Wise and Foolish Love in the Song of Songs (Oudtestamentische Studiën / Old Testament Studies, 75) 900433100X, 9789004331006

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Wise and Foolish Love in the Song of Songs

Oudtestamentische Studiën Old Testament Studies published on behalf of the Societies for Old Testament Studies in the Netherlands and Belgium, South Africa, the United Kingdom and Ireland Editor-in-Chief Hans Ausloos (Louvain-la-Neuve)

Editorial Board M. Popović (Groningen) H.F. Van Rooy (Potchefstroom) H.G.M. Williamson (Oxford)

Volume 75

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ots

Wise and Foolish Love in the Song of Songs By

J.L. Andruska

LEIDEN | BOSTON

The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov

Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 0169-7226 ISBN 978-90-04-33100-6 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-33101-3 (e-book) Copyright 2019 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

For the Lovers & the Dreamers

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Contents Acknowledgements xi Abbreviations xii 1 Dipping into the Discussion: a New Position among a Plethora of Interpretive Options 1 1 Position in the Discussion 1 1.1 Allegorical/Spiritual versus Literal 2 1.2 To Be or Not to Be Solomon 5 1.3 Married versus Unmarried Lovers 5 1.4 Mutual Love or Troubled Relationship 6 1.5 Celebration of Love versus Wisdom 10 2 Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song and Its Relationship to Wisdom 15 1 A Question of Genre 15 2 A Literary Approach to Character 18 3 Comparisons with ANE Literature 19 4 The Final Form of the Text 24 4.1 Date 25 4.2 Sitz im Leben 29 4.3 Author(ess) 32 4.4 Unity 33 5 Inner-Biblical Allusion and the Repetition of Wisdom Forms 35 3 Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs 43 1 The Didactic “Do Not Awaken” Refrains 43 1.1 Option 1: Do Not Allow Solomon and His Court Ladies to Draw the Woman’s Affection away from Her Shepherd Lover 45 1.2 Option 2: Do Not Force Love Prematurely but Let It Develop Naturally Like the Woman and Solomon Did 46 1.3 Option 3: Do Not Arouse Love with Artificial Stimulants but Allow It to Develop Naturally 48 1.4 Option 4: Do Not Incite “Love” until It Desires in the Sense of Naturally Stiffening Physically 49 1.5 Option 5: Do Not Disturb the Lovers’ Lovemaking until They Are Finished 50

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1.6 O  ption 6: Do Not Awaken the Other Lover until He/She Pleases 53 1.7 Option 7: Do Not Arouse Sexual Passion (Become Sexually Active) until the Proper Time (Marriage) 53 1.8 Option 8: Do Not Awaken Love until You Are Ready for Its Overwhelming Power and Negative Effects 55 1.9 Option 9: One Cannot Awaken Love or Force It Prematurely Since Love Has a Will of Its Own and Shows Up When It Desires as an Irresistible and Overwhelming Force 56 1.10 Option 10: Do Not Rush or Force Love Prematurely but Allow It to Blossom Naturally and Show Up as It Did for the Lovers in the Song 58 1.11  A New Option: Do Not Arouse or Awaken Love until the Type of Love Depicted in the Song Is Present 59 1.12  The Meaning of the Refrains 60 2 Characteristics of Love in the Song of Songs 62 2.1 Mutual 62 2.2 Peaceful 64 2.3 Equal 66 2.4 Proactive 68 2.5 Devoted/Sacrificial 68 2.6 Desirous 70 2.7 Sexual (Erotic) 72 2.8 Exclusive 75 2.9 Committed 76 2.10 Timeless 77 3 The Mashal in 8:6–7 78 4 The Seducer: Imitation and Perversion of Love in the Song 88 4 Defining Wisdom and Wisdom Influence 94 1 Social Context and Place among Other Biblical Literature 95 2 Approaches to Understanding the Distinctiveness and Dominant Focus of Wisdom 99 3 A Way Forward in the Discussion 105 4 The Value of This for the Discussion of the Song 107 5 Wisdom and Wisdom Influence: a Tighter Methodology for Meaningful Connections 109 5 Wisdom Features in the Song of Songs 112 1 Forms 112 1.1 The Mashal of Songs 8:6–7 113

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1.2 The “Do Not Awaken” Instructions 114 1.3 Didactic Poem 115 1.4 Fable/Allegory 116 1.5 Lists 118 1.6 Streitgespräch or Dialogue 118 1.7 Autobiographical Confession/Didactic Narrative Poetry 119 1.8 Song 123 2 Themes 123 2.1 Creation 124 2.2 Wisdom as Search for Order 125 2.3 Two Ways 127 2.4 Wisdom Learned and Given by God 129 2.5 Life and Shalom as Supreme Good 130 2.6 Parallels with Lady Wisdom 131 2.7 Seeks to Impart Wisdom 136 2.8 Character Formation 137 2.9 The Fear of the Lord 138 3 Wisdom Graph 138 4 One Further Indication of Wisdom 141 5 Conclusions 144 6 The Didactic Nature of Wisdom Texts and the Song of Songs 145 1 A Closer Definition of “Didactic” 145 2 The Didactic Nature of the Song of Songs 146 2.1 The Didactic Aim of the Song of Songs: as Instruction 146 2.1.1 Instruction in the “Do Not Awaken” Refrains 146 2.1.2 Instruction in the Mashal 147 2.1.3 How the Love Song Genre Is Used in Comparison to Similar ANE Love Song Texts 148 2.2 The Didactic Aim of the Song of Songs: as Character Formation 153 2.2.1 Identification with the Audience 154 2.2.2 Identification with the Characters 154 2.2.2.1 The Lover “Travesty” 156 2.2.3 The Link between Identification with Literary Characters and the Reader’s Transformation 159 2.2.3.1 Descriptive Literary Character 161 2.2.3.2 Descriptive Character Is Prescriptive 164 2.2.3.3 How Transformation Takes Place 166 2.2.3.4 Wonder as a Catalyst for Transformation 171 2.3 Conclusions 175

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7 Reflections and Avenues for Further Study 177 Bibliography 185 Index of Ancient Sources 197 Index of Subjects 207

Acknowledgements This book is the result of my doctoral research at the University of Cambridge, Hughes Hall College. I am grateful most of all to my supervisor Dr Katharine J. Dell for her generous wisdom, council, encouragement and guidance throughout. Special thanks are due also to Dr Annette Schellenberg and Dr James Aitken for their invaluable comments and feedback as examiners, and to Dr Alison Gray for her sound advice and direction as interim supervisor. I am indebted to the Faculty of Divinity, the University of Cambridge Library, Hughes Hall College and especially to Dr Philip Johnston for his encouragement and guidance throughout my time in Cambridge. A special thanks to Dr Anselm Hagedorn for his kindness in sending forthcoming articles, and to Professor Nicholas Postgate and Alexandre Loktionov at the Cambridge Department of Archaeology for helping me track down a number of Akkadian and Egyptian materials. I want to thank the SBL and Shir ha Shirim conferences for the opportunity to present sections of this work and gain valuable feedback. I am also grateful to the many implicit conversation partners throughout this book, whose momentous works have touched a deep resonate cord and cultivated my understanding of the Song of Songs and wisdom. Thanks are due also to the series editor Professor Hans Ausloos and to Marjolein van Zuylen for all their time and help in the publication process. I am grateful to the many friends in Cambridge who made these years such a magical time, and to my family and especially my parents for their love and support. H – there are no words.

