Women in Muslim Family Law: Second Edition 9780815629085, 0815629087

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Women in Muslim Family [aw

& Contemporary Issues in the Middle East

Other titles in Contemporary Issues in the Middle East Arab-Israeli Dilemma. Third Edition. Fred J. Khouri The Arab Left. Tareq Y. Ismael

Beyond Camp David: Emerging Alignments and Leaders in the Middle East. Paul A. Jureidini & R. D. McLaurin Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World. Paul Salem Faith and Freedom: Women’s Human Rights in the Muslim World. Mahnaz Afkhami, ed. Islam: Continutiy and Change in the Modern world, Second Edition. John Obert Voll Islam and Politics. Fourth Edition. John L. Esposito The Islamic Impact. Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Byron Haines, & Ellison Findly, eds. The Middle East from the Iran-Contra Affair to the Intifada. Robert O. Freedman, ed. The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, Myron Weiner & Ali Banuazizi, eds. Sandcastles: The Arabs in Search of the Modern World. Milton Viorst The Second Message of Islam. Mahmoud Mohammed Taha; Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, trans.

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Copyright © 2001 by Syracuse University Press Syracuse, New York 13244-5160 All Rights Reserved First Edition 1982 Second Edition 2001

04 05 06 65432 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI 239. 48~1984,oo™

Esposito, John L. ,

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Women in Muslim family law / John L. Esposito with Natana J. DeLong-Bas.—2nd ed.

p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8156-2908-7 (pbk.) 1. Women-—Legal status, laws, etc. (Islamic law) 2. Domestic relations (Islamic law) I. DeLong-Bas, Natana J. Il. Title. LAW

346.5601'34—dc21 2001034382

For Jean and my parents, who are always there.

John L. Esposito is University Professor at Georgetown University and director of the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding in the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service. He is also the edi-

tor-in-chief of The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World and The Oxford History of Islam. His other publications include Islam and Politics, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? Islam and Democracy and Makers of Contemporary Islam (with John O.

Voll); Islam: The Straight Path; and Islam, Gender and Social Change (with Yvonne Haddad).

Natana J. DeLong-Bas is a Ph.D. candidate in history at Georgetown University. She is completing her dissertation on Islamic law, women and gender, and religious violence in the works of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and is a contributor to and editor for the forthcoming Oxford Dictionary of Islam.

Contents

Preface ix Preface to the First Edition xiii

4. TheSourcesofIslamicLaw 1 2. Classical Muslim Family Law 12 4. Modern Muslim Family Law in Comparative Perspective 47 4. Toward a Legal Methodology for Reform 127

Notes 167 Modern Legal Codes Consulted 175

Suggested Readings 177

Index 183

Preface

MUCH HAS OCCURRED in the world of Islam since the publication of the first edition of Women in Muslim Family Law. Islam has continued to play a significant role in the political and social devel-

opment of Muslim societies. New Islamic republics and Muslim governments have been established. Islamic activism has found expression not only in radical politics but also in mainstream politics and society. Islamic organizations and candidates have participated successfully in electoral politics, demonstrating the extent to which in many countries they constitute the only viable opposition or alternative. Islamists have been elected mayors and parliamentarians and have served in cabinets and as prime minister of Turkey and deputy prime minister of Malaysia. At the same time, Islam has proven an effective social force; Islamically inspired schools, clinics, social welfare services, and insurance and finance companies have proliferated. Governments faced with crises of identity and political legitimacy, whatever their orientation, have witnessed the Islamization of rhetoric and society, accompanied by pressures to reformulate ideas, values, and legislation within an Islamic framework. Unlike “traditionalists,” mainstream

Islamists are not necessarily against certain legal reforms and women’s participation in the political arena, provided that changes are legitimated within an Islamic framework and that women preserve and reflect Islamic identity, conduct, and values. If some call for the implementation of Islamic law (Shariah), others call for the Islamization of existing laws. Pakistan, Sudan, Iran, and especially Afghanistan, where the Taliban has used heavy-handed enforcement of sexual segregation and veiling, are often cited as examples of the oppressive implemenIx

Preface

tation of Shariah by those arguing that international standards of human rights and Islamic law are not compatible. This in turn raises the question, “Who determines what constitutes ‘international standards’?” Human rights activists argue that secular international law must be accepted by the entire world as the highest legal standard. Religious activists argue that they owe obedience first and foremost

to religious law, and that man-made laws cannot and should not override divine revelation. Three approaches to the place of Islamic law in Muslim societies continue to be found among Muslims, The first maintains that religious law is outdated and incompatible with modern needs. Thus, Western secular law should be adopted and religious law completely eradicated. The second asserts that what is needed is a more literal restoration of the classical Islamic legal tradition. The third seeks to use the tools or methods of Islamic law to reinterpret and apply Is- _ lamic principles and values in developing new legislation to address the needs of modern society. In many Muslim societies today, there

is a demand for greater Islamization of the law with the aim of creating legal and judicial systems that are more “authentic” and

