioned t o t he p ar t icu lar s hapes t hey n ow h ave . H owever , e ven i n t he l a t ter c ase w e o f ten d o n ot k now wha t t hey a re . S hou ld we t ry t o n ame t hese u n ident if iab le a r t ifac ts o r s imp ly l eave t hem u nnamed ?

Morr is

U n ident if ied o b jec ts o f wood s hou ld n ot b e n amed .

S ooner

o r l a ter r esearch , e spec ia l ly among f o lk ma ter ia l , a nd s heer c o m mon s ense c an i ndica te t he p robab le u se o f a n o b jec t . B arber

Wha t i s t he minimu m a dequa te d escr ipt ion o f ap iece o f w ood ?

McGra i l

M i lne ( Paper 2 )has d escr ibed t he Museu m o f L ondon me thods ; s ee a lso t he Museu m o f L ondon 's S i te Manua l , P ar t 1 , 3 0-35 . Is uggest t he min i mu m d escr ip t ion s hou ld i nc lude a s many a t tr ibutes a s p oss ib le u nder t he f o l low ing ma in h eadings :

E xcava t ion d a ta ( Ob jec t N o . ,

F ind s pot , d a te e tc . ) ; R aw ma ter ia l ( species , r ing/ray p a t tern e tc . ) ; Woodwork ing t echn iques ( sp l i t , s awn , a ugered h o les , mor t ices , t oo l marks , e tc . ) ; F orm ( measure men ts , s hape , w eight , e tc . ) ;

F unc t ion;

A ssoc ia ted ma ter ia l . T he r ecord s hou ld a lso i nc lude a p lan w i th s ec t ions a nd d raw ings/photographs o f i mpo r tan t d e ta i ls . S tereophotogram me try s hou ld b e c ons idered b ecause o f i t s a b i li ty t o s tore d ata a nd s ubsequen t ly t o a nswer q uest ions wh ich were n ot a sked a t t he t ime t he t imbers w ere r ecorded . 7 3

Wa lker

T he t remendous p ressure made b y d raw-tongue j o ints s hou ld make c au lking u nnecessary .

I s t here a ny s ign

o f i mpress ions w h ich y ou n orma lly g e t when f i t t ing d rawt ongues o n t he s i des o f t he h o les i n t he C ounty H a l l f i nd? McGra i l

T he C ounty H a l l b oa t r epor t o f 1 910 d oes n ot men t ion a ny o f t he i mpress ions y ou d escr ibe . T he r ema ins w ere r ecen t ly d is man t led b y t he Museu m o f L ondon : t hey w ere i n ap oor s ta te a nd Iu nderstand t ha t P eter Marsden was n o t a b le t o r ecord s uch d e ta i ls .

Wa l lace

Were c arpentry t echniques u sed i n p lanked b oats t aken o ver a nd u sed i n l ogboa ts o r v ice v ersa?

McGra i l

I f we h ad more d a tes f or p lanked b oa ts a nd l ogboa ts we migh tb e a b le t o s ee who w as b orrow ing f ro m w ho m . S o me t echn iques may i n f act h ave b een b orrowed f or n onf unc t iona l p urposes .

T he P oole l ogboat o f c .2 95 b c , f or

e xa mp le , h as a s tem c arved i n t he s o l id a nd t ha t , Is ugges t , mus t h ave b een c op ied f rom ap lanked b oat :

i th as n o

f unc t ion a s f ar a s Ic an s ee i n t he l ogboa t . Wr igh t

B oa tbui lding was n o t n ecessar i ly d one b y s pec ia l is ts . They migh t b e g enera l h andymen , a nd c er tain ly r epa irs w ere n ot s pec ia l ist w ork .

N or th F err iby was n ot

n ecessar i ly a s pec ia lis t s i te f or p lanked b oa ts , a nd l ogboa ts may a lso h ave b een b u i lt t here . I n t hese c ircums tances t he t ransfer o f t echn iques f ro m o ne f orm o f b oa tbu i lding t o a nother i s u nders tandab le .

D o y ou t h ink t here was a

s i mi lar t ransfer o f t echniques b etween b oatbu i lders a nd o ther w orkers i n w ood .

Were t hey i n f ac t t he s a me

p eop le? McGrai l

T here may we l l h ave b een a s ign if icant i n terchange o f t echniques b e tween t he v ar ious woodwork ing s pec ia lisa t ions , b oats , b u i ldings , c of f ins , t racks , e tc . We c an o n ly d e mons tra te t h is , h owever , b y f ur ther d eta i led r esearch . Whe ther w oodworkers were g enera lis ts o r s pec ia l ists i n p reh istor ic Br i ta in Id o n o t k now ;

e thnograph ic p ara l le ls

s ugges t , h owever , t ha t a t F err iby , f or e xamp le , wh i ls t mos t o f t he w oodworkers may h ave b een g enera l is ts , t here w ou ld h ave b een a t l eas t o ne s pec ia lis t b oa tbui lder .

Wr igh t

Is ugges t t ha t p ub lica t ions s hou ld b e c o mp i led d escr ib ing t he a va i lab le t oo l t ypes f or t he k ey p er iods we h ave b een t a lking a bout .

H ea l

P erhaps t hey c ou ld b e o n l oose l eaf c ards?

F or t he p reh is tor ic p er iod t he i dent if ica t ion o ft he p rec ise u ses o f t he v ar ious t oo ls i sa t a n e ar ly s tage .

I n t he

R o man a nd medieva l p er iod t oo l f orms r esemb le t hose we h ave t oday a nd t hus we c an b e more c er ta in a bout t he ir f unc t ion .

7 4

C hr is tensen

T he b ig c o mp i la t ions l i ke S a la man 's D ic t ionary o f T oo ls , e xce l len t a s t hey a re , a re o f v ery l im i ted u se t o a rchaeo log is ts a s t hey a re ma in ly b ased o n l a te 1 9 th c en tury t oo l c a ta logues w h ich s how t oo ls t ha t r ese mb le p reh istor ic t oo ls , b ut t he f unc t ion may b e d if ferent . A s epara te d ic t ionary o f woodwork ing t oo ls u sed i n p reh is tor ic t imes , , w ou ld b e a n e normous t ask , a nd v ery d if f icu lt t o p ut t oge ther i n as ys tema t ic w ay .

I ngham

Morr is

Woodworkers a s we l l a s a rchaeo log is ts s hou ld b eco me i nvo lved i n a ny s uch p ub l ica t ion s o t ha t t he u se o f t he t oo ls c an b e e xp lored f ro m e xper ience . L awrence K ee ley a nd Graeme Morr is a re w ork ing i n t he i mpor tant f i e ld o f m icrowear s tudies . T hey h ave b een a b le t o d is t ingu ish t he e ar ly p reh is tor ic t oo ls w h ich were a c tua l ly u sed f or w oodworking a nd t h is i s ag rea t b reakt hrough . H owever , t hese a re n ot n ecessar i ly " types" o f t oo ls , a s w e r ecogn ise t ypes i n t he l a ter p er iod .

I ngham

Is ugges t t ha t t oo ls a nd t he ir u ses i n s imp le w oodwork ing s oc ie t ies o f t oday s hou ld b e r ecorded s o t ha t t he i nformat i on w i l l b e a vai lab le when i n terpre t ing t he u ses o f p reh is tor ic t oo ls .

Morr is

T oo ls f ro m t he p reh is tor ic p er iod migh t n o t h ave a morpho log ica l f orm wh ich w ou ld b e r ecognised a s f or w oodwork ing .

L . D . H arr is

O ne way t o f i nd o u t h ow a nc ient b u i ld ings a nd b oats were b ui lt a nd u sed i s t o b ui ld a f u ll s ize r ep lica a nd u se i t . Y ou w i l l a lso l earn a bout t he u se o f t oo ls . I ti s a lso e ssen t ia l t o i n terv iew t he o lder j oiners a nd s h ipwr igh ts w ho c an r eme mber me thods u sed i n t he l as t c en tury .

Greenh i l l

E r ic McKee h as j us t c o mp le ted a r epor t f or t h is Museum o n s evera l y ears ' w ork d o ing wha t H arr is s ugges ted , t a lk ing t o e lder ly p eop le e ngaged i n b oa tbui lding a nd b oa t u sage a round t he c oas ts o f B r i ta in . T h is w i l l b e p ub lished s hor t ly .

N . R eyno lds

T here i s ag rea t d ea l t o b e l earnt f ro m c lose o bserva t ion o f t he e xcava ted f ac ts e ven w hen t he t imber i sn o l onger t here . A n o bv ious e xamp le i s t he S ut ton H oo b oa t , where n o t imber s urv ived b ut a l o t o f e v idence was n ever the less r ecovered . Wh i ls t n ot d ecry ing e xper imenta l w ork a s a means o f t es t ing t heor ies , i ti s a l l t oo e asy f or t h is t o s tray away f ro m t he f unda menta l i ssue o fa c tua l ly u nderstand ing t he f ac ts a s t hey p resen tt he mse lves i n t he g round .

7 5

McGrai l

D ur ing t he b u i lding o f ar ep l ica o f t he f aer ing V ik ing Age b oa t a t Greenw ich ( McGra i l & McKee , 1 976 ) Iw orked w i th a 6 5 y ear o ld mas ter b oa tbui lderfro m S o merse t o n t he l i nes s ugges ted b y H arr is .

Id iscovered , h owever ,

t ha t we were working c ross-cu ltura l ly .

H is e xper ience

was d if ferent f rom t ha t o f aV ik ing Age b oa tbu i lder—he was g rounded i n ad if feren t t echno log ica l c u lture—and we u sed s o me modern t echn iques . T hus o ur r ep l ica w as n ot a s r epresenta t ive o f V ik ing A ge woodworking a s i tc ou ld h ave b een .

E thnograph ic e v idence c an b e o f v a lue w hen

w ork ing w i th in o ne c u lture , b ut t here a re d if f icu lt ies when a t te mp t ing t o u se i tc ross-cu ltura l ly . I ngham

When w e r ecord a p ar t icu lar p resent-day c raf t o r s tudy a n a spec t o f w oodwork ing t echn iques t here may n o t b e a c ont inu i ty o f t rad i t ion .

Ac o l league o f mine r ecen t ly s pen t

ay ear i nvest iga t ing l og c ab ins i n C anada , a nd t he c onc lus ion h e c a me t o w as t ha t t hepeop le who b ui lt t hem d id n ot k now wha t t hey were d oing .

T his was b ecause

t he p eop le who went o ut t oco lon ise t hese a reas i n t he 1 9 th c en tury were u n l ike ly t o h ave b een l og c ab in b u i lders a nd t hey h ad n o i nher i ted s k i l ls i nt h is d irec t ion . R . H arr is

I ts ee ms t o b e a ssumed h ere t ha t t he woodworker h as a k ind o f r agbag o f t echn iques more o r l ess o rgan ised , f rom wh ich h e c an p ick a nd c hoose f or e ach i ndiv idua l c ircu ms tance . My w ork w i th s tanding b u i ldings f ro m t he 1 4th c entury o nwards i n E ng land a nd N or th G ermany i n dicates t ha t t he p ar t icu lar c hoice o f t echn ique i sf requent ly d etermined b y t he c u ltura l s ys te m a nd n ot b y t he s truc ture t he w oodworker i s b u i lding . T he s ystem w i thin wh ich ,a t echn ique i s u sed c annot b e r e-estab lished j us t b y c rossc u ltura l c o mpar isons o f i so la ted j o ints a nd t oo ls , w h ich c an b e v ery mis lead ing .

B arber

I ta lways s ee med t o me t ha t t he a na to my o fw ood p laces i t s own c onstra in ts u pon t he p ossib i li t ies f or w ork ing w i th i t . Ia lso n ot ice t ha t v ery f ew s peakers h ave i ndica ted t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he n a ture o f aj oin t a nd t he way i n wh ich i tr eac ts t o r es is t t he s tresses i mposed o n i tb y i t s f unc t ion .

H ewe t t

T he o n ly c ons tra in t t he a na to my o ft he wood p laces o n t he c arpenter i s t ha t h e d oes n ot u se i tc ross g ra ined .

H ea l

T he e v idence we h ave f ro m t he p reh istor ic p er iod s uggest s t ha t t here i s ac er ta in amoun t o f s e lec t ion o f s pec ies a nd o fp ar t icu lar p ar ts o f t rees . T h is i s s hown , f or e xamp le i n t he N eo li th ic d isc whee ls f ro m N ieuw D ordrech t . T he a pparent ly o bv ious w ay o f o b taining a s u itab ly s haped p iece o f wood migh t s eem t o b e t o t ake a s l ice h or izonta l ly t hrough t he t runk—but t hese whee ls were i n f ac t made f ro m t imber s p li t l ong i tud ina l ly—se lec ted f or t he o p t i mu m

7 6

s treng th a nd d urab i li ty o f t he w ood s truc ture .

T he f ac t

t ha t t h is i s o ccurr ing i n t he N eo li th ic s ugges ts t ha t t here i s ad eep u nders tanding o f t he u se o f w ood , n ot d er ived f ro m microscop ic e xamina t ion o f s tructure b u t f ro m t radi t iona l i nher i ted k now ledge . T here i s n o r eason why s uch e ar ly s oph ist ica t ion s hou ld s urpr ise u s . R . H arr is

Id o n ot t h ink a n o ak a u to ma t ica l ly t e l ls y ou h ow t o u se i t ; b u t o n ly w i th in t he c u ltura l s ys te m y ou a re i n . I n E uropean f ra med b u i ldings w hen a b eam i s made f rom h a lf a t ree , t he h ear t-face i nvar iab ly f orms t he f a ir f ace o f e ach t wo-d i mens iona l f rame .

I n t he c o mp le ted b u i ld ing

t he f a ir f ace o f e x terna l f ra mes f ace o utwards , w h ich i s p erhaps p redic tab le , b u t i n terna l f rames f ace t he more i mpor tan t o f t he t wo a d jo ining s paces , g enera l ly t he h ear th-roo m i n h ouses a nd t he t hresh ing-f loor i n b arns . McCurdy

I n my e xper ience y ou a lways p u t t he h ear twood f ac ing o u twards ; t h is c ounterac ts t he t endency o f t he s un t o p u l l t he e dges u pwards .

T hus Iw ou ld h ave t hough t t ha t

i ft he h ear tside was i nwards t o t he i ns ide o f ab oa t t hen t he j o ints w ou ld c o me o pen w hen t he s un i s o n t hem . C hr is tensen

T h is i s p robab ly c orrec t f or c er ta in s ty les o fb oatbu i lding— t he B r igg a nd F err iby b oa ts ' p lank ing w as g enera l ly h ear ts ide d own ( F igs . 3 .1 , 3 .2 ) . I td oes n ot a pp ly h owever t o b oa ts b u i lt f rom r adia l ly s p li t p lank ing .

7 7

4 .

PREH ISTOR IC WOODLANDS AND WOODWORK ING I N THE S O MERSET LEVELS B . J . Orme

S u m mary T he p reh is tor ic w ood s urv iv ing i n t he S o merse t L eve ls i su sed h ere t o d e mons tra te t he q ua l ity o fw ood land a va i lab le t o man i n t he l a ter p reh istor ic p er iod . T h is wood land i ncluded p r i mary f orest , s econdary g row th a nd a reas o f c opp ic ing . M inimu m l eve ls o f a ch ievement f or s uccess ive w oodwork ing t echno log ies c an b e s een i n t he p repara t ion a nd u se o fb oth r oundwood a nd t imber .

T he i mpor tance o f t hepreh is tor ic e v idence f ro m t he S o merse t L eve ls f or u nderstand ing man 's u se o fw ood h as l ong b een s ta ted ( e .g . Munro 1 911) t hough i ti s d eba tab le w he ther t he i nherent p otent ia l o f t he ma ter ia l h as e ver b een f u lly e xp loi ted . P erhaps i th as b een t hough t t ha t t he e v idence i s a typ ica l i n wha t i tr epresents , a s we l l a s b y v ir tue o f i t s s urv iva l o ver t he mi l lenn ia . O ther work a rgues t he c ase t ha t t h is i s n ot s o , t hat i n i t s v ersa t i li ty a nd a bundance wood a s ar aw ma ter ia l f ar o utwe ighed t he u b iqu i tous f l int a nd p ea t o fa rchaeo log ica l s i tes ( Co les , H ea l a nd Orme 7 8 , C o les t h is v o l . ) . T he p resent v o lu me marks t he more w idespread r ecogni t ion o f t he s ign if icance o f w ood t o p as t c o mmuni t ies .

N ever the less , i ts hou ld b e r emembered t ha t t he

e v idence p resen ted b e low c o mes f ro m o ne v ery sma ll r eg ion o f t he B r i t ish I s les ( F ig . 4 .1) , a nd t ha t i ti s l im i ted i n t ime t o as er ies o f e ven ts o ccurr ing s poradica l ly o ver t he l as t f our mi l lenn ia o fp reh is tory , e ach o ne l ast ing f or n o more t han a g enera t ion a t most , a nd p robab ly f ar l ess . T he e v idence f ro m t he S o merse t L eve ls s hou ld n ot t herefore b e u sed t o a rgue f or a c ountry-w ide k now ledge o f t he s k i l ls a nd t echn iq ues r epresen ted , b u t i tc an b e u sed t o d e monstrate t he minimu m l eve l o f a ch ieve ment o f s ucc ess ive t echno log ies a nd a s s uch i ti s a t l east a s r e levant , i n ag enera l c on tex t , a s t he emp ty a nd u nre la ted p ostho les t ha t u pho ld s o many a t heoret ica l r econs truc tion . T he e nv iron men t a nd p reh is tory o f t he L eve ls i s d escr ibed e lsewhere ( e .g . S o merse t L eve ls P apers 1 -7; C o les & Orme 1 980 ) . F or t he p resent i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he r eg ion h as u ndergone a s er ies o f d ras t ic c hanges t hroughou t t he P le istocene a nd i n to t he P os tg lac ia l , c u lm ina t ing f ro m a bout t he mid 4 th m i l lenn iu m b c i n t he g row th o fp ea t o ver t he p oor ly d ra ined l andscape . T hroughou t t he 4 000 y ears o fp eat g row th , t he L eve ls w ere i nhab i ted b y p eop le who e xp loi ted b oth t he l owly ing wetland h abi ta ts a nd t he r idges a nd i s lands o fd ry l and t ha t b roke t he monotony o f t he marshes ( F ig . 4 .2 ) . T he ir d ry l and a c t iv i t ies h ave l e f t a s s l igh t at race a s t hose o f mos t o ft he ir c on temporar ies ,

7 9

F ig .

F ig .

4 .2

4 .1

Br i ta in, s how ing l ocat ion o f t he S omerset L eve ls.

The S omerset L eve ls, t o i n t he t ext.

T HE SOMERSET L EVELS

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b u t t he ir p resence i n t he we t l ands i s c lear ly a t tes ted t hrough t he p reservat ion o f worked w ood a nd o ther o rgan ic ma ter ia l i n t he p rotec t ive g row th o f wa terl ogged p ea t . Throughou t h is tor ic t imes , t he p ea t h as b een c ut f or f ue l , a nd r epea ted e f for ts h ave b een made t o d ra in t he r eg ion v ia a maze o f i n tersec t ing d i tches a nd c ana ls . C onsequen t ly , b ur ied p reh is tor ic ma ter ia l h as b een e xposed , t he l ast c en tury a t l east r ecogn ised a s t he h and iwork o f a nc ien t man . Acce lera t ing r a tes o f c ut t ing a nd d ra inage h ave mu lt ip lied t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r evea led , a nd , t hrough t he w ork o f J . M . C o les t he S o merset L eve ls P ro ject was f ormed i n 1 973 t o i nvest iga te , r ecord a nd c onserve t he e v idence f or man 's e ar ly e xp loi ta t ion o f t he L eve ls . T he n otes t ha t f o l low s te m f ro m t he r esu lts o b ta ined b yt he P ro jec t , a nd owe a p ar t icu lar d eb t t o t he w ork o f P rofessor C o les , a nd t ha t o f R uth Morgan o n t ree-r ing a na lyses . I nforma t ion w i l l b e d rawn f ro m t ree-r ing a na lyses , w ork o n w ood g row th a nd w ood d ecay , o bserva t ions o n t he t echn iques o fw ood-work ing a nd p o l len a na lyses .

T ogether ,

t hese e nab le a p ar t ia l r econs truc t ion o fp reh is tor ic w oodlands a nd w ood u sage i n t he r eg ion . Wood lands I ti so n ly r ecen t ly t ha t woodlands h ave b ecome a n a ccep ted s ub jec t o f h istor ica l i nvest iga t ion , t hrough maps , d ocu ments a nd f i e ld e v idence ( e .g . R ackham 1 976 , 1 980 ) . T he r o le o f wood land manage men t i n p reIndustr ial Br ita in i s s een t o b e i mpor tant , a nd t he n eed t o impor t t imber f rom t ime t o t ime , d esp i te manage ment , i s c lear .

P auc i ty o f s upp ly a nd managed woodlands

a re n ot a d eve lopment o f h is tor ic t imes , h owever , f or t he e v idence f ro m t he S o merse t L eve ls i ndica tes t ha t f ro m t he a dven t o f t he f i rst f ar mers i n t hese i s lands , w ood land r esources were d ep le ted a nd s o me d ef ic iences made g ood b y d e libera te h usbandry o f t he t rees . P o l len a na lyses f ro m s ou thern Br i ta in d emons tra te e x tens ive c learance o f wood land f ro m t he f our th mi l lennium b e , w i th w ide t rac ts o fp ermanen t o pen l andscape e stab l ished b y t he f i rst mi l lenn ium ( Evans 1 975 ) .

Ana lyses f ro m

t he L eve ls r evea l as im i lar p ic ture o n al oca l s ca le , w i th r epea ted c learance a nd r egenera t ion marked , f ro m t he l a ter 2 nd m i l lenn ium , b y e ver more e x tensive c learance a nd s teadi ly s hor ter a nd l ess w idespread p hases o f r eg enerat ion ( Becket t a nd H ibber t 1 979 ) .

T he e f fec ts o f c learance a re a lso

e v ident i n t he s urv iv ing t imber w i th , f or e xa mp le , p oor s crubby o ak ( Quercus s p . )s uch a s w ou ld g row i n s econdary f ores t , b eing u sed a t t he l a te i s t mi l lenn iu m s e t t lemen t o f Meare V i l lage Wes t ( Morgan i n Orme a nd C o les 1 981) . S o mewha t u nexpec ted ly , c learance a nd r egenera t ion a nd v ar iab le q ua li ty o f t imber i s a lso i nd icated b y t he mater ia l s urv iving f ro m t he e ar l ies t k nown s truc ture i n t he L eve ls , t he S wee t Track ( F ig . 4 .3 ) .

Da ted t o 3 200 b e , t h is

l ong p lank-bu i lt t rackway p recedes a ny ma jor r eg iona l c learance p hase , a l though i t may b e c on te mporary w i th a f a l l i n t he a bundance o f e lm p o l len , a nd s l igh t l oca l c learances o n t he s andy i s lands k nown a s b ur t les . T he t rack r an f or c . 2 km f ro m t he r ock i s land o f Wes thay s ou th t o t he sma l l S hapw ick B ur t le ( F ig . 4 .2 ) , a nd i t was b u i lt o f av ar ie ty o f w ooden c o mponen ts i nc luding l arge p lanks o fl ime ( T i lia s p . ) , a sh ( Frax inus s p . )a nd o ak ( Quercus s p . ) . The l a t ter h ave b een s tudied b y R uth Morgan , a nd s ome i n teres t ing d if ferences h ave emerged b e tween s a mp les t aken f rom s i tes n ear t o t he s outhern t erm ina l

8 1

F ig .

4 .3

The Sweet Track, Drove S ite. C lose-up o f o ak p lank, i n s i tu t hough w ith d ecayed e nds. S upporting c rossed p egs a re v is ib le, a nd t he d is t inct ions b etween r oundwood a nd t imber a re c lear ( see a lso F ig. 4 .8a). S ca le 1m .3200bc.

F ig .

4 .4

D iagram o f c opp iced s too l, t o s how t he c ommon c haract er is tics o f c opp iced g rowth. The l ong s tra ight s tems g row v ert ica l ly f rom a l l s ides o f t he c ut s too l, c urv ing o ut a t t he b ase. When d eta tched, t he s tems u sua l ly r eta in t h is c urved h ee l, a nd a f an o r r uff o f wood t orn f rom t he s too l. The bu lge i n t he l ead ing s tem i s i nd icat ive o f d amage t o t he g row ing s hoot.

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D iagram o f hurd le, b ased o n e v idence f rom t he N eo l i th ic t rackway o n Wa lton Heath. Both t he r ods a nd t he s a i ls w ere p redom inant ly c opp iced h aze l , a nd many r eta ined d ist inct ive h ee ls ( see F ig. 4 .4). Drawn by S ue Rou i l lard.

F ig .

4 .6

S tump o f y ew t ree, f e l led i n t he l ate 2 nd m i l lenn ium b e, a nd u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f ab rushwood t rackway o n T inney 's G round. D iameter c 1 50 mm. 1 050 b e.

( SWF a nd SWD ) a nd s amp les f ro m a s i te a bout midway a long t he r ou te ( S WR ) . T he p lanks f ro m t he s outhern e nd o f t he t rack h ad b een s p l i t f ro m a n umber o fy oung , f as t-grown o aks a ged 1 00-120 y ears , whereas t hose t o t he n or th c ame f ro m a f ew ma ture a nd s low-grown t rees , u p t o 3 50 y ears o ld .

I ti s

s ugges ted t ha t t he y ounger s outhern t rees w ere c u lled f ro m t he a d jacen t h ur t le , f ro m a t rac t o ff ores t d isturbed a c entury o r s o p rev ious ly b ut n o t i mpover ished , f or t he s econdary g row th was v igourous . T he o lder t rees h ad p oss ib ly g rown o n t he r ock i s land o f Wes thay , i n c ondi t ions t hat may h ave b een f a ir ly o pen j udg ing b y t he ir s low g row th , b u t a s y e t u naf fec ted b y man ( Morgan 1 979 ) .

P o l len a na lyses g ive a dded we igh t t o t h is i n terpre ta t ion , w i th

t he e v idence f or e ar ly c learance b e ing p redo m inant ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s andy h ur t les ( Co les , H ibber t & Orme 1 973 ) . Ar e la ted f ea ture o f t he p reh istor ic w ood lands o f t he r eg ion i s c opp ic ing . F ro m t he t ime o f t he S wee t T rack , wh ich i s t he e ar l ies t s urv iv ing w ood t ha t w e h ave , t here a re p ieces o fy oung r oundwood t ha t b eardis t inc t ive s igns o f c opp iced g row th ( F ig .4 .4 ) . T hese may b e u nusua l ly w ide f i rs t r ings , d ue t o t he r ap id s pur t o fn ew s hoots f ro m t he c u t s tock a nd i t s ma ture r ootsys tem , o r l ong s tra igh t s te ms b are o f s ide b ranches , d ue t ot he d ens i tyof s hoots g row ing r ap id ly u pwards f ro m a s ing le s tock . Occas iona l ly a s tem s t i ll c arr ies t he c urved, f anlike h ee l , s o t yp ical o f c opp iced wood , s how ing t hat i t was t orn o r s lashed o f f t he p aren t s tock . I ti s n ot c er ta in whe ther t h is e ar ly N eo l i th ic c opp ic ing was d e libera te , o r a n a cc identa l b u t u sefu l s i de e f fec t o f t he f armers ' f ores t c learance . B y t he l a ter N eo l i th ic , t he e v idence i s s uch t ha t o ne c an i n fer d e libera te c opp ic ing .

F ro m t he l a ter t h ird mi l lenn iu m b c t here a re t wo c on temporary

a nd a d jacen t t rackways b u i lt o f h urdles : R ow lands ' a nd t he t rack o n Wal ton H ea th ( Co les & Orme 1 977 a & b ) , a nd t hese h urd les a re made a lmos te nt ire ly o f c opp iced h aze l ( Cory lus s p . )( F ig .4 .5 ) . A t l eas t 6 0pane ls o f h urd ling w ere u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o n Wa lton H ea th , w oven f ro m a pproxima te ly 5 000 h aze l r ods , a l l o fw h ich b ore o ne o r more o f t he d is t inc t ive c harac ter ist ics o fc oppiced wood . T he ma ter ia l f ro m R ow land 's T rackway c anno t b e q uan t if ied ow ing t o p oor p reserva t ion , b u t b o th t he r ad iocarbon d a tes a nd t ree-r ing a na lyses s ugges t t ha t t he c opp iced w ood u sed i n i t s c ons truc t ion was c onte mp orary w i th t ha t o f t he s truc ture o n Wa lton H ea th ( Morgan 1 977) . T he s heer q uan t ityof c oppiced s tems , c oup led w i th t he e v idence t ha t w oven p ane ls o f wa t t le , o r h urd ling , w ere a n i n tegra l p ar t o f l a ter n eo l i th ic t echno logy , p oints t o t he d e libera te manage men t o fw ood land b y c opp ic ing . Woodwork ing . I tw i l l b e c onven ien t t o d iv ide t he ma ter ia l f or t h is s ec t ion i n to r oundwood , i .e . c o mp le te b ranches , a nd t imber , i .e . s p li t w ood . B u t f i rst we may n ote o ne i n teres t ing f i nd , o f ac a tegory t ha t r are ly s urv ives . F rom T inney 's Ground , w here mu lt ip le l a ter B ronze Age b rushwood t racks a re k nown ( Co les & Orme 1 980b )h as c o me a n u prooted y ew ( Taxus s p . )s tu mp w i th i t s t runk r emoved ( F ig .4 .6) . T he f ace ts l e f t o n t he s tump i ndica te t ha t t he t ree was f e l led b y mu lt ip le b lows f ro m a l l s ides , l i ke s harpen ing a penc i l .

T he f acets

a re c lean c u t , a nd d o n ot i ndica te a ny p ar t icu lar d if f icu l ty i nf e l ling y ew . T he r ema in ing s tu mp i s s hor t , t he t ree f e l led c lose t o i t s b ase , whereas i ti s s o me t i mes t hough t t ha t p reh istor ic a xe men a t tacked t he b o le a t s hou lder 8 5

d

f

g

F ig .

4 .7

Roundwood c ut e nds, N eo l i th ic a nd Bronze Age; aa nd b c ome f rom t he Baker P latform, d a ted t o t he l a ter 3 rd m i l lenn ium b c. Th is i s t he o n ly s i te t o h ave p roduced b rushwood where t he f acets a re marked w i th mu lt ip le p ara l le l g rooves ( contrast w i th f a nd g , a lso N eo l i th ic). c . T inney 's Ground, c 1 050 b c, f acets i nterrupted by v ert ica l t ears, s uggested t he wood was b e ing pu l led a s w e l l a s c ut f rom i t s p arent s tem. d . E c l ipse T rack c 1 500 b c, s a i l e nd f rom hurd le, s how ing s tr ia t ions a cross t he o therw ise c lean-cut f acets, i nd icat ive p erhaps o f a d amaged b lade. e . a sh p ost f rom t he Sweet Track, 3 200 b c, w i th o ut l ine o f c omp lete p ost b es ide i t , t o s how c ontras t b etween mu lt ifaceted p o int o f t he l ower e nd a nd f l a t-chopped t op. f . w edge-po int f rom t he Sweet Track, c ut f rom o ppos ing s ides. g . p enc i l-po int f rom t he Sweet T rack, c ut f rom a l l d irect ions. S ca le 1 /3 , e xcept f or t he a sh p ost e ., 1 /6th ( or ig ina l l eng th a pprox. 2 metres). Drawn by S ue Rou i l lard.

8 7

h e igh t .

T h is may h ave b een a N eo l i th ic p rac t ice , a s i ti s i n modern s oc ie t ies

u s ing s tone a xes , a nd t he s hor t T inney 's s tu mp p erhaps r ef lec ts t he u se o f b ronze t oo ls . A lterna t ive ly , t he s tu mp may n ot b e t yp ica l , f or y ew i s a n u nusua l ly t ough w ood , a nd i td oes n ot b u lk l arge i nt he p reh istor ic r ecord f ro m t he L eve ls . T he u se o f r oundwood i s r e la t ive ly s tra igh tforward ( F ig . 4 .7) . F ro m t he f our th mi l lenn iu m , av ar ie ty o f s pec ies were u sed t o p rov ide p os ts , p o les a nd b rushwood : h aze l , a lder ( A lnus s p . )a sh , h o l ly ( I lex s p . )a nd e lm ( U lmus s p . )a re t he more c o m mon t rees p rocessed f or t he r oundwood c o mponen ts o f t he S wee t Track ( Co les & Ur ine 1 979 ) . T he w ood was c ut a nd t r im med w i th as tone b lade , p robab ly a n a xe , a nd t he ma jor i ty o f e nds a re p ointed . A p enc i l p oint i ndicates c ut t ing a l l a round t he s tem , a wedge p oint r esu lts f ro m c u t t ing f ro m o pposing s ides .

I n t he ma jor i ty o f c ases , a ,n u mber o f b lows f ro m

e ach d irec t ion w ere r equired b efore t he w ood was s evered , g iv ing mu lt ip le i n tersec ting f ace ts . O ne h ef ty p iece o f a shwood , 7 0 y ears o ld a nd 1 70 m m i n d ia meter , w a ,s u sed a s ap os t ;

i th ad a t yp ica l p o inted b ase w i th mu lt ip le f ace ts , b ut i t s

u pper e nd, wh ich was we l l-preserved , h ad b een c hopped s tra igh t a cross l eav ing a n a l mos t f l a t s ur face . I t may b e t ha th ere , a nd w i th t he T inney 's y ew s tump , we a re s ee ing t he l ower p or t ion o f s tem o r t runk , c ut i n t wo wh i ls t i tw as s t i l l u pr igh t . Mu lt ip le d ownward a xe b lows , h or izonta l b lows t o r emove t he c h ips , a nd n o u pward b lows , wou ld p roduce a p ointed e nd t o t he u pper p or t ion a nd a f l a t e nd t o t he l ower p or t ion . S uch a t echnique c ou ld a lso h ave b een a dop ted f or h or izon ta l , f el led t runks i ft he a xe- man d id n o t s h i f t h is p os i t ion o r a l ter h is g r ip o n t he a xe wh i lst c u t t ing t hrough t he w ood .

I n

t he c ase o ft he S wee t a sh p os t , t he l a t ter s i tua t ion i s t he more l i ke ly , g iven t ha t t he o ther e nd o f t he 2me tre p ost was p ointed . T he a dven t o f me ta l t oo ls d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave h ad a ny g reat e f fec t o n t he c u t t ing a nd t r imm ing o f r oundwood .

T he b rushwood f rom T inney 's G round,

f or e xa mp le , e xh ib its b o th p enci l a nd wedge p oints . S o me o f t he s l igh ter p ieces a re c u t f ro m o ne s ide o n ly . T here a re , h owever , d if ferences i n t he a ppearance o f t he f ace ts , c o mpared t o t hose o f t he n eo li th ic wood .

T he f acets

f ro m b o th p er iods t end t o b e s l igh t ly c oncave , b u t t h is i s l ess p ronounced w ith t he l a ter w ood , a nd t he r idges p roduced b y i n tersec t ing f acets a re s harper t han i n t he n eol i th ic e xa mp les . O ccas iona l ly , ar a ised s tr ia t ion a cross a f ace t i ndica tes t he u se o f ab lade w i th a n ick i n i t .

E xa mp les o ccur among t he T inney 's b rushwood, a nd f ro m •

t he m id s econd m i l lenn iu m E c lipse T rack ( Co les & Orme 1 975 ) . I t may p rove p oss ib le t ou se t h is s or t o f i n forma t ion t o d e termine w i th g rea ter p rec is ion h ow t he w ood was c u t , a nd t o t race w ood c u t w i th t he s ame b lade . T he B aker P la tform , al a ter N eo li th ic s i te , h as p roduced s o me r oundwood w i th d is t inc t ive f ace ts , f ound a t n o o ther s i te . T he p oin ts a re o f t he c ommon , mu lt iface ted p enc i l-shape , b u t e ach i ndiv idua l f ace t i s s ub-div ided i n to mu lt ip le p ara l le l f ace ts u sua l ly a l igned a t o r n ear a r igh t a ng le t o t he l ength o f t he w ood . I ti s n ot y e t c er ta in h ow t hese f ace ts were p roduced . T hey may h ave r esu lted f ro m t he u se o f ah and-he ld k n ife b lade , w i th f i nger p ressure e xer ted a long t he b lade . A lterna t ive ly , t he P latform b u i lders may h ave made u se o f w ood f e l led b y b eavers , whose t ee th l eave s tr iking ly s im i lar marks . 8 8

L est a ny

r eader a ssu me t hereby t ha t t he B aker P la tform w as r ea l ly a b eaver d am , i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t much r oundwood w i th ' ordinary 'traces o fw ork ing was a lso r ecovered ( Co les , F le m ing a nd Orme 1 980 ) . T imber , o r s p li t w ood , h as b een p ar t icu lar ly w e l l p reserved i n t wo r ecen t ly e xcava ted s truc tures , t he S wee t Track , a nd t he l a ter Meare H ea th Track ( F ig . 4 .8) .

The l a t ter i s ah eavy o ak c ons truc t ion d a t ing t o t he e nd o f t he s econd

m i l lenniu m b c , b ui lt o f l ong i tudina l p lanks s pann ing p iers o f s hor ter c rosst imbers , t he who le k ep t i n p lace b y v er t ica l o ak s takes d r iven t h rough t he c ross-t i mbers ( Co les & Orme 1 976a , 1 978) . T ree-r ing a na lyses h ave i ndic a ted t ha t t he o ak t rees u sed i n b u i lding t he t rack were p rocessed i n to e ach o f t he t hree ma in c o mponents , s o t ha t as ing le t ree p rov ided p lanks a nd c rosst imbers a nd s takes . I th as p roved p oss ib le t o t race t he c o mponen ts f ro m a ny o ne t ree i n s o me i nstances , a nd t hese a re f ound t o b e w ide ly s cat tered a long t he l eng th o f t he t rack .

T he l ongi tudina l p lanks w ere mos t ly s i mp le r adia l

s p li ts , b ut t he o ther t imbers were s o me t imes c arefu l ly a dzed t o s hape a f ter s p li t t ing , a nd t he c ross-t imbers f requen t ly h ad r ectangu lar h o les c u t t hrough t he m .

T his p repara t ion o f t he c o mponen ts wou ld h ave h ad t o b e d one b efore

t he w ood w as s easoned ( Morgan 1 978) . A l l t h is i n forma t ion i ndicates t ha t t he o ak was n o t r e-used t imber f ro m o ther s truc tures , b u t f e l led a nd p repared w i th t rack c onstruc t ion i n mind . O ne f ea ture o f t he Meare H ea th T rack d oes n ot f i t e asi ly i n to t h is i n terpret a t ion . Many o f t he c ross-t imbers h ave , i n a ddi t ion t o t he t wo s y mme tr ica l ly p laced h o les d es igned t o h o ld t he s takes , at h ird h o le c u t c lose t o o ne e nd o f t he t imber ( F ig . 4 .9 ) . N oth ing h as e ver b een f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is o uter h o le . Many s ugges t ions h ave b een a dvanced a s t o i t s p urpose , a nd i th as s o me t i mes b een t aken a s e v idence t ha t t he w ood was r e-used . B ut t h is was b efore t ree-r ing a na lyses were c arr ied o ut , a nd n ow t ha t t hese h ave i ndicated t he p r i mary c on tex t o ft he t imber , a nd e xcava t ion h as s hown n o l og ica l f unc t ion f or t he t h ird h o le i n t erms o f t rack u se , o ther i deas must b e s ough t .

T o d ate ,

t he mostp laus ib le s ugges t ions a re t ha t w hoever p repared t he wood made a m istake , o r t ha t t he o r ig ina l d es ign o f t he t rack w as a l tered, o r t ha t t he h o le w as c ut s i mp ly t o t i e ar ope t o d rag t he h eavy t imbers a cross t he u neven r a ised b og s urface . T he S weet Track l i kew ise makes u se o f s p li t w ood , t hough o f s evera l s pec ies ( Co les , H ibber t & Orme 1 973 , C o les a nd Orme 1 976b & 1 979) .

A sh

a nd l ime p lanks a re c o m mon f ro m t he f i rst p hase o f c onstruc t ion a nd o ak f ro m t he s econd , a nd a f ew o ther s pec ies w ere a lso s p l it . T he t rees were f e l led a nd t he t runks s p li t b y p eop le who h ad s tone a nd w ooden t oo ls : a xes , wedges a nd ma l lets . Wi th t hese t hey c oped w ith o ak t rees o ver t hree c entur ies o ld , a nd p roduced p lanks u p t o 5m l ong a nd 0 .4 m w ide , y e t s ome t imes o n ly 3 05 0 mm t hick . T he ma jor i tyof t he p lanks a re r ad ia l s p l i ts , t hough s ca t tered t angent ia l e xamp les a re r ecorded , a nd t hese a re mos t c o mmon f ro m t he s outhern e nd o f t he t rackway , where , i tw i l l b e r emembered , t he p lanks were s p li t f ro m r e la t ive ly y oung a nd f as t-grown t rees t ha t w ou ld y ie ld o n ly n arrow r adia ls . I n a ddi t ion t ot he p lanks , t here a rea n u mber o f s hor tboards a ssocia ted w i th t he Swee t Track .

F igure 4 .10 s hows d eta i ls o fn o tches a nd h o les , wh ich ,

t oge ther w i th t he c ons iderab le b ody o f o ther e v idence p reserved i n t h is u n ique

8 9

F ig.

4 .8

Upper : Sweet Track r econstruct ion: a ) p eat, b ) r a i l, c ) r a i lpegs, d ) h eaped-up v egetat ion, e ) p eg s upport ing p lank, f ) p lank, g ) p eg h o ld ing p lank i n p lace. L ower: Meare Heath Track r econs truct ion: c ross-timbers, v ert ica l o ak s takes, l ong i tud ina l o ak p lanks.

9 0

1 3 3

4r>

C D

0

C

F ig .

4 .9

.3 1 13 1 1

O NE METRE = 1 1 Mr

Cross-t imbers f rom t he Meare Heath Track, s howing s ymmetr ica l ly p laced h o les c ut f or t he v ert ica l s takes a nd t he ' extra ' h o le o ccas iona l ly c ut a t o ne e nd o f t he c rosst imber.

9 1

a

F ig .

4 .10

D eta i ls o f woodwork ing f rom t he Neo l i th ic Sweet Track. a ) h o les c ut t hrough p lanks ; b ) n otched e nd o f o ak b oard. S ca le 1 :1.

N eo li th ic s truc ture , may g ive u s s o me i dea o f t he c onstruct ional t echn iques f am i liar t o t he p er iod .

Tree-r ing a na lys is y ie lds o ther i nforma t ion , s uch a s

t he v ir tua l ly u niversa l t r im m ing o f s apwood wh ich , a lthough d etr i men ta l t o t he a rchaeo log is ts 's earch f or c hrono logy , i mproved t he q ua li ty o f t he n eo li th ic p lank b y r ender ing i tl ess s ub jec t t o d ecay ( Morgan 1 979 ) . T here i s l i t t le d oub t , o n t he b as is o f t he e v idence f ro m t he L eve ls , t ha t i t s p reh istor ic p opu la t ion h ad t he t oo ls , t he r aw ma ter ia ls a nd t he s k i l ls t o p roduce h igh q ua l i ty w oodwork ing , mass ive i n s ize when r equ ired , y e t w i th t he d e ta i l c arefu l ly e xecu ted .

H ow f ar s uch s k i lls c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he r es t

o f t he Br i t ish I s les i s a mat ter f or f ur ther r esearch .

REFERENCES

B ecke t t , S . a nd H ibber t , F . A ., 1 979 .

V egeta t iona l c hange a nd t he i nf luence

o fp reh is tor ic man i n The S o merse t L eve ls .

N ew Phy to log is t 8 3 , 5 77-600 .

C o les , J . M . a nd Or me , B . J ., 1 976. The Meare Heath Trackway , e xcavat ion o f a Bronze A ge s truc ture i nt he S o merse t L eve ls . P roc . Preh is t . S oc . 4 2 . C o les , J . M . a nd Ur ine , B . J ., 1 976 .

T he S wee t Track , Ra i lway s i te .

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 2 , 3 4-65 . C o les , J . M . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 977 .

N eo li th ic h urdles f ro m Wa l ton H eath ,

S o merse t . S o merse t L eve ls P apers 3 , 6 -29 . C o les , J . M . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 977 .

R ow land 's h urdle t ra ,ckway .

S o merse t

L eve ls P apers 3 , 3 9-50 . C o les , J . M . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 978 .

T he Meare H ea th T rack .

S o merset

L eve ls P apers 4 , 1-39 . C o les , J . M . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 979 .

T he Swee t Track :

Drove S i te.

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 5 , 4 3-64 . C o les , J . M . a nd Ur ine , B . J ., 1 980 .

P reh is tory o f t he S o merse t L eve ls .

C o les , J . M . a nd Ur ine , B . J ., 1 980 .

T inney 's Ground , 1 978-1979.

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 6 , 6 1-68 . C o les , J . M ., H ea l , S . V . E ., a nd Or me , B . J ., 1 978 . c harac ter o f w ood i n p reh is tor ic Br i ta in a nd I re land .

T he u se a nd P roc . P reh is t . S oc .

4 4 , 1 -46 . C o les , J . M ., H ibber t , F . A . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 973 . a nd t racks i n S o merse t . 3 .

T he S wee t Track .

P reh is tor ic r oads

P roc . P reh is t .

S oc . 3 9 ,

2 56-293 . C o les , J .M ., Orme , B . J . a nd H ibber t , F . A ., 1 97-5 .

T he E c lipse T rack

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 1 , 2 0-24 , 2 8 , 3 9 . Morgan , R . A ., 1 977 . Tree-r ing s tudies i n t he S o merse t L eve ls : t he h urd le t rackways o n A shcot t H ea th ( Row land 's ) a nd Wa l ton H eath . S o merse t L eve ls P apers 3 , 6 1-65 .

9 3

Morgan , R . A ., 1 978 . H eath Track .

Tree-r ing s tudies i n t he S o merse t L eve ls :

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 4 , 4 0-41 .

Morgan , R . A . ,1 979 . Tree-r ing s tudies i n t he S o merset L eve ls : s i te o f t he S weet Track . S o merset L eve ls P apers 5 , 6 5-75 . Munro , R ., 1 911 . H .

t he Meare

t he Drove

I n troduc tory C hap ter i n B u l le id , A . a nd S t George G ray ,

,T he G las tonbury L ake V i l lage , v o l . 1 .

Orme , B . J ., C o les , J . M . C ase ldine , A . E . a nd B a i ley , G .

N ., 1 981.

Meare V i l lage Wes t1 979 , S o merse t L eve ls P apers 7 , 1 2-69. R ackha m , 0 ., 1 976 .

Trees a nd Wood land i n t he B r i t ish L andscape .

R ackha m , 0 ., 1 975-1981.

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 1 -7.

9 4

5 .

THE WOOD AGE?

THE S IGN IF ICANCE OF WOOD USAGE

I N PREIRON AGE NORTH- WESTERN EUROPE S . V . E . H ea l

S u mmary T h is t i t le d oes n ot p ropose t he r ep lace ment o f t he ' Three A ge S ystem ' b y a' Four A ge ' o ne , o r a ny f orma l ' Sys tem ' a t a l l , r a ther i ta t te mp ts t o d raw a t ten t ion t o a n i mpor tan t c ons tan t i n ma ter ia l u se , wh ich , t hough i t s e xp loi ta t ion was b o th e x tens ive a nd c on t inua l , h as b een l arge ly o ver looked b y p reh is tor ians . A n e s tab lished d isc ip line , a s a rchaeo logy w ou ld c la im t o b e , s hou ld n ot f ocus u pon a s e lec t ive a nd b road ly d ef ined s equence o f ma ter ia l i nnova t ion;

u n like o ther

ma ter ia ls , w ood was i n c ont inuous u se t hroughout p reh istory a nd i t o f fers e v idence f or b oth t echno log ica l s k i l ls a nd c oncep tua l c apac i ty . T hus i th as p ar t icu lar s ign if icance i n t erms o f mater ial t echno logy a nd f ur ther s ign if icance f or p reh istory i n g enera l .

T he a im o f s uch a t i t le a s t h is i s n e i ther t o e x tend t he T hree Age S yste m , a nd t hus c ompound t he p rob lems c rea ted b y c oncentrat ion o n s pec if ic ma ter ia ls , n or i s i tt o c la i m ap os i t ion o fp re-e m inence f or w ood o ver a l l o thers :

b ut t o

s uggest t ha t t he s tandard d iv is ions o fp reh is tory e ncourage a s e lec t ive f ocus u pon a s equence o f i nnova t ion wh ich p ers is ten t ly d raws a t ten t ion t o o ne e le ment o ft he ma ter ia l r ange , wh i ls t i gnor ing o thers e ssen t ia l f or c o mpos i te c onstruct i on , a nd w ide ly a nd c on t inuous ly i n u se .

I ft erm ino logy b y mater ia l i s t o b e

more h ones t ly d escr ip t ive , t hen a ' Wood Age ' e x tended f rom t he P a laeo li th ic u n t i l t he I ndus tr ia l R evo lut ion , a nd A ges o f S tone , Bronze a nd I ron were s ubs t ages w ith in i t . Wood o f fers e v idence f or b oth t echno log ica l s k i l ls a nd c onceptua l c apac i ty , a nd, u n like o ther ma ter ia ls , i twas i nu se t hroughout p reh istory ;

t h is d oes n ot n ecessar i ly make i tt he mos t ' impor tant ' mater ia l ,

b u t d oes g ive i tas ign if icance i n g enera lf or t he who le o fp reh istory , a nd i n p ar t icu lar f or ma ter ia l t echno logy a nd a pprec ia t ion . T he s ign if icance r eferred t o h ere i s n ot o f t he e xtent o fu se , b ut t he n a ture o fu se . T he p oten t ia l o f w ood f or a rchaeo logica lr esearch , f i e ldwork a nd s c ien t if ic e xam inat ion h as b een o ut lined e lsewhere ( Co les , H ea l a nd Orme , 1 978; C o les , P aper 1 ; Orme , P aper 4 ) . T h is p aper d iscusses t he n a ture o ft he e v idence f or p re-Iron Age w ood-use , f irst ly i n i t s c apac i ty a s as amp le f or s tudy a nd s econd ly i n a n o ut line o f s ome p o ints a r is ing f ro m c urrent r esearch . T he d iv is ion o f p reh istory i n to ' Ages ' b rough t s o me f orm o f o rder t o t he c haos o f n ine teen th c entury a nt iquar ian a ccu mu la t ion , a c t ing a s ag enera l ly a ccep tab le r e lat ive c hrono logy f or t he i n troduc t ion a nd u se o fn ew ma ter ia ls

9 5

a nd d eve lop ing , b y t he w ork o f V ede l S i monsen , T ho msen a nd t he ir s uccessors . i n to t he T hree Age S ys te m o f S tone , B ronze a nd I ron . H owever t he o r ig ina l s che me d ev ised i n 1 813 b y S imonsen was n o t a s e xc lus ive i n i t s f ocus o f a t ten t ion a s l a ter e xponen ts s ugges t .

H e wrote :

" The weapons a nd i mp le men ts o f t he e ar l ies t i nhab i tants were a t f i rs t o f s tone a nd wood . T hese f o lk l a ter l earn t t he u se o f c opper a nd o n ly l a t ter ly i tw ou ld a ppear , i ron ." ( Dan ie l , 1 967 , 9 0-91) . T ho msen a lso r ecognised t he r o le o fw ood i n t he S tone A ge ( Dan ie l , 1 967 , 9 3 ) , b ut s ubsequent a dopters o ft he s equence f a i led t o a cknow ledge t he impl ic i t c ont inu i ty o f t he u se o fw ood , a nd a c en tury o r more o f emphas is u pon t he k ey words S tone , B ronze , I ron h ave c ons igned wood , a t b es t b y d efau l t , t o i t s p ersist ing r o le a s a n o ver looked e le men t o f mater ia l c u l ture , l arge ly i gnored i n t he l i tera ture a nd i n i l lus tra t ion o f ' t yp ica l ' a ssemb lages . T he ma jor f ac tor c ontr ibu t ing t o t h is o vers igh t i s t he p er ishab le n a ture o f t he ma ter ia l , w ood d ecays c o mp le te ly i fd epos i ted i nc ondi t ions u nfavourab le f or p reserva t ion ( t hough r ep lace ment b y m inera ls o r s tain t races ma ,y r e main i n s o me c ases) , a nd s uch c ondi t ions a re more w idespread i n Nor th Western E urope t han t hose a l low ing l ong t er m s urv ival . N everthe less , e v idenc e f or p reservat ion o n ac ons iderab le s ca le a ppeared t hroughout t he n ine teen th c en tury , i n 1 835 , f or e xa mp le , t he Abbot 's Way w a ,s d iscovered ( Co les , 1 980 , 4 6 ) , a nd , r ead ing t hrough j ournals s uch a s t hat o f t he Royal S oc iety o f A n t iquar ies o f I reland , as trea m o f wooden o b jec ts a re r epor ted . Amongst f ew o thers , Wi lde r ecogn ised t he impor tance o f wood t o p reh istoric c o m mu n i t ies , a nd o fp reserva t ive d epos i ts t o t he r ecovery o f s uch e v idence : t . .. a l though i ti s c er tain t hat t he u se o f wood w as t hus i n t he v ery i n fancy o f t he h u man r ace , r esor ted t o e i ther a lone o r i n c onnex ion w i th f l in t a nd s tone i mp lemen ts i tc ou ld n ot b e e xpec ted, f ro m i t s d ecay ing n ature , t ha t a r tefac ts f ormed f ro m v ege tab le ma ter ia l c ou ld e ndure i n ac l i ma te s uch a s o urs f or more t han a f ew h undred y ears , e xcep t when p reserved i n ab og ." ( 1 857 , 1 97) . Worsaae , wr i t ing i n 1 843 , o f Den mark , s ta ted : " Nex t t ob arrows , t he p ea t b ogs a re t he most impor tan t d eposi ts o f a n t iqu i t ies . T he o b jec ts a re i n a much b et ter s ta te o fp reserv a t ion .

I n b ogs we may , f or i ns tance , e xpect t o f i nd s tone a xes

w i th t he ir a nc ient h and les o fw ood ." ( Dan ie l , 1 967 , 1 05-6) . T hough t he p r inc ip le o fp reserva t ion u nder t he r igh tc ondi t ions s eems t o h ave b een u nders tood f ro m a n e ar ly s tage , i t s r ecogni t ion i nprac t ice d oes n ot s ee m t o h ave a dvanced u n iversa l ly :

V ede l S imonsen wrote i n 1 813 ,

" Ar tefac ts o fw ood h ave , n a tura l ly , d eco mposed" ( Dan ie l , 1 967, 9 1) ; i n 1 976 we may r ead , " the w ooden s uperstruc ture h as o f c ourse r ot ted a way" ( Avery , 1 976, 1 0 ); much e v idence .

s uch sweep ing d is m issa ls r isk t he u nnecessary l o ss o f

I n ar ecent p aper , r ecorded i ns tances o fw ooden f i nds i n t he

Br i t ish I s les w ere s hown t o c over a w ide r ange o fg eo logy a nd t opography ( F ig . 5 .1 ; a f ter . Co les , H ea l a nd Orme , 1 978) . I ti s n ever the less , i n ma jor w ater logged d eposi ts , r esu lt ing f ro m p ea t g row th o r wa tercourse s i lt ing t ha t 9 6

b r )

( ? .

0

0

t o 9 7

mos t h as b een f ound , a nd r ema ins t o b e d iscovered .

I n t he p resen t c en tury

t here h ave b een o n ly i so la ted v o ices , o ne t h inks p ar t icu lar ly o f Grahame C lark , r em inding p reh istor ians o f t he n eed t o c oncen tra te e f for ts u pon t he r ecovery o fo rgan ic ma ter ia ls i n o rder t o r edress t he b a lance o f t he ma ter ia l e v idence ( e .g . C lark & G odw in , 1 940 , 5 6)— to f l esh o ut t he " bare b ones o f p reh istory" ( Ashbee , 1 960 , 3 2) .

F ew a lso , a re t he p rac t is ing a rchaeo log is ts

who h ave t aken t o t he f i e ld f or t h is p urpose . T o s o me e x ten t i t may b e s een a s ad isgu ised b lessing t hat wood h as b een d isregarded i n t he d ev ising o f t ypo-chrono log ica l s che mes , s ince i th as t hus b een l ef t l arge ly u nscathed b y i n tens ive f orma l c lass if ica t ion , i n tr ica te t ypo logy a nd n u mer ica l ly-based a na lys is . T here c an b e l i t t le j us t if ica t ion f or a ny s uch a pproach t o t he s tudy o f p reh is tor ic w ood , s ince t he v a l id i ty o f s uch me thods d epends u pon a s amp le c o mp le te e nough f or t he ir a pp l ica t ion . Archaeo log is ts k now we l l e nough t ha t t he ir g enera l s a mp le i s i nco mp le te , t he b ody o fd a ta a vai lab le f or a s p er ishab le ma ter ia l a s wood mus t b e e ven l ess c omp le te . I ti s e ssen t ia l t ha t t he i nadequac ies a nd b iasses o f t he e x is t ing s amp le b e r ecognised a s we l l a s i t s p os it ive p otent ia l , a nd t ha t t he mode o f s t udy b e d ev ised w i th t hese f ac tors i n mind .

T he s tudy o fp rehis tor ic wood i s s t i l l

l arge ly i n as ta te o f ' I nnocence ' , u nencumbered b y p rev ious ly c ons truc ted s chemes , a nd t hus i n ap os i t ion t o b e d eve loped b y me thods a ppropr ia te t o l a tetwent ie th c en tury a rchaeo logy , b ut w ithou t s ub jec t ion t o i napp l icab le t rends i n methodo logy . T he q uant i ty o f w ooden ma ter ia l o r ig ina l ly i n c ircu la t ion h as s uf fered l osses f or v ar ious r easons , i n p ost-depos i t iona l t erms ma in ly a s ar esu lt o fdecay , a nd i n at e mpera te c l ima te s uch a s t ha t o f n or th-western Europe , t h is may b e a ssu med t o h ave b een c onsiderab le .

E ven where i n i t ia l d epos i t ion was i n

f avourab le c ircu ms tances—cons truc t ion i n water logged g round o r a bandon ment i n s im i lar c ondi t ions —subsequent e ven ts may h ave l ed t o e xposure a nd p oss ib le d estruc t ion ; t he r ecen t l arge s ca le d ra inage a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o fw e t lands i s ap er t inen te xa mp le —co mpare t he c ondi t ion o f t he Meare H ea th Track i n 1 974 a nd 1 977 ( Co les a nd Orme , 1 978, 1-39 ) . T he s urv iv ing ma ter ia l may b e f ur ther r educed b y i nadequa te t rea tment o n r ecovery ( s ee C oles e t a l., 1 976 , f i g . 5 1) , o r p oor c onserva t ion . I n a ddi t ion t o t he p ure ly p reserva t iona l a nd c onserva t iona l f ac tors , t here a re o ther i nf luences u pon t he n a ture o f t he s amp le a vai lab le f or s tudy .

The

s pec if ic e nv iron men ta l c ondi t ions wh ich w ou ld a l low p reserva t ion a lso e ncourage s pec ia l ised h u man a ct iv i t ies , wh ich may b e e xpec ted t o b e a dap ted , o r e xc lusi ve , t o t he ir c onte mporary s urroundings . Wh i ls t c o mmun i t ies e xp lo i t ing f avourab le e co tones a t wa ter o r marsh-edge m igh t d ispose o f s o me o f t he ir d ryland d er ived e qu ip men t , e .g . r edundan t a gr icu ltura l o r c raf t t o o ls , b y d ump ing i n t he we t land a rea , t he b u lk o f t he w ooden ma ter ia l f ound i n wa terl a in d epos i ts o r p eats may b e e xpec ted t o r ef lec t ab ias t owards a c t iv i t ies a ssoc ia ted w i th t he ir e xp loi tat ion .

I ti s n ot s urpr is ing t herefore t ha t much o f

t he k nown e v idence f or p reh is tor ic wood-use r ef lec ts t he n egot ia t ion o f wa terw ays ( Wr igh t , 1 976; MCGra i l , 1 978 a nd 1 981) , w e t lands ( Co les e t a l„ 1 9741 980 S o merse t L eve ls P apers; 1 952 , 1 963;

H ayen , 1 957) , f ow ling a nd f i sh ing ( C lark ,

Troe ls Smi th , 1 959, 1 961;

9 8

B ecker , 1 945 ) .

A s i s o f ten t he c ase w i th f i nds f ro m s uch a reas wh ich a re l ess d irec t ly e xp licab le i n t erms o f l oca l u se , t he p anacea o f ' r i tua l d epos i tion ' t ends t o b e i nvoked b y way o f e xp lana t ion ; b u t , wh i lst i n s o me i ns tances t h is i s j ust if iab le , t here a re a l terna t ive e xp lana t ions , i nc luding s o me p oss ib ly r esu lt ing f ro m p rocesses a ssoc ia ted w i th w ood t echno logy . F or e xamp le , t he ma intenance o f mo isture c ontent b y i m mers ion i n wa ter logged d epos i ts , a nd t e mporary s torage i n

t he s a me a naerob ic c ondi t ions w hich a l low 1,n g t er m p reservat ion ,

may b e emp loyed i n t he s hor t t erm t o r e tard d ry ing , s hr inkage , d is tor t ion a nd d ecay . More s imp ly f unc t iona l ly u nassoc iated o b jec ts , a s w e l la s t hose i n i m media te u se , may h ave b een l os t i n t rans i t a nd e ngu lfed b y s ed i men tat ion o r p eat g row th; t h is a pp lies e qua l ly t o w ood a nd o ther ma ter ia ls . T he s amp le f ro m e x tens ive w ater logged d epos i ts may s how e nv iron menta l ly d er ived b ias , b u t r are g l impses o f t he r ange o forgan ic ma ter ia l r e lated t o d omest ic , e cono m ic a nd o ccupa t iona l p rac t ices o n d ryer l and may b e p rov ided b y sma l l p ocke ts o fp reserva t ive d epos i t ion , e .g . w e lls ( Pryor , 1 974 ) , a nd s ea led b ur ia ls ( G lob , 1 974 ) . F ur ther i ndica t ions a st o t he f ormer o ccupants o fp ostho les a nd t he s truc tures wh ich t hey s uppor ted may b e g ained f ro m wa terside c ons truc t ions , e .g . ' l ake dwe l lings ' ( Ke l ler , 1 878; B u l le id a nd Gray , 1 911); b ut t he f orms wh ich r ema in i n t hese l oca t ions were u ndoub ted ly a dap ted t o l oca l e nv iron men ts a nd c annot t herefore b e t aken a s f u l ly r epresent a t ive o f d ry l and s truc tures , t hough t he t echno log ica l i n forma t ion f ro m t he s urv iv ing t imbers i s c onsiderab le . I ti s i mpor tan t a lso t o r emember t ha t w ood was t he ma jor f ue l f or f i res n eeded d o mest ica l ly a nd e cono m ica l ly , a nd i ti s u n like ly t ha t i tw ou ld b e wasted u nnecessar i ly ; b roken o r o utmoded o b jec ts a nd s t ruc tura l t imbers wou ld n ever b e e nt ire ly w i thou t v a lue a nd many mus t h ave b een b urn t . T he s a mp le u pon wh ich t he s tudy o fp reh istor ic w ood t echnology a nd w ood u se mus t b e b ased i s t hus u nden iab ly u nrepresen tat ive o f t he f u l l r ange o f f orms wh ich a re i ndica ted b y o ther a spec ts o fp reh is tory .

T h is a lone s hou ld

b e s uff ic ien t t o r es tra in t he a pp lica t ion o f u nsu itab le t es ts t o t he ma ter ia l , a nd t o d irec t a na lys is i n to more a ppropr iate c hanne ls .

Though t he ma ter ia l

may b e u nsu ited t o i n tr icate e x trapo lat ion i n t er ms o f n u mbers , s hapes a nd d ecorat ion , i ti s p oss ib le t o s tudy e ach p iece i nt erms o f t he t echno log ica l p rocesses wh ich p roduced i t . F ro m d e ta i ls o f t he i nternal s tructure a nd s urface f ea tures i ti sp oss ib le t o i n terpre t t he p rocess o f manufacture , a s f ar a s t he n a ture a nd c ondi t ion o f t he p iece w i l la l low . I n t h is way , a t t he v ery l eas t , t he min i mu m manufac tur ing c apab i li t ies o f t he p roducer c o mmun i ty may b e a ssessed a nd u sua l ly more i nforma t ion , o n s pec ies s e lec t ion , t oo l u se e tc . maybe g ained . S econdary s ources o f i n forma t ion c o me f ro m s tudies o fu se a nd wear t races o n t oo ls , i ndica t ing w h ich were u sed o n w ood a nd t he ir mode o fo pera t ion , whe ther a greeing w ith e stab l ished t ypo log ies o r n o t . T he r esul ts o f K ee ley 's microwear s tudies o f L ower P a laeo li th ic f l int t oo ls ( Kee ley , 1 977) , p rove as a lutory warning t o t oo l-use t heor is ts b as ing t heir c onc lus ions u pon macroware a nd g enera l s hape . A s t he s urv iv ing e xamp les o fp a laeo li th ic w oodwork f ro m N . W. E urope c an b e c oun ted o n t he f i ngers o fo ne h and , a nd r epresen t av ery l im i ted r ange o f f orms , t he p os i t ive e v idence f ro m micropo lishes a nd wear t races , n ot o n ly f or c onsiderab le w oodwork ing a c t iv i ty b ut a lso f or t he mode o fw ork ing , i s i nva luab le .

I n e xa m ining a r tefac ts , K ee ley f ound t ha t 9 9

t wo d is t inc t t echn iques were u sed : a t H oxne w edge-sp l i t t ing , a nd a t C lac ton c hopp ing a nd wh i t t ling ( Kee ley , 1 977, 1 80 ) . T hus , t hough t he p r imary e v idence f or s p li t t ing b y w edge i n t h is p er iod i s u nrecovered, t h is s econdary s ource s hows t ha t t he most i mpor tan t t echnique f or t he r educ t ion o f t imber , p r ior t o t he i n troduc t ion o f al arge s aw w i th s e t t ee th , h ad b een a dopted i n t he H ox ian I n terg lac ia l , c .2 50 ,0 00-200 ,0 00 b c ( Me l iars , 1 974 , 4 2 ) .

Aga in t he l im i ta t ions

o ft he p reserved s amp le a re c lear . I n d ef iance o f t radi t iona l t ypo log ica l ly-der ived n o menc la ture o f a r tefac ts K ee ley a lso f ound t ha t t here was l i t t le f orma l r e la t ionsh ip b etween s hape a nd f unc t ion i n f l in t t oo ls , o r b etween s tandard i n terpre ta t ion a nd a c tua l u se . I ndeed , h e s ays " any s imp le t ask c an a c tua l ly b e a ch ieved w i th a ny e dge a ng le" ( 1977 , 1 36 ) . F ur ther i ndirec t e v idence f or manufac ture a nd j o inery t echniques may a lso b e s een , s o mewhat i ron ica lly , i n s keuo morph ic f or ms r endered i n o ther mater ia ls . T he mass ive t ongue a nd g roove , a nd mor t ice a nd t enon j oin ing a t S tonehenge , t he f urn i ture i n s tone a t S kara B rae ( Ch i lde , 1 957, 3 3) c is ts a t P ota l lock , Argy l l ( Craw , 1 930 ) a nd p o t tery f orms ( P iggot t , 1 935 ; Brad ley , 1 9 78 , 4 6) a l l s ugges t as trong i n f luence o f o ne t echno logy u pon a n o ther , a nd w ood i s l i ke ly t o b e t he p recursor . H owever i n forma t ive t hese s econdary s ources c an b e , i ti s f ro m t he p ri mary e vidence t hat t he f unda men tal i n for mat ion must b e e x trac ted , i ti s t he w ood i t se lf wh ich t e l ls most a bout t he modes o f s e lec t ion a nd r educ t ion o f t rees t o r equ ired f or m a nd d i mension .

E xam ina t ion o fp re-Iron A ge w ood

f ro m N . W . E urope s ugges ts t ha t t here a re t hree b as ic c a tegor ies i n to wh ich u t i lised p ieces may b e d iv ided ( F ig . 5 .4a ) : N a tura l F orms :

e xp lo i ted n atura l ly o ccurr ing g row th p at terns , e .g . b ranch a nd s tem j unc t ions , c rooks , o r n atura l p rocesses e ncouraged i no rder t o p roduce a d es ired s upp ly .

R oundwood :

b ranches a nd s tems u sed i n tac t , w i thou t d iv is ion o fd iame ter .

S p li twood :

s te ms a nd b ranches s ubdiv ided b y c leaving a cross t he d ia me ter a nd l ong i tud ina l ly , t ha t i s , i n t he r adia l l ong i tudina l p lane .

T he u se o fn a tura l f orms i s s een i nb oth r oundwood a nd s pl i twood c ategories , f or e xamp le t he n eo l i th ic y ew ma l le t f rom t he S o merse t L eve ls i s ap roduc t o f t he s te m/branch j unc t ion ( Co les a nd H ibber t , 1 972 ) , a nd t he b ronze a ge c rook a r c l f ro m Hvorslev , D en mark ( G lob , 1 951) w as s p li t f ro m a n a sh t ree where a b ranch emerged f ro m t he t runk ( F ig . 5 .3 ) . R oundwood d e tached f ro m t he p arent t ree , a nd u sua l ly t r im med o f s ide b ranches ( F ig . 5 .3) , i s s een i n q uant i ty i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t racks , p la tforms , c rannogs a nd o ther wa ters ide s truc tures ( Co les e t a l ., S omerse t L eve l P apers , 1 974-1980 ;

D ickson , 1 981) , a nd p robab ly e x is ted e x tens ive ly i n d ry l and

s truc tures a s p os ts , r af ters , wa t t le e tc . a nd h and les f or many a r tefac ts .

1 00

1 01 a nd r oundwood.

a

1I a

F ig.

5 .4

Upper: Transverse r ad ia l v iews o f ( a) r oundwood ( b) s p l i twood i ) r ad ia l i ) t angent ia l L ower: a . P ro ject ion o f d iscwhee l b lank o n t angent ia l ly s p li t b o le. b . P os i t ion o f r ays i n r esu lt ing d iscwhee l. c . P otent ia l w eakness o f n ave ( sp l i tting-off a long r ay). d . I nsertion o f s eparate n ave ( e) w i th r ays a nd r ight a ng le t o s tress ( af ter v an d er Waa ls, 1 964, f ig. 4 w i th a dd i tions).

1 02

S p li twood i ndica tes n o t o n ly t echnical a b i li ty , b ut a lso r ecogn i t ion o f i t s i nherent a dvan tages i n t imber p roduc t ion a nd u se .

Wh i ls t t he mos t o bv ious

a pproach t o t he p roduc t ion o f r ect i l inear t imbers f ro m e ssent ia l ly c y lindr ica l n a tura lb lanks wou ld s ee m t o b e b y a x ing , a dzing o r wh i t t ling , b o th ma ter ia l a nd t ime c ou ld b e e cono m ised u pon b y s p li t t ing w i th a xe o r ma l le t a nd wedge , emp loy ing t he i n terna l s truc ture o f t he w ood i t se lf i n t he p rocess ( F igs 5 .5 a nd 5 .6) . R ad ia l s p li t t ing , e xp loi t ing n a tura l p lanes o f weakness wh ich e x is t r adia lly a nd l ong i tud ina l ly a long t he r ays , p roduces wedge-shaped l eng ths o f t imber , e ach s p li t f orm ing t he s urfaces o f a d jacen t p ieces . T angen t ia l s p li tt i ng a cross t he r ays , i gnor ing t he ir n a tura l a dvan tages , p rov ides r ec tangu lar ' p lanks ' , l eav ing s o me o f t he b o le u nused ( F ig . 5 .4a ) .

S o me s pec ies s p li t

r adia lly more e as i ly e .g . o ak ( Quercus s p . ) . A s c an b e s een , r adia l s p l i t t ing i s e cono mica l i n e f for t a nd ma ter ia l , b ut t he f i na l s hape o f t he t angent ia l ly p roduced p lanks may c o mpensa te f or t he e x tra e f for t a nd ma ter ia l was te i nvo lved , s ince r ender ing r adia l s p li ts r ec tangu lar w ou ld r equ ire f ur ther w ork ing . S p li t h ear twood , w i th i t s s truc ture min i ma l ly d a maged , n o t r ipped a nd r uptured a s when s awn , p ossesses max imu m s treng th , d urab i li ty a nd r es i lience ( according t o s pec ies a nd c ondi t ion ) a nd may b e s e lected c lear a nd c lean . I t s u se i s c lear ly s een i n t he p lanks a nd p egs o f t rack c ons truc t ion , a nd i n t he manufac ture o f d isc whee ls , where s haped s p li t t imber was u sed r a ther t han at ransverse s l ice t hrough t he b o le p roduc ing a s tronger , more r es i l ien t a nd h ardwear ing whee l ( F igs . 5 .3 a nd 5 .4b ) . S p li twood was a lso f requent ly u sed , i np reference t o more s i mp ly o b ta ined r oundwood o f s u i tab le s ize , f or a xe h af ts a nd s pear- a nd a rrowshaf ts .

T he s ugges ted u se o f c opp ice p o les f or

s pearshaf ts ( Green , 1 978) t ends n o t t o b e b orne o ut b y t he e xam ined r e ma ins . T h is s ugges ts s pec if ic a nd p re medi ta ted s e lec t ion , a nd p reparedness t o s p l i t l arger s te ms a nd i nves t t he e f for t i n s hap ing f or k nown a dvantages o fp erformance i n u se . T he i mp lied u nders tanding o f t he ma ter ia l i s f ur ther u nderl i ned b y t he u se o f t h is u nbroken g rain f or r es i lience i n a xehaf ts , a nd t he i nser tion o f s epara te n aves w i th g ra in r unn ing a t r ight a ng les t o maximu m s tress i n w ooden d isc whee ls ( van d er 4 1 Taa ls , 1 964 , f i g . 4 ;

F ig . 5 .4b ) .

T he o bv ious s utab i li ty o fw ood f or t he manufac ture o f c onta iners b y h o l low ing was e xp loi ted i n b oth r oundwood a nd s p l i twood b lanks ; aw ide r ange o f s ize a nd f or m may b e d emons tra ted , f ro m t he h o l low ing o f w ho le t ree-trunks t o make l ogboa ts ( McGra i l, 1 978) , t o t ha t o f sma l l b locks f or c ups a nd b ow ls ( e .g . G lob , 1 974 , f i gs .34-36 ) . P ieces wh ich h ave u ndergone i n tens ive s hap ing a nd s ur face d ress ing of ten b ear l i t t le r ese mb lance t o t he b lank f ro m wh ich t heywere made , i n termedia te s tages t end t o b e o b l i tera ted b y s ubsequent f i n ish ing .

S im i lar ly ' f ace ts ' o r

t oo l marks w i l l t end t o b e d es troyed o r d eformed b y s uccess ive w ork ing a nd w ear , t hus e x trapo la t ion o f b lade s ize a nd s hape i s r are ly p oss ib le w i th c er ta inty , t hough t he mode o fu se may r ema in r ecogn isab le :

The s urfaces

w h ich may p reserve f resh t races , e .g . t i ps o fp os ts d r iven i n to p ea t , u nworn u ndersides o f h or izon ta l t imbers , may s t i l l l ose t he ir d eta i l i n t he c ourse o f c onserva t ion, a nd s hou ld b e e xa mined a t t he t ime o f e xcavat ion . H owever , l i t t le r e ma ins o n t he s urface , e xam ina t ion o f s ec t iona l f aces w i l l i ndica te s o me s tages o f t he manufac tur ing p rocess .

I ti s p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tant i n

t h is c onnec t ion t ha t p ub lished f i gures s hou ld s how t he o r ienta t ion o f i n terna l 1 03

F ig .

F ig .

5 .5

5 .6

Ash ( Frax inus) b o le b e ing s p l i t r ad ia l ly u s ing s easoned o ak w edges a nd wooden ma l let.

F ina l s epara t ion o f t wo h a lves o f a sh b o le w i th w ooden l ever.

s truc tura l f ea tures o f t he wood i n s ec t ion wh ichg ives t echno log ica l i nforma t ion , r a ther t han s hading r ando m ly ( F ig . 5 .2 ) . T he sma l l r e la t ion wh ich t he f i n ished a r tefact o f ten b ears t o t he o r igina l b lank i s t es t i mony t o t he c oncep tua l a b i li ty o fp reh is tor ic c raf ts men , i n t ha t t he f i na l s hape , a nd t he b es t way o fo b ta ining max i mu m p erformance , were f orseen i n t he s tand ing t ree o r b au lk o f t imber ( F ig . 5 .3 ) .

S k i l lfu l s hap ing a nd .

j o ining s ys te ms s how c ons iderab le mastery o f ma ter ia l ( F igs . 5 .7 , 5 .8 , 5 .9 ) , a nd t he d eve lop ment o f more f l ex ib le a nd a d jus tab le f orms , more a dap tab le t o p urpose a nd c ircu mstance , s how a c ons iderab le d egree o f s oph ist icat ion .

T he

c ons truc t ion o fp lank-bu i lt b oa ts t o c o mp lemen t l ogboa ts ( Wr igh t , 1 976; McGra i l , 1 978, a nd 1 981) , o f s tave-bu i lt c onta iners a s we l l a s monoxy lous f orms ( C lark a nd G odw in , 1 940 ) , o f b ow a rds a s o pposed t o c rook a rds ( G lob , 1 951) a nd o f c o mpos i te b ows a s a l ternat ives t o s el f-bows , ( Clark , 1 963), a l l d emons tra te t he a b i l i ty t o a dap t a nd i mprove u pon a lready a dequa te f orms t o i ncrease t he ir u sefu lness . E v idence f or c hoice o f s pec ies i n r e la t ion t o t heir i n tended f unc t ion i s a lso c lear ly i nd ica ted :

s trong , d urab le s tra igh t-c leav ing o ak ( Quercus s p . )f or

p lanks , s trakes a nd d isc whee ls ( S o merset L eve ls P apers p assim . ; Wr igh t , 1 976; McGra i l , 1 981; v an d er Waa ls , 1 964) : r es ien t a sh ( Frax inus s p . ) f or a xehaf ts a nd s pearhaf ts ( Co les , H ea l a nd Orme , 1 978, 3 4-41; Green , 1 978) : f l ex ib le , t ough y ew ( Taxus s p . )f or b ows a nd ma lle ts ( C lark , 1 963; C o les a nd H ibber t , 1 972 ) : h aze l ( Cory lus s p . )f or p liancy a nd f l exura l s trength i n h urd les a nd wa t t le ( Co les e t a l . ,1 977) ;

t hese a re o n ly a f ew

e xa mp les b ut i l lustra te t he p oint . T he s tudy o f p reh is tor ic w ood t echno logy may b e i n i t s i nfancy , b u tt he e v idence t e l ls o f t he s oph ist ica t ion a nd e xper ience o f t he p roducers . a pparent t hat w ood was u sed w ide ly a nd s k i l lfu l ly i n N . W.

I ti s

E urope t hroughou t

p reh istory , t he i ndispens ib i li ty o fw ooden c o mponen ts f or c o mposi te a r tefac ts a s we l l a s t he master ly p roduc t ion o f t hose e n t ire ly o fw ood, makes i t s p rac t ica l s ign if icance c lear . U ses i n c onnec t ion w i th d o mest ic , e cono m ic , f unerary a nd mar t ial a c t iv i t ies ( G lob , 1 974; C o les , 1 962 ) a s we l l a s l ess t ang ib le a spec ts o f l i fe , a r t a nd p erhaps r e lig ion , a nd i n t he manufac ture o fo rgan ic a nd i norgan ic o b jec ts ( Co les , H ea l a nd Orme , 1 978, 3 4-42) f ro m t he e ar lies t p er iods o f p reh istory mere ly h int a t t he f u l l e xtent o fw ood u sage . E ven t he i nco mp lete s amp le a va i lab le d emons tra tes t he e x ten t a nd d ep th o f a pprec iat ion o f wood a s ar aw mater ia l b y t he i mp lic i t c onceptua l a nd p rac t ica l s k i l ls e ntai led . I n 1 970 Moses F in ley wrote o f t he T hree Age S ys te m : " A s hor thand was c reated, a nd i t suse p ers ists d esp i te a g row ing awareness o f i t s i nadequacy a nd e ven i t s t endency t o mis lead . A f ter a l l , wood, b one , p ot t ing c lay , s kins a nd t ex t i les a re n o l ess i mpor tan t mater ia ls , b u t t hey a re n ot a l l d urab le e nough t o s urv ive t i l l o ur d ay , t he ir u se c rosses t he S tone-Bronze-Iron e vo lu t ionary l i ne a nd t hey must b e i gnored i n t he c onvent ia l s cheme ."

( 1 970 , 3 ) .

T en y ears l a ter t he s ympos iu m , o f wh ich t h is v o lu me r epresents t he p roceedings , p resen ts a n o ppor tun i ty f or t ha t ' grow ing a wareness ' t o c o me o f a ge , a nd t o c ha l lenge t he i nadequac ies a nd mis leading i mp l ica t ions o f t he c onvent iona l s che me . 1 05

F ig.

5 .7

F err iby b oat 1 : S ewing, w i th y ew ( Taxus) s titches , t o j o in t hree o ak ( Quercus) s trakes, a nd f or t he r epa ir o f o ne.

F ig.

5 .8

Br igg ' raf t ': Rad ia l ly s p l i t t ransverse t imbers o f o ak i nserted t hrough c leats o f s uccess ive s trakes. The s trakes a re a lso s ewn t ogether.

F ig .

5 .9

F err iby b oat 1 : T ransverse t imbers o f a sh ( Frax inus) a nd s ew ing u sed f or j o in ing .

REFERENCES A shbee , P ., 1 960 .

T he Bronze A ge R ound Barrow i n Br i ta in , P hoen ix ,

L ondon . B ecker , C . J ., 1 945 .

E n 8 000-aar ig S tena lder 1 3 op lads iH o l megaards Mose

F ra N at iona l museet Arbe jds mark , 6 1-72 . Brad ley , R . J . ,1 978 .

T he P reh is tor ic S e t t le men t o f Br i ta in , R out ledge &

K egan P au l , L ondon . B u l le id , A ., & S t . G eorge Gray , H ., 1 911 .

T he G las tonbury L ake V i l lage ,

G las tonbury . C h i lde , V . G ., 1 957 .

T he Dawn o f E uropean C iv i lisat ion ( 6 th e d . ) , R ou t ledge

&K egan P au l , L ondon . C lark , J . G . D ., 1 952 .

P reh is tor ic E urope .

T he E cono m ic B asis , Me thuen ,

L ondon . C lark , J . G . D ., 1 963 .

N eo li th ic b ows f ro m S o merse t , E ng land a nd t he

p reh istory o f Archery i n n or th-wes t E urope , P roc . P reh is t . S oc . 2 9 , 5 0-98 . C lark , J . G . D . &G odw in , H ., 1 940 .

A L a te Bronze Age f i nd n ear S tuntney ,

I s le o fE ly , Ant . J . XX, 5 2-71 . C o les , J . M ., 1 980 .

T he Abbot 's Way 1 979 .

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 6 ,

4 6-49 . C o les , J . M ., 1 962 .

E uropean Bronze Age S h ie lds .

P roc . P reh is t . S oc . 2 8,

1 56-190 . C o les , J . M ., 1 974-1980 ( ed .)

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 1 -6 .

C o les , J . M ., H ea l , S . V . E ., & Orme , B . J ., 1 978 . o f wood i nP reh is tor ic Br i tain a nd I re land . C o les , J . M . a nd H ibber t , F . A ., 1 972 .

T he u se a nd c harac ter

P roc . P reh is t . S oc . 4 4 , 1 -45 .

A N eo l i th ic w ooden ma l le t f ro m

t he S o merse t L eve ls , Ant iqu i ty 4 6 , 5 2-4 . C o les , J . M . a nd Orme , B . J ., 1 977 . S o merse t .

N eo li th ic h urd les f ro m Wa lton Heath ,

S o merse t L eve ls P apers 3 , 6 -29 .

C o les , J . M . a nd Or me , B . J ., 1 978 .

T he Meare Hea th Track .

S o merset

L evels Papers , 4 , 1 1-39. C raw , J . H . ,1 930 .

E xcava t ions a nd Dunadd a nd O ther S i tes o n t he P ota l loch

E s ta tes , Argy l l .

P roc . S oc . An t . S cot .

Dan ie l , G . E ., 1 967 .

unv , iii146 .

T he o r ig ins a nd g row th o f Archaeo logy , Me thuen ,

L ondon . D ickson , T . N ., 1 981 . T ay ;

i n ter im r epor t .

F in ley , M ., 1 970 . G lob , P . V ., 1 951 . S kr if ter B ind 1 .

P re l im inary e xcava tion o fOakbank C rannog , L och I n t . J . N au t ica l Archaeo logy , 1 0 , 1 , 1 5-21 .

E ar ly Greece :

T he Bronze & Archa ic Ages , P enguin .

Ard o g P loy iN ordens o ld tid . Aarhus . 1 08

J ysk

Arkaeo log isk

S e lskahs

Glob, P. V., 1974. The Mound People.

Faber, London.

Green, H. S., 1978. Late Bronze Age wooden hafts from Llyn Fawr and Penwyllt, and a review of the evidence fo� the selection of wood for tool and weapon handles in Neolithic & Bronze Age Britain. Bull. Board Celtic Studies, XXVIII, i, 136-141. Hayen, H., 1957. Zur Bautechnik und Typologie der vorgeschichtlichen, fruhgeschichtlichen und mittelalterlicher hlJlzernen Moorwege und Moorstrasse. Oldenburger Jahrbuch, 56, 83-170. Keeley, L. H., 1977. An experimental study of micro-wear traces on selected British Palaeolithic Implements. Doctoral thesis, University of Oxford. Keller, F., 1978. Lake Dwellings of Switzerland. Longman,s, London. McGrail, S., 1978. Logboats of England and Wales, BAR 51, NMM Arch. Series 2. McGrail, S. , 1981. The Brigg 'raft' and her Prehistoric Environment. B.A.R. 89, NMM Arch. Series 6. Piggott, S., 1935. Handled Beakers. Antiquity, IX, 348. Pryor, F. M. M., 1974. Excavations at Fengate, Peterborough, England: the first report. Royal Ontario Muse um Arch. Monograph 3, Tor onto. Troels Smith, J., 1959. En Elmtraes-bue fra Aamosen, Aarbpger, 91-145. Troels Smith, J., 1961. En Elmtraes-bue fra Aamosen og andre Traesager fra Tidlig-Neolitisk Tid. Aarbpger, 122-46. van der Waals, J. , 1964. Neolithic discwheels in the Netherlands, Gronigen. Wilde, W.; 1857. Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Museum of the Royal Irish Antiquaries. Gill, Dublin, 23. Wright, E. V., 1976. The North Ferriby Boats: Monograph 23.

109

a guide book. N. M. M.

6. THE ARC HITECTURAL WOODWORK OF THE LATE BRONZE AGE VILLAGE AUVERNI ER-NORD Beat Arnold

Summary The construction of a motorway through the bay of Auvernier-Colombier (Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland) exposed, over a distance of 1. 5 km, ten lake dwellings. One of these, a Late Bronze Age village built about 850-830 BC, was the site of vast excavations, underwater as well as open-air (1971-1975). See Figure 6. 1. The excellent state of preservation of the wood, the great variety of species used, and the large number of tools found permit an assessment of the wood­ working technology. The exploitation of the various species was determined by their structural and mechanical properties. A detailed study of the marks made by tools, complemented by some experimental archeology, enables us to define the function of the tools with some confidence.

Timbers and planks The architectural elements which formed part of the superstructure of lake-dwellings are rarely preserved. Thus, a detailed description of the surviving ones is essential if we are to develop better-founded hypothesis in the future concerning the way in which they were constructed. Such a study will therefore relate to architectural timber, which may be classified in four main groups:

a.

piles, stakes and similar timber set into the ground;

b.

beams in or on the archaeological stratum, usually belonging to the superstructures of the buildings, including therefore the upper parts of piles broken off close to the ground;

c.

boards and planks are characterized by their width, which is usually at least four times their thickness; they are easily distinguished from piles and beams, which are at most twice as wide as thick;

d.

logboats and a few other artefacts made of large pieces of wood, such as tree-stumps and denuded tree-crowns with mortises.

Two classes of timber may be distinguished. The first is composed of trees with a trunk usually 8 to 15 cm in diameter. Using an axe, pointed piles or beams can easily be obtained. The second consists of trees having trunks too large in diameter to be used simple stripped of their branches.

111

F ig.

6 .1

S eparated f rom t he l ake by a d yke, a l arge a rea o f t he l ake-dwe l l ing o f Auvern ier-Nord c ou ld b e e xcavated a s a n o pen-a ir d ig.

F ig.

6 .2

Too l-marks l ocated underneath t he s tern ( to t he l ef t) a nd t he b ow o f a l ogboat t hat was washed i nto t he v i l lage dur ing a f lood a nd which t he p reh istor ic p eop le d id n ot t ry t o s a lvage.

F rax inus 5

1 1 /2

i L r—

1 /4

1

1 5

1 /6

1

-

M. »

Q ue rcus

r-

L_ 1 0

5

1 1 /2

1

I L

1 /4

EH 5

S M.

r :

A b ies

2 0

p l anches I

1 0

5 = 1Z .. 2

F ig .

3

6 .3

4

3 0- 4 5cm

I

I

i

I

i

1

i

I

I

I

I

i1 11 2 i1 3 11 4 15 16 17

i i

i

1 8 11 9 i2 0 12 1 12 2 12 3

1

i 1

2 4

I

2 5

1

2 6 12 7

1

28 1

The g roups o f e xp lo i ted a nd worked wood o f d ifferent s pecies u sed f or p i les a s af unct ion o f t he t runk-rad ius ( x-ax is) a nd f requency ( y-ax is). The d otted l i ne r ep resents t he p i les o f t he b reakwater.

1 13

F ig .

6 .4

Bronze t oo ls w i th a d ista l c utt ing e dge ( exp lanat ion o f t he d ifferent t ypes, c f . F ig. 6 .5).

1 14

T o b e o f a ny u se , e xcep t f or l ogboa ts t imber o f t h is c lass mus t b e c onver ted i n to sma l ler p ieces ( F ig .6 .3) . s p li t t ing t he w ood .

Two t echn iques may b e u sed :

s aw ing o r

S aw ing t he wood p oses c er ta in t echnica l p rob lems n o t y e t s o lved i n t he Bronze A ge , n a me ly , h ow t o make l arge a nd l ong s aws .

T hese d o n ot a ppear

u n t i l t he d eve lop men t o f i ron me ta l lurgy , wh ich a l lows l ong , w ide , f i ne b lades t o b e f orged , f l ex ib le a nd r es is tan t t o wear .

Wi th s uch a t oo l , t he mass ive

t runks b ecame a v a luab le r aw ma ter ia l a nd were e as i ly worked , wh ichever s pec ies was u sed . L ack ing s uch s aws t he who le t echno logy o f w ork ing mass ive t runks was d e termined , d ur ing t he Bronze Age a s w e l l a s d ur ing t he N eo li th ic , b y t he i nheren t p redispos i t ion o f c er ta in s pec ies o f w ood t o s p l i t a long a g iven l ong it udina l z one . These c leavage z ones may b e e i ther c oncen tr ic , a long t he g row thr ings o f t he t ree ( as w i th f i r A b ies s p . ) ,o r r adia l , a long t he w ood r ays ( f or e xa mp le i n o ak Q uercus s p .) .T hese z ones a re t herefore i mpor tan t s ince t he f i ssures w i l l l i e ma in ly i n t ha t d irec t ion . T he a ppropr ia te t oo l f or s p l i t t ing i s t he wedge . I t may b e made o f e i ther s tone o r me ta lt o o pen t he c rack a nd may b e r ep laced a f terwards b y ah ardwood wedge . T he w ood 's a p t i tude f or s p li t t ing , o r c leavab i li ty , i s i nverse ly p ropor t iona l t o i t s c ohes ion , o r r esis ta nce t o t ransverse t rac t ion .

Oak a nd c on iferous w oods , a s w e l l a s c hestnut

( Cas tanea s a t iva ) , h ave weak c ohes ion a nd c an b es p l i t c lean ly .

I n t he c a tegory

o f wood w i th i n termedia te c ohes ion , b eech ( Fagus s p . )a nd a sh ( Fraxinus s p . ) c an b e g iven a s e xamp les .

E lm ( U l mus s p . ) p op lar ( Popu lus s p .) a nd w i l low

( Sa lb e s p . )h ave s trong c ohes ion , s p li t t ing p oor ly . A t A uvern ier-Nord, t hree b as ic ways o fb reak ing d own t he t imbers a re o bserved, d epending o n t he s pec ies a nd o n t he d iame ter o f t he t rees : a .

e le men ts h av ing t he p i th a t t he c en tre o f at ransverse s ec t ion ;

t hese

t end t o b e p i les o r b ea ms h av ing a c ircu lar o r p o lygona l c ross-sec t ion ; a l l s pec ies u sed i n t he v i l lage a re r epresen ted; b .

e le men ts , b eams , o r p i les h av ing t he c ore a t t he p er iphery , o f ten o n a n e dge t ha t h as b een c utaway ; o ak , a sh , a nd t wo p i les made o f e lm a re r epresen ted .

e .

b oards o f s i lver f i r ( Abies a lba ) f ar r e moved f ro m t he c ore , i .e . a t ad is tance many t imes t he b oard 's t h ickness .

T oo ls a nd Work ing T echn iques Wi th t he a ppearance o fb ronze a nd t he mou ld , t oo ls b eca me much more h o mogenous , t hus a l low ing a s tr ic ter a na lys is . Ar tefac ts w i th a d ista l c u t t ing e dge ( F ig .6 .4 ) f a l l p la in ly i n to t hree c a tegor ies : a . b .

aw ls a nd ( n arrow ) c h ise ls ; g ouges , b ur ins , o r w ood c h ise ls ;

c .

a dzes a nd a xes .

I n work ing wood , e spec ia l ly i n c arv ing , t he k n ife must b e a dded t o t h is i nven tory , i tb eing a n e x tre me ly v ersa t i le t oo l a nd w eapon .

T he b ronze s aw ,

r are a nd o f modest d i mensions , wou ld p lay o n ly a minor r ole , a nd a w ls a nd c h ise ls wou ld h ard ly e ver b e u sed i n f ash ion ing a rch i tec tura l e lemen ts . 1 15

20 c m

A 1

C )

t A

1 i p

z ,

A CA •

AA,V .1 .4 'A. A' ' A A

E

A

I 4 • Al t' % ' L '

0

1 5-

A

•

A A

A

0

1 ( -

9

E

1

11

F ig .

6 .5

E J

2

0

3

6

4

•

h --I

A

I

7 c m

A

W id th o f t he b lade ( x-ax is) a nd o vera l l l eng th ( y-ax is) o f b ronze t oo ls ( a=aw ls ; b =bur ins o r wood c h ise ls; c = g ouges; d =adzes ; e =axes ; f :,: wedges).

1 16

The g ouges , mass ive a nd we l l s ui ted t o h o l low ing o u t w ood , h ave n ot l ef t a ny v is ib le t races o n t he o b jec ts a na lyzed . o r w ood c h ise ls p ose c er ta in p rob le ms . l ess t han 3 cm l ong .

The f unc t ion a nd u se o f t he b ur ins

T ake , f or i ns tance , c er ta in mor t ises

T hey c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een f ash ioned e xcep t u s ing s uch

t oo ls , o r e ven g ouges .

On t he o ther h and , t hese b ur ins a re v ery b lun t-nosed ,

a nd t herefore s low a nd i nconven ien t t o u se i n w ood t ha t i s l i ab le t o s p l i t a t a ny mo men t , t he t oo l h av ing t he t endency s imp ly t o d r ive t he f i bres a par t . I t may t herefore b e a ssu med t ha t , whenever p ossib le , e ven f or s ha l low g oug ing , p reh istor ic p eop le u sed t he a xe o r t he a dze ( F ig .6 .6 ) . A par t f ro m f ash ioning t he " s ma l l mor t ises" , t he b ur ins c ou ld a lso h avebeen u sed f or c ut t ing s lo ts . T he l as t g roup o ft oo ls , a nd b y f ar t he mos t i mpor tan t a s c oncerns a rch it ec tura l w oodwork ing , a re t he f l anged a dzes a nd a xes. T he l a t ter may b e s ubdiv ided i n to t wo g roups : f l anged a xes a nd t he f l anged w edges . Wedges h ave a c ut t ing e dge c ons iderab ly l onger t han t he t oo l i s t h ick , a t l east i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he b lade . Bronze w ood c h ise ls a re t herfore t o b e e xc luded; o n t he o ther h and , c er ta in a r tefac ts , made i n t he s ame mou lds a s t he f l anged a xes , h ave smashed , h a m mered b u t ts . T hese marks c ou ld p la in ly n o t h ave b een made w i th t he t oo l h af ted; a nd s ince t he b lade r ema ins v ery s harp , s uch marks c ou ld h ave b een made o n ly b y h am mer ing t he b ut t o ft he t oo lw i th ah eavy o b jec t o fb ronze o r s tone i n to a r e la t ive ly s of t ma ter ia l , s uch a s w ood . F langed a xes u sed a s wedges a re d ef ined a s f l anged wedges . s u i ted f or s uch a u se .

T hey a re h igh ly

F la t a nd s harp t o o pen t he c rack , t hey t hen r ap id ly

w iden t he c rack b y means o f t he f l anges , t hus s p l i t t ing t he wood . I f , a t t h is s tage , t he w ood i s n ot y e t c o mp lete ly s p li t , ah ardwood wedge w i l l e as i ly f i n ish t he j ob . I ft he w idth o f t he b lade a nd t he o vera l l l eng th o f t he b ronze t oo l a re p lot ted o n ag raph ( F ig .6 .5 ) , a nother d if ference b e tween t hese t wo t ypes o f t oo ls w i l l b eo bserved : i n t he c ase o f t he f l anged w edges , t he sm i th v ar ied t he c as t ing b y a ddi t iona l h a m mer ing o f t he c u t t ing e dge o ft he b lade , d r iv ing i to u t a s f ar a s p oss ib le l a tera l ly , s o t ha t a t t he c os t o f t he o vera l l l eng th , t he b lade b ecame a pprec iab ly w ider . A s f ar a s p oss ib le , t he a xe o r t he a dze was a lways u sed t o p lane b oards , t o f ashion mor t ises , t o c u t t he p ointed e nds o fp i les , a nd t o h o l low o ut f ar i ly w ide g rooves . A s t o t he d if ferent ia t ion o f t he marks made b y a n a dze o r a n a xe , o n ly t he s ys te ma t ic measure men t o f t he w id th o f t he c hopp ing-marks c an s upp ly a n a nswer . Occas iona l ly , w ork d one w i th in a c onf ined s pace may a lsog ive u s a n a nswer , s uch a s t he h o l low ing o ut o f al ogboa t . T he p ropor t ion o fa xes t o a dzes f ound ( 12 t o 1 ) , a nd a lso t he g rea t n umber o ft oo l marks w ider t han 4 . 2 cm , c lear ly s ugges ts t ha t t he a xe , b e ing h eav ier , was p referred t o t he a dze . F or e xamp le , ad e ta i led a na lys is o f t he marks l ef t u nder t he e nds o f al ogb oa t h as made i tp oss ib le t o s pec ify wha t t ype o f t oo l was u sed : t he a xe a nd n o t t he a dze . The f i rst s tage o f h o llow ing o ut t he l og was d one b y f i r ing , t races o f w h ich c an s t i l l c lear ly b e s een f rom t he p row t o t he s tern ( Arno ld 1 976) .

On t he h u l l , f ore a nd a f t , t oo l marks may p la in ly b e s een , t he s te m

b e ing , b y d ef ini t ion , t he b ase o f t he t runk .

H ere , t he marks a re w e l l p re-

s erved a nd s ee m f resh , a s o pposed t o wha t may b e o bserved a t t he p row ( F ig .6 .2 ) .

T he marks o n t he s tern c ons ist o f l ong , j ux taposed b ands , c rea ted

1 17

A UV .4 488

1 0cm

A UV .4 487

F ig.

6 .6

Whenever p oss ible, a xes a nd a dzes were u sed i n a rch it ectura l woodwork ing. S tr ik ing t he wood a t a n a ng le p erm its t he f ash ioning o f e ven f iner s lots o r g rooves.

1 18

M -S80

1 0 cm

F ig .

6 . 7

Mort ise-and-tenon j o ints a re c ommon but r ather r ough ly made. These h asti ly-produced e lements a re f ar r emoved f rom t he f ine qua l i ty o f t he t oo ls a nd o ther s ma l l wooden o b jects.

1 19

b y ac on t inuous s er ies o fb lows w i th t he a xe ;

t he w idth o f t hese b ands v ar ies

f ro m a bou t 2 .5 t o 4 .5 cm , u sua l ly b etween 3 a nd 4 cm , a nd t he l eng th o f a s ing le c h ip may b e f ro m 1 .5 t o 4 cm b ut i s u sua l ly b etween 2 a nd 3 cm .

The

l eng th o f t he b ands i s u sua l ly a bou t 3 0 cm , wh ich i s where t he worked p ar t o ft he v esse l e nds , t he r es t o f t he h u l l i s s imp ly s tr ipped o f b ark . A t t he b ow , t hese b ands a re r are ly l onger t han 1 5 t o 2 0 cm . The ir w idth i s b etween 3a nd 3 .5 cm , a nd t he l eng th o ft he c h ips i s b etween 2 a nd 4 cm , u sua l ly 3 t o 3 .5 cm .

H ere , t he l a t ter a re s quare r a ther t han r ec tangu lar , a s i s t he c ase

a t t he s tern . I ti s more d if f icu l t t o p erce ive t he m a s t he b ow h as c lear ly u nderg one h eavy w ear a nd s trong e rosion . I n o rder t o emphas ize t hese u nobtrus ive marks , t he ir o ut l ine o n t he mois t wood c an b e t raced w i th a p enc i l h av ing a wa ter-so lub le l ead .

G enera l ly , e i ther a s er ies o f s hor t c h ipp ings o r as er ies

o f l ong c h ipp ings i s f ound , b ut a l mos t n ever a mix ture o f t hese t wo w i th in o ne b and . T he b lade-w idth o f f l anged a xes v ar ies b e tween 3 .5 a nd 5 .4 cm , c hief ly b e tween 4 .2 a nd 4 .8 cm , t ha to f t he a dzes b e tween 3 .6 a nd 4 .1 cm . The w id th o ft he l a t ter , a pprec iab ly l ess t han t ha t o f t he a xes , c ou ld h ardly h ave c ons is te n t ly l ed t o b and o f t he w id ths r ecorded a t b o th e nds o f t he l ogboat . S im i lar o bserva t ions may b e made a s r egards t he marks l ef to n b oards a nd o n p i les . H ere , t oo , t he w idth o f t he c h ipp ings i s c ons tan t ly g rea ter t han 4 cm . I n t h is k ind o fa na lys is , we mus t a lways r emember t ha t wha t we o bserve a nd r ecord a re b ut t he f i na l t ouches a t t he e nd o f al ong l abour ; t hese may s o me t imes r ef lec t o n ly a p ar t ia l a nd o ne-s ided i mage o f t he w ork r ea l ly i nvo lved . F langed A xes a nd Woodwork ing : E xper imenta l w ork u s ing h af ted f l anged a xes h as g iven u s s o me p rac t ica l i n forma t ion . A s o pposed t o i ron a xes ( modern o r a nc ien t ) , w here t he h af t g oes s tra igh t t hrough t he me ta l , t he b ronze f langed a xe b lade i s s i tua ted a t s o me d istance f ro m t he l ong i tud ina l a x is o f t he h and le ( F ig .6 .4 ) . T herefore , when t he w ork ing-p lane i s h or izon ta l , t he b ronze b lade h as t he n a tura l t endency t o i mp lan t i t se lf d eep ly i n t he wood i ns tead o fg raz ing i tl i gh t ly a nd l i f t ing o f f as hav ing .

I n o rder t o c oun ter t h is t endency , ac on-

s iderab le e f for t mus t b e made a t t he wr ist t o c oun ter-ba lance t he w e igh t o f t he b ronze h ead, wh ich i s a ssym me tr ica l w i th r espec t t o t he h af t .

T hese

i nconven iences d isappear , o f c ourse , a s s oon a s t he p lane o f work b eco mes n ear ly o r c o mp le te ly v er t ica l . O n t he o ther h and , t he f l anged a xe i st he i dea l t oo l f or f ash ion ing mor t ises . T he n arrow b lade i s f ar r e moved f ro m t he h and le , a nd t h is a l lows t he r ap id c u t t ing o f mor t ises s o me 1 0 cm d eep . T he ir l eng th ( or w idth ) , measured a cross t he g ra in , w i l lb e a t l eas t o f t he o rder o f 5 cm , i .e . t he w idth o f t he b lade .

E xper imen ta l ly a nd w i thou t p rac t ice , w e were e as i ly a b le t o c hop

mor t ises t hrough f i r b ea ms u p t o 2 0 cm i n d iame ter , t ak ing a bou t h a lf a n h our p er mor t ise .

T hose made w i th f l anged a xes o r w i th a dzes may b e t ermed

" large mor t ises ."

T hey a re more t han 4 cm l ong f or b oards a nd more t han

5 cm f or b ea ms ( F ig .6 .7) . Methods o fJ o in ing :

N owhere a t A uvern ier-N ord was a j o int b e tween t wo

c o mp le te e le men ts f ound .

On t he o ther h and , a n a na lys is o f t he r are f ragments

o fb roken-of f t enons s t i l l f ound i n mor t ises , a nd t he v ary ing amoun t o f c are

1 20

F RAXINUS

A94

QUERCUS

F ig.

6 .8

Ash t runks w ere s p l i t o n ly i nto quarters f or p i les. The ir who le s urface was t hen c arefu l ly b eve l led. S p l i tt ing o ak, w i th i t s p rominent wood-rays, i s much e as ier. P i les a nd b eams may t herefore b e made o f o n ly 1 /8 o f at runk: i n t h is c ase a l arge p art o f t he s apwood i s c hopped o ff .

1 21

t aken i n f ash ioning t he mor t ises , l eads t o c er ta in c onc lus ions :

t he t enon i s

c lear ly u nder-dimens ioned i n r e la t ion t o i t s mor t ise—the j o in t i s s o me t imes e ven s ecured b y aw edge ; t he mor t ises a re f ash ioned c are less ly a nd w ou ld s carce ly a cco m moda te a t enon o f r ec tangu lar c ross-sec t ion . Mor t ise-andtenon j o in ts a re c om mon b u t a re r a ther r ough ly made . T hese h as t i ly-produced e le men ts may h ard ly b e c o mpared t o t he g round p la tes ( Grundschwe l len o r F leck linge ) d iscovered a t t he L a te Bronze Age s i tes i n e as tern S w i tzer land ( e .g . i n Z ug Su mpf ; S peck 1 955 ) . T he a bove c r i t ic is m d oes n o t a t a l l a pp ly t o t he manufac ture o f t oo ls a nd o ther sma l l wooden o b jects . T he c arefu l ly f ash ioned mor t ise —square , r ec tangu lar , o r c ircu lar i n s ec t ion— t herefore e x is ts n one t he l ess , b ut t h is t ype was f or sma l l wooden o b jec ts . H a lved s lo ts h ave a lso b een n oted;

b ut n o d ove ta i l j oin t , s uch a s f ound i n

t he w e l l a t S t . Mor i tz GR ( He ier li 1 907) , h as b een o bserved a t A uvern ierN ord . C onver t ing t he t imber C onver t ing Oak :

Oak w ood ( Quercus s p . )i s d ist ingu ished b y t he p resence

o fw ood r ays i n b ands a t ta in ing l eng ths o f o ccas iona l ly o ver 5 cm .

B y i n tro-

d uc ing wedges i n to t he t runk o n al i ne p ara l le l t o t he t ree 's c ore , i ti s e asy t o b reak a t runk , e ven o fg rea t d imensions , d own i n to s ec t ions . F or p i les a nd b eams ,

1/ 8

o f at runk was f i ne e nough , a nd a f ur ther s ubdiv ision was o n ly

o nce b een r ecorded ( F ig .6 .8 ) . I fs p l i t t ing h ad c on tinued d own t o

1/3 2 ,

b oards w ou ld h ave r esu lted , s uch

a swere u sed f or t he p lank ing o f t he 1 0 th t o 1th c en tury V ik ingsh ips f ound a t S ku lde lev i n D en mark ( O lsen & C ru m lin-Pedersen 1 967 , F ig .62) . T he s p li t t ing o f o ak t runks i n to s ec t ions made i tp oss ib le f or t he i nhab i tan ts o ft he v i l lage t o u se n o t o n ly o ak t rees o f d ia me ters l ess t han 1 5 cm , b ut a lso t hose u p t o 6 0 cm . Oak t rees l ess t han 1 5 cm i n d ia me ter were u sed w i thou t s p li t t ing .

E ven t hough t he s apwood i s v ery s uscep t ib le t o b io log ica l d ecay ,

i t was n ot r e moved i n t he c ase o fu nsp li t p i les , a s i tr epresents more t han h a lf t he v o lu me o f t he p i le , i n s o me i nstances t wo-th irds . O ak t rees w i th a d iame ter b e tween 1 5 a nd 3 0 cm were s p li t i n to 2 , 3 , o r 4s ec t ions , t hose b e tween 3 0 a nd 6 0 cm i n to 6 f° 8 s ec t ions ( F ig .6 . 3 ) . S ince i n t he l a t ter c ase t he s apwood r epresents o n ly a minor f rac t ion o f t he v o lu me o ft he p i le , i t was u sua l ly p ar t ia l ly r emoved , a long w i th t he e dge c onta ining t he c ore o f t he t ree o rp i th . Thus , t he p i les b ecame t rapezo ida l a nd n ot t oo w ide . When t he d ia me ter o ft he t ree e xceeded 6 0 cm , n ew d if f icu lt ies a rose . P ieces made b y s p l i t t ing s uch a l og i n to 6 t o 8s ec t ions a re t oo mass ive , t oo h eavy t o b e u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o f b u i ldings , a nd s p li t t ing t he m i n to n arrower s ec t ions w ou ld p roduce b oards a nd n ot p i les o r b eams .

I tf o llows

t ha t o ak t rees l arger t han 6 0 cm w ere n o t u sed , b oards were more e as i ly o b ta ined b y s p li t t ing f i r t runks . C onver t ing Ash :

T he a sh ( Frax inus e xce ls ior ) , l i ke t he b eech , s p l i ts c onsider-

a b ly l ess w e l l t han t he o ak .

Break ing d own a l og i n to n u merous s ec t ions , f or

e xa mp le 1 6 o r 3 2 , a s c ou ld b e d one w i th o ak , i s i mposs ib le .

S p li t t ing i s

l im ited t o q uar ter ing , e ach s ec t ion t hen b e ing c arefu lly b eve l led . T he ir s hape c an t hen b eco me a l mos t c y lindr ica l , a nd i ti s i mposs ib le t od ist ingu ish t he m 1 22

I m

L 1 045

L 2 00 2

F ig .

6 .9

The p i les, h ere o f o ak , w ere d r iven d own t o a d epth o f a bout 3 m , t hrough l ayers o f c ha lky a nd c layey l akeb o ttom d epos i ts, t o r est o n t he mora in ic d epos i ts, p rov id ing s table f oundat ions f or t he bu i ld ings i n a n o therw ise unstable t erra in. 1 23

AB IES

-

-4 290

------

4 229

5 -490F

5 -107

S -33 5 -053

54 1004

5 -380A

F ig.

6 .10

The s i lver f i r was u sed f or b oards which, w i th v ery f ew e xcept ions, were a lways made o f t h is wood.

1 24

i n t he f i e ld f ro m u nsp l i t p i les i fn o c ross-sec t ion i s e xam ined . Trunks s p l i t i n to t wo p ar ts r epresen t o n ly 4 % o f t he a sh p i les , whereas 2 0% o f t he a sh t rees f e l led were s p li t i n to 4 s ec t ions , s upp ly ing 4 6% o f t he a shp i les . E lemen ts c orresponding t o 1/6 o f at runk a re , i nfac t , t he r esu lt o f i rregu lar s p li t t ing t ha t d oes n ot a lways y ie ld 4 t imes e xac t ly 1/4 o f at runk ( F ig .6 .8) . Two g roups o fa sh t rees w ere n o t u sed : t hose l arger t han 5 0 cm .

t hose w i th a d ia meter b e tween 2 0 a nd 3 0 cm a nd

T he l a t ter l im i t i s o f t he s a me n a ture a s i n o ak ,

wh ich , b ecause i tc an b e s p l i t more p rec ise ly , c an b e u sed u p t o at runk d ia meter o f 6 0 cm ( F ig . 6 .3) . C onver t ing S i lver F ir :

A l l t he p i les ( and b eams) o f t he v i l lage made o f s i lver

f i r( Abtes a lba ) h ave t he p i th a t t he c en tre o f ac ross-sec t ion . f or t h is u se , t he t runks were n o t s p li t .

I tf o l lows t ha t

Those u sed f or dwe l lings a nd t he ir

a uxi liary c ons truc tions , b reakwa ters n ot i nc luded , were s imp ly , s harpened t o ap oint a t t he ( t ree 's ) t op w i thou t h av ing t he b ark r e moved .

O f t hese p i les ,

5 4% h ave o ne s ide w orn o f f , r esu lt ing f ro m t he ir h av ing b een d ragged a cross t he g round . T he s i lver f i r p i les u sed f or t he b reakwa ters were f i n ished a long t he e nt ire ty o f t he p reserved l eng th , a nd u sua l ly o n a l l s ides .

T he l og ic f or

t h is c onsiderab le amoun t o fw ork s t i l l e scapes u s . Over 9 8% o f t he s i lver f ir b reakwa ter p i les were made o f t runks h av ing a d ia me ter b e tween 7 a nd 1 5 cm ;

o ver 9 7% o f t he r es t o f t he p i les i n t he v i l lage ,

i .e . o f t he dwe l lings a nd t he ir a nnexes , a re made f ro m t runks b e tween 9 a nd 1 7 cm i n d ia meter . Trees o f ad iame ter l arger t han 1 8 cm were n o t u sed i n mak ing p i les o r b eams . S i lver f i r p i les o fb reakwa ters a s we l l a s o f dwe l lings , o n t he o ther h and , a re a n a verage o f 2 cm l arger i n d iame ter t han t he ir e quiva lents i n o ak o r a sh ( F ig .6 .3 ) . I t may b e n o ted t ha t , i fo f e qua l l eng th , t he weigh t o fa n e lemen t o fo ak o r a sh w ood 1 cm i n d iame ter i s w i th in 5 % o f t ha t o f af i r w ood e le men t 1 3 cm i n d iame ter . B ecause o f t he ir l eng th a nd u sua l ly v ery c on ica l s hape , t he f i r p i les were a lways p lanted h ead f i rs t i n t he g round, p oss ib ly e xcep t ing t he b reakwa ters , w here o ne c annot t e l l . T he manufac ture o f f i r p i les r equ ires l i t t le w ork .