Abbreviations AB ail ane ANESSup anet

Anchor Bible Ancient Israel and Its Literature Ancient Near East Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement Series Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by James B. Pritchard. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969 aoat Alter Orient und Altes Testament bbr Bulletin for Biblical Research bcotwp Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms bdb Brown, Francis, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament BibInt Biblical Interpretation BK Bibel und Kirche bls Bible and Literature Series BR Biblical Research BSac Bibliotheca Sacra bzaw Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft cane Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Jack M. Sasson. 4 vols. New York, 1995. Repr. in 2 vols. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2006 cbq Catholic Biblical Quarterly cos The Context of Scripture. Edited by William W. Hallo. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2002 CurBR Currents in Biblical Research dch Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Edited by David J.A. Clines. 9 vols. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 1993–2014 ebh Early Biblical Hebrew fat Forschungen zum Alten Testament fotl Forms of the Old Testament Literature gkc Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by Emil Kautzsch. Translated by Arther E. Cowley. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1910 halot The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. Translated and edited under the supervision of Mervyn E.J. Richardson. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1994–1999 har Hebrew Annual Review HS Hebrew Studies hat Handbuch zum Alten Testament HThKat Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament

Abbreviations IB

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Interpreter’s Bible. Edited by George A. Buttrick et al. 12 vols. New York, 1951–1957 iej Israel Exploration Journal Int Interpretation janes Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society jbl Journal of Biblical Literature jcs Journal of Cuneiform Studies jesot Journal for the Evangelical Study of the Old Testament jsot Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series kbant Kommentare und Beiträge zum Alten und Neuen Testament lbh Late Biblical Hebrew lhbots The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies lxx Septuagint (Rahlfs-Hanhart) MH Mishnaic Hebrew MT Masoretic Text (bhs) nib The New Interpreter’s Bible nicot New International Commentary on the Old Testament nidotte New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Edited by Willem A. VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997 otl Old Testament Library OtSt Oudtestamentische Studiën RB Revue biblique rst Regensburger Studien zur Theologie sbh Standard Biblical Hebrew sbl Society of Biblical Literature seå Svensk exegetisk årsbok seal Sources of Early Akkadian Literature sjt Scottish Journal of Theology StBibLit Studies in Biblical Literature (Lang) StudBib Studia Biblica SubBi Subsidia Biblica totc Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries VT Vetus Testamentum wbc Word Biblical Commentary WO Die Welt des Orients zäs Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde zaw Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ztk Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

Chapter 1

Dipping into the Discussion: a New Position among a Plethora of Interpretive Options Romantic love is one of the most intense and penetrating of all human emotions and experiences. It grips one in powerful ways consuming the heart, mind, body and soul. The Song of Songs has remained popular for thousands of years, perhaps because it taps into our deepest and most powerful desires for romantic love. As we read, we experience the love of the man and the woman vicariously, partake in their enjoyment of one another and their yearning becomes our own. Yet, love can also be one of the most confusing enigmas in life. As the poet confesses in Proverbs 30:18–20, “the way of a man with a woman,” that is, human love, is one of the four things beyond his understanding. This work will argue that an entire book, the Song of Songs, is dedicated to understanding this, and is attempting to give insight into this mystery: wisdom concerning romantic love. A discussion of the Song in itself, let alone its relationship to wisdom, encounters a number of challenges. There are disagreements over how the Song is to be understood, as well as debates over how the wisdom genre should be defined. In order to situate this book within the discussion, I will first explain its starting position and where it sits in relation to typical approaches taken to the Song, before discussing methodological frameworks for approaching the Song’s relationship to wisdom. 1

Position in the Discussion

Scholars take a number of positions on the Song of Songs. The broadest of these divisions are between those who see the Song as allegorical, either about God and Israel or Christ and the Church, and those who think that it is literal, describing human lovers. Within the literal “camp” there are those who think that the Song is about Solomon and those who do not, those who think that the lovers are married and those who do not, those who see their love as mutual and those who do not, and more recently, those who see the Song as having connections to wisdom and those who see it as simply a celebration of love or entertainment. In order to situate this work within the scholarly landscape,

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004331013_002

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I will discuss its position among these interpretive options, before turning to methodology and the distinctive approach taken to the Song in this book. 1.1 Allegorical/Spiritual versus Literal The broadest division in Song of Songs scholarship is between those who see the Song as allegorical – representing the relationship between God and Israel, Christ and the Church or God and the individual believer – and those who interpret the Song literally, as a depiction of human lovers. The allegorical approach asserts that the Song is not what it appears to be about, that is, human lovers, but rather, is symbolic of something else. Tremper Longman makes an important distinction between an allegorical piece of literature and an allegorical interpretive strategy.1 An allegorical piece of literature signifies, quite obviously, that it intends its surface meaning to be symbolic of something else, whereas an allegorical interpretive strategy assigns symbolic value to something not intended as such. The Song of Songs does not alert the reader, in any obvious way, that it is meant to be read as anything but a love song about human lovers.2 It does not intentionally present itself as an allegorical piece of literature. The Song of Songs is often compared to the divine-human marriage metaphor used in the prophetic material.3 However, unlike the prophetic allegories, nothing in the Song signifies that its characters represent God, Israel, Christ or the Church. The prophetic writers make it abundantly clear that they are speaking of God and Israel, and that their parables or allegories represent this specific relationship.4 Hosea 2 identifies God as the speaker and Hosea 3:1 makes it clear that his unfaithful wife is Israel, yet the lovers in the Song are never explicitly identified in this way. The allegory of the lover and the beloved vineyard in Isaiah 5:1–7 begins ambiguously, yet verse 7 overtly explains “the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the House of Israel.” Ezekiel 16 explicitly identifies the lover and his beloved as God and Jerusalem, and Ezekiel 23:4 1  Tremper Longman III, Song of Songs, nicot (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 23. 2  J. Cheryl Exum, Song of Songs, otl (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2005), 76. cf. Longman, Songs, 23. 3  See Edmée Kingsmill, The Song of Songs and the Eros of God: A Study in Biblical Intertextuality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009); Hector Patmore, “‘The Plain and Literal Sense’: On Contemporary Assumptions about the Song of Songs,” VT 56, 2 (2006): 239–50; Meik Gerhards, Das Hohelied: Studien zu seiner literarischen Gestalt und theologischen Bedeutung, Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte 35 (Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2010), 489– 96; Ludger Schwienhorst-Schönberger, Das Hohelied der Liebe (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 2015). 4  Michael V. Fox, The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 237–238; Exum, Songs, 76.

