Women and Sport in Asia 9780367675837, 9780367675844, 9781003131885

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Women and Sport in Asia

This is the first book to survey the participation of women in sport and physical education across Asia, from the Middle East and South Asia through to the Asia-Pacific region. Covering sport and physical activity at all levels, from school-based PE and community sport to elite, high-performance sport, the book provides an important overview of developments in policy, theory, and research across this complex and dynamic region. It has a strong focus on gender equity but is informed by important intersecting influences, such as disability and socio-cultural context, that affect the lives of girls and women and their participation in sport. Including contributions from leading scholars from across the region, the book draws on multidisciplinary perspectives, including sociology, cultural studies, anthropology, and history, and makes an important contribution to global understanding of diversity, challenges, and achievements in the sporting lives of Asian Women. This book will be a fascinating read for any student, researcher, or policy-maker working in sport studies, gender studies, women’s studies, or Asian studies. Rosa López de D’Amico is Professor at Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador (UPEL), Venezuela. Maryam Koushkie Jahromi is Professor of Exercise Physiology and Women’s Health and Sport at Shiraz University, Iran. Maria Luisa M. Guinto is Associate Professor and Research Director of the College of Human Kinetics at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Philippines.

ICSSPE Perspectives The multidisciplinary series of physical education and sport science

The ICSSPE Perspectives series aims to facilitate the application of sport scientific findings to practical areas of sport by integrating a wide variety of fields. Each volume in the series contains expert contributions from different disciplines and different countries addressing a specific topic. The themes of the series come from members, partners, and friends of the ICSSPE and are evaluated by its Development Committee. ICSSPE development committee co-chairs: Maria Dinold Anneliese Goslin Executive director: Detlef Dumon Sport science research manager: Anne Schomöller Also available in this series: Published by Routledge – www.routledge.com/sport Physical Activity and Sport During the First Ten Years of Life Multidisciplinary Perspectives Edited by Richard Bailey, Jennifer P.Agans, Jean Côté,Andy Daly-Smith and Phillip D.Tomporowski Women and Sport in Asia Edited by Rosa López de D’Amico, Maryam Koushkie Jahromi and Maria Luisa M. Guinto For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ ICSSPE-Perspectives/book-series/ICSSPE

Women and Sport in Asia

Edited by Rosa López de D’Amico, Maryam Koushkie Jahromi, and Maria Luisa M. Guinto

First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE); individual chapters, the contributors The right of International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-67583-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-67584-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-13188-5 (ebk) Typeset in Goudy by Apex CoVantage, LLC

To the supportive families and loved ones, both on earth and in heaven. To the unrelenting co-editors who hurdled the challenges of distance, time difference and COVID-19 to accomplish this common goal. To all the brave women whose stories of adversity and triumph gave life to this book.

Contents

List of contributors Foreword Acknowledgements

x xix xxi

PART I

Background and initiatives 1 Introduction: Asian women in sport

1 3

M A RYA M K O US HKI E J AHROMI , ROS A L ÓP E Z DE D ’ AMIC O, A N D M A R I A L UI S A M . GUI NTO

2 International developments in policy for equity: girls and women in physical education and sport

7

R O S A L Ó P E Z D E D’AMI CO AND MARÍ A DOL O RES GONZÁLEZ-R IV ERA

3 Female empowerment through ‘sport and development’ in Asia

15

M A R I A N N E M EI E R

PART II

Country cases 4 Bangladesh women and sport

23 25

M A S H U D A K H ATUN S HE FAL I

5 Gender equality and opportunities in physical education and sport for women in China

35

J I A N WA N G , MI N L I U, TAO WANG, Y UJ I E WANG, AND SIHENG ZHOU

6 Women and sport in Hong Kong C AT H E R I N E M . CAP I O AND CI NDY H.P. S I T

47

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Contents

7 Women and sport in India

58

U S H A S U J I T N AI R AND NI S HA RE B E CCA E APEN

8 Indonesian Muslim female athletes: wearing the hijab with pride

70

M U S T I K A F I T R I , NUR ANDI NI S URYAL E S TARI , AND W U L A N D A R I P UTRI

9 Iranian women in sport

79

M A RYA M K O US HKI E J AHROMI

10 Turning point for Japanese women and sports: from the Moon to the Sun

90

Y U M I T E R AYAM A AND ARI S A YAGI

11 Women and sport in South Korea: challenges and achievements as stepping stones to the future

101

K Y U N G O C K Y I , HY UNMI HE U, AND B ONA L EE

12 Feminist development in sports and physical education in Macau

113

WA LT E R K I N G YAN HO, KL AUDI A KUKUROVA , SIN IENG AU I E O N G , A ND J I AXI HU

13 Sport in Malaysia: towards gender equality

124

S E L I N A K H OO AND NO R E E Z A Z AI NAL AB I DI N

14 Women’s participation in physical education, physical activity, and sport in Oman

136

Y O U S R A A L - S I NANI , ANFAL AL - WAHAI B I , A N D TANSIN BENN

15 Women and sport in Pakistan

148

S O N I H A A . AS L AM

16 Women in Philippine sport and physical education: bridging the gender divide

157

M A R I A L U I S A M. GUI NTO, GI L DA L AS AT- UY, AND M A R I L O U F. CANTANCI O

17 Women and sport in Qatar K RY S T Y N A U . GOL KOWS KA

168

Contents

18 Women and sport in Saudi Arabia

ix

180

M O N A K A M A L S HAHAB , MARTA P É RE Z - VI L L ALBA, AND E L I S E K O S S A I FI

19 Women and sport in Singapore

193

E M I LY O RT E G A AND TE OH CHI N S I M

20 Women and sport in Sri Lanka

203

L I L A M A N I D E S OY S A, D.L .I .H.K. P E I RI S , AND S HIR OMI D E ALWIS

21 Women and sport in the Republic of Tajikistan

215

D I L B A R T U R A K HANOVA AND S OP HI A KAS Y MOVA

22 Analysis of women and sport in Turkey

226

CANAN KOCA

23 Exploring the UAE’s dynamic sports scene for women

237

L E O N A R D O J O S E MATARUNA- DOS - S ANTOS , NAD A ABD ALMAJEED A L S H A I B A N I , MOHAMME D S AY E E D KHAN, AND A S L I C A Z O R L A MI L L A

PART III

Moving forward

251

24 Conclusion

253

M A R I A L U I S A M. GUI NTO, ROS A L ÓP E Z DE D’AMIC O AND MARYAM K O U S H K I E J A HROMI

Index

257

Contributors

Nada Abdalmajeed Alshaibani was the first woman from the GCC to attain FIFA’s Diploma in Sports Administration. A television presenter and senior media producer at Abu Dhabi Media Company, United Arab Emirates, she did the live coverage of the Beijing, London, and Rio Olympics and the 2019 Special Olympics at Abu Dhabi, winning the Gold at the 2005 Gulf Radio and Television Festival and the 2012 Sheikha Fatima Bint Mubarak award. She supports the global “Women in Sport” initiative through her digital sports platform “Noon Sport”. Yousra Al-Sinani is Associate Professor at the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman. She was the first Omani woman to gain a PhD in Physical Education from the Sultan Qaboos University of Oman. She was awarded the 2009 Kluka-Love Award (IAPESGW) and the 2012 Sultan Qaboos University International Award. Yousra managed the 2008 IAPESGW International Seminar hosted by her university, which led to the “Accept and Respect” Declaration. The principles of the declaration have underpinned many of the advocacy works for women around the world. Anfal Al-Wahaibi works at the Testing and Assessment Unit of the Centre for Preparatory Studies of the Sultan Qaboos University in Oman, where she chaired the 2020 Oman ELT International Conference. Her research interests include educational leadership and management, leadership development, women empowerment, intercultural communication, and cultural identity. Soniha A. Aslam is Professor and Director of the Center for Physical Education, Health & Sports Sciences (CPEHSS) at the University of Sindh (UoS) Jamshoro, Pakistan. She is the editor of the international journal The Shield. A regional representative for women’s cricket at the Pakistan Cricket Board, she is also a member of the Women’s Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Karachi. Sin Ieng Auieong is a PhD candidate in Education at the University of Saint Joseph, USA, and she holds a master’s degree in PE and Sports Studies. A former synchronized swimmer representing Macao SAR for more than 20 years,

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she participated four times in the Asian Games and seven times in the FINA World Championships. She was a recipient of the 2015 Medal of Merit-Sports Award and member of the Macao team that won the bronze medal in the 2018 FINA Artistic Swimming World Series. Her research interests include PE and PA in children and adolescents, youth health promotion, PE online learning, and gender equality in sport. Tansin Benn is a consultant after a long career in physical education, sport and dance, teacher training and higher education, international researcher on cultural diversity, religion, and gender. She was former Professor at the University of Birmingham, UK, past President of the IAPESGW, and Executive Board member of ICSSPE. Her awards include the Kluka-Love USA’s Women’s Sport Foundation International Research Award, 2013; the Phillip NoelBaker Research Award – ICSSPE, 2012; the “Outstanding Contribution Award (International)” – Muslim Women’s Sport Foundation, UK, 2012; and a Leverhulme Research Fellow Award 2008. Her major consultancies have included Expert for the Commonwealth Secretariat for developing ministerial-level guidance on development through sport; and 2019/2020 Expert for UNESCO in advising on a Global Observatory for Women and Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport. Marilou F. Cantancio is a sport programme and policy development strategist and a marketing communication, market research, and media relations consultant for trade and tourism in the Philippines. She authored the institutional marriage of sports and tourism and of trade and tourism, which were both launched in 2013 and 2017, respectively, by their national government agencies. Catherine M. Capio is Assistant Professor at the Education University of Hong Kong, where she is a member of the Centre for Educational and Developmental Sciences. She serves on the editorial boards of PLOS One, Physiotherapy Reviews, and Information and Learning Sciences. An international scholar of Psychomotor Therapy at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, she is a licensed pediatric physical therapist. Asli Cazorla Milla is Assistant Professor in Marketing at the College of Business Administration at the American University in the Emirates, United Arab Emirates. She has volunteered for INGOs such as AIESEC, TedX, and Amnesty International and has given public speeches for youth empowerment, leadership, and diversity. Her research interests include social media marketing, online consumer behaviour, and sports marketing. She is an Associate Member of the Chartered Institute of Marketing, UK. Shiromi De Alwis is Director for Education and Testing at the Sri Lanka AntiDoping Agency and Physician at the Institute of Sport Medicine (Ministry of Sports Sri Lanka). Having represented the country as team physician of

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the 2004 Olympic contingent and at other international games, she has been invited as international DCO at the 2010 Youth Olympics, 2010 Commonwealth Games, 2012 ICC Cricket World Cup and selected as IDCO for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympic Games. Rosa López de D’Amico is Professor at Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, Venezuela and Coordinator of the research Center “EDUFISADRED”. With nearly 190 publications, she has been speaker in the five continents. She received the CDCHT Award (Venezuelan Universities Council for Scientific Development) and the Gold Medal award (ICHPER-SD). She is current IAPESGW President, ISCPES Vice President, WASM Treasurer, and ICSSPE Board member. She is Expert reviewer of UNESCO QPE policy project and Advisor to the Ministry of Education in Venezuela for PE and foreign language programs. Lilamani de Soysa is Global Executive Member of the International Working Group for Women in Sport. She was a former international table tennis player and a long-standing advocate for women and sport, with training in sport for development and peace. She worked in international sports with the International Table Tennis Federation, European Table Tennis Union, and as researcher, lecturer, and in-charge of International Relations at the Tsukuba International Academy for Sport Studies, a legacy programme of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympic Games at the University of Tsukuba, Japan. She now works as an independent sport consultant in Lausanne, Switzerland. Nisha Rebecca Eapen holds a bachelor’s degree in Journalism from the University of Bangalore, India and a master’s degree in Media, Communications and Culture at the University of Nottingham, Malaysia. She was a writer for lifestyle magazine, Indulge. Her areas of research have been on youth and media and women and sports. Mustika Fitri is Lecturer of Sport Science at the Faculty of Sport and Health Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. She graduated from the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia with a dissertation entitled, “Muslim Women’s Participation in High Performance Sports: An Analysis between Malaysia and Indonesia”. Her research interests include women and sport, sport sociology, sport management, and sport pedagogy. Krystyna U. Golkowska is Professor of English. She teaches writing and medical humanities at the Weill Cornell Medicine in Qatar and serves as ESL Director and Coordinator of Writing Seminars in the Pre-medical Education Program. Her research interests are in literature, pedagogy, ESL/EFL, intercultural competence, and narrative medicine. She contributes to her profession as a reviewer and editorial board member. Since her stay in Qatar from 2007, her research began to focus on recent socio-cultural transformations in the Arabian Gulf region.

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María Dolores González-Rivera is Professor at the Faculty of Medicine and Sport Science at the University of Alcalá, Spain. She currently serves on the Executive Board of IAPESGW. She completed research internships at the University of Winnipeg, Canada; University of Texas, USA; and the State University of Campinas – UNICAMP, Brazil. Her research interests include sport and employment, gender and sport, and physical education teaching. Maria Luisa M. Guinto is Associate Professor and Research Director of the College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines, Diliman. A founding member of the Association of Sport and Exercise Psychology of the Philippines and first chairperson of the Sport and Exercise Psychology – Special Interest Group of the Psychological Association of the Philippines, she is currently Treasurer of the Asian South-Pacific Association of Sport Psychology. A member of the Women in Sports Commission of the Philippine Olympic Committee, she also serves as Executive Board member of IAPESGW. Her research involves the champion mindset, women in sports, spirituality, community resilience, and psychosocial interventions in disasters. Hyunmi Heu is Professor at Kyung-in Women’s University, South Korea. She served as Vice-President (2015–2020) of the Korean Association of Physical Education and Sports for Girls and Women (KAPESGW), President (2019–2020) of the Korean Society for the Sociology of Sport, and former Chief Editor (2017–2018) of the Korean Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. She has conducted research on the prevention of sexual violence and human rights improvement of female athletes, as well as on sports policy. Walter King Yan Ho is Assistant Professor at the University of Macau. He headed the development of the bachelor’s programme for Primary Education and the postgraduate programme for PE and Sport Studies in 2005. A former president of ISCPES and vice-president of ICSSPE (2008–2016), he currently leads the projects of Living in Motion 123 and Quality Physical Education. Walter has extensive publications in the areas of PE, pedagogical studies, exercise psychology, physical activities and health, and fitness development in children. His research also includes development of exercise habits, sports, and PE in minority groups and strategic improvement of quality programmes in PE. Jiaxi Hu holds a bachelor’s degree in Sport Biochemistry from the Sport Science College of Beijing Sport University and a master’s degree from the University of Macau. She is currently completing her doctoral degree with research interests in Quality Physical Education and Promotion of Active Lifestyle Development in children and youth. She has been working as Resident Tutor in Choi Kai Yau College and Cheong Kun Lun College and is engaged in different research studies related to the prediction of environmental control and behavioural development in sports and activities.

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Contributors

Sophia Kasymova is an independent scholar with a PhD from Tajik State University and Department of Sociology in the Institute of Philosophy at the Academy of Science. She has been a research fellow and an activist in the advocacy for women. Her research about issues and prospects of women’s sport in Tajikistan and girls’ involvement in sport (2012) is the only research paper on the post-Soviet Central Asia concerning girls and women and sport. Mohammed Sayeed Khan is a licensed Mechanical Engineer from Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India. He is a Research Assistant at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil exploring the “Impact of COVID-19 in Sport”. His previous research experience includes investigating women in sport and the sporting mega events in the Arab world as a Research Assistant at the American University in the Emirates. He has applied his expertise to devise strategies and smart solutions in performance analysis at Al Nasr Football Club, Dubai. Selina Khoo is Associate Professor at the Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Malaya. She is also the chairperson for the university’s Research Ethics Committee (Non-medical). She has served in international organizations such as the Commonwealth Advisory Body on Sport, Development Committee of the Far East, South Pacific Games for the Disabled Federation, and Malaysia representative on the Global Observatory for Physical Activity. At the national level, she served as member of the Women and Sports Committee, Olympic Council of Malaysia, Legal, Discipline and Ethics Committee, Paralympic Committee of Malaysia, among others. Canan Koca is Professor in the Faculty of Sports Sciences at Hacettepe University, Turkey. Her research examines sport, physical activity, and PE from a gender perspective. Her recent research involves physical activity experiences of refugee women in culturally relevant physical activity programmes and developing a gender-responsive sport club implementation guide. She conducts training in gender equality, safe sports, and athlete protection training to coaches and athletes. She is the president of the Turkish Association of Sport and Physical Activity for Women (KASFAD) and has served as executive board member of IAPESGW (2009–2013/2013–2017). Elise Kossaifi is a sports management consultant specializing in sports federations, diversity, and inclusion in sports. She currently works as a project manager for Portas Consulting in the Middle East where she has been advising governments and sports institutions, mostly in Saudi Arabia, on sports strategy, business planning, and operating model design for over three years. Maryam Koushkie Jahromi is Professor at the Shiraz University, Department of Sport Sciences, Iran, since 2003. As a specialist in exercise physiology, women’s health and sport, and Muslim women in sport, she has been teaching,

Contributors

xv

doing research and advising thesis writers at the university. She has published many national and international articles and books, presented at various national and international conferences, and has been an editorial board member of several national and international journals. An executive board member of IAPESGW since 2009, she is recipient of the Margaret Talbot prize at the 2017 IAPESGW congress in Miami, Florida. Klaudia Kukurova is a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Macao, Macao SAR, China. Her research interests are in PE, physical activity, and lifestyle of children and youth, motivation in exercise and body image of sport/nonsport in adolescents, women, and men. She was a former coach and teacher in swimming, general PE, physical activities, and outdoor education for children. Gilda Lasat-Uy is Professor and Director of the Graduate Studies Programme and former Dean of the College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines Diliman. She is a board member of the Asian Society of Adapted Physical Activity; founding President of the Philippine Society of Adapted Physical Activity, member of the DOH’s National Coalition for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases Steering Committee; and Philippine Association of Japan Scholars (President 2014–2016). Bona Lee is working at the Korean Society for the Sociology of Sport as coordinator for the Korean Journal of Sociology of Sport and Director of KAPESGW. She is interested in the sociology of sports and social psychology of sports. Min Liu is a doctoral candidate in PE and Training at Tianjin University of Sport. Her research focus is on PE development, quality PE, fitness and health in children, exercise behaviour, and social support for active living. Leonardo Jose Mataruna-Dos-Santos is FIEP Ambassador; research member of Stradeos Group of University of Lille, France; and FREYA Ambassador of European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. He is also Associate Professor at the Canadian University Dubai, United Arab Emirates and UNESCO Advisor. Marianne Meier works for the “Interdisciplinary Centre for Gender Studies” at the University of Berne, Switzerland. She also coordinates the Women’s Human Rights App (www.womenshumanrights.ch) mandated by the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. Her research and advocacy are on social change in sport, around sport, and through sport. She is also a board member of IAPESGW, the Swiss Association of Sport History, Swiss Women & Sport, and RespAct and Advisory Council member of “Women Win”; SAD associate, and reviewer of several journals. Usha Sujit Nair is Associate Professor at Sports Authority of India, Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education, Kerala, and Dean, Faculty of PE, University of Kerala. Her research interests are in women, health, and exercise.

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Contributors

Emily Ortega is Senior Lecturer and Head of the Psychology Programme at the School of Humanities and Behavioural Sciences, Singapore University of Social Sciences. She provides sport psychology services to some of Singapore’s best athletes. Emily’s main area of research is in performance psychophysiology, focusing on heart rate variability and its links to performance in sport and well-being. She is also a member of the Singapore Psychological Society and serves on the Managing Council of the Asian South-Pacific Association of Sport Psychology. D.L.I.H.K. Peiris is Lecturer at the Department of Sport Science and PE under the Sport and Recreation Management Degree Programme at the University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Her research interests are leisure theory, social psychology in sport, and gender studies in leisure and sport. She also volunteers with the Sri Lanka Anti-Doping Agency and several other organizations in Sri Lanka as a resource person for promoting education through sport. Marta Pérez-Villalba is Associate Professor in sports management at Johan Cruyff Institute, Spain, and works as a sport consultant for sport entities in Saudi Arabia. She has published in international journals of repute as well as book chapters in the fitness industry, sport labour market, CSR, and gender studies. Wulandari Putri is Lecturer of PETE in the Primary School Study Program, Faculty of Sport and Health Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Her research interest is on child development, culture and literature, and ICT in education. Mona Kamal Shahab is Clinical Psychologist at a Psychiatric Cultural Center in the Netherlands (i-Psy) focusing on trauma therapy in refugees and undocumented people. A PhD candidate at Leiden University, she sits on the board of Basmeh & Zeitooneh for Development and Relief in Lebanon. She has extensive experience on mental health research and practise in the United States and Saudi Arabia. She is co-founder of The Empowerment Hub (TEH), a grassroot initiative that focuses on fitness and health in youth and women in Saudi Arabia. Mashuda Khatun Shefali is Executive Director of Nari Uddug Kendra (NUK), which translates as the Centre for Women’s Initiative, promoting gender equality, human rights, and the personal and political empowerment of women and girls in Bangladesh. She is known as a gender and sports activist in Bangladesh. She is finishing her PhD on “Women’s Leadership in Bangladesh, Challenges and Prospects”. Cindy H.P. Sit is Professor at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. She is Fellow of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity and the Hong Kong Association of Sports Medicine and Sports Science. She serves on several editorial boards and directs the Exercise Psychology and Motor Learning Laboratory in CUHK, investigating PA and participation motivation and

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the development and assessment of the impact of PA interventions on motor skill performance and psychosocial outcomes of children with and without disabilities. She is the current President of the Asian Society for Adapted Physical Education and Exercise and Vice-President of IFAPA. Nur Andini Suryalestari is a graduate student in the Sport Education Program, School of Postgraduate Studies, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia. Her research focuses on sport psychology. Chin Sim Teoh is Singapore’s first female sports physician. She is currently Senior Consultant and Clinical Director of the Sports Medicine Centre at Khoo Teck Puat Hospital and has been Chief Medical Officer of Team of Singapore for almost 30 years. She is Chair of the Women Sport Committee, Medical Commission of the Singapore National Olympic Council; Therapeutic Use Exemption Committee of Anti-Doping Singapore; Selection Committee of the Singapore National Paralympic Council, and Past President of Sports Medicine Association of Singapore. She was a member of the Anti-Doping Committee of the International Paralympic Committee and TUE Expert Group of the World Anti-Doping Agency in Rio 2016 and Pyeongchang 2018. Yumi Terayama is Associate Professor of the Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, as well as of the Graduate School for PE and Coaching at the University of Tsukuba. Her research interests are developmental mechanisms and body work, dance and dance-education theory, and phenomenological consideration of learning contents in the expression through body movement. As managing director of JAPEW and the Japanese Society for Dance Research, she receives Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. She teaches in teachers’ training seminars organized by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, and prefectures. Dilbar Turakhanova is an independent consultant with over 15 years of extensive experience in researching gender equality issues in Tajikistan (native country), Central Asia, South Caucasus, and others. She has consulted governments, EU institutions, and the UN agencies on gender analysis of legislation and policies in various sectors and provided expert advice on improvement of gender mainstreaming in ongoing development programmes of these agencies. Dilbar has several publications in the areas of gender, migration, and gender-based violence. Her research interests include gender and migration in Central Asia. Jian Wang is Dean of the College of Exercise and Health Science at Tianjin University of Sport, China. He was formerly Director in the Research Office and is currently Professor and doctoral supervisor with publications in health science, exercise behaviour, pedagogical study, and motor skills learning. He is an executive board member of the International Society for Comparative

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Physical Education and Sport. He is also active in community and social service. His recent work in Tibet assisted the infrastructure development of healthy growth in children. Tao Wang is researcher at the Physical Education Research Center of the Department of Physical Education, Health and Arts Education at the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). His research areas are in pedagogical study, curriculum issues, and educational development. Yujie Wang is a postgraduate student at Tianjin University of Sport, China. Her research interest is in PE and pedagogy, and she has actively participated in different research works at Tianjin University of Sport. She takes up internship as swimming teacher in the primary school. Arisa Yagi is Professor of the Principles of Dance Studies, Dance Therapy, and Lifelong Dance at Japan Women’s College of Physical Education. She has received grant-in-aid for scientific research from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and in recent years has also led research projects commissioned by the Japan Sports Agency. She is the seventh President of Japan Association of Physical Education for Women and President of the All Japan Dance Festival in Kobe, which is the biggest nationwide dance event including competitions for high school and university students. She is also IAPESGW board member. Kyungock Yi was President of the Korean Society of Ageing and Physical Activity, Vice-President and actual President of the Korean Association of Physical Education and Sports for Girls and Women (KAPESGW), and President of the Korean Association of Sports Biomechanics. She has been working on sports biomechanical evaluation and corrective exercises development of posture, gait, shoes, insoles, exercise equipment and tools, and gerokinesiology. Currently, she is working as a PI within the International Development Cooperation Project for Laos Women’s Health. Siheng Zhou has a bachelor’s degree in PE from Hengyang Normal University and a master’s degree in PE from Tianjin University of Sport. During his undergraduate study, he served as the president of the university basketball club and was a member of the men’s basketball team of the Hengyang Normal University. He also participates as a member in the team’s training work in physical fitness, physical exercise, and strength development. His research area is in special sport skill learning. Nor Eeza Zainal Abidin is Sports Management Lecturer at the Centre for Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Malaysia. Her research interests are related to sports finance and economy. She is currently involved in research on sports facilities including accessibility for persons with disabilities. She is an active sportsperson who has represented the country in softball and floorball.

Foreword

The status of women in society has been at the centre of conversations for decades. The concepts of women’s empowerment, gender mainstreaming, gender equality, and gender equity have been identified through these conversations as key drivers for promoting women’s quality of life. The promotion of women’s empowerment as a development goal is based on a dual argument: that social justice is an important aspect of human welfare and is intrinsically worth pursuing and that women’s empowerment is a means to other ends. The increased emphasis on the position of women during the last several decades has now been embedded in the broader context of global development and should no longer be regarded as an isolated effort. The narratives that are included in this publication symbolize the experiences of women through sport in Asia. The publication represents an unusual approach to the issue of women and sport in the Routledge series on women and sport; it is a welcome addition to women and sport in Latin America and Muslim women and sport. The initial idea to focus on women and sport in various areas of the world was developed by the leadership of the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), a member organization of ICSSPE. After proposals submitted to and accepted by the ICSSPE Development Committee, ICSSPE was instrumental in providing access and opportunity for members of IAPESGW to author books that provide insights into the diversity of women and sport by regions of the world. The year 2020 was the anniversary of several organizational dedications to the improvement of the quality of life globally. The 72nd anniversary of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the 42nd anniversary of the UNESCO International Charter of Physical Education and Sport in 1978, and the 45th anniversary of the UN Conference on Women in 1975. There remains, however, gaps and inequities globally. The 20th anniversary of the Beijing Platform for Action was celebrated as a hallmark in the agenda involving women’s empowerment. It addressed key global policies identifying 12 critical areas of concern relative to gender equity. The year, 2020, sets the stage for this additional publication in the Routledge series, facilitated by ICSSPE.

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Foreword

This publication is edited by Rosa López de D’Amico, IAPESGW President, representing Venezuela; Maryam Koushkie, representing Iran; Maria Luisa M. Guinto, representing Philippines. All of them serve as members of the Executive Board of IAPESGW and is a combination of established and upcoming researchers in socio-cultural and gender studies and their intersection with sport, physical education, and activity. The book will be of value to those genuinely interested in shared knowledge and provision of greater inclusion in the fields of physical activity: policy-makers, leaders, sport governing bodies, organizers, coaches, educators, and participants. This work is testament to the agency of women and the power of collaboration in pursuit of broadening knowledge. IAPESGW, celebrating its 70th anniversary in 2019 at its regional congress in Madrid, Spain, is proud to be the catalyst for this book that provides new insights into cultural and social influences involving the lives of women and their life experiences as Asian women in sport. IAPESGW is grateful to ICSSPE and Routledge for its support of this important document. By Darlene A. Kluka, D Phil, Ph D Research Associate, University of Pretoria, South Africa Scholar in Residence, Southeastern Louisiana University, USA Former President International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW) Vice President, International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE)

Acknowledgements

Utmost gratitude is offered to all the contributors who committed extended hours of hard work in writing, translating, revising, and collaborating in the midst of complex times. You have selflessly advanced the literature on gender and sport by vivifying the realities of girls and women in your own voices from diverse Asian cultures. Deep appreciation is expressed to Darlene Kluka, Tansin Benn, Canan Koca, and Maria Dinold for their encouragement and connection to some of the contributors. Heartfelt thanks is given to the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW) for supporting this initiative and to the International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) for accepting the proposal for this book.

Part I

Background and initiatives

Chapter 1

Introduction Asian women in sport Maryam Koushkie Jahromi , Rosa López de D’Amico , and Maria Luisa M. Guinto

The study on Asian women in sport reveals a huge gap in literature that this book hopes to address. Although they have been written about, very little has been articulated by Asian women regarding their status in sport. This book provides the verbal space for them (and some male collaborators) to narrate their distinct observations and experiences, considering what they deem as important information from their point of view. As such, this effort represents a significant breakthrough for Asian women in sport. Several factors affect sport participation among girls and women, including physical, psychological, and socio-cultural (Appleby & Foster, 2013; Coleman, Cox, & Roker, 2008). Considering the diversities in every continent, women’s sport participation could be a manifestation of the culture, economy, politics, and social status of women in any country. Asia is the largest continent covering approximately 30% of the earth’s land area and the most populous continent with around 60% of the total population in the world. The continent contains 48 countries which are autonomous territories and three dependent territories including Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau which are dependent on China. The 10 most populated countries in Asia are China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Turkey, and Iran by priority (Worldometer, 2020). This continent is the birthplace of many of the earliest civilizations. Asia is very diverse in terms of culture, language, and race. The geographic term “Asia” was originally used by ancient Greeks to define the civilizations of their empire. Due to the vastness of Asia, its regions are classified as West, South, North, and Central Asia. A wide variety of languages of about 2,300 are spoken throughout Asia, comprising different language families and some unrelated isolates. A majority of Asians speak the common languages of Chinese, Hindi, English, Russian, Indonesian, Bengali, and Japanese. As such, this region includes cultural diversities. Shared language and ethnicity among Asian countries illustrate the flows of many immigrations. Asia is also home to all major religions including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Confucianism, Buddhism, and Hinduism as well as hundreds of minor religions. Hinduism (25%) and Islam (24%) represent the largest religious groups in Asia with over a billion followers (Gelfand et al., 2011).

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Women in Asia are facing continued constraints in obtaining gender equality and empowerment, although indications of progress have been evident in recent years. Comparisons among East and South Asian countries have shown some of the similarities and differences between Asian countries (Lee & Park, 2011). In many South Asian countries, women are still regarded as second-class citizens. Their mobility, work, self-esteem and self-image, worth, and identity continue to depend on the male members of society. Their lack of empowerment and both their financial and emotional dependence have limited their self-expression and choices in life (Niaz & Hassan, 2006). In some countries of Asia, the number of women and girls in educational institutions exceeds that of men and boys, and increasing literacy levels of females and males in South and South-West Asia is considerable (United Nations, 2016). While women’s life expectancy is more than that of men, their morbidity is higher. Women hold a minority of senior management-level positions in the civil services, even though they constitute half or more of the total staff, and approximately half of the countries in Asia have limiting legislations for the participation of women in elected bodies. These diversities may influence all aspects of women’s life including sport. This book is about women in Asia and their participation in Physical Education (PE), Physical Activity (PA), and sport. Physical education includes schoolbased exercise activities, and sport includes all forms of games, competition, or activities needing physical effort and skill that are played or done according to rules, for enjoyment, and/or as a job (Cambridge Dictionary, 2020). It contains overviews of international developments in policy, research, and theory involving gender and sport of some countries in Asia. The clear focus throughout the book is PE, sport, and gender equity, but informed by important factors that affect the lives of girls and women and their participation. The multidisciplinary nature of the contributions derived from sociology, cultural studies, anthropology, and history will increase global understanding of diversity, challenges, and achievements in the sporting lives of Asian women. This book is the result of the collaboration among scholars with different backgrounds, experiences, language skills, and countries of origin, thereby enriching the knowledge exchange, international cooperation, and potential reach. Motivation for the book originated from the network of scholars in the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW) and inspired by the success of two IAPESGW-initiated books: Muslim Women and Sport (Benn, Pfister, and Jawad, 2010), which was a major contribution to the understanding of contemporary Islam and its complex implications to Muslim women in sport; and Women and sport in Latin America (López de D’Amico, Benn, and Pfister, 2016), which became the first book ever to be published either in English or Spanish about the realities of women and sport in Latin America. With the invaluable support from the International Council of Physical Education and Sport (ICSSPE), this important work featuring women and sport in Asia has been realized. This book contains synopses of women’s status in sport across 20 countries: Bangladesh, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia,

Introduction

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Iran, Japan, South Korea, Macau, Malaysia, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, and United Arab Emirates. In each chapter, geographical, political, economic, demographic, and sociocultural contexts are described, followed by discussion of women’s rights and issues relevant to possible gender inequity, participation in PE/or sport at school and at the professional level of sport. Part I contextualizes the book with a description of the Asian region and review of the international sport policies for women’s participation in PE and sport. Chapter 1 offers a glimpse of Asia and its diversity, and describes the structure and content of the book. Chapter 2 traces the international developments in policies for PE and sport and examines the history and discourse of valuesled legislation in the field of gender equity in PE and sport. Chapter 3 looks at female empowerment through sport for development policies that have been implemented internationally. It provides examples of the impact of those policies and good practices in some countries in Asia. In Part II, the situation of women and sport in Asian countries is examined in 20 chapters, with particular attention on gender equity, and the challenges and successes of girls and women related to physical education and sport participation in school, community (sport for all) and high-performance sport at the local and international arenas. Every chapter presents the unique geographical, political, economic, and demographic profile of the country, its socio-cultural context, and a general view of women’s rights and issues. Additionally, it discusses the country situation on PE and school-based sport, equity issues such as gender and disability, curriculum and school-club provision, community activities (such as indigenous games, traditional sports, and physical activities), facilities and resources (including spaces and opportunities for unorganized sport activities), providers (state, private, commercial), and cultural influences on gender relations and laws. Women participation in high-performance sport, leadership, media, governing bodies, and management are also described. The key enablers and deterrents to women’s participation in physical education and sport are likewise highlighted in each country chapter. Finally, Part III presents the summary comments and recommendations of the editor-contributors in view of moving forward. Asia is a rich cultural continent, hosting countries where various cultural, social, and political patterns exist. The book contributes knowledge from various countries and cultures that are not so visible in mainstream English publications. The authors present information on country-specific socio-cultural patterns, the place of women in society, their sports culture, and participation of women in PE and sports. It was challenging to address this topic as considerable data related to women, sport, and PE in many countries in the region has not been published in mainstream scholarly work. Moreover, the greatest complexity of this venture was to write in a historical moment as the world struggled through the COVID-19 global pandemic. Nevertheless, the authors rose to the challenge and collaborated to articulate the state of women and sport in many countries in Asia.

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References Appleby, K. M., & Foster, E. (2013). Gender and sport participation. In E. A. Roper (Eds.), Gender relations in sport: Teaching gender. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-455-0_1 Benn, T., Pfister, G., & Jawad, H. (Eds.). (2010). Muslim women and sport. New York: Routledge. Cambridge dictionary. (2020). https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/sport Coleman, L., Cox, L., & Roker, D. (2008). Girls and young women’s participation in physical activity: Psychological and social influences. Health Education Research, 23(4), 633–647. Gelfand, M., Raver, J., Nishii, L., Leslie, L., Lun, J., Lim, B., Duan, L., . . . Yamaguchi, S. (2011). Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study. Science, 332, 1100–1104. Lee, J., & Park, H. (2011). Measures of women’s status and gender inequality in Asia: Issues and challenges. Asian Journal of Women’s Studies, 17(2), 7–31. López de D’Amico, R., Benn, T., & Pfister, G. (Eds.). (2016). Women and sport in Latin America. New York: Routledge. Niaz, U., & Hassan, S. (2006). Culture and mental health of women in South-East Asia. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 5(2), 118–120. United Nations. (2016). Gender equality and women’s empowerment in Asia and the Pacific perspectives of governments on 20 years of implementation of the Beijing declaration. Bangkok: United Nations Publications. Worldometer. (2020). Countries in Asia. www.worldometers.info/population/countriesin-asia-by-population/

Chapter 2

International developments in policy for equity Girls and women in physical education and sport Rosa López de D’Amico and María Dolores González-Rivera

Introduction The year 2020 marked the celebration of 72 years since the United Nations [UN] Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, 42 years since UNESCO adopted The International Charter of Physical Education and Sport in 1978, and 45 years since the first United Nations Conference on Women was celebrated in 1975. While there has been advancement in terms of human rights to the individuals, nevertheless it has not been enough to eliminate the gaps and inequalities that still exist in the world today (e.g., United Nations, 2019), and that includes the access for all children to a physical education (PE) class. The year 2020 is also the anniversary of the Beijing Platform for Action that was agreed upon during the United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women – 1995; it is a hallmark in the agenda for women’s empowerment for its key global policy, addressing 12 critical areas of concern on gender equality. Every five years the agenda has been reviewed and, despite some progress, there are still many areas needing change to achieve gender equality (UN Women, 2020b). There is no doubt that the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals 2000–2015 created an impact on the political agenda of all nations and organizations and this contained a specific goal targeting gender equality. The eight goals were not achieved, so a revised agreement ‘the Sustainable Development Goals’ (SDGs) became the new political driver with 17 goals and is referred to as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015). In the SDGs gender empowerment is goal 5. In the UN year reports on the SDGs it is evident that the goals are all interconnected. Underpinning such a global commitment to change is the understanding that gender equality is a fundamental human right affecting half of the world’s population. This chapter briefly refers to the policies and actions that have been taken to promote the inclusion and participation of girls and women in PE and sport context in diverse roles.

Brief review The history and legislation in policy and practice for equality in sport from an international perspective are rooted in modern sport being developed by men

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for men in the 19th century. This is most clearly illustrated by the first Olympic Games in 1896 without women’s participation. Progress towards gender equality as evidenced through participation in the Olympic Games has been slow (Pfister, 2019). There are many important policies, statements, and declarations that have been produced to promote women’s participation in PE and sport. The first international association to focus on improving opportunities for girls and women in the field was the International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), which was founded in 1949 (Sportanddev, n/d; Consejo Iberoamericano del Deporte, 2019). Holding quadrennial congress events across all continents of the world until the present day, IAPESGW has brought opportunities for professionals to exchange developments and work collaboratively to improve gender equality. There have been many international actions and organizations in support of the same goals over the last 70 years. Here are some that have been meaningful to the visibility and advancement of women: • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • •

1949: The International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women is created. 1968: Enriqueta Basilio becomes the first female athlete to light the Olympic cauldron at the Olympic Games in Mexico. 1975: The First UN Women’s World Conference in Mexico City leads to the creation of the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) and the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM). 1978: The International Charter on Physical Education and Sport (UNESCO) is adopted. 1979: UN General Assembly adopts the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). 1981: The first two female members are co-opted as IOC members. 1990: The first female is elected to the IOC Executive Board. 1994: The Women Sports International (WSI) is founded in Great Britain. 1994: The World Conference on Women and Sport ends with the signing of the Brighton Declaration. 1995: The International Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG) is formed. 1995: The fourth UN Women’s World Conference concludes with the Beijing Action Plan. 1996: The promotion of women’s sport is added to the Olympic Charter. 1996: The first IOC World Conference on Women and Sport is conducted. 2000: Cathy Freeman becomes the first aboriginal woman to light the Olympic cauldron in Sydney 2000. 2004: MINEPS IV recommends for the first time that an observatory on women, sport, and physical education be created in partnership with UNESCO and the Greek government.

International developments in policy

• • • • •

• • •

9

2007: UN Women publishes Women 2000 and beyond: Women, gender equality and sport. 2014: UN and IOC signed an MoU to strengthen their collaboration; this partnership includes the promotion of “girl’s and women’s empowerment”. 2015: The International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport was reviewed and included specific reference to ‘girls and women’. 2015: The UNESCO Quality Physical Education development work and international pilots commences. 2017: MINEPS VI – Kazan Action Plan is adopted by member states, with one of its five actions was to conduct the feasibility study to create an observatory for women and sport, physical education and physical activity (the study came to fruition in mid-2020). 2018: IOC Gender Equality Review Project was started. 2020: UN Women Sports for Generation Equality Framework was established. 2020: COVID-19, Women, Girls and Sport: Build Back Better was published by United Nations.

The women’s organizations at the international level include IAPESGW and WSI (Women Sport International). A network of organizations was established in 1993 and is now referred to as IWG (International Working Group on Women and Sport). Each has contributed in many ways at different levels to promote and empower the movement of gender equality in the field (Benn, 2019). This has been by individual and/or collaborative work, the most recent example being collaboration on the research for the feasibility study for the Observatory of Women in Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity. (As of this time, no outcome regarding the establishment of a Global Observatory has been announced by UNESCO and the Swiss Government. If it does happen, it is hoped that the Global Observatory will provide monitoring and reporting on changes in gender equality issues in PE, PA, and sport and supports projects for change in different countries. It was unfortunate that the decision-making period coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic which has presented internal bodies with multiple challenges and priorities. In addition to the international bodies, some countries developed their own networks to support development for girls and women such as: the Japanese Association for PE and Sport since 1954, Korean Association for Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women – 1954, Women’s Sports Foundation in USA – 1974, and the Canadian Association for the Advancement of Women and Sport and Physical Activity – 1981, to mention a few. It is also relevant to acknowledge that the first Asian Conference on Women and Sport occurred in Manila in 1995, which was sponsored by the International Council of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPERSD) and the Philippine Sports Commission. Several conferences followed this initiative, which were conducted by other country hosts. Many movements and organizations have been created in Asia to promote and make visible women’s participation in PE and sport (e.g., Benn, Pfister, & Jawad, 2011; Koca, 2016).

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Impact of international policy for equity in physical education and sport The international organizations, through numerous declarations and legislative documents, have promulgated the need to address the existing imbalance of women in all sectors of society (e.g., European Commission, 2014; European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017). On this basis, in the field of sport also, many global actions have been carried out to promote equality of girls and women in PE and sport (Benn, Koushkie, & Koca, 2016). Given this fact, the question that arises is: what has been the impact of the international efforts for real and effective gender equality in sport? Access to sport and PE as a fundamental right to all was established, and is currently widely accepted in The International Charter of Physical Education and Sport in 1978 (UNESCO, 2013). According to the Sixth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport [MINEPS], despite all the progress achieved in gender equality, imbalance persists, indicating a need for tougher action (UNESCO, 2017b). International researchers (Hardman, Murphy, Routen, & Tones, 2014; Ho et al., 2016; Ho et al., 2017; Ming-Kai & Edginton, 2014) indicate that the low status for PE in the school curriculum means it is not taken seriously in many countries and therefore addressing inclusion challenges becomes even less important. The recent WHO acknowledgment of a global pandemic of physical inactivity and the implications for health and well-being have refocused the spotlight on how schools can be used to improve the situation, it is an opportunity for PE and gender-equality initiatives. The pioneering document, Brighton Declaration on Women and Sport, in 1994 was a landmark in the international struggle to promote women’s sport, securing many signatories. Subsequent global efforts aimed at improving the status of women continue to question the extent to which these commitments and actions have contributed to the sustainability and how many mainstream sport organizations have been able to institutionalize the incorporation of the gender perspective in sport (European Commission, 2014). In this regard, the scientific literature indicates that international efforts have not been able to effectively influence the actions at national, regional, and local levels to achieve gender equality in sport (Benn et al., 2016; Lough & Geurin, 2019). In fact, UNESCO (2013) at MINEPS V acknowledged that there are still social and cultural barriers at the local level impeding equal opportunities for participation and leadership in this field. The Recommendation of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Gender Mainstreaming in Sport states that despite the existence of international, national, and regional standards to guarantee the principle of gender equality in sport, a gap still perseveres between the standards and practice (Council of Europe, 2015). All these translate into practical barriers to women’s and girls’ participation in sport (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017). Benn et al. (2016) suggest that to achieve effective gender equality in sport, an understanding between

International developments in policy

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international efforts based on regional realities in different social, cultural, political, and economic contexts would be necessary. For instance, there are countries that are not aware of the existence and importance of the Brighton Declaration and other countries that have developed manifestos, declarations, campaigns, and conferences based on the Brighton Declaration, often without the chance to implement them because of the lack of adequate operating procedures and monitoring strategies (Kluka, 2008). Regardless of substantial numbers of signatories to gender-equality declarations, inequalities still exist. It is evident at every level from sport governance boards, through coaching, administrative, and management roles to participation (Fasting, Pike, Matthews, & Sand, 2018) that strategies to success have been underdeveloped. International organizations and actions keep the problem visible and continue to challenge the obstacles girls and women face thereby making inroads to influence social changes in the context of women and sport. As such, these bodies serve as an umbrella in supporting a framework for the improvement of gender equality in sport. UNESCO (2017a) recognizes that international understanding and cooperation is needed to reduce inequalities in sport, the way sport policies are applied in the countries and, moreover, to protect the integrity of sport. Since MINEPS V in Berlin and the approval of the International Charter of Physical Education, Physical Activity and Sport in 2015, a series of actions has been promoted to spread the voice of the importance of Quality Physical Education [QPE] and several documents of guidance on policy and practice and monitoring studies have been implemented (e.g., UNESCO, 2017a; Ho et al., 2016). In MINEPS VI it was acknowledged that intergovernmental actions are needed in order to achieve the Agenda 2030; the three main policy actions identified are: (1) Developing a Comprehensive Vision of Inclusive Access for All to Sport, Physical Education and Physical Activity; (2) Maximizing the Contributions of Sport to Sustainable Development and Peace, and (3) Protecting the Integrity of Sport. It has become evident that in order to achieve Agenda 2030, it is necessary to link efforts based on the UNESCO QPE recommendations, MINEPS VI – Kazan Action Plan, gender equality, and sport initiatives (e.g., UN Women, 2020c). The application of all these policies and initiatives could lead to the aspiration of gender equality becoming a reality. The IOC has promoted various initiatives, after the MDGs and SDGs were approved and, as in all organizations, they have initiated actions for women’s inclusion in sport, for example, the Gender Equality Review (IOC, 2018). It is important as the number of women’s participation in Olympic and Paralympic events has not achieved parity in the participation as athletes, coaches, referees, and leaders. Once again, action needs to move beyond the discourse of gender equality, beyond the lists of commitments or acknowledged need for change on paper. The need to create a bigger impact for the inclusion of girls and women in society is reflected in the documents (UN Women, 2020b). There are important advances, but it is not enough (López de D’Amico, 2016, 2019). In the sport sector, it is expressed in numerous documents, (e.g., International Working

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Group on Women and Sport, 2014), in which it urges the international sport community to take immediate and concrete actions to accelerate policy changes in order to make possible gender equality and the empowerment of women. On IAPESGW, IWG, and WSI web pages there are declarations and information related to the lack of parity and the gap that still exists for women’s presence in sport, and it is past the time for serious action.

International challenges: towards an effective equality of girls and women in physical education and sport To achieve an effective equality of girls and women in sport, it is important that in the framework of international policies the reality and context of each country is central to action for change. Flexibility among change agents is required to negotiate and work with those shaping and delivering school, community, and competition sport activities on the ground to bring about meaningful and relevant transformation. The quota system has helped in some places (UN Women, 2020b), and the constant drive to improve women in sport leadership has provoked changes. Women are much more visible as participants in the Olympic Games, if not at the coaching and management levels, and the younger generations do have a better chance at school and community engagement these days, again in many countries, not all. Researchers indicate that actions towards gender equality in sport policy should prioritize women’s participation in PE and sport activities, equality in decisionmaking positions, women as PE teachers and coaches, safety in PE and sport training/classes, skill orientated and less sexualization of women in the media, resource allocation based on gender balance of the organization. The example must be set by well-known organizations to achieve gender equality in sport. The sport sector has been slow in terms of achieving the desired equality, and the actions should be monitored to bring more visibility to changes. The 2020 global COVID-19 pandemic provoked drastic changes, including increased abuse of women that amplified the urgency of action for its prevention and elimination (e.g., UN DESA, 2020). Women’s sport organizations have already expressed concern on how it could impact women and sport, with a special edition of UN Women (2020a) related to COVID-19, women and sport. Positive change requires commitment. Nations and decision-makers need to grasp the serious injustice regarding gender equality in the field and share a vision of how to reach a better future. Within countries governments need to negotiate context-specific policies, resources, and actions, with those working on the ground, thinking globally, and acting locally. A Global Observatory, such as the work in progress mentioned in this chapter, could be key to future knowledge exchange, international monitoring and reporting of gender equality developments in PE, physical activity, and sport. The technological revolution altered the world, yet basic human rights for gender equality have not been realized. Sport is just one place in which this remains visible in the 21st century.

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References Benn, T. (2019). Continuing to honour the legacy: International association of physical education and sport for girls and women (Part 1). https://iapesgw.files.wordpress. com/2020/04/t.-benn-iapesgw-bk-part-1.pdf Benn, T., Koushkie, M., & Koca, C. (2016). International developments in policy and practice for equity. In R. López de D’Amico, T. Benn, & G. Pfister (Eds.), Girls and women in physical education, physical activity and sport (pp. 18–31). London: Routledge. Benn, T., Pfister, G., & Jawad, H. (Eds.). (2011). Muslim women and sport. London: Routledge. Consejo Iberoamericano del Deporte. (2019). Iberoamérica y la Agenda 2030: El deporte como herramienta para el desarrollo sostenible. Perspectivas, avances y oportunidades. Parte 2. Montevideo: Author. Council of Europe. (2015). Recommendation CM/Rec (2015)2 of the committee of ministers to member states on gender mainstreaming in sport (adopted by the committee of ministers at the 1217th meeting of the ministers’ deputies). https://search.coe.int/cm/Pages/result_ details.aspx?ObjectID=09000016805c4721 European Commission. (2014). Gender equality in sport. Proposal for Strategic Actions 2014– 2020. https://ec.europa.eu/assets/eac/sport/events/2013/documents/20131203-gender/ final-proposal-1802_en.pdf European Institute for Gender Equality. (2017). Gender in Sport. Vilnius: European Institute for Gender Equality. https://eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-sport Fasting, K., Pike, E., Matthews, J., & Sand, T. (2018). From Helsinki to Gaborone: IWG progress report 2013–2018. Gaborone: IWG. Hardman, K., Murphy, C., Routen, A., & Tones, S. (2014). UNESCO-NWCPEA: Worldwide survey of school physical education. Final report. UK: NWCPEA/Institute of Sport & Exercise Science. Ho, W., Ahmed, D., De D’Amico, R. L., Antala, B., Dinold, M., Wong, B., & Huang, F. (2016). Quality physical education and global concern: Ways ahead and future development. Actividad Fisica y Ciencias, 8(1), 60–70. Ho, W., Ahmed, D., Keh, N. C., Khoo, S., Tan, C. H., Dehkordi, M. R., .  .  . Huang, F. (2017). Professionals’ perception on quality physical education learning in selected Asian cities. Cogent Education. doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2017.1408945 International Working Group on Women and Sport. (1994). Brighton declaration on women and sport. Brighton: IWG. https://www.iwg-gti.org/iwg/brighton-declaration-onwomen-an/ International Working Group on Women and Sport. (2014). Brighton plus Helsinki declaration on women and sport. Adopted During the 6th IWG World Conference on Women and Sport. https://iwgwomenandsport.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Brighton-plusHelsinki-2014-Declaration-on-Women-and-Sport.pdf IOC. (2018). IOC Gender equality review project. Lausanne: IOC. Kluka, D. (2008). The Brighton declaration on women and sport: A management audit of process quality (Doctoral thesis). University of Pretoria, South Africa. Koca, C. (Ed.). (2016). Inspiring women in Asia: Making a difference in Physical Education, Sport and Dance. Juiz de Fora: IAPESGW Continent Series. López de D’Amico, R. (2016). Latin American women and leadership in sport. In. G. Bravo, R. Lopez de D’Amico, & C. Parrish (Eds.), Sport in Latin America policy, organization, management (pp. 46–61). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. López de D’Amico, R. (2019). Socio-political context in which the business of women’s sport takes place in Latin America. In N. Lough & A. Geurin (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of the business of women’s sport (pp. 280–291). London: Routledge.

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Lough, N., & Geurin, A. (Eds.). (2019). The Routledge handbook of the business of women’s sport. London: Routledge. Ming-Kai, C., & Edginton, C. (Eds.). (2014). Physical education and health: Global perspectives and best practices. Urbana, IL: Sagamore Publishing LLC. Pfister, G. (2019). Women’s role and positions in European sports organizations: Historical development and current tendencies. In N. Lough & A. Geurin (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of the business of women’s sport (pp. 269–279). London: Routledge. SportandDev.org. (n.d). Policy development in gender and sport. https://www.sportanddev. org/en/learn-more/gender/policy-development-gender-and-sport-0 UN DESA. (2020). Sustainable development Outlook 2020 achieving SDGs in the wake of COVID-19: Scenarios for policymakers. United Nations Department of the Economic and Social Affairs. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2020-07/SDO2020_Book.pdf UNESCO. (2013). Fifth international conference of ministers and senior officials responsible for physical education and sport (Mineps V). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000222898 UNESCO. (2017a). Quality Physical Education (QPE) policy project: 2017 progress report. Paris: Author. httpss://en.unesco.org/inclusivepolicylab/sites/default/files/learning/ document/2017/1/231101E.pdf UNESCO. (2017b). The ministers meeting at the sixth international conference of ministers and senior officials responsible for physical education and sport (MINEPS VI). https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000252725 United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication United Nations. (2019). The sustainable development goals report 2019. New York: Author. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2019/The-Sustainable-Development-GoalsReport-2019.pdf UN Women. (2020a). COVID-19, women, girls and sport: Build back better. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. https://www.unwomen. org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2020/brief-covid19-women-girls-and-sport-en.pdf?la=en&vs=2629 UN Women. (2020b). Gender equality: Women’s right in review 25 years after Beijing. USA: Author. https://www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/ publications/2020/gender-equality-womens-rights-in-review-en.pdf?la=en&vs=934 UN Women. (2020c). Sport for Generation Equality: Advancing gender equality in and through sport. www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/3/news-sport-for-generation-equality

Chapter 3

Female empowerment through ‘sport and development’ in Asia Marianne Meier

The sector of ‘Sport & Development’ (S&D) increasingly gained institutionalized acknowledgement since the UN ‘International Year of Sport and Physical Education’ in 2005. Various international entities such as UNESCO, UNICEF, or the International Olympic Committee advocate for the use of S&D to promote peace, anti-discrimination, education, environmental issues, and gender equity. In addition to the evident physiological benefits of improved health and well-being, increasing research emphasizes psychosocial assets linked to S&D (Bailey, Hillman, Arent, & Petitpas, 2013; Kay, 2009); especially regarding gender (Chawansky & Hayhurst, 2015; Meier, 2013). Despite this international recognition, there are still weaknesses and a lack of consistent evidence “for the claim that sport has intrinsic social benefits” (Cornelissen, 2011, p. 503). Moreover, criticism is related to the often automatically attributed “positive power of sport” (Coalter, 2015; Petry & Runkel, 2016). Promising S&D interventions necessitate systematic measurement and sound cause–effect models between activities and their contribution to specific Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to assure accountability, strategic steering, and learning.

Strengths and weaknesses of SDG 5 for ‘sport and gender’ The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development positions gender equality, women’s rights, and empowerment at the centre of the global agenda, both crosscutting and as a stand-alone goal (SDG 5). Paragraph 37 of the Agenda’s declaration recognizes sport as “important enabler of sustainable development” and emphasizes the “growing contribution of sport . . . to the empowerment of women and of young people, individuals and communities as well as to health, education and social inclusion objectives”. Dudfield and Dingwall-Smith (2015) identified seven SDGs to which sport-based approaches could make effective and costefficient contributions: good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; decent work and economic growth; sustainable cities and communities; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and goal partnerships. Regarding SDG 5, the United Nations have compromised to use “gender” only for women and girls to impede other interpretations which may contradict or

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endanger heteronormativity and patriarchal ideologies. In terms of the gender discourse, differentiations are needed between sex characteristics (biology), gender identity (identity), and sexual orientation (sexuality). SDG 5 does not touch upon LGBTIQ+ interests, despite the existence of widespread discrimination and violence against persons who identify with these categories (Park & Mendos, 2019). Moreover, there is little mention of men or boys and masculinity. Caution is needed, however, in very traditional settings, where socio-cultural insensibility may provoke and even lead to violence or radical ban of female sport. An Indian example on how to engage men and boys through ‘Cycling for Gender Equality’ took place in 2015 in Pune. The World Peace Centre Youth Mission and UN Global Youth Advocate organizers gathered more than 700 participants for a ‘HeForShe’ bicycle rally.1

‘Sport & development’ and gender in Asia Even though numerous S&D programmes are well established in Asia nowadays, the main protagonists were initially from Europe, Australia, and North America (SDP IWG, 2008). However, the UN Conference on Women 1995 in Beijing was a milestone in tackling structural causes of gender inequality. Five paragraphs of the ‘Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action’ dealt explicitly with female physical activity.2 Paragraph 107f states for example: Create and support programmes in the educational system, in the workplace and in the community to make opportunities to participate in sport, physical activity and recreation available to girls and women of all ages on the same basis as they are made available to men and boys.3 The publication Women 2000 and Beyond (UN, 2007) explored the relationship between sport and gender equality. It reviewed policy frameworks on human rights and S&D emphasizing good practice. Several Asian grassroots initiatives using sport as a vehicle for female empowerment were featured: one programme called “Women swimming into the future” offered swimming lessons for girls and women in the South Indian coastal regions after the tsunami 2004. Thereby, the Austrian NGO ‘Women Without Borders’ did intend to strengthen self-confidence and develop female group identity and solidarity through sport. Regarding sport and physical education (PE) throughout the life cycle, the “Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia” (WSFFM), established in 1995, organized the first National Women’s Games in 2005.4 Addressing gender inequalities in sport, the United Nations (2007) did also report on a mini-marathon organized in Pakistan 2005 to defend women’s public participation in sport and “to highlight rising violence against women”. About 500 men and women “jogged through a police-lined street of Lahore, just a week after police had used force to halt the first attempt at a mixed-sex race” (p. 14). Another Asian example to overcome gender stereotypes in sport is the

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documentary film “Thin Ice” (2007)5 on female ice hockey in the Himalayas. Women had created their own ice hockey teams, thus uniting females from various backgrounds and fostering social inclusion through sport. In terms of inclusion and empowerment of women with disabilities, the “Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled) Organization” (CNVLD) established a wheelchair racing team in 2007. CNVLD women wheelchair clubs throughout Cambodia intend to “consolidate the recognition of women with a disability as national sporting heroes and role models for the Cambodian women’s disability community”. Moreover, CNVLD assists women with disabilities to access meaningful employment.6 Another sign from the Asian continent for the S&D movement was the entry of “Reach Out to Asia” (ROTA) to the Steering Board of the international platform sportanddev.org7 in 2014. According to its Qatari founders, ROTA is “committed to providing high quality (…) education, encouraging relationships among communities, creating safe learning environments and restoring education in crisis affected areas”, working especially throughout Asia and the Middle East.8 ROTA uses sport as a tool for youth leadership, access to education, conflict resolution, and reconciliation in Pakistan and Nepal.9 The trend of the growing significance of the Asian continent concerning S&D and gender is confirmed by the programme portfolio of ‘Women Win’ (WW). Founded in 2007, WW uses sport as a strategy to advance girls’ and women’s rights. Out of its 40 “previous programmes”, five were located in Asia or the Middle East. Currently, 15 out of the 32 programmes are managed by partners from Myanmar, India, Vietnam, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Jordan, Bangladesh, etc.10 Another S&D landmark was reached in Japan. As part of the legacy of the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games in Tokyo, the initiative ‘Sport for Tomorrow’ enabled a Master’s Programme on ‘Sport for Development and Peace’ at the Tsukuba University. Within this academic course, ‘Sport and Gender’ is one out of five thematic core modules.11

Understanding of S&D and empowerment In terms of S&D, sport is understood in its broadest sense. This includes fitness, skateboarding, dancing, ball games, martial arts, relaxation, cycling, traditional games, etc. Certain sports have different connotations in different socio-cultural contexts (Meier, 2005). S&D mainly concentrates on sport activities that offer health benefits, fun, adventure, a sense of belonging, etc. (Kuhlmann, 2006). Performance and competition are not excluded, but are not the focus of S&D programmes. S&D does not mean the development of sport, but development through sport. The primary goals of most S&D programmes comprise human development in its broadest sense, including personal and life skills development. S&D mostly focuses on socio-economically disadvantaged individuals and communities. Following an interactionist approach, short- and medium-term goals form the basis for a long-term impact of changed social structures, distribution of resources, and attitudes.

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Everybody, regardless of age, sex, ethnicity, ability, economic background, etc. should have the opportunity to acquire competences through sport: (1) psychological (intrapersonal) such as self-esteem or coping strategies; (2) social (interpersonal) such as leadership, fair-play, or teamwork; (3) physiological and health such as body perception and coordination; and (4) cognitive competences such as concentration or tactics. S&D rests upon pedagogical reasoning, which involves intentional teaching and transfer of skills from sport activities into “real life” (Gould & Carson, 2008). Five main aspects of empowerment are relevant for sustainable S&D (Meier, 2013): First, empowerment must be perceived both as an ongoing process and an outcome (UNIFEM & UNGC, 2010). Second, empowerment should be based on a resource-oriented approach focussing on existing capacities instead of deficits (Gould & Carson, 2008). The third premise involves the fact that nobody can be “empowered” from the outside (Rowlands, 1995). Human beings are the main actors in their own development. Fourth, empowerment goes beyond gender and applies to anybody who is disadvantaged or discriminated against for whatever reason. The conceptualization of female empowerment and its measurement need to consider the multidimensional concept of women’s agency, equality of life choices, and socio-cultural contexts (Richardson, 2017). The fifth point considers the systemic interdependence of individual, collective, and societal empowerment levels. Whereas the SDGs still represent a top-down policy approach, the practical S&D projects are crucial bottom-up catalysts of empowerment. Two Asian examples illustrate the complexity and complementarity regarding the contribution of sport to the SDGs: Magic Bus in India was launched in 1998 in Mumbai. It engages children and youth from slums using sport to foster knowledge on health, education, gender equality, and leadership. After completion of the programme, participants are connected to vocational and livelihood opportunities. The organization involves parents, peers, local institutions, and authorities. Magic Bus contributes to ending poverty by ensuring that all children complete secondary education, delay their age of marriage, and have control over their own bodies. With regard to role-modelling, the NGO makes sure that children are always coached by one female and one male mentor. Magic Bus does also match participants with potential employers. This access to self-controlled income is extremely valuable for women who have fewer opportunities on the labour market. The programme expanded to Nepal in 2016 as well as to Myanmar and Bangladesh in 2017. In 2019, Magic Bus reached out to 375,000 children and 30,000 young people from 1,961 marginalized communities in 22 out of India’s 29 states.12 Skateistan started on the streets of Kabul in 2007, combining skateboarding with educational outcomes. The focus is on Afghan children and youth who are often excluded from sport and educational opportunities, especially girls, people living with disabilities, and those from low-income backgrounds. Due to socio-cultural norms, most Afghan girls are not allowed to play sports. As the

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skateboard is seen as a toy, it provides a ‘loophole’ for female participants to join. Skateistan combines education and leadership opportunities by ensuring that each student spends equal time learning in the classroom as on a skateboard. ‘Skate and Create’ offers skateboarding instruction alongside an educational artsbased curriculum. The initiative ‘Back-to-School’ supports children and youth to (re)enroll in the public-school system in Afghanistan. In 2011, Skateistan started activities in Cambodia, where a partnership started with UN Women to raise awareness about violence against women in 2014. Cambodian staff members became UNICEF Youth Representatives to combat violence against children.13

Gender and sporting role models The world of sport with its patriarchal structures and norms corroborates the assumption that gender roles and sex always correspond. These traditional principles are embedded in sport and reinforced by the mass media, advertising, sponsorship, and gendered socialization. Heteronormativity prevails in the sport context. Gender identities, sexualities, and/or sexual orientation that differ from the non-binary or ‘common’ norm are considered abnormal and even pathological. In many contexts, sport success is linked to so-called male characteristics such as bravery, strength, muscularity, self-confidence, etc. Hence, there seems to be a contradiction between sport performance and ideals of femininity. This creates the incompatibility between “being a woman” and “being a sportswoman” (Pfister, 2008). Female athletes who disregard certain lady-like ideals may lose sponsorship or even put themselves at risk. This contradiction entails the lack of female ‘sporting role models’ (SRMs), especially “deviant” sportswomen who do not fulfil stereotypical gender perceptions (Meier, 2020). Despite important criteria such as social status, ethnicity, age, education level, etc., one determinant role modelling factor is gender. Characteristics of heroism are based on contextual myths, tradition, and value systems. An athlete has to “embody the elements that a society holds most dear” (Maguire, 2009, p. 1261) to become an accepted role model. As these elements differ between heroes and heroines, Hargreaves (2000) coined the term “gendered heroism”. Relative to the impact of role models, Lockwood and Kunda (1997) identified “attainability and relevance” as two main determinants. In her article on the empowerment of South Asian women through sport, Nanayakkara (2012) presents female top athletes from Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka. One of the most successful sportswomen in South Asia is the Sri Lankan sprinter Susanthika Jayasinghe. She won the 200m silver medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Despite her victory at the 2002 Asian Games, she emigrated to the United States due to lack of support from her sport federation.14 Even female top athletes must struggle for acknowledgement, whereby the men-dominated media and sport-governing bodies are key. The apparent nonexistence – which is rather an invisibility – inhibits the public availability of female SRMs (Meier & Saavedra, 2009; Vescio, Wilde, & Crosswhite, 2005).

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Fictional characters proved to play a crucial role in the absence of real-life role models. UNICEF South Asia launched a girl cartoon character called Meena in 1998. The 10-year-old should symbolize a female role model with whom girls in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan could identify. Through entertaining stories featuring Meena, her brother, and her parrot, the messages dealt with nutrition, hygiene, school attendance, child marriage, etc. This initiative not only targeted females but also delivered messages on gender biases to boys, parents, and caregivers.15 Meena did also challenge gridlocked perceptions on sport and gender. In 2005, UNICEF and the Pakistan Cricket Board launched the campaign “Fair Play for Girls” using cricket to address girls’ right to recreation, play, and sport. The programme encouraged young women in Pakistan to play cricket at school. Meena led this initiative playing cricket in videos, on posters, and in leaflets.16 Nowadays, Meena stories are read and watched in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan. They have also appeared on TV in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In 2016, UNICEF Bangladesh launched the ‘Meena Game’ as a ‘free’ App reaching out to the next generation.17

Female empowerment through sport As sport is still considered ‘unfeminine’ in most parts of the world, risks and opportunities are linked to gender regarding S&D (Meier, 2005). An intersectional approach is necessary to address multiple discrimination or favouritism. The various forms of social stratification such as age, religion, or income do not exist separately, but are interwoven. Possible solutions must consider the social, political, economic, and legal environment regarding the power structure in the family, community, society, etc. Nanayakkara (2012) did also emphasize the importance of acknowledging the “complex relationships between race, ethnicity, gender and class” for the context of South Asian women (p. 1887). This means that a gender lens is necessary to identify and analyze blind spots whenever human beings are interacting, even if topics like trauma, migration, poverty, violence, or education are at the forefront. Sport can directly contribute to several SDGs. However, it does not happen automatically and necessitates pedagogical and didactical reasoning. It is essential that progress is measured in a systematic way. Promising S&D interventions must be participatory and respectful of all stakeholders. Grassroots projects (bottomup), sport bodies, governments, and donors (top-down) as well as intermediaries such as academia or the media are needed as catalysts for sustainable development and empowerment through sport.

Notes 1 See www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/youth/engaging-boys-and-young-men-ingender-equality 2 See the five paragraphs 83, 101, 107, 183, and 280. 3 See www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/educa.htm 4 See www.wsffm.com

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5 Film trailer (2007): www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPBny-0w2sY 6 See www.changemakers.com/womeninsport/entries/cambodian-women-move 7 This international platform was established in 2003 as result of the first Magglingen Conference in Switzerland and is dedicated entirely to the field of Sport & Development (S&D). 8 See www.reachouttoasia.org 9 See www.reachouttoasia.org/en/project/sports 10 See www.womenwin.org 11 See http://tias.tsukuba.ac.jp/masters-programme-2/development-peace/ 12 See www.magicbus.org/impact-and-outreach 13 See https://skateistan.org/ 14 See www.newindianexpress.com/sport/other/2016/dec/27/sri-lankas-lone-female-olympicmedalist-susanthika-jayasinghe-in-icu-1553632.html 15 See www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/meena-and-unicef 16 See www.pakpositive.com/2005/08/24/unicef-launches-fair-play-for-girls-cricket-inpakistan/ 17 See www.unicef.org/bangladesh/en/meena-and-unicef

References Bailey, R., Hillman, C., Arent, S., & Petitpas, A. (2013). Physical activity: An underestimated investment in human capital? Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 10, 289–308. Chawansky, M., & Hayhurst, L. (2015). Sport in society journal, special issue on girls, international development and the politics of sport. New York: Routledge. Coalter, F. (2015). Sport-for-change: Some thoughts from a sceptic. Social Inclusion, 3(3), 19–23. Cornelissen, S. (2011). More than a sporting chance? Appraising the sport for development legacy of the 2010 FIFA world cup. Third World Quarterly, 32(3), 503–529. Dudfield, O., & Dingwall-Smith, M. (2015). Sport for development and peace and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. Gould, D., & Carson, S. (2008). Life skills development through sport: Current status and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1(1), 58–78. Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and identity. London: Routledge. Kay, T. (2009). Developing through sport: Evidencing sport impacts on young people, in: Spaaij, R. (Ed.). Special Issue: Social Impact of Sport, Sport in Society, 12(9), 1177–1191. Kuhlmann, D. (2006). Welche besonderen Möglichkeiten bietet die Sache? In E. Balz & D. Kuhlmann (Eds.), Sportpädagogik. Lehrbuch in 14 Lektionen (Vol. 1, pp.  181–196). Aachen: Meyer & Meyer. Lockwood, P., & Kunda, Z. (1997). Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 91-103. Maguire, J. (2009). The social construction and impact of champions, in: Spaaij, R. (Ed.) (2009). Special Issue: Social Impact of Sport, Sport in Society, 12(9), 1250–1264. Meier, M. (2005). Gender equity, sport and development. Working Paper. Biel: SAD. Meier, M. & Saavedra, M. (2009). Esther Phiri and the Moutawakel Effect in Zambia: An Analysis of the Use of Female Role Models in Sport for Development, in: Spaaij, R. & Brown, S. (Eds.) (2009). The Social Impact of Sport, Sport in Society Journal, Vol. 12, No. 9, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, Routledge, S. 1158–1176. Meier, M. (2013). Sporting role models as potential catalysts to facilitate empowerment and tackle gender issues: An empirical study. Malawi, Zambia and South Africa: mediaTUM.

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Meier, M. (2015). The value of female sporting role models. In M. Chawansky & L. Hayhurst (Eds.), Sport in society journal, special issue on girls, international development and the politics of sport (pp. 968–982). New York: Routledge. Meier, M. (2020). Über lesbische Heldinnen im Spitzensport. In C. Rufli, M. Meier, M. Hofmann, S. Degen, & J. Borer (Eds.), Vorbild und Vorurteil. Lesbische Spitzensportlerinnen erzählen (pp. 11–27). Baden/Schweiz: Hier & Jetzt. Nanayakkara, S. (2012). Crossing boundaries and changing identities: Empowering South Asian women through sport and physical activities. International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(13), 1885–1906. Park, A., & Mendos, L. R. (2019). For all: The sustainable development goals and LGBTI people. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.23989.73447 Petry, K., & Runkel, M. (2016). The concept of development and the sport related (future) approach. In Y. Vanden Auweele, et.al. (Eds.), Sport ethics in the 21st century (pp. 208–216). London/New York: Routledge. Pfister, G. (2008). Doing sport ist doing gender. In Arenen der Weiblichkeit Frauen, Körper und Sport (pp. 13–30). Köln: Verein Beiträge zur feministischen Theorie und Praxis. Richardson, R. A. (2017). Measuring women’s empowerment: A critical review of current practices and recommendations for researchers. Social Indicators Research, 137, Dordrecht: Springer, 539–557. Rowlands, J. (1995). Empowerment examined. Development in Practice, 5(2), UK/Ireland: Oxfam, 101–107. SDP IWG, Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group. (2008). Harnessing the power of sport for development and peace. Toronto/Canada: RTP. UN. (2007). Women, gender equality and sport, women 2000 and beyond. New York: UN, Division for the Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. UNIFEM, & UNGC. (2010). Women’s empowerment principles: Equality means business. New York: UNIFEM. Vescio, J., Wilde, K., & Crosswhite, J. J. (2005). Profiling sport role models to enhance initiatives for adolescent girls in physical education and sport. European Physical Education Review, 11(2), 153-170.

Part II

Country cases

Chapter 4

Bangladesh women and sport Mashuda Khatun Shefali

Introduction Bangladesh, a country in South Asia, lies in the delta of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers in the north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It has a territory of about 147,570 square kilometres (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2020). The Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation on 16 December 1971, following victory at a nine-month-long Liberation War. Bangladesh is a democratic and secular state with rich history and cultural heritage. It is home to diverse groups whose various identities present unique needs, vulnerabilities, obstacles, opportunities, and priorities. In many cases, they include women, elderly, children, ethnic minorities, persons with disabilities, transgender people, geographically vulnerable, and different castes, among others. Lifestyles vary based on socio-cultural status – rural, urban, or tribal. There are 68,000 villages and 80% of the population still live in rural areas. People migrate from rural areas to urban areas primarily for two reasons: advancement in education and better employment opportunities. Usually, those who migrate to the urban areas are the educated ones; over time, they settle there. Economically, Bangladesh is predominantly agrarian. The Bangladesh readymade and textile industry is the number one foreign currency-earning sector and employs more than five million workers, of which 85% are women. Other key sectors include pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, ceramics, leather goods, and electronics. Despite the economic growth, poverty remains to be the single most important socio-economic challenge for Bangladesh. Nonetheless, as a resilient nation used to fighting natural calamities and internal political conflicts, Bangladesh continues to pursue development of its resources. The population of Bangladesh was estimated by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2020) at 167.47 million in 2019. As one of the most populated countries in the world, its population density stands at 1,015 per square kilometre. Women constitute about 49.42% of its population. At present, the average life expectancy for females is 74.4 years and 71.1 years for males. Approximately, 90% of the population are Muslims, 8.5% are Hindus, and the rest are Buddhist, Christian, Jewish, and believers of other religions.

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Women’s situation Gender inequality continues to be a core concern of human development in Bangladesh. According to the Human Development Report (UNDP, 2019), Bangladesh ranks 135 out of the 189 countries, belonging to the “medium” human development category. The report shows that 45.3% adult women have reached at least secondary level of education compared with 49.2% of their male counterparts. For every 100,000 live births, 176 women die from pregnancy-related causes, and adolescent birth rate is 83.0 births per 1000 women of ages between 15 and 19. Female labour force participation rate is 36% while the proportion of seats held by women in the national parliament of Bangladesh is 20.3%. Bangladesh is ranked 50th out of 153 countries on the Global Gender Gap Index Report (World Economic Forum, 2019). The country has also been featured in lowering gender gaps; the ranking captures inequality of men and women in four dimensions via economic performance/opportunities (141st), education attainment (121st), health & survival activity (119th), and political empowerment (7th). The category of political empowerment has helped push the country to a higher rank. The prime minister, the opposition leader, and the speaker of the parliament are women. Yet, only 8% of women are in the Cabinet and only 20% in the parliament including reserved and general seats. It must be noted that Bangladesh is ranked below 100 in the three other categories. In the 1972 Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Article 10 provides for women’s full participation in national life. Although this law encourages women to actively participate in society, deeply held cultural beliefs continue to put women in a position of subordination, dependence, and exclusively relegated to the role of nurturing the family. Additionally, family preference for sons over daughters puts girls at a disadvantage in every sphere of life at an early age, such as food intake, health, education, property rights, and access to family and social facilities. The high dropout rate of girls from schools is attributed to early marriage, early motherhood, and multiple pregnancies. Although the minimum age for marriage is 18 years for girls and 21 for boys, approximately 40% of girls are married before the age of 15 and roughly 74% are married before the age of 18 (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2014). This situation also puts Bangladeshi girls at high mortality risk because child birth, who are most likely from poor and/or from rural areas, are less likely to receive adequate medical care during pregnancy than women who married as adults. In this context, girls and women in Bangladesh remain systematically disabled from safeguarding their personal needs and interests.