“legitimate.” ,

Discussion of Islamic law and of Muslim family law raises ques-

tions about theory versus practice or legal texts versus the applica-

tion of law. This volume is concerned with Muslim family law itself—its classical formulation and modern reforms—rather than its specific application by courts. Many women’s activists today see

the more important initial goal as reform of actual law, with a “trickle down” effect that influences actual practice produced by educating women about their rights and seeking enforcement of law by the courts. A major development since the 1980s is the rise of women activists and organizations seeking legal reforms. Some, assuming a

, secular perspective, argue for total eradication of Islamic law in favor of Western, secular law, maintaining that Islamic law does not

guarantee equality between genders. Others work within the system, asserting their right to interpret Islam and arguing for reforms on the basis of the intent and the spirit of Quranic injunctions. Rejecting the patriarchy of the past and present, as well as the predominant role of the ulama (religious scholars), they assert the right of xX

Preface

Muslim women to participate along with men in interpreting reli- , gion and religious law. Change in educational and economic status has played a significant role in the greater empowerment of women. The major goal of the modernization and development plans of the 1950s and 1960s was education and employment of women. In a number of Muslim countries, including Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, women began to work

- outside the home in increasing numbers. During the 1970s and 1980s, rising numbers of migrant laborers headed to the Gulf, typically leaving wives and children behind. While some sent money back home, women and minors were left without a male guardian to deal with financial and legal matters. In many countries, women’s contribution to the financial support of families has been necessary to ensure survival. Consequently, some seek reforms in the patriarchal structure that would create shared rights that reflect shared re-

-sponsibilities. Rights are tied to responsibilities; the unequal distribution of rights should not continue to exist when responsibilities are shared. A rising number of women scholars and women’s organizations have taken on the challenge of Ouran and hadith interpretation by inserting themselves into a domain that has traditionally belonged to men. Many approach questions of women’s status and women’s rights in Islam from within the classical tradition and based upon Islamic sources, rather than from a Western or secular perspective. Proceeding from within rather than from “outside” the Islamic tradition can be an effective means of mobilizing popular support and avoiding accusations that they seek to westernize Muslim societies. Factors contributing to women’s involvement in scriptural interpretation include rising female literacy and educational levels; women’s participation in national struggles such as those in Iran and Kuwait, leading to demands for greater freedom and equality; access to religious education, either in the mosque or in women’s study groups;

and rising female employment outside the home, which grants women greater financial independence and the opportunity to interact with other women and contribute to the demand for equal status

and legal rights. : This second edition of Women in Muslim Family Law both updates and expands coverage of modern reforms. Whereas the focus

x! ,

Preface

in the first edition was a comparative study of Egypt and Pakistan, this volume introduces a broader comparative perspective, drawing on examples of major reforms in marriage, divorce, and inheritance from the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast Asia. In order to retain the integrity of the volume and in consideration of the limita-

tions of space, no attempt has been made to provide global and exhaustive coverage. Rather, the intent is to identify and discuss significant variations from diverse Muslim contexts. I have made one

additional change; I have used Majid Fakhry (tr.), The Ouran: A Modern English Version (Reading: England, 1999) for Quranic quotations. I am pleased that many have found Women in Muslim Family Law useful throughout the years, and that it continues to be cited by colleagues and used as a text in courses. The second edition will en-

hance its usefulness and demonstrate the ongoing significance of family law in Islam and in gender relations in the Muslim world. More than twenty years ago, my wife, Jean, played a major role in my completing Women in Muslim Family Law, a role she has continued to play in so many ways throughout the thirty-five years of our marriage. This revision would never have been possible, given my other commitments, without the remarkable efforts of Natana J. DeLong-Bas, my extremely talented and tireless research assistant. To both I remain indebted.

Washington, D.C. | John L. Esposito April 2001

XU

Preface to the |

First Edition

ARAB OIL and the specter of the Islamic resurgence during the 1970s have focused attention on the Muslim world in a way unparalleled in modern times. The Islamic revival occurring in most Muslim countries has manifested itself at both the personal and political levels. Along with increased mosque attendance, concern for more Islamic forms of dress, and a proliferation of religious literature, Islam has also re-emerged in Muslim politics. Islam is used by governments to legitimate their rule and policies, and it also serves as an umbrella for opposition forces who:seek to topple “un-Islamic gov-

ernments.” While Iran has received the greatest media attention, variations on this theme may be found in Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, and Malaysia.