Dipping into the Discussion

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explains that the two women that God loves are Samaria and Jerusalem. There is no doubt about the identity of the male lover or his female beloved in these passages, yet in the Song, the male lover is never identified as God and the female lover is never identified as Israel, Judah, Jerusalem or Samaria.5 There are also important differences between the relationship that the prophets use the divine-human marriage metaphor to depict and the relationship depicted in the Song. The prophets use the marriage metaphor to highlight Israel’s infidelity/apostasy and call them to repentance and reconciliation,6 yet as we will see in chapter 3, fidelity is central to the lovers’ relationship in the Song and their faithfulness to each other is never in question. Their relationship is also characterized by equality, and this is a serious problem for an allegorical interpretive strategy, as the relationship between God and Israel, Christ and the Church or God and the individual believer is not equal. The equality of the lovers’ relationship in the Song makes it an unsuitable analogy for the relationship between God and Israel, so that it cannot have been intended as a paradigm for it.7 As Michael Fox notes, “Patriarchal marriage, where the man initiates the relationship and provides for a woman, from whom he can then demand fidelity, is a more appropriate metaphor for the relationship between God and Israel and is so used by the prophets.”8 Finally, in the prophetic texts, there is one subject with whom the reader is meant to identify, the female beloved – Israel, whilst in the Song, there are two subjects with whom readers are meant to identify, the male and female lovers.9 Whilst male readers, throughout the history of allegorical interpretation, have attempted to identify with the female lover in the Song, as representative of Israel or the Church, as Cheryl Exum observes, this gender confusion has produced some rather “bizarre results.”10 Unlike the prophetic allegories, nothing in the Song suggests that a different meaning is intended, and because there are no literary grounds for assigning symbolic value to its constituent parts, the result has been a wide variety of allegorical interpretations, the differences between them largely arbitrary in 5  The female lover is called “lovely” ‫ נָ אוָ ה‬as Jerusalem is “lovely” ִ‫ירּושׁ ָלם‬ ָ ‫ ִּכ‬in 6:4, but she is not equated with Jerusalem. It never says that she is Jerusalem, whereas Ezekiel 23:4 explicitly states that the elder sister is Samaria and the younger is Jerusalem. The female lover is never addressed directly as Jerusalem, as in Ezekiel 16, where God speaks directly to Jerusalem before describing her as an infant girl then full-grown woman. 6  Fox, Songs, 237, i.e. Hos 2–3; Is 5:1–7; Ezek 16, 23. 7  Fox, Songs, 237. 8  Fox, Songs, 237. 9  Exum, Songs, 77. 10  Exum, Songs, 77.

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nature.11 As Othmar Keel remarks, “if two allegorizers ever agree on the interpretation of a verse it is only because one has copied another.”12 Roland Murphy notes the problem of establishing an objective exegetical basis for the allegorical interpretation, remarking that it “leaves us without empirical criteria by which to assess the possible connection between ‘original’ authorial intent and subsequent creations of hermeneutical imagination.”13 Biblical criticism demands that interpretation be established on literary grounds, rather than traditional grounds, but, as Exum observes, the problem with the allegorical interpretation of the Song is that it is “not verifiable.”14 Without exegetical criteria, it is easily applied to anything and everything, and as Fox notes, “By way of reductio ad absurdum, we could just as easily interpret the Egyptian love songs as allegories of God’s love for Israel.”15 One final indication that the Song should be understood literally, as the display of love between two human lovers, is its strong parallels with ancient Egyptian love songs, which also concern human love. This will be discussed in greater detail in the following methodology chapter as well as in chapter six, but for now it is sufficient to say that the parallel themes, motifs and conventions, which are used in the Egyptian material to depict romantic love between humans, make it likely that the Song uses them to do the same. Since there is nothing in the text signalling otherwise, this book will take the position that the Song is the literal depiction of love between two human lovers.

11  Some see the Song as a spiritual parable, which as an extended metaphor, would not need to assign specific symbolic value to constituent parts. Yet Roland E. Murphy (Song of Songs: a Commentary on The Book of Canticles or The Song of Songs, Hermeneia [Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990], 93–94) notes there are no firm literary grounds for this either: “The genre is imputed to the Song rather than demonstrated on the basis of overt content.” Even biblical parables explicitly state their symbolic meaning, see 2 Sam 12:7 “You are the man!” and Judg 9:7–21 where Jotham’s fable is applied to Abimelech’s kingship. As Fox (Songs, 238) states, “In general, parables and allegories do not hide their identity.” It is unlikely that the Song would hide its allegorical function if it had one. Others read the Song as Typology to defend a Christian allegorical interpretation, yet Murphy (Songs, 94) notes that they have not shown that certain New Testament texts intend to exegete the Song, so that “the typological relationship remains a hermeneutical presupposition without solid literary foundation.” 12  Othmar Keel, The Song of Songs: a Continental Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 8. 13  Murphy, Songs, 94. 14  Exum, Songs, 76. 15  Fox, Songs, 238.

Dipping into the Discussion

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1.2 To Be or Not to Be Solomon The connection between Solomon and the Song will be discussed in greater detail in chapters three and five, but for now I note that there is a division between those who see Solomon as a character in the Song and those who do not. Some have assigned King Solomon a role in a love triangle drama between him, a young woman and her shepherd lover, yet as chapter three will show, it is not at all clear that there are two male characters in the Song. Others take a two-character approach, viewing Solomon as the male lover interacting with the woman. There are a number of problems associated with interpreting Solomon as the male lover, and as chapter three will show, the foremost of these is that the man compares himself to Solomon in 8:11–12 and asserts that his relationship with the woman is superior to Solomon’s with his harem. This book rejects the position that Solomon is the male lover. 1.3 Married versus Unmarried Lovers There is a further division between those who interpret the lovers in the Song as married and those who do not. The former position generally argues that Songs 3 depicts a wedding, after which, the lovers are married.16 However, so numerous are the passages that describe their sexual union before the alleged marriage in chapter 3 that one cannot take seriously the assertion that they have been chaste up to this point. The book opens with the lovers engaged in sexual activity and ends with them unmarried living in separate houses. It is unlikely that she would be unable to kiss him openly in chapter 8, take him to her mother’s house to make love, or that he would need to sneak up to her house at night in Songs 2 and 5, if they were married or even betrothed.17 This will be discussed in greater detail in chapter three, but for now I note that there is no textual support for the view that Songs 3 depicts a wedding, as the only mention of anything wedding related is to a crown that Solomon received at his wedding, which actually implies that it was in the past. Those who argue that chapter 3 depicts a wedding often translate ‫ ִמי זֹאת‬in 3:6 as “what is this,” referring to a movable bed or palanquin that comes up from the desert in a sort of procession, and then posit that this was typical of Israelite weddings.18 Yet, ‫ ִמי זֹאת‬is “who is this,” not “what is this,” so that it refers to the woman not 16  This position usually takes a chronological approach to the Song, see p. 54 of chapter 3. The few who do not still struggle to explain why they are simultaneously depicted as unmarried living in separate houses and engaging in sexual union in Songs 8. 17  Fox, Songs, 231. 18  Duane Garrett and Paul R. House, Song of Songs/Lamentations wbc 23B (Nashville, Nelson: 2004), 178.