On ly t he p oint i s s haped f or a

l eng th o f a bou t o ne me tre . T he b ark was l ef t o n t he p i les f or t he b u i ldings , b u t when e x trac t ing t he p i les o ne u sua l ly f i nds i td eco mposed . S ince i ti s r egu lar ly f ound, t hough , we may e xc lude a ny l ong s torage o f t he w ood b efore i t s u se . As a lready ment ioned a bove , t he n a tura l c leavage z ones o f t he f i r a re a long t he g row th-r ings . S p li t t ing s uch l ogs wou ld t herefore t end t o p roduce l a tera l ly a rched p lanks ( F ig .6 .10/S-31) .

T he s ides wou ld t hen h ave t o b e

s l ight ly p laned i n o rder t o a ch ieve a more o r l ess f l at s ur face . F igure 6 .10 p la in ly i l lustra tes t he p rob lems e ncoun tered i n d e termin ing w ith p rec is ion t he s ize o f t he t rees f ro m wh ich b oards were made : t he t rees o utermos t r ings c an r are ly b e i dent if ied . b e g iven .

cm i n d iameter . u sed;

On t he o ther h and , a pprox ima te f i gures may

Most o f t he b oards w ere made f ro m f i r t rees b e tween 4 0 a nd 6 0 T h is d oes n ot mean t ha t t runks l arger t han 6 0 cm were n o t

t he u pper l im i t i s c er ta in ly a t l eas t o ne metre .

T he s i lver f ir was .t herefore e xp loi ted i n t wo d ist inc t ly d if feren t s ize g roups : a .

f ro m 7 t o 1 7 cm f or u se a s b eams o r p i les

b .

f ro m 4 0 t o 1 00 cm , a nd p erhaps more , f ro m wh ich b oards were made . 1 25

A UV . NORD

A UV . N ORD

S -5 6

S -M 2 06

A UV .N ORD

S -M 2 08

Im

F ig .

6 .11

The s p l i tt ing o f f i r r esu lts i n more o r l ess l a tera l ly c urved b oards, a s t he wood t ends t o s p l i t a long t he g rowth-r ings o f t he t ree. The c arpenter t hen f l attened t hem by c hopping mater ia l o ff t he e dges o f t he c oncave s ide a nd f rom t he m idd le o f t he c onvex s ide.

1 26

B oards a t l eas t f our t imes l onger t han t heir w idth a re q ui te o f ten f ound a t t h is s i te . s p li t

They a re a l l o f s i lver f i r ( F ig .6 .11) , w i th o ne e xcep t ion , o f o ak

1/3 2 .

One g roup o f 7b oards may b e d ist ingu ished , h av ing r ounded e dges .

T hey

a re 3 0 t o 4 0 cm w ide , 2 10 t o 3 00 cm l ong a nd 4 t o 5 cm t h ick . A s econd g roup h ave a w idth o f a bou t 2 0 cm , a lso b eing 4 t o 5 cm t h ick . T hey a re u p t o a bou t 1 50 cm l ong , a nd s ome o ft he m h ave a mor t ise a t o ne e nd .

S ince we f i nd n o

e le men t where b o th e nds were p roper ly f i n ished, i ti s i mposs ib le t o b e s ure a bout t he ir t o ta l l eng th a nd t od raw a ny c onc lus ions a s t o t he ir f unc t ion . S p li t t ing f i r t rees w i l l , a s men t ioned , r esu lt i n l a tera l ly a rched b oards .

I n

o rder t o make t he m p lane , t he c arpen ter r emoved e xcess wood a t t he s ides o f t he c oncave s urface a nd a long t he c en tre o f t he c onvex s urface . C onver t ing O ther S pec ies :

N ex t i n o rder o ff requency af ter o ak ' , a sh , a nd

s i lver f i r i s t he w i l low ( Sa lix s p . ) , e spec ia l ly i n t he b reakwa ters , where i t r epresen ts u p t o 1 4% o f t he p i les . Among t he 3 50 p i les a na lyzed , t he b reakwa ters n ot b e ing r epresen ted h ere , t he w i l lowmakes u p3% o f t he t o ta l . A l l t he w i l low e le men ts f ound h ave t he p i th o f t he t ree a t t he c en tre o f ac rosss ect ion . Among t he o ther s pec ies u sed i n c ons truc t ion a t t h is s i te , o n ly o ne i s c onver ted i n a n u nusua l manner , t he e lm ( U l mus s p . ) : o ft he t hree f ound , o ne i s c ircu lar , o ne i s h a lved , a nd o ne i s s p li t i n to

1/ 6.

A l l t he o ther s pec ies u sed t o make p i les h ave t he p i th a t t he c en tre o f a c ross-sec t ion a nd a re c ircu lar . T he A lder ( A lune s p . )i s r epresen ted b y 1 3 p i les i n t he b reakwa ters a nd b y o n ly 3 p i les i n t he i nhab ited a rea . o ft he b reakwa ters , 2 9 p i les o fp op lar ( Popu lus s p . )were f ound .

I n o ne

T he map le

( Acer s p . ) ,b eech ( Fazus s i lva t ica ) , b irch ( Betu la s p . ) ,p icea ( P icea a b ies ) , a nd y ew-tree ( Taxus b acca ta ) a re r epresen ted b y a max imu m o f 4p i les e ach . T he o n ly u se r ecorded o f t he S cotch P ine o r N orway f i r ( P inus s i lves tr is was f or a s ing le p i le a nd a l ogboa t 7 .80 m l ong . C hoice o f s pec ies An a na lysis o f 3 50 p i les f ro m dwe l lings p roper a nd f ro m t he ir d if feren t a ux i liary c ons truc t ions , n ot i nc lud ing b reakwa ters , h as p rov ided t he f o l low ing v a lues :

4 0% o ft he p i les u sed were made o f o ak , 3 7% o f s i lver f ir , 1 6% o f

a sh , 4% o fw i l low .

T he r e ma in ing s pec ies t oge ther d o n ot e ven r epresent

3 % . O f t h is l o t o fp i les , 3 1% o f t he o aken o nes w ere made b y s p li t t ing t he t runk i n to 6 t o 8s ec t ions , r epresent ing o n ly 8 % o f t he t rees f e l led; 8 1% o f t he o ak t rees were u sed d irec t ly , w i thout b e ing s p l i t . As f or t he a sh , 4 6% o f t he p i les were made b y s p li t t ing t he t runk i n to 4 s ec t ions , r epresen t ing 1 8% o f t he a sh t rees f e l led . T hus , e ven t hough t he s p li t p i les r epresent 2 7% o f t he p i les a na lyzed , t h is c orresponds t o o n ly 9 % o ft he t rees f e l led . Mediu m t o l arge-sized t rees were t herefore p lain ly u nder-exp loi ted , t he o ak more s o t han t he a sh .

1 27

Acknow ledge men t N ous t enons ‘ a .r e merc ier i c i F r i tz S chwe ingruber e t s on e qu ipe d e l ' Ins t i tu t r edera l d er echerches f ores tr eres ( B ir rnensdor f ) p our t outes l eurs i den tif ica t ions b otan iques . L es f i gures s on t d e F rançoise B urn i( 4 ) , N a tha lie Desse ( 6 , 7e t 1) , F ranço ise P assard ( 9 ) e t Va len t in R ychner ( 4 ) . L es f ou i lles d 'Auvernier , e ntra inees p ar l e p assage d e l a r ou te n a t iona le 5 , s ont r ea lisees p ar l e S erv ice c an tona l d 'archeo log ie d e N euchä te l ( arche° Logue c an tona l :

M iche l E g lof f ) .

C es erv ice e st r a t tache a u d epar te men t d es

Travaux p ub lics q ue d ir igea i t M . C ar los Gros jean , c onsei l ler d 'E ta t .

L a

C omm ission s pec ia le d 'archeo log ie p our l a c onstruc t ion d e l a RN 5 e s t p res idee p ar l e p rofesseur Marc-R . S au ter .

L e f i nance ment d es r echerches

e s t a ssure p ar l e b ud je t d e c ons truc t ion d e l a RN 5 e t l e F onds n a t iona l d e l a R echerche s c ient if ique .

REFERENCES Arno ld , B ., 1 976 .

' La p irogue d 'Auvern ier N ord 1 975 ( Bronze f i na l) .

C on tr ibu t ion I l a t echno log ie d es p irogues monoxy les p reh istor iques ' . C ah iers d 'archeo log ie s ubaqua t ique ? 5 :75-84 . Arno ld , B ., 1 977 .

' Les d eux v i l lages i m merges d u Bronze f i na l d 'Auvern ier :

l a s ta t ion Brena e t l a s ta t ion N ord ' .

B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te s u isse d e

Preh isto ire e t d 'Archeo log ie , 3 0-31:46-57 . Arno ld, B ., a nd S chwe ingruber , F . H ., 1 975 .

' E tudes a rcheo log iques e t

b o tan iques s ur l es p i lot is d e l a p a l issade d e l a s ta t ion N ord d 'Auvernier ( l ac d e N euchä te l ) ' .

B u l le t in d e l a S oc ie te n euchä te loise d es S c iences

n a ture l les , 9 8 :175-193 . E g lof f , M ., 1 972 .

' Recherches s ubaqua t iques d ans l a b a ie d 'Auvernier ' .

He lve t ia a rchaeo log ica , 9 :3-12. H e ier li , J ., 1 907 .

' D ie b ronzeze i t liche Que l lfassung v on S t . Mor i tz ' .

I ndica teur d 'An t iqu i tes s u isses , N S 9 :265-278 . O lsen , 0 ., a nd C ru m lin-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 967 .

' The S ku lde lev s h ips ( I I ) ' .

Ac ta a rchaeo log ica , 3 8 :73-174 . Rychner , V ., 1 979 . S u isse) .

L 'äge d u Bronze f i na l äA uvern ier ( Lac d e N euchä te l ,

Typo log ie e t c hrono log ie d es a nc iennes c o l lec t ions c onserv es

e n S u isse .

C ah iers d 'archeo log ie r o mande , 1 5-16 .

S peck , J ., 1 955 . Z ug Su mpf ' .

' D ie Ausgrabungen d er s pn tbronzeze i t lichen U fersiedlung Monograph ien z ur Ur- u nd F rühgesch ich te d er S chweiz ,

1 1 :275-334 .

1 28

7 .

THE DONNERUPLA ND ARD P e ter J . R eyno lds

S um mary T h is p aper p resents t he r esu lts o f ac urrent r esearch p rogram me d es igned t o e xa m ine b y r ep lica t ion t he c ons truc t ion , f unc t ion a nd w ear p a t terns o f t he D onnerup land a rd . T he r esearch p rogram me i s b e ing c arr ied o u t b y t he a u thor a t t he B u tser A nc ien t F arm P ro jec t T rus t n ear P or ts mou th i n H ampsh ire , E ng land . T he o r ig ina l a rd i s d escr ibed i n d e ta i l f ro m t he e v idence r ecorded b y P . V . G lob w i th f ur ther o bserva t ions o f t he c r i t ica l e le men ts o f wedges a nd t he b rac ing o f t he f oreshare a ga ins t t he s t i lt . T he manufac ture o f t he r ep lica f ocusses a t ten t ion u pon t he most v u lnerab le p ar ts o f t he a rd a nd i ndica tes t he p robab le a ge o f t he t imbers n ecessary f or i t s c ons truc t ion . T he r o les o f t he v ar ious c o mponen t p ar ts o f t he a rd a re d e ta i led a nd t he h ypo thesis

t ha ta rds o f t h is t ype a re c apab le o fp roduc ing t he s o-

c a l led a rd marks i s q ues t ioned i n t he l i gh t o f emp ir ica l t es t ing . T he f ur therpos tu la ted p rac t ice o f t i lt ing s uch a rds t o i ncrease t he ir p o ten t ia l i n f urrow d ep th a nd s oi l i nvers ion i s e xam ined a nd r e jec ted .

I n troduc t ion Any t imberwork wh ich s urv ives f ro m t he p reh istor ic p er iod i s v i ta l ly i mpor tan t i n f unda men ta l ly e x tending o ur k now ledge a nd u nderstanding .

T here

c an b e l i t t le d oub t b ut t ha t w ood f or med t he p r ime r esource f or t he manufac ture o f h ouses , f ences , i mp lemen ts , t oo ls , b oa ts , c ar ts , s ledges—the l i st i s u nending .

I n e f fec t , wood was s o c o mmon ly u sed t ha t t here i s e very r eason

t o b e lieve t ha t s i lv icu lture r epresented a ma jor i ndus try a nd t ha t c raf ts men i n wood f ormed a n i n tegra l c o mponen t i n ac o mp lex s oc ie ty . C er ta in ly s uch ac ond i t ion e x is ted b y t he I ron A ge a nd R o man p er iods . N or i s ar e liance o n wood e xc lus ive t o t he r e mote p ast .

I t was n ot u n t i l s o me t ime a f ter t he

I ndus tr ia l R evo lu t ion t ha t me ta l b ecame c o mpara t ive ly a bundant a nd n ot u n t i l t he a dvent o fp las t ics t ha t w ood was l arge ly r ep laced a s a modern r esource . The s urv iv ing f rag men ts o f me ta lwork wh ich f ormed t he f i t t ings f or v eh ic les , t he b lades f or t oo ls , r ims f or whee ls g ive t an ta lis ing ly sma l l i ns igh ts i n to t h is ma jor i ndus try . I ti s n o t w ithout p oint t o p ut i n to c on tex t t ha t mos t a bundan t a nd f requent o f a r tefac ts , t he p ot tery s herd , wh ich h as s o c oncent ra ted t he minds o f a rchaeo log ists i n t he g eneral a bsence o f o ther mater ials . A lthough i t s r o le w i th in a s oc ie ty i s f undamen ta l i tc an h ard ly b e d escr ibed a s d iagnos t ic o f a n e cono my o r r epresen ta t ive o f a n i ndustry o u ts ide i t s own p roduc t ion .

I ti s , b eyond a minor d ecora t ive r o le , au t i li tar ian p roduc t .

I n

c ontras t at oo l o f a l mos t a ny k ind i s i ndica t ive o fn ot o n ly i t s own p oten t ia l b u t a lso o f i t s p roduc t a nd t he i nev i tab le r e lat ionsh ip o f t hat p roduc t w i th o ther t oo ls a nd o therproduc ts . 1 29

T hus i ti s t ha t w ooden p loughs o r a rds , p r imar i ly t hose r ecovered f rom t he D an ish p ea t b ogs , h ave a t trac ted s o much a t tent ion a nd , a par t f ro m t he b oa ts o fa l l s izes a nd t ypes , a re p erhaps t he mos t c e lebra ted wooden o b jec ts i n N or th- Wes t E urope . T he f asc ina t ion l i es n o t o n ly i n t he i mp le ment i t se lf b u t a lso i n t he e cono my i tr epresen ts . T he b as ic e conomy o f t he p reh istor ic p er iod was a gr icu lture .

T ha t t h is e cono my , c er ta in ly b y t he l a te I ron A ge ,

was e x tre me ly s uccessfu l i s b eyond r easonab le d oub t w i th r eferences b y C aesar ( De B e l lo G a l lico B k .I V ) t o a n e xpor t t rade i nc luding c erea ls a nd l ea ther .

T he i mp licat ion i s o f s urp lus p roduc t ion , p resent ly b e ing s uppor ted

b y t he r ecovery o f e v idence o f more a nd more i n tens ive o ccupa t ion o n a l l s o i l t ypes , more e x tens ive f i e ld s ys te ms , r easser t ion o f h i l l t owns r a ther t han f or ts i n S ou thern E ng land a t l eas t , c o mp lex s torage s ys tems wh ich c an b es t b e d escr ibed a s warehous ing f ac i li t ies . C onsequent ly t o h ave e v idence a nd r emarkab ly g ood e v idence o f t he t oo l o r i mp lemen t wh ich p lays a s ign if ican t r o le i nt he p roduc t ion o f t hat s urp lus r aises t he p ract ical q uest ions o f h ow d oes i t work a nd h ow e f f ic ient i s i t . T hese q ues t ions h ave i nsp ired a n u mber o f a rchaeo log ists t o a t te mp t t o d iscover a nswers w i thin t he r es tr ic t ive p arame ters o ft he s ub jec t . I n f ac t , i ti s t he a sking o f t h is t ype o f q ues t ion c oncern ing t he s pec if ic e cono my o f t he I ron Age w h ich c aused t he c rea t ion o f t he B utser A nc ien t F arm P ro ject Trust i n 1 972 . T h is p ro jec t , au n ique o pen a ir r esearch l abora tory , i s d evo ted p r imar i ly t o c arry ing o ut emp ir ica l t r ia ls s eek ing t o p rov ide t he b oundar ies o fp robab i li ty o f t he o vera l l e cono my ( Reyno lds 1 979 ) . T he mos t r ecen t c o mprehens ive s urvey o f t he p reh is tor ic a rds i s t ha t wr i t ten b y P . V . G lob ( 1951) wh ich c omp le men ts t he i mpor tan t p ub lica t ion o f P . L eser ( 1931) . I rregu lar ly n ew f i nds o fp otent ia l a rd p ar ts a re r epor ted l i ke t ha t o ft he A bingdon s hare ( Fow ler 1 978 ) . T he o ther ma jor f i nds o f a rd p ar ts o u ts ide S candinav ia a re f ro mSco t land , t he a rd b eam f ro m L och Maben ( Fen ton 1 968) a nd t he a rd s hare f rom M i lton L och ( P iggot t 1 952-53) . T he mos t n otab le t r ia ls c arr ied o u t t o d a te a re t hose o f Aberg & B owen ( 1 960 ) i n E ng land a nd H ansen ( 1 968 ) i n D enmark .

T he f ormer s e lec ted t he

D onnerup land a rd , t he l at ter t he H endr iks mose a rd . T he ma jor d if f icu l ty e ncountered b y b oth r esearch e n terpr ises was t he l ack o f t ra ined c a t t le . H ansen 's e xper i men ts were t he most e x tens ive a nd c o mp lex a nd i nc luded q ues t ions a bout t he e f fec ts o f t he a rd u pon t he s ubsoi l s ur face v is ä v is t he s o-ca l led a rd marks n ow r egu lar ly r ecovered i n a rchaeo logica l e xcava t ions a nd t he e f fec ts o f s o i l a t tr i t ion u pon t he a rd i t se lf . T he b as ic p rob le m , a lso e xper ienced b y t he a uthor i n e ar lier e xper imen ts ( Reyno lds 1 967) , w hich a f f lic ted b o th t hese s ets o f t r ia ls was t he l ack o f r egu lar r ep lica t ion a nd mos t o f a l l a cqu ired s k i l l i n e xecu t ion a nd r ecord ing . I ti s f rom t hese e ar lier t r ia ls t ha t ac omp lex r esearch p rogram me h as b een d eve loped a t t he B utser A nc ien t F arm . T he o vera l l p urpose i s t o e xam ine t he who le r ange o f a rd t ypes f or wh ich t here i s a dequa te e v idence . T he o b jec t ives a re t o a ssess t he ir c ons truc t ion , e f f ic iency , e f fec t u pon s o i l a nd s ubso i l a nd t he w ear p a t terns u pon t he a rds c rea ted d ur ing t he ir u se . The me thodo logy o ft he p rogram me i s t o s e lec t t he b es t s urv iv ing e xamp le o f at ype , r ep l ica te i ta s a ccura te ly a s p ossib le a nd t o r es tore where n ecessary i nc luding i ncreas ing i n s ize b ut r e ta in ing a pprox i ma te s hape o f h eav i ly worn e le ments .

Thereaf ter

i ti s t o t es t i ti n ar ea l a nd f u l l a gr icu ltura l c yc le measur ing a nd r ecording c arefu l ly a l l t he r equired d a ta .

F ina l ly , g iven i t s s uccessfu l u se a s a n i mp lement , 1 30

F ig .

7 .1

R ep l ica o f t he Hvovs lev Ard.

1 32

Donnerup land

( After G lob. )

Bf z fore s hare;

t o c orre la te t he w ear p a t terns o f t he r ep lica w i th t hose o f t he o r ig ina l a nd t hus n ot o n ly c onf irm o r d eny t he manner o f i t s u se i n t he e xper imenta l m i lieu b u t a lso a pproach c onc lus ions c oncern ing i t s l i fe e xpec tancy a s a n a gr icu ltura l i mp lemen t . A lready a g rea t d ea l o f f asc ina t ing ma ter ia l e v idence h as emerged f ro m t h is p rogram me t he most n o tab le b eing t he n orma l o pera t iona l d epth o f t he a rds , t he ir b as ic d es ign d e term ining t he ir o p t i mu m e f f ic iency a nd t he p robab i l i ty t ha t t he r ange o fd es ign p r inc ipa l ly t hrough t wo t ypes i sn o t n ecessa r i ly d iagnos t ic o f s equen t ia l d eve lopmen t t hrough t ime b u t r a ther o f d if feren t f unc t iona l r o les ( Reyno lds 1 981) .

S im i lar ly t he p rogra m me h a ,s f ocussed a t tent ion

u pon a n a rd t ype , a s y e t m iss ing f ro m t he a r tefac tua l r ecord b u t a rguab ly p resent i n t he i conography . T h is p aper i s a n i n ter im s ta te men t o fb u t o ne a rd t ype , t he b eam a rd a nd s pec if ica l ly t he D onnerup land a rd, w i th in t he o vera l l r esearch p rogram me . I tp resen ts t he d ist i l lat ion o f t he r esu l ts o f s o me t en y ears o f e xper ience , p rac t ica l work a nd t hough t . T he D onnerup land a rd h as a lways a t trac ted t he g rea tes t i n teres t i n s o f ar a s o f a l l t he a rds r ecovered t o d a te i ti s t he mos t c o mp le te a nd p robab ly t he b es t p reserved . I ti s t h is p ar t icu lar a rd wh ich h as r ece ived t he f ocus o f a t ten t ion i n emp ir ica l t r ia ls p ar t icu lar ly i n Br ita in i n a l l p robabi li ty b ecause t he L och Maben a rd b eam , t he p r ime Br i t ish s urv iva l , i s c lear ly c o mparab le . T here i s n o d oub t w ha tsoever t ha t o f a l l t he a rds , t he D onnerup land i s t he o ne mos t c o m mon ly s e lec ted t o i l lustra te t he b eam a rd t ype a nd i ndeed t he b as ic ' l igh t p lough ' o f t he I ron Age . D esp i te t he o n ly t r ia ls t o d a te b e ing t hose o f B owen a nd A berg a nd t he a u thor , i t s p o ten t ia l a nd l im it a t ions a re r e markab ly w e l lp os tu la ted a nd a n i n t ima te i fu nsubs tan t ia ted k now ledge o f i ti s e n trenched i n t he l i tera ture .

W ith in t he o veral l r esearch

p rogra m me d evo ted t o c u l t iva t ion a t t he Anc ien t F arm i ti s b ut o ne o f ar ange u nder e xa m ina t ion .

O thers i nc lude t he c rook a rds r epresen ted s pec if ica l ly

b y t he H vovs lev a rd ( F ig . 7 .1) a nd t he Dabergotz a rd , t he b eam a rds b y b oth t he D onnerup land a nd t he D os trup a rds , t he h ypo thes ised r ip a rds ( see b e low ) l i ke t he A speberg a rd ( f or t he f orego ing t ypes a nd e xamp les s ee G lob 1 951) , a nd t he s tone a rd t i ps f ro m t he Orkney a nd S he t land I slands ( Fen ton 1 976 ) , p ar t icu lar ly t hose f ro m S o mborough ( p ers . c o mm . R . G . L a mb ) . T he Donnerup land A rd —the a rchaeo log ica l e v idence T he D onnerup land a rd was d iscovered i n 1 944 i n al i t t le u p land s aucer-bog i n Den mark . I tc o mpr ises f our ma in p ar ts , t he b ea m , t he f oreshare , t he a rrow s haped ma in o r u ndershare a nd t he s t i lt o r h and le . T he b eam i s o f b irch ( Be tu la s p . )a nd t he r e ma in ing p ar ts a re o fo ak ( Quercus s p . ) . T he b ea m i s r ough ly f i nished p robab ly w i th a n a dze s o t ha t i ti s g enera l ly r ec tangul ar i n s ec t ion w i th r ounded e dges . T he u ndershare a nd s t i lt a re , i n c on tras t , f i ne ly f i nished w i th h ard ly a ny t races r ema ining o f t he p re lim inary s hap ing . T he b eam h as a sma l l s quare h or izon ta l h o le c . 3 cm x 3 cm c ut i n to i ts o me 8 cm f ro m t he f ore-end , a nd i n t he f oo t w h ich i s d amaged i s ar ec tangu lar h o le C . 5 cm x 1 7 cm maximu m t hrough wh ich t he s hares a nd s t i lt p ass ( F ig . 7 .2 ) . T he f oreshare , a rrow s haped u ndershare a nd s t i l t a re r epresen ted i n F ig . 7 .3 . T he f oreshare s hows c lear s igns o f w ear a t e ach e nd i ndica t ing t ha t b o th e nds h ave b een u sed a s t he s hare p o int . s ide t wo f our s ided c h ise l led h o les c u t i n to i t .

T he u ndershare h as o n i t s u pper P ar to fo ne o r ig ina l wooden

p eg s urv ives i n o ne i nd ica ting t ha t t he ir f unc t ion w as t o h o ld t he f oreshare

1 33

5 0cms

0

F ig.

7 .3

The f oreshare, ma in o r under s hare a nd s ti lt. G lob.)

1 34

( After

f i rm ly i n p lace a long t he l i ne o f t rac t ion .

A t t he r ear e nd o n t he u pper s i de

o ft he u ndershare i s an otch wh ich c orresponds w i th a f ur ther n otch o n t he u nders ide o f t he s t i l t i ndica t ing a t i e o r l ash ing p oin t t o h o ld t hese e lemen ts t i gh t ly t oge ther .

T he s t i lt i s b roken a t t he r ear where i n a l l p robab i li ty t here

was a p rov is ion f or a smal ler h and le a t r igh t a ng les t o t he s t il t . E st i mat ions o f t he o r ig ina l s hape o f t he s t i lt c an b e g a ined f ro m r ock c arv ings . T he f oree nd o f t he s t i lt h as a s pa tu la te t erm ina l , s ubsequen t ly d escr ibed a st he s t i lt . h ead , h a lf o fw h ich h as s p li t away . T he d ispara te w ear o n t he u ndershare , t he r igh t s ide b e ing w orn t o t he e x ten t t ha t t he w ooden g u ide p eg w ou ld h ard ly h ave b een f unc t iona l , i s s ugges ted b y G lob t ob e t he r esu lt o f t i lt ing t he a rd d ur ing p lough ing a l low ing t he u nders hare t o a c t a s ak ind o f mou ldboard t urning t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he s o i l t o t he o ne s ide . T h is h ypothes is i s d iscussed b e low . A l l t he i ndica t ions , t he c ons iderab le wear o n t he u ndershare , t he d oub tfu l s treng th o f t he g u ide p eg o n t he r igh t s ide , t he b roken s t i lt h ead a nd h and le , t he d a maged f oo t o f t he ma in b eam s uggest t ha t t he a rd h ad f u lf i l led i t s u sefu l l i fe a nd h ad b een d isposed o f , whe ther r i tua l ly o r o therw ise i s o f l i t t le a ccount . T he b as ic d i mens ions u sed i n t he r ep l ica t ion h ave b een d er ived f ro m t he s ca le d raw ings b y G lob a nd p ersona l e xamina t ion b y t he a uthor o f t he o r ig ina l i n t he N a t iona l Museu m i n C openhagen . I n a na lys ing t he e x tan t e v idence i n o rder t o r ep l icate t he a rd a nd t he mos t c r i t ical e le men t h as b een f ound t o b e t he h o le c u t i n to t he f oot o f t he ma in b ea m . T he c rook a rd b e ing o f u n i tary manuf acture i s t o tal ly i n f lex ib le a nd e n t ire ly d ependen t u pon s e lec t ion o f n atural t imbers i n o rder t o a ch ieve a n a ng le wh ich w i l l a l low p ene tra t ion o f t he s oi l b y t he f oreshare a t tach men t t o t he y oke , t he p o int o f t rac t ion . T h is l as t a l lows a minimu m amoun t o f f l ex ib i li ty , p erhaps a s much a s 2 0 cm i n t he v er t ica l p lane .

O n t he o ther h and , t he D onnerup land a rd n ot o n ly h as t he

a bove f l ex ib i li ty a t t he p oint o f t rac t ion b ut a lso a g rea t d ea l o f f l ex ibi li ty a t t he f oot . T he h o le c h ise l led o ut o f t he b ea m a nd t he r e la t ive s izes o f t he c o mponen t e lemen ts o f t he a rd wh ich p ass t hrough i ta re s hown i n d iagram ma t ic f orm i n F ig . 7 .4 . I ti s q u i te c lear t ha t t he d ispar i ty i n s ize b etween t he f ore t o t he a f t a per ture i s q u i te d e libera te w i th d is t inc t l ower ing o r s lop ing o ft he h o le f ro m a f t t o f ore . S econd ly t he c omponen t p ar tsdo n o t f i l l t he h o le a nd c anno t o f t he mse lves b e a t a l l s tab le w i thou t wedges o f s o me k ind . N one were d iscovered w i th t he a rd b u t i ti s a n o bv ious miss ing e lemen t . I n f ac t , emp ir ica l t r ia ls h ave d e mons tra ted b eyond d oub t t hat a t l eas t t wo wedges a re r equired . T he s pace a va i labe a nd wh ich n eeds t o b e l ocked w i th wedges h as a m in i mu m d epth o f C . 5 cm i n a f t a per ture a nd c .11 cm i nt he f ore a per ture . N ecessar i ly t he wedges c anno t b e j ux taposed b ecause t hey c annot e xer t p ressure o n e ach o ther . C onsequen t ly t he o bv ious s ys te m t o y ie ld t he max imu m r ange o f a ng le f or t he c o mponen t e le men ts a ga inst t he b eam i s f or o ne wedge t o b e d r iven i n to t he b ase o f t he h o le f ro m t he r ear a nd t he o ther i n to t he t op o f t he h o le f ro m t he f ron t . I nstab i li ty r esu lts i fa ny w edge i s i n troduced b e tween t he e le men ts o f f oreshare , u ndershare a nd s t i lt ( s ee b e low ) . C ons truc t ion o f t he R ep lica The ma jor d if f icu lty e xper ienced i n t he who le c ons truc t ion p rocess was t he a c tua l a cqu is i t ion o f t imbers o f t he r igh t v ar ie ty a nd b as ic s hape .

1 35

T he

AFT

FORE

APERTURE

APERTURE

FORESHARE

UNDERSHARE

max imum _ m in imum

, ST IL T

S ca le

F ig.

7 .4

i n

cms

S chemat ised s ection o f t he h o le s et i n t he f oot o f t he b eam w ith s haded s ect ion o f f oreshare, undershare a nd s t i lt.

1 36

c urva ture o f t he ma in b eam i s s uch t ha t a l though i ta ppears a t f i rs t s igh t t o b e c o m mon , i n r ea li ty i ti s r a ther u nusua l .

B irch ( Be tu la s p . )i s at ree wh ich

p rolifera tes e as i ly o n a c id s andy h ea th land , t yp ica l o f mos t o f D enmark b ut i tn orma l ly g rows q u ick ly a nd s tra igh t .

The a rd b eam h as t o c o me f ro m a

ma ture t imber r a ther t han a s ap ling a nd t he o r ig ina l b eam c lear ly u t i lised t he n a tura l s treng th o f t he g ra in a s t he t ree g rew i n to t ha t b as ic s hape . T o a chieve t he s ame e nd p roduc t t he t ree i t se lf a l mos t n ecessar i ly c ame f ro m t he e dge o f aw ood land e xposed t o t he p reva i ling w ind o r a l terna t ive ly i n a n i so la ted p osi t ion where t he c ons tan t p ressure c aused i tt o b end away . b ea m f i na l ly s e lec ted was 4 0+ y ears o ld ( F ig . 7 .5 ) .

T he

T he s t i lt o r h and le c aused a l mos t a s much d if f icu lty b ecause t hegrea tes t w idth i n t he o r ig ina l , s o me 1 0 cm , s uggested e i ther t he main s te m o r ab ranch o f a ma tur ing t ree o f s o me 3 0-35 y ears o ld . S im i lar ly t he u ndershare was made f ro m a n o ak ( Quercus s p .) main s te m o f o ver 4 0 y ears o ld .

The f oreshare

was t he l east d if f icu lt b e ing s p li to u t o f t he h ear t w ood o f t he s ame t runk wh ich p rov ided t he u ndershare . T he f oreshare a nd u ndershare o n ly w ere made f ro m o ak a ir s easoned o ver a p er iod o f t hree y ears . B oth b eam a nd s t i lt w ere made f ro m f resh ly f e l led t imber . T he c ons truc t ion p rocess f o l lowed a s f a i thfu l ly a s p oss ib le t he e v idence o f t he o r ig ina l . T he o n ly t oo ls u sed w ere a n a dze , a n a xe , o ne c h ise l a nd a ma l le t . T hese w ere , o f c ourse , modern t oo ls a nd s ince t he e xerc ise i nvo lved n e ither t ime s tudy n or o bserva t ion o f wear u pon t he t oo ls t hemse lves , i ti s o f l i t t le c onsequence . p a ins tak ing a ccuracy .

L ack o fb as ic s k i l l was i n p ar t c o mpensa ted f or b y I ts eems t o t h is wr i ter t ha t many e xper imen ts wh ich

s eek t o r ecord t he t ime t aken t o a ch ieve a p roduc t when t he o pera t ive i s o f ten u nsk i lled a nd i nexper ienced , a nd t hen t o u t i lise t hose t ime p arame ters a s a n i ndica t ion o f t ime t aken i n t he r e mote p ast n ot o n ly d is tor t t he v a lue o f e xper imenta tion b ut d eny t he p resence o f s k i l l a nd e xper ience a t t ha t t ime . T here i sl i t t le d oub t e ven f ro m t he s canty e vidence wh ich we h ave t hat a f u l l r ange o f h igh ly s ki l led c raf ts men p lied t heir t rade c er ta in ly i n t he I ron A ge . I ti s f ur ther b eyond d oub t t ha t s uch i ndiv idua ls , f or e xamp le , whee lwr igh ts , wa inwr igh ts , sm i ths b o th o f b lack a nd p recious me ta ls , r epresen ted a n i ndus tr ia l s erv ice e le ment i n ac o mp lex a nd s uccessfu l s oc iety . I n t he manufac ture o f t he ma in b eam o f t he a rd g rea t c are was t aken t o u t i lise t he h ear t w ood a nd t o emp loy t he l i ne o f t he g ra in t o p reserve t he g rea tes t s treng th p o ten t ia l . A par t f ro m t he c h ise l led h o le a t t he f oot o f t he b ea m a nd a t t he y oke e nd t he o n ly t oo l emp loyed i n i t s c ons truc t ion was t he a dze . T he o r ig ina l b eam was c op ied a s e xac t ly a s p oss ib le . T he mos t c r i t ica l p rocess i n t he who le c onstruc t ion was t he c h ise lling o u t o f t he h o le i n t he f oot o f t he b eam . I t was t ack led f ro m b oth s ides t o a vo id s p l i t ting a long t he g ra in . T he o r ig ina l w ou ld a ppear t o h ave b een c rea ted i n t h is way s ince i ti s a l mos t i mposs ib le t o a vo id t he s l igh t n arrow ing i n t he s ide wa l ls i n t he c entra l p ar t o f t he h o le ( F ig .7 .2 ) . T he c ons truc t ion o f t he u ndershare u t i lised a l lt he t oo ls .

The a dze f or

c rude s hap ing , t he a xe f or t he r ough f i n ish a nd i n i t ia l c rea t ion o f t he s hou lders a nd t he c h ise l f or t he f i na l s hap ing a nd smooth ing a nd c u t t ing t he f oreshare g u ide p eg r ecesses . The p egs were c arefu l ly c u t t o b e s l ight ly o ver s ize a nd t hen h a m mered i n to p lace o n t he c lear u nders tanding t ha t a ny i ncrease o f moisture c on ten t i n t he w ood w ou ld c ause i ncreased b inding . 1 37

F ig.

F ig .

7 .5

7 .6

The ma in b eam under c onstruct ion.

Comp leted r ep l ica o f t he Donnerup land Ard.

The s t i lt p roved t he mos t d if f icu lt o f a l l t he e lements .

The f i rs t ( two

s im i lar b lanks w ere c arefu l ly a nd w i th f orethough t o b ta ined) was a l most c o mp le te w hen t he h ead s p li t n ot j us t o n t he o ne s ide a s i n t he o r igina l b ut o n b o th s ides . T he p rob le m l ay i n t he w idest p ar t o f t he h and le i n o ne p lane , a nd t he w idth o f t he s t i lt h ead i n t he p lane a t 9 0° t o i t .

E f fec t ive ly t he b ranch

r equ ired h ad t o b e t aken f ro m a ma tur ing t ree a s s ta ted a bove a nd t hen t he ma jor i ty o f i ta dzed away . T he who le o f t he h and le a par tf ro m t he h ead i t se lf , h as t o p ass t hrough t he f oot o f t he ma in b eam wh ich c onsequent ly d ic ta tes i t s max i mu m d i mens ions . I ronica l ly t he s econd s t i lt h ad a k not a t v ir tua l ly t he s ame p os i t ion a s t he b reak o n t he o r ig ina l . T he t h ird t r ia l s aw t h is h and le b reak i n a n i den t ica l manner s o much s o t ha t i tc ou ld b e mos t i n teres t ing t o e xa mine t he g rain o n t he o rig ina l n ex t t o t he b reak . S ince t he h and le e xer ts e nor mous p ressure o n t he r es to f t he i mp lemen t i n k eep ing i ti n t he v er t ica l p lane a nd t he f oreshare b i ting i n to t he s oi l i ts hou ld i dea l ly b e made e n t ire ly f ro m h ear twood a nd t o b e f ree o f k nots a nd o ther i mper fec t ions .

T he t h ird

v ers ion f u lf i ls t hese c r i ter ia a nd t o d a te h as l asted o ver t wo s easons . Oak wedges o f v ar ious s izes were made f ro m was te p ieces d ur ing t he c onstruc t ion t o a l low f or max imu m f l ex ib i li ty a t a ssemb ly . T he e ar ly t r ia ls o f1964-65 ( Reyno lds 1 967) h ad s hown t ha t t he t hree e lemen ts h ad t o l i e t i gh t ly t oge ther i n t ha t a ny a t te mp t t o wedge b e tween f oreshare a nd u ndershare a nd u ndershare a nd s t i lt c aused i ns tab i li ty a nd weakness . I n a ddi t ion , d espi te t he o bv ious w eakness , t r ia ls were c arr ied o ut w i th wedges s e t b e tween t he f oreshare a nd u ndershare wh ich l ed t o ag ap b e tween t he m a nd a c onsequen t t rap f or e ar th a nd s tones . T he r esu l tan t s teadi ly i ncreas ing p ressure c aused t he u pper w edge t o b e f orced f orward a nd o u t . O n o ne o ccas ion t he f oreshare a c tua lly b roke a t i t s j unc t ion w i th t he ma in b ea m h av ing b een l i f ted o u t o f i t s s ea t b e tween t he g u ide p egs i n t he u ndershare . S o me i dea o f t he f orces a t p lay c an b e a pprec ia ted s ince t he f oreshare i s C .2 .7 cm x 2 .5 cm i n s ec t ion o f s easoned o ak a t t h is p oin t .

S im i lar ly a wedge b e tween u ndershare a nd s t i lt

was s l igh t ly more s tab le b ut b ecause t he s t i lt h ead p rotrudes o n ly a s hor t d is tance t o t he f ore o f t he b ea m , l ong i tud ina l s tab i li ty was d isrup ted , t he p oint o ft he n o tches f or l ash ing r eferred t o a bove b e ing d enied , a nd t he w edge i t se lf r egu lar ly w orked l oose . As a rgued a bove t he o n ly p laces f or t he w edges n ot o n ly t o g ive max i mu m s tabi li ty a nd s treng th b u t a lso g rea tes t c hoice o f a ng le f or t he f oreshare t o e ngage t he s oi l was a bove t he c o mponent e lements t o t he f ore o f t he b eam a nd b e low t o t he r ear . T hese f i ndings were r epea ted w i th e very n ew r ep lica o f t he D onnerup land a rd .

T he r ep lica h ere r epor ted u pon

i s , i n f ac t , t he f our th i n t h is p resen t s er ies . T he c o mp le ted r ep lica c an b e s een i n F ig . 7 .6 a nd a d e ta i l o f t he s hares a nd f ore w edges i n F ig . 7 .7 . I t w i l l b e n oted t ha t t he u ndershare i s n o t a n e xac t c opy o f t he o r igina l i n t ha t t he s hape i s b road ly s im i lar b ut i ncreased s l igh t ly i n s ize t o mon itor a nd t o t es t f or d if feren t ia l w ear . T rac t ion I n a ny s imu la t ion s tudy wh ich i nvo lves move ment t he v ar iab les i ncrease a l mos t e xponent ia l ly .

V ar ious me thods o f t rac tion h ave b een u t i lised i n t he

e ar ly t r ia ls w i th r ep licas o f t he D onnerup land a rd . T hese h ave r anged f ro m u s ing t he f orwards f ro m a r ugby t eam t o t he w inch g ear o n t he f ron t o f al andr over .

Wh i le i ti s much e as ier t o c a lcu late s peeds a nd p ressures w i th a p ure ly

1 39

F ig .

7 .7

Deta i l o f f oreshare a nd ma in o r under s hare a nd f ore w edge.

F ig .

7 .8

The Dexter Ca tt le.

mechan ica l t rac t ion u n i t t he s imu la t ion o f c a t t le p u l ling was r a ther r e mote . S imi lar ly i ti s e x treme ly d if f icu lt t o c rea te t he c orrec t a ng le o fp u l l w i thout ar ange o f s uppor t t r ipods a nd h awser w ire .

C onsequen t ly t he e ar ly t r ia ls

t ended t o u se h uman t rac t ion . W i th t he c rea t ion o f t he B u tser A nc ien t F arm i n 1 972 ( Reyno lds 1 979 ) t he i dea l c ond i t ions f or t h is t ype o f s tudy w ere c rea ted . I n t he v ery e ar ly s tages o f t he f arm 's d eve lop men t ap a ir o f l onglegged D exter c a t t le w ere p urchased . T hey w ere s e lec ted a s b eing t he n eares t e quiva lent t o t he C e l t ic s hor thorn ( Bos t aurus ) , b ones o f w h ich a re r egu lar ly r ecovered f ro m I ron A ge s i tes . I n p rac t ica l t erms t hese D ex ters h ave t he s a me s hou lder h e igh t a nd b ody w e igh t a nd p resu mab ly , t herefore , t he p ower r a t io a s t he ir p reh is tor ic a nces tors ( F ig . 7 .8) .

T he t ra in ing o f ap a ir o f c a t t le

p roved t o b e al ong t erm u nder tak ing a l though r epor ts e x is t o f f u l l t ra ining b e ing g iven w i th in t he s pace o f af ew mon ths . I n f ac t , i tt ook s o me t wo y ears b efore t he p a ir o f c ows were t horough ly u nder c on tro l a nd a b le t o work t oge ther s uccessfu l ly .

T he ir w ork c apac i ty i s q ui te c ons iderab le a nd c er ta in ly i n e xcess

o f e igh t manpower ! Aga in t h is i s a n a rea o f s tudy wh ich i s c urrent ly i n p rocess a t t he f arm . I ti s p lanned t o r econstruc t af ur ther r ep lica o f t he D onnerup land a rd f i t ted t hroughou t w i th e lec tron ic s ensors w h ich w i l l f eed b ack t o a microp rocessor a l l t he d a ta c oncern ing t he s treng th o fp u l l , t he i n terac t ion o f t he e le men ts o f t he a rd a nd t he r a te o f s o i l f l ow p ast t he i mp lement .

T hese d a ta

s hou ld a l low g rea ter i nsigh t i n to t h is c o mp lex a rea a nd u lt ima te ly s hou ld p rov ide af u l l p ic ture o f t he t ens ions a nd p ressures i nvo lved a nd g ive a s w if ter u nders tand ing o ft he r a te a nd n a ture o fw ear u pon t he a rd . Wh i le t he a n ima ls t he mse lves p resen t p oss ib ly t he g rea tes t v ar iab le w i th in t he t r ia ls t he ir y ok ing t oge ther p resen ts j us tt wo o p t ions , ay oke a cross t he n ecks a nd o ne t i ed a cross t he h orns .

T here i s as l igh t d if ference i n a ng le o f

p u ll d ependen tu pon wh ich s ys te m i s s e lec ted b ut n ot s uf f ic ien t t o b e p rac t ica l ly s ign if icant . B oth h ave b een t r ied a nd t he l a t ter , t he h orn y oke , i s p referred . U nfor tuna te ly t he i conograph ic e v idence i s n ot a t a l l c lear a l though t he ma jor i ty o fe xa mp les s ee m t o i ndica te t he u se o f ah orn y oke . I th as d is t inc t p rac t ica l a dvan tages i n t ha t i th o lds t he a n ima ls ' h eads f i rm ly a par t .

I n a ny p a ir ing

o fa n ima ls t here i s ad om inan t b eas t a nd when n eck y oked , o ccas iona l ly t here a re p rob le ms w i th o ne s eek ing t o e xer t d om inance o ver t he o ther . I n a ddi t ion t he h orn y oke e qua tes t he p u l l o f t he t wo b eas ts more e f fec t ive ly . T hese a re t he f i ndings a t t he f arm a l though i n n or th west S pa in b o th s ys te ms o f y ok ing a re t o b e f ound e ven o n a d jacen t f arms a nd t he s ub jec t h as a dheren ts , s o me o f who m a re q u i te v ehe men t i n t he ir s uppor t , f or b oth s ys tems . The a verage s peed o f t rac t ion o f t hese D ex ters c o mpares f avourab ly w ith t he S pan ish c a t t le u sed f or t he s ame p urpose a nd i ron ica l ly s t i l l p u l ling a v ers ion o f t he R o man s o le a rd , a t s o me 4 k i lo me tres p er h our . T hey a re c apab le o fw ork ing f or f i ve h ours w i thou t mign if ican t b reak a l though t he n orma l work p at tern a t t he f ar m i s measured b y a rea r ather t han t ime . I ti s q u i te n orma l t o c ross p lough a C e l t ic t ype f i e ld o f a pprox i mate ly a f i f th o fa n h ec tare w i th in t hree h ours g iven t he r igh t c ondi t ions f or w ork . I ti s p erhaps a s we l l t o u nder line t he f ac t t ha t al arge r ange o f a gr icu ltura l p rocesses a re d ependen t u pon t he wea ther a nd t he c ondi t ions o f t he g round . Wh i le t h is c o mb ina t ion o f c ondi t ions g ives r ise t o t he t radi t iona l g loo my a nd j aundiced v iew o f t he f armer , i ti s o f ten b eyond t he e xper ience a nd c o mprehens ion o f t he ma jor i ty o fp eop le o f a n u rban ised a nd i ndustr ia l e cono my . N onethe less

1 41

i ti s t he e xper ience o ft he a uthor t ha t i n e very a gr icu ltura l s eason t here i s a mo men t when a l l c ondi t ions a re f avourab le f or p lough ing .

Th is i s t he o ccas ion

when t he g round i s n ot t oo we t , n o t t oo d ry , n o t t oo s of t o r n o t t oo h ard . T h is a pp lies t o a l ls oi l t ypes i nc luding t he h eavy c lay a nd mar l s oi ls wh ich a re s o f er t i le a nd r ewarding .

T he r ea l s k i l l o r g amb le o f f arm ing i s f i rs t t o r ecognise

t he mo ment a nd s econd t o c ap i ta lise u pon i t . O ne f i na l c o m men t n eeds t o b e made c oncerning t he c a t t le . I nev i tab ly o ne p a ir i s d if ferent t o a no ther i n d e ta i l a nd i tw ou ld b e q ui te wrong t o s ugges t o therw ise . A lthough , t herefore , t he r esu lts a re t o ac er ta in e x ten t d ependen t u pon t he t rac t ion e le men t a nd c onsequen t ly a re a f fec ted b y i t , t he p urpose o f s imu la t ion o fp reh is tor ic p rac t ice i sb et ter f u lf i l led b y u s ing c a t t le t han a ny o ther s ys te m .

T he ir i n terac t ion w i th t he i mp lemen t i s more s ympa the t ic a nd

o bserva t ions o f t ha t i n terac t ion a re o f more v a lue i n t ha t t he t race e v idence was c rea ted b y a n i ma l p ower . Ac ase c an b e made f or mechanica l t rac t ion e spec ia l ly w i th r egard t o wear p a t terns u pon t he i mp lemen t h ypothes ised a s b e ing c aused b y as pec if ic s ystem o fu sage . T he c o mponen t p ar ts a nd t he ir f unc t iona l r o le T he f oreshare : A s d escr ibed a bove , t he f oreshare , as tra igh tf orward l eng th o fo ak w i th a n a verage s ec t ion o f 2 .6 cm 2 h ad e v idence o fw ear a t b oth e nds .

T here h as b een c onsiderab le d iscuss ion a s t o whe ther t he s hare was

a c tua lly f i t ted i n to a n o tch c u t i n to t he s t i lt ( S teensberg 1 960 ) .

D e ta i led e xam-

i na t ion b y t he a u thor o f t he a c tua l a rd i n t he D an ish N a t iona l Museum b rough t t o l i gh t n o c lear i ndica t ion o f s uch a n otch d esp i te t he b reak i n t he s t i l t o ccurr ing a t as ee m ing c r i t ica l p oin t .

I n f ac t , a l though t he a rd when d iscovered h ad t he

f oreshare i n t h is p os i t ion ( F ig .7 .2 ) t he o ther e nd o f t he f oreshare d id n ot p rotrude b eyond t he p oint o f t he ma in o r u ndershare a nd t hus d en ied i tac lear f unc t iona l r o le .

N or i ndeed were a ny wedges r ecovered , t he o bv ious n eed

f or w hich i s d iscussed a bove .

O ne p oss ib le e xp lana t ion f or t he f oreshare t o

b e i n t h is p os i t ion o n d iscovery i s t ha t b y l ock ing i ti n to t he b roken s t i lt i t e xer ts s uf f ic ient p ressure t hrough t he h o le i n t he f oo t o f t he b eam a nd a ga ins t t he u ndershare t o p reven t t he p ar ts f a l ling o ut o f t he ma in b ea m . W i th t he i nser t ion o f a wedge i n to t he h o le i n t he f oo t o f t he ma in b ea m t o l ock t oge ther t he e le ments o f t he a rd , t he s t i lt , t he u ndershare a nd t he f oreshare , t he a ng le o f t he f oreshare i s l owered q ui te s ign if ican t ly . Emp ir ica l t r ia ls c arr ied o ut b y t he a u thor i n 1 964 a nd 1 965 w i th a c rude r ep lica o f t he D onnerup land a rd b ea m b u t p rec ise s i mu la t ion o f t he o aken e lemen ts r ecorded a f oreshare o f s easoned o ak was l i tera l ly w orn away o n a verage b y s o me 2 .5 cm p er h a lf h ec tare o f w ork ing o n, t he l i gh t s tony s oi l o ver ly ing t he o o l i te c app ing o f t he J urass ic l imes tone i n t he C otswo lds . D ur ing p lough ing i tb eca me n ecessary t o a d jus t t he ma in s hare u sua l ly t w ice a d ay .

A ny n eed f or i tt o b e l ocked

i n to t he s t i lt was f ound t o b e u nnecessary a nd, i ndeed, u ndes irab le s ince s uch ar equire men t w ou ld h ave n eeded a c tua l r ep lace men t r a ther t han a d jus tmen t . C lear ly s uch w ear c ou ld h ave b een o bv ia ted b y s hea th ing t he t i p o f t he f oreshare w i th me tal b u t t here were n o i nd icat ions o f s uch a t echn ique o n t he o r ig inal a nd t he f ac t t ha t i t was w orn a t b o th e nds s ugges ts t ha t i t was n ot c on temp la ted . O ne f ur ther i n teres t ing p o in t wh ich h as emerged f ro m s evera l y ears o f t r ia ls h as b een t he n eed t o s harpen t he f oreshare o ccas iona l ly . b lun ts i ta nd t hus r educes i t s p ene trat ion q ual i t ies .

1 42

T he wear e f fec t ive ly

I n p rac t ical t erms t he

f oreshare h as a min imu m l eng th o f 7 0 cm . T h is a l lows i tt o b e l ocked i n p lace b y t he w edge w i th in t he h o le a nd t o p rotrude t he c r i t ica l d is tance b eyond t he u ndershare .

I t s max i mu m l eng th o f c .1 .40 m i s d ic ta ted b y t he c urve o f t he

s t i lt . T he r o le o f t he f oreshare i s c r i t ica l t o t he s uccessfu l o pera t ion o f t he a rd . I ti s , i n e f fec t , t he mode o f e ntry i n to t he s o i l f or t he a rd h ence t he r easons f or i t s r egu lar s harpen ing a nd t he me thod b y w h ich i ti s h e ld i n t he s o i l .

T he

a rd i t se lf i s d es igned t o o pera te i n t he h or izon ta l p lane , t he f oot b e ing j us t b e low t he s oi l s urface a nd t o a max i mu m o f 1 5 cm .

T he d isturbance o f t he s oi l

i s a ch ieved b y t he u ndercu t t ing a nd l i f t ing o f t he s oi l b y t he u ndershare a nd t he f urrow i s c rea ted b y t he f l ow o f t he s oi l o n e i ther s ide o f t he f oo t o f t he ma in b eam . Once t he f oreshare b eco mes d isengaged f ro m t he s oi l t he a rd i nef fec t ive ly s k ips a long t he s urface . O n t he o ther h and , s ince t he a rd a s a u ni t i s l ocked a nd w edged t oge ther i ti s v ir tua l ly i mposs ib le f or i tt o d ig i n to t he s oi l . I ft h is w ere t o o ccur t he a rd w ou ld p ivot o n t he f oreshare , r a is ing t he s t i lt a t t he r ear a nd more c r i t ica l ly f orc ing t he e nd o f t he b eam a t t he t i e p o in t t o t he y oke d ownwards a nd i ns tan t ly s topp ing a ny f ur ther f orward mot ion . T hroughou t t he t r ia ls t h is c ondi t ion h as n ever o b ta ined . T he g rea tes t d if f icu lty h as , i n f ac t , b een t o a rrange t he f oreshare a t p rec ise ly t he r igh t a ng le o f s o me 2 9-30° t o ma in ta in t he f oo t o f t he a rd w i th in t he s o i l .

T he u ndershare o r ma in s hare : T he r o le o f t he u nder o r ma in s hare i s t o u ndercu t a nd l i f t t he s o i l . V ar ious a t te mp ts h ave b een made t o u se t he a rd w i thout t he p resence o f t he f oreshare .

A l l s uch h ave f a i led b ecause o f t he

e x tre me d if f icu lty e ncoun tered i n p enetra ting t he s oi l s urface a nd h o lding t he s hare w i th in t he s oi l . E ven when t he s hare i s c arefu l ly s e t a t as u i tab le d ep th b efore t rac t ion i s e xer ted , w i th in t wo o r t hree me tres a nd u sua l ly l ess , i ti s p u lled o u t o f t he s oi l . I n n orma l u sage t he f oreshare c auses t he a rd t o d ig i n to t he s ur face , t hereaf ter t he u ndershare c auses i tt o s tab i l ise w i th in t he s o i l v ery much a f ter t he p a t tern o f a' p lane l anding . O nce a t i t s o pera t iona l d ep th i ti s e x tre me ly e asy t o main ta in b a lanc ing t he a ng le a nd p ressure u pon t he s t i lt a gains t t he d rag o f t he f oreshare i n t he s oi l . T he o r ig ina l u ndershare s howed c lear s igns o f d if feren t ia l w ear .

The r igh t

h and s ide was w orn away t o t he e x ten t o f r each ing t he h o le wh ich s uppor ted t he f oreshare g uide p in .

I ndeed i ti s d oub tfu l whe ther t h is u ndershare w ou ld

h ave b een u suab le a nd i ti s mos t l i ke ly ac ontr ibu t ing f ac tor f or i t s a bandonmen t . T he g u ide p ins a re a bso lute ly c r i t ica l i n t ha t t hey h o ld t he f oreshare i n p lace i n t he l i ne o f t rac t ion . T he l eng th o f t he h o le i n t he f oo t o f t he b ea m i s i t se lf i nsuf f ic ien t t o h o ld t he f oreshare f i rm ly i n p lace a nd i n l i ne . T he d if feren t ia l w ear p a t tern , h owever , h as p osed a ma jor q uest ion wh ich t o d a te t he t r ia ls h ave f a i led t o a nswer .

O ne t heory r egu lar ly p roposed f or t h is t ype

o fa rd , i nsp ired t o ac er ta in e x ten t b y t he o r ig ina l w ear e v idence , i s t hat t he a rd was u sed t i lted a t a n a ng le s o t ha t t he u ndershare c ou ld p ar t ia l ly f u lf i l t he r o le o f a mou ldboard ( S teensberg 1 957-58) .

F rag ments o f w ood b ear ing

d if feren t ia l wear h ave b een t en ta t ive ly i den t if ied a s p ar ts o f D onnerup land a rd t ypes o n t h is v ery b asis . T here a re , h owever , s ignif ican t p rob lems t o b e o verco me i ft h is t heory i s t o b e s ubs tan t ia ted i n a ny way . T he g rea tes t p rob lem i s t he n a ture o f t he a rd i t se lf . I ti s as o lid e n t i ty g iven t he n ecessary a ddi t ion o f wedges .

T o t i lt i tt o o ne s ide o r t he o ther f ro m t he v er t ica l h as t wo d ist inc t 1 43

a nd i m media te e f fec ts .

T he f i rs t i s c aused b y t he f oreshare wh ich i s n ow s e t

a t ad ivergent a ng le f ro m t he l i ne o f t rac t ion .

I tn o l onger ma inta ins t he u nder-

s hare a nd t he f oo t o f t he a rd w i th in t he s oi l s ince i t s p lane h as b een r ad ica l ly a l tered a nd , more i mpor tan t ly , i tc auses t he a rd t o v eer a way i n t he o ppos i te d irec t ion t o t he t i lted a ng le .

The s econd d if f icu lty i s c aused b y mov ing t h e

b ea m o f f i t s v er t ica l a l ign ment .

I ft he a rd i s t i lted a t a4 50 a ng le , s uf f ic ien t

t o i nver t t he s oi l al i t t le a l though a s teeper a ng le i s p referab le , t he c urve o f t he b eam w ou ld p hys ica l ly t ouch t he t rac t ion a n ima l o n t ha t s ide . S uch a p rob le m c ou ld b e o bv ia ted b y i ncreas ing t he l eng th o f t he y oke t hus s e t t ing t he a ni ma ls f ur ther a par t . i sn o ti nsurmoun tab le .

I n p rac t ice t h is c auses d if f icu lt ies i n c ontro l b ut

A no ther f ac tor w h ich mi li ta tes a ga inst t i lt ing t he a rd

i s t he n a ture o f t he s t i lt .

I n t he v er t ica l p lane i ti s e xtreme ly s trong b u t a way

f ro m v er t ica l i tb eco mes v u lnerab le t o b reak ing a tt he n otch where t he u nders hare i s l ashed t o i t . G iven t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he c ons truc t ion o f t h is a rd, i ts eems r a ther o dd t o i mp ly t ha t i ts hou ld b e t i lted t o i mprove i t s o pera t ion . T here i s l i t t le d oub t t ha t i ft he i mp le men t w as r equired t o t hrow t he s o i l t o o ne s ide a nd i n t he p rocess i nver t t he s oi l , i tc ou ld e as i ly h ave b een d es igned t o d o p rec ise ly t hat . I tw ou ld n eed t he f oreshare t o b e i ndependan t a nd i n a dvance men t o f t he u nders hare t o a void t he c ond i t ion d escr ibed a bove .

F ur ther i t s o pera t ion w ou ld b e

e nhanced b y t he p rov is ion o f ac ou lter i n a dvance o f t he f oreshare .

I n o ther

w ords t he h ypo thes is p roposed f or t i lt ing t he a rd i s n ot s imp ly b ased u pon t he w ear p a t tern b u t i s i nf luenced b y l a ter p loughs a nd t he , a ssumed n eed t o i n ver t t he s o i l a nd t o b ury u nwan ted weeds a nd b rush o n t he s o i l s urface. T hat t h is l as t i s d es irab le i su nden iab le b ut i n al abour i n tens ive p rocess i ti s n o t u n like ly t ha t t he p repara t ion o f as eed b ed was n o t s imp ly a ch ieved b y t he a rd a lone . C ons iderab ly more w ork i s r equ ired t oc omp le te t he p repara t ion o ft he t i l th f or s eeding a nd h and w eeding e spec ia l ly o f s uch p ers is ten t weeds l i ke c ouch g rass ( Agropyron r epens ) w ou ld b e o f a dvantage . I ti s mos t l i ke ly t ha t t he s o i l o f a rab le f i e lds b o th o fp reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic t ime p r ior t o t he a dven t o f a groche m ica ls h ad a n a verage o rganic c onten t o f s o me 1 8% i nc on tras t t o modern p loughsoi l o f a pprox ima te ly 2 -3% .

I n f ac t , t he a rd i t se lf i s t oo e f f ic ien t

a n i mp lemen t t o b e r egarded a s t he l ast p hase o f t he c u l t iva t ion p rocess ( s ee b e low u nder f urrows ) . O ne h ypothes is , a s y e t u nproven b y a ny o f t he t r ia ls wh ich a par t f rom t hose r eferred t o a bove h ave b een c arr ied o ut o n t he l i gh ter c ha lk d own land s o i ls , c ou ld o f fer a n e xp lana t ion f ordif ferent ia l w ear o n t he u ndershare . T he r eason f or d raw ing a t ten t ion t o t he s oi l t ype i s s imp ly a d irec t r eference t o t he c o m mon s andy s oi ls o f D en mark . T he a t tr i t ion o f s and u pon w ood i s c ons iderab ly g rea ter a nd w ear w ou ld b eco me a pparen t f ar more q uick ly t han t he s o i l t y pes o ft he t r ia ls t o d a te . I ti s a ma jor v ar iab le w i th in t he c on tex t o f t h is s tudy a nd o ne wh ich i s o ccas iona l ly o ver looked . T he h ypo thes is i nvo lves t he manner o fp lough ing .

G iven t he t wo b as ic s ys te ms o f p lough ing , i n p ara l le l r idges

a nd r ound a nd r ound f or t he mou ld b oard p lough ( Bowen 1 961) where t he p lough a lways t urns t he s oi l t o o ne a nd t he s ame s ide , i fo ne were t o a dop t as im i lar p rocedure f or t he D onnerup land a rd w here o ne s ide o f t he i mp le men t w as a lways o f fered t o t he ' u ndis turbed s o i l ' o r ' l and s i de ' wh i le t he o ther c ons is tent ly t raversed t he l oosened s o i l f rom t he p rev ious f urrow , d if ferent ia l wear w ou ld b e l i ke ly . O n as andy s ubsoi l w here c o mpac t ion o ccurs more r ead i ly t han t he

1 44

p uf fy f r iab le r edz ines o f t he c ha lk lands t he e f fec t wou ld b e more p ronounced . As s ta ted a bove t h is h as n ot y e t b een i ndica ted a s a n e f fec t d ur ing t he t r ia ls t o d a te b ut i ti s i n tended t o e xam ine t h is v ar iab le i n t he f u ture .

One f ur ther

o bserva t ion t ha t c an b e made a t t h is p oin t i s t hat o ne would e xpec t t he wear o n t he u ndershare , w ere t he a rd t o b e t i lted , t o b e f ur ther b ack o n t he b roader c heek where t here i sg rea ter f r ic t ion r a ther t han a s i ti s o n t he f orward s ec t ion n ear t he p o in t . G iven v er t ica li ty i n i t s f orward mot ion a nd t he a bove c on jec ture t he wear i sp rec ise ly a s w ou ld b e e xpected . T he s t i lt o r h and le :

T he u pper p ar t o f t he s t i l to r h and le i s u nfor tuna te ly

b roken o n t he o r ig ina l a nd t o d ate a .c o mp le te v ers ion h as n o t b een d iscovered O ne c an , h owever , p os tu la te t he n a ture o f i tf ro m t he r ock c arv ings o f p loughing s cenes f ro m S candinav ia ( G lob 1 951) a nd t he V a l C amon ica i n I t a ly ( Ana t i 1 965 ) . I ts eems f ro m t h is e v idence t ha t t he h and le c urved a l mos t t o t he v er t ica l a nd was f i t ted w i th a f ur ther sma l l h and le .

T he o b jec t ive wh ich emerges f rom

t he t r ia ls a nd t hereaf ter i n t he r ock c arv ings i s t o p rov ide s uf f ic ien t l everage t o c ontro l t he who le i mp lemen t .

T he p ar t o f t he s t i lt h ead wh ich p revents i t

f ro m p u l ling t hrough t he h o le i n t he f oot o f t he b eam i s h a lf b roken away o n t he o r ig ina l .

Th is i s t he d irec t r esu lt o f t he r un o f t he g ra in a nd t he e x tre me

t h inness o f t he s t i lt i t se lf ( see a bove u nder c onstruc t ion ) .

T h is p ar t icu lar

e le men t i s v ery much p rotec ted b y t he u ndershare a nd wear i s m in ima l b eyond r egu lar smoothing .

T he l ose o f h a lf o f t he s t i lt h ead i sn ot t oo c r i t ica l p rov ided

t he wedges a re f i rm ly i n p lace . T he a rd i nu se T he p r inc ip le o b jec t ive i n t he p lough ing t r ia ls a t t he B u tser A nc ien t F arm h as b een t o d eter m ine whe ther t he Donnerup land t ype o f a rd i s c apab le o f s i mu lat ing t he p reh is tor ic s cores i n t he s ubso il s o r egu larly a t tr ibu ted t o i t . T he s econdary o b jec t ives i nc lude t he e f f ic iency o f t he a rd i n s t irr ing t he s o i l a nd t he e f fec t o f s o i l move ment o ver t he a rd i n t erms o f w ear p a t terns .

Wi th

r egard t o w ear p a t terns t here h as b een i nsuf f ic ien t t ime t o d a te t o a ssess c r i t ica l ly t he wear p a t terns o n a ny i ndiv idua l p ar ts o f t he a rd b eyond t he e ar lier t r ia ls r eferred t o a bove c oncern ing t he f oreshare . T he ma jor p rob lem o f s uch a t r ia l i s e xac t ly t he s a me a s t ha t w h ich a f l ic ts a l l t he a gr icu l tura l e xper i men ta t ion a t t he A nc ient F arm , t he b as ic r equ irement o f t ime . I n p rac t ica l t er ms t o r each a ny k ind o f c onc lus ion wh ich i s s uppor ted b y s ta t is t ic a l ly v a lid d a ta s o me t wen ty y ears o f work a re n eeded .

On t he o ther h and ,

t ha t t he a rd i s a n e f f ic ien t i mp le men t i s ac onc lus ion wh ich c an b e r eached r e la t ive ly q u ick ly . I th as b een u sed s uccessfu l ly f or t hepas t f i ve y ears i nt he c u lt iva t ion o f f i e lds o n t he t wo b as ic s oi l t ypes o f t he f arm , t he f r iab le r edz ina a nd t he h i l l wash s oi ls . t o t he c a t t le .

V ar ious p os i t ions h ave b een emp loyed f or t he a rd i n r e la t ionsh ip E xamp les o f t he ' l ong d raw ' a nd ' shor t d raw ' c an b e s een i n

F igs . 7 .9 a nd 7 .10 .

T he ' l ong d raw ' was f avoured i n t he B owen & A berg

t r ia ls ( Bowen 1 969 ) w i th t he s ame r esu lts o f i nstab i l i ty a nd l ack o f c on tro l. B yf ar t he b es t i s t he ' shor t d raw ' b oth f ro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f t he p lough man ( or w o man i n t h is c ase ) who h as g reater c on tro l o f imp le men t a nd t he a n i mals , a nd t he a n i ma ls who a re more aware o f t he p rocess i n h and . T he ' l ong d raw ' p oses p rob le ms o f ma inta in ing v er t ica li ty a nd h ence t he l i ne o f t rac tion o f

1 45

F ig .

7 .9

F ig.

7 .10

The l ong o r e xtended d raw.

The s hort o r c lose d raw.

F ig.

7 .11

The b i te o f t he f ore s hare a nd l i f t o f t he undershare.

2 0

ARD

FURRO W

PR OF ILES 0

2 0

S ca le i n cms

F ig.

7 .12

P rof i les o f f urrows c reated by t he r ep l ica a rd i n t yp ica l h i l lwash c ha lk s o i l.

1 48

t he a rd . I t s r e la t ive r e moteness f ro m t he a n ima ls c auses t he m t o b e l ess c onsc ious o f w ork ing a nd t hey a re more p rone t o wander o f f c ourse . T he f u l l e f fec t o ft he u ndershare l i f t ing t he s oi l c an b e s een i n F ig . 7 .11. T he marks a round t he f oot o f t he ma in b eam s how t he h e igh t a t w h ich t he s o i l o ccas iona l ly f l ows a round i t . T he wedge wh ich d ic ta tes t he a ng le o fp ene tra t ion a nd t he l ea ther l ash ing a round t he s t i lt a nd t he r ear o f t he u ndershare a re s im i lar ly q u i te c lear . i n F ig . 7 .9 .

T he r everse w edge a t t he r ear o f t he b eam i s s hown

I n F igs . 7 .5 t o 7 .11 i tc an b e s een h ow t he t hree e lemen ts , t he

s t i lt , t he u ndershare a nd t he f oreshare a re l a id t i gh t ly t oge ther .

T he f ore-

s hare i s w edged i np lace wh i le t he l ash ing ma inta ins t he p osi t ion o f t he o ther p ar ts .

I tb ecame c lear d ur ing t he t r ia ls t ha t u n less t h is c ond i t ion o f max imu m

s treng th p revai led , b reakages o ccurred o n t he o ne h and , o n t he o ther t he p ene tra t ion a ng le was u ns tab le a nd e f f ic iency was i mpa ired . T he c apab i lit ies o f t he a rd i n p roduc t ion o f f urrows i n u nden iab le ( F ig . 7 .12 ) . Wh i le i tc anno t b e u sed f or p lough ing u pe stab l ished g rass land o r v ery o ld f a l low i ti sq u i te e qua l t o t he t ask o f d ea l ing w i th a f i e ld w h ich h as l a in f a l low w i th s tubb le a nd w eeds o verw inter o r a l terna t ive ly h as b een r es ted f or a s eason . I ndeed, wh i le t he ma jor i ty o f t r ia ls w i th t he a rd h ere d escr ibed h ave b een o n l i gh t s o i ls , s evera l t r ia ls were c arr ied o ut b y t he a u thor o n t he h eavy c lay a nd mar l s oi ls o f t he w es t M id lands . A s c om men ted a bove , t here r egu lar ly o ccur t he i dea l c ond i t ions f or p lough ing a nd g iven t hose c ondi t ions t he Donneru p land a rd , u nder h u man t rac t ion wh ich was c ons iderab ly l ess t han t he p ower o f t he t eam o f D ex ters ( t radi t iona l f o lk lore s ugges ts o ne h u man p ower e qua tes t o o ne e igh th h orsepower a nd p resu mab ly , t herefore , c irca o ne f i f th c ow p ower ) , was p erfec t ly c apab le o f d ea ling w i th t he h eav iest o f s oi ls . T he a ssu mp t ion t ha t b ecause i ti s s ee m ing ly o f l i gh t c ons truc t ion i ti s i ncapab le o f ah eavy work l oad i s q u i te e rroneous .

T hroughou t a l l t he t r ia ls i t s max imu m

p ene tra t ion , t ha t o f t he t i p o f t he f oreshare , n ever e xceeds 2 0 cm a nd i t a verages a t 1 5 cm .

T he d ep th o f f urrow f ro m t rough t oc res t a verages o ut

a t s o me 3 0 cm . T h is ,i n t urn , c auses p rob le ms i n t ha t s uch a f urrow i s t oo d eep f or d irec t s ow ing o f c erea l s eeds . T he i dea l s eed d r i l l i s n o more t han 5 cm d eep when c o mpac ted . T hus t he a rd r epresents o n ly o ne p hase o f t he c u lt iva t ion p rocess , f ur ther o pera t ions i nc lude t he l eve l ling o f t he t i lth , d raw ing o f s eed d r i l ls a s s uch a re p robab le ( Reyno lds 1 981b ) a nd f i na l ly c o mpac t ion o f s ame . T he c onc lusion r eached f ro m a l l t hese t r ia ls i s t ha t i ft he t opsoi l d ep th i n a n t iqu i ty e xceeded a n a verage 2 0 cm t he s o-ca l led a rd marks a re u n like ly t o h ave b een c rea ted b y a n a rd o f t he D onnerup land t ype .

I ndeed t he h or izon ta l

p lane o f t he a rd i n a c t ion i s s uch t ha t t he f oreshare p rotrudes b eyond t he u nders hare t o a maxi mu m v er t ica l d ep th o f C . 3 cm .

A ny g rea ter d ep th c aused t he

a rd t o j am i n p lace w i th s ubsequen t l i f t ing o f t he s t i lt a nd d ropp ing o ft he y oke . I t s o p t i mu m o pera t iona l d ep th was C . 2 cm .

I ns oi l d ep ths o f l ess t han 2 0 cm ,

e spec ia l ly o n s andy s ubso i ls i ti s n ot u nreasonab le t o e xpec t s o me s cor ing o f t he s ubsoi l s urface . P erhaps s uch a c ondi t ion e x isted a t Gw i th ian ( Megaw , T ho mas 8 . r Wa i les 1 961) .

H owever , w here t here a re c lear i ndica t ions o f o ne

way p lough ing o r c ross p lough ing a s e v idenced b y s uch s core marks t here f o l lows t he p rob le m o f c u lt iva t ion f requency . I np rac t ice a f i e ld c an b e p loughed s evera l t imes a y ear u nder n orma l c ond i t ions . I f ab are f a l low was emp loyed p loughing migh t we l l h ave o ccurred o n s ix t o e igh t o ccasions i n o ne s eason . 1 49

Were t he s ame p lough t o b e u sed a nd b ear ing i n m ind t ha t i t s p lough ing d epth c anno t b e e f fec t ive ly a d jus ted , ap le thora o f s core marks w ou ld b e c rea ted . U l t ima te ly t h is w ou ld l ead t o as e lf -cance l ling e f fec t w i th t h is t op l ayer o f s ubsoi l b eco m ing t horough ly mixed w i th t he t opso i l . T he o p t ions , t herefore , w ou ld s ee m t o b e t hreefo ld : f i rs t t he a rd marks a s a scr ibed a nd o bserved a re r epresen ta t ive o f t he l as t p ass o ft he a rd p r ior t o a bandon men t ; s econd t he f i e ld w as i nu se o n ly t wo o r t hree t imes ; a nd t h ird a nd mos t l i ke ly , t he marks w ere n o t a c tua l ly made b y t h is t ype o f a rd a t a l l . T h is l as t o p t ion h as b een e xp lored b y t he a u thor ( Reyno lds 1 981) a nd p r ior t o emp ir ica l t r ia ls i nc lud ing t he r ep l ica t ion o f c er ta in a rds o f t he A speberg t ype ( G lob 1 951) t he c on jec ture i s t ha t as pec if ic i mp lemen t , t he ' r ip a rd ' , i s m iss ing f rom t he a r tefac tua l e v idence a t t h is t ime . C onc lus ion T h is p aper h as s ough t t o r epor t t he r econs truc t ion a nd t es t ing o f as pecif ic w ooden i mp lemen t r ecovered f ro m a p ea t b og i n D enmark . T he emp ir ica l a pproach a dop ted h as f ocussed f ar g rea ter a t ten t ion o nf unc t iona l d e ta i l t han i s n orma l ly p oss ib le i n a n a rchaeo log ica lc on tex t a nd t he r esu lts h ave b een v a lida ted b y r epea ted p hys ica l t es t ing . T he c onc lus ions , i nconc lus ive i n t erms o fw ear p a t terns a t t h is t ime b u t g iven a n a dequa te p er iod o f c ons is ten t a nd c onsecu t ive u se e ven t h is p rob le m may b e a nswered , i ndica te t ha t t he i mp lemen t c anno t e f f ic ien t ly b e t i l ted a s h as b een h ypo thes ised i n o rder e i ther t o r idge a d eeper f urrow o r t o i nver t t he s o i l n or c an i t , w i th t he a bove c avea t c oncern ing s o i l d ep th , c rea te t he s o-ca l led a r d marks r egu lar ly a t tr ibu ted t o i t . O n t he o ther h and i ti s a mos t s uccessfu l i mp lement i n s t irr ing t he s oi l a nd i td oes p roduce a dequa te a nd s ubs tan t ia l f urrows . T here a re n o s igns o fa pprec iab le w ear u pon i t s c o mponen t p ar ts a f ter f i ve s easons o fr egu lar u se o n t he A nc ien t F arm , ap er iod wh ich i s c on jec tura l ly c o mmensura te t o t wo s easons i n a n t iqui ty . T h is o bserva t ion s ugges ts t ha t i t s f unc t ionab le l i fe a s a n i mp lement i s q u i te c ons iderab le a nd w i th r egu lar r ep lace men t o f f ores hare i tc ou ld we l l b e i nu se f or t wen ty y ears o r more . I n more g enera l t erms t he e xper imen t u nder lines t he l ack o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta o f w ooden i mp lemen ts wh ich w ere u ndoub ted ly t he n orm i n p reh is tory . I n a n a gr icu ltura l c on tex t i tw ou ld b e more s ign if ican tt o r egard p reh is tory f ro m t he n eo l i th ic o nwards a s ac on t inuum , t he p r ime ma ter ia l t imber a nd as tra igh tf orward d eve lopmen t o f a gr icu l ture , w h ich b y t he I ron A ge , c er ta in ly embraced o n t he o ne h and a rab le a nd p as tora l a gr icu lture a nd o n t he o ther s i lv icu lture . E very o ppor tun i ty t o e xam ine t imber i mp lemen ts whe ther t hey a re t oo ls o r b oa ts s hou ld b e e ager ly t aken s ince i ti s ad irec t a nd p os i t ive way o f i nves t iga t ing n ot o n ly t he c ons truc t ion t echn iques a nd t he f unc t iona l e f f ic iency o ft hese o b jec ts b u t a lso t hepr ime r esource t hey r epresen t . T here i s c lear ly n o c onf l ic t b e tween t he v ar ious d isc ip l ines i nvo lved i n t ha t b oa t a rchaeo logy h as c lear i mp l ica t ions o f t imber h usbandry o n l and . T he o nly r egre t i st he c ompara t ive d ear th o f t imber o b jec ts wh ich r e la te t o a gr icu ltura l p rac t ice .

1 50

REFERENCES A na t i , E ., 1 965 .

C a mon ica Va l ley .

J ona than C ape , L ondon .

A berg , F . A . &B owen , H . C ., 1 960 . s truc ted D onnerup land Ard . B owen , H . C ., 1 961 .

P lough ing E xper i men ts w i th a R econ-

An t iqu i ty 3 4 , 1 44-47 .

Anc ien t F ie lds .

R epr in t S . R . P ub l ishers L td .,

L ondon , 1 970 . B owen H . C ., 1 969 .

' The C e lt ic Background ' i n The R o man V i l la i n Br i ta in .

A . L . F . R ive t ( e d .) . R ou t ledge & K egan P au l , L ondon , p l . 1 .2 . F en ton , A ., 1 968 .

' P lough a nd S pade i n D u mfr ies a nd Ga l loway ' .

Trans .

D u mfr iessh ire a nd Ga l loway N a t . H is t . &A nt iq . S oc . XLV , 1 47-83 . F enton , A ., 1 976 .

S co t t ish C ountry L ife .

J ohn D ona ld P ub l ishers L td .

F ow ler , P . J ., 1 978 . ' The A b ingdon a rd-share ' i n The e xcava t ion o f a n I ron A ge s et t le men t , B ronze A ge r ing-d i tches a nd R o man f ea tures a t Ashv i l le Trading E s ta te , A b ingdon ( Oxfordsh ire ) , 1 974-76 .

Oxfordsh ire Archae-

o log ica l U n i t R epor t 1 , C ounc i l f or Br i t ish Archaeo logy R esearch R epor t 2 8 . G lob , P . V ., 1 951.

Ard a nd P lough i n P reh is tor ic S candinav ia .

H ansen , H . 0 ., 1 968 .

A arhus .

R epor t o f i m i ta t ive p lough ing e xper i men ts w i th c op ies

o f ap reh is tor ic a rd w i th p ass ing t hrough s t i lt ( Dos trup t ype ) 1 962-68 . R epor ts f ro m E xper i men ts i n L e jre , 1 . L eser , P ., 1 931 . I I , 3 .

' En ts tehung u nd Verbrei tung d es P f luges .' An thropos , B

Muns ter .

Megaw , J . V . S ., T ho mas , A . C . & Wa i les , B ., 1 961 . s e tt le ment a t Gw i th ian , C ornwa l l .

P iggo tt , C . M ., 1 952-3 .

' The Bronze Age

P roceedings Wes t C ornwa l l F ie ld C lub ,

' M i lton L och C rannog 1 .'

Proceedings S oc . A n t iq .

o f S cot land , I MO W I I , 1 43-44 . R eyno lds , P . J ., 1 967 .

' Exper i men t i n I ron A ge Agr icu lture .

Trans .

Br is to l &G los . Archaeo l . S oc ., 8 6, 6 0-73 . R eyno lds , P . J ., 1 979 .

I ron A ge F arm :

The B u tser E xper imen t .

Br i t ish

Museu m P ub lica t ions , L ondon . R eyno lds , P . J ., 1 981 .

' The w ork ing a groscape o f t he I ron Age ' .

L andscape

H ist . V o l . I . R eyno lds , P . J ., 1 981b . t er me , I I .

L es T echn iques d e c onserva t ion d e g ra in a l ong t erme ,

E d . Gas t & S igaut .

S teensberg , A ., 1 957-8 .

' Para l le l p lough ing w i th a l terna te ly s loping a nd

u pr igh t a rd i n C o lu me l la .' S teensberg , A ., 1 960 .

CNRS , Marse i l le .

F o lk-L iv , 1 57-62 .

' P lough a nd f i e ld s hape ' .

S e lec ted p apers o f t he

5 th I n terna t iona l C ongress o f An thropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences ( Sep t . 1 956) , C openhagen , 3 42-45 .

1 51

D ISCUSS ION OF PREH ISTOR IC PAPERS I ngha m

Is ugges t t ha t t he h o les a t t he e nds o f t he b oards i n t he Meare H eath S o merse t t rack migh t h ave b een a marker s ys te m t o i den t ify t he t rack when i t was f l ooded .

Orme

T hese b oards o r t ransverses h ave t hree h o les , t wo o f wh ich a re u sed t o h o ld t he s takes t ha t s ecure t he t rack i n p os i t ion .

T he t h ird h o les a re a bout 6 0 cm o f f t he c en tre-

l i ne o f t he t rack , a nd f a ir ly r egu lar ly s paced ( F ig . 4 .9 ) . T here was n o s ign o f a ny th ing i n t hese h o les , w hereas t he s takes i n t he o ther h o les w ere g enera l ly w e l l-preserved . H e ine

T here a re t rackways o f t ha t t ype i nt he s wa mps o f F in land , a nd where i ti s d angerous t hey h ave r a i ling o n o ne s ide . 6 0 cm o f f t he midd le o f t he t rack c ou ld b e ac onven ien t p os i t ion f or t he p os ts o f ar ai l ing .

F letcher

I s i tt rue t o s ay t ha t t he S o merse t L eve ls N eo li th ic S wee t t rack i s made o f p lanks f ro m v ery o ld t rees , wh i ls t t he B ronze Age t racks a re made f ro m y ounger t rees u sed i n t he r ound?

Orme

Id o n o t t h ink we c an g enera lise a bout o ur r esu lts i n t he L eve ls t o d a te , b ecause , f or e xa mp le , i no ne N eo li th ic s truc ture we h ave t he u se o f t wo d if feren t t ypes o f t ree t o p rov ide p lanks a nd e ach n ew d iscovery i s p rov iding n ew e v idence f or t he t ypes o f wood a vai lab le .

T he s a mp le i s

s t i l l t oo sma l l a nd t oo s poradic t o g enera lise . C o les

I t migh t b e a ssu med t ha t t he t ype o fw oodwork ing u sed i n t he we t lands o f t he S o merse t L eve ls o r t he S w iss l akes may a lso h ave b een u sed i n d ry land r eg ions w here n o e v idence h as s urv ived .

These we t land t echn iques may i n

f ac t b e v ery s pec if ic t o s uch a n e nv iron men t , a nd t heref ore w ou ld n ot b e u sed i n u p land a reas .

Archaeo log is ts

s hou ld b e aware o ft he p rob le m i n e x tending t he w e t land e v idence t o t he d ry lands . B arber

I s i tp oss ib le t ha tt he l im ita t ions i mposed b y w ood a na to my u pon w oodwork ing , c arpen try a nd j o inery a re s uch t ha t t he c ons traints o f c u ltura l v ar iab i li ty l i e o uts ide t he c ons train ts o f t he ma ter ia l i t se lf?

F or e xamp le , t here

i s g rea t s im i lar ity b e tween w ooden a r t ifac ts f ro m d if ferent c hrono log ica l p er iods a nd i n d if feren t c u ltura l c ontex ts . T h is l eads t o al ow o rder o f i n terpre ta t ive d educ t ion i n w ood s tud ies .

1 53

Orme

B arber 's c o m men t o n t he g rea t s im i lar i ty o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m d if feren t p er iods i s p robab ly s im i lar t o t he c ommen ts made i n t he l a ter 1 9th c entury o n t he g rea t s im i lar i t ies o f f l int t oo ls t hroughout t he P a laeo li th ic ; n owadays s evera l d if ferent g roup ings o f f l int t oo ls c an b e r ecogn ised . I n o ur w ork o n wood w e a re a l mos t a t t he p oin t where we c an d if ferent ia te b e tween E ar ly N eo li th ic a nd Middle N eo l i th ic w oodwork ing .

Much work r ema ins t o b e d one , h owever .

B arber

Wha t c r i ter ia a re u sed t o d ist ingu ish marks p roduced o n w ood b y s tone t oo ls f ro m t hose made b y meta l t oo ls?

Orme

We a re j us t b eg inn ing t o b u i ld u p ab ody o f e v idence w h ich s hou ld e nab le u s t o a t temp t t h is .

McGra i l

Da t ing wooden a r t ifac ts i s af i e ld where , u nt i l r ecen t ly , we h ave b een l ax a nd h ave r eadi ly a ccep ted " received w isdo m" . S o me o f t hese d a tes a re n ow b e ing p roved wrong b y d endrochrono logy o r r adiocarbon . C orre la t ions b e tween w oodwork ing t echn iques a nd t imeneed r e-examina t ion i n t he l i gh t o f t hese r ev ised d a tes .

B arber

Was t here a ny e v idence f or t he r ep lacemen t o f w ooden s truc tura l me mbers a t A uvern ier- Nord , a nd i fs o h ow o f ten?

Arno ld

We h ave d a ted a bout 8 0 p i les b y d endrochrono logy a nd i t s ee ms , o n p resent e v idence , t ha t t he w ho le v i l lage w as b u i lt w ith in 2 5 y ears . We h ave n ot s o f ar r ecogn ised t he r ep lace men to f t imbers ( Arno ld , 1 981, S truk turana lyse d er S tä tbronzezei t l ichen S eeufers ied lung A uvern ier-N ord . Archäo log isches K orrespondenzb lat t 1, 3 7-50 ) .

McGra i l

When modern l ogboa t b u i lders u se f i re t oh o l low t he l og t he e v idence f or i td isappears a s t hey u se t oo ls t o f i n ish t he work . Was t he A uvern ier-Nord l ogboa t , wh ich h ad e v idence f or t he u se o f f i re , u nf in ished?

Arno ld

It h ink i t was f i nished . Mos t o f t he c harcoa l h ad b een r emoved b y t oo ls , b u t at h in l ayer o f f i ne d ark w ood was l ef t o n t he b ot to m o ver t he w ho le l eng th o f 7 .3 m . b urned wood i s s tronger t han t he o r ig ina l t imber .

T h is

A tkinson

H ow were mor t ices c ut a t A uvern ier-N ord?

Arno ld

T hey were c ut 2 /3 f ro m o ne s i de a nd 1 /3 f ro m t he o ther , t he b lows b e ing p erpendicu lar t o t he g ra in o f t he w ood .

1 54

N . R eyno lds

When a modern p loughed f i e ld i s e xcavated i nd e ta i l , a g rea t d ea l o f e v idence c an i n f ac t b e r ecovered f ro m t he p lough-damaged u pper l eve ls o f t he s ub-soi l . T he c o mp lex p rocesses o fd estruc t ion c aused b y t he modern p lough a re a l l t oo l i t t le u nders tood .

P . R eyno lds

T here a re u nden iab le o ccas ions when t he modern p lough w i l l l eave e v idence o f i t s p assage .

T he r ea l q ues t ion

o ne n eeds t o r a ise c oncern ing modern a gr icu l ture i s t he n a ture o f mach inery a nd i t s l i ke ly l as ting e f fec t u pon t he p otent ia l a rchaeo logy . F ur ther , t h is b egs t he q uest ion whe ther o ne s hou ld r egard t he t opso i l a s as ign if ican t ' archaeo log ica l l ayer ' —a v iew s trong ly h e ld b y t h is s peaker . B arber

When w e f i nd a rd marks we u sua l ly o n ly f i nd o ne o r t wo s e ts . I f we a re t o t ake t h is l i tera l ly a s e v idence o f p loughing i tw ou ld i mp ly t ha t t he f i e lds h ad o n ly b een p loughed t w ice wh ich i s d if f icu lt t o b e lieve .

P . R eyno lds

Iam i n t o ta la greemen t—hence t he p ropos i t ion t ha t t he ' s oc a l led p lough marks ' a re , i n f ac t , r epresenta t ive o f t he u nusua l r a ther t han t he n orm .

1 55

8 .

RO MAN CARPENTRY JO INTS :

ADOPTION AND ADAPTAT ION

J ane Weeks

S u m mary T he h undreds o f Ro man wel ls wh ich h ave b een e xcavated a nd r ec orded c onst itu te a v irtua l t ex tbook o f t he j o in ts emp loyed b y t he Ro man c arpen ter . U s ing t hese , a nd d raw ing f ro m o ther s ources o f e v idence , t h is p aper s ets o ut t o s urvey t he p resen t s tate o f k nowl edge o f R oman c arpen try ,

C arpen try The s i mp lest p roducts o f woodwork ing a re t hose wh ich a re h ewn f ro m a s ing le p iece o f t imber , s uch a s l ogboats , t roughs , b ow ls , e tc . O nce t he s ize o f a n o b ject b eco mes e i ther t oo l arge t o b e c u t f ro m a s ing le p iece o f t imber , o r i t s f or m t oo c omp lex , t he p rob le m o fh ow t o j o in t wo p ieces o f t imber a r ises. I n g enera l t er ms , t here a re t wo p oss ib le s o lu t ions : t o j o in t he t imbers b y emp loy ing a .t h ird e le men t , o r t o u se t he t imber t o p rovide i t s o wn f asten ing . Under t he f irst h ead ing c o mes t he u se o f w ithes o r t hongs f or s t itch ing , i ron , c opper o r b ronze n a i ls o r g lue—none o f wh ich h ad a w ides pread a pp l icat ion i n t he Ro man p er iod i n t he n orth-western r eaches o f t he Emp ire . Under t he s econd h ead ing c ome j o in ts a nd s carfs , a nd i ti s t hese wh ich w i l l b e c ons idered i n t h is p aper . T he s tudy o f e ar ly c arpen try j o in ts i s s t i l l v ery much i n i t s i nfancy , a nd wh i le a rchaeo log is ts t oday a re b eco m ing i ncreas ing ly aware o f t he impor tance o f r ecord ing e v idence f or woodwork ing t echn iques , r esearch work i s h a mp ered t o al arge e x ten t b y t he s o met i mes e xaspera t ing ly v ague c om men ts i n t he o lder e xcavat ion r epor ts . N ever the less , t here i s e nough e v idence t o d raw s o me c onc lus ions , b ear ing i n m ind t hat t he e v idence i s b iased , n ot o n ly f or R o man c arpen try j o in ts , b u t f or a l l p re-Conquest woodwork , t owards t hose a rt ifacts wh ich were h ab itua l ly w ater logged b y n ature o f t he ir f unct ion : we l ls , waterfron t r evetmen ts a nd b oats .

O ur k now ledge b y c o mpar ison o f

h ouse a nd c art c onstruct ion i s b as ic t o s ay t he l east , t hough o ccas iona l ly o b jects wh ich h ave b een d iscarded i n a marsh o r l ef t u nderwater t o s eason h ave s urv ived .

E nough o f t he p icture e x ists f or i tt o b e p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish

as er ies o f R o man j o in ts a nd t o a cknow ledge t he ir l ack o f s oph ist icat ion c o mp ared w ith t he i n tr icate j o in ts o f N or man c hurch r oofs . To b eg in w ith t he d ef in it ions :

i n c arpen try , aj o in t i s s pec if ica l ly t he

means o fj o in ing t ogether t wo s eparate l eng ths o f t imber a t a n a ng le , u sua l ly 9 0°.

With v ery f ew e xcept ions , t hese j o in ts a re a cco mp l ished i n t imber a lone ,

1 57

F ig .

8 .1

The t h ird c entury t imberl i ned w e l l a t Ske lderga te, York. Axonometr ic d rawi ng by F . R . Ra ines.

F ig .

8 .2

J o ints u sed i n t he waterf ront r evetment a t Cus tom House.

1 58

w ithout t he u se o f g lue , n a i ls o r c la mps .

A s carf , o n t he o ther h and , i s u sed

t o c reate a n a pparen t ly c on t inuous l eng th o f t imber f rom t wo s hor ter l eng ths ( Hewet t 1 974 : 1 67-71 ). Many o ft he j o in ts u sed i n Ro man c arpen try a re a lso a pp l ied t o s car f ing , s o s carfs w i l l b e c ons idered s eparate ly o n ly b r ief ly . S car fs i n s h ip ' st imber a re a s ub ject i n t he mse lves a nd w i l l n o t b e c ons idered h ere . A s i n a l l a reas where a rchaeo logy o ver laps w ith o ther d isc ip l ines , t he a rchaeo log ist i s f aced w ith a r eady- made t echn ica l v ocabu lary a nd t he p rob le m o f whether t o a pp ly i t who lesa le , a nd t hus r ender t he s ub ject more a bstruse t han n ecessary , o r whe ther t o u se a s i mp ler s er ies o f t erms , a nd r un t he r isk o f l ongw indedness . I ti s t oo e ar ly f or a r ecogn ised t erm ino logy t o h ave b een a dop ted i n t h is f i e ld , b u t t h is i s s o me th ing wh ich may b e p art ia l ly r ect i f ied a s ar esu lt o f t he s y mpos iu m . I n t he mean t i me , t er ms wh ich a re n ot s e lf-exp lanatory h ave b een a vo ided . T he b est s tar t ing p o in t f or a r ev iew o f Roman c arpen try j o in ts must b e t he l a te t h ird c en tury we l l ( F ig . 8 .1 ) a t S ke ldergate , Y ork , wh ich i ncorporates i n i t s l eng th a l most a l l t he j o in ts i n t he Ro man c arpen ter ' sr eper to ire a nd m ight we l l b e d escr ibed a s t he a c me o f Ro man c arpen try ( Carver e t a l . 1 978 : 1 6-29 ).

T he u pper s ect ion—courses 1 -7 —was j o ined a t t he c orners b y s add le

j o in ts , t hough c ourses 2 a nd 6 u sed h a lf-lap o r e dge-ha lved j o in ts . j o in ts were n a i led , ap o in t wh ich w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter o n . 2a nd 4 a nd 5 h ad a c orner b race .

A l l t hese

C ourses 1 a nd

T he m idd le s ect ion—courses 8 -18—were

a l l j o ined b y d oveta i ls a t t he c orners ; c orner b races w ere a lso u sed . I n t he l ower s ec t ion , t here were n o c orner b races , t hough a v er t ica l p ost h ad b een n a i led i n p os it ion f or e x tra r ig id ity . Th is c ur ious c onstruct ion i s p rob ab ly d ue t o t he q ua l ity a nd q uan t i ty o f t imber a va i lab le :

t he u se o f d oveta i l

j o in ts i n t he m idd le s ect ion was d ic tated a pparen t ly b y t he r e lat ive ly t h in b oards u sed ; t he t h icker b au lks i n t he u pper s ect ion were more s u i tab le f or s add lejo in t ing . The p os it ion ing a nd c ho ice o fj o in ts i s o n ly p ar t ia l ly d ictated b y t he t imber s tock :

a l l j o in ts a re d es igned t o w ithstand c er ta in s tresses o f wh ich t here

a re t hree t ypes : t ens ion , c o mpress ion a nd t ors ion . N o o ne j o in t w i l l h ave t o w ithstand a l l t hese s tresses i n a ny s i tuat ion b u t e ach h as i t s own mechan ica l p roper t ies .

The c ho ice o fj o in t t hen w i l l b e d eter m ined b y t wo f actors :

t he

t imber a va i lab le , a nd t he u se t o wh ich i tw i l l b e p u t . A l l t he e v idence p oin ts t o t he f act t hat t hese s tresses were u nderstood i n t he Ro man p er iod a nd t hat t he c arpen ter k new wh ich j o in t p ossessed t he most s u i tab le mechan ica l p rop ert ies a nd h ow b est t o u se t he a va i lab le t imber . T he h a lflap a nd s add le j o in t The h a lflap j o in t i s , a s i ts ays , aj o in t i n wh ich t he e nds o f t wo p ieces o f t imber a re h a lved t o f i t t ogether . I n t h is f or m i tw i l l w iths tand l ong t itud ina l t ens ion a nd c o mpress ion ; i ti s t hus i dea l f or j o in ing t he e dges o f we l l c ourses where t he p ressures e xer ted b y t he f il ing b eh ind t he t imber l i n ing w i l l o n ly s erve t o make t he j o in t more c o mpac t . An e ar ly e xa mp le o f t h is t ype o f c onstruct ion i s We l l I V f ro m C o lchester , d ated t o t he m id-f irst c en tury ( Hawkes &H u l l 1 947 : 1 27 , f i g . 4 0 ). There a re a t l east a d ozen s im i lar e xa mp les , r ang ing f ro m S ussex t o N or thu mber land a nd f rom t he m id-f irst t o l a te t h ird

1 59

F ig.

8 .3

A r econstruct ion o f t he f i rst c entury mo le a t Dover. A f ter S tuart R igo ld, 1 969 .

1 60

c entur ies A .D . P re-Ro man e xa mp les o fh a lf-lap j o in ts a re a lso k nown—not f ro m a we l l , b u t i n t he f or m o f wa l l p lates a t t he G lastonbury L ake V i l lage ( Bu l le id & G ray 1 911 : f ig . 9 ) . A more s oph is t ica ted f or m i s t he s add le j o in t , where t he n otch i s made i n t he t h ickness o ft he t imber , s o t hat t he j o in t c an o n ly b e s epara ted i n o ne d irect ion .

I t was u sed i n c ourses 1 , 8a nd 1 6 i n t he we l l a t B ekesbourne ,

K en t , e xcavated i n t he m id-n ineteen th c entury ( Bren t 1 859 : f i g . 1 ) . T hese t hree c ourses were made o f s turdy b au lks o f t imber , t he i n terven ing c ourses b e ing made u p o f h a lflapped p lanks .

T he c onstruct ion was f ur ther s treng thened

b y t he u se o f c ross-braces a cross t he c orners o f t he c ourse , o f at ype a lso f ound a t S ke ldergate . I n terna l ly , t hese b races p rov ided what t he e xcava tor o f t he we l l d escr ibed a s a 'f l igh t o f s teps ', b u t whether t hese were u sed a s s uch d ur ing c onstruct ion o r when t he w e l l r equ ired c lean ing , o r whether t hese were s i mp ly a d ev ice t o a ssure a r ig id r ight a ng le i s n ot c lear . D esp ite i t s d a te , t he e xcavat ion o f t he B ekesbourne we l l was met icu lous a nd a n u mber o f t he c ourses were d is man t led . A s ar esu lt , d e ta i ls were f ound wh ich wou ld h ave b een m issed b y a n e x terna l e xa m inat ion a lone , a s i s t he c ase w ith most we l l e xcavat ions , e ven r ecen t o nes . F or t h is r eason , i t i s imposs ib le t o d raw a ny c onc lus ions a s t o t he f requency o f o ccurrence o f , f or e xa mp le , f a lse t enons , where f ree t enons a re s et i n mort ices i n t he m idd le o f b au lks o f t imber , a nd t hus a re i nv is ib le f rom t he o u ts ide o ri ns ide . At h ird c entury we l l o f t h is t ype was e xcava ted i n C o logne ; t he p ine b oards o f t he c ourses were j o ined thether w i th t he a id o f t wo f a lse t enons o n e ach s ide ( Schoppa 1 951 : Abb 2 , 1 71 ). T he n a i l ing o f j o in ts a lso l eaves n o e x terna l t races , t hough p erhaps i ti s worth men t ion ing t hat t he s o le B r it ish e xa mp le t here i s , t he we l l a t S ke ldergate , i s d ated t o t he l a te t h ird c en tury ( Carver e t a l . 1 978 : 2 4 ).

P r ior t o t h is t he R o mans may h ave a dhered t o t he

e th ic

t ha t ac arpen ter .. s hou ld s o lve a l l h is p rob le ms i n h is own mater ia l ' ( Hewet t 1 969 : 1 87 ). An e ar l ier f orm o f n a i l ing , wh ich a ppears a t t he S aa lburg a nd i n t he f i rs t c en tury mo le a t D over—though t he d ate o f t he l a t ter i s o pen t o d oub t—is t he u se o f wooden d owe ls o r p egs t o s ecure j o in ts , much i n t he manner o f t he a nc ien t E gyp t ians ( Jacob i 1 897 : f i g . 3 0 , 3 -8 , 1 2 ; 9 0-92 ).

R igo ld 1 969 :

As t he s add le j o in t d oes n o t r equ ire e x terna l p ressure t o k eep i tc ompact , i tc ou ld a lso b e u sed i n waterfron ts , f or e xa mp le , a t C usto m H ouse ( F ig . 8 .2 ) a nd Mi les L ane i n L ondon , a nd i n t he D over mo le ( Tat ton-Brown 1 974 : f i g . 9 ; L a mbert 1 921 : f ig . 1 0d ;

R igo ld 1 969 : f i g . 2 ) .

S tuar t R igo ld ' sr econstruct ion

o f t he wooden f ra mework d iscovered d ur ing r oadworks i n D over i n 1 855 was b ased o n as ketch o f a mode l made a t t he t ime a nd n o tes made b y w itnesses ( F ig . 8 .3 ) ;

t he f irst c en tury d ate w as a rr ived a t p art ly b y t he d ep th a t wh ich

t he mo le w as f ound , wh ich s uggested a d ate

we l l b efore t he l ate R o man mar ine

t ransgress ion ' a nd p art ly b y t he s im ilar ity i n c onstruct ion o f t he Ro man r ev etmen ts o n t he L ondon waterfron t k nown when R igo ld was wr it ing , s uch a s M i les L ane ( La mber t 1 921 ).

The s im i lar it ies w ith C usto m H ouse h owever

s uggest t hat a m id- t o l ate s econd c en tury d ate wou ld b e more a ppropr ia te . D over i s n o t t he s o le e ar ly e xa mp le o f t he s add le j o in t , wh ich t hough t echn ica l ly more s oph ist icated t han t he h a lf-lap i s n ot a pprec iab ly l a ter i n i t s a ppearance , t hough n o p re-Ro man u sage s urv ives . 1 61

3 .

3

F ig . 8 .4

F ig.8 .5

S ome o f t he t r ipart i te whee ls f rom E z inge.

Construct ion d eta i ls o f t he Vechten b oa t.

A f ter Wo lters, 1 964.

A f ter S . Mü l ler.

. , /

• / /

. j 4-L be i -r t I . .. ,. / 1I I J

k

_

- -sv

-, -- ' -z 4 '

. , . . ,

I .

--

-_

r I. , ,

0

1 62

1 1 , ; ! [ I /

T he d ove ta i l j o in t The D over mo le a lso c on ta ined a sy mmetr ica l d oveta i ls —used b o th a s s carfs a nd f or t i e ing i n c ross-bea ms .

T he u se o f h a lf-dove ta i ls r ather t han

f u l l d ove ta i ls i s o n ly f ound a t C usto m H ouse a nd D over ; i n t he mo le t hough n ot i n t he water fron t t he d ove ta i ls a re p egged i n p os it ion ( F igs . 8 .2 & 8 .3 ). D oveta i l j o in ts w iths tand b o th l atera l t ens ion a nd c o mpress ion ;

t he w eakness

l i es n o t i n t he t h in n eck b u t i n t he s hou lders wh ich h ave t he gr a in c ut a t a n a ng le .

I n v iew o ft h is weakness i t s u se i n r evetments f or t i e ing i n c ross-bea ms

( a t Xan ten a nd N ew F resh Wharf , a s we l l a s C usto m House a nd D over ) i s i nexp l icab le , a nd i ndeed a t N ew F resh Wharf a n u mber o f t he t i ebacks were d a maged where t he d ove ta i l h ad s heered ( von P e tr ikov its 1 952 : T afe l 2 0 ; S chof ie ld a nd M i l lar 1 976 : f igs . 4& 5 ) . The d oveta i led b oards u sed i n c ourses 8 -18 o f t he S ke ldergate we l l a re f a ir ly c o m mon e lsewhere , p ar t icu lar ly i n E ssex where f our we l ls h ave b een f ound t o h ave t h is t ype o f c ons truct ion , wh ich p o in ts t o al oca l t rad it ion o f b u i ld ing we l ls w ith b oards , r ather t han b au lks o f t imber ( W ick ford : Wilson 1 970 : 2 91 , f i g . 8 ;

C he l msford ( 2 ) : D rury , p ers . c o mm .;

L it t le D unmow :

D rury , p ers . c omm .). Nor i s t he u se o f d ove ta i ls c onf ined t o l arger a r t ifacts ;

t hen , a s n ow ,

t hey were t he ma ins tay o f c ab inet- mak ing a nd were u sed i n b oxes a nd c hests s uch a s t hose f ro m B radwe l l a nd t he S aa lburg ( Keepax & Robson 1 978 : 3 5-40 ; J acob i 1 934 : Abb 1 6 ) . The e ar l iest u se o f ad ovetai l j o in t a ppears t o b e i nH o l land where t r ip ar t ite whee ls f ro m t he s et t le men t a t E z inge h ad d ove ta i l-shaped l a ths ( F ig . 8 .4 ) wh ich s lot ted t he t hree s eg men ts o f t he whee l t ogether ( van d er Waa ls 1 964 : f ig . 2 5 ) . T he e ar l iest u se o f ad ove ta i l j o in t i n B r i ta in wou ld a ppear t o b e t he j o in t i n t he s tern o n t he Ho lme P ierrepon t 3l ogboat ;

i ft h is l ogboat

i s c on te mporary w ith Ho l me P ierrepon t 1 , , f ound i n t he s a me g rave l p i t a nd d ated t o c . 2 30 b .c ., t hen t he d oveta i l wou ld a ppear t o b e o fp re-Roman u sage i n B r it a in ( MacCor m ick 1 968 : f ig . 2 2 , 2 10-212 ) . An e x tre me ly r ud i men tary d oveta i l may b e s een i n ar epa ir t o t he App leby l ogboat , d ated b y C 14 t o 1 100 b .c . ( McGra i l 1 978 : 1 47-148 , f ig . 2 ) . I n t he R o man p er iod t he d ove ta i l i s s ecure ly d ated f ro m t he f i rst c en tury ( i f o ne a ccep ts t he d ate o f D over ) t o t he l ate t h ird ( Ske ldergate ). T he mor t ice a nd t enon a nd d raw t ongue j o in t The r econstruc t ion b y D et lev E l l mers o f t he V echten b oa t s trakes ( F ig . 8 .5 ) s hows a f or m o f c onstruct ion wh ich i s v ar ious ly k nown a s 'mor t ice a nd t enon ', 'c lass ica l ' o r

med iterranean '

( E l l mers 1 972 : Abb 1 84b ).

T he f i rst

t er m i s n otor ious ly v ague , b e ing u sed t o c over e veryth ing f ro m t h is t ype o f c onstruct ion t o t he t r i l ithons a t S tonehenge .

F or b oats o f 'med iterranean '

c onstruct ion f ound i n E urope , s uch a s V ech ten , Zwa mmerda m 2 a a nd C oun ty H a l l t he a dop t ion o f t he t erm

d raw t ongue j o in t ' i s p referab le when d es-

c r ib ing t he j o in ts emp loyed i n t he ir c onstruc t ion ( E l l mers 1 972 : 2 93-294 ; d e Weerd 1 978 : 1 5-21 ; Marsden 1 974 : 5 5-65 ). T here a re f unda men ta l d i f ferences b etween t he d raw t ongue j o in t a nd t he t rue mor t ice a nd t enon j o in t .

I n t he l at ter , t he f i t o f t he t enon i n t he mor t ice i s c ruc ia l f or i t s

e f f ic iency , b ut t he s hape o f t he f a lse t enon i n t he f or mer i s n ot impor tan t , 1 63

e ven i fi ti s n ot p egged w ith a wooden d owe l , p rov id ing t hat i ti s s ubs tan t ia l ly l onger t han o ne o f t he r ece iv ing mor t ices . T he mechan ica l p roper t ies o f t he t wo j o in ts a re a lso d if feren t—a d raw t ongue j o in t , p egged o r u npegged„ w i l l r es is t t ors ion a s we l l a s l a tera l t ens ion a nd c o mpress ion ;

a mort ice

a nd t enon j o in t , mere ly t he l a t ter t wo . T he u npegged d r aw t ongue j o in t h as a n i nheren t f l ex ib i l ity wh ich makes i t em inen t ly s u i tab le f or u se i n w hee ls , b etween t he f e l loes wh ich make u p t he r im .

A s we l l a s t he t r ipar t ite whee ls

f ro m E z inge , where u npegged d raw t ongue j o in ts w ere u sed i n a dd i t ion t o l aths f or j o in ing t he s egmen ts o f t he whee l t oge ther , s poked whee ls f ro m B ar H i l l , H o l me P ierrepon t a nd N ewstead made u se o f f a lse t enons ; N ewstead e xa mple was p egged ( Robertson e t a l . 1 975 : F ig . 1 5 , 2 ; & MacCor m ick 1 973 : 2 75-277 ;

C ur ie 1 913 : P l . L ,UX ).

t he Musty

One d rawback t o

t he p egged v ers ion i s t hat t he f l ex ib i l ity i s d ecreased a nd t he j o in ts w i l l e ven tua l ly s eparate ;

ag raph ic a ccoun t o f t h is i s g iven i n Ov id ' sd escr ip t ion

o f t he wreck ing o f O dysseus ' s h ip :

' And n ow t he wedges f or t enons ] work

l oose , a nd t he s ea m , s tr ipped o f i t s c over ing w ax l i es o pen a nd f urn ishes a p ath f or t he d eath-dea l ing waters '

( Ov id , Meta morphoses I , 5 14-515 ).

A s h as b een p o in ted o ut t he t r ipart ite whee ls f ro m E z inge were p ar t ial ly j o ined b y s im ilar f a lse t enons . H ere t he l a ths r an t hrough d oveta i led g rooves a nd a p a ir o f f a lse t enons were p u t i n to e ach s egmen t . T he c ho ice o f l athes a nd f a lse t enons f or t h is r o le was a d isasterous m is take : a s t he e xcavator n o ted :

m iss ing p ar ts o f t he wood s how t hat t ime a f ter t ime t he p egs o r

s treng then ing l a ths b roke o u t c onsequen t ly , p rac t ica l ly a l l E z inge f ragmen ts o r ig inate f ro m b roken whee ls , wh ich t ime a nd t ime a ga in s eem t o h ave c o l lapsed i n much t he s a me way '

( van d er Waa ls 1 964 : 1 23 ).

T he p rob le m

w as t ha t u n l ike t he t enons u sed i n s poked whee ls , t he t enons d id n o t l i e p ara ll e l t o t he c urve o f t he whee l a nd t hus were u nder g reat s tra in . I n v iew o f i t s l ack o f e f f ic iency , i ti s h ard ly s urpr is ing t hat t h is t ype o f j o in t w as a bandoned , t o b e r e in troduced l a ter b y t he R o mans . S uccessfu l R o man u ses o f f a lse t enons i nc lude t he s econd c en tury wa terf ron t a t C usto m H ouse ( F ig . 8 .2 ) a nd a t N ew F resh Wharf , t o p reven t t he h eavy b ea ms o f t imber f ro m s h if t ing t he ir p os it ion ( Schof ie ld & M i l lar 1 976 : f igs . 4& 5 ) .

As men t ioned e ar l ier , as im i lar c onstruct ion i s u sed i n a

t h ird c en tury we l l a t C o logne ( Schoppa 1 951 : Abb 2 ) . The mor t ice a nd t enon j o in t i s i n c arpen try t he g reat a l l-rounder ;

t he

s i mp lest f or m i s t he b as ic mor t ice a nd t enon where t he t enon s lots d irect ly i n to a mor t ice s uch a s t he a fore- men t ioned S tonehenge t r i l ithons , a nd t ab le a nd c ha ir l egs o f t he t ype f ound a t S co le , N orfo lk ( Rogerson 1 977 : f i g . 8 7 , 2 04-206 ) . As hou ldered v ar iat ion w i th t he mor t ice i n t he f or m o f ar ect angu lar o r c ircu lar p eg , was u sed— indeed , r igh tu p u n t i l t he l ast c entury— f or f i t t ing s pokes i n to h ubs a nd f e l loes ;

t he s pokes f rom p it XX I I I a t N ewstead

were c arved w ith a r ound t enon f or t he f e l loe a nd a s quare t enon f or t he h ub ( Cur ie 1 913 : P l , L 3 C IX ). The whee ls f ro m R y ton a nd B ar H i l l h ad t he t enons f urther s ecured w ith a wedge d r iven i n f ro m o u ts ide t he r im ( P iggo t t 1 949 : P l . XXV I ; Rober tson e ta l . 1 975 : F ig . 1 5 , 2 ) . L adders s uch a s t hose f ound a t Q ueen S treet , L ondon , a nd S i lchester a re a no ther e xa mp le o f aw edged mor t ice a nd t enon c onstruct ion ( Weeks 1 978 : f i g . 2 ) .