Although profound differences between one Muslim country and another exist, common factors in the Islamic revival include a growing disillusionment with the West, a tendency to blame westernization and secularization for the social disruption and moral decline that has accompanied modernization, and the desire to provide

more cultural continuity between modernity and tradition. While past sociopolitical change is seen as a process of critical imitation of

the West, the call today is for modernization that is more selfconsciously rooted in Islamic history, beliefs, and values. This concern to follow a path of cultural adaptation, rather than to displace the old through a wholesale adoption of the new, raises the practical questions: Does Islam (the Islamic tradition) possess the resources to support and sustain reinterpretation and reform, and thus respond effectively to the demands of modernity? Is Islamic reform possible? What does this mean for women and the family? Xill

Preface to the First Edition

Muslim family law provides the primary example of Islamic reform in the twentieth century. Islamic law (the Shariah) constitutes the ideal blueprint for Muslim society. It is a divinely revealed law, a comprehensive legal system whose laws govern duties to God (ibadat, ritual observances such as prayer, almsgiving, fasting) and du-

ties to one’s fellow man (muamalat, social transactions which include commercial, penal, and family laws). Reflecting the centrality of the family in Islam, family law has been the heart of the Shariah and the major area of Islamic law that has remained in force to govern the lives of more than 800 million Muslims from North Africa to Southeast Asia. While most areas of

Islamic law have been replaced by modern Western legal codes, Muslim family law has provided the major area of Islamic reform. _ Change in family law, then, is significant both as an index of social change and as an illustration of Islamic reform, its methodology,

! and problems. Traditionally, the primary roles of the Muslim woman have been those of wife and mother, living within the extended family in a patriarchal society. Islamic laws set the standards regarding women’s rights and duties; modern reforms have been advocated as seeking to protect and improve women’s status and rights in a changing society with its movement from the extended family to amore nuclear family. Therefore, among the fundamental questions which Muslims face are: Can Islam change? Can change embody an Islamic rationale that reflects continuity between an Islamic past and

modernreforms? = ,

Although studies of family law reform exist, they do not provide the background (development of traditional family law) and context

(traditional status of women and the family) necessary for understanding the significance of modern reforms. Secondly, Western scholarship has generally approached the subject from without rather than from within, exploring the resources of the Islamic tradition to supply a rationale and systematic methodology for Islamic

reform. , ,

— This study will first discuss the historical and legal context for reform (the origins, development, and content of Islamic law). It will then analyze the process, methodology, and extent of modern legal reforms, focusing on changes in Egypt and Pakistan, countries that lend themselves to comparison and contrast. Both countries offiXIV

| Preface to the First Edition cially follow the same traditional school of Islamic law (Hanafi), and both were initiators of family law reform, Moreover, in both Egypt and Pakistan, strong movements to establish more Islamically | oriented societies have surfaced. The introduction of more Islamic law has become an important issue in Egyptian and Pakistani politics. A major aspect of this effort to establish an Islamic identity more firmly has been a re-examination of the question: What does it ~ mean to be a Muslim woman? This is reflected in women’s return to _ more traditional Islamic forms of dress and behavior, as well as calls for the repeal of certain aspects of family law reform that are seen as

' un-Islamic. However, significant differences between the Egyptian and Pakistani experiences exist, both in the extent of reform and the

legal methodology utilized. : Reform efforts in each country exemplify and illustrate the major legal approaches employed thus far in the Muslim world, as well as the problems and issues surrounding Islamic reform. Where relevant, major family law reforms from other parts of the Muslim world will also be discussed to provide a total picture of the changing status of Muslim women and the possibilities for legal reform. Finally, this study will delineate those dynamic resources in the Islamic

tradition that can provide a methodology for future reformsthatresponds to the continued and changing needs of Muslim society. While this study is inescapably technical in nature, it has been. organized and written to accommodate the nonspecialists as well as the specialists. Diacritical marks have been omitted to simplify reading and to reduce production costs. A brief bibliography has been included for further reading.

I am indebted to Ismail R. al-Farugi (Temple University) and Hassan Hanafi (Cairo University) for my early training in Islamic Studies and for their many helpful comments and observations throughout the years. Several typists—Barbara Letourneau, Lorna

Mattus, Elizabeth Stebbins, and Kathleen Lauring—have worked oe on successive versions of this manuscript. Finally, my wife Jean, my parents, and brothers have been and continue to be an inestimable source of inspiration and support.

‘Summer 1981 Worcester, Massachusetts JLE

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Women in Muslim Family Law