Sport in Bangladesh Sports are popular and widespread like in most of the countries in the world. The popular sports in Bangladesh are kabaddi, cricket, football, hockey, chess, golf, handball, and volleyball. The traditional sports like athletics, swimming, boli

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khela, lathy khela, and boat races are played mostly in the rural areas, while cricket, football, hockey, volleyball, handball, golf, and badminton are popular among the urban population. Though Bangladesh is not a major sporting country, Bangladeshi athletes have brought many laurels to the country. Bangladesh is one of the top seven cricketing nations of the world, with their men’s team having qualified for the World Cup since 1999. The prevailing socio-economic condition during the early years hindered the provision of adequate infrastructure facilities and appropriate education and training in sports, thereby limiting the promotion and development of sports. To address this situation, the concept of sports institutes emerged to identify and nurture talented sports persons and to build competent coaches and other technical experts. The Ministry of Youth and Sports (MYS) is the highest policy-making and regulatory authority in sports. The Directorate of Sports is the only public sector sports programme implementation agency which administers and monitors the PE colleges and district-level sports officers’ offices. Moreover, the National Sports Council (NSC) is the overseer and governing body of all the sports federations and councils in the country. Established in 1972 first as Bangladesh Sports Control Board and later became National Sports Council in 1974, it is accountable to the Bangladesh MYS. It organizes the ‘Bangladesh Games’, which is the largest multi-sports tournament in the country, with athletes and sport teams from all the districts participating. It gathers coaches and athletes from the 53 federations and organizes game development and high-performance international, regional, and national competitions throughout the year. It also coordinates the Bangladesh Olympic Association’s national and international competitions. Additionally, it publishes the yearly plans for sports training, game development, tournaments and competitions. Moreover, the NSC governs and monitors all the sport federations. The federations are responsible for mobilizing and training young athletes under their respective sports events. Finally, the Ministry of Education (MOE) enforces the implementation of sports policies and programmes from secondary to tertiary levels of education under its PE department.

Physical education and school sports in Bangladesh Physical exercise and participating in sports have always been prohibited for girls irrespective of age although widely allowed and encouraged for boys of the same age groups. The religious restriction and seclusion of women in private and public places prevent women’s equal participation in sports or physical activities. Although some girls from the urban junior or higher secondary schools participate in sports, their participation declines as their school year advances. Upon graduation from secondary schools, colleges, and universities, women eventually stop participating in physical activities. There is a general observation that the number of women who engage in sports reaches its lowest level at the age when most of them get married and become mothers, as they get busy with house work and care of children.

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Since Bangladesh is primarily a rural country, girls’ participation in school sports is restricted. Even during the annual sports day, girls’ attendance in schools is considered unnecessary, even as viewers. As a gender- and class-segregated society, some women in the upper class can choose to participate in different sports. However, whether in the rural or urban areas, women’s participation in inter-school, regional, and international competitions is less valued than those involving men. Almost all PE teachers for boys-only and girls-only schools are men. Likewise, leadership of sports institutions is reserved for males. Thus, they are also the decision-makers in organizing sport events that typically favour males. These stereotypical attitudes regarding gender differences explain the low sport participation of girls and women in sports. For example, the Bangladesh Sports Education Institute in Savar, Dhaka, enrolled 1,041 students in 2020, among whom only 182 are female students while 859 are male students. Of its 100 coaches, only 12 are women while 88 are men. Similarly, at the six PE colleges, out of their combined 1,100 enrolees, only 182 are women. In this context, male teachers and coaches are less likely to encourage female students to participate in sports. However, the few women-only sports institutions are predictably marginalized and seriously constrained by funding limitations. To improve women’s participation in primary and secondary level education in Bangladesh, several programmes were undertaken by the government to balance the enrolment at primary and secondary levels. At the tertiary level, however, women’s access and continuation of enrolment is much lower than that of men. The National Sports Policy (NSP), adopted in 1989 and upgraded in 1998, guides sports programmes and activities in Bangladesh. Sports and physical activities have been declared as compulsory subjects up to secondary school and optional at the secondary education level to integrate the sports activities into mainstream education in the country. NSP clause 5 adopted a provision of compulsory PE and sports from secondary to higher secondary schools. Currently, six government-run PE colleges are established in six divisions. Teachers who graduate from government PE colleges are recruited by the MOE for every secondary and higher secondary school. Secondary schools comprise the largest number of education institutional networks throughout the country, forming the main foundation for sports for youth and adolescents. There are 317 government, 15,489 autonomous secondary schools, 2,803 non-government colleges, and 7,343 non-government Madrasas (religious schools) currently functioning in Bangladesh. According to Shefali (2014), in a study conducted by Nari Uddug Kendra (NUK), PE teachers are available only in 82% schools. The male–female PE teacher ratio is 65:34, while the male–female student participation ratio in sports is 60:40. Findings also reveal that in co-educational institutes, all PE teachers are men. There are no women-friendly environments for promoting girls’ sport. While boys are privileged to play outdoor games in co-ed schools, girls are considered fit only for indoor games. Even if they showed interest for outdoor play, active games, and

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sports, they are likely to be ignored or not supported in training. Ninety-three percent of schools organize annual sport events while 7% schools are not able to organize similar events due to financial constraints, lack of adequate playground in their school campus, problems with in the management committee, and other socio-political problems. All universities have PE and sports departments with a good number of qualified PE teachers who provide training and coaching to interested students in different sport events. Universities organize annual sports quite successfully and experienced athletes get special preference in enrolment. Both girls and boys have equal opportunities to participate in sport education, training, and competition at the university level. The student-athletes also participate in national and international competition and tournaments. There are 64 district sports officer positions in Bangladesh. They are responsible for organizing different sports training and inter-schools, colleges, and Madrasa competition for boys and girls in their respective districts. No women sports officer has been recruited yet. As a result, the activities of the district sports offices are less attractive to young girls from the different secondary and higher secondary schools. Guardians and teachers are also reluctant to allow their female students to go for sports training with male officers and coaches. Besides, only a few games are particularly targeted to women and girls, mostly the indoor games, while all outdoor games are targeted for boys.

Emergence of women’s sports in Bangladesh Women’s participation in sports in Bangladesh formally began during the early 1970s immediately after the independence of Bangladesh as a new country in 1971. Bangladesh Women’s Sports Association (BWSA) was established in 1972, as initiated by Shamsun Nahar Bakul. She requested the father of the nation, Sheik Mujibur Rahman, that women be granted a playground for practising sports. She was a former athlete, who participated in the Pakistan National Olympic and won gold medals; she also received awards at the East Pakistan Sports Federation competition. She was the frst female director of the Physical Education (PE) Department under the MOE. The BWSA is currently administered by an all-female elected Executive Board members of 31 women and is funded by the NSC. It introduced the Sultana Kamal Independence Day Award– 2011 for the Contributors to Bangladesh Women’s Sports. The BWSA has been instrumental in promoting women’s sport in Bangladesh by unifying women athletes under their support. They helped women to organize themselves, join the board of directors of the BWSA, and mobilize other young girls and women to engage in sports. The association also launched sports training for female students from different schools throughout the country. After developing different district-wide school teams, it organized inter-district and inter-school competitions. It has 64 district committees and managers, tasked to select girls and women from each district for training. Bangladesh gained success

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at the international level of sports through its female athletes who were supported by the association. During the mid-1970s and early 1980s, several women athletes were trained and groomed by the different professional sports agencies. With increased number of sports federations and clubs, several women athletes emerged as national athletes after winning awards in national competitions. According to the book, Bangladesh Sports History of 20 Years (National Sports Council, 1990), many women of all ages have participated and been awarded. Furthermore, successful women athletes were supported to train and compete at the national and international level by various groups and agencies. The NUK, a national gender and women’s rights activist organization, also trained girls in basketball from five schools (three from Dhaka and two from Kishorgonj District town) under its ‘Sports and Women’s Empowerment’ project. These teams competed at inter-district and national tournaments, and the winners were eligible to join the National Women’s Basketball team. The organization also pioneered training school girls in karate to develop self-defence skills for protecting themselves from physical and sexual harassment on their way to and from schools. They have trained approximately 60,000 girls from all over Bangladesh. Most of them have joined the National Karate Federation, participated in different national and regional tournaments, and provided training to other rural girls (Shefali, 2016). Aside from the obvious health benefits of physical activities, sports have challenged traditional views of women by allowing them to display their sporting abilities, challenge discriminatory social norms, and establish an enabling environment for gender equality and women empowerment. To rationalize this issue, the NUK conducted two research projects (with assistance from Women Win, Netherlands) on the overall situation of women in sports in Bangladesh. Results from the research have generated a lot of attention and enthusiasm from both the government and the private sectors for the training of women players, gender awareness of PE teachers, scholarships for female PE teachers, education towards increasing women’s sports, mainstreaming women in sports, and strengthening national efforts towards reactivating the spirit of sports for nation building (Shefali, 2009, 2014). Bangladesh women’s cricket league was formed in 2007. Since then, the national women’s cricket team has participated in regional (e.g., South Asia Games) and international tournaments (e.g., Women’s World Cup qualifiers), receiving a lot of national support and appreciation. Sponsors have contracted foreign coaches like Momatha Moben, former Indian Women’s Cricket Captain to train the Bangladesh women’s cricket team. Now the team is more popular than the men’s cricket team in Bangladesh, even if they are much younger and relatively newer in the sport. There are now three different categories of women’s cricket league, including (1) Dhaka Premier Division Women’s Cricket League, (2) National Women Cricket League, (3) Bangladesh Cricket League. Because of the popularity of women’s cricket, more parents are willing to allow their daughters to come out on the field and play the sport. The captain of the Bangladesh

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Cricket team, Salma Khatun, says that “finding players was more difficult earlier, but many more girls are now willing to play and this will definitely help us create a stronger team” (Karim, 2012). However, she noted that most women cricket leagues consist of girls from rural areas rather than from urban areas, and that they still have to battle social and economic barriers that arise from conservative views of and limited funding support for girls. Several sports analysts concurred and stated that necessary investment is of utmost necessity to encourage and develop sport talent among girls and women in Bangladesh. However, the issue of remuneration must also be addressed as women players get less than male players for the same competition, even in popular sports such as cricket and football. While women’s cricket in Bangladesh is on the uptrend, one cannot say the same regarding other sports in the country. Although several initiatives have been taken, such as organizing football and handball tournaments for women, the standard of performance during games continues to be a problem. In the women’s football league, for example, performance remains below par, although the league has been encouraging its players to compete in a professional manner. Moreover, women’s football has been suffering from the Football Federation’s political issues. To address these concerns, Kamrunnahar Dana (National Champion in badminton) and the former General Secretary of the BWSA suggested, “We need to organize talent hunt and other programmes to look for athletes in order to improve our standards” (Karim, 2012).

Sports education and training To promote greater sport participation in the general population, Bangladesh encouraged the establishment of institutional networks of sports involving government and non-government agencies and institutions throughout the country, and engaging both the public and private sectors. Although the engagement of women in these initiatives is far from ideal, it opened the doors of opportunity for their increased participation in physical education and sports. The specialized sports science education institutions include the following: The Government Physical Education College is a fully residential academic institute. There are two student hostels (one for males and one for females), a staff residential building, an administrative building, an academic building, a 400m running track, a swimming pool, a basketball ground, and a gymnasium. All indoor and outdoor games facilities are on campus. Currently, there are six colleges in six divisions – Dhaka, Rajshahi, Barishal, Khulna, Mymensing, and Chittagong. Only Dhaka Physical Education College provides both Bachelor of Physical Education (BPE) degree and Master of Physical Education degree. The master’s programme at Dhaka has 70 seats; 60 for males and 10 for females. The rest provide only the BPE degree. Dhaka and Rajshshi Physical Education Colleges have 250 seats each, Chittagong and Khulna Physical Education Colleges have 200 seats each, and the Chittagong and Barisal have 100 seats each. Altogether, 1,100 students can be enrolled each year across these schools. Each

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college has only 50 seats for girls, which are rarely filled up. During the FY 2020, out of 1,100 seats only 696 students enrolled, of whom 152 are female and 544 are male. There are 55 teaching staff, 43 male staff and only 12 women staff. The Bangladesh Krira Shikha Protisthan (BKSP) (Bangladesh Sports Science Education Institute) is a government-funded autonomous institute and has eight divisional branches. It was established in 1986 with the goal of developing sports and is headed by the Minister of Youth and Sports. Students receive both a general education and specialized sport training. The education extends from primary, secondary to university degree level. The sports taught at the BKSP include cricket, table tennis, archery, athletics, karate, boxing, judo, basketball, swimming, hockey, volleyball, gymnastics, shooting, tennis, taekwondo, and wushu. The institute also has honours and diploma courses in Exercise Physiology, Sport Biomechanics, Sports Psychology, Science of Sports Training, and Sports Medicine. It also provides short-term courses for coaches and diplomas for other specialities. Graduates from this institute take part in the national and international games. Every year they conduct talent identification sessions throughout the country and collect potential students for enrolment. Out of its total seat capacity, 25–30% are female students. Most of the students come from rural areas. There are no differences in sports training for male and female students. Bangladesh Mohila Krira Sangstha (Bangladesh Women’s Sports Association) has a training centre called ‘Sultana Kamal Women’s Sports Complex’ named after the renowned woman athlete of Dhaka University overlaps was assassinated in 1975. The complex has several playgrounds, gymnasium, swimming pool, and huge sports training centres with residential facilities. The association trains on athletics, volleyball, basketball, netball, hockey, table tennis, cycling, swimming, karate, judo, taekwondo, chess, and kabaddi. It also trains coaches, managers, referees, and umpires. Women and girls come from all over the country to receive training at the centre. After graduation, they join different sports federations for more professional training and work as professional players like coaches, instructors, or trainers.

Sports leadership In Bangladesh, women continue to be underrepresented in the leadership of sports organisations, both in the public and private sectors. At the state level, MYS has only one woman taking the role of Assistant Secretary. The top eight executive positions are all held by men. The Bangladesh Olympic Association’s President and Director General are both male, with no female ever occupying those positions. The 53 sports federations, except BWSA, have no women presidents and secretaries-general. At the Bangladesh Sports Science Education Institute, Savar, Dhaka, male and female student ratio is 3:1, and the number of female coaches is only 12, while 88 are male. Out of six PE colleges, only one has a female principal. Among 26 teaching staff, only seven are women. Among the 297 PE colleges, only 58

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are female students and 239 are male. At the district level, the Women’s Association’s 64 District Committees have all women for their secretaries-general and managers, while the 64 general District Sport Association’s president and general secretaries are all males. This reveals that women’s leadership is exercised only at the organization specially developed for women. At the professional level, all coaches and managers of district, regional, and international tournaments are reserved for males. Even if the team members are female, they are coached and managed by men, and a woman assistant is just required to accompany the women players. When male managers accompany female teams without women assistants, incidents of sexual harassment happen.

Concluding remarks Currently, high-performance sport has been receiving much recognition, both from the state and from the community, attracting young women to participate. However, successful women athletes are given less rewards and financial benefits than their male counterparts for the same level of accomplishment. This tends to demoralize women and confirms the less worth ascribed to them and their success in sports. Moreover, leadership in sports continues to elude women in Bangladesh; but advocates for fair governance in sport call for leadership by merit, whether by male or female, and support for qualified and experienced sports persons rather for those who simply use their popularity or influence to occupy important positions of leadership in the arena of sports. Furthermore, the present situation shows that women continue to be marginalized as referees, judges, coaches, administrators, and managers. A quota system to ensure increasing participation of women in leadership and decision-making must be introduced and implemented. Media as a powerful tool in promoting women in sports is also challenged to re-think its critical role in establishing good role models for women in sport. The existing focus on the physicality of women rather than their sport expertise diminishes the true value of women in sports and creates poor role models for young girls. Gender awareness training is likewise necessary to provide the different sports agencies’ managers, administrators, including teachers, trainers and coaches the knowledge and skills to implement gender-sensitive approaches and programs. Finally, research that provides the verbal space for girls and women to articulate their views on sports and how society may truly help them engage in sports in meaningful and fulfilling ways is highly recommended.

References Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2020). Statistical Pocketbook 2019. Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. http://bbs.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/bbs.portal.gov.bd/ page/d6556cd1_dc6f_41f5_a766_042b69cb1687/2020-05-20-11-49-1f4b467955de85be60941c27650e3f66.pdf

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Karim, N. (2012, March). Women’s sports in Bangladesh: An encouraging year. Forum Daily Star, 6(9). https://archive.thedailystar.net/forum/2012/March/women.htm National Sports Council. (1990). Bangladesh sports in 20 years. Dhaka, Bangladesh. Shefali Khatun, M. (2009). Gender dimension in sports in Bangladesh. A research study sponsored by Women Win, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Shefali Khatun, M. (2014). Roles and effectiveness of physical education in secondary schools. Nari Uddug Kendra, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Shefali Khatun, M. (2016). Stories of Mashuda Khatun Shefali and NUK in engaging in women and sports in Bangladesh. In C. Koca (Ed.), Inspirational women in Asia: Making a difference in physical education, sport and dance (pp. 25–44). Brazil: NGIME UFJF. ISBN 978-85-67380-52-0 1. United Nations Development Programme. (2019). Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century. Human Development Report 2019. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf United Nations Children’s Fund (2014). Ending Child Marriage: Progress and prospects, UNICEF, New York, https://www.unicef.org/media/files/Child_Marriage_Report_7_ 17_LR.pdf. World Economic Forum. (2019). The Gender Gap Report 2020. www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf

Chapter 5

Gender equality and opportunities in physical education and sport for women in China Jian Wang, Min Liu , Tao Wang, Yujie Wang and Siheng Zhou

Introduction The People’s Republic of China (hereafter referred to as China), located in the east of Asia, encompasses a vast territory of about 9.6 million square kilometres (Central People’s Government of the PRC, 2017). In 2018, China’s GDP reached 14.4 trillion US dollars, accounting for more than 16% of the world’s total GDP and ranking second highest in the world (National Bureau of Statistics, 2020). China had a population of about 1.4 billion in 2019, making it the most populous country in the world; men accounted for 51.9% of the population and women the remaining 48.1% (China Population, 2020). China’s history is characterized by thousands of years of tradition and cultural practice. This country is the birthplace of Chinese Wushu and Taichi, the ‘Yin-Yang’ (female–male) philosophy, Confucianism, and Taoism. Before New China was established in 1949, China saw a period of turmoil for more than 50 years. During this period, feudal thoughts and customs prevailed, even though Western thought was consolidated through school systems established by missionary bodies and local authorities. These customs served as natural barriers to feminist development and had a negative impact on equal rights. Practices like abandoning female infants or prohibiting girls from attending schools prevailed in society. Such practices were present not only in poor families but also in rich and normal families. Girls did not get the chance to have an education and most of them stayed at home to be reminded of the importance of the ‘three obediences and four virtues’. Additionally, because of the ancient marriage convention, women had no claim to the household budget, which resulted in an unfair family social status and directly led to the perpetuation of social injustice (Xia, 2015). Influenced by the long-standing division of labour and cultural traditions, the stereotype wherein women must be ‘quiet’ prevailed for a long time. Under the ancient social code of ‘the three obediences and four virtues’, women were deprived of their right to education. To pander to the male chauvinist mentality, the society strived to create the image of an elegant lady who was proficient in singing, dancing, painting, and calligraphy (Ma & Ji, 2016). In feudal society, activities that were physically intensive or involved the use of sword sticks were

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tacitly regarded as a male bastion. Physical activities, such as household chores, were acceptable exercises for women in traditional culture. Gender exclusion in modern sports activities can be regarded as a continuation of this gender bias in modern society. As a result of this conventional gender prejudice, women who were good at sports were often mockingly referred to as ‘iron females’ and ‘fierce girls’.

Actions for change: promotion of equality in society and protection of women’s rights and interests Since the founding of New China in 1949, important policies have been introduced to eliminate these social constraints and promote gender equality in society. These attempts included the promulgation of the Marriage Law in 1950 with the basic rules for protecting women’s rights within the family and the enactment of the Land Law in the same year, which confirmed women’s rights to own and inherit property (Hunter & Sexton, 1999). The introduction of education was essential for reducing illiteracy; Sheringham (1984) discusses the massive movement in the 1950s to 1970s to promote women’s education. Dong (2003) remarked that “within the first ten years of the new regime, women students in higher education snowballed in number from 27,000 to 150,000. Education effectively awakened women’s consciousness to their potential as human beings: mentally, emotionally, and physically” (p. 14). This massive educational movement helped break down the social and cultural barriers and had a significant influence on the development of women’s sports later in China. The years from 1949 to the 1990s could be called an era of gender revolution and reconstruction. In 1992, the Law of Protection of Female Rights and Interests in the People’s Republic of China was enacted to further the establishment of gender equality as a basic policy and included clarifications on women’s social status and protection measures, thereby taking an important step in securing women’s rights in China (Du & Jiang, 2015). The development of all these laws and policies ensured and improved the social status of women and truly affirmed their basic rights in accordance with the 48th item of the Constitution, which states that “females in the People’s Republic of China enjoy equal rights with males in political, economic, cultural, social, and family life”. These developments have been summarized under the document Gender Equality and Women’s Development in China (2020), which outlines the major efforts and achievements during the past 70 years. These experiences laid the foundation for the development of gender equality in Chinese society.

Feminist development and success in sport Fan (2003) identified some important milestones in China’s progress towards gender equity. The 1949–1956 period saw women’s participation in the reconstruction and defense of New China. The focus during 1956–1966 was on training women for the Socialist Revolution. The decade of 1966–1976 placed importance

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on women’s sports achievements, and 1977–2000 was a period of success in sports as demonstrated by the number of medals won by women in international competitions (e.g., Dreyer, 2018). For success in sports, China has developed a unique mechanism to assist those with talent and potential. Whitby (2001) discussed this mechanism, noting the advantages of the decentralized system, contributions from universities, sports colleges and schools, and the developmental system in provincial teams. This system supports the mobility of women athletes with elite status and international reputation (Dong, 2003; Fan, 2003; Zheng, Chen, Tan, & Lau, 2018). Nevertheless, it is necessary to reiterate the importance of state support to generate the momentum for change when sport is in an underdeveloped state. Football is the most popular sport in China. It is an important part of China’s evolution from being a great sports country to a global sports power. Chinese sports experts considered 2015 as the first year of football, mainly because the State Council promulgated a policy specifically for football that year. However, it came from the State General Administration of Sport of China and the Ministry of Education, that jointly promulgated so many Chinese sports policies that football got into the crowd (e.g., General Administration of Sport of China [GASC], & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China [MoE], 2013). The policy specifically mentioned the goal of supporting the development of football for schoolgirls. It also proposed to gradually expand the size of female football teams in designated schools and train excellent young female football coaches and referees in a planned and focused way to provide help and services to young women participating in women’s football. The State Council promulgated the Chinese Football Reform Plan (General Office of the State Council, 2015) to restructure and develop Chinese football, ushering in unprecedented opportunities. Chinese women’s football is representative of ‘strong women and weak men’ in Chinese competitive sports, which naturally became a key target in the development of Chinese football events. The number of schools with the ability to implement campus football should reach 20,000 in 2020 and 50,000 in 2025, of which schools with women’s football are expected to account for a certain percentage. In terms of guarantee of conditions, the policy requires local governments to have certain inclinations according to the division of power when making financial investments. China also encouraged the formation of women’s football teams and streamlined the relationship between football training and study (MOE, 2015). The necessity of these arrangements indicates the importance of the state’s intervention when the sport is in a premature state, and the model serves as a good example for ensuring women in sport.

Education and opportunities for exercise, sport, and physical education Emphasis on quality education is a prerequisite for and an indispensable part of female development (UNESCO, 2013, 2016). Physical education (PE) in school plays a role in encouraging students of both genders to be physically active to

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enjoy good quality of life. Zhu, Haegele, Tang, and Wu (2017) observed physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children from grades 1 to 12. Female students were generally reported to have a lower mean number of PA days than male students. The level of PA did not differ much between boys and girls from grades 1 to 9, but female students in grades 10 to 12 reported a significantly lower number of days per week than their male counterparts. The school environment seems to be an important factor for inactivity in young girls (Li, Dibley, Sibbritt, & Yan, 2006). It is interesting to see from their research that children whose mothers stay at home or whose fathers have a higher level of education have higher levels of activity than children of mothers holding a non-professional job or fathers with a lower level of education. These studies highlight another challenge for women’s health development in China. Because of the lack of awareness among rural women regarding physical exercise and sports venues, they have low levels of sports-related development and are unable to achieve the expected results from physical exercise. The development of women’s sports in rural areas is limited due to a host of factors, including unbalanced investment in sports venues, lack of daily management, difficulty in setting up public service systems, and heavy daily labour (Liu, 2019). Further, the traditional role assigned to rural women is the main factor restricting their participation in sports (Liu & Peng, 2018). In fact, Chinese urban communities also suffer from similar problems with regard to women’s participation in sports: inadequate supply of sports facilities, lack of fitness guidance and sports information, and dearth of sports activities (Li, 2018). The co-ed teaching model is used for PE in China with the same teaching methods and content. However, this ‘one-size-fits-all’ teaching method does not address gender differences. The PE learning content can inspire boys’ natural desire for conquest and achievement. They are active and brave in class and are good performers, so teachers always pay more attention to them and expect more from them. In contrast, adolescent girls usually exhibit shyness, timidity, love for beauty, and other things, and they are anxious about PE classes, which could discourage their participation in PA and sports (Li, Ma, & Ma, 2007). Most PE teachers consider this to be a ‘normal phenomenon’ and even ignore the presence of gender inequality in school sports, which not only leads to the generally poor sports performance of girls and a low sense of participation but also affects the implementation of equality in education. Extracurricular sports activities are the extension of PE classroom teaching. Most boys choose physical confrontational events, such as basketball and football, which reflect their personal hobbies and determination to keep fit. Most girls often choose sports such as badminton, rope-skipping, and aerobics for reasons like losing weight and participating in competitions. This also shows great contingency in sports frequency and time (Yang, 2012). In addition to genderspecific factors, the imbalance in the availability of school sports facilities and resources is also responsible for the gender gaps. Most of the school sports venues in China are basketball courts, football fields, track-and-field grounds, and other

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large venues, which are basically ‘occupied’ by boys. There are no corresponding venues and equipment for aerobics, dance, games, and other events that girls are interested in. Insufficient funding has dampened girls’ enthusiasm and interest in sports participation in Chinese schools, causing them to become bystanders of extracurricular sports activities.

Policy review and measures to encourage women’s active living Since 2009, experts have been paying attention to research projects on PE and sports for women in China. The ratio of male to female participants is declining, especially in sports, whether mass or competitive. However, Chinese women have not only outnumbered Chinese men at top international competitions but also performed better than them in the last two decades. Their achievements in competitions are obvious (Dong, 2009). At this point, Chinese women progressively began realizing the benefits of PA and sports for fitness and health. In both urban and rural areas, women’s participation in sports faces some common problems. Since the period of reform and opening up, economic capacity, educational background, family roles, and culture have led to the stratification of female participation in sports and leisure activities (Xiong, 2012). The Chinese government has always believed that respect for women is an important symbol of social progress, a necessary legal norm, and a mark of morality in a civilized society, and has therefore been taking significant action to promote local economic development and social progress. Focus on health and competition The implementation of national physical exercise standard (GASC, MoE, & All China Federation of Trade Union, 2013) was suitable for all healthy people aged between six and 69, included women-specific features in test items, rating standards, scoring standards, and test details. In August 2019, physical health intervention plans for women were put forward. These intervention plans were closely related to sports, including proposals to integrate a positive lifestyle into the teaching content of PE in schools and to incorporate physical fitness assessment into the Chinese government’s performance evaluation system. Women play an important role in Chinese competitive sports. Chinese ball games have always been characterized as sports played by ‘strong women and weak men’. The women’s national volleyball team is a typical example. The 13th Five-Year Plan for Sports Development (National Development and Reform Commission [NDRC], 2016) is one of China’s major policies for the development of sports in the country. The government specifically proposed supporting measures to achieve the major goals concerning women: constructing special training bases; ensuring that players compete as a national team and setting up corresponding reward mechanisms; revising and improving the measures for the

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evaluation of national team training quality management; and establishing training management teams in line with the actual conditions (NDRC, 2016). Curriculum objectives and project requirements The syllabus of PE in primary schools and high schools (MoE, 1956a, 1956b) had the following stipulations: (1) to promote the physical and mental development of students, boost fitness, and implement moral education for students so that they can effectively complete their learning tasks, engage in socialist construction, and defend the motherland (Zhou, 2004); (2) theoretical knowledge and practical sports events including gymnastics, track and field, skiing, swimming, ball games, classical wrestling (male students in grades 7–10), and artistic gymnastics (female students in grades 7–10). The PE textbooks for primary and high schools (Writing Group of General Sports Teaching Materials for Primary and Secondary Schools, 1978, 1984) were issued with the main objective of enhancing students’ fitness. The curriculum objectives were to help students study, participate in productive labour, and safeguard the motherland. According to the age and sex of students in each grade, the curriculum content included five major events – sports games, gymnastics, track and field, martial arts, and ball games. The syllabus of PE (MoE, 1978) mandated comprehensive physical exercise and promoted physical and mental development (e.g., Li & Yan, 2010). Priority to health and standard setting According to the Regulations on School Sport Works (1990), the test standards for female students were specially formulated to improve female physical fitness and encourage them to acquire basic sports-related knowledge and skills. Different grades could frame the curriculum content for female students according to the syllabi. The syllabus (MOE, 2002) and curriculum standards (MOE, 2001, 2003) ensured six-level goals for women’s participation in the five domains of sports participation, sports skills, physical health, mental health, and social adaptation. At the same time, women at different levels could choose different sports-related teaching contents (Liu & Zhang, 2018). Different testing standards and items were set for men and women. In summary, through the decades, the Chinese government has successively revised the syllabus (MOE, 2011, 2017) which reinforced the idea of ‘health first’ for women’s participation in sports.

Professional development of female physical education teachers The early education policies of China gave rise to some major concerns for women. First, there were challenges in mastering the characteristics of national education, improving the quality of education for minorities, and increasing

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the enrolment rate of girls from poor families. Second, efforts were needed to overcome weaknesses, including problems regarding the enrolment rates of rural junior high school, special education, and mobile juvenile students, as well as wipe out illiteracy among women and migrant populations. Third, a considerable number of rural women had to actively participate in the crucial activity of building a new socialist countryside, learn culture, science, and technology, and compare achievements and contributions so as to increase agricultural production, boost farmers’ income, and alleviate poverty. Against this background, it was necessary to strengthen the management of existing PE teachers (State Education Commission of the People’s Republic of China, 1986). The 1990 regulations on school sports works put forward the idea of increasing the number of female PE teachers. The policy claimed that in addition to ordinary primary schools, other schools should also be equipped with a certain percentage of female PE teachers based on the number of female students in the school. Furthermore, schools had to provide appropriate care to female PE teachers during and after pregnancy in accordance with the 1988 regulations concerning the labour protections for female employees. To cater to the distinctiveness of women in PE, the government issued the teaching guidelines for undergraduate PE in ordinary colleges and universities (MoE, 2004), which required PE teachers to acquire the necessary knowledge on ‘female sports physiology’, a subject that has become mandatory in the PE teacher qualification examination.

Quality physical education study and perceptions of female physical education teachers UNESCO in 1978 adopted the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport to promote inclusive access to PE and sports without any form of discrimination. This initiative was followed by other undertakings that gave priority to quality PE [QPE] (e.g., Ho et al., 2014; ICSSPE, 2012; UNESCO, 2005, 2015). In 2019 Tianjin University of Sport engaged in the ‘Global Index of QPE (GIQPE)’ project (Ho et al., 2020). A total of 1,560 (male = 998 and female = 562) professionals from 30 provinces and municipalities participated in China. The questionnaire contained 50 items with eight dimensions: Skill Development and Bodily Awareness (SDBA), Facilities and Norms in Physical Education (FNPE), Quality Teaching of Physical Education (QTPE), Plans for Feasibility and Accessibility of Physical Education (PFAPE), Social Norms and Cultural Practice (SNCP), Governmental Input for Physical Education (GIPE), Cognitive Skill Development (CSD), and Habituated Behaviour in Physical Activities (HBPA). Some findings are the following: Female physical education workers’ perception of QPE development is higher than that of males FNPE received the highest score and PFAPE the lowest score from female PE workers. The dimensions from high to low were SDBA, QTPE, SNCP, HBPA,

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CSD, and GIPE. SDBA, FNPE, QTPE, and PFAPE in school PE received better ratings from women than men (p < 0.05). The other four dimensions (SNCP, GIPE, CSD, and HBPA) also received higher scores from female PE workers than males, but the differences were not significant. The results indicate that female PE workers were more satisfied with the current state of school PE development in their cities than males, with the FNPE dimension viewed as the best. Perception of QPE development highest in female physical education workers from first-tier cities The perceptions of female PE workers about the achievement of the eight QPE dimensions were significantly different between the five city tiers (first-tier cities, new first-tier cities, second-tier cities, third-tier cities, fourth-tier cities, and fifth-tier cities). Female PE workers in fifth-tier cities gave the lowest scores to the QPE dimensions while those in first-tier cities gave the highest scores. The results indicate that female PE workers in more developed cities had higher levels of satisfaction with the current state of school PE development in their cities, which means the degree of city development is an essential factor in the school’s PE development. The more developed the city, the higher the achievement of the eight dimensions of quality PE. Work experience barely influences female physical education workers’ perceptions of QPE development Only the PFAPE scores differed significantly by the length of PE work experience (0–10 years, 11–20 years, and >20 years). In addition, it was found that female PE workers with more than 20 years of work experience gave lower scores than those having less than 10 years of work experience. According to the results, the ratings given by female PE workers did not differ significantly by the length of their work experience, indicating that although female PE workers had different employment durations, they felt similarly about the current state of school PE development in their cities. Primary school physical education teachers’ perceptions of QPE development are the highest The perceptions of female PE workers regarding the achievement of all the QPE dimensions excluding PFAPE were significantly different across different positions (‘teachers in primary schools’, ‘teachers in junior and senior high schools’, ‘teachers in universities and colleges’, and ‘administrators and others’). Female PE teachers in primary and high schools gave higher ratings to the QPE dimensions than college PE teachers, administrators, and others. Overall, primary school PE teachers gave the highest scores. Based on the results, it can be said that female PE teachers across different positions have different perceptions about the

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quality of PE development in their cities. In comparison with female PE teachers in primary and high schools, college PE teachers and other administrators are less satisfied with the current state of school PE development in their cities.

Conclusion Physical education as a profession should not be male-dominated. There is no doubt that the proportion of female PE teachers has increased gradually, and they share the responsibilities with their male colleagues in educating students in sports, exercise, and physical activities. The Ministry of Education provides statistics on the number of female PE teachers in schools (MoE, 2020a, 2020b, 2020c). There are 361,346, 204,910, and 86,796 PE teachers in primary, junior secondary, and regular senior secondary schools, respectively, of whom 95,011, 41,862, and 17,887 are women. The proportion is about 26% in primary and 20% in both junior and regular senior secondary schools. These figures indicate that there is room for improvement in terms of encouraging more women to take up PE as their profession. The GIQPE study indicates that female PE teachers have a better perception than male teachers about quality PE in schools. This means that the cognitive understanding of women in this profession is likely to be higher. No research is available on the constraints that affect women’s career choice in PE. Gender should not be a label, and any gender-based differentiation will hinder the development of women in sports. Achieving gender equality is an essential requirement for not only ensuring quality PE but also for making China a global ‘sports power’. At the national level, school sports policies should be formulated and implemented to ensure that women have equal rights to participate in sports. At the societal level, social media should utilize the internet and other channels to guide the public to establish correct gender perspectives and stop stereotyping women. At the school level, PE teachers should adopt effective methods to guarantee equal access to sports resources to all students regardless of their gender. These changes would give women the opportunity to develop their confidence and focus on self-improvement in and through sports, which paint a bright picture for future feminist development. Implementing the solutions laid down for effectively tackling the many difficulties and challenges expected in this process of change, especially in the less developed regions with low levels of education, would help achieve gender equity in sports-related participation.

References Central People’s Government of the PRC. (2017, July 28). The territory of the People’s Republic of China. www.gov.cn/guoqing/2017-07/28/content_5043915.htm China Population. (2020). In population stat. https://populationstat.com/china/ Dong, J. X. (2003). Women, sport and society in modern China. London: Frank Cass. Dong, J. X. (2009). Analysis of the development of competitive sports in China from the perspective of social gender. China Sports Science, 29(12), 3–11+18.

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Dreyer, M. (2018, April 13). When it comes to sport success in China, it’s all about the women.SupChina.https://supchina.com/2018/04/13/when-it-comes-to-sports-successin-china-its-all0about-the-women/ Du, Y., & Jiang, Z. (2015). Protection of Chinese female human rights. Legal System and Society, 31, 176–177. Fan, H. (2003). Women’s sport in the People’s Republic of China. In P. Massao & K. Fasting (Eds.), Sport and women-social issues in international perspective (pp.  224–237). London: Routledge. Gender Equality and Women’s Development in China. (2020). In permanent mission of the People’s Republic of China to the United Nations office at Geneva and other international organizations in Switzerland. www.china-un.ch/eng/rqrd/jblc/t210715.htm General Administration of Sport of China, & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2013, February 28). Opinions on strengthening national youth campus football work. General Administration of Sport of China, Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, & All China Federation of Trade Union. (2013, December 16). 2013 implementation methods of national physical exercise standard. General Office of the State Council. (2015, March 8). Chinese football reform plan. Ho, W., D’Amico, R., Dinold, M., Benn, T., Antala, B., Wong, B., Huang, F., & Holzweg, M. (2014). Quality development and reform in physical education. In C. Scheuer, B. Antala, & M. Holzweg (Eds.), Physical education: Quality in management and teaching (pp. 46–61). Berlin: Logos Verlag. Ho, W. K. Y., Ahmed, M. D., & Kukurova, K. (2020). Development and validation of an instrument to assess quality physical education. Cogent Education (Accepted). Hunter, A., & Sexton, J. (1999). Contemporary China. New York: St. Martin’s Press. International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education [ICSSPE]. (2012). International benchmarks for physical education systems. Berlin: ICSSPE. www.icsspe.org/system/ files/Final%20ICSP%20Benchmarks%20ICSSPE%20Dec%202012.pdf. Li, M., Dibley, M. J., Sibbritt, D., & Yan, H. (2006). Factors associated with adolescents’ physical inactivity in Xian City, China. Medical Science Sports Exercise, 38(12): 2075– 2085. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000233802.54529.87 Li, R. (2018). The research on limiting factors of women’s participation in sports in urban communities in China (Master’s degree thesis). Henan University, Zhengzhou. Li, S. R., Ma, L., & Ma, H. W. (2007). The cultivation and development of female students’ interest in sports. Journal of Teaching and Management, 7, 102–103. Li, Z., & Yan, Z. (2010). Review of the 60-year reform of the physical education curriculum in basic education in China. Journal of Physical Education, 17(12), 52–56. Liu, R., & Peng, X. (2018). Research on the restrictive factors and promotion path of rural women participation in physical education in China. China School Physical Education, 5(7), 15–19. Liu, X., & Zhang, M. (2018). Historical review and development suggestions for physical education curriculum reform in primary and middle schools in China. Journal of Hebei Sport University, 32(1), 62–66. Liu, Y. (2019). Development dilemma and optimizing path of rural women’s sport. Journal of Guangzhou Sport University, 39(4), 46–49. Ma, D., & Ji, L. (2016). Dilemmas in Chinese women’s elite sports development and coping strategies. Journal of Shenyang Sport University, 35(3), 7–12.

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Ministry of Education. (2020a). Number of full-time teachers in primary school by subject taught and academic qualifications. National Base Situation. http://en.moe.gov.cn/docu ments/statistics/2018/national/201908/t20190812_394196.html Ministry of Education. (2020b). Number of full-time teachers in junior secondary schools by subject taught & academic qualifications. National Base Situation. http://en.moe.gov. cn/documents/statistics/2018/national/201908/t20190812_394259.html Ministry of Education. (2020c). Number of full-time teachers in regular senior secondary schools by subject taught & academic qualifications. National Base Situation. http:// en.moe.gov.cn/documents/statistics/2018/national/201908/t20190812_394323.html Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (1956a). Syllabus of physical education in high schools. Beijing: People’s Education Press. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (1956b). Syllabus of physical education in primary schools. Beijing: People’s Education Press. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (1978). Syllabus of physical education for full-time 10-year primary and high schools (trial draft). Beijing: People’s Education Press. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2001). Curriculum standards for physical education and health curriculum (grades 7–12) for compulsory physical education in full-time ordinary high school (drafts). Beijing: Beijing Normal University Publishing Group. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2002). Syllabus for nine-year compulsory physical education in full-time primary and secondary school. Beijing: People’s Education Press. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2003). Standard of physical education and health curriculum in ordinary high schools (experiment). Beijing: People’s Education Press. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2004, September 29). Teaching guidelines of all kinds of main courses for undergraduate physical education in ordinary colleges and universities. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2011). Curriculum standards for physical education and health curriculum for compulsory physical education. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Publishing Group. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2015, June 25). Suggestions on speeding up the development of youth campus football. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2017). Curriculum standards for physical education and health curriculum for full-time ordinary high school. Beijing: People’s Education Press. National Bureau of Statistics. (2020, January 17). The director of the national bureau of statistics answered questions on the operation state of the national economy in 2019. www.stats. gov.cn/tjsj/sjjd/202001/t20200117_1723470.html National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC). (2016, May 5). The 13th fiveyear plan for sports development. Sheringham, M. (1984). Popularization policies in Chinese education from the 1950s to the 1970s. Comparative Education, 20(1), 73–80. State Education Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (1986, February 27). Suggestions on strengthening the construction of physical education teachers in primary and high schools.

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UNESCO. (2005). UNESCO seminar on quality of physical education and sport. Final Report. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. (2013). Literacy and women’s empowerment: Stories of success and inspiration. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223466 UNESCO. (2015). Quality Physical Education (QPE): Guideline for policy-makers. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. (2016). Promoting health and literacy for women’s empowerment. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245698 UNESCO. (1978). International charter of PE and sport. Paris: UNESCO Whitby, D. (2001). A report on sport in China. International Sports Studies, 23(1/2), 137–152. Writing Group of General Sports Teaching Materials for Primary and Secondary Schools. (1978). Physical education textbook for primary school (full-time 10-year school) (trial ed., 1st ed.). Beijing: People’s Education Press. Writing Group of General Sports Teaching Materials for Primary and Secondary Schools. (1984). Physical education textbook for high school (full-time 10-year school) (trial ed., 1st ed.). Beijing: People’s Education Press. Xia, X. (2015). The library of modern Chinese ideologists. Jin Tian He Lv Bi Cheng Qiu Jin He Zhen Juan. Beijing: China Renmin University Press. Xiong, H. (2012). Qualitative research on the stratification of urban women’s participation in sport. China Sports Science, 32(2), 28–38. Yang, X. (2012). Gender perspective phenomenon in college physical education. Journal of Chengdu Sport University, 38(9), 80–83. Zheng, J. M., Chen, S. S., Tan, T. C., & Lau, P. W. C. (2018). Sport policy in China (Mainland). International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 10(3), 469–491. https://doi. org/10.1080/19406940.2017.1413585 Zhou, D. (2004). School physical education. Beijing: People’s Publishing House. Zhu, X. H., Haegele, J. A., Tang, Y., & Wu, X. P. (2017). Physical activity and sedentary behaviors of urban Chinese children: Grade level prevalence and academic burden associations. BioMed Research International. https://doi.org/10.1155/2-17/7540147.

Chapter 6

Women and sport in Hong Kong Catherine M. Capio and Cindy H.P. Sit

For much of the last decade, the top athlete award in Hong Kong had gone to a woman. Almost like the European football honours that had been either Ronaldo or Messi for years, the top athlete honours in Hong Kong had been a toss-up between cyclist Sarah Lee and snooker player Ng On Yee. There is no dearth of women in high-performance sport in Hong Kong, and they have attracted substantial media attention. Whether this strong presence of women in highperformance sport in Hong Kong is mirrored in the sport and physical activity (PA) participation of women and girls in the wider community is perhaps not as certain. This chapter takes a wide perspective, exploring the Hong Kong context, and how the environment looks like in relation to sport and PA.

Background Hong Kong, comprising a peninsula jutting out of the south-east of China and a number of islands, is home to about 7.5 million people (Census and Statistics Department, 2020). It has a highly developed trade and financial service sector and is characterized by free trade and low tax rates (Hong Kong Economy, 2020). Following more than 150 years of British colonization, the territory was returned to China by Great Britain in 1997. Hong Kong became a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China based on the concept of “one country, two systems”. Soon after the establishment of the SAR, the Hong Kong government sought to position the territory as a top international city, with the branding “Asia’s World City” (Brand Hong Kong, 2020). It appears to be in a position for such a claim based upon the intersection of the Eastern and Western identities that had evolved over its colonial and postcolonial history (Pang, 2014) despite the population being predominantly Chinese – about 92% as of 2016 (Census and Statistics Department, 2017). Indeed, the last two decades had seen Hong Kong manifesting its mixed identity. The population make-up is roughly even, with about 54% females (Census and Statistics Department, 2019). Systemic gender bias, to an extent, is mitigated by laws that had been in place since 1997 to protect women in areas that include education, employment, and community participation (Equal Opportunity

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Commission, 2020). There is a slight imbalance in attainment of secondary education or higher (79% in females, 86% in males), and this has been attributed to older generations of women who had lower chances of getting education (Census and Statistics Department, 2019). In comparison, recent figures show that university enrolment is relatively even (53% females, 47% males). Whilst the labour force participation of women has consistently been lower than that of men, the gender gap has been reduced over the past two decades. As of 2018, the labour force participation of women was 55%, while it was 68% for men. The government generally attributes the narrowing of this gap to improved educational attainment of women, marriage postponement, and increased number of working married women. An income gap persists though, with the median income of women about 22% lower than that of men. Further efforts to advance women’s interests and well-being through government policy and strategy are led by the Women’s Commission that had been set up since 2001 (The Women’s Commission, 2018). It is important to note that Hong Kong has a rapidly ageing population. The projections estimate that in 2036, 31% of the population will be aged 65 years and over (Wong & Yeung, 2019), driven by rising life expectancy and declining birth rates. By United Nation’s standards, such constitutes a super-aged society (United Nations, 2017). Hong Kong women tend to live longer than men by about five years (Census and Statistics Department, 2019). Hence, it is expected that there will be an increasing proportion of those aged 85 years and over in the female population. As life expectancy is tied to the general health conditions of the public, one would also see a disparity in health figures. The most recently reported population health survey revealed that in the age range of 30 to 74 years, 29% of men were at high risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes (e.g., stroke, heart failure) while only 5% of women were categorized as such (Centre for Health Protection, 2017). It appears that compared to men, women in Hong Kong tend to have lower overall risk mortality, live longer, and hence are likely to make up a larger proportion of the aged population. If we were to look far ahead, sports and PA participation by women across the lifespan could potentially mitigate future difficulties and challenges as Hong Kong inevitably transforms into a super-aged society.

Sport and physical activity participation Based on the most recently published statistics by the health authorities, about 56% of Hong Kong people aged 18 to 64 years did not meet the global recommendations on PA for health by the World Health Organisation (Centre for Health Protection, 2017). There is a disparity such that a larger proportion of women (62%) compared to men (49%) routinely missed out on meeting the recommendations. In children, low PA levels and highly sedentary behaviour have been found (Huang et al., 2019). Whilst about half of 6- to 8-year-old children have been reported to be sufficiently active, less than 10% of primary and

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secondary school students self-reported sufficient PA participation. Earlier statistics revealed that females were generally less active than males across childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood (Census and Statistics Department, 2013). Interestingly, this trend changed upon reaching late adulthood (i.e., 65 years and over) where a slightly larger proportion of women (38%) compared to men (34%) were reported to be sufficiently active. As a predominantly Chinese society, consistent evidence suggests that Confucianism holds significant influence on the PA behaviours of Hong Kong people (Pang, 2014). An East Asian philosophy, Confucianism places greater values on family, education, and society and less on PA (Lau, Lee, & Ransdell, 2007). Combined with Hong Kong being a capitalist economy, it has been argued that academic achievement, and subsequently wealth, have become the top priority to achieve or maintain a desirable social status (Pang, 2014). This means that to some extent, PA and sport participation from childhood to adulthood tend to be viewed as distractions that take away efforts that would otherwise be directed at improving social status by way of academic achievements or financial stability (Pang & Ha, 2010). It has been argued that youth participation in sports and PA in Hong Kong often requires negotiation of tensions associated with the postcolonial capitalist society and the Confucian philosophy (Pang, 2014). In this context, girls have reported lack of family support as a major factor that prevents them from participating in sport and PA (Ha, Macdonald, & Pang, 2010).

Sport and schools In general, sport in school is enabled by government policies in Hong Kong. The education authorities, by way of the updated curriculum guides, have explicitly acknowledged physical education (PE) as a key learning area for the primary and secondary school levels. Schools are expected to allocate 5% to 8% of the total lesson time to PE (Curriculum Development Council, 2017a). This means that primary schools are recommended to allocate a minimum of 80 minutes weekly to PE. However, a recent comparison of 14 territories by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) showed that Hong Kong’s policy-mandated instruction time for physical and health education for primary and secondary schools was ranked the lowest and substantially lower than the reported OECD average (OECD, 2019). This suggests that PE curriculum policies comparatively lag behind in Hong Kong compared to most other developed territories. In early childhood education, the kindergarten curriculum guide designates physical fitness and health as one of the key learning areas (Curriculum Development Council, 2017b). Kindergartens are also recommended to allocate no less than 30 minutes of their daily half-day programming for free play (50 minutes for those with whole-day programming), but this is not specifically oriented to sports or PA. Whilst the policies are sound and could certainly promote sport and PA promotion in school, how it is operationalized on the ground is quite varied. For

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instance, the policy on free play in kindergarten is rather broad such that it could be an opportunity for kindergarten teachers to incorporate daily physical activities in lessons, or they could opt for more sedentary free play activities. An audit review by the health and education authorities revealed that 77% of primary schools delivered PE lessons for 70 minutes or more per week (Audit Commission, 2009). The audit, however, did not examine the quality of PE being delivered across the schools. Meanwhile, research had shown that PE in the Hong Kong system tends to be highly assessment-oriented, such that value is placed on performance (e.g., running fast, jumping high) rather than on participation and engagement (Ha et al., 2010). At the macro level, only 28% of primary schools had a documented physical activity-related policy (Audit Commission, 2009). Lack of policy suggests that a systematic approach to promoting sports and PA is generally not in place. Other aspects of the system also appear to be varied, with sports facilities in primary schools ranging from none to as many as 16. Extracurricular sports and PA appear to be popular at some schools which have as many as 20 programmes in a year, but there are schools that have none. These figures suggest that inequity exists in the primary school system, which negatively impacts the extent to which schools serve as a gateway towards sports and PA participation. This inequity is amplified when the public school situation is compared with that of international schools. The growth in the number of international schools in Hong Kong had been viewed as a response to factors such as economic growth, public school reform initiatives, and needs of the expatriate community (Ng, 2012). International schools in Hong Kong make up a discrete category with largely privatized and market-driven operations (Woo, 2013). Parents of children in international schools reportedly favoured that international schools value sport and are not primarily focused on academic achievement (Ng, 2012). Sport and PA in school, it appears, are better experienced by children coming from wealthier families who can afford international schools. Inequity in sports facilities and programme availability could be addressed by recent efforts by the government to promote sport in schools. A scheme was launched in 2017 where public sector schools were offered additional subsidies in exchange for opening up school sports facilities to sports associations (Home Affairs Bureau, 2019). The annual budget for funded school sports programmes had also been increased over the recent years, presumably enabling greater student participation. While the government efforts are certainly in the right direction, there has been no evaluation or monitoring which can determine whether the policy had made any real impact. According to school sector stakeholders, there has been increased effort to provide organized sport opportunities for students (Huang et al., 2019). However, there are currently no data available to assess the uptake of extracurricular sports activities when they are available, as students’ participation had not been evaluated. Despite our knowledge that girls tend to be less active than boys during their school-age years (Census and Statistics Department, 2013), there has been no

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indicator that programmes in schools try to mitigate the gender gap in sport and PA participation. Earlier research had shown that Hong Kong girls tend to view PE less favourably compared to boys, and this attitude tends to become more negative as they enter adolescence (Ha et al., 2010). However, there is no visibility of this knowledge being addressed in school practices. We also have not documented whether girls take part in school sports programmes when they are available. It would be of value to assess whether the available sports and PA programmes address the issues that limit the participation of young girls in Hong Kong. We know that these issues include lack of support from the family and low levels of satisfaction with PE. However, knowledge translation remains a challenge in the education sector.

Sport and the community Hong Kong is regarded as one of the safest places in the world, and a majority of parents feel confident that their neighbourhoods are sufficiently safe for young people to be out engaging in sports and physical activities (Huang et al., 2019). There is a generally positive regard for community sport facilities in terms of location and quality of facilities. Parents of girls, however, tend to be less satisfied with the availability of sport facilities compared to parents of boys. Public parks make up another community structure that serves as a venue for sports and PA, especially for children and young people. Amongst adults, more men tend to utilize public parks compared to women, and men tend to dominate the areas that are designed to accommodate sporting activities such as basketball or tennis (Chow, McKenzie, & Sit, 2016). Government prioritization in recent years had seen an increase in budget committed to development of community recreation and sports facilities (Home Affairs Bureau, 2019). Whether such development would make sport facilities more available and public parks friendlier to women is yet to be seen. Family participation in promoting sport and physical activities appears to be weak (Huang et al., 2019). Only 37% of children and 23% of adolescents regularly engaged in physical activities with their family members (Census and Statistics Department, 2013). Fathers tend to display more positive exercise habits compared to mothers (Yeung, Yuan, Hui, & Feresu, 2016). Considering the role of parents as models in sports and PA participation, our current knowledge suggests that this is an area of concern especially for girls. A study that explored the contributing factors to sports and PA engagement of children found that social and home environments are important contributors to girls, but not to boys, becoming more active (Huang, Wong, & Salmon, 2013). If programmes were to target enabling families to support sport and PA, girls stand to benefit more. It could potentially make a difference in getting more girls to engage in sport. This is perhaps easier said than done. Both men and women in Hong Kong hold gender stereotypical views, perhaps as a result of deep-seated notions of gender roles from their families and the society in general (Fung &

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Ma, 2000). In more current times, gender stereotypes remain prevalent and to an extent, exacerbated by media representation (Women’s Foundation, 2015). It is, therefore, not surprising that Hong Kong girls would find that sports such as rugby or boxing are too rough for girls (Chan, Tufte, Cappello, & Williams, 2011). There is perhaps some progress with changing perspectives in recent years, and girls are gaining confidence associated with sport. Further gains could be in the horizon if families become equally supportive of their daughters’ and sons’ sporting pursuits. Recent years have shown an increase in women’s participation in communityorganized sports. Women in Sports Empowered Hong Kong (WISEHK), which advocates for sports to empower women towards active and meaningful lifestyles, reported from their recent survey that women who engaged in sports tend to play at least twice weekly (WISEHK, 2018). Majority of the respondents felt that playing sports is more challenging for women compared to men in Hong Kong due to physical challenges and family demands. Lower sports participation was observed among women who were married with children. There were also reports of sexism and lack of encouragement to play sports during their youth. This last observation converges with our earlier discussion of families’ role in supporting (or failing to support) girls in pursuing sport. Other community groups now offer some long-term programming in team sports for girls. For instance, soccer programmes are available for girls coming from low-income families that tend to be indifferent towards girls’ sport participation. Such programmes are still few, but they are indicators that community efforts are picking up, such that girls can be brave to bend gender stereotypes in sport.

Sport and competitions Gender stereotyping in the media tends to project women for domestic roles. There is a dissonance, in that women in high-performance sport are much celebrated by the mainstream media and have gone as far as suggesting that in recent times, female elite athletes had been outperforming their male counterparts (Chan, 2018). There are several government bodies involved in developing sport for Hong Kong to be a competitive force internationally. Delivering the operational component of training elite athletes is the Hong Kong Sports Institute (HKSI) which is mandated to prepare athletes for international competitions (Home Affairs Bureau, 2019). Sports are categorized in tiers, such that those that are deemed to have high potential of taking home medals from international competitions – based on recent past performances – are prioritized to receive greater funding. Amongst the top tier of sports supported in 2020–2021, women lead many of the elite athlete lists. Training grants are provided to elite athletes who were nominated by their National Sports Associations (NSA) which serve as the local governing bodies of individual sports. The criteria set out for elite athletes’ financial support are based on history of success in recent competitions, with no

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differences between men and women. In this current funding round, the HKSI webpage features an image of the much-celebrated cyclist Sarah Lee with the caption “The Path to Excellence”. Whilst female elite athletes tend to get similar support as males, it is a different scenario in club sports. Looking at soccer as an example, data in 2018 revealed that the number of women involved in soccer programmes of the Hong Kong Football Association had increased more than 70% year on year (Yuan, 2019). Despite the rising participation trend, female soccer players had been vocal about the challenges in seeking a path towards a professional status. Currently, the Hong Kong Premier League involves only male clubs. Essentially, the women of Hong Kong soccer clubs need to have full-time jobs and their sport could be no more than a hobby. This is no different from the challenges that women’s team sports had faced globally. For instance, the Black Ferns of New Zealand (national women’s rugby team) was underfunded and lacked support for years despite being quite successful internationally and rugby being the most popular sport in their country. It was only in 2018 when the Black Ferns began to have semi-professional contracts that they no longer needed to have full-time jobs to support playing rugby (New Zealand Rugby Players Association, 2018). It would probably take several years for women soccer players to be playing professionally in Hong Kong, but participation is likely to continue on an upward trend as community programmes for girls continue to proliferate. Retirement is another facet of elite athletes’ careers, and globally, it is more challenging for women. Elite women athletes in Hong Kong who were interviewed about their retirement experiences reported factors that were related to those experienced by their global counterparts (Chow, 2001). For instance, educational attainment and qualifications facilitated a better transition from sport to other productive engagements. Those who entered sport early tend to be at a disadvantage as they were more likely to have paid less attention to their education. A factor that appeared to be unique for Hong Kong women was their immigration status – that is, whether they were born in Hong Kong or they immigrated from China. It appeared that those who immigrated, and started sports soon after immigration, had a more difficult transition upon retirement. And this was apparently due to lower educational attainment and less effective communication skills in English. An enabling factor to a smooth retirement from sport is having a partner or a spouse, leading to a suggestion that research needs to explore whether gender stereotypical notions of women and their families continue to persist even among elite women athletes themselves. As we had seen the last decade being dominated by elite women athletes, these notions could well be changing but need to be further examined. Within the high-performance sport system, coaches play a huge role. There are significantly fewer female coaches in Hong Kong compared to male ones. Effectively, athletes have generally lower chances of being coached by a woman (Leung, 2002). A survey reported that more than four in five elite athletes in Hong Kong had male coaches. Most athletes had no preference for a male or a

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female coach, and both male and female athletes regarded female coaches positively. However, the positive regard for female coaches was comparatively higher amongst female athletes than males. Similar to other countries, female coaches in Hong Kong potentially face stress, where there are competing demands for their time coming from family and household duties (Kamphoff, 2010). It is highly likely that this contributes to women dropping out of coaching roles sooner than men. Moreover, gender stereotypes run counter to women assuming coaching roles when they are expected to assume domestic and less authoritative roles (Leung, 2002). The role of a sport manager is yet another track within elite sport, and one that is typically subject to stressors. There was the notion, based on Western literature, that female sport managers likely experience higher stress levels relative to their male counterparts as it is assumed that managers require masculine characteristics (Gmür, 2006). In Hong Kong, however, a study showed that this did not seem to be the case. Overall, sport managers in Hong Kong reported moderate levels of stress, but they were generally satisfied with their jobs (Du, Leung, Fu, & Ransdell, 2012). The relevant contributors to job satisfaction included the organizational climate, work relationships, and work–life balance. Age or experience on the job was not a relevant contributor, and there were no differences between male and female managers in both stress levels and job satisfaction. This finding ran counter to the researchers’ expectations that female sport managers would be far more stressed as their job role conflicts with stereotypical characteristics of a female Asian. It was suggested that the number of women joining the ranks as sport managers in Hong Kong is growing, and that the leadership styles in the local sport and recreation industries are changing. No follow-up on these unique findings had been done, but future work could potentially reveal important mechanisms that enable women sport managers to be satisfied in their roles.

Sport moving forward There are numerous things we know about women in sport in Hong Kong at this point. Government policies protect women from discrimination across life areas that include sports participation, and recent initiatives have injected resources to sport development which could create opportunities for girls to get into sport early. A more targeted approach is perhaps needed from the government systems, as we know that across childhood to early adulthood, females are less likely to participate in sport and PA. We know too, that in late adulthood, women then become more active than men along with having lower risks of mortality and longer life expectancy. It would therefore be a better scenario if we were to see greater equity in sport, PA, and health among men and women across the lifespan. Women excel as individual elite athletes in Hong Kong. Whilst there are not many women coaches, women sport managers appear to be in a good place. In other societies, the visibility of successful female sports personalities leads to young girls being inspired to engage in sports themselves. We have yet to see this

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in Hong Kong, where the likes of Sarah Lee would push young girls to go out, play, and aim high in sport. Discourses in the intricacies of the cultural, social, and economic environment suggest that girls continue to navigate a complex continuum of values (Pang, 2014), and being a girl in sport has not become natural nor easy over time. At this point, Hong Kong is in flux. Much change had taken place in the last two decades. It has been greatly discussed that society had been shaped by its colonial history and also by the Confucian roots of the Chinese people. Recent developments have seen Hong Kong firm up as a capitalist economy. The mix of these aspects of Hong Kong’s social evolution appears to have enabled a widening economic gap and social status of its citizens. Inequity exists, limiting wider sport participation of women in schools and communities. This is perhaps an evolving reality, the impact of which has yet to be truly measured, hence limiting solutions. For the moment, we know that the elite women athletes of Hong Kong bring home fantastic results from the international stage. But girls and women in the wider community need systemic support that would see to a widening understanding of the value of sport participation in women’s lives – that success not only resides in international recognition but also is about daily experiences and multidimensional development across the lifespan.

References Audit Commission. (2009). Healthier lifestyle for primary school children. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Brand Hong Kong. (2020). www.brandhk.gov.hk/html/en/BrandHongKong/WhatIsBrand HongKong.html Census and Statistics Department. (2013). Healthy exercise for all campaign: Physical fitness test for the community. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Census and Statistics Department. (2017). Hong Kong population projections. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Census and Statistics Department. (2019). Women and men in Hong Kong. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Census and Statistics Department. (2020). Population. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. www.censtatd.gov.hk/hkstat/sub/so20.jsp Centre for Health Protection. (2017). Population health survey 2014/2015. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Chan, K., Tufte, B., Cappello, G., & Williams, R. B. (2011). Tween girls’ perception of gender roles and gender identities: A qualitative study. Young Consumers, 12(1), 66–81. Chan, K. W. (2018, March 27). Do Hong Kong’s female athletes really outperform their male counterparts? South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/sport/hong-kong/ article/2139092/do-hong-kongs-female-athletes-really-outperform-their-male Chow, B. C. (2001). Moving on? Elite Hong Kong Female Athletes and Retirement from Competitive Sport, 10(2), 47. Chow, B. C., McKenzie, T. L., & Sit, C. H. (2016). Public parks in Hong Kong: Characteristics of physical activity areas and their users. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(7), 639.

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Curriculum Development Council. (2017a). Key learning area curriculum guide (Primary 1–Secondary 6). Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Curriculum Development Council. (2017b). Kindergarten education curriculum guide: Joyful learning through play, balanced development all the way. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. Du, M., Leung, M.-L., Fu, F. H., & Ransdell, L. (2012). Managerial stress and job satisfaction in the sport and recreation industry in Hong Kong. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 21(1), 15–23. Equal Opportunity Commission. (2020). Discrimination laws. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. www.eoc.org.hk/eoc/graphicsfolder/showcontent.aspx?content=our%20 work-eo%20works Fung, A., & Ma, E. (2000). Formal vs. informal use of television and sex-role stereotyping in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 42(1), 57–81. Gmür, M. (2006). The gendered stereotype of the ‘good manager’ sex role expectations towards male and female managers. Management Revue, 17(2), 104–121. Ha, A. S. C., Macdonald, D., & Pang, B. (2010). Physical activity in the lives of Hong Kong Chinese children. Sport, Education and Society, 15(3), 331–346. Home Affairs Bureau. (2019). Sports policy. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. www.hab.gov.hk/en/policy_responsibilities/sport_policy/sport_policy_ promoting.htm Hong Kong Economy. (2020). Hong Kong economy. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. www.hkeconomy.gov.hk/en/home/index.htm Huang, W. Y., Wong, S. H., & Salmon, J. (2013). Correlates of physical activity and screen-based behaviors in Chinese children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 16(6), 509–514. Huang, W. Y., Wong, S. H. S., Sit, C. H. P., Wong, M. C. S., Sum, R. K. W., Wong, S. W. S., & Yu, J. J. (2019). Results from the Hong Kong’s 2018 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness, 17(1), 14–19. Kamphoff, C. S. (2010). Bargaining with patriarchy. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 81(3), 360–372. doi:10.1080/02701367.2010.10599684 Lau, P. W., Lee, A., & Ransdell, L. (2007). Parenting style and cultural influences on overweight children’s attraction to physical activity. Obesity (Silver Spring), 15(9), 2293–2302. doi:10.1038/oby.2007.272 Leung, M. l. (2002). Attitudes of elite athletes toward female coaches in Hong Kong. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 11(2), 101–114. New Zealand Rugby Players’ Association. (2018). Historic Black Ferns professional performance programme announced. Auckland, NZ: New Zealand Rugby Players’ Association. Ng, V. (2012). The decision to send local children to international schools in Hong Kong: Local parents’ perspectives. Asia Pacific Education Review, 13(1), 121–136. OECD. (2019). OECD future of education 2030: Making physical education dynamic and inclusive for 2030. Paris, France: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Pang, B. (2014). Promoting physical activity in Hong Kong Chinese young people: Factors influencing their subjective task values and expectancy beliefs in physical activity. European Physical Education Review, 20(3), 385–397. Pang, B., & Ha, S. C. A. (2010). Subjective task value in physical activity participation: The perspective of Hong Kong schoolchildren. European Physical Education Review, 16(3), 223–235.

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United Nations. (2017). World population prospects: The 2017 revision key findings and advance tables. New York, USA: United Nations. WISEHK. (2018). Women and sports in Hong Kong 2018 survey. Hong Kong SAR: Women in Sports Empowered Hong Kong. The Women’s Commission. (2018). Introduction. Hong Kong SAR: Hong Kong SAR Government. www.women.gov.hk/en/aboutus/introduction.html Women’s Foundation. (2015). Gender stereotypes in the Hong Kong media: A scoping study. Hong Kong SAR: The Women’s Foundation. Wong, K., & Yeung, M. (2019). Population ageing trend of Hong Kong. Economic Letter, 2019/02. Hong Kong SAR: Office of the Government Economist, Hong Kong SAR Government. Woo, D. (2013). Neoliberalism in two Hong Kong school categories. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 16(1), 37–48. Yeung, D. C. S., Yuan, X., Hui, S. S. C., & Feresu, S. A. (2016). Determinants of moderate to vigorous physical activity and obesity in children: A structural equation modeling analysis. World Journal of Pediatrics, 12(2), 170–176. Yuan, C. (2019, November 6). Women’s football in Hong Kong: Still a long way to go. The Young Reporter. http://tyr.jour.hkbu.edu.hk/2019/11/06/female-soccer-in-hong-kong-still-along-way-to-go/

Chapter 7

Women and sport in India Usha Sujit Nair and Nisha Rebecca Eapen

Introduction to India India is one of the world’s oldest civilizations and also a country of incredible geographic and cultural diversity. Being the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, it is not surprising that India exhibits deep religious and cultural roots, with religion playing a central role in the lives of many people. Though India became a free nation from Great Britain on 15 August 1947, it enjoyed the true spirit of Independence only from 26 January 1950 when the Constitution of India finally came into force. In its 70 years as a sovereign republic, India has several achievements to its credit in the field of science and technology, agriculture, health and sports tiding over huge, social, economic, and environmental hurdles. With 29 states and seven union territories, India is the seventh largest country in terms of physical area. With a population of 1,352,642,280 it is the largest democracy in the world. India contributes a young, tenacious workforce to the world, with more than 50% of its population below the age of 25. Women comprise 48.4% of India’s population. Thus, India possesses a thriving space for the advancement of women in several industries and fields (Wikipedia Demographics of India, 2020). The total worth of the Indian economy in 2019 stood at 2.936 trillion US dollars at current prices placing it at the fifth rank in the world and at 11.326 trillion US dollars corrected for purchasing power parity making it the third largest economy in the world. However, when this wealth is shared by the total population, the per capita wealth amounts to only about 2,338 US dollars placing India at the 122nd rank in the world (Knoema, 2019).

Women in Indian society Indian culture has always attached great importance to the role of women in society. Women’s status in retrospect during the Vedic and Rig Vedic periods (circa 4000–1000 BC) held equal status with that of men, the degradation of women occurring only since 300 BC. The patriarchal joint-family system, the

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structure of property ownership, early marriage, self-immolation of widows (sati) or state of permanent widowhood, all became obstacles to the development of women (Kuppuswamy, 1975). Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Swami Vivekananda lent yeoman service to the advancement of the country signalling emancipation of women battling shades of social stigma. Today, Indian women have exceeded expectations in every single field ranging from social work to space exploration. According to the 2020 Global Gender Gap Index, India currently ranks 112 among 153 countries, with a rank of 149 for economic participation and opportunity and 112 for educational attainment (World Economic Forum, 2020). These startling numbers reveal the extraordinary efforts needed for India in her journey towards gender equity. The Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on gender, upholds women’s right to participate in political and decision-making processes and also reiterates the country’s commitment towards the socio-economic well-being of women in India.

Sport in ancient India Hinduism, the only religion in ancient times, extolled the virtues of physical activity (PA) in bringing harmony between body and mind. One such activity heavily promoted at that time was yoga, “an ancient discipline designed to bring balance and health to the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of the individual” (Ross & Thomas, 2010, p. 3). History of sports in India dates back to the Vedic and Epic era. Music and dancing formed the principal indoor games. However, sport for Indian women was largely recreational. Among the outdoor games they played were chaugam which is now known as polo, sikar or hunting, jhula, jal – krida (water sports) (Singh, 1990, p. 27).

Women in sport in modern India Indian women athletes continue to break barriers in sports, from making it to the podium, taking up sports professionally, and taking charge of their careers. India’s first woman to be a member of the International Olympic Committee was Nita Ambani who made it to Public Affairs and Social Development through Sport 2016–2017, Olympic Channel 2017, and Olympic Education 2017, Culture and Olympic Heritage 2020. Olympic medallist Saina Nehwal was a member of IOC Athletes Commission 2016 (Alleyne, 2016). Legendary sprinter P. T. Usha is a member of the Athletes Commission of the Asian Athletics Association (2019) in recognition of her stellar achievements at the continental stage (Rayan, 2019). Mary Kom, an Olympic boxer is a member of Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the bicameral Parliament of India. Indian women participated in Olympics for the first time in the 1924 Olympics at Paris. It was 76 years later in the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Karnam Malleswari,

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known as the ‘Iron Lady’, became the first Indian woman to win an Olympic medal (bronze) in weightlifting. In the 2012 Beijing Olympics, of the six medals won by India, women won two bronze medals, Saina Nehwal in badminton and Mary Kom in boxing. In the Rio Olympics 2016, a total of 117 Indian athletes participated with 63 men and 54 women, across 15 sports disciplines. It was Indian women who saved the pride of the country with a silver medal won by badminton player P. V. Sindhu and a bronze medal by wrestler Sakshi Malik. Dipa Karmakar narrowly missed a bronze medal to finish fourth in the women’s vault but created history by being one of the only five women who had successfully landed the Produnova, which is regarded as the most difficult vault performed in women’s gymnastics. She was also the first Indian gymnast to have qualified for the Olympics after 52 long years. Hima Das, popularly known as the ‘Dhing Express’ and the ‘Golden Girl’ made history by becoming the first Indian athlete to win a gold medal in women’s 400m at the IAAF World Under-20 Championships in Finland (Loiwal, 2018). In 2016, India sent its largest delegation of 19 competitors (16 men & 3 women) to be part of Rio 2016 Paralympic games in five sports. Deepa Malik was the first Indian woman to win a silver medal at the 2016 Summer Paralympics, in shot put. She is the first physically challenged individual in the country to receive an official rally licence from the Federation Motor Sports Club of India and become a navigator and driver in the toughest car rallies of the country – Raid-de-HIMALAYA 2009 and Desert Storm 2010 (Wikipedia Deepa Malik, 2021).

The sport system in India India has a well-organized yet complex sports system. The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports [MYAS] and the Sports Authority of India [SAI] are the top stakeholders of the Indian sports ecosystem. These government bodies are involved extensively in governance, funding, talent scouting and training (of players as well as coaches), and infrastructure development. All autonomous bodies, Indian Olympic Association, National Sports Federations, State Sports Associations and District Sports Associations, play a major role in organizing and managing sporting events, talent scouting, and training. The Sports Authority of India is the apex national sports body of India, established in 1984 by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of Government of India for the development of sports in the country. SAI has four academic institutions, 12 regional centres, 23 national centres of excellence [NCOE], and 66 sports training centres [STC] (Sports Authority of India, 2020).

Non-governmental sport organizations The non-governmental organizations comprise the Indian Olympic Association, National Sports Federations, and their affiliates at the state level. SAI recognizes 56 national sports federations including those of indigenous games. Both

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governmental and non-governmental organizations are involved in the sports development process. To realize India’s Olympic medal dream at the 2016 (Rio) Olympic Games, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports established the Target Olympics Podium Scheme [TOPS] in September 2014. The TOPS-sponsored athletes gained relative success at the 2016 Rio Olympics and the 2018 Commonwealth Games [CWG]. In the 2016 Paralympic Games, the TOPS Athletes won two gold, one silver, and one bronze demonstrating the effectiveness of the Scheme. Out of the 70 athletes who won medals at the CWG, 47 of them were supported under the TOPS (Sports Authority of India, 2019). Khelo India, being the national programme for sport development in India, was introduced with the purpose of attaining the twin objectives of mass participation and promotion of excellence. Khelo India aims at strengthening the entire sports ecosystem under its 12 schemes which include (1) playfield development; (2) community coaching development; (3) support to national, regional, and state sports academies; (4) physical fitness of school children; (5) state-level Khelo India centres; (6) annual sports competitions; (7) talent search and development; (8) promotion of sports amongst people with disabilities; (9) promotion of rural, indigenous, and tribal sports; (10) sports for women; (11) utilization, creation, and upgradation of sports infrastructure; and (12) sports for peace and development. The budgetary allocation for Khelo India scheme during 2018–2019 was ₹500.09 crore (66,537,869.66 US dollars). A total of 99 academies (SAI, state government/central government and private) have been accredited for the training of the Khelo India athletes. Khelo India Mobile Application was successfully launched to enable the public to get information and ease of access to the various aspects of the game. Under ‘physical fitness of school going children’ component, 1,168 schools and 23,947 assessors are registered. For physical fitness assessment, 2,70,821 student profiles have been created in the Khelo India Mobile App. 2,124 trainees are covered under 18 state-level Khelo India Centres of Sports Authority of India (Press Information Bureau, 2019).