1 64

F ig.

8 .6

House o f t he Vetti i , P ompei i : wa l l p a inting s howing Daeda lus a t work c utt ing a mort ice. A f ter J . L ivers idge, 1 976.

1 65

S car fs S carfs i n t he Ro man p er iod a re i nvar iab ly s i mp le a nd d o n o t a t ta in a ny s ort o f c o mp lex ity u n t i l t he t we lf th c en tury .

I n a dd it ion t o t he h a lf-lap a nd

d ove ta i l s carf , t here i s t he b u t t j o in t—the s i mp lest a nd most c o m mon f or m o fj o in t—used i n t he N ew F resh Wharf r evetmen t where t he we ight o ft he t imber a lone k eeps i ti n p os it ion ( Schof ie ld & M i l lar 1 976 : f igs . 4& 5 ) . T he o ther c o m mon f or ms o f s carf a re a l l v ar iat ions o n t he mort ice a nd t enon t he me , i l lustrated b y t he j o in ts f ro m M i les L ane , C usto m House a nd X an ten ( La mbert 1 921 : f ig . 1 0 ( 1 1e i s a l most c er ta in ly med ieva l ) ; 1 974 : f ig . 8 ;

T at ton-Brown

v on P etr ikov its 1 954 : 1 45 , 1 54 ) .

Manufactur ing t he j o in ts H ow w ere t hese j o in ts c onstructed?

T h is s urvey h as s hown t hat t he

ma jor ity o f j o in ts w ith t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he d raw t ongue j o in t w ere i n u se i n p re-Ro man B r i ta in .

What d ist ingu ishes Ro man j o in ts i s t he ir

a ccuracy a nd f ine workmansh ip . T he R o man i n troduct ion o fa ccurate measuri ng i ns tru ments , t oo ls s uch a s t he p lane a nd b ow d r i l l a nd r efine men ts s uch a s s aws w i th s et t eeth made a c rucial impac t o n woodwork ing , p roduc ing i n s o me c ases work wh ich r ese mb les c ab inetwork more t han c arpen try . J o in ts w ere c u t w ith a b ow s aw , t he b lades f or a n u mber o f wh ich w ere f ound a t t he G adebr idge P ark V i l la ; j o in ts c u t i n t h is way i nc lude s add le , d ove ta i l , h a lf-lap j o in ts a nd t enons ( Mann ing 1 974 : 1 62-3 ). T he s aw marks were s t i l l v is ib le o n many o f t he j o in ts i n t he S ke ldergate we l l .

Mor t ices

w ere d r i l led o ut w ith a b ow d r i l l , wh ich a lso s erved t o make d owe l h o les f or d raw t ongue j o in ts , t hen made c lean w ith a mor t ice c h ise l a nd a ma l let . A wa l l p a in t ing f ro m P o mpe i i s hows D aeda lus , t he f ather o f c arpen try , work ing o n t he wooden c ow f or P as iphae ( F ig . 8 .6 ) ;

ab ow d r i l l l i es a t h is

f eet , d iscarded af ter d r i l l ing t he mort ices , a nd h e i s i n t he a ct o f c lean ing t he mor t ices w ith a t anged c h ise l a nd a n i ron h a m mer . T he impor tance o f measur ing t oo ls t o t he c arpen ter i s i nd icated b y t he f requency w i th wh ich t hey f eature a s mot ifs o n Ro man t o mbstones . T he b est k nown i nstru men t i s t he r u le , e xa mp les o f wh ich a re k nown f rom L ondon a nd C aer leon ( Good man 1 964 : 1 12 ). T hese r u les were d iv ided i n to u nc iae ( or t we lf ths ) , a nd p a lm i ( or f our ths ) ;

n u mbers were n o t marked b u tp a lm i

d enoted b y ac ross o r c irc le . O ther measur ing t oo ls i n t he t oo lk it were : A -leve ls f or c heck ing h or izon ta l s urfaces ( i n c on junct ion w ith a p lu mb b ob ) , d iv iders f or t ak ing measure men ts a nd d escr ib ing c irc les , c a l ipers— a v ar ia t ion w ith c urved a r ms f or t ak ing i ns ide measure men ts—and s quares , a n e xce l len t e xa mp le o f wh ich i s t he f our th c en tury m itre s quare f ro m C an terbury , e xcav ated r ecen t ly ( Hassa l l 1 979 : 1 79 ). I th as a s hou lder t o e nsure a r igh t a ng le a nd t he a rms a re a rranged s o a s t o p rov ide a v ar iety o f a ng les. I n t h is s urvey , a l l t he j o in ts i n t he Ro man c arpen ter ' sr eperto ire h ave b een d iscussed ; a s h as b een p o in ted o ut , many were a dop ted who lesa le f rom h is C e lt ic c oun terpar t , o thers a dap ted t hrough t he u se o f more s oph is t icated t oo ls o r f asten ings , s t i l l O thers were b rough t f ro m Roman I t a ly . T he d at ing o f most e xa mp les r e ma ins a t t he momen t t an ta l is ing ly i nexact , b ut f ur ther s tud ies s hou ld y ie ld more i n for mat ion i n t he n ear f u ture .

1 66

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Archaeo log ia

T he G lastonbury L ake V i l lage .

C arver , M . O . H ., D onaghey , S . a nd S u mp ter , A . B ., 1 978 .

R ivers ide

s tructures a nd a we l l i n S ke ldergate a nd Bu i ld ings i n B ishopsh il l . Archaeo logy o f Y ork 4 / I . C ur ie , J ., 1 911 .

2

T he

A Ro man f ron t ier p ost a nd i t s p eop le .

E l l mers , D ., 1 972 . Nord E uropa .

F rüh m it te la lter l iche H ande lssch if fahr t im M it te l u nd O f fa Bücher . 2 8 .

G ood man , W. L ., 1 964. H assa l l , M ., 1 979 .

I :

The H istory o f Woodwork ing Too ls . I nscr ip t ions.

Br itann ia 9 : 2 78-281 .

H awkes , C . F . C . &H u l l , M . R ., 1 947 .

C a mu lodunu m .

H ewet t , C ., 1 969 . S tudy .

T he D eve lop men t o f C arpen try 1 200-1700 .

H ewet t , C ., 1 974.

Eng l ish C athedra l C arpen try .

J acob i , H ., 1 934 .

D ie Ausgrabungen 8 :

H o lz u nd L eder .

An E ssex

S aa lburg J ahrbuch

V I : 7 8-79 . J acob i , L ., 1 897.

D as R ö merkaste l l S aa lburg .

K eepax , C . a nd Robson , M., 1 978 . o f a Ro man c hest :

2v o ls .

C onservat ion a nd a ssoc iated e xa m inat ion

e v idence f or woodwork ing t echn ique .

The C onE ,xvator

2 : 3 5-40. L a mber t , F ., 1 920 .

S o me r ecen t e xcavat ions i n L ondon .

Archaeo log ia 7 1 :

5 5-72 . L ivers idge , J ., 1 976.

Woodwork .

i n Ro man C raf ts ( ed . S trong , D . &

Brown , D .) . Mann ing , W., 1 974 .

Ob jects o f i ron .

i n N eal , D . S . The Excava t ion o f t he

Ro man V il la i n G adebr idge P ark , H e me l H e mpstead 1 963-1968 , Marsden , P ., 1 974 .

The C oun ty H a l l S h ip .

The I n ternat iona l J ourna l f or

N au t ica l Archaeo logy 3 : 5 5-67. Musty , J . a nd MacCor m ick , A . G ., 1 973 . Ho l me P ierrepon t , N ot ts . MacCor m ick , A . G ., 1 968 . P ierrepon t , N o t ts . McGra i l , S ., 1 978 .

An e ar ly I ron Age Whee l f ro m

Ant iquar ies J ourna l L I I I : 2 75-277. T hree d ugou t c anoes a nd a whee l f ro m Ho l me

Transact ions o f t he Thoroton S oc iety LXXX : 1 4-31 .

L ogboats o f Eng land a nd Wa les .

NM M Archaeo logy

S er ies , 2 . v on P etr ikov its , H ., 1 952 , Xan ten I .

D ie Ausgrabungen i n d er C o lon ia T ra iana b e i

Bonner J ahrbuch 1 52 : 4 1-161 .

1 67

P iggo t t , S ., 1 949 .

A whee l o f I ron Age t ype f ro m C oun ty Durha m .

P roceed ings o f The Preh istor ic S oc iety . R igo ld , S ., 1 969 .

T he Ro man H aven o f D over .

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l

1 26 : 7 8-100 . R ober tson , A ., S co t t , M . &K epp ie , L ., 1 975 . a nd i t s F inds .

B ar H i l l :

A Roman F or t

Br it ish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts 1 6.

R ogerson , A ., 1 977 .

Excavat ions a t S co le , 1 973 .

E ast Ang l ian Archaeo logy

5 : 9 7-224 . S chof ie ld , J . a nd M i l lar , L ., 1 976. f ron t .

N ew F resh Wharf :

The Ro man Water-

The L ondon Archaeo log ist 3 90-395.

S choppa , H ., 1 951 ,

Rö m ische Ho lzbrunnen i n K ö ln .

S aa lburg J ahrbuch 1 0 :

7 6-80 . v an d er Waa ls , J . D ., 1 964.

N eo l ith ic d isc whee ls i n t he N ether lands .

P a laeoh istor ia X : 1 03-146. Weeks , J ., 1 979 .

A Ro man l adder f ro m Queen S treet , C ity o f L ondon .

T ransact ions o f t he L ondon a nd M idd lesex Archaeo log ica l S oc iety 2 9 : 1 04-111 . d e Weerd , M

1 978 .

S h ips o f t he Ro man p er iod a t Zwa m merda m/N igru m

P u l lu m , G er man ia I n fer ior , Ro man S h ipp ing a nd Trade :

i n d u P lat T ay lor , J . & C leere , H . e ds ., Br i ta in a nd t he R h ine Prov inces .

CBA

Research R epor t N o . 2 4. Wi lson , D . R ., 1 970 .

Ro man Br ita in i n 1 969 .

Br itann ia 1 : 2 68-305.

Wo lters , J . B ., 1 964.

P reh istor ic d isc whee ls i n t he N e ther lands .

Unpub l ished d isser tat ion , Un iversi ty o f G ron ingen .

1 68

9 .

RO MAN MIL ITARY T I MBER BU ILD INGS : CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION W. S . H anson

S u m mary B u i ld ing i n t imber b y t he a rmy was t he n or m i n t he n or thern p rov inces o f t he R o man Emp ire f or t he f i rst a nd a l arge p ar t o f t he s econd c ent ury A .D . T ak ing t he d a ta f rom B r i tain , t he b as ic c onstruct iona l t echn iques a re e xa m ined a nd a b road c hrono log ica l p at tern d eterm ined . T he e v idence f or s truc tura l d e ta i ls a nd t he l igh t t hey t hrow u pon p rob le ms o f r econstruct ion i s d iscussed .

S o me t wen ty y ears a go t he l ate S ir I an R ich mond p ub l ished a b r ief s urvey o f R o man t imber b u i ld ing methods b ased p r i mar i ly u pon h is own work ( 1961 ). S ince t hat d ate much e xcava t ion h as t aken p lace i nc lud ing s o me q u ite e x tens ive a rea s tr ipp ing , f u l l s ca le s i mu lat ions h ave b een e rected a t t he L un t a nd C hesterho lm , a nd c ons iderab le a t ten t ion h as b een d irected t o t he d e ta i led s tudy o f p ar t icu lar a spects o f t imber c onstruct ion ( Mann ing 1 975 ; Mann ing a nd S co t t 1 979 ;

H anson 1 978 ) .

T hus t he t ime s ee ms r ipe f or a g enera l r e-

a ssess men t o f t he e v idence . The b u i ld ing o f m i l i tary s tructures i n t imber was t he n or m i n t he n or thern p rov inces o f t he R o man Emp ire i n t he f i rst a nd e ar ly s econd c en tur ies A .D . I n p r inc ip le , b u i ld ing i n t imber n eed n o t b e r egarded a s at e mporary measure . T he l ong l i fe-span o f many med ieva l t imber-fra med b u i ld ings s hou ld p rov ide s uf f ic ien t d e monstrat ion o ft ha t f act .

C lear ly , t imber i s b y n ature l ess p er-

manen t t han s tone , b u t i t s a dvan tages a s ab u i ld ing mater ia l a re t hree-fo ld : w ider a va i lab i l ity , e as ier c onvers ion a nd s peed ier e rect ion . I t was t hese f actors , r ather t han a ny c ons iderat ion o f h ow l ong t he s i te w as t o b e o ccup ied , w h ich i nf luenced t he d ec is ion o n t he b u i ld ing mater ia ls t o b e emp loyed . N onethe less , e st i mated s i te l i fe d id h ave a p art t o p lay i n d eterm in ing t hose ma ter ials i n t ha t o nce a f ron t ier b eca me more s et t led t here was more t ime a va i lab le t o s pend o n f or t b u ild ing o r r e-bu i ld ing . The c hangeover t o s tone-bu i lt f orts i s more o r l ess c ons isten t t hroughout t he n or thern p rov i nces . I n B r i ta in t hey b eg in t o a ppear e ar ly i n t he s econd c en tury a s a t G e l lygaer , a l though s tone , o r more p robab ly h a lf-t i mbered b u i ld ings , h ad b een c onstructed a t t he l eg ionary f or tress a t C aer leon f ro m t he b eg inn ing o fi t s o ccupat ion s o me t h ir ty y ears e ar l ier .

B y H adr ian ' s

r e ign much n ew f or t b l ind ing was i n s tone , t hough l arge ly , o ne s uspects , i n a ccordance w i th t he s che me f or H adr ian ' s Wa l l . Under An ton inus P ius , h owever , t he n or m s ee ms t o h ave b een t o e rect f or ts w ith s o me t imber a nd

1 69

s o me s tone b u i ld ings , a s o n t he An ton ine Wa l l , w i th a r eturn t o b u i ld ing p redo m inan t ly i n s tone u nder t he S even. I n t he G er man ies , where Ro man o ccupat ion h ad b egun r ather e arl ier , s o me c onvers ion t o s tone t ook p lace i n t he l eg ionary f or tresses a s e ar ly a s t he m id-f irst c entury ( Xan ten a nd Ma inz ) , b u t b u i ld ing i n t imber o n t he f ron t ier c on t inued u n t i l t he mid-second c en tury ( Hesselbach a nd E chze l l ). S im i lar ly , o n t he D anube f ron t ier a nd i n D ac ia s tone b u i lt f or ts d id n o t b ecome t he n or m u n t i l t he mid-second c en tury , a lthough e ar l ier e xa mp les a re k nown . I ti s wor th n o t ing t hat c ons isten t b u i ld ing i n s tone s ee ms t o c o inc ide w i th t he e stab l ish men t o f man- made l inear f ron t iers a nd t he g row th o f a more s tat ic a pproach t o f ron t ier p o l icy . B y t he t ime o f t he Ro man a rr iva l i n B r ita in , f ort l ayou t a nd c ons truct ion w as b eco m ing more s tandard ised ( Jones 1 975 , 5 8 ) , t he p rocess a pparen t ly r each ing i t s a pogee u nder t he F lav ian emperors . However , a sser t ion o f s uch s tandard isat ion s hou ld n o t b e p ressed t oo f ar e i ther i n t erms o f l ayou t , a s t he F lav ian f or ts a t N ewstead a nd M i lton make c lear , o r o f c onstruc t ional d e ta i l ( Hanson 1 978 , 3 03-4 ). I n t imber b u i ld ing t hree b as ic c onstruct ion me thods may b e emp loyed . T he s tructure may b e f ounded o n p osts i nd iv idua l ly s et i n h o les i n t he g round ( post-ho le ) , o n p osts s e t a t i n terva ls w ith in a t rench ( post-trench ) o r o n p osts j o in ted i n to a l a teral b ea m , wh ich may i t se lf b e b edded i n t he g round , r est o n t he g round s urface o r b e r a ised a bove i to n a dwarf wa l l o f s tone o r s ome o ther s u itab le mater ia l .

T he f i rst t wo methods a re i n p r inc ip le t he s a me

s ince b o th imp ly a d h oc e rect ion o f p osts wh ich r equ ire t o b e h e ld i np lace i nd iv idua l ly wh i le t he c onstruct ion p rogresses . T he a dvan tages o f t he p ostt rench o ver t he p ost-ho le method a re t wo f o ld .

A ssu m ing t hat t he p os ts a re

t o b e r e lat ive ly c lose ly s paced , i ti s g enera l ly more e f f ic ien t , o nce t he r eq u ired d ep th h as b een r eached , s i mp ly t o c on t inue d igg ing a long t he w a l l l ine r ather t han t o d ig i nd iv idua l h o les , a nd a t rench a l lows g reater f l ex ib il i ty i n t he p os it ion ing o f t he p osts t hereaf ter . O ccas iona l ly e v idence i s f or thc om ing t hat e ven t h is l a t itude was i nsuf f ic ien t , f or t renches h ad t o b e b ack f i l led a nd r e-dug o n t he c orrect a l ignmen t a t R ed H ouse , C orbr idge .

S uch mistakes

emphas ise what m igh t b e c ons idered a d isadvan tage o f t h is me thod o f c onstruct i on , t hat i s t he r e mova l o f c ons iderab ly more s o i l t han i s a bso lu te ly n ecessary . O f p oss ib ly g reater impor t , h owever , i s t he r esu l tan t l oss o f s tab i l i ty when o n ly t wo s ides o f e ach p ost a re a d jacen t t o u nd isturbed s ubso i l . F or t h is r eason i ti s q u ite c o m mon t o s ee t he p osts s e t u p a ga inst t he s ide o f t he t rench t o g a in max i mu m s uppor t . T he t h ird method—the s o le-p late o r s leeper-bea m— is r ather

more

s oph ist icated , f or i tr equ ires e ach u pr igh t t o b e t enoned i n to a h or izon ta l b ea m . T he a dvan tages o ver t he o ther methods , h owever , a re c ons iderab le : s tab i l ity i s i ncreased , e spec ial ly i n p oorer s ubso i ls , b y s pread ing t he l oad a long t he b ea m , t here i s l ess l ike l ihood o f r o t i ft he t imbers a re r a ised u p o n a dwarf wa l l , a nd p refabr icated t imber-fra med c onstruct ion b eco mes p oss ib le .

T he l at ter i s we l l a t tested f or t h is k ind o f c onstruct ion i n med ieva l

c on tex ts , b u t i t s a pp l ica t ion t o Roman m i l itary b u i ld ing i s n ot p roven .

D a ta

o n s leeper-bea m c onstruct ion i s , h owever , n o t a bundan t , f or a rchaeo l o g ica l ly i tp resen ts a n u mber o fp rob le ms . S ince t he b ea ms d o n ot r equ ire t o b e s e t 1 70

i n t he g round , t he ir v ery e x istence c an b e d if f icu lt t o d etect .

T here a re n o

c ons isten t g aps i n o ur e v idence wh ich m igh t i nd icate t hat m il i tary s truc tures were b u i l t o n b ea ms r est ing o n t he g round , a lthough t he method i s a t tested a t Bowness i n t he l a ter s econd c en tury .

A s im i lar p rob le m i s e ncoun tered

w ith s o le-p lates r a ised o n dwarf wa l ls , u sua l ly r eferred t o a s h a lf-t i mbered c onstruct ion .

T h is i s o f ten a ssu med t o h ave b een emp loyed b ecause t he

s tone wa l l f ounda t ion l ooks t oo i nsubstan t ia l t o h ave b een c arr ied t o f u l l h e ight , t hough r are ly d oes t he dwarf wa l l s urv ive t o s uf f ic ien t h e igh t t o c onf ir m t he p resence o f at imber s uperstructure .

On ly when a bundan t d aub h as b een f ound

i n a ssoc iat ion w ith s uch s tone wa l ls c an o ne b e c on f iden t o f t h is a ssumpt ion . E ven when b ea ms w ere s et i n t he g round , i tc an b e d if f icu lt t o d ist ingu ish s leeper-bea m f ro m p ost-trench c onstruct ion u n less t he t imber i t se lf s urv ives . T he s i tuat ion i s f ur ther e xacerbated b y t he woo l l iness o f t erm ino log y emp loyed b y many a rchaeo log ists who o f ten f a i l t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he t wo methods o f c onstruct ion i n p r inc ip le . 1 Even R ich mond p referred t o a bandon t he d ist inct ion ( 1961 , 2 0 ).

I n many c ases , h owever , i ti s p oss ib le t o d if feren t iate

b etween t he m . I fp osti mpress ions s urv ive a nd p ene trate t o t he b ot to m o f t he t rench , t hen c lear ly s leeper-bea m c onstruct ion h as n ot b een emp loyed . Where p osti mpress ions a re k nown o n ly f rom s ur face r e ma ins , p ost-trench c onstruct ion i s i nd icated i ft hey t end t o c luster a long t he s ides o f t he t rench . Where n o p os ti mpress ions s urv ive , a s i s a l l t oo o f ten t he c ase , i n terpre tat ion b eco mes more d i f f icu lt . Sma l l i nden ta t ions a t t he b o t to m o f t he t rench c ou ld b e t aken t o i nd icate t he u se o fp ost-trench c onstruc t ion , b u t a t V a lkenburg t he t enons wh ich j o in t he u pr igh ts t o t he s leeper-bea ms a ppear t o h ave p ene tra ted r ight t hrough a nd i n to t he s ubso i l .

Where s hor t , b ut tress-l ike p ro jec t ions

o ccur a t T junct ions o r c orners , s leeper-bea m c onstruct ion i s l i ke ly , t he p ro ject ions b e ing c aused b y s add lejo in t ing a t b ea m i n tersect ions . The c onverse a lso h o lds t rue , s o t hat i fc onstruc t ion t renches d o n o t j o in u p a t c orners o r j unc t ions , p ost-trench c onstruct ion i s i nd icated .

S im i lar ly ,

c onstruct ion t renches wh ich a re i rregu lar o r h ave a n u neven b o t to m a re u nl ike ly t o h ave h e ld s leeper-bea ms . F inal ly , a s ag enera l r u le , s leepert renches a re n arrower ( . 1 2 i nches : 3 05 m m ) , 2 s hal lower 1 2 i nches : 3 05 m m ) a nd t end t o b e s quare i n s ect ion , a l though t here a re e xcep t ions ( Hanson e t a l . 1 979 , 3 3 ) .

There i s a lso t he p rob le m o f l oss o f d ep th t hrough

e ros ion . N ever the less , t he s tr ict a pp l icat ion o f t he a bove c r iter ia o ugh t t o e nab le t he ma jor ity o f e xa mp les t o b e d i f feren t iated . I n t hose c ases where t he r esu lt i s u ncer ta in , t he t er m c onstruct ion t rench s hou ld b e a pp l ied s o a s t o a vo id a ny c on fus ion . M il i tary t imber g ateways were a lways e rec ted o n l arge p os ts s et w ith in i nd iv idua l p ost-ho les n or ma l ly o f s uch s ize a s t o mer it t he n a me p ost-p its . T he o n ly e xcep t ion k nown t o t he wr iter i s t he u se o f s leeper-bea ms i n t he g ates o ft he f i rst p er iod f or t a t V a lkenburg i n H o l land , wh ich p resu mab ly a re t o b e a ccoun ted f or b y t he i nstab i l ity o f t he s andy s ubso i l o n t hat s i te .

I n

t he f irst c en tury g ate-posts were o ft he o rder o f 1 0-12 i nches ( . 2 55-305 r am ) a cross , n or ma l ly s quare , s et a t i n terva ls o f a pprox i mate ly 1 0 f ee t ( 3m ) w ith in l arge s ub-rec tangu lar p ost-p its 3 o r more f eet ( . 0 .9 m ) a cross a nd r are ly l ess i n d ep th . E xa mp les o f s econd c en tury g a tes , where d e ta i ls a re a va i lab le , r evea l an ot iceab le d im inu t ion i n a l l t hese d i mens ions .

P osts

r are ly e xceed 9 i nches ( 230 m m ) a cross a nd t he d is tance b etween t he m i s

1 71

r educed t o a s l i t t le a s 3 -4 f eet ( 0 .9-1.2 m ) , wh i le p ost-p its d o n ot n ormal ly e xceed 3 f ee t ( 2 . 0 .9 m ) i n d ia me ter a nd 2 f ee t 6i nches ( 0 .76 m) i n d epth . T he r easons f or t hese c onstruc t iona l c hanges a re u ncer ta in , b u t t hey g o h and i n h and w ith a s i mp l if icat ion o f f or m .

F ew o f t he l ater g ateways s how a ny-

t h ing l ike t he c o mp lex ity o f t he e ar l ier e xa mp les , at rend wh ich wou ld s ee m t o b e c on f ir med b y T ra jan ' sC o lu mn wh ich i l lustrates a n u mber o f t imber g ates a l l o f v ery s i mp le d es ign ( F igs ,9 .1 t o 9 .4 ) , w ith o ne p oss ib le e xcept ion ( F ig . 9 .5 ) .

3

T he c on trast i n p lan b etween An ton ine f or t g ateways a nd t hose

o f t he F lav ian p er iod i s s o marked t hat o ne must c ons ider i t s e f fec t o n t he s uperstructure .4 The s ize o f t he p osts a nd t he d ep th o f t he p ost-p its i n f irst c en tury g ateways a rgues f or a c ons iderab le h e igh t f or t he s uperstructure .

T owers a re

a ssu med a s t he n or m , e i ther d irect ly a bove t he g ate p assage o r t o e ach s ide , d epend ing u pon t he d es ign o f t he g ate , i n o rder t o p rov ide a dd it iona l d efens ive p o ten t ia l a t a weak p o in t . To f unct ion e f fect ive ly i n t h is way t hey mus t p rov ide as econd s torey a bove t he r a mpar t t op— i .e . t hree s toreys i n t o ta l—wh ich i s c on f ir med b y t he e xa mp les d ep ic ted o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn ( F igs . 9 .1 a nd 9 .5 ) a nd h as b een r ep l icated t o f u l l s ca le a t t he L un t .

T he r educt ion i n b o th p ost

s ize a nd p ost-p it d ep th s een i n many o f t he An ton ine g ateways c ou ld w e l l b e t aken t o imp ly t hat t he ir s uperstructure p rov ided n o th ing more t han a c on t inuat i on o f t he r a mpar t wa lk a cross t he e n trance g ap , a s h as b een s uggested a t b hr ingen ( Schönberger 1 962 , Abb . 2 0 ) .

T he r educ t ion i n s p ac ing b e tween

p osts , h owever , c ou ld we l l h ave b een i n tended t o c oun teract t he s tructural e f fects o f t he r educt ion i n p ost s ize , wh ich m igh t p o in t t o l oca l d if f icu l t ies i n o bta in ing t imbers o f t he r equ is ite mass ive s can t l ing a nd l eng th . A l ternat i ve ly , s ince s tructura l d e ta i ls i n g enera l i n t he An ton ine p er iod i nd icate a marked r educt ion i n c o mp lex ity ( see b e low ) , we m igh t b e s ee ing t he r esu lts o f as hor tage o f s k i l led c arpen ters , p oss ib ly a s t he r esu lt o f i ncreased b u i ld ing a ct iv ity b y a ux i l iary t roops . Where t owers a l mos t c er ta in ly d id o ccur , t here i s s o me d isagree ment a bou t whether o r n ot t hey w ere o pen t o t he e le men ts .

S o me h ave r econstruc ted

c o mp lete ly e nc losed t owers a s a t F endoch ( R ich mond a nd McIn tyre 1 939 , f ig . 4 ) , wh i le o thers p refer t he o pen mode l b ased u pon Tra jan 's Co lu mn a s a t O akwood ( S teer a nd F eache m 1 952 , p l . XV I I I ) a nd t he L un t .

Tra jan ' s Co lu mn

i s u na mb iguous i n i t s many r epresen tat ions o f g ate-towers ( e .g . F igs . 9 .1 t o 9 .5 ) a nd , a lthough t he o pen t ower may s ee m t o o f fer l i t t le p ro tect ion t o d efenders , i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t i tw as n ot u n t i l t he mid-second c en tury t ha t we b eg in t o s ee t he r esu lts o f t he R o man a r my ' ss low c hange f ro m a p r i mar i ly o f fens ive t o ad efens ive men ta l ity .

Towers were mean t t o

a id o bservat ion a nd p rov ide t he a dvan tage o f h e ight a ga inst a n a t tack ,

An

e nc losed t ower w ith sma l l w indows wou ld b oth r estr ict o bservat ion a nd i nh ib it d efens ive c apab i l it ies , g iven t hat t he p r i mary w eapons emp loyed w ere s pears . F or t he more e laborate g ateways wh ich a re p rov ided w ith s ide t owers , s uch ar econs truct ion i s n o t t o ta l ly a ccep tab le .

I n s o me Br it ish f or ts ( Car l is le ,

C raw ford a nd S lack ) a nd o n many o f t he G er man s i tes ( Echze l l , H esse lbach , H e i lbronn-Böck ingen a nd K i inz ing ) i ti s c lear t hat t he r a mpart r an t hrough t he b ase o f t he t ower wh ich t hen s i mp ly r ose a bove t he r a mpar t i n t he s a me w ay a s a n i n terva l o r c orner t ower ,

A t o ther s i tes t he r a mpart s ee ms t o h ave

a but ted a ga inst t he o u ts ide o f t he t owers ( Buck ton , J ay L ane , Hod H i l l , F endoch a nd I nchtu th i l ) .

On ly i n s o me c ases ( e .g . L ong thorpe ) i s i tp oss ib le t o a rgue 1 72

. e .1

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene

4

‚ . 4 .

. U

•r • • 4

r a . ,

F ig.

F ig.

9 .2

9 .3

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene XCII.

Tra jan 's Co lumn s cene CVIII.

. , z r, . G * e . t " : ,

t hat l a ter a c t iv i ty h ad r e moved a l l s urface t races i nc lud ing t he r ampar t .

A t

F endoch t here was e v idence o ft imber p lank ing r eve t t ing t he r a mpar t o n t he o u ts ide wa l l o ft he t ower wh ich mus t t herefore h ave b een c lad i n t imber a t g round l eve l i n o rder t o p reven t a ccess , d esp ite t he o bv ious b road weakpo in t t h is w ou ld p resen t t o a n a t tack a ided b y f i re o r b at ter ing r am .

Ev idence o f a n

e nc losed g round f l oor n eed n o t , h owever , imp ly t he s a me t reatmen t o ft he u pper l eve ls . T he t imber c ladd ing c ou ld h ave b een r egarded s i mp ly a s t he e qu iva len t o f ar a mpart r evetmen t wh ich s topped a t p arapet l eve l , a bove wh ich t he t owers wou ld a ga in h ave b een o pen . G ranar ies a re o ne o f t he most r ead i ly r ecogn isab le t ypes o f b u i ld ings w ith in a f or t b ecause s tructura l ly t hey , t oo , a re a s pec ia l c ase .

T he n eed

f or a s trong ly s upported r a ised p lat for m was p rov ided b y ag r id o f c lose ly s et p osts , u sua l ly o f t he o rder o f 5f eet ( 1 .5 m ) a par t . T hese a re s ome t i mes p laced i n i nd iv idua l p ost-ho les a s a t H od H i l l , C orbr idge , Brough-on-Noe a nd O ld K i lpatr ick , b ut more n or ma l ly i n as er ies o f p ara l le l t renches .5 I ti s o f ten s uggested t hat t hese t renches c on ta ined s leeper-bea ms ( R ichmond 1 961 , 2 5 ) .

Mann ing , q u ite r igh t ly g iven t he imprec is ion o f t er m ino logy

emp loyed , c asts d oub t o n most o f t hese i den t if icat ions ( 1975 , 1 09 ) , b ut t he p r inc ip le s hou ld n ot b e d is m issed e n t ire ly , f or a n e xa mp le h as b een f ound a t V a lkenburg i n H o l land . H owever , t he o n ly c er ta in e v idence i n B r i ta in c o mes f ro m R ichborough where a s leeper-bea m was f ound i n ag ranary i n i nsu la I V , wh i le a t Me landra t wo f ragmen ts o f s leeper-bea m were f ound i n c asua l t rench ing a cross t he c en tra l r ange i n ap os it ion n o t =reasonab le f or a g ranary . T he a dvan tages o f s pread ing t he c ons iderab le l oad o n t he p os ts i n t he g ranary s ub-f loor a long s leeper-bea ms a re s e lf-ev iden t a nd emphas ised b y e v idence f ro m o ther g ranar ies a t R ichborough where p osts h ad s unk b e low t he b o t to m o f t he t rench . T he c oncep t o f g ranar ies b u i lt o n s leeper-bea ms s hou ld n o t b e d ispensed w ith c o mp lete ly f or i t may h e lp t o e xp la in t he v ery s ha l low c onstruct ion t renches n o ted o ccas iona l ly a s a t I l ld .ey a nd p oss ib ly Wa l lsend . L ike g ateways , g ranar ies h ave b een q u ite e x tens ive ly s tud ied a nd v ar ious r econstruct ions p u t f orward ( Bushe-Fox 1 949 , 3 2 ; R ichmond a nd Mc In tyre 1 939 , 1 32 ; Mann ing 1 975 , 1 12 ) , T he ma in a rea o f d isagree men t c oncerns whe ther a ny p osts i n t he s ub-f loor were c on t inued u pwards t o f or m t he s uperstructure ,

Mann ing h as r ecen t ly a rgued s trong ly a ga inst t h is s uppo-

s i t ion ( 1975 , 1 11-2 ) a nd t he L un t r econstruct ion f o l lowed h is p r inc ip le s ucc essfu l ly . B u t i t wou ld n o t s ee m u nreasonab le f or a t l east t he o uter p osts t o c on t inue u pwards t o f or m t he wa l ls o f t he g ranary . An u mber o f g ranar ies ( I lk ley , R ichborough , S trageath a nd Wa l l ) h ave p rov ided e v idence o f ac ons truct ion t rench wh ich c onnects t he o u ter e nds o f t he s ub-f loor t renches . S uch a t rench wou ld b e s uperf luous u n less i n tended t o s upport a n o u ter w al l . F ur ther more , a l l o f Mann ing ' so b ject ions c an b e c oun tered . The p resence o f c ircu lar p osts i s p ara l le led i n s tructura l c on tex ts i n o ther b u i ld ings ( Hanson 1 978 , T ab le 4 ) a nd i s e ven a t tested i n g ateways a t O akwood a nd G rea t C aster ton , s o t hat t he p rob le m o fj o in t ing n on-squared t imbers must h ave b een o verco me . N or n eed t he p osts f or t he o uter wa l ls h ave b een a ny l arger o r more d eep ly s et t han t hose f or t he s ub-f loor , f or , a l though c arry ing t he we igh t o ft he wa l ls a nd r oo f , t hey wou ld n ot b e c arry ing a s much o f t he f l oor l oad . 1 76

N or i s i t

p oss ib le t o d e monstrate t hat g ranary s ub-f loor t imbers w ere d ee med i n s o me way l ess impor tan t b ecause many w ere l ef t t o r o t i n s i tu .

T here a re

t oo many e xa mp les o fp osts f ro m o ther b u i ld ings , i nc lud ing g ates , b e ing l e f t t o r o t i n t he s a me way f or t h is t o h ave a ny p ar t icu lar s tructura l s ign if icance i n r e lat ion t o g ranar ies .

Mann ing i s , h owever , u ndoub ted ly c orrect i n

a ssert ing t hat t he f l oor j o ists wou ld n o t h ave b een j o in ted t o e ach o f t he s ubf l oor p osts . Af ew s trateg ica l ly p laced l arge n a i ls wou ld h ave b een a dequate . T he mass ive t imber p lat for m f ound a t C ar l is le a t t he e nd o f t he l ast c en tury p rov ides u s w ith a n e xce l len t s tructura l p ara l le l , e ven i ft he b u i ld ing i t se lf i s n ot a ccep ted a s ag ranary ( Char lesworth 1 978 , 1 16 ).

T he b u i ld ing w as c .

4 0 f eet ( . 2 . 1 2 m ) i n w idth a nd o fu nknown l eng th . The f l oor was made u p o f t wo i nch (5 0 mm ) t h ick o ak p lanks i n t hree l ayers r est ing o n j o ists 7 i nches ( L . 1 80 m m ) s quare s uppor ted b y ag r id o f p osts o f 6i nches ( 1 50 m m ) s can tl i ng , s o me s t i l l r eta in ing t he ir b ark . T he o u ter wa l ls were made u p o fa d oub le r ow o f p osts , t he i nner o ne s uppor t ing t he f l oor wh i le t he o uter o ne c on t inued u p t o f or m t he wa l ls . b y l arge n a i ls .

T he who le s tructure was f astened t ogether

D eta i ls o f t he wa l ls a nd r oofs o f g ranar ies a re e ven more a mat ter f or c on jecture . Mann ing h as s uggested t ha t t he wa l ls wou ld h ave b een t imber c lad r ather t han i n f i l led w ith wat t le a nd d aub o n t he b as is o f a n a bsence o f e v idence f or t he l a t ter i n t he g ranar ies a t U sk a nd e lsewhere ( 1975 , 1 13 ). T h is i n terpre tat ion may f ind s uppor t o n T ra jan ' sC o lumn ( F ig . 9 .6 ) where ab u i ld ing w ith wa l ls o fh or izon ta l b oard ing h as d oub le d oors s uch a s o ne m ight e xpect i n ag ranary o r s tore-bu i ld ing . C er ta in ly , t imber c ladd ing wou ld b e al ess f avourab le med iu m f or i n festa t ion b y i nsects a nd o ther p ests t han wat t le a nd d aub .

L ouvred w indows a re a ssu med a s e ssen t ia l f or v en-

t i lat ion ( R ich mond a nd McIn tyre 1 939 , 1 31-2 ) b u t , u nfor tunate ly , t here i s n o a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he ir u se , a nd i ft he i den t if ica t ion o f t he b u i ld ing o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn n o ted a bove i s c orrect , s i mp le o pen w indows a re imp l ied . A par t f ro m t he p oss ib le i ncreased r isk o f f i re o r p est i n festat ion w ith a t ha tched r oof , t here n eed b e n o d i f ference b etween g ranary r oofs a nd t hose o f o ther i n terna l b u i ld ings ( see b e low ). T here a re n o s pec ia l s tructura l c ons iderat ions t o d ist ingu ish a ny o ther i n ternal b u i ld ings o ne f ro m a no ther , s o f or o ur p resen t p urposes t hey may b e c ons idered t ogether .

Any a t te mp t t o t race t rends o r c hanges i n c onstruct ion

method i s s ore ly h a mpered b y t he i nadequacy o f t he e v idence . C an w e b e c er ta in t hat s o me o f t he e ar ly e xcavators who r ecorded p ost-ho les o r e ven s urv iv ing p osts o u tl in ing b u i ld ings d id n o t f a i l t o s ee t he o f ten d i f f icu l t-tod etect t races o f ap os t-trench l i nk ing t he m t ogether?

A lso , t oo many e xca-

v ators f a i l t o a pp ly t he s or t o f c r iter ia o u t l ined e ar l ier i n d i f feren t iat ing t he r e ma ins o f s leeper-bea m r a ther t han p ost-trench c onstruct ion . H owever , i ft hese c r iter ia a re r e-app l ied t o p ub l ished d ata , ap at tern d oes b eg in t o emerge ( see T ab les 1 a nd 2 ) .

T he u se o f s leeper-bea m c onstruct ion i s

p redo m inan t ly a f irst-cen tury p heno menon , wh i le s i mp le p ost-ho le c onstruct ion i s much more f requen t i n t he An ton ine p er iod .

P ost-trench c onstruct ion ,

h owever , s ee ms t o c on t inue i n u se a t a l l t imes a nd i s t he most c ommon o f t he t hree methods . T he t rend t owards s i mp l if icat ion i n c onstruct ion t echn iques r ef lects t hat a lready n o ted i n g ate s tructures . S hor tage o f s u i tab le t imber s ee ms a n u n l ike ly e xp lanat ion when t he r esources r equ ired w ere n ot 1 77

F ig .

9 .5

T ro jan 's Co lumn s cene XXII.

F ig.

9 .6

T ro jan 's C o lumn E , c ene CXXXVI.

v ery g reat ( Hanson a nd Mac innes 1 980 ) , wh i le a s hor tage o f s k i l led c arpen ters wou ld b et ter f i t t he g enera l impress ion o f u n t id iness g a ined f ro m t he p lans o f An ton ine b u i ld ings .

What i s a lso i n terest ing i s t he n umber o f e xa mp les o f

ac o mb inat ion o fb u i ld ing t echn iques b e ing emp loyed n ot mere ly w ith in t he s a me f or t , ap rocedure wh ich s hou ld n ot b e t oo u n fa m i l iar g iven t he e xa mp les o f f orts c on ta in ing b oth s tone a nd t imber b u i ld ings , b u t e ven w ith in t he s a me . b u ild ing .

S o me o f t hese d if ferences i n t echn ique c an b e r e lated t o d i f ferences

o f f unct ion o r e cono my o f s truc ture , s uch a s t he u se o fp ost-ho les f or v erandah c onstruct ion i n b arrack b locks , t he u se o f s leeper-bea m c ons truct ion f or p artit ion wa l ls o r t he u se o f t imber p ar t it ions i n s tone b u i ld ings . O thers , s uch a s t he c o mb inat ion o f s leeper a nd p ost-trench c onstruct ion i n b arracks a t N ansta l lon , P en L lystyn a nd C orbr idge a nd t he m in i-s leepers a t C hesterho lm , a re n ot s o r ead i ly e xp l icab le . L it t le o r n o a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o r econstruct ions o f t he b u lk o f i n terna l b u i ld ings .

A lthough d eta i led e v idence r are ly s urv ives , we h ave

e nough t o b e c lear a bout t he n ature o f t he wa l ls .

T he s pac ing b etween

u pr ights i s e x tre me ly v ar iab le , b ut i s s uggest ive o f an orm b etween 2 a nd 3 f eet ( 2. 0 .6-0 .9 m ) ( Hanson 1 978 , T ab le 5 ) .

T he u se o fw at t le-and-daub a s

af i l ler i s we l l a t tested . D aub i s f requen t ly f ound d ur ing e xcava t ions a nd , i f b urnt , , o ccas ional ly c arr ies t he impress ions o f t he wat t les . T he l a t ter were n or ma l ly i n terwoven v er t ica l ly a bout h or izon ta l t imbers wh ich c onnected t he ma in u pr igh ts . T he b est p reserved e xa mp le o f t h is c omes f rom V a lkenburg where u pr igh ts s urv ived t o s uch a h e igh t a s t o i nd icate a s pac ing b etween c ross- me mbers o f c . 1 0 i nches ( 255 m m ) o n a verage .

I n s ome c ases d oub le

c ross- me mbers were emp loyed , c reat ing , i n e f fect , ac av ity wa l l wh ich , i t was s uggested , c orresponded w ith a n i ncrease i n t he h e igh t o f t he w a l l , a lthough t h is i s n o t p roven ( G lasbergen 1 972 , 3 5 ) .

S omewhat l ess f requen t ly

t he wat t l ing w as woven h or izon ta l ly a s a t C hesterho lm , Me landra a nd t he Anto r i ine p er iod a t C orbr idge .

Ma in u pr igh ts a re t hen s paced a t g reater

d istances ( 2 . 4 -5 f ee t :1 .2-1.5 m ) w ith sma l ler , c ircu lar p osts a t i n terva ls o fa pprox i mate ly 1 f oo t ( 305 m m ) a bou t wh ich t he wat t les were woven ,

A t

V a lkenburg a n u mber o f t he u pr igh ts w ere p rov ided w ith L -shaped s lo ts t o f ac i l i tate t he p os it ion ing o f t he c ross- me mbers b etween u pr ights a lready i n p os it ion . O f s im i lar p urpose a re t he e longa ted mort ices i n u pr igh ts f ro m C hesterho lm . T he p rov is ion o f s uch f eatures a rgues a ga inst t he p refabr icat ion o f m il itary b u i ld ings f or t hey imp ly t hat t he c ross- me mbers were i nser ted a f ter t he u pr ights were f i xed i n p os it ion . A ma jor a dvan tage o f p refabr ica t ing at imber b u i ld ing i s t hat i tf ac i l i tates t he a sse mb ly o f af ra me o n t he g round b efore i ti s r a ised i n to p os it ion . T here i s ac erta in amoun t o fu ncer ta in ty a bou t whe ther d aub a t tached t o t he wat t le f ra mework was c arr ied a cross t he f ace o f t he ma in v ert ica ls o r s topped s hor t a s i n med ieva l t imber-fra med b u i ld ings . B o th were f ound a t V a lkenburg , wh i le t he f ormer i s a t tested a t C hester , P en L lystyn , p resu mab ly a t C hesterho lm , where t he h or izon ta l w at t l ing c on t inues a round t he ma in u pr igh ts , a nd a t C orbr idge ( per iods I B a nd I VA ) i ft he l a test i n terpreta t ion o f t he s take-ho les a longs ide t he c onstruc t ion t renches i s c orrect ( G il la m a nd T a it 1 971 , 1 3 ).

6

At imber-fra med b u i ld ing

w ith wat t le a nd d aub w a l ls may w e l l s ee m a n u npreten t ious s tructure , b ut t here i s e v id e nce f rom a n u mber o f s i tes ( Chester , C orbr idge , G louces ter , K ingsho l me a nd L ong thorpe ) t hat t he i n ter ior wa l ls were p lastered , wh i le

1 79

t here were i nd icat ions a t C aer leon t hat t he o u ter wa l ls were c overed w ith s tucco .

A lternat ive wa l l ing methods a re a lso p oss ib le .

T he u se o f h or i-

z on ta l p lank ing o r c ladd ing s ee ms t o b e i nd icated i n s o me o f t he f or t b u i ld ings d ep icted o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn ( F igs . 9 .4 a nd 9 .6 ) , t hough o ne o f t he e xa mp les , a s a lready s uggested , may r epresen t ag ranary . Av ert ica l p lank ing w a l l i s a t tested i n t he s ace l lu m a t P en L lystyn a nd a t C ar l is le where s o le-p lates w ith ac on t inuous g roove o r s lot c ut i n t he t op h ave b een r ecovered r ecen t ly . I ti s g enera l ly a ccep ted t hat a l l b u i ld ings w ith in a f or t were s ing les toreyed .

T he u se o fu pr igh ts w i th s can t l ing o f t he o rder o f 3 -4 i nches

( 7 5-100 m m ) wou ld n o t r ead i ly s uppor t ag reater h e igh t , a l though l arger s can t l ings a re r ecorded ( Hanson 1 978 , T ab le 4 ) wh ich , s u itab ly c ross-braced , c ou ld h ave d one s o . T he o n ly o ccas ion when g reater h e igh t i s d ee med n ecess ary i s i nt he c ross-ha l l a nd p oss ib ly t he s ace l lu m o f t he p r inc ip ia , ma in ly f or t he p rov is ion o f l igh t t o t wo o f t he most i npor ta .n t r oo ms i n t he f or t ( R ichmond a nd Mc In tyre 1 939 , 1 26-7 ). A s im i lar a rgu men t c ou ld b e p u t f orward , h owever , f or p ar ts o f t he p raetor iu m , h osp i ta l a nd workshop . An i ncrease i n t he d i mens ions o f t he c onstruct ion t renches o f b u i ld ings i n t he c en tra l r ange a s o pposed t o b arracks o r o ther s truc tures h as b een n oted a t F endoch , P en L lystyn a nd t he L un t , a l though n o d if ferences a re r ecorded a t C orbr idge .

A t R ed House , h owever , t he p os t-trenches a nd p osti mpress ions

i n t he p u tat ive b arrack b lock were c ons iderab ly more mass ive t han t hose r ecorded i n a ny o ther b u i ld ing o n t he s i te a nd t he p oss ib il ity o f as econd s torey w as n o ted ( Hanson e t a l ., 1 979 , 8 2 ) .

T he f ew f or t b u i ld ings i l lustrated

o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn a l l a ppear t o b e s ing le-storeyed , a l though t he s trugg le t o r epresen t p erspec t ive r esu lts i n a pparen t g reater h e igh t i n o ne c ase ( F ig . 9 .4 ) , wh i le t wo o thers ( F igs . 9 .3 a nd 9 .5 ) d ep ict b u i ld ings w ith a w indow a bove t he d oor , wh ich o ugh t t o imp ly a s econd s torey. D e ta i ls o f d oors a nd w indows a re , n eed less t o s ay , o n ly v ery r are ly a va i lb le .

T he r e-use o f ad oor o r g ate i n f l oor ing a t C hesterho lm h as p re-

s erved o ne e xa mp le wh ich i s p lank b u i l t a nd c ross-braced , wh i le a t Me landra f ragmen ts o f wha t was i n terpreted a s aw indow f ra me w ere r ecovered a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c en tury . Windows o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn a re n or ma l ly r epr esen ted a s o pen s quares ( F igs . 9 .3 t o 9 .6 ) , b u t o ne e xa mp le h as t wo v er t ica l s ubd iv is ions o r mu l l ions ( F ig . 9 .2 ) .

Ev idence o f w indow g lass i n a ssoc iat ion

w ith t imber b u i ld ings i s l im ited ( Char leswor th 1 975 , 3 9 ). E v idence f or r oof s truc ture i s n o t f or thco m ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , e xcep t f or t he p resence o f t i les o r s lates , wh ich t he mse lves a re r are i n a ssoc iat ion w ith t imber b u i ld ings ( con tra R ichmond 1 961 , 2 5 ) .

The

f or mer a re a t tes ted a t B owness o n S o lway a nd t he l a t ter i n t he v icus a t Watercrook , wh i le s andstone s labs were emp loyed a t I l k ley . H owever , t i les were n ot ab ly a bsen t a t t he L un t a nd P en L lystyn , a par t f ro m o ne f ragmen t , d esp ite e x tens ive a rea e xcavat ion . I n s uch c ases t he r oof ing mater ia l i s a ssu med t o h ave b een s h ing les o r t hatch w ith e v idence o f t he f ormer a t S aalburg a nd p oss ib ly t he l a t ter a t Mu mr i l ls , u n less t he s traw r epresen ted a n i ma l b edd ing .

T hree t ypes o f r oof ing a ppear t o b e r epresen ted o n T ra jan ' s

C o lu mn . Wooden p lank ing i s q u ite c o m mon ( F igs . 9 .4 a nd 9 .6 ) . At i led r oof i s c lear ly i n tended o n o ne s cene ( F ig . 9 .2 ) , wh ich s hows t he p rom inen t r idges f or med b y t he imbr ices .

I ti s n ot c er ta in , h owever , t hat t h is b u i ld ing

1 80

i s o f t imber , a l though i ti s c on ta ined w ith in a f or t w ith t imber g ates .

I n

c on trast , t he r oo f c over ing r epresen ted b y sma l ler r ec tang les w ithout r idges ( F ig . 9 .1 ) mus t b e e ither s lates o r s h ing les , t hough a ga in i ti s n o t c er ta in t hat t he b u i ld ing i s o ft imber .

F ina l ly , t he s hape o f t he r oof i s a ssumed t o

b e l ow-p itched , p art ly b ecause t h is was t he n orm i n t he Med iterranean , b u t ma in ly b ecause t h is i s h ow i n terna l b u i ld ings a re i l lustrated o n T ra p& s C o lu mn . T he b r ief a ccoun t p resen ted a bove h as a t te mp ted t o s u mmar ise t he e v id ence f or m il itary t imber b u i ld ing w ith p ar t icu lar emphas is o n d eve lopmen ts s ince R ich mond ' ss em ina l p aper ( 1961 ) .

Two p o in ts i n p ar t icu lar s tand o u t .

I ti s c lear t hat d i f feren t s tructura l me thods c an b e d etected a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd a b road p at tern t o t he v ar iat ions i s b eco m ing a pparen t . More impor tan t ly f or t he f u ture , s urv iv ing t imber r e ma ins a re b y n o means a s r are a s R ichmond t hen a ssu med ,

T he f u l ler d a ta t hus o b ta inab le w i l l b oth a id t he e xcavator

r estr icted t o s ub-f loor r e ma ins a nd w iden o ur u nders tand ing o f t he b u i ld ing s k il ls o f t he Ro man a rmy . F oo tno tes 1 . Th is i s s uspec ted more o f ten t han i tc an b e p roven , b u t ag raph ic e xa mp le c o mes f ro m G reat C aster ton where a s ect ion d raw ing o f a' s leeper-trench ' c lear ly i l lus trates a p ost-i mpress ion c on t inu ing u n in terrup ted d own t o t he b o t to m o f t he t rench ( Todd 1 968 , f i g . 6 ) . 2 . Imper ia l measure men t i s g iven i n a dd it ion t o metr ic t hroughou t t h is p aper p ar t ly t o f ac i l itate t he r eady a ss im ilat ion o f e v idence f rom o lder e xcavat i on r epor ts b ut more s pec if ica l ly b ecause i ta pprox i mates more c lose ly t o t he R o man s yste m . 3 . A l l r eferences t o s cenes o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn a re t o t he e xce l len t i l lust rat ions a cco mpany ing t he work o f C . C ichor ius ( 1896-1900 ). 4 . F or a c onven ien t c o mp i lat ion o f g ate p lans , s ee Mann ing a nd S co t t ( 1 979 ). 5 . F or a c onven ien t c o mp i lat ion o f g ranary p lans , s ee Mann ing ( 1975 ) . 6 . Th is f o l lows R ichmond ( 1961 , 2 3 ) a nd a ssu mes t hat t he wat t l ing was t o f ac i l i tate t he k ey ing o fp laster .

I ts ee ms u nnecessar i ly c omp l icated

a nd p os i t ive ly i nef f ic ien t t o p rov ide a s econd wat t le i n f i l l b e tween t he d aub a nd t he p laster , s o t he a u thor h as a ssu med t hat t he s take-ho les r epresen t t he r e ma ins o ft he o n ly wa t t l ing u sed i n t he wa l l , a lthough s t i l l a gree ing w ith G i l la m t ha t n one o f t he e xp lanat ions s o f ar s uggested a re t o ta l ly s at isfactory ( 1 977 , 5 5 ) . 7 . A t l east o ne ma in u pr igh t was s et o n am in i-s leeper . 8 . T he ma in wa l ls were h a lf-t i mbered w ith t he p ar t it ions s et o n s leeperb ea ms .

1 81

TABLE 9 .1 C onstruct ion me thods i n f irst c en tury b u i ld ings i n Ro man Br ita in C onstruct ion S i te B ag in ton ( Lun t )

Bu i ld ing Be t a l . P—

B a inbr idge B recon G aer B rough-on-Hu mber B rough-on-Noe

?B P r e t a l .

C ardean

Method p ost-trench

Reasons f or i den t if icat ion p osti mpress ions t o b o t to m

p ost-trench

p ost i mpress ions t o b o t to m s leeper-trench e x tan t b ea m p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b ot to m

? s leeper-trench

d ep th a nd w id th o f t rench , n o p ost-i mpress ions

? s leeper-trench

n o p ost-i mpress ions , n arrow t renches

p ost a nd

C arl isle

e x tan t t imbers

s leeper-trench C ast ledykes

sl eeper-trench u ncer ta in

C hester

p ost-trench

p ost-i mpress ions t o b ot to m

C hesterho lm

p ost-trench 7

e x tan t t imbers

C oe lbren

s leeper-trench

e x tan t b ea m

C orbr idge I A

Be t a l .

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b o t to m

I B

Be t; T i . .

s leeper-trench

e x tan t b ea m

?B a nd P

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b ot to m

D a lsw in ton

p ost-trench

d ep th a nd w idth o f t rench

E aster H apprew

s leeper-trench

d ep th a nd w id th o f t rench

C raw ford

F endoch

Be t a l .

? s leeper-trench

n ature o f d e mo l it ion b u t w id th a nd d ep th o f t renches

e xcess ive ? sleeper-trench d epth a nd w id th o ft re e h ,

G len lochar

t hough 6 i nch d ia meter s takes d r iven ' i n G reat C aster ton

Bet a.

p ost-trench

u neven t renches a nd p ost-

p ost-trench

p os ti mpress ions t o b o t to m

s leeper-trench

e x tan t b ea m

impress ions G loucester 1 2

a nd s o le-p late 8 d iscon t inuous t renches w i th

Be t a l .

p ost-trench

I lk ley

Be t a l .

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b o t to m o f d iscon t inuous t renches

I nch tu th i l

Be t a l .

po st-trench p ost-trench

d iscon t inuous t renches p osti mpress ions

Hod H i l l

•

u neven b ot to ms

Me landra

?B —

M i lton I

. P e t a l .

N ans ta l lon

Be t a l .

s leeper-trench e x tan t b ea m e x t a n t b e am i n P r a nd B , p ost- a nd osti mpress ions i n d iss leeper-trench p c ont inuous t renches e lsewhere 1 82

C onstruct ion S ite P en L lystyn

Bu i ld ing

Me thod

Be t a l .

p os t- a nd

e x tan t b ea m i n P r a nd B ,

s leeper-trench

p osti mpress ions i n d is-

p ost-trench

w idth o f t rench

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b o t to m

Reasons f or i den t if icat ion

c on t inuous t renches e lsewhere P u mpsa in t R ed H ouse

?B e t a l .

o f d iscon t inuous t renches R ichborough

p ost- a nd s leeper-trench

impress ions e lsewhere

S lack

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o b o t to m

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions i n d is-

Waddon H i l l

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions t o u neven

Wa l l

p ost-trench

Y ork

s leeper-trench

S trageath

Be t a l .

e x tan t b ea m b u t p ost-

c on t inuous t renches b o tto m p osti mpress ions t o u neven b ot to m

K ey B

b arracks

F

f abr ica

P

p r inc ip ia

P r p raetor iu m U

u ncer ta in

1 83

e x tan t b ea m

TABLE 9 .2 C onstruct ion me thods i n s econd c en tury b u i ld ings i n Ro man Br i ta in C onstruct ion S i te

Bu i ld ing

Method

Reasons f or i dent i f icat ion

B a l mu i ldy

p ost-ho le

B arburgh M i l l B ar H i l l

p ost-trench p ost-ho le

p osti mpress ions t ob o ttom s tone-packed w i th s o me

p ost-ho le

p osts e x tan t s tone-packed

s tone-packed w i th s o me p osts e x tan t

B earsden B irrens B ewcas t le B ishopton 1 2

Be t a l . ?B

p ost-ho le ? s leeper-trench

u nstated b ut t renches

B2 _ 13 1 .

? s leeper-trench

r ather w ide a nd d eep u ns ta ted

Be ta l .

p ost-ho le s leeper-trench

s tone-packed

a nd p ost-ho le

d ef ined b y s tone c hock ing

B owness

s ha l low t rench p ar t ia l ly w ith s tone p acked p ost-ho les , e spec ia l ly i n p ar t i t ions p osti mpress ions t o b ot tom . S tone-packed

B rough-on-Noe

Be t a l .

p ost-trench

C adder

Ba nd P r

p ost-ho le a nd s leeper-trench

n ature o f t renches u ncer ta in

p ost- a nd

p ost-i mpress ions t ob ot to m

s leeper-trench

o f d eep t renches a t d ecur ion ' s

C orbr idge I VB

s tone-packed p ost-ho les b u t

e nd w ith n o impress ions i n s ha l low t rench f or r est o f b arrack D un tocher G len lochar

p ost-ho le s leeper-trench

L e in tward ine

p ost-ho le a nd

s o me s tone-packed u nstated p osti mpress ions

p ost-trench ? s leeper-trench

L yne

u ns ta ted b u t t renches w ide a nd d eep w ith r ounded b o t to ms

Mu mr i l ls O ld K i lpa tr ick

Ba nd P r

p ost-ho le p os t h o le a nd ? s leeper-trench

P u mpsa in t

p ost-trench

R aeburn foo t

s leeper-trench

R aveng lass ( Had .)

u nstated t hough t renches s ha l low b u t b road w idth o f t renches d ep th a nd w id th o ft rench

p ost- o r

n o p osti mpress ions b ut

s leeper-trench

t rench v ery d eep

1 84

S i te

B u i ld ing

R aveng lass ( An t .)

B

C onstruct ion Method p ost a nd s leeper-trench

Reason f or i den t if ica t ion p osti mpress ions i n p art it ions b u t n ot o u ter wa l ls wh ich q u ite d eep b ut d ist urbed a s t hough s leeper r e moved

S trageath

Ba nd P

p ost-ho le a nd

o dd s tre tches o f t rench w ith

p ost-trench

p osti mpress ions , o therw ise p ost-ho les

K ey B

b arracks

F

f abr ica

P p r inc ip ia P r p raetor iu m U

u ncer ta in

1 85

RE FERENCES B ushe-Fox , J . P„ 1 949 .

F our th R epor t o n t he Excavat ions o n t he Ro man

S i te a t R ichborough , K en t , L ondon . C har lesworth , D ., 1 975.

G lass ( Vesse ls a nd Window G lass ) ,

i n H ob ley ,

B ., The L un t Ro man f or t a nd t ra in ing s choo l f or R o man c ava lry , Bag in ton , Warw icksh ire , T rans . B ir m ingha m Warw icksh ire Archaeo l . S oc . 8 7 , 1 -56. C har leswor th , D ., 1 978 .

Ro man C ar l is le , A rchaeo l , J . 1 35 , 1 15-37.

C ichor ius , C ., 1 896-1900. G i l la m , J . P ., 1 977.

D ie R e l iefs d er T ra ianssäu le , B er l in .

T he Ro man f or ts a t C orbr idge , Archaeo l . A e l iana 5

5 , 4 7-74. G i l la m , J . P . a nd T a it , J ., 1 971.

The i nvest igat ion o f t he C o m mander ' s

H ouse a rea , o n s i te X I , C orbr idge , 1 958-1970 :

t he s tructures , Archaeo l .

Ae l iana 4 4 9 , 1 -28 . G lasbergen , W., 1 972 .

D e Ro me inse C aste l la t e Va lkenburg , Z .H .,

G ron ingen . H anson , W. S ., 1 978 .

T he Organ isat ion o f R o man Mi l i tary T i mber S upp ly ,

B r itann ia 8 , 2 93-305 . H anson , W. S ., D an ie ls , C . M ., Dore , J . N . a nd G i l la m , J . P ., 1 979 . T he A .gr ico lan s upp ly b ase a t R ed H ouse , C orbr idge , Archaeo l . Ae l iana 5 7 , 1 -97. H anson , W. S . a nd Mac innes , L ., 1 980.

F orests , f or ts a nd f i e lds :

a

d iscuss ion , S co t . Archaeo l . F oru m 1 2 . J ones , M . J ., 1 975.

R o man f or t d efences t o A .D . 1 17 , Ox ford .

Mann ing , W. H ., 1 975 .

Ro man m i l itary t imber g ranar ies i n B r ita in ,

S aa lburg J ahrbuch 3 2 , 1 05-129. Mann ing , W. H . a nd S co t t , I . R ., 1 979 .

Ro man T i mber Mil i tary Gateways

i n B r i ta in a nd o n t he G er man F ron t ier , B r i tann ia 1 0 , 1 9-61 . R ichmond , I . A ., 1 961 .

R o man T i mber Bu i ld ing , i n J ope , E . M . ( ed .) ,

S tud ies i n B u i ld ing H istory , 1 5-26 , L ondon . R ich mond , I . A . a nd ‘ / I cIn tyre , J ., 1 939 .

T he Agr ico lan f or t a t F endoch ,

P roc . S oc . A u t iq . S co t land 7 3 ( 1938-39 ) , 1 10-54. S chönberger , H ., 1 962 .

N euere Ausgrabungen am O berger man ischen u nd

R ät ischen L i mes , L i mesforschungen 2 , B er l in . S teer , K . a nd F eache m , R ., 1 952 .

The Ro man F ort a nd T e mporary C a mp

a t O akwood , S e lk irksh ire , Proc . S oc . An t iq . S cot land 8 6 ( 1 951-52 ) , 8 11 05 • T odd , M ., 1 968.

T he Ro man F or t a t G reat C aster ton , Ru t land ? N ot t ingha m .

1 86

1 0.

RO MAN VEH ICLE CONSTRUCTION I N THE NORTH- WEST PROV INCES H ugh C hapman

S u m mary S urv iv ing a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or v eh ic les i n t he n or th-west p rov inces o f t he R o man emp ire i s l im i ted a nd d oes n o t p rov ide a d eta i led p icture o f t he ir c onstruct ion . B u t s tudy o f t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , n u merous p ictor ia l r epresen ta t ions , a nd l i terary r eferences may p rov ide a nswers t o s evera l b as ic q uest ions a bout t he ir c onstruct ion , t he d egree o f i nher ited C e lt ic t rad it ion i n t he f i e lds o f whee lwr ight ing a nd w agon-bu i ld ing , a nd t echn ica l i nnovat ions w ith in t he p er iod o f t he R o man emp ire .

The p urpose o f t h is p aper i s t o s uggest t hat t he s tudy o f R o man v eh ic les i s as ub ject u n touched i n a ny c o mprehens ive w ay , a nd o ne , when t he imkort ance t hat v eh ic les p layed i n t he e cono my o f t he R o man wor ld i s c ons idered , t hat i s c lear ly w or thy o f c ons iderab ly more i n terest a nd s tudy t han i th as h ither to r ece ived . T he p rob le ms a re n o t d iss im i lar t o t hose o f n au t ica l a rchaeo logy w here r e markab le a dvances h ave b een made i n t he l ast t en o r f i f teen y ears .

I ti s

u n l ike ly t hat t he s tudy o fv eh ic les w i l l b e a b le t o r e ly o n t he r ecovery o f ma jor w ater logged d epos its o f e v idence , b ut t here i s much u n iden t if ied me ta lwork i n museu m c o l lect ions awa it ing i n terpre tat ion—and h opefu l ly r econs truct ion .

Av ast n u mber o f c on te mporary i l lustrat ions , t he ma jor ity

s cu lptures i n r e l ief o n s tone , b ut a lso o n c o ins , mosa ics , wa l l-pa int ings , n eed c lose r e-exa m inat ion a nd r e-assess men t .

An i nd icat ion o f t he wea l th

o f t h is mater ia l i s p rov ided b y t he c orpus o f s cu lp tured s tones o f G au l p ubl i shed b y E sperand ieu ( 1907 ) , where s o me f or ty r e l iefs o f t wo- o r f ourwhee led v eh ic les a nd t he ir d raugh t-an i ma ls a re i nc luded . I ti s impor tan t n ot t o l abe l a l l v eh ic les i n t he p er iod A .D . 1 -400 a s 'Ro man ' . S uch a n e p ithet o r n o menc lature wou ld b e m is lead ing i n t hat i t h ides a c on t inuat ion o f l oca l v eh ic le-bu i ld ing t rad it ion t hat u ndoub ted ly e x isted i n a reas p r ior t o t he ir i nc lus ion w ith in t he R o man emp ire . T he e x istence o f s uch t rad it ions i n b oat c onstruct ion d ur ing t he R o man p er iod h as b een d e mons trated b y P eter Marsden ( 1 976 , 1 977 ) , a nd t he a r t o f v eh ic le c onstruct ion a nd i t s s treng th t o s urv ive f or l ong p er iods h as b een most e f fect ive ly d e mons trated— in t he modern wor ld—by G era in t J enk ins ( 1961 ) i n h is s tudy o f t he E ng l ish f ar m w agon , where g eograph ica l d iv is ions—usua l ly c oun t ies—prov ide t he ma jor d iv is ions b etween v eh ic les w ith in o ne t ype .

1 87

I n t he R o man wor ld ,

a nd o n ab roader s ca le , i ti s d if f icu l t t o a ccep t f or e xamp le t hat t he e x trao rd inary c arr iages o f t he s econd a nd t h ird c entur ies A .D . f ro m t he R oman p rov ince o f T hrace ( modern B u lgar ia ) p ub l ished b y V ened ikov ( 1960 ) w i th t he ir s uspended b od ies a nd e labora te d ecora t ion , a re r e lated t o e i ther t he p la in , f l at f our-whee led w agons o f P annon ia ( western H ungary ) wh ich a re r epeated ly d ep icted o n s o me f or ty-f ive t o mbs tones f rom t hat a rea ( Sh l , 1 944-45 ) , o r t o s im i lar v eh ic les f ro m G au l . B as ic c onstruct iona l d if ferences a s w e l l a s d ecorat ive v ar iat ions s hou ld t herefore b e s ough t o n g eograph ica l a nd c u ltura l d iv is ions , a nd t he d i f fer ing C e lt ic a nd Med iterranean wor lds p rov ide o ne o bv ious d iv ide . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t hat n e ither t he R o man a r my n or t he c ursus p ub l icus wou ld h ave p rov ided a ny d egree o f s tandard izat ion t hroughou t t he Emp ire s ince b o th o rgan is at ions r e l ied o n r apac ious r equ is it ion ing o f v eh ic les f rom t he a reas i n wh ich u n its w ere s ta t ioned o r t hrough wh ich t he s erv ice r an . S pec ia l ist v eh ic les , whee led- moun ted a r t i l lery f or e xa mp le , were p erhaps o n e xcep t ion . A s w e l l a s a ssess ing I ron Age t rad it ions , t echn ica l i nnovat ions a nd d eve lop men ts w ith in t he R o man p er iod a lso n eed t o b e i den t if ied .

I th as

o f ten b een s uggested t hat t he p er iod o f t he R o man emp ire was o ne o f t echn ic a l s tagna t ion a nd v ar ious s cho lars , f or e xa mp le L ynn Wh ite ( 1962 ) , h ave a t te mp ted t o a rgue t hat a l l ma jor t echn ica l a dvances e n joyed i n t he M idd le Ages w ere t he r esu lt o f d eve lop men ts i n t he p ost-Ro man p er iod a lone .

I t

i s n o t p oss ib le t o p ursue t h is a rgumen t h ere , e xcep t t o s ay t hat i n t hree a reas c onnected w ith v eh ic les t here i s t he p oss ib i l ity o f a n impor tan t t echno log ica l a dvance t ak ing p lace i n t he R o man p er iod . 1 )

T hese a re :

t he d eve lopmen t o f s haf ts t o r ep lace a c en tra l c art-po le , t hus a l low ing a s ing le a n i ma l t o b e h arnessed t o at wo- o r f our-whee led v eh ic le .

2 )

t he d eve lop men t o f ap ivot ing f ron t a x le a nd f ore-carr iage .

3 )

t he i n troduct ion o f t he s uspens ion o f t he v eh ic le ' sb ody b y t hroughb races .

An a ssoc iated f our th a rea o f d eve lop men t , a nd o ne t hat h as b een much d ebated , t he i ncreased e f f ic iency o fh orse a nd mu le h arness ing s ystems a lso r equ ires f ur ther s tudy . Two -whee led v eh ic les Even t he b r iefest s urvey o f t wo-whee led v eh ic les i n t he p er iod c anno t b e made w ithout r eference t o S ir C yr i l F ox ' sr econstruct ion ( 1946 , 1 1-27) o f v ar ious v eh ic le f i t t ings f ro m t he g reat I ron Age d epos it a t L lyn C err ig B ach , Ang lesey , n o t o n ly b ecause i ti s o ne o f t he v ery f ew a t te mp ted r econs truct ions o f at wo-whee led v eh ic le f ro m t he p re-Ro man o r Roman w or ld , b u t a lso b ecause i td e monstrates h ow f ragmen tary t he e v idence i s . T he s urv iv ing p ieces were : 1 )

o ne c o mp le te i ron t yre a nd n u merous f ragmen ts ( represen t ing 1 0-22 d i f feren t v eh ic les )

2 )

e igh t b ands o f b ronze o r i ron f ro m n ave h oops

1 88

3 )

o ne ' horn c ap '

4 )

t wo l ynch p ins , o ne b ronze/ iron , o ne o f i ron ( l oop t ype )

5 )

f i ve d ecorat ive embossed s tr ips a nd o ne t r id isc o f b ronze .

6 )

f ragmen t o f wood ( haw thorn ( Crataegus s p .) o r c herry ( Prunus s p .) ). r e inforced w ith f our i ron s tr ips , i den t if ied a s t he e nd o f t he c ar tp o le a t t he p o in t o fa t tach men t f or t he y oke .

U sing t hese f ragmen ts , t ogether w ith whee l-fragmen ts ( nave ) f ro m G lastonbury , t he e v idence o f ar ecorded t wo-whee led c har iot f ro m K aer l ich n ear K ob lenz , p ub l ished i n 1 934 , p ictor ia l e v idence f ro m t he c o inage o f t he R em i ( Marne a rea ) , l i terary e v idence f ro m C aesar a nd I r ish s ources , F ox p roduced h is r econstruct ion , T hree c o m men ts s hou ld b e made .

One , t he r ec tangu lar b ody-fra me

a nd i ndependen t ly c onstructed d raugh t-po le r unn ing u nder t he f l oor a ssumes a n a dvance f ro m t he b as ic t r iangu lar f ra med o r f orked s l ide c ar whose b ody c onstruct ion i s t hough t t o r epresen t t he e ar l iest method o f v eh ic le b ody c onstruct ion i n p reh istory ( Jenk ins , 1 962 , 2 0 ; P iggo t t , 1 968 , 2 89-292 ) . T he d ate o f s uch a n a dvance i s n o t k nown a nd may w e l l h ave h appened l a ter i n t he R o man o r p ost-Ro man p er iod .

Two , t he s v v ing le-tree f or t race

a t tach men ts i s a lso p erhaps u n l ike ly , s ince p resen t e v idence d oes n o t s ugg est t he ir i n troduct ion b efore t he e ar ly 1 2th c en tury , ( see t he b ronze d oors o n N ovgorod c athedra l , c . 1 154 , Wh ite , 1 962 , 6 6 n . 5 ) .

T hree , t he h orn

c ap s hou ld p erhaps b e o ne o f t wo a nd l ocated o n t he u p turned e nds o f t he y oke , a nd n o t a s t er m ina ls f or h and-ho lds ( P iggo t t , 1 969 ) ; o f t hese o b jects c on t inues t o b e d eba ted .

t hough t he f unc t ion

D esp i te t hese c r it ica l c o mmen ts , F ox ' sr econstruct ion r e ma ins a n e xa mp le o f imag inat ive work b ased o n c o mmon s ense c o mb ined w ith t he a va i lab le c on te mporary e v idence . N o s uch work , h owever , h as b een d one f or t wo-whee led c ar ts w i th c ar t-po les i n t he Ro man p er iod p roper , a nd f or v eh ic les o f t h is s or t e ven t he n u mber o f c on te mporary i l lustra t ions a re v ery l im ited . T hose t hat d o s urv ive s how a w ide v ar iety o f t wo-whee led v eh ic les ; ar e l ief f ro m Ro me s hows a s i mp le p lat for m c ar t w ith s ide s uppor ts a nd s o l id whee ls b e ing p u l led b y t wo o xen ( F ig . 1 0 .1 ) , wh i le o ne o f t he s te lae f ro m t he P annon ian s er ies s hows a l i gh t-we igh t p assenger v eh ic le ( p erhaps t o b e e quated w ith t he b iro ta o f t he c ursus p ub licus ) w ith s ides a nd s eat h igh a bove t he e igh t-spoked w hee ls , ( g Ag i , 1 944-45 , P l . 8 7.1 ) , a nd o n T ra jan ' s C o lu mn t wo-whee led c ar ts o f d if fer ing c onstruct ions c an b e s een ( V igneron , 1 968 , P ls . 5 9a-b ; 6 2b , d ; 6 3a-b ) . F our-whee led v eh ic les Ev idence f or c onstruct ion d e ta i ls o f f our-whee led w agons i n t he R o man p er iod i s e qua l ly d i f f icu l t t o o b ta in .

To s o me e x ten t t he p icture i s o ver-

s hadowed a nd p erhaps c on fused b y t he d e ta i led r econstruc t ions o f t wo p reR o man wagons . T hat f ro m B e l l , i n t he Hunsr t ick , G er many a nd d ated t o t he l a te H a l ls tat t p er iod s hows a s oph ist ica ted f our-whee led w agon w ith t wo a x les l inked b y as ubs tan t ia l s ing le h or izon ta l me mber a nd l i gh t-we igh t b ox-l ike b ody s uppor ted o n f our v er t ica l p i l lars ( Rest , 1 948 , 1 34-150 ). F ro m » eatb og d epos its a t D e jb jerg , D enmark , c o me t he p ar ts o f t wo v o t ive wagons 1 89

F ig .

F ig.

1 0.1

1 0.2

Two-whee led c art pu l led by a p a ir o f o xen, s arcophagus, L ateran Museum, Rome.

f rom a

F our-whee led wagon w ith s haf ts pu l led by a s ing le mu le, Terme d e C isar i , Ostia.

d ated t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he i s t c en tury B .C . ( K l ind t-Jensen , 1 950 , 8 7-100 ) a nd t hough t i n t he p ast t o b e C e lt ic impor ts t o t he a rea .

One h as b een r e-

c onstructed t o g ive a f our-whee led w agon w ith a h igh , h eav i ly-decorated b ody o n ac hass is f ormed b y t he j o in ing o f t wo t r iangu lar f ra mes , t he a pex o f t he f ron t s ect ion b e ing e x tended t o f or m t he p ar t-po le . T h is a rrange men t r epr esen ts t he l i nk ing o ft wo t r iangu lar-framed t wo-whee led c ar ts t o p roduce a f our-whee led w agon .

Whether o r n o t s uch a n u ndercarr iage c onstruct ion a s •

t h is r e ma ined t he b as ic c onstruct ional method o f t he c hassis o f wagons i n t he n or th-west p rov inces i n t he Ro man p er iod i s u ncer ta in .

A sma l l b ronze

mode l o f aw agon c hass is f ro m a l a te 4 th-cen tury A .D . R o man g rave n ear C o logne s t i l l r e ta ins e le men ts o f t h is f orm o f c onstruct ion ( Haberey , 1 949 , 9 8 ) , b u t t here i s n o way o f t e l l ing f rom c on temporary i l lustrat ions whether t he c hass is o f o ther s im i lar e ar l ier w agons h ave t he s a me d eve loped f orms . I ft here i s u ncer ta in ty a bou t t he b as ic u ndercarr iage c onstruct ion—and t h is r e mains a n e ssen t ia l l i ne o f i nqu iry t o b e p ursued—there i s more s uperf i c ia l e v idence a bou t t he d if feren t t ypes o f b od ies b u i l t o n t o t he c hass is . V ery b r ief ly t hese c an r ange f ro m wagons w i th f our v er t ica l p osts a pparen t ly d irect ly a t tached t o t he s ubstructure a nd u sed , i tc an b e s uggested , f or c onv ey ing l arge t imbers ( f or e xa mp le , o n aP annon ian s te le , S ág i , 1 944-45 , P l . 7 9 .1 ) , more o r thodox w agons f or s i mp le c ar tage w ith l ow s p ind le-s ides ( dep icted f or e xa mp le o n a2 nd-cen tury mosa ic f ro m O rbe , Sw itzer land , T oynbee , 1 973 , P l . 7 7 ) , c overed p assenger c onveyances ( a r e l ief f ro m n ear K lagen fur t , V igneron , 1 968 , P l . 6 5 ) , s pec ia l ist f unerary v eh ic les o r h earses ( a r e l ief f ro m V a ison , V igneron , 1 968 , P l . 6 7 ) , a nd e ven t ankers , t he b est k nown e xa mp le f rom L angres , a nd p erhaps c apab le o f c on ta in ing s o me 4 00 l i tres ( V igneron , 1 968 , P l . 6 2a ).

T he c onstruct ion o f t h is l a t ter v eh ic le

wou ld h ave r equ ired t he c omb ined t a len ts o f b o th w agon-bu i ld ing a nd c ooper . With a l l t hese v eh ic les t he b as ic s tructura l e le men ts r e ma in u ncer ta in , a nd t h is u ncerta in ty i nc ludes t he c ruc ia l q uest ion o f t he e x istence o fp ivo t ing f ron t a x les o n f our-whee led v eh ic les i n t he R o man p er iod . T he e v idence i s c on fus ing . T he t wo r econstructed v eh ic les f rom B e l l a nd D e jb jerg a re b o th s hown w i th s uch a d eve lop men t , b ut i t must b e s a id t hat t he e v idence i n t he f or m o f t he v i ta l n ecessary me ta l p ar t—a f u lcrum b o l t o r k ing-p in— is m iss ing i n t he f or mer c ase a nd t he u ndercarr iage o f t he D an ish v eh ic le i s r econstructed w ith t r iangu lar s ect ions p inned t oge ther ; t he f orecarr iage—by t h is v ery c onstruc t ion—appears immovab le i n r e lat ion t o t he r ear s ec t ion . F ro m t he e x tens ive p ictor ia l e v idence i n t he Ro man p er iod n o r epresent a t ion s hows f ron t whee ls o f a sma l ler d ia meter t han t he r ear p a ir—a c lear , i nd icat ion o f af ron t t urn-tra in o r f orecarr iage—and f or w h ich t here i s a pparen t ly n o p ictor ia l e v idence i n w estern E urope u n t i l t he 1 5th c en tury . H av ing f ron t a nd r ear whee ls o f e qua l s ize d oes n o t b y i t se lf p rec lude a t urn ing a b i l ity , f or i ts hou ld b e n o t iced t hat R o man v eh ic les a re o f ten s hown w ith t he ir b od ies h igh a bove t he t ops o f t he whee ls , t hus a l low ing t he f ron t whee ls— if s o c onstruc ted— t o move u nderneath when n egot iat ing a c orner . T he b est e v idence c o mes f ro m t he T hrac ian c ar ts o f t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c en tur ies A .D ., where e xcava t ions a ppear t o i nd icate a k ing-p in i n t he r e levan t p os it ion amongst t he i ron a nd b ronze f i t t ings o f t he c ar t b ur ia ls .

C er ta in ly V ened ikov ' s

r econstruc t ions o f t hese f unerary v eh ic les a re s hown w ith t urn ing f orecarr iages .

1 91

F ur ther e v idence , l ess g eograph ica l ly t i ed , p erhaps c o mes f rom a n e n try i n t he r ecen t ly d iscovered f ragmen ts o f ac opy o f D ioc let ian ' s Pr ice E d ict o f A .D . 3 01 f ro m Aphrod is ias ( Car ia ) , where a n e n try i n t he l i st d ea l ing w ith v eh ic les a nd t he ir p ar ts i nc ludes a c o lu me l la , p erhaps t he L a t in f or a ' k ing-p in '

( Er im , 1 973 1 05 ) .

B u t s uch e v idence i s s carce ly c onc lus ive .

S ide-shaf ts E v idence f or o ne c er ta in a dvance i n v eh ic le c onstruct ion i s a bundan t , t hough i th as b een l arge ly i gnored t o d a te .

T h is i s t he r ep lace men t o f a

c en tra l c ar t-po le b y ap a ir o f s ide-shaf ts . T he e f fect o n t he d es ign o f t he h arness ing s yste m i t se lf c annot b e d iscussed h ere , b u t s o me c ommen t o n t he r esu lt ing c hanges t o v eh ic le c onstruct ion i s r equ ired . S o me t en o r s o r epresen tat ions most ly , b u t n ot e xc lus ive ly f ro m G au l , i nd ispu tab ly s how t wo-whee led ( and l ess o f ten ) f our-whee led v eh ic les w ith s ide-shaf ts h arnessed t o as ing le a n i ma l , f or e xa mp le , o n t he I ge l monu men t , a nd o n r e l iefs f rom T r ier a nd Ar lon ( Esperand ieu 1 907, V I n o . 5 268 , X I n o . 7 725 , Vn o . 4 031 ). a nd o n a mosa ic f ro m O st ia ( F ig . 1 0 .2 ) ( Ca lza , 1 961 , 4 2-44 , n o . 6 4 a nd P l . 1 08 ) . T he we igh t o f t he e v idence i nd ica tes t hat t h is d eve lop men t o r ig inated i n t he n or th-west p rov inces o f t he Emp ire ( perhaps i n G au l ) , a nd i n c onstruct i ona l t er ms must i nd ica te t hat f or t wo-whee led v eh ic les a b as ic c hange i n t he c hass is c onstruct ion f ro m a t r iangu lar f ra me t o ar ec tangu lar b ody-fra me h ad t aken p lace .

F or f our-whee led v eh ic les a c hange f ro m t he r ig id e x ten-

s ion o f t he t r iangu lar f ra me s erv ing a s ac ar t-po le t o d i f feren t a nd more f l ex ib le d es igns i n t he f orecarr iage were p oss ib le„ s ince s ide-shaf ts c ou ld b e c onstructed i ndependen t ly a nd n ot a s a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he ma in f ra me , a nd s eparate ly p inned o r b o l ted t o af orecarr iage .

At urn ing f orecarr iage

i s t hus made p oss ib le .

T here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t here e x isted i n t he p re-Ro man C e lt ic wor ld o f t he n or th-west P rov inces , as trong a nd s k i l led t rad i t ion o f v eh ic le c ons truct ion a nd a ssoc iated s k i l ls , e spec ia l ly whee lwr igh t ing , t hat c on t inued t o b e e x tens ive ly p ract ised a nd t echn ica l ly i nvent ive t hroughou t t he Ro man p er iod .

I fn o th ing e lse t h is i s e p itomized b y t he f act t hat Ro man t er m ino logy

f or whee led-veh ic les i s c o mp le te ly d om inated b y C e l t ic l oan words . Twe lve t er ms h ave a c lear o r l ike ly C e lt ic e ty mo logy ( W ild 1 976 , 6 2 ) a nd a re ' so we l l i n tegra ted i nto L at in t hat t hey f or m t he b as is f or L at in l ex ica l d eve lopmen t ', t hus f or e xa mp le , e ssedu m ' wagon ' ( w ith a s ea t ) g ives u s ( i n L at in ) e ssedar ius ' waggoner '.

REFERENCES C a lza , G . e d ., 1 961 .

S cav i d i O st ia 4 :

Mosa ic i eP a .v i men t i Marmore i

R o me . E r im , K . T . a nd R eyno lds , J ., 1 973 .

' The A phrod is ias c opy o f D iocle t ian ' s

E d ict o n max i mu m p r ices ' J . R om , S tud . 6 3 , 9 9-110. E sperand ieu , E ., 1 907.

R ecue i l G enera l d es B as-Rel iefs d e l a G au l le

R o ma ine P ar is . 1 92

F ox , C ., 1 946.

A F ind o f t he E ar ly I ron Age f ro m L lyn C err ig B ach ,

Ang lesey C ard if f . H aberey , W., 1 949 .

' Grav iete G lasscha le u nd s ogenann te M ithrassy mbo le

a us e ine m s patrö m ischen Grabe v on Roden ld .rchen b e i Kö ln ' B onner J ahrbucher 1 49 , 9 4-104. J enk ins , J . G ., 1 961 .

The Eng l ish F ar m Wagon :

O r ig ins a nd S tructure

Read ing . J enk ins , J . G ., 1 962 .

Agr icu l tura l T ranspor t i n Wa les

K l indt-Jensen , 0 ., 1 950 . Marsden , p ., 1 976.

C ard if f .

F ore ign I nf luences i n D en mark ' sE ar ly I ron Age .

' A b oat o f t he Ro man p er iod f ound a t B ruges , B e lg iu m ,

i n 1 899 , a nd r e lated t ypes ', I n ternat iona l J . N au t . Archaeo l . 5 , 2 3-55 . Marsden , p ., 1 977 .

' Ce lt ic s h ips o f E urope ' S ources a nd T echn iques i n

Boat Archaeo logy B .A . R . S upp . S er . 2 9 , 2 81-288 . P iggo t t , S ., 1 968 .

' The E ar l iest Whee led V eh ic les a nd t he C aucas ian

Ev idence ' P roc . P reh is t . S oc . 3 4 , 2 66-318. ' Ear ly I ron Age ' Horn-caps ' a nd Y okes ' An t iq . J . 4 9

P iggot t , S ., 1 969 . 3 78-381 . R est , W., 1 948 .

' Das G rabhüge lfe ld v on B e l l im Hunsrück ' Bonner J arhbücher

1 48 , 1 33-189 . S ä.. g i , C ., 1 944-45 .

' Rappresen taz ion i d e l c arro s u i monu ment i s epo lcra l i

d e l la P annon ia imper iale ' Archaeo log ia i Er test iö S er . I I 5 -6 , 2 32-248 Toynbee , J ., 1 973 . Wh ite , L ., 1 962 .

•

An i ma ls i n Ro man L ife a nd Ar t L ondon . Med ieva l T echno logy a nd S oc ia l Change

Wild , J . P ., 1 976 .

Ox ford .

' Loanwords a nd Ro man e xpans ion i n n or th-west E urope '

Wor ld Archaeo logy 8 .1 , 5 7-64. V ened ikov , I . , 1 960.

L e Char T hrace

V igneron , P ., 1 968.

L e C heva l d ans PAn t iqu ite G reco-Ro ma ine ? N ancy .

1 93

S oph ia .

D ISCUSS ION OF RO MAN PERIOD PAPERS H anson

S o me o ft he t imbers i n a Ro man we l l f ro m L ancaster s ee med t o h ave b een t aken f ro m a n e ar l ier we l l .

S o me h ad s add le

j o in ts a nd o thers h ad n a i l marks a nd mor t ices wh ich d id n o t r e late t o t he ir f ina l u se ( Hanson , W. S ., f or thco m ing , ' The t imber we l l ' i n J ones , G . D . B . a nd S hot ter , D . C . A . L ancaster e xcavat ions , Manchester ). Wa lker

Were t here a ny t ransverse s cor ing marks o n t he o uts ide s urfaces o f w e l l t imbers t hat wou ld i nd icate t hat t he t imbers were a sse mb led o n t he s urface , c ourse b y c ourse , a nd t hen f orced d own t he we l l a s was l a ter p ract ice?

We eks

T here were n o s igns o n t he t imbers Ih ave e xa m ined .

O ld e xca-

v a t ion r epor ts d o n o t men t ion s uch d e ta i ls . S pr iggs

Iw as p resen t d ur ing t he e xcavat ion o f t hat S ke ldergate we l l . Ib e l ieve t hat d ur ing c ons truct ion , t he p it was c o mp le te ly d ug o u t f i rst b ecause i th ad s hor ing a l l t he way d own t o s uppor t t he s ides o f t he p it . It h ink i tp robab le , h owever , t ha t t he s quare f ra me s ect ions were t hen d ropped d own a nd f i t ted o ne b y o ne .

I ngha m

What t ypes o f n a i l a nd s pec ies o f t imber were u sed i n t he we l ls?

Weeks

I ron n a i ls were u sed .

O ak ( Quercus s p .) was t he ma in t imber .

A s f ar a s c onstruc t ion i s c oncerned , b au lks were j ust worked i n to s hape ; Wa lker

r iven p lanks w ere a lso u sed .

T he n a i ls i n t he j o in ts were p resumab ly o n ly n eeded t o r es ist t he s tresses t hat a r ise d ur ing c onstruct ion wh i le t he we l l i s i nco mp le te .

S pr iggs

I n a dd it ion t o s quare s ect ion R o man we l ls t here a re b arre ll ined we l ls a t S i lchester a nd e lsewhere .

R . H arr is

T here a ppear t o b e t wo d ist inct t ypes o f R o man s quare :

a sma l l

o ne f or c ab inet makers a nd a l arger mason ' ss quare . T he f eat ure a t t he e nd o f t he s quare s hown b y Weeks may b e d ecorat ion r ather t han a t e mp late . C hap man

T he e nd f eature o n t he s quare g oes t he ' wrong way ' f or a t e mp late : i ts urv ives a s ad ecora t ive f eature o n t he e nd o f s quare u n t i l t he 1 8th c en tury a nd l ater . Is uspect t hat t h is Ro man s quare i s a c ab inet maker ' ss quare r ather t han a c onstruct iona l s quare f or ma jor b u i ld ing work .

I ngha m

P lanes may a lso b e u sed f or w oodwork ing o r f or d ress ing s late .

Wa l lace

T o what e x ten t were t he

R omans i n B r i ta in u s ing t echn iques

t aken o ver f ro m t he i nd igenous p opu lat ion? H anson

I n m i l itary c on tex ts i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c en tury A .D . y ou a re d ea l ing w ith Ro man t echn iques o r p oss ib ly R o man ised-Ce l t ic t echn iques .

Away f ro m t hese c on tex ts l oca l l abour a nd h ence '

l oca l t echn iques may h ave b een u sed . 1 95

L . H arr is

I s t here a ny e v idence f or R o man mass p roduct ion o r p refabr icat i on o f b u ild ings?

M i lne

I n L ondon we a re e xa m in ing t h is ma t ter a nd s eek ing t o f i nd , f or e xa mp le , h ow i n terchangeab le s tructura l me mbers w ere . A p re l im inary a ssess men t i s t ha t t hey d id u se r eady-dressed t imbers wh ich were j ust s lo t ted i n to p os it ion o n t he wa terfron t s tructures .

H e ine

Was t he s tructure w ith t he n o tches a t V a lkenburg p ut u p f i rst a nd t he p lanks i nserted l ater o r w ere t he p lanks i nser ted a s t he e rect ion p roceeded? Is uggest t hat t he s tructure was f i rst e rected a nd t he r oof p u t o n a nd t hen t hey s tarted f i l l ing t he g aps . T i mber i s an atura l t h ing a nd b ends , a nd s l igh t s kewness i n t he s tructure was a ccep ted . A f ter t he s tructure i s e rected i ti s e asy t o d eter m ine t he l eng th o f t he b oards .

H anson

T he s equence s uggested b y H e ine i s s uppor ted b y R eyno ld ' s e xper i men ta l r econstruct ion o f wa t t le a nd d aub h ouses .

I ft he

wat t le wa l ls a re d aubed b efore t he r oof i s e rected t h is c over ing may e as i ly b e washed away b y r a in .

H owever , Id o n o t t h ink

t he b u i ld ings t o wh ich Ir eferred w ere p refabr icated o r b u i lt f ro m s tandard p arts . The o r thodox s choo l o f t hough t a rgues f or t he e x istence o f s tockyards wh ich c on ta ined p re-cu t t imbers o f p ar t icu lar s izes wh ich were t hen s easoned a nd awa ited u se b y t he R o man a r my .

I th as b een f ur ther s uggested t hat t he b u ild ings

were , i n f act , p refabr icated s truc tures s im i lar i n c oncep t t o med ieva l p refabr icat ion . Ib e l ieve ( Hanson , 1 978 ) t hat t here was s uf f ic ien t s tand ing t imber o n o r a d jacen t t o t he s i tes o f f or ts t o b e u sed i n t he ir c onstruct ion .

T he Ro man a r my u sed whatever

w as .read i ly a va i lab le i nc lud ing g reen t imber wh ich i s e as ier t o work . G ard iner

Ab u i ld ing c ou ld b e p refabr ica ted o n s i te .

R ackha m

T he p refabr icat ion t heory c ou ld b e t ested b y whether o r n ot t here were a sse mb ly marks o n t he t imbers . S ince c arpen ters ' j o in ts a re n ot i n terchangeab le , a bsence o f marks w ou ld b e a lmost c onc lus ive e v idence a ga inst t he e x istence o f c o mp lete p refabr icated s tructures s tored r eady f or e rect ion .

H anson

T o my k now ledge t here a re n ot marks , b ut s uch marks may n o t h ave b een l ooked f or i n t he e ar ly e xcavat ions .

M i lne

We h ave n ot f ound a nyth ing t hat c ou ld b e c a l led p refabr icat ion mark ings o n t he L ondon Ro man waterfron t : t here i s t he o ccas iona l mark b u t n o s equences . H owever , t he t imbers a re a lmost i n terc hangeab le i n t er ms o f s ize a nd a re o f s tandard s ect ions , s o t hey may h ave c o me f ro m a " stockyard" .

V arra l l

I ti s p oss ib le t o mark t imbers w ith c ha lk :

s uch marks may n o t

s urv ive o r may e as i ly b e m issed d ur ing e xa m inat ion .

1 96

Wilson

A l l f ra me b u i ld ings a re p refabr icated t o ad egree . A mor t ice a nd t enon c anno t b e c ut h igh u p o n as caf fo ld i n m id-a ir , t heref ore i ti s d one o n t he g round f i rs t , a nd t hen p ut u p .

T here a re

many t imber b u i ld ings wh ich l ack i den t if iab le c arpen ters ' n umb er ing marks . H anson

Two l eg ionar ies o n T ra jan ' sC o lu mn d o a ppear t o b e c u t t ing a j o in t i n m id-a ir ( C ichor ius , 1 900 , s cene XV I ).

Munby

T o c oun terba lance a ny impress ion t hat t he R o mans were o n ly c apab le o f i ns ign if ican t l i t t le j o in ts w e s hou ld r e me mber t hat t he R o mans i nven ted l arge s ca le c oncrete c onstruct ions i n wh ich t hey must h ave u sed l arge t imber c en tr ing work .

I n t he ir s tone

b as i l icas t hey must h ave h ad t o u se s oph ist icated r oof c over ings . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t here a re o ne o r t wo R o man t imber r oofs s t i l l s tand ing : f or e xa mp le , t here i s a6 th c en tury r oof s tand ing o ver t he monastery o f S t . C ather ine o n S ina i . There i s n o d oub t t hat t he R o mans were c apab le o f ah igh ly s oph ist icated c arpen try a t c er ta in l eve ls e ven i ft h is d oes n o t g o a l l t he way d own t he s cale t o o rd inary m i l itary work i n B r i ta in .

Weeks

Id o n ot t h ink t ha t t he whee ls o n t he c art s hown b y C hapman a re s o l id ;

t hey a ppear t o b e made o f p lanks n ai led t ogether .

1 97

1 1.

THE GRO W ING AND TRANSPORT OF T I MBER AND UNDER WOOD O l iver R ackha m

Ac er ta in Wood c a l led H ey lewode wh ich c on ta ins 8 0 a cres b y e st i mate . O f t he u nderwood o f wh ich t here c an b e s o ld e very y ear , w ithout c aus ing w aste o r d estruct ion , 1 1 a cres o f u nderwood wh ich a re wor th 5 5 s . a t 5 s . a n a cre . S urvey o f H ay ley Wood , C a mbr idgesh ire , i n 1 356 ( PRO .E.143/9/2) To c ause t he s acr is tan o f S t E d mund t o h ave 4 0 marks o f t he k ing ' s g i f t

t o c arry 3 0 o aks , wh ich t he k ing g ave h im i n t he F orest o f

E ng lewod [ near C ar l is le ], t o [ Bury ] S t E d mund ' sf or t he r epa ir o f ab e lfry i n h is c hurch . C a lendar o f L iberate Ro l ls , 1 251

I ti s t rad it iona l ly s upposed t hat u n t i l t he e nd o f t he M idd le Ages t imber was o f l oca l o r ig in a nd p resen ted f ew p rob le ms o f s upp ly . t o ld , g rew e verywhere a nd e very c o m mun ity h ad wood land ;

T rees , we a re t he t rees w ere

u sed u p f or b ui ld ings a nd o ther p urposes ; when f e l led t he woods d id n ot g row a ga in a nd t he l and t hey h ad o ccup ied was u sed f or h usbandry . U nderwood i s e qua ted w ith " brushwood" o r " branches o f t rees" a nd i s n ot d iscussed a s a mater ia l i n i t s o wn r igh t .

S o c o mmon a re t hese m isapprehens ions among

p opu lar , a nd e ven l earned , wr i ters t hat i t wou ld b e i nv id ious t o p ick o ut e xa mp les .

T he l i tera ture o f d endrochrono logy i n p ar t icu lar i s f u l l o fu n-

s uppor ted a sser t ions a bou t t he p rovenance o f t rees u sed i n p ar t icu lar b u i ld ings a nd o ther o b jects , a nd a bou t t he r e lat ion b etween where t he t rees g rew a nd t he e f fects o f weather o n t he ir a nnua l r ings . I n t he M idd le Ages t imber a nd u nderwood were i n f act c o mmerc ial p roduc ts , a nd we h ave r ecords o f t he ir p roduct ion a nd t ranspor t . The t rees t he mse lves c an s t i l l b e s een i n t imber-fra med b u i ld ings , a nd many o f t he a ctua l woods a nd h edges i n wh ich t hey g rew a re e x tan t .

T h is p aper c oncen trates o n E ng land ,

e spec ia l ly E astern E ng land , b ecause o f t he a bundance o f a l l t hese t ypes o f e v idence . Iam ma in ly c oncerned w i th b u i ld ing c arpen try , r ather t han w ith s h ipbu ild ing , u nderwater s truc tures , j o inery , c ab inet- mak ing , c ooperage , mus ica l i ns tru men ts , h urd le-work , o r b aske try .

B u i ld ings were t he l argest

u ser o f t imber a nd a b igg ish u ser o f u nderwood , a nd t hey s urv ive more o f ten t han d o t he p roducts o f t he o ther t rades . Much o f t h is p aper s um m ar izes mater ia l f ro m my r ecen t b ook ( Rackha m 1 980 ) , i n wh ich w i l l b e f ound f ur ther d e ta i ls a nd f u l l r eferences .

1 99

Eng land a s aP oor ly- Wooded C oun try E ar ly i n t he p resen t i n terg lac ia l p er iod , a l most t he who le o f t he B r it ish I s les were c overed w ith v ar ious k inds o f n atura l f orest o r w i ldwood .

T he

d estruct ion o f t he w i ldwood t o make o ur p resen t f ar m land , h eath , a nd moorl and b egan i n t he N eo l ith ic p er iod a nd w as l arge ly a cco mp l ished i n p reh istory . H istor ica l r ecords h ave much t o s ay a bou t wood land c onservat ion b u t t e l l u s . l i t t le a bou t d estruct ion , most o f wh ich h ad a lready b een d one . Accord ing t o D o mesday B ook , wood land c overed o n ly a bou t 1 5% o f Eng land i n 1 086 . I t was v ery u neven ly d istr ibuted ( F igs . 1 1.1 , 1 1.2 ) ; o n ly a bou t h a lf t he n a med s et t le men ts p ossessed wood land , a nd many w ithou t w ood land a d jo ined n e ighbours w h ich w ere t he mse lves wood less . T he d istr ibu t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon p lace-na mes a nd my ( unpub l ished ) a na lys is o f t he f eatures men t ioned i n Ang lo-Saxon c har ter b oundar ies s hows t hat woodl and w as r e lat ive ly l oca l a nd o ccurred , o n t he who le , i n t he s a me a reas a s i n D o mesday B ook .

T hese s ources , b o th d at ing o n a verage f ro m s ome c en tur ies

e ar l ier , c on f ir m t he g enera l a ccuracy o f t he D o mesday d istr ibu t ion a nd s uggest t hat i th ad n ot r ad ical ly c hanged d ur ing t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod . A l though t he Ang lo-Saxons d id g rub o u t wood land , t he l andscape wh ich t hey h ad i nher i ted f ro m t he Ro mans w as a lready ma in ly f ar m land a nd moor land .

T h is c onc lus ion

a grees w i th r ecen t work i nd icat ing t hat R o mano-Br it ish a gr icu l ture w as much more e x tens ive t han p rev ious ly s upposed a nd t hat much o f i t s f abr ic s urv ived i n to t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod ( Bowen & F ow ler 1 978;

D rury & Rodwe l l 1 980 ) .

T hroughout t he h istor ica l p er iod E ng land h as b een o ne o f t he l east-wooded c oun tr ies i n E urope .

( There i s l i t t le e v idence f or Wa les , S cot land , o r

I re land.) E ven i n R o man t imes wood land may h ave b een b y n o means u b iqu it ous . B y t he 1 1th c en tury E ng land h ad l ess wood land i n r e la t ion t oi t s a rea t han F rance h as i n t he 2 0th .

There f o l lowed t wo c en tur ies o f l and-hunger

i n wh ich much o f t he D o mesday wood land , e spec ia l ly i n t he b et ter-wooded a reas , d isappeared .

Most o f t he wood land t hat s urv ived u n t i l 1 350 was t o b e

p reserved f or a t l east t he n ex t 4 50 y ears . Manage men t o f T rees I n E ng land t rees h ave b een c onservat ive ly managed a s ar enewab le r es ource p roduc ing a s usta ined y ie ld i n t hree a lternat ive ways : ( a ) Wood land :

n atura l v egetat ion managed t o y ie ld s uccess ive c rops o f

u nderwood a nd t imber . : ( b ) Wood-pasture ( c )

N on-wood land :

l and u sed f or g raz ing a n i ma ls a s we l l a s t rees . t rees i n h edges a nd o n f arm land .

T hese p ract ices were e stab l ished b efore t he h istor ica l p er iod—they a re s eparate ly r ecorded i n p re-Conquest d ocu men ts—and h ave r e ma ined a s i ndep enden t p ara l le l f or ms o f l and manage men t . S ince 1 750 t hey h ave f a l len i n to d ec l ine b ut e xa mp les c an s t i l l b e s een i n o perat ion . I n Wa les , S co t land , a nd I reland t he s yste mat ic manage men t o ft rees s ee ms t o b e ap ost-1500 d eve lop men t ;

a rchaeo logy a lone c an t e l l w he ther

t h is i s d ue t o ag enu ine l ack o f wood mansh ip o r t o as carc ity o f med ieval r ecords . 2 00

F ig.

1 1 .1

P resence o f wood land i n Eng land i n 1 086 a ccord ing t o Domesday Book. B lack a reas : wood land p ossessed by e very s ett lement. Wh i te a reas : wood land p ossessed by s ome s ett lements but n o t o thers. Hatched a reas: n o w ood land a t a l l. No a ccount i s t aken o f t he a mount o f w ood land. There a re n o u sab le r eturns f or c ount ies n orth o f Chesh ire a nd Yorksh ire n or f or Craven. A f ter R ackham,

1 980, f ig .

2 01

9 .1.

• • I.

• •

•

• •••

•• •• •

•

• S

• •

•••

••

•

•

•

•

.

•

• •

• • •

F ig .

1 1.2

Area o f wood land i n Eng land i n 1 086 a ccord ing t o Domesday Book. The s ize o f t he b lack c irc les r epresents t he e st imated a rea o f w ood land a t t he s ca le o f t he m ap. F or s ome c ount ies wood land i s mapped by 1 0-km N at iona l Gr id s quares : e ach b lack c irc le r epresents t he t o ta l wood land a ss igned t o p laces l ocated w i th in t he s quare. I n t he e ast a nd s outh-eas t t he i nformat ion i s l ess s a t isf actory a nd i s mapped c ounty by c ounty, t he Wea ld a nd Ch i lterns b e ing t reated s epara te ly. S t ipp led c irc les i n Oxfordsh ire r epresent F ores ts h av ing a n unknown p rop ort ion o f wood land. F or method o f c a lcu lat ion s ee Rackham ( 1980) c h. 9 . A f ter Rackham,

1 980, f ig .

2 02

9 .2 .

Modern f ores try i s n ot a d evelop men t o f wood ma ,nsh ip t rad i t ions b u t i s a s eparate l and-use , b ased o n d estroy ing t he e x ist ing v egetat ion ( wood land o r o therw ise ) a nd r ep lac ing i tb y a rb i trar i ly-chosen p lan ted t rees .

W ith v ery

r are e xcep t ions i td oes n o t c o me w ith in o ur p er iod . N or i s t h is p aper c onc erned w ith t he t rees o f g ardens , o rchards , a nd t owns . T i mber a nd u nderwood The d ist inct ion b etween t imber a nd wood i s f unda men ta l i n w ood land a rchaeo logy .

T i mber ( Med ieva l L at in mere m iu m ) i s t rees l arge e nough t o

make b ea ms a nd p lanks ;

wood c ons ists o f p o les , r ods , a nd o ther s te ms o f

sma l ler d ia meter . T he d ist inct ion i s c ons tan t ly made i n h is tor ica l d ocu men ts . t he b oundary s o met i mes b e ing d rawn a t 2 4 i n . g ir th ; i ti s a lso imp l ic i t i n p reh istor ic s tructures a s f ar b ack a s t he N eo l ith ic .

Most wood c ons ists o f

u nderwood ( Lat in s ubboscus ) , g rown s pecia l ly f or t he p urpose , u sual ly b y c opp ic ing , t he p ract ice o f c ut t ing d own a t ree a nd a llow ing i tt o s end u p s te ms f ro m t he s tu mp .

T he s tu mp b eco mes a l ong-l ived s too l a nd y ie lds a n i ndef in ite

s uccess ion o f c rops o f p o les .

Wood may a lso c ons ist o f t he b ranches o f t rees

f e l led f or t imber , b u t t hese a re s u i tab le ma in ly f or f ue l a nd r are ly s urv ive . ( Brushwood p roper ly means f ine t w igs a nd s hou ld n o t b e c on fused w i th u nderwood .) Wood h as n or ma l ly b een a t l east a s impor tan t i n h uman a f fa irs a s t imber , a nd d eserves t o b e b et ter r ecorded i n e xcava t ions .

Underwood i s most o f ten

e ncoun tered i n t he f or m o fh urd les a nd w at t le-work s tructures , imp ly ing t he manage men t o f wood land t o s upp ly s u itab le r ods ; b ranches o f t rees w i l l n o t d o: Ex tan t b u i ld ings a nd e xcavated r e ma ins g reat ly u nderest i mate t he import ance o fu nderwood , most o f wh ich w as u sed f or p urposes s uch a s f ue l o f wh ich l i t t le e v idence c an b e e xpected t o s urv ive . Wood land More d e ta i led r ecords o f woods t han D o mesday B ook b eg in i n t he 1 3th c en tury .

Woods f or med o n ly a sma l l p ar t o f t he l and a rea ;

h ad d ef in ite

n a mes , a creages , a nd b oundar ies ; were v aluab le p r ivate p roper ty , g enera l ly wor th more p er a cre t han a rab le ; were s yste mat ica l ly managed ; a nd w ere p er manen t . O f C a mbr idgesh ire a nd S uf fo lk woods n a med i n t he E ly C oucher B ook ( 1251 ) , f or i nstance , H ay ley Wood ( Rackha m 1 975 ) , H ardw ick Wood , B alsha m Wood , a nd t he f ive woods o f B ark ing ( Rackha m 1 976 ) s t i l l e x ist a nd h ave a t l east p ar t o f t he ir o r ig ina l b oundar ies ; o n ly s ince 1 860 .

s evera l o thers h ave d isappeared

Woods were n or ma l ly managed b y c opp ic ing t o y ie ld b o th wood a nd t imber . The p ract ice was f u l ly d eve loped b y 1 250 a nd t here i s n oth ing t o s uggest t hat i t was n ew . T he ma jor ity o f t he t rees were c u t o n ar o tat ion a s u nde r wood , s cat tered among wh ich were s tandard t rees a l lowed t o s tand f or s evera l r o tat i ons o f t he u nderwood a nd t hen f e l led a s t imber . T he u nderwood m ight b e o f a sh ( Frax inus e xce lsior ) , e lm ( U lmus g la ,bra . , minor a nd p rocera) , h aze l ( Cory lus a vel lana ) , map le ( Acer c a mpes tre) , l ime ( Ti l ia c ordata) o r many o ther t rees i n v a .r ious m ix tures , u sual ly d epend ing o n what t he c o mpos i t ion h appened t o b e o f t he p ar t icular p iece o fw i ldwood f ro m wh ich a ,wood h ad o r ig ina l ly b een d er ived . The t imber t rees were u sual ly o ak ( Quercus r obur a nd p etra .ea) , wh ich was s cat tered t hrough most k inds o f wood land a nd w as 2 03

c us to mar i ly t rea ted a s t imber .

On ly i n o akwoods , i .e . woods where t here

were f ew t rees o ther t han o ak , were s o me o f t he o aks t rea ted a s u nderwood ; t h is t ype o f wood land b e longs ma in ly t o n or th a nd wes t Eng land , S co t land a nd Wales. Wood b oundar ies were c arefu l ly d e marca ted a nd f enced t o k eep o ut c at t le , s heep , a nd d eer wh ich wou ld e at t he y oung u nderwood . By t he 1 3th c en tury most woods were s urrounded b y a woodbank

as trong e ar thwork

w ith e x terna l d i tch . Woods were n ot d estroyed o r e xhausted b y f e l l ing , n or was i tt he p ract ice t o p lan t t rees i n t he m ;

n a tura l r egrow th was more t han a dequate .

Woods

c ou ld b e d a maged b y m is manage men t ( e .g . l e t t ing l ivestock i n , o r a l low ing t oo many t imber t rees t o s hade t he u nderwood ) , b ut t he ir d isappearance i s d ue t o d e l iberate g rubb ing-ou t i n o rder t o u se t he l and f or s o meth ing e lse ; t he l oss o f med ieva l woods s ince 1 945 , a t t he h ands o f f ar mers a nd f oresters , i s r ough ly e qua l t o t he l oss i n t he who le o f t he p rev ious 4 00 y ears . Wood mansh ip c hanged r e markab ly l i t t le ; many woods i n 1 920 h ad a ltered l i t t le i n a ppearance f or a t l east 6 50 y ears .

T he ma in d i f ferences w ere t hat

i n t he M idd le Ages s hor t c opp icing r o tat ions ( 4 -9 y ears) h ad p redom inated a nd t he t imber t rees were sm al ler . I n t he B radf ie ld woods n ear B ury S t . E d mund ' st he med ieva l s yste m c an s t i l l b e s een i n f u l l o pera t ion ( F ig . 1 1.3 ) . S urv iv ing med ieva l woods h ave i rregu lar , s inuous o r z igzag , o u t l ines d ef ined b y s trong b anks a nd d i tches ;

ac opp ice s tructure , o f ten w i th g ian t

s too ls ( 6 f to r more i n d ia meter ) wh ich may t he mse lves b e med ieva l ; c haracter ist ic t ree s pec ies a nd m ix tures o f t rees ;

a nd a p ar t icu lar f l ora

i nvo lv ing p lan ts s uch a s o x l ip ( Pr i mu la e lat ior ) , s erv ice-tree ( Sorbus t or m ina l is ) , a nd wood land h aw thorn ( Cra taegus l aev iga ta ) wh ich d o n o t e as i ly g et i n to n ew ly-es tab l ished wood land .

N ot e very a nc ien t wood h as a l l t hese

f eatures , b ut t aken a s a who le t hey a re a means o f i den t ify ing u ndocumen ted med ieva l woods a nd o f d etect ing c hanges i n t he m . Most med ieva l woods a ppear t o h ave b een made o u t o f r e ma in ing w ildwood , b ut i nstances a re k nown where what was wood land i n t he M idd le Ages h ad n ot b een i n t he Ang lo-Saxon o r Ro man p er iod . A l most a ny r and , i fa bandoned , b eco mes wood land b y n atura l p rocesses . T h is i s f am i l iar o n r a i lway v erges , s ince t he r a i lways s topped mow ing t he m , a nd c an b e s een o n al arger s cale ( i nc lud ing s o me t owns a bandoned 3 0-60 y ears a go ) in S ou th E ssex . S uch s econdary wood land , e ven i f managed , may r e ma in d if feren t f ro m a nc ien t wood land f or c en tur ies : f or i ns tance , i tc ons ists o f t rees s uch a s o ak o r b irch ( Betu la , p endu la a nd p ubescens) , wh ich r eadi ly c o lon ize v acan t l and , r ather t han o f h ornbea m ( Carp inus b etu lus) , wh ich c o lon izes s low ly , o r l ime c ordata) , wh ich r are ly c o lon izes a t a l l. Wood-pasture S i lua p ast i l is i s men t ioned i n s o me Ang lo-Saxon d ocu men ts a nd i s r ecord ed a s as eparate k ind o f wood land f or s o me c oun t ies i n D o mesday B ook . E ar ly wood-pastures were wooded c o m mons , a reas o f l and where t he p asture o r t he t rees o r b o th w ere t he s ub ject o f r igh ts o f c o mmuna l u sage b y l oca l r es iden ts .