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the bed.19 Nothing else in 3:7–11 suggests that the bed is moving, and even if it were, we do not know that this was a typical feature of wedding ceremonies in Israel. Iain Duguid has attempted a new and unique approach to defending this view, by arguing that the man is contrasting his wedding day in chapter 4 with Solomon’s in chapter 3, just as he contrasts his exclusive relationship with Solomon’s with his harem in 8:11–12.20 Yet, he does not explain why he thinks that a comparison is being made. The text does not introduce one in chapter 3 or 4, as it does in chapter 8, and it never says that a wedding is taking place. He attempts to interpret the question “who is this” in 3:6 as having two answers: Solomon’s bed and wedding in 3:7–11 and the male lover’s beloved bride in 4:1–7. Yet again, “who” implies a person in 3:7–11 not a bed or wedding.21 Like many interpreters who argue that the lovers are married, he lacks textual support for this view. The lovers depicted in the Song are not married. 1.4 Mutual Love or Troubled Relationship A further division has emerged between those who think that the Song depicts mutual love and those who think that it displays a troubled relationship. A few deconstructionist scholars have recently argued that the relationship in the Song is not mutual, complimentary or equal.22 F. Scott Spencer argues that the woman’s love for the man is unrequited: her desire and devotion is not reciprocated by the man, who is disinterested and absent.23 Spencer’s interpretation

19  Fox, Songs, 119, 122. cf. p. 47 and n. 23 of chapter 3. 20  Ian Duguid, The Song of Songs, totc 19 (Downers Grove, IL: ivp Academic, 2015), 104–105. He (Songs, 41–42) argues that the term “bride” in chapter 4 should be taken literally, even though it appears in close proximity with “sister,” which is another term of endearment, particularly in Egyptian love poetry, not to be taken literally. Duguid agrees that “sister” is a term of endearment, yet never addresses the fact that the words appear next to each other four out of six times in 4:8–12 and 5:1, or explains why he interprets “sister” as a term of endearment whilst taking “bride” literally. Lady Wisdom is called “sister” in Prov 7:4, which of course, is also not literal. 21  Duguid attempts to interpret “who” in 3:6 as referring to an object/event (Solomon’s bed/ wedding) in 3:7–11 and a person (the male lover’s bride) in 4:1–7, which is not exegetically valid. 22  See F. Scott Spencer, Song of Songs, Wisdom Commentary 25 (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2017), li, 62–63, 68–69; Fiona C. Black, The Artifice of Love: Grotesque Bodies and the Song of Songs, lhbots 392 (London: T & T Clark, 2009), 201, 216; Christopher Meredith, Journeys in the Songscape: Space and the Song of Songs, Hebrew Bible Monographs 53 (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2013), 77–78, 81, 83, 186, 120, 124. 23  Spencer, Songs, 62, 63, 68–69, 73.

Dipping into the Discussion

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surrounds the woman’s searches for the man in Songs 3 and 5.24 He interprets the man’s momentary absence, not as an opportunity for the woman to search for him, but rather, as signalling disinterest and abandonment.25 The searches in Songs 3 and 5 will be discussed in greater detail in chapter three,26 but for now I note that the man proclaims his love for the woman numerous times throughout the Song, so that his momentary absence does not imply disinterest.27 A better example of unrequited love can be found in A Faithful Lover in Old Babylonian Dialogue: Why do you keep bothering [me]? … Stop! I have taken my love away, and will not [return (it)]. I have removed [it] from your body, I have taken my charms thousands of miles away … Let me repeat it twice and thrice; I swear not to say anything kind to you (lit. satisfy my mouth with kindness) … Indeed, I am telling you the truth; Your love is nothing more to me than agony and grief.28

24  Spencer (Songs, liii, 61, 66) has a tendency to conflate the searches in Songs 3:3–4 and 5:2–8, as if they had the same outcome, but the woman’s search in Songs 3 is not followed by ill treatment. 25  Spencer, Songs, 69, 120, 121, 127, 130; cf. Black, Artifice, 216. Spencer (Songs, 116, 127, 129, 130, 133–34, 148) ventures as far as to suggest that the male lover is responsible for the woman’s ill treatment by the watchmen, eventually conflating the two, as if the male lover had abused the woman himself, and concluding that their relationship is characterized by domestic violence. I cannot decipher how he transfers the watchmen’s behaviour to the male lover himself, but he infers this a number of times, before flippantly dismissing the abuse as something love can simply overcome (136), as “true love ‘bears all things …’ (1Cor 13:7–8)” – a curious dismissal of something that would be quite serious. 26  Spencer (Songs, liii) focuses on Songs 5:2–8 as a “text of terror,” and if this were narrative, or if the woman seemed at all phased by what had happened to her, I would be inclined to agree. However, she seems unaffected, maintains an upbeat attitude and it gives her little pause in her search. If she sees the male lover as responsible for her ill treatment, then why does she proceed to compliment him in 5:10–16? If she were sexually assaulted in 5:7, then what is the man doing in her garden just after in 6:1–2? A woman who has just been raped does not invite a man into her bed moments later. Spencer’s inability to explain how this “text of terror” fits with the positive context directly following it makes his argument unconvincing. Cf. chapter 3, p. 69 and n. 137. 27  Songs 1:15; 2:2,10, 13; 4:1, 7, 9, 10; 5:2; 6:4, 5, 8–9, 10; 7:7[H], etc. 28  “Faithful Lover,” Sources of Early Akkadian Literature (seal), accessed October 1, 2018, http://www.seal.uni-leipzig.de.

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This man clearly states that he does not love or want the woman. Whilst the man in the Song vocalizes his love and desire for the woman throughout the poem: “As a lily among brambles, so is my love among young women” (2:2) “You have captivated my heart with one glance of your eyes” (4:9) “How much better is your love than wine” (4:10) “My love, my dove, my perfect one” (5:2) “Turn your eyes away from me, for they make me tremble” (6:5) “Who is this who looks down like the dawn, beautiful as the moon, bright as the sun” (6:10) “Oh loved one with delights” (7:7) The idea that the male lover’s momentary absence means that he does not reciprocate her love, or is indifferent, is unconvincing in light of the numerous passages where he proclaims his love for her. It is also a strange sort of logic to apply in a poem where lovers appear and disappear, search, find and search again for each other, throughout. Fiona Black challenges what she calls a “hermeneutic of compliment,” that is, the assumption that the images that the lovers use to praise one another are genuine, complimentary expressions of love.29 Instead, she focuses on the problematic nature of the body imagery, and argues that these strange and confounding images display signs of the grotesque.30 As she observes, almost all recent Songs scholarship assumes that the Song is love poetry and interprets its images within this context, so that they are seen as loving and complimentary descriptions of the lovers and their bodies.31 She suggests that this premise “be lifted” to entertain her “alternative reading,”32 but what are the grounds for lifting the premise that the Song is love poetry, or that its images should be interpreted within this context? Black does not provide any justification for challenging the Song’s genre designation as love poetry, so that her argument 29  Black, Artifice, 25, 189. 30  Black, Artifice, 9, 22, 219. She (64) uses the grotesque as her “interpretive lens” or “hermeneutical key” for understanding the Song’s imagery. 31  Black, Artifice, 62. 32  Black, Artifice, 62. She (220) notes the “temptation” to fit the Song’s images into the context of love poetry, yet provides no reasons for challenging this context, especially in light of its strong parallels with other ane love poetry, which she (6) dismisses. She (220) seems to understand her interpretation as “masquerading under the guise of ‘love poetry,’” yet she (62) has also clearly challenged this context for interpreting the images, which is the basis for her experimental reading.