Professional sport leagues A paradigm shift of Indian sports during the last decade was the introduction of professional league tournaments. There are nine professional sports leagues in India. In addition to the most successful Indian Premier League [IPL] in cricket for men, the entry of women in professional leagues is encouraging. There are three leagues specific to women in football, cricket, and kabaddi, while badminton and table tennis have men and women teams. Indian Women’s League is the top division league in India with six teams. Premier Badminton League has seven teams. Women’s T20 Challenge known as the Women’s IPL has four teams; Women’s Kabaddi Challenge has three teams. The Ultimate Table Tennis is a professional level with six teams. In terms of equal pay for equal work, women are paid less compared to their male counterparts.

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Education in schools India, with over 1.5 million schools, over 8.7 million primary and secondary teachers, and more than 260 million enrolled, is home to the largest and most complex education system in the world. Two prominent initiatives of the Indian government, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan [SSA – ‘Education for All Campaign’] in 2001 and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, have promoted greater foci on issues of access, inclusivity, and quality in education. The thrust on providing primary education has yielded results across the social categories and gender with Gross Enrolment Rate [GER] exceeding 100. Over the years remarkable progress is noticed in respect of female participation up till secondary level and GER of girls has exceeded that of boys (MHRD School Education & Literacy, 2018). Physical Education (PE) is not given due importance like other academic subjects in school curriculum.

Physical education in schools The National Policy on Education (1986/92) clearly stated and the National Curriculum Framework for 2005 further reiterated that Health and PE is a compulsory subject from classes 1–10 (NCERT, 2005). In addition, Central Board of Secondary Examination (CBSE) has introduced Health and Physical Education Program to mainstream health and PE in schools for students of classes 1–12. Fit India Mission was introduced by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in August 2019 with a view to making physical fitness a way of life in schools. In addition, the Department of School Education and Literacy has launched an Integrated Scheme for School Education – Samagra Shiksha. Realizing the need for the holistic development of children, the sports and PE components were introduced under Samagra Shiksha for the encouragement of sports, physical activities, yoga, and co-curricular activities (India Today, 2019). The results of the 2016 Indian Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth revealed that most Indian children do not achieve recommended levels of PA and spend most of their day in sedentary pursuits (Katapally et al., 2016). Studies conducted on 1680 children aged 3–11 years in seven major urban cities in India (Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai, New Delhi, and Surat) showed that only 17% of children met PA guidelines (Gulati et al., 2014). Community’s perception of environment as it relates to PA is seen in increased infrastructure (sidewalks, bike trails), as well as availability of playgrounds and parks for outdoor play. The results in one of the major Indian cities, Bengaluru, were perceived to be relatively safe, walkable, and comprised diverse destinations (Larouche et al., 2015). However, there is a wide disparity in the features of built environment among cities, towns, and rural areas.

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Physical education colleges The government-subsidized PE and sports institutes, the National Sports University in Manipur; Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education, Gwalior; Netaji Subhas Bose National Institute of Sports, Patiala; Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education, Thiruvananthapuram; and four State Sports Universities offer courses in PE, coaching, and allied areas in master’s and doctoral level degrees. Regarding colleges of PE, the teacher training courses have to be recognized by National Council for Teacher Education [NCTE], which is the statutory body for regulation and standards of teacher education in India. There are 314 PE colleges recognized by NCTE offering bachelor’s degree in physical education (BPEd degree) across the country, and 92 colleges offering master’s degree (MPEd degree). Most of these universities also offer doctoral programmes. Based on the number of students enrolled in these courses, we can estimate that about 23,550 PE teachers/coaches are certified every year (NCTE, 2020). However, this figure falls way below the annual demand.

Sports at the university level Association of Indian Universities [AIU] is an organization and association of major universities in India which was founded in 1925. The sports competitions at the tertiary level of education come under the auspices of the AIU with nearly 903 universities, 39,050 affiliated colleges, and 15 universities exclusively for women (All India survey on higher education, 2018). The Inter University Sports Board of India, a specialized unit of the AIU organizes and conducts the inter-university tournaments. The first Khelo India university games were introduced in February 2020. The Department of Higher Education under the Ministry of Human Resource Development [MHRD] has introduced the Fit India Movement for students and staff of all institutions (Jain, 2020).

Grassroots coaching The Khelo India programme has been introduced to revive the sports culture in India at the grassroots level by building a strong framework for all sports played in the country and to establish India as a great sporting nation. Initiatives have been taken by the All India Football Federation (AIFF) for implementation of the grassroots programme in five states in India. According to FIFA and the AIFF there are 20,587,900 players of whom 1,567,000 are female (FIFA, 2007). Some of the companies broadening their scope of work to sports at grassroots level in football and orientation to physical activities are by IL&FS, Reliance, JSW Steel, Aditya Birla group, and PVR group.

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Persisting challenges Notwithstanding the significant increase in the level of sports participation opportunities for women, they still struggle to obtain positions of power within sports administration and in the ranks of coaching. In Indian sports association governing bodies, the female representation lies somewhere between 2% and 8%. Hockey India is the only exception with 34% female representation (Governance of Sports in India, 2016). Very few female coaches have been recognized by federations. Of the total 1013 coaches in SAI, only 183 are females (Sports Authority of India, 2015). Among the many challenges that women face in sports, pay gap is the most glaring. The Board of Control of Cricket in India’s (BCCI) annual player contract for October 2019 to September 2020 for Men was seventy million (Indian National Rupees) for Grade A+, fifty million, thirty million and ten million for Grade A, B and C respectively; whereas in the Women category it was INR five million, three million and one million for Grade A, B and C respectively (Shah, 2020). Female athletes such as Santhi Soundarajan and Dutee Chand had experienced stigmatization and emotional trauma following gender testing to prove that they are women. India’s fastest woman sprinter Dutee Chand made history when she successfully challenged the validity of an international rule of athletics that disqualified her from competition because of the ‘masculine’ level of naturally occurring testosterone in her body (Krech, 2016). In May 2019, she publicly admitted that she was in a same-sex relationship. She became the first Indian athlete ever to come out with such an open confession (Ives, 2019). Same-sex relationships remain a taboo in India. Sexual harassment constitutes a gross violation of women’s right to equality and dignity. Some drop out of sport because of constant harassment and abuse. Only a few instances of sexual harassment get reported (Press Information Bureau, 2013). To address this issue the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 and Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012 have been implemented in every organization (Ministry of Women and Child Development, 2015). Women also face disparity in media coverage. Media representations of sports and athletes can contribute to the construction of harmful gender stereotypes. Media tend to represent women athletes as women first and athletes second. A study of two English newspapers in India in their coverage of the 2014 Incheon Asian Games revealed that women medallists were given less coverage than their male counterparts (Kohli, 2016). When Sania Mirza won the mixed doubles in tennis, neither newspaper showed her in action on court. Mid-Day, however, carried one photograph of her posing with the trophy and another attending a fashion show. Three times World champion boxer Mary Kom won gold, but the news became prominent only when a Bollywood movie featuring Priyanka Chopra was made on her life. Geeta Phogat, female wrestler, was recognized more for her

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biopic movie Dangal as compared to her performance in sport (Chattopadhyay, 2017). When women’s sports do receive media coverage, the language used to describe women athletes reinforces notions of inferiority or difference concerning women’s athletic ability and the acceptability of women’s participation in sports (Nair & Karthika, 2018). A gender gap is prevalent in sports awards as well. The Arjuna award is given for outstanding achievement in sports, with 63.89% awards for men and only 36.0% awards for women. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, awarded to athletes who have displayed outstanding performances in the field of sports, has still maintained disparity with 63.88% awards for men and 36.11% for women. The gap is further prevalent in the Dhyan Chand awards for lifetime achievement in sports and games with 87.27% men recipients and 12.72% women recipients. Dronacharya awards for outstanding coaches were awarded to 95.45% men as against only 4.54% women, which is also one of the basic reasons for the lack of female coaches in India. Cultural and religious factors also prevent women and girls from engaging in sport. Mary Kom revealed how her father objected her taking up boxing because he felt that it would spoil her looks and ruin her marriage prospects. Geeta and Babita Kumari, wrestlers from rural Haryana, had to contend with sharp verbal attacks from local villagers and the extended family, who maintained that nobody would marry a girl with muscles, and that wrestling like men would bring dishonour to women (Philipose, 2011). Teenage girls drop out from sport as a result of family, peer pressures, marriage, and other social constructs. The aspirations of young girls (aged 16–34 years) from low-income groups in three categories (urban, peri-urban, and rural) of cities such as Bengaluru, Delhi (NCR), Hyderabad, and Mumbai revealed that in the urban sector 4.4%, in peri-urban 0.8%, and in rural only 1% of women wanted to take up the profession of sport and performing arts (United Nations Development Program [UNDP], Women Voices, 2015). Public spaces are perceived to be unsafe by adolescent girls and also by their families for various reasons, impacting the lives of these girls in various ways (Save the Children, 2018). The International Center for Research on Women [ICRW] research on reasons for girl’s non-participation in play in slums of Mumbai, parents cited lack of safety as the primary reason for not sending girls to play in public spaces.

Glimmers of hope With all the challenges there is a bright side for women in sport in India. Role models are certainly emerging. P. V. Sindhu, India’s most highly acclaimed female badminton player, Sakshi Malik, a female wrestler, and Vinesh Phogat are household names. Parents are motivating their daughters to take up sport. These women appear in the news, endorse varieties of products, and are among the most recognized celebrities in their sports. As a result, young female sports aspirants

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have more exposure to female role models and are encouraged by the awareness of what women can achieve. ICRW implemented the Promoting Adolescents’ Engagement, Knowledge and Health [PAnKH] programme on 6,600 girls in the age group of 12–19 years, in the district of Dholpur, Rajasthan through group educational activities and sport sessions of kabaddi across 60 intervention clusters. Sports sessions were the most popular element of the programme, the sessions allowed the girls to challenge unwritten norms, helped them expand their social networks, and gave them confidence (Verma et al., 2019). ICRW began Parivartan for girls for the promotion of kabaddi in the Shivaji Nagar slum community in Mumbai. This helped create a supportive environment at the family and community level and helped foster confidence and teamwork (Das, 2016). Sports films in popular Hindi cinema such as Lagaan in 2001 and Chak De! India in 2007, and Dangal in 2016 promoted women sports in a big way. Dangal revealed the struggle of a female wrestler (Vilvaraj, 2019). Sakshi Malik became the ambassador for female baby marketing campaign in Haryana where sex ratio crossed 900 girls to 1000 boys for the first time in a decade. Leagues and global championships have resulted in increased female participation. The number of female Olympic athletes who were part of the Indian contingent has more than doubled from that in Beijing in 2008 (25) to Rio in 2016 (54). Private entities have played a big role in commercializing sport, hence women in previously disregarded sports can now expect to be given more attention and can financially support themselves to a significant extent. Wrestling is hugely popular in India, but most wrestlers are men. The average Indian woman makes less than 200 rupees (2.80 US dollars) an hour. Yet, as a star wrestler and one of the few females in the sport Vinesh Phogat earned around 35,000 US dollars for five matches. In 2016, the film Dangal based on her family became the highest grossing Indian film ever made, netting over 300 million US dollars worldwide (Faliero, 2019). Badminton is no longer considered a male-dominated sport after consistent victories of women players such as Saina Nehwal and P.V. Sindhu. With women winning medals, their commercial brand value has matched or exceeded their male counterparts. Sindhu, with a total earning of 5.5 million US dollars, is India’s most marketable female athlete (Kurt, 2019). India is the second-largest market globally by the number of internet subscribers, only behind China. It had encouraged broadcasters in India to increasingly utilize the internet for live sports broadcasting. The 2016 season of the IPL had a female viewership of 42%, up from 38% in 2014 (Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler [KPMG], 2016). In the first Indian Super League [ISL] season, a staggering 57% of the 429 million viewers were women and children. International Cricket Council [ICC] Women’s T20 World Cup saw unprecedented growth in the consumption of T20 women’s cricket, resulting in the official broadcaster Star Sports setting new records. Consumption rose three times to 5.4 billion minutes during the tournament (ET Brand Equity, 2020).

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Over the past decade, sport in India has changed considerably. It has helped empower women, encouraged inclusivity, and also created more job opportunities. Deeply engrained gender stereotypes are being challenged and revoked. With this, there is a rise in strong female leadership in sports which will bring in more girls and women. There are still innumerable challenges that India’s sportswomen face, yet the future for women’s sports looks promising.

References Alleyne, G. (2016, October 18). Nehwal on IOC Athletes’ Commission. BWF Newsletter. https://bwfbadminton.com/news-single/2016/10/18/nehwal-on-ioc-athletescommission All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE). (2018). AISHE, MHRD 2017–18. https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload files/mhrd/files/statistics-new/AISHE2017-18.pdf Chattopadhyay, D. (2017). Gender bias in India’s newspaper coverage of male and female athletes at the 2014 Incheon Asian Games. Global Media Journal: Indian Edition, 8, 1. www.caluniv.ac.in/global-mdia-journal/Article-Nov-2017/A6.pdf Das, M. (2016). ICRW program gives girls in Mumbai slum the chance to claim public spaces. www.icrw.org/icrw-programs-gives-girls-in-mumbai-slum-the-chance-to-claim-public-spaces/ ET Brand Equity. (2020, March). ICC Women’s T20 World Cup breaks T20 viewership records. https://brandequity.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/media/icc-womenst20-world-cup-breaks-t20-viewership-records/74815820 Faliero, S. (2019, October). In the ring with India’s most powerful women. The Economist 1843 Stories of Extraordinary World. www.1843magazine.com/features/in-the-ring-withindias-most-powerful-woman FIFA. (2007, July 3). Big count 2006 statistical summary report by association. www.fifa.com/ mm/document/fifafacts/bcoffsurv/statsumrepassoc_10342.pdf Governance of Sports in India. (2016). In govern research services corporate governance research & advisory services August 2016. www.ingovern.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/ 08/Governance-of-Sports-in-India.pdf Gulati, A., Hochdorn, A., Paramesh, H., Paramesh, E. C., Chiffi, D., Kumar, M., & Baldi, I. (2014). Physical activity patterns among school children in India. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 81(S1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-014-1472-x India Today. (2019, November 25). NCERT, CBSE give special attention to physical education, explains HRD Ministry. India Today. www.indiatoday.in/education-today/ news/story/ncert-cbse-give-special-attention-to-physical-education-explains-hrdministry-1622484-2019-11-25 Ives, M. (2019, May 20). Sprinter Dutee Chand becomes India’s first openly gay athlete. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2019/05/20/world/asia/india-dutee-chand-gay. html Jain, R. (2020, January 15). Action plan and schematic plan for ‘Fit India Campaign’. University Grants Commission, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/1616415_Fit-India-Campaign.pdf Katapally, T. R., Goenka, S., Bhawra, J., Mani, S., Krishnaveni, G. V., Kehoe, S. H., & McNutt, K. (2016). Results from India’s 2016 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 13(s2), S176–S182. https://doi. org/10.1123/jpah.2016-0393

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Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler [KPMG]. (2016, September). The business of sports, playing to win as the game unfurls. https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/in/pdf/2016/09/ the-business-of-sports.pdf Knoema. (2019). World GDP ranking 2019. https://knoema.com/nwnfkne/world-gdpranking-2019-gdp-by-country-data-and-charts Kohli, D. (2016). Gender discrimination in sports: Depleting respect of women players in India. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). www.ijsr.net/archive/v6i12/ ART20179052.pdf Krech, M. (2016). To be a woman in the world of sport global regulation of the gender binary in elite athletics. IILJ Emerging Scholars Paper 25. www.iilj.org/wp-content/ uploads/2016/08/Krech-To-Be-a-Woman-in-the-World-of-Sport-IILJ-ESP-25–2016.pdf Kuppuswamy, B. (1975). Social change in India (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Vikas Publications. Kurt, B. (2019, August 6). The highest-paid female athletes 2019: Serena and Osaka dominate. www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2019/08/06/the-highest-paid-femaleathletes-2019-serena-and-osaka-dominate/#272ade192fcc Larouche, R., Sarmiento, O. L., Broyles, S. T., Denstel, K. D., Church, T. S., Barreira, T. V., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2015). Are the correlates of active school transport contextspecific? International Journal of Obesity Supplements, 5(S2), S89–S99. https://doi. org/10.1038/ijosup.2015.25 Loiwal, M. (2018, July 23). Hima Das: Tracing sprinters journey from Assam’s rice fields to global stardom. India Today. www.indiatoday.in/sports/athletics/story/hima-das-tracingstar-sprinter-s-journey-from-assam-s-rice-fields-to-global-stardom-1293921-2018-07-23 Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of School Education & Literacy. (2018). Educational statistics at a glance. https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/ files/statistics-new/ESAG-2018.pdf Ministry of Women and Child Development. (2015, November). Handbook on Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace act, 2013. www.iitk.ac.in/wc/data/Handbook%20 on%20Sexual%20Harassment%20of%20Women%20at%20Workplace.pdf Nair, A. R., & Karthika, C. (2018). Gender unevenness in the sports pages of newspapers: A case study based on Indian womens cricket team. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 118, 18. https://acadpubl.eu/jsi/2018-118-18/articles/18b/38.pdf NCERT. (2005). National curriculum framework. www.ncert.nic.in/rightside/links/pdf/ framework/english/nf2005.pdf NCTE. (2020). Recognized institutions. https://ncte.gov.in/Website/RecognizedInstitutions. aspx Philipose, P. (2011, March 6). An uneven playing field. Hindustan Times. www.hindustan times.com/india/an-uneven-playing-field/story-M1r1ox7OHfvzHzoA2JtQoI.html Press Information Bureau (PIB). (2013, December 18). Sexual harassment of women sportspersons, ministry of youth affairs and sports, government of India. https://pib.gov.in/newsite/ PrintRelease.aspx?relid=101976 Press Information Bureau (PIB). (2019, June, 27). Khelo India scheme. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, Government of India. https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease. aspx?relid=190865 Rayan, S. (2019, August 13). P. T. Usha appointed member of AAA’s athletes commission. Sportstar. https://sportstar.thehindu.com/athletics/pt-usha-member-asian-athleticsassociation-athletes-commission-olga-rypakova-wang-yu-lee-hup-wei-saad-shaddad/ article29087115.ece

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Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: A review of comparison studies. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine, 16(1), 3–12. doi:10. 1089/acm.2009.0044 Save the Children. (2018). WINGS, world of India’s girls a study on the perception of girls’ safety in public spaces. www.savethechildren.in/sci-in/files/4d/4d92487b-e91d-4b8c-96e4d581ffefced4.pdf Shah, J. (2020, January 16). BCCI announces annual player retainership 2019–20: Team India Board of Cricket Control of India (BCCI). www.bcci.tv/articles/2020/news/144219/ bcci-announces-annual-player-retainership Singh, M. K. (1990). Indian women and sports. Jaipur: Rawat Publishers. Sports Authority of India, MYAS. (2015, August 25). Seniority list of coaches on all India basis. https://sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/showfile.asp?link_temp_id=2125 Sports Authority of India, MYAS. (2019, September 4). TOPS. https://sportsauthorityo findia.nic.in/index1.asp?ls_id=3812 Sports Authority of India, MYAS. (2020, June 18). National center of excellence. https:// sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/tview3.asp?link_temp_id=9649 UNDP, Women Voices. (2015). Employment and entrepreneurship in India, 2015. www. in.undp.org/content/india/en/home/library/poverty/women-s-voices-employment-andentrepreneurship-in-india.html Verma, H., Sebastian, D., Gautam, A., Verma, R., Das, M., Achyut, P., Soni, R., Andrew, A., Krutikova, S., Smarrelli, G., & Sharma, S. (2019). Pushing boundaries by engaging adolescent girls and communities evidence from evaluation of the PanKH program in Rajasthan, India. ICRW. www.icrw.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/05/ICRW_Pankh_ Policy_Brief_1Apr2019_For_Web-002.pdf Vilvaraj, S. V. (2019). A study on representation of sports women in Indian cinema. International Journal of Scientific Research, 7(1), 1–14. http://ijsrr.co.in/images/full_ pdf/1550640230_Serah_Vinodini_Vilvaraj.pdf Wikipedia Deepa Malik (2021, January 20). Deepa Malik. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Deepa_Malik Wikipedia Demographics of India. (2020, April 18). Demographics of India. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DemographicsofIndia World Economic Forum. (2020). Global gender gap report. www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_ GGGR_2020.pdf

Chapter 8

Indonesian Muslim female athletes Wearing the hijab with pride Mustika Fitri Nur Andini Suryalestari and Wulandari Putri

Introduction Indonesia is a country located in South East Asia crossed by the equator. Indonesia is also one of the largest archipelago countries in the world, consisting of 17,504 islands with a population of 270,054,853. It is the fourth country with the highest population. Six main religions are practised in Indonesia, including Islam, Christianity (Protestant), Christianity (Catholic), Hinduism, Buddhism, and Konghuchu. The majority of Indonesians (87.2%) are Muslim; however, they accept the presence and practice of other religions. Hermawati, Paskarina, and Runiawati (2017) stated that the tolerance index among religions in Indonesia is in the high category. This high tolerance is evidenced in daily life, such as maintaining harmony in the society, respecting all religious celebrations, treating everybody with justice regardless of their tribe, race, or religion. These could only be implemented because Indonesian people have high social respect.

Indonesian women The status of the Indonesia woman was upheld by a heroine named Raden Ajeng Kartini, born in Jepara on 21 April 1879 to the Regent of Jepara, Raden Mas Adipati Ario Sosroningrat. Hailed as the first feminist of the country, her birthday is celebrated as “Hari Ibu Kartini” (Kartini Day) in commemoration of Indonesian women’s emancipation (Natih, 2009). The huge social gap between men and women burdened Kartini and motivated her to take action in support of women’s right for equal opportunities in society, including education and improvement of their condition in society. Education was initially reserved for women from certain families that belonged to particular classes. Although she was privileged to belong to a family that gave her access to education, Kartini soon realized the power of education in providing greater opportunities to women and that other women, rich or poor, should have access to it as well. Thus, after obtaining permission to open the first ever all-girls school in her home, she created her own syllabus and system of instruction in 1903. The school offered practical skills, such as stitching, sewing, and cooking, vocational training and general

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education in art, literature, and science, while developing the character of young women (Natih, 2009). Although R.A. Kartini became a prominent figure among Indonesian women during her time, she met a great deal of challenges resulting from various factors such as economic limitations and patriarchal culture (Taylor, 2017). Furthermore, her early death resulting from childbirth prevented her from witnessing the fruits of her labour. However, the pioneering efforts of Kartini for the emancipation of Indonesian women eventually paved the way for great changes in their education, economic situation, and social status. At present, the government has taken a definitive stance in promoting women’s rights and empowerment of women in the country, with constitutional and legal support that underscore its commitment to the importance of freedom and protection from all forms of discrimination, particularly against women. In its Broad Outline of State Policies (1988) it is stated, “Women, both as citizens and as human resources for development, have the same rights, obligations, and opportunities as men in all fields of national life and in all development activities”. Furthermore, the values of Islam enshrined in the culture of Indonesia also provide wider opportunities for women in Indonesia for the development of the country (Luthfiyah, 2015). This has been demonstrated by the leadership position of women as a mayor, governor, minister, parliamentarian, or president. The commitment to the protection of women has been translated in its National Medium-Term Development Plan/Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah Nasional (RPJMN). Specifically, the 2015–2019 RPJNM articulates three objectives that aim to address the issue of women’s empowerment, namely the role of women in development, protection of women against violence, and institutional capacity on gender mainstreaming and the protection of women (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 2019). Among the concrete initiatives on this include the provision of “molin and torlin”, which are protection cars and motorcycles made available to women and children who are victims of violence (Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection of the Republic of Indonesia, 2020). Indonesian Muslim women are known for their religious disposition, as shown by the large number of organizations for Muslim women that offer activities such as leadership workshops, training sessions on women empowerment, and other social events. Additionally, their deep awareness of the religious importance of hijab compels them to wear hijabs in public events, including those involving sports. Although the use of female head-covering is entirely optional and not obligatory under Indonesian national and regional law, most Muslim women continue to wear hijab that suits their needs, while engaging in sporting activities. Therefore, hijab has not been an obstacle for Indonesian Muslim women to engage in a variety of physical activities. In view of modernization, Western culture that runs counter to many of its traditions and norms has infiltrated Indonesian society. This development appears to be more pronounced among Indonesian women than men, which could be

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positive or negative, depending on how one looks at it. Some may welcome it as a form of empowering women to go beyond their traditional roles and activities while others may resist it as a threat to long-held traditions and values. However, many are optimistic that the rich culture of Indonesia will not easily be subverted by the negative consequences of unregulated assimilation of Western culture. Most of the Indonesian women still uphold their Eastern traditions in high regard, as seen in their language, speech, attitude, and manners. The local wisdom of the women can also be observed from the interesting characteristics of Javanese life. The natives of the Indonesian island of Java are the largest ethnic group in Indonesia. In particular, a Javanese woman’s strength is not seen as a threat to men or to the wider society. Their tenderness, patience, and understanding are the hallmarks of their womanhood. These behaviours of Indonesian women are primarily guided by the principles of manner and courtesy that are deeply rooted in Islamic teachings and regulations for women in the Al-Quran and Sunnah. Because women are directed by religious norms, they are expected to prioritize their main duty as a mother and a wife when they work or attend to other social commitments (Fitri, Sultoni, Salamuddin, & Harun, 2017). Indonesian women, particularly the Javanese, have taken an active role to preserve their culture, which is the result of the acculturation of Islamic and Javanese values and practices. This is done through the promotion of different cultural activities, such as cooking Indonesian traditional food, showcasing traditional dance, and actively participating in various cultural activities in their locality. Most of all, this culture is embodied in the unique character of the Indonesian woman who is known to be tidy and respectful of others and of herself (Inawati, 2014). These traits extend to the hospitality of Indonesian women who readily smile and greet others and are known for their sociable personality (Shonhaji, 2017). Thus, even in the world of sports, these characteristics of Indonesian women are recognized.

Hijab and participation of women in sports For many Muslim Indonesian women, participation in sports is hindered by controversies surrounding the wearing of hijab. Therefore, it is necessary to first examine the general issues related to the wearing of hijab by Muslim women and then discuss the impact of the hijab on Indonesian women’s sports who share similar experiences with other women in Muslim populations. Hijab bans have been introduced in countries such as Turkey and France. The prohibition of hijab in Turkey was initially imposed by the University of Ankara in 1968 and followed by the prohibition of wearing hijab among civil servants in 1978 (Bayram, 2009). On 15 March 2004, France enacted a law to ban all Islamic manifestations, including the wearing of hijab in primary and middle schools. The law states that students are prohibited to wear symbols or clothes manifesting their religious affiliations; this law was applied in all public schools

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and educational institutions, except for public universities (Semenova  & Kiseleva, 2015). The prohibition of wearing hijab was imposed not only on students in a country, but was likewise enforced in various sporting activities. In some tournaments, female athletes were disqualified from competing because they wore hijab. In 2010, the Federation of International Football Association (FIFA) issued law number 4 which states that wearing head- cover (hijab) for Muslim women players is considered unsafe during a match (Hamzeh, 2015). At the 2012 world Olympics an Iranian woman player who wore hijab was forbidden to join the competition based on FIFA regulations stipulating that hijab was considered unsafe for sport participation (Ryan, 2012). In a similar incident, a judoka from Saudi Arabia who failed to follow the Olympic rules against wearing hijab was eventually allowed to join the competition upon the favourable decision of the International Olympic Committee (Waldie & Gordon, 2012). However, the Indonesian judoka who insisted on wearing hijab at the 2018 Southeast Asian Games (SEAG) was disqualified from participating in her event. She says, “I want to show athletes wearing hijab to perform in Indonesia Competition Events, and I have to have a motivation and spirit to show to the world that I am not alone” (Fajriah, 2017). This controversy over the hijab extends even to Paralympic sports. Limoochi, as one of the committee members of Paralympic games explains, “attire is one of major problems faced by women athletes with a disability in Islamic countries, such as Egypt, Iran, Malaysia, Qatar, Soudan, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen” (Limoochi & Le Clair, 2011). For the revocation of the prohibition against wearing hijab, a campaign was formed by Prince Ali Bin Al Hussein who explained that wearing hijab is a cultural expression of courtesy and not a religious symbol (Hamzeh, 2015). On 5 July 2012, FIFA issued a statement in agreement to the use of hijab for a specified time and conducted a trial investigation on the clothes that athletes are wearing in competition (Reeves & Azam, 2012). Because wearing hijab is obligatory in public places for Muslim women, including in sporting events, athletes have to choose between sport and religion, or between sport rules and country regulations. The Muslim female runner Aljazair Hassiba Boulmerka, gold medallist in the 1992 Olympics, was compelled to isolate herself to avoid the death penalty as the result of her decision to wear shorts in the tournament (Limoochi & Le Clair, 2011). The prohibition against wearing hijab in sporting events pushed some countries and Islamic women sport federations to organize special events for women, named the Islamic World Games. The event was participated by about 60 Islamic countries and involved 17 sports. Another such event was the third Islamic Solidarity Games that was attended by Muslim women from Malaysia and Indonesia who competed in badminton, swimming, and volleyball events (Fitri et al., 2017). Differences exist among Islamic countries that oblige their women to wear hijab. For instance, in Iran, after the revolution in 1979, wearing hijab in public places has become an obligation for women, which has affected different aspects

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of women’s life as well as sport activities (Bagheri & Bagheri, 2012). Brenner (1996) argues, “the motivation of women in wearing hijab depends on themselves, religion, and politics”. He also says, “Hijab cannot merely be understood as a form of authority of the body”. Although hijab is an obligation for Muslim women in every activity, women have different motivations and practices in this regard. Some of them wear hijab when doing sport activities, while others put off the hijab during sport activities. Indonesian women have undoubted ability in sport, proven by the achievements of female athletes, many of whom chose to wear hijab during sport activities. For example, Aries Susanti, a climbing athlete, won the gold medal in the Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) Championship 2018 in China. She outperformed her opponent, Yilingsong, by nine seconds despite wearing a hijab. Pipiet Kamelia, who also wore a hijab in all competitions, won a gold medal in Pencak Silat sport in Asian Games 2018. Bunga, another Indonesian female athlete aged 12, who wore hijab in all her competitions despite her young age, won a bronze medal in a skateboard competition. Several Indonesian female athletes are consistent in wearing hijab in every competition, and they have shown that hijab is not a barrier for sport participation and performance. By wearing hijab as customary to their beliefs and culture, they have become more confident that they could perform maximally. In response to questions regarding the use of hijab among elite female athletes, one sportswoman said, “I will resign from the Indonesia national team if I am not allowed to wear hijab; after that, there is a policy, hijab is allowed in Indonesia” (Fajriah, 2017). It proves that wearing hijab depends on the religious belief and a consciousness of the reason of its obligation. In 2016, Fitri conducted a study of the consistency of Indonesian Muslim women in wearing hijab. The study involved 57 Muslim women elite athletes in Indonesia who had joined international sport events. Results show that the majority (75.4%) of the women athletes did not wear hijab when they did not engage in sport activities, while the majority (87.7%) of the athletes who wore hijab also put off the hijab when doing sport (Fitri, 2016). Indonesia Muslim women wear hijab in daily activities and consistently wear the hijab or put off the hijab during sport activities based on their choice and willingness. According to some believers, wearing the hijab has made them consistent with their religious beliefs. Wijayanti (2008) affirms this in her assertion that hijab and the motivation to wear it have positive impact on religious attitudes. Therefore, athletes who wear hijab during a sport competition have a strong mindset and belief in themselves, reinforcing the motivation to wear hijab during a sport competition. Recently, the use of hijab has been allowed in some competitions, with a special hijab designed for specific sports. Bahrain Roqaya Al-Ghasara, a sprinter, wore a hijab in 2008 Olympic in Beijing (Qureshi & Ghouri, 2011). The large number of female athletes wearing hijab eventually led to some changes in attire regulations in some sports, such as in football. In 2012, Fédération Internationale

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de Football Association (FIFA) revoked the prohibition of wearing hijab by women athletes during a match, thus it provided a new opportunity for female athletes to compete in international events (Cook, 2018). Swimming federations also began allowing female athletes wearing hijab during a match. For instance, Adinda Larasati, a swimming athlete wearing hijab, won nine gold medals in the 2017 Asian School Games, proving that hijab is not a barrier to sport achievements among Muslim women (Fajriah, 2017). Hijab is now allowed in some sports that did not allow it before; such as swimming, beach volleyball, and football. With the current developments, diverse sportswear can be designed so that it does not interfere with athletes’ performance during a competition. In this regard, Ahdea Zanetti, a LebaneseAustralian woman, has successfully designed a “burkini and hijodow” clothes for sport (Limoochi & Le Clair, 2011). Nike, a popular brand of athletic wear, also launched a sport hijab (Moore, 2008). Other brands followed suit and designed hijab for sports, including Adlina Anis from Singapore and Tudung People from Malaysia (Susanti, 2020).

Sport in education Sport in Indonesia is not only a recreational activity for all or a competitive activity reserved for elite athletes but also an integrated programme in education. Sport has become a part of the basic curriculum in the form of PE as a subject. Because all the sport rules and systems in Indonesia do not differentiate among genders, there are no special treatments or regulations for female students in taking PE in school. The purpose of PE in Indonesia is to create a mentally and physically healthy generation, with professional sport competence and high social awareness. PE is an integral part of education aimed to develop a person’s functional, neuromuscular, intellectual, and emotional abilities through various physical activities (Bangun, 2016). The instruction duration of PE subject in Indonesia is about 90 minutes per week (different for each level of education). However, there are two main problems in PE in Indonesia, including the absence of teacher observation in instructional process and the lack of sport facilities for instruction. Teachers tend to use traditional methods of teaching such as intuitive judgement, eye-balling, anecdotal notes, checklist, and rating scales. The systematic observation method aimed to assess important features of the learning environment is rarely conducted. Furthermore, sport facilities for PE are not equally distributed in Indonesia. Not all schools have courts, gymnasiums, or other indoor sports facilities. Most of the time, teachers simply innovate given their school’s existing facilities, thus, they are required to be creative in managing learning environments so that the lessons could be delivered despite the limitations. A variety of learning models have also been implemented to enable students to receive instructions well from the teachers so that they could practice their skills on their own, based on the learning objectives, although with minimum facility.

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Sport week There are a lot of sporting events in Indonesia, including the National Sport Week, locally known as PON (Pekan Olahraga Nasional), or termed as POPNAS (Pekan Olahraga Pelajar Nasional) among students. A competition event is specially designed for Pesantren (a religious boarding school), known as POSPENAS (Pekan Olahraga dan Seni antar Pondok Pesantren Tingkat Nasional) or National Pesantren Sport and Art Week. This event is specially conducted for the students from Pesantren. POSPENAS was pioneered by PORSENI (sport and art week for Pesantren in Java, conducted in Darunnajah Pesantren, South Jakarta) and established as a national event conducted once in two years. POSPENAS was first officially conducted in 2001 in Mahad Al Zaytun Indramayu, West Java, attended by 2,668 athletes, artists, and officials from all provinces, opened directly by the Ministry of National Education. In 2003, the second POSPENAS was conducted in Palembang, South Sumatra, attended by 3,253 athletes, artists, and officials. The third POSPENAS was conducted in Medan, North Sumatra, in 2005 attended by 3,500 participants. Until today, POSPENAS is still continuously conducted and is expected to improve the image of Pesantren in Indonesia.

Achievements of Indonesian women in sports Despite all challenges, a lot of Indonesian women have excellent achievements in sport. In 1988 the women’s archery team made history when they won the country’s very first medal at the Olympic Games, held in Seoul. Lilies Handayani, Nurfitriyani Saiman, and Kusuma Wardhani became overnight sensations with the silver medal they won in archery. At the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona, Lucia Francisca Susanti Haditono became the first Indonesian woman to bring home the gold medal for her outstanding performance in badminton. This legendary achievement was followed by Liliana Natsir, a female badminton athlete, popularly known by the name “Butet”. With one gold (2016) and silver (2008) from the Olympic Games and four gold medals at the Badminton World Federation World Championships, she is regarded as one of the greatest mixed doubles players of all time. Aries Susanti, a rock-climbing athlete, established a world record at the International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) World Cup conducted in Xiamen, China. She became the first woman who succeeded in a record time of under seven seconds. Besides her, Indonesia takes pride in archery athlete, Diananda Choirunisa. Known as the beautiful athlete who wears hijab, she won two gold medals and one silver at the 2017 SEA Games, outclassing her strongest opponent from the Philippines. At the 2018 Asian Games hosted by Indonesia, 418 female Indonesian athletes were deployed in this pan-Asian multi-sport event, affirming the significant contribution of Indonesian women athletes to sport in the country.

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More recently at the 2019 Southeast Asian Games, several Indonesian women athletes brought home gold medals. For instance, Emilia Nova, who represented the country in the 100m women’s hurdles, won the gold medal although she was injured. Karate athlete, Krisda Aprilia also won the gold medal in the women’s individual kata. Tennis player Aldila Sutjiadi also contributed two gold medals with her victory in the women’s single and mixed double matches. Furthermore, gymnast Rifda Irfana Luhtfi won the gold medal in vaulting in artistic gymnastics. Indeed, Indonesian women have earned the respect and admiration of their countrymen.

Conclusion Despite the historical circumstances of the Indonesian woman that limited her choices in life, persistent initiatives for her emancipation eventually provided access to equal opportunities, particularly in education and sports. Through the help of advocates in government and non-government institutions, Indonesian women have emerged as achievers in various fields. In sports, they have shown their capacity for outstanding performance, notwithstanding regulations that prevent Muslim women from wearing hijab in international competitions. Although much is still to be done in promoting greater participation among Muslim women in sports, the achievements of Indonesian sports women over the years mark an important milestone in the history of women’s rights in the country and of their rightful place in the arena of sports.

References Bagheri, S., & Bagheri, M. R. (2012). Cultural requirements of policy making system for hijab and dignity. Iranian Journal of Cultural Research, 5(19), 31–45. Bangun, S. (2016). The role of physical education and sports in educational institutions in Indonesia. Educational Publications, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.26858/publikan.v6i3.2270 Bayram, S. (2009). Reporting hijab in Turkey: Shifts in the pro-and anti-ban discourses. Turkish Studies, 10(4), 511–538. Brenner, S. (1996). Reconstructing self and society: Javanese Muslim women and ‘the veil’. American Ethnologist, 23(4), 673–697. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. (2019, October 22). CWGI review on the eight periodic report submitted by Indonesia. www.ecoi.net/en/file/ local/2033466/INT_CEDAW_ICO_IDN_42445_E.pdf Cook, K. (2018). Uncovering the evolution of hijabs in women’s sports. The Graduate Review, 3(1), 62–67. Fajriah, T. (2017). Adinda Larasati, Atlet Berhijab Penuh Prestasi di ASG 2017. www.cnn indonesia.com/olahraga/20170721183813-178-229503/adinda-larasati-atlet-berhijabpenuh-prestasi-di-asg-2017 Fitri, M. (2016). Muslim women’s participation in high performance sports: An analysis between Malaysia and Indonesia. Universitas Kebangsaan Malaysia (Unpublished study). Indonesia.

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Fitri, M., Sultoni, K., Salamuddin, N., & Harun, M. T. (2017, March). Sports activities high performance athletes Muslim women in Indonesia and Malaysia. In IOP conference series: Materials science and engineering (Vol. 180, No. 1, p. 012213). UPI Publication Center, Universitas Pendidikan Bandung, Indonesia. Hamzeh, M. (2015). Jordanian national football Muslimat players: Interrupting Islamophobia in FIFA’s hijab ban. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 20(5), 517–531. Hermawati, R., Paskarina, C., & Runiawati, N. (2017, October 3). Inter-religious tolerance in Bandung city. Indonesian Journal of Anthropology. doi:10.24198/umbara.v1i2.10341 Inawati, A. (2014). The role of women in maintaining Javanese culture and local wisdom. Musãwa Journal of Gender and Islamic Studies, 13(2), 195–206. Limoochi, S., & Le Clair, J. M. (2011). Reflections on the participation of Muslim women in disability sport: Hijab, Burkini®, modesty and changing strategies. Sport in Society, 14(9), 1300–1309. Luthfiyah, N. (2015). Feminisme Islam di Indonesia. ESENSIA: Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Ushuluddin, 16(1), 75–88. Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection of the Republic of Indonesia. (2020). www.kemenpppa.go.id, Jakarta, Indonesia Moore, R. C. (2008). Islamophobia, patriarchy, or corporate hegemony?: News coverage of Nike’s pro sport hijab. Journal of Media and Religion, 17(3–4), 106–116. Natih, S. J. (2009, August 7). Kartini, her life and letters. SDN Pondok Bambu. https:// sdnpondokbambu10pagi.wordpress.com/2009/08/07/kartini-her-life-and-letters/ Qureshi, Y., & Ghouri, S. (2011). Muslim female athletes in sports and dress code: Major obstacle in international competitions. Journal of Experimental Sciences, 2(11), 9–13. Reeves, T., & Azam, L. (2012). To wear hijab or not: Muslim women’s perceptions of their healthcare workplaces. Journal of Business Diversity, 12(2), 41–58. Ryan, C. (2012). The politics of FIFA and the hijab. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/02/28/ the-politics-of-fifa-and-the-hijab/ Semenova, N., & Kiseleva, E. (2015, July). Ban on the hijab at school : Human rights against migration background. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(4), 509–516. doi:10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n4s1p509 Shonhaji, S. (2017). Women’s involvement in creating social harmony in multi-ethnic communities in Lampung. Journal of Tapis: Journal of Islamic Political Aspirations Teropong, 13(1), 17–44. Susanti. (2020). 5 Global hijab brand. www.islampos.com/muslimah-ini-5-brand-hijab-sportyang-terkenal-di-dunia-169463/ Taylor, G. (2017). Indonesian women still lagging in education. www.cnnindonesia.com/ gaya-hidup/20170308130607-277-198669/perempuan-indonesia-masih-tertinggaldalam-pendidikan Waldie, P., & Gordon, S. (2012). When a loss in judo is still a win: Sport’s federation, Saudi Arabians and IOC claim victory after teen at centre of culture clash gets her chance to compete. The Globe and Mail, Sports, A12. Wijayanti, A. (2008). The influence of knowledge and motivation on wearing the headscarf on the religious behavior of students of class XI SMA Negeri 1 Karanganyar Surakarta. Downloaded on May 22, 2016. http://digilib.uin.suka.ac.id/2319/1/Bab%201,v.pdf. Yogyakarta: UIN Sunan Kalijaga.

Chapter 9

Iranian women in sport Maryam Koushkie Jahromi

Introduction Iran, formally known as Islamic Republic of Iran, and formerly known as Persia, is located in southwest Asia. The term Persia originated from a region of southern Iran previously known as Persis, alternatively as Pa¯rs or Parsa, modern Fa¯rs (Encyclopedia Biritanica, 2020). Geographically, Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, and the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkey and Iraq to the west, the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south, and Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east. Iran is the 7th largest country in Asia. Iran has extensive petroleum and natural gas deposits and one of the world’s largest reserves of copper, bauxite, as well as some other valuable deposits. The population of Iran in 2020 is 83,853,830; it is the 10th populated country in Asia and 19th in the global ranking. Tehran, the capital of Iran, is the most populated city of Iran with a population of 7,153,309. Urban population of Iran has increased progressively during the recent 10 years and currently, 75.3% of the population of Iran is urban. Female population was reported as 49.44% in 2018, according to the World Bank collection life expectancy in 2020 in Iran is 77.33 years (78.5 years for females and 76.2 years for males) which has increased progressively during recent years. The current total fertility rate is about 2.2 (live births per women) which indicates a rapid decline from 1985 (6.5 births per women) until now and population change is +1.30% (Worldometer, 2020). Iran is one of the world’s oldest continuous major civilizations, dating back to 7000 BC (Dodd, 2007). The Medes unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC (Britannica, 2008). As a major empire, Iran has undergone invasions by the Macedonians, Arabs, Turks, and the Mongols. Iran has continually affirmed its national identity throughout the centuries and has developed as a distinct political and cultural structure. This history can be mainly divided into three periods: the pre-Islamic ancient era (c. 559 BC to AD 651); the Islamic era (AD 651 to AD 1800); and the modern period, defined by its facing with Western modernity from around AD 1800. The Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654) was the turning point in Iranian history, Islamization of Iran occurred during the 8th to 10th centuries. However, the achievements of the previous Persian civilizations were

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not lost, but were to a great extent joined to the new Islamic polity and civilization. Iran was rejoined as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty, which set Shia Islam as the empire’s official religion, marking it one of the most important critical periods in the history of Islam (Fraser, 1998). Many empires and dynasties ruled Iran until 1925, when the army general Reza Shah Pahlavi replaced Islamic laws with Western ones and banned traditional Islamic clothing, separation of the sexes, and veiling of women (hijab) (Mackey, 1996) and from 1941, his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi reigned until the 1979 revolution and followed the same policies as his father. The great transformation of Iran occurred due to Islamic Revolution in 1979. Through a referendum, 98.2% of eligible citizens voted and approved Islamic republic as their official government (Hiro, 2013). Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, transformed Iran from an absolute monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the founder and one of the leaders of the Islamic Republic (Hezar, Jafari, & Zakeri, 2013). The culture of Westernization was replaced by the culture of Islamization which affected all aspects including economy, politics, and culture. Efforts were made to nationalize industry and Islamize schools and society. The impact of the Islamic Revolution on individual social progress and national independence was so significant that attracted interests in the politics and spirituality of Islam while the fear of the spread and influence of the Islamic Republic arose in some countries (Arjomand, 1986). Besides, as the more important reason, Iran’s ranking as the fourth largest oil reserves in the world and its role in controlling Persian Gulf as an important place of oil reserves and transportations has attracted much attention and has made Iran a place of many struggles. Post revolution, the new government encountered political and social crisis. One of the most important crises was the invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980 by Iraq which lasted eight years. This war in which Iraq was financially supported by many countries had many destructive economic effects, but in terms of culture and independence provided strength to Iran (Swearingen, 1988). Also, during the Islamic Revolution, many economic and political sanctions were imposed on Iran which affected the economy. These features and history of Iran have affected all individual and social aspects of Iranian people’s life including culture, economics, and politics and consequently physical education, sport, and physical activity.

The culture and religion of Iran The culture of Iran (Persia) is one of the most influential cultures in the world. Iran is one of the cradles of civilization (Mojtahed-Zadeh, 2007). Iran’s rich history has had a significant impact on the world through art, architecture, poetry, science and technology, medicine, philosophy, and engineering. Iranologist Richard Nelson Frye on Iran says: “Iran’s glory has always been its culture” (Frye, 1984).

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Several languages are spoken throughout Iran including Iranian (Persian) (78%), Turkic (18%), and Semitic (2%) language families, while the remaining 2% speak other languages (Anonby, Taheri-Ardal, & Hayes, 2019). The literature of Iran is one of the world’s oldest and prestigious literatures of humanity, spanning over 2,500 years and consists of works of Iranian poets of the Islamic Golden Age and Modern Iran (Katouzian, 2013). Professor L.P. Elwell-Sutton described the literature of the Persian language as “one of the richest literatures of poets in the world” (Dashti, 2011). About religion, 98% of Iranians are Muslims (89% of Muslims are Shi’a and 9% are Sunni). The followers of the Christian faith consist of around 250,000 Armenians, 32,000 Assyrians, and a small number of Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and Protestants. Judaism is also an officially recognized faith in Iran, and the millennia-old Jewish community in Iran enjoys the right to practice their religion freely as well as a dedicated seat in parliament to a representative member of their faith. Zoroastrianism is another officially recognized religion in Iran, although followers of this faith do not constitute a large population in Iran (Abbasi-Shavazi & McDonald, 2007). The Iranian (Persian) New Year is on 20 March which is known as Nowruz. Nowruz has Iranian and Zoroastrian origins and is celebrated by diverse communities in Western and Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Black Sea Basin, the Balkans, and South Asia (Melton, 2011).

History of education Documents have been discovered from around 550 BC relating to an emphasis on education in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran). Religious studies, as well as lessons related to administration, politics, technical skills, military, sports, and arts were taught in the schools. The first public schools were established by Amir Kabir in around 1850 (Yousefvand, Hormoz, & Begdeli, 2018). The first higher education organization was formed around the 3rd century. Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) provided the first modern education in Iran which emphasized on Islamic values and scientific advancement (Farhady, Hezaveh, & Hedayati, 2010). Gradual progresses of educational organization and content continued. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, emphasis was placed on educational reforms. Islamization of textbooks, sex segregation in schools, significant changes in the annual academic system and textbooks occurred after the Islamic Revolution. Many technical programmes were added to help train students for the workforce. At present, there are both free public and private schools and universities in Iran. Education in Iran is centralized and divided into K-12 education plus higher education. Elementary and secondary education are supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology and the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (medical fields). The Ministry of Education is in the charge of educational planning, financing, administration, curriculum, textbook development, teacher training, grading, and examinations (Arani, Kakia, & Karimi, 2012).

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Women’s status in Iran Education The Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979, based on Islam and the country’s constitution, looked at the importance of women’s dignity and the promotion of their status in various fields as well as respecting women as the most important member and base of the family. The promotion of cultural, social, economic, and political status of girls and women was considered as one of the most important aspects in most of legislations and planning. The Islamic Republic of Iran was founded with the aim of promoting Islamic values and Quran. There is no doubt that in the Holy Quran, women are considered equal to men in economic, political, scientific, cultural, and artistic dimensions. The similarity of the rights of men and women is mentioned in many verses (Ale Omran 195, Nesa 124, Nahl 97, Asra 19). However, this similarity does not mean that the roles of men and women are the same. Men and women are physiologically and psychologically different and should play different roles. In Iran, the family is very important and women’s main role is in the family as the mother and main educator of children. As Imam Khomeini, the leader and founder of the Islamic Republic, said in one of his speeches: “The prosperity and misery of countries depend on the existence of women” (Khomeini, 2001). Article 10 of the constitution states that all laws, regulations, and planning related to the family should be based on Islamic law and ethics in order to facilitate its formation, protect its sanctity, and strengthen family relations. The reason for legal opposition to homosexuality, white marriage, and relationships other than marriage is family protection. Unfortunately, the lifestyle of some Iranian families and women has changed during the recent years and the ratio of divorce to marriage of 12.5 in 1998 has increased to 31.77 in 2018. Changing the lifestyle of the society to the Western style and moving away from the teachings of Islam, weakness and submission to the cultural invasion of the West, weak life skills and marriage, diminishing spirituality and adherence to moral and religious principles in families have been mentioned as important causes of increased divorce rates (Moosavi-Chalak, 2018). According to the existing laws, the man is responsible for providing all the living expenses and the woman has no responsibility in this regard. However, based on the United Nations Human Development Index, Iranian women and girls have had significant progress in education (Statistical Center of Iran [SCI], 2016–2017), research, science, entrepreneurship, employment, and sanitation. They have moved towards excellence, progress, and determined goals despite the existence of severe sanctions. The ratio of literate women to men aged 15–24 years (Literacy Gender Parity Index) has increased to 99.30% in 2015 (UNESCO, 2017). It is expected that in case of stable conditions, the youth literacy rate can reach approximately 100%. The literacy rate among the population aged 65 years and older (both males and females) has progressively

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increased while the lower number of literate women compared to men is observed (idem). At the university level, the ratio of female to male university students has increased to 97.6% in 2011 and increased by more than 100% in 2012, this progressive growth has continued until today. The increase of Iranian females compared to males has been mentioned as feminization of Iranian higher education (Shavarini, 2005). The greater number of female students is significant in most of university courses such as medicine, humanities, basic sciences, and arts. Only in technical and engineering fields has the number of male graduates been significantly higher than women which may be due to the nature of these fields (SCI, 2016–2017). The growth of Iranian women in most of the educational fields is obvious. For example, before the 1979 Revolution, the number of female physicians was 1,988 while it reached to 20,177 in 2013 (Simforoosh, Ziaee, & Tabatabai, 2014). Irrespective of gender, after the Islamic Revolution, access to universities and academic environments has been significantly higher, and the eradication of illiteracy and the provision of free public education for all people were considered as some major goals by the official bodies of education. In 1976, only less than 4% of the Iranians in high school pursued higher education, but after the Islamic Revolution, continuing higher education became possible for a high percentage of the Iranian population. In 2014, almost 66% of students in high school entered universities (SCI, 2016–2017).

Institutional and political advancement of women Some examples of governmental promotions of women from the Center for Women and Family Affairs to the Vice Presidency for Women and Family Affairs are: creating the advisory positions on women’s affairs in all ministries and governmental bodies, establishment of the Women’s Faction in the Islamic Consultative Assembly (Parliament), and forming the special committee for Women and Youth in the secretariat of the Expediency Discernment Council of the System. Despite the increase in women’s seats in the Islamic Consultative Assembly from 0.86% in the first election to 5.5% in the 12th (2019), women’s presence compared to men’s is still unsatisfactory. There is still lack of balance between the social and family responsibilities of women which is related to current tradition and their effective presence in high levels of managing positions. Women need their family to support them. Also, appropriate employment policies are required in order that women can play both family and social roles. Iranian women’s participation in the labour market is growing. However, this participation is still low (Esfahani & Shajari, 2012). Recently, several laws have been passed for women breast feeding protection including increasing the rehabilitation and support coverage for female-headed households by the State Welfare Organization, women’s inheritance, regulation and protection of home-based

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jobs, which have made women hopeful of the future. There are several obstacles and challenges in improving women’s status such as: not considering important religious orders regarding women’s dignity and the need for full respect to women; the transition from traditional to modernity while decreased traditional support systems for women, and the lack of alternative support. In terms of women’s health, the life expectancy of women in Iran has improved dramatically. This indicator has increased from 47 years in 1950 to more than 75 years in 2020. The increased life expectancy can be related to improvement in knowledge, that is, increase of women’s higher levels of education, women’s participation in the society, maternal health care facilities, general promotion of other indicators, and more access to health facilities across the whole life span. Reducing maternal mortality rate was another index of increasing women’s health and also a reason of increasing life expectancy in Iran (Worldometer, 2020).

Physical education Physical education which is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education has experienced many fluctuations. The physical education curriculum provides the conditions for students to achieve the positive results that are predicted in the programme goals by practising movements and behaviours in the five dimensions of physical, emotional, social, intellectual, and spiritual. The content and evaluation of physical education class is based on physical fitness components, sport skills, basic movements, knowledge, and attitude of physical education which are performed based on the ability of students in age groups. Regarding the duration of physical education classes in schools in 1994, the head of Tehran physical education proposed that the hours of physical education must be increased to four hours per week to be effective in promoting physical and mental health (Safalmanesh, 2004). However, it was not practised in most of the schools. The Deputy Minister of Physical Education in 2018 announced that the hours of physical education in some grades to be increased to three hours (Irna News, 2020). This increase was partly due to some new physical activity programmes, not in formal physical education classes. Considering innovations, there are some projects including inter-schools Olympiads, dynamic and host schools. The Deputy Minister of Physical Education and Health of the Ministry of Education expressed that from 2015 until now, by performing a special program in extracurricular activities as sports Olympiads, we could increase students exercise/physical activity in elementary schools to six hours (Tansim Social Journalism, 2016). Other programmes for increasing physical activity were Dynamic School and Host school. The goal of Dynamic School was to increase students’ physical fitness, develop basic skills, promote students’ attitudes and interests, and refresh schools by using all school facilities, including yards and corridors, with the participation of parents, volunteers, and school staff. One of the features of this programme

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is designing the yard and classrooms in a way that increases the motivation of students to exercise. In the Host School programme, inter-school competitions are held in schools that have suitable conditions and facilities. Its purpose was to increase the vitality of the school environment with the participation of students, increase the volunteer movement among students, teachers, and parents, and identify and flourish sports talents. At universities, physical education is defined as two credits for all courses and education duration. One credit is dedicated to physical fitness and the other one to a sport skill. All physical education syllabi are the same for boys and girls except for some sport skills such as soccer which is more popular among boys.

Sport organization Each of the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, and the Ministry of Health and Medical Education has a deputy for physical education who is responsible for planning and implementing physical education. The main organization responsible for sport in Iran is known as Physical Education Organization which was formed in 1934. At present, it is known as the Ministry of Sport and Youth and is responsible for athletic and recreational sports. Structurally, the physical education organization has made the following changes and promotions: • • • • • •

1934: National Sports Association 1960: Integration into the Education Ministry 1971: Sports and Recreation Organization 1977: Dissolution and fusion with the Education Ministry (for the 2nd time) 1979–present: Independent Physical Education Organization 2011–present: Merging the National Youth Organization with the Physical Education Organization and establishing as Ministry of Sport and Youth

Status of women’s sport Sport in Iran is a combination of traditional and modern sport. Traditional Iranian sports in ancient times and in the Zoroastrian era were wrestling, horse racing, and ritualistic bodybuilding. The most popular team sports introduced from the West in the 20th century were soccer and volleyball. Iranian sports teams participated in 15 editions of the 16 Asian Games (from 1951 to 2018) and have so far won 557 medals in team and individual sports. The best result is related to the 1951 games in which Iran won the second place and the worst result is related to the 2002 games, when Iran was ranked 10th. From Iran’s first official participation in the Olympics in 1948 to the 2016 Summer Olympics, Iranian athletes have managed to win a total of 69 medals for their country.

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Iran’s most prestigious sport in the Olympics has been wrestling (43 medals) and weightlifting (19 medals). The first and only Iranian women’s medal won so far was at the 2016 Rio Olympics in Brazil by Kimia Alizadeh. The 18-year-old Kimia is also the youngest Iranian sport medallist in the history of the Olympics. The presence of Iranian women in Asian competitions has a history of 50 years. In 1958, the women’s national team was sent to competitions in table tennis and athletics, but did not win a medal in their first appearance. Iranian female athletes in 1966 at the Bangkok Asian Games in volleyball succeeded in winning the third place of the competition and the bronze medal of this competition; their names are recorded as the first women medallists of the Asian Games in the history of Iranian women’s sports. In 1974, when Iran and the city of Tehran hosted the Asian Games, Iranian fencer girls won two team gold medals, a silver and a bronze medal in the individual event. From 1974 to 2002, female athletes did not have the opportunity to participate in the Asian Games. In 2006, Iranian girls won one bronze medal in chess and two bronze medals in taekwondo. At the 2010 Guangzhou Games, Iranian girls won a bronze medal each in canoeing and in team rowing. They won silver medals in shooting, a bronze medal in karate, and two silver medals in taekwondo. Khadijeh Azadpour won the first individual gold medal in the history of women’s sports in the Asian Games in the wushu sanda discipline and was able to win the gold medal. The women’s national kabaddi team was sent to the competition for the first time in the Asian Games at Guangzhou, where it won the first team medal and was ranked third. In 2014, Iranian women won one gold and one silver medal in the 10m individual air gun, one silver medal in the 100m pistol, one silver medal in athletics, four bronze medals in rowing, one gold medal and two bronze medals in karate, one bronze medal and two silver medals in taekwondo, four silver medals in wushu, and one silver medal in kabaddi (Shargh Newspaper, 2019). In the 2018 Asian Games in Indonesia, Iran participated with 378 athletes (280 men, 98 women) in 42 sports. Iranian women won one gold medal in kabaddi, one silver medal in taekwondo, three silver medals in wushu, three silver medals in rowing, two silver medals in karate, one silver medal in kayaking, and six bronze medals in shooting, rowing, and karate. The progressive increase of women’s sport participation is obvious according to their international achievements. Before the Islamic Revolution, there were nine coaches and seven female referees in the country, seven sports were active in the field of women, and only one sports complex belonged to women. After the revolution, the variety of sports increased to more than 38 types (especially martial arts and individual sports), and the number of coaches and referees increased to more than 35,000. The number of women’s sports facilities dedicated to the public and private sectors increased 30-fold (Abedi, 2017). Iranian Muslim women athletes have so many issues to deal with in their participation in international sports events because of their veil (hijab). Women

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cannot compete in many international events in which head-covering is forbidden or some events such as swimming that no proper covering has been designed for it. However, they excelled in national and international games despite strict adherence to religion, culture, and Iranian legal requirements. In order that Muslim women could participate in international competitions in sports, the Islamic Women’s Games were organized by the Islamic Republic of Iran; Muslim women from only Islamic countries were allowed to participate. In 1993 and 1997, these games were held in Iran (Tehran). However, in 2001, it was held under the title of Muslim Women’s Games, in which Muslim women from Islamic and non-Muslim countries had the right to participate. In 2005, the games were renamed the Islamic Women’s Games, which were attended by nonMuslim women from Muslim countries and non-Muslim countries. All referees, coaches, and executive staff were women, and athletes could participate in these competitions without the need for Islamic clothing. Designing appropriate clothing for sports where Islamic dress was allowed was another way for Muslim women to participate in competitions.

Physical activity In 2017, low physical activity was the cause of more than 1.2 million deaths in the world and 18,000 deaths in Iran. Iran has been one of the countries with medium-to-high incidental physical activity (IPA) in global reports. In 2011, national reports revealed an IPA rate of 39.1% among the population. According to a review by Fakhrzadeh et al. (2016), the prevalence for inactivity ranged from approximately 30% to almost 70% and had considerable variation between sexes and subgroups. So, most of the studies reported high prevalence of physical inactivity. Another study indicated that in Iranian working women up to 65% did not have enough physical activity; 25.7% of them exercise irregularly, and only 8.7% of women exercise regularly (Jalilian, Emdadi, Mirzaie, & Barati, 2011). Lack of attention of officials to women’s sports, existence of male-centred culture, lack of time, economic situation, and lack of necessary investment in the development of women’s sports have been mentioned as the limiting factors of women’s sports participation. Another study indicated that, in Iranian women aged 20–65 years, daily leisure time is 3.8 hours and watching TV with an average of 132 minutes is their highest leisure activity; 43.5% of them exercise with the motivation of gaining vitality and feeling happy. There was a significant relationship between the amount of leisure time and the amount of weekly exercise (Tondnevis, 2002). The decreasing trend is observed in physical activity of Iranian women (Afghan, Ghasemi, & Azizi, 2016). Islam strongly advises on maintaining health and considers that physical activity is one of the ways to maintain health. So, it seems that other factors such as family and facilities affect women’s sports participation.

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Final remarks The following considerations are important for future directions of the Iranian women in sport development: • • • • •

To consider the effect of culture on women’s sport participation and diversities of Iranian cultures; To research the barriers that affect women’s participation in physical education, physical activity, and sport; To increase financial support for women’s sports seems necessary; To improve family awareness is essential to increase support for women’s sports participation; To promote in international organizations the meaning of hijab for Muslim women in order to look for conditions for women to participate in the competition wearing hijab.

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Chapter 10

Turning point for Japanese women and sports From the Moon to the Sun Yumi Terayama and Arisa Yagi

General information Japan is an island country located off the eastern edge of the Asian continent. Its islands stretch out like an arc from northeast to southwest. From north to south, the country consists of four main islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, as well as Okinawa and its nearby islands. Excluding the Ainu population and a small number of people with foreign ancestry, the Japanese population consists almost entirely of a single ethnic group. The national language is Japanese. The country is administratively divided into 47 prefectures; its capital is Tokyo. The country’s total area is 377,815km2 and its total population is 125,930,000 (Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2020). Geographically, Japan is situated within the circum-Pacific orogenic belt and the country has many volcanoes. Its rivers are generally short and fast flowing. Japan has four seasons, which significantly vary in characteristics; it is hot and humid in summer and the country is hit by many typhoons in fall. According to the data released by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (2020), the average annual temperature and precipitation of Tokyo are 15.4°C and 1,528.8mm, respectively. Historically, although stone tools from 10,000 to 30,000 years ago have been found, there is no clear evidence on when humans began to settle in Japan. According to historical materials, the first unified nation, the Yamato Dynasty, emerged in the late 4th century or the early 5th century. Buddhism was introduced to Japan via the Korean Peninsula during the Yamato period. In the subsequent centuries, Japan was greatly influenced by the Chinese culture. In the 11th century, aristocrats and members of the warrior class ruled Japan. As the country adopted an isolationist foreign policy during the Edo period (1603–1867), Japan developed a unique culture because of this isolation from other countries. The political power, however, could no longer drive away European and American trade merchants by the mid-19th century, and it completely lost its political support (Gibney, 1991). In 1868, the Meiji Restoration restored the imperial system and Emperor Meiji ascended the throne. However, a group of young leaders from southwestern Japan

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had the actual political power. Seeking new philosophies and technologies, they dispatched missions all over Western Europe, and Japan’s political, economic, and social systems were systematically modernized with those of Western Europe as their model. The proclamation of the Constitution of the Empire of Japan in 1889 marked the peak of these efforts. In the following years, Japan became increasingly imperialistic and rushed headlong into a war with China (First Sino-Japanese War, 1894–1895), a war with Russia (Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905), and annexed Korea in 1910. Japan took away control of Manchuria from China in 1931 and established the area as an independent Manchu state, formed an alliance with Nazi Germany, and entered into the Pacific War in 1941 after declaring war against the United States and the United Kingdom. After the United States dropped atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers in 1945, thereby ending World War II. During the post-war occupation by the United States, the Constitution of Japan was provided in 1947, and occupation forces proceeded with democratizing Japan. The three characteristics of the Constitution of Japan are sovereignty of the people, fundamental human rights, and pacifism. The text of Article 9 is especially unique: “Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes”. Following the end of World War II, Japanese manufacturing industry developed a competitive advantage in all foreign markets including those of Europe and America due to a long-term trade policy based on the concerted effort of the government and the private sector. As a result of the continuous growth in the 1980s, Japan continued to increase exports in the 1990s and became the world’s second-largest economic power next to the United States. However, the country’s economic growth slowed after the collapse of the bubble economy at the end of the 1980s (Gibney, 1991). According to data published by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW), Japan’s birth rate in 2018 is as low as 1.44; the number of births has been decreasing annually. Given the average life expectancy is 81.25 years for males and 87.32 years for females (2018), the population has been ageing. Japan is said to have the largest ageing population among developed countries; seniors account for 27.05% (2017) of its population (MHLW, 2019). The Japanese educational system follows a 6-3-3-4 system, with a nine-year compulsory education period (ages 6 to 15, elementary school and junior high school). Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, hereafter referred to as MEXT, compulsory school enrolment is close to 100%, with 97% for high school and 58.1% for university (MEXT, 2019). It is said that many Japanese people are non-religious. However, this does not mean that they do not have any religious beliefs. Many common Japanese customs originated from Japan’s ancient religion called Shinto, Buddhism, and

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Confucianism. Japanese people even enjoy Christmas and other Christian festivals from time to time.

General information concerning the situation of women The history of Japanese women changed drastically in the past 200 years. Women were distinguished from men during the periods that were ruled by members of the warrior class. The fact that phrases and terms such as ‘a woman’s place (a woman should know her place)’, ‘you’re/she’s just a woman’, and ‘unwomanly’ were used during those times demonstrates that men tried to maintain gender hierarchy. It was believed that “males and females should be distinguished and should not interact from the age of 7” (Fukuchi, 1973, p. 11). This extreme sense of discrimination was backed by the master–subordinate morality of Confucianism. In other words, females were strongly forced to obey the family head. For this reason, females were not expected to refine knowledge. On the contrary, it was said that it was virtuous for females to not have any talents. Although women were not expected to gain knowledge, they were expected to be cultured by acquiring artistic/entertainment knowledge and skills for pleasure such as the ability to play traditional instruments (koto and shamisen), make traditional style flower arrangements, practice tea ceremony, and dance traditional Japanese dances. These were knowledge and skills for serving samurai households or marrying into a family, symbolizing the culture of women serving men. As one of the outcomes of Meiji Restoration that occurred in 1868, Japan chose the path to Westernize to engage in diplomacy with other countries on an equal footing. Occupational restrictions based on the class system were abolished. Men took out their topknot and cut their hair. Women also stopped wearing their long hair in the traditional Japanese style and short hair became the trend. Nevertheless, there was a deep-rooted social trend that saw changes in women as something undesirable. Married women had conventionally shaved off their eyebrows and blackened their teeth. As the Emperor and Empress took the initiative in abolishing this practice, ordinary women also gradually stopped practising this custom (Fukuchi, 1973).

Female education Due to the Meiji Restoration of 1868, Japan began to actively incorporate European and American culture to become one of ‘the group’. While the country had been banning international travel, it made a 180-degree turn and began to actively dispatch students to study abroad. Yukichi Fukuzawa illustrated the necessity of female education that matched the new times and five girls, aged 8–15, were sent to study abroad as a European/ American mission in 1871. The education law that established Japan’s first modern school system, the Education System Order, was promulgated in 1872. Describing that girls should receive the same education as boys, the law stated,

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There is no gender difference in the way of the human. There is no reason why girls cannot receive the education received by boys. As girls are future mothers and educators who raise children, these girls who are to become mothers are extremely important. (Fukuchi, 1973, p. 34) Although this law largely contributed to the advancement of female education, the goal of female education was to foster the ideal “good wife, wise mother (ryosai-kenbo)” (Fukuchi, 1973, p.  44) as future mothers. The commonly held idea that females do not need education persisted, and the enrolment rate of girls remained low. The turning point of female education came in 1945 after Japan lost World War II. A new constitution was implemented, and this constitution guaranteed equal rights to men and women. Japanese women exercised their newly gained right to vote for the first time in 1946, and 39 women were elected as members of the Japanese Diet. As the Fundamental Law of Education enacted in 1947 set out that “coeducation must be allowed from the viewpoint of education since males and females must respect and cooperate with each other” (MEXT, n.d.), coeducation became the norm. Although most junior high schools and high schools remained as single-sex schools in the subsequent years, co-ed schools increased in the past few decades and most schools are co-ed schools today. While there used to be gender-specific subjects, such as home economics for female students and industrial arts for male students, all students were required to study both subjects in the past few decades (Fukuchi, 1973). The health and physical education (PE) curriculum of junior high schools and high schools is another example of sex-specific classes. While it was defined in the past that ‘mainly female students were required to take’ dance classes and ‘mainly male students were required to take’ martial arts classes such as judo and kendo, it was set out in the government’s Curriculum Guidelines issued in 1989 that male and female students of all school types are required to take martial arts classes and dance classes (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2019).

Cultural context of exclusion of women Japan used to have a distinctive social custom called exclusion of women. This custom forbade women from entering sanctuaries (e.g., shrines, temples, sacred places, ceremony sites). This custom consisted of two main types: a constant ban on all women and a ban on certain women who are in specific conditions related to menstruation or childbirth based on the concept of taboo. It appears that the exclusion of women from sacred places, such as sacred mountains, in Japan seem to have come about as a result of the amalgamation of Buddhism (mainly esoteric Buddhism), Japan’s ancient religion Shinto, and Taoism, which originated in Mainland China. The teachings of Buddhism consider all human desires including sexual desire as unwanted worldly desires. The teachings of Shinto consider

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blood that has parted from the body of living things by bleeding is blood impurity. These are said to be the reasons for the emergence of this custom. Women were also banned from doing certain activities including climbing mountains and watching sumo wrestling matches prior to the Meiji Restoration of 1868. In the following years, women were gradually allowed to do those activities. The custom of exclusion of women hardly exists today, but there are some exceptions. For example, women are allowed in the spectator seating area but are banned from entering the ring of professional sumo matches. This is because sumo is a Shinto ritual, and the ring is considered a sacred place. People who call for a ban on gender discrimination actively protest this practice. Furthermore, the performers of kabuki, a traditional form of theatre, are all male. This is due to a historical reason and has no relation to the custom of exclusion of women (Takeya, 2011).

Physical education and sports at schools At the time when Christian schools for females were being established and the first group of female students were dispatched to study abroad following the promulgation of the Education System Order in 1872, yugi (play and activity) was incorporated into the curriculum as a PE material for female students. This is the foundation of dance classes currently given as part of PE. It is believed that taking examples from foreign play and activity books written by authors who were influenced by Friedrich Froebel, Shuji Isawa developed and implemented many play activities (Murayama, 2000). Those play activities included game-like elements using a circle of people. In addition, after experiencing German dances while studying abroad, Gendo Tsuboi began studying marching methods. His original marching method, which added movements of the upper limbs to the walking method, quickly became popular. As described so far, yugi consisted of step movements, such as folk dance and ballroom dance, and moving to the music of songs. Although it seemed that these dance-type activities would spread, once Japan started fighting with other countries, ‘Spartan’ training for military purposes was considered as a good measure for PE. Under these circumstances, dancetype teaching materials were regarded as weak. The practice of having male elementary school students engage in yugi activities came under fire and males were banned from entering the venue of the increasingly vibrant sports day of girls’ schools due to reasons pertaining to public morals. Some began to argue that exercises using naginata (a pole weapon) were appropriate for girls’ schools. In this way, many changes occurred even in everyday life during the wartime (Society for Research on the History of Physical Education for Female Students, 1981). After all wars ended, students began to study at co-ed schools due to the Fundamental Law of Education enacted in 1947. Physical education in Japan has continuously changed with the times. Mori explains that the nature of PE in Japan can be divided into three stages:

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(1) Education of the physical, (2) Education through physical activities, and (3) Education in movement (Mori, 2002). These three stages differ significantly. In Stage 1, the mind and body were educated separately based on the mind–body dualism type view of humans. Physical education was meant to educate the body; one of those two entities, and the classes consisted of mainly exercises since it was important to train the body itself. Stage 2 reflected an idea that spread in Europe and America in the early 20th century that “the mind and body cannot be separated as humans are a unified entity”; thus, the purpose of PE was set out as “thoroughly and fully developing the abilities students could possess as a whole person” (Mori, 2002, p. 14). The focus of Stage 3 is described as “having the students gain an experience-based understanding of the delight and joy contained in movements by teaching the relationship between people and movements so that all students can enjoy movements according to their ability” (Udo, 1992, p. 4). The lifestyle of Japanese people changed during the process of growing into an economic power after the end of World War II, including the ways of spending their free time. Consequently, Japanese people’s ideas of sports and PE have been changing (Mori, 2002). In addition, Japanese schools provide an extracurricular activity called ‘club activities’. Clearly described in the government’s Curriculum Guidelines, club activities are defined as “activities willingly performed on their own accord mainly after school hours by students with similar interests in sports, culture, academics, etc. under the guidance of teachers and staff members as part of the educational activities of schools” (MEXT, 2018). Many students join these club activities. While some children go to private schools of various sports, most children start and/or experience sports through the club activities of schools since no fee is required (except for miscellaneous expenses). Since teachers are required to supervise/coach club activities in addition to teaching classes, the excessive workload of teachers has become a problem.

Radical changes in amounts of exercise among high school girls The National Physical Fitness Test of 2013 revealed the state of junior high school second-grade girls (14 years old). Most of the second-grade girls responded that their total amount of exercise per week excluding PE classes was either ‘less than 60 min.’ or around ‘1,000 min’. In other words, the second-grade girls were polarized into those who hardly exercise per week and those who actively exercise per week. In particular, out of the second-grade girls whose total amount of exercise per week was ‘less than 60 min’, girls who exercise ‘0 min’ per week accounted for 23.5%; that is, the results demonstrated that approximately one-fourth of the second-grade girls do not exercise at all during the seven-day week except for their PE classes (MEXT, 2013). Physical education researchers (Kasuga, Nakano, & Oguri, 2017) regard this lack of exercise in female students as a problem. This is mainly due to concerns

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over their future health issues. In addition, researchers are concerned also because it is highly likely that this will lead to a vicious cycle of lack of exercise: that is, when the students grow up and become mothers, it is likely that they will not take the initiative to get their children to exercise. In FY 2018, the percentage of female teachers of all subjects at each education stage was 62.2% for elementary school, 43.3% for junior high school, and 32.1% for high school, that is, the higher the education stage, the lower the percentage (MEXT, 2019). Moreover, the percentage of female health and PE teachers is even lower than the overall percentage of female junior high school teachers. Coaches of female athletes are often males. It appears that there is an underlying structure that prevents women’s experiences and thoughts from surfacing at PE and sports settings. It seems that the extreme lack of exercise in second-grade girls of junior high school, compared to the amount of exercise in other periods in their life and that of boys of the same age, is largely caused by an environmental factor, that is, whether they are able to comfortably exchange information with people of the same gender during adolescence. It is important for female students to build a foundation for lifelong healthy living while understanding their gender.