2 04

Many wood-pastures were i n f luenced b y t he N or man p ract ices o f k eep ing d eer a s a n a l ternat ive t o c onven t iona l a gr icu lture . P arks a nd F orests were e stab l ished f or t h is p urpose , a t f i rst w i th t he n at ive r ed a nd r oe d eer , b ut l ater w ith f a l low d eer i n troduced f ro m t he N ear E ast . F orests were n o t f enced , t he d eer s tay ing t here f ro m f orce o fh ab it ;

t hey were t he s ub jec t

o f s pec ia l b yelaws o stens ib ly t o p rotect t he d eer ;

a nd t hey u sua l ly h ad

c o m mon-r igh ts o fp asture f or c at t le a nd s heep a nd s o me t i mes o f woodcu t t ing . P arks , i n c ontras t , were f enced t o r eta in t he d eer a nd w i th r are e xcep t ions were w ho l ly p r iva te l and , t he p asturage a nd t rees b e long ing t o o ne owner . A t t he ir h eyday i n t he l ate 1 3th c en tury , E ng land h ad r oug ly 1 40 F orests ( i n most o f wh ich t he d eer , t hough n o t n ecessar i ly t he o ther l and-uses , were t he C rown 's ) a nd 3 200 p arks , b es ides a n u nknown n u mber o f wood-pasture c om mons . T he s i tes o f med ieva l p arks t urn o u t t o b e s trong ly a ssoc iated w ith p ree x ist ing wood land . l and . d eer .

T here i s n o s uch c orre lat ion b etween F orests a nd wood-

T he t er m F orest mean t n o th ing more t han a p lace f or k eep ing t he k ing 's S o me F orests ( e .g . D ean , Mice H o lt ( Han ts ) ) c ons isted ma in ly o f wood-

p asture ; b u t o thers , ( e .g . D ar tmoor , E xmoor , a nd many i n t he n or th ) were moor land , l i ke t he F orests o f t he modern S co t t ish H igh lands ; o thers ( e .g . S herwood ) were ma in ly h eath ; o thers ( Kesteven ( L ines ) , H atf ie ld ( Yorks ) ) l arge ly f en ; a nd o thers ( Cornwa l l , H un t ingdonsh ire , Wirra l ( Chesh ire ) ) were o rd inary c oun trys ide w ith l ess t han a verage wood land .

N e ither o f t he

t wo b iggest c oncen trat ions o f wood land i n E ng land—the Wea ld a nd C h i lterns— h ad many F ores ts . Iemphas ize t h is p o in t b ecause i ti s af ru it fu l s ource o f e rror among a rchaeo log ists . T he m isapprehens ion t hat F orests h ad t o d o w ith wood land i s c o mpounded b y t he e rror o f c on fus ing t he p hys ica l F orest , t he n on-agr icu ltura l l and where t he d eer l i ved , w ith t he much l arger a rea c overed b y t he F orest b ye-laws . Ie st i mate t hat p hys ica l F orests c overed r ough ly 3% o f E ng land , l ess t han h a lf o f wh ich w as wood-pasture , whereas t he l ega l F orests c overed a t l east a t h ird o f t he c oun try . T o s how t ha t a n a rea l ay w ith in t he l ega l b oundary o f aF orest i s n o t as hor t-cut t o p rov ing t hat i th ad wood land . T here was a n i nheren t c on f l ict b etween t he t wo u ses o f wood-pasture : t he s hade o f t he t rees s po i lt t he p asture , a nd t he l i vestock a te t he r egrow th o f t he t rees .

N ever the less , many c o mmons , p arks , a nd wooded F orests

h ad manage men t s yste ms wh ich p roduced a s tab le b a lance b etween t rees a nd g rass . I n s o me , u nderwood was p eoduced b y c opp ic ing , e ach a rea b e ing f enced a f ter f e l l ing u n t i l t he t rees h ad g rown u p s uf f ic ien t ly n ot t o b e h armed b y t he l i vestock . . a t

I n o thers , t rees w ere n o t c opp iced b u t p o l larded , i .e . c u t

ah e igh t a t wh ich t he r egrow th was o ut o f t he a n i ma ls ' r each .

T i mber

t rees , b e ing d if f icu lt t o r ep lace , t ended t o b e l e t g row t o l arger s izes t han i n woods . Wood-pastures w ere v ery u nfash ionab le i n t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c en tur ies a nd most w ere d es troyed .

H at f ie ld F orest ( Essex ) i s au n ique s urv iva l o f a

med ieva l F orest a l most c o mp lete w i th i t s c omp lex mu l t ip le l and-uses s t i l l work ing ( Rackha m 1 976 ) .

2 05

H edges a nd n on-wood land t rees Ang lo-Saxon c har ters s pec ify s evera l h undred h edges a nd more t han a t housand i nd iv idua l t rees .

H edges a nd h edgerow t rees a ppear w i th i ncreas ing

f requency i n med ieva l d ocu men ts ; b y 1 500 t hey o ccurred i n most o f Eng land a nd i n s o me c oun t ies , e .g . E ssex a nd S uf fo lk , w ere a t l east a s a bundan t a s t hey a re n ow ( Rackha m 1 976 , 1 977b ).

T here w ere a lso f ree-stand ing t rees o n ,

r iver-banks a nd i n f i e lds . H edges y ie lded t imber f ro m t he h edgerow t rees , a nd wood b o th f ro m t he p er iod ic c u t t ing o f t he h edge i t se lf—so met i mes c opp iced—and f rom p o l larded h edgerow t rees . S o me h edges a nd n on-wood land t rees were e stab l ished b y p lan t ing ( Rackha m 1 977b ) , u n l ike woods a nd w ood-pastures , a lthough n o t a l l a re n ecessar i ly s o a r t if ic ia l . O r ig ins o f wood mansh ip Wood land , wood-pasture , a nd n on-wood land t rees a re n ot p rac t ices o f med ieva l o r ig in .

A lthough d eta i ls a re s parse b efore 1 250 , wr i t ten e v idence

s hows t ha t a l l t hree e x isted a t l east a s e ar ly a s t he n in th c en tury . E xcavated r e ma ins e stab l ish t hat wood mansh ip b egan v ery much e ar l ier . D e ta i ls c an b e worked o u t , f or i nstance , o f t he t ree- manage men t t hat p rod uced u nderwood f or t he h urd les a nd o ther t rackways o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age o f t he S o merset L eve ls ( So merset L eve ls P apers p ass im ;

O rme ,

P aper 4 i n t h is v o lu me ) . C opp ic ing was ma in ly u sed , t hough t here i s s ome e v idence o f p o l lard ing , a nd u nderwood may h ave b een a b y-produc t o f g row ing l eafy t w igs f or f odder ( Rackha m 1 977a ) .

Underwood w as e qua l ly i mpor tan t

t o t he i nhab itan ts o f V ik ing Y ork a nd V ik ing D ub l in . T he Dub l in e v idence i mp l ies t hat t here w as t hen a t rad it ion o f wood mansh ip i n I re land wh ich h as s ince b een l ost w ith a l most n o wr it ten r ecord ( McCracken 1 971 ;

R ackham

1 976 , p . 9 5 ) . T he M idd le Ages a re l a te i n t he e vo lut ion o f t ree manage men t . Woodmans h ip was t hen c lose ly l i nked t o c onservat ion , b ut t h is h ad n ot b een i t s o r ig ina l f unct ion .

N eo l ith ic p eop le h ad n o n eed t o c onserve wood land , b u t t hey d id

n eed a c on t inuous s upp ly o f r ods o f p rec ise ly-spec if ied s izes f or p urposes s uch a s mak ing h urd les. C onservat ion may h ave a r isen f irst i n t he Roman p er iod , w ith a d ec l in ing a rea o f wood land , o w ing t o t he i nroads o fa gr icu lture , a nd a r ap id i ncrease i n t he v ar iety a nd v o lume o fu ses f or t imber a nd wood ( i nc lud ing , f or t he f i rst t ime , wood-burn ing i ndustr ies s uf f ic ien t ly l arge a nd p er manen t t o d e mand a r enewab le f uel s upp ly ). T he R o mans p robab ly h ad h edges , s o me o f wh ich may s t i l l e x ist ( Rob inson 1 978 ; D rury & R odwe l l 1 980 ) , b u t r egret tab ly l i t t le i s k nown o f t he ir wood mansh ip . f uture e xcavators w i l l a t tend t o t h is l acun a .

I ti s t o b e h oped t ha t

C arpen try a nd wood mansh ip T he r e lat ions b etween t hese a r ts a re c omp lex a nd s ub t le , a nd a re i nf luenced b y t rad i t ion a nd p re jud ice a s we l l a s b y p rac t ica l it ies .

C arpen ters p referred

t rees o fp ar t icu lar s izes a nd s pec ies — i t was a c arpen ter ' sj ob t o c hoose t rees —and wood men h ad d eve loped h ab its o f s upp ly ing t he m .

C ho ice o f s ize may

b e i nf luenced b y c ons iderat ions s uch a s e conomy o f l abour ; i s n o t s o e as i ly r at iona l ized . 2 06

c ho ice o f s pec ies

I ti s p ar t o f t he f o lk lore o f t rees t ha t woods o f ap ar t icu lar s pec ies e x ist b ecause t hat s pec ies i s n ecessary f or s o me p ar t icu lar p urpose . a ny e v idence a dduced t o s how t hat t h is i s s o .

Rare ly i s

V ar iat ion i n a nc ien t woods

i s u sua l ly n atura l i n o r ig in . Wood men s e ldo m i fe ver t r ied t o i n f luence t he c o mpos it ion o f w oods : most u nderwood was u sed f or p urposes s uch a s f ue l f or wh ich t he s pec ies d id n ot g reat ly mat ter . B ut t hey d id i nf luence wood land s tructure , e .g . b y t reat ing o ak a s t imber a nd map le a s u nderwood . Wi th . t h is l im ited e xcep t ion , p eop le h ave n or ma l ly a dap ted t he ir w oodwork ing t o t he ir t rees a nd n o t v ice v ersa . Woodworkers c hoose t ree s pec ies f or p ar t icu lar p urposes b y t rad i t ion r ather t han e xper i men t .

T rees a re i n terchangeab le t o ag reater e x ten t t han

c arpen ters g enera l ly b e l ieve , a nd t he t rad i t ions o f o ne p er iod o r c oun try a re c on trad icted b y t hose o f a nother . Much o f t he work o f o ak , e lm , a nd h aze l i n E ng land i s d one i n t he A lps b y c on ifers a nd i n S cand inav ia ( and f or mer ly S co t land ( Loudon 1 838 ) ) b y b irch . l i mber i n Med ieva l B u i ld ings S pec ies

o ak ;

I n my e xper ience , a t l east 9 7% o f t he t imbers o f med ieva l b u i ld ings a re most o f t he r e ma inder a re e lm ; a sh a nd a spen ( Popu lus t re mu la ) a re

r are. P ine ( P inus s y lvestr is ) i s r epor ted f ro m K ing 's L ynn ( Parker 1 971) . c rucks o f c er ta in H erefordsh ire b u i ld ings a re p op lar ( Harr is 1 974 ) , i den t i-

The

f i ab le f ro m p hotographs a s b lack p op lar ( Popu lus n igra ) wh ich g rows n atura l ly i n to t he s hape o f c rucks . d urab i l ity ;

T he p reponderance o f o ak i s n o t w ho l ly d ue t o i t s

e ven a spen i s q u ite c apab le o f l ast ing 5 00 y ears i fk ep t d ry .

T rees o ther t han o ak a re c h ief ly i n b u i ld ings l ow i n t he s oc ia l s ca le , n ot i n c hurches , b ig h ouses , o r g reat b arns ; c on ta ins a t l east s o me o ak .

b ut e ven t he h umb lest h ouse u sua l ly

N on-oak i s more a bundan t i n p ost- med ieva l

b u i ld ings . Med ieva l r ecords g ive much t he s a me r ange o f t rees a nd i n a dd it ion o ccasiona l ly r efer t o a be le ( wh ite p op lar ( Popu lus a lba ) ; R ackha m 1 976 , p . 3 8 ) a nd s wee t-chestnu t ( Castanea s at iva ) a s b u i ld ing t imbers ; map le , h ol ly ( I lex a qu ifo l iu m ) , l ime a nd b eech ( Fa ,gus s y lvat ica ) a re ment ioned f or o ther p urposes . There was a s trong p re jud ice i n f avour o f o ak d esp i te i t s g reater c ost . I n most o f Eng land , o ak was n ot n atura l ly t he c o mmonest wood land t ree ( a lthough i t s n asty t aste g ave i ts ome a dvan tage o ver o ther t rees i n woodp asture ) .

T he s upp ly o f o ak t imber d epended o n t he h ab i t o f w ood men ,

when t hey c a me t o a n o ak-tree , o f a l low ing i tt o g row t o t imber s ize . A s an on-wood land t imber t ree o ak w as o f ten o u tnu mbered b y a sh , e lm , b lack p op lar , a nd w i l low ( Sa l ix a lba a nd f rag il is ) . O ak w as n o t p referred f or a ny d ec is ive p rac t ica l r eason :

p erfect ly g ood

f ra mes h ave b een made , a t l ess t roub le a nd e xpense , f ro m o ther s pec ies . I th as t wo s pec ia l p roper t ies : i ti s e as i ly worked b y c leav ing , a nd i ti s more r o t-res istan t i n t he g round t han o ther c o m mon t rees . B o th p roper t ies were u sed i n t he p ost-ho le b u i ld ings o f Ang lo-Saxon t imes b u t l ost t he ir impor tance w ith t he i n troduct ion o f s aws a nd g rounds i l ls . O ak c on t inued t o b e p roduced a nd u sed f ro m f orce o f c usto m b o th among w ood men ( who c ou ld n o t q u ick ly c hange t he ir p roduct ) a nd c arpenters . 2 07

T i mber , moreover , l i ke s tone , was p ar t o f t he v is ib le a rch itec ture o f ab u i ld ing , as y mbo l o f i t s f unct ion a nd s tatus , g enera l ly u sed i n much l arger q uan t it ies t han n eeded t o h o ld u p t he s tructure .

T he d ist inct ive a ppearance

a nd sme l l o f o ak s ee m t o h ave b een e ssen t ia l t o a ny b u i ld ing o f s oc ia l p ret ens ion a nd a n o b ject o fa sp irat ion e ven i n t he h ouses o f t he r ela t ive ly p oor . On ly a f ter t he M idd le Ages , when t imber f rames w ere c oncea led , d id o ther s pec ies b eco me c o m mon ; b u t t he c usto m o f t rea t ing o ak a s t imber w en t o n e ven t hen a nd h as l ef t i t s mark o n w ood land t o t h is d ay . N u mbers a nd s izes o f t rees I ti s c haracter ist ic o f mos t med ieva l b u i ld ings t hat t hey a re made f rom l arge n u mbers o f sma l l o aks . E very t imber , l arge o r sma l l , i s made f rom t he sma l lest t ree t hat w i l l s erve t he p urpose .

T he c arpen ter c hose t rees

o fa ppropr iate s izes a nd s quared t he m u p , l eav ing t he c orners w aney ( excep t i n t he g rander c hurch r oofs ) . I n t he 1 5th c en tury i t was s o me t imes t he p ract i ce t o s aw a t ree l eng thw ise i n to t wo p osts o r r af ters , b u t l eng thw ise s aw ing i n to more t han t wo i s n ot u sua l b efore t he 1 6th c en tury . C arpen ters made i ngen ious u se o f o aks t hat w ere n o t s tra igh t ; t hey d el iberate ly s e lec ted c urved t rees f or c rucks , b races , a nd v au lt-r ibs , b u t t hese a re f ew a nd t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t he m s pec ia l ly g rown . T oo l- marks e stab l ish t hat t imber w as w orked p ar t ly b y s aw ing a nd p ar t ly b y h ew ing w ith a n a dze o r b road-axe .

B o th methods a re a bundan t ly d ocu-

men ted ( h ew ing i s c a l led " scapp l ing ", Med ieva l L at in s capu lat io ) . Al og w as s awn i n to t wo b ea ms , o r o ne b ea m a nd a u sefu l o f fcut ; i ft he o f fcu t was t oo t h in t o b e u sefu l i t was r e moved b y s capp l ing . O ther c on tr ibu tors t o t h is v o lu me r efer t o c leav ing ( Lat in f acu lat io ) , b u t i n may e xper ience t h is method i s l im ited t o l aths , s h ing les , a nd f i rewood a nd i s c onsp icuous ly a bsen t f ro m s tructura l t imbers a nd f rom d ocumen ts r e lat ing t o t hem . And Ih ave o n ly r are ly s een ( i n W inchester C athedra l ) t he V -shaped t ransverse a xe-cu t n o tches wh ich o ugh t t o b e p roduced b y t he " no tch-and-chop " method o f s quar ing l ogs ( Darrah , P aper 1 2 i n t h is v o lu me ; t he Med ieva l p apers ) .

a nd i n t he D iscussion o n

As tudy s hou ld b e made o f whether s aw ing o r c leav ing

b e long t o p ar t icu lar r eg ions o r p er iods .

Many o aks i n b u i ld ings a re t oo

c rooked o r k no t ty t o b e e as i ly c lef t . At yp ica l 1 5th-cen tury S uf fo lk h ouse , r ather l arger t han a verage , i s made o f s o me 3 30 t rees , e qu iva len t t o o ne y ear ' sg row th o f t imber o n r ough ly 2 90 a cres o f wood land .

T he t rees v ar ied i n b asa l d ia me ter f ro m 5 i n . t o 2 4 i n .,

t he a verage b e ing a bout 8 i n . (Rackha m 1 972 ) .

B o th t he a verage a nd t he r ange

a re t yp ica l o f med ieva l h ouses , b arns , c o l leges , a nd t he l ess g rand c hurch r oofs , e tc .;

t here i s aw ide r ange o f s izes b u t e ven t he l argest a re l i t t le

b igger t han a n a verage o ak n ow . Most t rees w ere q u ite s hor t , t h is b e ing a n impor tan t c onstra in t o n t he d esign o fb u i ld ings . An or ma l l eng th f or a t imber i s 2 0 f t ; u sua l ly t here a re t he s tu mps o f an u mber o fb ranches a t t he t op o f t h is l eng th ; a ny t imber l onger t han t h is i s l i ab le t o b e c rooked , k no t ty , a nd t aper ing where i tr eaches i n to t he c rown o f at ree t hat w as n o t r ea l ly l ong e nough . Anyone r ecord ing ab u i ld ing s hou ld a scer ta in t he l eng th o f t he l ongest t imber .

2 08

A s w e s hou ld e xpect f ro m t he r ecords , most o aks c a me f rom woods , where t hey g rew am idst u nderwood ( F ig . 1 1.3 ).

T he u nderwood g rew a bou t

2 0 f th igh a nd i t s c o mpe t i t ion c aused t he o ak t o d eve lop a .b o le o f t h is l eng th , w ith a b r anch ing c rown a bove t he u nderwood c anopy . 2 5 t o 8 0 y ears o ld a ccord ing t o t he s ize r equ ired . o ver ;

O aks w ere f e l led a t

T here was a r ap id t urn-

o ak e v iden t ly r ep laced i t se lf v ery e f fect ive ly w i th in e x ist ing woods .

a t n ow s eldo m d oes s o , h av ing c hanged i t s e co log ica l b ehav iour i n t he l ast h undred y ears.) A l though c arpen ters p referred g row ing t he ir t rees t o s ize r ather t han s pend ing s k i l led l abour o n c u t t ing t he m t o s ize , o ccas iona l b u i ld ings s how t hat t hey c ou ld d o t he l at ter when c o mpe l led b y a n u nusua l s ource o f t imber . T he r oofs o f t he B lack fr iars , G loucester ( Rackha m ,

B la ir & Munby 1 978 )

a re made f ro m e xcep t iona l ly l arge o aks , a t l east 3 0 f ti n u sefu l l eng th a nd 21/4 f ti n d ia meter h a lfway a long t ha t l eng th , e ach s awn l eng thw ise i n to f our o r s ix t imbers .

Most o f t he o aks were g iven t o t he F r iars b y H enry I I b e-

t ween 1 241 a nd 1 265 a nd c a me f rom F orests , n o t w oods , p r inc ipa l ly t he F orest o f D ean .

T he F r iars e v iden t ly s awed u p n eed less ly l arge o aks b ecause

t hey w ere what t he k ing g ave t he m . An e ar ly 1 4th-cen tury r oof a t G reat L iver mere c hurch l i kew ise h as t imbers s awn f rom u nnecessar i ly l arge t rees , b ut i n a dd it ion t he t russes ( F ig . 1 1.4 ) a re i ngen ious ly a dap ted—some a re a sy m me tr ic a nd o thers a re n o t i n o ne p lane—to make u se o fu navo idab ly c rooked t imber .

G reat L iver mere i s i n t he wood less S uf fo lk B reck land ,

a nd t he p ar ish ioners e v iden t ly h ad t o make d o w i th a sma l l n u mber o f l arge , v ery c rooked o aks wh ich w ere worked b y a n u nusua l ly s k i l led c arpen ter . A t b o th L iver mere a nd G loucester t here a re s igns o f g et t ing t he u tmost a rea o f r oof ing o u t o f al im ited n u mber o f t rees . O u ts ize t imbers The G loucester B lack fr iars o aks a re a n e xa mp le o f t he e xcep t ional ly l ong o r t h ick t imbers t hat were n or ma l ly t oo v a luab le t o c u t u p f or g enera l u se . T he p roper u ses o f s uch t imbers i nc luded t he g rea t p osts o n wh ich w ind m il ls t urned ;

c athedra l r oofs ( e ach c al l ing f or s evera l h undred o aks o f a bout 3 5 f t

u sefu l l eng th ;

t imber-fra med t owers ( e .g . t hat a t P e mbr idge , H erefordsh ire ,

w ith p osts o r ig ina l ly a t l east 4 2 f tl ong ) ; a nd b r idges ( R igo ld 1 975 ). S uch t rees were much more e xpens ive t han t he s a me v o lu me o f o rd inary o aks . Trees o f t h is s ize were n ot n or ma l ly a va i lab le f rom woods a nd h ad t o b e b rough t f ro m s pec ia l s ources , c h ief ly i n p arks a nd F orests .

T he k ing

h appened t o own s evera l o f t he s ources , s uch a s t he wooded F orests o f D ean a nd G i l l ingha m ( Dorse t ) a nd woods i n S herwood F orests . H enry I I o f ten b estowed s uch o aks o n r e l ig ious h ouses a nd f avoured s ub jects a s we l l a s u s ing t he m o n h is own b u i ld ings . I t was p ar t o f t he r oya l p rest ige t o dwe l l i n b u i ld ings o f g reat s pan ( e .g . Westm inster H a l l ) a nd t o make k ing ly g if ts o f t he k ind t hat money c ou ld n ot b uy . H enry I I a pparen t ly t hough t s uch t imbers were b e ing u sed u p f aster t han t hey w ere g row ing ( Rackha m 1 976 , 1 55 ) . r e lat ive ly r are .

B y t he 1 4th c entury t hey were

T he s ix teen r ak ing s truts o n wh ich t he l an tern c rossing-

t ower o f E ly C athedra l r ests ( Hewet t 1 974 ) v ary i n l eng th f rom 4 0 t o 4 9 f t a nd i n s ect ion f ro m 1 2 x1 2 i n t o 1 5 x1 1 i n ( my r e- measure men t ) .

2 09

T hey

F ig.

1 1.3

Wood land management: p art c f t he Bradf ie ld Woods a s s een o ne-and-a-ha lf s ummers a f ter f e l l ing t he underwood. The underwood i s h ere ma in ly o f a sh a nd i ts r egrowth i s a bout 6 f t ( 1.8 m) h igh. The t imber t rees a re o aks, and a re a bout t he s ize o f t he sma l ler o aks u sed i n med ieva l bu i ld ings; t h is i s unusua l ly y oung f or t he o aks o f a wood i n t he 2 0th c entury.

F ig.

1 1.4a

=

---1-=-===== ----===::=:--::::i Ill

-

-

-

--

--

1

f"t

Fig. 11. 4b

Fig. 11. 4

Roof of Great Livermere church. (a) (opposite) Truss made from timber which is crooked in three dimensions. (b) (above) Truss having one rafter and both scissors sawn from crooked trees. All the trusses are different. To frame this roof called for unusual skill in geometry and the ability to saw round sharp bends. (Note the puzzle-holes in the sole-pieces cf. Discussion of Medieval Papers)

211

are all original of.£· 1330 with assembly-letters in Langobardic script. In the top few feet they diminish to a circular section with projecting branch­ stumps where the carpenter was getting the utmost length out of the tree; yet even so the 16 struts could not be all of the same lengths, and the design was adapted accordingly. Although probably not the longest in the structure, these timbers indicate that even the most ambitious of 14th-century buildings could not muster 16 oaks all of a size which would not be particularly excep­ tional in the post-medieval period or today. (The provenance of the Ely timber is unlmown because of a lacuna in the building accounts (Chapman 1907)).

Underwood in Buildings In earlier periods wattle-work composed of underwood had been used for the entire walls and floors of buildings (Hall and W allace, Papers 13 and 15 in this volume) and even in roofs (as in the reconstruction of the Anglo-Saxon village of W est Stow (Suffolk)). It survives in use only as a non-structural infill in the panels of frame buildings. Panels can be of various other materials including boards and cleft oak laths, but wattle-and­ daub is the commonest. There are several wattling systems, most of them designed to leave both faces of the timbers visible between the panels. Wattle was also used in scaffolding and falsework, the impressions of which occasionally survive (e. g. the Anglo-Saxon window-heads of Hadstock church, Essex (Rackham 1980, 136)). Wattle usually consists of underwood rods, whole or split in two, held in place by rigid splints (horizontal or vertical according to region) wedged into mortices and grooves cut in the frame. The rods are normally bent only slightly if at all. A typical rod is the butt-end of an underwood pole, some 2 in. diameter at the base and of 5 to 9 years' growth (which agrees with c,.::mtemporary records of coppice rotations). The commonest species in my experience is hazel, followed closely by sallow (Salix caprea and cinerea). Elm, ash, and birch are rare. I have orice encountered bast (the phloem fibre of lime, Tilia. corda.ta.) used as string. Hazel and proba ly �allow were grown in woods: they closely resemble wood-gro v underwood of the same years' growth today. Elm at Hadleigh (Suffolk) appears to consist of suckers of Ulmus minor from hedgerow underwood. Birch (also at Hadleigh) is from the tops of Betula pubescens trees felled for som ot er purpose; birch was then an uncommon tree. Many other underwood trees are mentioned in records. Although hazel has been one of the commonest woodland trees ever since the wildwood, the great preponderance of hazel and sallow (which are not particularly durable) among wattle indicates a deliberate choice. Rods of these two species have the speuc:1 µ operty that they can be twistGd and then bent through 18 o 0 without breaking; hazel (or sallow as second-best) is therefore used for wattle hurdles and thatching broaches. Although this property is not used in most medieval wattle panels, it·may ha.ve been important in the more extensive wattle-work of which they are a vestige. Here, too, tradition probably guided the choice of species after the reason for it had ceased to exist. 212

T ranspor t o f T i mber a nd Wood T i mber The t ranspor t o fb u i ld ing s tone i s p roved b y t he f acts o f g eo logy .

T here

i s n o a rgu ing w ith t he f ac t t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxons moved s tone 1 00 m i les f rom B arnack ( Peterborough ) t o Rochester ( Jope 1 964 ) , o r t hat t he N or mans t ransp or ted s o me 1 0 ,000 t ons o f s tone f ro m N ormandy t o b u i ld N orw ich C a thedra l . I n t he s a me way med ieva l p ine t imbers i n K ing 's L ynn p roc la im t he ir f ore ign o r ig in , f or p ine w as e x t inc t i n Eng land a t t he t ime .

B u t o ak d oes n ot s o

o bv ious ly c arry i t s p rovenance s ta mped u pon i t . N ot e veryone i s aware o f t he im mense amoun t o f wr it ten e v idence f or t he t ranspor t o f t imber , wh ich i s l ocked away i n i nd iv idua l t ransact ions a nd i s d if f icu lt t o s yste mat ize . T i mber-fra med b u i ld ings a re n o t we l l c orre lated w i th t he med ieva l d ist r ibut ion o f wood land .

T hey a re a bundan t i n t he Wea ld ( t he b iggest c oncen-

t rat ion o f wood land i n Eng land ) , b ut a lso i n West Y orksh ire a nd E ssex w i th a n a verage p ropor t ion o f wood land , a nd i n S uf fo lk a nd t he We lsh B order w ith l ess t han a verage wood land . Wood less p laces , s uch a s C a mbr idge , K ing 's L ynn , a nd t he B reck land , c an h ave a t imber b u i ld ing t rad i t ion ;

D orset

a nd N or th Norfo lk , q u ite we l l-wooded , d o n o t . Ih ave r ough ly e st i mated t hat a n a rea w ith 5% o f wood land c ou ld s uppor t ar ura l t imber-fra med b u i ld ing t rad it ion , t hough t h is wou ld l eave l i t t le t imber f or o ther u ses ( Rackha m 1 972 ) .

B y t he 1 4th c en tury much o f t he c oun trys ide

h ad l ess wood land t han t h is . Wide t racts o f t he F ens , B reck land , M id lands a nd Y orksh ire h ad n o wood land , a nd s ing le wood less e states a nd t ownsh ips o ccurred a l mos t t hroughou t Eng land .

T he e x tra wood land n eeded t o s uppor t

u rban t imber-fra m ing r are ly h appened t o s tand immed ia te ly n ex t t o at own : L ondon , Y ork , N orw ich , a nd L avenha m a re among t he many t owns w i th n o o bv ious l oca l s ource s uf f ic ien t f or t he ir t imber b ui ld ings . T he p rob le m i s g reatest i n E ast Ang l ia , t he most u rban ized a nd o ne o f t he l east wooded p ar ts o f t he c oun try . S o me p oor ly-wooded a reas s uch a s S uf fo lk h ad many n on-wood land t rees , b u t most who l ly wood less d istr icts p ract ised o pen-f ie ld a gr icu lture a nd h ad f ew h edgerow t rees . f ro m o verseas .

T i mber c ou ld b e b rough t f ro m woods a t ad is tance o r

T he B ishop o f E ly ' sB reck land e state a t B randon , f or

i nstance , u sed l oca l n on-wood land b lack a nd wh ite p op lar ; i ta lso f etched t imber f ro m v ar ious o ft he B ishop 's woods i n N orfo lk a nd S uf fo lk u p t o 2 8 mi les away . I n C a mbr idge , c o l lege a nd o ther r ecords s how t imber b e ing u sed f ro m v ar ious w oods w ith in a 2 5- m i le r ad ius ; s ome t i mes t he woods b e longed t o C a mbr idge l andowners b ut more o f ten t he t imber was b ought . Much t imber a lso c a me v ia K ing 's L ynn , o ne o f t he c h ief p or ts impor t ing f ro m o verseas . The med ieva l , l ike t he modern , t imber t rade w as more c o mp lex t han t he mere s upp ly o f t imber t o p laces t hat h ad n one l oca l ly .

I tf o l lowed n o

o bv ious p a t tern o f s upp ly a nd d e mand; i tr ef lected a lso t he r equ ire men ts , ownersh ips , h ab its , a nd wh i ms o f t he i nd iv idua ls i nvo lved . T i mber was o f ten u sed f ro m d istan t r ather t han n earby s ources , a nd many j ourneys s ee m t o u s u nnecessary .

2 13

H enry I I r epeated ly s en t t imber f rom K ingswood n ear Co lchester , wh ich h e owned , t o D over C ast le , r ather t han u s ing t he a bundan t w oods i n K en t :

t he k ing was p oor a nd h ad t o u se h is own t imber r a ther t han b uy ing

i tf ro m l oca l l andowners .

T he k ing 's works i n t he T ower o f L ondon a nd a t

Westm inster u sed t imber f ro m t he N ew F ores t ( 8 0 m i les away ) , F orest o f D ean ( 1 10 m i les ) , a nd Y orksh ire ( 180 m iles ) , a s we l l a s f ro m n earer s ources i n E ssex a nd S urrey ; we may c on jecture t hat t he d istan t s ources s upp l ied s o me u nusua l s ize o r s hape n o t a va i lab le n earer . I ti s n o t s o e asy t o e xp la in why t imber s hou ld h ave g one f ro m S herwood F orest t o E ly ( 70 m i les ) o r S .E . G loucestersh ire ( 1 00 m i les ).

Why d id t he B ishop o f E ly s end t imber f ro m

a n a pparen t ly o rd inary wood a t H itcha m ( Suf fo lk ) t o S o mersha m ( Hun ts ) ( 30 m i les b y r oad + 5 0 m i les b y water ) i n 1 396-7 , i nstead o fu s ing S omersha m 's own e x tens ive woods? Why d id t he 1 2th-cen tury monks o f Ab ingdon ( Berks ) s end t we lve-ox w a ins a l l t he way t o N or th Wales ( 1 20 m iles) ( S alz man 1 967 p . 2 44-5 ) , p ass ing b y t he t h ird a nd t he f our th l argest c oncen trat ions o f woodl and i n E ng land a t t he t ime? Most t ranspor t was b y r oad . g ood r oad s yste m ;

Ang lo-Saxon a nd med ieva l Eng land h ad a

i n land w aterways were r ud i men tary ( t here were f ew

c ana ls , a nd r ivers w ere much b locked b y w e irs ) ; a lways a va i lab le .

s ea t ranspor t w as n ot

C osts o ft ranspor t v ar ied w ide ly , b u t as earch o f t wo

c o l lect ions o f f i gures ( Rogers 1 866 , 1 882 ;

J a mes 1 971 ) s hows t ha t t he f o l low-

i ng a re t yp ica l o f n on-urgen t a nd n on-frag i le l oads i n t he p er iod 1 250-1450 , when t he v a lue o f money was r e lat ive ly s tab le : Road

1 .3

I n land w aterways

0 .29 d . p er t on- m i le

J . p er t on- m i le

C oas ta l s h ipp ing

0 .12 d . p er t on- m ile ( i ncreased when t here w as a war w i th ' France )

T he a verage c ost o f a n o rd inary o ak-tree a t t h is p er iod a ppears t oh ave b een a bou t 11/4 d . p er c ub ic f oo t ( Rackha m 1 980 , 1 63) , s ay 5 s . p er t on . Oak c ou ld t herefore b e s en t 5 0 m i les b y r oad , 2 00 m i les b y i n land waterway , o r 5 00 m i les b y s ea f or a bout t he s a me c ost a s t he o r ig ina l v a lue o f t he t ree.

Th is

c a lcu lat ion , t hough v ery r ough , g ives a n impress ion o f t he c ost o f t ranspor t ing o ak b ea ms .

O u ts ize a nd o ther v a luab le o aks were t ranspor ted f ur ther t han

o rd inary t rees , a s were b oards a nd o ther g oods i nvo lv ing a s ubs tan t ia l l abour c ost a bove t he v a lue o f t he t ree . Wood T he s upp ly p rob le ms f or u nderwood were s im i lar i n g enera l t o t hose f or o rd inary t imber b ut a re l ess we l l d ocu men ted . Wood w as l ess v a luab le i n r e lat ion t o i t s we igh t a nd w as s e ldo m f e tched l ong d is tances . I ndustr ia l u sers t ended t o b e s i ted i n we l l-wooded a reas ( e .g . t he F orest o f D ean i ronworks ) . I n b u i ld ings u nderwood , u n l ike t imber , was a n u nseen , u t i l itar ian mater ia l f or w h ich s ubst itu tes c ou ld b e f ound i fn ecessary .

Wood was h owever u sed

a s d o mest ic f ue l i n t owns , e .g . C a mbr idge ( Rogers 1 882 ) a nd L ondon , f or wh ich t ranspor t wou ld h ave b een n ecessary . B oards O verseas t rade i n t imber i s we l l d ocu men ted i n b u i ld ing a nd e state a ccoun ts a nd a lso i n p or t r ecords . ( For a g enera l a ccoun t , w i th q uo tat ions f ro m 1 3th2 14

t o 1 6th-century d ocu men ts , s ee L atha m ( 1957 ) c h . Ia nd S alz man ( 1967 ) c h . XV I .) Much impor ted t imber was i n t he f or m o f b oards .

Med ieva l r ecords

d ist ingu ish b etween p lanks ( Lat in t abu le ) , a pparen t ly 1 1- i n . o r more i n t h ickness a nd o f ten made l oca l ly , a nd t he t h inner b oards u sua l ly b rought f ro m a d istance .

I n d efau lt o f n at ive c on ifers , s of twood b oards c ou ld b e

made f ro m p op lar a nd w i l low , a nd s o me Eng l ish a nd We lsh s ources o f o ak b oards a re k nown ;

b u t b y f ar t he l argest q uan t ity c a me f ro m N orway ,

H a mburg , a nd c oun tr ies b order ing t he B a l t ic . F ore ign b oards a re d escr ibed a s e str ich , r ygo lt ( f ro m R iga , t he e xpor t ing p or t ) , a nd waynesko t .

O ak a nd c on ifer (.a po ) a re n a med waynesko t s ee ms

t o imp ly o ak a nd r ygo lt c on ifer .

T hese words a re c o m monp lace i n med ieva l

a ccoun ts ; s uch b oards w ere u sed n o t o n ly f or h igh-c lass p er manen t s tructures b ut f or f a lsework , e .g . i n t he O ctagon o f E ly c athedra l ( Chap man 1 907 ) , a nd f or b u i ld ings a s h u mb le a s s heds ( Rackha m 1 980 , 1 51 ) .

T hey w ere i nvar iab ly

b ough t , e ven b y p laces wh ich h ad p len ty o f l oca l t imber . P lanks r are ly s urv ive , b u t b oards c an s t i l l b e s een i n c hurch j o inery . They a re u sua l ly o ak ; e xa mp les i n d eal ( P inus s y lves tr is ; my i den t if icat ion ) a re t he o r ig ina l b oard ing o f 1 3th-century d oors i n L akenheath c hurch ( Suf fo lk ) . They a re a ccurate ly s awn i n ar ad ia l d irect ion f ro m v ery l arge , o ld , s lowg rown , k no t-free o aks , s tr ik ing ly d if feren t f ro m t he sma l l , f ast-grown o aks u sed i n t he s tructura l c arpen try o f t he s a me b u i ld ings . P lanks w ere e v iden t ly w ith in t he c o mpetence o f s o me j obb ing s awyers , b ut t h in b oards c a l led f or s pec ia l t rees , s k i l ls , a nd e qu ip men t .

T he t h inner

t he b oard , t he more i t s c ost d epended o n l abour r ather t han o n t ranspor t o r t he c ost o f t he t ree .

U p t o h a lf t he t ree m igh t b e l ost i n s awdust , s o i t was

a dv isab le t o make t he b oards c lose t o where t he t rees g rew .

T he s eason ing

o f b oards was more impor tan t t han t hat o f b ea ms — wh ich were u sua l ly worked g reen—or o f p lanks ;

t h is c al led f or i t s own s k i l ls a nd c ou ld n o t b e d one i n

sma l l q uan t it ies o r a t s hor t n o t ice .

Boards , t herefore , l ike h urd les a nd

whee ls , t ended t o b e f actory- made i n p laces where a n a bundance o f s u i tab le t rees made i t wor th-wh i le t o a sse mb le t he n ecessary s k i l ls a nd e qu ip men t . That e qu ip men t a l most c er ta in ly i nc luded p ower-dr iven s aws , wh ich wou ld make s aw ing more a ccurate a s w e l l a s l ess l abor ious .

Water-powered

s aw m i l ls a re f i rst h eard o f i n F rance i n 1 204 a nd r ap id ly s pread o n t he C on t inen t ( Dau mas 1 962 ; t he 1 8th c en tury :

Wh ite 1 972 ) , b u t d id n o t a ppear i n E ng land u n t i l

Eng land h ad a l l t he o ther k inds o f m i l l b u t p resu mab ly d id

n o t h ave e nough s u i tab le t rees t o d eve lop a b oard f ac tory .

A .f ur ther a dvan-

t age o f b oards f ro m o verseas i s t ha t t he r igours o f t he j ourney wou ld s how u p a ny t endency t o w arp o r c rack a nd wou ld a l low t he b uyer t o r e ject d efect ive b oards . Med ieva l b oards c o m mon ly h ave a V -sect ion t ongue-and-groove ( F ig . 1 1.5 ) , wh ich i s o f ten a sy m metr ica l ( F ig . 1 1.5b ) ;

ab oard o n ly

1/ 4

i n . t h ick

may h ave f our d if feren t c u t t ing a ng les w ith in t hat t h ickness ( F ig . 1 1.5c ) . T h is f eature , n ever . p resen t i n 1 9th-cen tury im itat ions , c a l ls f or a s oph ist ic ated t oo l n ow l ost a nd i s f ur ther e v idence t hat b oards were a s pec ia l ized p roduct .

T he b oards o f l ate- med ieva l d oors o f ten h ave , i n a dd it ion , e laborate

2 15

a

Ill

b cm

c

Fig. 11. 5

Tongue-and-groove boards in cross-section. (a) Door, Lakenheath church (Suffolk); pine; 13th century. (b) Door, hall of Merton· College, Oxford; oak; c. 1280. (c) Pew, Barrington church (Cambs); wainscot-quality oak; 15th century.

----Fig. 11. 6

.c

Boards in medieval church doors. Cross-sections, not to scale. Wainscot-quality oak. · (a) Bradwell-by-Coggeshall, Essex: tongue-and-groove board imitating feather-edge board. (b) Thaxted, Essex (south door): ·tongue-and­ groove board masquerading as keeled plank with halfround fillet covering ..join to next plank. (c) Nettlestead, Suffolk: expensive wide board pretending to be two cheap narrow boards.

216

p rof i les made i n im i tat ion o f s i mp ler methods o f c onstruct ion ( F ig . 1 1 .6 ) ; p resumab ly t hese mou ld ings a lso were f actory- made . I ts hou ld b e a ssu med t hat t h in b oards a re impor ted u n less t here i s p os it i ve e v idence t o t he c on trary .

D endrochrono log ists h ave l arge ly d epended

o n s uch b oards , i n f urn iture a nd p a in t ings , a s s ources o f t ree-r ing s equences . Much o f t he e ar ly work i n E ng land i nvo lved c o mpar ing s uch s equences w i th o thers a lready e s tab l ished i n C en tra l E urope ;

ap rocedure wh ich n ow t urns

o ut t o b e j ust if ied b y t he l ike ly p rovenance o f t he t imber .

RE FERENCES B owen , H . C . & F ow ler , P . J . ( eds .) , 1 978 .

E ar ly l and a l lo tmen t ,

B r i t ish Archaeo log ica l R eports B r it ish S er ies 4 8. C hap man , F . R ., 1 907 .

S acr ist r o l ls o f E ly , C a mbr idge .

D au mas , M ( ed .) , 1 962 .

H isto ire g enera le d es t echn iques , P ar is .

Drury , P . J . &R odwe l l , W., 1 980 .

' Set t le men t i n t he l a ter I ron Age a nd

Ro man p er iods ' i n B uck ley , D . G . ( ed .) , A rchaeo logy i n E ssex t o A .D . 1 500 , CBA R es . R ep . 3 4 , 5 9-75 . E ly C oucher B ook , 1 251 ( unpub l ished ) B r i t ish L ibrary C o t t . C laud . C x i ; ( ano ther MS ) G onv i l le & C a ius C o l l. C a mbr idge MS 4 89/485. H arr is , R ., 1 974 .

' Pop lar c rucks i n Worcestersh ire a nd H erefordsh ire '

V ernac .Arch it . 5 , 2 5 . H ewet t , C ., 1 974 .

Eng l ish c athedra l c arpen try , Way land , L ondon .

J a mes , M . K ., 1 971 .

S tud ies i n t he med ieva l w ine t rade , Ox ford .

J ope , E . M ., 1 964 . ' Sou thern Eng land : f i ne b u i ld ing s tone , e igh th t o e leven th c en tur ies ' map q uo ted i n D arby , H . C . ( e d .) 1 976 , An ew h istor ica l g eography o f Eng land b efore 1 600 , 2 nd e d . C a mbr idge , 6 3 . L atha m , B ., 1 957 . L ondon .

T i mber , i t s d eve lop men t a nd d istr ibu t ion , H arrap ,

L oudon , J . C ., 1 838 .

Arboretu m e t f rut icetum b r i tann icum , L ongmans ,

L ondon . McCracken , E ., 1 971 . P arker , V ., 1 971 . R ackha m , 0 ., 1 972.

T he I r ish woods s ince T udor t imes , N ew ton A bbo t .

T he mak ing o f K ings L ynn , P h i l l i more , L ondon . ' Grund le H ouse :

o n t he q uan t it ies o f t imber i n

c er ta in E ast Ang l ian b u i ld ings i n r e lat ion t o l oca l s upp l ies ' V ernac . Arch it . 3 , 3 -8 . R ackha m , 0 ., 1 975 .

H ay ley Wood :

i t s h istory a nd e co logy , C a mbs & I s le

o f E ly N atura l ists ' Trust .

2 17

Rackha m , 0 ., 1 976.

T rees a nd wood land i n t he Br it ish l andscape , D en t ,

L ondon . R ackha m , 0 ., 1 977a . L eve ls :

' Neo l ith ic wood land manage men t i n t he S o merset

G arv in 's , Wa lton H eath , a nd Row land 's Tracks ', S o merset

L eve ls P apers 3 , 6 5-71 . R ackha m , 0 ., 1 977b .

' Hedgerow t rees :

t he ir h istory , c onservat ion , a nd

r enewa l ', Arbor ic. J . 3 , 1 69-77. Rackha m , 0 ., 1 980 .

Ancien t wood land :

i t s h istory , v egetat ion a nd u ses i n

Eng land , E dward Arno ld , L ondon . Rackha m , 0 ., B la ir , W. J . & Munby , J . T ., 1 978 .

' The t h ir teen th-century

r oofs a nd f loor o f t he B lack fr iars p r iory a t G loucester ' Med . A rch . 2 2 1 05-22 . R igo ld , S ., 1 975.

' S tructura l a spects o f med ieva l t imber b r idges ' Med . Arch .

1 9 , 4 8-91. Rob inson , M ., 1 978 .

' The p rob le m o fh edges e nc los ing Ro man a nd e ar l ier

f i e lds ' i n B owen & F ow ler ( see a bove ) 1 55-8 . R ogers , J . E . T ., 1 882 .

Ah istory o f a gr icu lture a nd p r ices i n E ng land ,

Ox ford , v o ls . 2 , 4 . S a lz man , L . F ., 1 967 . Wh ite , L ., 1 972 .

Bu i ld ing i n Eng land d own t o 1 540 , 2 nd e d . O x ford .

' The e xpans ion o f t echno logy 5 00-1500 ' i n C ipo l la C . M.

( ed .) , F on tana E cono m ic H istory o f E urope , F on tana , L ondon , 1 , 1 43-174.

2 18

1 2 .

WORK ING UNSEASONED OAK R ichard D arrah

S u m mary I n t he r econstruct ion o f a n o ak b u i ld ing , u nseasoned o ak w as s haped b y s p l it t ing w i th wooden wedges , a nd b y h ew ing w ith a xes o r a dzes . J o in ts w ere c u t i n t he p repared t imber w ith c h ise ls a nd a ugers . T hese p reparat ion t echn iques l ef t t oo l- marks wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o i den t ify s im i lar p rocesses where t hey h ad b een u sed o n a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l . The e f fects o f s eason ing were a lso r ecorded . I t i s n o t s uggested t hat s pec if ic t echn iques c an b e u sed t o d a te mater ia l

I n troduct ion Unseasoned o ak was u sed a s t he ma in b u i ld ing mater ia l i n t he r econstruct i on o f P agan Ang lo-Saxon b u i ld ings a t West S tow i n S uf fo lk . Wh i lst work ing o n t h is s i te t he a u thor g a ined e xper ience o f t he t echn iques wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o p repare u nseasoned o ak w ith s i mp le t oo ls—the wedge , a xe , a dze a nd s poonb i t . H e c ou ld p red ic t t he p roper t ies o f t rees a nd b y c arefu l s e lect ion c ou ld c hoose t rees wh ich were e asy t o s p l it t o s hape e ven w i th wooden t oo ls . T he marks l ef t o n t imber wh ich h ad b een s haped o r h ad j o in ts c ut i n to i tc ou ld b e i den t if ied a s c om ing f ro m s pec if ic t oo ls a nd p reparat ion t echn iques .

T he

e f fects o f s eason ing o n w orked o ak c ou ld b e n o ted o ver s ubsequen t y ears . I ti s n o t s uggested t hat t hese s pec ific t oo ls a nd t echn iques were u sed a t a ny p ar t icu lar t ime d ur ing t he p reh istor ic o r med ieva l p er iods , b u t s im i lar t oo ls were u sed i n t hose p er iods . T he i den t if icat ion o f t hese t oo l- marks a nd t he s ect ions o f t imber u sed c ou ld e nab le a rchaeo log ists t o d eter m ine t he t echn iques u sed i n t imber p reparat ion . T he Mater ia l The o ak t rees u sed t hroughou t t hese e xper i men ts were s tra igh t , s lowg rown p eduncu la te o ak ( Quercus r obur ) w i th b etween t hree a nd e ight a nnua l r ings p er c en t i metre a nd o f more t han 0 .15 m d ia meter , a nd w ere s upp l ied b y t he E lveden E s tate , S u f fo lk . A J1 t he s hap ing a nd a sse mb ly o f t he o ak o ccurred w i th in t wo y ears o f t he t ree b e ing f e l led , a nd a t n o t ime b etween f e l l ing a nd a sse mb ly w ere t he t imb ers e spec ia l ly e ncouraged t o s eason b y b e ing p u t i n s t ick , o r l e f t o ut i n t he h ot s un .

L arge p ieces o f o ak o f more t han 0 .25 m d ia meter t ook s evera l

y ears t o d ry a nd s eason , a nd r e ma ined workab le f or t he who le p er iod o f t wo y ears .

Wood o f t he s a me s ize wh ich h ad b een l ef t f or f our y ears a f ter f e l l ing

s howed marked ly d if feren t p roper t ies .

2 19

T oo ls The t oo ls d escr ibed b e low were t he a ctua l t oo ls u sed i n t he p reparat ion a nd s hap ing o f t he wood . T he wedges ( F ig . 1 2 .1 ) were made f ro m s easoned o ak a nd v ar ied i n s ize f ro m 0 .13 m t o 0 .30 m l ong t aper ing e ven ly t o a n e dge w ith a n a cute a ng le o f 5 ° t o 1 5 0. T hey were s haped f ro m r ad ia l ly c lef t o ak , w ith t he ir l ong a x is d own t he l eng th o f t he t ree .

( F igs . 1 2 .3 t o 1 2 .6 ) s how

s o me o f t he ways wedges were d a maged i n u se . T he b eet le , ah eavy wooden h a mmer o f i ron-bound e lm ( U l mus s p .) we igh ing 4 k g , was u sed f or d r iv ing i n t he wooden wedges . T he a xe ( F ig . 1 2 .7 ) , al igh t f e l l ing-axe o f wrought i ron a nd s tee l we igh ing 2k g , h ad a d oub le-beve l led e dge , a nd was a u n iversa l t oo l wh ich c ou ld b e u sed t o f e l l t rees a nd t o c ut j o in ts a nd s hape wood , a l though w ithou t a ny o ft he f inesse o f more s pec ia l ised a xes s uch a s t he b road a xe . T he a dze ( F ig . 1 2 .8 ) was a G i lp in n o . 2w ith a l ong wooden h and le , weigh ing 2 .5 k g . T he b lade w as b eve l led o n t he t op s urface o n ly , t he b o t to m s urface b e ing l ef t f l at .

T he b lade c ut i n t he h or izon ta l p lane when s wung b etween t he

l egs i n as ha l low a rc , a nd d id n ot r equ ire a g reat d ea l o f s k i l l t o p roduce a r easonab ly smoo th f i n ish . I t s we ight a nd s trong h al t ing a l lowed i tt o b e u sed f or t he r ough h ew ing o ft imber a s we l l a s more a ccurate f in ish ing work . T he d r i l l ( F ig . 1 2 .9 ) was a s tee l s poonb it w ith a s harp s ide a nd b ase t o t he s poon , ah eavy i ron s haf t a nd a s trong wooden h and le a cross t he t op . I t made c ircu lar h o les w ith a t yp ica l ly h em ispher ica l b o t to m . I tr equ ired c ons iderab le f orce e ven i nu nseasoned o ak ; t h is s poonb it , 2 5 mm a cross , c ut i n to h ear twood a t a pprox i mate ly 2 0 mm p er m inu te . T he S e lec t ion o f Wood The manage men t o f t he wood land h ad a lready c aused s o me s e lec t ion ; t he t rees were t a l l a nd r e lat ive ly s tra igh t , t hough t hey s t i l l r equ ired i nspect i on b efore f e l l ing t o e nsure t hat t he t imber h ad t he p art icu lar c haracter ist ics r equ ired f or a s pec if ic j ob .

T he d i mens ions o f t he t imber were n oted , i t s

g row th a nd b ark s tud ied a s t hey mapped t he h istory o f t he t rees . S cars wh ich r e ma ined o n t he b ark c ou ld i nd icate p ast d a mage , o r where b ranches h ad b een b roken o r p runed o f f . F issures i n t he b ark i nd ica ted t he d irect ion o f t he g ra in a nd i n s o me c ases t he g row th r ate o f t he t ree ( F ig . 1 2 .10 ). S p l i t t ing o ak t runks Unseasoned o ak c ou ld b e s p l it w ith e ase a long t he p r inc ipa l p lanes o f weakness wh ich f o l low t he medu l lary r ays .

T hese r ays r un r ad ia l ly f ro m

t he c en tre o f t he t ree t o t he o u ts ide w ith t he ir p lane i n t he d irect ion o f g row th ( F igs . 1 2 .2 a nd 1 2 .15 ). A t ree was s e lected f or s p l it t ing when t he b ark i nd ic ated t hat t he g ra in was s tra ight . The s e lec ted t ree was p laced o n b earers s o t hat i tc ou ld b e r o l led o ver w i th e ase .

The t ree was t hen t urned o ver u n t i l

ap lane was f ound t hrough t he c en tre o f t he t ree wh ich wou ld s p l it t he t ree i n to t wo e qua l h a lves ( F ig . 1 2 .11 ). The b ark w as s tud ied a long t he i ntended p ath o f t he s p l i t , n ot ing e v idence o fh idden k nots o r o ther d isrup t ions wh ich m igh t n o t b e v is ib le o n t he s ur face o f t he wood .

T hen t he p lane o f t he s p l i t

w as a ltered t o a vo id t hese d isrup t ions a nd t he b ark was r e moved f rom t he t wo s urfaces , r evea l ing t he e nds o f t he medu l lary r ays i n t he c a mb iu m . 2 20

With t hese r ays v is ib le t he d irect ion o f t he s p l it c ou ld b e a ccurate ly p red icted , a nd a ny f i na l a d jus t men ts c ou ld b e made . T he s p l i t c ou ld b e s tar ted f ro m e ither t he t op o r t he b o t to m o ft he t runk . Wi th u nseasoned o ak i tw as n o t n ecessary t o t ake a dvan tage o f e x ist ing s pl i ts o r t o s tar t s p l its u s ing me ta l wedges . S easoned o ak wedges c ou ld b e u sed a lone t o s p l it t he t runk ; t hey c ou ld b e d r iven i n to t he s ide o f t he t ree w ith e ase , u s ing a wooden b eet le . To s tar t t he s p l i t , a n o ak wedge was d r iven i nto t he s ide o ft he t ree t runk n ear o ne e nd a nd h it w ith t he b eet le u n t i l t he s p l i t r eached t he c en tre o f t he t ree , wh ich was t hen r o l led o ver , a nd a s econd c lef t s tar ted t o meet t he f irst . T he s p l i t was c on t inued b y d r iv ing i n wooden wedges f ur ther a long t he c lef t , f orc ing i to pen a long t he l eng th o f t he t runk . T o make c er ta in t ha t t he t ree s p l it t hrough t he c en tre , t he t runk was r o l led o ver a nd w edges d r iven i n to e ach s ide o f t he t ree a lternate ly u n t i l t he t ree h ad s p l i t i n to t wo h a lves . O ccas iona l ly b ands o f f i bres s tradd led t he f resh s p l it ( F ig . 1 2 .17 ) ; t hese n eeded c u t t ing a cross w ith a n a xe o r c h ise l t o k eep t he s p l it c lear . T he s p l i t c ou ld b e f orced r ound sma l l k nots o r t hrough b urrs , b u t l arge k nots wh ich were e i ther v is ib le o r h idden c ou ld b e s p l i t t hrough w ith w edges d r iven i n a t a n a ng le ( F ig . 1 2 .12 ) . When l arge k no ts were p resen t t he t ree h ad t o b e s p l i t t hrough f ro m t he b o t to m . A s t he s p l i t f o l lowed t he d irect ion o f t he medu l lary r ays , i t was s o met i mes n ecessary t o c orrect t he d irect ion o f t he s p l it b y s tart ing a f resh s p l i t p ara l le l t o t he e ar l ier o ne a nd c u t a cross t he wood i n b etween t he s p l its . I ft he t ree was s p l it f ro m o ne s ide o n ly t he c rack f orked a t t he c en tre d iv id ing t he t ree i n to t hree p ieces . A lthough f ur ther r ad ia l s p l i ts c ou ld b e made t he s egmen t a lways h ad t o b e d iv ided i n to t wo e qua l h a lves .

T hough t he t r iangu lar r ad ia l s ec t ion o f o ak

c ou ld i nd icate t hat t he wood h ad b een c lef t , i tm ight a lso h ave b een q uarters awn , b ut b o th t he c o mpression- marks made b y w edges ( F ig . 1 2 .16 ) a nd t he t oo l- marks o n c u t f i bres c ou ld b e u sed t o c on f irm i den t if icat ion ( F ig . 1 2 .18 ). Al arge o ak t ree c ou ld t ake s evera l h ours t o s p l i t i n h a lf ; h owever , as egmen t o f a n o ak t ree o r ig ina l ly 0 .9 m i n d ia me ter a nd 4 m l ong c ou ld b e s p l i t i n h a lf i nu nder t wo m inu tes . H ew ing Hew ing i s ac o mb inat ion o f s p l it t ing a nd c u t t ing p ieces o f wood o u t o f a t ree b y means o f c h ipp ing away a t i tw i th a s harp t oo l , e i ther t o f e l l t he t ree o r t o s hape t he t imber .

Whereas a wedge d r iven i n to a t ree f o l lows a n atura l

p lane o f weakness , ah ew ing imp le men t a ctua l ly c u ts t hrough t he g ra in b efore t he c h ips o f wood s p l i t of . When t he o ak w as f resh ly f e l led t here was l i t t le d if ference b etween t he workab i l i ty o f t he s apwood a nd t he h ear twood . T he e as iest way t o r e move t he s apwood was t o c u t n o tches u p t o 5 0 mm d eep a cross t he t runk d own t he l eng th o ft he t ree , t hen u s ing e i ther a n a xe , a dze o r c h ise l t o s p l i t o f f t he p ieces b etween t he n otches ; t he s ur face c ou ld t hen b e f in ished u s ing e i ther a n a xe o r a n a dze . R e mova l o f most o f t he s apwood f ro m a t ree 0 .25 m i n d ia meter b y s quar ing i tu p r educed i t s we igh t b y a pprox i mate ly o ne t h ird , w ithout s ign if ican t ly a lter ing t he s tructura l s treng th o f t he t imber ( as t he s apwood , wh ich w as r e moved , i s s ub ject t o i nsect a t tack a nd r o t , a nd s o w i l l n o t c on tr ibute t o t he l ong-ter m s treng th ) .

2 21

T he a xe was u sed t o h ew ( i n t he v er t ical p lane ) a long t he s ide o f t he t imber work ing e i ther t owards o r away f ro m o nese lf ( F ig . 1 2 .19 ) . c ut a cross t he t runk ;

T he a xe s trokes

b ecause o f t he d oub le b eve l a nd c urved b lade i tt ended

t o d ig i n s harp ly a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s troke a nd p roduce a d i mp led s urface ( F igs . 1 2 .13 a nd 1 2 .20 ).

On a r ough-hewn t imber , where a d oub le-beve l led

a xe h ad b een u sed , t he f o l low ing c ou ld b e s een ; t he s tar t o ft he c u t , where t he a xe h ad c u t i n to t he wood a t as teep a ng le ( F ig . 1 2 .20 ) ; t he smooth c urved , s ur face o f t he c ut , where t he d irect ion o f t he s troke was s o me t i mes r evea led b y l i nes l ef t b y n icks i n t he a xe b lade ;

a nd t he r agged l ines o n e ach s ide o f

t he c u t where t he wood h ad s p l i t o r t orn ( F ig . 1 2 .20 ). With a n a dze o r b roada xe t he s teep-ang led c ut was r ep laced b y as ha l low-ang led c ut ( F ig . 1 2 .14 ). I t was t he p resence o f t he s teep a ng le a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he c u t t ha t d ist ing u ished t he t oo ls u sed—the o ther f eatures c ou ld n o t r e l iab ly b e u sed t o d ist ingu ish b etween a xe- a nd a dze- marks .

Any o r a l l o f t hese t oo l- marks c ou ld

b e a bsen t o n ah ewn s ur face o ther t han t he smooth c urve o r f l at c en tra l s urf ace o f t he c ut . T he e qu iva len t o f a1 0 m l eng th o f t runk 0 .2 m i n d ia meter c ou ld b e s quared u p w ith a n a xe o r a dze i n a morn ing . J o in ts T he d if ferences b etween s easoned a nd u nseasoned o ak were mos t n ot icea b le d ur ing t he p reparat ion o f j o in ts . I n u nseasoned o ak i t was e asy t o c ut ag roove 3 5 r am d eep w i th a 1 2 m m mor t is ing c h ise l , mov ing f orward a t 1 0 m m at ime , whereas i n o ak f e l led f our y ears p rev ious ly t he d ep th o f e ach c u t was r educed t o 1 0 mm a nd t he l eng th t o 5m m . Mor t ises were c u t b y d r i l l ing t wo o r t hree h o les a t e ach e nd ;

t he r e ma in ing wood was t hen c ut o u t w ith a

h eavy c h ise l , a nd t hen t he s ides o f t he mor t ise were f i n ished u s ing a n a dzeh ead h and-he ld a s ap lane .

B o th s poonb it- marks a nd c h ise l- marks were

s o me t i mes v is ib le o n t he e nds o f t he mor t ise where t hey c ut a cross t he g ra in , b u t t he s ides w ere g enera l ly w ithout t oo l- marks . L ap a nd t enon j o in ts were c u t u s ing c h ise ls , a nd f i n ished w ith a n a dze ; t hese t oo ls o n ly l ef t marks w here t hey c u t a cross t he g ra in , a nd a t t he j unc t i on b etween t wo s urfaces . S eason ing A s t he wood s easoned s hakes o pened o ut a long t he m idd le o f t he f l at s ur faces o f t he t imber , whether t he t ree h ad a s tra ight o r as p ira l g ra in ( F ig . 1 2 .21 ) . Where c ross-sect ions were c u t a cross a t imber , t hese r ad ia l s hakes f or med a c ross . When a s easoned t imber was s quared , s hakes were a lready p resen t a nd r e ma ined a l l r ound t he t runk . R ad ia l s hakes w ere f ar l ess f requen t o n s easoned t imbers wh ich h ad b een s p l i t i n to q uar ters o r sma l ler p ieces when u nseasoned . J o in ts c u t i n to u nseasoned o ak wh ich were t igh t a nd a ccurate when f i rst c ut b eca me l oose a s t he t imber s hrank o r c hanged s hape o n s eason ing . S o me t enons , wh ich h ad b een c u t e igh teen mon ths b efore a sse mb ly , n eeded r ecu t t ing b efore t hey wou ld f i t a ga in .

B ea ms where t he

j o in t h ad b een c ut t o t he c en tre o f t he t ree f requen t ly s p l it n atura l ly a long t he d ia me ter , a nd where t he l ap j o in t w as l ess t han 0 .5 m f ro m t he e nd o f t he b ea m t he s hou lder o f t he j o in t s p l i t o f f .

2 22

Archaeo log ica l i den t if icat ion o f p reparat ion t echn iques The t echn iques o u t l ined i n t h is p aper d id n o t n ecessar i ly l eave s urface marks o n t he wood .

I n t he a bsence o f s uch marks t he t imber s hou ld s t i l l

b e a ccurate ly r ecorded , i nc lud ing t he d irect ions o f t he medu l lary r ays a nd t he a nnua l r ings wh ich s hou ld i nd icate what s ect ion o f t imber w as u sed . I t i s n o t n ecessary o r p oss ib le t o d raw a ccurate ly a l l t he a nnua l r ings ; h owever , ac oun t o f t he r ings s hou ld b e made a nd a ny c hange i n t he r ing f requency n oted , a s t he g row th r ate m igh t i nd icate what h ab i tat t he t ree c a me f rom . men t o f at runk may b e e i ther s p l i t o r s awn ;

A s eg-

i ti s t he p resence o f t he wedge-

marks o r t oo l- marks where f i bres h ave b een c u t a cross wh ich c on f irms t hat t he wood was s p l it . Where t here i s e v idence o f r ough-hew ing t he b o t to ms o f t he n otches c ut a cross t he t imber may b e v is ib le a s we l l a s t he marks o f t he h ew ing t oo l .

A lthough i t may b e p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish b e tween t he marks

made b y ad oub le-beve l led a xe a nd a s ing le-beve l led a xe o r a n a dze , t h is d ist inc t ion s hou ld o n ly b e made o n t he e v idence o f t he s teep-ang led c u t a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s troke . More e v idence o ft oo l- marks e x ists i n j o in ts t han o n t he e xposed s urfaces o f t imber .

Where b ladei mpress ions a re v is ib le t hey a re s e ldo m c o mp le te .

When a t te mp t ing t o i den t ify t imber a s h av ing b een worked u nseasoned b y t he p resence o f s hakes , c are must b e t aken t o e s tab l ish t hat t hese o ccurred i n s eason ing a nd n ot t hrough s ubsequen t s hr inkage d ue t o d ecay .

S hav ings , b roken

wedges a nd p ieces o ft oo l h and les may a lso h e lp t o i den t ify p reparat ion t echn iques . G lossary B eve l : The s urface(s ) ma in ta ined b y s harpen ing wh ich c reates t he c u t t ing e dge o f at oo l , a nd l i es a t a n a ng le t o t he r est o f t he b lade . B road a xe :

An a xe s pec if ica l ly d es igned f or h ew ing u sua l ly w ith a b eve l o n

o ne s ide o n ly , t he o ther s ide b e ing l ef t f l at . C a mb ium : L ap :

T he l ayer o f g row ing t ree b etween t he b ark a nd t he s apwood .

Aj o in t p roduced b y c ut t ing away h a lf t he t h ickness o f t wo t imbers t o

j o in t he m a t r igh t a ng les . S hakes : ( I n ) S t ick :

F issures p roduced d ur ing t he s eason ing o f wood . The p rocess where p repared t imbers a re s tacked u p w i th s pacers

i n b etween t he m t o e ncourage t he f ree c ircu lat ion o f a ir , a nd t he s eas on ing o f t he t imber .

2 23

1 5 't o 1 5° T angen t ia l s e c t ion

R ad ia l s ec t ion

T ransverse s ec t ion F ig.

1 2.1

Gra in d irect ions s e lected f or o ak w edges.

2

F ig.

1 2.2

Medu l lary r ays; a . s tra ight p lanes o f r ays; s pira l a round t he t runk.

2 24

b . r ays

F ig.

1 2.3

Wedge d amaged by s hear ing a cross ,

F ig.

1 2.4

Wedge d amaged by c ompress ion,

F ig.

1 2.5

W edge s p l i t i n h a lf f rom s harp e nd,

F ig .

1 2.6

2 20 mm l ong .

1 80 mm l ong.

2 20 mm l ong.

Wedge w i th e nd burred by h ammer ing,

6 0 mm a cross.

F ig .

1 2.7

F ig.

1 2.8

Axe u sed f or h ew ing.

G l ip in No.

2a dze.

F ig . 1 2.9 H ead o f s poonbi t w i th s harpened t ip. D iamet er o f t he s poon 2 5 mm.

L eng th o f t he h and le 0 .9 m .

L eng th o f t he h and le 0 .85 m .

F ig. 1 2.10 S tra ight-gra ined o ak w i th f i ssures r unn ing s tra ight up t he t runk. Rang ing r od 2m .

1 2

1

K no t

A-P lane / o f s p l i t

Wedge

I F ig. 1 2.12 Wedge h ammered i n a t a n a ng le t o s p l i t t hrough a l arge knot.

F ig. 1 2.11 Sp l i tt ing a n o ff-centre t ree i nto t wo e qua l h a lves.

1 4

1 3

A dze b l ade A xe

b l ade Wood s urf ac

Wood s urf ace 3

1 5

P rof i le o f c u t

r-

P rof i le o f c u t

F ig. 1 2.13 Ang le a t which a h ewing a xe s tr ikes s urface.

F ig. 1 2.14 Ang le a t wh ich a n a dze b lade s tr ikes s urface.

2 27

y

F ig. 1 2.15 Medu l lary r ays marked by s p l i ts.

P ig.

F ig . 1 2.16 Wedge i mpress ion i n r iven o ak: 8 0 mm a cross.

1 2.17 S trands o f f ibres s pann ing t he s p l i t.

F ig .

S ca le 0 .31 m l ong.

1 2.18 Too l-marks o n t he r ad ia l ly c lef t s urface where t he b ands o f f ibres h ave b een c ut a cross. Ha lf-s ize.

F ig .

1 2.19 Axe s trokes c utt ing a long t he l og p roduc ing a d imp led s urface.

F ig .

1 2.20 Axe marks; 1 . S teep a ng le a t t he s tart o f t he c u t. 2 . T ear d own t he s ide o f t he c ut.

F ig .

1 2.21 S quare-hewn t imber w i th t he s hakes f orm ing d own t he c entre o f e ach s ide.

1 3.

1 0th CENTURY WOOD WORK ING I N COPPERGATE , YORK R . A .

H al l

S u m mary E xcavat ion b y York Archaeo log ica l T rust i n t he d eep ly s trat if ied , w ater logged d epos its a t C oppergate , t he ' s treet o f t he c up- makers ' f i rst n a med i n 1 120-35 , h as p roduced we l l-dated e v idence o f 1 0th c en tury l a the t urn ing , p r inc ipa l ly i n t he f or m o f waste c ores . A sma l l n u mber o f 1 0th c en tury woodwork ing t oo ls a re d escr ibed , a s a re t hree u nusua l c on te mporary wooden o b jec ts . Two s uccess ive b u i ld ing t rad it ions were d iscovered ; t he e ar l ier i s c haracter ized b y t he u se o f wat t l ing , t he l a ter b y s ubstan t ia l o ak t imbers f or m ing s em i-base men t s tructures .

I n troduct ion The w ea lth o f i n for mat ion t hat med ieva l a rchaeo log ists c an t ap f rom Y ork 's r eservo ir o f water logged d epos its h as b een i ncreas ing ly r ecogn ised s ince 1 705 , when f or t he f i rst t ime t he we l l p reserved r e ma ins o fa nc ien t wooden o b jects a nd b u i ld ings w ere r ecogn ised , d ur ing b u i ld ing work i n Ousegate ( Had ley 1 971 , 4 3 ) ; af ur ther i nd icat ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l p o tent i al o f t h is p ar t o f Y ork c a me i n t he o pen ing y ears o f t h is c en tury w ith t he d iscovery a nd r ecord ing o f s ubs tan t ia l wooden b u i ld ing r e ma ins b e tween Ousegate a nd C oppergate ( Benson 1 902 ) . H owever , t he t op ic was n ot p ursued , a nd e ven i n t he d ecades af ter Wor ld War I when o ppor tun it ies t o i nvest igate med ieva l t owns w ere i ncreas ing ly s e ized e lsewhere i n Eng land , n o a dequate e xcavat ions were moun ted s pec if ica l ly t o a nswer q uest ions a bou t med ieva l Y ork , w i th t he s o le e xcep t ion o f l im ited work i n H ungate i n 1 949-50 wh ich d id n ot e xpose a na rea o f o ccupat ion ( R ichardson 1 959 ) . V ir tua l ly a l l t he a rchaeo log ica l i n format ion a bou t e veryday l i fe i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian ( i .e . mid 9 th - m id 1 1th c en tury ) York t o emerge i n t he p er iod u p t o 1 972 c a me e ither f ro m t he p ost-Ro man l ayers e ncoun tered a nd r ecorded b y L . P . Wenha m a nd I . S tead d ur ing sma l l-sca le e xcavat ions d es igned p r i mar i ly t o i nvest igate a spects o f Ro man Y ork ( Wenha m 1 968 ; 1 972 : S tead 1 958 ; 1 968 ) , o r f rom t he o bservat ions wh ich J ef frey Rad ley made d ur ing b u i ld ing work o n t he Ousegate-Pave men t a x is ( Rad ley 1 971 ) . T he o n ly o ther n o tab le e xcava t ions were c oncerned e i ther w ith c hurches a nd g raveyards ( Pat t ison 1 973 :

R amm

1 976 ) o r w ith t he c i ty 's d efences ( Webster a nd C herry 1 972 , 1 65-7 ) . The e stab l ish men t o f ap er manen t e xcavat ion u n it i n Y ork i n 1 972 a l lowed a rchaeo log ica l o ppor tun it ies t o b e t aken more e as i ly , a nd i n 1 972 t he sma l l-

2 31

s ca le work u nder taken b y York Archaeo log ica l T rust a t 6 -8 P ave men t d e mons trated t he p resence o fu p t o 1 0 m o f wa ter logged d epos its h ere a nd , w ith in t he l im its o f t he sma l l s a mp le e xcavated , s howed t he d eta i l i n wh ich t he p hys ica l a ppearance , e cono my a nd e nv ironmen t o f Ang lo-Scand inav ian York c ou ld b e r econstructed ( Addy man 1 974 :

MacGregor 1 978 ;

1 982 ;

K enward

e t a l . 1 978 ) . An o ppor tun ity t o c arry o u t t he n ecessary l arge s ca le s a mp l ing o f t he v ic in ity c a me w ith a p roposa l f or r edeve lop men t a t 1 6-22 C oppergate ' where , b y k ind p er m iss ion o ft he s i te 's owners , York C ity C ounc i l , a nd d ue t o t he p ostpone men t o f t he r edeve lopmen t p ro ject u n t i l a utu mn 1 981 , Y ork Archaeo log ica l T rust h as e xcavated c on t inuous ly s ince J une 1 976. P ar ts o f f our t ene men ts f ron t ing o n t o C opper -gate h ave b een i nvest igated , a n a rea o f a pprox i mate ly 1 000 m 2 i n a l l , a nd t ie s i te h as p roduced e v idence f or o ccup at ion r ang ing i n d ate f ro m t he R o man p er iod t o t he 1 7th c en tury .

T h is p aper

w i l l c oncen trate e xc lus ive ly o n e v idence f rom t he 1 0th c en tury l eve ls ,f i rst ly b ecause i ti s i n t hese t hat s o me o f t he most c o mp le te t imber s tructures o f t he l ate S axon o r Ang lo-Scand inav ian p er iod e ver f ound i n Br i ta in h ave s urv ived , t ogether w ith o ther e v idence f or c on te mporary woodwork ing t echn iques , a nd a lso b ecause a r e markab le n umis ma t ic s er ies ( Ha l l 1 980 ) , c oup led w ith d endrochrono log ica l d at ings c a l ibrated b y J enn ifer H i l la m a nd Ru th Morgan o f S hef f ie ld Un iversity , p rov ides a p rec ise c hrono log ica l s ca le . I ndustr ia l Woodwork ing P lace-na mes e xper ts h ave h ither to s uggested t hat t he s treet n a me C oppergate , wh ich i s f i rst r ecorded i n 1 120-35 , means s treet o f t he j o iners ( S m i th 1 937 , 2 85 ) , o r s tree t o f t he c opperworkers ( Pa l l iser 1 978 , 8 ) . G i ll ian F e l lows-Jensen , i n ar ecen t a nd a s y e t u npub l ished r e-assess men t o fi t s d er ivat ion a grees w i th Sm ith t hat i td er ives f ro m t he O ld N orse k oppar i , b ut a lso p o in ts o u t t hat t he ma in e le men t i n k oppar i i s t he n oun k oppr mean ing ,v esse l f or h o ld ing l i qu id . H ence a more a ccurate mean ing f or C oppergate i s c up makers ' s treet o r t urners ' s treet . Archaeo log ica l e v idence w h ich may b e i n terpreted a s s uppor t ing t h is d er ivat ion h as c o me f ro m t he e xcavat ion i n t he f or m o f ac o l lect ion o f t urners ' d ebr is , p r inc ipa l ly waste c ores , most o f wh ich h ad b een d iscarded i n o ne b u i ld ing a f ter i th ad b een a bandoned a nd was i n g enera l u se a s ar ubb ish d u mp C . 9 90-1000 A .D . T he ir p resence s uggests s trong ly t ha t l athe-turn ing was p ract ised s o mewhere i n t he im med iate v icin ity , a l though n ot n ecessar i ly o n a ny o f t he f our t ene men ts b e ing i nvest igated . T echn ica l a spects o f t h is work a re c ons idered b y Mrs. Morr is , ( Paper 1 4 ). I n a dd it ion t o t he c ores , c o mp lete o r f ragmen tary b ow ls o f many woods , p r inc ipa l ly y ew ( Taxus s p .) a nd a sh ( Frax inus s p .) a nd a s ing le c up made f ro m y ew were f ound .

T he b ow ls o ccurred i n e ach o f t he f our t ene men ts a nd

t hroughou t t he 1 0th c en tury l eve ls , a l though t he g reater c oncen trat ion c a me f ro m l ayers d ated c . 9 50-1000 . Woodwork ing Too ls O ther woodwork ing t echn iques a re a t tested b y a sma l l n u mber o f c arpen ters ' i ron t oo ls wh ich were f ound i n 1 0th c en tury d epos its , a lthough n ot i n c lose a ssoc iat ion w ith e ach o ther . Most n u merous a re a ugers o r b or ing b i ts , o f wh ich t wo l arger ( over 3 0 cm l ong ) a nd s evera l sma l ler ( under 1 5 cm l ong ) h ave b een r ecovered . L ike a l l t hose p rev ious ly r epor ted i n Eng land , t he ir t ransverse wooden h and les d o n ot s urv ive ( W i lson 1 968 , 1 46 ). A sma l l a xe-

2 32

h ead w ith a s l igh t ly a sy m me tr ica l b lade ( 12 x 1 5 cm ) i s c o mp le te ly u nre marka b le , b u t ad raw k n ife a nd a s hap ing c h ise l a re b o th r are i n p re-conquest Eng land .

T he d raw-kn ife h as a s em i-c ircu lar b lade o f 9 cm d ia me ter , f ro m

e ach e nd o f wh ich a t ang i s b en t f orward a t ar igh t a ng le i n to t he s a me p lane a nd i n t he s a me d irect ion a s t he b lade .

T he c h ise l h as a s l igh t ly f l ared a nd

c urved b lade n arrow ing t o ac y l indr ica l s ocke t wh ich o r ig ina l ly h e ld a wooden b ut t . T he l im ited r ange a nd n u mber o f p re-Nor man woodwork ing t oo ls n ow k nown i n Eng land c anno t b e at rue i ndex o f t he ir o r ig ina l r ar i ty , b u t i s r ather a c o mmen t o n t he v ery sma l l n u mber o f e xcavat ions whose s ize a nd s cope a l low a r easonab le c hance o f t he ir r ecovery .

G iven t h is s carc ity i ti s d if f icu lt t o

a ssess a ccurate ly whe ther t hese t oo ls f ro m C oppergate wou ld h ave b een p ar t o f t he s tandard h ouseho ld e qu ip men t , whe ther t hey s hou ld b e t hought o f a s t he p roper ty o f p rofess iona l c arpen ters o r b u i lders , o r whe ther t hey m igh t i nd icate o ther s pec ia l ist c raf ts men work ing e i ther t e mporar i ly o r s em ip er manen t ly o n t he s i te .

P erhaps o n ly t he d raw-kn ife , ac ooper 's t oo l ,

s uppor ts t he t h ird o f t hese h ypotheses ; a l l t he o ther t oo ls c an r easonab ly b e a ss igned t o t he k i t o f a1 0th c en tury h andy man . T he q uest ion o f p rofess iona l b u i lders w i l l b e d iscussed e lsewhere . Wooden O b jects T he t oo ls d escr ibed a bove c on f ir m t he p ract ise o f ar ange o f s i mp le wood-work ing t echn iques i n t he 1 0th c en tury ;

p roo f o f t he t echn ica l c o mpe-

t ence a nd a rt ist ic amb it ion o f c om te mporary woodworkers c o mes i n t he wooden o b jects f ound t hrough9ut 1 0th c en tury l eve ls .

T he e xcavat ion h as

p roduced many h undred s uch o b jects o f wh ich t he ma jor ity a re u t i l i tar ian a nd were d oubt less p roduced i n t he c ity .

On ly a f ew o f t he more u nusua l c an

b e men t ioned h ere , a nd i t must b e s tressed t hat t he ir p laces o f o r ig in a re u nknown .

S o me a re s i mp le e nough t o h ave b een h o me- made , wh i le t he r e la-

t ive c o mp lex ity o f o thers s uggests s pec ia l ised c ar ts mansh ip .

A l l c ou ld h ave

b een b rough t t o Y ork b y h o me-co m ing o r v is it ing merchan ts a nd t ravel lers , b ut i ti s a t l east a s l ike ly t hat t hey were manu factured w ith in t he C ity . The s i mp lest , a nd t hus t he most l ike ly t o h ave b een h o me- made , i s a sma l l s yr inx o r s et o f p an-p ipes , f ash ioned f ro m a r ec tangu lar s lab o f b oxwood ( Buxus s p .) b y b or ing h o les t o d if feren t d ep ths d own i t s long a x is a nd t hen b eve l l ing o f f t he p lay ing s ur face .

Ah o le t hrough t he b ody o f t he p ipes

wou ld h ave a l lowed t he p assage o f at hong f or s uspens ion .

F ive n otes , t op

At o E , c ou ld o r ig ina l ly b e p roduced , b u t o ne e nd o f t he i nstru men t was d a maged i n a n t iqu ity .

T he c ho ice o f b oxwood i s a n i n terest ing o ne , f or i t

i s a wood s t i l l much f avoured b y i nstru men t makers .

D oes i t s u se h ere s ug-

g est t hat t he p ipes were f ash ioned b y s o meone a ccusto med t o mak ing mus ica l i nstru men ts , o r d oes i t s i mp ly i nd icate t ha t k now ledge o f t he p roper t ies o f v ar ious woods a nd t he ir b est u ses was w idespread i n t he c o m mun ity ? A s econd e xa mp le o f c raf ts mansh ip i n wood i s ac y l indr ical b ox f or med b y p egg ing a n o ak ( Quercus s p .) b ase p la te t o at h in s tr ip o f a shwood wh ich h as b een b en t b ack u pon i t se lf a nd i t s o ver lapp ing e nds f astened t ogether w ith t wo p ara l le l , v er t ica l r ows o f s t i tch ing ( F ig . 1 3 .1 ). 2 0 cm a nd i t s h e ight i s 8 .2 cm .

T he b ox 's d ia meter i s

I nc ised d ecorat ion o ccup ies v ir tua l ly i t s

2 33

e n t ire c ircu mference —a n arrow p ane l o f z ig-zag b etween t he t wo r ows o f s t itch ing , a nd a much w ider p ane l o ccupy ing t he r e ma inder , f i l led w ith a n o penwork b asketry p a t tern a t o ne e nd a nd a r unn ing S -scro l l a t t he o ther . T he b ox i s u npara l le led i n p re-Conquest Eng land , b u t t hree e xa mp les o f s im i lar f or m h ave b een r ecovered a t t he V ik ing Age t rad ing s et t le men t o f H edeby , a t t he b ase o f t he J u t land p en insu la . T he most e labora te wooden o b jec t f ro m t he C oppergate e xcava t ion i s u ndoub ted ly a s add le-bow , o n ly a bou t h a lf o f wh ich s urv ives ( F ig . 1 3.2 ). I ti s s haped f ro m a s ing le p iece o f o ak , a nd i s r e markab le p r inc ipa l ly f or i t s d ecorat ion , wh ich i s f ound o n a l l s ur faces e xcep t t he u nders ides a nd a t t he t ips o f t he a rm .

T h is c ons ists o f k no twork mot ifs i n s ha l low r e l ief s e t

w ith in t r iangu lar p ane ls wh ich a re s eparated b y g rooves ;

t hese w ere o r ig i-

n a l ly i n la id w ith h orn wh ich was h e ld i n p lace b y sma l l n a ils wh ich a re t hough t t o b e a n a l loy o f t in a nd l ead . I ti s t hus a p ar t icu lar ly r are e xa mp le o f a p re-conquest wooden o b jec t w ith a pp l ied d ecorat ion , b u t t he s uper f ic ia l ly o sten ta t ious n ature o f t h is s hou ld n ot h ide t he d ef ic ienc ies i n i t s e xecut ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n i t s l ay ing o u t b y t he woodworker . o f t he h ighest q ua l ity .

C lear ly i ti s n o t ap iece

N one the less i tg ives a sma l l i ns ight i n to t he t astes

o f Y ork 's wea l th ier 1 0th c en tury c i t izens who c ou ld a f ford s uch l uxur ies , a nd i ta lso s hows t he woodworker u s ing a r eper to ire o f s i mp le mo t ifs wh ich were c o m mon t o o ther c raf ts men work ing i n me ta l , b one o r l ea ther . Wooden B u i ld ings a nd t he ir C onstruct ion P re l im inary a na lys is o f d ata o b ta ined i n a n a rea im med iate ly b eh ind t he modern p ave men t s uggests t hat t he r egu lar d iv is ion o f t he f ron tage i n to t enemen ts t ook p lace w ith in t he p er iod c . 9 00-915 .

T h is e ven t i s c lear ly s igna l led

i n t he s i te 's s trat if icat ion , f or t he v ery o rgan ic , p eaty d epos its c on ta in ing much wood a nd v ege tat ion , wh ich r esu lt f ro m a nd a re a s ure i nd ica tor o f i n tens ive o ccupa t ion , a re o n ly f ound f ro m t hese l eve ls u pwards .

P rev ious ly ,

a l though t here was a ct iv ity o n t he s i te a nd p erhaps s o me s tructures s tand ing i n t he 9 th c en tury , t he b as is o f l and u t i l isat ion h ere must h ave b een v ery d if feren t . I n t he f irst h a lf o f t he 1 0th c en tury wat t lework was t he s tandard method o f b u i ld ing c onstruct ion ( F ig . 1 3.3 ) .

Once e s tab l ished , t he p os it ions o f t he

b u i ld ings ' wa l l l ines r e ma ined v ir tua l ly s ta t ic f or t he n ex t h a lf-cen tury , d ur ing wh ich t ime t he g round l eve l b oth a round a nd i ns ide t he s tructures r ose g radua l ly b y o ver 1 m.

With in t h is p er iod t he b u i ld ings o n a l l f our t ene men ts

were g u t ted b y f i re a nd t hen t o ta l ly r ebu i l t o n s evera l o ccas ions , a nd i n a dd it i on t here s ee m t o h ave b een f requen t r epa irs o r r econstruct ions o f i nd iv idua l l eng ths o f wa l l ing , s o t hat s o met i mes t he o ppos ite wa l ls o f as ing le b u i ld ing may a ppear d if feren t i n c onstruct ion .

The r esu lt ing c o mp lex i ty o f i n tr icate ly

e n meshed a nd s uper i mposed s takes , p osts a nd wa t t le was f or m idab le a t t imes , a re c arefu l p os t-excavat ion a na lys is w i l l b e n ecessary t o d isen tang le t he f i ner d eta i ls o f t he c onstruc t ional s equence .

A t t h is s tage , w ith t he e xcavat ion s t i l l

i n p rogress , o n ly s o me o f t he more o bv ious p o in ts w i l l b e made . T he w id ths o f t he b u i ld ings v ary b etween 3 .5 m t o 4m , b u t t he ir l eng ths a re u nknown a s a l l t hose e xcavated s o f ar r un b eyond t he s i te 's b oundary , b e low t he modern p ave men t ;

a l l t hat c an b e s a id i s t hat t hey c an e xceed

2 34

F ig.

1 3.1

Coppergate,

York:

F ig.

1 3.2

Coppergate, York: t o a rm-tip, 3 1 cm

a sh a nd o ak box.

o ak s add lebow.

2 35

D iameter 2 0 cm.

L ength f rom a pex

8 .2 m i n l eng th .

There s ee m t o b e many v ar iat ions w ith in t he b as ic w at t le-

work t rad it ion , a nd s o me o f t hese c hanges a ppeared c on te mporaneous ly f ro m t ene men t t o t ene men t d ur ing t he o vera l r ebu i ld ings men t ioned a bove .

These

v ar iat ions i nc lude t he u se o f s takes a lone a s o pposed t o ac o mb inat ion o f s takes a nd p osts ;

t he methods o f s hap ing a nd f i n ish ing t he t imbers ;

t he

s pac ing a nd s can t l ing o fp osts a nd t he ir i ncorporat ion i n to t he ma in w a l l l ine o r p os i t ion ing a d jacen t t o a ct a s ma in s uppor ts f or t he r oof ;

a nd whether

p osts were s et i n p ost-ho les o r d r iven d irect ly i n to t he g round s ur face .

T h is

l at ter c an b e ap ar t icu lar s ource o f a rchaeo log ica l c onfus ion , s ince w ith n o p ost-ho le a s ag u ide i ti s s o met i mes e xceed ing ly d if f icu l t t o d eterm ine t he l eve l a t wh ich e rect ion t ook p lace . A s we l l a s t he b as ic g round p lan a nd methods o f c onstruct ion , i n for mat ion w i l l e ven tua l ly b e a va i lab le a bou t wood u t i l isat ion i n t he c onstruct ion o f t hese b u i ld ings .

I den t if icat ion o f s a mp les t aken f ro m e ach u pr ight me mber a nd

o f r epresen tat ive p ieces o f wat t lework w i l l d e monstrate wh ich s pec ies were ma in ly u sed , a nd may e luc ida te p references f or p ar t icu lar woods i n s pec if ic p osi t ions .

I den t if icat ion may a lso h e lp t o i so la te t he r e mnan ts o f i nd iv idua l

b u i ld ing c a mpa igns , a lthough i ti s p oss ib le t hat s evera l f avoured s pec ies were c ons idered i n terchangeab le , a nd t hat w ith in l im i ts e asy a va i lab i l ity w as t he ma in c r iter ion i n a cqu ir ing b u i ld ing mater ials .

T o d ate o n ly a l im i ted n u m-

b er o f t imber s a mp les h ave b een s tud ied b y my c o l league Dr . A . R . H a l l o f t he E nv iron men ta l Archaeo logy Un it a t York U n iver isty , who h as k ind ly a l lowed me t o r efer t o h is f ind ings h ere .

I n ag roup o f 3 24 s a mp les ( wh ich t ook a n

a verage o f f ive minutes e ach t o e xa m ine , a nd o f wh ich o n ly t hree w ere u n ident i f iab le ) t here i s ac lear p reponderance o f h aze l ( Cory lus s p .) , w i th a r ather sma l ler q uan t i ty o f o ak a nd a lso , i n d escend ing o rder o f impor tance , y et sma l ler q uan t it ies o f w i l low ( Sa l ix s p .) , a sh ( Frax inus s p .) , a lder ( A lnus s p .) a nd b irch ( Betu la s p .) ;

map le/syca more ( Acer s p .) , sweet c hestnu t ( Castanea

s at iva ) , h aw thorn/app le/pear , a spen/pop lars ( Popu lus s p .) a nd s loe/cherry/ p lu m o ccurred o n ly v ery o ccas iona l ly .

T h is s er iat ion i s s urpr is ing o n ly i n

t he sma l l n u mber o f b irch r epresen ted , f or t he impress ion g a ined o n s i te was t hat b irch was o ne o f t he woods most f requen t ly u sed . There were o n ly a f ew i nd icat ions o f h ow t imber was u sed i n t he i n terna l f urn ish ing o f t hese b u i ld ings .

One h ad r ows o f s takes r unn ing i ns ide a nd

p ara l le l t o b o th s ide wa l ls a t ad is tance f ro m t he m a ppropr iate t o t he i n terp retat ion t hat t hey r epresen ted t he u pr igh t e le men ts i n t he wat t lework r evet t ing o f e ar th-packed wa l l-benches .

T he s a me b u i ld ing h ad a l arge , mu l t i-per iod

c en tra l h ear th wh ich a t o ne p er iod h ad a c lay b ase s urpr is ing ly r eve t ted w ith h or izon ta l wooden b ea ms . A s af i na l p o in t i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat a lthough sma l l q uan t i t ies o f d aub w ere r etr ieved i n a nd a round t hese b u i ld ings n one was f ound i n s i tu a dher ing t o s urv iv ing wat t lework , a nd s o i l a na lys is o f s a mp les t aken a long t hese wa l ll ines b y J . S . R . H ood , f or mer ly o f t he Env ironmen ta l Archaeo logy L aboratory a t York Un ivers ity , f a i led t o d etect a ny t races o f d isso lved o r s em i-d isso lved d aub . Among t he l a test o f t hese wat t le b u i ld ings a re s o me wh ich i ncorporate h or izon ta l t imbers .

T he most i n terest ing u se o f s uch a h or izon ta l o ccurs

i n o ne b u i ld ing o n ly , where a n e dge-set p lank 6 cm t h ick h ad h o les a t r egu lar

2 36

F ig.

1 3.3

F ig .

Copperga te, Y ork: un it: 5 0 cm.

1 3 .4

watt le bu i ld ings c .

9 25-50 .

S ca le

C oppergate, York: s ide wa l l i n p lank-bu i lt s em ib asement, c . 9 50-1000. S ca le un i t: 1 0 cm.

2 5 cm i n terva ls i n i t s u pper s urface , i n to wh ich were s et t he s takes w h ich f or med t he u pr igh t e le men ts i n t he b u i ld ing 's r ear wa l l .

Th is p resumab ly

was a n e f for t t o p rov ide e x tra s tab i l ity a nd t o i ncrease t he b u i ld ing 's u sefu l l i fe , a nd i t may h ave b een a more r ad ica l a t te mp t t o a ch ieve t hese e nds t hat l ed t o t he a bandon men t o ft he wat t le t rad it ion i n t he d ecade 9 50-60 , a l though t wo c entur ies l a ter i t made a b r ief r e-appearance i n t he c onstruct ion o f what may h ave b een a b akery . There i s a t p resen t n o e v idence t o s ugges t t hat i t was a nyth ing b u t c o inc idence t hat t h is c hange t ook p lace a t t he t ime w hen t he l ast o f Y ork 's V ik ing k ings , E r ic B loodaxe , was e xpe l led a nd Y ork f i na l ly ( as i tt urned o ut ) i ncorporated i n to t he n ew s tate o f E ng land . T he n ew b u i ld ing s ty le was r evo lut ionary i n b o th f or m a nd f abr ic . F ort unate ly i tc an b e r econstructed u p t o ah e igh t o f 1 .8 m w ith c ons iderab le c on f idence s ince p ar t o f o ne s tructure s urv ived t o t ha t h e igh t , a nd a nother u p t o 1 .6 m . I n t hese c ases p reservat ion was h e lped b y t he f ac t t ha t when t he b u i ld ings were f ina l ly a bandoned c . 1 000 t hey were u sed a s r ubb ish d u mps f or much o rgan ic d ebr is ( i nc lud ing t he t urners ' waste , p . 2 53 ) , wh ich i t self b eca me water logged a nd f ac i l i tated t he p reserva t ion o f a d jacen t t imbers . Two r anks o ft hese b u i ld ings s tood n ear t he s treet f ron tage , o ne d irec t ly o ver t he wat t le s tructures d escr ibed a bove , t he o ther s et a f ew metres b eh ind t he m , A s w ith t he e ar l ier s tructures t he modern p ave men t p ar t ly o ver l ies t he f irst r ank , b ut s o me c o mp lete g round p lans were r ecovered f rom t he r ear r ank , w i th a n a verage s ize o f a pprox inote ly 3 x 7 m . A l though t he s tructures e xh ib i ted s evera l v ar ia t ions o n t he b as ic t ype , t he e ssen t ia ls o f a l l b u i ld ings i n t h is p hase a re i den t ica l— in f or m t hey a re c haracter ised b y h av ing f l oors s unk a pprox i mate ly 1 .5 m b e low c on temporary g round s urface , a nd t he ir f abr ic c onsists o f s ubstan t ia l o ak p lanks , u pr ights a nd , s o met i mes , f oundat ion b ea ms .

F orm a nd f abr ic were t o s o me e x ten t

i n ter-dependen t : e xper ience o f l i n ing p its w i th wat t le w ou ld h ave s hown t he b u i lders t hat i n t hese mo ist s o i ls a s em i-base men t w ith i t s s ides r evet ted i n t hat way c ou ld h ave o n ly a l im ited l i fe b efore s lu mp ing s tar ted .

A t p resen t ,

h owever , i ti s n ot c lear i ft he d es ire t o c onstruct s em i-base men ts mo t ivated t he c hange t o more s ubstan t ia l t imbers , o r whe ther i t was t h is c hange t hat s t i mu lated t he i nnovat ion i n f or m . I t was t he s unken f orm wh ich p er m it ted w hat i s p robab ly t he g rea test t echn ica l c ur ios ity i n t he s urv iv ing p ar t o f t hese b u i ld ings— t he a bsence o f a ny p egs , n a i ls o r j o in ts i n a pprox i mate ly t he ir l ower 1 .75 m. T he method o f c onstruct ion wh ich a l lowed t h is i nvo lved i n i t ia l ly t he e xcavat ion o f ar ect angu lar c ut a pprox i mate ly 1 .5 m d eep , d ef in ing t he s hape a nd p os i t ion o f t he b u i ld ing . Wi th in t h is c u t s l igh t ly d eeper t renches o r g u l l ies a long t he s ides s erved e ither t o h ouse f oundat ion b ea ms , wh ich were t hen l a id i n p os i t ion , o r a s b edd ing t renches f or v er t ica l p osts i ff oundat ion b ea ms were d ispensed w ith . T he f oundat ion b ea ms h ave a c haracter ist ic r a ised l i p a long t he e dge t hat was i nner most when t hey w ere i n p lace ; i t s f unct ion was t o p reven t t he u pr igh ts r est ing o n i tf ro m mov ing i nwards u nder p ressure a nd s l ipp ing o f f t he b ea m . T he l ong wa l ls s o met i mes h ad a s ing le b ea m measur ing 7 m x 2 0 cm x 1 0 cm p rov id ing t he f oundat ion ; o n o ther o ccas ions t wo b ut t ing h a lf-leng ths w ere u sed .

2 38

I n t he n ex t s tage o f c onstruct ion t he p lanks wh ich r eve t ted t he f aces o f t he c ut w ere p u t i n to p lace ; t hey v ar ied i n l eng th b u t c ou ld measure u p t o 4 m x4 0 cm x 5 cm ( F ig . 1 3.4 ). When f oundat ion b ea ms were u sed t he l owes t c ourse o fp lank ing r es ted o n t he m ; when t hey were n o t t he l owes t p lanks d id n o t r es t i n t he b ase o ft he b edd ing t rench a s migh t b e e xpec ted , b u t were s upp or ted a tt he h e igh t o ft he t rench 's l i p b y q u i te w ide ly s paced p egs wh ich w ere d r iven i n to t he b ank o f s o i l b eh ind t he m . S ucceed ing c ourses o f p lanks r es ted e dge u pon e dge , a nd where n ecessary a bu t ted e ach o ther l a tera l ly w i th n o a t te mp t t o j o in t he m p hys ica l ly . T he p lanks c ou ld n o t move o u twards b ecause o ft he b ank o f s o i l i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t he m . Move men t i nwards w as r es tra ined b y u pr igh t p osts o f r ec tangu lar s ect ion , o n a verage 2 0 cm w ide x 1 0 cm t h ick . T hey e i ther r ested o n t he f ounda t ion b ea ms , o ccupy ing t he s pace b e tween t he i nner l i p a nd t he h or izon ta l p lanks , o r were s et i n t he b edd ing t renches where t hey u sua l ly , b u t n o t i nvar iab ly , s tood o n sma l l s quare o r r ec tangu lar p ads o f wood . I n o n ly o ne b u i ld ing d o s uf f ic ien t u pr igh ts s urv ive t o s uggest t ha t t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly ma tched i n o ppos ing p a irs . A t t he t op o ft he t a l lest s urv iv ing u pr igh ts , a t ah e igh t o f 1 .8 m f ro m t he b u i ld ing 's f l oor l eve l , h a lflap j o in ts were c u t i n to t he ir o u ter f aces , w i th a c ircu lar p eg-ho le p ierc ing t he u pr igh t i n ac en tra l p os i t ion im med iate ly b e low . T h is i s t he o n ly e v idence f or h ow t he b u i ld ing was c ons tructed a bove g round l eve l , where c lear ly i tc ou ld n o t h ave c on t inued a s i n i t s l ower , s urv iv ing p ar ts a s t he h or izon ta l p lanks wou ld h ave c o l lapsed w i thou t a n e ar th b ank b eh ind t he m . T h is i s n o t t he t ime o r p lace t o d iscuss p oss ib le r econs truc t ions o f t he c omp le te s truc ture , o r t o d eba te t he c ruc ia l p rob le ms o f o ne s torey v ersus t wo , t he o vera l l h e igh t o f t he b u i ld ings , h ipped v ersus g ab le r oo fa nd r oo f s tructure i n g enera l . I tc an b e s a id , h owever , t hat s ince t he o b jec ts o r ig ina l ly t hough t t o b e w ooden s h ing les h ave n ow b een r eiden t if ied a s s pades ( c f . C larke a nd C ar ter 1 977 , 3 73 & f i g . 1 73 ; C arver 1 979 , 2 4 & f i g . 1 6 ) , t he r oo f i t se lf i s b e l ieved t o h ave b een o f t hatch a nd/or t ur f . A l l t he s tructura l t imbers r ecovered w ere we l l f i n ished , b ut t here a re o n ly a f ew s igns o f t oo l marks , a l l o f wh ich c ou ld h ave b een p roduced b y a n a xe . F our p r inc ipa l s t ructura l v ar ia t ions w ere e ncoun tered among t he e igh t b u i ld ings o f t h is g enera l t ype wh ich w ere e xcava ted , e ach b e ing a s upp le men t t o t he b as ic s tructure a s o u t l ined a bove . T he f i rst i s t he f abr ica t ion o f a c av i ty w a l l i n o ne o f t he f ron t r ank o fb u i ld ings b y t he a dd it ion o fa n i nner s k in o fh or izon ta l p lanks t o t he u pr igh t p osts ( F ig . 1 3 .5 ) . T he l owest o f t he t hree c ourses o f t hese p lanks , wh ich s urv ived t o at o ta l h e igh t o f 8 0 cm , r es ted o n t he b u i ld ing 's f l oor . T he s tructure i n q uest ion h ad e ven tua l ly b urned d own , a nd t he i nner s ur faces o fb o th t he i nner a nd o u ter p lanks w ere c harred , i nd ic at ing t ha t t here h ad b een f ree-c ircu lat ing o xygen i n t he c av i ty . I n t he a d jacen t b u i ld ing o n t he f ron tage w as f ound t he s econd v ar iat ion , f or wh ich t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w as a ma t o f f ine t w igs c over ing t he l a tes t f l oor l eve ls . D r . A . R . H a l l h as i den t if ied t hese t w igs a s w i l low . T he i n i t ia l impress ion w as t ha t t he t w igs l ay r andom ly , b u t c loser i nspect ion s howed t hat t o al arge e x ten t t hey l ay p ara l le l t o t he n earest w a l l . T he b est e v idence f or t he ir o r ig ina l p os i t ion a nd f unct ion c a me i n o ne c orner where a f ew s trands s tood u pr igh t a nd w ere c lear ly i n terwoven . T he c urren t i n terpret a t ion i s t hat o r ig ina l ly a l l t he t w igs w ere woven i n to s creens wh ich w ere a t tached t o t he w a l ls ( a l though i ti s n ot c lear h ow ) i n o rder t o p rov ide i nsu la t ion . 2 39

The t h ird t ene men t h ad i n i t s r ear r ank a nother s im i lar b u i ld ing ( event ua l ly b urned d own a nd r ep laced b y o ne o f t he b as ic t ype ) , d if feren t iated b y h av ing a p lank f l oor wh ich was s upported o n t hree j o is ts r unn ing d own t he l ong a x is ( F ig . 1 3.6 ).

The f l oor p lanks , whose wood h as n o t y et b een i den-

t i f ied , were c u t o u t t o f i t a round t he b ases o ft he u pr igh t p osts a nd t hus t o l i e f l ush a ga inst t he s ide wa l ls . T he v ar iat ion i n t he f our th t ene men t was i n t he l ater o f t wo s ub-phases o f s unken b u i ld ings , when t he o therw ise i nv io lab le s ing le r oo m modu le was a bandoned a nd a t wo r oo m s truc ture e rected .

T he f oundat ion b eam f or t he

p ar t it ion wa l l was n o t l i pped b u t i nstead h ad a med ial g roove , p erhaps t o h ouse p refabr icated w at t le p ane ls . I tw as i n terrup ted f or a d oorway n ear o ne e nd , t he s tandard p os it ion f or d oorways i n t he f ew b u i ld ings where t hey were r ecogn ized . Once a ga in v ery l i t t le e v idence f or wooden i n terna l f i t t ings was r ecovered . H owever , d ra inage was c lear ly a c ons iderab le p rob le m a s t he b u i ld ings s tood o n n atura l s lopes o fa pprox i mate ly 1 :2 0 l a teral ly a nd 1 :10 a x ial ly , a nd t wo c on ta ined t imberl ined d ra ins .

I n o ne i ns tance a c hanne l was f ormed b etween

t he l i p o f o ne a x ia l f ounda t ion b ea m a nd a s er ies o f e dge-set p lanks , b u t more e laborate p recaut ions were t aken i n t he o ther c ase , where a p lankl ined c hanne l , i t s s ides h e ld a par t b y c y l indr ica l p egs o r b races o f t runca ted wedge s hape , h ad a p lank c app ing wh ich p erhaps a l lowed t he d ra in t o r e ma in f unct i ona l e ven wh i le d epos i ts s tar ted t o a ccu mu late o n t he o r ig ina l f l oor l eve l . T he o n ly o ther wooden f i t t ing o f n ote was what may h ave b een a w indow s hu t ter .

Th is c ons isted o ft wo r ec tangu lar wooden s labs w i th t wo n arrow

c ross b races a t tached t o o ne s ide n ear t op a nd b ot to m b y wooden d owe ls . H ere a ga in t he c haracter ist ic r e luctance t o u se n a i ls t hat h as a lready b een n o ted i n t he b u i ld ings t he mse lves c an b e r ecogn ised . Wood a lso s erved a v ar iety o f p urposes i n t he o pen a reas b eh ind t he t wo r anks o fb u i ld ings . P ost a nd wat t le f ences s erved a s p roper ty b oundar ies , a nd a s er ies o f c urv ing d ra inage g u l l ies i n t he c en tre-rear o f t he s i te was a lso r evet ted w i th wat t lework ; t he ir f unc t ion w as t o c hanne l water a round a nother b u i ld ing o f f ive b ays r epresen ted o n ly b y p ost-ho les o r v ery d ecayed s quared t imbers .

Wat t le l i ned p i ts h ave a lready b een men t ioned ;

t hey

v ar ied g reat ly i n s ize , b u t c ou ld b e 2 .5 m d eep x 2 m x 2 m. T hey w ere u sua l ly f i l led w ith d o mest ic r ubb ish , s o me t i mes c app ing a n e ar l ier c ess d epos i t , b u t s o me may h ave b een c onstructed f or o ther p urposes i nc lud ing s torage a nd o n ly u sed f or c ess a nd r ubb ish d isposa l a t t he e nd o f t he ir u sefu l l i fe . On ly o ne b arre ll ined f eature o f 1 0th c en tury d ate h as s o f ar b een u nc overed , ap auc i ty wh ich c on trasts w ith t he f reer u se o fb arre l-l ined w e lls i n 1 2th-15th c en tury l eve ls . Even t h is s o l itary e xa mp le was r epresen ted b y o n ly a f ew d isp laced s tave f ragmen ts a nd a f ew s trands o f t he ir o r ig ina l b ind ing , b u t t h is a t l east i s o f c ons iderab le i n terest , a s i ti nc ludes au n ique c ase o f t wo s trands o fw i thy wound o ne o u ts ide t he o ther a nd f astened t ogether b y t i ny p egs .

Equa l ly u nusua l i s t he c y l indr ica l we l l-l in ing f ash ioned b y

h o l low ing o ut t he b o le o f ab lack p op lar .

2 40

F ig .

1 3 .5

Copperga te , York : c av i ty-wa l led s em i-basement, c . 9 5 0 1 0 0 0 . S c a l e u n i t : 1 0 c m . _

F ig.

1 3.6

Coppergate, York: s emi-basement w i th p lank f l oor, C . 9 50-1000. S ca le u n i t: 1 0 cm. _

C onc lus ions Th is p aper c an o n ly b e ab r ief i n troduct ion t o t he wea lth o f e v idence f or 1 0th c en tury woodworking wh ich h as b een d iscovered a t 1 6-22 C oppergate , t he s tructura l e v idence a lone h as a lready p ro mp ted a r e-in terpre ta t ion o f we l l-known p ast d iscover ies i n Y ork ( Hal l f or thco m ing ) a nd w i l l b e o f a ss ist ance t o a rchaeo log ists a t te mp t ing t o r econstruct what may b e s im i lar b u i ld ings wh ich t hey h ave e xcava ted o n d ry s i tes .

Much c onservat ion a nd

a nalyt ica l work r e ma ins t o b e d one b efore t he f u l l r esu lts c an b e p ub l ished i n t he a ppropr ia te v o lu mes o f T he Archaeo logy o f York , b u t t he v a lue o f e xcavat ing s uch wa ter logged s i tes , where t he s urv iva l o f o rgan ic r e ma ins a d justs t he b iased v iew o fa nc ien t mater ia l c u lture t o wh ich d ry s i tes w ith p oor p reservat ion h ave i nured u s , i s a lready c lear . Two g enera l methodo log ica l p o in ts r e ma in t o b e made .

F irst ly , e xper ience

a t C oppergate s uggests t hat i fas im i lar s equence e x isted o n as i te w i th d es iccated a nd t herefore much c o mpressed s trat igraphy , a nd w i th o n ly s o i l s ta ins a tb est a s e v idence ( un less q uan t i t ies o f c harred t imbers were p resen t ) , e ven t he ma in s equence o f wat t lework s tructures wou ld h ave b een d i f f icu lt t o e stab l ish , a nd t he d eta i ls o f r epeated r econstruct ions p robab ly b eyond t he most s edu lous a nd u nhurr ied e xcavator .

Th is i s n ot o f c ourse a r eason t o

s top e xcavat ing s uch s i tes —on ly a warn ing t hat t he ir i n terpreta t ion i s l i ke ly t o b e p ar t icu lar ly s i mp l ist ic . S econd ly , e ven t he p re l im inary r esu l ts o b ta ined f rom t he C oppergate s i te h ave r e-af f ir med t he v a lue o f e xcavat ing s u i tab ly l arge a reas . T he v iew t ha t i nvest igat ing f our t ene men ts i s a n u nnecessary o ver-indu lgence c an b e r ebu t ted b y c ons ider ing , f or e xa mp le , t he e v idence f or b u i ld ing t echn iques i n t he s em i-base men t p hase , where e ach t ene men t p roduced i nterest ing v ar iat i ons o n what h as p roved t o b e t he b as ic t ype . T h is i s n o t j ust a d up l ica t ion o f e v idence b ut a g ather ing o f d a ta f ro m wh ich v a luab le c ompar isons c an b e made a nd a more r e l iab le p icture o f t he t yp ica l e s tab l ished . T he v al id i ty o f t h is a pproach , a t tested h ere i n t he m icrocos m o f as tudy o f 1 0th c en tury woodwork ing , s hou ld make i t ap r ior ity i nu rban a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies i n g enera l . A cknow ledge men ts Thanks a re d ue t o a l l t hose who h ave worked h ard a nd e n thusa is lica l ly d ur ing t he e xcavat ion , p ar t icu lar ly my t wo c urren t a rea s uperv isors , D . T . Evans a nd I . G . L awton . Many o ther c o l leagues a nd a ssoc iates h ave a ss isted i n av ar iety o f ways , n ot l east s uccess ive I nspectors o f Anc ien t Mo numen ts who h ave b een f i nanc ia l ly s y mpathet ic .

Iam p ar t icu lar ly g ratefu l t o t hose

who h ave h e lped i n t he p repara t ion o f t h is p aper , e spec ia l ly J enn ifer H i l la m a nd Ru th Morgan f or d endrochrono log ica l i nfor mat ion , D r . A . R . H a l l f or t imber i den t if icat ion , J . A . S pr iggs a nd h is s taf f f or c onservat ion work , D . Twedd le a nd C . H . M . C larke f or i n for ma t ion a bou t t he o b jec ts , M . S . D uf fy f or p ho tograph ic a ss is tance a nd P . V . A ddy man , D irector o f Y ork Archaeo log ica l T rust , f or h is s uppor t t hroughou t .

2 42

REFERENCES Addy man , P . V ., 1 974.

' Excavat ions i n Y ork 1 972-1973 :

F irst I n ter im

Repor t ', An t iquar ies J ourna l , 5 4 , 2 18-224. B enson , G ., 1 902 .

' No tes o n Excava t ions a t 2 5 , 2 6 a nd 2 7 , H igh Ousegate ,

Y ork ', Annua l Report .. o f t he Yorksh ire P h i losoph ica l S oc iety , 6 4-7. C arver , M . 0 . H ., 1 979 .

' Three S axo-Nor man t ene men ts i n D urha m C i ty '

Med ieva l Archaeo logy , 2 3 , 1 -80 . C larke , H . a nd C ar ter , A ., 1 977.