Dipping into the Discussion

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lacks the generic context for interpreting these images as grotesque and insulting. Even Spencer notes that this “miss[es] the point of the poetic description” and “functions more as a side path than as the main interpretive route.”33 Both Spencer and Black argue that the male lover’s gaze is voyeuristic, and that he objectifies the woman by his visual itemization of her body, revealing inequality in their relationship.34 Yet, the man is also the object of the woman’s gaze and her visual itemization of his body. Complimenting one’s lover is typical in love poetry, so that these itemizations should not be seen as voyeuristic, particularly when they are mutually shared. Both lovers are the subject of this erotic gaze.35 Christopher Meredith engages in a spatial reading of the Song, yet also argues that the garden imagery used to depict the woman’s body denotes a place of political power and domination, where men tame, discipline, cultivate and remodel “wild nature” according to their own tastes and fancies.36 However, there is no sense that the man disciplines or controls the woman in the Song. As will be discussed in chapter three, the woman’s autonomy is notably uncommon and the access that her lover has to her garden seems to be by her permission, rather than the permission of a man whose authority she is under. Spencer and Meredith detect inequality in the man’s greater freedom of movement.37 The woman is depicted at home in a few passages, yet she does not stay at home. She certainly assumes her own freedom of movement when she goes out in search of the man, and whilst she is punished in chapter 5, she is not even reprimanded by the watchmen in chapter 3. As early as 1:4 she is in the man’s chambers, and in 1:7–8 she is free to search for him among shepherd’s tents. As Spencer, Black and Meredith all observe,38 numerous prominent feminist scholars have argued that the relationship in the Song is characterised by mutuality and equality. Marcia Falk maintains that, “The equally rich, sensual, emotionally expressive, and often playful language of the Song’s female and male voices … seems to evidence a nonsexist, nonhierarchical culture – unique in the Bible … the Song expresses mutuality and balance between the sexes, 33  Black, Artifice, 87, 171. 34  Spencer, Songs, 45, 88–89, Black, Artifice, 49, 63, 193, 196. Both argue that the more frequent descriptions of the woman’s body are misogynistic. Yet, whilst Spencer sees these descriptions as complimentary, Black (49–50) does not, and if the objectification of the female form is unflattering, then this has consequences for gender equality in the Song. 35  Exum, Songs, 22–24. 36  Meredith, Songscape, 6, 77–78, 186. 37  Spencer, Songs, 53; Meredith, Songscape, 120; cf. Exum, Songs, 130. See chapter 3, pp. 66–67 and n. 121, for further discussion of the gendered world of the Song and social realities impinging on the poem. 38  Spencer, Songs, liii, Black, Artifice, 49, 63, Meredith, Songscape, 111.

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along with an absence of stereotyped notions of masculine and feminine behavior and characteristics.”39 Carol Meyers finds “a sustained sense of gender mutuality,” as “Neither male nor female is set in an advantageous position with respect to the other.”40 Phyllis Trible notes the “depatriarchalizing” tenor of the Song, and the mutuality of the lovers: “There is no male dominance, no female subordination, and no stereotyping of either sex. The woman is independent, fully the equal of the man.”41 Alicia Ostriker calls the Song “an extraordinarily egalitarian image of mutual love and desire,” and notes the “absence of structural and systemic hierarchy, sovereignty, authority, control, superiority, submission, in the relation of the lovers.”42 This book will not depart from the observations of these feminist scholars, as I also take the position that the relationship depicted in the Song is mutual, equal, and redemptive for gender relations, and that the primary genre designation is love poetry, so that a hermeneutic of compliment can be appropriately assumed.43 Whilst all relationships have their ups and downs, and the lovers may need to search for each other at various times, there is no sense that their relationship is troubled or unhealthy. 1.5 Celebration of Love versus Wisdom A further division exists between those who see the Song as connected to wisdom and those who do not. The Song of Songs is not generally classified as a wisdom book in terms of genre, as it already belongs to the love song/poetry genre.44 However, many have begun discussing its relationship to wisdom. Some do not think that the book has any relationship to wisdom and see it as 39  Marcia Falk, The Song of Songs: A New Translation and Interpretation (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1990), 118. 40  Carol Meyers, “Gender Imagery in the Song of Songs,” in The Song of Songs, ed. Athalya Brenner, fcb 1 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1993), 211. 41  Phyllis Trible, “Depatriarchalizing in Biblical Interpretation,” jaar XLI/1 (1973): 45. 42  Alicia Ostriker, “A Holy of Holies: The Song of Songs as Countertext,” in The Song of Songs, ed. Athalya Brenner & Carole R. Fontaine, fcb 6 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000), 37, 49–50. 43  It is only on this basis that I address the question of whether the Song is also wisdom, for it is unlikely that wisdom would be found in pursuing the type of troubled relationship described by Spencer and others. 44  J. Cheryl Exum, “Unity, Date, Authorship and the ‘Wisdom’ of the Song of Songs,” in Goochem in Mokum, Wisdom in Amsterdam, ed. George J. Brooke and Pierre van Hecke, OtSt 68 (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 64–68; Exum, Songs, 70; Fox, Songs, 244–50, 293–94; Annette Schellenberg, “Questioning the Trend of Classifying the Song of Songs as Sapiential,” in Nächstenliebe und Gottesfurcht: Beiträge aus alttestamentlicher, semitistischer und altorientalistischer Wissenschaft für Hans-Peter Mathys zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. Hanna Jenni and Markus Saur, aoat (Münster: Ugarit-Verlang, 2016), 393–407; André LaCocque,

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simply a celebration of love or entertainment.45 Others go as far as to say that it may reasonably be read as a wisdom book.46 B.S. Childs, for example, argues that the Song is wisdom literature and that this rules out other contexts for understanding the book.47 Katharine Dell takes a middle approach, maintaining that the genre of the book is love poetry, whilst noting that it displays a number of wisdom features and exhibits “wisdom influence.”48 Murphy thinks that, as edited, the Song takes on a sapiential character and was likely included in the canon because it was seen as belonging to the wisdom corpus.49 Those who have suggested such connections have been criticised for not demonstrating that they are extensive enough to be meaningful and for being vague as to what precisely the book’s wisdom message is.50 This project will demonstrate that the influence of the wisdom genre on the Song was actually pervasive, running throughout the book, and offer an entirely new understanding of the book’s wisdom message. Recent critiques have focused on the fact that those who argue for wisdom connections only point to the proverb or “mashal” in 8:6–7 and the refrains in 2:7, 3:5 and 8:4 as editorial glosses, giving the book a sapiential flavour. The meaning of the refrains is dismissed as ambiguous, leaving only the mashal

Romance She Wrote: A Hermeneutical Essay on Song of Songs (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International, 1998), 8. 45  Fox, Songs, 244–50, 293–94; Exum, Songs, 70; cf. “Unity,” 64–68. 46  See Brevard Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979), 574; George M. Schwab, The Song of Songs’ Cautionary Message Concerning Human Love StBibLit 41 (New York: Lang, 2002), 150. 47  Childs, Introduction, 574. 48  Katharine Dell, “Does the Song of Songs Have Any Connections to Wisdom?” in Perspektiven der Hoheliedauslegung, ed. Anselm C. Hagedorn, bzaw 346 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2005), 9, 16. 49  Roland E. Murphy, The Tree of Life: An Exploration of Biblical Wisdom Literature (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 106–110; Roland E. Murphy, “Form Critical Studies in the Song of Songs,” Int 27 (1973): 422. I will return to the question of wisdom editing in chapter 5. 50  Exum, “Unity,” 64–65, 67–68; Schellenberg, “Questioning,” 396–402. Schellenberg (394– 98) speaks of three “primary characteristics” of wisdom that the Song lacks: 1) a concern with the value or limitation of wisdom 2) aiming to provide advice/being didactic, and 3) a concern with creation and world order, especially the act-consequence nexus. Yet, as chapters 3–6 of this work will show, the Song actually exhibits all of these. Schellenberg notes (396–97) a lack of specific “wisdom” terminology in the Song, yet as chapter 4 will discuss, wisdom cannot be defined based on terminology or vocabulary alone. She (397) also argues that the Song appeals to feelings, whilst wisdom literature appeals to the intellect, yet as chapter 6 will show, wisdom literature appeals to both the emotions and intellect, which are very much intertwined.