Dance education in physical education and dance as lifelong sport As previously mentioned, PE in Japan developed with yugi (play and activity) as its basis. As such, dance classes were exclusive to female students until 1989. At present, both male and female students are required to take dance classes. It may be said that dance is taught as PE in Japanese schools because Chiyoe Matsumoto emphasized and established the significance of dance education during the educational reform period after the end of World War II (Yagi & Tanaka, 2016). Matsumoto and her colleagues communicated the significance and methods of dance education to teachers of all prefectures at meetings of the Japan Association of Physical Education for Women (JAPEW). This spirit has been carried on by JAPEW. In addition to dance education in schools, JAPEW is also putting effort into the education of dance as a lifelong sport. Many elderly women have become vigorous and healthy by practising dance movements. Perhaps, because only female students were required to take dance classes for over a century, most senior adults who practice dance in Japan are women. It would be beneficial to aim at getting men to join these dance activities as well.

The dawn of top-ranking Japanese female athletes Japanese athletes competed in the Olympic Games for the first time in the 1912 Summer Olympics held in Stockholm. The 1928 Summer Olympics held in Amsterdam was the first Olympics joined by Japanese female athletes; Kinue Hitomi won the silver medal in the women’s 800m race. This remarkable

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achievement astonished Japanese people and gave them hope. The next Japanese female athlete to win a medal in track and field was Yuko Arimori; she won a silver medal in the women’s marathon at the 1992 Summer Olympics held in Barcelona. It took 64 years for the second medallist to emerge and no Japanese female medallist of short-distance races has emerged since Hitomi. Exactly three years after the day she won the silver medal at the 1928 Summer Olympics, Hitomi died of pneumonia at the age of 24. Based on these facts, Hitomi’s achievement has been recognized as an unparalleled achievement (Obata, 1981). The first Japanese female athlete to win a gold medal was Hideko Maehata, a swimming athlete. This took place at the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin. She had previously won a silver medal in the women’s 200m breaststroke at the 1932 Summer Olympics held in Los Angeles. The difference between her time and the gold medallist’s time was only 0.1s. She returned to Japan in high spirits but was met with harsh comments. “You came in second place only by a difference of 0.1 seconds, right? Why weren’t you able to win the race?” (Hyoudo, 1985, p. 82) “Look Maehata. Never forget this bitterness and do your best at the next Olympics in Berlin” (Hyoudo, 1985, p. 83). While Maehata had planned to retire from competitive swimming, she was talked into competing at the Summer Olympics in Berlin. As the world was heading into a war at the time of the Olympics in Berlin, people wanted to enhance their national prestige. For this reason, Maehata felt that she would have to take her life if she failed to win a gold medal. Immediately before the race at Berlin, Maehata went into the restroom with a paper charm in her hand and swallowed it down with water. This demonstrates how much pressure she was under. Maehata felt that it would be a ‘disgrace’ if she was not able to win a gold medal. She perceived not winning a gold medal as a disgrace and sin to the extent that made her feel that she would not be able to return to Japan or that she would want to die if she weren’t able to win the race. She overcame this heavy pressure and won the gold medal in the women’s 200m breaststroke. It was the first Olympic gold medal won by a Japanese female athlete (Hyoudo, 1985). There was a strong trend among Japanese people to put extreme pressure on athletes at that time. Today, Japanese people no longer put this type of pressure on athletes, unlike the times of Hitomi and Maehata. However, it is said that the intense pursuit of excellence by these female athlete pioneers has continued to influence contemporary athletes.

Top-ranking female athletes in the past 60 years After Maehata won a gold medal in 1936, the Japanese female volleyball team won the second gold medal after 28 years at the 1964 Summer Olympics held in Tokyo. This situation was also due to the limited number of sport events for women and the small delegation of Japanese female athletes compared to the Japanese male athletes sent to compete in the Olympic games. The number of sports

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that include women’s events gradually increased over the years and all sports began to include women’s events at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. The Japanese female volleyball team that won a gold medal in the 1964 Sum­ mer Olympics endured harsh training. The entire nation was moved by this vic­ tory, which was a long-cherished desire, and it created social phenomena. For example, a volleyball-themed animated series became a big hit and there was a large increase in the number of students who joined the volleyball clubs of junior high schools and high schools. However, gold medals were out of the reach of Japanese female athletes once again in the subsequent years, and it was at the 2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney that Japanese female athletes finally won multiple gold medals in the same year, courtesy of Ryoko Tamura, in women’s judo, and Naoko Takahashi, in the women’s marathon. Figure 10.1 shows the number of gold medals won by Japanese male (in grey) and female athletes (in black) from 1964 to 2016. Japanese female athletes won more gold medals than male athletes at the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens. This was also the first Olympic Games in which the number of female athletes representing Japan was more than that of male athletes, 171 and 141, respectively. Japanese female athletes have been quite successful since this year (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2018). To further support female athletes, the Japan Sports Agency has been imple­ menting programmes for enhancing the ability of Japanese female athletes to compete in international competitions. In particular, the agency provides the following support programmes that deal with gender-specific issues: a medical support programme in which doctors give advice as specialists to athletes based on their record of basal body temperature, menstruation, weight, conditions, etc. and a support programme for junior athletes, who are recommended by sports organizations that provide medical checks, emotional support, and nutrition counselling. Targeting mainly obstetricians and gynaecologists, the agency also 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 Man

Woman

Figure 10.1 Number of Olympic gold medals (1964–2016)

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develops and implements programmes for raising awareness on women’s sports medicine for the purpose of enabling junior athletes to engage in sports in a healthy manner. To enable female athletes across the nation to easily find obstetricians and gynaecologists who have extensive knowledge of sports, the agency also posts a list of such obstetricians and gynaecologists on its website (Japanese Center for Research on Women in Sport, n.d.).

Projects on sports for today’s Japanese women As previously described, ideas about women in Japan have changed over time and this has brought about an increase in opportunities for women to enjoy sports. Nevertheless, there are still people who think that women should be the ideal “good wife, wise mother (ryosai-kenbo)” (Fukuchi, 1973, p. 44) and that childrearing should be done by the mother. Including female employment issues, there are still many issues to deal with in order to create an environment where women can freely enjoy sports. The fourth Basic Plan for Gender Equality issued in 2015 by the Gender Equality Bureau of the Cabinet Office aims at enabling men and women as equal members of society to gain opportunities to join in all categories of social activities on their own accord (Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office, 2016). Japan aims to become a society that enables women to fully enjoy sports so that they can live vigorous lives. From competitive sports to lifelong sports, we must seek various opportunities and possibilities for Japanese women to enjoy sports in their own way.

References Fukuchi, S. (1973). History of modern Japanese women. Tokyo: Sekkasya. Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office. (2016). The 4th basic plan for gender equality. www. gender.go.jp/about_danjo/basic_plans/4th/index.html Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office. (2018). Section 1 women’s success in sports. www. gender.go.jp/about_danjo/whitepaper/h30/zentai/html/honpen/b1_s00_01.html Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office. (2019). Basic way of thinking (report) in formulating the 4th basic plan for gender. www.gender.go.jp/kaigi/senmon/keikaku_sakutei/yojikei kaku/masterplan_report.html Gibney, F. B. (Ed.). (1991). Britannica international encyclopedia. Tokyo: TBS Britannica. Hyoudo, H. (1985). Maehata did her best twice: Courage, tears, and love. Tokyo: Gomashobo. Japanese Center for Research on Women in Sport. (n.d.). History of women and sports. www.juntendo.ac.jp/athletes/history/birth.html Kasuga, K., Nakano, T., & Oguri, K. (2017). Factors affecting girls’ interest in exercise and sports during the growth and developmental period: What is necessary for girls to work on ahead? Sasakawa Sports Research Grants (pp. 223–229). Tokyo. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2013). 2013 national survey results of physical fitness, athletic ability, exercise habits, etc. www.mext.go.jp/a_ menu/sports/kodomo/zencyo/1342657.htm

100 Yumi Terayama and Arisa Yagi Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2018). Commentaries of the curriculum guidelines for lower secondary school health and physical education section. Kyoto: Higashiyamasyobou. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2019). 5: Lower secondary school: Statistical abstract 2019 edition. www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/002/ 002b/1417059.htm Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (n.d.). Articles when the basic education act of 1947 was enacted. www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/kihon/about/a001.htm Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. (2019). Statistics on monthly report of vital statistics (2019). www.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/saikin/hw/jinkou/geppo/nengai19/index.html Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. (2020). Various data and materials. www.jma.go.jp/jma/menu/menureport.html Mori, T. (2002). What kind of subject is physical education? Introductory Guide to Physical Education. Taisyukan Publishing Co. Murayama, S. (2000). A study on dance in the Meiji period from a historical perspective: The adoption and deployment of dance leading to the establishment of the 1913 list of teaching contents for physical education at schools. Tokyo: Fumaidoshuppan. Obata, T. (1981). The burned-out runner: The life of Kinue Hitom. Tokyo: Daiwashobou. Society for Research on the History of Physical Education for Female Students (Ed.). (1981). History of modern physical education for Japanese female students: The pioneers of physical education for female students. Tokyo: Nihon Taiiku Sha. Statistics Bureau of Japan. (2020). Statistics bureau of Japan. www.stat.go.jp/data/chiri/map/ index.html Takeya, Y. (2011). Mount Fuji and exclusion of women. Tokyo: Iwata-Shoin. Udo, M. (1992). Basic characteristics of physical education classes seen in education. Physical Education Method Lecture. Taisyukan Publishing Co. Yagi, A., & Tanaka, A. (2016). Pioneers for dance education of Japan in modern history. In C. Koca (Ed.), Inspirational women in Asia: Making a difference in physical education, sport and dance (pp. 119–136). Brazil: NGIME UFJF.

Chapter 11

Women and sport in South Korea Challenges and achievements as stepping stones to the future Kyungock Yi Hyunmi Heu and Bona Lee

Introduction South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. South Korea is a highly developed country and the world’s 12th largest economy by nominal GDP. The world’s 5th largest exporter and 8th largest importer; it is a global leader in many technology and innovation-driven fields (South Korea, 2020). When comparing Korea’s gender equality level internationally, it ranks 10th among 189 countries in the Gender Inequality Index (GII) of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2017), but 118th of 144 countries in the Gender Gap Index (GGI) of the World Economic Forum in 2017 (WEF, 2017). In particular, gender equality indices, such as the ‘Gap of Economic Activity Participation’, ‘Gender Gap of Men and Women’, ‘Percentage of Women in the Board of Directors’, and ‘Percentage of Female Parliament’ are significantly lower than those in many countries. Therefore, it seems that women’s representation in the economic and political sphere is lower than in many countries. South Korea participated for the first time in the Olympic Games in 1948 and has since achieved good results at the Olympics, the largest sports festival in the world. In 1988 when the country hosted the 24th Olympiad in Seoul, it was 4th in the overall medal tally (gold 12, silver 10, bronze 11); at the 2008 Beijing Olympics 7th (gold 13, silver 10, Bronze 8); at the 2012 London Olympics 5th (gold 13, silver 8, bronze 7); and at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics 8th (gold 9, silver 3, bronze 9). From the 1948 London Olympics to the 2016 Rio de Janeiro Olympics, the total number of gold medals won by female athletes at Olympic Games was 38 (42% of medals won). Through the outstanding performances of female athletes, a large role in Korea’s ability to become a world-class sports country was developed. In particular, female players have achieved remarkable achievements with world-class skills in table tennis, basketball, volleyball, handball, hockey, and other ball games, as well as archery, shooting, judo, taekwondo, weightlifting, rhythmic gymnastics, figure skating, short track, and speed skating. However,

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after retirement of the athletes, the percentage of women leaders in sports teams and female executives in sport organizations is around 20% on average, significantly lower than for men. The purpose of this chapter is to examine women and sports in South Korea, focusing on gender equity and the lives of girls and women, their challenges and successes from school, community (sport for all) all the way to high-performance sports. Specifically, the history of women’s sports over 100 years is divided into physical education (PE), elite sports, and community sports. In this way, we hope that the understanding of women’s sports will be broadened, as well as providing the basis for marking the 100-year history of women’s sports.

Physical education South Korea’s hierarchical society was abolished after the Gabo Reform (1894), which was followed by the establishment of a modern school system. A small number of government schools were established, while gymnastics and recreation were introduced as subjects in a Christian school established by missionaries. At the same time, these modern schools began to introduce PE in their curriculum. From the opening of the port (1876) to the Japanese Colonial Period (1910– 1945), Korea had to endure a gloomy period of being subjected to foreign powers with no prospect of independence in sight. With the opening of the port in 1876, Korea signed treaties with the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, and France, and a new wave of foreign cultures was introduced, along with Western civilization. In this process of modernization, which was part of being in a colonial state, even school sports followed a basic capitalist system. During this period, Western culture was introduced, and gymnastics and recreation became part of modern PE and taught at schools. The introduction of modern PE became the starting point of the process of transitioning from recreational or martial arts sports (which only the ruling class of past eras practised) to sports whereby all students participated as part of the school curriculum. Several women set up women’s movements and introduced women’s sports activities. Schools were opened only for female students in and around Seoul by several foreign women and missionaries. The need for PE in the form of systematic instruction was recognized, and gymnastics was included in the regular curriculum, and so the era of female PE began. In addition to regular PE subjects, extracurricular activities and elite PE began to spread to schools throughout the country. Based on this, various sport activities such as national sports events and sports day were introduced, not just in terms of the history of Korean sports but also in terms of the history of women’s sports. From 1945 to 1980, the school PE programme was used as part of national policy under government control which developed into an educational system. In the early period, health hygiene was emphasized, but it gradually developed towards pursuing more essential goals and PE for health, exercise, physical fitness, and leisure. The school’s sports day at this time was not just a school event but a

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communication venue for enjoying sports with the local community (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014a). From the 1970s, the Korean government established middle and high schools to foster athletic talents, implemented a student athletic system, and began supporting elite sports. On the other hand, the school sports activities among female students at this period mainly involved learning contents and sports activities programmes centred on activities expressing physical beauty such as school day, sports competitions, dance presentations, and mass games. Also, unlike the development of elite sports for male sports organizations, female sports organizations were set up in schools, and sports teams organized in schools managed to improve the performance of female students. It served as a stepping-stone for development. Between 1980 and 2000, a period marked by rapid industrialization, modernization, and globalization, the number of Korean women contributing to the economy increased dramatically, and women’s activities began to increase as women advanced into professional high-ranking positions. As a result of these changes, Korean women enjoyed a socio-cultural rise, to the point where they have now reached a transition from the women’s development movement to the gender equality movement. In the 1980s, major sports events such as the 1988 Seoul Olympics were held in the country, and as elite sports grew, it seemed that Korea has become an advanced sports country, at least on the surface. However, the country’s school PE programme has experienced a plateau due to the absence of holistic education and educational policies focused on functional and pragmatic knowledge acquisition. During this period, female students’ participation in sports activities was rather low. Therefore, the need for PE programmes related to female students has been raised and discussed since the late 1990s. In response, the government has promoted gender equality in PE classes and tried to stimulate interest among female students, so that they could voluntarily participate in PE activities. In the 2000s, students’ physical deterioration as well as bullying and maladjustment of students have emerged as social problems. Accordingly, the government set its focus on creativity and personality as the key to future education and began to emphasize the importance of school PE. At school, the curriculum was reorganized to become more student-centred, not leader-centred, with focus on teaching students the essential values of PE. In addition, efforts were made to supplement the laws and systems through policy. However, even today, in many sports activities, female students have lower participation and satisfaction rate than male students. Han Tae-ryong (2010) conducted a survey on the participation of students in sports activities. A total of 3,085 students from 90 schools across the country were involved including 662 elementary schools, 1,304 middle schools, and 1,119 high schools. Around a number of factors, female students responded at a lower rate than male students: “I think physical education is important”, “I like physical education”, and

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“I actively participate in physical education”, “I am satisfied with the PE class”, “The current PE class is interesting”. According to the current level of participation in the school sports club competition, among 161,751 students participating in the 2014 school sports club competition, 109,664 (68%) were male and 52,087 (32%) were female. In 2015, of 203,957 middle school students, there were 136,703 males (67%) and 67,254 females (33%) (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2016). Despite the efforts of the government, PE teachers, and sports majors, teenage girls’ participation in school sports clubs has remained low. The government, school PE teachers, and sports leaders continue discussing how to promote PE among female students and how to educate them. In February 2015, the Seoul Metropolitan of Education, Seoul Federation of Teacher’s Associations, and the Korean Federation of Teacher’s Associations developed and implemented a programme under the title “Exciting Sports Program for Female Students”. In April 2015, the Korean Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women held the ‘Gender Equality Proclamation Ceremony for Activating Female Students’ at their annual conference. It can thus be said that various efforts to promote the participation of female students in PE are currently in progress. Since the 2000s, female students’ participation in sports activities has gradually improved or else become more active because of the emergence of new sports, increased interest in female sports programmes, and the revitalization of school sports clubs. Nevertheless, participation of female students in PE still leaves much to be desired. For now, though, the most important task for revitalizing female students’ PE is to find ways that can attract female students’ interests, induce spontaneous participation, and improve their physical fitness.

Elite sports South Korea’s elite sports include personal achievements such as improving individual performance and achieving records, improving national status on behalf of the nation, promoting national integration and self-esteem, promoting PE and professional sports, revitalizing the sports industry, and strengthening competitiveness at the national level. In addition, in 2012, the Korean government’s policy for elite sports was first of all to discover and nurture excellent athletes, second of all to run domestic competitions so as to improve performance, and finally to expand training facilities and support sports science. Korea opened itself to the outside world in 1876 with the Treaty of Ganghwa-do, and since then the influx of Western culture has brought with it many changes to the country. In particular, Christianity was preached, and schools were established in and around Seoul by missionaries, and in those, school sports were included in the curriculum and sporting events were held in and between these schools. Sports teams were set up in terms of school athletic activities, and various sports organizations and local sports activities were developed. However, these

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were mostly male-oriented. As a result, women then organized themselves in terms of women sports organizations which led to women’s sports activities being held in girls’ schools. Since then, sports competitions, sponsored by the media, have encouraged women’s sports activities. In 1930, the ‘Chosun Women’s Sports Promotion Association’ was set up, and sports competitions were held regularly in cooperation with the media and other sports organizations. Although the association offered sports-related lectures, education, and promotional activities for women, it was dissolved in 1938 (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014b). In 1945, Korea was liberated from Japanese rule, and since then, South Korea’s elite sports were revitalized through the reconstruction of the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee and the establishment of a governing body for each sport. South Korea has since joined the International Olympic Committee and the Asian Games Federation and participated in the Olympics and various international competitions. The 1948 London Olympics marked the first time that Korean female athletes appeared on the international stage. Korean women’s elite sports have since developed to the point where they became runners-up at the 1967 World Championships in women’s basketball held in the Czech Republic and the women’s team championships at the Sarajevo World Table Tennis Championships in 1973. In the 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, women’s volleyball won the bronze medal, which was the first medal in the history of Korean participation in the Olympic Games. This achievement led to the founding of the Korean women’s professional volleyball league in the 1970s. Since the 1980s, Korea has hosted major international sporting events, which have had a profound impact on the development of women’s elite sports. By hosting major international events such as the 1986 Seoul Asian Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, Korea’s elite sports helped showcase Korea to the world. In particular, the remarkable achievements of Korean sportswomen at the 1988 Seoul Olympics brought about a remarkable change in gender discrimination in sports activities in Korea. From the 2000s to the present, Korea is striving to develop world sports in the era of globalization through hosting the 2002 Korea֪ –Japan World Cup, the 2002 Busan Asian Games, and the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics. However, the male-oriented glass ceiling of Korean elite sports is almost impenetrable. In November 2019, the Korean Sports & Olympic Committee enrolled 128,602 athletes. Of these, 29,638 were women athletes, accounting for only 23% of the total, despite the total number of gold medals won by female athletes in all past Olympics was 38, accounting for 42% of the total tally. Of the 21 Korean medals at the 2016 Rio Olympics, nine medals were won by female athletes (42%). Unfortunately, the ratio of female leaders in elite sports and female executives in sports organizations is less than 20% which is significantly lower than that of men (Table 11.1). In 2019, the proportion of female executives in the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee was eight out of 52, accounting for 15.3%. The

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Table 11.1 2019 Female Executives of Sports Organizations Contents

Total Female Male

Korean Sport & Olympic Committee

Subcommittees in KSOC

Executives

Executives

52 8 44

% 100 15.3 84.6

348 86 262

Sports Organizations % 100 24.7 75.3

Executives 65 3 62

% 100 4.6 95.3

Source: Korean Sport & Olympic Committee (2019)

proportion of women in subcommittees was 86 out of 348 or 24.7%. In addition, there are currently 65 sports organizations, and only three of them (Luge, Squash, Roller Sports) have a woman as chair. Recently, sports gender equality is one of the most important issues for the International Olympic Committee (IOC). In December 2014, the IOC announced that it would increase the percentage of women participating in the Olympic Games to 50% in its ‘Agenda 2020’ (International Olympic Committee, 2014). It proposes to the NOC of each country to ensure more than 30% of sports executives are female. Korea is also striving to legislate the 30% quota system for female executives and leaders in sports. In 2019, a legislative debate was held for the ‘30% quota for female leaders’, and efforts were made to enact national legislation, but it remains a challenge. Sports is recognized as one of the most powerful platforms for promoting gender equality and boosting leadership among women and girls. We expect that increase in women participation in sports will lead to the expansion of women leadership and gender equality.

Community sport (sport for all) In South Korea, the Sports Promotion Act was established in 1962 with the aim of promoting PE and strength of the people, leading to a healthy spirit and a cheerful life. Sport for all refers to everyday sports activities that everyone voluntarily performs to improve health, fitness, self-satisfaction, and quality of life regardless of social conditions (gender, age, status, religion, etc.). From the end of the 19th century to the war of liberation and the liberation of Korea in 1945, people tried to strengthen the power of the people domestically and abroad and to reclaim their sovereignty from Japanese imperialism. During this period, women were not able to overcome the general view of kitchen being the woman’s place due to Japanese colonial education policy. In addition, while the industrialization process encouraged women’s social activities, the traditional patriarchal consciousness remained dominant (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014c).

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The state encouraged gymnastics to popularize PE among the people, and the regional ‘sports day’ made it possible to participate in PE in general, which meant historically an important start towards sport for all. As the nationalist movement against foreign powers spread, clubs (Gu-rak-bu) were formed as sports organizations, and sports events were organized with the support of the media. During the Japanese colonial era, sports organizations began to expand nationwide, and as sports activities were organized around the cities and sports games were promoted, women also began to be provided with opportunities for sports through social organizations. There were no distinct women’s sports organizations, but newspapers held athletics events to encourage women’s sports, and women were able to participate in games. Women also served as a cheering squad or else provide economic support for athletic meets and athletics in general. In addition, various sports activities were provided to women through social organizations such as YMCA, YWCA, and Scouts which played an important role in gradually recognizing the importance of active and voluntary physical activities among women (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014c). Since 1945, social organizations such as YMCA and YWCA have promoted sports activities such as gymnastics, folk dance, and recreation. But sport for all only started in earnest when legislation was enacted in 1962 through the enactment of the Sports Promotion Act. In terms of women’s sports, women who were educated established the Korean Women’s Sports Association (1954) and the Women’s Sports Promotion Committee (1952) to organize various sport activities for women. The establishment of women’s sports organizations and sports activities by each social organization gave women opportunities for PE and thereby expanded sport for all. In particular, the importance of women’s sports activities was recognized, and sport for all was practised through training and expansion of female leadership in sports. The biggest characteristic of sports policy since 1980 is the change from stateled policy to private sector-led policy. Also, discussions about sport for all became more popular, which was reflected in the policy. The social awareness of sports for the community increased as a result of international major competitions such as the 1986 Asian Games and the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Since the 1980s, women’s sports have been actively promoted and conducted through programme lectures at public and private sports institutions and community sports centres. In particular, the housewife sports club of the Community Sports Center has become one of the welfare programmes for women and the elderly who are alienated from sports (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014c). In 1981, the Korean Women’s Sports Association was launched to hold national sports club competition for women. Although sports participation by women before the 1980s was limited to indoor sports such as gymnastics, aerobics, and swimming, after 1980 women sports activities such as orienteering, paragliding, windsurfing, horseback riding, rafting, rock climbing, trekking, etc. have become widespread.

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In the 2000s, the Korean government tried to expand policies for public welfare, including voluntary participation by the people, improvement of economic standards, support for multicultural families, and preparation for ageing. In addition, enactment of prostitution prevention, abolition of patriarchal family system, and female-friendly human resources policies were implemented with a view to promoting women’s welfare. In light of the ‘National Sports Promotion Five-Year Plan’, the Korean government promotes all programmes of sport, facilities, and leaders, sports 7330 campaign, sports promotion for the disabled, support for the underprivileged, senior sports club leaders, support for multicultural family sports clubs, etc. Currently, the Korean government is trying to establish a sport for all policy in order to realize a healthy lifestyle for all through sports. The influence of the government’s sport for all policy has contributed to the activation of women’s community sports. The recent increase in the number of women participating in sports has led to more stable institutional support. Specifically, policy support is increasing for underprivileged women to participate in sports and to increase opportunities for women’s participation. Women’s community sport is in the process of spreading socially with the help of legal and institutional support (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014c). According to the 2019 National Life and Sports Survey, the rate of regular PA participation at least once a week (more than 30 minutes per exercise) was 66.6% in 2018 (Tables 11.2 & 11.3). Although the 68.1% rate for men is slightly higher than the 65.1% for women, the difference is negligible. Of all the participating sport events, walking is the most common sport for both men and women in South Korea. Men enjoyed bodybuilding, soccer, and cycling more than women, while women enjoyed swimming and yoga (including Pilates) more than men (Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, 2019). Although participation rates in sport are similar today, there is a clear division in terms of sports that aim for masculinity or femininity. Table 11.2 2019 Sports Participation by Year Year

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

Participation (%)

54.8

56.0

59.5

59.2

62.2

66.6

Source: Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (2019)

Table 11.3 2019 Sports Participation by Age (unit: %) Contents

10–19yr 20–29yr 30–39yr 40–49yr 50–59yr 60–69yr Over 70yr

Total

Female Male

42.0 57.5

65.1 68.1

64.6 73.2

69.1 71.4

71.2 69.4

Source: Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (2019)

71.5 70.0

69.5 68.5

57.1 58.9

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Training women’s sports leaders Physical education Leaders in the field include PE instructors in charge of regular PE classes, sports instructors in school sports clubs including after-school activities, and sports coaches in school sport teams. In general, PE instructors are selected through a teacher certification examination (Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, 2020) conducted once a year in the country. The sports instructor must acquire a Level 1/Level 2 Life Sports Instructor certification or higher through training, qualification, and verification (Korea Sports Promotion Foundation, 2020) for sports instructor, and the sports coach must obtain a Level 1/Level 2 Professional Sports Instructor certificate. Elite sports Coach training requires obtaining a Level 1/Level 2 Professional Sports Instructor certificate through training, qualification, and verification (idem) for sports instructor. In addition, the Korean Sports & Olympic Committee conducts a variety of leadership training; elite sports coach training, school sports team coach training, empowerment for sports diplomacy, outstanding athletes training for international sports, employment support services for systematic training and support for retired athletes, retired athlete support programme, strengthening professional skills of outstanding athletes, female sports leader training projects aimed at fostering female experts in the sports field, and clean referee training to create a fair and transparent sports culture. Community sport (sport for all) The required instructor training in the field must be obtained through training, qualification, and verification (idem) of sports instructor conducted in the country. In other words, instructors need to obtain Level 1/Level 2 Professional Sports Instructor certificate, Level 1/Level 2 Life Sports Instructor, Level 1/ Level 2 Disabled Sports Instructor, Youth Sports Instructor, Elderly Sports Instructor, Fitness and Health Instructor certificate to be active as a leader in the field of PE.

Sports organizations for women Since 1945, a group dedicated to women’s sports has been formed amidst the male-oriented sports world, playing a large role in the development of women’s sports. A lot of effort has been made to challenge and develop women’s sports, such as fostering women’s sports leaders, supporting women’s sports talents, and cultivating women’s sports leadership aimed at fostering women experts in the

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sports field. We introduce women’s sports-related organizations that are working hard to develop women’s sports in Korea.

Korean Association of Physical Education and Sports for Girls and Women (KAPESGW) In 1946, the ‘Korea Women’s Sports Federation’, a social group of women sports alumni, was formed to promote sports in schools and society, while also conducting dance and health education classes and workplace sports activities aimed at expanding women’s PE. In 1954, it was renamed Korea Women’s Sports Association, and in 1969, it was again renamed “Korean Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women”. KAPESGW held various classes for PE teachers in elementary, middle, and high schools. They have also worked hard to cultivate leaders in the field of physical and professional sports, as well as conducting academic research and analysis of women’s sport. Through the publication of the Journal of Activities and Sciences, it contributed to the training of female sports scholars who majored in PE in college. Recently, research relating to women’s sports has been conducted in accordance with international standards, and various studies are being conducted in conjunction with approaches in the fields of natural sciences and social sciences. In particular, the focus has shifted to global women’s sports leaders, changing sports culture and sports human rights, measures to expand participation of women’s sports leaders, women’s competency and vision, women athletes’ tasks and roles, nurturing women’s sports professionals, and developing women’s careers in the sports world. There are also active studies on leadership and empowerment of female athletes, including female leadership.

Women’s sports committee within Korean Sport & Olympic Committee Under the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee, the ‘Women’s Sports Promotion Committee’ was founded in 1952, and in 1954 the ‘Women’s Sports Research Committee’ was formed with the approval of the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee. In 1956, it was renamed as the ‘Women’s Sports Committee’. Since 2002, a female executive has been appointed to the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee. Seminars and forums, mainly related to the promotion of women’s sports, have been held to share problems such as human rights issues and sexual violence in women’s sports with the aim of seeking solutions. It is significant that the Women’s Sports Committee was established by way of a national network within the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee.

Korean Women’s Sports Association This was founded in 1981 as the Sports Women’s Association, and in 1990 it was approved as the Korean Women’s Sports. It is a group of women national

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retirees and current players. It was established with the goal of distributing and guiding women’s sports and contributing to a healthy family and a vibrant society in order to reciprocate the popularity received from Korean fans during their days as athletes. The organization develops women’s sports, hosts lectures and seminars by elite athletes, develops programmes to promote life sports, operates sports classes, supports women’s sport teams at universities, exchanges with foreign sports-related organizations, commemorates the 1988 Seoul Olympics, and holds scholarships. Various projects such as business implementation and publication of women’s sports magazines were promoted.

100 Female Athletes of Being In 2009, this group was formed with the goal of replacing a generation of sportswomen through the development of female athletes’ expertise, abilities, and with excellent characteristics. This was realized through a harmonization of female athletes, representation of female athletes’ rights and interests, exchange/ cooperation with women sports organizations in Korea and abroad, development and support of female sports policies, (re)training for female athletes, seminars and academic forums. It has led to a growing recognition of female athletes’ interests.

Conclusion Recently, women’s participation in sports has increased, and female athletes are consistently doing well at international competitions. However, there is still little opportunity for women to show leadership and become decision makers. To improve this, it is necessary to enrich and strengthen women’s experiences, values, and ways of thinking through women’s active participation in sports activities and leadership development. At the same time, equal opportunities should be provided to further empower women’s leadership capabilities. Sport is a voluntary cultural activity that utilizes leisure time to meet a variety of needs and live a fulfilling life. Sports is a catalyst for promoting the quality of life, hence the government’s mission of safeguarding the welfare state and the basic rights of all citizens. Accordingly, the government of Moon Jae-in (2018– 2023) is expecting sports to act as a catalyst for accelerating the realization of a welfare state, which is now included in the top 100 national tasks (100 Female Athletes of Being, 2014c). South Korea should systematically promote women’s sports, which in turn can enable women to be healthy and happy through sports. When women are happy, home, society, and state are also happy. Hence, women’s well-being is part of the real solution to equity and equality.

References 100 Female Athletes of Being. (2014a). 100 years of Korean women’s sports I: Women and physical education. 100 Female Athletes of Being.

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100 Female Athletes of Being. (2014b). 100 years of Korean women’s Sports II: Women and elite sport. 100 Female Athletes of Being. 100 Female Athletes of Being. (2014c). 100 years of Korean women’s sports III: Women and sport for all. 100 Female Athletes of Being. Han Tae-ryong. (2010). Analysis and activation plan of female students’ sports activities. Seoul: Korea Institute of Sport Science. International Olympic Committee. (2014). Olympic agenda 2020: 20+20 recommendations. https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic_Agenda_2020/Olympic_Agenda_ 2020-20-20_Recommendations-ENG.pdf Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation. (2020). Teacher certification examination. www.kice.re.kr Korean Sport & Olympic Committee. (2019). Korean sport & Olympic Committee. www. sports.or.kr Korea Sports Promotion Foundation. (2020). Sports instructors. www.insports.or.kr Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism. (2019). National life sports survey. www.mcst. go.kr Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. (2016). Presentation for promotion of physical education and arts education. Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development. www.moe.go.kr South Korea. (2020). In wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea United Nations Development Program. (2017). Human development report. http://hdr. undp.org/en/composite/GII World Economic Forum. (2017). The global gender gap report 2017. https:/weforum.org/ reports/the-global-gender-gap-report-2017

Chapter 12

Feminist development in sports and physical education in Macau Walter King Yan Ho , Klaudia Kukurova , Sin Ieng Auieong and Jiaxi Hu

Introduction Macau is a special administrative region (SAR) of China. The city was a Portuguese colony for almost 450 years, from 1557 to December 1999, before China regained its sovereignty. It is in the western Pearl River Delta by the South China Sea, with Zhuihai and Hong Kong as its neighbours in the north and east. As of late 2019, its population is 679,600 (DSEC, 2020). In terms of gender distribution, the male and female population accounted for 48.2% and 51.8% respectively in the 2016 census (DSEC, 2017). In the Global Gender Gap Report (World Economic Forum, 2016), Macau SAR was not included, but by calculating the numbers based on the same criteria, Macau Daily News estimated that the Gender Gap and Gender Inequality Index were 0.718 and 0.067, respectively. This places Macau in the 51st and 10th positions in world ranking (Macau Daily Times, 2018). The feminist movement in the city faces challenges as it does not stem from the structural establishment but from social and cultural practices. These practices shape the behaviour related to women’s perception, participation, and life choices in terms of sports, physical education (PE), and even exercise.

Legislative efforts and dilemma of gender equality development in Macau The methods that can be utilized to reduce gender inequality are complex. Undoubtedly, strong legislative efforts are essential to safeguard development. These can be traced back to the 1980s when the Portuguese government, under Law No. 23/80, adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discriminations Against Women. The Portuguese administration in Macau followed Decree No. 25/98 to ratify the law. In 1999, when the Macau SAR was established, the law was transferred to the city through Chief Executive Notice No. 3/01. The record of laws’ transfer and development from 1980 to 1998 and 2001 was reported in the paper “Founded on equality” in Macau News (2017). Another important document to safeguard women’s rights is Basic Law of the Macau SAR, which was introduced in 1999 (Basic Law, 1999). This has two

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important provisions to protect women’s rights: Article 25 clearly indicates that all Macau residents are equal, without discrimination on the grounds of nationality, ancestry, race, sex, language, religion, political or ideological convictions, economic standing, and social conditions, while Article 38 mentions the legitimate rights and protection of women’s interests by the Macau SAR government. Upon reviewing the feminist issue in Macau, a gradual change can be seen in its society – women more than ever before are part of the workforce as officers, directors, or leaders in business, commercial, and government sectors. Macau News (2017) reported an increase in the number of women working in these sectors from 10% to 31.8% between 1991 and 2011. Furthermore, the percentage of women with higher education degrees increased from 3.7% in 1991 to 39.5% in 2015 (idem). In 2016 there were more male students in senior secondary education (23.9%) than female students (22.3%) (DSEC, 2017). However, the number of women who had completed tertiary education (23.1%) was more than that of men (21.9%). The 2016 population census also reflected that female youngsters derived higher benefits from tertiary education than their male counterparts. The number of women in the age group of 16 to 39 who had completed tertiary education (46.3%) was higher than that of men (39.0%). Bolina (1994) reported that almost all children (aged 3–17) were enrolled in schools, and the admission rate of girls was higher than that of boys. The movement for both genders to share equal development opportunities seems to have started in the 1990s. This movement was never radical but was influenced by local expectations and cultural practices. According to Chen (1992), many women had equal status in the family but were socially more submissive. Even though most women in Macau could make independent decisions regarding their careers, when it came to raising a family, some stopped working and followed the tradition of staying at home (Macau News, 2017). This indicates the existence of a culture of compromise in Macau’s society. For example, Chan and Protzen (2018) described that in Singapore, by splitting responsibilities, both partners shared gains and losses. Thus, to establish balance in a situation involving compromise and to avoid one partner being in a disadvantaged position both genders need to have equal opportunities in education and equal rights in a nonthreatening decision-making process.

Sports, physical activity, and physical education in Macau The movement to support women’s liberation relates to the improvement in educational opportunities for girls (UNESCO, 2013, 2016). Changes in school policies are essential and inevitable to cater to this growing movement; however, the scope of the reforms and procedures varies across regions, as these need to be in sync with the specific environment of different places. There are two possible ways to implement a comprehensive education policy. The first focuses on the development of equal terms to support educational rights and quality improvement for

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both genders. The second is to determine specific measures against discrimination towards a particular group. This implies that extra attention would be given to a few issues, which would help to safeguard women’s rights. The Macau SAR government is in favour of the adoption of a policy that propagates equal terms for both genders. In fact, its educational law (Law No. 9/2006) has clearly stated that all Macau citizens have an equal right to education, and the maintenance of social integration and harmony serves as the goal of education. While applying this to educational development, it is imperative to ensure quality control for both genders to have equal opportunities, so that they can pursue their desired field of study. The development of PE in Macau seems to be based on this concept and propagates quality development of all students equally. This practice began in 1999 when Syllabus in PE was introduced. This document states the clear intent to develop students’ independent and critical thinking abilities through physical activities (DSEJ, 1999). The same has also been propagated in the 2004 education review (DSEJ, 2004). When the 1999 Syllabus in PE and the 2004 education review were linked, it indicated that the government was rejecting the teaching of sports techniques as the sole objective as opposed to the mastery of sports skills as the only mission of PE. There was an increase in awareness of adopting other teaching and learning modes to further the learning derived from sports activities to acquire other educational benefits such as decision-making capacity, creativity, or application of the knowledge of sports skills to other areas of learning. This clearly indicates that the PE’s mission is more than just improvement in physical skills and learning sports (DSEJ, 2014). It is now compulsory for all schools to include PA, sports learning, and PE for both genders on equal terms and expect quality improvement. The subject is mandatory for boys and girls in all primary and secondary schools. According to the curriculum framework, the time allowance for PE is 16,640 minutes spread over six years in primary school, 8,240 minutes over three years in junior secondary school, and 7,440 minutes for senior secondary school students (DSEJ, 2016).

Education and perception of female professionals in the field of physical education The government has been propagating a holistic approach while educating students through physical activities. The acceptance and understanding of this concept are imperative to ensure success. The Global Index of Quality Physical Education developed by a research team in 2019 analysed the perception regarding the development of PE in Macau. This project was supported by the University of Macau and developed through the endorsement of four international associations – the International Society for Comparative Physical Education and Sport (ISCPES), International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPESGW), International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA), and Federation Internationale d’ Education Physique (FIEP). In mid-2019, the questionnaire (Ho, Ahmed & Kukurova, 2021) was sent to

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professionals in Macau; 84 valid responses – 37 (44%) from female and 47 (56%) from male professionals in the field of PE – were received. Seventeen (46%) female respondents had less than five years of work experience in the field, and the remainder had more. Although there is no official demographic figure regarding teachers in the field, this number may reveal the priority and interest of the younger female professionals. The study included professionals’ responses related to eight different dimensions – skill development and bodily awareness (SDBA), facilities and norms in physical education (FNPE), quality teaching of physical education (QTPE), plans for feasibility and accessibility of physical education (PFAPE), social norms and cultural practices (SNCP), governmental input in physical education (GIPE), cognitive skill development (CSD), and habituated behaviour in physical activities (HBPA). The range of the questionnaire’s items was calculated on a Likert scale from 0 to 10 (0 = totally not achieved, 10 = fully achieved). The results indicated that the female respondents had a positive perception of the progress of work in PE. The FNPE dimension was rated the highest, followed by SDBA. The female respondents gave a positive evaluation to FNPE, which is based on questions related to the suitability of the environment for teaching and the availability of equipment and facilities for teaching and learning of PE. This indicates that they are satisfied with the resources available and the environment for teaching PE and believes that all children, regardless of their ability or disability, gender, age, culture, ethnicity, religion, and social or economic background, have access to it. It also indicates their appreciation of the policies and opportunities for learning physical activities through the support of sportsrelated, after-school, or extracurricular activity programmes in schools, which makes the teaching and learning of PE fun and enjoyable. The order of the remaining dimensions from the highest evaluated to the lowest is as follows: SNCP, HBPA, GIPE, QTPE, PFAPE, and CSD. Children in Macau have numerous opportunities to engage in physical programmes and activities, and these programmes are quite well established. However, there is a lack of focus on the development of cognitive skills. Thus, CSD received the lowest rating. Female respondents indicated the lack of focus on the development of critical and innovative thinking skills and problem-solving and independent thinking abilities. Furthermore, it has been observed that PE programmes do not sufficiently encourage children to develop socially acceptable moral thinking skills. Based on the observation of the perception of professionals’ views regarding PE, it is evident that there are no differences between the two genders’ perceptions based on the eight dimensions. Their perceptions of the quality of development of PE are very similar. Jurbala (2015) analysed physical literacy and stated that it refers to the ability and motivation to move with potential and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations. The individual’s intelligence and imagination are important for this ability. This view seems to be the core problem vis-à-vis women’s behaviour in sports and physical activities.

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It highlights the fact that even though both genders have equal opportunities to exercise, there are certain differences when it comes to ground reality as there is something missing in the decision-making process. This is also reflected in other studies in Macau. For example, Choi (2011) studied the self-efficacy and social support available for sports and exercises for Macau primary school students, and 780 students participated (56% male and 44% female). The study indicated that certain differences exist in sports behaviour development based on gender – male students usually receive higher support from family to participate in sports activities. This situation was described further in Cheong’s (2011) with students from three secondary schools in Macau, 301 students answered a questionnaire related to their participation in after-school programmes – most male students participated in sports-related activities, while female students favoured activities related to leisure. According to Yang (2015) male students usually receive higher support from family, peers, and friends for sports participation. Similar results were also observed by Tang (2017) regarding parental support and sports-related confidence among Macau high school students. The reason for the lack of support is complicated but may be related to inadequate sports performances among girls. Yang (2015) highlighted that there were differences in performances and achievements between boys and girls; this factor may contribute to low motivation for sports participation in girls. Lei’s (2017) study with 703 female high school students identified different factors that have a negative impact on their desire to exercise. The results indicated that the factors that have the biggest impact include the time required for studying, exercise venue, and school curriculum. It also identified limitations of the venue and school curriculum as structural constraints and psychological factors such as motivation and personal success as internal constraints. The Macau Institute of Sport presented a report on the physical condition of Macau citizens in 2015; it confirmed the observation that men are more motivated than women when it comes to sports participation (Instituto do Desporto do Governo da RAEM, 2016). It stated that women are more interested in arts, dance, and painting, such participation trend seems to be developed during adolescence. Sam (2017) observed that boys favoured sports activities and girls had greater interest in arts and academic activities. This difference seems to be the norm between boys and girls, and this trend has persisted for some time in society (Lei, 2013). Vong’s (2005) study clarified that this trend indicates a wider gap in leisure satisfaction between men and women in their forties but shows the opposite in those under the age of 15 and between 50 and 59. Results indicated that women prefer active lifestyles during childhood, youth, and adolescence and change during working age, especially when they have family responsibilities. With this understanding and observations, it is worth considering if there is an inefficient and insufficient development of physical literacy among female students. It appears that the development of suitable programmes to enhance the self-efficacy of female students for exercise at different stages is needed (Aziz et al., 2013; Nigg et al., 2011). Strategies to promote experiences in sports and

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related activities are necessary to enhance women’s active living (Ahmed, Ho, Van Niekerk, Sulz, & Begum, 2020; Fleury & Lee, 2006; Ho, 2019; Smith, Troped, McDonough, & DeFreese, 2015).

Professional sports and sporting career: the Asian Games as an example Kleindienst-Cachay and Heckemeyer (2008) mentioned that women’s participation in male-dominated sports is an attempt to indicate the success of the feminist movement. However, how this concept can be utilized for sports development in Macau is an interesting point to consider. Sports development in Macau has undergone several reconstructions. The first sports administrative body, called the Sports Commission, was established in 1955 by the Macau Portuguese government. This was not an independent department and, without authority, and functioned as a consultancy (Fong, 2010). The Governor of Macau was the final decision maker for the commission. In 1987, a sports department, Instituto dos Desportos de Macau (IDM), was created. It was the first independent sports department to manage the development of sports in Macau. In 1993, Decree No. 67/93/M (1993), elaborated the structure to promote local sports and the connection between the sports association and IDM was announced. In 1994, Decree No. 12/1994/M (1994) clarified the position, structure, and functioning of IDM as an independent sports department. After Macau’s handover in 1999, the sports department was renamed as the Macau Sport Development Board (Instituto do Desporto, in Portuguese). In 2016, it came to be known as the Sports Bureau (SB), which is “a bureau-level public department with administrative autonomy” according to Decree No.19/2015 (2015). The SB has seven departments – the Department of Sports Development; Athletes Training and Development Centre; Department of Sports Facilities Administration; Department of Organisation; Administrative and Financial Management; Department of the Macau Grand Prix and Mega Sports Events; and Sports Medical Centre. The Athletes Training and Development Centre was established in December 2019, it is considered a milestone for sports in Macau. It is the SB’s desire to provide a more professional and suitable venue for local athletes, coaches, and sports technicians to practise, train, and develop in the sports of their choice. Macau sports associations and sports clubs include many local associations and organizations. In the 1970s and 1980s, several sports associations were formed for athletics, football, basketball, and volleyball. Currently, there are 56 sports associations and sports clubs in Macau, including three for the disabled, the Paralympic Committee Recreation and Sports Association for the Disabled, Macau Special Olympics, and Macau Sports Association of the Deaf. According to Decree No. 67/93/M, every registered sports association is self-operated and has its own organizational structure, which implies that they all have their own general assembly, executive committee, supervision committee, and technical/ jurisdictional advice committee. In Macau, presidents of the general assembly

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and chairpersons of the executive committee are usually male, just like in many other countries (e.g., IOC, 2016). In comparison with the positions of president or chairperson in the organizational structure, athletes in Macau are more likely to have equal opportunities regardless of gender. In the context of professional sports in Macau, it is necessary to understand the city’s political situation. The Macau Olympic Committee [MOC] was established in 1987. It served as an organization that assisted athletes and professionals from Macau to participate in different international sports events as part of the Macau, China delegation. In 1989, the MOC officially became a member of the Olympic Council of Asia (C.O.D.M., 2013). Since then, Macau has had the opportunity to send athletes to participate in most of the international sports events, except those held for sovereign countries such as in the Olympic Games. This is because the MOC has not been recognized as an NOC by the IOC. Therefore, Olympic participation is still a dream for Macau athletes. On the other hand, the Asian Games have become quite an important event for most of these athletes. Macau first participated in the 11th edition of the Asian Games in 1990 in Beijing. Forty-nine athletes represented Macau and competed in seven events – aquatic-swimming, athletics, shooting, judo, cycling, wushu, and table tennis. The Asian Games are held every four years, and Macau, as a Portuguese colony, participated in three editions. After the Beijing Asian Games, it participated in the Games’ 12th and 13th editions, which were held in Hiroshima, Japan, and Bangkok, Thailand, respectively. On 20 December 1999, Macau became part of the People’s Republic of China, and athletes and teams began to represent it at international sports events as ‘Macau, China’. ‘Macau, China’ sent the first delegation of athletes in 2002 to participate in the Busan Asian Games. Macau has participated in eight consecutive editions of the Asian Games – from the 1990 edition in Beijing to the 2018 one in Jakarta–Palembang. Athletes from Macau won seven medals each at the Doha Asian Games and Incheon Asian Games, setting a record. The first Asian Games’ gold medal in Macau sports history was won in Guangzhou. The number of female medallists was more than that of males – 19 and 14, respectively. The number of female medallists has increased slightly since 1990. Female athletes won four medals at the Doha Asian Games, which was the best achievement; after that, their medal tally gradually decreased. In the Jakarta–Palembang Asian Games, however, only one male athlete won a medal, while female athletes won four. So far, athletes in six sports – aquatic-diving, bodybuilding, karate, taekwondo, triathlon, and wushu – have won medals at the Asian Games. Wushu, also known as martial arts, is one of the most popular sports in Macau. From the time that Macau was a Portuguese colony till it became a part of the People’s Republic of China, wushu was the only sport athletes won medals in at the Asian Games. The first medal at the Asian Games was won by a wushu athlete who participated in the Male Nanquan (Southern Fist) event; in 2006, the wushu team won the first ever gold medal at the Asian Games. It has so far won 15 medals at the Asian Games, which is almost half of the total number of medals won by the delegation.

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Another outstanding team is karate. Athletes have won 13 Asian Games medals. Both wushu and karate have traditionally been recognized as masculine sports, as they require strength, challenge, ability to deal with danger, violence, and team spirit. Contrastingly, it is considered that feminine sports are usually more aesthetic and graceful (Koivula, 2001). However, female athletes from Macau have been quite successful in both wushu and karate, especially karate. Almost 80% of medals in karate at the Asian Games have been won by female athletes. This number is not merely to draw a comparison between achievements of male and female karate athletes; but it, in fact, indicates that sports stereotypes in Macau are not a serious problem in society. Women are welcome to participate in the sport of their choice regardless of whether it is typically recognized as masculine or feminine. They also receive the same opportunities as their male counterparts to practise sports and become professional athletes if they want to. The motivation for female athletes needs to be encouraged. The discussion also brings with it the message that when society is ready to have suitable grounds for both genders to develop, it is then time to act to remove the social and cultural constraints and values.

Conclusion During the colonial period, the Portuguese government adopted a noninterventionist attitude and decentralized system of administration (Tang & Bray, 2000). This gave room for political influence from China and the indigenous culture to develop. Therefore, it is not surprising to see a mixed culture in Macau with Western practices and Eastern norms coexisting. However, when Macau was returned to China in 1999, the city experienced a significant change in development. Undoubtedly, there has been a strong attempt to ensure equal opportunities for both genders to develop. This is based on observation of genuine efforts in the government’s legislative work, policy in education, and career opportunities available for both genders. While it is evident that attempts are being made to ensure gender equality, it is important to review the deep-rooted gender order and identity in sports activities. This would influence our perception and preferences regarding certain sports and exercises. To encourage the involvement of women in sports and exercises, it is necessary to make their voice heard, question male superiority in sports performance, offer opportunities to them to pursue sports-related careers, and develop and applaud their success. This will ensure that Macau does not remain just a small city attempting to encourage sports involvement but becomes a model city that encourages active living for both genders through physical activities.

References Ahmed, D., Ho, W. K. Y., Van Niekerk, R. L., Sulz, L., & Begum, S. (2020). Social support and sports participation motivation of female adolescents in India: Study of age transition and achievement level. Physical Culture and Sport: Studies and Research. doi:10.2478/pcssr-2020-0025.

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Aziz, S. A., Geok, S. K., Omar-Fauzee, M. S., Don, Y., Daud, Y., Abdullah, N. M., Parnabas, V., Nazarudin, M. N., & Sustrena, N. (2013). The attribution roles and self-efficacy in determining individual exercise behavior. International Journal of Management Sciences, 1(10), 405–415. Basic Law. (1999). Basic law of the Macao special administrative region of 1999. www.gov.mo/ en/content/laws/constitutional-documents/ Bolina, M. (1994). Estatuto educacional de mulheres em Macau [Education statute of women in Macau]. Administracao, 7(23), 85–93. Chan, J. K. H., & Protzen, J. P. (2018). Between conflict and consensus: Searching for an ethnical compromise in planning. Planning Theory, 17(2), 170–189. Chen, P. (1992). 澳門社會初探 [A brief exploration of the Macao society]. Hong Kong: Wan Shi Wei Publication. Cheong, F. H. (2011). 澳門中學生休閒活動參與之研究 [The study of Macao secondary school students’ participation in leisure activities] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macao, Macao, China. Choi, S. I. (2011). 澳門小學生運動自我效能與社會支持對運動行為之相關研究 [The correlational study of self-efficacy and social support in sport and in relation to exercise behavior of Macau primary school students] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macao, Macao, China. C.O.D.M. (2013). About sports & Olympic Committee of Macau, China. www.macauolympic. org/EN/WebContext1.aspx?ID=3&TYPE=1 Decree-Law No. 67/93/M. (1993). Regula as actividades desportivas em Macau [Regulates sports activities in Macau]. https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/93/51/declei67_cn.asp Decree-Law No. 12/94M. (1994). Aprova a nova estrutura orgânica do Instituto dos Desportos de Macau (IDM) [Approves the new organic structure of the Macau Sports Bureau]. https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/94/06/declei12.asp Decree-Law No. 19/2015. (2015). Organização e funcionamento do Instituto do Desporto [Organization and operation of the Sports Bureau]. https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2015/50/ regadm19.asp DSEJ. (1999). 體育大綱 [The physical education syllabus]. Macau: Direcção dos Serviços de Educação e Juventude. DSEJ. (2004). 澳門特別行政區教育制度法律草案諮詢意見稿 [Consultation Document for Educational Reform in Macau SAR]. https://bo.io.gov.mo/edicoes/cn/dsej/ sisedu/#pl DSEJ. (2014). Curriculum framework for formal education of local education system. https:// bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2014/26/regadm15.asp DSEJ. (2016). The requirements of basic academic attainments. www.dsej.gov.mo/crdc/edu/ requirements-e.html DSEC. (2017). 2016 population by-census detailed results. www.dsec.gov.mo/Intercensos 2016/LatestNews.aspx?NewsGUID=fe18de01-2668-4d76-93f1-8390360653f1 DSEC. (2020). Times series database: Population (end period). www.dsec.gov.mo/ts/#!/ stwp@/Keyindicator/en-us/240 Fleury, J., & Lee, S. M. (2006). The social ecological model and physical activity in African American women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 37(1/2), 129–140. Fong, F. (2010). Research on the development of sport for all in Macao after return the handover (Master’s thesis). Available from cnki.net (Accession No. G812.7). Ho, W. K. Y. (2019). School physical activities: Meaning, teaching and learning for health and active lifestyle development in youth. Proceedings of the International Conference

122 Walter King Yan Ho et al. on Sport, Physical Education and Youth Development (pp.  50–61). Vietnam: Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City Press. Ho, W., Ahmed, Md. D., Kukurova, K. (2021). Development and validation of an instrument to assess Quality Physical Education. Cogent Education, 25 pages. Article ID: 8:1864082. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2020.1864082. Instituto do Desporto do Governo da RAEM. (2016). Relatório da Avaliação da Condição Física da População da RAEM de 2015 [The report of physical condition of Macau citizens]. www.sport.gov.mo/pt/subsites/citizen_health/nid/119 IOC. (2016). Women in Olympic movement. https://stillmed.olympic.org/Documents/ Reference_documents_Factsheets/Women_in_Olympic_Movement.pdf Jurbala, P. (2015). What is physical literacy, really? Quest, 67(4), 367–383. doi:10.1080/0 0336297.2015.1084341 Kleindienst-Cachay, C., & Heckemeyer, K. (2008). Women in male domains of sport. International Journal of Eastern Sports & Physical Education, 6(1), 14–37. Koivula, N. (2001). Perceived characteristics of sports categorized as gender-neutral, feminine, and masculine. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24, 377–393. Law No.9/2006 (2006). Fundamental law of non-tertiary education system. Macao SAR. www.dsej.gov.mo/~webdsej/www/edulaw/law_9_2006/content/chap03-e.htm Lei, I. K. (2013). 澳門學校課外活動政策對高中二年級學生課外活動選擇, 自我成長 及人際關係之影響研究 [A study of the effect of extra-curricular policy to the choices of activities, personal development and interpersonal relationship among form 5 students in Macau] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macau, Macau, China. Lei, J. (2017). 澳門女高中生參與休閒運動阻礙因素之研究 [A study of leisure sports constraints factors of high school female students in Macau] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macau, Macau, China. Macau Daily Times. (2018). Women’s report indicates improved gender equality. Macau Daily Times. https://macaudailytimes.com.mo/womens-report-indicates-improved-genderequality.html Macau News. (2017). Founded on equality. Macau News. https://macaunews.mo/features/ founded-on-equality/ Nigg, C. R., Geller, K. S., Motl, R. W., Horwath, C. C., Wertin, K. K., & Dishman, R. K. (2011). A research agenda to examine the efficacy and relevance of the transtheroetical model for physical activity behavior. Psychological of Sport and Exercise, 12, 7–12. Sam, W. H. (2017). 澳門初中三學生課外活動參與, 參與態度與自我概念的關係研 究 [The research in relationship of extracurricular activities participation, participation attitudes and self-concept development in junior high form 3 students in Macau] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macau, Macau, China. Smith, A. L., Troped, P. J., McDonough, M. H., & DeFreese, J. D. (2015). Youth perceptions of how neighborhood physical environment and peers affect physical activity: A focus group study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 12(80), 9. doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0246-9 Tang, I. I. (2017). 澳門高中學生的父母支持與運動自心研究 [The research of parental support and sport confidence in Macau high school students] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macau, Macau, China. Tang, K. C., & Bray, M. (2000). Colonial models and the evolution of education systems: Centralization and decentralization in Hong Kong and Macau. Journal of Educational Administration, 38(5), 468–485.

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UNESCO. (2013). Literacy and women’s empowerment: Stories of success and inspiration. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000223466 UNESCO. (2016). Promoting health and literacy for women’s empowerment. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000245698 Vong, T. N. (2005). Leisure satisfaction and quality of life in Macao, China. Leisure Studies, 24(2), 195–207. doi:10.1080/02614360412331313502 World Economic Forum. (2016). The global gender gap report 2016. Switzerland: World Economic Forum.https://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/?doing_wp_cro n=1588567245.9575979709625244140625 Yang, H. Q. (2015). 澳門中學生運動參與動機、社會支持與身體活動量之相關研究 [A study of sport participating motive, social support and amount of physical activity in high school students in Macao] (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Macau, Macau, China.

Chapter 13

Sport in Malaysia Towards gender equality Selina Khoo and Nor Eeza Zainal Abidin

Introduction Malaysia is a multicultural, multi-ethnic, and multi-religious upper-middle income country in Southeast Asia. The estimated population is 32.6 million of which 29.4 million are citizens and 3.2 million are non-citizens (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2019). Females comprise 48.5% of the population. The three main ethnic groups are Malays, Chinese, and Indians. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, 54.6% were Malays, 24.6% Chinese, 7.3% Indians, 12.8% other indigenous ethnic groups, and 0.7% others (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2011). Although Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, other religions are practised. In Malaysia, ethnicity and religion are closely related. Malays practise Islam, Chinese mainly practice Buddhism or Christianity, and Indians practise Hinduism or Christianity. Islam is practised by 61.3% of the population, Buddhism by 19.8%, Christianity by 9.2%, and Hinduism by 6.3%. Malaysian women are involved in all spheres of life. However, there is gender disparity in the country as evidenced in the Global Gender Gap Index report 2020. The Index ranks countries in terms of gender disparity based on four categories (economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment). A score of 1.00 means there is no gap between men and women. Malaysia ranked 104th out of 153 countries and 13th among 20 East Asia and Pacific countries with a score of 0.677 (World Economic Forum, 2019). The country nearly achieved gender parity for educational attainment (0.989) with more females in secondary and tertiary education. The political empowerment category had the lowest score (0.108), where only 14.4% of elected parliamentarians and 18.5% of ministerial positions were held by women. In Malaysia there have been gradual increments in the female labour force with female labour participation surpassing the 50% mark for the first time in 2017 (Lim, 2019). In 2019, only 55.6% of women participated in the labour force compared to 80.8% of men (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2020). Although women can enter virtually any industry or occupation, choices are influenced by family, interest, past experiences, stereotyping, and salary (Lim, 2019). Most women in Malaysia are employed in wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing,

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education, and accommodation and food services. It is heartening to note that more than half of the dentists, accountants, and lawyers in Malaysia are female (Lim, 2019). The government has several initiatives in place to encourage more women to join the workforce. These include opportunities for skills training in various sectors, encouraging employers to provide childcare facilities and support for working mothers, addressing gender discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace, as well as creating a social security net (Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, 2009). Although the government has set a target of 30% women directors for publicly listed companies, Malaysia has yet to achieve this target. Few women make it to the top of their careers (Mustapa, Noor, & Mutalib, 2018). Some reasons for this include commitment to family, work–life conflict, and lack of support from family and colleagues. There has been widespread belief about traditional cultural roles of women in society (Hirschman, 2016). Women tend to have a bigger role in domestic work with working women still expected to do most of the cooking, cleaning, and childcare. This has, to a certain extent, impacted women’s participation in sports and physical activity (PA) in the country.

Sports in school Most children are introduced to sports in school. According to the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025, Physical Education (PE) is a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools (Ministry of Education Malaysia [MoEM], 2013). The minimum allocation for PE is 32 hours a year for primary school and 48 hours a year for secondary school (MoEM, 2019). The objectives of the PE component include improving physical development, fitness, and health of students as well as teach them basic movement skills and sports (MoEM, 2015). There is a curriculum for each level of PE, which includes basic gymnastics, rhythmic movement, athletics, aquatics, team sports, as well as leisure and recreation. A positive aspect of the PE class is both male and female students learn the same sports. Male students also learn netball which is mainly played by women, and female students also learn rugby which is a predominantly male sport. In secondary schools, whenever possible, female students are taught PE by female teachers. Students are also required to participate in at least one sporting activity under the One-Student One-Sport policy, launched by the MoEM in 2011. This policy makes it compulsory for every student between 10 and 18 years to participate in at least one sports activity in school. The aim of this policy is to encourage a sporting culture among school children and maintain healthy lifestyles. At a competitive level, annual school, district, state, and national level sports competitions are held. The national level competition is organized by the Malaysian School Sports Council for three age categories, namely under-12, under-15, under-18. Female students compete in all sports except cricket, rugby, and sepak takraw (a traditional sport popular in South East Asia).

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Malaysia has also sent students to regional competitions including the ASEAN Schools Games and the Asian School Sports competitions for athletics, football, hockey, and volleyball. The football competition, however, is only for male students. Malaysia has participated in the annual ASEAN Schools Games since 2010. Based on the statistics of the Malaysian contingent to the Games, we find that there were usually more male officials and athletes compared to females. However, at the 10th ASEAN Schools Games in 2018, there were more female than male athletes in the Malaysian contingent (MoEM, 2018). The Malaysian Schools Sports Council-Milo Awards celebrate the achievements of school athletes, coaches, and teachers. Among others, Awards for Best Sportsboy, Best Sportsgirl, Dedicated Teacher (one award each for male and female teachers), Coaching Excellence, Leadership, and Most Promising Sportsperson are given out each year. It is also heartening to note that Special Education Athletes Awards for a male and female athlete are also given out for athletes with an impairment. The highest award, the Gold Sportsperson Award, however, is not given out every year. It is given out only to those who have excelled both in sport and studies. There have only been two female athletes who have won this prestigious award, namely squash players Nicol David (in 1992) and Aifa Azman (in 2018) (Aifa Bags Top Sports Award, 2019). Other national female athletes who were products of the Malaysian Schools Sports Council competitions are artistic gymnast Farah Ann Abdul Hadi and diver Pandelela Rinong Pamg.

Promoting a sports culture The Ministry of Youth and Sports [MoYS] is responsible for promoting a sports culture in Malaysian society. Various community sports and recreational programmes have been developed by the Ministry to establish a sports culture among Malaysians, including women. This is in line with the country’s aspiration to encourage a healthy lifestyle which is stated in the National Sports Policy (Ministry of Youth and Sports, 2009). Several programmes have been implemented by the MoYS including FITMalaysia, National Sports Day, and Sport for All League. The FITMalaysia Programme was introduced in 2014, with various activities held at community, district, and state levels. The duration of the programme is usually one or two days with cycling, running, and walking as the main activities. Organizers can choose to include other activities. The ones which have been included are 3-on-3 basketball, archery, e-sports, lawn bowls, orienteering, and traditional games (MoYS, 2015). FITMalaysia has also led to the establishment of the National Sports Day in 2015 (Mohd Yusof, Yahya, & Abd Hamid, 2016). It is a proactive step in making Malaysia a sporting nation. The National Sports Day is the highlight of the National Sports Month. On the day, various sports events are held throughout the country. More than 75 sports events (including Women’s Sports Day and Women in Sports Convention) were held at the Kuala

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Lumpur Sports City on the National Sports Day in 2019 (KL Sports City Comes Alive, 2019). Large-scale programmes such as the Sport for All League were introduced in 2012, which successfully features new talents in futsal, sepak takraw, and netball. This programme aims to encourage community members to participate in local sports and volunteer activities. It is open to the local community, clubs, the youth, as well as individuals. The Women’s Sport programme in every state is one of the initiatives under the ‘Sports for all movement’ action plan by the Ministry, to promote active lifestyle in conjunction with the National Sports Month. In 2019, RM299 million (70.15 million US dollars) was allocated for sports programmes, as well as to fix and upkeep existing infrastructure (Wahid, 2019). The amount includes allocation for renovations and upgrades of sports facilities nationwide. Accessible and safe sports facilities and infrastructure are very important for sports development. In order to successfully implement sports development programmes, access to sport facilities for women must be provided. The Ministry of Housing and Local Government announced plans for the first women-friendly sports complex that will have amenities such as a children’s nursery, spa, and beauty salon (Malaysia to Have Women-Friendly Sports Complex, 2018). The complex, which is expected to be ready in 2021, will also have a women-only swimming pool and an indoor court as well as facilities for persons with disabilities and children accompanying women.

Women’s participation in sports Malaysian women have been participating in sport since the end of World War I, and sport was compulsory in the curriculum for girls (Khoo, 1989). Among the sports that women took part in were badminton, swimming, cycling, basketball, and volleyball. When Malaysia first took part in the Olympic Games in 1956, there was only one Malaysian woman ‘Annie Choong’ in the 33-member contingent. Women have always been a part of the Malaysian contingent to the Olympic Games, but it was only at the London 2012 Olympic Games that a Malaysian woman won a medal. Diver Pandelela Rinong Pamg made history when she won a bronze medal in the 10m platform. Four years later at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, Pandelela won a silver medal in the 10m synchronized platform with Cheong Jun Hoong, making her Malaysia’s most successful female Olympian. Sports which were traditionally male sports have been introduced to women. Women’s rugby was developed with only a few players (Ishak, 2020). The first medal the Malaysian women’s rugby team won at an international level was the bronze medal at the 2017 SEA Games. They won the bronze medal again two years later at the 2019 SEA Games. In 2018, the team won the Asia Sevens Trophy and qualified to play in the top-tier Asian Sevens Series (Malaysia Come Up Tops, 2018). There are now more development programmes for women’s rugby.

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The inclusion of women’s rugby in the inter-state Malaysia Games since 2018 is also another avenue to develop more players. Sepak takraw is another sport that is now played by Malaysian women. The Malaysian women’s sepak takraw team was established in 2005 (Harun, 2020). The team has not won any medals at the Asian Games but won a silver medal at the 2017 SEA Games and a bronze medal at the 2019 SEA Games. With the entry of floorball in Malaysia, women had more opportunity to participate in sports. It is estimated that 40% of floorball players in Malaysia are women. With no regulation on any special attire for the sport, female players who wear hijab can play the game. The Malaysian women’s floorball team to the 2019 SEA Games was made up of eight Muslim women, four of whom wore the hijab (P. Y. Cheah, personal communication, 13 July 2020). Floorball is an example of an inclusive sport which can be played by women of all ethnic groups. Many more Malaysians take part in endurance sports like marathons and triathlons. Runs are organized throughout the year in different parts of Malaysia. Its popularity among women has resulted in the hosting of a women-only marathon, the Malaysia Women Marathon, which started in 2013. It is the single womenonly marathon in South East Asia. The main objective is to celebrate women and encourage them to run together and strengthen the bonds of sisterhood. The number of registered runners has been increasing each year with 6,000 participants in 2018 (Fathil, 2018) and almost 7,000 participants in 2019 (Zamlus, 2020). The 2020 edition of the marathon, scheduled on International Women’s Day, was cancelled because of COVID-19. Malaysia has a few female world champions such as Pandelela Rinong Pamg (diving), Nicol Ann David (squash), and Shalin Zulkifli (bowling). Pandelela is a two-time Olympic medallist and has won a total of five medals at the World Championships. She was chosen to be the flagbearer of Malaysia at the 2012 Olympic Games. Nicol Ann David dominated the world top spot for 108 consecutive months from 2006 to 2015. She was an eight-time world squash champion, nine-time Asian gold medallist, five-time British open champion, and has won 81 Professional Squash Association titles. In July 2016, she reached her 151st successive month in the top 10, breaking the record in both men’s and women’s categories. After more than 20 years in competitive squash, she retired in June 2019. Shalin Zulkifli is a Malaysian professional tenpin bowler and former Asian No. 1. She has played and won various national and international tournaments and has at various points in her career ranked No. 1 among the professional tenpin bowlers in Malaysia and Asia. She became the first female champion of the World Tenpin Masters event in 2001. She still represents the country in tenpin bowling. Malaysian women have also participated in more non-traditional sports. Aaliyah Yoong Hanifah is an upcoming athlete in water skiing. Having picked up the sport at the age of five, she was Malaysia’s youngest-ever gold medallist at the SEA Games in 2011 at eight years old (Cing, 2016). Her career highs include

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winning all four individual events (tricks, slalom, jump, and overall) in the 2019 Asian Waterski and Wakesport Championships and being the first Asian waterskier to win a Moomba Masters title in 60 years in 2020 in Melbourne (Kng, 2019; Aaliya Stamps Her Mark, 2020). Nur Ain binti Osman, or better known as Ann ‘Athena’ Osman, is Malaysia’s first female professional Mixed Martial Arts fighter. She made her debut in 2013 in Singapore and retired with a 5–4 professional record after four years in the sport (Sabah’s MMA Queen Retires, 2017). Nur Amisha Azril Rizal is a Muay Thai fighter who started training at the age of seven. She won the gold medal at the 2016 Muay Thai World Junior Championship in Bangkok (Hamudin, 2017) and 2019 IFMA Youth World Championship in Antalya, Turkey (Mohd Arop, 2019). The Federation of Asian Muaythai Associations (2020) named her as one of the five athletes under 20 years to follow in 2020. Nor ‘Phoenix’ Diana is a female wrestler who is breaking stereotypes. Diana wears a hijab when wrestling and has the distinction of being the first hijabwearing pro wrestler. She was in included in Forbes’ ‘30 Under 30 Asia’ list (Malaysia’s First Hijab-Wearing Pro Wrestler, 2020). In July 2019, she was named the Malaysia Pro Wrestling Wrestlecon champion. She is the first woman to win the title after beating male wrestlers, including a former champion (Wong & Hendawy, 2019).

Participation in sports and physical activity The 2016–2020 MoYS Strategic Plan set a target of 50% of Malaysians to engage in sports culture by the year 2020 (Ministry of Youth and Sports, 2016). This target has been achieved. The Sports Culture Index for 2018 was 53.1, which was considered medium (Institute for Youth Research, 2019). Women (49.9) had a lower score compared to men (56.4). Women scored low on four indicators (love of sports, volunteerism, expenses, and facilities) and medium on one indicator (involvement). The indicator for involvement in sports showed men with a high score of 65.71 compared to 59.18 for women. Gender and ethnicity influence PA participation. According to the National Health and Morbidity Survey 2019 (Institute for Public Health, 2020), men (77.9%) participated in more PA than women (71.8%). Among the three main ethnic groups, the most active were the Indians (75.0%) followed by Malays (74.3%) and Chinese (67.5%). The report did not analyse PA participation in each ethnic group according to gender. The prevalence of PA has increased from 2015 to 2020 where only 61.7% of females were physically active in 2015 (Institute for Public Health, 2015). Adolescent girls were also less physically active compared to boys in Malaysia. The 2012 Global School-based Student Health Survey showed that a lower percentage of 13- to 17-year-old girls were physically active for at least 60 minutes per day on five or more days during the past seven days and attended PE class on three or more days each week during the school year (World Health Organization, 2012).

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Barriers to participation in sports and physical activity Malaysian women and girls participate in less sports and PA compared to men and boys. Stereotypes, discriminatory social norms, and lack of representation are some of the barriers to gender equality globally. This is also true in Malaysia. Malaysian women face various barriers to participation in PA. They include lack of time, career duties, housework, traffic jams, and weather (Hanlon, Khoo, Morris, & Eime, 2019). Another reason may be related to traditional, especially Muslim, views of the role of women where PA is seen as unfeminine and associated with lower social status (Tam, Bonn, Yeoh, Yap, & Wong, 2016). For girls, the barriers may be related to minimal support from parents or guardians and the gender role expectations, which make them feel that sport somehow makes them less ladylike or too masculine (Hasnan, 2019). In addition to these, the emphasis on academic achievement in schools makes it difficult for some students to balance sports and studies. Religion has also been cited as a barrier to sports and PA. For Muslim women, there are certain restrictions related to inappropriate attire and excessive free interaction between men and women. Muslim women are required to cover their aurat (parts of the body that must be covered for basic decency). This should not be a barrier for participation in sports as there has been examples of successful female Malaysian athletes who wear the hijab. They include rugby player, Norfarahana Aziz, who has inspired other Muslim girls to take up the sport. Having Muslim-friendly sports and recreational facilities can be a factor to attract higher participation of women (Fitri, Sultoni, Salamuddin, & Harun, 2017). Getting the buy-in of local authorities who have the power to implement Shari’ahcompliant sport and recreational facilities would encourage more participation in sports (Ibrahim, 2017). The cooperation of the local authorities is essential in developing Muslim-friendly sport facilities and recreational parks. Thus, the provision of culturally acceptable venues for women, especially Muslim women, to engage in PA needs to be considered (Tam et al., 2016). In terms of elite sport, there are issues related to lack of funding, participation, and opportunities for female athletes (Hentikan Diskriminasi Gender Dalam Sukan, 2019). Some female athletes have mentioned the disparity in support for male and female sports. These include limited training and last-minute team call up, discrimination of training location, and limited international exposure. Another issue that has emerged is in terms of the attire of female athletes. When gymnast Farah Ann Abdul Hadi (a Muslim athlete) won a gold medal at the 2015 SEA Games, some criticized her for exposing her aurat and not covering up. Malaysians, including the then Minister of Youth and Sports, came out to support her (Rahim, 2015).