Excavat ion i n K ing 's L ynn 1 963-70 ,

L ondon . H al l , R . A ., 1 980 .

' Nu m is ma t ic F inds f ro m t he Excavat ion o f V ik ing Age

York ', S eaby 's C o in & Meda l Bu l le t in , 3 71-3 . H al l , R . A ., f or thco m ing . o f Y ork

' Observat ions a t 5C oppergate ' i n The Archaeo logy

8 /1 , e d . P . V . Addy man , ( York ).

K enward , H , K ., e t a l ., 1 978 .

' The Env iron men t o f Ang lo-Scand inav ian

York ' i n V ik ing Age York a nd t he N or th , e d . R . A . H a l l , 5 8-70 , L ondon . MacGregor , A . G ., 1 978 . ' I ndustry & C o m merce i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian York ', i n V ik ing Age Y ork a nd t he Nor th , e d . R . A . H a l l , 3 7-57 , L ondon . MacGregor , A . G ., 1 982.

' Ang lo-Scand inav ian F inds f ro m L loyds B ank a nd

o ther s i tes ', i n The Archaeo logy o f York , 1 7/3 , e d . P . V . Addy man , York . P al l iser , D . M ., 1 978 .

' The med ieva l s treet-na mes o f York ', Y ork H istor ian

2 , 2 -16. P at t ison , I . R ., 1 973 .

' The N unburnho l me C ross a nd Ang lo-Dan ish S cu lpture

i n Y ork ', Archaeo log ia , 1 04 , 2 09-34 . R ad ley , J ., 1 971 .

' Econo m ic Aspects o f Ang lo-Dan ish York ', Med ieva l

Archaeo logy 1 5 , 3 7-57. Ra m m , H ., 1 976 .

' Excavat ions i n t he Church o f S t Mary B ishoph i l l S en ior ,

York ', Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l 4 8 , 3 5-68. R ichardson , K . M ., 1 959 .

' Excavat ions i n Hungate , York ', Archaeo log ica l

J ourna l , 1 16 , 5 1-114 . Sm ith , A . H ., 1 937 .

The P lace-Na mes o f t he E ast R id ing o f Y orksh ire a nd

York , L ondon . S tead , I . M . L ., 1 958 . ' Excavat ions a t t he s ou th c orner t ower o f t he Ro man f or tress o f Y ork , 1 956 ', Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , 3 9 , 5 15-38 . S tead , I . M . L ., 1 968 .

' An e xcavat ion a t K ing 's S quare , York , 1 957 ',

Y orksh ire Archaeolog ical J ourna l 4 2, 1 51-64. Webster , L . E . &C herry , J ., 1 972 .

' Med ieva l Br i ta in i n 1 971 ', Med ieva l

Archaeo logy 1 6 , 1 47-212 . Wenha m , L . P ., 1 968 .

' D iscover ies i n K ing 's S quare , York , 1 963 ',

Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , 4 2 , 1 65-8 .

2 43

'

Wenha m , L . P ., 1 972 .

' Excavat ion i n L ow P etergate , Y ork , 1 957-58 ',

Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , 4 4 , 6 5-113 . Wi lson , D . M ., 1 968 .

' Ang lo-Saxon C arpen ters ' T oo ls ', i n S tud ien z ur

E uropä ischen V or- u nd F rühgesch ichte , e ds . M . C laus , W. H aarnage l &K . Raddatz , 1 43-50 , N eu munster .

2 44

1 4 ,

ASPECTS OF ANGLO-SAXON

AND ANGLO-SCAND INAV IAN LATHE-TURN ING C aro le Morr is

S um mary I n t he A ng lo-Saxon p er iod , t he u se o f wooden u tens i ls s uch a s b ow ls a nd c ups f or t he p reparat ion a nd c onsu mp t ion o f f ood was c o mp lemen tary t o t hat o fp o t tery .

C ircu lar wooden v esse ls , a s we l l a s

h and les a nd f urn iture c omponen ts e tc ., were manufactured o n a r ec iprocat ing p o le-la the b y as pec ia l ist woodworker , t he l athet urner . T he t echn iques o f S axon l a the-turn ing d if fered v ast ly f rom modern o nes , a nd v ar ious t ypes o fa rchaeo log ica l e v idence a re n ow e nab l ing t he a uthor t o make f a ir ly a ccurate r econstruc t ions o f manuf actur ing t echn iques a nd p roducts . S uch e v idence i nc ludes f i n ished a nd u n f in ished o b jects , b roken a nd r epa ired o b jects , s hav ings , w aste i n t he f orm o f " cores", " bases", a nd d iscarded p ieces o f waste , a nd t he l a the-turn ing t oo ls t he mse lves .

T hroughou t t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod i n B r i ta in wooden u tens i ls s uch a s b ow ls , d ishes , c ups a nd p la t ters w ere u sed d o mest ica l ly f or t he p reparat ion a nd c onsu mp t ion o f f ood . T hese c ircu lar wooden v esse ls w ere a l most c ert a in ly manufac tured o n ar ec iproca t ing p o lelathe , ( no t ar o tary l a the ) b y a s pecial is t woodworker , t he l a the-turner , who a lso t urned o b jects s uch a s h and les , f urn iture c o mponen ts e tc . A l though t he t urn ing o f d omest ic v esse ls o n al a the was a c raf t p ract ised f rom t he p agan p er iod i n t he 4 th t o 7 th c ent ur ies A .D ., most a rchaeolog ica l e v idence h as c o me f ro m t he l a te S axon p er iod , a nd e spec ia l ly f ro m t he w ater logged Ang lo-Scand inav ian l eve ls i n Y ork , R ecen t e xcavat ion b y J ohn B arber o n t he i s land o f I ona h as p roduced ab ody o f e v idence f or t he manufacture o f l a the-turned v esse ls i n t he 7 th c en tury ,1b ut o n a much sma l ler s ca le , a nd i n ad i f feren t s oc ia l c on tex t t o t hat f rom Y ork .

Iam a lso i n t he p rocess o f r eassess ing a t h ird s ubs tan t ia l

b ody o f e v idence f or D ark Age l a the-turn ing f rom t he 9 th/10th c en tury I r ish r ath a t L issue i n C o . An tr im . The most impor tan t t h ing t o r ea l ise f rom t he o u tset i s t hat t he t echn iques o f S axon l a the-turn ing d i f fered v ast ly f rom modern o nes , a nd s o we h ave t o r e ly o n t he i n for mat ion g leaned f rom a rchaeo log ica l e v idence t o r econstruct t he l eve ls o f s k i l l a t ta ined b y t he S axon c raf ts man . V ar ious t ypes o fp ure ly a rchaeo log ica l e v idence h ave e nab led me t o make f a ir ly a ccurate r econstruc t ions o f manufactur ing t echn iques a nd p roducts . T h is e v idence , c omb ined w ith l eng thy d iscuss ions a nd p ract ica l w ork w ith t he f ew r e ma in ing s k i l led t urners who c an s t i l l u se a p o le-lathe , i s ap owerfu l 2 45

A

F ig.

1 4.1

A . D iagrammatic r econstruction o f a S axon p o lelathe. The l abe lLed c omponent p arts A -F a re d escr ibed i n t he t ext. B . Reconstruct ion o f ap o lelathe w ith a r atchett ype t oo l r est s upport a nd a c on jectura l b ack r est.

2 46

s ource o f i n forma t ion .

2

T he s or ts o f mater ia l wh ich a re r e levan t t o t he

s tudy o f l a the-turn ing i nc lude u n f in ished a nd f i n ished p roduc ts , b roken a nd r epa ired o b jects , s hav ings , w aste i n t he f orm o f "c ores", " bases", a nd d iscarded p ieces o f was te , a nd t he l a the-turn ing t oo ls t he mse lves .

I n t h is

p aper Ia im t o d escr ibe a nd e xp la in t he b as ic t echn iques i nvo lved i n S axon l athe-turn ing , a nd a lso t o s how s ome e xa mp les o f t he g row ing b ody o f a rch- . a eo log ica l e v idence .

T he s a me t echn iques w ere u sed t hroughout t he Med ieva l

p er iod , w ith l i t t le mod if icat ion , u n t i l t he i n troduct ion o f mo tor-dr iven a nd r o tary l athes . Ap o lela the i s c onstructed f rom s evera l d if feren t p arts wh ich c an b e f i xed t ogether a nd a lso t aken a par t a ga in . T he i nd iv idua l p ieces a re n ear ly a l l made o f wood , a nd a par t f ro m o ne p oss ib i l ity wh ich Is ha l l men t ion b e low , n o p ar ts o f a n a ctua l l a the h ave y e t b een d iscovered t hat a re f rom t he S axon o r Med ieva l p er iod i n t he B r it ish I s les .

My r econstruct ion o f t he a ctua l

f orm o f t he l a the , F ig . 1 4.1a , t herefore , i s o n ly t heoret ica l , a l though t he v ar ious p ar ts i n g enera l a re a l l n ecessary , a nd s im i lar f o lk e xa mp les s t i l l e x ist , f or e xa mp le i n t he We lsh a nd I r ish N at iona l F o lk Museu ms . I n t he d iagra m o f ap o lela the ( F ig . 1 4 .1a ) t he b ed A i s made o f t wo h or izon ta l p lanks o f wood f i xed t o t wo h eavy u pr igh ts wh ich must b e s o l id a nd f i rm .

T he s tocks B , a re a lso s o l id u pr ights wh ich c an b e f i xed i n to

t he b ed b y w edges , a nd a t l east o ne o f t he m must b e a d jus tab le . Ci s ap o le wh ich b as ica l ly a cts a s ad r ive s haf t .

T he mandre l

I n "modern " l a the-turn ing ,

t he r e moveab le p iece o ft he mandre l i s of ten c a l led a c huck .

T here a re t hree

e ssen t ia l p roper t ies o f ap o le-lathe . T he f i rst i nvo lves t wo p o in ts t o h o ld t he work a t b o th e nds . I n v esse l t urn ing , t hese a re r eferred t o a s t he s pur c en tre D a t t he b ase o f t he v esse l , a nd t he c up c entre E a t t he o pen e nd o ft he v esse l .

One o f t hese p o in ts must b e f i rm ly f i xed t o t he mandre l t o r ece ive

t he d r ive wh ich i s p rov ided b y ar ope o r t hong F ; t he o ther p o in t i s r o tated u pon . I n ap o lelathe t he r ope i s f i xed a t t he t op t o as pr ing p o le s uppor ted b y af u lcru m , a nd a t t he o ther e nd t o s o me f orm o f s i mp le t read le .

T h is

means o f r ec iprocat ing t he work o n t he t wo p o in ts i s t he s econd e ssen t ia l t h ing . T he t h ird i s ar est o n wh ich t o s uppor t t he c u t t ing t oo l . T he t oo lrest , t he p o le a nd t he t read le a re n o t s hown i n F ig . 1 4 .1a . T he u se o f as pr ingy p o le f or mot ive p ower p robab ly o r ig inated i n t he p ract ice o f t urn ing o b jects i n wood land where t he t imber c ou ld b e c u t d own , p repared a nd worked o n al a the wh ich c ou ld h ave b een t ranspor ted a nd a sse mb led u nder a s pr ingy s ap l ing i n s i tu .

T urn ing i n t h is way w as s t i l l

c arr ied o u t i n B r i ta in i n t he 1 930 's ( Woods 1 935 ) , a nd s o me b odgers were s t i l l work ing i n B uck ingha msh ire u n t i l t he e ar ly 1 950s . I n t he Med ieva l p er iod l i censes w ere i ssued i n c our ts t o woodturners t o g o i n to f orests , make wooden v esse ls a nd t hen s e l l t he m i n t he n e ighbourhood . F or e xa mp le , i n C la morgan i n t he E ar ly 1 3th c en tury , " Turners make d isc i ( d ishes ) i n t he f orest b etween T af f a nd C ynon .

i s 8 d f rom men mak ing wodeway ( Woodwork )

t here" .3 I ti s q u ite l ike ly t hat S axon t urners a lso worked i n woods a nd f orests , a s w e l l a s i n workshops s uch a s t hose i n u rban c en tres l ike Y ork . T he d iagra ms i n *F ig . 1 4.2a s how t he s tages o f p reparat ion i nvo lved f rom t he c ut t ing d own o f at ree t o t he p repared r oughou t v esse l wh ich c ou ld b e f i xed

2 47

2 A

F ig.

1 4.2

A . S tages i n t he p reparat ion o f a r oughout b ow l : c hopp ing d own t he t ree; c utt ing a s u i tab le l ength o f t runk; quarter ing ( or h a lv ing); r emova l o f unwanted p ieces; a nd f inished r oughout r eady t o g o o n t he mandre l. B . S tages i n t he t urning o f ab ow l : r oughout o n t he mandre l; e xter ior t urned; wood c ut f rom t he i nter ior; f in ished b ow l w i th c ore i n s i tu; c ore a nd mandre l r emoved; a nd f inished b ow l.

2 48

t o t he l a the .

T he s ect ion o f t he t ree t runk was u sua l ly q uar tered , b ut s o me-

t imes h a lved , d epend ing o n t he s ize o f t he t ree .

T h is c an b e a scer ta ined b y

e xa m in ing t he p at tern o ft he g ra in a nd t he r ings o f f i n ished b ow ls .

S omet i mes

h ear twood may h ave b een r e moved . N ear ly a lways , t he b ase o f t he v essel wou ld b e t owards t he o uts ide o r s apwood o f t he t ree , a nd t he r oughout was p repared i n t h is d irect ion . T h is t echn ique i s ap ract ica l o ne , a s i tr educes t he l ike l ihood o f t he wood warp ing a f ter i th as b een t urned a nd s p l it t ing t he b ow l .

'

I f ab ow l was t urned g reen , a nd t he b ase was a t t he h ear twood , t he

l ike l ihood o f warpage a f ter t urn ing wou ld h ave b een g reater .

I f ab ow l

d isp lays c oncen tr ic r ings o r o va ls a s o ne l ooks i ns ide i t , i th as b een t urned w ith t he b ase a t t he h eartwood , b u t p robab ly when t he wood was s easoned , i n o rder t o r educe t he l i ke l ihood o f warpage a nd s p l it t ing .

W ith p ar t icu lar

s pec ies o f wood , f or e xa mp le a sh , when a b ow l i s t urned w i th t he b ase a t t he s apwood , av ery a t tract ive g ra in p at tern c an b e a ch ieved . Ap a ir o f c o mpasses wou ld h ave b een a v ery u sefu l t oo l f or t he t urner a tt he r ough ing o u t s tage , t o h e lp p rov ide a n a pprox i mate ly c ircu lar r oughou t , a nd t hus r educe p rob le ms i n c en tre ing t he r oughou t o n t he l a the . N o S axon r oughou ts h ave y et b een f ound i n B r i ta in , a lthough a f ew h ave b een r ecovered f ro m c on te mporary I r ish c rannogs a nd a lso i n u ndated c on tex ts i n I r ish b ogs .

I n t he l a t ter c ase , i ti s q u ite u sua l t o f i nd many r oughouts

t ogether t ha t h ave b een p repared f rom t he s a me t ree t runk , a nd a re t herefore g raded i n s ize . L agore c rannog i n C o . Meath , I re land , p roduced t hree 9 th t o 1 0th c en tury r oughou ts f or b ow ls , o ne o f wh ich h ad a h o le i n t he b ase i n to wh ich t he l a the mandre l wou ld h ave f i t ted .

( Hencken 1 950 , 1 56-157 , f i g . 7 7a )

T he s a me s i te p roduced s ix w aste " cores", ( s ee b e low ) wh ich w ere i den t if ied i n t he r epor ts a s " knobs". S o me D ark Age s i tes h ave p roduced e v idence t ha t t urners s omet i mes p repared r oughou ts a s tage f ur ther t han t hat s hown i n t he l ast d iagra m o f F ig . 1 4 .2a , b efore f i x ing t he m o n t he l a the .

P ar t o f t he " ins ide" o f t he

b ow l i n t hese c ases w as c u t o u t w ith a c h ise l o r h and-adze , l eav ing a r ough u pstand ing c ore i n t he m idd le .

T h is t echn ique wou ld mean t ha t t he t urner

h ad l ess wood t o c u t f ro m t he i ns ide o f t he b ow l when i t was o n t he l a the , t hus mak ing i t more p rac t ica l . F our e xa mp les o f o b jects a t t h is s tage o f r ough ing o u t c a me f ro m t he t erp a t P addepoe l , n ear G ron ingen i n H o l land ( Van E s 1 968 , p l . V -V I I I ) wh i lst s im i lar r oughouts w ith b o th t he ir i ns ides a nd b ases r ough ly s haped b y h and b efore t urn ing , c a me f ro m t he c on t inen ta l s i te o f F eddersen W ierde ( Haarnage l 1 958 , f i g . 4 ) . F ig . 1 4 .2b s hows t he s tages i n t he t urn ing o f ab ow l f ro m t he r oughout t o t he f i n ished v esse l . T he f i rst v iew s hows a r oughout f ixed o n to a l a the mandre l . I n t h is c ase t he c up c entre i s f i rm ly f i xed wh i lst t he s pur c en tre i s n o t , a nd t he work c ou ld r o tate o n t he s pur c en tre a t tach men t . T he o uts ide o f t he b ow l wou ld b e t urned i n t he n ex t s tage , a nd o n ly t hen wou ld t he t urner s tar t t o c ut away t he wood f ro m t he i ns ide o f t he b ow l .

T h is wou ld p reven t

p re mature b reakage o f t he " core", l ead ing t o t he t urner d iscard ing t he v esse l b ecause t he o u ts ide w as u n f in ished . U p u n t i l s tage C , t he wood w as p robab ly g reen , I th as a lways b een c ons idered e ssen t ia l , w ith a p o lela the , t o d o t he i n it ia l s hap ing w h i lst t he wood i s s t i l l g reen , t hen t o r e move i tf ro m t he l a the , d ry i to ut f or a c er ta in l eng th o f t ime , t hen r e moun t i ta nd c o mp lete t he

2 49

3A

3

3

7

F ig.

1 4 .3

8

A . F ive t ypes o f c up c entre a ttachment u sed w i th S axon p o lela thes. 1—meta l p late, 2—meta l p o int, 3—mandre l h o le, 4—bar a nd s p ike, 5—mu lt ip le p in. B . N ine f orms o f l a the-turned c ore wh ich h ave b een f ound i n S axon c ontexts. 1—curved c on ica l, 2—con ica l, 3—cy l indr ica l, 4—cy l indr ica l &c on ica l, 5—S-shaped, 6—truncated c urved c on ica l, 7—truncated c on ica l; 8—trunca ted S -shaped, 9— irregu lar .

2 50

f in ish ing o f f p rocess .

Wood t urns b est when i ti s g reen b ecause i ti s mo ist

a nd e as ier t o c ut o u t w ith a l a the-turn ing t oo l .

When t urn ing t he i ns ide o f

t he b ow l , t he t urner n eeded t o l eave a n u pstand ing c ore o f wood t o s usta in h is work u nt i l a l l t he n ecessary wood h ad b een c ut away . T he c ore w as t hen c u t o r b roken f ro m t he i ns ide o f t he b ow l , t aken o f f t he mandre l a nd d iscarded a s waste . T he i ns ide o ft he b ow l wou ld t hen b e c leaned a nd smoo thed d own , a nd t he b ase a lso f i n ished o f f .

I n t he p ast , w aste c ores f ro m l a the-turn ing •

h ave b een i den t if ied a s b ungs , k nobs , s p inn ing t ops , *g am ing p ieces e tc . T he d raw ings i n t h is p aper s hou ld h e lp f u ture e xcavators t o b e a b le , a t l east i n p ar t , t o i den t ify t hese o b jects a s t he w aste p roducts o f l a the-turn ing . S o me waste c ores h ave a " foo t " ,o r s l igh t u pward c urvature o f t he w ood where i th as b een b roken f ro m t he b ow l . T h is " foo t" i s u sua l ly c aused b y t he r es istance o f t he wood when t he c ore b ase i s s t i l l q u ite w ide , I ft he t urner l e f t ac ore i n ab ow l , a nd t he c ore h ad a w ide b ase , h e s tood l ess o f ar isk t hat t he c ore wou ld b reak b efore h is w ork was c o mp le ted .

H owever ,

t here w as a g reater t endency f or t he c ore t o r e ta in a " foo t" when i t was b roken o u t o f t he b ow l , a nd t o l eave a c orrespond ing ly d eeper s car i n t he b ow l . T here were f i ve d if feren t t ypes o f c en tre a t tach men t u sed b o th a s as pur c en tre a nd a s ac up c en tre b y t he Ang lo-Saxon woodturner , a s a re s hown i n F ig . 1 4 .3a . S o me o f t hese t ypes a re f ound o n ly o n o ne s i te ; f or e xa mp le , t he b ar a nd s p ike t ype i s o n ly i n e v idence o n t he e ar ly 7 th c en tury c ores f ro m I ona , a s ac up c en tre .

T he t ype wh ich i nvo lves t he mandre l i t se lf

b e ing i nser ted i n to a h o le a ugered o r c arved i n to t he r oughout b ow l c en tre o r b ase i s b y f ar t he c o m monest .

S o me o f t he V ik ing Age c ores f ro m Ang lo-

S cand inav ian Y ork , t he 6 th c entury c ore f rom O de l l , B edfordsh ire , ( Morr is f or thco m ing ) , o ne o f t he l a te S axon c ores f rom P or tchester C ast le ( Cun l if fe 1 976 , p l . XXa ) , t he c ores f ro m M i lk S treet , L ondon ,4 a nd N orw ich ,5 a nd c ores f ro m t he V ik ing Age t own o f H a ithabu i n G er many , ( Sch ietze l 1 970 , f ig . 3 ) a re a l l e xa mp les w i th mandre l-ho le c up c en tres .

Ano ther t ype

c en tre i nvo lves mu l t ip le meta l p ins o n t he e nd o f t he mandre l .

o f

T he e v idence

f or t he s econd c o m monest t ype o f c en tre s urv ives i n t he f orm o f s ha l low V -sec t ioned h o les o r n o tches c aused b y ac on ica l o r p o in ted me ta l s p ike o n wh ich t he work c ou ld r evo lve , S ome c ores f rom Y ork , f or e xa mp le t he b ow l c ore a nd c up c ore i n F ig . 1 4 .4 , a nd o thers f rom t he V ik ing Age t own o f D ub l in , f ro m L agore c rannog ( Hencken 1 950 , f ig . 8 4 ) , a nd f ro m C ork ( see H ur ley , P aper 1 6 i n t h is v o lu me ) , a re e xa mp les w ith c on ica l p o in t t ype c up c en tres .

T he u n f in ished b ow l f ro m Y ork i n F ig . 1 4 .5a h ad a c on ica l p o in t

t ype o f s pur c en tre a t t he b ase o f t he v esse l .

T he c ore f rom Ang lo-Scand inav ian

Y ork i n F ig . 1 4.4 w ith t wo p ara l le l s l i ts a t t he c up c en tre p rov ides e v idence f or t he l ast t ype o f c en tre a t tach men t . T h is emp loyed t wo me ta l p lates o r b ars a t t he e nd o f t he mandre l wh ich c ou ld b e h a m mered i n to t he b ow l c en tre. S o me o f t he c en tre a t tach men ts s t i l l u sed o n t he p o le-lathe a t t he We lsh N at iona l F o lk Museu m emp ly t hree meta l p la tes , a nd s o me o f t he e ar ly 7 th c entury c ores f ro m I ona h ave e v idence f or a o ne-p late t ype o f c en tre a t tachmen t . F ro m t he s tudy o f o ver t h irty e xa mp les o f t h is t ype o f c en tre f ro m Y ork , wh ich h ave b een f ound o n t he s a me s i te , Ih ave b een a b le t o s how t hat n o t o ne , b ut many d if feren t i nd iv idua l c en tre a t tach men ts h ad b een u sed ,

2 51

4A

1

2

CM

4B

CM

F ig .

1 4.4

5

1 0

1 5

2 0

A . L athe-turned c ores f rom York, 1 -3; Ode l l, 4( af ter Morr is, f orthcoming);Norw ich, 5 . B . Ra tchet-type t oo l r es t f rom Coppergate, York.

2 52

p robab ly o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime .

The me ta l p la te t ype o f c en tre a t tach-

men t a nd t he c on ica l p o in t t ype a re t he c o mmonest t ypes u sed t o s usta in t he work a t t he b ase o f S axon v esse ls . Whereas t he mark l ef t b y t he c up c en tre i s r e moved f rom t he f i n ished b ow l b y t hrow ing away t he c ore , t he mark l e f t o n t he b ase h as t o b e r e moved b y c ut t ing away a p or t ion o f t he b ase .

P ieces

o f l a the waste i n t he f orm o f t h in d iscs o f wood w ith c en tre marks h ave b een f ound a t Y ork , a nd s ee m t o r epresen t t he wood c ut away f rom t he b ases o f

"

v esse ls i n t he f i n ish ing o f fp rocess . Archaeo log ica l e v idence h as s hown t hat t here w ere d if feren t f orms o f l a the-turned c ore , a nd s o f ar Ih ave b een a b le t o d ist ingu ish n ine f or ms , a s s hown i n F ig l 1 4 .3b .

T hese a re t he c urved c on ica l , t he c on ica l , t he s -curved ,

t he c y l indr ica l c on ica l , t he c y l indr ica l , t he t runcated c on ica l , t he t runcated c urved c on ica l , t he t runcated s -curved a nd t he i rregu lar .

T he t runcated

f or ms r esu lt f rom e i ther t he p re mature b reakage o f ac ore b efore t he v esse l was c omp leted , o r more l i ke ly t he d e l iberate r e mova l b y t he t urner when t he b o t to m o f t he c ore w as s t i l l q u ite w ide .

T he t runcated f orms t end t o h ave

a" foo t " much more o f ten t han t he n on-truncated f orms . T he t urner wou ld h ave c leaned o ut t he r est o f t he u ps tand ing wood i ns ide t he b ow l w ithout t he l athe .

T he u n f in ished b ow l f rom Y ork s hown i n F ig . 1 4 .5a s t i l l h as a r ough

d isc o f wood t ha t h as n o t b een c leaned o u t . T he c ores i l lustra ted i n F ig . 1 4 .4 s how a ctua l a rchaeo log ica l e xa mp les a nd t he r ange o f s o me o f t he c en tre a t tachmen ts a nd c ore f orms u sed .

I t

must b e s tressed t hat a s y et , Ih ave n ot b een a b le t o make a ny c orre lat ion b etween t he f orms o f c ores a nd e i ther t echn iques u sed o r v esse l t ypes . T he c ore f ro m O de l l i s t he e ar l iest S axon l athe-turned c ore wh ich s urv ives ( Morr is f or thco m ing ) . I t was f ound i n a n e ar ly- m id S axon we l l , wh ich w a ,s d ated b y d endrochrono logy a nd r ad iocarbon t o a bout t he 5 80s A .D . I ti s p oss ib le t hat t he c ore b roke when t he mandre l was r e moved . T h is wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een q u ite a c o m mon o ccurence a s af ew c ores f rom Y ork , a nd t he M i lk S tree t , L ondon a nd N orw ich a nd P or tchester c ores e tc ., h ave t he s a me s or t o f b reak , a nd a l l t he c ores i nvo lved h ave h ad t he mandre l f i xed i n to a h o le i n t he c up c en tre . A lthough d oub ts h ave b een c ast o n t he e f f ic iency o f a mandre l i nser ted i n to t he h o le a t t he c up o r s pur c en tre t o r e ma in f i rm ly f i xed , b o th my own e xper i men ta l t urn ing o n ap o le-lathe , u s ing t h is method , a nd t he e v idence o f t ye t ype o fb reakages wh ich o ccur o n t h is t ype o f c ore s ugges t t ha t t he mandrel d id r e ma in v ery f i rm ly f i xed i n a n a ugered h o le .

One o f t he f our c ores f ro m

a we l l a t P or tchester C ast le ( Cun l if fe 1 976 , p l . ) 0 (a ) , was S -curved i n f orm , wh i lst t he o ther t hree w ere t h in a nd c on ica l .

I n t he c ase o f t he f or mer , t he

c up c en tre h o le w as a l most s quare , a nd s uggests t hat t he e nd o f t he mandre l h ad b een c arved s quare t o f i t t he h o le . T he we l l i t se lf was d ated mid 6 th t o 8 th c en tury b y C un l if fe , b u t t he c ores may d ate f rom a s l ight ly l a ter p er iod . F ig . 1 4 .5a i s a n u n f in ished b ow l f ro m Y ork , wh ich s hows t ha t a lthough t he o u ts ide h ad b een f i n ished , a nd t he c ore r e moved , t he i ns ide h ad n ot b een c leaned o ut , a nd t he b asa l w aste h ad n o t y e t b een c u t o f f . Av ery s im i lar u n f in ished b ow l s hown i n F ig . 1 4 .5b c a me f rom a l a te 1 4th c en tury manor h ouse i n B uck ingha msh ire ( S ta mper f or thco m ing , f i g . 1 1 ,3 ). A l though t he i ns ide h ad b een c leaned o ut , t he b asa l waste h ad n o t b een r e moved . T he a pparen t s im i lar ity o f t hese t wo u n f in ished b ow ls s ee ms t o s uggest a c er ta in c onservat is m

2 53

in the methods and techniques used in lathe-turning from the Saxon to the Medieval period. Certain species of wood are more suitable for turning that others. Oak (Quercus sp.) for example, is not a very good turning wood at all, and if worked green, it has a tendency to shatter and break very easily. Oak can be turned when seasoned, but with difficulty on a pole-lathe because of its hardness. The Odell core is oak, but it is the only core from either the Saxon or Medieval period of this species. The fact that the Odell core is very early, as well as of oak, suggests that the Anglo-Saxon turner had a much greater degree of sldll than had hitherto been imagined. Good turning woods, and those used for the majority of Saxon and Anglo-Scandinavian vessels as shown by the cores and the vessels themselves, are field maple (Acer campestre), alder (Alnus sp.) and ash (Fraxinus sp.), although yew (Taxus sp.) and boxwood (Buxus sp.) vessels have also been found, and one small core from York was Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Although yew is an excellent turning wood and was used extensively in Early Christian Ireland for malting both turned and stave built vessels, it is surprising that the two Saxon, yew, turned vessels are drinking cups, one from York (Graham­ Campbell 1980, pl. 452), and one from W inchester (W inchester Studies forthcoming fig. 126, 3390). Only the leaves and berries of the yew tree are poisonous to man, but a liquid drunk from a yew vessel would be likely to have an altered, if not unpleasant taste. The tools used by the Saxon lathe-turner were probably not dramatically different to those used to-day. They were gouges and chisels and hook-ended irons such as those used last century by the Borrisokane lathe-turner in Ireland, and published in 1940 (0 R1ordain 1940). A possible hook-ended lathe-turner's tool was discovered at Portchester Castle, but not identified as such (Cunliffe 1976, fig. 135, 41). A type of chisel/gouge with a long tang to fit into a wooden handle, and a guard where the handle ended are probably lathe-turner's tools and illustrated in Fig. 14. 5c. The one from Southampton is Saxon, (Addyman & Hill, 1969, fig. 24, 12), the ones from Colchester and Northampton are unfortunately undated.6 The asymmetric pattern of wear on one side of the blade edge of the Southampton and Northampton examples suggests that they were used for lathe-turning rather than as mortising chisels, and it would seem likely that the Colchester gouge is of the same type. These chisels would have been used for spindle-turning rather than face-turning, (see below) because in the latter there would be a great tendency for the chisel to catch up in the end grain of the wood. However, even in spindle-turning the lathe-turner would have needed great skill when using a pole-lathe, because a flat chisel tends to "Id.ck back" due to the power not being very great, and also not being continuous in one direction. The tool normally referred to as a spoon bit could, in some cases, have been used as a turner's gouge rather than as an auger. The spoon bits illustrated in Macgregor 1978, fig. 26, and in Wilson 1976, fig. 6. 2 repre_sent the ldnd of tool which could have been used by a lathe-turner, although as yet I am not certain about any individual one. If they were turner's gouges instead of augers they-would originally have had longitudinal instead of transverse handles. Lathe-turner's gouges, whether resembling spoon bits or of the open-ended type, are characterised even today by very long, thick, solid wooden handles. 254

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When woodworking tools of the chisel/gouge variety are found in an archaeolo­ gical context with wooden handles intact, one needs to note the size of the handle if they are to be considered as lathe-turning tools. As yet, no lathe­ turning tools of either the Saxon or Medieval period have been found complete with their handles. The most important property of a lathe-turning tool is its razor-sharpness, and this would be especially true when used with a pole-lathe without constant

rotary motion. One of the objects probably constantly used by a Saxon turner, but obviously not identifiable as specialised rather than domestic in an arch­ aeological context, would be a whetstone.

At this point it would be useful to consider some finished products. The archaeological evidence in the early Saxon period is mostly confined to car­ bonised fragments. For example, two fragments of maple bowls were found in a 6th century grubenhaus at Swindon, 7 and fragments of a wooden bowl were found in grave 200 at the Saxon cemetery at Morningthorpe in Norfolk. 8 Metal rim mounts and repair clips from lathe-turned vessels also survive. Quite a few metal mounts from globular wooden vessels of the late 6th and early 7th century have been found in Saxon graves, and in some cases frag­ ments of wood still survive. For example, globular cups were found in the 18 th century in graves at Sibertswold and Chartham in Kent (Faussett 1856, 113; pl. XVI, 7). Others were found in the graves at Taplow, Faversham and Broomfield. (British Museum 1923, fig. 72; fig. 43). Six maplewood (Acer sp.) globular cups were found in the ship burial at Sutton Hoo, along with at least six unturned walnut (Juglens regia) burrwood bottles (Bruce­Mitford 1979, fig. 72; fig. 57-59). A bronze rim mount and fragments of wood for a large globular wooden bowl were found in a male grave at the Saxon cemetery at Westgarth Gardens, near Bury St. Edmunds. 9 The turning of globular vessels with narrow mouths is a very diffi.cult technique, but it is practical on a polelathe where the speed of the reciprocal motion can be carefully controlled. Hook-ended irons would be needed to turn globular vessels, and the turner would be able to position his tool inside the vessel and increase the power and speed of the lathe as slowly or as quickly as was necessary. It would be extremely difficult to turn globular vessels of this kind on a motor-driven rotary lathe if two centres were used. One of the advantages of a pole-lathe over a modern rotary lathe is that in the latter, the whole surface has to be cut because of the constant motion in one direction. A pole-lathe turner, however, can control the motion so that only part of the circumference is cut, and a projection may be left where desired. An 11th century bowl from Winchester was possibly made in this way (W inchester Studies forthcoming, fig. 126, 338 4). It was made of alder, and had two horizontal flange handles on opposite sides of the bowl, just below the rim. The commonest type of lathe-turned vessel was the wide-mouthed bowl, although drinking cups have also been found, including those from York and Winchester discussed above, and one of alder from Gloucester (Morris 1979, fig. 17, 18 ). Although bowls were often of different shapes and sizes, depen­ ding on the techniques used and the size of the tree trunk, the average size of Saxon bowls was between about fifteen to twenty centimetres in diameter. 256

Turned wooden v esse ls a ppear t o c o mp le men t t he t ypes o f c on te mporary p o ttery v esse ls , r ather t han t o d up l icate t hen i n a no ther med iu m .

Whereas

b ow ls a nd c ups w ere u sed ma in ly f or f ood p reparat ion a nd c onsu mp t ion , p ot tery v esse ls s ee m t o h ave b een ma in ly p itchers f or p our ing , amphorae f or t ranspor t ing , j ars f or s tor ing a nd p ots f or c ook ing c o m mod i t ies . S axon wooden c ups , a s men t ioned a bove , a re r are ;

S urv iv ing

b ow ls , o n t he o ther h and ,

s ee m t o b e more n u merous a nd h ave b een f ound o n many s i tes , e spec ia l ly i n t he l ater p er iod .

S i tes f or t he who le p er iod i nc lude Sw indon , Morn ing-t horpe ,

Y ork , W inches ter , L ondon , G loucester , D urha m ( Carver 1 979 , f ig . 1 5 ) , Ox ford ( Hen ig 1 977 ) , S taf ford ( Rob inson 1 973 , 4 ) , S u t ton H oo , a nd T a mwor th .1 0 There i s ad ist inct d if ference i n l athe-turn ing b etween o b jects wh ich a re f ace-turned a nd t hose wh ich a re s p ind le-turned .

Mos t b ow ls a re t urned b y

t he f or mer me thod i n wh ich t he g ra in o f t he wood i s p erpend icu lar t o t he ma in a x is o f t he l a the mandre l . t urned .

H owever , s o me o b jects a re u sua l ly s p ind le-

I n t h is t echn ique , t he g ra in o f t he wood r uns p ara l le l t o t he ma in

a x is o f t he mandre l .

S p ind le-turned o b jects a re r epresen ted b y s o me c ores ,

s o me v esse ls , h and les , c ha ir legs a nd o ther f urn iture c o mponen ts , e tc .

T he

b ed , c ha ir a nd " scep tre" f ro m t he 6 th c en tury c h i ld 's b ur ia l u nder C o logne c athedra l a re a l l made u p o f s p ind le-turned c o mponen ts ( Werner 1 964 , f igs . 6 , 7& 1 0 ).

P ar t o f ac ha ir o r p iece o f f urn iture f ro m a 1 0th c entury c on tex t

i n Winchester w as s p ind le-turned i n b eech ( Fag-u s s p .) a nd g rooves were c u t a round i ta long i t s e n t ire l eng th b y ac h ise l s im i lar t o t hose men t ioned e ar l ier a nd i l lustrated i n F ig . 1 4 .5c ( W inchester S tud ies f or thcom ing , f ig . 1 31 , 3 486 ). P ieces o f l athe w aste f ro m Y ork a re t he d iscarded e nd p ieces wh ich r e ma ined a f ter o b jects h ad b een s p ind le-turned .

One p iece h ad b egun l i fe a s a n o c tagona l-

s ect ioned r oughout f ro m a l arge b ranch , a nd p resu mab ly was t he e nd p iece l ef t a f ter a l arge h and le o r p iece o f f urn iture h ad b een t urned . S axon c ircu lar v esse ls a nd s p ind le-turned o b jects were o f ten d ecorated o n t he l athe i n av ar iety o f w ays .

One f or m o f d ecorat ion i nvo lved a n i nc ised

g roove o r g roups o f mu lt ip le g rooves .

Ano ther i nvo lved r a ised r e l ief b ands

f or med b y l eav ing a n u pstand ing b and o f wood b etween t wo g rooves .

T he

S taf ford b ow l i s t he o n ly e xa mp le t hat h as b een p a in ted b y a pp ly ing p ig men t , i n t h is c ase o f ar ed/purp le c o lour , i n to a n i nc ised g roove . d ated t o A .D „ 9 72 + 1 70 y ears b y r ad iocarbon d at ing .

T h is b ow l was

S axon l athe-turned

b ow ls h ave a lso b een d ecorated when r e moved f ro m t he l athe , f or e xa mp le , af rag men t o f a n Ang lo-Scand inav ian b ow l o r c up f ro m P ave men t , Y ork , w as i nc ised w ith a n i n ter lace p at tern i n r e l ief ( MacGregor 1 978 , f ig . 3 3 ,4 ) .

I n

t he e ar ly S axon p er iod , t he f ix ing o f p la in o r d ecorated b ronze o r s i lver moun ts t o t he r i ms o f l a the-turned c ups a nd b ow ls was q u ite c o m mon , a s d iscussed a bove . L athe-turned v esse ls , n o mat ter h ow s k i lfu l ly t urned , h ave a t endency t o e ven tua l ly c rack a nd b reak .

T here a re v ar ious e xa mp les f ro m b o th t he

e ar l ier a nd l ater p er iods o f wooden b ow ls a nd c ups w i th r epa irs .

I n e ar ly

S axon g raves , a nd c re mat ions , s ing le o r mu lt ip le b ronze r epa ir c l ips a nd b ronze o r i ron s tap les h ave b een f ound , o f ten w ith t races o f t he wooden v esse l s t i l l s urv iv ing .

I n t he l ater S axon p er iod , who le o r f rag men tary b ow ls h ave

b een f ound w i th me ta l r epa irs i n s i tu .

A 1 0th c en tury b oxwood b ow l f ro m

Winchester , ( W inchester S tud ies f or thco m ing f ig . 1 26 , 1 099 ) , h as t he r e ma ins o f f ive wh ite me ta l ( poss ib ly s i lver ) r ivets f ixed i n to t he s ide wa l l o f t he b ow l 2 57

n ear a ma jor b reak a t t he r im e dge .

T hese were p oss ib ly f ragmen ts o f

s tap les u sed t o c lose t he c rack , o r p ins u sed t o a t tach a me ta l p late wh ich i s n ow m iss ing .

S uch a b ow l made f ro m a n u nusua l a nd f igured s pec ies o f

wood wou ld b e a n i t em t hat mer i ted r epa ir . H owever , o rd inary b ow ls s ee m t o h ave b een r epa ired q u ite o f ten t oo , a s r epresen ted b y ab ow l f ro m H ungate Y ork ( Richardson 1 959 , f ig . 2 0 ) wh ich was made o f map le , h ad s p l i t i n t wo h alves , a nd was s ubsequen t ly r epaired b y t hree r ather i nelegan t i ron s tap les .

Archaeo log ica l e v idence f or t he c raf t o f l athe-turn ing h as c o me f ro m v ar ious s oc ia l c on tex ts , b ut a s y et n o a ctua l l a the-turner 's workshop h as b een p os it ive ly i den t if ied .

Most e v idence i n t he f orm o f waste a nd u n f in ished

p roducts t ends t o b e f ound i n r edepos i ted o r r efuse c on tex ts wh ich a re s econda ry t o t he o r ig ina l p lace o f manufac ture .

I ti s u nfor tunate t hat , s ince wood

i s em inen t ly r eusab le , e ven a s waste , i n t he f orm o f f ue l , a rchaeo log ists c an o n ly e ver h ope t o r ecover a mere f ract ion o f t he waste t hat mus t h ave b een p roduced b y s uch woodusing c raf ts a s l a the-turn ing . T he O de l l c ore c a me f ro m a we l l o n am id-Saxon s e t t le men t s i te . The c ores f ro m I ona g ive e v idence f or a s pec ia l ist c raf ts man i n a n e ar ly C hr ist ian monast ic c on tex t . The c ores f ro m P or tchester C ast le , ag a in , a l though o n ly d ebr is i n at imberl ined we l l , g ive e v idence f or a l athe-turner i n t he mid-late S axon s e t t le men t t here , a lbei t i n a ,s o mewhat g rander s oc ial c on tex t .

T he c ores f ro m Y ork ,

L ondon a nd Norw ich , a l l p o in t t o a no ther d i f feren t s ocia l c on tex t , i n wh ich t he l a theturners were p robab ly c raf ts men work ing i n t he ir own workshops i n a n u rban e cono my .

Is ha l l n o t a t te mp t t o d iscuss t he e cono m ic s i tuat ion o f l a the-

t urn ing i n t he Ang lo-Saxon p er iod h ere , a s t h is w i ll b e d eal t w i th a t g reater l eng th e lsewhere.

1 1

The s ing le c ores f ro m N orw ich a nd L ondon a re f ro m

s econdary d epos i ts , b u t t he l arge c o llect ion o f o ver t wo h undred l a theturned c ores , b ases a nd o ther p ieces o f l a the waste , a long w i th s havings a nd u n f in ished p roduc ts , f ro m Y ork , i nd icate c raf twork i n t he v ic in i ty o f t he t imber b ui ldings o f t he V ik ing Age i n wh ich t he waste was f ound. I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t hat i n t he l ate S axon manuscr ip t c a l led t he G erefa ,

1 2

i n wh ich t here a re l i sts o f t he many t oo ls , v esse ls a nd o ther imp le men ts wh ich ag ood r eeve s hou ld p rov ide f or t he S axon manor , a long w i th t he a ct iv i t ies a nd t asks wh ich a re c arr ied o ut o n t he manor , t here i s n o men t ion o f a ny t oo l wh ich c ou ld p oss ib ly h ave b een u sed i n l athe-turn ing , a nd l athe-turn ing i s n o t men t ioned a s a n a c t iv ity c arr ied o u t a t t he manor . T h is c ou ld s i mp ly mean t hat l athe-turn ing was c arr ied o ut away f ro m t he manor , p resu mab ly i n n earby woods , o r more l ike ly , t hat t he t urned v esse ls men t ioned i n t he l i sts w ere a cqu ired f ro m a l athe-turner who was n ot i nvo lved i n t he manor 's u sua l r out ine . F ina l ly , Iwou ld l ike t o o f fer my t heory a bou t a wooden o b ject f ro m Y ork wh ich h as b een a p uzz le o b ject s ince i t was e xcavated f ro m t he s a me s i te a s a l l t he waste p roducts o f l athe-turn ing . b roken a l lin-one p iece " hand le"

I ti s av ery s o l id a sh o b ject w ith a

a nd t hree v -shaped n o tches c u t i n to o ne

e dge , s lop ing b ack t oward t he " hand le", g iv ing i t ar atchet-l ike a ppearance . I ti s i l lustrated i n F ig . 1 4 .4b .

I ower th P eat& sd escr ip t ion o f a n o ld We lsh

p o lelathe ( Peate 1 935 , 1 2-13 ) , i nc luded t h is p assage : " Fro m o ne p uppet ( s tock ) , ap iece o f wood w i th r atchet-l ike n otches o n i t s e dge i s p laced e dgew ise a t r igh t a ng les t o t he l athe ,p ro ject ing

2 58

i n f ron t o f i ti n t he t urner 's d irect ion .

T he o ther p uppe t ( S tock )

i s f i t ted w ith a p erpend icu lar b o l t u pon wh ich t he e nd o f t he t urner 's t oo l r est f i ts l oose ly .

T he o ther e nd o f t he r est f i ts i n to t he n otched

p iece o f wood , t he s er ies o f n o tches s erv ing a s a n a d just men t f or t he r est , s ince i t s p os it ion d epends u pon t he s ize o f t he o b ject t o b e t urned". Ib e l ieve t ha t t he o b ject wh ich h as b een c a l led e very th ing f ro m p ar t o f a d ry ing r ack f or f i shnets , t o ab arre l s tand , i s i n f act p ar t o f t he s uppor t f or al athe-turner 's t oo l r est , a nd i t wou ld p robab ly h ave b een f i t ted o n to t he l athe a s s hown i n F ig . 1 4 .1b .

The c urved e nd n eed o n ly b e s uppor ted o n

s o me f i rm s urface , a nd t he b ackrest s hown i n t he r econstruct ion i n F ig . 1 4.1b i s p ure ly c on jec tura l , a l though s o me f or m o f b ackrest i s a n impor tan t p ar t o f al athe-turner 's e qu ip men t .

N o e v idence h as c o me f ro m t he S axon o r

Med ieva l p er iod f or a l athe-turner 's b ackrest .

T he b ar wh ich wou ld f or m

t he a ctua l t oo l r es t c ou ld b e moved f ur ther away f ro m o r c loser t o t he o b ject b e ing t urned , a s w as n ecessary .

T he We lsh N at iona l F o lk Museu m h as t wo

v ery o ld r atchet-type t oo l r ests wh ich a re v ery s im i lar t o t he Y ork o b ject , a nd r ecen t ly Mr J im S pr iggs b rough t t o my n ot ice s o me s im i lar t oo l r ests wh ich s urv ive f ro m f o lk c on tex ts i n Norway .

I f my t heory i s c orrect i n i t s

i n terpre tat ion o f t h is o b jec t , i tw i l l b e t he f irst p ar t o f a n a ctua l l athe t hat h as b een f ound i n e i ther a n Ang lo-Saxon o r Ang lo-Scand inav ian c on tex t i n t he Br it ish I s les . Acknow ledge men ts Iw ish t o e xpress my g rat itude t o t he e normous l i st o f p eop le , who I c annot t hank i nd iv idua l ly h ere , who h ave a l lowed me t o s tudy a nd p ub l ish t he ir wooden mater ia l i n t h is p aper .

S pec ia l t hanks g o t o my h usband , Grae me ,

who h e lped me a g reat d ea l b y p repar ing a l l my i l lustra t ions , a nd t o t he Y ork Archaeo log ica l T rust whose mater ia l f or ms a l arge p ar t o f my work o n l athet urn ing . F oo tnotes 1 . P ersona l c o m mun ica t ion f ro m t he e xcavator . 2 . Iw ish t o g ive s pecia l t hanks t o Mr . Gwyndaf Breeze , t he woodturner a t t he We lsh N at iona l F o lk Museu m , f or a l l h is a dv ice a nd p at ience wh i le Iwas work ing w ith h im . 3 . M in Acc 1 202/8 G la morgan . 4 . Unpub l ished , D epar t men t o f U rban Archaeo logy , Museu m o f L ondon . MLK 7 6 s f 2 ,60. 5 . Unpub l ished , Norfo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it , 4 21N s f 9 2 ,52 .

My t hanks

t o B r ian A yers f or p er m iss ion t o i nc lude t he i l lustrat ion o f t he c ore f ro m Wh itefr iars , N orw ich ( F ig . 1 4 .4 ). 6 . My t hanks t o N or tha mp ton a nd C o lchester museu ms f or mak ing t hese t oo ls a va i lab le t o me f or s tudy . 7 . P ersona l c o m mun icat ion f ro m Mr . Roy C anha m , W i ltsh ire C oun ty Archaeo log is t . 2 59

8 . My t hanks t o t he Norfo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it f or a l low ing me t o e xa m ine t he b ow l . 9 . P ersona l c o m mun icat ion f ro m Mr . S tan ley West , S uf fo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it . 1 0. P ersonal c o m mun icat ion P rof . Ph i l ip R ah tz , York Un ivers ity . 1 1. P h . Dt hes is i n p rogress a t t he Un ivers ity o f Ca mbr idge o n f unct iona l a nd d o mest ic wooden o b jects , woodwork ing t echn iques a nd woodwork ing t oo ls i n t he p er iod 4 00-1500 A .D . i n t he B r it ish I s les. 1 2 . C a mbr idge C orpus C hr ist i L ibrary MS CCC WOO M I f1 02 .

T he t ract

c a l led G erefa i s a n a d junct t o t he manuscr ipt " Rect itud ines S ingu laru m P ersonaru m", a pparen t ly 1 1th c en tury i n d ate . REFERENCES Addy man , P . V . & H i l l , D . H ., 1 969 . t he e v idence , p t I ;

"S axon S ou tha mpton :

ar ev iew o f

I ndustry , Trade , a nd E veryday L ife", P roc . H a mpsh ire

oc . 2 6 , 6 1-96 . , F ld . C lub Archaeo l . S Br it ish Museu m 1 923.

Ang lo-Saxon a nd F ore ign Teuton ic An t iqu it ies i n t he

D epar t men t o f Br it ish a nd Med ieval An t iqu it ies , Br it ish Museu m . Bruce- M itford , R ., 1 979 .

The S u t ton Hoo S h ip Bur ia l :

aH andbook , 3 rd

Ed it ion . C arver , M . 0 . H ., 1 979 .

" Three S axo-Nor man T ene men ts i n D urha m C ity",

Med ieval Archaeo l . 2 3 , 1 -81. C un l if fe , B .,

1 976.

Excavat ions a t P or tches ter C ast le , Vo l . I :

S axon ,

Rep . Res. C omm . S oc . An t iq . 3 3. F ausset t , B ., 1 856.

I nven tor iu m S epu lchra le :

a n Accoun t o f s o me An t iqu it ies

d ug u p a t G i lton , K ingston , S iber tswo ld , B arfr iston , Beakesbourne , Char tha m a nd Crunda le i n t he Coun ty o f K en t , A .D . 1 757-1773 , ( ed .) C . Roach Sm ith . Graha m-Ca mpbe l l , J ., 1 980. H aarnage l , W. H ., 1 958.

V ik ing Artefac ts :

aS e lect C atalogue .

"Die Ergebn isse d er Grabung a u f d er Wur t

F eddersen Wierde b e i Bre merhaven i n d en J ahren v on 1 955-1957" i n ( ed .) W. K re mer N eue Ausgrabungen i n D eutsch land , H encken , H . 0 'N , 1 950.

2 15 '- 2 28 .

"Lagore Crannong- ; a n I r ish Roya l Residence o f

t he 7 th t o 1 0th c en tur ies A . D ," Proc . Roy . I r . Acad ., 5 3c1. Hen ig , M., 1 977.

"Wood" i n B . Durha m , " Archaeo log ical I nvest igat ions a t

S t . A ldates , Oxford", Oxon iens ia 4 2 , 1 55. MacGregor , A, 1 978.

" Industry a nd C o m merce i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian York"

i n ( ed .) R . A . Ha l l , V ik ing Age York a nd t he North , C ounc . Br i t . Archaeo l . Res . Rep . 2 7 , 3 7-57. Morr is , C . A ., 1 979 .

" Wooden Ob jects" i n C . M . He ighway e t a l .

"Excavat ions a t 1 Westgate S t ., G loucester , 1 975", Med ieva l Archaeo l . 2 3 , 1 97-200.

2 60

Morr is , C . A ., f orthco m ing .

"S axon Wooden Ob jects" I n B . D ix "Exacavat ions

a t H arro ld P it , Ode l l , B edfordsh ire 1 974-8" B edfordsh ire Archaeo l . J . 1 7. Ö R fordi iin , S . P ., 1 940 .

"The p o le-lathe f ro m Borr isokane , Co . T ipperary",

J . C ork . H ist . Archaeo l. S oc . 4 5 , 2 8-32 . Peate , I . C ., 1 935.

Gu ide t o t he C o l lect ions I l lustrat ing We lsh F o lk Craf ts

a nd I ndustr ies. Rob inson , P ., 1 973.

"A Sma l l Wooden D ish o f Med ieva l D ate n ear S taf ford"

S taf fordsh ire . Archaeo l . 2 , 4 -5 . S ch ietze l , K ., 1 970 .

"Hö lzerne K lein funde a us H a ithabu ( Ausgrabung 1 963-4 )"

i n D as Arch t to log ische F und mater ia l Id er Ausgrabung Ha ithabu 1 963-1964 , B er ichte ü ber D ie Ausgrabungen i n Ha ithabu , B er icht 4 . S ta mper , P ., f or thco m ing .

I n ( ed .) Gr if f iths e t a l . R escue Excavat ion o f a

Med ieva l Manor House a t Whaddon , Bucks.

Rec . Buck ingha msh ire

2 1, 6 6-69. Van E s , W. A ., 1 968 .

"Paddepoe l ;

t he Excava t ion o f Frustrated Terps

2 00 BC-AD250" P a laeoh istor ia 1 4. Werner , J ., 1 964.

" Frank ish Roya l To mbs i n t he Cathedra ls o f Co logne a nd

S t . D en is", An t iqu ity 3 8 , 2 01-216. Wilson , D . M ., ( ed .) 1 976.

The Archaeo logy o f Ang lo-Saxon Eng land Ch . 6 ,

" Craf t a nd I ndustry". Winchester S tud ies , f or thco m ing . 7 i i ;

( ed .) M . B idd le Winchester S tud ies Vo l .

" The Smal l F inds".

Wood , K . S ., 1 935.

Rura l I ndustr ies a round Ox ford ;

The Wood land I ndustr ies , 7 9-115.

2 61

P t 2 ;

Ch 1 .

1 5 .

CARPENTRY I N I RELAND A .D 9 00-1300 —THE WOOD QUA .Y EV IDENCE P atr ick F . Wa l lace

S u m mary The w oodwork ing t echn iques o f t he V ik ings , a s e v idenced i n t he ir h ouses , p athways , d oor p os ts , r oof s uppor ts , p ar t it ion wa l ls a nd r eve tmen ts a re d escr ibed , a nd t he more i n tact c arpen try o f t he f ron t a nd b ack b raced h or izon ta l wooden waterfron ts o f t he 1 3th c en tury a re c lose ly e xa m ined . An a t te mp t i s made t o d raw c hrono log ica l imp l icat ions f ro m t he v ar ious j o in ts i n t he d iferen t a nd s uccess ive wooden r evetmen ts a nd d ra ins , a nd t o a scer ta in wh ich t echn iques were k nown b efore t he 1 2th c en tury Ang lo-Norman I nvas ion .

I n c on trast w i th Eng land , a nd f or a v ar iety o f h istor ica l r easons , v ery l i t t le o f I re land 's mater ia l h er i tage h as s urv ived a bove g round . T h is a pp l ies e spec ia l ly t o s tructures made o f o rgan ic mater ia ls l i ke wood wh ich o n ly c ome t o l igh t i n t he a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ion o f water logged s i tes s uch a s c rannogs a nd med ieva l t owns .

T he p ecu l iar a r t ist ic t rad it ions o f t he i s land mean t hat

t he s urv iv ing l egacy o f r epresen tat iona l p ieces i l lustrat ive o f t he s tructures o fa l l p er iods o f o ur h istory i s sma l l .

I ti s h ard ly s urpr is ing t herefore t hat

t he s tudy o f c arpen try h as r ece ived l i t t le a t ten t ion i n I re land . H owever , t he a ccu mu lat ion o fi n for mat ion o n t imber s tructures a nd woodwork ing t echn iques i n t he c ourse o f t he N at iona l Museu m o f I re land 's e x ten t ive e xcavat ions i n D ub l in a lters t he s i tuat ion c ons iderab ly a nd p erm its o f t h is p re l im inary r ev iew o f t h is s ub ject . T he p resen t s tudy i s b ased ma in ly o n t he r esu l ts o f t he e xcavat ions d irected b y t he wr i ter f or t he p ast s even y ears a t t he Wood Quay -F isha mb le S treet s i tes i n D ub l in a nd s te ms l arge ly f ro m e xa m inat ion o f we l l p reserved t en th t o t we lf th c entury h ouse f oundat ions a nd f ro m t h ir teen th c ent ury wooden q uays ide r evet men ts . An a t te mp t i s made h ere t o i den t ify t he s urv iv ing c haracter ist ics o f t he c arpen try o f t he V ik ing Age a nd H iberno-Scand inav ian A .D . 9 25-1170 ) a nd Ang lo-Nor man ( post A .D . 1 170 ) p er iods o f D ub l in 's h istory a nd t o c ompare t he c arpen try a nd s tructura l e ng ineer ing o f t hese p er iods w i th t hat o f t he p receed ing E ar ly H istor ic p er iod a nd t o p lace t he D ub l in e v idence i n t he o vera l l c on tex t o f I r ish c arpen try b efore A .D . 1 500 . One o f t he p rob le ms w ith o ur a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f D ub l in i s t he a bsence ( so f ar ) o f c on t inu ity o f e v idence f rom t he S cand inav ian i n to t he e ar ly N or man c i ty ( i .e . s econd h a lf o f t he t we lf th c en tury ) wh ich , n o l ess t han i n o ther a reas , h a mpers o ur u nders tand ing o f t he r ea l e x ten t t o wh ich t he t h ir teen th c en tury D ub l in c arpen ter 2 63

was i n f luenced b y h is p re-Nor man p redecessor .

Wh i le t en tat ive s ugges t ions

a s t o p oss ib le d if ferences a nd o ver laps b etween r ura l a nd u rban w oodwork ing t echn iques w i l l b e made , i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t hat o ur c onc lus ions a re b ased o n ly o n s urv iv ing t imbers w h ich n eed n o t b e g enera l ly r epresen tat ive o f t he c arpen try o f t he t ime t hey were worked .

E ven more impor tan t ly ,

o ur c onc lus ions a re l im ited b y t he n ature o f t he e xcava ted s ites ( e .g . waterf ron t o r h ab itat ion ) f ro m wh ich t he t imbers w ere d er ived .

Whereas t he b u lk

o f o ur i nfor mat ion o n woodwork ing i n D ub l in f or t he p er iod b efore t he A .D . 1 170 a rr iva l o f t he . Ang lo-Normans i s d er ived f ro m h ouses , p its a nd p a thways , t hat f or t he e nsu ing p er iod c o mes l arge ly f ro m w aterfron t r evetmen ts a nd d ra ins .

T h is s ign if ican t d if ference i n s i te t ype a nd t he c onsequen t d i f ference

i n t he n ature o f t he woodwork ing e v idence c ou ld i nva l idate s o me g enera l c onc lus ions a nd m igh t s ee m t o c on tr ibu te t o a r t if ic ia l c on trasts wh ich i n t he r ea l ity o f t he o vera l l c arpen try e xper ience o f t he t ime d id n o t e x ist a t a l l . F uture e xcavat ions w i l l u ncover e v idence o f a dd i t iona l t echn iques wh ich w i l l a l ter s o me o f t he c onc lus ions p resen ted h ere .

Meanwh i le , i ti s h oped t hat

t h is a ccoun t o f t he k nown t echn iques w i l l b e o f s erv ice t o s tuden ts o f c arpen try i n Med ieva l I re land . I n troduct ion :

T he E ar ly H istor ic-Ear ly Med ieva l n at ive c arpen try t rad i t ion

T here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t hat a h igh s tandard o f c arpen try o b ta ined i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land .

T h is i s c lear f ro m r epresen tat ions o f wooden c hurches

i n i l lu m inated manuscr ip ts ( Murray 1 979 , 9 3-4 ) , o n h igh c rosses ( Leask 1 977 , 1 , 4 3-47 ) a nd a s h ouse s haped s hr ines ( Lucas , f or thco m ing ). ( Joyce 1 913 , 2 86-288 a nd 3 10-340 ;

T he l i terature

Ra legh R adford 1 977 , 1 -11 ) , e spec ia l ly ,

t he p robab le s even th c en tury H isper ica F am ina ( Herren 1 960 , 8 1 ) i s e qua l ly g raph ic o n t he a t tain men ts o f t he c arpen ter . T ara ( Maca l ister 1 931 , 6 5 ;

T he p lan o f t he Asse mb ly H al l a t

R ich mond 1 930 , 9 8 .406 ) s hows t hat s ubs tan t ia l

b u i ld ings i n wood were n o t t he p reserve o f t he c hurch a lone . E ven t hough h is work s urv ives o n ly i n h or izon ta l m i l ls a nd n o t i n t he h ouses a nd c hurches o n wh ich h e may h ave l av ished e ven g reater a t ten t ion , t he m i l ls b ear e loquen t t est i mony t o t he h igh s tandard o f t he E ar ly H istor ic c arpen ter .

T he h or izon ta l m i l ls p reserve a r ange o f c arpen try t echn iques

wh ich , t hanks t o d endrochrono logy ( Ba l l ie 1 980 , 2 3 ) c an i n g enera l b e a scr ibed t o t he p er iod f ro m t he s even th t o t he t en th c en tur ies .

Modern r esearch i n to

t hese m i l ls , t he ir mechan ica l a nd c iv i l e ng ineer ing a t ta in men ts a nd t he w ide r ange o f t he ir c arpen try t echn iques h as b een s pearheaded b y Dr . A . T . L ucas who h as k ind ly s hown me h is c orpus o n t h is s ub jec t i n a dvance o f i t s p ub l icat ion . The Moy larg , C o . An tr i m mi l l was o ne o f t he e ar l iest t o b e p ub l ished . I t s s haf ted p add le w ith d ished b lades o f n at ive i nven t ion s hows t he e xce l len t c raf ts mansh ip f or wh ich , i n L ucas ' words , s k i l l "f ar b eyond t hat o f a mere h and i man was c a l led f or", t he b u i ld ing o f mi l ls b e ing t he t ask o f s pec ia l ised m i l lwr ights .

T he Moret t , C o . L ao igh is ( Lucas 1 953 , 1 -36 e sp . p . 2 6 ) a nd

Mashanag lass , C o . C ork ( Fahy , 1 956 , 1 3-57 ) m i l ls t hough n o t d a ted b y t he t ree-r ing method a l most c er ta in ly b e long t o t he E ar ly H istor ic p er iod a nd o f t he p ub l ished m i l ls p rov ide most i n for mat ion .

T here i s e v idence f or o rd inary

mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts a t Moret t a nd B a l lyraf ton .

C o . K i lkenny , d oub le

mor t ises a t B a l lyk i l leen , C o . O f fa ly ( Lucas 1 955 , 1 10-113 ) a nd f or s lop ing

2 64

( chase o r s kew ) mor t ises a t Moret t a nd a t Brabstown , C o . K i lkenny .

I n

a dd it ion , t he d r iveshaf t o f t he Mashanag lass m i l l was mor t ised t o t he h ub . Excep t a t C ast lear mstrong , C o . O f fa ly t he mor t ises g o t hrough t he b ea ms a s was t he c ase w i th t he p r inc ipa l b asep lates o n t he t h ir teen th c en tury waterf ron t r evet men ts a t Wood Q uay .

P egs were f ound i n t he mor t ise c heeks a t

Moret t a nd i n terna l p egs were f ound i n t he Mashanag lass p add les . P egged e dge h a lved s carfs w ith v er t ica l b ut ts o ccurred a t B a l lygearda , C o . K i lkenny , B a l lyraf ton , Mashanag lass a nd p oss ib ly a t Brabstown . T he t h in p ro ject ing l ap o f t he Knocknacarragh , C o . G alway a nd B a l lygroos m i l l S ou th , C o . L ao igh is mi l ls r eca l l t hose o n o ne o f t he b asep la tes o f R evetmen t 2a t Wood Quay w here i tr epresen ts t he c losest a t te mp t a t p roduc ing s uch a s car f .

G rooved b asep la tes a nd p osts a re k nown f ro m Moret t where t he p osts

were g rooved o n o ne o r b o th s ides t o r eta in t he e nds o f h or izon ta l ly p laced b oards , t he l owest o f wh ich was f i t ted i n to a g rooved b asep late .

A s im i lar

a rrange men t o ccurred i n t he b asep lates o f Revet men t 1a t Wood Q uay where h owever , t he p os ts were n o t g rooved t o r eta in p lanks .

P osts wh ich were

g rooved o n o ne o r b o th s ides w ere f ound r eused a s s uppor ts i n ad ra in d eck ing a t Wood Quay . f ra med h ouses .

T hese may o r ig ina l ly h ave b een u sed i n t imbered o r t imber H or izon ta l w eatherboards o r r evet t ing p lanks a re a lso k nown

f ro m C lon f in lough , C o . L ao igh is , Moret t a nd B a l lyk i l leen where t hey w ere p re-cu t t o e qua l l eng ths a nd w idths a s were t he p lanks o n t he w hee lhouse f loor a t Mashanag lass a nd s o me o f t he p ane ls o f t he Wood Quay r evet men t .

O ver-

l app ing b oards were a lso f ound i n t he Knocknagranshy , C o . L i mer ick ( Lucas 1 969 , 1 2-22 ) a nd More t t m i l ls . T he h oused d oveta i l mort ises a t Moret t a re p ara l le led i n Ang lo-Saxon c arpen try ( Hewet t 1 978 , 1 21 a nd f ig . 9 ) .

O ther t echn iques u sed i n t he m i l ls

i nc lude "n os ing " o n b a lk ' A ' a t Mashanag lass a nd t he smooth h o l low ing o u t o f f l u mes a nd c hu tes a t Moret t a nd Mashanag lass .

T he r abet t ing o f t imber

e dges a t Mashanag lass a nd Knocknagranshy ( t o e nab le t he c hute t o h ouse t he l i d ) was a lso a f eature o f t he t roughs o f n at ive c ook ing p laces ( t he f u lach ta f i adha wh ich p robab ly h ad a more r e mo te a ncestry a nd a nc ien t u sage i n I re land t han h ad t he h or izon ta l m i l ls ( M . C ah i l l p ers . c omm .) ) .

T he p robab le u se

o f as aw i n t he p roduct ion o f t he B a l lyk i l leen p add les ( Lucas 1 955 , 1 10-113 ) , e sp . p p . 1 10 a nd 1 12 ) a nd t he i nser t ion o f ak ey o r c huck t hrough a h o le i n t he p ro ject ing e nd o f at usked t enon a t t he l ower s ide o f a , mor t ise a t Moun t L ucas , C o . O f fa ly a nd a t t he r ecen t ly d iscovered t idal ( ?) mi l l a t L i t t le I s land , C o. C ork i s i ndicat ive o f h igh q ual i ty c arpen try a nd e ng ineer ing .

I ndeed , t he

L it t le I s land m i l l s hows t he e nor m ity o f t he s ca le t o wh ich t hese c arpen ters c ou ld work . T he h igh q ua l i ty c arpen try o f t he h or izon ta l m i l ls a ppears t o h ave s urv ived i n u se a f ter t he ma in p er iod o f t he m il ls i ft he e v idence o f t he p robab le t we lf th c en tury s tone c rosses i s a ccep ted .

T h is s er ies o f s tone monu men ts p reserves

e v idence o f c arpen try wh ich d oes n o t s urv ive i n wood .

T he j o in ts a re we l l

f or med mor t ise a nd t enons wh ich were u sed t o a t tach c arved s tone p ane ls t o t he c ross s haf ts .

An u mber o f e xa mp les s urv ive ( Henry 1 970 , 1 24-25 ) , o f

wh ich t hose a t C ashe l , C o . T ipperary ( Leask 1 951 , 1 4-18 ) , P eakaun , C o . T ipperary ( Du ignan 1 944 , 2 27 ) a nd D ysert O ' Dea , C o . C lare a re t he b est k nown .

T here a re a lso p ara l le ls i n I ona ( S tephenson 1 956 , 8 4-96 ) b u t t hese

a re n ow t hough t t o b e e ar l ier ( J . B arber , p ers . c omm .). 2 65

C arpen try i n D ub l in c . 9 25-1150 S ource o f e v ide n ce Ev idence o f c arpen try i n D ub l in i n t h is p er iod d er ives ma in ly f rom t he h ouses wh ich h ave b een e xcavated a long F isha mb le S treet ( i .e . a long t he e ast p ar t o f t he Wood Quay s i te ) . Two ma in t ypes o fh ouse were f ound , o ne l arger t ype , o f r ectangu lar p lan w ith a d oor a t o ne o r b o th e nds a nd w ith a t hreefo ld i n terna l s ubd iv is ion a nd t he o ther , sma l ler , b e ing s ub-rec tangu lar w ith a d oor i n o ne o f t he s ide wa l ls a nd n o t h av ing t he t hree-str ip i n terna l s ubd iv is ion .

T he l at ter c ons isted o f al ong c en tra l s tr ip w ith a c en tra l ly

p laced s tone k erbed f i rep lace a nd , o n e i ther s ide , an arrower b edd ing/seat ing s tr ip a long t he s idewa l ls . T he h ouses h ad o ne o r more wa l ls o f p os t a nd w at t le a nd t he r oofs were a pparen t ly s teep ly p itched a nd t hatched , p robab ly w ith s traw o r s ods o r ac o mb inat ion o fb o th . T he l arge h ouses h ad h eavy s quared e n trance o r d oorja mbs i n o ne o r b oth e nd wa l ls .

T hese a nd t he f our r oof s uppor ts o r f our p airs o r g roups

o f r oof s uppor ts ( o f ten i n t he r ound ) wh ich w ere r anged o n e ither s ide o f t he f i rep lace o n al i ne b etween t he d oor j a mbs mark ing t he d iv is ion b etween t he c en tre a is le a nd t he s ide a is les , p rov ide most o f o ur e v idence f or V ik ing Age c arpen try . T he s urv iv ing e v idence c o mes f rom f oundat ion r e ma ins o fh ouses o n ly a nd w e a re t herefore d epr ived o f t he c arpen try d eta i ls o f t he r oof t imbers ( t he r af ters , r idge p o le , p ur l ins e tc .) where e v idence o f s carf ing a nd j o inery m igh t b e e xpected .

I n r are c ases when t he s pan o f t he h ouse was t oo g reat

a nd t he r oof mater ia ls i nc lud ing t he p resu med i n frastructure o f r a f ters , p ur l ins , wa t t le a nd t hatch t oo h eavy t o b e b orne o n t he c onven t iona l a rrangemen t o f f our c en tra l ly p laced r oof s uppor ts , s quared v er t ical p os ts were p laced i ns ide t he s idewa l ls t o s uppor t " wa l l p la tes". E ven i n t he more n umerous e xa mp les o f h ouses wh ich were n o t e qu ipped w ith ' wa l l p late ' s uppor ts a long t he s ides , i t was h ard ly i n tended t hat t he r oof ing mater ia l b e b orne o n t he wat t le wa l ls . I nstead , i t wou ld s ee m t hat t he r oof was c arr ied e n t ire ly o n t he ma in r oof s uppor ts a nd t he e n trance j a mbs wh ich may h ave h ad a w ide l in te l ( spann ing t he e nd o f t he h ouse ) wh ich w as c onnected t o ar idge p o le b y t wo t imbers wh ich t hus f or med a t r iang le o r t russ a nd p rov ided t he h ouse w i th ah ipped r oof . Anyway , t he d if f icu l ty o f e x tend ing a w at t le wa l l t o t he a pex o f ag ab le a rgues a gainst t hese h ouses h av ing h ad s tra ight g ab led e nds , a l though t he a pparent h e ight o f t he e n trance may h ave r esu lted i n t he t op o f t he d oor h av ing t o b e a cco m modated ( by means o f at ha tched c anopy ) w i th in t he a rea o f t he r oof h ip . A dd i t iona l p a ir (s ) o f p osts o u ts ide t he e n trance j a mb may h ave s uppor ted t he c anopy a nd f ormed a s or t o f p orch . Wh i le s uch t imbers h ave b een f ound o u ts ide s o me e n trances , t he v ast ma jor i ty o fh ouses were n o t s o e qu ipped wh ich p robab ly means t ha t t he e n trances were s o l ow t hat i t was n ecessary t o s toop when e nter ing . The c onstruct ion s equence o f t hese h ouses may h ave c o m menced w ith f ix ing t he e n trance j a mbs , r oof s uppor ts , " wa l l p la te" s uppor ts a nd " wal l p lates" ( where t hey were i ncluded ) , a s we l l a s t he o ther r oof t imbers ( r af ters a nd p ur l ins ) a nd t he r idge p o le . T h is w as t he work o f t he c arpen ter w ho may h ave h ad o vera l l r espons ib i l ity f or t he d es ign a nd b u i ld ing o f t he h ouse . T he wat t le maker a nd t he t hatcher were n ex t b rough t i n , t he f ormer t o s upp ly t he w at t le w a l ls , t he i n terna l s creens , t he f l oor mats , t he p a thways a nd t he p i t

2 66

l i n ings a nd t he l a t ter t o f i n ish t he r oof ing . A s t he r oo f was p robab ly s usp ended f ree ly o n t he r oof s uppor ts a nd d id n o t b ear o n t he s idewa l ls , i t was p oss ib le f or t he r oof t o b e f i n ished b efore t he s ide wa ll ing c o mmenced t hough i ti s more l i ke ly t hat b oth j obs w ere d one c oncurren t ly , e spec ia l ly a s i t was p robab le p ract ice t o a l low a g enerous o versho t o f t hatch a t t he e aves , o nce t he c arpen ter-bu i lder h ad f ixed t he ma in e n trance a nd s uppor t ing t imbers . T he r ecurr ing p os it ions a nd s hapes o f t he e n trance j a mbs a nd t he c om mon t echno logy o ft he ir t hresho lds a nd d oor b ars a s we l l a s t he o ccurrence o f g enera l t rends ( e .g .: h av ing t he d oor i ns ide t he j a mbs a t o ne t ime o r p ivo ted o uts ide o n h o l low wooden "s puds" a t a no ther ;

a t d i f feren t t imes u s ing g reater

o r l esser amoun ts o f t imber f or p athways a nd h ouse c onstruct ion ;

g enera l ly

h av ing t he s a me s ize o fh ouse a t o ne t ime b y e i ther r educ ing o r e x tend ing t he s ize b u t n o t t he o vera l l l ayou t o r i n terna l s ubd iv is ion ) s uppor t t he i dea o f p rofess iona l c arpen ter-bu i lders i n t en th t o t we lf th c entury D ub l in .

S im i lar-

i t ies i n h ouse d es igns a nd c arpen try t rad it ions t ranscended p roper ty b oundar ies , a nd g enera l t rends a nd f ads c an b e a scr ibed t o v ar ious p er iods . T he u n ifor m ity o f t he g rooves a long t he s ides o f t he e n trance j a mbs a nd t he f requency o f t he ( as y et u nexp la ined ) r ough ly c u t c en tra l ly p laced h o le i n t he ir l ower e nds s ee ms a lso t o s uggest t hat t hese h ouses were c arpen ter r ather t han ownerb u i lt . Wood f i n ish T he h eavy e n trance j a mbs were u sua l ly s quared a sh b ea ms o f r ectangu lar s ect ion a nd l arge s can t l ing .

T hey were o f ten p laced i n h o les where t hey w ere

wedged i n p os it ion b y b ack f i l l a nd p ack ing s tones .

S o met i mes t hey were

r a m med i n to t he g round a nd i n t he c ase o f a t l east o ne s pectacu lar t en th c entury p a ir wh ich w ere a lso u nusua l i n t hat t hey were b raced o n t he o u ts ide , t hey w ere p laced i n as pec ia l ly i n troduced l ayer o f t urves . T he f l at f aces o f t he j a mbs were a xe d ressed a s i s e v iden t f rom t he ir d i mp led o r c usped a ppeara nce wh ich wou ld h ave b een smoo ther h ad t hey b een a dze &

T he a bsence o f

t he a dze f ro m t he t oo ls r ecovered i n t he c ourse o f t he e xcavat ions n ot o n ly s uppor ts t he u se o f t he a xe ( wh ich h as b een f ound i n t he e xcava t ions ) a s a f in ish ing t oo l b u t a lso c asts d oub t o n t he u se o f t he a dze i n e ar ly Med ieva l Dub l in , a s e lsewhere , i ft he c onsensus o f t he G reenw ich c onference i s r e l iab le . However , t here i s e v idence f or t he a dze i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land where i ti s d ist ingu ished f ro m t he a xe i n ad escr ip t ion o f a n i ma l b utchery ( Lucas 1 965 , 6 7 ) a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f rom r ura l s i tes l i ke L agore ( Hencken 1 950-51 , 1 08-9 ) s how t ha t t he a dze was k nown i n I re land ( i f n o t i n V ik ing Age D ub l in ) f ro m a n e ar l ier d ate .

G era ldus C a mbrens is ( O ' Meara 1 951 , p l . 6 )

a lso s hows a n a dze b e ing w ie lded b y an at ive I r ish man . I ta ppears t hat t he f l at f aces o f t he e n trance j a mbs were p roduced b y a xe b lows wh ich d escended i n ad iagona l t rack t owards o ne o f t he b o t to m c orners . I n s uch i nst ances a t i ny p ro ject ing l edge s urv ives a long t he b o t to m e dge , s how ing t hat t he j a mbs were p robab ly v er t ica l ly s tood o n ah ard s urface wh i le b e ing t oo led a nd t hat t he f aces were t r i m med f ro m t he t op d ownwards ,

S o me

r oof p osts were p o in ted w ith a na xe wh ich l ef t an u mber o f f aceted f aces . L igh ter t imbers a nd wat t les were u sua l ly l opped o f f i n as ing le d irect ion o f ten w ith a s ing le b low o fa n a xe o r k n ife . T he i ns ides o f s o me o f t he ' D ' sect ioned b arre l h oops were t r i m med w i th a l igh t a xe o r k n ife . 2 67

S quared p osts were u n iversa l ly u sed f or e n trance j a mbs a nd were a lso p referred a s r oof s uppor ts t hough p osts i n t he r ound were a lso u sed f or t hese a s we l l a s f or i n terna l d oor p osts .

S quared p osts o f l ighter s can t l ing were

a lso p referred a s s uppor ts f or "wa l l p lates". t ury h ouse i n F isha mb le S treet , f in ish . u sed .

I n o n ly o ne c ase , at en th c en-

were t he p os ts f or a wat t le wal l o f s quared

I n a l l o ther wat t le wa l ls p osts i n t he r ound a nd w ith t he ir b ark were P osts i n t he r ound a lso f eatured a s l ong itud ina l p athway s uppor ts a s

we l l a s f or p oss ib le r oof t russes w here p a irs o f o ppos ing f orked p osts may h ave g r ipped o ne a no ther i n c ases where t hey were n o t p egged , l ashed o r , e ven l ess l ike ly , n a i led t oge ther .

There a re e xa mp les o f p os ts i n t he r ound

s i mp ly l a id t ransverse ly o n l ong i tud ina l p o les t o f or m p athways ; t ransverse p o les o r l ogs were p egged t o l ong itud inal p o les ;

o thers where

a nd a l ate e leven th

c entury i nstance f ro m t he F isha mb le S tree t I I s i te i n wh ich t he b ark w as r emoved f ro m t he t ransverse l ogs wh ich h ad t he ir e nds f l at tened o u t o r f ea thered a nd p egged t o t he s uppor t ing l ong itud ina l p o le .

T hese p athways a ppear t o h ave

b een l ess s u i ted t o t he s of t t erra in o f e ar ly Med ieva l D ub l in a nd o f ten b roke b ecause o f t he d if feren t ia l s ubs idence o f t he g round a nd were l ess f avoured t han t he u b iqu itous a nd more s u i tab le w at t le s creen p a thway . S carf j o in ts T he r e lat ive s hor tness o f t he a is le b oards o f t he h ouses , t he s urv iva l o n ly o f f oundat ion l ayers a nd t he c onsequen t a bsence o f r idge p o les a nd wa l l p la tes a nd t he g enera l u se o f p osts i n t he r ound f or l ong itud ina l p a thway s upp or ts a nd l og d eck ing means t hat t here i s h ard ly a ny e v idence f or s carf ing f ro m t he J ohn 's L ane - F isha mb le S treet g roup o f s ites a t Wood Quay .

We

c annot b e s ure whether t he s carfs o f p re-Nor man D ub l in were s i mp le t hrough s p layed s carfs a s i n t he ma jor ity o f c ases f ro m t he p receed ing E ar ly H istor ic p er iod a nd t he s ucceed ing t h ir teen th c en tury .

T here a re t wo i nstances o f

e n trance j a mbs f ro m h ouses i n d if feren t ( t hough a d jacen t ) p lots o f t he t en th c en tury o n t he F isha mb le S tree t I I s i te w ith t hree-pegged e dge h a lved s carf j o in ts w ith v ert ica l b ut ts .

I ta ppears t hat b o th were f i t ted a s r epa irs o r r e-

p lace men ts t o e ar thfast j a mbs wh ich were e i ther s o d eep ly imbedded i n t he g round t hat t hey c ou ld n o t b e w i thdrawn a f ter b reak ing a nd were t hen c ut d own a nd j o ined i n t h is way t o a ,j a mb e x tens ion o r w ere s o j o ined b ecause o f t he u na vai lab i l i ty o f i nd iv idual t imbers o f s uf f ic ien t l eng th . B o th j o in ts a re wel l f or med , n eat ly s quared a nd s y m metr ica l ly p egged . I t wou ld b e s urpr is ing t hat t he b u i lders o f t hese h ouses s hou ld h ave g one t o s uch t roub le t o d o t h is d if f icu l t j o in t o n av er t ica l p lane a nd n ot h ave u sed i ti n t he more a ppropr iate h or izon ta l c on tex t u n less t he l arger h or izon ta l p o les ( l ike r idge p o les ) were u sua l ly i n t he r ound a nd t herefore u nsu ited t o t h is k ind o f j o in t .

I ti s e ven

more s urpr is ing t hat t h is j o in t o n ly o ccurred t w ice a nd t hen a t t he s a me g ene ra l l eve l i n a d jacen t p roper t ies among a s many a s ad ozen l eve ls o f h ouses i n t en p lo ts.

I tc er ta in ly n ever f eatured among t he o ther e n trance j a mbs wh ich

h ave b een e xcavated .

I t s ee ms a s i ft he t echn ique was s hor t-l ived a nd p ossib ly

o f e x terna l d er iva t ion ( n at ive I r ish o r Ang lo-Saxon?) a nd n o t. " a t h o me" i n t he more b as ic c arpen try r eper to ire o f t en th a nd e leven th c en tury Dub l in wh ich a ppears t o h ave i gnored i t , a t l eas t a s f ar a s h ouse b u i ld ing was c oncerned .

2 68

As h ips ' k ee l f ound i n ar eused p os i t ion i n a n embank men t i n t he F isha mb le S treet I s i te h ad a n i nc ip ien t s top s p layed s carf wh ich s ee ms o ut o f k eep ing w ith t he o ther p re-Norri an s h ips ' t imbers wh ich h ad s i mp le t hrough p layed s car f j o in ts .

I ts ee ms u n l ike ly t hat t h is c o mp l icated s carf j o in t was e ver

u sed b y t he V ik ing Age c arpen ters o f D ub l in .

I td idn 't s urv ive i n to t he k nown

r eperto ire o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury water fron t r evet men t c arpen ters who wou ld h ave b een s aved a l o t o f t roub le h ad t hey u sed i ta nd a bandoned t he s i mp le t hrough s p layed s car f wh ich t hey i nvar iab ly emp loyed o n t he ma in b asep la te o ver laps . Groov ing S o me o f t he e n trance j a mbs , e spec ial ly i n t he l ate t en th a nd e ar ly e leven th c entur ies , were p rov ided w ith a l ong s lo t o r g roove d own t he s ide wh ich f aced away f ro m t he d oorway .

T h is g roove r eta ined t he wat t les o f t he h ouse wa l l

a nd was p roduced b y d r i l l ing a s er ies o f a uger h o les w ith a s poon b it i n a s tra ight l ine , t he i n terven ing c hunks o f wood b e ing t hen p r ised away w ith a c h ise l w h ich was a lso u sed t o t r im a nd s quare t he g roove .

T h is was a lso

t he way i n wh ich mor t ises were c u t i n t he much l ater b asep lates o f t he t h irt een th c entury w aterfron t a t Wood Q uay .

I ti s p oss ib le t o measure t he d ia-

me ter o f t he a uger h o les ( i .e . t he s ize o f t he s poon b it ) a s t hey were u sua l ly d r i l led t o v ary ing d ep ths s o t ha t t he wood f l aked o f f n ear o r a t t he b o t to m o f t he s ha l lowest h o le l eav ing t he o ther ( deeper ) b oreho les v is ib le a long t he b ot to m o f t he g roove .

T he a verage d ia meter o f t hese h o les measures a bou t

2 cm , a nd t he h o les a veraged a bout 7 cm f ro m o ne a nother .

An a ssor t men t

o f s poon b its r ang ing f ro m 1 .5 cm t o 3 .5 cm i n max i mu m d ia meter h as b een r ecovered f ro m t he Dub l in e xcavat ions .

I ti s a lso p oss ib le t o measure t he

c ut t ing e dges o f c h ise ls f ro m t he s ing le b lows wh ich of ten p roduced t he e nds o f t he g rooves .

One c h ise l e dge measured 2 .3 cm .

Augers o r s poon b its were a lso u sed t o p roduce g rooves i n t he u pper f aces o f t he b asep lates o r g round s i l ls wh ich r eta ined v er t ica l s taves i n s o me o f t he F isha mb le S treet h ouses .

Grooves i n t he n or th s i l l o f o ne o f t he l a ter

e leven th c en tury h ouses s ee m t o h ave b een c h ise l led r ather t han a uger i n it iated , ac hange i n t echn ique a lso n o ted i n t he g rooves o f a t l east o ne o f t he e leven th c entury j a mbs o n t he F isha mb le S treet I s ite . T he u se o f g rooved o r c hanne l led b ea ms t o r e ta in v ert ica l ly s et s taves i s ar ecurr ing f eature o f t he t en th a nd e leven th c en tur ies .

I n g enera l , t he

g rooves o n t he b asep lates o r g roundsi l ls were o f more r egu lar d i mens ions a nd f in ish t han t hose c ut i n to t he s ides o f t he e n trance j a mbs .

Th is was t rue

o f t he l ate e leven th c en tury p athway s i l ls f ro m F isha mb le S tree t I I a nd o f a l arge m id-e leven th c en tury h ouse f ro m t he s a me s i te i n wh ich a we l l p reserved s quared a is le b oard h ad a g roove t ight ly f i t ted w ith w ide a sh s taves t o f or m ak ind o f b ed .

A s im i lar a nd e qua l ly we l l f in ished t imber f ro m a h ouse i n a

n earby p lo t was a t tached t o t he r oof s uppor ts a nd a cco mpan ied b y a match ing ( mob i le?) g rooved t imber wh ich h ad a p a ir o f p ro ject ing wooden l ugs a nd a n i ron c lasp t o a t tach i t s f ixed n e ighbour , t hereby f or m ing s o me s or t o f b ox/ c on tainer/bed .

2 69

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2 70

N o tch a nd t enon r ather t han mor t ise a nd t enon The mor t ise a nd t enon j o in t was we l l k nown i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land where i t was w ide ly u sed i n h or izon ta l m i l ls.

H owever , o n p resen t e v idence ,

i ta ppears t o h ave b een l arge ly u nknown t o t he c arpen ters o f V ik ing Age D ub l in . Apar t f ro m t he d iscovery o f as tray t enoned b ea m i n a mid-ten th c en tury c ont ex t i n p lo t 6o ft he F isha mb le S treet I I s i te ( appropr iate ly , n ear t he e n trance j a mbs w ith t he u n ique e dge h a lved s car f a lready d iscussed ) t here i s n o o ther e v idence f or mor t ise a nd t enon among t he mass o f t imbers r ecovered i n t he e xcavat ions . T he n earest t he V ik ing Age c arpen ters c a me t o p roduc ing a mor t ise a nd t enon was t he ir n o tch a nd t enon j o in t i n wh ich a " tenon" was s e t i n to a n otch o r s lo t i n t he s ide o f ap ost o r r oof-suppor t . These " tenons" were r are ly s quared o r p roper ly s hou ldered a nd were r ea l ly b are-faced t r iangu lar p ro jec t ions u sua l ly a t t he e nds o f a is le b oards wh ich were f i t ted i n to n o tches o n t he s ide o f r oof p osts .

P egs were n ever u sed t o s ecure

t hese j o in ts . S uch j o in ts h ave b een f ound i n e leven th c en tury h ouses a s we l l a s i n al ater e leven th c en tury p athway o n t he F isha mb le S treet I I s i te where g rounds i l ls f or p athway f ences h ad s quared b areface c en tra l t enons o n t he ir e nds b y wh ich t hey were s ecured t o n otched p osts ( F ig . 1 5 .1 ). T he e x is tence o f mor t ise a nd t enon i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land a nd i t s u n ique a ppearance i n a s tray t en th c en tury c on tex t means t hat we c anno t t ake t he n o tch a nd t enon a s t he t ypo log ica l a ncestor o f t he mor t ise a nd t enon .

R ather c an i tb e s een a s

t he c rude r elat ion o f a more a dvanced t echn ique wel l k nown t o t he c on te mp orary n at ive I r ish . I ts ee ms t o t yp i fy t he b asic n a ture o f Dub l in 's c arpen try wh ich a ppears t o h ave e x is ted i n i so la t ion ( s ave f or t he r are a ppearance o f a n e dged h al f s car f a nd a t enon ) u naf fected b y c on te mporary t echn iques o u ts ide . Th is s i tuat ion i s a l l t he more s trange when t he h igh s tandards o f o ther c raf ts i n wood i nclud ing c arv ing , c ooper ing a nd p ossib ly s h ip-bu i ld ing t hen a va ilab le i n Dub l in a re c ons idered . Wh i le t he a bsence o f t he mor t ise a nd t enon f rom t he p re-Nor man h ouses c ou ld mean t hat more u p-to-date c arpen ters i n p ossess ion o f s uch t echn iques were n o t emp loyed i n h ouse c onstruct ion , t he u n iform i ty o f t he h ouse p lans , d esigns , t rends a nd t echn iques o f b u i ld ing s uppor ts t he ir h av ing b een c arpen ter r ather t han owner-bu i lt . E ven i ft he b est c arpen ters weren 's e ngaged i n h ouse b u i ld ing a nd a l low ing t hat o n ly h ouse f oundat ions s urv ive , i ti s d if f icu lt t o u nderstand w hy t he mor t ise a nd t enon h as n ot b een f ound ( o ther t han i n o ne s tray t enon ) .

I ft he b est c arpen ters were n o t emp loyed i n h ouse c onstruct ion

i ti s d if f icu lt t o c once ive what e lse t hey were mak ing .

Wh i le i ti s p oss ib le

t ha t l arge r ec tangu lar h o les a t t he e nds o f t he f l at b oards wh ich o nce w ere f i t ted t o t he t en th c en tury d efens ive embankmen t o n t he F isha mb le S treet I s i te were i n tended t o a cco m modate t enoned p osts o f ap a l isade(? ) a nd t hat , f or i ns tance , as horter b oard w ith s im i lar s quared h o les i n at en th c en tury h ouse i n p lot 2 , F isha mb le S treet I was s im i lar ly e qu ipped t o r e ta in t enoned u pr igh ts ( i n t h is c ase p oss ib ly r oof s uppor ts ) , t he t enons ( i f e ver t hey e x isted ) h ave n o t s urv ived . Anyway , t he r oo f s uppor ts o f t he l arge a nd b et ter b u i lt m id-e leven th c en tury h ouse i n p lot 7 , F isha mb le S treet I I w ere s et i n to r oughly h o llowed s o lep lates wh ich c asts d oub t o n t he e x istance i n Dubl in o f r ec tangu lar h o les t o r etain h aunched t enons .

2 71

There i s a n u n for tunate g ap i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f D ub l in f or t he s econd h a lf o f t he t we lf th c entury .

B y t he t ime t he c arpen try r ecord

r esu mes w i th t he e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury w ater fron t r evermen ts a t Wood Quay , t he mor t ise a nd t enon i s v ery much i n e v idence .

I t wou ld a ppear ,

t herefore , t hat t h is j o in t b eca me c o m mon i n D ub l in i n t he c ourse o f t he t we lf th c entury , s o met i me a f ter i t s i n troduct ion ( or r e in troduct ion?) i n t he l ater p ar t o ft he p receed ing c en tury i n t he wake o f , o r a s p ar t o f , t he c hanged c arpen try a nd b u i ld ing s k i l ls wh ich t hen c ome i n to D ub l in , p robab ly f rom t he c oun trys ide w ith t he t akeover o f D ub l in b y t he n at ive K ings a nd t he p rob ab le r e lated i n f lux o f n at ive i nf luences i nc lud ing c raf t s k i l ls . T he c harac ter o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury waterfron t c arpen try c lose ly r ese mb les t hat o f t he n at ive t rad i t ion o f t he h or izon ta l m i l ls a nd d if fers f rom t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he p receed ing V ik ing Age b ut n o t t he l a ter o r H iberno-Scand inav ian e ra w hen t he c hanges wh ich c u lm inated i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury r eperto ire were a lready d iscern ib le . O ther t echn iques An e leven th c en tury f i rep lace i n F isha mb le S treet I I was f ra med i n a h or izon ta l r ec tang le o f f our p o les i n t he r ound wh ich o ver lapped a t t he c orners where t he e nd p o les were h o l lowed o n t he ir u nder s ur faces t o f i t i n to s im i lar h o l lows o n t he u pper s urfaces o f t he e nds o f t he t wo s ide p oles . T he r esu l t ing o ver lapp ing j o in ts were s ecured b y al ong p eg d r iven d eep ly i n to t he g round , t hereby n o t o n ly s ecur ing t he c orner o f t he f ra me b u t p inn ing i tt o t he g round . T h is i s as i mp le e xa mp le o f a" laf t " a nd may u lt i mate ly h ave d er ived f rom S cand inav ia t hough i t s a ppearance i n t he s econd c en tury o f Dub l in a nd n o t i n t he e ar l ier , when d irect S cand inav ian i n f luence was p robab ly s tronger , i s a p rob le m .

T here i s o n ly o ne o ther e xa mp le o fa nyth ing a pproach ing a " laf t "

j o in t f ro m a h igher l eve l o n t he s a me s i te i n w h ich a p a ir o f t ree t runks w ere c rossed t o f orm a c orner , w ith t he l ower me mber h o l lowed t o t ake t he u pper . T he w a l ls o f as tave-bu i lt h ouse o f t he m id-e leven th c en tury e xcavated a t C hr istchurch P lace ( 0 R iordä in 1 976 , 1 39-40 a nd p late 1 3 ) , w ere c onstruc ted o f ac o mb ina t ion o f s taves ( t ree t runks s p l it l eng thw ise w ith t he ir c urved s urfaces f ac ing o utwards ) a nd v ert ica l ly p laced t imber p lanks . T he s ide e dges o f t he s taves were g rooved t o a cco mmodate t he p lanks wh ich w ere p laced b etween e ach p a ir o f s taves .

S taves a nd p lanks r es ted o n b asep lates b u t w ere

n o t t enoned t o t he m b u t r a ther h e ld i n p lace b y t he l oad o f t he r oof wh ich t hey c onducted t o t he g round i n t he s a me way a s s o lep lates w ere p laced u nder r oo f s uppor ts i n F isha mb le S treet I I a t a bou t t he s a me t ime . Wh i le t h is s tave b u i ld ing t echn ique may a lso u l t i mate ly h ave b een d er ived f rom S cand inav ia , i t s c o mparat ive ly l ate a ppearance i n Dub l in i n ap er iod o f d e mons trab le d ecrease i n d irect S cand inav ian i n f luence , a t at ime when c arpen try t echn iques a nd b u i ld ing s tandards a ppear t o b e improv ing w ith t he i n troduct ion o f many a pparen t ly n ew t echn iques , s uggests a n o r ig in o r i nsp irat ion c loser t o h o me . I ts ee ms a s i f woodcarvers , t urners , c oopers a nd c raf ts men work ing i n sma l ler wooden o b jects p ossessed t echn iques wh ich e i ther r e ma ined u nknown t o t he c arpen ter o r were n ot c ons idered a n ecessary a cqu is it ion t o t he c ont e mporary r eper to ire . •S oph ist icated e xamp les o f t he woodworker 's t echn iques i nc lude a f orm o f t ongue a nd g roov ing o f t he e leven th c en tury n o ted i n as er ies o f t h in l a ths wh ich were f eathered d own a long o ne e dge a nd h ad a t h in ' V ' n o tch 2 72

c u t i n to t he o ppos i te e dge s o t hat t he f i l let c ou ld f i t i n to t he n otch . T hese may h ave o r ig inal ly f i t ted t ogether t o f or m a mode l h ouse o r ap iece o f f urn it ure.

O ther t echn iques o f t h is o rder i ncluded t he i nser t ion o f t r iangu lar

wedges i n t he e xposed e nds o f ab en t r ound-sec t ioned l oop-hand le wh ich , b e ing t hus e xpanded , were t igh t ly s ecured i n t he l i d a nd i n a nother e xamp le , t he f ix ing o fd owe ls i n i t s b roken e dges s o t ha t when t he p ieces were d rawn t oge ther t he d owe ls wh ich j o ined t he m were c oncea led i n t he t h ickness o f t he l i d. I n t he c ase o f a nother s tave-bu i l t wooden v esse l o f a bou t A .D. 1 000 o ne o f t he s taves h ad at i ny moving b arbel l-shaped s tra .p h o lder c arved o u t o f t he s a me p iece o f wood a s t he s tave t hrough wh ich i tc ou ld move b u t f ro m wh ich i tc ou ldn 't b e d e tached a s t he b arbel l t er m ina ls were g rea ter t han t he d iame ter o ft he h o le i n t he s t ave. Th is t echn ique r eca l ls a wooden c hain o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury i n wh ich t he l i nks a nd h ook were c arved o u t o f as i mp le p iece o f wood .

C arpen try a nd w at t le w eav ing T here a ppears t o h ave b een a c lose c onnect ion b etween t he p ost a nd w at t le w a l l e rector , b asket weaver , s creen a nd mat maker a nd t he c arpen ter-bu i lder o f V ik ing Age a nd H iberno-Scand inav ian D ub l in .

S o me t i mes w at t le s creens

w ere f i t ted i n wooden f ra mes p oss ib ly t o f or m b eds i n wh ich t he r ods o f t he s creens w ere s ecured i n s pec ia l ly a ugured h o les i n t he f ra mes , i n wh ich t he b ark c overed r ods l ook l i ke p egs . T he r e la ted a is le b oards a lso o ccas iona l ly h ad v ert ica l p osts f i t ted i n to n eat ly a ugured h o les . I n o ne e leven th c en tury e xa mp le o n t he F isha mb le S treet I s i te , t he f ra mes f ormed a r ec tang le , t he c orners o f w hich w ere f or med b y f i t t ing o r h ous ing t he e nds o f t he s hor ter l a ths i n to h o les o r mor t ises a t t he e nds o f t he s ide l eng ths , e ach c orner b e ing s ecured b y as ing le p eg , a n a rrange men t whereby t he f ra med s creen c ou ld b e c arr ied .

Wh i le s uch a j o in t c ou ld h ard ly b e t er med a n o tch a nd t enon j o in t ,

much l ess a mor t ise a nd t enon j o in t , a t l east i ts hows a n o ver lap b etween t he s k i l ls o f t he wat t le weaver a nd t he c arpen ter . T he g rander s ca le o f t h ir teen th c entury c arpen try a nd b u i ld ing a s i n t he water fron ts , c el lars a nd warehouses m i l i tated a ga inst s uch a c lose a ssoc iat ion e xcep t , p oss ib ly , i n t imber f ra med h ouses w ith wat t le p ane ls f or wh ich we h ave l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence . T he wat t le w eaver c on t inued t o make s creens a nd f ences a s b efore a s w e l l a s wat t le mode ls f or b arre l v au l t ing a nd o ther f or ms o fb u i ld ing ( Leask 1 941 , f i g . 5 2 a nd p late I V ). C arpen try a nd e ng ineer ing An u mber o f e ng ineer ing p rob le ms , p r inc ipa l ly t hose r e lated t o s hor ing o r r evet t ing f ences a nd p a l isades were r eso lved b y t he t en th , e leven th a nd e ar ly t we lf th c en tury D ub l in c arpen ter a s t hey a lso were b y h is t h ir teen th c en tury s uccessor . I n t he t en th c en tury , t he u sua l r evet t ing d ev ice s ee ms t o h ave b een a w ooden t i e-back wh ich was f ound t hreaded t hrough a b oard o r s tave p a l isade a t t he t op o f t he f ina l p hase o f t he s econd d efens ive embanko n t he F isha mb le S treet Is i te . H ere , as er ies o fh or izon ta l t i es w ere t hreaded t hrough t he s taves a nd p inned t o l ong itud ina l b ea ms o n t he o u ts ide o f t he p lanks wh ich were p ressed f orward b y t he we ight o f d u mped i n f i l l . S im i lar t i e-backs w ere n o ted o n t he J ohn 's L ane p art o f t he Wood Q uay s i te i n ap oss ib ly e ar ly t we lf th c entury c on tex t i n wh ich t he e nds o f t he h or izon ta l

2 73

REVETMENT , W OOD QUA Y , C I T Y O F DUBLI N

F ig.

1 5.2 S ect ion D , Revetment 1 .

2 74

1 3th c entury.

Wood Quay.

t i es were s ecured t o d iagona l ly d r iven p egs b y l eng ths o f r ope .

Av ar iat ion

o ft h is t echn ique i n wh ich t he t i e-backs were f i t ted w ith s hor t c ross p ieces r e ta ined b y p egs was f ound i n t he b ack-braced R evetmen t 3a t Wood Q uay . An i ngen ious r evett ing d ev ice imp ly ing c ons iderab le woodwork ing s k i l l a nd k now ledge o ft he s tra in t o lerance o f t imbers r e ta ined o ne o f t he l a ter e leven th c en tury p a thway f ences a long t he F isha mb le S treet I I s i te . H ere , as er ies o fv er t ica l p lanks were s e t i n to a g rooved b asep late wh ich h ad a s quare l i p o r n ose a long i t s o uter e dge t o k eep t he e nds o f t he p lanks f ro m s pr ing ing o u t o fp lace . H igher u p , ah or izon ta l wa i l ing b ea m o f r ec tangu lar s ect ion r e ta ined t he p lanks , s o me o f wh ich h ad t he ir o u ter f aces g rooved s l ight ly t o c lasp t he wa i l ing . T he l a t ter was g r ipped b y a n e lbowed o r c rooked t imber wh ich was t hreaded t hrough a r ec tangu lar s lot i n o ne o f t he p lanks . T he c rook e nd f aced d ownwards a nd h ooked a round t he wa i l ing . I ti s a ssu med t hat t he o ther e nd o f t he c rooked t imber was s im i lar ly s haped ( t hough i td id n ot s urv ive ) t o g r ip a l ong itud ina l b ea m ( wh ich s urv ived ) n ear t he b asep la te a s i t was e ssen t ia l t hat t he c rooked t imber b e s ecured a t t h is ( t he l ower ) e nd i n o rder t o g r ip t he wa i l ing ( aga inst wh ich i n f i l l g round wou ld h ave p ressed t he f ence p lanks ) a t t he h igher e nd . s hor ing b races .

Th is u n ique r evet t ing d ev ice d id n o t u se

C arpen try i n Th irteen th C en tury D ub l in S ource o f e v idence I n format ion o n D ub l in 's t h ir teen th c entury c arpen try c o mes ma in ly f ro m t hree wooden water fron t r evetmen ts a nd f ro m wooden d ra ins o r j e t t ies , p i ts a nd c e l lars o n t he Wood Quay - Winetavern S treet s i tes . T he t hree ma in e ast-west r eve t men t c o mp lexes ( Wa l lace , 1 981 ) c onsist o fb raced u pr igh ts t enoned t o b asep lates t o r e ta in h or izon ta l p lanks wh ich f ron ted t he d u mped i n f i l l wh ich c o mpr ised t he r ec la i med water fron t . R evetmen t 1 was b u i l t i n ar ough ly s tra igh t l i ne i n a t l east s ix s eparate s ect ions wh ich h ave b een l abe l led At o Ff ro m e ast t o w est .

U pwards o f s ix ty metres h ave s o f ar b een u near thed .

I t was f ron tb raced a nd b e longs t o t he v er t ica l t rad i t ion o f N or th- West E uropean waterfron t b u i ld ing ( M i lne 1 979 , 1 45-53 ) a nd i s c lose ly p ara l le led a t K ings L ynn ( C larke & C ar ter , 1 977 p ass im ) , H u l l ( Ayers 1 979 , 3 0-35 ) a nd a t t he S ea l House ( Schof ie ld 1 975 , 5 4-57 ) , C usto m H ouse ( Tat ton B rowne 1 974 , 1 17-219 ) a nd Tr ig L ane ( M i lne & M i lne 1 979 , 8 4-104 ) s i tes i n L ondon . I t c ons isted o f s quared o ak p osts b eh ind wh ich were p laced h or izon ta l p lanks o ne dge a nd h e ld i n p lace b y t he p ressure o f t he t own r efuse h eaped b eh ind . T he p osts were t enoned i n to b asep lates a nd were s uppor ted o n t he f ron t b y b races t enoned i n to s ubs id iary b asep lates f ixed a t r igh t a ng les t o t he p r inc ipa l b asep la tes . The f i ve u n its o f t he r evet men t u ncovered i n t he r ecen t e xcavat ions h ave b een l abe l led A , B , C , Da nd E f ro m e ast t o west . E ach o f t he u n its measured c . 1 2-15 m i n l eng th a nd was b u i l t s eparate ly . I n Bt he P r inc ipa l p os ts were s upp le men ted b y m idspans b etween e ach p a ir o f p r inc ipa ls . Aux i l iary p osts were s tubbed i n to t he b asep lates n ear t he p r inc ipa ls t o r e ta in t he h or izon ta l b oards wh ich h ad b uck led f orward f ro m t he p ressure o f i n f i l l mater ia l . I n Bt he p r inc ipa ls w ere b raced whereas i n D ( F ig . 1 5 .2 ) t he m idspans were b raced .

S ubsid iary b asep lates were u sed t o r e ta in t he t enoned b race h ee ls

2 75

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2 76

o f A , C , Da nd E b u t n o t B where t he h ee ls w ere s i mp ly b ut ted o n t he g rave l f oreshore . Most p r inc ipa ls measured o ver 1 .8 m t a l l . T he b asep lates were s quared o ak b ea ms C . 0 .25 m x 0 .20 m , u p t o 4 .82 m l ong a nd h ad a s i mp le g roove o n t he ir u pper s urfaces t o r ece ive t he l owest o f t he h or izon ta l p lanks wh ich were t apped i n to t he ma in g roove v ia a f eeder g roove f ro m t he e dge . T he a bsence o fp lough-p lanes mean t t hat t hese g rooves w ere o f ten o f u neven t h ickness a nd u nab le t o a cco mmodate t he e qua l ly u neven a xe-dressed b oards . I n g enera l , f ew n a i ls were u sed , t he p ressure o f t he i n f i l l s uf f ic ing t o r eta in t he o ver lapp ing b oards. T he r ad ia l ly c ut p lanks were o f t r iangu lar s ect ion a nd a bou t n ine p er p ane l were u sed i n u n its B a nd D where t hey were a bou t 2 .2 m l ong .

The s ubs id iary b asep la tes o f A , C , Da nd E w ere t enoned

i n to t he n or thern e dges o f t he p r inc ipa l b asep la tes .

E ach s ubs id iary b asep late

h ad t wo mort ises , a n i nner t o t ake t he r ak ing o r s uppor t ing b race a nd a n o uter t o t ake a p eg w h ich s ecured i tt o t he g round . R evetmen t 1h ad a n o u ter o r ' ghost ' r evetmen t c onsist ing o f u nbraced p osts mor t ised t o ap r inc ipa l b asep late s er ies ( F ig . 1 5 .3 ) o n i t s o u ter o r r iverward s ide . T h is f eature h ad n o h or izon ta l b oards a nd may h ave b een i n tended a s as hock-absorber t o y ie ld t o o r r ock w ith d ock ing s h ips f ro m wh ich i t wou ld h ave p ro tected t he f i xed i nner e le men t a nd i t s v u lnerab le f ron t b races . I t wasn 't a t tached t o t he f i xed r evetmen t a nd t herefore h ad a f reedom o f mob i l ity wh ich wou ld h ave e nab led i tt o r ise a nd f a l l w i th t he t i de a nd a ny d ock ing s h ip wh ich m igh t h ave b een l ashed t o i t .

T he b asep lates o f t h is o uter e le men t were

n o t g rooved a nd t he p osts were s i tuated a bou t 2 .70 m a par t i n c on trast t o t hose o f t he i nner s er ies wh ich were s paaced a t a bou t 1m i n terva ls . T he p os ts o f t he o uter e le men t were h igher a nd s tood a bou t 2 .20 m h igh . I n c on trast t o b asep lates o f t he i nner e le men t wh ich were l a id f ro m e ast t o west a cross t he s i te , t hose o f t he o u ter o r mob i le e le men t were l a id i n t he o ppos ite d irect ion , a s i t s p egged s carf j o in ts e ach f aced e as twards . An e x tension t o R evet men t 1 was b u i l t i n f ron t o f s ect ion C , a bou t 2 0 m b eyond t he l i ne o ft he ma in r evetmen t .

T h is i ncopora ted t he d is me mbered

h u lk o f as h ip a s was t he c ase a t C usto m H ouse , L ondon ( Tat ton B rown 1 974 , 1 30 ) .

Ab ack b raced r evet ment , Reve t men t 2 , was t hen b unt f ar ther o u t i n

t he b ed o f t he r iver t han i t s p redecessor . T h is i ncorporated a dd i t iona l c arp en try t echn iques t o t hose k nown f ro m R eve t men t 1 . I ta lso h ad a ,c orner wh ich t urned s ou thwards f ro m i t s e astern e nd a nd n ear t he wes tern marg in o f t he Wood Quay s i te , ac o mp lex b race t o p rotec t a ,v u lnerab le t hrough s p layed s car f j o in t l i nk ing t wo o f i t s b asep la tes . At h ird r eve t men t , R evet men t 3 , was b ui l t s l igh t ly f arther o u t i n t he r iverbed a nd d i f fered i n t hat i t was b ack b raced o r t i ed f ro m t he l andward s ide .

The c arpen try was s i mp le a nd i n n o way i nnova t ive.

Apar t f ro m t he r evet men ts wh ich a re t he p r inc ipa l s ource o f t he e v idence f or D ub l in 's t h ir teen th c entury c arpen try , t here a re a lso wooden d ra ins/ jet t ies , c e l lar f oundat ion b ea ms , a nd f ro m W ine tavern S treet , f ra me-l ined p i ts wh ich f urn ished a dd it iona l i n format ion o n c arpen try a nd t he r ange o f t he c on te mporary r eperto ire . T he wooden d rains i ssued f ro m n ear t he o ld C ity Wa l l a nd d isc harged i n to t he L i f fey . The l ongest measured u pwards o f f or ty metres l ong b y a bou t a metre h igh b y a bout 7 5 cm w ide . I t was b u i l t i n s ix d if feren t s tructura l s ect ions , e ach o f wh ich i ncorpora ted s o me o f t he f au lts o f t he

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c on te mporary c arpenter , t hough s o me were b u i lt t o h igher s tandards t han o thers . T hese s tandards c annot b e p laced o n a n improv ing o r d is i mprov ing s ca le o f c arpen try f ro m whatever e nd t he d ra in i s v iewed ;

t hey may t here-

f ore b e s een a s d if feren t a pproaches t o ac o mmon p rob le m , p robab ly b y d if feren t c arpen ters s ub jected t o t he a va i lab i l ity o f t he most s u i tab le t imbers . T he c e l lar b ea ms a nd t he w arehouse f oundat ion t imbers a t Wood Quay b e long t o as im ilar t rad it ion o f c arpen try a s t he r eve tmen ts a nd d ra ins . Th is t rad it ion r eached i t s f i nest e xpress ion i n at imber f ra med p i t i n Wine tavern S treet . H in ts t hat c arpen try o f ad if feren t t rad it ion a nd o fh igher t echn ica l q ua l ity a lso e x isted i n D ub l in b ut was n o t g enera l ly u sed i n waterfron t b u i ld ings , c o me f ro m a n u mber o f r eused t imbers f ound i ncorporated i n t hese s truc tures . T hese w i l l b e e xa m ined a t t he e nd o f o ur i nvest igat ion o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury e v idence f ro m t he water fron t . T he R eve t men ts :

b asep la te s carf j o in ts

T en s carf j o in ts ( s ix i n t he i nner a nd f our i n t he o u ter e le men t ) s urv ived i n R eve t men t 1 . S carfs were a lso f ound i n t he t hree western b asep lates o f R evetmen t 2a nd i n t he p a ir wh ich c o mpr ised t he e ast-west l ine o f R eve tmen t 3 . A l l t he j o in ts o f t he p r inc ipa l b asep lates u sed i n e ach o f t he t hree r evetmen ts a re s i mp le t hrough s p layed s carf j o in ts i n wh ich t he e nds o f t he b asep late were t r i m med d own w ith a n a xe a nd o ver lapped w ith t he ir n e ighbours t o wh ich t hey were s ecured b y f ace p egs i n a ny n umber u p t o f our .