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in 8:6–7, which alone, cannot change the genre of the entire book.51 As Exum states, “one aphorism does not a wisdom book make.”52 It is true that the presence of one proverb does not determine the nature of the book as a whole. However, as chapter five of this work will show, the influence of the wisdom genre on the Song was much more pervasive, as a number of wisdom forms and themes occur throughout. Both Exum and Annette Schellenberg dismiss the didactic nature of the refrains because their meaning is debated.53 Yet, the fact that commentators have struggled to understand their meaning does not mean that they cease to be instructional. As chapter three will show, the refrains clearly advise the audience to do something concerning love, and one needs to determine what this is in order to understand the book’s wisdom message. For as Schellenberg observes, “These verses have the power to change the character of the entire Song.”54 They are a prominent feature, reoccurring throughout the book, and their very form, as chapters four and five will show, is a wisdom form: they are instructions. The content of the instruction does not change the fact that the form of an instruction is used. Chapter three will make an original contribution to our understanding of the book’s wisdom message by showing that these refrains instruct the audience to pursue a particular type of love, modelled by the unmarried lovers throughout the poem. It will offer a new understanding of the refrains that makes better sense of the exegetical features in the text, which will in turn shed light on the significance of the mashal in 8:6–7, and provide a fresh understanding of the book’s wisdom message. Exum makes another important critique regarding the parallels between the Song and other biblical wisdom books. As she points out, “the use of motifs from love poetry in ‘wisdom’ contexts, either consciously or unconsciously, and either from the Song of Songs or a work like it, cannot be used to argue that the Song of Songs is wisdom literature.”55 This is true. The fact that the wisdom 51  Exum, “Unity,” 67, Schellenberg, “Questioning,” 396–397, 401–402. Schellenberg (397) does not see any formal evidence that the Song is designed to give advice, apart from 8:6–7, but as chapters 3, 5 and 6 will demonstrate, there is an extensive amount of formal evidence, which is determinative for the structure and focus of the book. 52  Exum, “Unity,” 67. 53  Exum, “Unity,” 67. Schellenberg (“Questioning,” 404, 402) says they are “too ambiguous” to be imparting advice, and argues (397) that they cannot be didactic because the lovers are unmarried and engaging in sexual activity, which would not be taught. Yet, this assumes that the lesson that they teach concerns unmarried intimacy. Chapter 3 will show that there is a different lesson contained in the refrains. 54  Schellenberg, “Questioning,” 402. 55  Exum, “Unity,” 67. She notes that the wisdom books may be citing motifs typical of love literature more generally. Yet, I have conducted an extensive amount of research on parallel

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books use language or motifs from the Song does not make the Song itself wisdom, and as we will see in the following methodology chapter, the direction of influence does seem to indicate that the wisdom books used the Song. This is why I will not argue that the Song’s wisdom features are the result of specific parallels with the biblical wisdom books, but rather, derive from typical forms and conventions found in the antecedent ancient Near Eastern (henceforth ane) advice literature, which are also found in the biblical wisdom books. The discussion of wisdom features in chapter five, and their pervasiveness in the Song, is based on a much broader understanding of what was typical of ane “didactic” or “advice literature” rather than on specific parallels between the Song and the biblical wisdom books alone. This work will demonstrate that the influence of the wisdom genre on the Song was pervasive, running throughout the book. As I will discuss in the following methodology chapter, there is quite a large debate ensuing over wisdom as a biblical genre, but for now I note that we see multiple genres among the biblical wisdom books, so that the Song’s genre, as love poetry, does not exclude it from this corpus. The biblical wisdom writers employed “a repertoire of genres to address a particular area of concern,”56 and it is the same with the Song. The fact that the Song incorporates elements of the wisdom genre does not mean that it ceases to be love poetry. The Song is certainly a love poem, but as I shall argue, it is also more. The author of the Song of Songs is an artist, and artists often transgress boundaries to create something new. This author has transgressed generic boundaries to offer wisdom concerning romantic love. A preliminary clarification should be made. The purpose of discussing the wisdom features and conventions used in the Song is not to put forward an argument that the Song is “wisdom” proper, or should be considered part of the wisdom corpus. I am not concerned with labelling the Song as a “wisdom book” or having it categorized as such. As noted, there is great debate over what the wisdom genre even is and how to define it. The goal in discussing the Song’s relationship to wisdom is not to categorize it, but rather, to arrive at a more accurate interpretation of the Song itself.57 These features change the way that motifs in ane love literature, and as the “Inner-biblical” section of the following methodology chapter will explain, a number of these motifs and the way they are used are specific to the Song of Songs alone. 56  Stuart Weeks, An Introduction to the Study of Wisdom Literature (London: T & T Clark, 2010), 143. 57  As Will Kynes (“The Nineteenth-Century Beginning of ‘Wisdom Literature,’” in Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom: Proceedings of the Oxford Old Testament Seminar ed. John Jarick [London: Bloomsbury, 2016], 100, 102–3) argues, the purpose of discussing wisdom features should not be to rigidly define the corpus, but get closer to a correct understanding

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we understand the Song and what it is attempting to communicate about love. They show that the Song is more than just a celebration of love or entertainment. It is attempting to offer wisdom concerning romantic love. Many who argue for connections to wisdom think that its message is to wait for sex until marriage or avoid love completely. This book does something entirely different, by arguing that its wisdom message is to pursue a particular type of love, modelled by the unmarried lovers throughout the Song: a wise love. This is an entirely new understanding of the book, its wisdom message, its function and its purpose. and interpretation of the text in question. As Stuart Weeks (“Wisdom, Form and Genre,” in Was There a Wisdom Tradition? New Prospects in Israelite Wisdom Studies, ed. Mark R. Sneed [Atlanta: sbl, 2015], 174) notes, “It is not the big generic classifications that offer [the] most insight, but the more subtle ways in which texts are shaped by genre or exploit convention.”