Women in sports leadership The Olympic Council of Malaysia has been proactive in trying to get more women involved in the organization. Its constitution was amended in 1999 to change the

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number of office bearers. It states that there would be five vice-presidents, of whom one shall be of a different gender and two honorary assistant secretaries, one of whom shall be a woman. This system of expanding the committee instead of substituting existing committee members with a female member was a more acceptable way of increasing women committee members. There had been three terms where there were two female vice-presidents. With two vice-presidents and an assistant secretary, women account for 25% of the committee. One of the female vice-presidents chairs the Women and Sport Committee. There are currently 56 national sports associations affiliated to the Olympic Council of Malaysia. Thirty-five affiliates are ordinary members (registered National Sports Association and affiliated to a recognized International Federation which controls the sport) whereas 21 are associate members (registered National Sports Association which may or may not be affiliated to any International Federation). Out of these members, only five have a female president. These sports are either mainly played by women (netball), a women’s association (golf), or a minor sport (fencing, contract bridge, woodball). There are six associations with a female secretary general. In the 2019 Malaysian Athletics Federation elections, Mumtaz Jaafar created history by becoming the first female deputy president of the association. Most committee members of the National Sports Associations are men. A few of the National Sports Associations do not have any female committee members, for example, tennis, squash, floorball, kabaddi, polo, rowing, silambam, and snooker and billiards. Sports associations with a women and sports committee include archery, cycling, football, rugby, and silat. It is heartening to note that there are now more women in leadership positions in the national sports associations, especially among the newer associations. However, it is a long way from equal representation. Malaysian women have been recognized internationally for their contributions to sport. Low Beng Choo is the Secretary General of the World Baseball Softball Confederation and was a member of the IOC Women and Sport Commission. She has even been listed in Forbes’ list of most powerful women in international sports 2018. Norminshah Sabirin was President of Asian Federation of Netball Associations for six years.

Towards gender equality Although we have not achieved gender equality for sports in the country, we can be proud of our achievements. We have female athletes who are world class and female sports administrators who are recognized internationally. They are the role models for women and girls to be involved in sports. There is government support for women and sports. This can be seen through the various government policies and guidelines for sport and PA. The PA Guidelines published by the Ministry of Health in 2017 includes a section for PA for pregnant women. The National Sports Council has a secretariat for women and sports which is headed by a woman.

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Although progress has been made in terms of gender equality in sports, the government realizes that more should be done. The former Minister of Youth and Sports stressed the need to develop women’s sports and in the 2020 Budget, the government allocated RM10 million (2.33 million US dollars) to develop female athletes (Loheswar, 2019). The year 2020 has also been declared the year of women and sports and various programmes have been planned. Unfortunately, because of the COVID-19 situation, some programmes have been postponed. School plays a very important role in introducing girls to sports and also cultivating a habit of participation in PA throughout life. Strategies and programmes to encourage more women and girls to participate in sports at various levels should consider culture, religion, social norms, climate, and facilities. Barriers and facilitators should also be taken into account when planning programmes. Various government agencies should come together to ensure a safe and conducive environment for women and girls to participate in sports and PA. It is important to consider programmes for women at all stages of life. This is because Malaysia is expected to be an ageing nation by 2030. Currently, there are limited sports and PA programmes for older women. Finally, in our quest for gender equality in sport, we should not forget women with disabilities. This is because they face the double discrimination of having a disability and being a female.

References Aaliya stamps her mark Down Under. (2020, March 10). The Star. www.thestar.com.my/ sport/community-sports/2020/03/10/aaliyah-stamps-her-mark-down-under Aifa bags top sports award for her exemplary feats. (2019, April 12).The Star. www.thestar.com. my/sport/other-sport/2019/04/12/aifa-bags-top-sports-award-for-her-exemplary-feats Cing, C. (2016, July 9). This modern day princess is a water skiing champ. The Star. www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/people/2016/07/09/aaliyah-yoong-this-modernday-princess-is-a-water-skiing-champ Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2011). Population and housing census of Malaysia 2010: Population distribution and basic demographic characteristics. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Statistics Malaysia. Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2019). Demographic statistics first quarter 2020, Malaysia press release: Current population estimates, Malaysia, 2018–2019. www.dosm.gov.my/ v1/index.php?r=column/pdfPrev&id=aWJZRkJ4UEdKcUZpT2tVT090Snpydz09 Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2020). Labour force survey report, Malaysia 2019. www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=126&bul_id=TlVMb EtBVXBGTi80VjdqZ1JUdVRHdz09&menu_id=U3VPMldoYUxzVzFaYmNkWXZte GduZz09 Fathil, S. (2018, March 4). Lebih 6,000 meriahkan larian MWM 2018, penyertaan meningkat [More than 6,000 at MWM2018, increased participation]. SelangorKini. https://selan gorkini.my/2018/03/lebih-6000-meriahkan-larian-mwm-2018-penyertaan-meningkat/ Federation of Asian Muaythai Associations. (2020). 5 athletes under 20 years to follow in 2020. www.famamuaythai.org/5-athletes-20-years-follow-2020/

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Fitri, M., Sultoni, K., Salamuddin, N., & Harun, M. T. (2017). Sports activities high performance athletes Muslim women in Indonesia and Malaysia. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 180(1), 012213. IOP Publishing. Hamudin, N. (2017, February 12). Nur Amisha: From bully victim to Muay Thai champion. New Straits Times. www.nst.com.my/news/2017/02/211601/nur-amisha-bully-victimmuay-thai-champion Hanlon, C., Khoo, S., Morris, T., & Eime, R. (2019). Factors influencing women in physical activity programs in Malaysia. Health Promotion International, 34(3), 389–399, dax093. doi:10.1093/heapro/dax093 Harun, A. (2020, April 4). Sepak takraw wanita memerlukan penambahbaikan [Women’s sepak takraw needs improvement]. Stadium Astro. www.stadiumastro.com/sukan/blog/ blog-butiran/sepak-takraw-wanita-memerlukan-penambahbaikan/5382 Hasnan, L. (2019, August 30). Gender equality through sports in Malaysia. The ASEAN Post. https://theaseanpost.com/article/gender-equality-through-sports-malaysia Hentikan diskriminasi gender dalam sukan [Stop gender discrimination in sports]. (2019, August 3). FMT News. www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/bahasa/2019/08/03/ hentikan-diskriminasi-gender-dalam-sukan/ Hirschman, C. (2016). Gender, the status of women, and family structure in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies, 53(1), 33–50. Ibrahim, M. I. (2017). Role of local authorities in promoting Muslim sport facilities. Malaysian Journal of Consumer and Family Economics, 20, 71–78. Institute for Public Health. (2015). National health and morbidity survey 2015: Vol. II: Noncommunicable diseases, risk factors & other health problems. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia. Institute for Public Health. (2020). National health and morbidity survey 2019: Vol. I: NCDs: Non-communicable diseases: Risk factors and other health problems. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Health Malaysia. Institute for Youth Research Malaysia. (2019). Facts and figures Indeks Budaya Sukan Malaysia 2018 [Sports Culture Index Malaysia 2018]. Putrajaya: Author. Ishak, F. (2020, June 25). MR excited by their women. New Straits Times. Khoo, K. K. (1989). The historical development of sports in Malaysia. In H. Ueberhost (Ed.), Geschichte der Leibesübungen. Berlin: Bartels & Wernitz. KL sports city comes alive with sports activities. (2019, October 12). Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/10/12/kl-sports-city-comes-alivewith-sports-activities/1799784 Kng, Z. G. (2019, September 30). All-conquering Asian queen Aaliyah. The Star. www. nst.com.my/sports/motor-sports/2019/09/525720/all-conquering-asian-queen-aaliyah Lim, B. F. Y. (2019). Women left behind? Closing the gender gap in Malaysia. Japan Labor Issues, 3(17), 22–29. Loheswar, R. (2019, October 11). Budget 2020: Putrajaya allocates RM671m for sports, youth development. Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/10/11/ budget-2020-putrajaya-allocates-rm671m-for-sports-youth-development/1799417 Malaysia come up tops at women’s Asia Rugby Sevens. (2018, October 22). The Star. www.thestar.com.my/sport/rugby/2018/10/22/malaysia-come-up-tops-at-womensasia-rugby-sevens Malaysia’s first hijab-wearing pro wrestler in Forbes’ ’30 Under 30 Asia list. (2020, April 2). New Straits Times. www.nst.com.my/business/2020/04/580620/malaysias-firsthijab-wearing-pro-wrestler-forbes-30-under-30-asia-list-12

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Malaysia to have women-friendly sports complex in three years. (2018, July 25). Malay Mail. www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2018/07/25/malaysia-to-have-women-friendlysports-complex-in-three-years-minister-says/1655793 Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025: Preschool to post-secondary education. www.moe.gov.my/menumedia/media-cetak/penerbitan/dasar/ 1207-malaysia-education-blueprint-2013-2025/file Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2015). Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan Pentaksiran (KSSR): Pendidikan Jasmani Tahun 6. Curriculum and Assessment Standard Document: Physical Education Year 6. www.moe.gov.my/penerbitan/1266-dskp-kssr-pendidikanjasmani-tahun-6/file Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2018). 10th ASEAN schools games report, 2018. www.bsukanspmoe.com/bsmssm/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/LAPORAN-ASGLENGKAP-.pdf Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2019). Panduan pengurusan mata pelajaran Pendidikan Jasmani dan Pendidikan Kesihatan sekolah rendah dan sekolah menengah [Primary and secondary school Physical Education and Health Education subject management guide]. www.moe.gov.my/muat-turun/penerbitan-dan-jurnal/buku-panduan/2939-bukupanduan-mp-pjpk/file Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development. (2009). National action plan for women 2009. www.kpwkm.gov.my/kpwkm/uploads/files/Dokumen/Dasar/PELAN%20 TINDAKAN%20PEMBANGUNAN%20WANITA%202009.pdf Ministry of Youth and Sports. (2009). National sports policy. www.kbs.gov.my/info-kbs/ maklumat-am/informasi-umum.html Ministry of Youth and Sports. (2015). Inisiatif inovasi: Gerakan FITMalaysia [Innovative initiative: FITMalaysia]. http://habinovasi.mampu.gov.my/laporan_inovasi/1404-ger akan-fitmalaysia.pdf Ministry of Youth and Sports. (2016). Pelan Strategik Kementerian Belia dan Sukan 2016– 2020 [Ministry of Youth and Sports Strategic Plan 2016–2020]. file:///C:/Users/Selina/ AppData/Local/Temp/Pelan%20Strategik%20KBS%202016-2020.pdf Mohd Arop, M. H. (2019, October 6). Rifdean, Amisha juara Muay Thai Remaja Dunia [Rifdean, Amisha Muay Thai World Junior Champion]. BH Online. www.bharian.com. my/sukan/lain-lain/2019/10/614573/rifdean-amisha-juara-muay-thai-remaja-dunia Mohd Yusof, W., Yahya, S., & Abd Hamid, A. (2016). Penilaian Outcome Hari Sukan Negara 2015 [2015 national sports day outcome assessment]. Prosiding Seminar Penyelidikan IYRES 2016. Mustapa, N. S., Noor, K. M., & Mutalib, M. A. (2018). Why can’t we have both? A discussion on work-life balance and women career advancement in Malaysia. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 5(3), 103–112. doi:10.13106/jafeb.2018.vol5. no3.103 Rahim, M. (2015, June 27). Royal support for gymnast Farah Ann. The Star. www.thestar. com.my/News/Nation/2015/06/27/Royal-support-for-gymnast-Farah-Ann Sabah’s MMA queen retires. (2017, November 29). Daily Express. www.dailyexpress.com. my/news/121361/sabah-s-mma-queen-retires/ Tam, C. L., Bonn, G., Yeoh, S. H., Yap, C. C., & Wong, C. P. (2016). Physical activity and its correlates among adults in Malaysia: A cross-sectional descriptive study. PLoS One, 11(6), e0157730. Wahid, N. H. (2019, October 11). RM299 juta Program Sukan Untuk Semua [RM299 million for sport for all program]. MyMetro. www.hmetro.com.my/arena/2019/10/506051/ rm299-juta-program-sukan-untuk-semua

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Wong, L. Z., & Hendawy, S. (2019, July 29). ‘Phoenix’ rising: Meet Malaysia’s first hijabi pro wrestler Nor Diana. The Star. www.thestar.com.my/lifestyle/star2.comvideo/2019/07/29/malaysias-first-hijabi-pro-wrestler-nor-phoenix-diana-is-rocking-itin-a-male-dominated-arena World Economic Forum. (2019). Global gender gap report 2020. www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf World Health Organization. (2012). Global school-based student health survey. www.who. int/ncds/surveillance/gshs/Malaysia_2012_GSHS_FS_national.pdf Zamlus, N. (2020, January 20). 8,000 bakal sertai maraton wanita terbesar Asia Tenggara [8,000 expected to participate in biggest women’s marathon in Southeast Asia]. SelangorKini. https://selangorkini.my/2020/01/8000-bakal-sertai-maraton-wanita-terbesar-asiatenggara/

Chapter 14

Women’s participation in physical education, physical activity, and sport in Oman Yousra Al-Sinani , Anfal Al-Wahaibi and Tansin Benn

Background The Sultanate of Oman is an Arab Islamic country located in southwest Asia. It is a member of the Gulf Countries Council (GCC). The United Nations classify it as a part of the global region of MENA (the Middle East/North Africa). It is bordered on the north by the Gulf of Oman and the Islamic Republic of Iran, on the northwest by the United Arab Emirates, on the west by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and on the southwest by the Republic of Yemen. The territories of the Sultanate extend over an area of 309,560 km2, with varied topography including deserts (82%), mountains (15%), and coastal plains to the north, east, and south. The climate in the Sultanate is subtropical with extreme temperatures in summer; it is mostly dry but can have monsoon rains. In recent years, Oman has seen changes with increased susceptibility to hurricanes and deep air depressions. Oman is classed as a high-income country by the World Bank. It is currently diversifying from dependence on oil reserves (Oman Government, 2019). It remains a developing country because of the rapid ongoing challenges and changes. Oil and gas constitute the most significant percentage of the country’s natural resources. Only 7% of Oman is agricultural land, so 90% of its food needs is imported. Desalination plants provide the primary source of water for the population. Modernization post-1970 was led by the founder of modern Oman, the late Sultan Qaboos in Sa id bin Taymur, may Allah rest his soul in peace. His leadership ensured that Oman stood out among other nations in terms of its positive interaction in the midst of all regional and international turmoil and turbulence, often acting as a mediator when approached. Thus, the country remained neutral and detached from political tensions. Continuing the same principles, is his successor, his cousin, H.M. Sultan Haitham bin Tariq bin Taymur. He was sworn in as Oman’s new Sultan on 11 January 2020. He had previously held administrative, leadership, and political positions, among which were the Foreign Ministry’s Secretary-General, Minister of National Heritage and Culture, Head of Oman Vision 2040, along with being honorary president of the Oman Association for the Disabled. Sultan Haitham graduated from Oxford University, UK, and is

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known for his support for sport in Oman. He was appointed as the first president of the Omani Football Association from 1983 to 1986. In 2010, he was appointed as the Chairman of the National Organising Committee for the Asian Games. The predominantly young population of Oman is estimated to be around five million according to the 2019 census, males constituting 50.4% and females 49.6%; life expectancy is 77 years. Over 40% of the population is the migrant workforce (defined as all those who enter to work and go home when the job is finished). These are predominantly males (83.7%) from India and Bangladesh, and females from Indonesia, Philippines, and Sri Lanka to work in infrastructure and support jobs. Experts in many fields have been brought in from across the world to advise on developments. The ongoing process of Omanization, the localization of jobs, which was introduced for the first time in Oman in 1988, is designed to skill Omani people to fill the most prestigious, high-earning jobs and is having some success from which the young population, men and women, are benefitting. Oman could be described as a conservative society as it strives to absorb rapid modernization and globalization, while retaining distinctiveness and safeguarding deeply valued social and cultural norms. Mujtaba, Khanfar, and Khanfar (2010, p. 176) note that “Omani culture is considered to be diverse and heterogeneous”, mainly due to the population comprising several different ethnicities and languages, notably, Arab, South Asian, Balushi, and African. Those travelling beyond Muscat, the capital city, into the Omani desert, mountain villages, or among the Bedouin communities will witness the cultural diversity that has “a significant effect on the Omani citizens’ experiences and perceptions” (AlWahaibi, 2017, p. 14).

Overview of the position of women Social and economic transformations have brought many opportunities for girls and women in recent years. Omani women have moved gradually from hegemonic traditions that limited them to familial domains, to pursuing roles in the labour force in addition to managing familial responsibilities. Women are becoming more visible in prominent roles in society, with appointments to policymaking positions, including as female ministers, deputy ministers, ambassadors, and members of parliament. Al-Wahaibi (2017, 2020) provided insights on the factors contributing to career progression for Omani women. These included family support, education, and job opportunities provided by the government, and they enabled women to serve in positions of influence and power. Education was perceived as a key factor, learning the necessary skills to enter and progress in their careers, having the confidence: “to fulfil roles that were once the exclusive privilege of men” Al-Wahaibi (2017, p. 25). A rapid change in the birth rate pattern has had a great impact on women’s lives and ambitions, freeing time for education, entering the workforce, and leisure pursuits. Within two generations, the average birth rate per woman dropped

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from over eight children in 1980 to under three in 2010 (World Bank, 2020). With such a rapid change, some generational tensions inevitably occur. In traditional Omani culture, there is still high social capital for women who have many children. Issues of gender equality have changed but require understanding of the Omani, Islamic context. Oman is still considered as a patriarchal society, in which men and women are seen as having different but equally respected roles. Men remain responsible for supporting the family financially; women can use their earnings as they choose. Inheritance law favours men under Sharia law with men entitled to twice the legacy of women, justified by their responsibility for building family wealth. Land ownership laws have been changed to allow women equal rights to land ownership. Polygamy is permissible in certain circumstances, with men retaining more of the power of decision-making concerning family matters. Codes of behaviour and dress apply in public. Issues of sex segregation have become more fluid but are built into the social fabric. For example, in public gatherings, men will normally be more visible than women; the architecture of Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), Muscat, allows women to choose ‘women only’ paths connecting buildings or ‘mixed-sex’ paths, but all classrooms have separate entrances for men and women. Most Omani men wear the traditional dishdasha white robe and women the black shalor and abaya. Some women still wear the niqab or full-face veil in public, either where they choose to wear it, or where they feel it is expected. There are generational, regional, and socio-economic differences. More advantaged women volunteer in developing wider social support systems for others, for example, through the Omani Women’s Associations and Community Knowledge Centres. Religious and family responsibilities shape work and life patterns every day for Omani men and women (Al-Sinani & Benn, 2011). Despite recent positive changes in the lives of Omani women, in relation to progress internationally, Oman’s rankings reflect global trends for ongoing struggles alongside all women for equality. On two of the four dimensions used to measure positive changes in the gender gap realities, Oman ranked poorly (World Economic Forum, 2020). Oman ranked 143/153 countries for evidence of closing the gender gap in ‘Economic Participation and Opportunity’. On the dimension of ‘Political Empowerment’, it ranked 150/152. In line with other countries Oman did better in the dimension of ‘Educational Participation’ ranking 97/153, and in ‘Health and Survival’ at 45/152, reflecting specific improvements and provision in healthcare. Such tools enable the monitoring and visibility of change as the world drives towards greater gender equality. Oman is a member state of the United Nations and signatory to the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), where Goal 5 is to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls” (UN, 2015). On International Women’s Day 2020, the Sultanate reiterated commitments to women’s equality and rights, alongside those of children and persons with disabilities. In compliance with international covenants and treaties, the Sultanate has acceded to a number of international agreements that deal with human rights, including the Convention

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on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. A task force has been set up to track progress on the SDG 2030 agenda, with priorities being given to the SDG 1 (elimination of poverty) and SDG 5 (gender equality). A Ministry for the implementation of the rights of women, children, and people with disabilities has been established (Sultanate of Oman, 2019). Al-Abri (2010, p. 22) points out that “the law already enriches [Omani] women’s rights by the government edict”, so that the actual battle against the discrimination faced by women “does not address official or structural discrimination, but the attitudes of individuals towards cultural choices”. The road map indicates a commitment to a vision of greater equality (Oman government, 2019). Ongoing monitoring of change will be essential to tracking progress.

Physical education, community physical activity, and sport in the Omani context The Arab, Islamic, Omani cultural context advocates equal opportunities to participate in physical activities provided people adhere to Islamic requirements. Men and women (post-puberty) participate in separate spaces and adopt modest dress codes such as covering their arms and legs. There are differences in attitudes and behaviour between generations, regions, cities, and rural environments, and among those from different backgrounds. For example, some tribal communities still adhere to traditional Arabic customs and do not allow women to perform movements in front of others. In contrast, others have folk dancing for men and women together enjoyed at festivals by all sectors of Omani society. Indeed, several dances have become officially registered with the Heritage and Culture Committee at UNESCO to preserve Omani heritage. Progress in improving opportunities for Omani girls and women requires respect and understanding of the Omani cultural context in which girls and women exercise their right to participate in all forms of physical activity (PA).

Physical inactivity – a national and international problem In line with World Health Organization (WHO) global trends, physical inactivity is a serious issue for Oman, with higher than average levels (Guthold, Stevens, Riley, & Bull, 2018), particularly amongst adolescence (Guthold, Stevens, Riley, & Bull, 2020). Global concerns are related to associated health problems such as heart conditions, obesity, and non-communicable diseases. In 2004, Al-Lawati and Jousilahti evidenced a 10-year secular trend of obesity in Oman. In 2016 AlNasseri reported that over 70% of boys and 85% of girls in Oman did not participate in PA and that women’s levels of inactivity were higher than men’s inactivity. In Oman, there is a National Plan and a Ministry of Health to manage change initiatives at different levels, and these have focused on awareness, healthy lifestyles, and increasing activity levels. The role of movement in schools, communities, and

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sport contexts is recognized as significant to changing these habits and lifestyles. The support at government level for increasing PA levels is not always mirrored by enthusiasm in Omani society. Increased visibility and profiling of the link between PA and health is valuable for strategies to improve opportunities at every level of provision from schools to community and competitive sport.

Physical education Public education has been developed across Oman since 1970. Basic education comprises cycle one (grades 1–4) equating to primary schools in some countries, and teaching is in mixed-sex classes with an all-female staff. Cycle two (grades 5–10) is taught in separate schools for boys and girls and equates to secondary schools in some countries. This is followed by grades 11–12, then continuing or higher education is available. The subject of physical education (PE) has a place in the curriculum throughout schooling. From the earliest days, with no internal history, the curriculum designers, teachers, and teacher trainers were employed from other countries, mainly Egypt and Jordan. The rhetoric of PE provision for all children across the diverse regions of the country is not reflected in reality. For example, in the 2015 Oman Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS), it was reported that over 50% of boys and girls had not attended regular PE lessons over the last year (Al-Lawati, 2015). The greatest challenge remains the design of public schools with no specialist indoor, air-conditioned, sports facilities or gymnasiums in a country where temperatures often exceed 40 degrees. Normally, PE takes place in outdoor concrete or rough areas. Seldom are these even covered to provide shade. These areas are located either in a central courtyard area or on the outside of buildings. Both locations bring unwelcome visibility. The latter can result in community visibility, which is more problematic for both the women teachers and students participating because of negative attitudes and repercussions in some communities. Another alternative to finding a space for PE has been to move desks in a classroom, but again this is inadequate for quality PE experiences. The many private and international schools offer multiple sports facilities for students, including swimming pools and sports halls. However, these can only be accessed by the wealthiest people (Benn & Al-Sinani, 2007a). At cycle two, the predominantly games-based programme is limited to one session a week. The allocated time for PE is further cut because changing and clearing of equipment are also required within the time allotted. In addition, PE lessons can be lost where pressure from other academic subjects takes over curriculum time, reflecting low status for the subject. This is clearly inadequate for any meaningful learning experience, development of skills, or instilling of motivation for girls in Oman to enjoy a healthier life. Another problem is that the PE curriculum in Oman has been biased towards competitive sports forms, which is also a global concern (UNESCO, 2014). This

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domination pays insufficient attention to the specific needs of children, the wider concept of developing physical literacy (Whitehead, 2010), linking health education studies and designing a context-appropriate programme for Omani children. One positive example of linking with health education was seen in the Nizwa Healthy Lifestyle Friendly Project (NHLP), implementing the Gulf ‘Move for Health’ programme to raise activity levels in primary schools alongside related interventions (Mehan & Kilani, 2010). Connections with emerging and related fields of knowledge and increased awareness of the role of movement in human development can only be valuable in enhancing the value, status, and significance of PE.

Community provision and physical activity There is increasing awareness of the need for all girls and boys, women and men to participate in PA as a contributor to health and well-being, physically and psychologically. In Oman, walking is seen as the most popular activity for women, but there are women’s fitness gyms and women-only specific community sporting and activity projects and initiatives to encourage women to be more active. Increasing numbers of fashion-conscious young women want to exercise to stay slim. The time, space, and expertise needed to provide women-only community spaces and activities have been won gradually from the time when regional sports spaces and activities were developed as sports clubs for Omani men. Any jointly used sports and health clubs today have separate entrances and exits for men and women and systems that support sex-segregation where this is preferred. Current provision is largely in the main cities, so access, cost, and transport can be issues. Provision for mixed participation is available and used mainly by expat communities. If stronger links between PA and healthy lifestyles could be established while at school, then community participation would grow. There is government support at every level but changing cultural reticence for women’s participation in PA is a slow process.

Competitive sport Success in international sport has not been a priority in Oman, given all the other things achieved since 1970. The women’s competitive sports field is in its infancy but has received much government input. Women’s participation requires deeper changes in cultural expectations and mindset. Omani men are also not well known for international sporting success. However, they do not face the same barriers. They have been fortunate to enjoy resources, publicity, and community support for sports participation, mostly for leisure time enjoyment, for many years. Women’s sports teams in the 1990s developed from expats activities, and events were informally organized in private clubs in handball, netball, tennis, squash, volleyball, and martial arts. From these beginnings, some Omani women became involved in sport. With the addition of specialist PE teacher education at

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SQU, most Omani women interested in sport were attracted to study and develop their sporting capability at the university. Therefore, many early team members were from SQU. A small number of Omani women represented their country in the Islamic Women’s Games in Tehran from the 1990s and events have broadened since, including participating in the first GCC Games in 2008 (a competition run in line with Islamic requirements) and wider international events such as the West Asian Games (Al-Sinani & Benn, 2011). The first Omani woman to compete in an Olympic Games was Buthaina Yaqoubi in Beijing 2008. Shinoon Salah Al-Habsi competed in the London Olympic Games in 2012. Mazoon AlAlawi and Wadha Al-Balushi competed in the Rio Olympics 2016 in athletics and shooting. To date no Omani man or woman has won an Olympic medal, but they have medallists at other events. A small number of Omani women with disabilities have also represented their country, for example, at the Paralympic Games and the GCC Games levels including Raya Al’Abri, Al-Anbouria, and Al-Hammadi, predominantly in athletic throwing events. In addition to hegemonic cultural attitudes about Omani women and sport, a significant barrier for women has been international sports federations’ uniform regulations and systems of organization that have not been conducive to Omani cultural and religious customs of sex-segregation and modest dress codes. Efforts by lobbyists internationally, in solidarity with Muslim women, have led to some international sports governing bodies changing dress code regulations to enable the participation of those Muslim women preferring to cover. Examples include the IAAF – athletics, FIFA – football, and the IWF – weightlifting. The process is slow and contentious, as indeed are transgender issues being discussed today. Despite the challenges and slow rates of change, role models are emerging, and some women are choosing not to wear hijab, reinforcing the fact that covering is not a dictate from the government but a matter of personal resolution. Champions in other sports have emerged in tennis, notably Fatma Al-Nabhani, bowling, taekwondo, and handball. In February 2020, Ibtisam Al-Salmi and Marwa Al-Kaifi were part of an all-female team to finish third in the EFG Sailing Arabia Tour. In 2019 Oman’s first women’s football league was launched. In June 2020 the Omani Football Federation appointed its first female coach – Maha Jandat from Syria. Fatma Al-Harthi, a basketball player and graduate from SQU, recently became a referee of the International Basketball Association (3x3) (Al-Rijabi, 2020). Aisha Al-Sibani, a top international medallist in bowling, became the first Arab woman to receive an accredited coaching degree in her sport. Her ambition is to turn professional (Oman Bowling Committee, 2020). In 2019 Saada Al Ismaili won the International Olympic Committee (IOC) ‘Women and Sport’ award for Asia. She is a Board Member at the Oman Olympic Committee (OOC) and Director of the Women’s Sports Department at the Ministry of Sports Affairs (IOC Women and Sport, 2019). All of these women are pioneers and role models. More Omani women are needed in senior government positions; sports board management, research, journalism, and media work; as sport officials and administrators, as well as

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professional sportswomen. Such opportunities would encourage all girls and women to be positive about careers in the field and the value of exercise across the lifespan.

Teacher training and coach education Higher Education (HE) efforts to improve Omani women’s training of specialist teachers of PE, health educators, community providers, sport coaches, administrators, and managers are happening on a small scale. In turn this will impact in schools and communities, but the context of the country should never be forgotten in international efforts to support progress, as expressed by Al-Balushi et al. (2020): While HE institutions in the Western world struggle with issues pertaining to race, ethnicities, marginalized groups, gender, and diversity, HE institutions in the Arab world are searching for ways to combat poverty, ensure access to education for all, establish democratic societies, face economic crises, and reach a compromise between religious values and modernization. (Al-Balushi, Emam, & Al-Abri, 2020, p. 2) There are a few previous studies about training of teachers in PE in the Arab world and most were undertaken by male researchers on male provision. AlSinani (2007) provided the first in-depth research undertaken by a woman in Oman on PE in the country and the women’s PE teacher education programme at SQU. While the percentage of female teachers in the Oman Ministry of Education and in HE is greater than in other sectors (Al-Wahaibi, 2020), women specialists of PE and women sport coaches remain sparse across the Gulf countries (Al-Sinani, 2012). In Oman, there have been efforts to develop competencies through teacher training since the 1970s when public education became a reality for all girls and boys and a broad curriculum was being developed, including PE. The most prestigious specialist degree-level training in the subject for men and women started at SQU, Muscat, in the 1990s. Including the subject in the College of Education of SQU raised the profile and status of the subject because the university carried the respected Sultan’s name and therefore formed part of his vision for Oman (Benn & Al-Sinani, 2007b). The first intake in PE at SQU was in 1991 with three women and ten men, but the numbers have grown. The process of Omanization has seen Omani teachers replace migrant specialists, but the process is not complete. There is a need for research on the efficacy of the current programme, and on career retention of Omani women teachers post training. In recent years SQU students have benefitted from government enrichment programmes in the areas of sports curricula and teaching. For example, many have volunteered socially in the Sport for All programmes and Sport for Better Health. There is no doubt that the department has provided the Sultanate with Omani women teachers and sports coaches, role

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models capable of inspiring other girls and women and of having an influence in their schools and community. A 2016 review of the SQU programme regarding accreditation for national status by the US-based National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE), and specifically the standards of the subject association the National Association for Sports and Physical Education (NASPE), has highlighted the work achieved but with changing trends more needs to be done (Al-Balushi et al., 2020). To ensure positive change across Oman, any improvements made in initial teacher education for PE specialists need to be cascaded across the country for serving teachers through the continuing professional development programme (Al-Maqbali, 2019).

Major obstacles Despite the positive rhetoric for Omani girls’ and women’s participation in all areas of PA, they still lag behind men for a number of reasons. (1) The community and Omani socio-cultural norms have the strongest influence on women’s lives, and these forces may deter women from moving forward in their careers and lives. Al-Wahaibi (2017, p. 196) stated that “Omani females’ lives are driven by a raft of complex factors stemming from cultural norms and social realities, which delineate boundaries and set restrictions on women’s progression”. (2) There is considerable evidence about the role of Omani women’s families in their career progress and personal empowerment (Al-Abri, 2010; AlWahaibi, 2020; Mujtaba et al., 2010). Where there is familial support from parents, siblings, and the wider family, girls and women can participate in physical activities. (3) Poverty also influences participation. Where there is wealth, Omani women enjoy many activities including pilates, swimming, and yoga in women-only private facilities, while other women do not have the means or transport facilities to access such pastimes. (4) Myths and negative stereotypes remain to restrict women’s participation in PA, for example, about risks to femininity and to child-bearing, therefore some women still have deep-rooted negative dispositions towards participation. Socialization into gender expectations alongside lack of education and understanding of the potential life benefits serve to restrict women’s receptiveness to new opportunities.

Recommendations The following recommendations are presented for future endeavours: (1) Advocacy campaigns to change attitudes and challenge negative dispositions to women’s participation in physical activities and sport;

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(2) Target whole family lifestyle campaigns that encourage active lives for all generations and sexes; (3) Improve education about the health and lifelong benefits of being physically active for all boys, girls, men, and women, including myth-busting regarding negative stereotyping of women who participate; (4) Improve the PE facilities in public schools by adding appropriate indoor sports spaces and maximize their usage for education and community purposes, since the schools serve every village, town, and community; (5) Review and update the policy and practice of the Omani PE curriculum using an appropriate change management process of negotiation between all stakeholders from ministers to teachers. Issues for focus include goals; content, breadth beyond competitive sports; a more appropriate cycle one programme; links across school and community provision; links with health education, fitness campaigns, and community sports clubs (e.g., UNESCO’s established work on Quality Physical Education, including internationally relevant benchmarks, reference to physical literacy, and emerging resources for successful policy reviews in diverse cultural, social, and economic situations (UNESCO, 2020)); (6) Where expertise from outside countries is used, ensure developments and visions are context specific and relevant to the Omani situation and needs; (7) For competitive sport a talent identification programme could be developed to support young women with potential to develop their skills and potential.

Conclusion This chapter has highlighted the effects for girls and women of living within the socio-cultural context of Oman today, either facilitating or hindering their participation in all aspects of PE, PA, and sports. Fortunately, it appears that there will be a significant shift in the status of women in sport in Oman with the appointment of His Highness Dhi Yazan bin Haitham, the Sultan of Oman’s son, as the Minister of Culture, Sports and Youth. This positive change and the restructuring of the government have the potential to further improve opportunities for women in general and women in sport. Further research and monitoring of progress in gender equality are essential to understanding rates of change within the complexity of challenges across Oman and in relation to progress for women across the world.

References Al-Abri, F. (2010). The life path of educated Omani women. Ministry of Social Development Publication. Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. Al-Balushi, S., Emam, M. M., & Al-Abri, K. M. (2020). Leadership and teacher education in Oman. In R. Papa (Ed.), Oxford encyclopedia of educational administration. New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.5899780190264 093.013.589

146 Yousra Al-Sinani et al. Al-Lawati, J. A., & Jousilahti, P. J. (2004). Prevalence and 10-year secular trend of obesity in Oman. Saudi Medical Journal, 25(3), 346–351. Al-Lawati, N. R. (2015). Oman global school-based student health survey 2015. GSHS, Country Report. Ministry of Health, Oman. https://extranet.who.int/ncdsmicrodata/ index.php/catalog/548, accessed August 11, 2020. Al-Maqbali, D. H. (2019). An examination of the nature, quality, and perceived effectiveness of continuing professional development of continuing professional development opportunities for physical education teachers in the Sultanate of Oman (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Birmingham: University of Birmingham, UK. Al-Rijabi, L. (2020). The Football association chooses Syrian Maha Juna to oversee the women’s team. Alwatan News. http://alwatan.com/detiles/384699. Al-Sinani, Y. (2007). An evaluation of the effectiveness of the physical education initial teacher training programme for women in Sultan Qaboos University in Oman (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK. Al-Sinani, Y. (2012). The establishment and development of the initial physical education teacher’s training programme for women in Oman. International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(15), 2184–2199. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2012.724777 Al-Sinani, Y., & Benn, T. (2011). The sultanate of Oman and the position of girls and women in physical education and sport. In T. Benn, G. Pfister, & H. Jawad (Eds.), Muslim women and sport (pp. 125–137). London: Routledge. Al-Wahaibi, A. N. H. (2017). Women educational leader in tertiary education in Oman: Enablers, challenges, and coping strategies (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Leicester, Leicester, UK. Al-Wahaibi, A. N. H. (2020). Women’s empowerment from the perspective of female Omani academic leaders. In R. Papa (Eds.), Handbook on promoting social justice in education. Cham, USA: Springer. Benn, T., & Al-Sinani, Y. (2007a). Oman: Physical education and school-based experiences. Physical Education Matters, 2(1), 57–60. Association for Physical Education (afPE), University of Worcester, UK. Benn, T., & Al-Sinani, Y. (2007b). Physical education in Oman: Women in Oman and specialist initial teacher training. Physical Education Matters, 2(2), 57–59. Association for Physical Education (afPE), University of Worcester, UK. Guthold, R., Stevens, G., Riley, L., & Bull, F. (2018). Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: A pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1·9 million participants. The Lancet Global Health, 6(10). e1077–e1086. Guthold, R., Stevens, G., Riley, L., & Bull, F. (2020). Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: A pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1·6 million participants. The Lancet, Child Adolescence Health, (4), 23–35. IOC Women & Sport. (2019). IOC women sport awards 2019. www.olympic.org/news/ ioc-awards-2019-women-and-sport-trophies-to-gender-equality-advocates Mehan, M., & Kilani, H. (2010). Enhancing physical education in Omani basic education curriculum: Rationale and implications. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), 1(2), 98–104. Mujtaba, B. G., Khanfar, N. M., & Khanfar, S. M. (2010). Leadership tendencies of government employees in Oman: A study of task and relationship based on age and gender. Public Organization Review, 10(2), 173–190. Oman Bowling Committee. (2020). Achievements and posts: Women’s bowling. www.mosa. gov.om/oman-bowling-committee.

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Oman Government. (2019). Oman vision 2040. https://english.alaraby.co.uk/english/ indepth/2019/4/16/vision-2040-omans-ambitious-strategy-towards-a-post-oil-economy The Sultanate of Oman. (2019). First voluntary national review: Moving forward with confidence: United Nations high-level political forum on sustainable development July 2019. Oman: National Committee for Achieving Sustainable Goals 2030. www.scp.gov.om/ PDF/Sustainable.pdf. UN. (2015). Sustainable development goals, 2030. https://sdgs.un.org/goals UNESCO. (2014). Worldwide survey of physical education, final report 2013. https://unesdoc. unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000229335?posInSet=1&queryId=c2b1fbe3-61f6-4a6b-8f00c87f921e6a71 UNESCO. (2020). Promoting quality physical education policy. https://en.unesco.org/themes/ sport-and-anti-doping/sports-education/qpe Whitehead, M. (2010). Physical literacy throughout the lifecourse. London: Routledge. World Bank. (2020). Fertility rate, total (births per woman): Oman. https://data.worldbank. org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=OM World Economic Forum. (2020). Global gender gap report 2020: Switzerland. www3.weforum. org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf

Chapter 15

Women and sport in Pakistan Soniha A. Aslam

Introduction The name Pakistan means, ‘Land of the unadulterated’. Formally, the Islamic state of Pakistan is a nation in South Asia. Pakistan has been amongst countries where the rate of population expansion is quite elevated. Currently, Pakistan is the sixth most crowded nation on the earth, having 188 million inhabitants, of which 51.35% are male and 48.65% are female. It is the 33rd largest country by region, spanning across 881,913 square kilometres of land. Pakistan includes a 1,046-kilometre coastline alongside the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south and is surrounded by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west, Iran to the southwest, and China to the northeast. It is almost alienated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor in the northwest and is also divided by a maritime border with Oman. Of the 75 to 80 recognized Pakistani languages, six are considered main languages spoken by 95% of the populace – Sindhi, Saraiki, Punjabi, Pashto, Urdu, and Balochi. English is the official language while Urdu is the national language. The layout of Pakistan is a profound mix of sceneries ranging from natural to wilderness, woodlands, and highland variety from the coastal part of the Arabian Sea in the south to the mountains of the Hindukush, Himalayas, Karakoram ranges in the north. Geographically, Pakistan covers, almost equally, the Indian and the Eurasian tectonic plates, where its Sindh and Punjab provinces lie on the north-western area of the Indian coast, while Baluchistan and most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie inside the Eurasian plate, which mostly includes the Iranian Plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir slump beside the border of the Indian plate. Karachi is the largest city of Pakistan and the seventh largest city worldwide. Moreover, it is Pakistan’s main multi-ethnic city; and most linguistically, racially, and faith-diverse city, as well as one of Pakistan’s mainly secular and communally moderate cities. With its location on the Arabian Sea, Karachi serves as a transportation centre and is house to Pakistan’s two largest seaports, the Port Bin Qasim and Port of Karachi, as well as Pakistan’s busiest airport, Jinnah International Airport. Services segment contributes 58.8% of the GDP and appears to be the key driver of financial expansion.

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Pakistani culture, like in more developed countries, is a consumerist society, having elevated spending on consumer goods. The development rate of its service sector is higher than the development rate of agriculture and manufacturing sectors. Civil society in Pakistan is mainly hierarchical, giving emphasis to local cultural etiquette and conventional Islamic standards that preside over individual and political existence. The fundamental family unit is the extended family, though for socio-economic causes there has been a rising style towards nuclear families. The customary clothing for both men and women is the Shalwar Kameez; trousers, jeans, and shirts are also admired amongst men. In recent decades, the middle class has increased to about 35 million and the higher and upper-middle classes to around 17 million, and power is changing from rural landowners to the developed influential. Pakistani celebrations, including Eidul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Azha, Ramadan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali, are typically spiritual in origin.

About sport ‘Sport’ is a term which indicates a variety of movements, procedures, societal relations, and assumed physical and psycho-sociological outcomes. These movements may involve an individual person, companions, or teams; sports with or without physical contact, competitive or recreational, or solely for self-development (Coalter, 2001). Sport provides a stage that brings together populations, societies, and countries for their common interest, sets no recognized boundaries, teaches diplomacy, and unites nations to be concerned about everyone. Sport activities have an exact code of conduct through which the attributes of obedience, promptness, respect for rules and regulation, mutual admiration, and care of adversary are developed among the contestants (Lidor, Melnik, Bilkevitz, & Arnon, 2005). Sport plays an essential role in the overall development of a person and of society, regardless of gender. A well-known Greek proverb states that a sound mind is in a sound body, which actually implies that participation in sports activities promotes physical vigour, which in turn cultivates a healthy mind (Payne & Morrow, 2009). However, traditional views on gender roles prevented women from participating in sports. In the past, it was accepted that the “natural order of the globe” consisted of the male for the marketplace, as dominant gender, as the rational thinker, and the master of all else, while on the other hand; the female is at home with her kids, the custodian of morality, the mistress of domesticity, and the assistant of males (Berk, 2013). In 1896, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, creator of the modern Olympics, stated: “No matter how toughened a sportswoman might be, her organism is not cut out to sustain certain shocks” (Deshpande, 2016). There are a lot of reasons for people to engage in sport as recreation, including amusement and relaxation, strength building, and increased social interaction. Participation in sports is particularly vital for women because it has numerous psychological and physical benefits that considerably develop women’s

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health and improve their self-worth, such as weight loss and weight maintenance (Mirsafian, Dóczi, & Mohamadinejad, 2014). However, many obstacles limit participation of women in sports all over the globe. For instance, Muslim women are restricted from sport activities as a result of numerous factors such as state of origin, attitudes of parents and kin, religious bane, restrictive traditions, and lack of moral support from society (Ghouri & Qureshi, 2011). In Pakistan, the government requires support of its females, particularly in all areas of sports. However, sports programmes do not adequately respond to the government policies and requirements for women participation in sports. For example, programme policies of the government require support for female sport activities even at the school level in Pakistan (Sarwar, Hussain, Mehmood, & Awan, 2010). Yet, these are hardly followed in many schools in Pakistan. According to Hewet (2010), these societal and political contradictions prevent significant female participation in sport activities. Nonetheless, Pakistan continues its efforts to support women participation in sports. For example, assessable steps have been required for women to be engaged in sports until they get equivalent chances in all areas of games and play that are similar to sports (Abbas, 2011).

Women’s participation in sport: a historical overview For women of the Muslim world, the religious philosophies and values provide means and ways by which they can build up and come up with their lifestyle. Islamic values are the basis of their uniqueness and their approach to be often concluded by religious, cultural, and racial aspects. In many ways, Islam supports participation in sports, good strength, and fitness encourages both genders to engage in physical activity (PA) to sustain a healthy way of life. For several, the apprehension to support women on this stems from a fear of bias or of facing pessimistic attitudes from service providers, relative to their spiritual and cultural requirements. The Messner (1988) study on the problems of women’s involvement in sports across the globe shows different challenges that are similar in nature. Gender stereotypes and numerous troubles are faced by women, like being the weaker and submissive sex, therefore, if females get permission for participation in sports activities, this might make them strong and confident, and therefore, challenge the male dominancy (Messner, 1988). Many studies on women’s contribution in sports (Kara & Demirci, 2010) concluded that lack of information, lack of opportunities, overcrowding, relatives, and fiscal complexities, and remoteness of activity areas have prevented adequate participation of women in sports. The participation of Muslim women in sports is considerably less than that of other women (Pfister, 2010). Performance in Olympic competitions has been the acceptable evidence for the development of women’s sports. However, participation of women was forbidden in the first Olympic Games in 1896. It was only at the turn of the 19th century at the Olympic Games in Paris, when the

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involvement of women in sports was gradually and progressively accepted. In 1908 the percentage of women athletes was 2%, 38% in 1938, 11% in 1960, and in 2008 (Beijing) more than 42% of the contestants were female who competed in 26 of the 28 games, and in 137 of the 302 sports events. In 2008, 427 male (6% of male athletes) and 98 women (2% of female athletes) from Islamic countries participated in the Olympic sports (Pfister, 2010). In London Olympics 2012, 158 female Muslim athletes were sent by 16 countries. Countries like Saudi Arab doubled the number of female athletes which is encouraging for Muslim women (Naveed, 2016). In 2016, 45% of the participant athletes were women. Ibtihaj Muhammad is the first American Muslim to compete at Olympics wearing the hijab. Fourteen Muslim women won medals at the 2016 Olympics (Settimi, 2016).

Sport in Pakistan The Pakistan Sports Board supports athletes, and associations encourage participation in sports. The Ministry of sports has control over the Sports Board, which is supported by the Sports Trust of Pakistan. Cricket and hockey (field) are the most popular sports in Pakistan. The most popular sports among females are cricket, badminton, and table tennis (Abbot, 2015). Most of the sports played in Pakistan were initiated and developed by athletes and sports fans from the United Kingdom, who introduced them before Pakistan’s independence from the British rule. Field hockey was declared national sport of Pakistan in 1958 by field marshal Ayub Khan; it has won three gold medals in the Olympics held in 1960, 1968, and 1984. Pakistan has also won the Hockey World Cup a record four times in 1971, 1978, 1982, and 1994. Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore is the third biggest cricket pitch in Pakistan with a seating capacity of 27,000 audiences. However, cricket is the most admired sport across the nation. The country has had a collection of accomplishments in the game over the years and has the unique achievement of having won each of the main International Cricket Council (ICC) competitions: ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20, and ICC Champions Trophy; as well as the ICC Test Championship. The cricket team (recognized as Sheehan) won the Cricket World Cup held in 1992; it was runner-up once, in 1999. Pakistan was runner-up in the opening World Twenty20 (2007) in South Africa and won the World Twenty20 in England in 2009. In March 2009, rebels attacked the touring Sri Lankan cricket players, since then no international cricket was played in Pakistan until May 2015, when the Zimbabwean team agreed to a tour. Pakistan also won the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy by beating arch-rivals India in the final. Another popular sport played in Pakistan is football; it is organized and synchronized by the Pakistan Football Confederation. Football in Pakistan is as old as the state itself. Soon after the formation of Pakistan in 1947, the Pakistan Football Federation (PFF) was formed, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah became its first Patron-in-Chief. The main football organization in Pakistan is the Pakistan Premier League. Pakistan is recognized as one of the finest producers of the

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executive FIFA World Cup balls. The best football players from Pakistan are Kaleemullah, ZeshRehman, Muhammad Essa, HaroonYousaf, and Muhammad Adil. Pakistan has hosted or co-hosted numerous intercontinental sporting events: the 1989 and 2004 South Asian sports; the 1984, 1993, 1996, and 2003 World Squash Championships; the 1987 and 1996 Cricket World Cup; and the 1990 Hockey World Cup.

Women’s sport participation in Pakistan Pakistan is a society governed by about 97% Muslims who are very solid in their faith (Wynbrandt, 2009). In Pakistani society, males organize and lead in all parts of life, including sports events. Other Islamic nations also have a similar belief, with other South Asian countries sharing a comparable culture (Nanayakkara, 2012). Pakistan women’s involvement in games depends on various factors such as caste, skills, welfare, capability, social class, cultural standards, and religious limitations (Khan, 2010; Laar, Zhang, Yu, & Qi, 2019). Pakistan is a Muslim state where gender dissimilarity obstructs the contribution of women in sports events in community, resulting from the combination of gendered sports and clothing code (Ghouri & Qureshi, 2011). Due to this, females have inadequate opportunities to sustain their participation in sports. The sports atmosphere for females, in which they may participate and perform together with males, is not supported by the sport climate of Pakistan. However, in spite of all these challenges, female athletes have obtained outstanding glory in sports, however, the primary source of anxiety for female participation and victory in competitive sports stems from the fear of judgement, with unfavourable reactions reflecting cultural beliefs and practices characteristic of the dominant social order (Ghouri & Qureshi, 2011). More particularly, training sessions requiring sports clothing and time away from home playing fields that are not allowed for dependent females, prevent girls and young women from rural areas to participate in sports activities. Sports authorities need to give female athletes not only equivalent chances in sport participation but also the support, prizes, and job endorsement for their victorious achievements. Furthermore, they should provide incentives to winning female athletes, similar to their male counterparts, in order to encourage greater female participation in sports. Hence, the combination of these concerns and issues cannot be ignored in the understanding of Pakistani women’s involvement in sports. As such, the educational system of the nation should likewise exert efforts to encourage the development and training of female athletes. Moreover, recommendations of successful female athletes must be considered in the design and conduct of strategies and approaches for this purpose. The evaluation of the Muslim society about the sports clothing of female athletes ought to be reconsidered to include the athletes’ health, motivation, and concern for their overall well-being. Sport authorities must realize that both male and female sports have equivalent value and importance to society. Additionally,

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to advance women participation in sports in the country, lack of access to sports for girls in the rural areas has to be addressed. Currently, more females are undoubtedly beginning to participate in sports not only at the school level but at the national level as well across a variety of sport events (Bakkar, 2011). Pakistani female athletes have achieved inspiring performances in international sport competitions and demonstrated their sports contribution through winning medals in various sports such as sprints, karate, cricket, and swimming in the current period (Bakkar, 2011). Cailliau’s (2013) investigation of the reasons for the lack of Pakistani female athletes in the Summer Olympic sports concluded that about 90% of Pakistani females do not participate in sports due to numerous restrictions, such as restricted family permission, lack of currency and facilities, and societal, cultural, and spiritual limitations. Although Pakistani laws do not prohibit females from wearing particular outfits, cultural standards that have been built through Islamic values (Ghouri & Qureshi, 2011) compel women to observe numerous community and spiritual traditions (Nanayakkara, 2012) that affect their participation in sports.

Physical education or sport at school Educational institutions are places where the activities are conducted to develop the well-being and skills of the kids. Schools are most appropriate sanctuaries where interest towards sport and its benefits is developed among children during school time (Ghouri & Qureshi, 2011). Female youths demonstrate immense attention in games, however; numerous socio-cultural issues combine to alter girls’ interests and participation in sports over the years. Together with schools, parents and family are the main sources of influence in the development of character and well-being of children. Physical Education (PE) is an optional subject in the educational system of Pakistan. Nonetheless, the Pakistan Sports Board supports athletes and associations to keep participating in the sports (Abbot, 2015).

Girls’ playing activities There are limitless ways to inspire the public, especially girls, to develop interest for sport and motivate them to participate in sports. For example, interest for badminton, table tennis, cricket, volleyball, and basketball may be gradually developed through well-designed sports programmes targeted to girls and women so that a culture of affection for sports among girls and women may be cultivated. It is acclaimed that sports participation is essential for the physical, psychological, and emotional progress of girls (Allender, Cowburn, & Foster, 2006). It also assists girls in obtaining elevated school grades. Through sports, girls also acquire decision-making skills, problem-solving abilities, cooperation, self-control, and leadership (Mirsafian et al., 2014). Furthermore, participation in sports assists females to maintain body mass index, resulting in better thinking, feeling good about themselves, and improved self-esteem. In the study of Dar (2016), factors

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that intervene the PA of Pakistani daughters were investigated. Unhelpful conduct of relatives, shortage of sports choices in schools, lack of playmates, and boys’ domination are few of the main obstacles and hindrances that result in girls’ preference not to participate in sports. Family supposes that girls would help in domestic chores rather than taking part in physical activities and sports. These societal factors and cultural expectations force Pakistani girls and women to avoid physical activities and rather opt for inactive activities. Female sports role models, towards whom they can look up for motivation, are also few. Sports codes opposing female participation due to religious and society standards, including barring of girls from training or competing in locations away from home; expensive coaching and sports equipment; and few safe spaces to play sports continue to be the main obstacles for Pakistani women to contribute in sports (Dar, 2016).

Women who have made history in Pakistan sports Despite all obstacles, Pakistani female athletes have achieved inspiring performances around the world in various sport competitions such as World Championships, Olympics, Asian and Commonwealth Sports and contributed to winning laurels for the country, especially in cricket and other tough sports like karate, tennis, squash, swimming, skiing, hockey, cycling, chess, athletics, martial arts, and athletics for their country (Bakkar, 2011). Some admirable mentions of outstanding Pakistani women athletes are Samina Baig, Pakistani mountaineer who climbed Mount Everest in 2014; Rubab Raza, the youngest swimmer who represented the country at the Athens Olympics and who also won medals in the 2004 Asian Games; Kiran Khan, the first Pakistani woman who won 16 medals for swimming in the South Asian Games and played for the country at the 2008 Beijing Olympics; Naseem Hameed Siddiqi, the fastest women who won the gold at the 2010 South Asian Games in Dacca; Sana Mir, who captains Pakistan Women Cricket team and is ranked first in the ICC ranking for bowling; Mallak Faisal Zafar, the first Pakistani figure skater and Pakistan’s Ice Princess at age 12 who won worldwide tributes by winning the gold medal in the two-day fundamental Novice Girls II group at 24th International Eiscup Inssbruck (2019) in Austria; Amina Wali and Ifrah Wali, Pakistani alpine skiers who became the first women to bring home medals in international Skiing tournament; Shabana Akhtar, Pakistan’s first female to participate at the Olympics in women’s long jump in the 1996 Olympic Games; and Rabia Ashiq, who represented the country in the 2012 Summer Olympics (London) on a wildcard entry in 800m race event. It appears that the increasing number of fitness centres and gyms may have assisted in providing the training and conditioning facilities for enthusiastic sportswomen. Additionally, there are regular sports tournaments where female students–athletes participate and win numerous sports achievements in schools. In spite of facing numerous challenges, Pakistani women are diligently determined to grow in the playing field of sports.

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Conclusion Sport constantly develops nation-builders. Both sportsmen and sportswomen have become symbols of harmony, prosperity, and truthfulness of the nation. It has in no way been easy for Pakistani females to participate in sports, but they continue the struggle, determined to bring pride to their country through their achievements in sports. Women of Pakistan have become prominent models in the playing field of games and sports. They have captivated national attention in games and sports, achieving various extraordinary feats and hurdling cultural restrictions in Pakistan society (Marwat, Zia-ul-Islam, Waseem, Khattak, & BiBi, 2014). As a result of Pakistan’s special affection for cricket, outstanding women players of this sport have significantly contributed to their society’s acceptance of women participation in sports. It is gradually transforming into a society that is passionate about a wide range of sports for both men and women. Indeed, as a sport loving country of more than 170 million populace, Pakistan is acknowledging sports not only as a PA but as a tool for unifying and harmonizing society as well, with both men and women as active participants of sport.

References Abbas, R. (2011, February 16). A journey of Pakistani women in sports. Pakistan Times. www.pak-times.com/2011/02/16/pakistani-women-in-sports/ Abbot, D. (2015). Social changes. In J. McCann (Ed.), Changing world: Pakistan (pp.  100–110). Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan/ Daily-life-and-social-customs Allender, S., Cowburn, G., & Foster, C. (2006). Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: A review of qualitative studies. Health Education Research, 26(6), 826–835. doi: 10.1093/her/cyl063 Bakkar, A. (2011, February 3). Gender equality inches up in Pakistan. Pakistan Times. www.pak-times.com/2011/02/03/gender-equality-inches-up-in-pakistan/ Berk, L. (2013). Child development. Boston: Pearson Education. Cailliau, V. (2013, January 30). Worldwide Barriers to Women’s Participation in Physical Activity. sportanddev.org: https://www.sportanddev.org/en/article/news/worldwidebarriers-womens-participation-physical-activity Coalter, F. (2001). Realising the potential of cultural services: The case for sport. London: Local Government Association. Dar, U. R. (2016). Parental attitude towards female participation in sports. International Journal of Applied Research, 2(1), 518–520. Deshpande, D. M. (2016). Gender discrimination in sports. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, 3(3), 445–447. Ghouri, S., & Qureshi, Y. I. (2011). Muslim female athletes in sports and dress code: Major obstacle in international competitions. Journal of Experimental Sciences, 2(11), 9–13. Hewet, H. (2010). Senegal women tackle taboos to play sports. Christian Science Monitor, July 16, 1999, 1. Academic Search Premier, EBSCO. Kara, F., & Demirci, A. (2010). An assessment of outdoor recreational behaviors and preferences of the residents in Istanbul. Scientific Research and Essays, 5(1), 93–104. https:// doi.org/10.5897/SRE.9000157

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Khan, A. (2010). Women and paid work in Pakistan. In F. Azim and M. Sultan (Eds.), Mapping women’s empowerment. Experiences from Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. Dhaka: University Press Limited (UPL) and BRAC Development Institute (BDI). Laar, R., Zhang, J., Yu, T., & Qi, H. & Ashraf, M. A. (2019). Constraints to women’s participation in sports: A study of participation of Pakistani female students in physical activities. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 11(3), 385–397. doi:10.1080/ 19406940.2018.1481875 Lidor, R., Melnik, Y., Bilkevitz, A., Arnon, M., & Falk, B. (2005). Measurement of talent in judo using a unique, judo-specific ability test. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 45(1), 32–37. Marwat, M. K., Zia-ul-Islam, S., Waseem, M., Khattak, H., & BiBi, S. (2014). Sport performance of Muslim women and different constraints in their way to. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(10), 208–214. Messner, M. (1988). Sports and male domination: The female athlete as contested ideological terrain. Sociology of Sport Journal, 197–211. https://journals.humankinetics.com/ view/journals/ssj/5/3/article-p197.xml Mirsafian, H., Dóczi, T., & Mohamadinejad, A. (2014). Attitude of Iranian female university students to sport and exercise. Iranian Studies, 47(6), 951–966. doi:10.1080/002 10862.2013.823790 Nanayakkara, S. (2012). Crossing boundaries and changing identities: Empowering South Asian women through sport and physical activities. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(13), 1885–1906. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.707649 Naveed, S. (2016, August 7). Breaking stereotypes: Muslim women from around the world participating in Rio Olympics’16. Parhlo. www.parhlo.com/muslim-women-who-wereonce-discouraged-from-sports-are-now-participating-in-rio-olympics/ Payne, V. G., & Morrow, J. R. Jr. (2009). School physical education as a viable change agent to increase youth physical activity: The President’s council on physical fitness and sports Research Digest, 10(2), 1–8. Pfister, G. (2010). Outsiders: Muslim women and Olympic games – Barriers and opportunities. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 27, 16–18. doi:10.1080/0952336 7.2010.508291 Sarwar, M., Hussain, S., Mehmood, T., & Awan, R.-u.-N. (2010). Physical education at secondary school level in Gujranwala, Pakistan. Asian Social Science, 6(11), 120–122. doi:10.5539/ass.v6n11p120 Settimi, C. (2016, August 5). The 2016 Rio summer Olympics: By the numbers. Forbes. www.forbes.com/sites/christinasettimi/2016/08/05/the-2016-summer-olympicsin-rio-by-the-numbers/#32781560fa18 Wynbrandt, J. (2009). A brief history of Pakistan. New York: Infobase Publishing.

Chapter 16

Women in Philippine sport and physical education Bridging the gender divide Maria Luisa M. Guinto , Gilda Lasat-Uy and Marilou F. Cantancio

Introduction Like a dot in the vast expanse of waters bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east, the South China Sea to the west, and the Celebes Sea to the south, the Philippines is home to amazing geographic treasures. It cradles 7,641 islands settled on 300,000 square kilometres of land and bodies of water, with the fifth longest coastline in the world measuring 37,008 kilometres. As one of the 17 most diverse countries in the world harbouring majority of the earth’s species (as declared in 1998 by the Conservation International), its territorial waters within the Coral Triangle region has the highest diversity of marine species in the world (Roberts et al., 2002). Moreover, as source of the second-largest gold deposits after South Africa (Hilotin, 2019), and the world’s biggest deposits of Palladium along with South Africa (San Juan, 2014), this tiny Asian nation nurtures many of the world’s wonders. Aside from these natural resources, the country considers its people as its most important resource. With an estimated population of almost 110 million, the Philippines is the 8th most populated country in Asia and 12th in the world. Statistics reveal that the country has a very young population. Almost 33% of its people belong to the 0–14 years age group and approximately 20% are within the 15–24 years age group (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). Of those 15 years and above, 98.2% can read and write, with almost an equal percentage of literate men and women. Although men outnumber women by a slim number in the population, the projected Life Expectancy at Birth for women is higher at 75.9 years compared to men with 69.6 years. Statistics also reveal more women than men enrolled in secondary (71% of women versus 60% of men) and tertiary education (57% of women versus 43% of men). Until 2019, the Philippines had one of the lowest rates of gender disparity in the world, ranking consistently within the top 10 among 153 countries for gender equality. However, the latest 2020 Global Gender Gap Report shows the Philippines dropping to 16th rank worldwide, mostly due to the widening political empowerment gap under its current administration and partly due to the improved conditions of women in other countries.

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The beginnings of physical activity promotion The Philippines shared the same experiences with early civilizations when physical activities were meant for survival, worshipping deities, and preserving and strengthening communities. Daily physical activities were gender-defined, with men working in the open fields and women doing housekeeping. Filipino men’s favourite pastime was cock fighting, while the women enjoyed bathing in rivers to relax among themselves. However, some physical activities were shared by both genders, such as indigenous dances, mimetics, chanting, and playing instruments. When the Philippines was conquered by Spain (1521–1898) and the United States (1898–1935), the foreigners took over the administration of the country’s internal affairs. With the sword and the cross, Spain organized Catholic mission and parish schools, emphasizing religious instruction and compulsory education (1863), but excluding Physical Education (PE). Secondary and higher education were mostly reserved for men and children of elite families. Women went to ‘convent’ schools to prepare themselves as future housewives or for the religious life, reflecting the belief that “a young woman did not need more than the rudiments of education because her sphere of action was within the 3 German K’s kirche, kuche und kinder – church, kitchen and children” (Mendoza-Guanzon, 1928, in Sobritchea, 1990, p. 73). Gymnastics (initially for boys only) was required in basic education (1893), training both male and female teachers to acquire a certificate. While the proposal of national hero Dr. Jose Rizal for the establishment of Colegio Moderno (which included Swedish gymnastics, swimming, fencing, equestrian sports, and dancing) was never realized, his gender bias was evident in his novel, Noli Me Tangere (1887, in Olivar, 1972, p. 32), This is going to be a place with two wings, one for the boys and the other for the girls. The girls will have a garden with benches, swings . . . for the game of rope skipping, fountains, bird cages, etc. In his own community, Dr. Rizal also promoted walking and hiking, installed bars, rings for bodybuilding, and engaged in judo, wrestling, boxing, arnis, and marksmanship, all of which were limited to men. Part of community recreation (locally known as fiestas) included processions staged around churchyards in honour of the Catholic saints and patrons. Children played simple games (e.g., tag, finger/arm wrestling, pebbles, shells, cards, dice, billiards, and bathing in rivers), while the adults engaged in folk dances (as offerings for bountiful life and expression of love between male and female), religious plays (showing sword fighting), and pastimes exclusive to men (such as gambling, cockfighting, sipa, and arnis). Boys’ activities were more team-based, physically oriented, and outdoor-bound, while girls’ activities were confined to limited spaces and small groups. In schools (for the elite), extracurricular activities included debates, dramatic performances, membership in choirs and orchestras.

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Physical Education was incorporated in the school curriculum with the introduction of the public-school system (1901) by the Americans who introduced baseball, track and field for boys, and basketball for girls (1910). Indoor baseball, tennis, and volleyball were later included in the interscholastic programme of the Bureau of Education (1911–1913). PE was formalized with the release of the 1911 Athletic Handbook, which served to guide all schools in systematizing and directing physical instruction (e.g., prescribing group games and relays, playing rules for the different sports); specify the basis for special trainings for Filipino teachers under the ‘Play for Everybody’ policy to qualify them to teach at the provincial normal institutes; provide the course of study ‘Syllabus on PE, a Manual for Teachers’ (1919); and support the requirement of PE in all public schools from Grade 4 to 4th year High School (1920) and PE as a curricular subject (1937–1938). The University of the Philippines (UP), as the first state university built in 1908, adopted PE as a requirement for graduation after establishing its Department of Physical Education to promote and supervise PE and recreation activities of students. The men’s section was headed by the Physical Director while the women’s section was supervised by the Physical Directress. Two prominent UP alumnae honed themselves as Physical Educators and leaders in their respective disciplines, leading the way for other women physical educators and leaders to follow; these were Carmen Wilson-Ylanan in sports and Francisca Reyes-Aquino in dance (Ylanan & Ylanan, 1974). Ylanan was a living proof that Filipino girls were already involved in sports at the turn of the 20th century, being the captain of the intermediate school-girls’ basketball team and the high school’s indoor baseball team. With a baccalaureate degree in education from the UP, she taught PE and was later appointed Physical Directress of its women’s section. Furthering her studies abroad, she continued to develop and teach PE in other universities, and coached women’s swimming, athletics, and volleyball teams (1937–1957). When educational opportunities to study in the United States were opened to Filipinos, Aquino became the first Filipino woman to specialize in PE with a master’s degree from the Sargent College of Physical Education, Boston University (1929–1930). Upon her return to the Philippines, she resumed teaching PE and became the Physical Director for Women at UP and the Supervisor of PE at the Bureau of Education. Her master’s thesis on Philippine folk dances led to a nation-wide research on Filipino music, songs, dances, and games, giving birth to Philippine Folk Dances as a professional course at UP in 1937. Aquino became a household name among physical educators in the Philippines, with her publications serving as the bible in teaching Philippine folk dance and games, a required PE activity at all levels. Her works were recognized with several outstanding achievement awards for the advancement of Filipino culture through folk dance, music, and PE, preserving a rich heritage for future generations. She was eventually granted the honorary degree of Doctor of Physical Education (1949) for her notable contributions to PE in the Philippines.

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School physical education and professional preparation of physical educators Under the current K-12 Program, the concept of ‘Move to Learn, Learn to Move’ articulated in five learning strands (i.e., body management, movement skills, physical fitness, games and sports, rhythm and dance) was adopted in the PE curriculum of basic and secondary education. Some high schools offered a Special Program in Sports (in Junior High School) for student-athletes and a sports track (in Senior High School) for those preparing for future careers in PE, sport science, or athletic training. At the tertiary level, four semesters or eight units of PE are required for graduation. Programmes for competitive sports are also organized by the Department of Education and other private sport leagues to encourage student-athletes to hone their skills. The Palarong Pambansa (Filipino for “National Games”), initially conceived in 1948, encourages student-athletes from public and private elementary and high schools to compete at the national level, provided they qualified by winning at their respective regional meets. At the tertiary level, private leagues organize annual multi-sport competitions for varsity teams from colleges (i.e., National Collegiate Athletic Association) and universities (i.e., University Athletics Association of the Philippines), producing male and female national champions who eventually represent the country at international sport tournaments such as Universiade, South East Asian Games, Asian Games, and Olympic Games. Over the years, women started coaching both women’s and men’s teams and became officials in tournaments for both women’s and men’s events.

Women trailblazers in Philippine sports Although early cultural and religious beliefs limited the participation of women in sports, the eventual development of PE and sports in the country produced legendary female athletes in the Philippines. Setting the tracks on fire The Philippines has a long history of women track champions in Asia. The legacy began with a petite farmer’s daughter by the name of Inocencia Solis, who established the National Records in the 100m and 200m sprints, as well as in long jump for girls. Her first international competition at the 1954 Asian Games earned her two bronze medals in the 200m sprint and 4 X 100m relay. This was followed by a gold medal in the 100m sprint at the 1958 Asian Games and another gold medal in the 4 X 100m relay at the 1962 Asian Games. Her achievements earned her the Philippine Sportswriters Association’s ‘Athlete of the Year’ award, as its first female recipient in 1958, and the ‘Distinguished Filipino Woman Achiever in Sports’, given during the 1998 Philippine Centennial Celebration (Pirie, 2020b, May 12).

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A barefoot Muslim girl from Mindanao by the name of Mona Coco Sulaiman eventually broke the Philippine and Asian records set by Solis. She is the first Filipina athlete to compete at the Olympic Games, first in 1960 and then in 1964. She also achieved the historical feat of winning three gold medals in a single Asian Games in 1962. As the first national pentathlon champion in 1963, she outclassed everyone else as five-time national champion in the shot-put, sixtime national champion in the 100m and 200m events, and national champion in discus throw (Pirie, 2020d, August 25). All these accomplishments earned her the monikers, “The Fastest Woman” and “Asia’s Sprint Queen” (De Guzman, 2018). Sadly, her soaring career was clipped by a controversy surrounding her gender when she decided to forego a sex verification test prior to the 1966 Asian Games in Bangkok. This resulted in Mona doubting her athletic prowess, isolating herself from public view, and eventually, dropping out of the sports scene. Her vindication came decades later when she was inducted into the Philippine Sports Hall of Fame in 2016. After more than a decade of silence on the tracks, the flames of hope burned once more when Lydia de Vega made it to the headlines after she won both the 200m and 400m sprint events at the First Asian Cup in Jakarta in 1980, followed by record-breaking performances in the 200m and 400m events at the 1981 Southeast Asian Games (SEAG) in Manila. After running away with gold medals for the 100m dash at the 1982 New Delhi and 1986 Seoul Asian Games, achieving a back-to-back gold medal finish for both the 100m and 200m sprints at the 1983 and 1987 Asian Athletics championships, besting the 100m dash at three SEAGs, and topping the 200m events in four SEAGs, Lydia de Vega became the undisputed ‘Asian Sprint Queen’ of her era. A two-time Olympian, representing the Philippines at the 1984 and 1988 Summer Olympics, she is considered the best ever locally trained sprinter of the country (Pirie, 2020c, May 13). At about the same time, Elma Muros carved her own name as the ‘Long Jump Queen’ and the ‘Philippine Heptathlon Champion’. She holds several Philippine records for the 400m hurdles, 200m indoor sprint, 4×400m relay, heptathlon, and indoor long jump. She snatched a record total of 15 gold medals at the athletics competitions of the SEAG, a feat she shares with Jennifer Tin Lay, shot-put champion from Myanmar. A two-time medallist at the Asian Games, Muros was also a veteran competitor at four Athletics World Championships and represented the country at two Olympic Games in 1984 and 1996. In 2017, she also received the first-ever National Games (locally known as Palarong Pambansa) Lifetime Achievement Award for her wins at many local and international competitions, particularly for her eight-time gold medal performance in the high jump at the SEAG, and for inspiring local athletes with her success (Pirie, 2020a, May 2). Amid continuing grassroots efforts to identify talented girls to continue this tradition of excellence in track and field, Nancy Navalta became the heir apparent to Lydia de Vega when she outpaced everyone with her gold-medal finish at

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the 1993 National Games in both the 100m and 200m dashes. In the following year, she captured six more gold medals to convince people that she would be “the next Lydia de Vega” (Pirie, 2019, 29 December). Her steady rise in the sport eventually earned her a spot in the Philippine delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. However, after sceptics incessantly raised the issue of her masculine physique and incredible speed that outpaced even her male counterparts, she complied with a gender verification test that declared her a ‘hermaphrodite’, having both female and male organs (AP, 1996). Without any guidelines on how anyone could still compete with this rare condition, Navalta was disqualified from competing as female. She lost her Olympic dream as media feasted on the results of the gender test; questioned all her sport accomplishments and bared her private life to public ridicule. Just like Mona Sulaiman’s fate, Navalta’s career was shattered overnight, sending her into seclusion. Breaking records, breaking gender stereotypes Olivia ‘Bong’ Garcia Coo, dubbed as ‘Asia’s Bowling Queen’ in 1972, is a fourtime World Champion and the first Filipino athlete to be listed in the Guinness Book of Records for her two-peat record-breaking performances at the 1979 World Championships for All-Events in Manila and at the succeeding 1983 World Championships for All-Events in Caracas (Matthews & Morrison, 1987). Although the record scores were rewritten after the 1987 World Championships, she remains to be the only athlete who has won it twice in a row. A recognized specialist in the All-Events, she is the only bowling athlete who has won the titles and set the records in this category in the regional-, Asian-, and world-level championships in major biennial and quadrennial bowling competitions all at one time in 1986. Enshrined at the International Bowling Hall of Fame in 1993, she amassed a total of 107 individual championships and has won at least one Masters Title for 28 consecutive years. Bong Coo has become the iconic symbol of women in Philippine sports, promoting excellence in sports as a form of service to the nation and upholding the participation of women and girls in sports. In 2000, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) awarded her the Women in Sport Diploma in recognition of her outstanding contribution to promoting the development and participation of women and girls at all levels in sports, thereby closing the gender gap in sports, not only in Asia, but also in the rest of the world. Queen of the felt table Filipinos have always reigned supreme in cue sports. However, girls were not encouraged to play this male-dominated sport. Yet, Rubilen Amit learned the sport at 11 years old as she tagged along with her father whenever he played the game. Amit eventually joined the National Billiards Team and outclassed all her contenders for the 2005 SEAG gold medals in the women’s 8-ball and

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9-ball events. In 2009, she became the first woman to join the elite group of Filipino world champions after she claimed the inaugural Women’s World 10-Ball Championship (Lerner, 2009). In the same year, she played alongside renowned Filipino pool player Efren Reyes to win the 2009 World Mixed Doubles Billiards Championships and then successfully defended the crown in 2011. Her second win of the Women’s World 10-Ball Championship in 2013 moved her up from 16th to the 5th place in the World Pool-Billiard Association rankings (Terrado, 2013). At the 2019 SEAG in Manila, she claimed the top position by winning the gold in both singles and doubles of the nine-ball pool event. As one of the decade’s (2010–2019) best 10-ball players in the world, regardless of gender (Zarate, 2019), history will remember Amit for inspiring other Filipinas to pick up a cue stick and break the gender barrier on the felt table. Lifting the Philippine Olympic dream Training in a makeshift gym with improvised equipment crafted out of pipes connecting concrete weights shaped in tin cans, Hidilyn Diaz learned the basics of weightlifting from her cousin (Pareño, 2016). As a wild card entry to the 2008 Beijing Olympics, she was the first female weightlifter to compete for the country at the Quadrennial Games and the youngest entry at 17 years old in the women’s 58-kg category. After succeeding in the women’s under 58-kg category at the Continental and World Qualifying Tournaments, Hidilyn earned her ticket to the 2012 London Olympics, becoming the first Filipina weightlifter to compete in consecutive Olympics. Despite her unsuccessful bid for a podium finish, she returned to rigorous training for the next Olympic Games. In 2016, she made history as the first Filipina to win an Olympic medal with her silver finish in the women’s 53-kg weight division, providing the much-needed lift to Philippine sports. Although her pursuit of the gold medal at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics was derailed by the cancellation of the games due to the coronavirus pandemic, she continued her rigorous training to win the gold medal at the first virtual weightlifting tournament of the Oceania Weightlifting Federation (OWF) Eleiko Email International Lifters on 30 July 2020. On hindsight, Diaz recalls in an interview, “There were so many doubters during my time that they’re saying: Hey, you can’t do that because you’re a girl” (Go, 2018). She has certainly proven her detractors wrong, asserting that women can lift not only heavy weights but the country’s pride as well.