T iny

wedges were i nser ted i n t he s carfs o f t he i nner ( f ixed ) e le men t o f s ect ion A o f R evetmen t 1 . I n t he o uter e le men t a t B , aj o in t wh ich wasn 't p egged w as s uppor ted o n as hor t p lank . T he e asternmost s urv iv ing b asep la te o ft he t hree wh ich c o mpr ise t he western s ect ion o f R evetmen t 2h ad a p ro jec t ing e x tens ion a t e ach e nd a s i ft hey s hou ld o ver lap l ike e dge h av led s carfs w i th s quare v ert i ca l b u t ts . As t he p ro ject ions a re s o t h in , a s o n ly o ne h ad a h o le t o p eg i t t o i t s n e ighbours , a nd a s t he n e ighbours ( t hough d isturbed ) d id n o t a ppear t o h ave c orrespond ing l aps t o a cco m modate t he p ro ject ions , t hese c an h ard ly b e s a id t o b e e dge h a lved s carfs . T o h ave f unct ioned p roper ly , t he p ro ject ing e nds o f t h is b asep late wou ld h ave t o b e l a id when bah n e ighbours were a lready i n p lace .

T he p rec is ion a nd p refabr icat ion n ecessary t o f i t a3 .22 m l ong

b asep late b etween n e ighbours w ith s u itab ly p repared e nds i s o ut o f c harac ter w ith t he e xper ience o f t he o ther r evet men ts a nd t he g enera l t endancy a t Wood Quay o f l ay ing b asep lates i n ac er ta in d irect ion , u n less i t was i n tended t hat t h is b asep late was t o b e t he l ast i n t wo l ines o f p lates wh ich c onverged o n o ne a no ther f ro m e ast a nd west . I ts ee ms t herefore a s i ft h is b asep la te w as n o t e dge h a lf s car fed a t i t s e nds a nd t hat a l l t he s carf j o in ts o f t he Wood Q uay r eve t men t b asep lates a re s i mp le t hrough s p layed s carfs . Wh i le s uch s carfs u ndoub ted ly s erved t he ir p urposes , t hey h ad l im i ted r es istance t o l atera l o r a x ia l p ressure .

T he p egs were e f fect ive o n ly i n

p rov id ing s hear ing r es istance b y p reven t ing o ne b asep late f ro m s l ipp ing o ver t he n ex t when a x ia l ly c o mpressed . T he weakness o f t h is j o in t was a pprec iated b y t he c arpen ters o f R evetmen t 2 who , r ea l is ing i t s v u lnerab i l ity t o t he p res ure o f t i des a nd f l ash f l oods , e spec ia l ly when u sed f or a t tach ing b asep la tes s o f ar o ut i n t he r iverbed , h ad t o t ake s teps t o p reven t t he p osts o n e i ther s ide o f t he s carf j o in t f ro m r ock ing i to ut o f p lace . I ft he p osts y ie lded t o r iver a ct ion , t hey wou ld h ave b eco me l oose i n t he ir b asep lates a nd i n t urn

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wou ld h ave u nder m ined t he s carf j o in t l ead ing t o t he i nev itab le c o l lapse o f t he who le r evetmen t .

S uch a c a tastrophe was p reven ted b y p egg ing a p a ir

o f s quared b ea ms o r b races i n to o pen n o tches o n t he f ron t e dges o f t he b asep lates o n e i ther s ide o f t he s carf w i th e ach b ea m p egged t o t he p ost o n e i ther s ide o f t he s carf a nd a t t he t op t o o ne a no ther where t hey j o ined t o f orm a l arge t r iang le. The t hrough s p layed s carf p ers isted i n R evetmen t 3 wh ich was b u i lt e ven f ar ther o u t i n t he r iverbed a nd i s p robab ly l a ter t han t he o thers .

E ven h ere ,

a t l east o ne p ost w as t enoned t o a mor t ise c u t r igh t t hrough a b asep late s carf j o in t . T he a bsence o f t he e dge h a lf s quare b ut ted s carf a nd t he o ther more c o mp l icated a nd e f fect ive j o in ts t hen a va i lab le t o t he E ng l ish c arpen ter ( Hewet t 1 980 , p ass im ) a nd , p resu mab ly , i n t he b et ter e cc lesiast ica l a nd m i l i tary b u i ld ings i n I re land i s d if f icu lt t o u nderstand u n less t he r evetmen t c arpen ters b e longed t o al oca l ly d er ived t rad it ion , f ro m t he r eper to ire o f wh ich s uch j o in ts h ad e ither d isappeared a l together o r were n o t a cquired a t t he t ime ( i n t he l a ter e leven th a nd t welf th c en tur ies ) o f t he a pparen t i n troduct ion o f a n i mproved r ange o f c arpen try t echn iques t o D ub l in .

I tc ou ld a lso b e t hat t he r evetmen ts

w ere u rgen t ly n eeded a nd h ad t o b e j erry-bu i lt o r t hat t he b est c arpen try was n o t l av ished o n s tructures wh ich were d est ined f or a p oss ib ly s hor t l i fe f or s om e o f wh ich t hey wou ld b e o ut o f s igh t a nd u nder water . T he p ara l le l s er ies o f r evet men ts i n t h ir teen th c entury L ondon ( M i lne a nd M i lne 1 978 , 8 4-104 ) s ee m t o b e o f s im i lar p oor q ua l ity c arpen try .

I t was o n ly i n t he f our teen th

c en tury t hat b et ter j o inery was u sed i n waterfron t c onstruct ion i n L ondon a nd b y t hat t ime D ub l in 's waterfron t was b u i lt o f s tone ( Wa l lace 1 981 , p assi m ) . T he p ers istance o f t he t hrough s p layed s carf i s impressive i n v iew o f t he k now ledge o f t he e dge h a lf i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land a nd i t s b r ief a nd s ee m ing ly i nef fect ive a ppearance i n ap a ir o f t en th c en tury j a mbs i n F isha mb le S tree t I I . T he s top s p layed s carf f ro m a r eused s h ips ' k ee l i n F isha mb le S treet I a lso f a i led t o t ake r oot i n t he l oca l r eper to ire . T he Revetmen ts :

B asep late mor t ises

The b asep late mor t ises w i l l b e c ons idered s eparate ly f rom t he t enons o n t he p osts b ecause t h ir teen th c en tury c arpen ters f requen t ly r eused t imbers i n w h ich mor t ises a nd t enons were n o t o r ig ina l ly matched . Two p r inc ipa l mort i s ing t echn iques were o bserved i n t he b asep lates . I n o ne , h o les w ere d r i l led i n ar ec tangu lar p at tern w ith a n a uger a nd t he r es idue c leaned o ut w ith a c h ise l wh ich was a lso u sed t o s quare t he s ides o f t he mor t ise .

I n t he o ther , ac h ise l

r e moved t he waste i n s l ivers , t he mor t ise b e ing s loped a t a n a ng le w i th t he c h ise l d irected away f ro m t he c arpen ter . T he f i rst method was u sua l ly p ref erred , p robab ly b ecause o f t he i nconven ience o f t he i nd if feren t q ua l ity o f me tals u sed i n c h ise l e dges .

T he a uger-ho le method o f mor t is ing h ad a l ong

a n t iqu ity i n D ub l in a nd c an b e t raced a t l east a s f ar b ack a s t he t en th c en tury . I n R evet men t 1t he mor t ises o f t he i nner a nd o uter e le men ts were most ly d r i l led t hrough t he b asep la te a nd were p egged .

Two ma in mort ises were f ound

i n t he i nner e le men t , t hose wh ich were c u t t hrough t he t h ickness o f t he b asep late t o t ake t he t enons o f t he p r inc ipa l p osts a nd t he much l ess e labora te mor t ises o r h o l lows t o a cco m modate t he e nds o f t he m idspan a r id a ux i l iary p osts wh ich were o f ten s tubbed i n to t he b asep late a s a n a f ter thought . I n o ne o f t he b asep lates o f t he R evetmen t 1e x tens ion t hree mor t ises were s treng thened

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b y t he i nser t ion , i n t he c orners , o fp egs wh ich may h ave b een d ue t o ac hange o f m ind o n t he p ar t o f t he c arpen ter who , h av ing d r i l led t oo many h o les , d ec ided t o p eg s o me t o r educe t he s ize o f t he mor t ise o r , more l i ke ly , t o s treng then t he s ides o f t he mor t ise e spec ia l ly a s t he p egs were i nser ted a t r igh t a ng les t o t he g ra in a nd p ara l le l t o t he t enons . There were o ver t h ir ty mor t ises i n t he f our s ect ions ( A t o D ) o ft he i nner e le men t o f R evet men t 1a nd o ver t wen ty i n t he o u ter e le men t o f t he s a me s pan . I n Dt he p r inc ipa l b asep late o f t he i nner e le men t c arr ied s even p osts , e ach s et i n a mort ise wh ich wen t r igh t t hrough t he b asep late . F our w ere p egged t ransverse ly a nd f our h ad t i ny c hocks o r wedges p laced a round t he t enons t o p reven t t he p ost f ro m r ock ing .

Wh i le t he ma jor i ty o f t he mor t ises i n R evet-

men t 1 were o rd inary r ec tangu lar h o les , an u mber o f o ther mor t ise t ypes were a lso n o ted e spec ia l ly i n t he o u ter e le men t .

I n s ect ion B , t hese i nc lude

c hase mor t ises w i th o ne v er t ica l a nd o ne s lop ing e nd , made b y c u t t ing o ne e nd v er t ica l ly , t he t wo s ides a long t he g ra in a nd s p l itt ing o f f l ayers o f w ood a long t he g ra in , t he c h ise l s trokes s topp ing a t t he v er t ica l e nd .

T here w ere

a lso n o tch mor t ises c ut o ut o f t he s ide o f t he b asep late o n wh ich w ere v is ib le t he a uger h o les b y wh ich t he mor t ises were p roduced . More amb i t ious mor t ises i nc lude a s unken mor t ise a nd a h aunch t enon mor t ise . T he f ormer was a mor t ise s unk t o ad ep th o f 2 0 mm b e low t he f ace o f t he b asep la te i n o rder t hat a s hou ldered p os t c ou ld s i t s nug ly i n t he s unken a rea w i th t he o uter f ace o f t he u pr ight a l igned f l ush w ith t he o u ter f ace o f t he b asep la te . A lthough t h is mort ise was impress ive l ook ing a nd we l l c u t o ut , i n r ea l ity i tw as n e ither s quare n or p ara l le l w ith in i t se lf n or t o t he a l ignmen t o f t he b asep la te .

I t s

t rue p o ten t ia l was misunderstood b y t he c arpen ter who l ef t o pen i t s n or thern f ace ( t he d irect ion i n wh ich t he p ost wou ld h ave l eaned f rom t he p ressure o f i n f i l l ) i nstead o f t he o ppos ing f ace . s isted o fa n i nver ted

The mor t ise f or t he h aunch t enon c on-

L '-shaped c av ity i n wh ich i t was i n tended t hat t he l ongest

p ar t o f t he t enon wen t r igh t t hrough t he b asep la te w ith t he s hou lder o r h aunch a cco m modated i n t he s ha l low h a lf o f t he mor t ise .

T here were mor t ises t o

t ake c en tra l t enons , ac en tra l t enon h aunched a t e ach e nd a s we l l a s an o tch t enon i n t he o uter e le men t o f s ect ion C . R evet men t 2h ad a n u mber o f o rd inary p egged mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts b y wh ich t he p osts were s ecured t o t he b asep lates .

The a r ms o f t he l arge

t r iang le b u i lt t o p ro tect t he s carf j o in t o n t he western b asep la tes w ere a cco m modated i n n otch mort ises . T he mor t ises o n t he b asep late w ith t he p ro ject ing e nds ( no t q u i te e dge h a lved ) t o wh ich r eference h as a lready b een made a re wor thy o f n ot ice a s t hey s urpass a ny o f t he o ther mort ises o n t he s i te .

T h is b asep late h ad a n a rrange men t o f t hree v er t ica l a nd t hree h or izon ta l

mor t ises i n t he s a me p laces— t he f ormer f or t he p ost t enons a nd t he l a t ter f or t he t enons o f s ubs id iary b asep lates . T he r esu l tan t mor t ise was 'L 'shaped w ith n e ither t he v ert ica l n or t he h or izon ta l b ore g o ing r igh t t hrough t he b asep late .

The a rrange men t o f t he mor t ises i n t h is way s uggests t ha t t h is b ase-

p late may b e ar eused t imber , p oss ib ly a f l oor j o ist , wh ich may a lso h e lp e xp la in t he e nd p ro ject ions . I ti s i n terest ing t o r ef lect t hat t he s unken mor t ise i n R evet men t 1 was a lso more a ppropr iate t o h ous ing h or izon ta l l oad-bear ing me mbers s uch a s f l oor j o ists .

B o th t imbers a lso h in t a t t he p resence o f

b et ter q ua l ity c arpen try i n D ub l in o u ts ide o f t he w aterfron t a rea .

T he

a ppearance o f d oub le mor t ises o f t he t ype j ust d escr ibed mark a n i mprove men t

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F ig.

1 5.4

S ect ion D , Revetment 1 s how ing s ubs id iary b asep la te h aunched a nd f i tted i n ah or izonta l mort ise t o o ne s ide o f t he v er t ica l mortise. 1 3 th c entury. Wood Quay.

2 81

I

J .

-

3

\ \ \

2 82

f ro m t he mor t ises b y wh ich t he s ubs id iary b asep lates were a t tached t o t he b asep late o f t he D s ect ion o f R evetmen t 1 where t he e nds o f t he s ubs id iar ies were h aunched a nd f i t ted i n h or izon ta l mor t ises s l igh t ly t o o ne s ide o f t he v ert ica l mor t ises f or t he p ost t enons ( F ig . 1 5 .4 ).

T h is improve men t c oup led

w i th t he more f requen tu se o f n otch mor t ises a nd t he d iscovery i n t he s a me v ic in ity o fb ox t enons a lso o n ar eused t imber s how t hat b et ter mor t is ing w as a va i lab le t o t he b u i lders o f R evetmen t 2 , e i ther b ecause t hey w ere r eus ing t imbers o r , l ess l i ke ly , t he ir r eperto ire w as n o t l oca l ly d er ived . T he e ighteen mort ises o f t he e ast-west b asep late s er ies o f R eve t men t 3a re a l l o rd inary p egged mor t ises . T he Revetmen ts :

P osts a nd t he ir t enons ( F ig . 1 5 .5 )

Wh i le t he ma in b asep lates a re h eavy , s tra igh t a nd n ice ly s quared t he p osts v ary i n s tandards o f f i n ish a nd i n s can t l ing . a re s im i lar i n e very d e ta i l ;

I n f act , n o t wo p osts

t hey a re h eavy i n o ne a rea a nd l ight i n a no ther ,

t he p r inc ipa l p osts o f Db e ing much h eav ier t han t hose i n B .

Whereas t he

m idspans i n Da re f i t ted i n t he s a me way a s t he p r incpa ls a nd a re o f s im i lar s ize , t he m idspans i n Ba re l i ght a nd v ery p oor ly f i t ted t o t he b asep la te w i thou t t enons , t he mor t ise b e ing a mere h o l low . Most o f t he p r inc ipa l p osts i n Ba nd D a re s quared w ith a n a xe t o an eat s ect ion t hough s o me o f t he p osts i n Ba re l i ght ly t r im med h a lf-round s p l i t l ogs .

T he p os ts o f t he o u ter e le men t

i n Ca nd D a re h eavy a nd we l l s quared t hough t hose i n C may b e r eused a s t hey s ee m u nsu ited t o t he mor t ise t o wh ich t hey a re f i xed . L ike t he b asep la te mor t ises o f t he i nner e le men t o f R eve tmen t 1 wh ich were o rd inary mor t ises , s o t he t enons o f t he p r inc ipa l p osts f i t ted i n t he m were u sua l ly b are-faced a nd p egged . T he b ases o f t he m idspan a nd a ux i l iary p osts were u sua l ly t h inned d own w ith a n a xe a nd were n ot p roper ly t enoned , merely s tubbed i n to b ad ly s quared h o l lows a s a n a f ter though t .

A s w i th t he

mor t ises o f t he o uter e le men t o f t h is r evetmen t s o a lso t he t enons t ended t o b e more v ar ied a nd amb it ious a nd i nc luded p osts w ith c en tra l t enons a nd c en tra l t enons w i th h aunches o n e i ther e nd . S o s e ldo m d id t he mor t ise a nd t enon s hapes o f t he o uter e le men t o f R evetmen t 1 match t ha t many o f t he t imbers must h ave b een r eused . T h is was n o t t he c ase i n S ec t ion D i n wh ich t he mor t ise a nd t enons were s o we l l j o in ted t hat p egs were h ard ly u sed a t a l l . E ach o f t he u pr igh ts o n t he i nner e le men t o f Di s b are f ace t enon j o in ted , t he most e astern o ne a lso b e ing h aunched . T he b arefaced t enon o f t he o uter e le men t h ad i t s f ace t o t he n or th f ac ing t he f orce o f t he r iver j ust a s i t s n e ighbours o n t he i nner e le men t were p os it ioned i n t he o ppos ite way t o t ake t he f orce o f t he i n f i l l . T h is o p t i mu m a pp l icat ion o f j o inery t o t he p rob le ms o f p ressure was u nusua l f or t he r evet men t b u i lders b ut i n k eep ing w i th t he g enera l ly h igher q ua l ity o f work i n t h is s ec t ion o f t he r evetmen t . The Revetmen ts :

s uppor t ing b races ( F ig . 1 5 .6 )

I n R evet men t 1t he s uppor t ing b races a re c ompe ten t ly f i tted i n D where t hey a re f i t ted t o s ubs id iary b asep lates a nd a re s tronger t han t hose i n B where t hey were f i xed a t t oo s teep a n a ng le . T he t ops o f t he s uppor t ing b races were e ach t enoned i n to a mor t ise o n t he o u ter f ace o f ap ost a nd t he b ases e ach i n to a s lop ing mor t ise ( where t here was a s ubs id iary b asep la te ) , o r , i n i t s a bsence , b u t ted i n to t he f oreshore g rave l . I n t he l a t ter a rrange men t , s hor t

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_ . •

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s takes o r p osts were u sua l ly d r iven i n to t he g round a t t he f ron t o r r iverwa .rd s ide o f t he ma in b asep late a s we l l a s a t t he b race h ee l .

I n c ases where t here

were s ubs id iary b asep lates , as take was d r iven t hrough a n o u ter mor t ise t o h o ld t he r evet men t f ro m s l id ing ; t he i nner mor t ise was t o r e ta in t he t r iangu lar t enon a t t he b otto m o f t he b race . Wh i le t he s tandard o f workmansh ip i s g enera l ly b e t ter i n t he s ect ions f i t ted w i th s ubs id iary b asep la tes , i ti s l ike ly t hat b o th methods u sed i n r eta in ing b race h ee ls d es igned t o meet d i f feren t n atura l c ond it ions . One o ft he b race h ee ls i n s ect ion B w as s et i n to a s hor t l og o r h ee l-p late . T h is was w eakened b y t he a bsence o f ah aunch o n t he b race t o b ear o n t he h ee l-p late mor t ise .

I n Bt he t enons a t t he b race t ops

were c u t o f f a t r igh t a ng les t o t he u pr igh t wh i le i n Dt he t enons were c ut o f f a t r ight a ng les a t b o th e nds o ft he b race .

T hose a t t he b o t to m were t r iangu lar

a nd h ad a v ert ica l f ron t f ace wh ich s at s nug ly a ga inst t he s tra igh t e nd o f t he s lop ing mor t ise i n t he s ubs id iary b asep late i n to wh ich t hey were f i t ted .

T he

t enons a t t he t op o f t he b races i n s ect ion D were f rustum s haped w ith a l eve l u pper f ace wh ich s a t t ight ly i n to t he mor t ise i n t he f ace o ft he p os t . The t i ght f i t o f t he b races t o t he p os ts a nd t he b asep lates i n Ds uggests p refabr ica t ion a nd p resupposes p lann ing , measure men t a nd r epea ted f i t t ing wh ich wou ld h ave b een d if f icu lt i n water fron t c ond it ions .

U n l ike t he e astern

p ar t o f R evet men t 1 wh ich c ou ld h ave b een b u i lt o n s i te a s a t s ect ion B , t he more s oph ist icated j o in ts , we l l f i t ted b races a nd s ubs id iary b asep la tes i n D were a l most c er ta in ly p refabr icated o f f-site , p oss ib ly o n ah ard a s a t L ondon ( Hewet t 1 975 , 1 15-117 ) a nd a sse mb led a t l ow t i de . R evet men t 1 : t he b asep late g roove Ar ec tangu lar g roove ( 30 m m b y 3 0 mm ) was c u t a long t he m idd le o f t he u pper s urface o f as er ies o f s ix a d jo in ing b asep lates o f t he i nner e le men t o f R evet men t 1 .

I ts ee ms i n tended t o r e ta in t he b ot to m b oard o f e ach o f t he

s pans o fh or izon ta l p ane ls b y p reven t ing t he m f ro m y ie ld ing t o t he p ressure o f r ec la i mat ion i n f i l l . ma in g roove .

I n let g rooves r an o b l ique ly f ro m t he s outh i n to t he

T he l owest h or izon ta l b oards may h ave b een f ed i n v ia t hese

i n lets wh ich were t hen b locked o f f ( probab ly t o p reven t t he l odge men t o f water ) b y t he i nser t ion i n t he m o fn arrow s tr ips o f wood . T he n ecess i ty f or s uch g rooves u nder l ines t he d if f icu lty o f ma tch ing u neven w id th w ith u neven t h ickness a s s uch u neveness r u led o ut t app ing t he b oard i n to t he g roove f ro m t he t op . The g roove o ugh t p roper ly t o b e p os it ioned s o t hat t he f ron t o f t he b oards wou ld l i e a ga inst t he b ack f ace o f t he p osts . T he f a i lure o f t he g roove t o r eta in t he b oards w as d ue t o t he d if f icu lty o f match ing t he u neven t h ickness o f t he b oards t o t he e qua l ly v ary ing w id ths o f t he g roove a l l o f wh ich r esu lted f ro m t he l im itat ions o f t oo ls a nd t he a bsence o f p lanes . F ina l ly , i ts ee ms u n l ike ly t hat t h is g roove i s e ither a s urv iva l f ro m a p rev ious r euse o f t h is t imber o r t hat i tw as f or d ra inage a s i t wou ld h ave r eta ined r ather t han d ra ined o f f water f or wh ich i ts hou ld h ave h ad d iagonal o ut let h o les a s h ad s ome o f t he g rooves o n t he l a te e leven th/ear ly t we lf th c en tury b asep lates f ro m t he F isha mb le S tree t I I s i te .

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R evet men t 1 :

T he h or izon ta l b oards

The h or izon ta l b oards wh ich r e ta ined t he d u mped i n f i l l f ormed a n e ssen t ia l e le men t o f t he r evetmen t s tructure . The b oards were g enera l ly h e ld i n p lace b y t he p ressure o f i n f i l l wh ich was a pp l ied a s e ach b oard was p os it ioned . N a i ls were u sed s par ing ly t o a t tach t he b oards t o u pr igh ts , t he e nds o f t he b oards i n s ec t ions A a nd B b e ing n a i led t o t he p r inc ipa l p osts a nd t he c en tres o f t he b oards i n Db e ing n a i led t o t he m idspans a nd n o t t he p r inc ipa ls.

T h is

a rrange men t c o inc ided w ith t he p os it ions o f t he s uppor t ing b races i n D where t he m idspans ( and n o t t he p r inc ipa ls a s i n B ) w ere b raced . T he b oards were u sua l ly o f t r iangu lar s ec t ion , b e ing s p l it r ad ia l ly w h ich g ave t hem more l a tera l r es istance t han s awn b oards ;

t h is t echn ique i s d ue

t o at rad it ion o f s p l it t ing w i th wedges a nd c h ise ls a nd t o a n a bsence o f s aws . Wh i le u sua l ly o fu n ifor m w idth , t he b oards w ere o f more i rregu lar w id th i n Aa nd B t han i n s ect ion D .

T he t r iangu lar b oards v ar ied i n max i mu m t h ickness

f ro m 2 5 mm t o 5 0 mm . T he s tructura l ly more d esirab le method o f i nser t ing t he t he p o in ted e dge o f t he b oard d ownwards i ns ide t he u ppermost ( or t h ick ) e dge o f t hat b e low was u sed i n s o me o f t he p ane ls , wh i le t he t h ick e dges o f t he b oards t ended t o b e f i t ted d ownwards i n t he e astern p ar t o f B . C arpen try a nd e ng ineer ing : S ect ion D

t he c onstruct ion s equence o f R evetmen t 1 ,

T he a bsence o f p egs a nd p egho les f ro m t he mor t ise c heeks o f s ect ion D s hows t ha t i t was n ever i n tended t o emp loy p egs i n t he j o in ts a ssoc iated w ith t he b races a nd u pr igh ts .

I ts hows h ow c on f iden t ly t he c arpen ters c ou ld r e ly

o n t he ir j o inery a nd t he f act t hat t h is s ect ion w as a l most c er ta in ly p refabr icated means t he a bsence o f p egs c an h ard ly b e a n o vers ight .

P egs a re a bsen t f ro m

b oth i nner a nd o u ter e le men ts wh ich c on f ir ms t he ir c on te mprane ity a nd t he ir manufacture b y t he s a me g roup o f c raf ts men .

T he o n ly u se o f p egs i n t h is

s ect ion o f R evet men t 1 was i n t he b asep la te s carf j o in ts a nd i n a t tach ing t he s ubs id iary b asep la tes t o t he ma in p late . T he a bsence o fp egs a lso r evea ls t he p robab le c onstruct ion s equence o f s ect ion D :

t h is was s tar ted b y l ay ing t he b asep lates a nd t hen f i t t ing a b race

t o a mor t ise i n as ubs id iary b asep late a nd t o a n o ppos ing p ost wh ich were h eld b y ah and u n t i l t he t enons o n t he b race e nds l ocked i n p lace .

T he r esu lt ing

t r iang le w as t ightened b y t app ing t he e nd o f t he s ubs id iary b asep late s o t hat i t s o ther h aunched e nd s lot ted d eep ly i n to t he f ron t o f t he p r inc ipa l b asep late where i tw as l ocked i n p lace b y t he i nser t ion o f as o l itary p eg .

The l ocked

t r iang le c ou ld h ave s tood u na ided a nd e nab led a sma l l work force t o move t o t he e rect ion o f t he n ex t t r iang le . b e p os i t ioned .

A f ter t hat a f ew o f t he l ower b oards c ou ld

T hese wou ld b e r et a ined b y t he p ressure o f i nf i l l wh ich w as

t a mped i n b eh ind e ach b oard im med iate ly i tw as a dded t o t he a scend ing p ane l . , T he we igh t o f t he i nf i l l wou ld h ave s et t led t he u n i ts . F ina l mod if icat ions s uch a s s tra ighten ing t he p os ts a nd a l ign ing t he t r iangu lar u n i ts c ou ld b e u nder taken b efore a l l t he h or izon ta l b oards were p os it ioned a nd t he i n f i l l was s t i l l s uf f ic ien t ly l igh t t o a l low o f s uch a l ternat ions .

P o in ted s takes wou ld b e d r iven

i n to t he g round t hrough t he o u ter mort ise i n t he s ubs id iary b asep lates a f ter t he i n it ia l s et t l ing a nd b efore t he f u l l we ight o f t he i n f i l l c ou ld b ear o n t he r evet men t . S o me o f t he work force p robab ly worked o u ts ide o r a t t he r iverward

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s ide o f t he r evet men t a nd o thers a t t he i ns ide o r l andward s ide , t he f ormer t o d eal w i th t he b races a nd p osts a nd t he l a t ter t o d ea l w i th t he b oards , t he n a i l ing a nd t he j ud ic ious a pp l icat ion o f i n f i l l . The b u i lders o f s ect ion B s ee m t o h ave e xper i men ted w i th a h or izon ta l c ross-brac ing a cross t he f ron t o f t he p osts b y wh ich t hey p robab ly h oped t o k eep v ert ica l t he a ux i l iary a nd r a idspan p osts wh ich w ere s o p oor ly t enoned t o t he b asep lates . T he e v idence f or t h is c o mes f rom t he p a irs o f p egs s i tua ted a bou t a metre a bove t he t op o f t he b asep la tes wh ich s urv ived i n s even c onsecut ive p osts , t he c ross-brace o r whatever t hey w ere mean t t o a t tach e ither n o th av ing s urv ived o r n ever h av ing b een e rected . I n R evet men t 2o ne o f t he most impress ive p ieces o f e ng ineer ing r e lated t o t he p rotect ion o f t he v u lnerab le t hrough-sp layed s carf j o in t b y l ock ing t he p osts t o t he b asep lates b y means o f at wo a r med t r iang le wh ich w as p egged t o t he b asep lates a nd t he p osts . A s tructura l i nnovat ion i n R evetmen t 3w as t he u se o f p egged h or izon ta l t i e-backs , b y wh ich a h or izon ta l s haf t was p erf orated a t e i ther e nd t o r e ta in t wo c ross me mbers o ne o f wh ich was p egged t o t he g round o n t he l andward s ide where i tw as s ubsequen t ly s ub merged i n i nf i l l b eh ind t he r evet men t a nd t he o ther a t t he r iverward s ide o f t he r evetmen t wh ich was t o b ear a ga inst i t . Th is d ev ice i s p ara l le led a t t he C usto m H ouse , L ondon ( Tat ton B rowne 1 974 , 1 30 a nd f ig . 1 2 ) a nd b y a more a dvanced v ar ian t a t r evet men t S 7 , T r ig L ane , L ondon ( M i lne a nd M i lne 1 978 , f ig . 7 ) . T ieb acks were a lso f ound a t S edgeford l ane a nd B aker L ane , K ings L ynn , Nor fo lk ( C larke a nd C arter , 1 978 , n o . 7 , f ig . 2 1 , p . 3 5 a nd f i g . 3 5 , p . 8 1 ). I ti s wor th n ot ing t hat t i e-backs were u sed i n D ub l in s ince t he t en the leven th c entury p er iod when B ank 3 a t F isha mb le S treet Ih ad a p al isade g r ipped i n t h is manner . The s a me t echn ique was n oted i n a n e ar ly t we lf th c en tury c on tex t a t J ohn 's L ane where f ive o r s ix wooden s tays h ad c rooked e nds t o g r ip a f ence . C arpen try t echn iques a nd t he r e lat ive c hrono logy o f t he r evetmen ts I ft he c arpen try i n o ne s ect ion i s c o mpared w ith t hat o f t he o thers a nd i f t he g enera l c o mpend iu m o f t echn iques f ro m t he v ar ious r evetmen ts i s e xa m ined , i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o i den t ify t ra its o r p references w i th a reas o f t he s i te o r p er iods o f t ime f ro m wh ich i t may b e p oss ib le t o i so late d if feren t t rad it ions , i n f luence , i nnovat ions a nd e xper i men ts , a nd t o measure c hanges i n t he r eper to ire . S uggest ions o n ly c an b e made i n t hese r espects a s s ome o f t he t imbers may b e r eused a nd , e spec ia l ly , a s t he r evetmen ts a l most c er ta in ly d id n o t i ncorp orate t he b est c arpen try t echn iques t hen a va i lab le i n I re land . L ook ing f irst ly a t t he c arpen try o f t he d if feren t s ect ions o f R evetmen t 1 we f ind t hat wh i le C i s i nco mp lete , Bl ooks h aphazard , Ai s l ess s o a nd D i s o f ah igh s tandard .

A lthough t here i s a n a pparen t improve men t i n t he

r evet men t s ect ions a s t hey p rogress f ro m e ast t o west a nd e ven t hough D l ooks more a dvanced t han B t here i s n o e v idence t hat o ne was e ar l ier o r l a ter t han t he o thers .

Anyway , a s t he b asep lates o f b o th t he i nner a nd o u ter e le men ts

were l a id a s u n its a cross t he s i te t here i s a n o bv ious c on te mporan ie ty i n s p ite o f t he d if ferences i n t he s ect ions wh ich were c onstructed o n t op o f t he m . N ever the less , t he d if ferences b etween D a nd t he o ther s ect ions a re o bv ious f or whereas t here w as a g roove f or t he l owest b oards i n A , Ba nd C , t here

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w as n o s uch p rov is ion i n Da nd wh i le a ux i l iary p osts f eatured i n Bt here were n one i n D .

S im i lar ly , s ubs id iary b asep la tes f eatured i n Db ut n o t i n

Ba nd t he t imbers o f D were o f more c ons isten t s ize a nd s quared f in ish t han t hose o f t he o ther s ec t ions .

I ts ee ms l i ke ly t hat a l l t he s ect ions o f t h is r e-

v etmen t were b u i lt a t t he s a me t ime b y d if feren t g roups o f c arpen ters , p oss ib ly o perat ing w ith in d if feren t b udgets , t o t he s tandards o f d if feren t masters a nd , most impor tan t ly , t o t he d e mands o f d if fer ing g round c ond i t ions .

T here a re

h ard ly a ny t echn iques i n a ny o f t he s ect ions wh ich d o n ot a ppear i n t he o thers . E ven t he impress ive s ect ion D h as n o t echn ique w h ich d oesn 't f eature i n o ne o r o ther o f t he o ther s ect ions . I ts ee ms w iser t herefore t o c o mpare t he g enera l c haracter ist ics o f t he r evetmen ts w ith o ne a nother r ather t han t o t reat o f t he v ar ious s ect ions o f t he s a me r evetmen ts . R ev iew ing t he g enera l c haracter ist ics o f e ach o f t he t hree r evetmen ts we f i nd t hat wh i le R evet men t 1h ad o rd inary mor t ises , s loped mor t ises , s ubs id iary b asep la tes a nd ma in b asep la tes w ith p egged t hrough s p layed s carf j o in ts , R evetmen t 2h ad n o tch mor t ises , b ack b races a nd v er t ica l p egg ing o fj o in ts wh ich d o n ot a ppear i n t he f or mer . Revetmen t 2a lso y ie lded c ons iderab le e v idence o f r eused t imbers wh ich e xh ib it c arpen try o f a much h igher s tandard t han t hat a pparen t i n R evet men t 1 . Among t hese were t imbers w ith c o mp lex d oub le mor t ises , aj o in t e xh ib it ing a p a ir o f b are-faced b ox t enons a nd t imbers s uggest ive o f s carfs o ther t han t he t hrough s p layed a s we l l a s ad ev ice t o p ro tect s uch a s carf wh ich f inds n o p ara l le l i n t he e ar l ier r evetmen t .

I ndeed ,

t he d oub le mor t ise c ou ld b e s een a s at ypo log ica l d eve lopmen t o f t he s taggered mor t ise t o a cco m modate t he p osts a nd s ubsid iary b asep lates i n t he ma in b asep late o f s ect ion D o ft he f i rst r evetmen t .

T here i s ab o lder a nd more

v ar ied r ange o f t echn iques i n R evetmen t 2( a lbe it i n p oss ib ly r eused l imbers ) t han i n t he c au t ious j o inery o f R evetmen t 1 . T he f act t hat t he f or mer w as a lso b ack b raced i n c on trast t o t he l a t ter wh ich was f ron t b raced a lso u nderl ines t he g reat d if ference . Wh i le i ti s t e mp t ing t o a scr ibe t he d if ferences b etween t he t wo r evetmen ts t o c arpenters o f ad i f feren t t rad it ion w ith more a dvanced t echn iques e spec ia l ly a s Revet men t 2w as b u i lt s o f ar o ut i n t he r iverbed t hat i t migh t h ave b een f el t n ecessary t o e ngage o u ts ide c raf ts men , t h is n eed n ot h ave b een t he c ase . I ti s a lso t e mp t ing t o s ee t he more a dvanced c arpen try o f R evetmen t 2a s d er ived f rom t hat o f R evetmen t 1 wh ich m igh t b e t ypo log ica l ly a ncestra l t o i tb ut t h is i s e qua l ly m is lead ing e spec ia l ly a s l i t t le t ime s ee ms t o h ave e lapsed b etween t he b u i ld ing o f t he r evet men ts f or n ew t echn iques t o h ave b een i n troduced a nd p er fected . I ts ee ms more l i ke ly t ha t t he b u i lders o f R evet men t 2r eused a l ot o f t imbers ( f ro m t imbered h ouses a round t he e ar ly Ang lo-Nor man c i ty?) i n c on tras t t o t he b u i lders o f t he f i rst r evet men t who r e l ied ma in ly o n n ew t imbers .

A s i ti s p robab le t hat t he s ource

o f t he r eused t imbers wh ich e xh ib it s uch h igh c arpen try s tandards a lso e x isted a t t he t ime t he f i rst r evet men t was u nder taken , t he a dd it iona l t echn iques i n R evet men t 2c anno t b e a scr ibed t o o u ts ide ( or f ore ign ) c arpen ters . T he c on t inued p resence o ft he t hrough p layed s car f j o in t i n t he m idst o f t he a dd it i ona l t echn iques a l most c er ta in ly means t hat t h is r evetmen t was b u i lt b y c arpen ters o f t he l oca l t rad it ion . T he s urv iva l o f s uch a b as ic a nd o u t moded j o in t o n e ach o f t he r evet men ts a rgues f or p resence i n D ub l in o f p rofess iona l q uay b u i lders , t he c onservat ive c harac ter o f whose c arpen try h ad l ong b een t r ied a nd t rusted .

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Revet men t 3h as n o c arpen try t echn iques n ot a lready k nown i n D ub l in . E ven t he t i e-backs wh ich h ere make t he ir f i rst a ppearance i n at h ir teen th c en tury waterfron t c on tex t c anno t b e s a id t o b e i nnovat ive f or , a s h as b een n oted a lready , t hese h ave a l ong ( t hough p oss ib ly b roken ) h istory i n D ub l in where t he ir u se c an b e mon itored i n t he t en th , e leven th a nd e ar ly t we lf th c entur ies . The o n ly n ew t echn ique i n R evetmen t 3 , t ha t o fu s ing d eep ly d r iven p egged s takes i nserted t hrough mor t ises i n t he b asep lates ( ad ev ice made n ecessary b y t he c onstruc t ion o ft h is r evetmen t o n u nstab le b anked s and a nd s i lt ) c annot b e s a id t o b e v ery a dvanced o r i nnovat ive . T he l ocat ion o f t h is r evet men t e ven f ar ther o u t i n t he r iverbed t han t he o thers p robab ly mean t t hat t he p ressure o f t he r iver a nd t i des a f forded l i t t le o ppor tun ity f or e xper imen t w i th f iner q ua l i ty c arpen try . Th is g enera l r ev iew a nd c o mpar ison o f t he c haracter ist ics o f t he t hree wooden r evet men ts s hows , a lthough t hey d if fered f ro m o ne a nother , t hey were p robab ly b u i l t b y c arpen ters o f t he s a me t rad i t ion ( maybe e ven t he s a me c arpen ters !) . T h is c onc lus ion i s q ua l if ied s o mewhat b y t he s ee m ing ly n ew t echn iques i ncorporated i n R evetmen t 2 . H owever , when i ti s r evea led t hat many o f t he i nnovat ive t echn iques o n t h is r evetmen t o ccur o n r eused t imbers , i ti s o bv ious why t hese a dd it iona l t echn iques f u lf i l l l i t t le o r n o f unct ion i n t he waterfron t a nd i ti s a lso c lear t hat a d if feren t c arpen try t rad it ion f ro m t ha t a t t he waterfron t o b ta ined away f ro m t he waterfron t , p oss ib ly i n t he h ouses o f t h irteen th c en tury D ub l in .

T he c onservat ive r evetmen t c arpen try a ppears

t o h ave b een d eep ly r ooted i n t he i nd igenous t rad i t ion whereas t he o ther t rad it ion ( f or wh ich w e h ave l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence ) may h ave b een more r ef lect ive o f o uts ide d eve lop men ts . Wooden d ra ins o r j e t t ies F our d ra in c o mp lexes were u nearthed a t Wood Quay where t hey d ischarged i n to t he L if fey .

Two o f t hese were l arge ly b u i lt o f s tone b ut t he o ther t wo

wh i le a c t ing a s d ra ins a t t he e nd o f t he ir p er iod o fu se n eed n o t o r ig ina l ly h ave b een s o i n tended . A s e ach h ad n o p lank ing o r d eck ing s u i tab le f or w alk ing , a s n e i ther was b ot to med n or l i ned i n ternal ly ( i ndeed t he more wes tern e xa mp le h ad i n terna l s takes t o w iths tand e x terna l p ressure ) , a s t he u n its o f wh ich t hey were c o mpr ised were n o t j o ined , a nd o ne h ad a r igh t a ng led b end , i ti s d if f icu l t t o s ee h ow t hey c ou ld h ave c onducted l i qu id . On t he o ther h and , t he e astern s pec i men a ppeared t o i ssue f ro m a s lu ice-gate i n t he s ide o f at ank o uts ide t he , b y t hen , r edundan t c i ty wal l .

The a bsence o f s tairs ( 2 1t he L ondon w ater-

f ron t Mi lne a nd M i lne 1 978, 8 4-104) o r o f a ny o ther means o f a ccess t o t he Wood Quay r evet men ts a nd t o t he s h ips wh ich p resumab ly l oaded a nd d ischarged t he ir c argoes a t o r n ear t he m u rges t he a cceptance o ft hese l ong wooden b oxes a , s l oading j et t ies e special ly a s t hey n eat ly p unctuate t he r eve t men t s ec t ions. T hese s tructures t e l l u s much a bou t t h ir teen th c en tury D ub l in c arpen try a nd c on f ir m many o ft he c onc lus ions a r is ing o u t o f t he r evetmen t e v idence . T he e astern d ra in o r j e t ty measured u pwards o f f or ty me tres i n l eng th a nd was b u i lt i n s ix d if feren t s ect ions o f v ery d if feren t c arpen try s tandards . T here i s n o e v iden t s equence o f c onstruct ion a nd n o o ne s ect ion a ppears t o b e ad eve lop men t o fa ny o ther n or i s i tp oss ib le t o s ay f rom wh ich e nd t he

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s tructure was i n it ia ted .

S tar t ing a t t he r iverward e nd we f i nd t he f i rst

s even metres i s made u p o fp osts d r iven i n to t he g round w ith s ide p lank ing o u ts ide t he m a nd t ransverse b earers l a id f l at r a ther t han o n e dge a cross t he t op o f t he s ide p lank ing t o s uppor t l ong itud ina l p lank ing o n t he b earers . I n t he n ex t t wo metres t he s ide a nd t op p lank ing a re u nsupported . T he s econd s ect ion i s t he b est b u i lt a nd c o mpr ises e igh t metres o f wh ich e ach s ide c ons ists o fb ase a nd t op p lates w i th p osts mor t ised t o t he m a nd s pacers p laced i n n o tches b etween t he t op p la tes wh ich s upported t ransverse b oards. T he t h ird s ect ion c ons ists o f f our a nd a h a lf me tres s im i lar t o t hat j ust d escr ibed e xcep t t hat t he b ase a nd t op p lates a re f l at ter a nd t h inner a nd t he s ide p lank ing was l a id i n r egu lar s pans o f a bou t 1 .75 m . One o f t he p osts i n t h is s ect ion was f i t ted w ith a n a x ia l p eg j o in t a t t he t op a nd b o t to m s o t ha t i t c ou ld r o ta te s l ight ly u nder p ressure a nd d a mpen s o mewha t t he l a tera l f orce— as oph ist ica t ion wh ich i s o ut o f c haracter w ith t he r est o ft he s tructure . T he f our th s ect ion r ese mb les t he t h ird b u t emp loys p ack ing p ieces u nder t he b asep lates t o p reven t t he p osts f rom p unch ing t hrough t he r ather t h in b asep lates a nd p egs wh ich s ecured t he b asep lates t o t he g round a nd p reven ted l a tera l s l ipp ing . I n t he n ex t s ect ion t he t op p lates a re f l at b oards a nd t he p osts a re a l l u ndressed p o les i n t he r ound . S im i lar p o les were u sed f or t he e ast b asep late . T he s ix th s ect ion r ese mb les t he f i f th e xcep t t hat h ere b oth b ase a nd t op p lates c ons ist o fu nseasoned p o les i n t he r ound .

B o th s ec t ions

were d ecked w i th l ong itud ina l p lanks . I n c on trast t o t he d ra in o r j et ty j ust d escr ibed t he more western e xa mp le i s o fu n iform c onstruct ion w ith a l ong n or th-sou th s ect ion c onstructed a s a u n i t a nd a t r igh t a ng les a s horter e ast-west s ec t ion a lso c once ived o f a s a u n it . A lso i n c on trast t o t he o ther ( wh ich a ppears t o h ave b een b u i l t s l igh t ly e ar l ier ) t h is s tructure s howed n o s igns o f l atera l move men t . T he b ase a nd t op p lates were o f s im i lar h eavy s can t l ing , t he p osts were a l l i n t he g round . T he s ide p lank ing was f i xed weatherboard f ash ion a nd t he t op d eck ing c ons isted o f l ong itud ina l p lanks s uppor ted o n t ransverse b earers . Most o f t he t imber was n ew ly c onver ted s pec ia l ly f or t h is j ob , a n e xcept ion b e ing t he r eused g rooved p osts f ro m a p oss ib le wa insco t t t o wh ich r eference h as a lready b een made . T he workmansh ip h ere i s o f f ar h igher q ua l ity t han i n t he o ther d ra in/ j et ty t hough b oth a re c o mpr ised o f t he s a me e le men ts—base a nd t op p la tes , p osts , t ransverse b earers , s ide p lank ing a nd d eck ing—and were t he p roducts o f c arpen ters who n o t o n ly u sed s im i lar t echn iques b ut a lso b e longed t o t he s a me e ng ineer ing mou ld .

T he s im i lar it ies b e tween t hese s tructures a nd t he

c arpen try o f t he r evet men ts i s s tr ik ing .

T hey u ndoub ted ly b e longed t o t he

s a me t rad it ion a s s hown b y t he u se o f t he t hrough s p layed s carf i n s p l ic ing t he b asep lates o f t he western e xa mp le . R eused t imbers s uggest ive o fh igher q ua l ity c arpen try An u mber o f d isturbed t imbers a nd r eused t imbers f ound i ncorpora ted o n o r n ear R evet men t 2a re s uggest ive o f more a dvanced t echn iques t han t hose emp loyed i n t he r evetmen ts . T he most impress ive o f t hese c omes f ro m a d iscarded c orner p ost ( o f at imber f ramed dwe l l ing? ) a nd e xh ib its a p a ir o fb are-faced b ox t enons ( C . A . H ewet t , p ers . c o mm . 1 980 ).

T h is h in t

o f s oph ist icated j o inery c an b e c ons idered w ith t he a ppearance o f as unken mor t ise j o in t i n R evet men t 1 wh ich i s at ype u sed f or h ous ing f l oor j o ists a nd

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l i

F ig.

J

1 5.7 Dra in o r j e tty s pacers ( top), a nd t he f ram ing p osts ( centre) a nd h ow t hey m ight l ave a ppeared i n a s equence o f p ane l l ing ( bottom). 1 3t 1 1 c entury. Wood Quay.

2 9 1 .

w i th t he u b iqu it ious b ea m w ith t he p ro ject ing e nds f ro m R evet men t 2w h ich h as c o mp l icated d oub le mort ises a lso s uggest ive o f f l oor j o ists . I ft hese a re f l oor s uppor ts a nd i ft he g round f l oors o f c on te mporary h ouses w ere n ot t imbered t hese c ou ld s uggest t he p resence o f d oub le-storey b u i ld ings o r l of ts f or wh ich we h ave n o o ther e v idence f ro m Med ieva l D ub l in . T he d eck ing s uppor ts o f t h ir teen th c en tury wooden d ra ins i nc luded s quared t enoned p osts w ith g rooves i n o ne o r b o th e dges o r , i n o ne c ase , o f g rooves o n a d jacen t s ides .

T hese a ppear t o c o mpr ise t he f ra m ing p osts i nc lud ing t he c orner p ost

( t hat g rooved o n a d jacen t s ides ) o f ap ane l led s yste m , p oss ib ly a w a insco t t f ro m a h ouse a nd a re a lso r epresen tat ive o f f a ir ly a dvanced c arpen try ( F ig . 1 5 .7 ) .

S can ty t hough t h is e v idence i s , i ts hows t he u ndoub ted p resence i n

D ub l in ( houses? ) o f b et ter q ua l ity c arpen try t han t hat o f t he r evetmen ts a nd d ra ins . E ven t he c onservat ive i nd igenous t rad it ion c ou ld a t tain h igher s tandards t han t hose a t t he waterfron t . Th is i s s hown b y al ater t h ir teen th c en tury p refabr icated t imber f ra med a nd l ined p i t i n Wine ta .vern S treet ( 0 R (ordäin 1 971 , 7 7 a nd 8 3 a nd f ig . 2 6 ) wh ich , wh i le n o t e xh ib it ing t echn iques o uts ide t he r ange o f t he r evet men t b u i lder i n i t s c arefu l d eve lopmen t o f mort i ses , t enons , p egs a nd d owe ls f or s ecur ing i t s j o in ts , s hows t he p oten t ia l o f t he n at ive t rad i t ion a t i t s f inest .

I ts ee ms u n l ike ly t hat c arpen ters c apab le

o f s uch a t ta inmen ts i n t he l oca l r ange o f t echn iques wou ld h ave r e ma ined i gnoran t f or l ong o f d evelop men ts o u tside Dub l in i n v iew o f t he t rad ing n etwork a nd c hurch b u i ld ing p rogra m me o f t he t h ir teenth c entury . E p i logue :

L ater Med ieva l C arpen try T rad it ions i n I re land

T he c onservat ive n ature o f t he c arpen try t rad i t ion o f t he D ub l in r evet men t b u i lders i s n o t i n d oub t .

A lthough H enry I b rough t p refabr icated b re tesches o

o n h is 1 171 e xped it ion t o I re land ( Lydon 1 972 , 4 1 ) , whatever n ew t echn iques t hese may h ave i ncorporated t hey made l i t t le impact l oca l ly , i ft he r evet men t e v idence i s g enera l ly r e l iab le .

E ven t he e rect ion o f ap ost-and-wat t le p a lace

( i n t he D ub l in t rad i t ion ) f or t he K ing u nder l ines t he d om inance t hen o f t he c onservat ive l oca l b u i ld ing t rad it ion .

E xcavated b re tesches a s a t L urgankee l ,

C o . L ou th t hrow l i t t le l ight o n t he c arpen try b ecause o f t he i nco mp lete s tate o f t he ir p reservat ion . T he c onservat ive n ature o f t he r evet men t b u i lders i s a lso e v iden t f ro m t he l ack o f impact wh ich t he t echn iques o f c raf ts men l i ke Master N icho las d e Ande l i a ppear t o h ave h ad . N icho las w as a n at ive o f Ande l i o n t he S e ine who worked a l l o ver Eng land a nd F rance b efore c om ing t o I re land w i th K ing J ohn a s o ne o f t he "c arpen ters o f t he w ardrobe" t o p ar take i n t he K ing 's works ( Browne e t a l . 1 963 , i , 6 1-63 ) s uch a s c ast le b u i ld ing . T h is was i n A .D . 1 210 , t he v ery y ear i n wh ich R evetmen t 1w as e rected , a ccord ing t o D r . B a i l l ie 's t ree-r ing a na lys is . H owever , n ew t echn iques f ina l ly t ook r oo t b y t he l a ter M idd le Ages a s i s a pparen t f ro m t he c arpen try i n t he r oo f o f D unsogh ley c ast le , C o . D ub l in ( Leask 1 941 , f i g . 8 3 , p . 1 18-121 ) .

T he f ew s urv iv ing Med ieva l t imbers a s

a t C lara c ast le , C o . K i lkenny ( Leask 1 941 , 8 2 ) b ear w itness t o t he i n f i ltrat ion o f woodwork ing t echn iques t o p laces o uts ide D ub l in . T he f i ne c arpen try o f a s ix teen th c en tury t imber f ra med h ouse a t D rogheda ( Dub l in P enny J ourna l ) a nd i n t he c on te mporary t imber f ra med h ouses i n D ub l in ( Frazer 1 89 1 ,3 67-9) r epresen t t he h ighest k nown a ch ieve men t o f o ur c arpen ter-bu i lders i n a n u rban m i l ieu . T he t imbers o f t he u ndated b ut p ossib ly med ieva l wooden b r idge a t

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a t C ashen , C o . K erry ( O ' Ke l ly 1 961 , 1 35-152 ) i nc lude p osts mor t ised t o b asep lates , s lop ing mor t ises , s quare a nd r ec tangu lar o rd inary mor t ises a nd t he p inn ing o fb asep lates w ith l ong s takes ;

t hey h ave a g enera l a ppearance

wh ich r eca l ls t he D ub l in r evet men ts a t Wood Q uay .

P rofessor O 'Ke l ly 's

r econstruct ion o f t he l ong itud ina l t i e-stretches a t t he t op o f t he b r idge a s e dge h a lved s carfs w i th s quare , v er t ica l b ut ts was b ased o n h is o bservat ion o f t he s carf ing o f c on te mporary j et t ies i n C ork h arbour .

Wh i le s uch j o in ts

were k nown i n E ar ly H istor ic I re land i ti s d if f icu lt t o s ee h ow t hey c ou ld h ave s urv ived i n o ne a rea a nd d id n o t t ake r oo t i n D ub l in .

Apar t f ro m t hese , i t

s ee ms t hat most o f t he o ther t echn iques i n t h is b r idge wou ld b e a t h o me i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury r evet men ts i n D ub l in .

T hey f eature a r ange o f t ech-

n iques w h ich i ft he b r idge i s l ate Med ieva l o r l ater may mean t ha t a n i nd ig enous c arpen try t rad it ion w ith a n a ncestry g o ing b ack a t l east a s f ar a s t he E ar ly H istor ic p er iod n ot o n ly p ersisted u n t i l t he t h ir teen th c entury i n D ub l in b u t p oss ib ly l onger e lsewhere i n wh ich c ase t h is a nc ien t t rad it ion may h ave c oex isted w ith a ni n troduced t rad i t ion a , s u sed i n c ast les , a bbeys a nd t own b u i ld ings . D iscuss ion T en th t o Twe lf th C entur ies On p resen t a rchaeo log ica l e v idence i ti s p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish t wo t rad it ions o f c arpen try i n E ar ly H istor ic-Ear ly Med ieva l I re land .

One i s i nd i-

g enous , r ura l b ased , o f a n a pparen t ly h igh q ua l ity a nd s urv ives i n t he h or izon ta l mi l ls ;

t he o ther , p oss ib ly i n trus ive , s urv ives i n h ouses o f t en th a nd e leven th

c en tury D ub l in a nd , o n p resen t e v idence , i s a pparen t ly i n fer ior i n q ua l ity a nd i n t he r ange o f i t s t echn iques .

Th is i s s urpr is ing when t he a t ta in men ts o f

s o me o f t he o ther c raf ts ( i nc lud ing wood c arv ing a nd c ooper ing ) o f t he V ik ing Age c ity a re a pprec iated . e f fect ive .

T he e ar l iest c arpen try i n D ub l in i s s i mp le b u t

Apar t f ro m t he e n trance j a mbs , t hresho lds a nd t he a is le o r p a l lr

r evet men ts wh ich o f ten h ad n eat ly a ugered b oards o r g rooved f ra mes , t he h ouses were o f s i mp le c onstruct ion w ith t he m in i mu m o f j o inery .

T he b as ic

q ua l ity o f t h is e ar l ier s urv iv ing D ub l in c arpen try i nc luded n o tch a nd t enon j o in ts , p egged t i e-backs a nd g rooved j a mbs a nd g enera l ly p ers isted i n to t he e leven th c en tury i n s p ite o f r are a ppearances i n t he t en th c en tury o f as tops p layed s carf j o in t o n as h ip 's k ee l , at enon a nd a p a ir o f j a mbs w ith e dge h a lved s carfs , n one o f wh ich a ppears t o h ave f ound a l ast ing p lace i n t he l oca l r eperto ire . The l a ter e leven th a nd e ar ly t we lf th c en tur ies w itnessed a c hange i n D ub l in 's c arpen try marked b y a n i ncrease i n t he u se o f h eav ier s quared t imbers a nd t he f requen t u se o f g rooved b asep lates o r g round s i l ls t o r e ta in f ence a nd h ouse s taves .

As tave b u i l t h ouse w ith g rooved p osts a nd s p l i t l ogs s et o n ab ase-

p late h as a lready b een n o ted f ro m t h is p er iod a s h as t he u se o f l af tjo in ted f ra mes .

T he more f requen t d ep loy men t o f wooden b locks a s h o l lowed s o le-

p lates u nder r oof s uppor ts t o p reven t t he we igh t o f t he r oof f ro m d r iv ing t he s uppor ts i n to t he g round may b e s een a s p ar t o f t he s a me t rend .

H owever ,

t he u se o f wa l l p late s upports a long t he s ides o f h ouses t hough p reva len t i n t he e leven th c en tury c annot b e t i ed i n w i th t h is t rend o f improved c arpen tryb u i ld ing a nd h ouse-eng ineer ing a s i ta lso a ppears i n t en th c entury c on tex ts .

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T he e leven th c en tury improve men t i n D ub l in 's c arpen try , t he i n troduct ion o f n ew t echn iques a nd , e spec ial ly , t he b o lder u se o fh eav ier t i mbers i n h ouse b u i ld ing must b e v iewed a ga inst a D ub l in b ackground o f d im in ish ing d irect ly S cand inav ian p o l it ica l a nd e cono m ica l i n f luences a nd a n i ncreased I r ish p o l it ica l i nf luence , t hough t he g row ing S axo-Nor man impact o n D ub l in 's t rade a t t h is t ime s hou ld b e n o ted i n a ny i nvest igat ion o f t he o r ig ins o f c hanged c arpen try t echn iques . H owever , t he o vera l l s im i lar it ies o f t he improved D ub l in c arpen try t o t hat o f E ar ly H istor ic I re land e spec ia l ly i n t he a ppearance o f i t s f i n ish a nd i n t he r ange o f i t s t echn iques i s s tr ik ing i n s p ite o f t he c ont inued a bsence f ro m t he D ub l in r ecord o f e dge h a lf s carfs a nd mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts . O ur a ssu mp t ion t hat t hese t echn iques p ersisted i n I re land a f ter t he f l oru it o f t he h or izon ta l m i l l wh ich i s b ased o n t he mor t ise a nd t enon a s u sed i n s tone c rosses ( wh ich d o n ot e xh ib it e dge h a lf s carfs ) i s l ess t han s a t isfac tory . T he a bsence o f t he mor t ise a nd t enon f ro m D ub l in a t at ime when o ther i nd ig eneous t echn iques w ere i n troduced i s d if icu lt t ou nderstand . I t must h ave c or n et o D ub l in s o me t ime d ur ing t he t we lf th c entury a s i t was we l l e s tab l ished i n t he l oca l r eper to ire b y t he t ime o f t he e ar ly t h irteen th c en tury r eve tmen ts . T he c arpen try o f t he l a t ter i s v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he i nd igenous t rad i t ion f ro m wh ich i t must h ave b een d er ived v ia i t s e leven th/ twe lf th c en tury i mp lant at ion i n D ub l in . D ub l in 's r evetmen t c arpen try s ee ms t o h ave b een a s l i t t le i nf luenced b y c on te mporary Eng l ish c arpen try a s w as i t s p re-Nor man c arpen try b y S axo-Nor man t echn iques. The c arpen try o ft he h ouses o f Ang lo-Nor man D ub l in o f wh ich we g ot h in ts i n t he r eused t imbers a t t he w ater fron t may h ave b een d er ived o r i n f luenced f ro m o u ts ide . I ti s e asier t o a pprec iate t he impact wh ich t he n at ive c arpen try a nd e ng ineer ing may h ave h ad o n D ub l in when t he e ar ly t we lf th c en tury b r idge a nd c ast le b u i ld ing a t ta inmen ts o f K ings l ike Tur lough O 'Connor a re a cknow ledged ( 0 C orräin 1 974 , 6 8-70 ) . S uch a n i n f luence b eco mes e ven more p laus ib le when t he e x ten t o ft he c on te mporary p o l it ica l , d ynast ic ( 0 C orra in 1 978 , 3 4-6 ) a nd t rad ing c on tacts b etween G ae l ic I re land a nd H iberno-Scand inav ian D ub l in a re r ea l ised .

Anyway , t he d if ferences b etween D ub l in 's l a ter e leven th c en tury

c arpen try a nd t ha t o f t he S axo-Nor mans ( Hewet t 1 980 , p assi m ) g ives a dd it iona l s uppor t t o t he l oca l d er ivat ion o f D ub l in 's improved r ange o f t echn iques . T h ir teen th C en tury The o vera l l r ese mb lance o f t he c arpen try o ft he h or izon tal m il ls t o t hat o ft he l a ter e leven th c entury i s s tr ik ing , e spec ia l ly i n r espect o f g rooved b asep lates .

T he s a me r ese mb lance a pp l ies t o t he t h ir teen th c entury w a ter-

f ron t r evetmen ts a t Wo od Quay . T he g roov ing o f t he b asep lates a nd u pr igh ts , t he u se o f weatherboards t o p re-cu t l eng ths , t he u se o f s i mp le mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts a nd o f mor t ises c u t t hrough b asep la tes wh ich a re s uch a c haract er ist ic o f t he r evet men t were a l l p resen t i n t he m i l ls .

I ti s impor tan t t o n o te

t hat a l most a l l t hese t rai ts a re a bsen t f ro m t he e ar l iest V ik ing Age l eve ls i n D ub l in where t hey o n ly b eco me p ro m inen t i n t he e leven th c en tury . E ven t he c ut t ing o f g rooves b efore t he mor t ises i n m i l l b asep lates i s p ara l le led a t Wood Quay . T he g reat d if ference b etween t he c arpen try o f t he r evetmen ts a nd t hat o ft he m i l ls c en tres o n t he e dge h a lf s carf j o in t wh ich d idn 't f ind f avour i n D ub l in ( t hough i ta ppeared i n ap a ir o f t en th c en tury j a mbs ) where t he t hrough s p layed s carf w as u niversa l ly u sed i n t he r evetmen ts a nd d ra ins o r j e t t ies .

2 94

•

I ti s s urpr ising t hat t he h or izon ta l r evetmen t b oards w ere n o t s lo t ted i n to g rooves o n t he s ides o f t he p osts a s was t he c ase i n t he m i l ls a nd e spec ia l ly d oor j a mbs a nd r oof s uppor ts were g rooved i n D ub l in f ro m t he t en th c en tury o nwards . The c arpen try o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury r evetmen ts a ppears t o b e t he p roduct o f ac onservat ive D ub l in-based s choo l d er ived f rom a m ix ture o f D ub l in t rad it ions i n wh ich t hat a pparen t ly i n troduced f rom t he n at ive t rad i t ion a bou t ac en tury o r more e ar l ier p redom inated . worked f or t he w ater fron ts .

I tl acks i nnova t ion b u t i t

I n s p ite o f t he v ar ie ty o f mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts ,

t he p o ten t ia l o f t he ir p roper r e lat ionsh ip t o o ne a nother s ee ms t o h ave b een l i t t le a pprec iated . S im i lar ly , t he l oad b ear ing q ua l it ies o f t imbers p laced o n e dge i nstead o f o n t he f l at w as n o t r ea l ised . T he u n iversa l l oya l ty t o t he t hrough s p layed s car f j o in t i n s p i te o f r ea l ising i t s v u lnerab i l ity i s d i f f icu lt t o u nderstand e spec ia l ly i n v iew o f t he b et ter a l ternat ives t hen a va i lab le . O ther f a i l ings o f t he r evetmen t c arpenter i nc lude t he u se o f t imbers o f u nequa l s can t l ings , t he c u t t ing o f a mor t ise a t as carf j o in t , h is i nab i l i ty t o make c orners i n e i ther t he western d ra in/ je t ty f eature o r R evetmen t 3a nd h is i nab i l ity t o a pprec iate t he v alue o f d if feren t mor t ise a nd t enon j o in ts . I n o ne i nstance , t he n or thern f ace o f as unken mor t ise was l ef t o pen a t t he s ide wh ich t he p ost wh ich i tr e ta ined wou ld h ave l eaned f orward f rom t he p ressure o f i n f i l l :

The u se o f a ux i l iary p osts wh ich were b ad ly mor t ised t o t he b asep lates

i s a lso e v idence o fb ad work mansh ip a s t he b oards o ught p roper ly t o h ave b een c ut t o b ear c orrect ly o n t he p r inc ipa l p osts o r t he l a t ter s hou ld h ave b een s paced a ccord ing t o t he a va i lab le b oard l eng ths . T he i nconsistency i n t he t h ickness o f t he p osts was p robab ly d ue t o t he s upp ly a nd a va i lab i l ity o f t imbers a nd a d esire t o u se a l l p ar ts o f t he c on tracted t rees .

T he d if f icu l ty

o f f i t t ing a xe f inished t imbers o f v ary ing t h ickness t o p oor ly c h ise l led g rooves o fu nequa l w idth i s e p i to m ised b y t he u se o f i n le t g rooves t hrough wh ich i t was i n tended t o f eed t he h or izon ta l b oards i n to t he ma in g roove a nd was d ue t o t he l ack o f p roper e qu ip men t . F or a l l t he ir f a i l ings , t he r evet men t c arpen ters were c apab le o f h igh q ua l ity a ch ieve men ts .

I n t h is r egard , s ect ion D o f R evetmen t 1i s n o tewor thy

f or h ere t he b race t enons l ocked s o t igh t ly i n to t he p ost a nd s ubs id iary b asep late mor t ises t hat t he j o in ts d idn 't h ave t o b e p egged . T h is s hows t he q ua l i ty o f t he t enon s hou lders a nd t he s u i tab i l ity o f t he b race a ng les t o t he s tress o f t he i n f i l l . T he p oss ib i l ity t hat t h is s ect ion was p refabr icated o f f-s i te a lso b ears w itness t o t he h igh q ua l ity work . E ven t he mor t ises t hough o f ten p oor ly s e t o ut a re u sua l ly made t o ah igh s tandard w i th many d i f feren t t ypes o f j o in t b e ing t r ied .

T he p o ten t ia l o f t h is t rad i t ion a ch ieved i t s f i nest e xpress ion i n

t he f ra me f or t he Winetavern S treet p it . The d ra ins o r j e tt ies were a l most c er ta in ly b u i l t b y t he s a me c arpen ters a s d id t he r evet men ts o r , i fn ot , b y c arpen ters i n t he s a me ( l oca l ) t rad i t ion . T he b et ter b u i l t o f t hese s tructures h ad i t s u pr igh t t ops t apered r ather t han t enoned wh ich mean t i tp unched t hrough t he t op p lates . p osts i n t he r ound a s u pr ights .

I ta lso u sed u nseasoned

I ts hows a h igh s tandard o f workmansh ip i n

i t s u se o fu n ifor m p la n k ing , i t s u se o f b ase a nd t op p lates o f s im i lar s o l id s ec t ion a nd i t s s carf ing . The o ther d ra in/ jet ty h ad s evera l e xa mp les o f t he r ecurr ing f a i l ing o f t he t h irteen th c en tury c arpen ter , t he u se o f l oad b ear ing t imbers o n t he f l at r ather t han o n e dge . L ike t he r evetmen ts , t he d ra ins/ 2 95

j et t ies h ave g ood a nd b ad s tandards o f workmansh ip , o f ten w ith in f eet o f e ach o ther ! C onc lusion On p resen t e v idence i ti s p ossib le t o d ist ingu ish a n umber o f t rad it ions a nd c urren ts o f i nf luence i n I r ish c arpen try b efore A .D . 1 500 . I ts ee ms t hat t he h igh s tandard a t ta ined b y t he n at ive c arpen ters i n t he E ar ly H istor ic p er iod p ers isted i n a reas o u ts ide t he t owns u n t i l t he med ieva l p er iod . T h is i nd igenous t rad it ion F ee ms t o h ave b een o f ah igher a nd d if feren t q ua l ity t o t hat u sed i n D ub l in i n t he t en th a nd e ar ly e leven th c entur ies , a t l east s o f ar a s o ur p resen t e v idence g oes . I ti s s urpr is ing t hat t he c arpen ter-bu i lders o f Dub l in were s o l i t t le i nf luenced b y t he n at ive ' schoo l '. I ti s o n ly a s t he e leven th c entury wore o n t hat t he c arpen try o f Dub l in improved w i th t he i n trod uc t ion o fn ew t echn iques a nd t he b o lder u se o f l arge g rooved t imbers. I ti s p ossib le t hat t h is c hange o ver i s d ue t o Dub l in 's i ncreasing c on tact w i th t he c oun trys ide a nd t o t he f ac t t hat t he c i ty was n ow r u led b yn at ive K ings o r t heir a ppo in tees.

I ts ee ms t hat t h is mix ture o f n at ive a nd ' V ik ing ' a ge c arpen try

f l our ished f or q u i te s o me t ime a s i ti s a l most c er tain ly c arpenters o ft h is t rad i t ion who b u i l t t he wa ter fron ts o f Dub l in 's t h ir teen th c entury Ang lo-Norman d ocks ide . T hese s ee m t o b e c loser i n c harac ter t o t he h or izon ta l mils t han t o t he a t ta in men ts o f t he c on te mporary Ang lo-Nor man c arpen ter .

Th is i sn o t

t o s ay t hat t he l at ter d idn 't h ave a n impac to n t he c arpen try o f Dub l in ( and t he o ther t owns a nd c as t les?) .

T he f u l l we igh t o f t h is i n f luence c an b e s een i nt he

t imber f ra med h ouses o f l a ter medieval Dub l in a nd Drogheda a nd may b es t b e a pprec ia ted o n t he o n ly s urv iv ing I r ish medieva l r oof , t he l ater f our teen th c en tury e xa mp le a t Dunsogh ley , C o . Dub l in . T he d eep-roo ted s turdy c arpen try o f t he i nd igenous t rad it ion may a lso h ave f l our ished u n t i l med ieva l t imes i ft he C a ,shen , C o . K erry b ridge c an b e a scr ibed t o t hat p er iod .

A cknow ledge men ts Iam g ratefu l t o D r . A . T . L ucas , f ormer D irec tor o f t he N at ional Museu m o f I re land f or a l low ing me t o r efer t o t he h or izon ta l m i l ls i n a dvance o f h is f or thco m ing c orpus a s we l l a s f or a dv ice a nd d iscuss ion o n t h is t op ic . T hanks a re a lso d ue t o P ro fessor M . J . O 'Ke l ly a nd Mr . M . A . Monk f or s how ing me t he L it t le I s land m i l l t imbers .

Iam e spec ia l ly t hank fu l t o Mr . T ho mas H ea ly

J nr ., C appagh , Askeaton , C o . L i mer ick f or work ing a t Wood Q uay a nd i n troduc ing me t o c arpen try t echn iques a nd t erm ino logy . A s f ar a s p oss ib le Ih ave t r ied t o c onfor m t he t er m ino logy t o t hat o f t he I nst itute o f B r it ish S tandards ( BS 5 65 :

1 978 ) a nd t o t hat emp loyed i n t he c arpen try s tud ies o f med ieva l

wa r ,erfron ts a s p ub l ished b y C . A . H ewet t a nd G us tav M i lne .

Iam a lso i ndebted

t o D r . S ean McGra i l , Dr . M ichae l B a i l l ie , F inbar McCorm ick , Noe l D unne , J ohn B arber , P atr ick H o l land , C on le th Mann ing a nd e spec ia l ly t o S ean O 'Re i l ly ( f or t he d raw ings ) a nd t o S iobhän D enner ( f or h er t yp ing ) .

2 96

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An

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2 98

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2 99

1 6.

WOODEN ARTIFACTS FROM THE EXCAVATION OF THE MED IEVAL C ITY OF CORK M . H ur ley

S u mmary T here a re a pprox i mate ly 2 00 w ooden a r t ifacts f ro m med ieva l C ork c i ty , t he ma jor ity o f t he m b e ing o f 1 3th c en tury d ate . Mos t o f t he t yp ica l r ange o f med ieva l wooden o b jec ts a re p resen t , a s w e l l a s more u nusua l o b jects s uch a s k n ives , t un ing p egs , e tc .; a lso a n u mber o f o b jects whose f unc t ion i s u nc lear .

t here a re

T he t echn iques o f manufacture h ave b een d iv ided i n to s ix c ategor ies , e ven t hough a n u mber o f t echn iques may h ave b een u sed i n t he manuf acture o f a ny o ne o b ject .

Wh i le t he t echn iques o f s aw ing , c arv ing ,

n otch ing a nd d r i l l ing a re b as ic a nd e asi ly a cqu ired s k i l ls , Ia rgue t hat l a the-turn ing a nd s tave b u i ld ing was t he work o f p rofess iona l c raf ts men .

Excavat ions i n t he med ieva l c i ty o f C ork were c arr ied o ut b etween 1 974 a nd 1 976 .

T he work was d irected b y Mr . D er mo t Twoh ig .

The a rea e xca-

v ated was s l ight ly l ess t han o ne a cre a nd t he a verage t h ickness o ft he s trat if ied d eposits w as 5 m t o 7m . i nvest igated :

T hree ma jor a reas o f t he med ieva l c i ty w ere

t he C o l lege o f H o ly T r in ity - C hr istchurch ( bu i lt i n 1 482 ) , t he

med ieva l a nd p ost- med ieva l s treet f ron tage o f S ou th Ma in S treet , a nd p ar t o f t he med ieva l t own w a l l a nd o ne o f i t s wa l l t owers c a l led H opewe l l C ast le . The s tructures a nd a r t ifacts wh ich w ere u ncovered v ary i n d ate f ro m t he t h ir teen th c en tury t o t he p resen t d ay .

T he t h ir teen th c en tury h or izons were

we l l p reserved , a nd t he ma jor i ty o f t he a r t ifacts wh ich a re d escr ibed h ere c a me f ro m t hese l ayers ( Twoh ig 1 974 , 1 975/76 ) .

The f i nds i nc lude b oth

n at ive a nd impor ted w ares , meta l o b jec ts , worked l ea ther , b one a nd wood . T he med ieva l t rade o f t he c i ty i s e v idenced b y impor ted p o t tery , o f wh ich t he b u lk i s made u p o fH am G reen Ware ( s . 4 0% ) a nd S a in tonge ware ( s . 4 0% ) . The r e ma in ing c . 2 0% i nc ludes p o t tery f ro m S carborough , R ouen a nd P af frath , w ith p oss ib ly o n ly a sma l l p ercen tage o f l oca l ly made p o t tery . h as b een d ated t o t he t h ir teen th a nd e ar ly f our teen th c en tur ies .

T h is p o t tery B y c ross-

r eference w ith t h is a sse mb lage t he wooden o b jects i l lustrated h ere h ave b een p laced i n at h ir teen th c en tury c on tex t . T o j udge b y t he l arge amoun t o f s tructura l t imbers u sed i n h ouses , p athways a nd d ra ins i n med ieva l C ork , w e c an s ee t hat wood was a p len t ifu l a nd r ead i ly a va i lab le r aw mater ia l. T here a re a pprox i mate ly 2 00 a r t ifacts o f worked wood f ro m t he e xcavat ion a nd a v ery w ide r ange o f o b jects a re r epresen ted . 3 01

1

5

6

8

7

4

1 7 • 1 0

1

• I

F ig .

•

•

•

•

1 0 cm

1 t1i I i I II

1 6.1

1 8

e f i t m ü n f l i i l l i tf

Carved wood : 1 -6 p egs , 7c arved a n ima l h ead, 8 c omb, 9b arre l s topper, 1 0-14 p ins, 1 5-17 s pind les, 1 8 n o tched o b ject o f unknown f unct ion. S ca le 1 : 2.

3 02

Many o f t he o b jects were o f s uch a b asic f orm t hat l i t t le s k i l l wou ld h ave b een r equ ired i n t he ir manufacture . I n f act t hese o b jects w ere s o e as i ly made t hat t hey were p robab ly r ead i ly d iscarded ( F ig . 1 6 .1 , N os. 1 -6 ) . A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le i s ah igh ly d eve loped p rec is ion t echno logy , f or whose manufac ture a ,h igh d egree o f s k i l l wa ,s n ecessary , wh ich i nc ludes b o th l athe t urned a nd s tave b u il t v essels a nd f ine ly c arved o b jec ts . Apar t f ro m t he c ruder c arved o b jects t he ma jor ity o f t he a r t ifacts a re s uch t hat i n manufactur ing t he m t he c raf ts men a ppear t o h ave h ad i n m ind a s tandard mode l f or t he o b ject , wh ich d ic tated b o th t he s hape i tw ou ld t ake a nd t he t echn ique u sed i n manu facture . C ons ider ing t he h igh l eve l o f c raf ts mansh ip , a nd f a ir ly c ons isten t u n ifor m ity i tm igh t we l l b e t hat a n umber o f c raf ts men were f u l l t ime wood-workers mass p roduc ing o b jects s uch a s s taves a nd b ow ls . I tc ou ld b e t hat many o b jects were t he o n ly o nes o f t he ir k ind , b e ing made o n ly when a s pec if ic n eed a rose ( F ig . 1 6 .1 , N o . 7 ) The worked wood may b e d iv ided i n to s ix c ategor ies o n t he b as is o f t hese s pec ia l ized t echn iques . 1 .

S aw ing

2 .

C arv ing

3 .

N o tch ing

4 .

D r i l l ing

5 .

S tave b u i ld ing

6 .

L athe t urn ing

S aw ing There i s v ery l i tt le e v idence f or t he u se o f as aw i n t he manufacture o f wooden a r t ifacts .

I n af ew c ases s aws w ere u sed t o c ut wood i n to a ppropr iate

l eng ths f or s ubsequen t work ing w ith o ther t oo ls , b u t i n t he ma jor i ty o f i ns tances a n a xe was u sed f or t h is p urpose . P erhaps t he b es t e xa mp le o f t he u se o f as aw i n t he manufacture o f wooden o b jects i s t he d oub le s ided c o mb ( F ig . 1 6.1 , N o . 8 ) .

T h is i s t he o n ly wooden

c o mb f ro m t he s i te . D oub le s ided c o mbs f ro m C ork c i ty a re r are ; t he o n ly o ther d oub le s ided c o mb i s ah and led e xa mp le made o fb one . T he ma jor ity o f c o mbs f ro m C ork a re o fb one , t he l ong s tra igh t b acked v ar iety c o m mon i n I re land f ro m t he l a te n in th t o t he t h ir teen th c entury ( Reyno lds , 1 978 ) . T he d oub le s ided c o mb i s s trong a nd o f l en to id c ross-sect ion ( Dun leavy , 1 976 ) . T here i s ar ow o f f i ne a nd a r ow o f c oarse t eeth o n e ither s ide o f at h ick c en tra l r eservat ion .

T he c oarse t ee th a re a pprox i mate ly 2 m m a par t a nd

t here a re 4 t eeth p er c en t i metre .

The f ine t eeth a re s l igh t ly l ess t han o ne

m i l l i metre a par t a nd t here a re a pprox i mate ly 9 t eeth p er c en t i metre . A f i ner b lade may h ave b een u sed t o c u t t he l at ter . Av ery f i ne f ret s aw wou ld h ave b een n ecessary f or t h is k ind o f work .

A me ta l master-co mb may h ave

b een u sed a s at e mp la te t o a l low a n e ven s pac ing o f t he t eeth , b u t Iam n ot aware o fa ny o f t hese h av ing b een f ound i n med ieva l e xcavat ions . D oub le-sided c o mbs a ppear t o h ave c o me i n to u se i n I re land i n t he t we lf tht h ir teen th c en tury . They c on t inued t o b e ap opu lar f or m i n b o th w ood a nd h orn u n t i l t he m id n ineteen th c entury when c o mbs b egan t o b e mou lded i n f actor ies ( Dun leavy , 1 972 ) . Ac o mb o f v ery s im ilar f or m t o t h is o ne w as

3 03

f ound i n as even teen th c entury c on tex t i n C o . K erry ( Shee a nd O ' Ke l ly , 1 966 ) . S im i lar c o mbs s ee m t o h ave b een p opu lar i n Eng land a lso .

Bone c ombs f ound

i n f our teen th a nd s even teen th c en tury c on tex ts i n S ou tha mp ton a re v ery s im i lar , b u t a re s tra igh t s ided i n s ect ion ( P la t t a nd C o le man-S m i th 1 975 , 2 73-5 ) . Axe , Kn ife a nd C h ise l C arv ing I n many c ases , i ti s v ery d if icu lt t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he work o f a l ight wood-work ing a xe a nd t ha t o f as harp c h ise l o r ak n ife , b ecause a lthough t he t echn iques o f workmansh ip a re v ery d iferen t , t he r esu lts c an b e v ery s im i lar .

One c an s ee f ro m t he marks o n t he b o lt b racket ( F ig . 1 6.2 N o . 8 )

t hat i t was c arved w ith a n a xe , wh i le t he b ee t le ( F ig . 1 6 .2 No . 9 ) may h ave b een c arved w ith e ither a n a xe o r ac h ise l . F acets a re c lear ly v is ib le o n t he b arre l s topper ( F ig . 1 6 .1 N o . 9 ) . On magn if icat ion ( 10x ) i ti s a pparen t t hat t hese f acets were p roduced b y k n ife c arv ing . a f ter c arv ing ;

S o me o b jects were p o l ished

t he c arv ing f acets were t hereby r e moved , mak ing i t more

d if f icu l t t o i den t ify t he method o f c arv ing .

T he s p ind les ( F ig . 1 6 .1 N os. 1 5 , 1

1 6 a nd 1 7 ) , a nd t he p ins ( F ig . 1 6 .1 N os . 1 0-14 ) were manufactured i n as im il ar way , a l though a ll o f t hese o b jects a re p o l ished , i ti s more t han l i ke ly t ha t ak n ife , r ather t han a n a xe o r c h ise l , wou ld b e u sed t o c arve s uch l ong n arrow s haf ts . There i s as im ilar i ty b etween s o me o f t he wooden o b jects f ro m C ork a nd we l l k nown meta l t ypes ( London Museu m Med ieva l C a ta logue , 1 967 , 1 27-130 ; N at iona l Museu m o f I re land , 1 973 , 4 0 , N o . 1 61 ) .

I t may h ave b een t ha t wood

c arvers f o l lowed t he p at tern o f e x ist ing me ta l t ypes when c arv ing t he k n ife a nd s poons ( F ig . 1 6 .2 N os. 1 -5 ) .

I ti s e qua l ly p oss ib le t hat wooden o b jects

p rov ided mode ls f or me tal o b jects . f ro m y ew ( Tab le 1 6 .1 ) .

The k n ife a nd a l l b ut o ne s poon a re made

Y ew c an h ave a v ery u np leasan t t aste , a nd t herefore

i ti s p oss ib le t hat t he s poons were mere ly u sed f or s t irr ing a nd mix ing f oods tu f fs . TABLE 1 6 .1

S pec ies I den t if icat ion o f wooden a r t ifacts f ro m C ork C i ty

CARVED OBJECTS B o lt B racke t

* E .146 :27253

O ak , ( Quercus s p .)

G am ing p ieces

E .146 :27204

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta 1 )

G am ing p ieces

E .146 :27195

Y ew , ( Taxu s B acca ta I )

G am ing p ieces

E .146 :27190

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta L )

H and les

E .146 :27210

Y ew , ( Taxus B accata L )

H and les

E .146 :27185

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta L )

H and les

E .146 :27194

Y ew , ( Taxus B accata L )

H and les

E .1 46 :27201

Y ew , ( Taxus B accata L )

H and les

E .1 46 :27233

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta L )

H and les

E .146 :27208

Y ew , ( Taxus Baccata L )

H and les

E .146 :27233

W i l low , ( Sa l ix C aeru la )

H and les

E .146 :27249

Y ew , ( Taxus B accatal)

Kn ife

E .146 :27180

Y ew , ( Ta n is Baccata 1 . )

N eed les/P ins

E .146 :27203

Y ew , ( Taxus Bacca ta I . , )

N eed les/P ins

E .146 :27202

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta 1 ) 3 04

1

2

1 0C M

I Ii I

II1

6

F ig.

1 6.2

Carved wood: 1 -4 s poons, 8 " bo lt b racket", 9 b eet le.

3 05

5 knife, 6 , S ca le 1 :2.

7t uning p egs,

P egs

E .1 46 :27211

P egs E .1 46 :27209 P egs E .146 :27186 Mus ica l I nstru men t Pegs E .1 46 :27193 Mus ica l I nstru men tP egs E .146 :27192 S p ind les E .146 :27208 S p ind les E .146 :27207 S p ind les E .146 :27188 S poons E .146 :27205

H aze l , ( Cory lus Ave l lana O ak , ( Quercus s p .) O ak , ( Quercus s p .) Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta .1 ) Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta

S poons

E .146 :17180

Y ew , Y ew , Y ew , O ak ,

( Taxus B acca ta ( Taxus B acca ta . ( Taxus B accata ( Quercus s p .)

S poons

E .146 :27150

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta L )

U n-Iden t if ied O b jects

E .146 :27181

U n-Iden t if ied Ob jects

E .146 :27165

Un-Iden t if ied O b jec ts Un-Iden t if ied Ob jects

E .146 :27191 E .146 :27184

O ak , ( Quercus s p .) O ak , ( Quercus s p .) Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta

U n-Iden t if ied Ob jects

E .146 :27197

A lder , ( Alnus G lut inosa )

E .146 :27216

Y ew , ( Taxus B acca ta 1 .! . )

E .146 :27277 E .146 :27229

Y ew , ( Taxus , B acca ta

Y ew , ( Taxus , B acca ta

S TAVES F unne l S haped V esse l H ead w ith C arved D ecorat ion H ead/Base

A lder , ( Alnus G lu t inosa )

LATHE TURNED B ow ls B ow ls

E .146 :27153

B irch , ( Betu la s p .)

E .146 :27176A

O ak , ( Quercus s p .)

B ow ls

E .146 :27176B

B ow ls

E .146 :27156

A sh , ( Frax inus Exce ls ior ) A sh , ( Frax inus Exce ls ior )

B ow ls

E .146 :27235

A sh , ( Frax inus Exce ls ior )

B ow ls

E .146 :27174

A lder , ( Alnus G lut inosa )

E .146 :27189

H aze l , ( Cory lus Ave l lana )

C ore o f L athe T urned B ow l

* Museu m r eg istrat ion n u mber

The s poons were f i rst r oughed o u t w ith a k n ife , a nd a c h ise l o r ag ouge wou ld h ave b een u sed t oh o l low o u t t he b ow ls . t he sma l ler s poon ( Oak ) i s b ad ly p reserved .

A l l a re we l l p o l ished , a l though One o f t hese s poons i l lustrated

s hows e v idence o fh av ing b een f in ished b y f i l ing . Wh i le f i le marks a re c ommon o n b one o b jects t hey a re l ess f requen t ly f ound o n wood . T here may b e t wo r easons f or t h is :

t he f i rst i s t hat wood i s more e as i ly c arved a nd p o l ished

t han b one , t hus t here i s n o n ecess ity t o smoo then t he s ur face b y f i l ing ;

t he

o ther r eason may b e t hat i n many c ases t he o u ter s ur faces o f t he w ood a re l ess we l l p reserved t han t hose o f t he b one . Two o b jects c an b e i den t if ied a s' mus ica l i nstru men t t un ing p egs ( F ig . 1 6 .2 N os . 6a nd 7 ) . T hey must h ave b een made t o match t he y oke h o les o f t he i nstru men t .

T he e dges o f t he h eads h ave n icks t owards t he s hou lder

e nds wh ich c ou ld h ave b een c aused b y t he p ressure o f at un ing wrench . They d o n ot h ave a h o le n ear t he t i p wh ich i s u nusua l . T hese p egs p robab ly b elonged 3 06

3 4

Cm

0 F ig.

1 6.3

1 0 I

1a nd 2 b ases o r h eads f or s ma l l s tave bu i lt v esse l, 3 n et f loa t o f c ork , 4 wooden o b ject w i th c h ise l c ut h o le, 5b ow l, 6 b ase o f a s ma l l b ow l, 7 a nd 8 c ores f rom t urned wooden b ow ls. S ca le 1 :2.

3 07

0

I I I I 1 E L 1 L

1

1 0 cm 11 I

2

F ig.

1 6.4

1h ead o f ab arre l , p art o f , v esse l.

3 08

2s taves f rom f unne l-shaped

t o al ute o r af i dd le r ather t han a h arp :

a l though R i mmer ( 1969 ) q uot ing

h istor ica l s ources , p o in ts o ut t hat t he o n ly i nstru men ts i n P re-Norman I re land were t he C i thora ( h arp )a nd t he T y mpanu m (a b owed o r b eaten l yre ) . I r ish h arp p egs t end t o b e l ong : ab one p eg f rom , at h ir teen th c en tury c on tex t f ro m t h is e xcavat ion i s 9 .5 cm l ong , a nd a s even teen th c en tury b ronze p eg f ro m C o . C lare ( Rynne 1 964 , 2 68-9 ) i s 7 .4 cm l ong . ( Durha m 1 977 , 1 63-166 ;

S o me b one p egs f ro m E ng land

L awson 1 978 ) wh ich h ave b een i den t if ied a s b e long ing

t o ap sa ltery , f i dd le , l ute o r l yre a re much c loser i n t erms o f s ize a nd s hape t o t he t wo wooden p egs f ro m C ork . F or t he manufacture o f smal l a r t ifacts , c arv ing i s b y f ar t he most c o mmon t echn ique .

Wh i le i td oes n ot i nvo lve s et t ing u p a ny c o mp l ica ted a pparatus

we c an s ee f ro m t he c arved o b jects t he d egree o f a ccuracy a nd r egu lar ity wh ich c an b e a ch ieved w ith t h is s i mp le t echn ique . I t may b e n o tewor thy t hat t he ma jor ity o f t he c arved o b jects wh ich h ave b een i den t if ied a re made f ro m y ew ( Tab le 1 6 .1 ) . Obv ious ly y ew wood w as s u itab le f or c arv ing b ecause o f i t s h ard , d urab le , s trong a nd e last ic q ual it ies. N ot ch ing The b est e xa mp le o f t h is t echn ique i s a n o b ject , p oss ib ly u sed i n weav ing , w h ich i s n otched w ith a s harp k n ife ( F ig . 1 6 .1 N o . 1 8 ).

I ti s av ery s i mp le

t echn ique a ch ieved b y c ut t ing f ro m o ppos i te d irect ions . D r i l l ing An u mber o f t he wooden a nd b one o b jects h ave d r i l led h o les .

P erhaps

a" spoon b it" s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t Wood Quay , D ub l in ( P . Wa l lace , p ers . c o mm .) was u sed i n s o me i nstances .

H owever t here i s a lso e v idence

f or t he u se o f ac h ise l i n c ut t ing h o les t hrough wood ( F ig . 1 6 .3 N o . 4 ) , a nd t hrough c ork ( F ig . 1 6 .3 N o . 3 ) .

T h is l a t ter o b ject was p robab ly a n et f l oe .

S tave Bu i ld ing There a re l ess t han a d ozen s taves i n t he e n t ire a sse mb lage . t hree b e long t o af unne l s haped v esse l ( F ig . 1 6 .4 N o . 2 ) .

O f t hese

T he s taves were

p robab ly c ut f ro m l ogs o f wood w ith a n a xe , o r w i th a c leaver a nd ma l let a s d escr ibed b y C o le man ( 1944 ) . I n t h is s yste m t he c leaver b lade i s d r iven i n to t he b lock o f wood w i th t he ma l le t , t hen a w edge i s i nserted i n to t he s p l i t , a nd aq u ick p u l l o n t he c leaver s p l i ts t he p iece . T he s taves c ou ld t hen b e d ressed w ith a n a dze , o r p erhaps a t wo h and led b ack ing k n ife . E ach o f t he s taves h as a n i n terna l g roove , 8m m w ide , wh ich w as p robab ly c arved w i th a c h ise l . T he h eads a nd b ases were l ater f i t ted i n to t hese g rooves .

A s ar esu lt o f

d if feren t ia l wear t he a rea c overed b y t he h oops n ow a ppears i n r e l ief . T he me ta l h oops were 1 .5 cm w ide . An umber o f wooden h oops were a lso f ound . There a re a l arge n u mber o f d isc s haped h eads a nd b ases .

I l lustrated

( F ig . 1 6.4 N o . 1 ) i s ar ough ly s haped b arre l h ead 2 5 cm i n d ia me ter . Sma l ler d iscs 8 -10 cm i n d ia meter ( F ig . 1 6.3 N o . s 1a nd 2 ) may b e long t o t he t ype o f s tave b u i lt mug f ound b y H encken ( 1950 , 1 54 ) a t L agore C rannog C o . Meath . O ne c an s ee f ro m t he s ect ions h ow t he d iscs a re t apered t owards t he e dges t o f i t i n to t he g roove o n t he wa l l o f t he v esse l .

a

3 09

L athe T urn ing L athe-turned v esse ls a re more c o mmon t han s tave b u i lt o nes .

T h is

a lso a ppears t o b e t he c ase a t an u mber o f o ther med ieva l s i tes , e .g . Y ork ( MacGregor 1 978 ). T he ma jor ity o f t he b ow ls h ave a f l at l ow p edes ta l b ase ( F ig . 1 6.3 N os . 5a nd 6 ) . G enera l ly t he o n ly d ecorat ion i s a n i n terna l g roove , t hough t here a re a f ew e xa mp les w ith b o th a n i n terna l a nd e x terna l g roove . T he g rooves were c u t w ith a p o in ted c h ise l .

V a luab le e v idence f or l a the

t urn ing c o mes i n t he f or m o f t wo c ores o f H aze l Wood ( F ig . 1 6 .3 N os . 7a nd 8 ) . One c an s ee where t he c on ica l me ta l p o in t o f t he t a i lstock was i nser ted i n t he w ide e nd o f t he c ore wh i le t he c one t apered t owards t he b ase o f t he b ow l . I n a l l c ases t he b ow l i s t urned a cross t he g ra in o f t he wood a nd t he o uter a nd i nner s urfaces o f t he b ow l a re w e l l p o l ished .

T he wood most c ommon ly

u sed f or l athe-turned b ow ls was A sh a nd A lder , a l though t here a re s ome o f O ak , B irch a nd H aze l , a nd p oss ib ly s o me o ther woods a s we l l . C onc lus ions The worked wooden o b jects f ro m t he t h ir teen th c en tury l eve ls i n C ork c i ty d isp lay a c ons isten t ly h igh s tandard o f c raf ts mansh ip . U n l ike D ub l in ( 6 R fordä in 1 971 ) , n o a reas wh ich c ou ld b e i den t if ied a s workshops w ere d iscovered i n C ork .

H owever , i n v iew o f t he q uan t ity a nd q ua l ity o ft he

o b jects f ound , o ne c ou ld a rgue t ha t t here were s pec ia l ized c raf ts men o pera t ing w ith in t he c i ty : waste s uch a s t he c ores o f l a the t urned b ow ls i nd ica te t h is . I ti s impor tan t t o r e me mber t hat wood i s av ery p er ishab le c o m mod i ty a nd b urn ing wou ld h ave b een t he f a te o f ag reat many b roken wooden a r t i fac ts i n med ieva l t imes .

T he f act t hat , f or e xa mp le , o n ly a d ozen o r s o s taves s ur-

v ive d oes n ot r u le o ut t he p oss ib i l ity o f o ne o r an u mber o f c oopers h av ing b een mass-produc ing s tave b u i lt v esse ls i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury . C ork was o r ig ina l ly a V ik ing t own , b u t i n i t s t h ir teen th c en tury a r t ifacts Ic anno t s ee a ny e v idence f or V ik ing o r S cand inav ian s urv iva ls i n o b jec t t ype o r d ecorat ive e le men ts .

T here a re a n u mber o f t ypes o f o b ject f rom C ork

f or wh ich Ih ave n o t s een p ara l le ls , b ut i n g enera l a l l t he s tandard t ypes , s uch a s p egs , c o mbs , b ow ls , a nd s taves , manufac tured b y s tandard t echn iques , wh ich a re f ound i n med ieva l D ub l in ( Nat iona l Museu m o f I reland , C a ta logue , 1 973 ) , o r Y ork ( Wa ter man 1 959 ) a re p resen t i n C ork . A cknow ledge men ts Iw ish t o t hank Mr . D er mo t Twoh ig f or a l low ing me t o p ub l ish t h is work i n a dvance o fh is f or thco m ing e xcavat ion r epor t . Iam g ratefu l t o D r . E l izabeth Twoh ig , P rof . J . M . O 'Ke l ly , a nd Mr . P at Wa l lace f or t he ir h e lp a nd a dv ice , a nd t o D r . P at J ones ( U .C .D .) who i den t if ied t he wood s pec ies . REFERENCES C o le man , J . C ., 1 944 .

" The C raf t o f C ooper ing " ,J ourna l o f t he C ork

H istor ica l a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety 4 9 , 7 9-88 . D un leavy , M ., 1 967 .

A spects o f T o i let C ombs F ound i n I re land , P reh istor ic

t o t he S even teen th C entury M .A . T hes is , U n ivers ity C o l lege D ub l in , Unpub l ished . 3 10

D un leavy , M ., 1 972 .

" So me Co mbs F or ms o f t he F if teen th t o E ighteen th

C en tur ies" , N or th Munster An t iquar ian J ourna l 1 5 , 2 2-27. D urha m , B ., 1 977 .

"Archaeo log ica l I nvest igat ions i n S t . A ldates , Oxford",

Oxon iens ia 4 2 , 8 3-203 . H encken , H . O ' Ne i l l , 1 950.

"Lagore C rannog , An I r ish Roya l Residence o f

t he S even th t o t he T en th C en tur ies A .D . ", P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish Acade my 5 3 , 1 -247 . L awson , G ., 1 978 .

"Med ieva l Tun ing P egs f ro m Wh itby , N . Yorksh ire"

i n No tes a nd N ews , Med ieva l Archaeo logy 2 2 , 1 39-141 . L ondon Museu m , 1 976.

Med ieva l C ata logue , L ondon .

MacGregor , A ., 1 978 .

" Industry a nd C o m merce i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian

York ", i n R .A . H al l ( Ed .) , V ik ing Age York a nd t he N or th ? C .B .A . Research R epor t 2 7 , 3 7-57 , L ondon . N at iona l Museu m o f I re land , 1 973 .

V ik ing a nd Med ieva l D ub l in .

N at iona l

Museu m Excavat ions 1 962-1973 , C ata logue o f Exh ib it ion , D ub l in . „ 0R iorda in , B ., 1 971 . " Excavat ions a t H igh S treet a nd Wine tavern S treet , Dub l in ", Med ieva l Archaeo logy 1 5 , . 7 3-77 . P lat t , C . a nd Co le man-S m ith , R ., 1 975 .

_ Excavat ions i n Med ieva l S ou tha mp ton

1 953-1969 , Vo l . 2 , The F inds , L e icester Un ivers ity P ress . R eyno lds , M ., 1 978 .

" Ir ish C o mbs f ro m t he N in th t o t he Th ir teen th C en tury",

Dub l in Arts F est iva l Magazine , 1 5-22 . R i m mer , J ., 1 969 . The I r ish Hare , C la irseach n a h Eireann ,

Merc ier P ress ,

Cork . Rynn .e , E ., 1 964.

" So me D estroyed S i tes a t S hannon A irpor t , C o . C lare",

Proc . o f t he Roya l I r ish A cade my , 6 3 , 2 45-277. S hee , E . A . a nd O 'Kel ly , M . J ., 1 966 .

" A C lothed B ur ia l F ro m Em lagh C o .

Kerry", J ourna l o f t he C ork H istor ica l a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety , 7 1 . Twoh ig , D . C ., 1 974 .

" Co rk C ity", i n Excavat ions 1 974 - S u m mary A ccoun ts

o f Archaeo log ica l Work i n I re land , ( ed .) , D e laney , T . G ., B e lfast , 1 1-12 . Twoh ig , D . C ., 1 97 5/76 .

" Cork C i ty , S outh Ma in S treet ", Excavat ions 1 97 5 /76

-S u m mary Accoun ts o f Archaeo log ica l Work i n I re land , ( Ed .) , T . G . D elaney , 9 . Water man , D . M ., 1 959 .

"Late S axon , V ik ing , a nd E ar ly Med ieva l F inds

Fro m Y ork ", Archaeo log ia 9 7 , 5 9-105.

3 11

1 7 .

THE CONSTRUCT ION OF MED IEVAL DOORS J ane G eddes

S u mmary T h is p aper d ea ls w i th t he d eve lop men t o f r oves o n c hurch d oors , t he u se o f r ounded l edges a nd t he emergence o f p ortcu l l is b rac ing . I n t he f our teen th c en tury , wooden t racery d es igns s uperceded d ecorat ive i ron s cro l ls a s t he ma jor f or m o f o rna men t . T h is d eve lop men t i s a t tr ibuted t o ac hange i n t echn iques , f ash ion a nd a p oss ib le d ec l ine i n t he i ron i ndustry .

I n t h is s hor t t ime i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o g ive a r easonab le a ccoun t o f t he d eve lop men t o f d oor c onstruct ion i n t he m idd le a ges . I ns tead Ih ave d ec ided t o e xa m ine f our sma l l a spects o f t echn ica l d eve lop men t i n s o me d eta i l .

T hese

f our p o in ts a re t he d eve lop men t o f r oves , t he u se o f r ounded l edges , t he emergence o f p or tcu l l is b rac ing a nd f i na l ly t he a esthet ic c hange w hereby wooden t racery s uperceded t he s p lend id d ecorat ive i ronwork o f t he c en tra l midd le a ges . Is ha l l b e c on f in ing my d iscuss ion t o c hurch d oors f rom t he 1 1th-15th c en tur ies i n Eng land , a nd wherever p oss ib le h ave s e lected d oors wh ich c an b e d ated f a ir ly c lose ly b y d ocu men ts . F a i l ing t hat , Ih ave g enera l ly d ated t he d oor b y t he a rch i tectura l s ty le o f t he d oorway , u n less t here i s g ood r eason t o s uspect t he d oor w as a l a ter r ep lace men t , o r r eta ined f ro m a n e ar l ier d oorway . R oves a re t he sma l l i ron w ashers p laced u nder t he h ead o f an a i l t o c ush ion t he wood b e low a nd p reven t i tf ro m s p l it t ing .1 T hey h ave b een u sed i n t he c onstruct ion o f c l inker b u i lt b oats a t l east f ro m t he V ik ing Age t o t he p resen t d ay . Exce l len t V ik ing e xa mp les o f d ia mond s hape , f ro m P av iken , G ot land , were o n d isp lay a t t he r ecen t e xh ib it ion a t t he B r it ish Museu m . B oat ' m i lers ' r oves a re g enera l ly d ia mond s haped o r r ounded b u t o n d oors t hey f o l low a c lear s equence o f d eve lop men t : The e ar l iest k nown e xa mp les a re f ound o n t he n or th d oor o f H adstock c hurch ( F ig . 1 7 .1 ) . T he d oorway i s i n t he S axo N or man o ver lap s ty le , made a round t he m id 1 1th c en tury . T he d oor i s h e ld t ogether b y s lender , r ounded l edges a nd a s tea m c urved e dg ing f ra me . T he r oves a re l ong a nd c law-l ike a nd t hey c lasp t he l edge . T hese a re t he ma in c haracter ist ics o f 1 1th a nd 1 2th c en tury r oves .

C law-l ike , c lasp ing r oves a re a lso f ound a t S tap lehurst ,

R unha l l a nd S t i l l ing f leet .

T hese d oors w i ll b e d iscussed i n g reater d e ta i l b e low .

3 13

F ig.

1 7. 1 Hadstock, n orth d oor.

On l a te med ieva l d oors , r oves c ease t o c lasp t he l edges a nd a re r educed s i mp ly t o r ectangu lar o r l ozenge s haped w ashers , f or i nstance o n t he m id 1 4th c en tury n or th d oor o f S outhwe l l m inster . T he t rans i t ion c an b e c lose ly e xa m ined a t We l ls c athedra l . On t he n or th d oors o f t he n ave , b u i l t b etween 1 190 a nd 1 209 , 2 e longated c lasp ing r oves a re s t i l l u sed . On t he west d oors , b u i lt i n t he n ex t c a mpa ign b y 1 239 ,3 t he r oves a re s t i l l e longated d ia monds , s o me s t i l l c lasp ing t he l edges wh i le o thers f unct ion a s f l at w ashers . F ina l ly i n t he c hap ter h ouse u ndercro f t , b u i lt i n t he 1 250s , r educed t o sma l l f l at w ashers . o f t he m idd le a ges .

4

t he r oves a re e n t ire ly

T h is i s h ow t hey were t o r e ma in f or t he r est

I t may h ave b een n o t iced t hat most o f t he e ar ly c lasp ing r oves were a t tached t o r ounded l edges . T hese a re a lso a c om mon f eature o f 1 1th a nd 1 2th c en tury d oors , a nd s ee m t o d isappear b y a bout 1 200 .

D oors i n t he ir o r ig ina l s e t t ing

w ith r ounded l edges a re a t H adstock , S t i l l ing f leet 1 160s a nd S parsho lt , Oxon ., 1 180s . A t S tap lehurst a l though t he d oor h angs i n a1 3th c en tury p o in ted d oorway , t he r ounded e dg ing b and o n t he t op e x ter ior s hows i tw as o r ig ina l ly d es igned f or a R o manesque o pen ing . A lso , s o me o f t he r oves a nd d owe ls o n t he b ack a re s o c lose t o t he e dge , i ti s c lear t he d oor w as t r i m med t o f i t i t s p resen t p os it ion . S im i lar ly a t R unha l l , N or fo lk , t he d oorway i s o f a n i ndeterm inate G o th ic f or m b ut t he f igurat ive i ronwork s uggests t he d oor i t se lf i s e ar l ier .

On t he

i n ter ior , r eused c hevron masonry s hows t hat t here w as i n f act a 1 2th c en tury d oorway a nd t he t wo s urv iv ing r ounded l edges w i th c lasp ing r oves c orroborates t h is . T he n or th d oor a t B ut tsbury , E ssex , i s i n a1 4th c en tury d oorway b ut t here i s a ga in e v idence t ha t t he d oor h as b een t r i mmed a nd r eused .

T he t op

r ounded l edge i s n ow s o s hor t t hat i td oes n o t c over t he w idth o f t he d oor . T he i ronwork o n t he o uts ide h as b een r earranged . I ti s c lose ly p ara l le led b y t he i ronwork a t n earby S t if ford , i n a n e ar ly 1 2th c en tury d oorway . I n p art i cu lar b o th s ets o f i ronwork s hare t he s a me t i gh t ly c ur led d ecorat ive s cro l ls . S o me o f t he s i mp ler f or ms o f d oor f ra m ing r e ma ined i n u se t hroughout t he m idd le a ges a nd a s s uch a re v ir tua l ly u ndateab le b y t he ir c arpen try a lone . T hese i nc lude c ross b oard ing w ith b u t t e dged p lanks v er t ica l o n t he f ron t a nd h or izon ta l o n t he b ack , o r a ny n u mber o f r ough h ewn , r ec tangu lar l edges o n t he b ack .

S o me d ev ices s uch a s r ounded l edges a nd c oun ter r ebated b oards d isappear

a round 1 200 . B u t a t t he s a me t ime , i n t he e ar ly 1 3th c en tury , e xper i men ts were b e ing made t o f i nd a s at isfactory f ra me f or t he g reat d oors o f t he n ew s ty le G o th ic b u i ld ings . I ti s n o t p ossib le t o e xa m ine a l l t he t ypes o f s o lu t ion b u t s o me g enera l isat ions c an b e made . T he s urv iv ing d oors f ro m t h is p er iod were made w i th a n e xcept i ona l d egree o f c are a nd a t ten t ion t o d eta i l . T he f ra mes a lso t end t o b e q u i te g racefu l .

T he ma in t rends a re b est o bserved i n t he e vo lu t ion o f d iagona l a nd

p or tcu l l is b rac ing .

3 15

39- 4 , 0, 45,7 7e ;

F ig.

1 7.2

7 , -/ // 77,11,

P eterborough Cathedra l,

west d oor.

F ig .

F ig .

1 7 .3

1 7.4

Pyx Chamber, Westminster Abbey.

W inches ter Co l lege, i nner c ourtyard.

F ig .

1 7.5

W inchester Co l lege, i nner c ourtyard.

F ig .

1 7.6

W inchester Co l lege, i nner c ourtyard.

S a lt ire c ross b rac ing i s f irst f ound i n ad ateab le c on tex t i n t he n or th t ransep t o f L inco ln c athedra l 1 220-30 .

5

H ere t he p o in ts t o n o te a re t he

g enerous ly s paced i rregu lar b races w ith a g rooved p rof i le . T he g roove i s a lso mirrored o n t he e x ter ior i ronwork . An e qua l ly e xper i men ta l d esign o f a bout t he s a me d ate i s f ound a t Thorn ton C ur t is , L incs . T he e ar l iest k nown l at t ice b rac ing i s a t R ipon 1 154-81 6 a nd h ere t he c arefu l c ha mfer ing o f t he b races s hou ld b e n o ted . A t P eterborough t he b eau t ifu l ly c arved f ra mes o f t he west d oors were p robab ly made 1 193-1200 when t he G a l i lee w as b u i lt .

7

These f ra mes a re d ecorated w ith a c arved s t if f

l eaf c ap i ta l i n t he c en tre a nd e ach n a i l h as a s pec ia l ly c arved s ea t ing ( F ig . 1 7 .2 ) .

A bout 1 00 y ears l a ter , 1 280-85 , a t Y ork c hap ter h ouse ,

8

t he l at t ice

b race h as b een s i mp l if ied t o ad ense g r id o f r ectangu lar t imbers . With t h is d eve lop men t i n m ind we move b ack a ga in t o t he t rans it iona l work a t We l ls .

H ere t he n or th d oors , t he e ar l iest i n t he b u i ld ing 1 190-1209 ,

h ave a p or tcu l l is f ra me b ased o n aw ide ly s paced g r id a nd n eat ly c ha m fered l edges . T he west d oors c . 1 239 a nd t he u ndercrof t d oors c ha mfered l edges b ut o n a much d enser g r id p at tern .

1 250 s t i l l h ave

The most f avoured s o lut ion was n ow n ear ly e stab l ished .

T he f ina l s o lu t ion

was t o a bandon t he c ha m fered e dges a nd u se t h ick r ec tangu lar b races ( F ig . 1 7 .3 ) . T h is was t he t ype o f d oor i nsta l led a t t he P yx c ha mber , West m inster , f o l low ing t he r obbery o f 1 303 .

9

T h is t ype o f f ra me w ith sma l l v ar iat ions

c ou ld b e i l lustrated w ith i nnu merab le e xa mp les t hroughout t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c en tur ies . To s um u p t he r esu l ts o f t h is p er iod o f e xper i men t , f ro m r ough ly 1 1801 240 :

l ong c lasp ing r oves c hanged t o s hor t , f l at washers wh i le t he g reat d oor

f ra mes b eca me f i rst i n tr icate a nd d e l icate , a nd t hen b y 1 300 were r ep laced b y ad ense r obust f ra me w ith u ncarved r ectangu lar me mbers . Th is may b e as u i tab le mo men t t o make a f ew c on trovers ia l r e marks a bou t t he p ers is tance o f t he n o tched l ap j o in t . C ec i l H ewet t h as d a ted t he o ccurr ence o f n otched l ap j o in ts i n t imber r oofs f ro m c . 1 130-1260 , a nd t he ir a pp l icat ion t o d oors t o t he s a me p er iod . "

H owever t hey a re f ound a t

Winchester C o l lege a t t he e n trance t o C ha mber C our t , b u i lt 1 387-94 , a nd t he e n trance t o Ou ter Cour t 1 394-1401 , b o th made u nder t he s uperv is ion o f H er land t he master c arpen ter . "

( F igs . 1 7.4 , 1 7.5 , 1 7 .6 ) .

Consequen t ly i tw ou ld s ee m t hat t he g ates t o P eterborough c athedra l p rec inct , w ith t he ir n otched l ap j o in ts , were made i n 1 302-7 when t he g ateway was e n larged , r ather t han f or t he o r ig ina l c onstruc t ion o f 1 177-94 a s H ewet t p ostu lated .

1 2

T he ir v er t ica l-d iagona l b rac ing c an b e p ara l le led o n a no ther

d oor i n t he P yx c ha mber , West m inster c . 1 303 . Hewet t d ated t he west d oors o f S e lby Abbey c on te mporary w ith t he ir d oorway , c . 1 170 , b ecause o f t he n o tched l ap .

1 3

H owever i th as n ow b een

s uggested t hat t h is t ype o f d ense , r ectangu lar p or tcu l l is f ra me w ith f l at washer r oves was n o t f u l ly d eve loped u n t i l t he 1 4th c en tury , s o t he S e lby d oors a re more l ike ly t o b e a1 4th c en tury r ep lace men t .

H av ing s a id t hat ,

Iwou ld l ike t o e xpress my g rat itude t o C ec i l H ewet t f or a l l t he h e lp a nd s t i mu lat ing i deas h e h as g iven me o ver t he y ears .

3 19

F ina l ly Is ha l l t ouch o n o ne o f t he most f unda men ta l c hanges i n t he d es ign o f med ieva l d oors wh ich c u lm inated i n av irtua l ly t o ta l v ictory o f t he c arpen ter o ver t he b lacks m ith .

Ih ave b een i l lustrat ing a f ew e xa mp les o f t he d ecorat ive

i ronwork o n 1 2th a nd 1 3th c en tury d oors w ithou t much c ommen t . S uf f ice t o s ay , a t t h is p er iod i t was t he b lacks m ith who p rov ided d oors w ith t he ir ma in d ecorat ive impact .

T hen , f a ir ly s udden t ly , when d ecorat ive i ronwork w as

a t i t s p eak , f or i nstance a t L itch f ie ld 1 280-1300 ,1 4 t he d e mand s h i f ted t owards t racer ied woodwork ( F ig . 1 7 .7 ) . T he e ar l iest k nown e xa mp le o f ad oor w i th wooden t racery was made f or t he S te C hape l le , P ar is 1 241-48 .1 5 T he e ar l iest d ated e xa mp le i n E ng land c o mes f rom S t A ugust ines C anterbury , 1 309 ( F ig . 1 7 .8 ) .

The p resen t d oors a re r ep l icas b u t a n t iquar ian d raw ings

s how t hey a re a ccurate c op ies .1 6 T he t ype o f t racery h ere i s G eo me tr ic , f i rst u sed i n s tonework a t West m inster Abbey i n 1 240s , s o o ne may a ssume t hat t he S t A ugust ines ' t racery was n ot t he f i rst o f i t s k ind o n a n E ng l ish d oor . T hereaf ter t racery p at terns o n d oors f o l lowed much t he s a me d eve lopmen t a s i n s tonework o n wa l ls a nd w indows . G radua l ly o n d oors t he woodcarv ing t ook u p a l l t he s pace o nce o ccup ied b y i ronwork .