Chapter 2

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song and Its Relationship to Wisdom Having situated this book within the larger discussion in relation to typical positions taken on the Song, I will now turn to methodology. This work will approach the question of the Song’s meaning and its relationship to wisdom by using five methodological frameworks. It will utilise a literary approach to genre; a literary approach to character; a comparative approach with ane literature; deal with the final form of the text, rather than its historical development or historical questions; and is inner-biblical. These methodological approaches will be highlighted in the following chapters in our discussion of the Song, its relationship to wisdom, and a new didactic understanding of its message. 1

A Question of Genre

The book will utilize a literary approach to genre. It will look at the type of literature read in the Song, which is clearly love poetry, but as I will argue, also shares affinities with wisdom. Chapter six will look at how the Song uses the love song genre in comparison to similar ane love song texts. As will be discussed momentarily, the Song shares the closest affinities with Egyptian love songs, where the topic of concern is also human sexual love. However, it is also distinct from the Egyptian love song genre in several ways that indicate that the author had a very different purpose in writing and a didactic aim. Chapter four will look at how we define the “wisdom” genre and chapter five will look at the Song’s relationship to it. As noted in the introduction, there is quite a large debate ensuing over whether “wisdom” should even be seen as a biblical category or genre, as well as how we define biblical genres more broadly, and this certainly complicates our endeavour to compare the Song to wisdom.1 Kenton Sparks and Mark Sneed have moved the discussion of genre significantly forward in recent years,

1  Exum (“Unity,” 65) says, “My problem is I do not know what wisdom is,” and Schellenberg (“Questioning,” 394) also notes this dilemma in discussing the Song’s relationship to wisdom.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004331013_003

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arguing for a “nominalist,” rather than “realist,” approach to biblical genres.2 The traditional or “generic realist” view held that genres exist ontologically within a text itself, so that our task is simply to correctly identify and define their features and conventions.3 The various genres were seen as static, with clearly defined boundaries between them, and mutually exclusive. More recently, scholars have taken a “generic nominalist” approach to understanding genre. In this view, genres are not seen as ontological realities, but rather, arbitrary classifications that we impose on texts. Genres are seen as flexible, frequently changing and the boundaries between them permeable and often shifting.4 Genres, then, cannot be defined by not sharing the conventions of others.5 A middle approach, which we might call “nominally real,” seems best. Biblical genres do have ontological reality, to the extent that authors use them when writing and readers recognize them whilst reading.6 These genres have particular features and employ specific conventions. We are removed from the time and culture in which they were used, and thus constrained in our ability to fully understand what these conventions and features were.7 Yet, this does not justify abandoning the attempt to understand them and meaningfully discuss what they might be, as long as we realize that we are limited in our ability to know fully and definitively.8 At the same time, genres do fluctuate. 2  Mark R. Sneed, “‘Grasping After the Wind’: The Elusive Attempt to Define and Delimit Wisdom,” in Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition?, 39–67; Kenton L. Sparks, Ancient Texts for the Study of the Hebrew Bible: A Guide to the Background Literature (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2005). 3  Sneed, “Grasping,” 40; Sparks, Ancient, 6. 4  Sneed, “Grasping,” 40; Sparks, Ancient, 6. Note, to speak of a genre as “flexible” or “changing” actually assumes ontological reality, for it does not change in the mind of later interpreters, but is changed by writers and artists as they adapt it. 5  Sneed, “Grasping,” 41. 6  Weeks, “Wisdom,” 163; Michael V. Fox, “Three Theses on Wisdom,” in Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition?, 78–79. 7  Sneed, “Grasping,” 39. 8  Fox (“Theses,” 75) argues that we should not abandon the concept of wisdom as a genre simply because it has been poorly defined, as the same might be said of any of our literary and linguistic categories, and scholars have at least “shared an approximate idea of a type of literature reasonably called wisdom literature and have communicated satisfactorily using this term.” As a heuristic genre, it is valid to the extent that it fruitfully brings together texts for comparison. Katharine J. Dell (“Deciding the Boundaries of ‘Wisdom’: Applying the Concept of Family Resemblance,” in Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition?, 154) thinks that the term “genre” is “still helpful as long as it is defined broadly,” as are the form/content/context categories, “as long as they are not too rigid.” Even Sneed (“Grasping,” 62–63) recognizes that these conventions exist, yet “only as our minds detect the patterns. We cannot enter into the minds of the ancient authors and clearly and definitively detect these conventions.” He thinks that we can detect general features, as long as we understand that these boundaries are not rigid.

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The boundaries between them are flexible, often blur and are certainly not rigid. Books of one genre can borrow the conventions of others, so that we see the blending of genres, or even the subversion of them. This project will attempt to understand common features and conventions used in what we call the “wisdom” genre, but they will not be defined so rigidly that they are mutually exclusive from other genres. There may be some features and conventions used in wisdom writing that do not occur in other literature and are more typical or definitive of the genre, whilst other secondary features and conventions used may also occur in other genres to some degree. The secondary features, listed in chapters four and five, are not meant to be exhaustive nor exclusive from other genres of biblical literature, but rather, are mentioned because they are commonly detected in wisdom writing. The primary features, listed in the same chapters, are what make the wisdom literature distinct and what they share in common with other ane didactic literature in the region. Some have recently questioned the ontological reality of the wisdom genre, suggesting instead, that the category is a scholarly invention of the mid-nineteenth century and not inherent to the texts themselves.9 It is true that biblical scholars in the mid-nineteenth century were the first to use the term “wisdom,” and that Egyptologists and Assyriologists adopted this term to discuss their own literature.10 Yet, it is also true that a type of didactic or advice literature had existed in the ane for more than a thousand years before the biblical wisdom books were written, and long before the term “wisdom” was used to discuss them.11 This genre was an ontological reality, as it had a long history of composition and reuse, with later works drawing upon and adapting earlier ones.12 So whilst the term “wisdom” may have originated with biblical scholars, the texts themselves draw upon an established genre in the region for discussing wisdom about various subjects. As we will see in chapter four, they blend 9  Will Kynes, “The Modern Scholarly Wisdom Tradition and the Threat of Pan-Sapientialism: A Case Report,” in Sneed, Was There a Wisdom Tradition?, 23, 32; Kynes “Nineteenth,” 83, 85, 99–102; Mark Sneed, “Is the ‘Wisdom Tradition’ a Tradition,” cbq 73, 1 (2011): 57; Sneed, “Grasping,” 52. 10  Kynes (“Modern,” 23, 32; “Nineteenth,” 83, 85, 99–102), Sneed (“Tradition,” 57; “Grasping,” 52), Weeks (Introduction, 21, 142) and even Gerhard von Rad (Wisdom in Israel, translated from the German [1970] by James D. Martin [London: scm, 1972], 7–8) all observe that biblical scholars coined the term “wisdom,” and that Egyptologists and Assyriologists adopted the term from us. 11  Weeks (Introduction, 3, cf. 9, 16–19) notes that it is “some of the earliest literature known from both Egypt and Mesopotamia.” Fox (“Theses,” 79–82) calls it “ethical instruction” and argues that it “was a real genre” and that ancient Egyptians recognized it as a distinct genre. 12  See Fox, “Theses,” 81.

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this with other forms, conventions and genres. The purpose of discussing what we call “wisdom” is not to resolve the current debates in scholarship, or arrive at a conclusive definition of what is “wisdom” and what is not. Rather, it is to discuss what features and conventions the Song might share with what we call “wisdom” in order to better understand the Song. We will see that it shares a number of the wisdom features and conventions often cited by scholars who are attempting to arrive at some sort of definition of “wisdom.” 2

A Literary Approach to Character

The book will also utilize literary approaches to character. As we will see in chapter six, whilst the Song of Songs is poetry, it is not without narratival dimensions that enable reader identification and the formation of character. The Song is really a mixture of episodic narrativity and figuration, which take turns emerging from one another. It makes extensive use of imagery, metaphor and figurative language, yet narrative controls numerous sections where this is entirely displaced by reported action.13 The number of these episodes, and the fact that they present consistent characterisations of the lovers, their interactions and speech throughout, gives the entire work a narrative flavour and enables the use of narrative tools and categories in discussing character. Discussions concerning the link between literary character and character formation have largely focused on biblical narrative, yet as William Brown notes, what remains for further investigation are the many complex characters outside biblical narrative, particularly those profiled in poetic and wisdom texts.14 In an attempt to begin using these categories to discuss literary character in poetic texts, and in the Song of Songs specifically, I will look at how literary character is profiled in the Song, how it is used to prescribe character and how identification with these characters leads to the transformation of the reader. We will see that the Song has a unique approach to character, which has its roots in ane forms.