Women on boards and landmark initiatives In 1929, the IOC recognized the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation (PAAF) as the National Olympic Committee in the Philippines after swimmer Teofilo Yldefonso won the country’s first Olympic medal, a bronze, at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics. In 1975, PAAF was renamed Philippine Olympic Committee (POC). Of the 12 POC presidents, the only woman president Cristy

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Jalasco-Ramos was elected during the tenure of her father, Fidel V. Ramos as president of the Philippines (1992–1998). She was instrumental to the conduct in 1992 of Philippine Sports Summit, the country’s biggest assembly of women in sports. In the government sector, the Philippine Sports Commission (PSC), created in 1990, is headed by a policy-making board of commissioners appointed by the president of the country. Among the 38 commissioners who served through the years, only five women had the chance to sit in the Board, namely Josefina Bauzon, a PE professor; Teresita Abundo, a volleyball coach and PE professor; Gillian Akiko Thomson, a bemedaled swimmer who represented the country in three Olympics; Cynthia Carrion, an acclaimed aerobics and fitness guru; and, Celia Kiram, president of a national sports association (in Pencak Silat). While men continue to dominate top sports leadership and governance positions in the country, landmark initiatives in women and sports were headed by women. In 1996, PSC commissioner Bauzon led the Philippines in hosting the 1st Asian Conference on Women and Sport with 16 Asian countries represented. The Brighton Declaration was adapted in a manifesto called, ‘The 1996 Manila Declaration’. Bauzon also served as the Asian Director of the Girls and Women in Sport Commission as part of the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPERSD). In the same year, the 2nd ICHPERSD – Asia Conference in Cebu City generated the Gender Equity Program covering three main components: research, livelihood, and education/training. The biggest convergence of women in sport in the Philippines, the 1st Philippine International Congress on Women and Sports, included over 600 local and foreign delegates in 2002. Initiated by PSC commissioner Cynthia Carrion, this four-day assembly launched a sporting culture movement through a manifesto, ‘Tagaytay Call for Action’ and won for Carrion ‘Asia’s Best Woman in Sport Trophy’ from the IOC. Among its notable resource persons were Dr Etsuko Ogasawara of Asian Working Group on Women and Sport, Dr Deborrah Cubagee of the African Women and Sports Association, Ms Grace Young of the Singapore Women and Sports Foundation, and executive director Maureen Chan of the Hong Kong Sports Development Board. The period 2017–2019 saw the active involvement of women in various activities and projects organized by the PSC through the initiative of Commissioner Kiram. Among those that generated nationwide interest were the series of differently abled women’s holistic development seminars, the women and children sports projects (which involved over 24,000 women and girls in various sporting activities nationwide), the yearly inter-government agency sports festivals for women (with almost 3,000 women participants from the government), the fun run of women in the military, and the yearly Women Leadership Training and Coaching Seminars (approximately 1,000 women participants). Another round of Women Sports Congress was held in 2018. The hosting of the Women’s Sports Festival and the Canoe, Kayak and Dragon Boat Competitions during this period also provided an exciting display of women prowess in paddling. Moreover,

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the Mindanao State University and the Tawi-Tawi College of Technology and Oceanography collaborated with PSC in the yearly conduct of the Indigenous Women’s Sports Festival. When Manila hosted the 2019 SEAG, the POC, in collaboration with the PSC and the Tourism Promotions Board, invited 27 top leaders and advocates for women and sport from 10 National Olympic Committees in the Southeast Asia region and select guest-participants from distinguished sports institutions in the Philippines. They participated in both events held in Tagaytay City: the Southeast Asian Women and Sport Summit hosted by the POC-Women in Sports Committee (WISC), and the meeting of the SEA Games Federation – Women and Sports Committee. Two milestone documents were produced after these two-day gatherings: a manifesto of the SEAG Federation of women and sport members, which outlined three proposals for recommendation to the SEAG Federation Executive Committee and the Council; and, a manifesto of the Summit participants, which defined the vision statement of women and sport in the SEA region, identified the gaps and challenges, and articulated priority groundbreaking solutions to address the challenges.

Mandates: a big push to women in sport The 1987 Philippine Constitution states two prominent provisions in relation to women. Its Declaration of Principles asserts that “The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men”. Article XIII- Section 14 provides that: The state shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working conditions taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the nation. Legislations related to women and gender concerns were enacted. Among those that impacted the participation of girls and women in sport are as follows: the ‘Gender and Development Law’, which mandates government agencies to allocate 5% of their budget for gender concerns; the ‘Non-Discrimination Law in the Labor Code’, which protects women in hiring and pay; and, the ‘Women in Development and Nation Building Act’, which promotes the integration of women as full and equal partners of men in development and nation building. A defining moment for Filipino women happened in 2009 with the passing of the ‘Magna Carta of Women’, a comprehensive women’s human rights law that provides for the recognition, respect, and promotion of the rights of women in all spheres, including rights to substantive equality and non-discrimination. The Magna Carta directs all sports-related organizations accredited by the PSC to create guidelines that will establish and integrate affirmative action on gender equality as a framework in planning and implementing policies, budgets,

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programmes, and activities that relate to the participation of women and girls in sports. It also mandates the training of more female coaches for girls and women’s team, the establishment of equal incentives for men and women, the provision of equal opportunities for scholarships and travel grants for women leaders, coaches, and athletes, and the allocation of sufficient funds to support girls and women in sports. Moreover, it directs all government agencies and Local Government Units to increase women’s participation by forming women’s and girls’ teams in various sporting events that they organize or sponsor.

Conclusion Although great strides have been made in the participation of Filipino women in PE and sports, foreign influences continue to impact on the administration of PE in the educational system and sports organizations, particularly in the adoption of Western physical activities, language usage, and cultural perspectives on body image. Thus, although foreign trainings, studies, and exposures of women physical educators have admittedly developed their high sense of nationalism and internationalization, helping shape the PE programmes to become more responsive to the current world trends; advocates for women in sports need to be vigilant in preserving cultural values and local initiatives that are inherently supportive of girls and women. It is also noteworthy that the country has produced high-performing women athletes who have accomplished outstanding feats in the international sporting arena over the past five decades. However, sustaining the steady growth of women achievers in sport will remain a great challenge to the nation as leadership continues to be dominated by men in the highest governing bodies of sports. Gender equality in sports leadership and administration has yet to see significant progress in the country. Opportunities to discuss women’s issues, expand networking, and build capacities of women coaches, managers, and leaders are still intermittent. Nonetheless, there are persistent efforts to provide women and girls greater access and opportunity to participate in sport; the government has not wavered in its determination to establish legal frames, protective measures, and developmental programmes for women in sports. In the context of these developments, it is recommended that government, non-government, and private sport organizations in the country continue their dialogue and collaboration for the sustainable empowerment of girls and women in PE and sports. Finally, it is hoped that assessing gender gap issues would eventually include the vital participation of women in PA, sports, and PE.

References AP. (1996, March 7). Gender bender in Philippine Track. https://apnews.com/b47cbbc9752 c0e1f475e5fea1f66f456 Central Intelligence Agency. (2020). Philippines. In The World Factbook. www.cia.gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html

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De Guzman, N. (2018, September 4). Remembering Mona Sulaiman and Nancy Navalta, in the wake of the Aprilia Manganang controversy. Esquire. www.esquiremag.ph/culture/ lifestyle/mona-sulaiman-nancy-navalta-aprilia-manganang-a1729-20180904-lfrm Go, B. (2018, June 28). Hidilyn Diaz’s success inspires rising Filipina weightlifters. Rapppler. com. https://rappler.com/sports/hidilyn-diaz-inspiration-rise-young-filipina-weightlifters Hilotin, J. (2019, March 11). Gold in the Philippines: How much is it really worth? Gulf News. https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/philippines/gold-in-the-philippines-how-muchis-it-really-worth-1.1552204923140 Lerner, T. (2009). A legend is born. Billiards Digest. www.billiardsdigest.com/new_current_ issue/aug_09/10ballindex.php Matthews, P., & Morrison, I. (1987). The Guinness encyclopedia of sports records and results. London: Guinness Superlatives Limited. Olivar, C. B. (1972). History of physical education in the Philippines. Philippines: U.P. Press, Quezon City. Pareño, R. (2016, August 9). Weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz: From homemade barbell to Rio silver. The Philippine Star. www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/08/09/1611604/weight lifter-hidilyn-diaz-homemade-barbell-rio-silver Pirie, A. (2019, December 29). Gender issues in athletics: Nancy Navalta. Pinoyathletics. info. www.pinoyathletics.info/nancy-navalta/ Pirie, A. (2020a, May 2). Elma Muros SEA games heptathlon queen. Pinoyathletics.info. www.pinoyathletics.info/elma-muros/ Pirie, A. (2020b, May 12). Inocencia solis: First great Filipina sprint champion. Pinoyathletics.info. www.pinoyathletics.info/inocencia-solis/ Pirie, A. (2020c, May 13). Lydia de Vega Asia’s sprint queen. Pinoyathletics.info. www. pinoyathletics.info/lydia-de-vega/ Pirie, A. (2020d, August 25). Mona Sulaiman first woman win double Asian Games. Pinoyathletics.info. www.pinoyathletics.info/mona-sulaiman/ Roberts, C. M., McClean, C. J., Veron, J. E., Hawkins, J. P., Allen, G. R., McAllister, D. E., Mittermeier, C. G., Schueler, F. W., Spalding, M., Wells, F., Vynne, C., & Werner, T. B. (2002, February 15). Marine biodiversity hotspots and conservation priorities for tropical reefs. Science, 295(5558),1280–1284. doi: 10.1126/science.1067728 San Juan, R. (2014, November 17). Biggest palladium deposits discovered in Philippines. Roland San Juan. https://rolandsanjuan.blogspot.com/2015/02/biggest-palladium-depos its-discovered.html Sobritchea, C. I. (1990). American colonial education and its impact on the status of Filipino women. Asian Studies Journal, 28, 73. https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ ASJ-28-1990/sobritchea.pdf Terrado, R. (2013, November 6). Amit jumps 11 places to fifth in world rankings after Manila success. spin.ph Sports. www.spin.ph/billiards/amit-jumps-11-places-to-fifth-inworld-rankings-after-manila-success?ref=article_tag Ylanan, R. R., & Ylanan, C. (1974). The history and development of physical education and sports in the Philippines (C. Ylanan, Ed.). Philippines: U.P. Press, Quezon City. Zarate, N. (2019, December 28). Rubilen Amit broke Philippine billiards’ gender barrier in the 2010s. ESPN 5. https://tv5.espn.com/story/_/id/28376027/rubilen-amit

Chapter 17

Women and sport in Qatar Krystyna U. Golkowska

Introduction Women’s involvement in sport and physical activity (PA) needs to be considered in the context of their everyday lived reality. In the Gulf, like elsewhere, “sports function as a site of contestation, conformity and negotiation of larger social issues that impact Qatar and the Middle East as a whole” (Harkness, 2012, p. 2162). Therefore, the following discussion on women and sport in Qatar needs to begin with a brief survey of major political, economic, and socio-cultural factors shaping the country.

Geopolitical and economic information Qatar is a small but important Arabian Gulf country because of its geographic location and natural resources. Occupying no more than 4468 mi2 of the peninsula in the south western Arabian Gulf, it is the world’s 4th biggest producer of oil and the world’s biggest exporter of liquefied natural gas. Qatar’s existence as a sovereign nation state is relatively short. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate on 3 November 1916, when Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani signed a treaty with the United Kingdom. The country gained independence in 1971. In 2003 Qatar became a constitutional monarchy, with the Emir as the head of state and head of government and armed forces. The current ruler, Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, came to power in 2013, following the abdication of his father, Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani. Qatar is a member of the GCC (The Gulf Cooperation Council), a political and economic union of the Gulf countries. Since 2017, because of regional rivalries, the country has been under an economic blockade imposed by Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Egypt, and the United Arab Emirates. The history of Qatar is usually discussed in terms of the pre-oil and post-oil eras. Only 1% of the land in Qatar is arable and the harsh desert climate does not favour agricultural activities. Thus, in the past, the major industry was pearling. When the pearl industry collapsed in the 1930s, many Qataris became destitute. All that changed with the discovery and exploration of oil and gas in the

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1950s. Thanks to its natural resources, the State of Qatar became one of the richest countries in the world, with nominal per capita income of 69,687 US dollars (IMF, 2019). Almost overnight the sleepy little town of Doha, the country’s capital, transformed into a megapolis. At present, most of the population live in or around Doha. Moreover, Qataris have become a minority in their own country. According to 2019 statistics, the population of Qatar consists of 2.6 million people, of whom only 310,000 are Qatari citizens. This demographic shift has had a significant socio-cultural impact. Generally speaking, residents in Qatar fall into two main categories: people hired for their expertise in education, technology, management, etc. (mostly the so-called Western experts) and labourers working on construction sites, in the service sector, or as household help. Expatriates are expected to respect Qatari law, but within these parameters they follow their own customs and lifestyles. For example, whereas Qatari women wear traditional abayas and sheilas (hijabs), foreigners do not have to follow any sartorial regulations as long as their clothing is not indecent. Just as the economic and social status of the population varies widely, so do their preferences and lifestyles. It needs to be noted that the focus of the current discussion is on Qatari women, not women living in Qatar.

Socio-cultural context The culture of Qatar has been shaped by Islam and Bedouin tradition. As Sunni Muslims, Qataris adhere to the most conservative version of Islam codified in the sharia, it is ruled under a mix of religious and civil law (Dorsey, 2017). Bedouin social structure was patriarchal in nature. Rooted in nomadic lifestyle, it was founded upon ancestry and tribal loyalty, and its core values emphasized the role of the family, pride, trust, and honour. Entering the post-oil era Qatar’s leadership was keen on preserving this heritage as a cornerstone of national identity; at the same time, it was aware of the need to institute change to face the challenges of modernization and globalization. Consequently, top-down, elite motivated reforms and initiatives put the country on the path towards a knowledge-based economy and social transformation. Qatar was to become a place where tradition meets modernity. The leadership’s ambitious economic, societal, and political goals were spelled out in 2008 in Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV 2030). It identifies future challenges as finding a balance between modernization and preservation of traditions; managed growth and uncontrolled expansion; the size of the expatriate labour force and Qatarization; as well as economic growth and environmental management. Specifically speaking, it defines human and social development as creating a just and caring society in which all Qatar’s people can reach their full potential and be part of global development (QNV 2030, 2008). This ambitious agenda of modernization and far-reaching socio-cultural change, especially with regard to women’s roles, required emphasis on education. Qatar’s effort in this area has been remarkable. The establishment of

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the public education system and numerous reforms of primary and secondary schools were accompanied by opening a mega-campus Education City (EC), later renamed Hamad bin Khalifa University. Comprising six top-ranking Western universities, EC provides access to world-class education, an opportunity especially important for Qatari females, who were traditionally banned from travelling abroad without male guardians. This development, followed by opening community colleges and graduate programmes, has had an immense impact on Qatari society.

Overview of women’s rights and issues Qatar’s government safeguards women against discrimination and has specific legal provisions in place to ensure gender equality in the workplace (Walby, 1990). Moreover, increasing the rates of women’s leadership in the Qatari labour market is one of the priorities included in QNV 2030. However, since the government has maintained the emphasis on family and local traditions as the core of national agenda, the evolution of Qatari women’s roles left them with an increased burden. Simply put, their duties as partners in the nation building project have been added to those related to their being bearers of tradition and family values. There is no lack of evidence that Qatari women have identified with the government-sponsored narrative of change (see Golkowska, 2017). After all, they became the greatest beneficiaries of Qatar’s initiatives in education, outnumbering and outperforming male students in Education City and other tertiary-level institutions. This educational attainment still has not translated into full labour participation, although over the last decade there has been progress in this area. Currently, the female employment rate is 58.5%, (Statista, 2020), a significant increase from 14% in 1986 (Planning Council, 2005). At the same time, women still face major challenges in several career fields and are underrepresented in government and management positions (Al Muftah, 2010; Golkowska, 2017). Researchers show that in addition to family obligations, lack of promotion from within organizations continues to hinder female employees progress into senior management levels (Al Muftah, 2010). In the end, it is a combination of societal beliefs, individual preferences, and organizational constraints that keeps women at home or steers them away from public office towards entrepreneurship or family businesses (Golkowska, 2017). The issue of Qatari women’s agency is complex and difficult to assess, especially from a Western perspective (Harkness, 2018). It can be argued that Qatar has given women access to the public sphere but has not done enough to strengthen their position in it. There is clearly a need for more research in this area spearheaded by Qatari women themselves. What has become clear so far is that Qatari women choose to negotiate rather than question the accepted order (Golkowska, 2017). They appreciate the opportunities the previous generations did not have and seem confident that their progress will continue.

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Sport and physical activity in Qatar Qatar has earned the reputation of a “small state with a big sport ambition” (Amara, 2013). Investment in sport is seen as extremely important in Qatar for a variety of reasons, including non-sporting objectives. First, promoting interest in PA at both the recreational and professional level springs from the leadership’s well-justified concern for the health of the population. Obesity is common in the Middle East and it has reached epidemic proportions in the Gulf (Musaiger, 2011). Research established that more than 70% of the population in Qatar is overweight or obese. Obesity rates are especially high among women; most alarmingly, obesity has become prevalent among school children also (Ismail, 2013). Traditional cuisine is high in calories with salt, fat, and sugar considered essential for taste; availability of Western fast food compounded the problem. To make matters worse, 83% of the population does little or no physical exercise and 41% do not engage in any PA at all (Qatar Biobank, 2016). Qatar promotes sport for economic and political reasons, besides health. Hosting big sport events not only generates revenue but also helps develop the Qatari tourism industry. Even more importantly, sport can be used as a tool of branding and a source of soft power at home and internationally (Ginesta & de San Eugenio, 2014). Undoubtedly, elite sport success enhances international status. In domestic politics, “national sporting success can contribute to, achieving unity, national identity and pride” (Reiche, 2015). Qatar’s leadership ascribed to this way of thinking from the very beginning. As observed by Silva (2014), “the hosting of the Gulf Cup [a biennial football competition] in 1976 marked Qatar’s first attempt to express its national identity among the countries of the Gulf region” (p. 3). Moreover, five years after gaining independence, Qatar committed to hosting the 1988–1989 Asian Club Championship, the annual Asian club football competition organized by Asian Football Confederation (Reiche, 2015). Similarly, leaders sent 27 male athletes to Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics and aimed at winning international recognition (Silva, 2014).

Investment in elite sport The goal of sports development has been linked to human, social, economic, and environmental development; the four pillars identified in QNV 2030 as the foundation for the country’s future. Hence, Qatar Olympic Committee’s (QOC’s) Strategic Plan 2008–2012 listed six priority areas for sports, namely building sports and leisure facilities, promotion and publicity, sports education, awareness and cultural change; athlete pathways development; sports management and hosting international events (Qatar Olympic Committee, 2017). To achieve its ambitious plans in the elite sport sector, Qatar built state-ofthe-art facilities and recruited foreign coaches to build national teams, especially in soccer and basketball. Much effort went also into recruiting elite athletes and

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preparing sport administrators. Simultaneously, Qatar undertook direct investments through QSI, Qatar Sport Investment, a joint initiative between the QOC and the Ministry of Finance. As a result, Qatar acquired the Saint-Germain Club, rights for Al-Jazeera Sport Channel transmission of European football clubs, and sponsorship of Barcelona FC. The first test of Qatar’s ability to host sport mega events were the Asian Games held in 2006. The success of this undertaking spurred an exponential growth of investment in sport infrastructure and organization of prestigious international sports events (Silva, 2014; Reiche, 2015), culminating in the bid to host FIFA 2022 Championship. Although Qatar’s success in winning the bid was marred by accusations of bribery and corruption, it increased Qatar’s international prestige and became a source of national pride. It also had many positive results. Since it put the country on the spot in terms of its migrant workers and women’s participation in competitive sports, it forced labour law reforms and provided more opportunities for female athletes (Knez, Benn, & Alkhaldi, 2014). For example, it was only in response to winning the bid that the first Qatar national women’s football team was formed (Knez et al., 2014).

Building a sport culture The National Sports Day was established in 2012; it is celebrated on the second Tuesday in February with the main objective of promoting a healthy lifestyle. All nationals and residents can participate in numerous events sponsored by government institutions as well as public and private companies. Since the beginning, this national holiday has been celebrated with the participation of the members of the royal family and given extensive press coverage. Furthermore, considerable investment has been made in building parks, recreational spaces, and affordable training facilities open to all residents. A good example is Aspire Zone, called the Sports City. Funded in 2003, the 250-hectare development includes a large public park, two hotels, the Aspire Academy training centre, Aspetar, a sports medicine and orthopaedic hospital, the Hamad Aquatic Center, and Khalifa International Stadium. Perhaps it is the Aspire Park that best embodies the leadership’s vision for promoting the nation’s wellness through PA. Encompassing 88 hectares, it is Doha’s biggest park. It has walking, jogging, cycling, and horse-riding trails in addition to areas for picnicking with exercise equipment available for use by passersby. Another initiative was the creation of the School Olympics Program with the specific goals of promoting all types of sport and the values of the Olympic movement, providing financial and human resources for the practice of sport at any level (Al-Thani & Semmar, 2016). In addition, the Association for Physical Education in collaboration with Qatar Ministry of Education developed Qatar Physical Education Curriculum Standards (QPECS). The document specified that PE students should develop key competencies to succeed in a broad range of sports, build character that embeds Qatari cultural values, appreciate the link

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between PA and health, and regularly participate in extracurricular activities, competitive sports, and activities (Frapwell, Harris, & Kirk, 2018). According to QPECS guidelines, Schools need to adapt their teaching approaches, learning activities and resources to cater for all students, including those with special educational needs, disabilities and specific health conditions. Strategies for supporting the involvement of all children include careful consideration of the content and the way it is taught. (Frapwell et al., 2018) It needs to be noted that there is little published information related to how PE classes are actually taught or even if they are compulsory in all schools. The situation is complicated because there are different types of schools in Qatar, ranging from the so-called independent schools that are government sponsored to international schools that implement their own curricula. Although many Qataris attend independent schools, a significant number of them enrol in American and British schools. Consequently, there is lack of nationally representative data. However, it has been established that overall Qatari students are less active than non-Qataris (Ibrahim et al., 2018). A recent study of school-time PA among Arab elementary school children in Qatar concluded, [A]ll schools were spacious and well equipped. Despite the availability of facilities, however, the children were mostly restricted to indoor playing areas. The reasons are still not clear whether the choice of indoor space was due to school policy or to instructor preferences. (Zimmo, Farooq, Almudahka, Ibrahim, & Al-Kuwari, 2017, p. 5) In brief, continued investment in resources needs to be accompanied by research informed reform.

Qatari women and sport There are numerous factors constraining Qatari female participation in sport or vigorous activity. Outdoor activities are not enjoyable or even possible most of the year due to the country’s desert climate characterized by high humidity and temperatures soaring to 50˚C in the summer. Modernization and sedentary lifestyle prevalent ever since wealth made domestic help easily available further limit PA. Nevertheless, the most impactful factors are cultural. In the past, Muslim women’s participation in sport and PA was limited due to religious and socio-cultural factors. Even today, a public display of strong, muscular bodies in motion is acceptable in the case of men but seen as violating religious and cultural taboos when it comes to women (Harkness, 2012). In the Muslim world “sport is usually considered as male dominated and male oriented

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while women are confronted with a number of constraints and hurdles in their participation” (Marwat, Zia-ul-Islam, Waseem, Khattak, & BiBi, 2014, p. 209). Strictly speaking, there is no prohibition against Muslims engaging in athletic activities. In fact, Islam puts emphasis on maintaining health and physical strength of both men and women (Hargreaves, 2000). Modern interpretations of the Quran find in it evidence of support for female PA (Benn, Pfister, & Jawad, 2011; Jiwani & Rail, 2010; Nakamura, 2002). In addition to Islamic proscriptions related to modesty and gendered space, there are also socio-cultural factors that hamper women’s participation in sport. In the Gulf, societal and familial obligations are quite important. Consequently, spending time on physical exercise can be considered selfish. Moreover, in the past some degree of overweight was preferable as a sign of prosperity and fertility. Although predominance of Western media has modified these ideas, fear of defeminization can still become an obstacle to vigorous exercise (Dun, 2016). As stated by Knez & lisahunter (2014), for Qatari women ideas about feminine beauty and proper bodily movement directly contradict conditions needed for living an active lifestyle (p. 108). Despite recent sartorial modifications such as the emergence of the new abaya, such deeply ingrained beliefs still have a significant impact.

Milestones in Qatari female elite sport participation A breakthrough in the women’s sports movement in Qatar occurred in 2000, when Sheikha Moza bint Nasser al-Missnad established Qatar Women’s Sport Committee (QWSC) to foster female participation in all sports and conferences at home and abroad. Under QWSC’s guidance, Qatar hosted the Asian Conference on Women and Sport in 2003, where all participants pledged support for women athletes. Then, in 2006, Al-Sowaidi became the first woman to represent her country in Doha Asian Games. Two years later, Yasmian al-Sharshani joined the Qatar Golf Association (QGA), becoming the only female member of the national team to represent Qatar in the 2011 Arab Games in Doha. Most importantly, in 2012, for the first time Qatar sent female athletes to the Olympic Games (Bahiya al-Hamad competed in air rifle shooting, Nada Arkaji in swimming, Aya Magdy in table tennis, and Noor al-Malki in running). Though the performance of the Qatari athletes was far from spectacular, the significance of their participation can hardly be overestimated. Following the Olympic debut in 2012, the QWSC developed a four-year strategy for improving female athletics in the country while continuing to host women’s international events. The list of noteworthy competitions includes women’s international tennis events with the women’s tournament known as the Qatar Total Open, a Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) championship that has been held in Doha since 2001 or Ladies Tour of Qatar, held since 2009. An effort was also made to increase women’s participation in sport associations. Thus,

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for example, in 2019, the International Women’s Day on 8 March saw the first meeting of Women in Sport Qatar (WISQ), a new association aiming to provide Qatari women working in sport with social and professional networking opportunities. The fact that in October 2019 Qatari female athletes won 34 medals (9 gold, 14 silver, and 11 bronze) at the GCC Women’s Games in Kuwait (Sayegh, et al., 2019) testifies to the success of such initiatives.

Participation in physical activity at the communal level Awareness of the need to increase levels of exercise in all age groups of Qatari females has led to allocation of funds for creating community-based programmes. A good example of such initiatives is Qatar Active School (QAS) programme offered by Aspetar Orthopedic and Sport Medicine Hospital in cooperation with the Supreme Education Council, Aspire Academy, Aspire Active, and the Primary Health Care Corporation (PHCC). QAS targets all elementary schools in Qatar with the goal of developing a sports culture by incorporating 60 minutes of exercise daily through PE classes and activities in and outside the classroom (Zimmo, 2015). The QAS Programme was started in October 2014 in five elementary schools with the hope that by 2020 it would be integrated into 50% of schools in Qatar and result in a 20% increase in Qatari children’s PA. However, three years later it was established that only 39% of children engaged in 30 minutes of school-based moderate physical exercise per day (Zimmo et al., 2017). As reported by Al-Thani et al. (2018), only 67% of youth participate in school PE classes. Moreover, merely 61% of schools support PA programmes such as Qatar Active Schools and Health Promoting Schools (Ibrahim et al., 2018). Thus, the 2018 Qatar Active Healthy Kids (QAHK) Report Card assigned the grade of B+ to the government effort and merely a C to schools (idem). Despite the principle of gender equity in PE classes in public schools, girls are less active than boys. The Qatar GSHS survey of students in grades 7–9 established that among students of ages 13 to 15 years, the percentage of those who were physically active for a total of at least 60 minutes per day was 10.2 for girls and 19.9 for boys. The students who went to PE class on three or more days each week during the school year was 28.2% girls and 32.5% boys. Finally, the students who spent three or more hours per day during a typical or usual day doing sitting activities was 43.6% boys and 55.4% girls (World Health Organization, 2012). Qatar began nationwide campaigns showcasing the importance of exercise. The message is conveyed through educational and participatory events that emphasize individual achievement in fitness as well as family fun. Special effort is made to attract women to National Sports Day with activities that include walkathons and exercise in gender-segregated places. Walking is the easiest and most culturally acceptable exercise for Qatari women, and unsurprisingly, the most popular among them. For example, the 2009 statistics showed that among females aged 15 years and above who exercised regularly, 58% engaged in walking, 12%

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in running, 14% in aerobic exercise, and 6% in swimming. Furthermore, Aspire Zone designed a venue exclusively for teenage girls and females over the age of 18 years, where Aspire Active Women’s Programs offer ‘Ladies Only’ classes in a state-of-the-art facility tailored to the needs of the local population. QOC recommended measures for the advancement of women in sports and physical activities (Qatar Olympic Committee, 2017). At present, there is not enough data to assess the overall success of the aforementioned strategies and initiatives, and the picture is far from clear. For example, a 2016 study found that the role of female sports celebrities as role models for Qatari women was overestimated (Dun, 2016). In addition, the impact of the family, the most important social unit in Qatari culture, is double edged when it comes to sport; according to Donnelly et al. (2011), the family can act as both a facilitator and a deterrent (p. 7). Likewise, although young, educated Qatari women understand the importance of fitness, the rate of participation in PA among them is still disappointing (Al-Mohannadi, Sayegh, Ibrahim, Salman, & Farooq, 2019). Obviously, there is increasing cultural acceptance of exercise for women, but it is linked to preference for gender-segregated areas. A female football team player captured this attitude saying, “for women, playing sport and being active, as long as you are not mixing with men it’s fine” (Knez & lisahunter, 2014, p. 112).

Ways forward Qatari women’s participation in sports and PA is restricted not by laws or lack of resources but by internalized and self-imposed social norms. Accordingly, the key to progress lies in a combination of education, outreach, and community engagement activities. Publicity campaigns and high-profile events such as National Sports Day play an important role in raising awareness of the benefits of sports and exercise. Equally important is the support from family and friends (Donnelly et al., 2012; Dun, 2016). Since families are more willing to allow their daughters to participate in sports and exercise that are school sponsored (Donnelly et al., 2011, 2012; Harkness, 2012), the role of schools can hardly be overestimated. In addition, advice from physicians (Benjamin & Donnelly, 2013; Mabry, Reeves, Eakin, & Owen, 2010) and culturally appropriate materials from health centres can play a significant role. Changing opinions and forming new habits take time and commitment and need to be done in a culturally sensitive way, showing consideration for social norms and religious teaching (Donnelly et al., 2011). Thus, creation of sexsegregated facilities is important if it is the only place where women feel comfortable when they exercise. However, promoting the use of public recreational places as a culturally appropriate space where women can engage in at least some forms of PA alongside men can also be crucial in normalizing female participation in sport.

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Conclusion The last two decades have seen significant rise of opportunities for Qatari women in many areas of life. The country’s leadership has put a great deal of emphasis on increasing the visibility and mobility of women in the public domain, and these objectives have also translated into support for gender equity in sport, both at the communal and professional level. Currently, women in Qatar have access to athletic facilities, training, and membership in sport associations; moreover, their success is encouraged by members of the social elite and highlighted by the media. The fact that the participation of Qatari females’ PA levels and participation in all sports disciplines are less than impressive can be interpreted as evidence that “top down, government engineered change and unilateral rewriting of social contract produces results that fall short of what is required” (Dorsey, 2017). Alternatively, one can see it simply as a matter of a late start and insufficient time needed to change habits, priorities, and preferences. That may be why the government-sponsored vision has been accepted, but not yet incorporated into everyday reality. As observed by a Qatari female athlete, [S]port and PA is not such a big deal in this society, because education is now the big deal for women, and business. So, it is not that it is not allowed, it is not forbidden, it’s just not a priority now, in life, according to the culture and today’s society. (Knez & lisahunter, 2014, p. 112)

References Al-Mohannadi, A. S., Sayegh, S., Ibrahim, I., Salman, A., & Farooq, A. (2019). Effects of a pedometer-based walking challenge. Archives of Public Health, 24, 77–40. Al Muftah, H. A. (2010). How do Qatari females make it to the top? An examination of the organizational constraints to their advancement. Qatar Foundation Annual Research Forum Proceedings, 8, 1–23. www.researchgate.net/publication/269644115. Al-Thani, M., Al-Thani, A., Alyafei, S., Al-Kuwari, M. G., Al-Chetachi, W., Khalifa, S. E., Ibrahim, I., Sayeegh, S., Vinodson, B., & Akram, H. (2018). Prevalence of physical activity and sedentary-related behaviors among adolescents: Data from the Qatar National School Survey. Public Health, 160, 150–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. puhe.2018.03.019. Al-Thani, T., & Semmar, Y. (2016). Physical education policies and practices in Qatari preschools: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(28). Amara, M. (2013). The pillars of Qatar’s international sport strategy. E-International Relations. www.e-ir.info/2013/11/29/the-pillars-of-qatars-internationalsport-strategy Benjamin, K., & Donnelly, T. T. (2013). Barriers and facilitators influencing the physical activity of Arabic adults: A literature review. Avicenna, Healthcare Development and Innovation in the Arabian Gulf, 8. Benn, T., Pfister, G., & Jawad, H. (Eds.). (2011). Muslim women and sport. London: Routledge.

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Donnelly, T. T., Al Suwaidi, J., Al Bulushi, A., Al Enazi, N. A., Yassin, K., & Rehman, A. M. (2012). Opportunities and challenges to engage in healthy lifestyle among Arabic women in Qatar. Health Care Women International, 33(12), 1114–1134. Donnelly, T. T., Al Suwaidi, J., Al Bulushi, A., Al Enazi, N. A., Yassin, K., Rehman, A. M., Hassan, A. M., & Idris, Z. (2011). The influence of cultural and social factors on healthy lifestyle of Arabic women. Avicenna, 3, 1–13. Dorsey, J. (2017). Qatari wahhabism vs. Saudi wahhabism and the perils of top-down change. BESA Center Perspective, Paper No. 676. https://besacenter.org/wp-content/ uploads/2017/12/676 Dun, S. (2016). Role models in the media and women’s sport participation in Qatar. Nidoba, 1(1), 48–58. Frapwell, A., Harris, A. J., & Kirk, D. (2018). Qatar physical education curriculum standards. QPECS Guidance. Association for Physical Education. www.edu.gov.qa/Ar/ structure/EducationAffair/ManagementEducationalGuidance/DepartmentOfPhysicalEducation/QPECSEnglish/QPECS Guidance Document Ginesta, X., & de San Eugenio, J. (2014). The use of football as a country branding strategy: Case study: Qatar and the Catalan sports press. Communication and Sport, 2(3), 225–241. Golkowska, K. U. (2017). Qatari women navigating gendered space. Social Sciences, 6(4), 1–10. Hargreaves, J. (2000). Heroines of sport: Politics of difference and identity. London: Routledge. Harkness, G. (2012). Out of bounds: Cultural barriers to female sports participation in Qatar. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(15), 2162–2183. Harkness, G., Quiroz, E., & Gomez, K. (2018). Sports and Qatar’s empowered woman narrative. Sociology Compass, 12(11). Ibrahim, I., Al Hammadi, E., Sayegh, S., Zimmo, L., Al Neama, J., Rezeq, H., Al-Mohannadi, A. S., & Al-Thani, A. A. (2018). Results from Qatar’s 2018 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 15(suppl. 2), S400–S401. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jpah/15/s2/articlepS400.xml International Monetary Fund. (2019). World economic and financial surveys. www.imf.org/ external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/index.aspx Ismail, M. (2013). Influence of sedentary lifestyle on body weight in Qatari school children. Journal of Saudi Society for Food and Nutrition, 8, 16–25. Jiwani, N., & Rail, G. (2010). Islam, Hihjab and young Shia Muslim Canadian women’s: Constructions of physical activity. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27, 251–267. Knez, K., Benn, T., & Alkhaldi, S. (2014). World Cup Football as a catalyst for change: Exploring the lives of women in Qatar’s first national football team: A case study. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 31(14), 1755–1773. Knez, K., & lisahunter. (2014). The paradox of physical activity for Qatari women: Researcher hysteresis and reflexivity. In lisahunter, W. Smith, & E. Emerald (Eds.), Pierre Bourdieu and physical culture (pp. 108–116). London, UK: Routledge. Mabry, R. M., Reeves, M., Eakin, G., & Owen, N. (2010). Evidence of physical activity participation among men and women in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council: A review. Obesity Reviews, 11(6), 457–464. Marwat, M. K., Zia-ul-Islam, S., Waseem, M., Khattak, H., & BiBi, S. (2014). Sport performance of Muslim women and different constraints in their way to participation in sport. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 10(1).

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Musaiger, A. O. (2011). Overweight and obesity in Eastern Mediterranean region: Prevalence and possible causes. Journal of Obesity, 407232. Nakamura, Y. (2002). Beyond the Hijab: Female Muslims and physical activity. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 11(2), 21–48. Planning Council. (2005, December 29). Labor market strategy for the State of Qatar: Main report, Volume I, Government of Qatar Planning Council. Qatar Biobank. (2017). Annual report 2016–2017. www.qatarbiobank.org.qa/app/media/1730 Qatar General Secretariat for Development Planning (GSDP). (2008). Qatar national vision 2030. Doha: GSDP. Qatar Olympic Committee. (2017). Sports sector strategy (2011–2016). www.olympic.qa Reiche, D. (2015). Investing in sporting success as a domestic and foreign policy tool: The case of Qatar. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(4), 489–504. Sayegh, S. et al. (2019). One-year assessment of physical activity level in adult Qatari females. The Peninsula, WISQ launched for women working in sport. https://thepenin sulaqatar.com/article/10/03/2019/WISQ-launched-for-women-working-in-sport Silva, L. H. R. (2014). The establishment of the Qatar National Olympic Committee: Building the national sport identity. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 31(3), 306–319. Statista. (2020). Labor force participation rate in Qatar from 2009 to 2018, by gender. www. statista.com/statistics/643644/qatar-labor force-particitpation-rate-by-gender Walby, S. (1990). Theorizing patriarchy. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. World Health Organization. (2012). Qatar Global school based student health survey 2011– 2012. Retrieved on April, 30, 2018. Zimmo, L. (2015). Qatar Active Schools programme (QAS). NAMAT. Aspire. https:// namat.qa/DetailedArticle.aspx?lang=en&itemid=462 Zimmo, L., Farooq, A., Almudahka, F., Ibrahim, I., & Al-Kuwari, M. (2017). School-time physical activity among Arab elementary school children in Qatar. BMC Pediatrics, 17, 76.

Chapter 18

Women and sport in Saudi Arabia Mona Kamal Shahab , Marta Pérez-Villalba and Elise Kossaifi

Background Situated in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, hugged by sand dunes, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Gulf, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is a nation of inimitable natural beauty and home to spectacular mountains, deserts, reefs, and archipelagos, along with a rich cultural heritage, stretching back many millennia. For centuries, the people of this land have been known for their kindness, generosity, and hospitality. The Kingdom is experiencing unprecedented transformation in both size and patterns. Driven by the aspirations of a progressive leadership in an effort to diversify the country’s economy from oil, since the oil discovery in 1938, the Saudi economy has been largely defined by the crude oil industry, which has made Saudi Arabia one of the wealthiest countries in the world. However, since crude oil is a finite resource, together with the global push to build a greener future, economic transformation has become the driving force across various sectors in the Kingdom. The formula for carrying out a mammoth transformation has been conceived under the ambitious Vision 2030 (Saudi Arabia Government, 2017), released in 2016, as the blueprint that expresses the country’s developmental and economical transformational plan and long-term goals. Apart from seeking the diversification of the economy, Vision 2030 strives to implement far-reaching social and lifestyle changes by promoting physical and social well-being and adopting a healthy lifestyle amongst its citizens and residents. The population of Saudi Arabia stands at 34.2 million of which 63% are Saudi. It is estimated that 60% of the population is youth. Almost half of it is under 24 years of age, and people under the age of 15 constitute up to one-third of the population nationals (General Authority for Statistics, 2016). Having a large proportion of young people has facilitated the implementation of transformative measures carried out in recent years. The Kingdom is a tribal society where culture, religion, and tradition are very much intertwined. For several years, the Kingdom has been working diligently towards gender equality in a male-dominant country (Almarhaby, 2018). The licensing of women’s fitness centres was introduced in 2017. Sport stadiums that

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were male dominated in the past opened their doors to females in 2018. From females being driven by male guardians and drivers to driving themselves to new opportunities in 2018, when the Kingdom issued females driving licences. From having a male guardian decide whether a woman could travel, let alone apply for a passport, to the lifting of the male guardianship in 2019. In the last four years, the Kingdom has sprinted towards narrowing the gender inequality gap. The finish line is nowhere close and yet, the progress the Kingdom has achieved regarding women’s rights in the last four years, thanks to the solid building blocks that have been cemented by others, outweighs what has been accomplished in the last few decades. Vision 2030 proposes several initiatives in the field of physical activity (PA), sports, and wellness for all gender irrespective of age. Mass participation/ activation, elite athlete development, and building a thriving sports economy are fundamental for a healthier, stronger, and fitter community. To achieve these targets, it is vital that diversity and inclusion be an integral part of the DNA of all projects and programmes within the sports sector.

Sport structures The highest body responsible for the governance and development of sports in the country is the Ministry of Sports (MoS), which acquired the rank of Ministry on the 25th of February 2020 (previously the General Sports Authority) (Arabia creates new tourism, 2020). The MoS has 24 regional offices across the Kingdom which oversee the Ministry’s operations in that region and provide support to the regional and local sporting bodies. There are multiple sporting bodies under the Ministry’s umbrella: • • •

The Leadership Development Institute (LDI), which is responsible for developing the sports workforce; The sports clubs, which are independent bodies funded by the MoS; The Saudi Arabian Youth Hostels Association, which supports the youth hostels movement in the Kingdom.

As part of Vision 2030, the MoS has set an ambitious target to reach 40% weekly PA level. The activity level of Saudi citizens aged 15 years and over was at 13% in 2015 and has seen a 6% increase in only four years (19% in 2019) (Sports for All Federation, personal communication, July 2020). Following the low levels of PA observed in the first survey, the government established the Mass Participation Federation (now known as Sports for All Federation) to promote PA and sports among all the population, including women. In 2016, Saudi Arabia’s Cabinet announced the appointment of HRH Princess Reema bint Bandar Al Saud as the Saudi General Sports Authority’s (GSA) Vice President of Women Affairs and was later promoted to Deputy of Planning and Development in January 2018 (The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, n.d.).

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This appointment was a breakthrough in women’s sports in the Kingdom; not only did the department itself constitute a declaration to support women’s sports, additionally, the appointment of a woman in a sports organization gave females visibility within the sports landscape. HRH Princess Reema’s work paved the way for a more inclusive sports environment. During her three-year tenure at the MoS, many of the initiatives HRH championed focused on easing regulations for females as well as putting in place the operational processes for a sustainable inclusive sports ecosystem. Major achievements during her time included the launch of female-only gyms licensing, participation of female athletes in regional tournaments for the first time, and female attendance at football stadiums to name a few. Today, the MoS has included diversity and inclusion as part of its main strategic pillars and is currently developing a diversity and inclusion strategy addressing females and other underserved groups. There are other entities that play a key role in the KSA sports ecosystem and the development of women’s sports: the Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee (SAOC), the Saudi Arabian Paralympic Committee (SAPC), the Saudi Deaf Sports Federation, Special Olympics Saudi Arabia Federation (SOSAF), and the sports federations. These entities are mostly responsible for the development of professional and elite sports and cover disability sports as well. The SAOC, together with the 59 recognized Saudi sports federations and associations, is responsible for organizing competitive tournaments and selecting athletes and teams to represent the country internationally. Prior to 2016, there were no female members in the SAOC. With the establishment of its Women in Sports Commission in 2017, SAOC took a first step towards a more inclusive competitive landscape. The committee is chaired by HRH Princess Reema bint Bandar and includes four other female members. In 2017, HRH was also elected as the first female board member of the SAOC (Princess Reema bin Bandar, 2020), and in December 2019, a second female member, Ms Adwa Al Arifi joined the Board (SAOC, 2020). As part of its new strategy in 2019, SAOC has been focusing on hiring more females across the organization and in leadership positions as well as working with the federations to support the development of women’s sports. As an example, SAOC’s Athlete Commission established in 2019 included four female members out of nine (MoS, personal communication, July 2020). Upon returning from the World Games, a new SOSAF Board was established with a female chair and balanced representation by gender, age, ability, and expertise (interviewee from the Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee, 2020). In alignment with the transformation in the MoS and the SAOC, sports federations have also taken steps to be more inclusive of females, actions that seemed impossible a few years ago. Today, 25 federations have a women’s national team, 30 federations have females on their boards, and 38 federations have a formal strategic plan to support female participation in their sport (interviewee from the Ministry of Sports, Saudi Arabia, 2020). In summary, Saudi Arabia is witnessing an unprecedented transformation of its female sports ecosystem. The MoS and related sporting organizations have

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taken quick and big steps to make this change happen over the past four years. This effort has also been complemented by that of other governmental entities, though at a slower pace. The Ministry of Education (MoE), responsible for sports education and school and university sports activities, has been working on the introduction of Physical Education (PE) in girls’ schools and multiple other initiatives under Vision 2030 Quality of Life programme.

Physical education and school sports Saudi Arabia has a separate system for education of females, with separate administrative structures and physical facilities. A General Presidency of Girl’s Education was founded in 1959 which was responsible for establishing government girl’s schools, the first of which was opened in 1960 (Al Rawaf & Simmons, 1991). Thus, Saudi Arabia has a dual system of education, one for males and one for females; this also means having differentiated curricula for males and females. Physical Education was first introduced in the Saudi school system under the name ‘Sport Education’ in 1954, without a specific teaching plan or curriculum. In 1975, it became part of the Official Education Plan, and only in 1998 did it adopt the name ‘Physical Education’ and had its own curriculum, which was launched in 2006. However, until 2017, PE was only delivered in boys’ schools and compulsory for primary, intermediate, and secondary schools. In 2017, the MoE issued a decree (1 May 2017, Royal Decree #35017), which laid down a PE programme for girls’ public schools. Taking into consideration the lack of sports facilities within girls’ schools (only those built in recent years have been equipped with sports facilities) and the absence of female PE teachers (Shahab & Pérez, 2016), the implementation of PE in these schools will take quite some time until it reaches schools nationwide. Zooming in on the magnitude of this project, to date, 12,033 girls’ schools require venues and qualified female PE teachers to deliver classes. Aware of this challenging situation, the Saudi government has launched several actions to tackle this issue: (1) studies to identify the implementation challenges; (2) provision of 1,500 female-only gyms to address the lack of facilities within the schools; (3) establishment of a higher diploma to train future PE teachers; (4) an awareness campaign among families regarding the importance and benefits of PE for their daughters in order to prevent or minimize resistance (Samargandi, 2018) and; (5) specific PE curriculum addressed to females with special focus on health enhancement (currently under development) (interviewee from the Ministry of Education, Saudi Arabia, 2020). Private schools, on the other hand, have long been able to offer PE but ‘off the record’. In the absence of a PE university degree for women, most of the female PE teachers were foreigners from Arab countries (Khan, 2013). In 2014, the government officially allowed PE classes in women’s private schools (Al-Shihri & Batrawy, 2013) and public schools followed four years later (Al-Sulami & Radwan, 2017).

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A new door of opportunities opened in 2017, when the first course was offered for future PE female graduates (Muhammad, 2017). In 2013, the public company Tatweer Co. for Educational Services, under the umbrella of the MoE, established community clubs within public school facilities that offered physical activities for girls and women. One thousand women’s community centres planned to open their doors nationwide by the end of 2015 (Khan, 2014). However, lack of sport facilities within schools and shortage of qualified female professionals to deliver physical activities have served as roadblocks to a successful implementation. Currently, private companies are providing most of the afterschool and summer programmes offered to female students. From fitness centres that have opened branches for children to private sports clubs and academies, due to high fees and cost, these programmes are not accessible to all the Saudi families.

Community activities Rewinding the tape somewhat, a paintbrush with bold masculine colours artistically painted a rather different sports portrait. With the focus mainly being on football that only catered to males, and before the licensing of women’s gyms, although scarce and a niche to the elite, many Saudi women were already shifting the sports narrative by opening private fitness studios, organizing indoor and outdoor sports, fitness, and well-being events, and forming different private sports teams (i.e., basketball, football, badminton). Jeddah United, pioneered by Lina Al-Maeena, member of the Shoura Council and co-founder of Jeddah United, is probably one of the best examples. Jeddah United Sports Company (JUSC) – established in 2006 – has trained hundreds of boys and girls in the past 14 years and has around 400–500 members. The females make up 40% of JUSC. In 2010, JUSC won the entrepreneurship award and in 2014 it was ranked #21 on Forbes as part of the family business category of the “200 Most Powerful Women in the Middle East” (Hassan, 2014). Since HRH Princess Reema championed the licensing of female-only gyms in Saudi Arabia in 2017, the number of female-only gyms has increased. Currently, MoS has granted more than 1,172 active gym licenses across the Kingdom of which 374 are female-only gyms (MoSSA, 2020). Gym memberships are considered fairly high due to the high demand. They range from SR900 ($240) to SR4,000 ($1,065) per month. A recent study by Saudi researcher Wafaa AlShega on the social and cultural factors affecting women’s PA in Saudi society showed that 40% of Saudi women were not engaging in sports due to the prohibitive membership fees. This may be an obstacle that hinders women’s PA in the Kingdom (Obaid, 2019). However, the Saudi Sports for All Federation (SFA) is the driving force behind a stronger, fitter, healthier, and actively engaged community. Women’s (age 5+) participation figures have increased from 7.4% to 24% between 2015 and 2019

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for all females in the Kingdom. Zooming in, Saudi women’s (age 15+) participation figures increased from 7.5% to 18.7% between 2015 and 2019 (General Authority for Statistics, 2019). Furthermore, the weekly activity of Saudi female citizens is 29.6% between the ages of 15 and 19, 30.9% between the ages of 20 and 29, 16.2% between the ages of 30 and 39, 14.3% between the ages of 40 and 49, and 6.7% for 50+ (MoSSA, 2020). During the month of Ramadan, and in order to encourage people to move despite the COVID-19 lockdown, SFA joined forces with the Saudi Arabia Federation for Electronic and Intellectual Sports (SAFIES) and launched a nationwide initiative called ‘Move to Game’. The minimum steps required were 5000/ day to reach one billion in a month. In only two weeks, one billion steps were reached by citizens and residents throughout the Kingdom and three months into the challenge, Move to Game is closing in on 10 billion steps. In her very own words, Shaima Alhusseini, Managing Director of SFA says: The Saudi Sports for All Federation has numerous programs and initiatives dedicated to increasing the participation of girls and women in sports, and also to enhance physical activity participation statistics nationwide. A few of our recent wins have been the launch of the community level Women’s Football League – a first in Saudi Arabia, our Girl’s National School Day program, and various activations such as the first virtual Women’s Fitness festival staged during the pandemic lockdown. We are aggressively championing all people in Saudi to join our National movement to increase participation levels in physical fitness, with a very exciting pipeline of female-focused initiatives over the next year. Inclusivity and diversity are featured significantly in our strategic pillars. The strategy focuses on encouraging both genders to increase physical activity while ensuring that an all ages, all abilities approach is adopted across our activities. (Shaima Alhusseini, personal communication, July 2020) As of 2018, the roads of the major cities in the Kingdom have witnessed all-female and mixed sporting events. In 2019, the SFA organized the first ‘official’ Color RunTM in Jeddah, Riyadh, and Al-khobar, which gathered over 20,000 runners in a festive atmosphere. Many races that have included female participation have been held privately and have been limited to certain running groups, universities, and schools. Till date, there are no official women’s registered clubs in the Kingdom; however, SFA has 345 registered community sports groups (CSGs) of which 140 are male only, 108 are female only, and 97 are mixed. The 97 CSGs that include both males and females operate differently. Some groups run under one management, yet male and female members practice the sport separately. Other groups like R7 Running Club in Riyadh and Jeddah Running Community (JRC) in Jeddah allow members of both genders to participate together. Recently, the latter model has been gaining popularity

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especially amongst groups that cater to families (interviewee from the Sports For All Federation, Saudi Arabia, 2020). Al-Hazzaa and AlMarzooqi (2018) indicated that PA initiatives for senior citizens in the Kingdom are scarce. The elderly population is increasing in recent years due to improvement in the health-care system, hence the importance of organizing more initiatives for the elderly. Al-Marzooqi, an assistant professor in Public Health at King Saud University (KSU), founded KSU Movement upon her return to the Kingdom after pursing a PhD in Public Health entitled “Physical Activity Among Young Educated Saudi Women” (2017), Al-Marzooqi transformed her research project into a self-funded initiative on her very own university campus.

High-performance sport The achievements in women’s sports competition at the international stage have been met with controversy. While females doing PA as a way to improve health seemed to have become more accepted by Saudi society, participation in sports competitions has been more difficult to obtain the society’s buy-in. London 2012 marked Saudi women’s first time in the Olympics, in which all participating nations sent female athletes to compete. At first, Saudi Arabia refused to send female athletes to the Olympic Games, but after pressure from the International Olympic Committee and threats of not allowing the country to participate in the Games, the Kingdom succumbed and agreed to send two female athletes; the 800m runner, Sarah Attar and the judoka, Wojdan Shaherkani (London 2012 Olympics, 2012). This was not the first time a Saudi woman participated in an international sports competition; in 2010, the equestrian show jumper Dalma Rushdi Malhas won a bronze medal at the 2010 Youth Olympics. In 2016 Rio Olympics, Saudi Arabia doubled the number of female athletes on its roster, sending four women; two judokas, one fencer, and one sprinter athlete (Saudi Arabia to send, 2016). At that point, even though Saudi female athletes made it to the international stage, these participations were still one-off incidents and the sporting bodies in the Kingdom were still reluctant to include females. Federations did not have an ecosystem to support female athletes and clubs for females were practically non-existent. The situation started shifting in 2016 (Al-Maziad, 2018). In the years following, the Kingdom saw an increase in participation at the regional and international levels. In 2018, and for the first time, Saudi participated in the Arab Women Clubs sports tournament in Sharjah UAE with 30 female athletes. Another six female athletes went on that year to participate in the Asian Games in Jakarta. In 2019, 66 female athletes represented the country in their first GCC women’s tournament in Kuwait and SOSAF sent 21 females to the World Games that year in Abu Dhabi, obtaining 40 medals (18 gold, 9 silver, and 13 bronze). In 2020, the first ever female Paralympic athlete, Sarah Al Jamaa, qualified for Tokyo 2020 (MoSSA, 2020).

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Figure 18.1 Special Olympics Saudi Arabia 2019; Special Olympics Saudi Arabia athlete with her father Aiman Shawli celebrating her gold medal win in the athletics 25m run at the 2019 Special Olympics World Summer Games in Abu Dhabi, UAE Source: © Heba Shawli

A leap of faith “Please just give us a chance, give Heba a chance, give yourself a chance”. Heidi Al-Askary – CEO Special Olympics Saudi Arabia Federation (SOSAF) – pleaded with Heba’s Father who had just expressed hesitation on sending Heba to the SOSWG Abu Dhabi 2019 as one of the female athletes in athletics. This was a big deal as it was the first-time female athletes would be representing Saudi Arabia in the Special Olympics World Games. “In all of her 18 years, Heba has never ever been away from us – her family, she is our only child, we are so worried about her being there without us”. Heba’s parents took a leap of faith and entrusted SOSAF to support and provide an opportunity and platform for Heba to shine. After spending her first night with the team in our hotel with her father on standby at a nearby hotel, Heba woke up proclaiming that she can do this and was ready to forge forward on her own.

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One week later, Heba would go on to win the gold in the 25m run and a bronze in shot-put and become an inspiration to a nation. More importantly, she taught us all that there is time to be protective and time to be brave and shine. Heidi Alaudeen Alaskary

There are other Saudi female athletes who have made their way into competitive sport and have marked milestones not only in their country but also at the regional and international levels. Raha Moharrak is the youngest Arab and the first female from Saudi and Gulf countries to climb Mount Everest. Reema Juffali made history becoming the first Saudi Arabian female racer to drive competitively in Saudi Arabia in 2019. Additionally, Hasna Al-Hamad is the first Saudi female fencer to win the Arab Fencing Championship. The high-performance sports ecosystem for females is still in its early stages of development; the progress made over the past four years through female international participations, local competitions for females by some federations, and the more recent coaching and referee courses offered by the LDI are promising milestones for further development of women’s sports over the next few years.

Teacher and coach education Sports have mainly catered to the male population in the Kingdom for decades. Narrowing the gap between female participation on a daily basis and professional level, discovering female talent, offering professional coaching, and simply offering PE in the private and public system are well underway in the recent years and yet, have a long way to go. To become a male PE teacher in Saudi Arabia (both in primary and secondary levels) a four-year bachelor’s degree in PE is required. It is obligatory for future PE teachers to study theory for three and half years in a university programme and four months of on-the-job training in a school as practicum. The graduates register at the MoE as PE teachers and await their school assignment. For women, the teachers training scenario is quite different from that of men. Considering the recent royal decrees that have been passed related to women’s sports, licensing of gyms, inclusion of females in federations, etc., will take quite a few years until nationwide women’s schools can deliver PE. However, the MoS, Ministry of Health, Tatweer Co. for Educational Services, and the Youth Sports Trust (UK) are working diligently on short- and long-term goals. There are currently two tracks: a five-year bachelor’s degree in PE developed by universities (long-term goal) and a training programme addressed to current teachers of other subjects, in order to allow them to deliver PE classes (short-term goal)

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(Obaid, 2018). There are six universities that offer the programme in the Kingdom. The degrees offered for females in sports across the Kingdom are: • • • •

PE – 127 females enrolled PE with practicum – 53 females enrolled Fitness – 29 females enrolled Sports Science and PA – 102 females enrolled

To date, almost 12,000 female teachers within all departments of education have been trained in a range of sports programmes and activities (MoESA, 2020). As of 2019, the Leadership Development Institute – in partnership with the federations – has trained 257 female coaches and 31 females have enrolled in administration programmes. The total number of courses provided to females as of the first half of the year 2020 are 121, of which 25 are virtual. Furthermore, 2,215 female participants have enrolled in courses for H1 2020 only (MoSSA, 2020). Another important milestone for women’s sports is the coaching sports certifications from federations. Some Saudi sports federations recently began allowing women to be certified trainers. In 2019, Rasha Al-Khamis became the first-ever Saudi female to be certified by the Saudi Boxing Federation (Jarrah, 2018). The offer of women’s courses linked to the fitness sector has grown exponentially in the country. Several private companies offer fitness courses in several disciplines addressed to women (e.g., indoor cycling, fitness instructor personal trainer, suspension trainer, CrossFit, Calisthenics, etc.). Furthermore, the MoS has recently developed the Saudi Fitness Standards for some sports occupations as well as the Saudi Register of Exercise Professionals (Saudi Reps) that includes both men and women.

Challenges and moving forward The challenges facing PA and women in sports in Saudi Arabia are diverse due to the veto suffered for years by a cultural rather than religious justification. The Saudi government is willing to reverse the situation to create a healthier nation and change national and international perception of Saudi female athletes. Building a sports system from scratch is not an easy task. It will take years to consolidate and reap the fruit; however, seeds of passion, dedication, teamwork, resilience, perseverance, and persistence have been planted and watered thus far. Furthermore, some low-hanging fruits have already been collected with the successful launch of female sports events and the opening of private fitness centres across the country. Five main challenges must be addressed to ensure the consolidation of women’s sports system. The first, and perhaps the most difficult of all, is to shift the narrative of women’s PA and sports. Therefore, raising awareness of the multiple

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health, social, and economical benefits that women’s sports can bring to Saudi society is an essential move towards a society that embraces women’s sport. It is also important to convey the message that PA is not at odds with religion, there are many activities and sports that women can practice following the precepts of the Qur’an, such as modest dress. Female leadership and visibility; key success factors towards building a strong female sports system are the second challenge. Until a few years ago, the female presence in public sports structures such as the MoS or the SAOC was nonexistent. In recent years, women have been appointed to fill positions of responsibility. However, the number seems to be more symbolic than effective in terms of bringing about genuine change within the sports system. In relation to the visibility of Saudi women athletes, this has always been a grey area. Despite harvesting international sporting successes, such as Olympic equestrian medallist Dalma Malhas in 2010, they have not been given the visibility they deserve from local media. The fact that young Saudi women do not have national role models to identify with, makes it more difficult to feel attracted to sport. The third challenge is the lack of qualified women in sport, from PE teachers, gym instructors, and coaches, to referees and sport managers. The previous absence and current scarcity of sport-related academic courses and vocational training addressed to women complicates being able to deliver sports activities due to lack of a female workforce. Therefore, a crosscut training structure (PE, recreation, health, management, etc.) is required at different educational levels (university, vocational training, etc.) which covers the needs of the new female sports market. The shortage of sports facilities for women is the fourth challenge. From not having women’s sports facilities to responding to the current high demand is a major obstacle. It will take years to build a diverse network of women’s sports facilities throughout the country. To deliver PE, other typology of sports facilities is vital, especially within school’s premises or at a reasonable distance. The fifth and final challenge is the entry of new players in the field of women’s sports. To date, the offer for adult women and activities outside school hours is mainly private and focused on fitness centres. The fact that it is an expanding market, and that the demand exceeds the supply, allows companies to charge expensive memberships that present an access barrier for many females. To guarantee universal PA practice, the public sector is a vital player and a game changer; prices must be adapted to the economical capacity of the different groups within society, and a comprehensive offer of sport activities must be developed to satisfy the tastes and sport motivations of all age groups and abilities.

References Al-Hazzaa, H. M., & AlMarzooqi, M. A. (2018). Descriptive analysis of physical activity initiatives for health promotion in Saudi Arabia. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, 329. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2018.00329

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Almarhaby, I. (2018). Modern woman in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Rights, challenges, and achievements. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 46(1), 201–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2018.1507432 Al-Marzooqui, M. (2017). Physical activity among young educated Saudi women (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences of University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/ bitstream/2440/114427/2/02whole.pdf Al-Maziad, A. (2018). Crown Prince Salman is opening up the Saudi society by normalizing entertainment activities and showcasing the country’s largely untapped heritage and culture to the rest of the world. The Business Year. www.thebusinessyear.com/ saudi-arabia-2018-19/culture-entertainment/b2b Al Rawaf, H., & Simmons, C. (1991). The education of women in Saudi Arabia. Comparative Education, 27(3), 287–295. Al-Shihri, A., & Batrawy, A. (2013, May 4). Saudis allow some girls’ schools to offer sports. The Post and Courier. www.postandcourier.com/news/saudis-allow-some-girlsschools-to-offer-sports/article_ddd4e780-0fbc-571f-89fd-fa3c194eb685.html Al-Sulami, M., & Radwan, R. (2017, July 11). Saudi Arabia approves physical education program in girls’ schools. Arab News. www.arabnews.com/node/1127811/saudi-arabia The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (n.d.). Princess Reema bint Bandar bin Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud. www.saudiembassy.net/ambassador General Authority for Statistics. (2016). Population in Saudi Arabia by gender, age, nationality (Saudi/Non-Saudi) -Mid 2016 A.D [Data file]. www.stats.gov.sa/en/5305 General Authority for Statistics. (2019). Household sports practice survey bulletin 2019 [Data file]. www.stats.gov.sa/en/950-0 Hassan, A. (2014, December 26). Forbes Ranks Jeddah United 21st in KSA. Saudi Gazette. https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/107821 Jarrah, M. (2018, March 23). First certified Saudi female boxer reaches new heights, breaks Guinness records. Al Alrabiya. https://english.alarabiya.net/en/sports/2018/03/23/Saudifemale-boxer-reaches-new-heights-breaks-Guinness-World-Records-along-the-way.html Khan, F. (2013, May 7). Schools in need of 9,000 female PE teachers. Arab News. www. arabnews.com/news/450741 Khan, F. (2014, October 25). Ministry plans 1,000 fitness clubs for girls. Arab News. www. arabnews.com/saudi-arabia/news/649826 London 2012 Olympics: Saudi Arabian women to compete. (2012, July 12). BBC News. www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-18813543 Muhammad, F. (2017, July 25). Over 2,000 girls apply for PE major in Taif University. Saudi Gazette. https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/513703 Obaid, R. (2018, March 5). Female teachers join sports training program in 3 major Saudi cities. Arab News. www.arabnews.com/node/1259221/saudi-arabia Obaid, R. (2019, December 14). High prices putting off women from joining gyms in Saudi Arabia. Arab News. www.arabnews.com/node/1598611/saudi-arabia Princess Reema bint Bandar appointed member of International Olympic Committee. (2020, July 18). Arab News. www.arabnews.com/node/1706206/sport Samargandi, T. (2018). The attitudes of Saudi teachers towards teaching physical education for girls in public schools in Jeddah. University of Arkansas. https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/2647/ Saudi Arabia creates new tourism, sports, investment ministries. (2020, February 25). Arabian Business. www.arabianbusiness.com/politics-economics/441210-saudi-arabiacreates-new-tourism-sports-investment-ministries

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Saudi Arabia Government. (2017). Saudi vision 2030. https://vision2030.gov.sa/sites/ default/files/report/Saudi_Vision2030_EN_2017.pdf Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee. (2020, January 13). News from the National Olympic Committee of Saudi Arabia. www.olympic.org/news/news-from-the-national-olympiccommittee-of-saudi-arabia Saudi Arabia to send four female athletes to Rio Olympics. (2016, July 18). The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/18/saudi-arabia-to-send-four-femaleathletes-to-rio-olympics Shahab, M., & Pérez, M. (2016). Saudi Arabia women sports: A kingdom racing to the finish line. In C. Koca (Eds.), Inspiring women in Asia: Making a difference in physical education, sport and dance (pp. 19–236). Brazil: NGIME. Sports For All. (2020). Unpublished information.

Chapter 19

Women and sport in Singapore Emily Ortega and Teoh Chin Sim

Dedicated to the late, great, Annabel Pennefather. Thank you for paving the way for women in sport in Singapore.

Singapore is a country located in Southeast Asia with a GDP 372,063 million US dollars in 2019, which ranks 34th in the world (World Bank, 2020). Internationally renowned for its robust economy that is from strong international trade, investment, and measures to maintain employment and labour market, Singapore ranks as the world’s most competitive economy (The Straits Times, 2020a). Sharing the top spot as the most expensive city in the world together with Osaka, Japan, and Hong Kong, China (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2020), the glitz and glamour of the city state of Singapore was famously featured in the Hollywood movie, Crazy Rich Asians, as Singapore boasts a world ranking of sixth for household wealth per adult at 297,873 US dollars in 2019 with low wealth inequality (Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2019). Singapore was a British colony from 1826 to 1963 and pulled out of the Federation of Malaysia in 1965 to become an independent nation. One of the smallest countries in Southeast Asia, Singapore has a population of close to six million in its land area of 724 square kilometres (Government of Singapore, 2020a). The people in Singapore are multicultural, with major ethnic groups of Chinese, Malays, Indians, and others of mixed races, and integrating the people was the government’s top priority as there were communal racial riots that took place before Singapore gained its independence as a nation in 1965. To ensure equality, the Singapore government intentionally utilized the three principles of multiculturalism, secularism, and meritocracy in maintaining social harmony in Singapore and also established English as the official, common language of instruction and administration to commit to “one united people regardless of race, language or religion” (Public Service Division, 2015). In 2011, sport was viewed as another means to bring Singaporeans together and contribute to nation building. As stated by the former Deputy Prime Minister, Teo Chee Hean, Living in a nation of many races and many cultures, we need to find a common ground. Sport is that common ground, the space we can all share and

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celebrate. Sport is our opportunity to unite as one, regardless of language, religion, race or age. (Sport Singapore, 2011) Since then, Vision 2030 emerged as a masterplan to use sport as a national priority to bring people together and lead healthier lives by making sport a national language, organizing more sport events in Singapore, and providing more opportunities for everyone to play sports in Singapore (Vision 2030 Steering Committee Report, 2012). Since then, annual attendance at sports facilities increased to some 18.12 million in 2018 (Ministry of Culture, Community, and Youth, 2020). Sports participation rates in Singapore have increased to 35.9% of the population exercising at least three times a week compared to just 16% of people exercising regularly in 2001 (The Straits Times, 2016). Participation in sport is now more equally distributed in Singapore, with 66% of both men and women engaging in regular exercise at least once a week in 2019, compared to a wider gender gap in exercise participation of 72% of men and 64% of women in 2017 (Government of Singapore, 2020b). Although there are currently no apparent disparities in sport participation in Singapore, this was not always the case as it took women some time to get an equal footing in sports participation and the opportunities for leadership in sport in Singapore still remain limited to this day. In this chapter, we look at the history of women in sport in Singapore, examine the gender gap in sport, and analyze the lack of female sports leadership in Singapore, despite the success from female athletes both on and off the sporting field.

History of women in sport in Singapore Women and girls’ involvement in sport in Singapore dates back to the colonial times when European women first led the way, followed by Eurasian women who made their foray into sports such as field hockey and netball, when the first female-only sports club, the Goldburn Sports Club, was established (Aplin, 2019). Like other countries back in the day, women were commonly spectators instead of participants, but this all changed with the introduction of the all-girls sports club and the introduction of the sport of netball to a girls school in Singapore in 1929 (Chen & Aplin, 2010). Nevertheless, opportunities for women in sports were few and far between, often reserved for wealthy or educated girls in Singapore (Chen & Aplin, 2010). Faced with the early stereotypes of sport being a masculine activity that is not suited for females, sports participation in Singapore has improved tremendously, with more women equally involved in sports as men. Interestingly, it was only as recent as 1999, when it was found that more than half of men and women surveyed believed women should not participate in contact sports (Kunalan, 1999). Other than the introduction of an all-female sports club and the introduction of netball in one girl’s school, physical education (PE) played a key role

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in increasing sports participation opportunities for women in Singapore. The College of Physical Education was established in 1984 to specifically train PE teachers (Chen & Aplin, 2010), and the National Accreditation of Physical Fitness Award was introduced to all schools as a standardized assessment of physical fitness of students (Teo, 2007). Physical education was made compulsory for all school students in Singapore, across all grade levels (Wang, Papaioannou, Sarazin, Jaakola, & Solmon, 2006). The PE system in Singapore has progressed over the last few decades, with the government using PE to develop healthy and active lifestyles (McNeil, Lim, Wang, Tan, & Macphail, 2009). Due to the need to conform to cultural norms of the times, the Chinese and Malay sports participation amongst women and girls was delayed somewhat. Athletics, volleyball, basketball, and badminton became the choice sports for Chinese girls (Aplin, 2019). In an era of firsts for women, Lorenza Dowdeswell became the first female athlete representing Singapore to win an Asian Games medal in the 80m hurdles in 1951, and Tang Pui Wah was the first woman to qualify in the same event for the 1952 Olympic Games (Aplin, 2019). Singapore ceased to be a crown colony in 1963 and became an independent republic in 1965. As part of nation building, the statutory board of Singapore Sports Council (SSC) was formed in 1973 to promote sports and recreation to improve health and quality of life (Aplin, 2019). To this end, PE teacher, Judy Kong, joined SSC as its first female sports officer. In the United Nations designated inaugural International Women’s Year of 1975, Judy formed a women’s subcommittee to organize the first women’s sports carnival in Singapore as part of the national “Pesta Sukan” (Sports Festival). She would subsequently become Singapore’s first executive director of a national sports association (netball) in 1999. In May 1994, Judy Kong and Eric Song, the Deputy Director of Sports Excellence at SSC, witnessed the Brighton Declaration when Singapore became a signatory to the treaty that has since become the road map for the development of women and girls in sport around the globe. In August of the same year, chief medical officer of Team Singapore, Teoh Chin Sim chanced upon a large gathering of women at a meeting at the Athletes’ Village of the Commonwealth Games in Victoria, Canada expounding on the Brighton Declaration that piqued her curiosity to pursue this equality for women in sport in Singapore.

The gender gap in sports in Singapore Despite its strong economy, Singapore was named the worst country for working women (Finder, 2019). Although the gender pay gap in Singapore has reduced over the years from 8.8% in 2002 to 2018 to just 6% in 2018 (Lin, Gan, & Pan, 2020), the Finder Survey considered a broader range of factors other than wages, such as leave, hours worked, and retirement savings (Finder, 2019). In its survey findings, women in Singapore were found to have fewer days of maternity leave and had only 13% representation on boards (Finder, 2019).

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In Singapore, the education profile and representation in the workforce for men and women are similar, yet men tend to be more represented in higher paying occupations compared to women, who conversely remain in lower paying traditionally female jobs like nursing and teaching (Lin et al., 2020). This trend is consistent with other countries like UK (Office for National Statistics, 2018), but the lack of representation on boards and committees is not consistent with other countries, with countries like France having about 40% female representation on boards (Finder, 2019). Singapore also displays this disparity in its leadership positions across various sporting organizations. The Singapore National Olympic Council (SNOC) serves to promote the Olympic movement in Singapore and is led by 16 board members, of whom three are female, with one in a main leadership role (18.75%). There are 12 standing committees under SNOC, and three are led by a female (25%), of which one is the Women in Sport committee, and the same female chairman is leading two other standing committees. The SNOC spearheads the selection and representation of Singaporean athletes at major games such as the Southeast Asian Games (SEA), Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, and the Olympics and works in tandem with Sport Singapore to promote and develop sports excellence (SNOC, 2020c). Sport Singapore is led by a board of 14 members, with two females (14.29%) serving as board members. Sport Singapore’s senior management, which leads the organization to transform the nation through sport, is made up of a leadership team of seven, with one female (14.28%) heading finance-related matters. In a closer comparison to the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) Executive Board, of which the representation of females is 26.67%, with four female board members, Singapore is lagging behind in female representation on sporting committees. However, the SNOC Athletes’ Commission has strong female representation, where eight out of the nine members are women. To fill the need for empowerment, support, and representation of women and girls in sport, the SNOC Women in Sport Committee (WSC) was formed in June 2019, of which nine out of the 10 members are female and chaired by Teoh Chin Sim. The WSC was several years in the making, inspired and spurred on by several meetings with African, Asian, and South East Asian women in sport counterparts. The vision of WSC is that women and girls in Singapore will live better and healthier lives through sports and exercise, and its mission is to create opportunities that will positively impact the transformation of women and girls in and through sports and exercise. The core values it upholds are those of courage, equality, and respect.

Female sports leadership in Singapore There are 64 National Sports Associations (NSA) in Singapore, sanctioned representatives from each sport who lead and develop their respective sports (Singapore Sports Council, 2020). Table 19.1 shows a sampling of the committees that run the 20 more prominent sports in Singapore in terms of sports excellence and

Singapore Swimming Association Singapore Table Tennis Association Singapore Shooting Association Singapore Sailing Federation Singapore Bowling Federation Singapore Badminton Association Singapore Athletics Singapore Fencing Singapore Gymnastics Football Association of Singapore Netball Singapore* Singapore Floorball Association Singapore Hockey Federation Singapore Baseball & Softball Association Singapore Rugby Union Singapore Cycling Federation Singapore Canoeing Federation Singapore Taekwondo Federation Singapore Karate-Do Federation Singapore Silat Federation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 15

15 16 17 18 19 20

NSA

S/No.