A t H igha m , K en t , t he

s p lend id P erpend icu lar woodwork l eaves o n ly s pace f or a t i ny b en t d oor r ing o n t he r igh t ( F ig . 1 7.9 ) . Av ar iety o f r easons p robab ly c on tr ibuted t o t h is r ad ica l s h if t o f emphas is f ro m i ronwork t o woodwork o n d oors . S chuber t o bserved a g enera l d ec l ine i n t he E ng l ish i ron i ndustry i n t he e ar ly 1 4th c en tury , wh ich p receded t he g enera l e cono m ic d isrupt ions c aused b y t he B lack D ea th . A ccord ing t o S chuber t , t he ma in c ause o f t he s lu mp w as a s hor tage o f t imber s u itab le f or mak ing c harcoa l .

1 7

F ue l s carc ity h ad t he worst e f fec t

i n a reas where i ron h ad b een mined a nd sme lted f or a l ong t ime , i n f ac t w here t he i ndustry h ad p rev ious ly b een most s uccessfu l . Even where t imber w as p len t ifu l a nd f ree , a s a t T ude ley , t he c ost o f mak ing c harcoa l amoun ted t o 5 0% o f a sme lter 's e xpenses 1 8 i n t he m id f our teen th c en tury . I n D erbysh ire , where t he f orests h ad t o w ithstand o ns laugh ts f ro m b o th i ron a nd l ead sme lters , t he i ron i ndustry c eased a ltogether i n s o me a reas . I n D uf f ie ld F r ith t here were f i ve f orges i n 1 257 , t wo i n 1 314 a nd n one i n 1 326 . I n 1 306 t he B ishop o f D urha m was a d mon ished i n t he K ing 's c our t t o p reserve h is f orests b et ter f ro m t he i nroads o f t he c harcoa l b urners .

2 0

Around L eeds

t he i ron i ndustry a l most d isappeared .2 1 I n t he t h ir teen th c en tury t here w ere f our l arge f orges i n t he F orest o f Knaresborough w ith s everal sma l l sm i th ies r un b y l or i mers a nd n . al lers i n t he v ic in ity .

I n 1 304 o n ly o ne sme lt ing f orge

r e ma ined a nd i n 1 306 e ven t h is h ad c eased , l eav ing s ix sma l l n a i l sm i th ies i n o perat ion .2 2 N o f orests r e ma ined t o s uppor t t he m . T he t wo f orges i n t he F orest o f S k ip ton i n C raven c eased i n 1 307 f or t he s a me r eason .

2 3

T he

F orest o f D ean was s l igh t ly b et ter o f f b ecause t he sm iths managed t o o b ta in t he ir c harcoa l f ro m o uts ide t he m in ing a rea , ma in ly f ro m S ou th Wa les . A lthough t he i ndustry d id n o t d ec l ine h ere i tw as n o t iced i n as urvey o f 1 270 t hat ' mu l ta ma la ' h ad b een d one t o t he f orest , a nd a t t he s a me d a te c harcoa l b urn ing w as p roh ib ited a round Ross o n Wye .

2 4

D ur ing t he p er iod o f t he p lague , t he g enera l s carc i ty o f i ron b ecame s o a cute t hat i t s e xpor t f ro m Eng land was b anned b y S tatu te l aw i n 1 354 .

3 20

2 5

T he

1 9

F ig .

1 7.7

F ig.

L ichf ie ld Cathedra l, c entra l d oor,

1 7.8

S t Augustines,

Canterbury,

west e nd.

g ateway.

F ig .

1 7.9

H igham, n or th d oor .

r easons f or t h is a re n o t g iven :

i tc ou ld h ave b een d ue t o t he s hor tage o f f ue l ,

h igh mi l i tary d e mands f or t he f igh t ing i n F rance o r a t t hat p ar t icu lar d ate , t he l ack o f sme l ters f o l low ing t he B lack D eath .

T he n u mber o f sm iths k i l led

b y p lague i s o f c ourse n o t k nown , b u t v ar ious r eferences s uggest i tw as h igh . I n 1 344 t he C ut lers o f L ondon e lected n ine men a s w ardens o f t he ir g u i ld . I n 1 349 t hey were a l l d ead a nd f i ve n ew men h ad t o b e c hosen .2 6 I n 1 355 a l l

•

a r mourers i n L ondon w ere b anned f ro m l eav ing t he c oun try 2 7 p resu mab ly b ecause t here w ere n o t e nough t o meet d e mands . A t t he T ude ley f orge , t he d efau lts o f r en t r ise f ro m 1 5s 4 d i n 1 346 t o £ 5 3 s 1 1 1/4 d i n 1 350 " by r eason o f t he p est i lence , t h is b e ing t he s econd y ear" .2 8 B u t o f more g enera l s ign if i cance i s t he r ise i n t he p r ice o f i ron , a ccurate ly d ocu men ted a t T ude ley a f ter t he p lague .

I n 1 330-33 wrough t i ron s o ld a t i s 8 d p er b loo m a nd i n

1 350-54 t he p r ice w as 3 s i d t o 3 s 9 d , more t han d oub le t he p rev ious l eve l . Ano ther c ause f or t he s hor tage o f i ron was a n ew d e mand , f i rearms , f i rst u sed b y t he E ng l ish i n t he H undred Y ears War . S evera l r oya l d ecrees f ro m t he m id 1 4th c en tury a t te mp t t o c on tro l t he move men t o f b lacks m iths a nd c oncen trate t he ir work o n t he war e f for t . However , t he o vera l l e f fec t o f t he d ec l ine o f t he i ron i ndustry c anno t b e q uan t if ied .

I n s o me a reas where i ron h ad r ecen t ly b een d iscovered , t he

i ndustry a ctua l ly i mproved d ur ing t h is p er iod , f or i ns tance i n t he F orest o f P icker ing .

2 9

E lsewhere s o me o ld f orests were s ens ib ly h arvested .

A t S t .

B r iave ls , F orest o f D ean , t he t rees were c opp iced 3° a nd s o me c leared f orests were f enced o f f f rom l i vestock t o e ncourage n ew g row th .3 1 L ast ly , i n tr icate t racery d es igns , whether i n wood , s tone o r manuscr ip ts , q u ite s i mp ly b eca me f ash ionab le a nd t hey were e as ier t o e xecu te i n wood t han i ron . T he b lacks m iths e ven tua l ly c augh t u p t echn ica l ly b u t b y t hen t hey h ad l ost t he ir p os it ion a s d oor d ecorators . They were f orced t o a bandon f l ow ing f orge we lded s cro l lwork o f t he e ar l ier p er iod a nd b egan t o im i tate c arpen try t echn iques : I ron w as worked c o ld o n ab ench w ith c h ise l a nd f i le ; mor t ice a nd t enon j o in ts h e ld b y r ivets r ep laced we lds ( Can terbury C athedra l , E astry s creen c . 1 309 ) a nd f i na l ly sm iths l earn t t o make c o mp lex i ron t racery w ith c o ld p rec is ion , i n a n a t te mp t t o emu late t he c arpen ters ' t echno logy ( Gr i l le f or t o mb o f E dward I V , Windsor , 1 477-83 .) 3 2 F oo tno tes 1 . I n s h ip b u i ld ing w ith c l inker p lanks , t he r oves a re p laced o ver t he t i p o f t he n a i l when t he n a i l i s c lenched ( s ee F ig . 3 .14 ) . F or a d iscuss ion o f 1 2th c en tury d oor c onstruct ion s ee P . A ddy man , I . H . G ooda l l e tc ., ' Th e N or man c hurch a nd d oor a t S t i l l ing f leet , N or th Y orksh ire ', Arch Archeo log ia , CV I , ( 1 979 ) , p . 7 5 f . 2 . L . S . C o lchester a nd J . H . H arvey , ' We l ls C athedra l ', Archaeo log ica l J ournal ( 1 974) , 1 31 , p . 2 03. Doors i l lustrated a nd d iscussed b y J . G eddes i n 'Med ieval Ar t a nd Arch itecture a t We lls a nd G las tonbury ' B r i t ish Archaeol og ica l Associat ion 1 981 , p p . '4 6-51. 3 . J . B i lson ' No tes o n t he e ar l ier a rch itectura l h istory o f We l ls C athedra l ', Archaeo log ica l J ourna l ( 1928 ) , 8 5 , p . 2 3 .

3 23

4 . C o lchester a nd H arvey , p . 2 05 . 5 . T he Metr ica l L ife o f S t H ugh , B ishop o f L inco ln , e d ited b y J . F . D i mock ( 1860 ) p . 3 9 . The n or th t ransep t was c o mp le ted b efore t he c hap ter h ouse wh ich i s f irst men t ioned i n t he Metr ica l L ife , c . 1 225 . 6 . ' Me mor ia ls o f t he c hurch o f S S P eter a nd Wi lfred , R ipon ', e d i ted b y J . T . F ow ler , S urtees S oc iety ( 1882 ) p . 9 7 .

T h is p ar t o f t he c hurch

was b u i lt b y B ishop P on t l 'Eveque , 1 154-81 .

C . A . H ewet t , ‚ Eng l ish

C athedra l C arpen try ( 1975 ) f ig . 1 31 . 7 . VCH , N or tha mp tonsh ire , I , p . 4 41 . 8 . G . Ay l mer a nd R . C an t , AH istory o f York M inster , ( 1977 ) p . 1 36 . 9 . G . G . S cot t , G lean ings f ro m West m inster A bbey ( 1863 ) p . 2 90 . 1 0 . C . A . H ewet t , C hurch C arpen try ( 1974 ) , p . 6 3 . 1 1. J . H . H arvey , ' Winchester C o l lege ', Archaeo log ica l J ourna l ( 1 965 ) , 2 8 , p . 1 07-109 .

C ec i l H ewet t c o m men ted i n d iscuss ion t ha t t hese n o tched

l ap j o in ts a re u sed i n a n i l log ica l manner a s t hey a re d esigned f or t he e x ist ing s tanch ions a nd b raced i n ap ressed p os it ion . 1 2 . VCH , N or tha mp tonsh ire , I , p . 4 43 ;

H ewet t ( 1975 ) f ig . 8 1 .

1 3 . C . A . H ewet t , ( 1975 ) , p . 9 0 , f ig . 8 0 . 1 4 . J . I rv ine , ' The West F ron t o f L itchf ie ld C athedra l ', J ourna l o f t he B r it ish Archaeo log ica l A ssoc iat ion ( 1882 ) , 3 8 , p . 3 49-353 . 1 5 . G . R ing , Ac en tury o f F rench P a in t ing ( 1949 ) , p . 2 30 , f ig . 4 0 . 1 6. S t August ines g ateway was b u i lt b y Abbot T ho mas d e F yndon , Twysden c o l . 2 009 .

W. D ugda le , Monast icon Ang l icanu m ( 1817 ) , I , p . 1 20 .

1 7 . H . R . S chuber t , H istory o f t he B r i t ish I ron a nd S tee l I ndustry , ( 1 957 ) , 11-115. 1 3. 1 1 8 . M . S . G u isepp i , ' So me f our teen th c en tury a ccoun ts o f I ronworks a t Tude ley , K en t ', A rchaeo log ia ( 1912 ) , 6 4 , p . 1 52-153 . 1 9 . VCH , D erbysh ire , I , p . 3 37. 2 0 . S chuber t , p . 1 13 . 2 1 . S chuber t , p . 1 04 . 2 2 . VCH , Y orksh ire , I , p . 3 47. 2 3 . VCH , Y orksh ire , I , p . 3 50 . 2 4 . M . S . B aze ley , ' The F orest o f D ean ', T rans . o f t he Br isto l a nd G loucestersh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ( 1910 ) , 3 3 , p . 2 36 , 2 66 . 2 5. S tatues o f t he R ea lm , I , R ecord C o mm iss ion ( 1810 ) , p . 3 45 . 2 6 . C a lender L et ter Book F , e d ited b y R . R . S harpe , ( 1899-1912 ) , p . 1 10 . 2 7. C a lender L et ter B ook G , e d ited b y R . R . S harpe , ( 1 899-1912 ) , p . 4 4. 2 8 . Gu isepp i , p . 1 48 .

3 24

2 9 . R . B . T urn ton , ' The Honour a nd F orest o f P icker ing ', Nor th R id ing Record S oc iety , ( 1894-5 ) , N .S ., I , p . 1 5 , 1 8-19 ; I I , p . 1 64 , 1 94. 3 0 . C lose Ro l ls 1 234-7 , Record C o mm iss ion ( 1908 ) ,

P .

4 16 .

3 1. S chuber t , p . 1 14-5 . 3 2 . I l lustrated i n J . H . H arvey , Med ieva l C raf ts men ( 1975 ) , p . 1 , 1 37 , 1 45 .

3 25

1 8 .

V IK ING AGE BOATBU ILD ING TOOLS A rne Em i l C hr istensen

S um mary T he s ources f or t oo ls u sed i n V ik ing Age s h ipbu i ld ing a re s urveyed b r ief ly a nd a n a t te mp t i s made t o i den t ify t he wood- a nd me ta lwork ing t oo ls .

T oo l marks o n V ik ing Age v esse ls a re u sed t o i den t ify t oo ls ,

t ogether w ith c o mparat ive mater ia l f rom 1 9th c en tury a nd r ecen t b oatbu i ld ing .

I n S cand inav ia , we h ave a r ange o f V ik ing Age v esse ls , more o r l ess w e l l p reserved , t hat g ives u s au n ique g l i mpse i n to d es ign a nd woodwork ing i n a d is tan t p er iod .

C o m mon t o a l l v esse ls.a re l i nes t hat a re b eaut ifu l a s we l l

a s f unct ional , a nd a h igh d egree o f q ua l ity i n work ing a nd f in ish ing wood . B o th s of twoods a nd h ardwoods were u sed , w i th o ak ( Quercus s p .) a s t he most c o m mon t imber . The t oo ls u sed t o p roduce t hese magn if icen t v esse ls h ave n o t b een s tud ied i n d eta i l ;

what i n for mat ion t here i s , i s s cat tered i n t he l i terature .

My j ob

h ere i s t o s u m mar ize what we k now , r ather t han t o f ur ther n ew t heor ies . O ur s ources f or r econstruc ing t he t oo l c hest o f t he V ik ing Age b oatbu i lder , a s Iw i l l t ry t o d o , a re f ourfo ld . 1 .

2 .

W eh ave a f ew r epresen tat ions o f s h ipbu i ld ing i n c on te mporary o r n ear c on te mporary a r t . T here a re a f ew wr i t ten s ources , n ear ly c on te mporary , t hat t e l l s o meth ing a bout b oatbu i ld ing .

3 .

T hen we h ave t he a r tefacts t he mse lves , t oo ls f ound i n g raves o r o n o ther s i tes , a nd t he marks t hey made o n t he wood .

4 .

L ast b u t n o t l east , t he c o mparat ive mater ia l o f fered b y r ecen t b oa tbu i ld ing p ract ice i n Western a nd N or thern N orway , where v ik ing a ge t rad i t ions h ave b een r e markab ly s trong i n b oatbu i ld ing .

To s tar t w ith t he i conograph ic s ources , o ur b est r epresen tat ion o f V ik ing b oatbu i ld ing c o mes f ro m o ne o f t he f r inges o f t he V ik ing Wor ld , N or mandy . However , t he s h ipbu i lders s een o n t he B ayeux t apes try a re work ing i n at rad it ion wh ich s ee ms t o b e p ure N orse , b oth a s t o t oo ls a nd s h ip t ypes ( F ig . 1 8 .1 ) . T he b road a xe u sed b y t he .man r ough ing o u t p lank s tock ( F ig . 1 8 .1a ) i s s o mewhat p rob le mat ic . S im i lar a xes a re I MOW / 1 , b ut t hey a re g enera l ly r egarded a s b at t le-axes , n ot a s t oo ls .

3 27

F ig .

1 8.1

W i l l iam t he Conqueror 's f l eet under c onstruct ion, a s s een o n t he Bayeux t apestry. A f ter S tenton, 1 957.

On t he u pper s h ip ( F ig . 1 8 .1b ) t he man o n t he r igh t u ses a b reas t a uger , t he o ldest e xa mp le Ik now . T he o ther man h o lds a b road-axe i n h is l ef t h and , a nd s o me th ing e lse i n t he r igh t . My g uess i s t hat h e h o lds a s have o f t he t ype s hown i n F ig . 1 8 .2b a nd t hat h e i s f i n ish ing of t he s heer g iv ing t he t op e dge o f t he s heerstrake i t s c urve f ro m s te m t o s tern . H e i s a ssisted b y t he master s h ipwr igh t who s tands o u ts ide t he s h ip , s ight ing a long t he c urve . T he men work ing o n t he l ower s h ip a ga in u se a xe a nd a uger ; t he a uger h as a p la in T -hand le , T he med ieva l mater ia l h as n ot b een a na lysed i n d eta i l , b u t t he o lder e xa mp les o f " Noah-bu i ld ing t he Ark" may p rove i n terest ing .

O lsen

& Cru m l in-Pedersen ( 1967 , f ig . 6 3 ) h ave p ub l ished o ne e xa mp le o f a woodwork ing s cene f rom a med ieva l manuscr ip t , al ove ly i n it ia l s how ing t wo monks s p l it t ing l u mber . Among t he s aga l i terature a nd t he s ca ld ic p oe ms we o f ten f ind s h ips ment i oned , a nd t hese s ources g ive a v iv id impress ion o f h ow impor tan t s h ips were i n t he n or th , a nd h ow h igh ly a g ood s h ip was r egarded . h ow t hey w ere made a nd r epaired , h owever .

L ess i s s a id a bout

I n T he K ings M irror , af a ther t o s on i nstruct ion d ia logue , wr it ten a bou t A .D . 1 250 i n n or th-western N orway , t he f ather s ays "When a t s ea , b r ing w ith y ou n a i ls o f as ize t o s u it y our s h ip , a xe , g ouge a nd a uger , a nd a l l o ther t oo ls n eeded i n s h ipbu i ld ing" .

Iw ish t he a u thor h ad b een a b i t more i nc lus ive .

S norr i S tur lason h as a v iv iu d escr ip t ion o f t he b u i ld ing o f t he L ong S erpen t i n Trondhe im i n A .D . 9 99 .

"Many p eop le were a sse mb led f or t he work .

S o me f or r ough a x ing , s o me f or j o in ing , s o me f orged n a i ls , s o me h and led t he t imber".

N o t much a bout t oo ls h ere , b ut w e a re t o ld t hat t he man r es-

p ons ib le f or t he s te ms , T orberg S kavhogg h ad t o g o h o me t o h is f ar m o n s o me e rrand , a nd s tayed away f or s o me t ime .

When h e c a me b ack , t he s h ip was

p lanked t o t he s heerstrake , t o t he s at isfact ion o f a l l i nvo lved , i nc lud ing k ing O laf T rygvasson .

N ex t morn ing a n a larm ing message r eaches t he k ing .

I n

t he n ight s o meone h as r u ined t he s h ip b y c ut t ing n o tches a long o ne t op s trake . A f ter s o me t a lk i tb eco mes c lear t hat T horberg h as d one t he d a mage . k ing o rders h im t o r e medy i t , o r l ose h is l i fe . a nd smoo ths o ut t he n otches .

T he

T horberg t hen t akes h is a xe

" And a l l c ou ld s ee t ha t t h is s ide o f t he s h ip was

more h andso me t han t he o ther".

T ho rberg was a sked t o d o t he s a me t o t he

o ther s ide , a nd was made h ead s h ipwr igh t f or t he r est o f t he b u i ld ing p er iod . F or a n e xact ing j ob l i ke t r im m ing t he d e l icate s heer c urve f ro m s te m t o s tern , T horberg " takes h is a xe".

H is n ickna me S kavhogg i s b est t ranslated a s

" he who smoo ths w ith t he a xe". T he b ur ia l c usto m o f t he V ik ing Age c a l led f or we l l e qu ipped g raves . J ust b efore t h is t ime t oo ls a ppear i n n u mbers , b es ide t he a r ms a nd j ewe l lery wh ich h ad d om inated ma le a nd f e ma le g raves e ar l ier .

We s e ldo m f ind c o m-

p lete s e ts o f t oo ls t ha t c an b e a t tr ibuted t o s pec if ic c raf ts , a nd s ome v ery r ich g raves c on ta in t oo ls i n s uch a bundance t hat t he b ur ied p erson must h ave worked i n s evera l t rades . T he most c o m mon woodwork ing t oo ls a re a xes a nd k n ives , b oth a l l-purpose t oo ls u sed b y a l l woodworkers . e dge f or mak ing

t roughs .

o f t he s poon b it v ar ie ty .

Adzes a re f ound , most o f t he m w ith a h o l low

A ugers a re f ound i n v ar ious s izes , n ear ly a l l a re O ther t oo ls f ound a re s haves , mou ld ing s crapers a nd

h a m mers . 3 29

a

F ig.

1 8.2

a -b. Two s haves f rom Norweg ian V ik ing Age g raves. Af ter Rygh, 1 885. c . Mou ld ing s have o r s craper f rom a V ik ing Age g rave. A f ter Shete l ig, 1 917.

3 30

I n o rder t o i den t ify t he t oo ls u sed b y V ik ing Age b oatbu i lders , Ih ave s tud ied r ecen t b oatbu i ld ing p ract ice i n western a nd n or thern N orway i n s o me d eta i l . I ti s ah appy f act f or t he a rchaeo log ist t hat v ery l i t t le h as c hanged o ver t he c en tur ies . T he s im i lar it ies b etween V ik ing Age b oa ts a nd t hose s t i l l b u i l t a re r e markab le .

T he t er m ino logy u sed i n d ia lects t oday , i s t he

o ne f ound i n t he O ld N orse s ources . t o h ave c hanged v ery l i t t le .

With o ne e xcep t ion , t he t oo ls a lso s ee m

T he a xe i s s t i l l at oo l o f p r i me impor tance , b o th f or r ough s hap ing a nd f or s ur face work . I n t he V ik ing Age , a xes a re c om mon i n t he g raves , a nd t hanks t o t he work o f G uro F redr iksen , we n ow h ave p oss ib i l it ies f or c lass if y ing b at t le a xes a nd woodworkers a xes . T he mater ia l d oes n o t , h owever , p er m i t u s t o g roup t he woodwork ing a xes b y d iferen t t rades ( s ee G uro F redr iksen , M . A. .T hesis o n V ik ing Age woodwork ing t oo ls .

O slo 1 978 ) .

S evera l med ieval b oa t f ragmen ts s how a xe marks o n t he i ns ide o f t he s trakes , wh i le t he o utside i s a lways n ice ly smoo thed . On t he V ik ing Age mater ia l , a l l wood i s c arefu l ly smoothed , a nd s hows f ew a xe- marks ( F ig . 1 8 .3a ) . T oday t he s ur face d ressing i s d one w ith p lanes , ac omp lete s et f or a b oatbu i lder w i l l u sua l ly n u mber b etween t en a nd t wen ty , o f ten h o me- made f or s pec ia l j obs , T he e v idence f or p lanes i n t he V ik ing Age a nd E ar ly M idd le Ages i s v ery s l ight . T hey d id e x ist , b ut w ere r are , s o me o f t he m a re mou ld ing t oo ls . O le C ru m l inP edersen h as f ound p lane marks o n as carf i n o ne o f t he S ku lde lev s h ips , ( O lsen & C ru m l in-Pedersen 1 967 , 1 60 f . a nd f i g . 6 7 ) , s o f ar t h is i s t he o n ly e v idence o f p lanes u sed i nb oatbu i ld ing a t s o e ar ly a d ate . We c an s tate d ef in ite ly t hat t he p lane a s ag enera l woodwork ing t oo l d id n o t c o me i n to u se i n S cand inav ia u n t i l t he R ena issance .

F inds a nd t oo l marks s how t hat t he

V ik ing Age woodworker u sed v ar ious s haves f or f in ish ing s urfaces .

One o f

t he m , t he mou ld ing s have o r s craper , i s s t i l l i n u se b y b oatbu i lders , f or mou ld ing e dges o f r ibs e tc . where t he c urve i s t oo a cute t o p er m it t he u se o f a mou ld ing p lane ( F ig . 1 8 .2c ) .

T oo l marks o n t he p lanks o f t he K it A stad s h ip

( Chr istensen a nd L e iro , 1 976 ) s how t hat a s im i lar t oo l h as b een u sed f or t he l ut ing c ove ( F ig . 1 8 .3b ) , a nd Ik now o ne e xa mp le f ro m med ieva l B ergen where t he s a me i ron h as b een u sed f or l ut ing c ove a nd d ecorat ive mou ld ing . R ivet t ing a nd t reena i l ing c a l led f or a ugers o f v ar ious s izes f or b or ing . T here a re a f ew sma l l p r im it ive t w ist b its o f r e l iab le V ik ing p rovenance ( Petersen 1 951 ) , b ut t he b or ing t oo l o f t he V ik ing Age w as t he s poon b it o r a uger , i n v ar ious s izes. Ana lys is b y G uro F redr iksen h as s hown t hat t hey f a l l i n g roups c orrespond ing t o t he f ract ions o f i nches ( Fredr iksen 1 978 ) . Once t he h o le i s b ored , an a i l i s d r iven t hrough , t he r ove f orced o n , t he p o in t o f t he n a i l n ipped o f f , a nd t he e nd o f t he n a i l r ivet ted o ver t he r ove .

F or

t h is , ah eavy d o l ley , a xe h a m mer o r t he l ike i s h e ld a ga inst t he n a i l h ead . T he b oatbu i lder c an h o ld t h is i n h is l ef t h and , o r i tc an b e h e ld b y ah e lper . H a m mers a re k nown f ro m t he V ik ing Age , i n a bundance .

P o in ted c h ise ls ,

l i ke a modern c en tre-punch , a re a lso f ound ( Petersen 1 951 ). T h is i s an ecess ary t oo l f or p re-punch ing t he r oves . A modern d o l ley i s u sua l ly a h eavy p iece o f i ron , u sed b oth o n t he n a i lhead wh i le r ivet t ing a nd f or f orc ing t he r ove o n t o t he n a i l .

F or t h is j ob , ah o le , w ide a nd d eep e nough t o r ece ive t he n a i l

p o in t , i s d r i l led i n t he d o l ley .

As pec ia l t oo l l i ke t h is i s n o t k nown i n a

3 31

a

F ig.

1 8.3

a . Axe marks o n t he k ee l o f t he Oseberg s h ip, p ar t ly s moothed o ver w i th a s have. b . Lut ing c ove i n a s trake f rom t he K lä .stad s h ip. The s ma l l s have o r s craper u sed h as j umped i n t he h ard wood a nd m ade c ha tter marks.

F ig.

1 8.4

I ngva ld S ande h ang ing t he s econd s trake o f a 4 -oared Nordf jord b oat w i th t he h e lp o f s imp le V-c lamps a nd c ounterwedges.

V ik ing Age c on tex t .

However , a ny h eavy p iece , l i ke a n a xe , w i l l d o f or a

c oun ter-ho ld , a nd t he d r iv ing d o l ley c an b e made o f wood , a s s hown b y modern p ara l le ls . Another t oo l i s a lso l ack ing i n t he V ik ing Age ma ter ia l : p roper p inc ing t ongs f or c ut t ing o f t he n a i l p o in t . Ih ave d iscussed t h is p rob le m e ar l ier ( Chr istensen , u npub l ished M .A . t hesis o n I ron a nd V ik ing Age b oatbu i ld ing , O s lo 1 963 ) . My s o lut ion t o t he p rob le m t hen was t hat a c h ise l h ad p robab ly b een u sed , b ut If ound i th ard t o u nderstand h ow t h is c ou ld h ave b een d one w ithou t s tra in ing t he s trakes s evere ly . Iw i l l r eturn t o t h is p rob le m a t t he e nd o f t he p aper , w i th a l i t t le s tory t o s how my p o in t . F or f i t t ing s trakes , a nd h o ld ing t he m p r ior t o r ivet t ing , c la mps a re n eeded . T he l ong b oatbu i ld ing c la mps a re q u ite c haracter ist ic , b ut b e ing o f wood , t hey w i l l s e ldo m a ppear i n a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l .

T he s imp le

s hape i s t he o ne s hown o n F igure 1 8 .4 , j ust a g rown f ork , e ven tua l ly u sed w ith a c oun ter-wedge . N owadays , most c la mps a re s crew-operated , b u t w edged o nes a re s t i l l f ound . T hat t he p r inc ip le was k nown i n t he V ik ing Age c an b e s een f ro m t he smal l h orn c la mps f ound ( S i monsen 1 953 , f ig . 3 c ) . T here a re med ieva l b oatbu i lders c la mps o r f ragmen ts i n G dansk i n P o land a nd B ergen . Measur ing t oo ls a re a ga in g eneral ly o f wood , a nd n one h ave b een f ound . H owever , s o me t est measur ing s ee ms t o i nd icate t hat s can t l ings t end t o c o me o ut i n " inches"

o f ak ind , a nd i n o ne med ieva l c ase , t he r ib d is tance c en tre

t o c en tre c o mes o ut a t 4 8 cm , e xact ly t he s hor ter o f t he t wo e l ls k nown f rom med ieva l N orway .

T he " boat e l l" a nd " boat l eve l" u sed b y b oatbu i lders t oday

may we l l h ave V ik ing Age a ncestry , b u t t h is c anno t b e p roved ( Chr is tensen 1 972 ) . T he e ver u sefu l k n ife must b e men t ioned l ast , f or c u t t ing t reena i ls , a s as cratch-aw l , a nd f or n u merous o ther p urposes .

O ut o f t he mater ia l f ound

i n N orweg ian V ik ing Age g raves , Ih ave made a c o l lage p ho tograph o ft he " too l-chest" ( f ig . 1 8 .5 ). T oday , t he a dze i s ac arve l-bu i lders t oo l , v ery s e ldo m u sed i n c l inker work . H owever , O le C ru m l in-Pedersen ( p ers . c o mm .) h as p o in ted o u t t hat t he v ery w ide a dze f ound i n t he 1 V E tster myr t oo l-chest ( Graha m C a mpbe l l 1 980 , f ig . 4 15 f . ) i s a n e xce l len t t oo l f or d ress ing b oards a f ter s p l it t ing .

R ep l icas o f t h is t oo l h ave b een u sed w ith g reater e ase t han

a xes b y D an ish b oy-scou ts b ui ld ing V ik ing s h ip r ep l icas . With t hese t oo ls , o r s ets s im i lar t o t he m , V ik ing v esse ls were b u i lt . O n t he i s land o f G o t land , a t P av iken o n t he west c oast , P är L undström o f S tatens S jöh is tor iska Museu m i n S tockho lm h as e xcavated a s h ipbu i ld ing o r s h ip-repa ir ing s i te .

T he n u mber o f d iscarded r ivets a nd c u t-o f f r ivets a t test t o c onsiderab le

a ct iv ity , a nd t he t oo ls f ound h ave c lear c onnect ions w ith b oatbu i ld ing a nd r epa ir ( Lundströ m 1 972 ) . Ch ise ls a nd c en tre-punch-l ike t oo ls may h ave a lso s een u ses o uts ide b oatbu i ld ing , b ut a sma l l , c rowbar-l ike t oo l i s d ef in itely f or r e mov ing r ivets d ur ing r epa ir work ( Lundströ m 1 978 , 8 5 f .) . N ow f or t he l i t t le a necdote , p rev ious ly r eferred t o . When S igurd B j f grkda l was b u i ld ing a f u l l-size r ep l ica o f t he Kva lsund s h ip i n 1 973 Ih ad t he p leasure o f f o l low ing t he w ork . One d ay S igurd was p repar ing t o r ivet a s trake . T he s trake was c la mped , h o les h ad b een p re-dr i l led , t he t oo ls l ay r eady i n t he b oa t : h a m mer , d o l ley , n a i ls a nd r oves , a nd a p a ir o f s turdy p incers , a c tua l ly f arr iers

3 34

L C

o

t ongs . When t he r oves h ad b een d r iven o ver t he n ai l p o in ts , S igurd g ave e ach n a i l as ing le b low f ro m t he s ide , b end ing t he n a i l p o in t d own o ver t he r ove.

It hough t ;

" S mar t , t h is w i l l k eep t he n a i ls f rom s l ipp ing o ut i n c ase

ac la mp l ooses i t s g r ip f ro m t he h a m mer ing". T hen S igurd s tar ted t o r ivet , a nd t o my g reat s urpr ise , t he p incers l ay u nused . T he p een o f t he h ammer was g round s harp , a nd a f ew b lows w ith t h is c ut t he n a i l p o in t ; was t hen f i n ished w ith t he s l igh t l y d o med h a mmer h ead .

t he r ive t t ing

Ih ad h ad a d e monstrat ion o fh ow i t was p oss ib le t o r ivet w ithout t he t oo l Ih ad m issed i n t he V ik ing g raves .

Id o n o t c la im t hat i tw as d one e xact ly

t h is way i n t he V ik ing Age : t he mater ia l d oes n o t c on ta in h a m mers w i th p eens g round s harp e nough f or t h is . H owever , i f ah e lper h o lds a d o l ley a g a inst t he n a i l h ead o n t he o u ts ide o f t he s trake , t he n a i l p o in t c an e as i ly b e c u t w i th h a m mer a nd c h ise l . T he s ecret i s t he b end ing o f t he n a i l , a s ar esu l t o ft h is , t he c u t t ing f orce i s p ara l le l w ith t he n a i l , a nd i s t aken u p b y t he d o l ley w ithou t s tra in ing t he wood . T he l esson i s ;

When w e make "mode ls" i n a rchaeo logy , t hey a re g overned

b y o ur imag inat io n a nd e xper iences , a nd i n c oncrete mat ters , t he i mag inat ion s e ldo m r uns b eyond e xper ience .

I n t h is c ase , Ig o t an ew mode l b y w a tch ing

ac raf ts man , a nd t he mode l i n a l l p robab i l i ty i s c loser t o t he r ea l i t ies o ft he V ik ing Age t han what Ih ad s uggested p rev ious ly . A ccord ing ly ;

f or b et ter e xp lanat ions o f t he p ast , we must g o i n to t he f i e ld

a nd s tudy l iv ing c raf ts men , wh i le t here i s s t i l l t ime t o o bserve l i v ing t rad it ions t hat a re q u ick ly b e ing o usted b y modern t echn ique . If ee l t hat i n many c ases t h is i s a more impor tan t t ask f or t he a rchaeo log ist t han t o e xcavate more mater ia l ,

What we g et f ro m e xcavat ion a re mute s ources .

T he a r tefa ct s

d o n o t t e l l t heir s tory u n t i l we i n terpret t he m , a nd t hat i n terpre tat ion may s o me t i mes b e q u ite wrong , i f we b ase i to n o ur " wr it ing-desk e xper ience" a lone .

T he mode ls b ased o n l i v ing t rad it ion s hou ld o f c ourse b e s ub jected

t o s cho lar ly s ource c r it ic is m , b ut t h is v a luab le t oo l f or t he s tudy o f t oo ls s hou ld n o t l i e u nused . REFERENCES C hr istensen , A . E ., 1 963 .

N ord isk j erna ldersbätbygg ing , n oen t ekn iske

o g k rono log iske p rob le mer . C hr istensen , A . E ., 1 973 .

Unpub l ished M .A . p aper , O s lo .

' Boatbu i ld ing t oo ls a nd t he p rocess o f l earn ing '

i n S h ips a nd S h ipyards , S a i lors a nd F ishermen .

E d . I E iss löf , H enn ingsen

a nd C hr istensen , C openhagen . C hr istensen , A . E . a nd L e iro , G ., 1 976 .

' K lasta .dsk ipet '

V est fo ld m inne

1 976 , T g Snsberg . F redr iksen , G ., 1 978.

R edskap f or t re .

G raha m-Ca mpbe l l , J ., 1 980. L undströ m , P ., 1 973 .

Unpub l ished M .A . p aper , O s lo .

V ik ing Artefac ts , As e lec t c ata logue , L ondon .

' K l inknag larnas v it tnesbörd '.

S j 9 Sh istor isk Ä rsbok

1 972-73 , S tockho lm . O lsen , 0 . a nd Cru m l in-Pedersen , 0 ., 1 967 . A c ta Archaeo log ica , C openhagen . 3 36

' The S ku lde lev S h ips I '

P etersen , J ., 1 951 . Rygh , 0 ., 1 885 .

V ik ing t idens r edskaper , O s lo .

Norske O ldsager .

S hete l ig , H ., 1 917 .

' Sk ibet ', O seberg funet I .

S i monsen , P ., 1 953 . S norre S tur lasson : Ar up S e ip .

Kr ist ian ia . C hr ist ian ia .

' S medgraven f ra Y tre E lgsnes ', V ik ing XV I I , O s lo .

H e i mskr ing la .

T rans lated b y Anne Ho lts mark a nd D idr ik

S tavanger , 1 968 .

S ten ton , F ., 1 957 .

T he B ayeux Tapestry , L ondon .

3 37

1 9 .

TOOL- MARKS ON S URV IV ING WORKS FROM THE S AXON , NOR MAN AND LATER MED IEVAL PERIODS C . A . H ewet t

S u mmary I ti s c lear f ro m s uch med ieva l i l lustrat ions a s were p ub l ished b y S a lz man , t hat r e lat ive ly f ew h and t oo ls were n o t iced , b y t he i l lust rators , o n b u i ld ing s i tes .

T he e xa m inat ion o f v ar ious e ar ly wooden

s tructures , a nd t he r ecen t o pen ing a nd d eta i led e xa m inat ion o f a n i n tr icate a nd a ccurate ly c u t s carfjo in t o f t he m id-th ir teen th c entury , h ave , i n g enera l t er ms , c on f irmed t h is p icture . C er ta in o ther c ategor ies o f c arpen ters ' works , h owever , s uch a s t he c onstruct ion o f d oor-leaves , s uggest t he e x istence , b efore t he C onquest , o f s pec ia l h and-too ls d es igned t o e xecute r ebat ing a nd t he r out ing-ou t o f e ven ly d ep thed h ous ings s uch a s e x ist i n t he Westm inster A bbey d oor-leaf . T he s uper ior ity o f e ar ly t oo ls , f or s uch i to bv ious ly w as , l ay i n t he ir s izes a nd we ights , wh ich were s tr ict ly c o mmensurate w ith t he work r equ ired . T he p oss ib i l i ty o f a med ieva l f actory f or v ee-edged b oard ing a lso e x ists , t oge ther w ith t hat o f mechan ised p lank e dge-cu t t ing , p oss ib ly water p owered .

S a in t C u thber t 's C of f in S a in t C u thber t , B ishop o f L ind isfarne , d ied o n F arne i s land i n A .D . 6 87. H e was b ur ied i n as tone c of f in u nder t he f l oor o f h is c hurch u n t i l A .D . 6 98 , i n wh ich y ear h is r e ma ins were d is in terred a nd p laced i n a wooden s hr ine ( l ev is t heca , a ccord ing t o B ede ) a bove g round , i n o rder t hat h e m igh t r ece ive g reater v enerat ion . F ro m t h is d ate , a nd t rans lat io , t he b eg inn ings o f t he c u lt o f S t . C uthber t c an b e t raced a nd a lso t he l egend c oncern ing t he i ncorr up t ib i l ity o fh is b ody ( K i tz inger 1 950 , 1 ) . T here h as b een n o d oub t a s t o t he a uthen t ic ity o f t he s urv iv ing , b u t f rag men ted wooden r e l iquary c asket , a nd t h is was r estored a nd r e-exa m ined d ur ing 1 978/9 .

On t h is o ccas ion i t

was d ec ided ( w ithout microscop ic a na lys is k nown t o t he wr iter ) t hat t he c of f inb oards h ad b een made f ro m a s low ly g rown s ess i le o ak ( Quercus p etraea ) , a nd p roduced ' c n t he q uar ter ' —or r ad ia l ly , b y a means t hat c ou ld n o l onger b e a scer ta ined . T he who le c o mpr ised s even b oards a nd was s i mp ly c onstructed , w ith t he b ot to m h oused i n to t he t wo e nds a nd t he s ides r ebated a nd p egged t o b oth ; a n i n terna l c over b eneath t he l i d , a nd t he l i d i t se lf c omp leted t he a sse mb ly wh ich w as a f rag i le o ne f or i t s a l leged p urpose—of o ccas iona l t ranspor tat ion .

3 39

F ig .

1 9 .1

The l i d o f S t. Cuthbert 's c off in.

T he f ragmen ts a re v ery sma l l f or t he most p ar t b u t i t was p oss ib le t o d eterm ine t he u se o ft he t oo ls emp loyed . T he t renches c ut a cross t he g ra in o f t he v ert ica l e nd-boards were c ut a t e ach s ide b y as t if f h and-saw wh ich l ef t c lear k er fs a t t he b o t to ms o f t he t renches , h ow t he w aste wood h ad t hen b een r e moved c ou ld n ot b e d educed b ecause o f t he v ery s hor t l eng ths a va i lab le . T he r ebates worked a long t he b ot to m e dges a nd a cross b o th e nds o f t he s ides , were p roduced b y s o me me thod n o t e stab l ished , b ut i n t he ir r eturns t here r e ma in p ieces o f ab lack c ordl ike s ubs tance b e l ieved t o b e c au lk ing , i n t he mar it i me s ense , a nd p laced t here t o p reven t l eakage o f f l u id f rom w ith in t he t he c of f in . T hese s ides were p egged t o b o th e nds a nd b ot tom , t he h o les b e ing b ored w ith t wo a ugers : o f 5 /16 i n . a nd a 1 /4 i n . d ia meters . T he l i d h as a f racture r unn ing d own t he c en tre o f i t s l eng th ( F ig . 1 9 .1 ) wh ich g ives a v isua l impress ion o f ac oun ter-rebated j o in t , b ut t h is i l lus ion w as d estroyed b y c heck ing b oth t he r ings a nd t he r ays o n e i ther s ide o f t he ' j o in t ' — wh ich p roved t o b e af reak ish n atura l b reak . T he c arv ing o f a l l t he e x terna l s ur faces b u t t he b o t to m was e f fected b y t wo d if feren t methods wh ich w ere n ever m ixed o n t he s a me p ane l , aU -sect ioned g ouge o f 1/8 i n . w idth a nd a k n ife u sed t o p roduce a v ee-sect ioned c u t b y t wo i nc is ions t hat c onverged . B o th o f t hese t oo ls were r azor-sharp a nd u sed w ith g reat s k i l l a nd p rec is ion . S t . B o to lph 's H ads tock The n or th d oor o f S t . B o to lph 's C hurch a t H adstock E ssex i s p robab ly o f c . 1 020 , when C nu t may h ave b een p resen t a ththe d ed icat ion ; af u l l a ccoun t o f t h is c hurch a nd i t s r ecen t e xcava t ion h ave b een p ub l ished t ogether w ith v ar ious d ate a scr ip t ions ( Rodwe l l 1 976 , 5 5-71 ). T he d oor h as b een f ur ther d iscussed i n n u merous o ther s ources ; b r ief ly , i ti s c onstructed o f v er t ica l o ak p lanks h av ing s p lay-rebated e dges wh ich a re a f f ixed t o ar ear-fra me o f D -sect ioned l edges , b y means o f i ron r oves a nd c lenches—c lose ly r ese mb l ing t he c onstruct ion o f e i ther t he f ore- o r t he a f ter ' run ' o f ac l incher-bu i lt l ong s h ip .

T he r oves a re e longated i n o rder t hat t he l edges may b e e nc irc led , t o

a vo id t he ir s p l i t t ing when t he ' c lench ' i s f or med .

T he s p layed r eba tes , e ven

a s t hey s urv ive s o me p ast ' restorat ion ' o f t he d oor , a re v ery l ong a nd s traigh t ; t hey p ostu late t he u se o f s easoned a nd q uar tered o ak , a nd s trong ly s uggest t he u se o f ar ebate-p lane ( F ig . 1 9 .2 ) . S t . Mary 's , S o mp t ing The c hurch o f S t . Mary a t S omp t ing , S ussex , i s p robab ly t he b est k no wn e xa mp le o f i t s k ind i n E ng land—if n o t i n E urope—the t ower p ossess ing t he o n ly s urv iv ing e xa mp le i n t h is k ingdo m o f a' Rhen ish h e lm ' s p ire . T he w estern p ar t o f t h is b u i ld ing c annot b e d ated ( Dr . H . M . T ay lor , v erba l ly t o t he wr i ter , 1 978 ) more c lose ly t han t o b etween c . 9 50 a nd c . 1 050 . T he ma jor i ty o f t he t imber f ra m ing o f t he ' He lm ' sp ire i s t he o r ig ina l ( Hewe t t 1 980 , 1 5/20 ) , a nd among t he most i n terest ing p ar ts o f t he w al l-anchor s i tuated i n t he n or thw estern r eturn ; t hese a nchors , a t S o mp t ing w ere p rov ided t o r eta in t he p o in ted l ower e nds o f t he s p ire 's f our f acets . T hese may b e t he e ar l iest k nown e xa mp les o ft he b ase t r iangu lat ion o f r af ters ' f eet , a nd t hey a re f ound i n ar oof t hat r ests o n masonry f in ished a t t he p i tch i nc l inat ion c haracter ist ic o f t he f ew k nown p re-Conquest r oofs t hat h ave s urv ived ( s ee H ar lowbury C hape l a nd S t . Mar t in 's a t C an terbury , i n H ewet t 1 980 , 4 7 ) . T he n ear-upr igh t

3 41

F ig .

1 9 .2

Cons truct ion d eta i ls o f t he n or th d oor o f S t. Bo tu lph 's Church, Hadstock, E ssex.

3 42

t imber , i n t h is e xa mp le , was c ross-cut w ith a c oarse ly t oo thed s aw a nd t he l arge t r iangu lar ly s ect ioned p ack ing-p iece , n ecessary t o c on tact t he t wo a d jacen t f aces o f t he i nner r eturn o f t he t ower , w as c ross-cu t w i th a b road a xe —probab ly c on tro l led b y ma l le t b lows . A f ter t h is o pera t ion was c o mp le ted af ew p ar ing-cu ts were made w ith a c h ise l , p robab ly t he s a me o ne w i th w h ich t he c o mponen ts were n u mbered f or a sse mb ly i n Roman n u mera ls , a s t h is h ad t he s a me w idth a t i t s c ut t ing e dge . West m inster Abbey The o ldest s urv iv ing d oor-leaf a t Westm inster A bbey w as s uspected b y G . G . S co t t t o h ave b een t he d oor t o t he P yx c ha mber o f t he p rev ious c hurch , b u i lt f or Edward t he C on fessor , a nd w i th r egard t o i t s u n ique s tructura l method a nd f ormer ly Ro manesque s ty le o f h ead a rch a nd i ronwork , t h is r ema ined a t enab le v iewpo in t u n t i l t he r ecen t ( Dece mber 1 980 ) d endrochrono log ica l d at ing b y D r . J ohn F letcher .

T h is l eaf w as made f rom f i ve o aken p lanks , f our

o f wh ich a re o f r ough ly c onstan t w id th , a nd a n arrow o ne ;

t hese F letcher f ound

t o b e o ft he s pec ies Quercus p etraea a nd t o h ave b een s awn i t hroughand t hrough ' —a c u t t ing method s t i l l i n w ide u se wh ich o n ly p roduces q uatered p lank a t p o in ts c lose t o t he h eart o f t he t ree . T he ir e dges were r eba ted a nd o f l eng ths o r ig ina l ly e xceed ing s ix f eet , af act t ha t s trong ly s uggests t he u se o f ar ebatep lane . T hree l edges were l et i n to h ous ings a nd f l ush-f it ted w ith a ccuracy , o ne t o t he f ron t f ace a nd t wo t o t he r ear ; t he h ous ings h ave c o mpassed e dges a s i l lustrated i n F igure 1 9 .3 , s uggest ing t he u se o f ar ad ia l c ut t ing g auge f or t he p urpose t ogether w ith a r ou ter t o r e move t he waste wood . F letcher ( unp ub l ished ) d educed t he l ike ly d ate f or t he f e l l ing o f t he t ree ( f rom wh ich b oth o f t he w ide p lanks measured h ad b een c u t ) a s 1 100-1110 .

U se o f s uch t imber

wou ld p robab ly f o l low f a ir ly s oon a f ter f e l l ing , s o t he s a me d ecade i s l i ke ly t o c over t he c onstruct ion o ft he d oor . F letcher f ound t hat t he s apwood o n o ne o f t he p lanks b egan a t 1 080 A .D . a nd a l lowed 2 5

5y ears a s t he l i ke ly n u mber

o f s apwood r ings , b ased o n t he t ree 's f i na l r ate o f g row th . I n v iew o f t h is d ate c onstruct ion d ur ing t he ' Saxon o ver lap ' ( Harvey 1 971 , 2 1 ) r e ma ins a t enab le o p in ion . S t . Mary 's , K e mp ley A t t he c hurch o f S t . Mary , a t K e mp ley i n G loucestersh ire , ad oorway w i th i t s c on te mporary d oor-leaf s urv ives , a pparen t ly f ro m t he N orman r e-bu i ld ing o f c . 1 090-1100 ( Gethyn-Jones 1 978 , 8 ) .

T he t imber l eaf i s s l igh t ly w eathered

b ecause i t was t he o r ig ina l West d oor wh ich w as r e lat ive ly s oon a f terwards e nc losed i n t he west t ower , t o wh ich i tt hen g ave a ccess . I ti s k nown t ha t H ugh d e L acy who w as r espons ib le f or t he N or man c hurch w as a f r iend o f F erard , B ishop o f H ereford ( 1 085-1115 ) a nd a lso o f S er b, A bbot t o f G loucester d ur ing t he s a me p er iod , wh ich makes i tp robab le t hat h e h ad a ccess t o c raf tsmen o f t he h ighest c a l ibre when b u i ld ing h is c hurch . T he d oor l eaf i n q uest ion c ou ld d ate f ro m t he f i rst b u i ld , c 1 100 , b ecause i ti s t he most e xper i men ta l e xa mp le o f t he c oun ter-rebated t ype k nown a t t he p resen t t ime . C oun terr ebated p lanks s how a n ' e mbat t led ' l i ne a t t he ir e dgejo in ts , w h ich i s r eversed o n t he ir o ther s ide ;

t h is t echn ique h ad a t ta ined i t s most c o mp lex f orm b y t he

t ime o f t he West d oor-leaf t o E ly C a thedra l , o r ig ina l ly d ated t o b etween 1 1749 7 ( Harvey 1 961 , 1 31 ) b ut more l ike ly t o b e C . 1 215 ( F letcher 1 979 ). T he

3 43

F ig.

1 9 .3

Construct ion d eta i ls o f t he d oor t o t he Pyx c hamber, Wes tm ins ter Abbey. The un-hatched p art i s ah ypot het ica l r econstruct ion o f t he o r ig ina l s hape.

e ar ly a nd e xper i men ta l n ature o f t he K en ap ley s pec i men i s a rgued b y i t s s i mp l ic ity , t here b e ing t he sma l lest p ract icab le n u mber o f r eturns o n e ach p lank e dge—two ; a nd t he l ack o f c on f idence i n t he s tructura l s yste m e xpressed b y t he c raf ts man i n h is u se o f ' f ree-tenons ' w i th i ron-p ins t o r e ta in t he m . T he t oo ls a nd t he me thod o f t he ir u se , when c onstruct ing t h is e laborate t ype o f d oor c anno t b e d educed u n t i l a n e xa mp le h as b een d is man t led , b ut i tw ou ld h ave b een l og ica l t o r ou t o u t t he r ebates o f t wo p lanks i n o ne o pera t ion , c la mp ing t he m t oge ther f or t he p urpose , a nd s ubsequen t ly r epeat ing t he o perat ion f or t he ir o ppos ite f aces—as many t imes a s was n ecessary . C ressing T e mp le , E ssex The B ar ley B arn a t C ress ing T e mp le , E ssex , h as b een much d ated b y t he c arbon 1 4 p rocess , w i th v ar ious r esu l ts o f w h ich t he f o l low ing h ave b een p ub l ished : UCLA - 1 077 A .D . 1 000 ± 6 0 , UCLA - 6 46 A .D . 1 010 I -- 7 0 , UCLA - 1 076 A .D . 1 120 + 6 0 a nd UCLA - 2 72 A .D . 1 120+ 6 0 ( Rad iocarbon , V o l . 6 , 1 964 , 3 37-8 a nd V o l . 9 , 1 967 , 4 87-8 ) .

T here e x ists , h owever , a

p la teau o n t he c a l ibrat ion c urve ( pub l ished i n H ewet t 1 969 , 5 6 ) wh ich r enders t hese d ates q uest ionab le , a nd i n t he l igh t o f t he j o in ts u sed i ti s s uggested t hat t he t rue d ate must l i e b etween c . 1 132 ( Coggesha l l A bbey B arn ) a nd c . 1 180/90 ( Fau lkner 's H a l l ' granary ' i n H ewet t 1 980 , 4 3-5 ) . The impor tance o f t h is b arn f or t he p resen t p urpose i s t he e v idence i t c on ta ins f or b e ing among t he f i rst f ra med a nd a is led t imber b u i ld ings w ith a rcade-posts moun ted o n p ost-s i l ls wh ich t i e t he ir f ee t t o t he e x terna l w a l ls ' g round-s i l ls . One o f t he p osts s urv ives c o mp lete w i th i t s o r ig ina l s i l l , t o wh ich i ti s t enoned ; c lose t o i t s b ase e x ist t wo c arefu l ly p lugged mor t ises— wh ich a lso e x ist o n b o th s ides o f t he f eet o f a l l t he o ther p osts , n one o f wh ich s tand o n t he ir o r ig ina l moun t ings . T hese mor t ises t aper , i nd icat ing t ha t t he d ev ice f or wh ich t hey were c ut was s ubsequen t ly r e moved , a nd t he h o les p lugged b ecause n o l onger n ecessary a nd p robab ly c ons idered u ns ight ly .

T he r ear ing

method was t o r a ise t wo p a irs o f p osts c o mp lete w ith t he ir t op-p lates a nd b rac ing , t hese w ere l a id o ut o ppos i te t o e ach o ther a cross t he b arn , a nd t he ir t ops h o isted u n t i l t hey were u pr ight , when t hey w ere s tab i l ised b y t he t i e-bea ms w ith t he ir b races . D ur ing t h is o perat ion e ach s ec t ion o f a rcade wou ld h ave we ighed many t ons , b e ing o f g reen o ak , a nd t he p osts ' f eet wou ld h ave s l id i nward a cross t he s i te h ad t hey n ot b een r e ta ined .

I ti s c on tended t hat t he

r eta in ing d ev ice f i t ted i n to t he n ow p lugged mor t ises , w as a mod if ied masons ' l ew is h av ing r o tary t runn ions i nstead o f c laws , a nd c ha ined b ack t o p o in ts b eh ind t he f eet o f t he p osts . T he s a me b arn s hows c lear e v idence a s t o t he method o f mor t is ing , t he s quare a nd k n ife w ere u sed o n t he a d jacen t f ace a nd e dge o f t he t imber t o mark t he e nds a nd t he s ides w ere marked w i th w hat a ppears t o h ave b een a mor t iseg auge h av ing t w in-scr ibers o r p o in ts , d if fer ing f ro m modern o nes o n ly i n i t s g reater s ize .

T he ma jor ity o f t he waste-wood was t hen d r i l led o ut w i th a s poon

s haped a uger , t h is d r i l l ing was o ccasiona l ly o u t-ofl ine o n t he c hase- mor t ises w here t he s ect ion t hrough t he r esult an t b ored h o les may b e e xa m ined , t h is s hows t he r ap id ity w i th , wh ich s uch a ugers a dvanced i n to t he o ak— f aster i n a l l p robab i l ity t han p resen t d ay e qu ip men t . T he e nds a nd s ides were t hen p ared w ith a l arge a nd r azor s harp e dge-too l , e i ther a c h ise l o r at wyb i l t . T he

3 45

F ig.

1 9 .4

S equence o f c onstruct ion a nd t oo ls u sed i n t he p roduct ion o f a s carfjo int f rom a b arn a t I mbers, Good E aster.

t wyb i l l i s more p robab le s ince b y t w ist ing i tt he mor t ise-bo t tom c ou ld h ave b een c leared . I ti s n ot iceab le t ha t n o l ever ing a ct ion o f t h is t oo l w as e f fec ted a t t he e xpense o f t he e nds wh ich a re , t oday , s t i l l c r isp ly c ut . An emp ty ma tr ix f or a s ecret n o tched l apjo in t e x ists i n t he l a ter Wheat B arn wh ich i s c arbon d ated t oe . 1 250 , t h is s hows o n ly c h ise l s ignatures , t he b lade was 21/4 o r 2 i nches w ide a nd t he e nd o f t he s ocket i s d eep ly p ocket ted , i nd icat ing t hat t h is was a c h ise l d r iven d own b y ma l let b lows o f much f orce a nd w e igh t . T he i n terna l f ace t apers i n to a n a cute a ng le o n p lan a nd p ostu lates t he u se o f a n o b l ique ly e dged c h ise l , b ut n o s ignatures f rom t h is a re v is ib le , t h is b e ing a p ar t o f t he work t hat was e xecuted w ith g reat c are . Imbers , G ood E aster , E ssex One o f t he b arns o f t he f or mer ly p rebenda l manor o f Imbers a t G ood E aster was d e mo l ished s o me y ears a go , a nd a s carfjo in t f ro m i t s a rcade-p late w as p reserved .

T h is i s as p layed a nd t ab led j o in t h av ing u nder-squ in ted a bu tmen ts

a nd f ive f ace-pegs t hrough e ach t ab le w ith a t ransverse k ey , o r w edge ; s uch s carfs a re d atab le , i n g enera l t er ms , t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury . T h is p rov ides a n i nva luab le o b ject f or s tudy , b ecause j o in ts i n s i tu c an r are ly , i fe ver , b e o pened f or e xa m inat ion . When a l l p egs a nd t he k ey were d r if ted o u t t he j o in t r efused t o c ome a par t , t h is p roved t o b e d ue t o s p ider-web i ns ide t he a sse mb ly wh ich h ad a ccu mu lated d ur ing t he c en tur ies t he j o in t h ad e x isted—and was o f a ston ish ing s treng th . T he c ut t ing o perat ions h ad a l l l ef t t he ir s ignatures , a nd t o my s urpr ise t he t oo ls w ere v ery f ew f or s uch a n i n tr icate p iece o f work . T he t imber i s o f a verage s ize f or a b arn 's t op-p late , s o meth ing l i ke t en i nches s quare , a nd t he a sse mb led s carf a bout f our f eet l ong ;

t he e v iden t ly r ap id a nd e xper t manner o f i t s p roduct ion c an

o n ly b e c o mprehended i n t he l i gh t o f t he u se o f f resh , g reen o ak— wh ich i s n or ma l ly v ery s of t a nd c lean-cut t ing i n i t s wet s tate . T he f i rst o f t he t imber 's e nds was marked-o f f t o t he l eng th o f t he j o in t w i th a s quare a nd a k n ife , s hown i n F igure 1 9 .4 , a nd t he f i rst c ut b y as aw o f t he t ype i l lustra ted a s ' a ' was made t o c onverge w ith t he s quared k n ifel ine , t h is e s tab l ished t he f i rst u nder-squ in ted a bu t men t .

T he c ross-cu t s aw ( doub t less o f t he ' bread-saw '

t ype s hown i n med ieva l i l lus trat ions ( Sa lz man , 1 952 , 1 96 ) l ef t ak er f f u l ly aq uar ter o f a n i nch w ide , t he impor tance o f wh ich b eco mes c lear a t t he f i na l s tage o f p roduct ion . T he s p lay was t hen marked a nd c ut w ith t he b road-axe ' b ', wh ich was c on tro l led w ith t he n ecessary p rec is ion b y ma l let t ing ; t h is t oo l was n o t swung , b u t u sed i n t he s a me w ay a s ab lacks m iths ' h o t-set , a n e dge-too l f or s tr ik ing t hat i s c on tro l led b y i t s h and le .

T h is l ef t s urfaces f l at

a nd f ine ly t oo led , b u t wh ich d o n ot r ese mb le p laned s urfaces .

A t ' c ' t he s p lay

i s s hown f i n ished a nd a t t h is p o in t t he t ab le was c ut w ith t he s a me s p lay , t he waste was t hen a xe-cu t f ro m b etween t he t wo k er fs , a s s hown a t ' d ' a nd ' c '. T he o ther u nder-squ in t w as t hen c ut w ith t he b road-axe , r esu lt ing i n t he worked p iece s hown a t ' 1 '. T h is was l a id b eside t he e nd o f t he o ther t imber wh ich w as t o b e j o ined a s s hown a t , when t he mark ing-kn ife wou ld h ave s cr ibed t he e xact p rof i le o n to t he s econd p iece ; a f ter wh ich t he i nch o f v o id s pace n ecessary t o a cco m modate t he k ey was a l lowed , a nd t he t ab l ing 's c orrect l eng th f i xed . T he c u t t ing o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he j o in t wou ld h ave f o l lowed p rec ise ly t he s a me c ourse , u n t i l n ear c o mp let ion , when a d e ta i l o f g reat d e l icacy emerges ;

3 47

t he w ide s aw-kerfs o n b oth t imbers h ad b een l ef ta s c u t , p roduc ing a t runcated v ee-sect ion , a s s hown a t ' h ' b y t he a rrow ; a t t h is p o in t t he c raf ts man s l icedo f f t he a rr is o f t he o ther a butmen t a s s hown b y t he d ot ted a rrow .

T h is e v inces

ac lear u nders tand ing o n t he c raf ts man 's p ar t t hat s harp , o r k n ife-edged u ndersqu in ts wou ld h ave r iven b o th t imbers when t he t ransverse k ey w as d r iven h o me , ow ing t o t he c on tract i le n ature o f t h is ' mechan is m ' . T he r ema in ing o perat ions o f c ut t ing t he p egs , b or ing t he ir h o les a nd t r i mm ing t he k ey , were , o f c ourse , s i mp le a xe , t wyb il l a nd a uger work . T h is s car fed t imber when a sse mb led h ad b een a n a rcade-p la te , a nd t he r e mnan t w as l ong e nough t o i ncorporate s evera l l esser j o in ts : ap ost-head mor t ise , t he t i eb ea m 's l ap-dove ta i l s ocke t a nd a n a rr is-trench wh ich h ad s ecured t he f oo t o f ar af ter .

T he d ove ta i l s ocket a nd t he a rr is-trench w ere b o th s aw-cu t ,

b u t w ith a f i ner s aw t han w as u sed f or t he s carf . V ee-edged b oards An a s y et u nexp la ined a r t ifact i s t he v ee-edged b oard , wh ich h as b een f ound t hroughou t t h is k ingdo m i n v ar ious s tructura l c on tex ts , r ang ing f ro m c hurch d oor-leaves t o c athedra l c ope-chest p lank ing . T hey e x isted f rom t he t h ir teen th u n t i l a t l east t he f our teen th c en tur ies .

N orma l ly o f q uar tered

o ak , t hey a re o f v ary ing w id ths , b ut c onstan t ly o f f i ne workmansh ip ; s tra igh t a nd a ccurate .

p erfect ly

I n t he e ar l iest e xa mp les t he v ees a re s harp o n b o th

p osi t ive a nd n egat ive e dges , wh i lst f our teen th c entury e xa mp les s how a f l att ened , o r t runcated v ee-sec t ion . The l ong c on t inuance o f t he ir a va i lab i l ity t ogether w ith t he ir v ery w ide d istr ibut ion s uggests t hat e x istence o f a med ieva l f actory , a nd p oses t he q uest ion a s t o whether t h is was i n E ng land , E urope o r e lsewhere? I ta lso h as t o b e d eter m ined , a t s uch t ime a s as pec i men b ecomes a va i lab le , w hether t he ir e dges w ere p laned w i th s pec ia l ised imp le men ts , o r mach ined—perhaps b y ar otary c ut ter . N ot a l l o f t hese a re f ound t o h ave p ara l le l e dges , t he b oards f or m ing t he l i d , f or e xa mp le , o f t he We l ls C athedra l c ope-chest b eing r ad ia l t o i t s p lan s hape—wh ich i s as ector . RE FERENCES F letcher , J ., 1 979 .

' Med ieva l t imberwork a t E ly ' i n B r it ish Archaeo log ica l

A ssoc iat ion C on ference T ransac t ions , E ly C athedra l , 1 979 . G ethyn-Jones , D ., 1 978 .

K e mp ley , 1 5th e d it ion , K e mp ley .

H arvey , J . H ., 1 971 .

T he Master B u i lders , T ha mes & H udson , L ondon .

H arvey , J . H ., 1 961 .

E ng l ish C athedra ls , B atsford , ( rev ised f or t he wr iter

b y D r . H arvey i n 1 972 ) . H ewet t , C . A ., 1 969 .

T he D eve lop men t o f C arpen try , D av id & C har les ,

N ew ton Abbot t . H ewet t , C . A ., 1 980 . K itz inger , E ., 1 950 .

E ng l ish H istor ic C arpen try , P h i l l i more , C h ichester . T he C of f in o f S a in t C u thbert , Ox ford .

R odwe l l , W ., 1 976 . ' The Archaeo log ica l I nvest igat ion o f H adstock C hurch , E ssex ', An t iquar ies J ourna l , LV I p ar t 1 . S a lz man , L . F ., 1 952 .

B u i ld ing i n E ng land , O x ford . 3 48

2 0 .

THE TOOLS AVAILABLE TO THE MED IAEVAL WOODWORKER P h i l ip Wa lker

S u mmary H and-too ls , a nd med iaeva l o nes i n p ar t icu lar , h ave b een n eg lected . Mater ia l f or t he ir s tudy c an b e f ound i n a ctua l t oo ls , i n t h ings made w ith t he t oo ls , i n l anguage , i n d ocumen ts a nd a r t .

P it fa l ls e x ist i n

e ach a rea a nd i ndependan t c onf ir mat ion i s d es irab le .

E xper i men tat ion

c an b e v a luab le , a l though i ti s d oub t fu l i ft he d egree o f s k i l l n eeded t o r e-enact s o me t echn iques c an n ow b e f ound . T h6 1 3th a nd 1 4th c en tur ies s ee m t o h ave w itnessed a d eve lop men t a nd p erfect ion o f woodwork ing t oo ls wh ich h ave n o t b een s er ious ly improved u pon u n t i l t he a dven t o f mechan ical p ower . H owever t he c urren t u psurge o f i n terest i n t he s ub ject may e xpand o ur k now ledge r ap id ly .

S ince t he e ar ly 1 970s t here h as b een a n e nor mous g row th o f i nterest i n t he h istor ica l d eve lop men t o fh and-too ls , a nd t he i n for mat ion wh ich h as c ome t o l ight , o f ten o fa bsorb ing i n terest , h as g iven r ise t o at i de o f p ub l icat ions . H owever , t he s ub ject mat ter h as b een v ir tua l ly l im ited t o t he 1 8th a nd 1 9th c en tur ies s ince i ti s o n ly f ro m t h is p er iod t hat e xp l ic it d ocu men tary e v idence , a nd t oo ls t he mse lves , h ave s urv ived i n l arge q uan t ity . A t a n e ar l ier p hase i n t he t ime-sca le c lass ica l a rchaeo log ists h ave t ended t o r egard t oo ls more a s man ifestat ions o f ag iven c u lture t han a s as ub ject o f i n terest i n t he ir o wn r ight .

When w e c ome t o t he l a te M idd le Ages h owever ,

e ven t hough t he a ctua l t oo ls h ave n o t s urv ived i n c urren t u se , a s t hey h ave f ro m t he 1 8th c en tury , we a re s uf f ic ien t ly n ear t o o ur own t ime t o b e a b le t o l ook a t t he m much a s we wou ld l ook a t c on te mporary imp le men ts w ith wh ich we h appen t o b e u n fam i l iar . We c an a sk o urse lves what a t oo l w as f or , h ow i t worked , h ow i tw as made . I tb ecomes p oss ib le t o e xper i men t a nd t o make c o mpar isons b etween t oo ls f ro m d if feren t p er iods a nd d i f feren t g eograph ica l a reas . We c an u se o ur imag inat ion , a nd a ny p rac t ica l woodwork ing e xper ience we may h ave , t o l ook a t t he m w ith t he e ye o f t he workman who u sed t he m—even t hough i ti s n ow a l most imposs ib le t o e nv isage t he r ap id e f f ic iency o f s o me s ee m ing ly awkward t oo ls i n t he h ands o f men who s pen t t he ir who le l i ves a t t he r epeated p erformance o f o ne p ar t icu lar t ask . C ert a . in ly t here were r eg iona l v ar iat ions i n f or m , a nd we s hou ld n ever f a i l t o k eep i n m ind t he w ider s oc ia l , e cono m ic a nd a esthet ic f i e lds , o f wh ich t oo ls f or m a r evea l ing p ar t , b u t t he ma in l ine o f a pproach t o t he ir i nvest igat ion must b e at echn ica l o ne .

3 49

I n t ry ing t o a nswer t he q uest ions : workers h ave?

What t oo ls d id t he med iaeva l wood-

What were t hey l ike?

a nd H ow d id t hey work? e very p oss ib le

s ource o f e v idence s hou ld b e e xa m ined . f our g roups :

T hese s ources c an b e c ons idered i n

1 .

T he t oo ls t he mse lves .

2 . 3 .

Artefacts p roduced w ith t he a id o f t he t oo ls L anguage

4 .

D ocu men ts , i nc lud ing a r t ist ic r epresen tat ions .

I tg oes w ithout s ay ing t ha t a l l e v idence n eeds t o b e w e ighed w ith c are a nd s o me o f t he p ecu l iar d angers i n r e lat ion t o t h is e nqu iry w i l l b e p o in ted o u t a s e ach g roup i s c ons idered . T he t oo ls t he mse lves S urpr is ing ly l i t t le o f o ur p resen t k now ledge a nd u nderstand ing d er ives f ro m a ctua l t oo ls o f t he p er iod . Whereas f rom t he 1 6th c entury o nwards t here a re many t oo ls a ctua l ly b ear ing d ates c u t i n to t he ir s urfaces b y t he ir makers , a nd , f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 8th c entury , n umerous k nown a nd d ated p rofess iona l t oo l makers h ave l ef t t he ir t rade marks o n s urv iv ing p rod ucts , t here i s n o s ing le t oo l k nown t o t he wr i ter wh ich e i ther b ears a p re1 500 d a te o r c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o a n i den t if ied p re-1500 maker . A s r egards t oo ls wh ich c an b e r ea l iab ly d ated b y t he d on tex ts i n wh ich t hey h ave b een f ound , t here a re many e xa mp les i n n ear-usab le c ond it ion f ro m s l ight ly l a ter p er iods , most n o tab ly t he w ide r ange o f t oo ls l ef t b eh ind b y t he 1 596 e xped it ion a t Nova Z e mb la ( now e xh ib ited i n t he R i jks museu m , Amsterda m ) . Bu t t he a rchaeo log ica l f i nds o f med ieva l t oo ls a re r e lat ive ly f ew , o r i n p oor c ond it ion , o r h ave n o t b een s tud ied w ith a s uf f ic ien t ly p ract ica l e ye .

Most p ub l ished r epor ts

h ave c oncen tra ted o n t ypo log ica l s che mes , b ased o n a pparen t s hape , g iv ing l i t t le a t ten t ion t oc onstruc t ion o r u se . However s o me a u thors , u sing c he m ica l a nd meta l lograph ic a na lyses , h ave c on tr ibuted g reat ly t o o ur u nders tand ing o f t oo ls i n g enera l i n a dd it ion t o d escr ib ing p ar t icu lar med ieva l e xa mp les ( Cogh lan &A l len 1 956 ;

S cot t 1 977 ).

S tandard a rchaeo log ica l p ract ice w i l l i n f u ture n o d oub t g ive more c ons id erat ion t o f unct iona l a nd c onstruct iona l a spects .

P ar t icu lar f ea tures wor th

r ecord ing i nc lude : d i mens ions a nd a ng les o f c u t t ing e dges ; we igh t ; a nd a t l east a r ough i nd icat ion o f wh ich p ar ts o f at oo l h ave b een h ardened . Wh ils t s c ien t if ic a na lys is o f e very s pec i men i s c lear ly n o t t o b e e xpected , a nd e ven ac o mpara t ive h ardness t est may b e t hough t t oo d i f f icu l t o r d estruct ive , y e t w e lds a nd h arden ing l i nes a re o f ten v is ib le t o t he n aked e ye , p ar t icu lar ly o n t oo ls wh ich h ave b eco me c orroded , a nd s ub ject ive impress ions c an s omet i mes b e o b ta ined b y mak ing t iny s cratches w i th a h ardened s tee l p o in t . I n i n terpret ing t he f unct ion o f t oo ls f rom t he ir s hapes a nd o ther f eatures , we a re , o f c ourse , i n terested i n t he t oo l a s i tw as when i n s ound c ond it ion a nd b e ing u sed f or i t s o r ig ina l p urpose . I t must t herefore b e b orne i n m ind t hat a l arge p ropor t ion o f f i nds w i l l h ave b een d a maged o r misused b efore d epos it ion . F or e xa mp le a n a xe may h ave b een b urn t , e i ther a cc iden ta l ly o r i n a misgu ided a t te mp t t o r e move a b roken h af t , w ith t he r esu lt t hat i t s h ardn ess h as b een l os t . .

Moreover a xes a nd a dzes , i n a n e nor mous v ar iety o f

f or ms , were s pec ia l ised t oo ls r equ ir ing a h igh d egree o f s k i l l f or t he ir 3 50

a ppropr iate u se .

S o me o f t he m , b efore f a l l ing i n to d isuse , w i l l h ave b een

g round away u n t i l t hey b ear l i t t le r e lat ion t o t he ir o r ig ina l s hape , a nd i ti s af a ir a ssu mp t ion t hat t he ma jor ity w i l l f ina l ly h ave b een m isused , a s g enera l c hoppers , wedges o r h oes , b y t he w idows a nd g randch i ldren o f t he l ast man who was master o ft he ir t rue p urpose . T he c onc lus ion t o t h is s ect ion must t herefore b e t hat , a t p resen t , a nd u n t i l more d eta i led r esearch i s u nder taken , t here a re b et ter s ources o f i n format ion o n l a te med iaeva l t oo ls t han t he t oo ls t he mse lves . Ar tefac ts p roduced w ith t he a id o f t he t oo ls An i nd icat ion o f t he r ichness o f t h is s ource o f i nfor mat ion i s g iven i n o ther p apers i n t h is v o lu me ( Chr istensen , D arrah , H ewet t a nd o thers ) . C er ta in ly g reat c are i s n eeded , f or e xa mp le , t o d ist ingu ish s ubsequen t work o n a n e ar ly-dated b u i ld ing o r v esse l , a nd p robab ly a g reat d ea l o f e xper i ment a t ion w i l l b e r equ ired b efore s o me o f t he f i ner p o in ts c an b e s et t led s i mp ly b y r eference t o t oo l marks . H owever , i ti s a lready c lear t hat t hey c an a t l east h e lp t o c on f irm s uppos i t ions b ased o n o ther e v idence , o r d e mand s econd t houghts . To q uote t he e xa mp le o f t he C ress ing T e mp le wheat b arn ( assumed t o b e o r ig ina l m id-13th c en tury work ) , marks t here i nd icate t hat b o th l e f t-hand a nd r ight-hand b road s ide-axes were u sed t o h ew a b ea m .

H owever , s ince t he

p o in t where t he marks o f t he t oo ls c onverge i s t he s i te o f al arge k no t i n t he t imber , i t may b e t hat t he t wo t oo ls were u sed b y t he s a me man , c onsecut ive ly i n o rder t o a vo id c on trary g ra in , a nd i ti s n ot n ecessar i ly c onf irmat ion o f t he p rocedure , d ep ic ted i n s evera l med iaeva l manuscr ip ts , where t wo men h ew s i mu ltaneous ly , f ace t o f ace , l ef t-handed a nd r ight-handed . I n t he C ress ing T e mp le b ar ley b arn ( assu med o r ig ina l m id-12th c en tury ) , t hanks t o a n a uger h av ing b een e n tered s l ight ly o f f t he d es ired a ng le , i ti s p oss ib le t o s ee t ha t aw ide mor t ise was s tar ted w i th t wo a uger h o les a breast . Moreover t he s tr iat ions l ef t b y a sma l l n ick i n t he a uger 's c ut t ing e dge g ive s o me measure o f t he r ate o f p rogress p er r evo lu t ion .

T he a uger w as e v iden t ly

o f t he s poon t ype b u t i t s e xact c onf igurat ion i s s t i l l o pen t o s pecu la t ion . P rel im inary e xper i men ts s uggest t hat t he a pparen t r ate o fb or ing c ou ld n o t h ave b een a ch ieved w ith a p erfect ly s y m metr ica l s poon-b it o f a ny th ing o ver a bou t i nch d ia meter , s o i tl ooks a s t hough t he a dvan tages o f al op-sided s poon , p robab le f orerunner o f t he n ose-b it , h ad a lready b een d iscovered . L anguage Wr it ten . A s af i rst p r inc ip le i ts ee ms s afe t o s ay t hat i f an oun e x isted t hen t here must h ave b een a t oo l c orrespond ing t o t hat n oun . T hus , many r eferences t o a" twyb i l l", f ro m b efore t he N or man C onquest u p u n t i l t he 1 7th c entury when t h is u se o f t he word d isappears a l together f rom t he E ng l ish l anguage , s how t ha t c arpenters h ad a t oo l c a l led a t wyb i l l , a nd t hat t he p r i mary f unct ion o f t h is t oo l w as t he c u t t ing o f mor t ices . T he d er ivat ion o f t he word t e l ls u s t hat t he t oo l h ad t wo c u t t ing e dges b ut we h ave n o i l lustrat ion o r s urv iv ing e xa mp le t o s how w hat t he t oo l was l i ke . C lues , p ut t ing more f l esh o n t h is v erba l g host , w i l l s erve t o i l lustrate l ater s ect ions o f t h is p aper .

3 51

On t he o ther h and , i ts ee ms t hat t he a bsence o f a word , t he l ack o f a n a me , i s n ot a s uf f ic ien t g round f or s ay ing t ha t ap ar t icu lar t ype o f t oo l d id n o t e x ist .

T he f i nds a t S aa lburg s how t hat t he c leav ing t oo l n ow k nown a s a

f roe e x isted i n Ro man t imes , a nd i ti s r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t i t s u se c on t inued i n t he M idd le Ages . Y et n o word f or i ti s k nown i n L at in , a nd t he e ar l iest r ecorded u se o f " froe" i n Eng l ish i s 1 573 . S o met i mes , o f c ourse , a word 's d er ivat ion d oes i t se lf f i l l i n s ome o f t he d e ta i l w e s eek . An a uger ( un t i l t he 1 7th c en tury u sua l ly " a n auger" ) was , i n O ld E ng l ish , t wo words mean ing n ave b orer . T hat i s t o s ay i tw as at oo l w h ich wou ld make a h o le t hrough a w hee l-hub b ig e nough t o t ake a n a x le , o r a t l east b ig e nough t o b e e n larged w ith a b ox ing g ouge . S poken l anguage . T he s poken l anguage c an a lso b e ar eposi tory o f c lues , s o me t i mes a r e markab ly d urab le a nd v iv id o ne . T he o lder g enerat ion o f E ng l ish c arpen ters a nd j o iners s t i l l u se t he n a me " o ld woman 's t ooth", o r " granny 's t oo th", t o r efer t o at ype o f t oo l u sed f or r ou t ing o ut g rooves . T h is t oo l , wh ich h as b een i n u se i n i t s p resen t f or m a t l east s ince t he m id1 8th c entury , h as l i t t le i n i t s a ppearance t o s uggest a r eason f or i t s c o lour fu l n am e . H owever , an u mber o f 1 6th a nd 1 7th c en tury v ers ions o f t he s a me t oo l , p reserved i n museu ms a broad , s how i ti n t he f orm o f ag ro tesque g r inn ing mouth , i t s c u t ter emerg ing a s as ing le f ang f rom t he u pper l i p . T hus t he v ernacu lar l anguage c on t inues t o d escr ibe a n o b ject wh ich h as l ong s ince v an ished f ro m t he s cene . A s a no ther e xa mp le o f t he d urab i l ity o f e v idence i n t he s poken l anguage , t he wr iter f ound t hat a d oub le-edged c u t t ing t oo l , k nown i n o ne S o merset v i l lage a s a" cross-axe" was , i n t he v ery n ex t v i l lage , c a l led a " besgy". " Besa iguA" i s t he F rench f or a d oub le-edged c u t t ing t oo l ( a c arpen ter 's t wyb i l l ) a nd t he s econd v i l lage i n q uest ion was S hep ton B eaucha mp .

Thus

a mere 3 m i les o f c oun try l ane h as b een s uf f ic ien t i nsu lat ion f or a n a me , imposed b y N or man masters 9 00 y ears e ar l ier , t o s urv ive a nd t hrow l i gh t o n t he h istory o f ao nce impor tan t t oo l . T hese a necdo tes , i nc iden ta l ly , a re t wo p ieces o f e v idence amongst o thers wh ich i nd ica te t hat d if ferences b etween t he f orms o f t he t oo ls i n t he v ar ious E uropean c oun tr ies were n o t a s p ronounced i n med ieva l t imes a s t hey b eca me l ater . Ora l e v idence wh ich , a s i n t hese e xa mp les , i s i nheren t i n t he l anguage a nd g iven u nconsc ious ly b y t he s peaker , h as e v iden t v a l id ity .

H owever i ti s

we l l t o e xerc ise a d egree o f s cep t ica l c au t ion w hen q uest ion ing o ld c raf tsmen . T here a re s t i l l s o me men w ith a n i nher ited k now ledge o f p re-industr ia l t oo ls a nd t echn iques b ut i ti s of ten n ecessary t o g et t o k now t he m , a nd b e k nown b y t he m , q u ite we l l b efore o ne c an b e s ure t hat a nswers a re n o t c o loured b y a d es ire t o p lease—or t o t ease . D ocu men ts L itera ture .

Ap oe m wr it ten a bout 1 500 , t he D ebate o f t he C arpen ter 's

T oo ls ( Ox ford ms . A sh mo l . 6 1 .66 .23.6 s ee H az l it t , 1 864 ) i n wh ich e ach t oo l s peaks a p ar t , g ives a u sefu l i nven tory o f ac arpen ter 's k i t o f t he p er iod . I n a lso g ives a l i t t le s upp le men tary i n format ion a bou t s o me o f t he t oo ls .

3 52

I n

o ur q uest f or t he med ieva l E ng l ish t wyb i l l , f or e xa mp le , we n o te t ha t i t s s peech c on ta ins t he p oe m 's o n ly r eference t o s k i l l a nd we may d educe t hat i t s u se d id r equ ire s o meth ing e xcept iona l i n t he way o f d ex ter ity . Al a ter s ource , av erse o f 1 641 ( W it 's R ecreat ions b y S ir J . Mennes ) s uggests t hat at wyb i l l m igh t , i n c ase o f n ecess ity , s erve a s as h ip-anchor .

T h is i s p ro-

b ab ly mockery , b u t i td oes i nvoke a n i dea o f s hape a nd we igh t , a nd i t may b e g round f or t h ink ing t hat t he E ng l ish t wyb i l l o f t he p er iod was t he s hor t , h af ted t ype r ather t han t he f u l l-leng th t hrust ing t oo l ( F ig . 2 0 .1 ). Bureaucracy .

T he g row th o f p aper-work i n t he l a te med ieva l p er iod h as

p rov ided a l ot o fv a luab le e v idence . An a ccoun t f or r epa irs t o R estorme l C ast le i n 1 343 ( Sa lz man 1 952 , 3 42 ) wh ich i t em ises s ix p ence f or a n a dze , t o smooth o ld t imber w h ich w as s o f u l l o f n a i ls t hat t he workmen w ou ld n o t s e t t he ir own t oo ls t o i t , n o t o n ly r ecords t he p resence o f t he a dze ( s trange ly a bsen t f ro m c on te mporary i l lustrat ions ) a nd i t s f unct ion , b u t a lso c on f ir ms t he r e-use o f o ld t imber , s hows t hat workmen d id own t he ir own t oo ls , a nd g ives a c ost c o mpar ison ( a man 's d a i ly wage wou ld h ave b een a bou t f our p ence ). Wil ls a nd a ppren t ice i nden tures s o met i mes i t em ise t oo ls b u t t hey d on 't a dd a ny d eta i l t o h e lp u s e nv isage u se o r a ppearance . On t he o ther h and , t he a dm in istrat ions o f g u i lds s ee ms t o h ave n ecess i tated a c ons iderab le u se o f s ea ls a nd t okens wh ich d id c arry images . T he e ar l iest r epresen tat ion k nown t o t he wr iter o f ab race f or b or ing h o les a ppears o n t he 1 407 s ea l o f a F rench w ine- merchan ts c orporat ion . ( Taransaud 1 976 , 5 4 ) . Ar t .

I n a r t w e h ave t he r ichest s ource o f i n for mat ion o f a l l .

T he B ayeux

T apestry ( l ate 1 1th c entury ) i s p robab ly b est k nown a nd , i n i t s s h ipbu i ld ing s cene , i n troduces o ne t oo l n o t k nown f ro m a ny e ar l ier s ource . T hat i s t he b reast a uger , wh ich h ad d ist inct a dvan tages , i n b oth a ccuracy a nd s peed , o ver t he s i mp ler t ype o fa uger ' where t he h ands a lone h ave t o s upp ly b o th p ressure a nd t urn ing f orce ( F ig . 2 0 .1 ).

I n a dd it ion t o t h is embro idery ,

med ieva l a rt ist ic r epresen tat ions i n t apestry , p a in t , s cu lp ture , s ta ined g lass , mosa ic a nd wood-b lock p r in t ing a l l h e lp t o s how what t he t oo ls w ere l i ke a nd h ow t hey were u sed .

T o s ing le o ut b ut t wo o f t hese o thers s ources :

The

d raw ings o f Mat thew P ar is ( 2 . 1 250 ) s how a n u mber o f t oo ls a nd t echn iques w ith g reat c lar iety a nd d irectness ( Tr in ity C o l lege , D ub l in , MS .177 ( E 1 40 ) f .60 ) a nd Rober t C a mp in 's Merode A ltarp iece

1 435 ) , n ow a t t he Metropo l i tan

Museu m o f Art ( C lo isters ) N ew Y ork , g ives u s av iew i n to S t . J oseph 's works hop ( or i s i ti n f act t he a r t ist 's s tud io , a s W. L . G ood man h as s uggested i n ap ersona l c o m mun icat ion? - s ee a lso d e B ono , 1 974 , 1 84 ) . o f s uch s tar t l ing d e ta i l t hat we c an r ead e ven t he t rade marks o n t he t oo ls . t hese med ieva l t oo l makers t he mse lves may b e i den t if ied .

S o me d ay , p erhaps ,

T he ma in p rob le m i n d ec id ing what w e ight t o g ive t o t he e v idence o f t he a r t ists i s t he s usp ic ion t hat t hey o f ten p referred t o c opy f rom e ar l ier i l lustrat ions , o r t o r ely o n me mory o r e ven t he ir own imag inat ions , r ather t han t o d raw f a ithfu l ly f ro m l i fe .

T he i l lustrat ion o f t echn ica l t reat ises w as n o t , a f ter a l l ,

t he p urpose o f t he ir work . I n l ater t imes i ti s o f ten c lear t hat p r in t ing-b lock makers h ave u sed a m irror -i mage p rocess t o c opy e ar l ier work , w ith t he r esu l t t hat t oo ls a nd t he ir man ipu lat ion h ave c ome o u t l ef t f or r igh t .

3 53

B u t whether , f or e xa mp le , t he

Too ls s imi lar t o t ypes a ppear ing i n med ieva l i lustrat ions

F ig .

F ig .

2 0.1

2 0.2

Top: al ong t wybi l l ,h e ld by t he s ocket a lone w i thout a ny i nserted h af t. R ight : as hor ter, h af ted t wybi l l. L ef t: ab reast a uger. L ef t C entre: ab race a nd b i t. R ight Centre: a s tar t ing a uger. L ower Centre : a t ry p lane. Bottom: at wo-man r ip-saw.

A g roup o f a xes s how ing s ometh ing o f t he v ar iety i n u se i n l a te-med ieva l Europe, n ot i nc lud ing a ny f reak o r e ccentr ic t ypes. A l l a re a ssumed t o h ave b een d es igned f or h ew ing , r ather t han f e l l ing. I n most t he h ead i tse lf h as b een f orged " handed" —here 5 r ight a nd 3 l e f t-handed e xamp les.

r epeated d ep ict ion o f s i mu l taneous l ef t- a nd r ight-handed h ew ing ( see a bove , u nder Ar tefacts ) i s p roof t hat t h is was a c om mon p rocedure , o r whe ther t he wood-cut a r t ist o f "Die We l tchron ik" ( t he Nure mberg C hron ic le 1 488) b orrowed a n a greeab ly s y mmetr ica l c o mpos it ion f ro m t he W e nces laus B ib le ( 2 . 1 390 ) i s h ard t o s ay ( B ib l ia Wencesla i R eg is , I V , N a t iona l L ibrary V ienna , V 2 C od 2 760 f o l . 1 56 ).

I n s uch a c ase t he o r ig inator o f t he i dea may h ave m isunder-

s tood t he p rocess , s uppos ing t hat t wo men w ere work ing t he s a me s ide o f a b a lk when i n f act t hey were work ing o ppos ite s ides , o r h e may c onsc ious ly h ave d ec ided t o t e lescope c onsecu t ive p hases o f aj ob i n to a s ing le p icture . E ach c ase h as t o b e j udged o n i t s mer its i n t he l i ght o f a ny o ther r e levan t e v idence . S o met i mes a p ar t icu lar r epresen tat ion j ust c o mpe ls b e l ief , e ven i fi ta t f i rst s ee ms u n l ike ly .

S uch a c ase i s t he H o ly F am i ly s cene i n t he

C ather ine o f C leves B ook o f H ours ( 2 . 1 430 ) where J oseph h o lds a l arge a xe b y i t s h ead a nd u ses i tt o p are a s can t l ing ( P ierpon t Mo rgan L ibrary , N ew Y ork , M 9 17 f . 1 49 ) .

I n t h is i ns tance e xper i men t w ith a s im i lar t oo l s howed

t hat i tw as i ndeed a p ract ica l way o f work ing , a lthough t he wr iter h as n ever s een i td ep icted o r r eco m mended e lsewhere . I n o ther c ases a n a r t ist i s e v iden t ly p or tray ing s o meth ing wh ich h as b een f a ir ly a ccurate ly o bserved a lthough , p erhaps b ecause h e was work ing f ro m me mory , h e h as g ot t he d e ta i ls wrong . An e xa mp le i s t he v a luab le i l lustrat ion f ro m t he D ecreta ls o f S t . G regory ( S t . B artho lo mews , L ondon c . 1 340 ) s how ing t wo men r ipp ing ab a lk i n to b oards ( Br it ish L ibrary , R oya l M . S .1 0E i v f . 9 9v ). T he t ee th o f t he s aw h ave a p ronounced r ake , wh ich i s c onv inc ing e v idence t ha t a s pec ia l ised s aw f or r ipp ing t imber a long t he g ra in h ad b een o bserved , b u t t he t eeth a re s hown p o in t ing i n t he wrong d irect ion , w ith t he r esu lt t hat t hey wou ld i nstan t ly s nag i n to t he p ropped-up b a lk . C onc lus ion Ten tat ive ly o ne c an s ay t ha t s o met i me i n t he 1 3th o r 1 4th c en tur ies a n u mber o f impor tan t d eve lop men ts i n woodwork ing t oo ls s ee m t o h ave t aken p lace . T hese i nc lude t he i n troduct ion o f t he b race , u s ing t he c rank p r inc ip le f or r ap id b or ing b y c on t inuous r o tat ion ;

improved a ugers wh ich r equ ired

l i t t le p ressure t o d raw t he mse lves i n to t he wood ;

l arge a nd s pec ia l ised a xes

w h ich g reat ly s peeded u p t he r ough s hap ing o f t imbers ;

a nd p robab ly t he

c arpen ter 's t wyb i l l ( a lthough s o meth ing b y t h is n a me e x isted e ar l ier ) wh ich e ased a nd s peeded t he c ut t ing o f j o in ts i n l arge t imbers o ut o n ab u i ld ing s i te . A f ter t hat t ime l i t t le o f impor tance was a dded t o t he woodworker 's k i t , a par t f ro m a f ew d eta i l improve men ts b ased o n s crews a nd g ears , u n t i l t he a dven t o f mechan ica l p ower . However t h is p aper h as a i med a t s urvey ing e v idence , r ather t han p res en t ing f i nd ings . I td oes s ee m t hat t oo ls , i n c o mpar ison w ith o ther c lasses o f o b ject s uch a s w eapons o r p o ts , h ave h i ther to b een s trange ly n eg lected a nd i ti s t herefore t o b e e xpected t hat t here w i l l s oon b e r ap id d eve lopmen ts i n o ur k now ledge a nd u nderstand ing o f t he m .

3 55

REFERENCES C ogh lan & A l len , 1 956 . d e B ono , E ., 1 974 ,

E ureka , T ha mes & Hudson , L ondon .

H az l it t , W. C ., 1 864.

R e ma ins o f t he e ar ly p opu lar p oe try o f Eng land .

S a lz man , L . F ., 1 952 . S co t t , B . G ., 1 977.

N otes o n P reh istor ic a nd E ar ly I ron i n t he O ld Wor ld .

B u i ld ing i n Eng land t o 1 540 , Ox ford .

' Meta l lograph ic S tudy o f s o me E ar ly I ron T oo ls

a nd Weapons f ro m I re land ', P roc . Roya l I r ish A cade my 7 7 , C .N o 1 2 . T aransaud , J ., 1 976 .

L e L ivre d e l a Tonne l ler ie , P ar is .

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2 1.

A GA .UGE U SED FOR THE AL IGNMENT OF MED IEVAL ROOFS J ohn McCann

S u m mary An i nvest igat ion i n to t he p urpose o f s ome a pparen t ly u nnecessary h o les i n t he r af ters o f med ieva l r oofs h as i nd icated t he u se o f a s yste m o f g aug ing , b y wh ich r oofs c ou ld b e c onstruc ted t o h igh s tandards o fp rec is ion . P resen t e v idence s uggests t hat i tw as f i rst u sed t o a l ign t he r oo fs o f a is led h a l ls o f t he t h ir teen th c entury , t hat t he s a me me thod w as g enera l ly a dop ted i n t he c onstruct ion o f c rownp ost r oo fs ( and l ess o f ten , o f o ther r oof t ypes ) , a nd t ha t i tw en t o u t o fu se s oon a f ter t he m idd le o f t he s ix teen th c en tury . I t may i nd icate al ine o f e nqu iry t o a ccoun t f or ,o ther c omparab le f eatures .

Many med ieva l r oofs e xh ib it a c ur ious f ea ture .

E ach f u l lleng th r af ter

h as a n a uger h o le i n t he s ide , p ene trat ing o n ly h a lf-way t hrough t he t imber , as hort d istance a bove t he wa l l-p late ( F ig . 2 1.1 ).

T hese h o les a re v ery

c o m mon i n t he r oofs o ft imber-fra med b u i ld ings i n E ssex , a nd t hey h ave b een f ound w ide ly e lsewhere .

R . T . Mason c a l led t he m ' prob le m h o les ',

a nd t here h as b een s o me d iscuss ion a bou t t he ir p urpose .

A t l east t hree

e xp lanat ions h ave b een p roposed t o a ccoun t f or t he m—wh ich Id o n ot i n tend t o g o i n to h ere , b ecause t hey d o n o t a ccoun t f or t he e v idence Ih ave r ecorded i n E ssex a nd H er t fordsh ire . F our y ears a go Ib egan c o l lect ing b u i ld ings i n wh ich t hey o ccurred , r ecord ing t he p os i t ions o f t he r af ter h o les w i th in t he b u i ld ing , a nd t ak ing f i ne measure men ts o f t he ir p os it ions o n t he r af ters . Ana lysis o f t hese r ecords s howed t hat a c onsis ten t p at tern emerged . R af ter h o les o ccur o n ly i n b u i ld ings o fh igh q ua l ity .

T hey a re p ar t icu lar ly

c o m mon i n c rown-post r oo fs . Where p resen t t hey a re i n e very r af ter o f f u l l l eng th , b u t i ft he r oo fh as a h ipped o r h a lf-h ipped e nd t hey d o n ot o ccur i n t he s hor t r af ters .

T hat i s , t hey o ccur o n ly i n p a irs o f r af ters wh ich a re p egged

t ogether a t t he a pex . t he s erv ice e nd .

I n a med ieval h a l l h ouse most o f t he r af ter h o les f ace

I n s o me b u i ld ings t hey a l l f ace t he s a me w ay e xcep t t he l as t

p a ir o f r af ters a t t he s erv ice e nd .

Ih ave n ever s een a b roken p eg i n o ne o f

t hese h o les , s o c lear ly t hey w ere n ot u sed f or a ny s tructura l p urpose , f or a t tach ing o ne t imber t o a nother . I ft he r af ters a re s oo ted b y e xposure t o woods moke t he i ns ide o f e ach r af ter h o le i s s oo ted t oo , s o c lear ly i th as b een t here , u npegged , s ince t he b u i ld ing was e rected .

S o met i mes o ne f i nds t hat

t he h o les a re f i l led w ith p laster , b u t i ft he p laster i s c leared o u t an orma l d eposit o f s oo t w i l l b e f ound i ns ide .

3 57

F ig. 2 1.1 Auger h o le i n s ide o f r af ter, a bove t he wa l l-p late. F ig. 2 1 .2 Re lat ionship o f r af ter h o le t o u pper s urface o f r af ter, a nd t o t ip o f r af ter c oup le. F ig. 2 1.3 A p a ir o f r af ters a ssemb led o n p egs p ro jecting f rom t he g aug ing b eam.

3

3 58

F ig.

2 1.4

Gaug ing b eam p acked up t o h or izonta l p os i t ion o n ap a ir o f wa l l-p lates wh ich a re n o t l eve l.

4

5

f in

s cr ibed

c ut t o f i t

R after s eat ings

3 59

7

8

F ig. F ig.

2 1.7 2 1.8

U s ing a t emp late t o s cr ibe t he r af ter f or c utt ing . The r e lat ionsh ips b etween t he r af ter h o le a nd t he wa l l-p late.

3 60

When t he e xac t p osi t ions o f t hese h o les a re measured , c er ta in c ons tan t r e lat ionsh ips emerge . With in o ne b u i ld ing , e very h o le i s a t ac ons tan t d is tance f ro m t he u pper s urface o f t he r af ter , s hown a s ' a ' i n F igure 2 1 .2 . O l iver R ackha m h as s hown h ow t rees were c onver ted i n to t imber i n t he M idd le Ages .1 R af ters w ere made f ro m q u ite y oung t rees , e xh ib it ing t he s a me t aper a s t he t ree .

E ven i n b u i ld ings o fh igh q ua l ity t here w as n o a t te mp t t o s tand-

a rd ise t he d i mens ions o f t he r af ters .

S o t he d istance f ro m t he h o le t o t he

l ower s urface o f t he r af ter d if fers f ro m o ne t o a no ther , b u t t he d is tance t o t he u pper f ace i s c onstan t .

T yp ica l ly t hese a uger h o les a re a bou t 1 8 m i l l i-

metres i n d ia me ter , w ith t he p er iphery a bou t 3 2 m il l i metres f rom t he u pper f ace t o t he r af ter . T hey a re p laced w i th g reat p rec is ion . Ano ther r e lat ionsh ip wh ich a ppears t o b e c ons tan t t hroughout t he s a me r oof i s t he d istance f ro m t he h o le t o t he t i p o f t he r af ter , s hown a s ' b ' i n F igure 2 1 .2 .

T here i s n o c onstancy i n t he d istance t o t he i nner a pex , n or t o

t he p eg w h ich s ecures o ne r af ter t o t he o ther . S ince t he r af ters d i f fer i n t h ickness t he i nner a pex d oes n ot n ecessar i ly f a l l v er t ica l ly b e low t he u pper a pex ;

t he p eg-ho le a t t he a pex d oes n ot s ee m t o b e p laced w ith a ny p ar t icu lar

a ccuracy .

T he u pper a pex i s t he o ne t hat mat ters f or t h is p urpose .

I ti s p oss ib le t o p ostu late f rom t hese r e lat ionsh ips a p iece o f e qu ip men t wh ich was u sed i n a l ign ing a med ieva l r oof . I ft he c arpen ter t ook a s tra igh t b ea m , w ith a p eg p ro ject ing f ro m t he s ide n ear e ach e nd , h e h ad i n e f fect a g auge b y wh ich h e c ou ld e rect t he r af ters w ith g reat a ccuracy .

H e c ou ld

a sse mb le a p a ir o f r af ters , e ach moun ted w ith t he h o le o n ap eg , s o t hat i t f or med a n i sosce les t r iang le , a s s hown i n F igure 2 1.3 . H e wou ld p lace a mark o n t he b ea m , a t t he e xact mid-po in t b etween t he p egs , a nd a l ign t h is w ith a n a x ia l c onstruct ion l i ne . I fh e u sed t he s a me g aug ing b ea m i n s uccess ion w ith e ach p a ir o f r af ters h e was i n e f fect c onstruct ing a s er ies o f i den t ica l t r iang les .

I ta ppears t o me t hat t h is was t he p urpose o f t he myster ious r af ter

h o les —to b e u sed i n c on junct ion w ith a s i mp le g auge d ur ing t he e rect ion o f t he r oof . When w e l ook a t t imber-fra med b u i ld ings n ow w e s ee t he m d istor ted b y s ubs idence , b y n eg lect a nd b y m isuse o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime .

I n p ar t icu lar ,

b races wh ich w ere e ssen t ia l t o t he r ig id ity o f t he s tructure h ave o f ten b een s evered t o i nser t w indows o r d oorways. H owever , t he f ra mes w ere o r ig ina l ly c arpentered t o h igh s tandards o fp recis ion . I n t ry ing t o p roduce a n a ccura te ly a l igned r oof t he c arpen ter h ad t wo r e la ted p rob le ms .

One h as b een men t ioned

a lready ; t he r af ters d if fered i n d epth o ne f ro m a no ther , b u t h e h ad t o e rect t he m s o t hat t he u pper s urfaces c a me i n to e xact a l ignmen t . I n a dd i t ion , a s Is ha l l h ope t o s how , h e was t ry ing t o b ui ld a p er fect r oof o n ab ase wh ich was f ar f ro m p erfect . We h ave a n u mber o f c on tracts f or t he c onstruct ion o f med ieva l t imberf ra med b u i ld ings .2 T hey s how t hat t he c o mponen ts w ere c u t t o s ize a t a f ra meyard , u s ing u nseasoned t imber , f e l led i n s u m mer , a nd t hat t hey w ere t hen t ranspor ted t o t he s i te a nd a sse mb led t here .

C ec i l H ewet t h as s hown

t hat , a t l east f ro m t he t h ir teen th c ent ury , t he l ong itud ina l f ra mes w ere a sse mb led wh i le l y ing f l at o n t he g round , were r eared i n to t he v er t ica l p os it i on a nd were t hen l ocked i n p os it ion b y t i ebea ms l owered o n t o t hem f ro m a bove .3 C lear ly t he c arpen ter wou ld h ave l i ked t o e nd u p w ith a p a ir o f wa l l3 61

p la tes wh ich were p er fec t ly s tra ight , p erfect ly p ara l le l a nd p erfec t ly h or iz on ta l .

Ib e l ieve t h is was v ir tua l ly imposs ib le t o a cco mp l ish .

T here w ere

s evera l s tages a t wh ich m inor i naccurac ies c ou ld c reep i n—the l eve l l ing o f t he s i te , w arp ing o f t he t imber a s i td r ied o u t d i f feren t ia l ly i n s un l igh t , m inor e rrors o f work mansh ip . T here was l i t t le s cope f or a d jus tmen t w hen o nce t he b ox-fra me was a sse mb led . I fo ne e nd o f o ne p la te was t oo l ow t he c arpen ter c ou ld d r ive wedges u nder t he g rounds i l l , t o r a ise t hat e nd o ft he f ra me—Sa lz man q uo tes d ocu men tary e v idence o ft h is p rocess .4 B u t t here was n o way o f a d just ing t he s pan b etween t he w a l l-p lates , o r o f c orrec t ing o ther t ypes o f i naccuracy . Iam n o t s uggest ing t hat t hese i naccurac ies w ere v ery l arge , b u t t hey w ere e nough t o make f or d i f f icu lt ies i n a l ign ing t he r oof . T he c arpen ter h ad t o ' o f fer ' e very r af ter i n t he p os it ion i t wou ld o ccupy , a nd t o c u t i tt o s ize i nd iv idua l ly . I n F igure 2 1 .4 t he g aug ing b ea m h as b een e rected o n ap a ir o f wa l l-p lates wh ich a re n o t e xact ly l eve l .

E ach e nd i s s uppor ted o n ab lock , b ut i n a dd it ion

o ne e nd h as b een r a ised i n to a n e xact ly h or izon ta l p osi t ion b y p ack ing a smal l s pacer u nderneath i t . T he l eve l s hown i s o f t he t ype i l lustrated i n n umerous med ieva l manuscr ipts .5 Ac ord i s s tretched a x ia l ly a long t he b u i ld ing , f ro m o ne e nd t i ebea m t o t he o ther , t o f orm a c onstruct ion l ine . T he g aug ing b ea m i s a d justed u n t i l i t s m id-po in t i s v er t ica l ly a bove t he a x ia l l ine b y ak nown d is tance , t he l eng th o f t he p lu mb-l ine .

I ti s n ow p erfect ly p os it ioned .

A

p a ir o f r af ters a sse mb led o n i tw i l l b e v ert ica l ly a bove t he p osit ions t hey must o ccupy e ven tua l ly , b y ac onstan t d is tance .

I ti s t hen a s i mp le ma t ter

t o t ransfer t he c orrect measure men t t o t he r a f ter , u s ing a c arpen ter 's s quare a s s hown i n F igure 2 1 .5 , a nd t o s cr ibe i t where i t must b e c ut t o s ize . F it ted i n p os it ion i n t he s eat ing i tw i l l b e p erfect ly p laced i n r e lat ion t ot he a x ia l c onstruct ion l ine . Many t ypes o f r af ter s eat ing were i n u se , e ven w i th in o ne c oun ty , d epend ing o n t he q ua l ity o f t he b u i ld ing a nd t he p er iod o f i t s c onstruct ion—so me a re s hown i n F igure 2 1 .6 .

I t wou ld h ave b een a s imp le mat ter t o p repare a t e m-

p late t o t he p rof i le o f t he r af ter s ea t ing , a nd t o u se i tt o t ransfer t he p ro f i le t o t he r af ter f or c u t t ing , a s s hown i n F igure 2 1.7. S o t he method o f w ork ing w ou ld h ave b een t o f i t ap a ir o f r af ters o n t he p egs o f t he g aug ing b eam , t o a d just t he m i n to c orrect p os it ion i n r e lat ion t o t he a x ia l c onstruct ion l i ne , t o s cr ibe t he p rof i le o f t he s eat ing o n e ach r af ter , n umber ing i tf or i den t if icat ion , a nd t hen t o d is man t le t he t r iang le .

T hese a sse mb ly marks c an s t i l l b e f ound ,

a nd i n my o bservat ion t hey a lways n u mber f rom t he ' h igh ' e nd o f ah a l l t owards t he ' l ow ' e nd . T he c arpen ter r epeated t h is p rocess w i th e ach p a ir o f r af ters , a l l a long t he f ra me u n t i l h e c a me t o t he ' l ow ' e nd . I fi tw as a g ab le e nd h e t hen h ad a p rob le m , f or t here was n o more w a l l-p late b eyond t he l ast p a ir o f r af ters t o s uppor t t he g auge . S o h e r eversed t he g auge . T h is , Iwou ld s uggest , i s t he r eason why i n s ome b u i ld ings t he l ast p a ir o f r af ter h o les a t o ne e nd f ace t he o pposite way f rom a l l t he o thers . Ia pprec iate t hat t h is i s s t i l l a n h ypo thesis , s o l et u s a pp ly a t est t o i t . I tf o l lows f ro m t he method o f work ing d escr ibed t hat t he r e lat ionsh ip b e tween t he r af ter h o les a nd t he wa l l-p lates w i l l b e i nconstan t , s ince t he who le p urpose w as t o c o mpensate f or i naccurac ies i n t he wa l l-p late .

Ih ave made a s pec ia l

g auge t o measure t he v er t ica l a nd h or izon ta l d is tance b etween t he r af ter h o le a nd t he w a l l-p late , a nd h ave a pp l ied i tt o al arge n u mber o f b u i ld ings , w herever 3 62

t he e v idence was a ccess ib le a nd a pparen t ly u nd isturbed . measure men ts v ary f rom r af ter t o r af ter ( F ig . 2 1.8 ) . ' c ' v ar ies w ith in a r ange o fa bou t 2 0 m i l l i metres . ' d ' v ar ies w ith in a r ange o f a bou t 5 0 m i l l i metres .

A s p red icted , b oth T he v er t ica l d istance

T he h or izon ta l d istance Imen t ioned e ar l ier t ha t

t he c arpen ter h ad a means o f a d just ing t he h e ight o f t he wa l l-p late , b ut n o t i t s l atera l p os it ion . d if ference .

T he r ange o f v ar iat ion f ound i n e ach c ase r ef lects t h is

S o f ar Ih ave c onsidered o n ly t he most t yp ical a rrange men t o f r af ter h o les , a s f ound i n t he e ar l ier b u i ldings . I n l ater medieval b u i ld ings t he p a t tern i s more e rrat ic .

I n s o me t he h o les a re b ored r ight t hrough a l l t he r af ters , o r

o ccasional ly , t hrough j us t o ne o r t wo r af ters . I n s o me b u i lding o ne p air o f r af ters may e ach h ave t wo h o les . When measured , o ne i s f ound t o c orresp ond i n p os it ion w i th a l l t he o thers , t he o ther b e ing a n e rrat ic . Iwou ld s uggest t ha t t he c arpen ter s et u p t he g auge emp ir ica l ly , p erhaps t ry ing more t han o ne p os i t ion .

T hat i s , where t here a re t wo a uger h o les i n ar af ter t hey r ep-

r esen t ap rocess o ft r ia l a nd e rror .

I n t he l a ter M idd le Ages more c arpen ters

were a t work , p roduc ing more v ernacu lar b u i ld ings , a nd s tandards o f c raf tsmansh ip were n o t q u ite s o h igh a s e ar l ier . R af ter h o les o ccur a lso i n t he r oofs o f e ar ly a is led h a l ls , where t hey a re p laced a bove t he a rcade p lates . Ap aper o n t h is s ub ject was p ub l ished i n V ernacu lar Arch itecture i n 1 978 , a t wh ich t ime t he e ar l iest e xa mp le Ic ou ld q uote was T he S avoy , a manor h ouse a t D enha m , B uck ingha msh ire , o r ig ina l ly a is led , wh ich Margaret Wood a t tr ibu tes t o t he f our teen th c en tury .6 I ti s n o t ag ood e xa mp le t o e xa m ine b ecause most o f t he e v idence i s c oncea led b y modern p laster .

More r ecen t ly t wo e ar l ier a nd b e t ter e xa mp les h ave c o me

t o l ight . One i s a manor h ouse a t H ar low , E ssex , wh ich w as d escr ibed b y t he Roya l C omm iss ion o n H istor ica l Monumen ts a s s even teen th c en tury , 7 which p roves o n e xa m inat ion t o h ave b een a n a is led h al l w ith a l l t he c haract er ist ic f eatures o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury—posts w ithout j ow ls , w i th d ove ta i l t y ing j o in ts o f w ide ' set ', t w in p ass ing-braces , o pen a nd s ecre t n o tched l ap j o in ts , s tra ight t i e-bea ms , t imbers o f s quare s ect ion , e ach r epresen t ing a who le t ree s quared o f f . C ress ing T e mp le .

8

I th as n o tab le s im ilar i t ies w ith t he wheat b arn a t

I th as a c o mp lete s et o f r af ter h o les a bove t he a rcade

p la tes , most o f wh ich a re f u l ly a ccess ib le .

More r ecen t ly Ih ave o bserved

r af ter h o les a t t he b ar ley b arn a t C ress ing T e mp le , t he e ar l ier o f t he t wo g rea t b arns t here , f or wh ich a d ate o f c irca 1 200 i s n ow g enera l ly a ccep ted . Unfor tunate ly i n t h is c ase t here h ave b een s o me a l terat ions t o t he r oo f , a nd i ti s n ot c er ta in t hat t he r af ter h o les b e long t o t he e ar l iest p hase . H ar low t here i s n o d oub t , f or t he r oof i s l arge ly u nd isturbed .

9

B u t a t

I fr af ter h o les w ere f i rst u sed i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury , t hey s ee m t o h ave f a l len o ut o fu se i n t he s ix teen th c en tury . T hey o ccur i n l a te c rown-post r oofs l ike t he b arn a t N ew H a l l , H igh Rod ing , f or wh ich a c onstruc t ion d ate o f 1 554 i s l i ke ly , a nd t hey o ccur i n s ide-pur l in r oofs s uch a s E lstow Moo t H a l l , B edfordsh ire , c irca 1 500 . T hey o ccur i n q ueen-stru t r oofs s uch a s t he g u i ldhal l a t C laver ing , E ssex , . c irca 1 500 , a nd i n s evera l r oofs o f c lasped p ur l in t ype , wh ich i n E ssex were s upersed ing c rown-post r oo fs i n t he m idd le o f t he s ix teen th c en tury .

Id o n o t k now o f a ny b u i ld ing w ith r af ter h o les wh ich

c an b e d ated l a ter t han t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he s ix teen th c en tury .

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T hat i s , a

t echn ique u s ing r af ter h o les was i n w idespread u se i n b u i ld ings o fh igh q ua l ity t hroughou t t he e n t ire p er iod o f c rown-post r oo fs , a nd i tp assed o u t o fu se s oon a f ter t he ir c onstruct ion c eased . T he r eg iona l d istr ibut ion wh ich h as b een o bserved s o f ar a lso c orresponds w ith t he d istr ibu t ion o f c rown-post r oo fs . R af ter h o les a re c o mmon i n S uf fo lk , E ssex , H er t fordsh ire , K en t a nd S ussex , t hey o ccur i n t he t owns o f t he M id lands —Coven try , B ir m ingha m , N o t t ingha m , b oth i n c rown-post r oofs a nd s idep ur l in r oofs , b u t t o my k now ledge o n ly o ne e xamp le h as b een r eported i n t he N or th . T h is i s aP enn ine a is led h al l f rom S he l ley Woodhouse , n ear H uddersf i e ld , as trange b u i ld ing b y s ou th-eastern s tandards , n ow l y ing i n ad is man t led c ond it ion a t t he Avoncrof t Museu m o f B u i ld ings .1 0 Iam f ar f ro m s ure t hat t he r af ter h o les r epor ted t here r epresen t t he s a me g aug ing p rocess w h ich I h ave d escr ibed . h o les .