10 15 17 6 9 13

10 18 8 7 12 14 11 10 8 17 11 11 20 9

Total No. of Board Members 2 (Vice-President & Treasurer) 2 (President & MC Member) 0 2 (Vice-President & Deputy Treasurer) 4* (President,Vice-President, & MC Members_ 2 (MC Members) 2 (Treasurer & MC Member) 2* (President & Treasurer) 4 (Vice-President & Elected Directors) 2 (Treasurer & MC Member) 7* (President,Treasurer, Secretary, & MC Members) 1 (Assistant Secretary) 7 (Assistant Secretary,Treasurer, & MC Members) 6* (President,Vice-President, Secretary,Assistant Secretary,Treasurer, & Head of Events) 0 0 2 (Assistant Secretary & Assistant Treasurer) 0 2 (Treasurer & Assistant Treasurer) 4 (Secretary,Assistant Secretary,Treasurer & MC Member)

N = Females (Positions Occupied)

Table 19.1 Sampling of the Committees that Run the Prominent Sports in Singapore

0% 0% 11.76% 0% 22.22% 30.77%

20% 11.11% 0% 28.57% 33.33% 14.29% 18.18% 20% 50% 11.76% 63.64% 9.09% 35% 66.67%

%

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sports participation. The table shows the percentage of women in the Board of each NSA, with asterisks indicating a female president among the board members. In this list of 20, only seven sports have more female representation on their committees compared to the IOC’s 26.67%. Some sports, like gymnastics and netball, were historically more ‘female’, hence the high representation is not surprising. Softball as well is a sport predominantly played by females and hence has a strong female representation. Interestingly, the only martial art that has strong female representation is Singapore Silat Federation. Silat, the traditional Southeast Asian martial art from Indonesia and Malaysia, was added to UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list (The Straits Times, 2019). As a sport, silat focuses on developing values and character, focusing on the four important aspects of spiritual, self-defence, art, and sport (Mulyana, 2017). The sport’s focus on character development and its equal opportunities for women in the sport could be a reflection of silat’s holistic attitude of the sport, regardless of gender. Conversely, sports that had no female representation include taekwondo, shooting, cycling, and rugby. Ironically, all four of these sports have women’s events, with national female shooters like Jasmine Ser and Martina Lindsay Veloso as current national stars who have brought in numerous medals for Singapore from international events. Singapore Rugby Union also has no female representation currently on their committee, although Wang Shao-Ing was the first female and Singaporean to be appointed to any World Rugby advisory committee (Wong, 2016). Bowling and hockey, however, have good representation because they have or had strong female leadership synonymous with Jessie Phua in bowling and the late Annabel Pennefather in hockey. Entrepreneur, sports administrator, and current SNOC Vice-President, Jessie Phua, has led Team Singapore as Chef de Mission to several major Games. The president of Singapore Bowling since 2002, Phua made history by becoming the first Singaporean to be elected to the highest office in an international sports federation by Federation Internationale des Quilleurs in 2007 as its president for four years. A true trailblazer for women in sports leadership in Singapore, Annabel Pennefather was a retired hockey player and lawyer, serving as the former President of the Singapore Hockey Federation from 2004 to 2012. She paved the way for women in sports leadership in Singapore by becoming the first woman in the SNOC committee in 1999, the first female vice-president of the SNOC in 2002, the first female Chef de Mission at the Commonwealth Games in 2002 and Olympic Games in 2004, and the first female president of the Singapore Hockey Federation (The Straits Times, 2020b). Pennefeather attended the first IOC World Conference on Women in Sport in Lausanne, Switzerland in 1996, accompanied by Teoh Chin Sim and Michael Chan, Deputy Director of Sports for All at SSC. Inspired, she returned to Singapore to form and chair the Women and Sport Working Group (WSWG) under the auspices of the SSC in 1999. The WSWG (later renamed Women Sport

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Group and co-chaired with Teo-Koh Sock Miang) went on to organize the first national Women and Sports Conference within the year that became a springboard to the formation of several subcommittees. The SSC also created a new Department for Women and Sports helmed by its Head, sports administrator Ung Bee Koon. Some of the programmes and initiatives included the Annual Women’s Day Out Paddlers in the Pink in association with the Breast Cancer Foundation, formation of a Muslim women’s exercise group, and capability building workshops. Pennefeather played a key role in garnering support to form the Asian Women in Sport Group that led to Singapore hosting of the annual meeting of the International Working Group on Women and Sport in 2005. In recognition of her many achievements to champion efforts for women in sports in Singapore and Asia, she was awarded the IOC Women in Sport Trophy (Asia) in 2005.

Singapore’s female sporting success stories Ironically, despite the low female representation in sports leadership roles in Singapore, female athletes have consistently brought Singapore international sporting success. In 1952, Tang Pui Wah became Singapore’s first female Olympian, representing Singapore at the Helsinki Olympic Games in the 80m hurdles and 100m sprint. She went on to win a bronze medal for the 80m hurdles at the 1954 Asian Games in Manila (Peh, 2017). In 2008, the women’s table tennis team made history by winning Singapore’s first ever medal at an Olympic Games since its independence. They followed up their Olympic success to win the 2010 Women’s World Table Tennis Championships, defeating powerhouse and favourite, China, for the first time, creating sporting history (Ortega, 2015). Female athletes have continued this legacy by achieving excellence at international events. Singapore’s swimming “golden girl”, Patricia Chan, dominated the Singapore swimming scene for over a decade, winning 39 gold medals at various SEA Games and eight medals at the 1966 and 1970 Asian Games (Low, 2016). Singapore’s only athlete to win 40 gold medals at the SEA Games was also a female swimmer, Joscelin Yeo, who was a dominant force in swimming from 1991 to 2007 and the only athlete to ever represent Singapore in four Olympic Games (Singapore National Olympic Council, 2020a). Another female sporting success was Tao Li, who won 12 gold medals in swimming from 2005 to 2015 at various SEA Games and three gold medals at FINA World Cups (Singapore National Olympic Council, 2020b). In 2008, Tao Li became Singapore’s first female swimmer to qualify for an Olympic final, where she finished fifth at the 2008 Beijing Olympics (SNOC, 2020b). In athletics, Shanti Pereira won Singapore’s first gold medal in the 2015 SEA Games 200m event since 1973 (The Straits Times, 2015). Interestingly, at the 2017 SEA Games, although there were slightly fewer female athletes representing Singapore than males (44% versus 56%), female athletes won 50% of the medals while male athletes won 44.7% of the medals. During 2017 SEA Games,

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Michelle Sng also created history by winning Singapore’s first gold medal in the high jump in 52 years (Teo, 2017).

Female athletes giving back to society Beyond sports, Singapore’s female athletes channel their energies to giving back to society while still actively training and competing in their sport. Paralympian and triple gold medallist swimmer Yip Pin Xiu is the youngest Nominated Member of Parliament in Singapore who wants to be the voice representing the para athlete and the disabled, as well as give back to the larger community. Former swimmer Joscelin Yeo has also served as a Nominated Member of Parliament in the Singapore government and currently serves as the vice-president of the Singapore Swimming Association’s committee, as one of its two female committee members. Our female athletes have also banded together to serve the community. Retired hurdler, Dipna Lim-Prasad, co-founded In My Shoes, which collects used sports shoes to distribute to underprivileged children and at-risk youths in Singapore (Sim, 2020). Current female athletes also do their part to serve the community outside of their sporting arenas. During the COVID-19 global pandemic, national golfer Jen Goh and friends put together Tinker Kits consisting of arts and crafts material, activity sheets, reflection journals, and simple science experiments to distribute to needy families to engage their children in positive ways. Kayaker Stephanie Chen, Dipna Lim-Prasad, swimmer Amanda Lim, bowler Shayna Ng, and Paralympic swimming champions Yip Pin Xiu and Theresa Goh have also come together to start an Instagram campaign to raise funds for The Food Bank Singapore, a charity organization that collects food for the less fortunate (Singh, 2020).

Conclusion Women have clearly made their mark in sports in Singapore. From prominent sports leaders to Olympic athletes who went against the grain to pave the way for more women in sports, female athletes and leaders in Singapore are certainly doing their part in helping the nation to achieve sporting success and beyond.

References Aplin, N. G. (2019). Sport in Singapore: The colonial legacy. Singapore: Straits Times Press. Chen, X. H., & Aplin, N. G. (2010). When girls become women: Sport socialisation in Singapore. III International Conference of Physical Education and Sports Science, Youth in Physical Education and Sport. Singapore. Credit Suisse Research Institute. (2019). Global wealth report 2019. www.credit-suisse. com/about-us/en/reports-research/global-wealth-report.html The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2020). Worldwide cost of living 2020. www.eiu.com/n/ campaigns/worldwide-cost-of-living-2020/

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Finder. (2019). How Singapore stacks up for working women. www.finder.com/sg/best-countriesfor-working-women Government of Singapore. (2020a). Total land area of Singapore. https://data.gov.sg/dataset/ total-land-area-of-singapore Government of Singapore. (2020b). Sport participation level. https://data.gov.sg/dataset/ sport-participation-level?resource_id=17bae031-eaf7-43fd-af66-52914a8cfc06 Kunalan, C. (1999). PE and competitive sports for girls. Women and sport: New horizons conference proceedings. Singapore Sports Council, Singapore. Lin, E., Gan, G., & Pan, J. (2020). Singapore’s adjusted gender pay gap. Manpower Research and Statistics Department, Ministry of Manpower, Singapore. Low, L. F. (2016). Schooling a legend in the making, says Patricia Chan. Today Online. www.todayonline.com/sports/schooling-legend-making-says-patricia-chan McNeil, M., Lim, B. S. C., Wang, C. K. J., Tan, W. K. C., & Macphail, A. (2009). Moving towards quality physical education: Physical education provision in Singapore. European Physical Education Review, 15, 201–223. Ministry of Culture, Community, and Youth. (2020, March 3). Sports statistics and publications. www.mccy.gov.sg/about-us/news-and-resources/statistics/2019/jan/sports-statisticsand-publications Mulyana. (2017). Improving self-concept through Pencak Silat learning. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science Engineering, 180. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/180/1/012218. Office for National Statistics. (2018, January 18). Understanding the gender pay gap in the UK. https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/articles/understandingthegenderpaygapintheuk/2018-01-17#:~:text=In%20 2017%2C%20men%20on%20average,are%20paid%20more%20than%20women. Ortega, E. (2015). Table tennis in Singapore: A case study of success. In P. C. Terry, L-W., Zhang, Y. Kim, T. Morris, & S. Hanrahan (Eds.), Secrets of Asian sport psychology. Queensland: Australia. University of Southern Queensland. Peh, S. H. (2017). Rings of stars and crescent: 70 Years of the Olympic movement in Singapore. Singapore National Olympic Council. www.dropbox.com/s/urzdwq4nyffp00z/SNOC_ Rings%20of%20Stars%20and%20Crescent.pdf?dl=0 Public Service Division. (2015). Cultivating a harmonious society, becoming one people. www.psd.gov.sg/heartofpublicservice/our-institutions/cultivating-a-harmonioussociety-becoming-one-people/ Sim, A. (2020, March 5). Dipna Lim-Prasad wants every kid to be able to own sports shoes. www.shape.com.sg/fitness/dipna-lim/ Singapore National Olympic Council. (2020a). Joscelin Yeo. www.singaporeolympics.com/ olympians/joscelin-yeo/ Singapore National Olympic Council. (2020b). Tao Li. www.singaporeolympics.com/ olympians/tao-li/ Singapore National Olympic Council. (2020c). About SNOC. https://www.singaporeo lympics.com/about-snoc/# Singapore Sports Council. (2020). Find a NSA. www.myactivesg.com/Sports/Find-aNational-Sports-Association Singh, D. (2020, April 8). Former, current Singapore athletes doing extra workouts in aid of Food Bank Charity. www.tnp.sg/sports/team-singapore/former-current-spore-athletesdoing-extra-workouts-aid-charity Sport Singapore (2011, May 25). DPM Teo: Sport is our opportunity to unite as one. www.sportsingapore.gov.sg/newsroom/media-releases/2011/5/dpm-teo-sport-is-ouropportunity-to-unite-as-one

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The Straits Times. (2015, June 10). SEA games: Shanti Pereira ends Singapore’s 42-year wait for sprint gold. www.straitstimes.com/sport/sea-games-shanti-pereira-endssingapores-42-year-wait-for-sprint-gold The Straits Times. (2016, August 30). Singaporeans now more active. www.straitstimes. com/singapore/health/singaporeans-now-more-active The Straits Times. (2019, December 13). Martial art silat claimed by Indonesia, Malayisa added to Unesco’s intangible cultural heritage list. www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/ martial-art-silat-claimed-by-indonesia-malaysia-named-unescos-intangible-cultural The Straits Times. (2020a, June 16). Singapore retains top spot as world’s most competitive economy. www.straitstimes.com/business/economy/singapore-retains-topspot-as-worlds-most-competitive-economy The Straits Times. (2020b, April 27). Obituary: Former hockey chief Annabel Pennefather, a trailblazer for women in sport, dies at 71. www.straitstimes.com/sport/obituary-formerhockey-chief-annabel-pennefather-a-trailblazer-for-women-in-sport-dies-at-72 Teo, C. W. (2007). Unfit. The Straits Times, L6. Teo, T. K. (2017, August 25). SEA Games: Michelle Sng wins Singapore’s first women’s high jump gold in 52 years after successful appeal. Today Online. www.todayonline.com/ sports/sea-games-michelle-sng-wins-gold-high-jump-after-successful-appeal Vision 2030 Steering Committee Report. (2012). Live better through sports. www.mccy.gov. sg/about-us/news-and-resources/statistics/2019/jan/-/media/0E5F60864A604FE7B4C00 7DEF6FB7FA8.ashx Wang, C. J. K., Papaioannou, A. G., Sarazin, P. P. G., Jaakola, T., & Solmon, M. A. (2006). A brief description of physical education and school children’s sport involvement in Singapore, Greece, France, Finland, and the United States. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(3), 220–226. Wong, J. (2016, December 25). Rugby: Women’s rugby to take Asia by storm: Wang. www. straitstimes.com/sport/womens-rugby-to-take-asia-by-storm-wang World Bank. (2020, July 1). World development indicators database. https://databank.world bank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf

Chapter 20

Women and sport in Sri Lanka Lilamani de Soysa , D.L.I.H.K. Peiris and Shiromi De Alwis

Introduction Sri Lanka is a small island nation anchored in the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Since antiquity, the country has been exposed to various cultural influences – Greek, Indian, Arab, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, and British (Silva, 2008). After gaining independence from the British in 1948 and having renounced its dominion status in 1972, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (Kumarasingham, 2013). The population is approximately 20.3 million (DoS, 2011) made up of diverse ethnic groups, and unfortunately the country’s contemporary history is marred by a civil war (Bajoria, 2009; Foundation, 2017), which lasted from 1983 to 2009. Agriculture (rice) accounts for approximately 21% of the gross domestic product (GDP) (Group, 2020; Lanka, 2018) with tourism, tea, textile exports as well as overseas employment of labour, being major sources of foreign earnings. Roughly 68% of the population that are 15 years and above are married and the majority of the 25.5% that never married is male (DoS, 2011). Sri Lanka boasts a high literacy rate, of more than 90% (94.6% for women and 96.9% for men in 2012 thus yielding a gender differential of only 2.3% points (idem). Notably, Sri Lanka is reputed for electing the world’s first female Prime Minister, Sirimavo Bandaranaike in 1958. Her daughter later served as the 5th President. Yet, women’s representation in parliament is still below 10%. Over 40% of government employees are women but only one-fifth of school heads are women. The constitution sets out gender equality as a fundamental right (Kodikara, 2008). The Women’s Charter of 1993 is a key document and the National Action Plan for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights 2011–2016 includes women’s rights (ADB, 2016). However, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) concludes in its findings of 2016 that while Sri Lanka has made considerable progress on many key indicators, it “has also fostered complacency that prevents recognition of continuing gender inequalities” (NOCSL, 2020). Women’s participation in all aspects of sport has to be placed in these sociocultural and political contexts.

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Annals of women’s sporting activities The most widely considered primary sources of ancient Sri Lankan history are the Dipavamsa1 (‘Island’s Chronicle’), Mahavamsa (‘Great Chronicle’), and Culavamsa (‘Little Chronicle’). According to these sources, sporting activities such as hunting and aquatics (swimming and water ball games) were popular recreational activities among royals. The Mahavamsa mentions that King Devanam Piyatissa (Kingdom of Anuradhapura, circa 200 BC to AD 1000) hunted deer (Buddhadatta, 1956) and the Culavamsa (Geiger, 1929) mentions that King Parakramabahu hunted (Polonnaruwa period from about 1070 to 1200). Primary sources reveal that women engaged actively in recreational sporting activities, for example Lalee sport (also known as Laalee Keli or Aksha Kreeda). According to the Kawasilumina (Parakramabahu-II, 2013) and Sumanagala dictionaries (Sumagala, 1999), Lalee is played using three lacquer sticks or balls. In the Damabadeniya era (13th century) Lalee Keli was played by women2 (Parakramabahu-II, 2013). The Thisara Sandeshaya (75th,3 149th, and 179th4 poems) speaks of women in Aluthgama (a village in the current Southern Province of Sri Lanka), during the 4th and 15th centuries engaging in recreational sports with balls while singing (Suraweera & Wijesooriya, 1991). There is also evidence that women engaged in Angampora, an indigenous form of combat sport (Chickera, 2011; Observer, 2017). Sri Lanka has a plethora of traditional games played during the Sinhala–Tamil New Year of which seven (Dalupotha, 2020) – An Keliya, Pora Pol Keliya, Kathuru Onchillawa, Wel Onchillawa, Olinda Keliya, Pancha Dameema, and Thirikka Onchillawa – are dedicated to the Hindu goddess Paththini (Kurugala, 2010), and most of them are played only by women, girls, and children. However, British rule impacted the history of Sri Lankan sport. The modern system of education “began as a result of the country’s integration into the British Empire in the 19th century” (Jaufer, 2017). The British together with their education system, brought their way of life (Szymansk, 2008) including their recreational sports. Three notable sports were cricket (Welhengama & Pillay, 2014), golf, and rugby. Today, cricket is the country’s most popular sport (Sullivan, 2020) with both men and women playing internationally, and cricket seems to be much bigger than it even is in England (Velarde, 2018). Golf and rugby did not attain the same popularity. Missionary education also brought with it the idea “that caste was foolish” (the caste system was the basis of Sri Lankan society) and that equal education for boys and girls was good (Alagiyawanna, 1991/1992). Hence, education for all, together with sport became an important cultural phenomenon when athletics and team games for both girls and boys were developed in missionary schools. Male cricketing stars are household names. But, how many people would know Chamari Atapattu as the first and only female cricketer to score a century three times in a row in a one-day international (ODI) and the only female to score a double-century in a women’s premier cricket tournament with the most number of ODI centuries and fifties in women’s cricket history (Niethammer, 2018). In other words, men’s and women’s sport have evolved along different paths.

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During the pre-independence era, girls from affluent backgrounds in missionary schools played non-native sports such as football, basketball, hockey, and netball (Nanayakkara, 2011). Netball, a popular sport from school to national level among women was first played in 1921 (ibid.), by the Ceylon Girl Guide Company at Kandy High School and in 1927 for the first time at the Government Training College (ibid.) which helped its popularization. Since 2019 the women’s national team has been ranked 18th in the world and Tharjini Sivalingam, ranked world number one netball shooter (Anonymous, 2019; Bloom, 2019; Silva, 2018). Sports Law, No. 25 of 1973 (Lanka, 1973; Wijesinghe, 2018) was implemented soon after Sri Lanka gave up its dominion status in 1972. This law and a few amendments helped to break down barriers for women from outside the capital Colombo as government funding was also increased for sport in rural areas (Nanayakkara, 2011). Consequently, in 1984 Ramani Mangalika from a rural central school, clinched the 200m gold at the inaugural South Asian Federation Games (ibid.). The hurdler Sriyani Kulawansa, who went on to win gold (1991 South Asian Games); bronze (1998 Asian Athletic Games); and silver in Commonwealth Games (Nanayakkara, 2011) was identified through the Mahaweli Games. The Mahaweli Games that were started in 1986 (Lanka, 2014; Mahaweli Sports Festival, 2017; Rahaman, 2019) allowed both men and women to participate in 41 events and advanced women’s sport in the so-called rural Mahaweli areas.5 Furthermore, excellent female athletes emerged through the National Youth Games and the reformed School Athletic Games, for example, Damayanthi Darsha progressed through the School Athletic Games to win at the Asian Games in 1994 (bronze) and 1998 (two gold).

Physical education and girls’ participation In pre-colonial times, there were two types of education systems – formal instruction provided in Buddhist temples and the traditional instruction which operated outside the temple informally (Marasingha, 2003). Formal education was accessible to men of the noble classes and to a minority of females. Though a specific subject named ‘physical education’ (PE) cannot be found, a taxonomy of physical activities can be identified (Figure 20.1). All these activities were accepted either as physical fitness activities for leisure purposes or for military people. Women were rarely found in the army or in competitions (Marasingha, 2003). There is evidence that a subject called ‘physical exercises’ (Marasingha, 2003; Jayasuriya, 1969) was introduced in 1928 to the school syllabus. However, there is little written evidence of how girls acquired knowledge of physical exercise through this curriculum. According to Marasingha (2003), “In general, it is evident that girls were excluded from masculine games and at the same time the majority of girls were totally marginalized from physical activities”. At present,

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Physical Activities in Ancient Sri Lanka Combative Sports

Field Sports with Animals

Field Games of Religious and Leisure

Men vs. Men

Hunting

Religious Field Games

Leisure Field Games

Men vs. Animals

Falcorny

Coconut Striking

Buhu

Mamals in Combat

Horse Racing

Hook Tugging

Thattu

Birds in Combat

Bull Racing

Aquatic Sports

Swimming

Water Sports

Gudu

Rata Allanawa

Swings

Figure 20.1 Taxonomy of physical activities in Ancient Sri Lanka Source: Adapted from Deraniyagala, 1959

such a scenario is not valid, however, systemic inequalities and a traditional disregard for gender considerations hinder girls’ participation in PA. During the post-independence era, the implementation of the Act of free education (Fernando, 2016; UNSL, 2016) effective from 1 October 1945 (Sedere, 2016) contributed to the expansion of women’s sport (Nanayakkara, 2011). The Act led to school enrolment of all children, irrespective of gender, and girls playing Western sports in the central schools increased female athleticism with time allocated for drills and PE lessons in many rural schools (Nanayakkara, 2011). In the 1950s, to improve PE and sports across national schools, the government dispatched female and male PE teachers to Madras, India for training. The Ceylon Scout Council (currently the Sri Lanka Scouts Association), the Sri Lanka Girl Guide’s Association since 1965 also triggered a culture of physical activity (PA) amongst school children. Besides, Assisted Schools and Training Colleges were instrumental in developing health and PE-related infrastructure and allocating money to rural schools.

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Another policy decision made after 1972 was to include a practical examination in Health and PE at the National Certificate in General Education (N.C.G.E.) Examinations. Physical training had never been a subject of public examination (Premarathne & UNESCO, 1976; Nanayakkara, 2011), and the island-wide practical tests taken together with the theory paper in health and PE resulted in the promotion of girls’ participation in sports through the school curriculum (Premarathne & UNESCO, 1976). Marasingha (2003) alludes to the dearth of literature on PE in the country and how the Acts, Reports, Commissions, and major educational historical research in the period 1948–1999 rarely mention PE (Samaraweera, 1991; Jayasuriya, 1969; Sumathipala, 1968; Ruberu, 1962). In 1998, in an attempt to upgrade the PE curriculum, the National Authority of Teacher Education (NATE) collaborated with foreign and local consultants which produced the Fischer Consultancy Report (Fischer, 1999), headed by Imke Fischer, a lecturer in PE and PE historian from Australia, the first research-based evidence available on the PE curriculum in Sri Lanka. Today, there are 27 sports offered in schools (athletics, volleyball, netball, football, elle (indigenous sport), softball, chess, karate, badminton, table tennis, swimming, throw ball, carom, gymnastics, aerobic gymnastics, kabaddi, hockey, basketball, tennis, beach volleyball, boxing, judo, taekwondo, weightlifting, physical exercises, cycling, and half marathon) (MoE, 2018). Increased opportunities at school nevertheless do not necessarily mean sustained lifelong participation. It is unfortunate to note that female students drop out of sports during and after the age of 16 and also during undergraduate studies (Samarawickrama, Prabodhani, & Amarasinghe, 2019). Menstruation and lack of adequate sport attire (the common school uniform for girls is a white frock) are barriers to participation in organized PA. Economic independence is seen as a crucial determinant of social and economic empowerment with a higher number of girls attending universities, but it seems that girls themselves consider time spent on sport as negatively impacting academic results (Samarawickrama et al., 2019).

Olympic games, gender equality, and ‘lady chaperones’ Sri Lanka first participated in the Olympic Games in 1948 (Wijesinghe, 2018) without female athletes. The Sri Lankan National Olympic Committee (SLNOC) created in 1937 is one of the oldest in Asia (IOC, 2020a). At present, there are 62 national federations registered under the Ministry of Sports. Gender equality is promoted through the IOC Agenda 2020 (IOC, 2020b), nevertheless, top to lower level management of Sri Lankan sport federations lack equal representation in leadership and coaching. The SLNOC has a women’s commission to oversee gender equality and implement IOC recommendations concerning Olympic sport. The Women’s Commission is in the process of launching a Sexual Harassment and Abuse Policy (SHAP) for the first time (Jayatilake, 2020) to address violence and discrimination. It is the duty of the NOC to ensure

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education and safeguarding of athletes from all forms of harassment as well as corruption and doping. The Sri Lankan Anti-doping Agency (SLADA) established in 2013 oversees education and doping control testing of all athletes (Alwis, 2019; SLADA, 2020). SLADA strives to ensure the availability of qualified female officers during education and testing programmes (Alwis, 2019). According to this initiative, introducing ‘lady chaperones’ was an opportunity to give women a leadership role in the anti-doping process. But, the testimonies of both male and female chaperones reveal that the women involved in the process as Doping Control officers (DCO) and chaperones are subject to verbal harassment as a result of the stereotypical perception of ‘feminist’ as weak by both male and female athletes. Chaperone A (female): Whenever, we go for a testing many people are mocking us. They just need to see us from distance. Some are shouting at us saying that we are coming to catch thieves . . . we are coming to collect pee. . . . You must see what happens in the field when we are notifying the athletes. Not just the athlete sometimes. Also, male athletes or coaches are mocking us and shouting. They shout at the female athletes to hide because pee collectors are coming, making it a joke. Seriously, I am sick of doing this. Chaperone B (male) Because I am male, I only notify male athletes. Whenever I notify them, they never say no. Sometimes they take time. Obviously, that is because they need to warm down. Sometimes, I must walk here and there to monitor the athlete till he gives his sample. That is totally okay. We are obliged to protect their rights . . . I am also a permanent employee of SLADA. There are some chaperones who work part-time with us. They are also not complaining to me about any bad experiences. I don’t know really if they do have their personal concerns. Chaperone C (female) Oh Gosh! Notifying . . . It is sometimes terrifying. . . . yes, I do remember a bad experience. It was when I was notifying a young schoolgirl. She signed the notification form after I explained everything to her. She had no questions either. But after some time, her coach became a nuisance. It was a male coach. He acted like as I am going to make this girl a criminal. His tone was not good. Seems angry, complained that she never dopes. Besides, one of the founding members and former director for testing and education at SLADA, Dr Shiromi De Alwis shared her experience as a female offcial trying to make her voice heard:

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Being the only woman in anti-doping and younger than my male counterparts in the year 2000 did not help. . . . like in 2006 when we hosted the South Asian Games (SAG Games) it was with reluctance that I was made the head of anti-doping. Though actually the title was borne by someone else and that was as overall head of medical and anti-doping and I was completely in charge of designing and implementing anti-doping for the games but without a designation. It was a success and through that the SAG countries established the SARADO (South Asia Regional Anti-Doping Organisation). Before the games as I mentioned sport was highly dominated by male’s and when I had to present anti-doping they were reluctant to comply with my requirements but on explanation and standing my ground everyone was cooperative and we were able to have a good anti-doping programme which was a huge success. . . . In testing as a chaperone and DCO I faced many challenges and had to work hard to gain people’s respect. Her brief testimony reveals the challenges that a female sport offcial can face in a male-dominated sport environment. Every country can benefit from socio-economic empowerment through women’s participation in sport (Nanayakkara, 2012). Female athletes have proved their capability to win medals, but the many hurdles faced on the way account for the low percentages of South Asian women actively and regularly participating in sport (Nanayakkara, 2012). The 12th component of the national sports policy (Jayawardhana, 2018; Madhushani, 2019) hints at the intersectional social issues like poverty, rites and rituals, marriage, attire issues, lack of media attention that impact women’s participation and leadership in sports. The 30 years of ethnic conflict (Bajoria, 2009; Embuldeniya, 2014) have also exacerbated negative consequences such as malnutrition, the violation of human rights, lack of social security, and limited public expenditure on recreational activities (Sivarajah, 2018). Several renowned athletes have publicly revealed the barriers faced during their sporting careers, ranging from sexual harassment, false accusations of doping (AFP, 2016; Wijesiriwardhena, 2020), as well as the crippling lack of financial support (Parrish, 2019; Silva, 2018; Writer, 2016). Progress, however, may be seen in the collaborative research with the Ministry of Education as well as university sport science courses that are now available which strive to address the lack of a scientific approach to sport education and sport sciences in the universities.

Women’s sport in the media The media “represents the world to us, shapes our knowledge and histories, and influences our values and attitudes. Consequently, the reporting of sport provides a lens for understanding dominant narratives about masculinity and femininity, sexuality and race among other” (Kang, Lessard, Heston, & Nordmaken, 2017).

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Previous Western research on this topic had found that there is gender-based selectivity in sport news reporting and that sport media was in general a man’s world (UNESCO, 2019). A content analysis was conducted using secondary data on Kreeda, the only sport magazine in Sri Lanka. The title and subtitles of articles and photographs were analysed for data; a wide range of sports (story types) had been covered by the magazine including para sports. The analysis showed that the lion’s portion of the story types had been reserved for cricket. Motor racing, rugby, football, wrestling, para sports, body building were the other dominant story types that covered predominantly male athletes. More than 76% of written coverage as well as over 85% of the images/photographs were dedicated to men’s sports and male sport models (Peiris, 2015). Moreover, sports viz. cricket, wrestling, rugby, and football which highlight masculinity were prevalent while only 12% of athlete images highlighted femininity or diverse gender perspectives (Peiris, 2015). This study confirmed the gender-based selectivity in reporting and gender-based gatekeeping in sport news coverage in Sri Lanka.

Conclusion From an elite sport perspective, it can be said that female Asian athletes participating in the Olympic Games have increased over the past 20 years (IOC, 2020a). Despite generally low participation rates, Sri Lankan female athletes have excelled on the Asian and Olympic stage. However, there are several gaps that need to be addressed if women and girls are to reap the benefits of full and active participation in sport, PE, and PA. Social, psychological, financial, and all other support necessary should be accessible to girls and women to enhance their participation. Culture, beliefs, and stereotypes present the most difficult barriers to overcome. The virginity of an unmarried girl has a high prize in most South Asian countries and families preserve their daughters from losing their maidenhood. A lack of awareness of sports injuries and the erroneous view that PA affects virginity has meant that girls are forbidden from participating in sports. The increasing opportunities for participating in multi-level competitions have led to a rise in the professionalization and commercialization of sport. Specifically, sport connectedness in developing Asian countries is interrelated with economic and social capital. However, sport is under-represented and given low priority in governments with low economic capital alongside social exclusion and low social capital. Consequently, the output of these developing countries receives negative international sport recognition. This negative reputation directly impacts sport development of women in developing Asian countries like Sri Lanka. Medal tally is a scale used to measure the sport development of a country and a high medal rate is equivalent to progress and social success. Nevertheless, sport is not limited to high-performance sports. It is defined as “all forms of PA that contribute to physical fitness, mental wellbeing, and social interaction, including play/active recreation, organized/competitive sport, and informal sports/games” (Council of Europe, 2001). Therefore, sport governing bodies should implement a well-balanced and attractive sporting policy by

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keeping this definition in mind to promote sport for girls and women in all their diversity, through their lifespan, including women with special needs. Otherwise, the majority of both urban and rural women in Sri Lanka who are obliged to prioritize survival and domestic tasks would not choose to engage in either competitive sports or any kind of PA that is beneficial for their health and well-being.

Notes 1 The earliest attempt to write a Chronicle of the Saasana and the Kings of Sri Lanka, from earliest times up to 5th century AD (Oldenberg, 2018). 2 “liya gee gatha kathane – pura laalee kelithu neth -Mininil banda kanamuwa – purakathanatha wala wan” (ලිය ගී ගත කතනෙ – පුරැ ලාලී කෙළිතු නෙත් – මිණිනිල් බඳ කනමුවා – පුරකතනතැ වළා වන්) – Kawsilumina 1st section 25th poem page 3. 3 “thambarew papaa siwumali ath aluththama – laali kelina thunu kalumen aluthwama – landa sonda liyan balanuwa gos aluthwama – saki lasi nowan saw siri piri aluthgama” (තැඹරෙව් පපා සිවුමැළි අත් අලුත්තම – ලාලී කෙළින තුනු කැලුමෙන් අලුත්වම – ළඳ සොඳ ළියන් බලනුව ගොස් අලුත්වම – සකි ලැසි නොවන් සව් සිරි පිරි අලුත්ගම) 4 “randu waralasa pipi mal pandu – pandu kela yali kiyamin sindu – sindu managim daka e sondu – sondu thopa divi lath pala windu” (රැන්දූ වරළස පිපි මල් පන්දූ – පන්දු කෙළිය යයි කියමින් සින්දු -සින්දු මනගිම් දැක ඒ සොන්දු – සොන්දූ තොප දිවි ලත් පළ වින්දු) 5 The Mahaweli river is the longest river on the island. Mahaweli areas are the largest multipurpose national development programme in the history of Sri Lanka.

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Lanka, C. B. (2018). Sri Lankan economy. Central Bank of Sri Lanka. www.cbsl.gov.lk/en/ sri-lanka-economy-snapshot Lanka, M. A. (2014, December 31). Annual report 2014. Parliement.lk. https://parliament. lk/uploads/documents/paperspresented/annual-report-mahaweli-authority-2014.pdf, accessed March 27, 2020. Lanka, P. O. (1973, July 9). Sports law (No. 25 of 1973). Colombo, Sri Lanka: Department of Government Printing. Madhushani, A. A. (2019). Challenges in integrity of sport: Current practices and preventive approaches of sport corruption in Sri Lanka. Physical Culture and Sport: Studies and Research, 84, 21–26. doi:10.2478/pcssr-2019-0023 Mahaweli Sports Festival: 2017 commences tomorrow. (2017). (D. o. Information, Producer). www.dgi.gov.lk/component/content/article/96-latest-news/1616-mahaweli-sports-festi val-2017-commences-tomorrow?Itemid=437, accessed April 6, 2020. Marasingha, R. (2003). The physical education curriculum in post independence Sri Lanka (PhD thesis). University of Wollongong, Australia. https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/985 MoE. (2018). Circular number 18 of 2018. Promoting School Sports. Ministry of Education, Western Province, Sri Lanka. Nanayakkara, S. (2011). Trivialisation of Women’s sports in Sri Lanka: Overcoming invisible barriers. The Sri Lanka Journal of Humanities, 37(1–2), 149–155. http://doi. org/10.4038/sljh.v37i1-2.7209 Nanayakkara, S. (2012). Crossing boundaries and changing identities: Empowering South Asian women through sport and physical activities. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 29(13), 1885–1906. doi:10.1080/09523367.2012.707649 Niethammer, C. (2018). Promoting women’s leadership in Sri Lanka: 2018 ICC Women’s World Twenty20. www.ft.lk/sports/Promoting-women-s-leadership-in-Sri-Lanka-2018ICC-Women-s-World-Twenty20/23-666993, accessed April 3, 2020. NOCSL. (2020). About NOC SL. www.olympic.lk/spage/1, accessed April 16, 2020. Observer, S. (2017). Angampora, the forgotten art of Sri Lanka. www.sundayobserver. lk/2017/04/02/angampora-forgotten-art-sri-lanka, accessed April 29, 2020. Oldenberg, H. (2018). Dīpavaṁsa [The chronicle of the Island]. 2nd. RSS Dharma Records. www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Texts-andTranslations/Dipavamsa/index.htm Parakramabahu-II, K. (2013). Kawsilumina (4th ed., R. W. Soratha, Ed.). Colombo, Sri Lanka: S. Godage and Brothers. Parrish, S. (2019). Women centre stage 2019 report. Hampstead: Sphinx Theatre. https:// sphinxtheatre.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Report-Two-Women-Centre-StageSymposium.pdf Peiris, D. (2015). Gatekeeping in Sri Lankan sport news reporting. Scholars Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(3C), 770–775. http://saspjournals.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/06/SJAHSS-33C770-775.pdf Premarathne, B., & UNESCO, I. (1976). Examination reforms in Sri Lanka: UNESCO digital library. Paris: The UNESCO Press. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf000 0021024 Rahaman, T. (2019). The Mahaweli games that were started in 1986. Sunday Observer, Lake House, The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd. www.sundayobserver.lk/2019/09/01/ sports/mahaweli-games-attract-more-athletes, accessed April 7, 2020. Ruberu, R. (1962). Education in colonial Ceylon. Kandy: Kandy Printers. Samaraweera, P. (1991). Education technology and development: A comparative study with particular reference to the experience of Sri Lanka 1950–1975. Sri Lanka: Department of Education.

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Chapter 21

Women and sport in the Republic of Tajikistan Dilbar Turakhanova and Sophia Kasymova

Country background Tajikistan is a small, mountainous, landlocked country located in Central Asia.1 Mountains occupy 93% of its territory. Tajikistan consists of four provinces; Khatlon in the southwest, Sughd in the north, Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Province in the east, and a group of districts directly subordinated to the capital, Dushanbe, in central Tajikistan. In 2018, the population was 8.9 million: 72.6% resided in rural areas, 49.4% were women, and 45% youth were below 20 years of age (Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, 2018). Ethnic Tajiks make up 84.3% of the population. Other ethnicities include Uzbeks (12.2%), Russians, Kyrgyz, and Turkmen (Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, 2012). About 90% of the population professes Islam. For 70 years, Tajikistan was one of the republics of the former Soviet Union and in 1992 proclaimed its independence. Tajikistan occupies 129th place in the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) ranking of human development. It is included in the groups of developing countries. The Tajik economy is vulnerable to external shocks as a result of its high dependence on migrant workers’ remittances that made up 35% of country’s GDP in 2015; its main export products are cotton and aluminium (IMF, 2016). The major development challenges of Tajikistan are shortage of energy, lack of productive employment, food insecurity, constant high levels of poverty (30.3% in 2016 with 14% in extreme poverty), and weak public administration.

Gender equality in Tajikistan Tajikistan ranks 95 of 144 in the Gender Gap Index of the World Economic Forum, demonstrating low scores in political and economic participation and opportunities. Despite its impressive legal framework on gender equality, women do not enjoy these state guarantees of gender equality in reality because of lack of proper enforcement mechanisms; lack of funding allocated for the implementation of programmes on gender equality; poor capacity of public bodies to respect, protect, and fulfil rights of women; prevalent gender stereotypes in Tajik society that are sustained by patriarchal structures and traditions.

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Gender inequality manifests in all areas of life in Tajikistan. Tajikistan has never reached the 30% recommended minimum share of women’s participation in governance; women’s representation in Parliament was 23.4% in 2020 and 22.5% in civil service in 2017. Women made up 21.8% of all employees at the sub-national (province and district) level and 22.4% in the self-governing bodies at the jamoat level (Protsyk, Azizova, Sattorov, & Jalilov, 2017). In the economic field, just 22.5% of dekhkan farms were headed by women and they possessed only 7.4% of agricultural land (Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, 2016). In 2017, women represented just 22.7% of all individual entrepreneurs. Making up 51.8% of total working-age population (15–75 years of age), women made up only 40.5% of the employed population (Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, 2017b). Access of girls to education in Tajikistan is restricted at all levels. There is a shortage of preschool facilities in Tajikistan, especially in rural areas. The gender gap widens following the end of mandatory general education (9th grade) due to early marriages, care for small siblings, and gender-role stereotypes. It is estimated that one-third to half of women in Tajikistan regularly experience physical, psychological, or sexual violence (ADB, 2016, p. 44). Gender roles in Tajikistan are strictly delineated. Women are expected to perform a reproductive role. Even in public domains, women are typically found in education, health, and social sectors. Men, on the contrary, dominate productive roles. They are perceived as the ‘breadwinners’ and managers of family households. Women’s engagement in public activities is hampered by their care responsibilities for children, disabled, and elderly family members, regardless of their participation in the labour force or employment status (Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, 2017c). The status of young girls is even lower; their decision-making power over education, marriage, health, and employment is restricted by older family members, mostly men.

Management of sport and sport education in Tajikistan Management of sport Physical education (PE) and sport fall under the mandate of the Committee on Youth and Sport [CYS] under the Government of Tajikistan. Several other state bodies also share this responsibility with the Committee, including the government, Ministry of Health and Social Protection, and local government. While the government is responsible for setting state policy on the development of physical culture and sports and for overseeing its implementation, the Committee is charged with its implementation in cooperation with state bodies at national and local levels and relevant public organizations. The CYS has 277 staff members. One of the Deputy Heads of the Chairman is a woman.

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Olympic movement in Tajikistan is headed by the National Olympic Committee (NOC) which is a public organization recognized by the International Olympic Committee. The NOC in cooperation with the CYS participates in the development of a unified state policy on the development of sport and high-performance sport, under the supervision of the government. The NOC coordinates activities of the 23 federations of Olympic sports and represents their interests at the international sport arena. Sport Federations are public organizations established for individual sports and they can perform a number of functions, including holding physical and sport events, training national teams, as well as participating in policy development on physical culture and sport. The Federation of ITF Taekwondo and Kickboxing of Tajikistan actively works on gender equality issues in Tajikistan through research, advocacy, and active engagement of girls in taekwondo. The national policy and legal framework on physical culture and sport includes the National Concept of Development of Physical Culture and Sport in Tajikistan (2004) and the Complex Programme of Development of Physical Culture and Sport in Tajikistan for 2017–2021 (2017). Several laws, such as Physical Culture and Sport (2007); Sport for Children and Youth (2003); and Sport Training (2013) include educational standards on sports training. The policy and legal framework is not gender sensitive, nor itis inclusive of any gender-targeted measures or objectives to increase the engagement of women in sports. The Complex Programme of Development of Physical Culture and Sport for 2017–2021 has only one reference to women. It specifies that one of its objectives is to increase the number of sport events for women and children. Training for teachers and coaches in Tajikistan The first educational institution – the Tajik vocational school of physical culture – opened in 1947. In 1971, the Tajik Institute of Physical Culture was established, previously it was a PE faculty of the Dushanbe State Pedagogical Institution. In Tajikistan, physical culture and sports education is provided at two levels; secondary vocational and higher education levels. National statistics on education captures the enrolment of students in higher educational institutions on physical culture and sports, but at the secondary vocational level, enrolment statistics in schools of physical culture and sports is provided together with health educational institutions. Based on recent statistics, the enrolment of girls in higher educational institutions on physical culture and sports was 1%, being just 14 of 1248 students. In the 2016–2017 academic year, the Tajik Institute of Physical Culture totalled 1670 students with only 17 women. The number of graduates from such institutions is low. For instance, in 2015–2016 and 2016–2017 there were 77 and 52 graduates of secondary vocational schools, respectively. In the same years, the number of graduates of higher educational institutions was 332 in 2016 and 89 in 2017 (Agency of Statistics, 2017a). In 2018, this increased to 229 graduates of secondary vocational schools and 292 graduates of higher educational institutes.

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The CYS conducts refreshment trainings for current trainers to improve their qualification. In 2019, it arranged 23 refreshment courses and 15 seminars for 1026 trainers, 30% of whom were women. It also arranged trainings for trainers on boats, taekwondo (WTF), and table tennis and engaged international trainers. Additionally, 50 trainer-judges on karate-do were trained in provincial centres.

Sport activities in Tajikistan National sports in Tajikistan are an integral part of physical culture in the form of competitions that include various physical activities and games with special rules and organizational arrangements. There are two traditional national sports games that continue to be popular; they are played only by men. These are buzkashi and gushtingiri. Buzkashi (translated as goat-grabbing) is a traditional Central-Asian game whereby horse-riders have to grab a goat, the wet carcass of a calf that weighs around 50 kilograms, then ride until they can manage to get clear of other riders, return to the starting point, and drop the carcass in a circle. (Abdullaev & Akbarzadeh, 2010, p. 85) Buzkashi is a very rough competition and the winner receives a valuable prize. Tajik national wrestling gushtingiri is played by men wearing traditional suites called joma that are fastened by the belt around the waist. Two wrestlers fight for 10 minutes. They try to throw each other down by pulling belts, sleeves, or collars of the suit. Historically, women were not engaged in any sport activities because they were confined to the home. Even now, women do not attend these national sporting events – both of which are conducted in public spaces like open fields and national festive events – neither as players nor observers (Abdullaev & Akbarzadeh, 2010). Sport clubs in Tajikistan can be public or private and can be established by individuals or legal entities. Clubs can be supported by local state bodies and/ or local self-governance bodies through, for example, building and restoration of sport infrastructure, the provision of equipment and other support. There are about 9,835 sport infrastructures, including stadiums, sport grounds, halls, swimming pools, and clubs. The majority of sport clubs are located in Dushanbe (the capital of Tajikistan) and provincial and district centres. Such facilities are rarely available in rural areas. Services of these clubs are also costly and therefore accessible only to youth from middle class and rich families (Kasymova, 2012). The CYS reports on many sport events arranged in cities and regional and district centres which engage communities in competitions, and physical training, e.g., collective morning exercises. Similar events are arranged to celebrate national holidays. It is reported that women made up slightly more than 20% in the participation of such events.

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Women’s participation in sport activities in Tajikistan Since state independence, women’s participation in sport was not systematically addressed by the national government, women’s movement, or international organizations for gender equality. Some fragmented support was provided to the Federation of ITF Taekwondo and Kickboxing of Tajikistan. This Federation actively did campaigns for the empowerment of girls through participation in sport and the elimination of violence against women in Tajikistan. In 2012, the Federation of ITF Taekwondo and Kickboxing of Tajikistan, with the support of the United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace (UNOSDP), commissioned a research study on prospects and barriers for the development of women’s sport in Tajikistan and girls’ capacity for equal participation in sport (Kasymova, 2012). Most girls and women are practically excluded from community sports activities because sports facilities are either unaffordable or unavailable, especially in rural areas where 70% of Tajikistan’s population live. Local traditions favour men’s engagement in sports activities, while women remain mainly confined to the home and performance of household tasks. Nevertheless, some increase in interest of girls and women in sports games in remote and rural areas was observed (idem). Without statistical data, it is not possible to assess the degree of engagement of women in sports management, but the participation of women in training teachers is very low. Thus, women are mostly unrepresented in sports in Tajikistan. Some examples exist, but they remain the exception.

Physical education in Tajikistan Education in Tajikistan and girls’ access to education In pre-Soviet times, education was accessible only for people from particular social classes (rich and nobility), a minority in the total population. For women, it was not accessible. The Soviet Union cardinally changed the pre-Soviet education system in Tajikistan and focused its efforts on the elimination of illiteracy, building a national pool of teachers, establishing schools, and ensuring education of Tajik women. In 1926, just 3.9% of 9–49-year olds were literate. Women made up only 0.9% of those compared to 6.4% of men. In 1932, the first higher education institution opened to train teachers. In peripheral cities, women’s pedagogical vocational schools and institutions for local girls opened. The process of engagement of girls in secondary and higher education was slow in comparison to that of men due to parents’ resistance. In the later Soviet period, such resistance reduced due to returns from education of girls, apparent rise of social status, and improved socialization of women. Yet vocational and higher education in Tajikistan was and remains gender-segregated. Women are highly concentrated in studying subjects such as education, health, and social science, while men more often study Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM).

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In the post-independence period, social and economic changes affected the education system, including educational programmes, methods, and forms of education, the management and funding of education. Consequently, the gender gap is widening at all levels of education, especially in rural areas. There are several causes of this, including higher costs; lower-quality of education; low returns; distance to educational institutions, especially in rural areas; low sanitary and hygiene conditions in schools. Another important and persistent factor is the prevalence of gender stereotypes about the roles of women, given girls will marry and join another family, parents see little value of supporting and encouraging the education of girls beyond the mandatory 9th grade. Access of girls to physical education The Law on Physical Culture and Sport (2007), in its article 14, stipulates that nationals of Tajikistan have a right to physical culture and sport (including highperformance sport); a right to association to organizations of physical culture, rehabilitation and sport; a right to participation in management of physical and sport movement, regardless of ethnicity, race, language, religious beliefs, political convictions, social and property status, education, and age. But not regardless of sex and/or gender and health status. Thus, these rights are not explicitly extended to girls, women, and persons with disabilities. Physical education in Tajikistan, especially from a gender perspective, is poorly studied. Several popular resources (like Wikipedia) and a few academic works describe Tajikistan’s development of PE during the Soviet period or in the first decade of post-independence. These resources present a general overview of the development of PE in Tajikistan, including its decline in post-independence period, however, none provide any data from a gender perspective or of the inclusion of disabled people in PE. The policy and legal framework of Tajikistan stipulates that PE is an integral part of education. At preschool level, PE is a mandatory part of the curricula. These lessons should be free and last for not less than eight hours every month. At primary and secondary vocational schools, PE shall be conducted in line with state education standards and curricula that can be adapted to local conditions and interests of pupils and students. Educational institutions have freedom to decide on the methods, length, and types of sports and physical activities in line with these standards. They can also arrange sports activities and PE in cooperation with sports schools for children and adolescents and sport federations. Pupils and students who have weak health or lack physical abilities should be educated in special medical groups and physiotherapy groups. At the level of higher education, PE is mandatory and shall be arranged in cooperation with specialized organizations of PE and sport according to students’ health. Additionally, children and youth can undertake PE with sport schools, sections, and clubs as part of extracurricular or out-of-school sports organizations.

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Physical education in military forces and law enforcement bodies is an integral part of training. Conditions should be established to ensure that personnel are trained in military-applied sports, martial arts, and mountaineering. As for PE of the youth, related Tajik legislation links PE with highperformance sports. Physical education of children and the youth can be undertaken in specialized sport schools and sport schools of Olympic trainees with the aim of training youth for their later inclusion to national sport teams. These schools can be public or private and shall function in line with national educational standards for sport-specific training. According to the CYS, there are 140 sport schools in Tajikistan, including one Republican school of Olympic training, four schools of high-performance sport, one provincial-level school of Olympic training, two provincial schools of high-performance sport, and three specialized schools. These schools are predominantly located in the capital, provincial, and district centres. They are managed by sport federations and public organizations. According to Kasymova (2012), more than 80% of children and young people in all regions of Tajikistan, and over 95% in rural areas, have no access to physical culture and sports due to a shortage of sports infrastructure or competent trainers (teachers, coaches, etc). From a gender perspective, the study concluded that girls have half the access to physical culture and sports as boys do because of prevalent gender biases. When reaching adolescence, girls feel ashamed of their bodies and avoid interacting with their peers. Despite declaring that PE at all levels of education is mandatory in Tajikistan, schools allocate a limited number of classes for PE and the quality of lessons is very low. Also, sanitary and hygiene standards of schools and PE facilities (sport halls, changing rooms, washing facilities) are inadequate (p. 9). This discourages girls from attending PE classes, especially during puberty. To sum up, the structural gender inequality that exists in Tajikistan is also manifested in the unequal access of girls, especially girls with disabilities, to PE and sports. Public facilities for PE (e.g., public parks, local residential areas, resorts, and recreation facilities) are typical places of socialization for boys and men rather than girls and women. Additionally, military service is compulsory for men in Tajikistan but not for women. Education at all levels is more accessible to boys. It can be concluded that PE in Tajikistan is male-dominated. About access of persons with disabilities to PE, despite their inclusion in national policies and laws on PE and sports, persons with disabilities have even more restricted access to education than girls in Tajikistan. This is due to limited accessible environments; parents’ resistance to disclose information about disabled children; shortage of training materials for persons with various impairments. Among persons with disabilities, girls are particularly excluded from education. Thus, PE and sports are accessible only to a limited number of persons with disabilities, principally boys and men.

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Professional sport in Tajikistan In Tajikistan, professional sports were developed during Soviet times. However, engagement of ethnic Tajik girls and women in high-performance sports was very low. Ethnic Tajik, Zebuniso Rustamova, made history not only as the first world champion among Tajik girls but also as the first Tajik to win the World Champion title. She was a world champion in individual and team competitions in archery in 1975, 1985, and 1987; a bronze medallist at the Olympic Games in Montreal in 1976; and a multiple medallist at the European Championships in individual and team competition from 1976 to 1987. She won silver at the ‘Druzhba’ competitions in 1984, a multiple champion of the USSR in 1975–1987; a multiple record holder in the USSR, and Europe (Akhmedova, 2010). The development of professional sports in Tajikistan’s post-independence period was hampered by its devasting civil war which resulted in the deterioration of sport infrastructure, massive migration, and poor funding of the area. During the same period, professional sports developed to engage ethnic Tajik girls in sports. In comparison to the Soviet period, female athletes increasingly participated in national and high-level international competitions (Kasymova, 2012). For instance, Mavzuna Chorieva was the first Tajik ethnic woman to win the Olympic medal for Tajikistan post-independence. In the 2012 Summer Olympic games, she won a bronze medal in boxing (lightweight). Chorieva is now one of the members of the Executive Board of the NOC. Currently, girls prefer martial arts to team sports (e.g., volleyball, basketball, and others). Girls appear uninterested in traditionally female sports like swimming and gymnastics, because sport apparel for these disciplines exposes their bodies. This conflicts with local mentality and traditional perceptions about girls and women’s presentation in Tajik society. Archery, which used to be popular among girls, is no longer affordable for girls due to costly equipment and a shortage of adequate training. Coaches in South Tajikistan engage local girls in non-traditional sports such as boxing and powerlifting. In addition to social objections, girls are also restricted by their parents and other elderly family members. Tajikistan is a traditional and patriarchal society where parents have a decisive role over the future of children, especially girls, and stereotypes about the role of women as wives and mothers are very deep-rooted. Girls are rarely given a voice over their education, selection of occupation, marriage, and other issues, including sports. Parents, particularly in rural areas, do not welcome the engagement of girls in sports, especially as far as is required for high-performance sport. This resistance is linked to tight sports clothing, the socialization of girls with boys, and the shortage of female trainers (Kasymova, 2012, p. 6). Since 1996, Tajikistan participated in six Summer Olympic Games and four Winter Olympic Games. Tajikistan has small teams of athletes ranging from four to 16 athletes. The participation of women in Olympic teams has varied. On average, women made up 30% of athletes of all Summer Olympic teams and never participated in Winter Olympic games. Tajikistan, also participates in

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Youth Summer Olympic games and Asian games. Participation of female athletes in the Youth Summer games was also low. At the Asian Games, women athletes won silver and bronze medals in these games in freestyle wrestling and taekwondo (Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan, 2020). It is challenging to demonstrate in numeric terms the dynamics of engagement of women in high-performance sports due to lack of data. However, their participation has certainly increased when compared to Soviet times when the participation of ethnic Tajik girls and female athletes in professional sport was extremely low. Participation, however, remains restricted due to the objective and subjective reasons mentioned earlier.

Women’s participation in sport: a way forward This review demonstrates a number of challenges related to the participation of women in sport in Tajikistan. Physical education and sports, including participation in high-performance sports and management, are male-dominated. Physical education is rooted in the formal education system, where the gender gap has been persistent for many years and widens at tertiary-level education. Persons with disabilities also have restricted access to education, and girls with disabilities have even less access to PE. Women and girls’ interest and participation in highperformance sports have definitely increased compared to Soviet times, including those from rural areas. Several remedial measures should be undertaken to improve the situation. First, there is no systematic or comprehensive policy on increasing the engagement of girls and women in PE and sports, and legal guarantees for the enjoyment of rights to physical culture and sports by girls and women are weak. The government, in cooperation with the CYS and sports federations, should amend the policy and legal framework following a robust gender analysis. To improve participation of women in sports in Tajikistan, a separate gender-targeted programme should be developed and implemented. Second, the government, in cooperation with CYS and sports federations, should conduct an assessment of all Tajik sports and PE facilities from a gender perspective as well as an accessibility analysis for persons with disabilities. A gender review of the training curricula, general PE, specialized sports schools, secondary vocational and higher educational institutions is also necessary to create an environment enabling women’s engagement in sports and particularly highperformance sports. Third, the shortage of reliable national statistics and data on girls and women’s participation in sports, including management of PE and sports, is a major obstacle for understanding the situation. Federations and the Committee on Youth and Sports should conduct regular studies on women’s participation in sports to understand the main obstacles which girls and women face and to assess the gender-responsiveness of current policies and approaches to PE and sports and

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other aspects. Statistics and findings of these studies should then be used for the adjustment of policies and approaches. Fourth, one of the aspects that was completely absent during this review is data on sexual harassment and violence against women and girls during PE and sports. There is not even anecdotal evidence available on these issues. Special studies should be conducted to understand if such violations of women’s rights exist in the sphere of sports and, if so, whether they result in an unwillingness of girls and women to participate and develop careers in sports. Finally, in Tajikistan, awareness-raising campaigns on gender equality and women’s empowerment rarely target girls’ and women’s participation in sports. The Committee on Youth and Sports, in cooperation with the National Olympic Committee and federations of sports, should launch nationwide awarenessraising campaigns on women’s participation in sports using existing role models (such as those described). Such campaigns should target girls as well as their parents and communities.

Note 1 Central Asia comprises Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Tajikistan borders Afghanistan, China, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan.

References ADB. (2016). Country partnership strategy: Tajikistan, 2016–2020. Gender analyses (summary). https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/cps-taj-20162020-ga.pdf. Abdullaev, K., & Akbarzadeh, S. (2010). Historical dictionary of Tajikistan (2nd ed.). Lanham-Toronto-Plymouth, UK: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2012). Ethnical composition, knowledge of languages and nationality of the population of the Republic of Tajikistan (Vol. 3). Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Printing House of the Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2016). Women and men in the Republic of Tajikistan. Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Author. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2017a). Education in the Republic of Tajikistan. Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Author. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2017b). Labour market in the Republic of Tajikistan. Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Author. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2017c). Situation in the labour market in the Republic of Tajikistan (Report on findings of the labour force survey conducted from 20 July to 20 August, 2016). Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Author. Agency of Statistics under the President of Tajikistan. (2018). Population of the Republic of Tajikistan as of 1 January 2018. Dushanbe: Author. Akhmedova, E. (2010). Absolute world champion in Archery. The Archery. www.archerysila.ru/stati/intervyu/423-zebuniso-rustamova.html

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IMF. (2016). Republic of Tajikistan: Financial system stability assessment. IMF country report No.16/41. www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2016/12/31/Republic-ofTajikistan-Financial-System-Stability-Assessment-Report-43683 Kasymova, S. (2012). Prospects and barriers for development of women sport in Tajikistan and building girls’ capacity in their equal participation in sport. Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Federation of Taekwondo and Kickboxing of Tajikistan. National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Tajikistan (2020). http://www.olympic. tj (retrieved January 2020) Protsyk, O., Azizova, N., Sattorov, J., & Jalilov, D. (2017). Women’s representation in local government in Tajikistan, analytical brief. Dushanbe, Tajikistan: UN Women in Tajikistan.

Chapter 22

Analysis of women and sport in Turkey Canan Koca

Socio-cultural context of Turkey Turkey is a country that occupies a unique geographic position, lying partly in Asia and partly in Europe. Turkey shares borders with Syria, Iraq, Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Bulgaria, and Greece. Turkey is bounded by the Aegean Sea in the west, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and the Black Sea in the north. Because of its geographical location, the mainland Anatolia has witnessed the mass migration of diverse peoples and civilizations. After the foundation of Turkish Republic in 1923, reformers who aimed at modernization by westernization of the country made important reforms. The new education system for both women and men was introduced in 1924, and women gained equal rights along with men for education. The new Civil code in 1926, which replaced Shari’at (law system based on Islam), gave women the rights to divorce and inherit, it prohibited polygamy and religious marriage and made civil marriage a state requirement. Turkish women received the right to vote in 1930 and to be elected in municipal, state, and federal elections in 1934. Although Turkey has preserved its laicist regime, there has been an increasing emphasis on Islam since the 1950s in the political arena that can be interpreted within the framework of a critique of modernity (Kandiyoti, 1997). In 2002 the Justice and Development Party, which describes itself as Muslim and democratic, won the elections and is still in power today. The recent state policies have steadily turned Turkey into a conservative and traditionalist country, with the norms demanding women to be, first and foremost, responsible mothers and wives, guarding traditions and customs (Sümer  & Eslen-Ziya, 2015). Many scholars argue that despite modernization reforms, Turkish women are still oppressed by the patriarchal system. For example, Gündüz-Hosgör and Smits (2008) argued that the effects of modernization are overshadowed by the strong influence of patriarchal ideology that tends to confine Turkish women to the private domain. This fact resulted in questioning the gender equity policies and deepening of gender inequality. Turkey signed the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1985 and the İstanbul Convention in 2014. However, in

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recent years, these international policies are questioned at the government level. According to the Global Gender Gap Report 2020 of World Economic Forum, Turkey ranks 130th in the field of global index and 136th in the field of economic participation and opportunity among 153 countries (http://reports.weforum.org/ global-gender-gap-report-2020/dataexplore). Turkey took its place among the countries with the highest number of refugees in the world for the first time in its history after the outbreak of the civil war in Syria in 2011 (UNHCR, 2020). Thus, while the majority of the migrant and refugee population living in Turkey consists of Syrians (3.6 million), Afghans (170,000) and Iraqis (142,000) comprise the other two large refugee groups (UNHCR, 2020). The population of Turkey stood at 82,003,882 at the end of 2018; increasing to 85,626,248 with Syrians, thus every four persons out of 100 in Turkey are Syrians (Adalı & Türkyılmaz, 2019).

Physical education in schools Within the foundation and modernization process of Turkey, physical education (PE) is crucial for constructing the new nation. As Lüküslü and Dinçşahin (2013) argued, in fact, the Republic, which wanted to get rid of its Ottoman image as the ‘sick man of Europe’, gave high priority to the development of healthy citizens through PE. In 1938, The Law of PE (no. 3530) which was shaped according to the demand of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey was passed. The General Directorate of Physical Education was founded to execute the law. Selim Sırrı Tarcan (1874–1957), who was one of the most significant figures of modern PE in Turkey, introduced PE in girls’ schools. Lüküslü and Dinçşahin (2013) argued that the attitude of the new regime towards the PE of women was twofold: Kemalist nationalists wanted to emancipate women from the patriarchal nature of the old regime and so they perceived PE as a way of instrumentalizing women and their reproductive capacity for the state. The Turkish education system is under the supervision and control of the state, namely the Ministry of National Education (MoNE). MoNE runs the educational administration of the country and is responsible for drawing up curricula; coordinating the work of official, private, and voluntary organizations; designing and building schools; developing educational materials, and so on (Avşar, Hünük, & Demirhan, 2019). Turkish education system consists of four years of primary, four years of middle, and four years of upper secondary compulsory education. For primary and middle education, the enrolment rates of girls are 92.08% and 83.88%, and the rates of boys are 91.78% and 84.51%, respectively (MoNE, 2019). There has been a substantial improvement in the number of girls with access to education in Turkey in the past years. It is argued that the increase in the schooling rate of girls indicates the positive outcomes of national and international cooperation in gender equality projects initiated by the MoNE and the hard work of the nongovernment organizations in this field (ERI, 2016–2017).

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With this high rate of school enrolment of Turkish children, PE has a significant place for promoting lifelong PE participation of girls and boys. The current PE curriculum was structured on three areas including movement competency, health and active lifestyles, and life skills (MoNE, 2019). It has been offered at primary level with five class hours per week for first three grades and two class hours per week for the last grade and taught by classroom teachers. At the secondary and high school levels, compulsory PE course is offered by PE specialist teachers for two class hours per week, and students have an opportunity to participate in an elective ‘Sport and Physical Activities’ course which is two or four hours per week (MoNE, 2019). In accordance with the Turkish Secularism, co-education in PE is a norm for all grades. However, in many schools, boys and girls are segregated particularly in 6–8 grades. Turkish girls’ PE and sport participation is partly shaped by experiencing gender inequalities in PE classes. In a very recent study of Öztürk and Koca (2019), three-generational cohorts of Turkish girls argue that their negative PE experiences are one of the most important reasons for not participating in PE. Physical Education teachers have gender-stereotyped beliefs and interact more frequently with boys, they deliver gender-appropriated activities in PE, and there is a strong emphasis on sport and competition discourses rather than PA and efforts (e.g., Koca, 2009). These are considered some of the underlying reasons for girls’ less enthusiastic attitudes towards PE and sport (Hünük & Demirhan, 2010). The Promoting Gender Equality in Education Project, which was led by the MoNE between 2014 and 2016, reveals that girls are not given enough opportunities and incentives to play sports, they are directed to sports that are deemed appropriate by parents and PE teachers rather than their own preferences, and girls are less involved in school sports teams. The prevailing sports in and out of school for the boys are soccer, basketball, wrestling, and martial arts; for the girls, these are volleyball, gymnastics, and badminton. Additionally, the use of school garden and sport facilities is quite gender segregated, and girls’ use of the garden is somewhat more disadvantageous (ETCEP, 2016). This is striking when considering the limited opportunities in schools as quality indoor sports facilities are limited in the K12 schools throughout the country. Only 13% of the schools have an indoor sports facility (ERI, 2016–2017). Sport and school PE are two important tools for integration of refugee children to host country. The Directorate General of Migration Management data show that 46.9% of the Syrian population is between the ages of 0 and 18, adding up to approximately 1.7 million Syrian children (DGMM, 2020). 63.29% of Syrian school-aged children and adolescents are involved in formal education and girls constitute 49% of this number (MoNE, 2020). The school dropout rate for Syrian girls rises with age because of child marriage, family pressure, work, household, and care responsibilities and marginalization (Yücel et al., 2018). Canbaz and Koca (2018) found that school PE is particularly important for Syrian girls since it is the main opportunity for them to participate in sport and PA. However, language barriers, gender roles, and social exclusion and peer victimization affect their participation.

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Girls’ and women’s participation in community activities Community sport activities are delivered by different stakeholders, such as the Ministry of Youth and Sport, local authorities (municipalities), sport federations, sport clubs, commercial fitness centres, and NGOs. Municipalities organize community sport events and some of them have own sport club who compete in professional sport leagues. Municipalities are obliged to build recreation areas in cities and to offer PA opportunities. In accordance with this obligation, there has been a significant increase in recreation areas, green areas, and running tracks, especially in metropolitan cities. In order to enable women and girls to participate in PA, practices such as women-only sports halls/exercise sessions, hours set for women for the swimming pool, and women-only running events are held by the municipalities. Private sector sport is a more recent phenomenon of the last 15 years and is characterized mainly by a variety of commercial fitness and health-related centres. The number of commercial fitness centres is increasing since the health aspects of PA is promoted by government in recent years. Pilates, yoga, and aerobic exercises are the most preferred activities by women. There is not any reliable and large-scale gender-segregated data membership of these centres. The most striking development in the field of community sport is increasing number of recreational running events and the importance of NGOs in that area. In the last five years, running as a leisure-time activity has been increasingly being practised, especially by women through running communities in Turkey. Municipalities of many cities, commercial sport companies, and NGOs organize running events. In 2019, Istanbul Marathon, which is the biggest marathon in Turkey, did not charge registration fees for women running 42K to increase the number of women marathoners. STEP BY STEP (In Turkish ADIM ADIM), which is a non-governmental initiative, created the culture of charity sports and fundraising in Turkey. The number of runners of ADIM ADIM has been more than 79,000 at the end of year 2019 (www.adimadim.org). In recent years, women and sport NGOs aiming to increase the participation of women and girls in sports and PA and contribute to their empowerment through sports have gained more and more visibility in Turkey. The Turkish Association of Sport and PA for Women (KASFAD) was founded in 2012 to contribute to the establishment of sustainable and evidence-based advocacy for policy and practice to improve girls’ and women’s opportunities (www.kasfad.org). The feminist opposition to the gendered and sexist assumptions that shape women’s and girls’ experiences of and participation in PA and sport has formed the basis for the foundation and actions of KASFAD (Öztürk, 2018). KASFAD members have provided training to sport institutions about topics including sexual abuse, gendered inequalities, violence in sport, woman and performance, and empowerment of women and girls through sport participation. In 2014, with the cooperation of Hacettepe University, KASFAD held the first IAPESGW Regional Symposium, in which more than 200 people from 16 countries shared their

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studies, and it reinforced the collaboration between researchers and practitioners in women and sport across the Middle East and Europe. Since 2016, KASFAD organized Women and Sport Workshop every two years to bring together academics, athletes, coaches, leaders, policy-makers, and activists who are working on women and sport. The objective of the Girls on the Field is to rethink the ‘you can’t’ gender code that is imposed on girls and women of all ages and empower them through football. They have organized the first and only football tournament for women in Turkey since 2013. In seven years, they got in touch with 6,327 women players and more than 300 girls. They organize the Istanbul Cup for corporate companies and the Youth Cup for high school girls. Girls on the Field Academy which is a joint organization aims to increase participation of young girls in sports and empowering them while raising their awareness on gender equality. The Academy is delivering a programme for girls under protection and refugee children in different regions of Turkey.

High-performance sport and gender equity Although there has been an increase in women sport participation in Turkey and Turkish female athletes have achieved international success, the representation of Turkish women in different positions of sports is still insufficient. The share of women in total number of athletes which was 4.02% in 1987–1988 increased to 38% in 2020. There is no exact number of performance athletes and this ratio includes high-performance athletes, recreational athletes, and student athletes. Sport branches where women athletes outnumber men are gymnastics (64%), volleyball (63%), dancing sports (63%), folk dances (60%), and ice-skating (62%) (www.sgm.gov.tr). In 2011, 42.8% of five million citizens with disabilities are males, and 57.2% of them are females in Turkey (TUIK, 2011). However, only 6.164% of 30,488 licensed athletes with disabilities are females (www.sgm.gov.tr). Turkish women athletes with disabilities face more difficulties than male athletes with disabilities, and they face a triple paradox as women, athletes, and people with disabilities (Güven, Kara, & Özdedeoğlu, 2019). In Turkey, as in many other countries, football is considered as one of the biggest sport fields where gender inequality is strong (Öztürk & Koca, in press). Although currently there are three leagues and 30 women football clubs, women’s leagues still operate at the amateur level and lack financial support, material resources, institutional interests, and representation and visibility in the media. Moreover, girls (aged 5–6) are not accepted by boys’/men’s football clubs; football schools and grassroots league categories are established only for boys; besides, girls cannot have the opportunity to play in boys’ teams (Öztürk & Koca, in press). Recently, academicians, footballers, coaches, and referees in women’s football have been working together to discuss their challenges and develop solutions. In 2017, Women’s Football Clubs Association was founded. In 2018, with the

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efforts of KASFAD and collaboration with Okan University Sport Management Department, Women and Football Workshop was held, and for the first time, athletes, coaches, managers, referees, academics, and sponsors came together. The number of women in sport leadership has stagnated for all sport types and organizations in Turkey. There are three main sport governing bodies; the Ministry of Youth and Sport (MoYS) and the General Directorate of Sport (GDS) affiliated to the Ministry, Turkish National Sport Federations (NSFs), and the Turkish National Olympic Committee (TNOC). In 2018, high-level management positions of the Ministry and 78 provincial directors are occupied by men. Three of the 62 sport federations are headed by women; the proportion of women in the position of secretary general is 5.7%, in executive boards is 3%, and in other committees it is 11.6%. In 2017 the proportion of women in TNOC Commissions was 37.1% (Koca, 2018). The under-representation of women in sport leadership positions can be explained by several factors such as male domination, traditional stereotyped gender role beliefs, pressure regarding their role in their families, and less attention from the sport-governing bodies towards sport for women, negative attitudes towards women managers in sport organizations, which have all discouraged women in Turkey to participate in sport field (Koca, Arslan, & Aşçı, 2011). Karaçam and Koca (2019) asserted that since governmental institutions are places where corruption and the State’s influence on decision-making processes are prevalent in Turkey, this would likely work to men’s advantage in obtaining leadership positions in sport organizations. Ahead of 2016 NSFs elections, KASFAD issued a call for all Turkish NSFs to adopt and implement 40% gender quota regulations proposed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), in the election to come. However, neither the regulations nor gender equality were placed in the agenda of the sport organizations, as in other domains in Turkey. Turkish male athletes dominate the media coverage with female athletes receiving less than 10% of the sports coverage and representing with gender role stereotypes in both traditional media (Koca & Arslan, 2010) and new media (Canbaz, Öztürk, & Koca, 2017). A content analysis of Turkish sports newspapers between the years 2007 and 2011 showed that women athletes with disabilities had less media coverage than male athletes with disabilities and women athletes with disabilities were depicted as passive in most of the articles published (Ayvazoglu, 2015). But, in the last five years, the visibility of internationally successful woman athletes has increased in media, particularly in social media. Women athletes such as Yasemin Adar – Wrestling World Champion, İrem Yaman – Taekwondo World champion, İlke Özyüksel – Pentathlon World Record Owner promote both themselves and their sports and give messages to increase girls’ participation in sports and to strengthen them through sports. Finally, I would like to share an inspirational practice in the field of sport and gender equity. Fenerbahçe Sports Club (FB), one of the oldest and most popular sports clubs in Turkey, with a large fan base of 25 million around the world, has supported the HeForShe movement to advance gender equality and women’s

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empowerment in sport (www.fenerbahbahce.org) since 2018. Based on a gender analysis of the club, a gender equity action plan was developed and then FB has taken many significant steps to increase the participation of women and girls in sports, both on the field and in the stands, to make them aware of their rights and to end violence against women. FB is the first sports club which signed the UN Women’s Empowerment Principles in Europe and the second in the world.

Management, culture, and gender equity In Turkey, at the central government level, the MoYS has the main responsibility for sport policy, and its employees, including the head, are appointed by the government. The MoYS delivers its sport policies and manages sports through the GDS. The NSFs are a body of semi-autonomous governmental organizations and are directly accountable to the GDS and hence to the MoYS. The NSFs are in charge of important tasks such as ensuring balanced expansion and development of the related sports disciplines throughout the country, making all kinds of arrangements for this purpose, designing projects, making and enforcing decisions, training referees and trainers (Tinaz, Turco, & Salisbury, 2014). Presidents of the NSFs are elected from among the candidates by the executive board members, sport clubs, and some athletes who have big success at the international arena. TOC is a non-governmental organization which is aiming to spread the spirit of Olympism throughout the country by collaborating with all institutions related to sport. As it is a voluntary organization, the president and general secretary are elected by the executive board of TOC. In the area of recreational sport and PA, a large proportion of adults and children are not physically active enough to benefit from the health benefits that may result from PA. The PA level of Turkish adolescents is lower and a large majority of them in the ages 11–17 (81.3%) does not meet the PA recommendations of WHO. This rate is higher for girls (86.1%) than boys (76.1%) (WHO, 2016a). WHO reported that 38.8% of over 18-year-old women and 21.7% of over 18-year-old men in Turkey do not have sufficient PA (WHO, 2016b). Family responsibilities, lack of money and skills, lack of a perceived right to participation, and lack of access to leisure spaces in which to participate and the tension between the traditional and contemporary Turkish society are important constraints to PA participation of women from different cultures (Koca, Henderson, Asci, & Bulgu, 2009). In a recent study, Öztürk and Koca (2019) analysed PA participation of three generations of Turkish women. While ‘not allowing their daughters out’ was a common practice for all generations, the reasons were mainly religious and cultural for the first generation (girls in 1950s), on the contrary, traffic restrictions and unsafe environments for the third generation (girls in 2010s). However, factors such as continuing modernization movements, rapid urbanization, and the growing attention from the municipalities towards PA for women have all motivated women in Turkey to participate in PA in different types of sport and exercise clubs (Koca et al., 2009). Fitness and aerobic activities

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such as walking (in outdoor places), yoga, and pilates (in fitness and yoga studios) appear to be increasingly popular among women especially in the middle and upper classes. Syrian refugees are a physically inactive risk group in Turkey. This situation is more critical for Syrian refugee women. Nearly 70% of Syrian refugee women do not meet the PA recommendations of WHO (Koca, Karaca, Canbaz, & Ozvarıs, 2019). Increasing rates of migration in the last decade have accelerated debates about migration and social integration policies and projects in Turkey. A university-based project delivered 12-weeks culturally sensitive PA programme to empower refugee women and ensure social integration. The project has contributed significantly to the development of physical literacy and empowerment of refugee women and to the establishment of communication between Syrian and Turkish cultures.

Gender equality in sports education In primary schools, PE, games, and PA are taught by primary teachers. In middle and upper secondary school PE lessons are taught by PE teachers who are being trained by the universities through four-year undergraduate PE teacher education (PETE) programmes in Turkey. There are more than 80 PETE programmes and all of them must apply the same curricula which is prepared by the Council of Higher Education (CoHE). All candidates who would like to receive PETE undergraduate programme have to take a central examination. Then, they have to take an athletic examination which is determined by each university individually. Every year, universities declare their quota for receiving students. Since the quotas of PETE programmes allocated to women is lower than that of men (37% for women in 2019), consequently the number of female PE teachers is lower than male PE teachers. The programme content is determined by the CoHE with a four-year undergraduate programme with pedagogical content knowledge (e.g., educational philosophy, assessment, and evaluation in education), general knowledge (e.g., foreign language and information technology), and content knowledge (e.g., sport lessons and sport-related theoretical lessons) (Avsar et al., 2019). In Turkey, coaching education is provided by both sport sciences faculties in universities (four-year undergraduate level) and GDS or NSFs (5 levels coach certification programmes). There are 120 coaching departments in more than 80 universities. They take their students by the special talent test they organize, and these tests are open to both genders. However, the quotas allocated to women candidates (32%) are under quotas allocated to men by coaching departments. Similarly, male teaching staff outnumbers female teaching staff in all sports schools/faculties in Turkey. Except the football data, the ratio of women coaches affiliated to 59 Turkish sports federations is 31%. The ratio of women coaches in 59 sports branches is 28.1%. This gender gap increases as the level of coaching increases against women. Women occupied 7.5% of top-level coaches. Since 2016, women coaches

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from all sport branches have discussed their institutional and professional problems and developed solutions in the Women and Sport Workshops organized by KASFAD. In a 2018 Workshop, they reported that they are prevented from performing coaching since sport institutions do not prefer working with women coaches, do not serve women at higher coaching levels, coaching is considered as a male profession, gender role stereotypes that hinder women’s career, etc. (Öztürk & Göktürk, 2018).

Current and future issues An analysis of women’s sport participation at all levels and all positions reveals that while women’s participation in high-performance and recreation sport has increased over the last 10 years, there is still a huge gender gap particularly in relation to leadership positions in Turkey. It seems that the most challenging area for gender equality struggles is leadership positions in organized sports. Another challenge is about girls’ participation in PE which has never been a focus in Turkish educational policies. It is critical that adolescents and in particular girls are active during PE lessons to increase the likelihood that they maintain lifelong PA participation. In addition, since women with disabilities and refugee women are less visible groups of women in sports, one of the main concerns should be development of sport for women with disabilities and women refugees in Turkey. Based on the experiences of NGOs (e.g., KASFAD), it can be argued that the challenge for women and sport in Turkey is to sustain progress in developing appropriate strategies to communicate with the government and therefore to influence governmental action on women and sport. Since the sport organizations are supported to a long extent by the Turkish state, a central women’s committee which includes all these actors might be an effective strategy to ensure the permanence and functionality of this network. The main intention of this committee should be to increase women’s involvement in sports organizations at all levels and in all roles. Finally, there is a promising presence of women and sport NGOs, women academics, and women athletes who have a role in promoting women in sport in Turkey. Male-dominant aspect of sport and patriarchal and conservative culture of Turkish society challenge them, but they have a strong commitment to change the masculine culture of sport and make more women visible at all levels and all positions.

References Adalı, T., & Türkyılmaz, A. S. (2019). Demographic data on Syrians in Turkey: What do we know? International Migration, 1–24. Ayvazoglu, N. R. (2015). Gender parity in media coverage of athletes with disabilities in Turkey. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 16(3), 220–236.

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Avsar, Z., Hünük, D., & Demirhan, G. (2019). Physical education teacher education in Turkey. In A. MacPhail, D. Tannehill, & Z. ve Avsar (Eds.), European physical education teacher education practices (pp. 397–413). Garsington, UK: Meyer & Meyer. Canbaz, B., & Koca, C. (2018). The examination of physical activity experiences of refugee girls in the context of acculturation. In F. Dervent (Ed.), Fédératıon Internatıonale D’educatıon Physıque (FIEP) 13th European & 29th World Congress abstract book (p. 53). İstanbul, Turkey: Marmara University Press. Canbaz, B., Öztürk, P., & Koca, C. (2017). Analysis of female athlete representation on sport news web sites. 10th Sport Sciences Students Congress, 10–12 May, Kırıkkale, Turkey. DGMM. (2020). Distribution by age and gender of registered Syrian refugees recorded by taking biometric data. https://en.goc.gov.tr/temporary-protection27 ETCEP. (2016). Evaluation of schools in terms of gender sensitivity: Baseline and needs assessment report. http://etcep.meb.gov.tr/application/assets/admin/uploads/userfiles/files/ arastirma_raporu.pdf ERI-Education Reform Initiative. (2016–2017). Education monitoring report. www.egitim reformugirisimi.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/EIR2016-17_12.10.17.web-1.pdf Gündüz-Hosgör, A., & Smits, J. (2008). Variation in labor market participation of married women in Turkey. Women’s Studies International Forum, 31, 104–117. Güven, B., Kara, F. M., & Özdedeoğlu, B. (2019). The socialization process for women with disabilities in sports: A double barrier? Pamukkale Journal of Sports Sciences, 10(3), 7–17. Hünük, D., & Demirhan, G. (2010). Turkish adolescents’ attitudes toward physical education. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 111(2), 324–332. Kandiyoti, D. (1997). Gendering the modern: On missing dimensions in the study of Turkish modernity. In S. Bozdoğan & R. Kasaba (Eds.), Rethinking modernity and national identity in Turkey (pp. 113–132). Seattle: University of Washington Press. Karaçam, M. S., & Koca, C. (2019). Turkey: Men’s resistance to gender equality in sport governance. In A. Elling, J. Hovden, & A. Knoppers (Eds), Gender diversity in European sport governance (pp. 25–35). London, UK: Routledge Publication. Koca, C. (2009). Gender interaction in coed physical education: A study in Turkey. Adolescence, 44(173), 165–185. Koca, C. (2018). Enhancement of participatory democracy in Turkey: Gender equality monitoring project: Gender equality in sports mapping and monitoring study. Ankara, Turkey: CEID Publications 11. Koca, C., & Arslan, B. (2010). Media coverage of Turkish female athletes in 2004 Olympics. In T. Bruce, H. J. Hovden, & P. Markula (Eds.), Media coverage of women at the 2004 Olympic Games: Missing in action (pp. 197–208). Wilf Malcolm Institute of Educational Research-New Zealand/SENSE-Netherlands. Koca, C., Arslan, B., & Aşçı, F. H. (2011). Attitudes towards women’s work roles and women managers in a sports organization: The case of Turkey. Gender, Work & Organization, 18(6), 592–612. Koca, C., Henderson, K. A., Asci, H., & Bulgu, N. (2009). Constraints to leisure-time physical activity and negotiation strategies in Turkish women. Journal of Leisure Research, 41(2), 225–251. Koca, C., Karaca, A., Canbaz, B., & Ozvarıs, S. B. (2019). Using physical activity as a social policy tool for empowerment and social cohesion of Syrian refugee women lives in Turkey. Ankara, Turkey: Hacettepe University Scientific Research Project Coordination Unit.

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Lüküslü, D., & Dinçşahin, Ş. (2013). Shaping bodies shaping minds: Selim Sırrı Tarcan and the origins of modern physical education in Turkey. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 30(3), 195–209. MoNE. (2019). National education statistics. http://sgb.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2019_ 09/30102730_meb_istatistikleri_orgun_egitim_2018_2019.pdf MoNE. (2020). Hayat Boyu Öğrenme Genel Müdürlüğü- Göç ve Acil Durum Eğitim Daire Başkanlığı. https://hbogm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2020_01/27110237_OCAK_ 2020internet_BulteniSunu.pdf Öztürk, P. (2018). Feminist intervention in sport science in Turkey. In J. Mansfield, J. Caudwell, B. Wheaton, & R. Watson (Eds.), Handbook of feminisms in sport, leisure and physical education (pp. 747–756). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Öztürk, P., & Göktürk, E. (2018). Kadın Futbol Çalıştayı Raporu (Women football workshop report). www.kasfad.org/wp-content/uploads/Kadin-Futbol-Calistay-Raporu.pdf Öztürk, P., & Koca, C. (2019). Generational analysis of leisure time physical activity participation of women in Turkey, Leisure Studies, 38(2), 232–244. Öztürk, P., & Koca, C. (in press). The club management ignores us”: Gender-power relations in women’s football in Turkey. Sociology of Sport Journal, https://doi.org/10.1123/ ssj.2019-0120 Sümer, S., & Eslen-Ziya, H. (2015). New waves for old rights? Women’s mobilization and bodily rights in Turkey and Norway. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 24(1), 23–38. Tinaz, C., Turco, D. M., & Salisbury, P. (2014). Sport policy in Turkey. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 6(3), 533–554. TUİK. (2011). Population and housing census. https://ailevecalisma.gov.tr/media/5677/ nufus-ve-konut-arastirmasi-engellilik-arastirma-sonuclari.pdf UNHCR. (2020). Turkey: Key facts and figures. www.unhcr.org/tr/wp-content/uploads/ sites/14/2020/01/73154.pdf WHO. (2016a). Prevalence of insufficient physical activity among school going adolescents. https://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.2463ADO?lang=en WHO. (2016b). Prevalence of insufficient physical activity among adults. https://apps.who.int/ gho/data/node.main.A893?lang=en Yücel, A., Utas, C., Luchsinger, G., Kavlak, İ. G., Kristjandoadottir, I. B., & Freizer, S. (2018). Needs assessment of Syrian women and girls under temporary protection status in Turkey. http://sgdd.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/The_Needs_Assessment_ENG_ WEB.pdf

Chapter 23

Exploring the UAE’s dynamic sports scene for women Leonardo Jose Mataruna-Dos-Santos, Nada Abdalmajeed Alshaibani , Mohammed Sayeed Khan and Asli Cazorla Milla

Introduction In 1971, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Fujairah, and Umm Al Quwain integrated to establish the federation of United Arab Emirates (UAE). According to the United Nations (2020) the population of the UAE is around 9.89 million, 31% of the population is female and 69% males. Table 23.1 shows the young population of the UAE, with 14% belonging to the 0–14 age group and 11% belonging to the 15–24 age group. This is considered a very positive indication of physical activity (PA) promotion for the nation. Dynamic population statistics help the UAE to be at the forefront of PA and sports amongst GCC countries. Although a steady increase in the UAE population is evident over the last 10 years (Edarabia, 2018), the country has managed to keep the unemployment rate low while having an influx of expats over the years (Kawach, 2020). Over the past three decades, the visionary leadership of His Royal Highnesses, combined with apt investments, has led to the UAE to emerge as a key economic player in the Middle East and North African (MENA) region, including the sporting arena. The UAE operates under federal structure with local governments per emirate. The UAE has achieved steady progress (see Figure 23.1) and is a nation in West Asia that is increasingly investing in technology and smart cities projects. Economically, the UAE has a diversified economy relative to other countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Apart from being one of the largest oil producers in the world, the UAE has managed to diversify its economy with tourism, trade, events, and finance. Besides, in recent years the market saw a rapid increase with many technology companies opening up their branches in Dubai. The government of the UAE supports the development of the private sector and Dubai can be seen as the hub of the Emirates in terms of different development activities (see Figure 23.1). The proximity to European and Asian countries makes the UAE a perfect destination for most as it is a central location on the world map. The place is located strategically not only from a geographical aspect but also “in terms of time zones as it falls more comfortably between Europe and the Far East which makes it a potential financial centre” (Balakrishnan, 2008). The UAE’s Human Development Index (HDI) value is 0.863, which positions

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Table 23.1 Breakdown of the UAE Population by Age (United Nations, 2020) Age Group 0–14 years 15–24 years 25–54 years 55–64 years 65 years and above

Women

Men

Total

717,714 417,430 1,748,625 128,316 41,966

747,458 687,855 4,918,989 398,962 83,085

1,465,172 1,105,285 6,667,614 527,278 125,051

1959 – 1999

Dubai Airport ‘59

Jebel Ali Port ‘66

‘77

Discovery of Oil

Palm Island Project ‘02

Global Village ‘85

Emirates Airlines

Dubai Mall ‘08

‘96

‘09

Dubai Sports City

‘99

Burj Al Arab

Dubai Frame ‘10

Burj Khalifa

‘18

‘20

Expo 2020

2000 – 2020

Figure 23.1 Development of Dubai Source: Adapted from Haryopratomo et al. (2011), Gulf News (2016) and Khaleej Times (2017)

it at 34 out of 189 countries and territories, while the female HDI value is 0.832 (Mataruna-Dos-Santos et al., 2018). The UAE declares the country’s official religion as Islam. Being a cosmopolitan country with diverse residents, the UAE allows people to practise different religions inside the country within limitations: 75% are Muslims, while the rest

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are 9% Christians, 10% Hindus and Buddhists, and 6% other religions (UAE Ministry of Economy, 2020). In Islam, healthy lifestyle is always encouraged for both genders. Some misconceptions about religious beliefs unfortunately discouraged a number of women from PA. However, with development programmes such as Vision 2021 and UAE 2071 Centennial the country leaders hope to encourage increased sport participation of women in daily life (UAE Vision, 2021). Traditionally, the Arabs have practised sports such as camel racing, falconry, and equestrian. Camel racing has developed and now involves robot jockeys. Currently, women are allowed to participate only in equestrian sports. Football is the most popular sport in the country. Although both males and females play the sport, but the practice of football by females is frowned upon by members of the family and the community. Nevertheless, women have taken huge strides in gender empowerment by actively pursuing education. Table 23.2 shows the enrolment ratio across the educational stages by gender, while Table 23.3 features the percentage distribution of males and females by education attainment. Both tables confirm that Emirati women are keen on educating themselves. The UAE government is also striving to implement additional rights, equal opportunities, and behavioural changes leading to a positive accelerated growth; sometimes more than the society’s expectations (Mataruna-Dos-Santos et  al.,

Table 23.2 Gross Enrolment Ratio by Educational Stage and Gender, 2017–2018 (Source: Statistics Center-Abu Dhabi, 2019) Stage

Male

Female

Total

Kindergarten Grade 1 Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Secondary

100.1 113.7 105.9 93.5 94.8

101.1 113.4 104.3 88.0 71.3

100.5 113.5 105.1 90.7 81.5

Table 23.3 Percentage Distribution of Citizens Population (10 years and over) by Education Attainment and Gender, 2018 (Source: Statistics Center-Abu Dhabi, 2019) Education Attainment

Male

Female

Total

Less than Primary Primary Lower Secondary Upper Secondary Post-Secondary Bachelor Higher Education

8.1 15.1 21.3 29.6 4.3 16.7 5.0

15.1 15.5 18.6 27.2 3.8 17.4 2.3

11.6 15.3 19.9 28.4 4.0 17.1 3.7

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2018). The new UAE law ensuring equal pay for men and women shows key efforts in the legislation to empower women across the country (Maxwell, 2020). The new law takes into consideration the private sector at this moment because the governmental boards are already following this principle. In order to organize the inclusion of local citizens in different sectors of the economy in the country, the government created the Emiratization initiatives (Ministry of Human Resources & Emiratisation, 2020). Investment in a world-class sport infrastructure has been pivotal to Dubai being positioned as a Sports City, which is integral to their successful branding strategy (Balakrishnan, 2008). To promote sport more effectively, the UAE government has invested in free zone sports cities/complex (The Official Portal of the UAE Government, 2019). The mixed-use place presents a residential area, shopping facilities, sport clubs, stadiums, and restaurants that motivate people from different age and gender to adopt an active lifestyle and participate in sport. The main objective is to have sport facilities available for the multidiverse population of the UAE, in Dubai Sports City. As the capital of the UAE, Abu Dhabi boasts of the Zayed Sports City as a complex of arenas and spaces designated for training and competitions. The ADCB ZSC Pink Run is a popular event organized in Abu Dhabi to support “Breast Cancer Awareness Month”; with over a thousand runners wearing pink outfits to participate. The multicultural nature of the UAE has played a vital role in promoting sports participation across genders.

Indicators of support for women in the UAE Findings from the study of Hofstede (2020) provide insights on Emirati culture through the lens of the 6-D Model. In particular, his assessment of the UAE society on the two dimensions of Masculinity vs Femininity and Individualism vs Collectivism are highlighted for this purpose. According to Hofstede (2020), a high score on masculinity indicates that the society is driven mostly by values such as achievement, competition, and success, while a high score on femininity reflects the significance of quality of life as the sign of success and that standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The UAE scores 50 on this dimension, affirming that  the society is neither extremely masculine nor feminine. Thus, having a country median score on this dimension supports the notion that women are valued in every aspect of Emirati society, including sports. On the other hand, the UAE has a score of 25 on the individualism scale, classifying it as a collectivistic society. This reflects their paramount commitment to their family, community, and country; overriding individual plans and preferences. Going against the collective norm may lead to shame, loss of face, and interpersonal conflict. Thus, even gender roles associated with masculinity and femininity are understood within this collective culture. The manner in which women are encouraged to participate in sports must still conform to the norms upheld by the collectivist society of the UAE.

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The UN Gender Equality Report presents the UAE in the 15th position of top government donors in 2019, with regular resources (core) committed in the amount of 5,108,903 US dollars. This amount is also part of the voluntary contributions to the cause of the UN Women, donating a total amount of 14,172,939 US dollars in 2019 (UN Women, 2020), further reinforcing the country’s support for women empowerment. According to the 2020 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Report (Sachs et al., 2020), the UAE has an overall index score of 70.3. Relative to the 66.3 regional average score, the UAE is positioned 2nd in the Arab Region and 71st in the SGD Global Rank. Its pursuit of the SDG 5 goal on gender equity is categorized as “moderately improving”. Presenting a Gender Gap Index (GGI) of 0.655, the UAE is ranked as the 2nd top country in gender equality in the Middle East and North Africa region (World Economic Forum, 2020). The country is undergoing transformation, gradually progressing with the score change of +0.063 from 2006, emerging in the 120th position in the GGI global ranking. The country is in the 137th position for “Economic Participation and Opportunity” (0.472); in the 89th position for Educational Attainment (0.987); 94th for Health and Survival (0.972); and 75th for Political Empowerment (0.191). From the local perspective, women are encouraged to practise sport, as long as they do this in places exclusively for females. There are clubs and sport academies for mixed gender, but there are also some that accept only one gender for sport practice, including the employment of instructors with the same gender as the sport or exercise participant. This allows girls and women to remove the hijab or niqab that cover their head in keeping with their religious orientations. The Dubai Sports Council International Women’s Online Tournament, an allwomen event organized by the government during the COVID-19 pandemic, had teams from the UAE and other countries competing in a virtual platform to showcase different sporting skills of participants. Participants competed in four different sports – football, basketball, volleyball, and handball (Gomes, 2020).

Physical education in the UAE Physical Education (PE) is the education about movement, education for or in the movement, and education through movement (Brown & Peney, 2013). The schools in the UAE are separated by gender, in public and some private schools as well. PE classes are offered exclusively for one gender. The current system of PE requires 50 minutes of class per week, separately for boys and girls. In secondary school, one hour of mandatory Jiu-Jitsu is offered for boys and for men in military training centres. Using the perspective of the World Health Organization of PA and inactivity of women, the recommendations show reasons to promote girls’ and women’s participation in physical exercise to access the health care (WHO, 2020). In the UAE, women’s role in the family is very strong. In general, girls are trained to be

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the family drivers since early age. Despite that, the contemporary generations are also motivated to study in order to have chances to enter in a good university in the future. Private schools are considered of higher quality than public ones and follow different types of curriculum such as American, British, Indian, Iranian, Emirates, and others. The UAE Ministry of Education promotes PE while sport is coordinated by the General Authority of Sports (GAS) since 2008. Previously, it was known as the Ministry of Youth and Sports. Its role is to create policies for and manage the promotion of sport, fitness, and PA for health. The GAS organizes events and competitions supported by the councils from the local emirates, such as Abu Dhabi Sport Council, Dubai Sport Council, and Sharjah Sport Council. A federal law issued in April 2019 allowed residents to participate in national sports competitions with the same rights of the original people of the country in a peaceful co-existence perspective (UAE Vision 2021 2020). This initiative opened doors to attract the expatriates to do physical exercise and compete in various sports events. The challenge now is to foster sport for local girls and women not only in schools but also in the communities. The impact of the new proposal of curriculum for PE is an organized process to help the student engage in health practices (Paulo et al., 2018). The Higher Education Sports Federation (2020) also looks at the promotion of women’s sport at the university level.

Promoting sports in the UAE Building sport facilities in the country Dubai has three complexes, Dubai Sports City, the Hamdan Sports Complex, and Dubai Motor City for major events. For instance, Dubai Sports City offers a range of facilities to participate in football, golf, cricket, rugby, swimming, and other sports. Those areas permit an integration of local citizens born in the UAE and expatriates who live as residents in the country in a sportive and multi-diversity environment. In 2009, the International Cricket Council Academy (ICCA) was launched in Dubai Sport City (Falcon and Associates, 2015). ICCA caters to developing cricket in the region and also serves as a high-performance centre that attracts international teams worldwide. Dubai Sports City is also home to the Dubai International Stadium that has a capacity of 25,000. This multipurpose stadium hosts many international cricket matches, including the Indian Premier League (IPL) and 2018 Asia Cup (Deloitte Report, 2015). This sport atmosphere attracts families and youths of both genders to watch the best of cricket, football, tennis, and other activities. This relation of consumer sport from stadiums could motivate boys and girls to be engaged in PA since early ages. The Hamdan Sports Complex is another example of a free zone complex. Built in 2010, it has three-tiered seating bowl with a capacity of more than 15,000 seats, two 50m swimming pools (which can be transformed to 25m pools), and a diving pool, along with state-of-the art event facilities and technologies including

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moveable floors (Hamdan Sports Complex, 2020). Different international competitions have been held in this complex, such as swimming, badminton, fencing, and competitions of the 2019 Special Olympics World Games. Another complex is the Dubai Motor City. The area of the venue was completed in 2004 and is considered the UAE’s first integrated motorsport and entertainment facility, presenting a multipurpose facility with a racing circuit that allows multiple track configurations for a Laserdrome, a Kartdrome, and many areas for kids’ entertainment (Dubai Autodrome, 2019). Jiu-Jitsu as national sport With the visionary leadership and commitment of making the UAE a hub for JiuJitsu, His Highness Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan has declared it as the country’s national sport (UAE Jiu-Jitsu Federation, 2020). This designation supports the health-conscious philosophy of ‘healthy mind, healthy body’. Many new competitions have been held since the launch of the most prestigious Abu Dhabi Combat Club in 1999. After a decade of this launch, the World Professional Jiu-Jitsu Cup was established. Five years later, this sport has been added to the curriculum of over 100 Abu Dhabi government schools, educating more than 40,000 kids. His Highness Sheikh Hazza Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, National Security Advisor, Chairman of Abu Dhabi Executive Council has been one of the biggest supporters of Jiu-Jitsu in the UAE. As in other countries, Jiu-Jitsu also had a spiritual father in the UAE, his Highness Sheikh Tahnoon Bin Zayed Al Nahyan is the major contributor to the success of the sport in different areas. HH Sheikh Tahnoon had an intensive education and training abroad and he was keen on spreading the sport in the country. After establishing Jiu-Jitsu club upon his return in 1997, he envisioned to make Abu Dhabi the capital of the sport. Many people have followed the sport soon enough and this created a momentum about Jiu-Jitsu in the UAE. Similar to HH Sheikh Tahnoon, Her Highness Sheikha Maitha Bint Mohammed Rashed Al Maktoum was a role model for the UAE women who wish to embrace the sport. Being a former Olympian and a sports enthusiast, she became an inspiration for the 147 UAE girls who won medals in this 2015 Children’s Cup. HH Sheikha collected medals for the UAE National team in international tournaments (JiuJitsu Style, 2020). Currently, the sport is mandatory for only men and optional for women. With the encouragement of the country’s leaders, the youth are trained every day on the sport in schools and academies. Sports mobile app The mobile application Noon Sport was launched in 2018 to identify talented girls and women in sports across the Arabic countries and facilitate the relations with clubs and managers (see Instagram @noonsportofficial or Facebook www. facebook.com/noonsportofficial). Noon magazine originally started on digital

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platform as an application in Arabic language. Currently, it is a hub for promoting talent and advertising production of women. Although at the beginning, the magazine had challenges to promote gender equality, encouraging women to practise sports and educating females of all ages, now it tries to overcome these challenges by removing the preconceptions or myths of women’s limitations. Olympic and Paralympic sports The National Olympic Committee (NOC) of the UAE was established in 1979. The Committee joined the International Olympic Committee after being accepted as an NOC member in 1980, the same year that Arab Athletics Federation membership was accepted. In 1981 the Federation of National Olympic Committees accepted the UAE. In 1982 the Olympic Council of Asia and in 1985 the Sport Federation of Islamic Solidarity allowed attendance to the continental games and consecutively, also the possibility to compete in the women’s Islamic games and other tournaments for both genders. The UAE NOC has been promoting sports for women, apart from spearheading PE in the country with the role model (UAE NOC, 2020). It encourages future girls to engage in physical exercise practices and sport. To achieve more inclusive sport for all people, the UAE NOC pursued the mission to increase PE participation among women through the Sport for Development Program and other initiatives, such as the eSport activities available in the country.

Supporting outstanding female athletes as role models The government has given full support to women athletes who qualify and represent the country in international competitions. They are presented as role models to the youth so that more girls and women would participate in sports as well. Mariam Al Ameri, 22 years, is one of the most seasoned Jiu-jitsu fighters in the UAE. She has achieved success at the international stage in the Abu Dhabi Grand Slam Jiu-Jitsu World Tour in the 2019 Los Angeles event. Mariam competes for Al Wahda Jiu-Jitsu Club in domestic competitions and has won a gold medal at the 2019 Fujairah International Pro Jiu-Jitsu Championship. Bashayer Al Matrooshi is one of the UAE’s finest female fighters. Bashyer’s impressive achievements include gold medals from February’s Mother of the Nation Championship, January’s Emirates International Pro Jiu-Jitsu Championship, the Al Ain International Pro Jiu-Jitsu Championship, and the Fujairah International Pro Jiu-Jitsu Championship. Bashayer also won a bronze medal at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games in Turkmenistan. Shamma Al Muhairi created history when she participated in the air pistol shooting event at the 1998 Asian Games. She was one of the earliest females representing the UAE at a major international sporting event. Four years later at Busan Asian Games, Al Muhairi led a full-fledged Emirati shooting team,

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while Shaikha Maitha made waves competing in karate. At the 2005 West Asian Games in Doha, she became the first female gold medallist when she triumphed in the 25m air pistol action (Abulleil, 2015). Houriya Al Taheri is the former goalkeeper for the UAE’s women’s national team. She started her career as a player and in short time became a coach. At the age of 17, she led the women’s national team to victory in 2010 and 2011 at the Women’s West Asian Football Federations (WAFF) Championship. She was the first female Arab FIFA coach and she was the national team coach to win against Iraq in 2017, the country’s first win in a Women’s World Cup (Lau, 2019). Zahra Lari is the first figure skater from the UAE to compete internationally; the first to compete in a hijab – headscarf – and the first to participate in the Winter Universiade in 2019 (Barranguet, 2017). Her junior international debut was in the 2011–2012 season at the European Cup in Canazei, Italy, where she received a deduction of points due to her hijab, as it was not an approved part of the costume. However, after taking up the issue with the International Skating Union (ISU), they changed the rule, allowing for headscarves to be worn in competitions (Hannah, 2017). It is indeed evident that Lari has inspired many young girls and Muslims to shatter traditions and soar to new heights (FBMA Development Program Report, 2019). Sara Al Senani and Noura Alketbi (Abulleil, 2016; McFarlane, 2016) became the first Arab women in the history to secure medals in the 2016 Rio Summer Paralympics for their exceptional performance in shot-put F33 (bronze) and F32 (silver). In Beijing in 2008, Thuraya Hamad Al Zaabi became the first female Emirati to participate in the Paralympic Games (Nagraj, 2016). Another remarkable achievement by the women of the UAE was to compete at Olympic Games for the first time in taekwondo and showjumping in Beijing 2008. Sheikha Maitha bint Mohammed Al Maktoum and Sheikha Latifa bint Ahmed Al Maktoum were the flagbearers of the UAE at the Olympic Games (Abulleil, 2015). The UAE female athletes first competed at Olympics Games in 2008 in Beijing. Since then, women athletes have won numerous accolades including medals at the Summer Paralympics. Their participation and accomplishments at the Olympics and Paralympics are indicators for the achievement of the National Agenda 2021. Figure 23.2 highlights some important milestones of UAE women.

Sport events for women in the UAE There are two events important to elucidate due to the impact caused in the local society. In 2020, the UAE hosted in Sharjah the 5th edition of the Arab Women Sports Tournament. It achieved the record of largest participation in all history of the event, receiving 78 clubs from 18 Arab countries that competed in nine sports. The UAE participated with 15 clubs and broadcast the games live on television. It provided excellent role models of Arabic girls from different countries.

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December 2, 1971  Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm Al Quwain join together to form the UAE April 26, 1977  UAE university admits its first batch of female students. August 15, 1978  Women are allowed to avail upto 45 days of maternity leave. August 21, 2002  Hafsa Al Ulama becomes the first Emirati woman to climb Mount Kilimanjaro. November 1, 2004  Sheikha Lubna Al Qasimi becomes the first woman to be appointed Minister of Economy and Planning in the UAE government. April 23, 2010  Elham Al Qasimi becomes the first Emirati woman to reach the North Pole. February 10, 2015  UAE Gender Balance Council is formed. August 05, 2016  An Emirati swimmer, Nada Al Badwawi, carries the UAE flag at the opening ceremony of 2016 Rio Summer Olympics. September 17, 2016  Sara Al Senani becomes the UAE’s first female Paralympic medalist.

Figure 23.2 The UAE women’s history timeline Source: (Adapted from Kader 2017; The National, 2012)

The Special Olympics hosted in 2019 was a great event organized in the country to present the potential of the ‘people of determination’ (SIC: people with disabilities). The large number of female athletes surprised the spectators and organizers of this mega event. Women athletes have won 113 medals in various disciplines at the international sporting mega event. Women’s participation in the Special Olympics by the Arabic countries was higher than the proportion of the women’s participation in the Olympic and Paralympic Games. Observing Figure 23.3 it is evident that the UAE female athletes have contributed in writing a new page in the history of adapted sports.

Final considerations The UAE government is providing women with access to physical resources and a platform to express themselves with the creation of a National Gender Council and the building of public spaces and private facilities for females. The

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Performance of Emirati women athletes at the Special Olympics World Games 2019

Tennis Table Tennis Swimming Sailing Roller Skating Powerlifting Judo Gymnastics (rhythmic) Gymnastics (artistic) Golf Football Equestrian Cycling Bowling Bocce Basketball Badminton Athletics 0 Total Participants

5

10 Bronze Medals

15 Silver Medals

20

25

Gold Medals

Figure 23.3 Performance of 97Emirati women in an event for people of determination Source: Adapted from Mataruna Mataruna-Dos-Santos et al. (2018).

school-based Jiu-Jitsu programme uses sport as a tool to empower young girls. JiuJitsu faces its own set of challenges in the Arab world but has gained widespread acceptance due to the extensive promotion by the members of the royal family. The successful hosting of international sporting mega events has led to a rise in the participation of Arab women. The UAE Pro League Committee has mandated the development and promotion of professional female football teams in the 2020/2021 Club Licensing requirements for the top-tier professional soccer teams. The UAE Football Association formed a Women’s Football Committee in the year 2009. To honour the excellent performances and the achievements of federations, media, governing bodies, athletes, and others in the women’s sports field, the Fatima Bint Mubarak World Sports Awards is held every four years. It attracts

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leaders from the sporting world; this initiative helps to promote the empowerment of women together with the other initiatives (FBMA Development Program Report, 2019). More events, conferences, sport competitions, and projects must be taken as priority in the UAE following the orientations of the national leaders. Even in the private industry of sport in clubs, gyms, and academies, sport for girls and women needs more attention and investment to avoid discrimination and social segregation. In order to offer equity services in the field of sport and PE, the programmes for girls and women must be implemented around all GCC countries. The recent achievements of women in sport and the investments in women equity projects demonstrate an impressive progress and change of perception in the local society. However, cultural modifications take time to be adapted and accepted in society. Quoting the words of the Sheikha Fatima Bint Hazaa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan (Women in Sport, 2020), we can conclude that: “Women’s sports and female athletes stand on the threshold of a new era. We have seen huge strides forward over the last few years and we have an exciting future ahead”.

References Abulleil, R. (2015). Inside story: UAE women breaking down barriers in sport. https:// sport360.com/article/other/more-sports/36875/inside-story-emirati-womenbreaking-down-barriers-compete-sport Abulleil, R. (2016). Sara Al Senaani becomes first-ever UAE female Paralympic medalist. https://sport360.com/article/regional-article/193714/sara-al-senaani-becomesfirst-ever-uae-female-paralympic-medallist-with-historic-bronze Balakrishnan, M. (2008). Dubai: A star in the east. Journal of Place Management and Development, 1(1), 62–91. Barranguet, E. (2017). Zahra Lari, the ‘Ice Princess’ in the hijab. Al Arabiya News. http:// english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/04/17/208359.html Brown, T., & Peney, D. (2013). Learning ‘in’, ‘through’ and ‘about’ movement in senior physical education? The new Victorian Certificate of Education Physical Education. European Physical Education Review, 19(1), 39–61. Deloitte Report. (2015). Economic impact of sport in Dubai. www2.deloitte.com/content/ dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/sports-business-group/deloitte-uk-sbg-dubai-falconreport.pdf Dubai Autodrome. (2019). Unravel your inner champion. https://up.ae/projects/dubaiautodrome Edarabia. (2018). UAE population statistics. www.edarabia.com/population-uae/ Falcon and Associates. (2015). The perfect host: Make Dubai your destination. https://www. falconandassociates.ae FBMA Development Program Report. (2019). FBMA development program. https://fbma. ae/en/programs/fbma- development-program/ Gomes, L. (2020). Dubai Sports Council to host fun event for women football, basketball, volleyball and handball skills to be put on test. https://gulfnews.com/sport/uae-sport/ dubai-sports-council-to-host-fun-event-for-women-1.73244909 Gulf News. (2016). 16 new attractions on cards in Dubai this year. https://gulfnews.com/ lifestyle/community/16-new-attractions-on-cards-in-dubai-this-year-1.1654553

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Hamdan Sports Complex. (2020). About Hamdam Sports Complex. www.hamdansc.com/ home/about Hannah, R. (2017). Zahra Lari on how she became the UAE’s top figure skater. Financial Times. www.ft.com/content/bdd4bccc-de5e-11e6-86ac-f253db7791c6 Haryopratomo, A., Kos, S., Samtani, L., Subramanian, S., & Verjee, J. (2011). The Dubai tourism cluster: From the desert to the dream. Higher Education Sports Federation. (2020). Women’s sports. www.hesf.ae/en/default.aspx Hofstede Insights. (2020). United Arab Emirates. www.hofstede-insights.com/country/ the-united-arab-emirates/ Jiu-Jitsu Style. (2020). Sheikh’s daughter competes in Abu Dhabi. https://jiujitsustyle.com/ sheikhs-daughter-competes-in-abu-dhabi/ Kader, B. (2017). Timeline of UAE women’s milestones. https://gulfnews.com/going-out/society/ timeline-of-uae-womens-milestones-1.2080286#:~:text=Fatima%20Al%20Qubaisi%20 becomes%20the,graduate%20from%20Harvard%20Law%20School.&text=Emirati%20woman%20navigator%20Sahar%20Rasti,2%20certification%20in%20the%20 UAE Kawach, R. (2020). UAE unemployment one of lowest. https://gulfnews.com/uae/uaeunemployment-one-of-lowest-1.405148 Khaleej Times. (2017). 18 new UAE attractions to look out for in 2018. www.khaleejtimes. com/nation//18-new-UAE-attractions-to-look-out-for-in-2018 Lau, E. (2019). UAE coach Houriya Al Taheri on raising the profile of women’s football in the Gulf region. www.thenational.ae/lifestyle/watch-uae-coach-houriya-al-taheri-onraising-the-profile-of-women-s-football-in-the-gulf-region-1.872234 Mataruna-Dos-Santos, L., Khan, M., Ahmed, M., & Al Shibini, A. (2018). Contemporary scenario of Muslim women and sport in the United Arab Emirates: Pathways to the vision 2021. Olimpianos-Journal of Olympic Studies, 2(2), 449–474. Maxwell, C. (2020). UAE law ensuring equal pay for men and women comes into force. www. thenational.ae/uae/government/uae-law-ensuring-equal-pay-for-men-and-womencomes-into-force-1.1083027 McFarlane, N. (2016). Sheikh Mohammed welcomes home UAE Paralympic athletes. https:// whatson.ae/dubai/2016/09/sheikh-mohammed-welcomes-home-uae-paralympic-athletes/ Ministry of Human Resources & Emiratisation. (2020). Laws and regulations. www.mohre. gov.ae/en/laws-legislation/emiratisation-laws.aspx Nagraj, A. (2016). UAE’s first female paralympian Thuraya Al Zaabi on her incredible journey. https://gulfbusiness.com/uaes-first-female-paralympian-thuraya-al-zaabi-incrediblejourney/ The National. (2012). Significant dates in UAE history. www.thenational.ae/uae/heritage/ significant-dates-in-uae-history-1.357047 The Official Portal of the UAE Government. (2019). UAE fact sheet. https://u.ae/en/ about-the-uae/fact-sheet Paulo, M., Nauman, J., Abdulle, A., Aljunaibi, A., Alzaabi, M., Barakat-Haddad, C., & Loney, T. (2018). Results from the United Arab Emirates’ 2018 report card on physical activity for children and youth. Journal of Physical Activity and Health, 15(s2), S419–S421. Sachs, J., Schmidt-Traub, G., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller, G., & Woelm, F. (2020). The sustainable development goals and COVID-19: Sustainable development report 2020. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Special Olympics World Games Abu Dhabi 2019. (2019). www.abudhabi2019.org/ delegation/so-united-arab-emirates#

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Statistics Center, Abu Dhabi, Population Statistics 2019. (2020). www.scad.gov.ae/ Release%20Documents/Statistical%20Yearbook%20%20Population_2019_Annual_ Yearly_en.pdf UAE Jiu Jitsu Federation Newsletter. (2020). https://uaejjf.com/en/News/UAEJJF-Newsletter-August-2020.aspx UAE Ministry of Economy. (2020). Population statistics. www.economy.gov.ae/english/ Knowledge-Section/Tourism-Promote/Tourism-and-Discovery/Pages/languages-popu lation-religion.aspx UAE NOC. (2020). The role. www.olympic.ae/our-role/ UAE Vision 2021. (2020). UAE vision pillars. https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategiesinitiatives-and-awards/federal-governments-strategies-and-plans/vision-2021 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Dynamics. (2020). https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ United Nations Women. (2020). UN Women annual report. www.unwomen.org/en/ digital-library/publications/2020/06/annual-report-2019-2020#view WHO. (2020). WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. https://www. who.int/publications/i/item/9789240015128 World Economic Forum. (2020). Global Gender Gap Report. www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf#page=1&zoom=auto,-274,848 Women in Sport. (2020). https://womeninsport2020-phasetwo.azurewebsites.net/en/

Part III

Moving forward

Chapter 24

Conclusion Maria Luisa M. Guinto , Rosa López de D’Amico and Maryam Koushkie Jahromi

Throughout history, women have been struggling for equal access to similar opportunities provided to men at the political, economic, sociological, health-care, and educational fields. The struggle involves getting the respect and recognition of needs, behaviours, and achievements, regardless of gender. The pursuit of gender parity extends to the arena of sports, with persistent discriminatory social norms that prescribe social roles and power relations between men and women. Society’s expectations of women’s roles in households, workplaces, and communities determine what functions and activities are permissible or not. Oftentimes, women have to contend with strong conventional beliefs and traditions that limit their participation in sports. Asian women, in particular, have been constrained to participate in sports due to cultural and religious restrictions. Although the chapters reveal variations among Asians in this regard, most of the barriers are connected to deep-seated stereotypes underlying what is considered as proper behaviour for women. For instance, in some Asian countries, sport is not considered fitting to the identity of women as subordinate to men and as caregivers of the family. Thus, engaging in sports may elicit social stigma from family, kin, and society. In other areas in the region, particularly among Muslim nations, dress codes and restrictions in time away from home playing fields prevent women, especially from rural areas, to participate in sports. Despite these hurdles, the emergence of legendary female athletes and prominent sport leaders in several Asian countries have challenged deeply ingrained gender stereotypes, creating optimism for closing the gender gap in women’s participation in sports. An examination of indices commonly used to assess gender inequality reveals the varied components that underpin parity between women and men. For instance, the Gender Inequality Index (GII) introduced in the 20th anniversary edition of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Report in 2010 is a composite measure to quantify the loss of country achievement due to gender inequality. It identifies three dimensions to measure opportunity cost: (1) reproductive health, (2) empowerment, and (3) labour market participation. Thus, the lower the GII value, or the closer to zero it is, the less disparity between females and males. Conversely, the higher the value, the greater the disparity

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and the consequent loss to human development. Adopting the range of scores utilized by the UNDP to categorize countries into human development groups to sort the 2019 GII scores, the numbers are roughly classified as: very low inequality = 0.00–0.330, low inequality = 0.331–0.499, moderate inequality = 0.500–0.589, and high inequality = 0.590 and above. Table 24.1 shows the wide range of gender inequality across countries and territories represented in this book, with three countries having measures close to zero as indicative of near equality (i.e., South Korea, Singapore, and Japan), seven countries showing indices above these values but still within the very low range of inequality (i.e., UAE, China, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Oman, and Turkey), five countries revealing low measures (i.e., Tajikistan, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Indonesia, and Iran), three countries with moderate indices (i.e., India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan), two countries with no reported measures (i.e., Hong Kong and Macau), and no country classified as very high in gender inequality index (UNDP, 2019, pp. 316–319). Despite the seeming progress that girls and women have made since their initial study on gender disparity in 1990, the report argues that gender inequality remains a critical barrier to human development because it represents a major source of disparity, still putting both girls and women around the globe at a disadvantage and negatively impacting the development of their capacities and their freedom of choice (UNDP, 2019). On the other hand, the Gender Gap Index (GGI) formulated by the World Economic Forum (WEF) has been utilized as the barometer for tracking progress on relative disparity between women and men based on improvements across four key dimensions of (1) economic participation and opportunity, (2) educational attainment, (3) health and survival, and (4) political empowerment. In its latest report (WEF, 2019), the GGI measures for 18 of the 20 Asian countries represented in this book show that progress towards gender parity is moving at different rates across nations in this highly diverse region. With the global GGI average of 68.6%, Table 24.1 shows that only five out of the 18 countries (i.e.,

Table 24.1 Global Inequality Index (UNDP, 2019) and Global Gender Gap Index (WEF, 2019) Country

GII

GGI

Country

GII

GGI

South Korea Singapore Japan United Arab Emirates China Qatar Saudi Arabia Malaysia Oman Turkey

.058 .065 .099 .113 .163 .202 .224 .274 .304 .305

.672 .724 .652 .655 .676 .629 .599 .677 .602 .635

Tajikistan Sri Lanka Philippines Indonesia Iran India Bangladesh Pakistan Hongkong Macau

.377 .380 .425 .451 .492 .501 .536 .547 n.r.* n.r.*

.626 .680 .781 .700 .584 .688 .726 .564 n.r.* n.r.*

*no report

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Philippines, Bangladesh, Singapore, Indonesia, and India) have measures on or above this index, with majority falling below this average. The report asserts its message to policy-makers that countries aspiring to remain competitive and inclusive will have to make gender equality a vital component of their nation’s human capital development. Except for the appearance of Singapore in the top three of both indices, differences in the country rankings of the GII and GGI reveal dissimilarities in the components and statistics employed by these indices. Nonetheless, the challenge lies beyond these international quantitative measures, as local indicators, both qualitative and quantitative, must be generated in consultation with the people to reflect the gender context of specific communities, countries, and regions. Measures should consider statutory and customary laws, as well as articulate the manner in which gender inequalities are deeply experienced and meaningfully expressed. Moreover, inclusion of PE and sport participation for girls and women among the subcomponents of gender equality, as they relate to the key components of health and survival, longevity, and empowerment must be considered so that these measures can truly inform sustainable change for girls and women. Moving forward, lifestyle campaigns directed towards education of Asian families to address culture-bound myths and misconceptions of physical activity and participation for women must be systematically pursued. Physical education in school, which is still optional in some Asian countries, must be integrated in the curriculum of all schools to ensure age-appropriate physical activities. Provision of safe spaces for sport and physical activity of girls and women must likewise be considered in the design and funding of public facilities. Policies and programmes promoting PE and sport participation among girls and women need to be articulated at the national and local levels. Given that about 60% of Muslims live in Asia, and that many Muslim women are unable to compete in international competitions due to their hijab and competition rules, amendment of strict rules against this must be made. Finally, administration of sport and PE at the local, national, and regional levels must intentionally include women leadership. The complex intersection of diverse social, cultural, political, and economic conditions, particularly in Asian societies, challenges advocates for this cause to adopt measures that are primarily multidisciplinary and multicultural in approach to ensure inclusivity and sustainability. At the same time that the world celebrates the 25th anniversary of the Beijing Platform for Action as the historical blueprint for advancing women’s rights globally and the five-year milestone towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals affirming gender equality as integral to the pursuit of sustainable development for all by 2030; the coincidental occurrence of the COVID-19 pandemic provides a blaring wake-up call to undeniable gender gaps that persist. Research reveals that the pandemic is aggravating pre-existing inequalities and threatening to slow down, negate, or reverse the advances made over decades of collective effort; with data showing that the crisis will push 47 million more girls and women below the poverty line by 2021 (Azcona et al., 2020). Reports on

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increased violence against women throughout the world due to the lockdowns, with women losing their livelihoods faster than their male counterparts because they are more exposed to hard-hit economic sectors (Human Rights Watch, 2020; UN Women, 2020), emphasize the urgency of accelerating our efforts to pursue the goals of the Beijing Platform for Action. It is within this historical milieu that this landmark compendium of studies on women and sports in Asia makes a bold and significant contribution to the continued pursuit of gender equality in all its forms, particularly in the context of sports and PE. While much work remains to be done in fulfilling the commitments of the Beijing Platform for Action, this book keeps the flames of hope alive as the rest of humanity affirms the global framework as a powerful source of mobilization, civil society activism, guidance, and inspiration 25 years later.

References Azcona, G., Bhatt, A., Encarnacion, J., Plazaola-Castaño, J., Seck, P., Staab, S., & Turquet, L. (2020). From insights to action: Gender equality in the wake of COVID-19. New York: United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. ISBN/ISSN: 978-92-1-005339-6 Human Rights Watch. (2020, July 3). Submission to the UN special rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences regarding COVID-19 and the increase of domestic violence against women. www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/03/submission-un-specialrapporteur-violence-against-women-its-causes-and-consequences United Nations Development Programme. (2019). Beyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: Inequalities in human development in the 21st century. Human Development Report 2019. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2019.pdf UN Women. (2020, September 16). COVID-19 and its economic toll on women: The story behind the numbers. www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/9/feature-covid-19economic-impacts-on-women World Economic Forum. (2019). The Gender Gap Report 2020. www3.weforum.org/docs/ WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf

Index

abaya(s) 169, 174 Abbas, R. 150 Abbot, D. 153 Abd Hamid, A. 126 Abdul Hadi, F. A. 126, 130 Abdullaev, K. 218 Abedi, M. 86 Abulleil, R. 245 ADCB ZSC Pink Run 240 Adil, M. 152 aerobics 38, 39, 107, 164, 176, 207, 229, 232 Afghan, M. 87 Afghanistan/Afghans 19, 79, 148, 224, 227 AIFF (All India Football Federation) 63 Ainu 90 AIU (Association of Indian Universities) 63 Akbarzadeh, S. 218 Akhmedova, E. 222 Akhtar, S. 154 Aksha Kreeda 204 Al-Abri, F. 139, 144 Al-Abri, K. M. 143 Al’Abri, R. 142 Alagiyawanna, K. L. 204 Al-Alawi, M. 142 Al Ameri, M. 244 Al-Anbouria 142 Alaskary, H. A. 187, 188 Al-Balushi, S. 143–144 Al-Balushi, W. 142 Ale Omran 82, 239 Al-Ghasara, B. R. 74 Al-Habsi, S. 142 al-Hamad, B. 174 Al-Hamad, H. 188 Al-Hammadi 142

Al-Harthi, F. 142 Alhusseini, S. 185 Alizadeh, K. 86 Al-Jazeera Sport Channel 172 Al-Kaifi, M. 142 Alketbi, N. 245 Alkhaldi, S. 172 Al-Khamis, R. 189 Al-khobar 185 Al-Kuwari, M. G. 173 Allah 136 allanawa 206 Al-Lawati, J. A. 139, 140 Alleyne, G. 59 Al-Maeena, L. 184 Al Maktoum, Sheikha Maitha Bint Mohammed Rashed 243, 245 al-Malki, N. 174 Almarhaby, I. 180 AlMarzooqi, M. A. 186 Al-Marzooqi, M. 186 Al Matrooshi, B. 244 Almudahka, F. 173 Al-Nabhani, F. 142 Al-Quran 72 Al Rawaf, H. 183 Alshaibani, N. A. 237 al-Sharshani, Y. 174 Al-Shega, W. 184 Al-Sibani, A. 142 Al-Sinani, Y. 136, 138, 140, 142, 143 Al-Sowaidi 174 Aluthgama 204, 211 Al Wahda Jiu-Jitsu Club 244 Amarasinghe, A. 207 amateur 163, 230 Ambani, N. 59 Amir Kabir 81 Amit, R. 162, 163

258

Index

Amsterdam 96, 163 Anatolia 226 Anglicans 81 Anis, A. 75 Ankara 72 An Keliya 204 Anonby, E. 81 Antalya 129 Aplin, N. G. 194, 195 Appleby, K. M 3 aquatic-diving 119 aquatics 125, 204 aquatic-swimming 119 Arabs 79, 239 arch-rivals 151 Arent, S. 15 aristocrats 90 Arjuna award 65 Arkaji, N. 174 Armenia/Armenians 79, 81, 226 arnis 158 Arnon, M. 149 Arslan, B. 231 artists 76 ASEAN 126 Asia 47, 161, 162, 164 Asian Waterski and Wakesport Championships 129 Aslam, S. A. 148 Aspetar 172, 175 Aspire Zone 172, 175, 176 Asra 82 Assyrians 81 asterisks 198 Atapattu, C. 204 Atatürk, M. K. 227 Athens 98, 154 Atlanta 162 attire 73, 74, 128, 130, 207, 209 Auieong, S. I. 113 aurat 130 Australia 16, 207 Austria 154 Avşar, Z. 227, 233 Awan, R.-u.-N. 150 Ayvazoglu, N. R. 231 Azadpour, K. 86 Azam, L. 73 Azerbaijan 79, 226 Azizi, F. 87 Badakhshan 215 Bagheri, S. 74

Bahrain 74, 168 Baig, S. 154 Bakkar, A. 153, 154 Balakrishnan, M. 237 Balkans 81 ballroom 94 Balochi 148 Baluchistan 148 Balushi 137 Bandaranaike, S. 203 Bangkok 86, 119, 129, 161 Bangladeshi 26, 27 Barati, M. 87 Barcelona 76, 97, 172 Barranguet, E. 245 baseball 131, 159, 197 Batrawy, A. 183 Bauzon, J. 164 Bay of Bengal 203 BCCI (Board of Control of Cricket in India) 64 Bedouin 137, 169 Begdeli, M. 81 Begum, S. 118 bemedaled 164 Bengali 3 Benn, T. 4, 10, 136, 138, 140, 142, 172 Berlin 11, 97 Bilkevitz, A. 149 billiards 131, 158, 162, 163 bin Bandar Al Saud, HRH Princess Reema 181, 182, 184 boat races 27, 164 bodybuilding 85, 108, 119, 158 boli khela 26–27 Bollywood 64 Bonn, G. 130 Boston 159 Boulmerka, H. 73 boxer/boxing 32, 52, 59, 60, 64, 65, 158, 189, 207, 222 Brand Hong Kong 47, 66, 75 Bray, M. 120 breadwinners 216 breaststroke 97 Brenner, S. 74 Britannica 79 British 47, 128, 151, 168, 173, 193, 203, 204, 242 Brown, T. 241 Buddhism/Buddhists 3, 25, 58, 70, 90, 91, 93, 124, 205 Bulgaria 226

Index bullying 103 Bunga 74 “burkini and hijodow” 75 Busan Asian Games 105, 119, 244 “Butet” 76 buzkashi 218 BWSA (Bangladesh Women’s Sports Association) 29, 31, 32 Calisthenics 189 Cambodia/Cambodian 17, 19, 20 Canada/Canadian 9, 195 Canazei 245 Canbaz, B. 233 canoe/canoeing 86, 197 Canoe, Kayak and Dragon Boat Competitions 164 Cantancio, M. F. 157 Capio, C. M. 47 Cappello, G. 52 Caracas 162 carcass 218 carnival 195 carom 207 Carrion, C. 164 Carson, S. 18 Caspian Sea 79 catalyst(s) 18, 20, 111 Catholic 70, 158 Caucasus 81 Celebes Sea 157 Centennial Celebration 160, 239 Central-Asian 218 Ceylon 205, 206 Chan, K. 52 Chan, Maureen 164 Chan, Michael 198 Chan, P. 199 chaperone(s) 207, 208, 209 Chattopadhyay, D. 65 chauvinist 35 Cheah, P. Y. 128 Chen, S. S. 37, 114, 194, 200 Chennai 62 child marriage 20 , 26 , 64 , 71 , 187 , 228 Choirunisa, D. 76 Choo, L. B. 131 Choon, A. 127 Chopra, P. 64 Chorieva, M. 222 Chosun 105 Chow, B. C. 51

259

Christian(s)/Christianity 3, 25, 70, 81, 92, 94, 102, 104, 124, 239 Chronicle of the Saasana and the Kings of Sri Lanka 211n1 Cindy, H. P. 47 CNVLD (Cambodian National Volleyball League (Disabled) Organization) 17 Coalter, F. 149 co-curricular 62 Coleman, L. 3 combat 19, 143, 204, 206, 243 Confucianism 3, 35, 49, 92 Confucian philosophy 49 Cornelissen, S. 15 Coubertin, Baron P. 149 Cowburn, G. 153 Cox, L. 3 Culavamsa (‘Little Chronicle’) 204 Czech 105 Dacca 154 D’Amico, R. L. 3, 4, 7, 11, 253 Dar, U. R. 153 Darsha, D. 205 Das, H. 60, 66 Dashti, A. 81 David, N. 126, 128 Deloitte 242 Demirci, A. 150 Demirhan, G. 227, 228 de San Eugenio, J. 171 Desert Storm 60 Deshpande, D. M. 149 de Soysa, L. 203 de Vega, L. 161, 162 ‘Dhing Express’ 60 Diana, N. 129 Diaz, H. 163 Dibley, M. J. 38 dice 158 Dingwall-Smith, M. 15 Dipavamsa (‘Island’s Chronicle’) 204 Diwali 149 Dóczi, T. 150 Doha Asian Games 119, 169, 174, 245 Dong, J. X. 39 Donnelly, T. T. 176 doping 208, 209 Dowdeswell, L. 195 Dronacharya awards 65 ‘Druzhba’ competitions 222 DSEC 113 DSEJ 115

260

Index

Dun, S. 174, 176 Dushanbe 215, 217, 218 Dutch 203 Eapen, N. R. 58 Egypt 73, 140, 168 Eid-ul-Azha 149 Eid-ul-Fitr 149 Eime, R. 130 Eleiko Email International Lifters 163 Elwell-Sutton, L. P. 81 ERI 227, 228 Esfahani, H. S. 83 Eslen-Ziya, H. 226 Essa, M. 152 Eurasian 148, 194 fair-play 18 Fajriah, T. 73–75 Fakhrzadeh, H. 87 Falcon and Associates 242 falconry 239 Farhady, H. 81 Farooq, A. 173, 176 Fasting, K. 11 Fatima Bint Mubarak World Sports Awards 247 FBMA Development Program Report 245, 248 fencing 131, 158, 188, 197, 243 Fenerbahçe Sports Club 231 Feresu, S. A. 51 Fernando, N. 206 FIEP (Federation Internationale d’Education Physique) 115 ‘fierce girls’ 36 fiestas 158 fifth-tier cities 42 figure skater 154, 245 Filipina(s)/Filipino(s) 159, 161, 163 FINA World Cups 199 Finder 195, 196 Finland 60 Fischer, I. 207 FITMalaysia 126 Fitri, M. 70, 72, 73, 74, 130 Fleury, J. 118 Foster, E. 3, 18, 66, 93, 103, 153, 174, 242 Frapwell, A. 173 Fraser, E. 80 Froebel, F. 94

Frye, R. N. 80 Fujairah 237, 244, 246 Fukuchi, S. 92, 93 Fukuzawa, Y. 92 Gabo Reform 102 Gan, G. 195 Garcia Coo, O. 162 GASC (General Administration of Sport of China) 37 GCC (Gulf Countries Council) 136, 142, 168, 175, 186, 237 Gelfand, M. 3 GER (Gross Enrolment Rate) 62 Germany/German 30, 91, 94, 102, 158 Geurin, A. 10 GGI (Gender Gap Index) 101, 241, 254, 255 Ghasemi, A. 87 Ghouri, S. 74, 150, 152, 153 Gibney, F. B. 90 GII (Gender Inequality Index) 101, 253–255 Gilgit-Baltistan 148 Gmür, M. 54 goat-grabbing 218 Goh, J. 200 Goh, T. 200 Göktürk, E. 234 Goldburn Sports Club 194 Golkowska, K. U. 168, 170 Gomes, L. 241 Gordon, S. 73 Gould, D. 18 Greeks 3 Guinto, M. L. M. 3, 157, 253 Gulati, A. 62 Gu-rak-bu 107 gushtingiri 218 Guthold, R. 139 Güven, B. 230 Gwalior 63 Haditono, F. S. 76 Hamzeh, M. 73 Handayani, L. 76 Hanifah, A. Y. 128 Hanlon, C. 130 Hannah, R. 245 Hargreaves, J. 19 Harkness, G. 173 Hasnan, L. 130

Index Hassan, S. 4, 184 Hayes, A. 81 Hayhurst, L. 15 HDI (UAE’s Human Development Index) 237, 238 head-covering 71, 87 Hean, T. C. 193 Heckemeyer, K. 118 Hedayati, H. 81 HeForShe 16, 231 Helsinki 199 Hendawy, S. 129 Henderson, K. A. 232 Hentikan Diskriminasi Gender Dalam Sukan 130 heptathlon 161 Heston, L. 209 Heu, Hyunmi 101 Hewet, H. 150 Hezaveh, F. S. 81 Hilotin, J. 157 Hindi 3, 66 Hindu(s)/Hinduism 3, 25, 58, 59, 70, 124, 204, 239 Hindukush 148 Hiroshima 91, 119 Hitomi, K. 96, 97 HKSI (Hong Kong Sports Institute) 52, 53 Hofstede Insights 240 Hokkaido 90 Holi 149 Hollywood 193 Holy Quran 82; see also Quran/Qur’an Hong Kong 254 Honshu 90 Hoong, C. J. 127 Hormoz, J. R. 81 horse-riding 172 Hui, S. S. C. 51 Hünük, D. 227 Hussain, S. 150 Hyderabad 62, 65 Hyoudo, H. 97 IAPESGW (International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women) 4, 8, 9, 12, 115, 229 ICC (International Cricket Council) 66, 151, 154 ICHPERSD (International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance) 164

261

ICRW (International Center for Research on Women) 65–66 ICSSPE (International Council of Physical Education and Sport) 4, 41 IFAPA (International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity) 115 IFMA Youth World Championship 129 IFSC (Federation of Sport Climbing) 74, 76 IMF 169 Incheon Asian Games 64, 119 Indonesians 70 INSTRAW (International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women) 8 International Eiscup Inssbruck 154; Novice Girls II group 124 IPA (incidental physical activity) 87 Isawa, S. 94 ISCPES (International Society for Comparative Physical Education and Sport) 115 Ismail, M. 171 İstanbul Convention 226 ISU (International Skating Union) 245 Italy 245 Ives, M. 64 IWF 142 IWG (International Working Group on Women and Sport) 8, 9, 12, 16 Jaafar, M. 131 Jafari, S. 80 Jahromi, M. K. 3, 79, 253 Jain, R. 63 Jainism 58 Jakarta 76, 161, 186 Jakarta–Palembang 119 Jalasco-Ramos, C. 164 Jalilian, F. 87 Jalilov, D. 216 jal – krida (water sports) 59 Jamaa, S. 186 Jandat, M. 142 JAPEW (Japan Association of Physical Education for Women) 96 Jarrah, M. 189 Java 72, 76 Jawad, H. 4, 9, 174 Jayasinghe, S. 19 Jayasuriya, J. 205, 207 Jayawardhana, A. 209

262

Index

Jewish/Judaism 3, 25, 81 jhula 59 Jiang, Z. 36 Jiu-Jitsu 241, 243, 244, 247 Jiwani, N. 174 joma 218 Jordan 17, 140 Jousilahti, P. J. 139 judoka 73, 186 Juffali, R. 188 Jurbala, P. 116 kabaddi 26, 32, 61, 66, 86, 131, 207 kabuki 94 Kabul 18 Kader, B. 246 Kakia, M. L. 81 Kamelia, P. 74 Kandiyoti, D. 226 Kang, M. 209 KAPESGW (Korean Association of Physical Education and Sports for Girls and Women) 110 Kara, F. M. 230 Karaca, A. 233 Karaçam, M. S. 231 Karim, N. 31 Karimi, M. V. 81 Karmakar, D. 60 Kartdrome 243 Karthika, C. 65 Kartini, R. A. 70, 71 KASFAD (Turkish Association of Sport and PA for Women) 229 – 231, 234 Kasymova, S. 215, 219, 222 kata 77 Kathuru Onchillawa 204; Katouzian, H. 81 kayak/kayaker/kayaking 86, 200 Kazan Action Plan 9, 11 Khan, A. 151 Khan, M. S. 237 Khomeini, Ayatollah R. 80, 82 Khoo, S. 124, 127, 130 Khulna 31 Kilani, H. 141 Kiram, C. 164 Kirk, D. 173 Kiseleva, E. 73 Knez, K. 172, 176, 177 Kng, Z. G. 129 Knoema 58

Koca, C. 9, 10, 226, 228, 230, 231, 232, 233 Koivula, N. 120 Kolkata 62 Kom, M. 59, 60, 64, 65 Konghuchu 70 Koon, U. B. 199 Kossaifi, E. 180 koto 92 Krech, M. 64 Kreeda 210 Kulawansa, S. 205 Kumari, B. 65 Kunda, Z. 19 Kuppuswamy, B. 59 Kurugala, P. 204 Kuwait 175, 186 Kyrgyzstan/Kyrgyz 215, 224 Kyushu 90 Laalee Keli 204 Laar, R. 152 Lagaan 66 Lakshmibai National College of Physical Education 63 Lakshmibai National University of Physical Education 63; Lalee 204 Laos 20 Larasati, A. 75 Lari, Z. 245 Larouche, R. 62 Laserdrome 243 lathy khela 27 Latifa, S. 245 Le Clair, J. M. 73, 75 Lessard, D. 209 Limoochi, S. 73 Lim-Prasad, D. 200 Lin, E. 196 lisahunter 174, 176, 177 Liu, M. 35, 38, 40 Lockwood, P. 19 Loiwal, M. 60 loophole 19 Luhtfi, R. I. 77 Madhushani, A. A. 209 Madras 206 Madrasa(s) 28, 29 Maehata, H. 97 Magdy, A. 174 ‘Magna Carta of Women’ 165 Maguire, J. 19

Index Mahavamsa (‘Great Chronicle’) 204 Mahaweli Games 205 Malays 124, 129, 193 Malaysia’s First Hijab-Wearing Pro Wrestler 129 Male Nanquan 119 Malhas, D. R. 186, 190 Malik, D. 60, 65, 66 Malleswari, K. 59 Mangalika, R. 205 Marasingha, R. 205 marathon(s)/marathoners 97, 98, 128, 207, 229 Marwick, K. P. 66 Mataruna-Dos-Santos, L. J. 237–239, 247 Matrooshi, B. 244 Matsumoto, C. 96 Matthews, J. 11 McDonald, P. 81 McDonough, M. H. 118 McKenzie, T. L. 51 McNeil, M. 195 Meena 20 Meier, M. 15, 19–20 Melton, J. G. 81 Mendos, L. R. 16 Messi 47 Mexico 8 MEXT 91, 93, 95 Miang, T.-K. S. 199 Milla, A. C. 237 MINEPS 8–11 Ministry of Human Resources & Emiratisation 240 Mir, S. 154 Mirza, S. 64 Mirzaie, M. 87 Moben, M. 30 MOC (Macau Olympic Committee) 119 MoESA 189 Mohamadinejad, A. 150 Mohan Roy, R. R. 59 Moharrak, R. 188 Mohd Yusof, W. 126 “molin and torlin” 71 Mongols 79 Montreal 105, 222 Moomba Masters 129 Moon, J. 111 Mori, T. 94, 95 Morris, T. 130 Morrison, I. 162

263

Morrow, J. R. Jr. 149 MoSSA 185, 189 Mount Everest 154, 188 MoYS 126, 129, 132, 231, 232 Muay Thai 129 Muhammad, I. 151, 152, 184 Murayama, S. 94 Muros, E. 161 Murphy, C. 10 Muslim-friendly 130 Mustapa, N. S. 125 Mutalib, M. A. 125 Mymensing 31 Nagasaki 91 Nagraj, A. 245 Nahl 82 Nair, U. S. 58 Nakamura, Y. 174 Nakano, T. 95 Nanayakkara, S. 20, 152, 153, 205, 209 Natih, S. J. 70, 71 Natsir, L. 76 Navalta, N. 161, 162 Naveed, S. 151 Nazi 91 NCERT 62 Nehwal, S. 59, 60, 66 Netaji Subhas Bose National Institute of Sports 63 Ng, Shayna 200 NGOs 229 Niethammer, C. 204 Nigg, C. R. 117 Nike 75 niqab 138, 241 NOCSL 203 Nordmaken, S. 209 Nova, E. 77 Nowruz 81 NUK (Nari Uddug Kendra) 28, 30 Obata, T. 97 Okinawa 90 Olinda Keliya 204 OOC (Oman Olympic Committee) 142 Ortega, E. 193, 199 Osman, N. A. b. 129 Ottoman 168, 227 OWF (Oceania Weightlifting Federation) 163 Öztürk, P. 228, 230, 231, 234 Özyükse, I. 231

264

Index

paddling 164 Pahlavi, M. R. 80 Pahlavi, R. S. 80 Palembang 76 Palladium 157 Pamg, P. R. 126–128 pan-Asian 76 Pancha Dameema 204 Paralympics 60, 245 Parivartan 66 Pars/Parsa 79 Pashto 148 Paskarina, C. 70 Patiala 63 Peh, S. H. 199 Peiris, D. 210 Peng, X. 38 Pennefather, A. 193, 198, 199 Pereira, S. 199 Pérez, M. 183 Pérez-Villalba, M. 180 Persia/Persian 79–81 Pesantren 76 “Pesta Sukan” 195 Pfister, G. 4, 9, 150, 151, 174 Philipose, P. 65 Phogat, G. 64–66 Phua, J. 198 Pike, E. 11 pilates 108, 144, 229, 233 Pillay, N. 204 Pirie, A. 160, 161 POC (Philippine Olympic Committee) 163, 165 polo 59, 131 Polonnaruwa period 204 polygamy 138, 226 PON ( Pekan Olahraga Nasional) 76 , 114 POPNAS (Pekan Olahraga Pelajar Nasional) 76 Pora Pol Keliya 204 PORSENI 76 Port Bin Qasim 148 Port of Karachi 148 POSPENAS 76 Prabodhani, D. 207 Premarathne, B. 207 Protestant 70 Protzen, J. P. 114 Punjab 148

Putri, W. 70 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics 105 QNV 169, 170 QOC 172, 176 quality physical education 11, 41, 42 Quran/Qur’an 82, 174, 190 Qureshi, Y. 150, 152, 153 Radwan, R. 183 Rahim, M. 130 Rahman, S. M. 29 Raid-de-HIMALAYA 60 Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna 65 Ramadan 149, 185 Ransdell, L. 49, 54 Raza, R. 154 Reeves, M. 73, 176 Reiche, D. 171, 172 Rig Vedic periods 58 Riyadh 185 Rizal, Dr. J. 158 Rizal, N. A. A. 129; Rowlands, J. 18 Runiawati, N. 70 Runkel, M. 15 Rustamova, Z. 222 Ryan, C. 73 Saavedra, M. 19 Sabha, R. 59 Sabirin, N. 131 Saiman, N. 76 Salmon, J. 51 Sand, T. 11, 180 Sandeshaya, T. 204 Sangstha, M. K. 32 SAOC (Saudi Arabian Olympic Committee) 182, 190 SARADO (South Asia Regional AntiDoping Organisation) 209 Sarajevo World Table Tennis Championships 105 Saudi General Sports Authority 181 SEAG (Southeast Asian Games) 73, 161–163, 165 Semenova, N. 73 Semitic 81 Semmar, Y. 172 sepak takraw 127, 128 Ser, J. 198 sex-segregation 141, 142, 176

Index Shah, J. 64 Shahab, M. K. 180, 183 Shaherkani, W. 186 Shao-Ing, W. 198 sharia 138, 169 Shari’ah-compliant 130 Shari’at 226 Shavarini, M. K. 83 Shawli, H. 187, 188 Shefali, M. K. 25, 28, 30 Shia/Shi’a 80, 81 Shinto 91, 93, 94 Shonhaji, S. 72 short-distance races 97 shot-put 161, 188, 245 showjumping 245 Siddiqi, N. H. 154 Sikhism 58 silambam 131 Silva, L. H. R. 172, 203, 205 Sim, T. C. 193, 195, 196, 198, 200 Simforoosh, N. 83 Simmons, C. 183 Sindhu, P. V. 60, 65, 66 Singh, M. K. 59 ‘Skate and Create’ 19 Skateistan 18, 19 slalom 129 SLNOC (Sri Lankan National Olympic Committee) 207 Smits, J. 226 Sng, M. 200 SNOC (Singapore National Olympic Council) 196, 198, 199 snooker 47, 131 Sobritchea, C. I. 158 soccer 52, 53, 85, 108, 171, 228, 247 softball 131, 197, 198, 207 Solis, I. 160, 161 Solmon, M. A. 195 Song, E. 195 Song, J. K. 195 Sosroningrat, R. M. A. A. 70 Soudan 73 Soundarajan, S. 64 Southern Fist 119 Spain 158 ‘Spartan’ 94 sprint/sprinter 19, 59, 64, 74, 160, 161, 186, 199 Stevens, G. 139

265

Sulaiman, M. C. 161 Sullivan, L. L. 204 Sultana Kamal Independence Day Award 29, 32 Sumagala, R. H. 204 Sümer, S. 226 Sunnah 72 Sunni 81, 169 Surat 62 Suraweera, A. 204 Suryalestari, N. A. 70 Susanti, A. 74–76 Sutjiadi, A. 77 Swearingen, W. D. 80 swimmer 154, 163, 164, 199, 200, 246 Switzerland/Swiss 9, 198 sword 35, 158 Syria 142, 226, 227 Tabatabai, S. H. 83 Taheri-Ardal, M. 81 Taichi 35 Taiwan 3 Tajik 215, 217–219, 221–223 Takahashi, N. 98 Takeya, Y. 94 Tamura, R. 98 Tanaka, A. 96 Tang, Y. 38, 117, 195, 199 Taoism 35, 93 Tarcan, S. S. 227 Taymur, Sultan 136 Terayama, Y. 90 Thailand 119 Thirikka Onchillawa 204 Thomson, A. 164 transgender 25, 142 Treaty of Ganghwa-do 104 Tsuboi, G. 94 Tufte, B. 52 tugging 206 Turakhanova, D. 215 Turkic 81 Turkmen 215 Turkmenistan 79, 224, 244 Turks 79 Türkyılmaz, A. S. 227 UNGC 18 UNHCR 227 UNICEF 15, 19–21

266

Index

UNIFEM (United Nations Development Fund for Women) 8 Universiade 160, 245 Urdu 148 USA 9 Usha, P. T. 59 Uzbekistan/Uzbeks 215, 224

Wrestlecon 129 wrestlers 65, 66, 129, 218 WSFFM (Women’s Sports and Fitness Foundation in Malaysia) 16, 20 WSI (Women Sports International) 8, 9, 12 Wynbrandt, J. 152

Vedic period 58, 59 Veloso, M. L. 198 Vescio, J. 19 Vietnam 3, 17, 20 Vilvaraj, S. V. 66 Vivekananda, S. 59

Xia, X. 35 Xiamen 76 Xiu, Y. P. 200

WAFF (Women’s West Asian Football Federations) 245 Wah, T. P. 195, 199 Wakhan Corridor 148 Walby, S. 170 Waldie, P. 73 Wali, A. 154 Wali, I. 154 Wang, C. 195 Wang, J. 35 Wang, S.-I. 198 Wang, T. 35 Wang, Y. 35 Wardhani, K. 76 Waseem, M. 155, 174 waterskier 129 weightlifter/weightlifting 60, 86, 101, 142, 163, 207 Welhengama, G. 204 Wel Onchillawa 204 westernization 80, 226 Whitby, D. 37 Wijayanti, A. 74 Wijesinghe, H. G. 205, 207 Wijesiriwardhena, P. 209 Wijesooriya, W. 204 Williams, R. B. 52 Wilson-Ylanan, C. 159 windsurfing 107 Women in Sports Committee (WISC) 165 Worldometer 79 World Pool-Billiard Association 163

Yagi, A. 90, 96 Yahya, S. 126 Yaman, İ. 231 Yamato Dynasty 90 Yan, H. 38, 40, 113 Yang, H. Q. 117 Yaqoubi, B. 142 Yeo, J. 199, 200 Yeung, M. 48, 51 Yi, K. 101 Yilingsong 74 ‘Yin-Yang’ 35 Yldefonso, T. 163 YMCA 107 yoga 59, 62, 108, 144, 229, 233 Yousefvand, R. 81 Yuan, X. 51 yugi 94, 96 YWCA 107 Zafar, M. F. 154 Zainal Abidin, N. E. 124 Zakeri, H. 80 Zanetti, A. 75 Zarate, N. 163 Zayed Sports City 240, 243 ZeshRehman 152 Zhang, M. 40, 152 Zhou, S. 35 Zhu, X. 38 Zhuihai 113 Ziaee, S. A. 83 Zimbabwean 151 Zimmo, L. 173, 175 Zoroastrian/Zoroastrianism 81, 85 Zulkifli, S. 128