T here may h ave b een more t han o ne way o f u s ing r af ter

O ther g ood b u i ld ings w ith c rown-post r oofs wh ich d o n o t h ave r af ter

h o les s how t hat t here w as more t han o ne way o f a l ign ing a r oof a ccura te ly . B y my o bservat ion r af ter h o les a re a lways p resent i n t he r oofs o ft imberf ra med c hurch p orches , wh ich a re v ery c om mon i n E ssex a nd e ast H er t fords h ire . Ac hurch p orch i s o f c ourse j ust a t imber-fra med b u i ld ing i n m in iature , b u i l t t o v ery h igh s tandards o f c raf ts mansh ip .

U n l ike o ther med ieva l b u i ld ings

t hey h ave r e ma ined u nchanged i n f or m a nd f unct ion t o t he p resen t d ay .

Where

t he h o les a re b ored o n ly p ar t-way t hrough t he r af ters t he c o m monest a rrangemen t i s t hat t hey a l l f ace t he c hurch e xcep t t he l ast p a ir , imp ly ing a s equence o f e rect ion wh ich moved t owards t he c hurch .

I n c hurch p orches t hese h o les

a re o f ten f ound t o b e b locked b y wooden p lugs , a l though t h is i s r are i n f u l ls ize b u i ld ings . Ib e l ieve t he p urpose o f t he p lugs was p ure ly c os met ic , t o c oncea l t he c onstruct ion h o les f ro m a n o bserver p ass ing w ith in a metre o f t he m . Ih ave n ow c o l lec ted o ver s ix ty b u i ld ings i n w h ich r af ter h o les o ccur , a nd h ave t aken d e ta i led measure men ts o f many . o f t he m . T here i s n ow o verwhel m ing e v idence t hat , a s f i rst a n t ic ipated b y R . T . Mason , t hese h o les i n r af ters were made i n c onnec t ion w ith a g aug ing t echn ique f or a l ign ing t he r oofs a ccurate ly , a nd t hat t hey h ad n o s ubsequen t f unct ion w hen o nce t he b u i ld ing was c omp leted . T he t echn ique Ih ave d escr ibed a ccoun ts f or t he a va i lab le e v idence , b u t t here i s s t i l l r oo m f or d iscuss ion a bou t t he d e ta i ls o f p rocedure , a nd t he c omp lete a nswer may n ever b e r ecoverab le . Iwou ld a pprec iate f urther i nformat ion a bou t b u i ld ings wh ich c on ta in t hese f eatures . FOOTNOTES 1 . 0 . R ackham :G rund le H ouse :

o n t he q uan t it ies o f t imber i n c er ta in E ast

Ang l ian b u i ld ings i n r e lat ion t o l oca l s upp l ies .

V ernacu lar Arch i tecture ,

1 972 , 4 . 2 . L . F . S a lz man : 3 . C . A . H ewet t :

B u i ld ing i n Eng land d own t o 1 540 , 1 967 , 2 00-1 . T he d eve lop men t o f c arren try , 1 200-1700 , a n E ssex s tudy ,

1 969 , 2 9-32 . 4 . S a lz man , 1 967 , 2 02 .

I n t h is c ase i tr efers t o ar epa ir .

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1 1

5 . F or e xa mp le , Mat thew P ar is 's i l lustra t ions o f t he c onstruct ion o f S t . A lban 's Abbey , c irca 1 250 , T r in ity C o l lege , Dub l in . 6 . M . Wood :

The Eng l ish Med ieva l H ouse , 1 965 .

7 . R .C .H . M . E ssex ? I , 1 921 , 1 15 , ( 5 ). 8 . Hewet t , 1 969 , 4 0-47. 9 . H ewet t , 1 969 , 2 2-32 . 1 0 . P ersona l c o m mun icat ion f ro m R ichard H arr is , 1 6 May 1 978 . b u i ld ing i s d escr ibed i n E r ic Mercer : 2 23-4. 1 1. R . T . Mason :Fra med B u i ld ings o f Eng land , 1 973 , 5 6 .

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T he

Eng l ish V ernacu lar H ouses , 1 975 ,

D ISCUSS ION OF MED IEVAL PAPERS

B arber

D ocu men tary e v idence h as i t s l im i tat ions . F or e xa mp le , d ocu men ts s ee m t o imp ly t hat s pec if ic s ources o f t imber w ere c hosen f or c er ta in b u i ld ings , s o t hat o ak , f or e xa mp le , c ou ld b e t ranspor ted o ver g reat d istances . T h is s ee ms imp ract icab le when t he s or ts o f b u i ld ings e xcava ted i n med ieva l Y ork a nd D ub l in a re c ons idered .

T he u se o f s evera l d i f feren t

s pec ies o f t imber imp l ies t hat t hey w ere e xp lo i t ing l oca l r esources . Rackha m

Ia gree t hat wr it ten e v idence h as t o b e u sed c r it ica l ly .

T he

most u sefu l d ocu men ts a re t he workaday r ecords t hat t e l l u s what was d one o n ap art icular o ccas ion ; f or i ns tance we c an p robab ly r e ly o n a ccoun ts t ha t s tate h ow much g ra in was a ctua l ly s own i n ap ar t icu lar y ear a nd h ow much w as r eaped . D ocu men ts o f a more g enera l n ature , s uch a s t axat ion r ecords , may b e ar ecord o f e xpec ta t ion r ather t han p ract ice a nd h ave t o b e t reated w ith c aut ion .

S ee R ackha m , 1 980 , 1 6-19 ;

R ackham , 0 ., 1 979 ' Documen tary e v idence f or t he h istor ica l e co log ist ' L andscape H ist ., 1 , 1 9-33 . M iche l more

A s f ar a s we c an t e l l , f rom t he 1 3th c entury a nd p robab ly e ar l ier i n t he M idd le Ages , b u i ld ing t imber w as p rov ided b y t he l ord a nd n o t b y t he t enan t , s o w e s hou ld n o t a ssu me t ha t e ven p oor p eop le p ut u p t he ir own b u i ld ings . A t l east i n r ura l p ar ts , t hey were e xpected t o p rov ide t he w at t l ing b u t n o t t he ma in p osts o r t he ma in s tructure a t a l l .

N orr is

T he med ieva l t imber f ra me b u i ld ing w as p oor c onstruct iona l p ract ice i n t hat i t was u s ing o ak t ha t w ou ld n ever r egenerate . H ow l arge a p iece o f t imber c an b e e x tracted f ro m a n o ak a nd y et i ts t i l l b e e xpected b y r egenera te i t se lf? I n o ther words when d oes a n u nderwood t ree b ecome a t imberwood t ree?

R ackha m

A l though i ti s p oss ib le t o manage a w ood s o t hat t imber a nd u nderwood i n tergrade , i n p ract ice t here i s s e ldo m a ny d i f f ic u l ty i n d ist ingu ish ing t he t wo p roduc ts i n med ieva l b u i ld ings . S o me o f t he sma l ler t imbers , o f 3 0 t o 5 0 y ears ' g row th , may we l l h ave g rown f ro m t he s tu mps o f t he p rev ious t imber t rees . O ak , h owever , g rew v ery we l l f rom s eed i n t he m idd le a ges a nd t here was n o d if f icu lty i n s ecur ing a c on t inous s upp ly . W ith in t he l ast h undred y ears o ak h as b ecome r e luc tan t t o g row f ro m s eed w i th in 'e x ist ing woods ( except t he B radf ie ld Woods , F ig . 1 1 .3 ) ;

a nyone n ow mak ing a r ep l ica o f a med ieva l

b u i ld ing h as d if f icu lty i n g et t ing o aks o f sma l l e nough s ize .

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D arrah

S easoned o ak wedges a re u sed t o s p l it o ak l ogs .

I ti s s o me-

t h ing o f a" catch 2 2" s i tuat ion i n t hat y ou n eed s easoned o ak b efore y ou s p l it y our g reenwood . A ins ley

I ft he b ranches a re s tr ipped b efore a t ree i s f e l led y ou t end t o g et a l o t more s hakes i n t he t imber t han i ft he b ranches a re l ef t o n . T h is may g ive r ise t o p rob le ms i n d e mons trat ing a nc ien t methods o f s p l i t t ing a nd s quar ing o n modern t imber .

H e ine

I n N orway Iw atched a man s quar ing o ne f ace o f at runk o f 4m l eng th i n h a lf a n h our .

H e u sed a n a xe o r h atche t w ith a

b eve l o n ly o n o ne s ide . H e n o tched a nd s p l it t he l og , c ut t ing t he n otches o ne b y o ne , a nd p roduced a p erfect smoo th f ace t o t he t imber . G oodburn

S ing le b eve l led a xes o ccur i n Ang lo-Saxon c on tex ts .

I ngha m

I n my e xper ience o fu s ing a n a dze o n g reen t imber i ts ee ms t o work b et ter u sed s l igh t ly o n t he d iagona l r ather t han a ctua l ly f o l low ing t he l eng th o f t he l og , o therw ise y ou h ave t o c hop a nd c hange h ands .

D arrah

Y ou c an a dze a cross a t imber a s we l l . T here i s n o r eason t o a dze d irect ly d own t he l eng th o f at ree : i f Ic ome t o a k not a nd Iwan t t o g et a v ery f l at s urface Iw i l l g o r ound t he k not work ing i n a l l d irect ions .

A tk inson

When a dz ing a cross t he g ra in o r w ith t he g ra in y ou a re u sing as hear ing a ct ion when i ti s much e asier t o p reven t s p l it t ing . I ti s s afer t o work d own t he t ree n o tch ing a nd wedg ing a s y ou g o t han t o d o a l l t he n otches i n as ing le o perat ion a nd t hen wedge o ut t he t imber .

A ins ley

Was t here a ny e v idence i n t he Y ork t imber b ui ld ings f or c rossbea ms , a s w ithout t he m t he b u i ld ings wou ld b e s truct ura l ly u nsound?

H al l

We h ave n o t f ound a nyth ing t hat w e c an s ay i s at i e b ea m b u t we s uppose t hat t hey must h ave b een t here .

Wa l lace

I ta l most s ee ms wastefu l t o u se we l l c arpen tered p lanks o n af l oor a t ap er iod when e verybody e lse 's f l oor c ons isted o f e arth .

Were t he f l oorboards f rom a n e ar ly c on tex t a t York

made f ro m r e-used t imber? H al l

T here i s n o e v idence t hat t hey w ere r e-used f rom a n e ar l ier s tructure .

G oodburn

S o me o f t he sma l l b u i ld ings a t West S tow o f e ar ly A ng lo-Saxon d ate h ad e v idence o f f l oor ing . Ev idence o f f l oor ing a lso o ccurs i n p re-"V ik ing " c on tex ts a t S t . N eo ts a nd G ouderys D own , a lthough s uch a n i n terpre tat ion i s n o t b eyond d oub t .

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H a l l

Morr is

When t urn ing b ow ls h ow l ong i s t he g reenwood l e f t t o s eason a f ter t he i n it ia l s hav ing? L ast c en tury b ow ls were p ut n ear t he f i re f or o ne d ay t o d ry t he m o ut s l igh t ly .

I ti s much e as ier t o c ut a v ery f ine s ur face

i ft he wood h as s l igh t ly d r ied o u t , T he P addepoe l r ough-ou t f ro m H o l land h ad n o t y e t b een p u t o n al a the ( Van E s , 1 968 ) ; • ac o mpass h ad b een u sed , a nd t he i n ter ior h ad t hen b een p ar t ly c h ise led o u t . T h is o ne a nd s ome a lso f ound i n W ijster i n H o l land h ad b een p u t i n p its i n t he p ea t a f ter b e ing r oughedo u t b ut b efore t hey were p ut o n t he l a the ( Haarnage l , 1 958 ) . T h is i s a no ther way o f s eason ing t he m s l igh t ly . B arber

P rofessor Rudo lph H e l l man s ays t ha t where y ou h ave c y l ind r ica l h o les i n t he c up c en tre t here i s n ot s u f f ic ien t c on tact t o t ransfer t he t orque f ro m a s eparate ly r o tat ing mandre l t o t he o b ject ; h e t herefore b e l ieves t hat i ti s t he o b ject i t se lf wh ich i s b e ing r o tated . T hat i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue f or t h ings s haped l ike s p ind les o r c ha ir l egs .

Morr is

Ih ave t urned b ow ls w ith a f ixed c up c en tre u sing a mandre l h o le . Moreover , s ome c ores a re b roken i n s uch a way a s t o s uggest t he mandrel h ad b een s o f i rm ly f i xed t hat i th ad t o b e v ery f orc ib ly r e moved .

B arber

T ops o f c one-shaped wasters c o l lected f rom I ona a nd d at ing t o c . 6 00 a d , s o met i mes h ave e i ther a V -shaped c hanne l t ha t r uns a cross t he w id th o f t he c one-base o r a n i nver ted p yram ida l d epress ion . P ro jec t ing d own t he c en tre o f t he c one a t t he b o t to m o f e i ther t he p yra m ida l o r V -shaped c u t i s a r ectangu lar c h ise l h o le wh ich i s a n a verage 1 1 mm w ide a nd a bout 2 m m t h ick a nd p ro jects a pprox i mate ly 3 0 mm i n to t he c ores o n t he ir med ian l i ne .

Morr is

T he t iny h o le i n t he m idd le o f t he c ross b ar i s made b y a l ong p iece o f me ta l wh ich f ixes i n to t here t o g ive i te x tra p ush .

B arber

Ih ave e xa m ined a l most a l l t he wooden b ow ls f rom S co t land , med ieva l a nd l a ter , a nd a l most i nvar iab ly t hey a re made f ro m h a lved t ree s te ms a nd a re n o t q uar tered .

T h is i s s im i lar

t o N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age p ract ice a s e v idenced b y wooden b ow ls o f t hese p er iods f ro m p eat d epos i ts . Morr is

P reh istor ic b ow ls b efore t he l a te I ron Age wou ld n o t b e l a thet urned , b u t c arved .

B arber

A match ing p a ir o f h a lves f ro m a n a lder s te m , wh ich h ave b een r oughed t o s hape , a re i n t he N at iona l Museu m o f I re land . A l most a l l t he c ones we h ave f ro m I ona s how s ca l loped e dges where wood h as b een g ouged o ut b efore t urn ing b egan .

Wa lker

•S ome p r im it ive t urn ing i s d one w ithou t mandre ls , a nd i ndeed s ome Eng l ish c oun try whee lwr ights ' l athes , k nown a s ' great

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whee l l a thes ', i n u se u n t i l ag enerat ion o r t wo a go , c ons ist s i mp ly o f t wo u pr ights .

I n o ne c ase Is aw , o ne u pr igh t was

ag row ing t ree , we l l r oo ted i n to t he g round , a nd t he o ther was a r a i lway s leeper moun ted n ear i t .

, Two i ron s p ikes h ad

b een d r iven , o ne t hrough t he t ree a nd o ne t hrough t he t op o f t he s leeper t o h o ld t he whee lwr igh t 's h ubs .

Ar ope w as wound

r ound t he h ub a nd t aken o f f t o w hat t hey c a l led a " grea t whee l" wh ich a n a ppren t ice o r b oy wou ld t urn . Morr is

There i s n o e v idence t o s uggest whee l d r iven l a thes w ere u sed b efore 1 500 , b ut t here i s a n e xa mp le o f s uch a l a the i n t he We lsh F o lk Museu m f rom r ecen t t imes . L athe t urn ing c an a lso b e c arr ied o u t w i th a s i mp le b ow worked b y h and : E th iop ian wood t urners s t i l l u se t h is t ype .

G ard iner

S p ind le t urn ing d oes n o t n eed a mandre l b ut b ow l t urn ing d oes . We h ave t o d if feren t iate b etween t hese t wo t ypes o f t urn ing b etween c en tres .

Morr is

On a p o le l athe y ou n eed t wo c en tres b ecause t here i s n o o ther way t o f ix t he b ow l . On a modern l athe y ou u se a f ace p la te a nd t wo c en tres a re n ot n ecessar i ly n eeded , a lthough t hey c an b e u sed .

S pr iggs

I s t here a ny e v idence f ro m t he med ieva l p er iod o f mak ing b ow ls i n n ests?

There i s v ery g ood e v idence i n t he l ast

g enerat ion o r t wo i n B erksh ire a nd Ox fordsh ire o f b odgers t urn ing a who le n est o f b ow ls o u t o f o ne l ong c y l inder . Morr is

T here i s n o e v idence Ik now o f t hat t h is was p ract iced b efore 1 500 .

B arber

I ti s n ot a lways n ecessary t o s uppose t ha t l athe-turn ing was as pecia l ised t rade :

i tc ou ld b e d one b y j obb ing-carpenters .

We f ind t hese med ieva l s k i l ls b eyond o ur c o mpetence a nd t herefore may t h ink s pec ia l ists must h ave u ndertaken t he m . T h is i s n o t n ecessar i ly s o . Morr is

L athe-turn ing a nd c ooper ing a re s pec ia l ised c raf ts .

T hese

s k i l ls h ave t o b e l earned o ver a n e x tens ive p er iod , a nd t echn ica l p rob le ms a re t oo g reat t o a l low a n i nexper ienced p erson t o make t he f i ne v esse ls f ound . Wi lson

Where y ou h ave p eop le work ing i n t owns y ou d o g et s pec ia l isa t ion s uch a s l a the t urners a nd c oopers .

T h is i s av ery d i f feren t

e cono m ic s i tuat ion f ro m E ar ly C hr ist ian I re land where p eop le s e t t he ir h ands t o a nyth ing .

I n t owns t here must a lso h ave

b een s pec ia l ist f urn iture makers a nd c ab inet makers .

And

e ven b efore y ou g et t own c raf ts men t here must h ave b een s pec ial ists t o make s uch t h ings a s t he Em ly S hr ine .

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Wa l lace

N ear t he b ot to m o f t he o ak d oor p osts i n 1 0th/11th c en tury D ub l in , t here i s ar ectangu lar , r ough ly-cu t h o le r ight t hrough t he f ace o f t he p lank . T h is h o le i s a lways b ur ied a bout 2 f t . i n to t he g round a nd s ee ms t o s erve n o p urpose .

C hr istensen

I n S cand inav ia a h o le i s made a t t he e nd o f al og s o t hat i tc an b e h au led o ut o f t he f orest . o f t hat t rad it ion .

H a l l

I ngha m

I t may b e t hat t h is i s t he r e ma ins ,

P oss ib ly t he h o les were f or c ha in ing l ogs t ogether s o t hat t hey c an b e f l oated d own r iver . Ih ave c o me a cross p ho tographs o f f a ir ly p r im it ive s tructures i n E th iop ia where a t t he b o t to m o f t he d oor i s ab o lt t hat y ou c an s lo t i n to d oor j a mbs t o k eep o u t s erpen ts .

Wa l lace

S ince t he c onference Ih ave d iscussed t h is f eature w ith H o lger S ch m idt who h as d rawn my a t ten t ion t o t he p ract ice o f i nser t ing s tr ips o f wood i n h o les a t t he e nds o fb u t tresses i n V ik ing Age l onghouses a s a t E l isenhof , N or th G er many i n o rder t o p reven t t he m b e ing p ressed i n to s of t marshy s ubso i l .

Maybe t h is w as

t he i n ten t ion i n D ub l in , b ut we h ave n ever f ound a nyth ing i n t he h o les . ( Ed i tor ia l N o te :

Wa l lace

t h is c ö m men t was a dded d ur ing e d it ing .)

W ith o ne o r t wo e xcep t ions we h ave n o e v idence f or d aub i n o ur e ar ly med ieva l h ouses i n D ub l in .

Id o n o t t h ink t ha t d aub

w as a s c o m mon ly u sed a s i s b e l ieved .

Watson

P ar ts o ft he s poons f rom C ork C ity a re v ery d ark .

H ave

t hey b een c harred? S pr iggs

D ark c o lour ing o n t he i ns ide o fb ow ls i s v ery c o mmon i n v esse ls wh ich h ave b een u sed f or c u l inary p urposes :

i ti s

p robab ly a n a ccu mu lat ion o f g rease . Miche l more

A sh i s g enera l ly u sed f or b ow ls a s t h is i s t he o n ly wood t hat d oes n o t t a in t t he f ood .

Morr is

A sh i s u sed f or b ow ls b ecause i ti s among t he g ood t urn ing woods .

T here i s o n ly o ne wood wh ich c ou ld r ea l ly g ive a

v ery n asty t aste a nd t ha t i s y ew . A lder , map le , a sh a nd b ox , t he ma jor s pec ies u sed f or t urn ing , g ive v ery l i t t le t aste . F redr iksen

We h ave n u merous f inds i n N orway s im i lar i n s hape t o t he C ork a r t ifacts t hought t o b e a wooden k ey a nd t hey u sua l ly h ave a sma l l h o le a t t he l ower e nd .

T hey a re u sed a s we ights o n a

f i sh ing l i ne . B aruer

T he t eeth o n t he C ork c o mbs h ave b een s awn b u t i n med ieval wooden c o mbs Ih ave s een i n n or thern B r i ta in ma in ly i n S co t land ,

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t he t eeth a re g enera l ly c u t b y k n ife o r worked b y k n ife c uts a nd t hey d o t h is It h ink b ecause t hey w an t t o r e move t he s of ter wood i n e ach g row th r ing l eav ing t he d enser wood p ro ject ing a s t he t oo th . T h is g ives t he s trongest a rrange men t . A tk inson

An e ngrav ing t oo l o f s i lver o r c opper w i l l c ut b one i n to t eeth a s t h in a s y ou wan t . T h is t oo l w i l l l eave a n i nver ted V -shaped mark b etween t he t eeth , whereas a s aw w i l l p roduce a f l at r idge , a nd f ine s cra tchmarks f ro m t he s ide o f t he t ee th .

McCann

I ti s more l i ke ly t hat t here w as a g enera l s hor tage o f s k il led l abour i n t he l ate 1 4th c en tury t han j ust a s hor tage o fb lacksm iths .

T here i s av ery g ood p aper b y H a m mers ley

( Ha m mers ley , G ., 1 973 , ' The C harcoa l I ron I ndustry a nd i t s F ue l , 1 540-1740 ', E cono m ic H istory R ev iew , 2 nd S er ies , 2 6 ) a bout t he c harcoa l i ron i ndustry i n t he 1 7th c en tury i n wh ich i ti s made c lear t hat w i th a n e nor mous ly e xpanded i ron i ndus try t here was n o s hor tage o f c harcoal e ven t hen . c harcoa l i n t he 1 4th c en tury i s u n l ike ly . I l lsley

A s hor tage o f

T here i s d ocu men tary e v idence o f t he c los ing d own o fi ronworks i n t he p er iod a f ter t he B lack D ea th f or a bout 2 0 y ears i n t he West C oun try .

M iche l more

T he move men t o f c harcoa l b urners w as a lways s tr ic t ly c ont ro l led b y t he l aw a nd t he i dea t hat c harcoa l b urners j ust c a me i n a nd b urn t what t hey p leased i s a l most c er ta in ly i nc orrect . A s f or i ronwork ing i n t h em id 1 4th c entury ; t h is i s j ust t he p er iod when t he t i l t h a m mers were f irst i n troduced i n Y orksh ire a nd i tl ooks a s t hough t h is e nab led b igger l oo ms t o b e worked .

T hus t here w as a g enera l e xpans ion o ft he i ron

i ndustry r ather t han a r educ t ion .

Wa lker

Iu nders tand a s pokeshave t o h ave a b lade wh ich i s h e ld a l mos t f l at t o t he s urface o f t he wood worked , I ti s c on tro l led i n f ron t o f t he c ut b y a wooden s top s o t hat i tc anno t d ig i n .

I

wou ld c a l l t he t oo l d escr ibed b y C hr is tensen ( F igs . 1 8 .2a a nd b ) ad rawkn ife o r ad raw ing k n ife . C hr istensen

S pokeshave i s wrong .

T he t oo l Id escr ibed s hou ld b e c a l led

as have b ecause s have i s wha t i td oes .

I n modern N orweg ian

i ti s c a l led s k joeve . Ad rawkn ife h as h and les i n l i ne w i th t he c ut t ing d irect ion o f t he b lade . As have o n o the o ther h and h as t he h and les a t r ight a ng les t o t he c u t t ing d irect ion o f t he b lade , a nd t he b lade c an b e a d justed u p a nd d own w i th a w edge f or d if feren t d epths o f c ut . S o me t i mes t here i s j ust o ne l ong wooden h and le o n t op o r y ou h ave a b ow-shaped o r h orseshoes haped wooden h and le where t he t wo t angs g o i n .

I n r ecen t

t imes i n N orway t hey were u sed w ith a s trong ly c urved b lade 3 72

f or smoo th ing o ut t he i ns ide o f wooden b ow ls a f ter t he u se o f ah o l low ing a dze .

T he l ong s tra ight b lade d isappeared a s a

g enera l woodworker 's t oo l when t he p lane c a me , b u t i t was k ep t b y t he whee lwr ight a nd b y c ab inet makers who n eeded t o work c urved s urfaces where a p lane c anno t b e u sed . T he s have i s ap lan ing o r smoo th ing i nstru men t . t he c ooper u ses a d raw k n ife . E d itor

I n my t er m ino logy

T he a bove d iscuss ion h igh l igh ts t he d if f icu lty ( even i n a modern c on tex t ) o f d if feren t iat ing t oo ls a nd u s ing a ppropr iate n a mes wh ich a re u nderstood b y e veryone .

S ee S a la man , R . A .,

1 975 , D ict ionary o f T oo ls , 1 76-183 , 4 55-464 f or f ur ther d isc uss ion . T he p rob le ms o f a pp ly ing t he " correct " n a me t o med ieva l a nd e ar l ier t oo ls i s e ven more f orm idab le . C hr istensen

Ih ave b een wonder ing f or s o me t ime whether t hat T -shaped t oo l w ith a l ong b lade s hown o n t he B ayeux T apestry ( F ig . 1 8 .1 ) was a n a xe o r a n a dze . T here a re t wo a dzes l ook ing l i ke t h is i n S cand inav ia , o ne i s i n t he Master myr c hest a nd o ne i s w ith t he s et o f t oo ls i n what m igh t b e aV ik ing b oatb u i lder 's g rave f ro m e astern N orway .

D an ish B oy S couts h ave

b u i lt V ik ing s h ip r ep l icas u s ing T -shaped a dzes : t hey a re wonderfu l t oo ls e ven i n t he h ands o f s em i-sk i l led l abour . Wi lson

We h ave t hat t ype o f T -shaped t oo l i n c on te mporary s ources i n t h is c oun try a nd a T -axe i n af ind a t Hurbuck , C o . D urha m . It h ink t hat t he r epresen tat ion o n t he B ayeux T apestry s hows a n a xe b lade i n u se t r im m ing t imber . T he Hurbuck ,f ind i s a m ix ture o f weapons a nd t oo ls , i nc lud ing a xes , a dzes , a nd o ther woodwork ing t oo ls.

T he t ype o f T -axe f ro m t he F inn ish/S lav

a rea i s d if feren t f ro m t he t ype i n t he Engl ish a rea. E d itor

T here i s a n 1 1th c en tury T - a xe w ith h and le f rom t he M i lk S treet s i te i n L ondon— s ee Archaeo logy o f t he C ity o f L ondon , p . 4 0 .

L . D . H arr is

Was t he Goks tad s h ip 's p lank ing w ith c lea ts , a dzed o r a xed? H as t h is b een d one e xper i men ta l ly?

C hr istensen

Wa l lace

I th as n o t b een d one e xper i men ta l ly s ince t he r ep l ica b u i l t f or t he C h icago Wor ld F a ir i n 1 893 : t hat was p robab ly d one w i th a xes . T he u se o f s p l it b oards a l lows y ou t o l eave a r idge a long t he p lank . A f ter t he p lank i s f i tted u nwan ted t imber c an b e r e moved l eav ing c leats where r equ ired . , - e My c o l league B reandan O 'R iorda in e xcavated a p lane i n V ik ing Age D ub l in w ith d og 's h ead t erm inals o n i t .

T here i s a lso a

med ieva l p lane f ro m B ergen . C hr istensen

The medieval p lanes f ro m N orway a re smal l a nd mos t o f t he m a re mou ld ing p lanes.

3 73

R ackha m

The 1 4th-cen tury r oof o f G rea t L iver mere c hurch ( S uf fo lk ) may b e men t ioned i n s uppor t o f Mr . McCann 's a rgumen t . Th is r oof—un l ike t hose q uoted b y Mr . McCann—rests o n s tone wa l ls ; i th as b ase-tr iang les e ach c ons ist ing o f a n a sh lar a nd as o le-p iece mor t ised t o t he r af ter .

E ach c oup le h as f our

p uzz le-ho les , t wo i n e ach s o le-p iece ( F ig . 1 1.4b ) .

Ip ropose

t ha t t hese were made f or f ra m ing t he c oup les i n s ome k ind o fj ig . I n ar oof o n s tone wa l ls , t he s o le-p ieces h ave n o t o n ly t o b e t he c orrect d istance a par t b ut a lso i n t he c orrec t a l ignmen t ; t h is e x tra d egree o f f reedo m r equ ires t wo p uzz le-ho les e ach s ide i nstead o f t he u sua l o ne . ( A n u mber o f t he s o le-p ieces h ave a t h ird h o le v ery c lose t o o ne o f t he o ther , i nd ica t ing t hat t he c arpen ter h ad made t wo a t te mp ts t o f ind t he c orrect l ocat ion—cf. R ackha m , B la ir & Munby , 1 978 , F ig . 8 ) . M iche l more

It h ink y ou w i l l f i nd t hat r af ter h o les a re a s c o mmon i nt he n or th o f Eng land a s t hey a re i n t he s ou th a nd e ast . O ne e xa mp le i n Y orksh ire h as t he r af ter h o les a t d if feren th e ights o n e i ther s ide . T hese c ou ld b e f or u se when t he r af ters were c ut o u t o n t he g round s o t hat t hey c an b e h inged o n t wo p egs t o g et t he a ng le r ight a t t he a pex .

G ard iner

Is uggest t hat t he u se o f t he r af ter h o les was a l o t s imp ler t han t hat p roposed b y McCann .

T hey c ou ld b e j ust p inned

o r l ashed o n t o ap a ir o f r af ters l a id b etween t he wa l l h eads . T hen y ou wou ld h ave a r ig id s tructure wh ich c ou ld b e r a ised i n p os it ion . W ith y our s uggested u se t here wou ld b e al o t o f s tress o n t hat j o in t i ft he t wo e nds b roke l oose .

3 74

ADDRESSES OF PARTICIPANTS

M iss A . Ab let t ,

Mr . J . R . B euker ,

1 8 A l meida S treet ,

P rov inc iaa l Museu m v an Dren the ,

I s l ing ton ,

Br ink 1 -5 ,

L ondon N i 1TB

A ssen , N ether lands .

Mr . J . H . A insley , T he O ld R ectory , E ast Woodhay

Mr . L . Br idge ,

E ast W o odhay ,

Purcel l Mi l ler Tr it ton & P artners ,

Nr . N ewbury ,

9L ondon Road ,

B erks .

S evenoaks , Ken t .

Mr . B . Arno ld ,

Mr . M . C . Br idge ,

Musee d 'Archaeo log ie , Av d u P eyrou 7 ,

P or ts mou th Po lytechn ic ,

N euchate l ,

K ing H enry i st S treet ,

CH 2 000

P or ts mou th P02 2DY

Mr . I . W. Ashby ,

Mr . P . N . Brown ,

"Kynancen,

1 52 F a mbr idge Road ,

C larence R oad ,

Maldon ,

Tunbr idge Wel ls ,

E ssex .

Ken t TN1 1HE

Mrs . J -A . Buck ,

Mr . J . W. J . A tk inson ,

L indens ,

Museu m o f An t iqu it ies ,

A lton D r ive ,

D ept . o f Archaeo logy ,

C olchester ,

Un iv . o f N ewcast le .

E ssex CO3 3 ST

Mr . B . S . Ayers ,

Mr . J . P . 0 . Dury ,

Norfo lk Archaeo log ica l Un it ,

Un ivers ity o f B ath ,

Un ion House ,

C laverton D own ,

Gressenha l l ,

B ath ,

D ereha m .

Avon .

Mr . J . B arber ,

D r . H . C hap man ,

C en tra l Excavat ion Un it ,

Museum o f L ondon .

3 /11 Me lv i l le S treet ,

Mr . B . Ch innery ,

Ed inburgh .

1 52 F a mbr idge Road ,

Mr . R . C . D . Ba ldw in ,

Maldon ,

T he Museu m o f L ondon ,

E ssex .

L ondon Wa l l ,

L ondon EC2Y 5HN

Mr . A . E . C hr istensen , Un iversitetets O ldsaksa m l ing ,

Mr . R . A . B arker , 2 4 Gordon Road ,

F reder iksg t 2 ,

Borrowash ,

O slo 1 ,

D erby DE 7 3 JX

Norway

Mr . J . R . B eardsley , S a la m is , T he Pro menade , May landsea , C he l msford , E ssex . 3 75

Mr . G . C hr istopher ,

Miss A . F . C ur te is ,

P roper ty S erv ices Agency ,

R athe lp ie R ow ,

Rm 9 /42 S t Chr istopher H ouse ,

1 0 H epburn G ardens ,

S outhwark S treet ,

S t Andrews ,

L ondon S E1 OTE

F ife .

Mr . J . A . C lark ,

Mr . C . S t J . D an ie l ,

Museu m o f L ondon . D r . H . C larke ,

N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF

D ep t . o f Med ieva l Archaeo logy ,

Mr . R . D arrah ,

Un iversi ty C o l lege ,

3 Wideha m C o t tages ,

G ower S treet ,

West S tow ,

L ondon WC1E 6BJ

Bury S t E d munds ,

D r . R . C larke , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m ,

S uf fo lk I P28 6 EZ Mr . G . D en ford ,

G reenw ich ,

P ebb les ,

S E10 9NF

3S tonyh i l l ,

Mr . J . F . C oates , S ab inal , L uck lands Road , B ath BA1 4 AU D r . J . M . C o les , D ep t . o f Archaeo logy , D own ing S treet , C a mbr idge . Mr . K . C rane , C oun ty Museu m S erv ice , Wen lock L odge ,

Abbotskerswe l l , N ew ton Abbot , D evon . Mrs . R . E . D une 1 1 , 4 Orchard Road , H as l ing f ie ld , C a mbr idge CB3 7 JT Mr . W. M . D une 1 1 , 4 Orchard Road , H as l ing f ie ld , C a mbr idge CB3 7 JT

Acton S co t t ,

Mr . E . R . D ud ley ,

C hurch S tret ton ,

6 5 T e ign mou th R oad ,

S a lop SY6 6QN

T e ign mou th ,

Mr . B . A . Crone ,

D evon TQl4 8 UR

C en tra l Excavat ion Un it ,

Mr . C . E den-Eadon ,

2 5 E ast Br idge S treet ,

Brook H ouse ,

F alk irk ,

Westbury ,

S t ir l ingsh ire .

Nr S hrewsbury ,

M iss J . C ronyn ,

S hropsh ire .

2 2 R ipp leva le Grove ,

M iss A . C . Evans ,

L ondon N i

Br it ish Museu m ,

Mr . 0 . C ru m l in-Pedersen ,

L ondon W C 1B 3DG

D an ish N at iona l Museu m ,

D r . J . M . F letcher , R esearch L ab . f or Archaeo l . 8 zH ist . o f A r t ,

Rosk i lde , D en mark .

6K eb le R oad , Ox ford .

I nst . o f Mar it i me Archaeo logy ,

Un ivers i ty o f Ox ford ,

3 76

Mrs . M . F letcher , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF Mr . D . J . F ow ler , H i l lv iew , H ogs H i l l , F renhurst , H a .s le mere , S urrey . Mr . W. G . F redr iksen , Arkeo log isk Museu m iS tavanger , P ostboks 4 78 ,

Mr . W. S . H anson , D ep t . o f Archaeo logy , Un iversity o f G lasgow , G lasgow G 12 8QQ Mr . L . D . H arr is , 5 20 Manchester R oad , C rosspoo l , S hef f ield S 10 5PQ Mr . R . W. H arr is , 3 5 Cha lco t S quare , L ondon NW1

4 001 S tavanger ,

Mr . 0 . H . H arse ma ,

Norway .

B io log isch Archaeo log isch I nst ituut ,

Mr . T . F r ie l , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF Mrs . L . F r ie l , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF Miss H . G an iar is , Museu m o f L ondon . Mr . G . G ard iner , 7 3 Magda len Road , Wandswor th C o m mon , L ondon SW18 Dr . J . G eddes , DOE , F or tress H ouse , 2 3 S av i le Row , L ondon W1X 2AA

Postraat 6 , G ron ingen , T he Nether lands . M iss S . V . E . H ea l , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , G reenw ich S E10 9NF Mr . G . H . H e ine , Am Hunengrab 5 , 2 055 Au müh le , West G er many . Mr . C . A . H ewet t , E ssex Coun ty C ounc i l P lann ing D ep t ., C oun ty H a l l , C he l msford . Mr . M . F . Hur ley , "Lower H ouse", Ma l lowgaton , B andon ,

Mr . D . M . Goodburn ,

C o , Cork ,

I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy ,

I re land .

3 1-34 Gordon S quare , L ondon WC1 Dr . B . Greenh i l l , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF Mr . C . G regson , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF

Mr . B . Hu tch inson , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , Greenw ich S E10 9NF M iss G . Hu tch inson , N at iona l Mar it i me Museum , G reenw ich S E10 9NF Mr . J . S . I l ls ley , Un ivers ity C o l lege o f N or th Wa les ,

Mr . R . A . H a l l ,

B angor ,

York Archaeo log ica l Trust ,

Gwynedd LL57 2DG

4 7 A ldwark , Y ork . 3 77

Mr . G . R . I ngha m ,

Mr . D . J . H . M iche l more ,

G range F ar m C ot tage ,

H orbury H a l l ,

G reen L ane ,

1 3-17 C hurch S treet ,

B ov ingdon ,

H orbury ,

H e me l H e mpstead ,

Wakef ie ld W14 6LT

H er ts HP3 OLB M iss P . M . J ackson , Over F ar m , G loucester , G los . GL2 8DB

Mr . G . M i lne , Museu m o f L ondon . Mr . N . A . D . Mo lyneux , Ma lvern Museu m , L yt t le ton House ,

Mr . P . J ones ,

Abbey R oad ,

N at iona l Museu m o f I re land ,

Ma lvern ,

D ub l in .

Worcs .

Mr . I . K ing ,

D r . D . Moreno ,

1 1 S tat ion Road ,

I nst i tuto S tor ia Moderna & C on te mporanea ,

H anwe l l ,

Un ivers i ta . d i G enova ,

L ondon W7

I t a ly

M iss D . L es l ie ,

Mr . G . C . Morgan ,

1 9 N ew T r in ity Road ,

Archaeo logy D ept .,

E ast F inch ley ,

Un ivers ity o f L e icester ,

L ondon N 2

Un ivers i ty Road ,

M iss C . L loyd ,

L e ices ter .

Museu m o f L ondon .

Mrs . C . A . Morr is ,

Mr . J . McCann ,

D own ing S treet ,

G reenh i l l , H at f ie ld Broad O ak ,

F acu lty o f Archaeo logy , C a mbr idge CG2 3DZ

B ishops S tor tford ,

Mr . J . T . Mu mby ,

H er ts .

9C ast le H i l l House ,

Mr . A . McCurdy , Wood land L eaves ,

J uxon S treet , Ox ford OX2 6DR

C o ld Ash ,

Mr . M . N orris ,

N r . N ewbury ,

Cresswe l l C rags V is itors C en tre ,

B erks RG16 9PS

Worksop ,

Mr . P . B . McCurdy , Wood land L eaves ,

N ot ts . D r . R . N isbet ,

C o ld A sh ,

I nst i tu to d i Au tropo log ia ,

Nr . N ewbury ,

Un ivers ita d i Tor ino ,

B erks RG16 9PS D r . S . McGra i l , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , G reenw ich S E10 9NF D r . P . v d Merwe , N at iona l Mar it i me Muse t im , G reenw ich S E10 9NF

1 0123 , T ur in , I t a ly M iss B . Or me , D ep t . o f Archaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f Exeter , Queens B u i ld ing , T he Queens Dr ive , Exeter , D evon 3 78

Miss F . A . P r i tchard ,

Mr . J . S aw le ,

D ept . o f U rban Archaeo logy ,

C oun ty Museu m ,

7 1 B as ingha l l S treet ,

H ar t lebury C ast le ,

L ondon EC2V 5DT

Nr . . K idder m inster , Worcs .

Mr . A . G . P roc tor , Archaeo logy Dep t .,

Mr . P . T . R . S i mons ,

Un iversi ty o f Durha m

3 5 K ing S treet ,

Miss E . M . P ye ,

Br isto l BS1 4DZ

I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy ,

Mr . J . A . S pr iggs ,

L ondon .

T he L aboratory ,

D r . 0 , R ackha m ,

S t Mary 's L odge ,

C orpus C hr ist i C o l lege ,

Marygate ,

Un ivers i ty o f C a mbr idge .

York YO3 7BH

Mr . E . R ei mers ,

Mrs . A . E . S tocker ,

Un ivers itet iB ergen ,

P urce l l , M i l ler , T r it ton & P ar tners ,

H istor isk Museu m ,

9L ondon Road ,

Bryggens Museu m ,

S evenoaks .

Dreggen , 5 000 B ergen , Norway

Mr . J . C . S treeter , 4 Mat thews S treet , R e igate , S urrey RH 2 8 ES

Dr . N . R eyno lds , I nspectorate o f Anc ien t Monu men ts , 1 7 A tho l l C rescen t , E d inburgh EH3 8 JN

Mr . R . S u tc l if fe , Wa lnu t Tree C ot tage , H a mp ton W ick ,

Mr . P . R eyno lds ,

K ingston ,

Butser Anc ien t F ar m P ro ject Trust ,

S urrey .

Rookha m L odge , E ast Meon , H an ts . Mr . 0 . T . P . R ober ts , " Penra l l t" , P enrhyd , Am lwch LL68 9 TN , Gwynedd , Wa les . Mr . P . 0 . S chovsbo , N yr ingen 6 8 , 8 240 R isskov , D en mark D r . C . R . S a l isbury , 4 4 R ich mond Dr ive , Mapper ley P ark , N ot t ingha m .

Mr . A . vU l l mann , T he Warburg I nst itu te , Woburn S quare , L ondon WC1 HOAB Mr . R . V arra l l , T he N at iona l Mar i t i me Museu m , G reenw ich S E10 9NF Mr . P . V in ter , 3 Smmys ide , Wi mb ledon , L ondon SW19 4 SL Mr . P . G . T . Wa lker , B eck B arn , T he C auseway , N eedha m Market , S uf fo lk I P6 8BD

3 79

Mr . P . F . Wa l lace , N at iona l Museu m o f I re land , K i ldare S treet , D ub l in 2 , I re land . M iss J . Watson , Anc ien t Monu men ts L aboratory , L ondon . M iss J . Weeks , C onway Mar i t i me P ress 2N e lson Road , L ondon S E10 Mr . L . Wi l l is , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , G reenw ich S E10 9NF D r . D . M . Wi lson , T he B r it ish Museu m , L ondon WC1B 3DG Mrs . F . M . Wise , N at iona l Mar it i me Museu m , G reenw ich S E10 9NF M iss L . Woo t ten , Wi l tsh ire L ibrary & Museu m S erv ice , B ythesea Road , T rowbr idge , Wi ltsh ire . Mr . E . V . Wr igh t , H a l l P lace , Wyco mbe End , B eaconsf ie ld , B ucks HP9 1NB Mr . P . D . Yeo mans , T .R . A.D . A., S tock ing L ane , H igh Wyco mbe , Bucks .

3 80

I NDEX

A .

GENERAL

Ang lo-Scand inav ian 2 31, 2 45-261 An ima ls , Draugh t a nd Trac t ion 1 30 , 7 .8, 1 41-2, 1 44-5, 7 .9 , 7 .10 , 1 49 , 1 87, 1 89 , 1 0 .1, 1 0 .2, 1 92 , Graz ing 2 04-5 Ard 1 29-151 , Beam 7 .2, 1 33, 1 39, 1 43-4, 1 49 , Bow 1 05 , Crook 1 00, 1 05, 1 33, 1 35 , R ip 1 33, 1 50 Share 7 .2, 1 33, 7 .3, 1 35, 1 39, 7 .7, 1 7 4-2 15 , 7 .11, 1 49 S o le 1 41 S t i l t 7 .2, 1 33, 7 .3, 1 35, 1 39, 1 42-5, 1 49 Arr is 6 6 A ttr ibu te L ist a nd Ana lys is 2 5-72 Ax le 1 88-9 , 1 91 Barn 1 6, 7 7 Barre l 1 95, 2 40 , 2 67, 1 6 .4, 3 09 , Stopper 1 6.1, 3 04 Bau lk, o f t imber 6 6, 1 59, 1 61, 1 63, 1 95 Beam 7 7, 1 11, 1 15, 1 20, 6 .8, 1 22, 1 25, 1 63, 1 70, 1 82, 2 03 Nau t ica l 5 4-5, 6 3 Beaver 8 8-9 Beve l 3 7, 6 6, 2 23 Board 3 .1, 6 7-8, 8 9, 4 .10 , 1 11, 1 15, 1 17, 1 20, 1 22, 6 .10, 6 .11, 1 27, 1 53, 1 59 , 1 61, 1 63, 2 15, 1 1.5, 1 1.6, 2 17, 2 85-7, 2 90, 2 95, 3 15, 3 34, 3 39 . S ee P lank ing Boa t a nd Sh ip 1 0, 2 5-77, 1 05, 1 22, 1 30, 8 .5, 1 64, 2 77, 3 273 37 . S ee Cau lk ing , Cl inkerbu i l t, F asten ings, K ee l, Knee, L ogboa t, P lank, R epa ir, S a i l , S trake, S tr inger, Wa ter t igh t Bo l t-Bracke t 3 04, 1 6 .2 Boscus 2 2 Bows 1 05

B owl 4 , 1 03, 1 57, 2 32, 1 4 .2, 2 49 , 2 51, 2 53, 1 4 .5, 2 56-8, 3 03, 3 06, 3 10, 3 69 Turned C ore 2 32, 2 47, 1 4 .2, 2 49, 1 4 .3, 2 51-4, 2 58, -3 -0 T , 1 6 .3 , 3 10 Box 1 6, 2 33, 1 3 .1 Breakwa ter 6 .3, 1 25, 1 27 Br idge 1 7, 8 9, 2 09, 2 92-4 Brushwood 2 2, 4 .6, 8 5, 8 8, 1 99 , 2 03 Bu i ld ings, Domest ic 1 , 5 , 6 , 1 6, 7 4-7, 1 22, 1 25, 6 .9, 1 69-186, 1 96 , 1 99, 2 03, 2 07, 1 1.3, 2 12, 2 19, 2 34, 1 3 .3, 1 3 .4, 2 38-240, 1 3 .5, 1 3.6 , -M -71, 2 93-4, 2 96, 3 01, 3 63. S ee : Barn ; P refabr ica t ion ; 'Roof ; Wa l l-p la te , Construc t ion, h a lf t imbered 1 71 ‚ Construc t ion, p ost-trench 1 70, 1 77, 1 82-5 , Construc t ion, s leeper-trench 1 82-5 , Construct ion, t imber f ramed 1 69, 1 99, 2 92 ‚ D istr ibu t ion o f 2 13 Bu i ld ings, M i l itary 1 69-186, 1 96 Bur ia l 4 , 2 9, 9 9, 1 91, 3 29 . S ee C off in , in Boa ts 2 9, 4 8 Caesar 1 30,189 Car t P o le 1 88-9 , 1 92 Carv ing 1 15, 3 09 Cau lk ing 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 5 6, 5 9, 6 0, 6 6, 7 4, 3 41. S ee Wa ter t igh t s eams , Ha ir 4 2, 5 9, 6 0 , H ide 5 9, 6 0 ‚ Moss 3 .9 , 3 .11, 3 7 , 3 9, 5 9, 6 0 , P itch 5 9, 6 0 ‚ Woo l 5 9, 6 0 C e l lar 2 77-8 Char io t 1 89 Chass is 1 91 Chest 1 63 C ladd ing 1 9, 1 76-7, 1 80 , 2 65, 2 90 C lamp 5 2, 5 9, 1 59 C lea t 3 3, 3 .15, 3 9 , 5 3, 6 6, 5 .8

3 81

Cl inker-Bu i ld ( Over lap) 3 7, 6 6-7, 7 3, 3 34 C off in 3 , 7 4, 3 39 , 1 9 .1, 3 41 Comb 1 6 .1, 3 03 C onserva t ion 3 , 4 , 7 C onvers ion o f L ogs 1 9, 2 1, 2 7, 3 .3, 5 .3, 5 .4 , 6 .8, 1 22, 1 25, 1 4 .2, i 9, 2 83. S ee S eason ing Crook ( Compass t imber) 6 6-7, 1 00 . S ee Knee E dges ( of t imber) 1 0, 1 2, 2 .5, 1 9, 2 1, 6 6 End ( Of t imber) 1 0 F ace ( of t imber) 1 0, 1 2, 2 .5, 1 9, 6 6 B est f ace 1 9 F a ir f ace 7 7 Hear t f ace 7 7 J ow l 2 0, 2 .5 Quar ter-sawn 6 7 Rad ia l -See : S pl i tt ing ; Quar ter S awn S hakes 2 22-3, 1 2.10, 1 2.21 S p l i tt ing 1 3, 1 6, 3 3, 4 4, 5 0, 6 8, 7 3, 7 6-7, 8 5, 8 9 , 1 00, 5 .3, 5 .4, 1 03, 5 .5, 1 15, 1 17, 1 25, 6 :Ti, 1 27, 2 08, 2 20-223, 1 2 .11, 1 2 .12, 1 2.17, 1 2.18, 2 86, 3 09 Tangen t ia l ( Through a nd Through) 6 8, 8 9 Cooper 1 91, 2 33, 3 10 C opp ic ing 5 , 4 .5, 8 5, 5 .3, 2 03-6, 2 12 H ee l 4 .4, 4 .5, 8 5 S too l 4 .4 , 2 03-4 C ork 1 6 .3, 3 09 Crannog 1 00, 2 49, 2 63 Cup 1 03, 2 32, 2 54, 2 57

Da tes a nd Da t ing ( contd.) Roman 2 , 7 , 1 3, 1 6, 2 8-9 , 3 3, 4 4-5, 7 4, 1 29, 1 57-197, 2 04 , 2 06 Ang lo-Saxon 2 , 7 , 2 9, 2 00, 2 04, 2 12, 2 19 , 2 45-261 V ik ing Age 2 6, 3 5, 3 .14, 7 6 , 1 22, 2 34, 2 63 F our th-M i l lenn ium BC 7 9, 8 1, 4 .3, 4 .7, 8 8 Th ir b d-M i lr enn ium BC 8 5, 4 .7 S econd-M i l lenn ium BC 2 6, 4 2, 4 .6 , 4 .7, 8 9 F irst-M i l lenn ium BC 2 8, 3 3 , 4 2 F irst C en tury BC 1 91 F irst C en tury AD 1 59, 8 .3, 1 61, 1 69 , 1 82-3 S econd C entury AD 2 8, 1 64 , 1 69, 1 71, 1 84-5, 1 91 Th ird C en tury AD 2 9, 3 5, 3 7, 8 .1, 1 59, 1 64, 1 91 F our th C en tury AD 3 5 S ixth C en tury AD 2 9, 3 3, 1 97, 2 51, 2 53, 2 56-7 S even th C en tury AD 2 51, 2 56 Ei ghth C en tury AD 2 9, 3 7 N inth C entury AD 2 9, 3 3, 3 7, 2 06 , 2 49 Tenth C entury AD 1 22, 2 31-244, 2 49, 1 4 .5, 2 57, 2 63-299 E leven th Cen tury AD 1 22, 1.1, 1 1.2, 1 4 .5, 2 56, 2 63-299, 3 13, 3 15, 3 41 Twe lf th C entury AD 2 6, 2 9 , 3 3, 1 66 , 1 89, 2 63-299, 3 13, 3 15, 3 20 Th ir teenth C en tury AD 1 3 , 1 6 , 2 0, 2 6, 2 9, 1 99, 2 03, 2 05, 2 15, 1 1 .5, 2 47, 2 63-299, 3 01-311, 3 19, 3 20, 3 29 F our teenth C entury AD 1 3 , 1 6, 2 0, 2 9, 4 2, 7 6 , 1 99, 2 00, 2 09, Daeda lus 8 .6 , 1 66 2 12-3, 2 53, 1 4 .5, 2 96, 3 01 , 3 15, Da tes a nd Da t ing 5 , 1 3, 2 5-9 , 3 19 4 2-5, 4 9 , 9 3, 1 54 . S ee : F if teenth C en tury AD 3 0, 4 2, Dendrochrono logy; Rad io1 9 1 , 2 0 8 , 1 1 .5 , 3 1 9 c arbon d a t ing ; Three Age Daub 1 71, 1 77, 2 36 . S ee Wa tt le System a nd D a ub P le istocene 7 9 Decay o f Wood 1 , 1 2, 1 9, 2 1 , 3 3, P ostg lac ia l 7 9 8 1 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 8 9 , 1 2 2 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 7 , P a laeo l i th ic 9 5, 9 9, 1 00, 1 54 2 2 1 , 2 2 3 . S e e : D i s t o r t i on ; Meso l i th ic 5 .2 S urv iva l N eo l ith ic 7 6-7, 4 .4 , 8 5, 4 .7, D en d o c h r o no logy 5 , 1 2, 1 3, 4 9 , 8 8, 4 .10 , 9 3, 9 5, 1 00, 1 15, 1 5 4 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 7 , 2 3 2 , 2 5 3 , 2 6 4 . 1 53-4 , 2 00, 2 03 S ee Tree R ing Ana lys is B ronze Age 2 , 2 6, 2 8, 8 5, D i s t o r t i on o f W o o d 7 3 , 7 7, 9 9 , 2 49 4 .7, 9 5, 1 00, 1 11-128, 1 53 D o cum en t a ry a n d L i t e r a r y E v i d en c e I ron Age 2 8, 3 3, 9 5, 1 29, 1 30, 8 1 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 , 1 1 . 1 , 1 1 .2 , 1 33, 1 88-9 2 03-4, 2 14-5, 2 58, 2 64, 3 27, 3 29, 3 50, 3 52 3 82

Documentary a nd L i terary Ev idence Ev idence ( contd .) Charters 2 00 Domesday Book 2 00, 1 1 .1, 1 1 .2, 2 03-4 E ly Coucher B ook 2 03 Gerefa 2 58 K ing 's M irror 3 29 Door 1 77, 1 80, 2 15, 1 1 .5, 1 1 .6, 2 66, 3 13-325, 3 41, 1 9 .2 ‚ Brac ing ,D iagona l 3 15 ,L a tt ice 1 7 .2, 3 19 ,P or tcu l l is 3 13, 3 15, 3 19 ,S a l t ire Cross 3 19 ,V er t ica l-D iagona l 3 19 L edge 3 13, 3 15 , 1 7 .1, 3 19 Dowe l 5 2, 1 61, 1 64, 1 66, 2 40, 2 92. S ee : F asten ing ; t reena i l ; P eg Dra in 1 0, 2 40, 2 64-5, 2 75, 2 77-8, 2 89, 2 90, 1 5.7, 2 92, 2 94-6, 3 01 Draught-Po le 1 89 Draw ing T imber 1 0, 1 2, 2 .3, 2 .5, 1 6, 1 7, 2 5, 4 6 , 7 3, 5 .2, 2 23 I sometr ic P ro jec t ion 2 Ti P lans 2 .2, 1 2, 2 .5, 1 7, 2 5, 7 3 S ect ions, E leva t ions a nd P rof i les 2 .2, 1 0, 1 2, 2 .5, 1 7, 2 5, 7 3 Tree R ing 1 0 Dugout S ee L ogboa t E conomy, Anc ien t 5 , 1 3, 9 9, 1 30, 1 87 Env ironment 1 2, 2 6, 7 9, 9 8, 1 53 . S ee L andscape E thnograph ic P ara l le l 7 3-4, 7 6 , 2 47, 2 59, 3 27, 3 31 Excava t ion 2 , 4 , 1 0, 1 3, 1 7, 2 6, 3 9, 4 6, 7 3, 7 6, 6 .1, 1 55, 1 57, 1 61, 1 69, 1 80, 2 03, 2 31, 2 33, 2 42, 2 63, 3 01 E xper imen ta l Archaeo logy 6 , 6 5, 7 5, 1 30, 1 33, 1 96, 2 19-229 . S ee Repl ica F asten ing 2 7, 3 .5, 4 5, 6 6, 6 9, 1 57 , Lash ing 1 35, 1 39, 1 49 , Na i l 2 0, 3 3, 3 7, 3 .16 , 3 9, 4 2, 5 1-60, 6 9, 1 57, 1 59 , 1 77, 1 95, 2 40, 2 77, 2 86, 3 19 , 3 20, 3 29, 3 31, 3 34 , 3 36 , Head 5 7-8, 3 13, 3 31, 3 36 , Ho le 3 7, 3 31 , 3 34 , Shank 4 2, 5 7-8

F asten ing ( con td .) , Rove 3 3, 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 5 1, ,S ew ing 2 6-7, 3 .11, 3 7, _ 39, 4 2, 4 5, 5 2-3, 6 0, 6 5, 5 .7, 5 .8, 5 .9 , 1 57 , Treena i l 3 .8, 3 5, 3 7, 3 .16 , 3 9, 3 .18, 3 .19 , 3 .24 , 4 2-3, 4 5, 5 1-2, 5 4, 5 6-60, 6 5, 6 9, 3 31, 3 34 . S ee : Dowe l ;; P eg F ea ture S ee A ttr ibute F e l l ing Da te 1 3, 6 9, 4 .6 . S ee Dendrochrono logy F loor ( Arch itectura l) 1 6, 2 0, 1 76, 1 80, 2 40, 1 3.6 F loor T imber ( Naut ica l) 3 .8, 3 5, 3 .20, 5 3-5, 5 7, 6 7-8 . S ee R ib F ore-Carr iage 1 88, 1 91-2 f orest 8 1, 8 5, 2 00, 2 47, 3 20 F orest 1 1 .2, 2 05, 2 09 F oreshore 2 .3 F ue l 2 2, 8 1, 9 9, 2 03, 2 14, 2 58, 3 20, 3 23 F urn iture Componen ts 1 00, 1 64 , 2 57 Ga teway 1 71-2, 1 76-7, 1 81 Gam ing P iece 3 04 G era ldus Cambrens is 2 67 G lue 3 , 1 57 Gra in, D irect ion o f 1 0, 1 2, 6 7, 7 6, 1 03, 1 45, 1 54 , 2 20, 1 2 .1, 1 2 .2, 2 49, 2 57, 2 80, 3 10 Granary 1 76-7, 1 80-1 Grommet 3 .18, 5 9, 6 2 Ground P lj f eT S i l l S ee S o lep la te H earse 1 91 Hearth-Room 7 7 H edge 2 00, 2 06 ' Horn Cap ' o f Veh ic le Hurd le 4 .5, 8 5, 4 .7,

1 89 1 05,

2 03

I conograph ic Ev idence 4 9, 1 33, 1 35, 1 41, 1 45, 8 .6, 1 66, 1 72, 9 .1, 9 .2, 9 .3, 9 .4 , 1 77, 9 .6 , 1 80-1, 1 87-9, 1 0 .1, 1 0 .2, 1 91-2, 1 97, 2 63-4 , 2 67, 3-2 7, 1 8.1, 3 29, 3 50-1, 3 53, 3 55 I mporta t ion o f T imber 8 1, 2 13, 2 17 J etty 2 89, 2 90, 1 5 .7, 2 93-6 . S ee Wa terfront J o in ts 1 0, 1 2, 1 6, 2 .6 , 1 9, 2 0, 2 7, 4 4, 5 5-7, 6 6, 6 8, 7 6-7, 1 22, 1 58-168, 1 95-6, 2 20, 2 22-3, 2 38 . S ee : Mor t ice; S carfs ; T enon

3 83

J o ints ( contd .) Ax ia l p eg 2 90 Bare-faced 1 9, 2 .6 B ird 's mouth 1 9 Butted 1 9, 2 1, 4 4 , 5 6, 6 6, 1 66, 2 38 Doveta i l 3 .22, 3 .24 , 3 9, 4 2-4, 5 7, 1 59, 1 63, 1 66 , Ha lf 1 63 ,L ap 2 0, 2 .6, 2 2 , Sp lay a ng le 5 7 Draw Tongue 3 7, 5 2, 7 4, 1 634 , 1 66 . S ee T enon E dge Ha lf-Lap 3 7, 4 4, 1 59 E dge Ha lved Br id le Butted S carf 1 6 Edge-Sp layed L ap 3 7, 4 4, 5 6 Edge-Trench ing 2 .3, 2 .6 , 1 9 End-to-Face 2 0, 2 .6 F ace-to-Face 2 0, 2 .6 Ha lved 2 .6 , 2 0-1, 6 7, 1 22 Ha lf-Lap 5 6, 1 59, 1 61, 1 66, 2 39 ' In ter lock ' 4 4, 5 6 L ap 2 0, 2 .6 , 2 23 ,L af t 2 72, 2 93 Mort ice a nd Tenon 2 0, 2 .6, 1 00, 6 .7, 1 22, 1 63-4, 1 66, 1 97, 2 64-5, 2 71-2, 2 79, 2 94-5 . S ee : Mort ice; Tenon No tched L ap 2 0, 2 .6, 3 19 No tch a nd T enon 2 71, 2 93 S add le 1 59 , 1 61, 1 66, 1 71, 1 95 S ecret No tched L ap 1 6, 2 0, 2 .6 Squ in t L ap 2 0, 2 .6 Tongue 8 , z Groove 3 7, 6 9, 1 00, 2 15, 1 1 .5, 1 1 .6 J o ist 2 0, 2 .3, 1 77, 2 40, 2 90, 2 92

L a thes a nd Turn ing ( cön td .) Cup C entre 2 47, 2 49, 1 4 .3 2 51 , 2 53 Mandre l 2 47, 1 4 .2, 2 49 , 1 4 .3, 2 51, 2 57 Spur C entre 2 47, 2 49, 2 51, 2 53 Tread le 2 47 L a th 3 .9 , 3 .11, 3 7, 5 9, 1 63-4 L ogboa t 2 5-72, 7 4, 1 03, 1 05, 1 11, 6 .2, 1 15, 1 17, 1 20, 1 27, 1 54, 1 57, 1 63 Lynch P in 1 89

Measur ing I nstruments A -Leve l 1 66 Boa t E l l 3 34 Cal ipers 1 66 Compasses 2 49 D iv iders 1 66 P lumb Bob 1 66 Ru le 1 66 Square 1 66, 1 95 Temp la te 1 95, 2 1.7 Th ickness Gauge 6 8 Merem ium 2 2, 2 03 Meta lwork ing Cast ing 1 17 Cut 5 7-8 Drawn 5 7-8 F orged 5 7-8, 1 15 Hammer ing 17 I ron Meta l lurgy 1 15 I ron P roduct ion 3 20, 3 23 I ronwork, Decora t ive 3 13, 3 15, 3 19, 3 20, 1 7.7 M icrowear S ee Too ls, wearmarks M i l l, Hor izonta l 2 64-5, 2 71-2, 2 93-5 Mode l, S ca le 1 0, 1 3, 3 .13 , 3 .17, 4 6, 7 3, 1 61, 1 91. S ee R ep l ica Mo le 8 .3, 1 61, 1 63 K ee l ( of Boa t) 2 7, 3 .5, 3 3, 3 .6, Mor t ise 1 0, 2 0, 2 .6, 2 1, 3 7, 3 9, 3 5, 3 .9, 4 2, 4 4, 5 0, 5 5-6, 6 7-8, 7 3, 1 11, 1 17, 1 20, 1 22, 6 1-2, 6 5, 6 8, 2 69 , 2 79, 2 93, 1 27, 1 54, 1 61, 1 64, 8 .6 , 1 79, 1 8 .3 1 95, 2 22, 2 69, 2 77, 2 79 , 2 80, Key 2 1, 2 .6 , 3 9, 3 .21, 4 2, 1 5.4, 1 5.5, 2 83, 2 85-6, 2 88-9, 6 7 2 92-3, 3 51 K ing P in ( fu lcrum b o l t) 1 91-2 , Chase 2 0, 2 .6, 2 65, 2 80 Knee ( Naut ica l) 5 4-5, 6 7 , Doub le 2 80 T 88, 2 92 , Haunch Tenon 2 80 , Housed Doveta i l 2 65 L adder 1 64 , N o t c h 2 8 0 , 2 8 8 L ake Dwe l l ing 9 9, 1 11, 6 .1 ,S loped 2 88, 2 93 L akes 3 , 2 9 , 6 0, 6 .1, 6 .9 , S un k en 2 8 0 , 2 90, 2 95 L andscape 7 9, 8 1, 2 00 . S ee M u s i c a l I n s t rum en t s 1 6 .2 , 3 06 , 3 09 Env ironmen t P an -P i p e s 2 3 3 L a thes a nd Turn ing 2 32, 2 47, 3 03, 3 10 3 84

N et F loa t

1 6 .3,

Odysseus Ov id 1 64

1 64

3 09

P a thway 2 64, 2 66 , 2 68, 3 01. S ee Track P ea t E k4 1 , 2 , 7 9 , 8 1, 4 .8, 8 9, 9 6, 9 8, 1 30, 1 33, 1 50, 1 89, 2 49 P eg 1 9, 2 1, 2 .6 , 3 .16 , 5 1-2, 5 4, 6 9, 4 .3, 4 .87-D 3 , 1 33, 1 35, 1 61, 2 65, 2 72, 2 77-8, 2 80, 2 $3, 2 86, 2 92, 1 6 .1, 3 06, 3 57. S ee : Dowe l ; Treena i l P i le 1 11, 6 .3, 1 15, 1 20, 6 .8, 1 22, 6 .9, 1 25, 1 27, 1 54 P in 1 6 .1, 3 04 P it 3 6, 2 40, 2 64, 2 66, 2 75, 2 77-8, 2 92 P lank, P lank ing 1 7, 2 0, 2 7, 3 .1, 3 .2, 3 .3, 3 .4, 3 3, 3 5, 3 .9, 3 7, 3 .15, 3 9, 3 .17, 4 4, 4 9, 5 0-3, 5 7-9, 6 4, 6 6, 6 8, 7 7, 8 1, 4 .3, 8 5, 8 9, 4 .8, 4 .10, 9 3, 1 03, 1 05, 1 11, 1 25, 1 53, 1 61, 1 76-7, 1 80, 1 95-7, 2 03, 2 15, 1 1.5, 1 1.6 , 1 3.4, 2 39, 2 40, 1 3.6 , 2 47, 2 72, 2 75, 2 77, 2 89, 2 90, 3 41. S ee : S trake; Board P la tform 2 , 2 .3, 1 00, 1 77 P lough 1 30, 1 33, 1 44, 1 50, 1 55. S ee PO N 1 P o le 2 2, 8 8, 1 03 , 2 03, 2 47. S ee: P ost; Rod P o l lard ing 2 05-6 P o l len a nd P o l len Ana lys is 8 1, 8 5 P ost 1 3, 2 .5, 2 0-1, 4 .7, 8 8, 1 53, 1 59 , 1 76-7, 1 79 , 2 40, 2 68, 2 75, 2 77-8, 2 80, 1 5 .5, 2 83, 2 85-90, 2 92-3, 2 95. S ee P o le P ostho le 4 -6 , 7 9 , 9 9, 1 71 , 1 767 , 1 79 Construct ion 1 70 , 1 84-5 P o ttery 2 , 6 , 4 6, 1 00, 1 29 , 2 57, 3 01 P refabr icat ion 2 .3, 1 79, 1 95-7, 2 85-6, 2 92, 2 95 Puzzle E ki le 1 1 .4 , 3 57-365, 3 74 Rabbet, Rabett ing a nd R eba te 5 0, 6 7, 2 65, 3 15, 3 41 Rad iocarbon Da t ing 2 6, 2 8-9, 4 9, 8 5, 1 54, 2 53, 2 57 Raf ter 3 41, 3 57-365

Reconstruct ions, Hypo thet ica l 4 6, 6 5, 4 .8, 1 89 Record r ik 7 -25, 2 7, 4 3, 7 3, 1 30, 3 50 . S ee Draw ing t imber Context Sheet 1 0, 2 .4 , 1 7 Pho togrammetry 1 0 , 7 3 Pho tography 1 2, 1 7, 7 3 Repa ir 1 2, 1 3, 3 9, 3 .21 , 4 2, 5 9 , 7 4, 5 .7, 2 56-8, 2 68, 3 34 P a tch 3 9, 4 2, 6 0 R epl ica 1 3, 4 6, 7 5-6 , 1 29-151, 1 72, 1 76, 2 12. S ee Mode l R e-used T imber 1 2, 2 7, 2 9, 4 8, 8 9, 1 80, 2 77, 2 79, 2 80, 2 83, 2 85, 2 88, 2 90, 2 92, 3 53 R evetmen t 1 0, 1 3, 1 6-17, 1 9-22, 1 57, 8 .2, 1 61, 1 63, 1 66, 1 76 , 2 63-4, 2 69, 2 72-5, 1 5 .2, 1 5 .3, 1 5.4 , 1 5.5, 2 77, 2 83, 1 5.6 , 2 85-95 Base P la te 1 3, 2 0-1, 2 63-99 Brace 1 3, 1 9-21, 1 59 , 1 61, 1 80, 1 88, 2 75, 2 77, 2 79 , 2 83-8, 1 5 .6 , 2 95 Hor izon ta l t rad it ion 2 1 T ie-back 2 .1, 2 2, 1 63, 2 73, 2 87, 2 89, 2 93 Ver t ica l t rad it ion 2 1, 2 75 IU D ( of b oa t) 3 5, 3 9, 3 .17, 5 2-4, 6 9, 3 31, 1 8 .5. S ee F loor t imber Rod 5 , 4 .5, 8 5, 2 03, 2 06. S ee P o le Romano-Ce lt ic 2 6, 3 9, 1 88 , 1 91, 1 95 Roof 1 57, 1 76-7, 1 80-1, 1 96-7, 2 08, 1 1.4 , 1 1.4a, 2 39, 2 66-7, 2 92-3, 2 96 , 3 41, 3 57-365. S ee Raf ter Truss 1 1.4 Roughout Vesse l 2 47, 1 4 .2, 2 49 , 3 69 Roundwood 6 8, 4 .3, 8 5, 4 .7, 8 8-9, 1 00 , 5 .3, 5 .4 , 1 03 S add le B ow 2 34, 1 3.2 S a i ls ( Naut ica l) 6 4-5 S a i ls ( of hurd les) 4 .5, 4 .7 S amp le 1 2-3, 1 6-7, 8 1, 8 5, 9 8, 2 36 S ap l ing 2 47 S awing 1 2-13, 1 6 , 6 8, 7 3, 1 03, 1 15, 2 08, 2 23. S ee C onversion S awm i l l 2 15 S caffo ld ing 1 97, 2 12 S carfs 2 1, 2 7, 3 .1, 3 3, 3 .6, 3 .7, 3 .8, 3 5, 4 4, 5 57U , 6 8, 1 57, 1 59, 1 63, 1 66, 2 68, 2 77-9, 2 86, 3 31. S ee J o ints , Grad ien ts o f 3 5, 5 6 Hor izon ta l 3 5, 5 5-6

3 85

S carfs ( contd.) Ver t ica l 3 5, 5 5-6 Doveta i l 1 66 E dge-Ha lved 3 .8, 4 4, 5 6-7, 2 79, 2 94 Edge-Ha lved w ith Br id led Butts 2 1, 2 .6 Edge-Ha lved w ith Vert ica l Bu tts 2 1 , 2 .6, 3 5, 3 .1, 2 65, 2 68, 2 71, 2 78-9, 2 93 Edge-Ha lved, Treena i led Through F ace 3 5 Ha lf-Lap 1 66 S top-Sp layed 3 3, 2 69 , 2 93 S top-Sp layed o n Edges 4 4, 5 6 S top-Sp layed o n F ace 3 5, 4 4 , 5 6 Tab led ( Hooked) 5 5 Through-Sp layed 2 68-9 , 2 77-9 , 2 87-8, 2 90, 2 94-5 Through-Sp layed a nd Tab led 2 1, 2 .6 Through-Sp layed o n Edge 3 3, 4 4 , 5 5-6 S creens 2 39, 2 66 S eason ing 8 9, 5 .5, 1 39, 1 96, 2 15, 2 19-29, 2 49, 2 51, 2 54 . S ee Mo isture C ontent S e lect ion o f T imber 5 , 1 3, 7 6 , 1 35, 2 20. S ee S pec ies s elect ion S em i-Basement 1 3.3, 1 3 .4, 2 38, 1 3.5, 1 3 .6 Shaf ts ( of Veh ic les) 1 88 , 1 0.2 1 92 Sh ips S ee Boa ts S hou lder o f J o in t 1 9 , 2 0, 4 2, 1 63, 2 22 Shr inkage 1 0. S ee : Decay; D istort ion Skeuomorphs 1 00 S leeper B eam S ee S o le P la te S oc iet ies, Anc ien t 4 -6 , 2 6, 9 3, 9 6, 1 29 S o le P late 1 22, 1 70-1, 1 76-7, 1 79-80, 1 82-5, 1 5.1, 2 71-293 Spec ies ( of T imber) 1 0, 1 3, 2 8, 4 3, 6 4-5, 7 3, 8 8-9, 6 .3, 1 15, 1 95 A lder ( Alnus Sp ) 5 , 8 8, 1 27, 2 36, 2 54, 2 56, 3 06, 3 10, 3 69 Ash ( Frax inus Sp ) 2 9, 3 3, 3 9, 3 .24, 4 2, 6 4, 8 1, 4 .7, 8 8-9, 1 00, 5 .5, 5 .6, 1 05, 1 15, 5 .9 , 6 .3, 6 .8, 1 22, 1 25, 1 27, 2 03, 2 07, 1 1.3, 2 32-3, 1 3 .1, 2 36, 2 49, 2 54, 2 58, 2 67, 2 69, 3 06, 3 10, 3 71

Spec ies o f T imber ( contd.) B eech ( Fagus Sp) 1 15, 1 22, 1 27, 2 07, 2 57 B irch ( Betu la Sp) 3 9, 1 27, 1 33, 2 04, 2 07, 2 12, 2 36, 3 06 , 3 10 Boxwood ( B ma is Sp) 2 33, 2 54, 2 57 E lm ( Uhmus S p) 6 4, 8 1, 8 8, 1 15, 1 27, 2 03, 2 07, 2 12, 2 20 Cherry ( Prunus Sp) 1 89 , 2 36 Chestnut ( Castenea Sp) 15, 2 07, 2 36 F ir ( Ab ies S p) 6 5, 6 .3, 1 15, 1 20 , 1 22, 6 .10, 6 .11, 1 27 Haze l ( Corylus Sp) 5 , 3 7 , 6 5, 4 .5, 8 5, 8 8, 1 05, 2 03, 2 07, 2 12, 2 36, 3 06, 3 10 Hawthorn ( Cretaegus Sp) 1 89, 2 04 , 2 36 Ho l ly ( I lex Sp) 8 8, 2 07 Hornbeam ( Carp inus Betu la) 2 04 L ime ( Ti l ia Sp) 8 1, 8 9, 2 03-4, 2 07, 2 12 r d eT le ( Acer Sp) 1 27, 2 03, 2 07, 2 36 , 2 54, 2 56, 2 58 Oak ( Quercus Sp) 2 1, 2 6 , 2 8-30 , 3 .1 , 3 .4, 3 3, 3 7, 3 9 , 3 .19 , 4 2, 8 4 7 7 7, 8 1, 4 .3, 8 5, 07 7 .8, 4 .10, 1 03, 5 .5, 5 .7, 5 .8, 6 .3, 1 15, 6 .8, 1 22, 6 .9, 1 25, 1 27, 1 33, 1 39, 1 77, 1 95, 2 03-4 , 2 079 , 1 1 .3, 2 13-5, 1 1.5, 1 1 .6 , 2 19-229 , 2 33-4, 1 3.1, 1 3.2, 2 36 , 2 54 , 2 77, 3 04 , 3 06, 3 10, 3 27, 3 39 , 3 41, 3 67 P icea ( P icea Ab ies) 1 27 P ine ( P r i tt s Sy lvestr is ) 2 1, 2 9, 3 .3 , 3 3, 4 2, 4 4, 6 5, 1 27 , 1 61, 2 07, 2 13, 2 15, 1 1 .5, 2 54 P op lar ( Popu lus Sp) 1 15, 1 27, 2 07 , 2 13, 2 15, 2 36, 2 40 S erv ice-Tree ( Sorbus Tormina l is) 2 04 W i l low ( Sa l ix S p) 3 7, 3 9, 3 .19, 6 5, 1 15, 1 27, 2 07, 2 12, 2 15, 2 36 , 2 39, 3 04 Yew ( Taxus Sp) 3 7, 3 9 , 6 5, 4 .6 , 8 5, 8 8, 1 00 , 1 05, 5 .7, 1 27, 2 32, 2 54, 3 04 , 3 06 Spec ies S e lec t ion 2 6, 7 6, 8 8, 9 9, 1 05, 6 .3, 6 .10, 1 27, 2 06-8, 2 12, 2 33, 2 54 . S ee S e lect ion o f T imber Sp ind le 1 6.1, 3 04, 3 06 Sp ire 3 41 Spoon 3 04, 1 6 .2, 3 06 S take 8 9 , 4 .8, 4 .9, 1 11, 1 53, 2 89, 2 93

3 86

S tandard Tree 2 03 S tave 1 6 , 2 1, 2 69 , 2 73 Bu i lt Vesse ls 1 05, 2 54, 2 73, 3 03, 3 06 , 1 6 .3 , 1 6.4 Wa l ls 1 3, 2 72, 2 93 S t itch 3 .9, 3 7, 5 9, 5 .7. S ee F asten ings, s ew ing S tone Cross 2 65, 2 94 S trake ( Naut ica l) 3 .1 , 3 .7, 3 5, 3 .9 , 3 .10, 3 .11, 3 .12, 3 .13, 3 .14, 3 .16, 4 6, 5 0-3, 6 6, 6 8, 1 05, 5 .7, 5 .8, 3 31, 1 8 .3, 1 8.4 , 3 34, 3 36 . S ee P lank ing S tresses, i n Wooden S tructures 7 6, 5 .4 , 1 59, 1 95 S tr inger 3 9, 3 .20 , 5 5, 6 8 Surv iva l ( Preserva t ion) o f Wood 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 7, 8 1. S ee Decay Sw ing le Tree 1 89

Too ls Axe ( contd.) 2 83, 3 03-4, 3 09, 3 29, 3 31, 1 8.3, 3 34 , 1 8.5, 3 50 , 2 0 .2, 3 55

Techno log ica l Change 1 6 , 2 5, 4 2-3, 9 3, 1 53-4 Tenon 1 0, 2 .5, 2 0, 2 .6 , 3 7, 4 5, 5 2, 6 7-9, 1 20, 1 22, 1 71, 2 22, 1 5.1 , 2 71, 2 77, 1 5.5, 2 83, 2 85, 2 92, 2 95 , Bare-faced 2 0 , 2 .6(j), 2 83, 2 88, 2 90 , Box 2 83, 2 88, 2 90 ,F a lse 1 61 , 1 63 ,F ree 2 1, 6 7-8, 1 61 , Tusk 1 6, 2 .6 Termino logy S ee " N oodwork ing Terms Three Age System 9 5-6, 1 05 Too ls 1 , 4 , 6 , 4 6 , 7 4-6 , 9 3, 1 15, 1 17, 6 .7, 1 22, 1 30, 2 20, 2 32-3, 2 58 Boatbu i ld ing 3 27-337 Bronze 8 8, 6 .4 , 1 15, 6 .5 Wooden 8 9, 1 15, 1 17, 2 19 Adze 1 0, 6 6, 8 9 , 1 03, 1 15, 6 .5, 1 17, 6 .6, 1 20, 1 33, 2 19-223, 1 2 .8, 1 2.14, 2 49, 2 67, 3 09, 3 29, 3 34, 1 8.5, 3 50, 3 53, 3 68, 3 73 Auger 6 0, 7 3, 2 32, 2 53-4, 2 69, 2 79, 3 29, 3 31, 1 8 .5, 3 41, 3 51-2, 2 0 .1 , Breast 1 8 .1 , 3 29, 2 0.1 Awl 1 15 Axe 6 , 1 2, 6 0, 8 5, 8 9, 1 03 1 11, 1 15, 6 .5, 1 17, 6 .6 , 1 20, 2 19-223, 1 2 .7, 1 2 .13, 1 2.19 , 2 32, 2 39, 2 67, 2 77-8, 3 87

, Broad 2 20, 2 22-3, 3 27, 1 8 .1, 3 29 ,S tone 8 8 Axe Hammer 3 31 Back ing Kn ife 3 09 B eet le 2 20-1, 3 04, 1 6 .2 B ow Dr i l l 1 66 B ow S aw 1 66 Brace 3 53, 2 0 .1, 3 55 Bur in 6 .5, 1 17 Cha in Siw 6 Ch ise l 6 0, 1 15, 6 .5, 1 17, 1 33, 2 21-2, 2 33, 2 49, 2 54 , 1 4 .5, 2 56, 2 69, 2 79 , 3 04, 3 06 , 1 6 .3, 3 09, 3 23, 3 31, 3 34, 3 36 C lamp 3 34 C leaver 3 09 Counterwedge 1 8.4 C rowbar 3 34 Do l ley 3 31, 3 34 , 3 36 Drawkn ife 6 0, 2 33, 3 72 Dr i l l 2 20 F i le 3 06, 3 23 F roe 3 51-2 Gouge 6 .5, 1 17, 2 54 , 2 56, 3 06 , 3 29, 3 41 Hammer 1 66, 2 20, 3 29, 3 31, 3 34, 3 36 Hook-ended I ron 2 54 , 2 56 Kn ife 8 8, 1 15, 2 67, 3 04 , 3 29, 3 34, 1 8.5, 3 41 L ever 5 .6 Ma l let 8 9, 1 00, 1 03, 5 .5, 1 05, 1 66, 3 09 Mor t ice Ch ise l 1 66 , 2 22 Mou ld 1 15, 1 17 Nose-B it 3 51 ' Old Woman 's Too th ' 3 52 P inc ing Tongs 3 34 P lane 6 0, 1 66, 2 22, 2 85, 3 31, 3 73 P o le-La the 2 45, 1 4 .1 , 2 49, 1 4 .2, 1 4 .3, 2 53-4 , 2 56, 2 58, 3 70 Reba te-P lane 3 41 Ro tary L a the 2 47, 2 56 S aw 6 0, 6 7, 1 00, 1 15, 1 66, 2 86, 3 03, 3 41, 2 0.1, 3 55 , Kerf o f 6 7, 3 41 ,S et Tee th o f 1 66 S craper 3 29, 1 8.2, 3 31, 1 8 .3, 1 8 .5 Shave 3 29, 1 8.2, 3 31, 1 8 .3, 1 8.5, 3 72

Too ls ( contd.) Spoon B it 2 19 , 2 20, 2 22, 1 2.9 , 2 54, 2 69, 3 09 , 3 29, 3 31, 3 51 S tone Too ls 8 8-9, 9 6, 9 9, 1 15, 1 54 Try P lane 2 0 .1 Twist B i t 3 31 Twyb i l l 3 51-3, 2 0.1 , 3 55 V-Clamp 1 8 .4 Wedge 1 03, 5 .5, 1 15, 6 .5, 1 17, 2 19-221, 1 2.1, 1 2.3, 1 2 .4, 1 2 .5, 1 2 .6, 1 2.12, 3 09 Whetstone 2 56 Haf ts a nd Hand les o f Too ls 4 , 6 , 9 6, 1 03, 1 05, 1 17, 1 20, 1 39, 1 2.7, 1 2.8, 2 54 2 56, 2 58, 3 04, 3 50 Too l-Marks 1 0 , 1 2, 1 7 , 6 0, 7 3, 8 5, 4 .7, 8 8-9 , 1 03, 6 .2, 1 17, 1 20 , 1 66, 2 08, 2 19, 2 21-3, 1 2 .16 , 1 2 .18, 1 2.19 , 1 2 .20 , 2 39 , 3 04, 3 31, 1 8.3, 3 39-348, 3 51 W ear Marks o n Too ls 7 5, 9 9 , 1 30 , 1 33, 1 35, 1 42-5, 1 50, 2 54 Tower 1 72, 2 09 Town 2 , 1 3, 2 47, 2 63 Traces ( of Veh ic les) 1 89 Track 1 , 2 , 4 8, 7 4, 8 1, 4 .5, 4 .6 , 8 5, 4 .8, 4 .9 , 1 00 , 1 03, 1 53 Tra jan 's Co lumn 1 72, 9 .1, 9 .2, 9 .3, 9 .4 , 1 77, 9 .6, 1 80-1, 1 97 Treena i l S ee F asten ings Tree-R ing Ana lys is 5 , 1 2, 1 3, 1 7, 8 1, 8 5, 8 9, 9 3, 1 99, 2 92 . S ee Dendrochrono logy Trough 1 57, 2 65 Turner 2 32, 2 45, 3 70 Tyre 1 88 Underwood 1 99-218

V eh ic les 1 87-194 Carr iage 1 88 Cart 1 0 .1, 1 91, 1 97 Tanker 1 91 Wagon 1 , 1 87-9, 1 0 .2, Vo t ive Depos it 4 8, 1 89 Wa l ls 1 3, 1 76-180, 1 3 .3, 1 3 .5, 2 66-9 Wa l l-Anchor 3 41 Wa l l-P la te 2 1, 1 61, 2 93

1 91-2

1 3.4,

3 88

Wa terfron t 3 , 7 -24, 2 9, 4 8, 7 3, 1 64, 1 96, S ee J etty Wa ter logged Ma ter ia l 2 , 5 , 4 3, 8 1 , 9 6-9, 1 57, 1 87, 2 31, 2 42, 2 45 Wa tert ight S eam 3 5, 3 7, 5 9 , 6 0, 6 6, 1 64 . S ee Caulk ing Wattle 8 5, 1 05, 1 77, 2 03, 2 12, 2 34, 2 36, 1 3 .3, 2 38, 2 40, 2 42, 2 66, 2 68-9 , 2 73, 2 92 Wa ttle a nd Daub, 1 79 , 1 96 . S ee Daub Wedge ( Structura l Componen t) 3 .9 , 3 7, 3 9, 3 .19, 5 8-60, 6 9, 8 9 , 1 22, 1 35, 1 39, 7 .7, 1 42-3, 1 45, 1 49, 1 64, 2 78. S ee Too ls, wedge We l ls 3 , 1 0 , 1 6, 9 9, 1 57, 1 61, 1 634 , 1 66 , 1 95, 2 40, 2 53, 2 58 , Barre ll ined 1 95, 2 40 Whee ls 1 64 , 1 88-9, 1 0.1, 1 0.2, 1 91-2, 1 97 ,D isc 7 6 , 5 .4, 1 03, 1 05 ,S poked 1 62F , Tr ipar t ite 8 .4, 1 63-4 F e l loes 1 64 Hubs 1 64, 3 52 Nave 5 .4, 1 03, 1 88-9 R im 1 64 Spokes 1 64, 1 89 W indm i l l 2 09 W i ldwood 2 00, 2 03-4 W indow 1 72, 1 77, 1 80, 2 40 W ithy 2 40 Wood 1 53. S ee : Decay; G ra in; Roundwood Bark 2 1 , 5 9 , 6 0, 6 8-9 , 1 20 , 1 25, 1 77, 2 20, 2 23 Bo le 6 6, 8 5, 5 .4 , 1 03, 5 .5, 5 .6, 2 40 Branch 6 8, 8 5, 1 00, 1 11, 1 39, 2 03 Butt 6 6 Buttress 6 6 Camb ium 2 20, 2 23 C e l ls 1 9, 2 1 , 6 7-9 07 . S ee Con iferous Woods 1 15, 2 S of twood Core S ee P i th C rown 1 11 Ear lywood 1 9 Hardwood 2 1, 3 27 9 , 6 7, 1 03, H ear twood 1 0 , 1 2, 1 1 15, 1 39, 2 21 15, 08 , 2 Kno ts 1 0, 1 2, 3 3, 1 39, 2 2 20-1, 1 2.12 L a tewood 1 9 L og 1 9, 2 1, 3 .2, 3 .3, 3 3 , 1 22, 1 54 Medu l lary Ray--see Ray

Wood ( con td.) Mo isture C onten t 6 7, 9 9 P ith 1 0 , 1 2, 1 9 , 2 1, 5 8, 6 7, 1 15, 1 22, 1 25, 1 27 R ay 2 1, 3 .1, 3 .4 , 6 8-9, 7 3, 5 .4, 1 15, 6 .8, 1 22, 2 20-1, 1 2 .2, 1 2 .15 Roo t 6 6 , 8 5 S apwood 1 0 , 1 2, 1 9, 2 1, 6 7-8, 9 3, 6 .8, 1 22, 2 21 , 2 23, 2 49 Shoo t 4 .4 , 8 5 S of twood 2 1, 2 15, 3 27 S tem o f Tree 6 6 , 6 8-9, 4 .4, 8 5, 8 8, 2 03 S tump 4 .6, 8 5, 8 8, 1 11, 2 03 Tann in 1 9 Tree R ing 1 9, 3 .1, 6 8-9 , 7 3, 8 5, 15, 1 25, 6 .11, 1 99, 2 23, 2 49 . S ee: Tree R ing Ana lys is ; Dendrochrono logy Tw ig 2 03, 2 39 Wane, Waney 6 9 , 2 08 Wood lands 5 , 8 1, 8 5, 1 99-218 Wood land Management a nd F orestry 5 , 6 , 1 3, 8 1, 1 29 , 1 99-218. S ee: Copp ic ing ; P o l lard ing ; S e lect ion o f T imber Age o f T imber a t F e ll ing 1 2, 8 5, 8 8-9, 1 53, 2 09, 1 1 .3, 2 12 Boundar ies 2 00, 2 04 C learance 8 1, 8 5 Ra te o f Grow th o f Trees 8 5, 8 9, 2 19 , 2 20, 2 23, 3 39 Regenera t ion 8 1, 2 04 Wooden Tracery 3 13, 3 20, 1 7.8 , 1 7.9, 3 23 Woodwork ing S ee : Arr is; B eve l ; Carv ing ; Convers ion ; J o ints; K ey ; Mor t ice; Rabbet; S carfs; S e lect ion; Tenon ; Too lmarks; Too ls A ssemb ly/Carpen ters ' Marks 1 95-7, 2 12 Chopp ing 4 .7, 8 8, 1 00, 1 17, 6 .11 Dr i l l ing 3 09 Dubb ing 6 6 Groov ing 1 17, 6 .6, 2 69, 2 72, 2 77, 2 85, 2 92, 2 95, 3 09 H ew ing 5 0 , 2 08, 2 21-3, 1 2.7, 1 2.13 J ogg l ing 5 4, 6 7 No tch ing 2 0,39 , 5 7, 6 6-7, 8 9, 4 .10 , 1 35, 1 39, 1 42, 1 61, 1 96, 2 08, 2 21-3, 2 58-9 , 2 90, 3 29 Waste 2 47, 2 53, 2 57-8 Wh itt le 1 00,103

Woodwork ing S pec ia l ist 7 4 , 3 70 Woodwork ing Termino logy 2 .6 , 1 9 , 2 2, 2 7, 6 6-9, 1 59, 1 71, 1 76, 1 92, 2 23 Y oke

B .

1 35, 1 41 ,

1 43-4,

1 49,

1 89

P LACES

Ab ingdon, Oxon ( Ard S hare) 1 30 A l ice Ho l t, Han ts ( Forest) 2 05 Amsterdam, R i jksmuseum 3 50 Ancho lme, R iver 2 8 Anton ine Wa l l 1 70 App leby, Humbers ide ( Logboa t) 2 6 , 2 8, 3 9, 3 .21, 4 2, 4 4, 4 5 , 1 63 Arun, R . 2 9 A speberg , Denmark ( Ard) 1 33, 1 50 Auvern ier-Co lumb ier , Sw itz. 1 11-128, 1 54 Auvern ier-Nord, Sw i tz. 11-128

Ba inbr idge, N . Y orks. ( For t) 1 82 Ba l lygearda , C o . K i lkenny ( M i l l) 2 65 Ba l lygroosm i l l S outh, C o . L ao igh is ( M i l l) 2 65 Ba l lyk i l leen, C o . O ffa ly ( M i l l) 2 64, 2 65 Ba l lyraf ton, Co . K i lkenny ( M i l l) 2 64 , 2 65 Ba lmu i ldy, S 'C lyde ( Fort) 1 84 Ba lsham Wood 2 03 Ba l t ic 2 15 Barburgh M i l l, Dumf . & Ga l l . ( For t) 1 84 Bar H i l l, S 'C lyde ( Fort) 1 84 Bark ing Woods 2 03 Barr ing ton Church, Cambs . 1 1.5 Bayeux, Normandy ( Tapestry) 1 8. 3 53, 3 73 Bearsden, S 'C lyde ( Fort) 1 84 B ekesbourne, K en t ( We l l) 1 61 B e l l , Hunsruck, G ermany ( Wagon) 1 89, 1 91 Bergen, Norway 3 31, 3 34 , 3 73 Bever ley, Yorks. ( Ha l l Gar th) 1 6, 1 7, Bewcast le, Cumb. ( For t) 1 84 B irm ingham 3 64 B irrens, Dumf . & Ga l l. ( For t) 1 84 B ishopton, S 'C lyde ( For t) 1 84 Bowness, Cumb. ( Fort) 1 71, 1 84

3 89

Brabstown, Co . K i lkenny ( M i l l) 2 65 Bradf ie ld Woods, Suffo lk 2 04 , 1 1 .3, 3 67 Bradwe l l , E ssex ( Box) 1 63 Bradwe l l-By-Cogg lesha l l, E ssex ( Church) 1 1 .6 Brecon Gaer, P owys ( Fort) 1 82 Br igg , Humbers. ( Logboa t) 2 6 , 2 8, 3 3, 3 9, 4 4 ( Raf t) 2 6, 2 8, 3 .2, 3 3, 3 5, 3 .11, 3 .12, 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 4 7 Broomf ie ld, K en t ( Cemetery) 2 56 B rough-on-Humber, Humbers. ( For t) 1 82 Brough-on-Noe, Derby ( Fort) 1 76, 1 82, 1 84 Buckton ( Fort) 1 72 Bu lgar ia 1 88 Bu tser Anc ien t F arm, Han ts. 1 30, 1 33, 1 41, 1 45, 1 50 Buttsbury, E ssex ( Church) 3 15 Cadder, S 'Clyde ( For t) 1 84 C uer leon, Gwent 1 66, 1 69, 1 80 Canada 7 6 Canterbury, Kent 1 66, 3 20, 1 7 .8, 3 23, 3 41 Cardean, Tay ( Fort) 1 82 Car l is le, Cumb. ( For t) 1 72, 1 77, 1 80, 1 82 C ashe l, C o . T ipperary ( Stone C rosses) 2 65 Cashen, Co . Kerry ( Br idge) 2 93, 2 96 Castlearmstrong , Co. Offa ly ( M i l l) 2 65 Cast ledykes ( Fort) 1 82 Char tham, K en t ( Ceme tery) 2 56 Che lmsford, E ssex ( We l l) 1 63 Chester, Chesh ire ( Fort) 1 79, 1 82 Chesterho lm, Nor thumber land ( For t) 1 69, 1 79, 1 80, 1 82 Ch i l terns 2 05 C lacton, E ssex 1 00 C lara, C o . K i lkenny ( Cast le) 2 92 C laver ing Gu i ldha l l, E ssex 3 63 C lonf in lough, C o . L ao igh is, ( M i l l) 2 65 C oe lbren ( Fort) 1 82 Coggesha l l Abbey, E ssex ( Barn) 3 45 Co lchester, E ssex 1 4 .5

1 59,

2 14,

2 54,

3 90

Co logne, G ermany 1 61, 1 64 , 1 91, 2 57 Corbr idge, Nor thumber land ( Fort) 1 76 , 1 79, 1 80, 1 82, 1 84 R ed House 1 70 , 1 80, 1 83 Cork, I re land 2 51, 2 93, 3 01-311, 3 71 Chr istchurch 3 01 Hopewe l l Cast le 3 01 S outh Ma in S treet 3 01 Co tswo lds 1 42 Coven try 3 64 C rawford, S 'C lyde ( Fort) 1 72, 1 82 C ress ing T emp le, E ssex ( Barn) 3 45, 3 51, 3 63 Dabergo tz, Denmark ( Ard) 1 33 Dac ia 1 70 Da lsw in ton ( For t) 1 82 Danube, R . 1 70 Dar tmoor 3 , 2 05 Dean, F orest o f 2 05, 2 09, 2 14 , 3 20, 3 23 Denham, Bucks ( Manor) 3 63 De jb jerg , Denmark ( Wagons) 1 89, 1 91 Denmark 3 5, 9 6, 1 00, 1 22, 1 291 51, 1 44, 1 50, 1 89, 1 91, 3 31, 7 .1 Na t iona l Museum 1 35, 1 42 Donnerup land, Denmark ( Ard) 1 29-151 Dostrup, Denmark ( Ard) 1 33 Dover, K en t ( Mo le) 8 .3, 1 61, 1 63 ( Cast le) 2 14 Drogheda, Co . L outh, ( House) 2 93, 2 96 Dub l in, I re land 2 9, 2 06 , 2 51 , 2 632 99, 3 10, 3 67, 3 71, 3 73 Chr istchurch P lace 2 72 J ohn 's L ane 2 68, 2 73, 2 87 F ishamb le S t. 2 63, 2 68-9, 2 71-3, 2 75, 2 79 , 2 85, 2 87 W inetavern S treet 2 75, 2 77-8, 2 92, 2 95 Wood Quay 2 9, 3 3, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4, 2 63-299, 3 09 Dunsoh ley C ast le, Co . Du b l in, I re land 2 92, 2 96 Duntocher, S 'C lyde ( For t) 1 84 Durham 2 57 Dyser t O 'Dea, C o . C lare, ( Stone Cross) 2 65

E aster Happrew ( For t) E astry, K en t ( Screen)

1 82 3 23

E chze l l, G ermany ( For t) 1 70, 1 72 Egypt 1 61 E lstow, B eds ( Moo t Ha l l) 3 63 E lvedon E sta te, Norfo lk 2 19 E ly Ca thedra l 2 09 , 2 12, 2 15, 3 43 Exmoor F orest 2 05 E z inge, Ho l land ( Whee ls) 8 .4 , 1 63, 1 64 F arne I s land, N ' land 3 39 F aversham, Kent ( Cemetery) 2 56 F eddersen W ierde, W . Germany 2 49 F endoch, Tay ( For t) 1 72, 1 80 , 1 82 F err iby Humbers. ( Boa ts) 2 6, 2 8, 3 .1, 3 3, 3 5, 3 .9, 3 .10, 3 7, 3 .15, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4, 4 5, 7 4 , 7 7, 5 .7, 5 .9 F in land 1 53 F rance 1 88, 1 92, 3 01, 3 20, 3 27, 3 53, 3 73, 1 8 .1 F r isia 2 6 , 3 9 Gadebr idge P ark, Herts. ( V i l la) 1 66 Ga ltree F orest, Yorks 2 05 Gau l 1 88, 1 92 Gdansk, P o land 3 34 Ge l lygaer ( Fort) 1 69 G ermany 3 , 4 2, 7 6, 1 61-4 , 1 70, 1 72, 1 80, 1 89, 1 91, 2 34, 2 49 , 2 51, 2 57, 3 52 G igg lesw ick Tarn, Y orks. ( Logb oa t) 2 9, 3 3, 3 .23, 3 .24, 4 2, 4 4-5 G i l l ingham F orest, Dorset 2 09 G lamorgan 2 47 G lastonbury, S omerset 1 61, 1 89 G len lochar, Dumf . & Ga l l . ( Fort) 1 82, 1 84 G loucester 1 79, 1 82, 2 09, 2 56-7 Gokstad, Norway ( Faer ing ) 3 .6 , 3 5, 4 6, 7 6 ( Sh ip) 3 73 Good E aster, E ssex ( Fau lkner 's Ha l l) 3 45 ( Imbers) 1 9.4, 3 47-8 Graveney , K ent ( Boa t) 2 7, 2 9, 3 .4, 3 .5. 3 3, 3 .8, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 3 .18, 3 .19, 3 .2 0 7 4 4, 4 6 Grea t Ci ster ton, L e ics. ( Fort) 1 76, _ 81-2 Grea t L ivermore Church, Suffo lk 2 09, 1 1 .4 , 1 1.4a , 3 74 Greenw ich ( Na t iona l Mar it ime Museu a ) 7 , 2 8, 2 9

Gw ith ian, 1 49

C ornwa l l ( P lo whmarks)

Hadstock Church, E ssex 3 13, 1 7.1, 3 15, 3 41, 1 9.2 Ha i thabu -see Hedeby Harbuck, C o . Durham ( Axe) 3 73 Hardham, Sussex ( Logboa t) 2 9 , Hardw ick Wood, Cambs. 2 03 Har low, E ssex ( Manor House) 3 63 Har lowbury, E ssex ( Chape l) 3 41 Hasse lbach, Germany ( For t) 1 70, 1 72 Ha tf ie ld F orest, E ssex 2 05 Hay ley Wood, C ambr idgesh ire 1 99, 2 03 Hedeby, Germany ( Box) 2 34 ( Cores) 2 51 He i lbronn -Böck ingen, G ermany ( For t) 1 72 H indr iksmose, Denmark ( Ard) 1 30 H igham Church, K ent 3 20, 1 7.9 H igh Rod ing, E ssex ( Barn) 3 63 Hod H i l l, Dorset ( For t) 1 72, 1 76, 1 82 Ho l land 7 6, 8 .4, 8 .5, 1 63-6, 1 70-1, 1 76, 1 79, 1 96, 2 49, 3 50, 3 69 Ho lme P ierrepont, Notts ( Logboa ts) 2 8, 4 2, 4 5, 1 63 ( Whee l) 1 64 Hoxne, S uffo lk 1 00 Hu l l, Humbers. ( Museum) 2 8 ( Chape l L ane S ta ith) 2 75 Humber, R . 2 8 Hungary 1 88, 1 91 Hvovs lev, Denmark ( Ard) 1 00, 7 .1 I lk ley, W . Yorks ( For t) 1 76, 1 82 I nchtuth i l, Tay ( For t) 1 72, 1 82 I ona , S co t land ( Monast ic S i te) 2 45, 3 69, 2 65 I re land 3 , 2 6-7 , 2 9, 3 3, 3 5, 3 7,39, 4 2-41, 1 89, 2 00, 2 06 , 2 45, 2 47, 2 49, 2 51, 2 54, 2 63-311, 3 67, 3 71, 3 73 Na t iona l Museum 2 9, 2 63, 3 69 I ta ly 8 .6 , 1 45 Kaer l ich, G ermany ( Char io t) 1 89 K emp ley, G los ( Church) 3 43, 3 45 K entmere, Cumb. ( Logboa t) 2 9, 3 3, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4, 4 5 Kesteven F orest, L incs. 2 05 K ingsho lme, G los. ( Fort) 1 79 K ings Lynn, Norfo lk 2 07, 2 13, 2 75, S edgeford L ane 2 87

3 91

K ing 's Lynn, Norfo lk ( contd.) Bake lane 2 87 K lastad, Norway ( boa t) 3 31 Knaresborough, F orest 3 20 Knocknacarragh, Co . Ga lway ( M i l l) 2 65 Knocknagranshy , Co . L imer ick ( M i l l) 2 65 Kunz ing , G ermany ( Fort) 1 72 Kva lsund, Norway ( boa t) 3 34

L agore C rannog , C o . M ea th 2 49, 2 51, 2 67, 3 09 L akenhea th, Suffo lk ( Church) 2 15, 1 1 .5 L ancaster, L ancs. ( We l l) 1 95 L e in tward ine, H eref . a nd Worcs. ( Fort) 1 84 L ichf ie ld, S taffs ( Cathedra l) 3 20, 1 7 .7 L iffey, R . I re land 2 77, 2 89 L inco ln, Museum 2 8 Ca thedra l 3 19 L issue, C o . Antr im ( Ra th) 2 45 L i tt le Dunmow, E ssex ( We l l) 1 63 L itt le I s land, Co . Cork ( M i l l) 2 65 L lyn C err ig Bach, Ang lesey ( Veh ic le) 1 88 L och Maben, S co tland ( Ard) 1 30, 1 33 L ondon 2 , 3 , 7 -24, 2 7, 2 8, 2 9, 3 7, 1 61, 1 66, 2 57-8, 2 75, 2 79, 2 89 Museum 2 8-30 , 7 3-4 8, 3 5, B lackfr iars ( Boa t 1 ) 2 3 .16, 3 9 B lackfr iars ( Boa t 3 ) 3 0, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4 Coun ty Ha l l ( Boa t) 2 7, 2 9, 3 .7, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 4 4-5, 7 4 , 1 63 Custom House 1 3, 1 6, 2 1, 8 .2, 1 61, 1 63-4, 1 66, 2 75, 2 77 r 7 Merma id Thea tre 1 6 M i les L ane 1 6 , 1 61, 1 66 M i lk S treet 2 51, 2 53, 3 73 N ew Guy 's House ( Boa t) 3 9 N ew F resh Wharf 1 3, 1 6, 2 7, 2 9 3 7, 1 63-4, 1 66 P en insu lar House 1 6 Queen S treet 1 64 S ea l House 1 6 , 2 75 Thames S t. Tunne l 1 6 Tr ig L ane 7 , 1 3, 1 6 , 1 7, 2 1, 2 75, 2 87

L ondon ( contd.) Westm inster Abbey 1 7 .3, 3 19-320, 3 43, 1 9 .3 L ong thorpe ( Fort) 1 76, 1 79 Lunt, The, West M id lands 1 69 , 1 72, 1 76, 1 80 Bag in ton 1 82 Lyne ( For t) 1 84 Lurgankee l , Co . L outh 2 92 Ma inz, G ermany 1 70 Mashanag lass, Co . Cork 2 64-5 Mastermyr, Sweden ( Too ls) 3 34, 3 73 Med iterranean 3 7, 1 88 Me landra ( Fort) 1 76, 1 80, 1 82 Mersey, R . 2 6 , 2 9 M i lton ( Fort) 1 70, 1 82 M i l ton L och, S co t land 1 30 Moret t, C o . K i lkenny ( M i l l) 2 64, 2 65 Morn ing thorpe, Norfo lk 2 56-7 M t. Lucas, Co . O ffa ly ( M i l l) 2 65 Moy larg, C o . An tr im ( M i l l) 2 64 Mumr i l ls ( Fort) 1 80, 1 84 Nansta l lon ( For t) 1 79 , 1 82 Nether lands S ee Ho l land Nett les tead, Suffo lk 1 1.6 N euchä te l, L ., Sw itz. 1 11-128 New F orest 2 14 Newstead ( Fort) 1 64, 1 70 N ieuw Dordrecht, Ho l land 7 6 Nordf jord, Norway 1 8 .4 Normandy, F rance T 3 27 Northampton 2 54, 1 4 .5 North F err iby, Humbers S ee F err iby Norway 3 .6, 3 5, 4 6, 7 6, 2 59, 3 27, 3 29, 3 31, 3 34, 3 68, 3 71, 3 73, 1 8 .3, 1 8 .4 Norwich, Norfo lk 1 6, 1 7, 2 51, 1 4.4, 2 53, 2 58 No tt ingham 3 64 Nova Z emb la, USSR 3 50 Novgorod, USSR ( Ca thedra l) 1 89 Nydam, Denmark ( Boa t) 3 5 Ode l l, B eds. 2 49, 1 4 .4, 2 53, 2 54 Ohr ingen, G ermany ( Ga teway) 1 72 O ld K i lpa tr ick ( Fort) 1 76, 1 84 Orbe, Sw i tz. ( Mosa ic) 1 91 Oseberg, Norway ( Sh ip) 1 8.3 Oxford 2 57 Merton Co l lege 1 1 .5 P addepoe l, Ho l land P affra th 3 01 P annon ia, Hungary

3 92

2 49, 3 69 1 88, 1 91

P ar is, F rance 3 20 P av iken, Go tland, Sweden 3 13, 3 34 P eakaun, C o. T ipperary ( Stone Cross) 2 65 P en L lystyn ( Fort) 1 79 , 1 80, 1 82 P eterborough Ca thedra l 1 7.2, 3 19 P icker ing, F orest 3 23 P o land 3 34 P ompe i i, I ta ly 8 .6 P oo le, Dorset ( Logboa t) 2 8, 3 3, 7 4 P or tchester, Han ts ( Castle) 2 51, 2 53-4 P or ta l lack, Argy l l ( C ist) 1 00 Pumpsa int ( Fort) 1 83-4 Raeburnfoo t ( Fort) 1 84 Raveng lass ( Fort) 1 84 R estorme l Cast le, C ornwa l l 3 53 Rh ine, L ower 2 6, 3 9 R ichborough ( Fort) 1 76, 1 83 Ross o n Wye, Gwen t 3 20 Rouen, F rance 3 01 Runha l l, Norfo lk 3 13, 3 15 Ryton 1 64 S aa lburg, Germany 1 61, 1 63, 1 80, 3 52 S t. Ca ther ine 's Monastery, S ina i 1 97 S t. Mor itz GR ( Sw itz.) 1 22 S t. Neo ts, Cambs. 3 68 S cand inav ia 1 30, 1 45, 3 27, 3 31, 3 71. S ee : Denmark ; Norway; Sweden S carborough, Yorks 3 01 S co le, Norfo lk 1 64 S cot land 1 00, 1 30, 1 33, 1 70, 1 72, 1 76, 1 80, 1 82, 1 84, 2 00, 2 04, 2 45, 2 65, 3 69, 3 71 S e lby, Yorks ( Abbey) 3 19 S hapw ick, S omerset ( Logboa t) 2 8, 3 3, 4 4-5 Shepton B eauchamp, S omerset 3 52 Sherwood F orest 2 05, 2 09, 2 14 Short F erry, L ines ( Logboa t) 2 8, 3 3, 3 .22, 4 2, 4 4 S ibertswo ld, K ent ( Cemetery) 2 56 S i lchester, Hants. 1 64, 1 95 Skara Brae, Orkney 1 00 Sk ipton, F orest o f , C raven 3 20 Sku lde lev, Denmark ( boa ts) 1 22, 3 31 S omerset L eve ls 5 , 1 3, 2 8, 7 9-94 , 4 .1, 4 .2, 9 8, 1 00

S omerset L eve ls ( con td.) Abbo t 's Way 9 6 Baker P la tform 4 .7, 8 8, 8 9 Drove 4 .3 E c l ipse Track, 4 .7, 8 8 Meare H ea th Tra T 4 .2, 8 9, 4 .8, 4 .9 , 9 8, 1 53 Meare V i l lage 8 1 Row land 's Track 8 5 Shapw ick Bur t le 4 .2, 8 1 Sweet Track 8 1, 4 .2, 4 .3, 4 .7, 8 8-9, 4 .8, 4 .10, 1 53 T inney 's G round 4 .2, 4 .6 , 4 .7, 8 8 Wa lton Hea th Track 4 .2, 4 .4 , 8 5 Westhay 8 1, 4 .2, 8 5 S ompt ing, S ussex 3 41 S outhampton, Han ts. 2 54, 1 4 .5 S outhwe l l M inster, No tts . 3 15 Spa in 1 41 Sparsho l t, Oxon . ( Church) 3 15 S tafford ( Bow l) 2 57 S cun thorpe, Humbers . ( Museum) 2 8 S tap lehurst, K ent ( Church) 3 13, 3 15 S tockho lm, Sweden ( Sta tens H istor isk Museum) 3 34 S t ifford, E ssex ( Church) 3 15 S t i l l ingf leet, E ssex ( Church) 3 13, 3 15 S tonehenge, W i l ts 1 00, 1 64 S trageath ( Fort) 1 76 , 1 83-4 Sumborough, S het land ( Ard) 1 33 Sutton Hoo, Suffo lk ( Sh ip) 2 9, 3 3, 3 5, 3 7, 3 9, 3 .17, 4 2, 4 4, 7 5, 2 56-7 Sweden 3 13, 3 34, 3 73 Sw indon, W i lts. ( bow l) 2 56-7 Sw itzer land 3 , 5 , 1 11-128, 1 53-4, 1 91 Tamwor th, S taffs 2 57 Taun ton, S omerse t ( Museum) 2 8 Thames, R ., 3 , 2 8-30 Thaxted, E ssex ( Church) 1 1.6 Thorn ton Curt is, L incs. ( Church) 3 19 Thrace 1 88, 1 91 Tren t, R . 2 8, 4 2, 4 5, 1 63-4 Trondhe im, Norway 3 29 Tude ley, K ent 3 23

Usk, Gwent 1 77 USSR 1 89, 3 50

•

Va ison, V igneron 1 91 Vaa ler Moor, G ermany ( Logboa t)

3 93

4 2

Va l Camon ica , I ta ly ( Rock c arv ings) 1 45 Va lkenburg , Ho l land 1 71, 1 76 , 1 79, 1 96 V echten, Ho l land ( Boa t) 8 .5 , 1 63 V indo landa , N 'Land ( For t) 3 Waddon H i l l ( For t) 1 83 Wa les 1 66 , 1 69, 1 77, 1 79, 1 80, 1 82, 1 88, 2 00, 2 04 , 2 47, 3 20 We lsh Na t iona l F o lk Museum 2 47, 2 51, 2 59, 3 70 Wa l l, S taffs ( For t) 1 76, 1 83 Wa l lsend, Tyne & Wear ( Fort) 1 76 Warr ing ton, L ancs. ( Logboa ts) 2 9, 3 3, 4 4 Wea ld 2 05 We l ls, S omers e t ( Ca thedra l) 3 15, 3 19, 3 48 West S tow, Suffo lk 2 12, 2 19, 3 68 Whaddon, Bucks ( Bow l) 1 4 .5 W i jster , Ho l land 3 69 W indsor, Berks 3 23 Westgar th Gardens, Suffo lk ( cemetery) 2 56 W irra l, Chesh ire 2 05 W itham, R . 2 8, 3 3, 3 .22, 4 2, 4 4 W inchester, Han ts 2 06, 2 54, 2 56-7 C o l lege 1 7.4 , 1 7.5, 1 7 .6 , 3 19 Wood Quay S ee Dub l in Xan ten, Ho l land

1 63, 1 66, 1 70

York 3 , 1 6, 1 7, 1 83, 2 06, 2 314 4, 1 4 .4 , 2 53-4, 1 4.5, 2 57, 2 59, 3 10, 3 19 , 3 67-8 C oppergate 1 7, 2 31-44, 1 4 .4 Hunga te 2 31, 2 58 0u segate 2 31 P avemen t 2 32 Ske lderga te 8 .1, 1 59 , 1 63, 1 66, 1 95 Z ugSumpf , Swi tz. 1 22 Zwammerdam, Ho l land ( Boa ts)

1 63

3 94