13  Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Poetry (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 188. 14  William P. Brown, Wisdom’s Wonder: Character, Creation, and Crisis in the Bible’s Wisdom Literature (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 2014), 8.

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

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Comparisons with ANE Literature

Comparisons with ane literature are pertinent both for understanding the meaning and purpose of the Song in relation to other ane love song texts, as well as how it uses the wisdom genre. I will briefly discuss here whether the Song shares closer affinities with Egyptian or Mesopotamian love literature, before discussing the importance of ane advice literature for understanding biblical wisdom and how the Song uses the genre. Connections between the Song of Songs and ane love literature usually revolve around two main bodies of texts – Egyptian and Mesopotamian.15 I will argue that the Song shares the strongest parallels with ancient Egyptian love poetry. This is because thematically, the Song’s concerns are much more similar to the Egyptian material, as it concerns human love, rather than love between gods, the cult, sacred marriage, fertility or ensuring the prosperity of the king and royal family. Fox notes a number of themes, central in Mesopotamian sacred marriage songs that are absent from both the Song of Songs and the Egyptian love literature: … suitors (farmer and shepherd) who vie for a wife by describing the gifts they can offer her; the fertility of the goddess; ritual preparations for marriage; prayers to the bride (Inanna) for blessings, such as long life and royal power, fertility of the land and of the womb; the goddess’s gift of abundance and fertility; the goddess’s praise of her vulva; mating of animals; Dumuzi’s death and resurrection.16 As Fox has recently restated, the absence of these Mesopotamian themes strengthens the connection between the Song of Songs and the Egyptian love literature.17 Whilst the land, the garden and even the woman’s body in the Song of Songs are certainly fertile and in bloom, there is no concern for achieving fertility for procreation, nor anxiety over what might threaten it or cause it to 15  Wilfred G.E. Watson (“Some Ancient Near Eastern Parallels to the Song of Songs,” in Words Remembered Texts Renewed: Essays in Honour of John F.A. Sawyer, ed. John Davies, Graham Harvey and Wilfred G.E. Watson, JSOTSup 195 [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1995], 254) notes that some have suggested connections with Ugaritic texts, there are few parallels with texts from Anatolia, none with Phoenician, and some have posited connections with Indian love songs, see Chaim Rabin, “The Song of Songs and Tamil Poetry,” Studies in Religion 3 (1973): 205–219. 16  Fox (Songs, 268–69) cites Samuel N. Kramer (The Sacred Marriage Rite [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1969], 68–72, 80–83, 94, 98–99, 101, 103–33) within this quotation. 17  Michael V. Fox, “Rereading The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs Thirty Years Later,” WO 46, 1 (2016): 11.

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lapse.18 There is certainly no focus on producing fecundity, in the land or the woman, through the worship of a deity. Keel notes four main problems with seeing the Song as connected to the cult or sacred marriage: 1) the lovers in the Song are never named, so at most, it could only be seen as a well-purged version of these cultic songs, 2) literary connections between the two are minimal, 3) there are no references to priests, altars or cultic matters that appear in the sacred marriage literature, and 4) the Song lacks the overall dramatic structure (cultic drama) of the sacred marriage songs, which could “be achieved only by transposing texts quite arbitrarily.”19 Keel notes that the Song and the Egyptian love songs are similar in form as well as content.20 He states: No collection of love songs comparable to the Song or to the Egyptian collections has been found in Phoenicia, Canaan, or Assyria. The only large collection from Mesopotamia – the Sumerian love songs of the third or early second millennium BC – is not only separated by great time and distance but also differentiated from the Song by a sometimes clearly marked Sitz im Leben (sacred marriage) and by form (addresses in litany style). Most significantly, the Sumerian love songs use a totally different style. Instead of the rich and colourful images of the Song, the Sumerian poems employ a limited number of stereotypical metaphors (erotic pleasure as a mixed drink or honey, the pubic area as a field, coitus as plowing, etc.). Moreover, these poems include many explicit 18  Fox, “Rereading,” 11. 19  Keel, Songs, 13. 20  Keel, Songs, 24. He (22–24) argues that praise of the lover’s bodily features is a distinctly Egyptian form, since, apart from the Akkadian hymn to Ninurta (after 1200 BC), which compares the lover’s parts to gods and elements, the form “is scarcely found in Mesopotamia … [and] played no role in the cultic poetry or in the less frequent profane poetry.” Martti Nissinen (“Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu: An Assyrian Song of Songs?,” in “Und Moses schrieb diese Lied auf” Studien zum Alten Testament und zum alten Orient Festschrift für Oswald Loretz zur Vollendung seines 70. Lebensjahres, ed. von Manfried Dietrich and Ingo Kottsieper, aoat 250 [Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1998], 610–14), however disagrees, as he sees this form in the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu and thinks that it derives from the so-called “god description texts” of Mesopotamia, to which this text bears close resemblance. Nissinen (612) argues that the descriptions in the Song are so similar that one can no longer claim, as Keel, that they have a “clearly Egyptian origin.” However, he (612) thinks that Keel (Songs, 24) is correct about the original cultic use of the “praise of bodily features” form, and its secondary use in the non-cultic environment of profane love poetry, which can now be corroborated by Mesopotamian sources. Neither (Keel, Songs, 24; Nissinen, “Nabû,” 625) think that its original use means that the Song is a disguised cultic text, but that it does warrant looking at the cultic-mythological origins/meaning behind these individual elements.

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

21

references (tongue kissing, vulva, ejaculation, etc.) of a kind lacking in the Song. Ceremonial intercourse in the Sumerian texts has a clear purpose: to promote prosperity in all realms of natural and political life. The Song knows no such thing … A direct connection between the Song and these Sumerian texts is out of the question.21 Martti Nissinen has argued that a single Assyrian love song, the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu, is the closest of all Mesopotamian texts to the biblical Song of Songs, and vastly differs from the sacred marriage texts, as it does not concern marriage or fertility, but rather, love between gods.22 He is certainly correct that this Assyrian love song is the closest of all Mesopotamian parallels to the Song, yet there are still a number of differences. The Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu concerns named gods, which is not the case in the Song. The cultic ritual of Nabû and Tašmetu, referred to in other sources, also focused on ceremonial intercourse for the promotion of the king and his family’s prosperity,23 which is certainly not the focus in the Song. The fact that the Song of Songs does not concern gods, love between them or the prosperity of 21  Keel, Songs, 28–29. Whilst there are a few Mesopotamian love songs about human love (see “Faithful Lover,” “Kiš Love Song,” “irtum Songs,” “Oh Girl, Whoopie!” “I Shall be a Slave for You,” “A Field Full of Salt,” “In the Light of the Window,” “Royal Love Duet,” “The Moussaieff Love Song,” “The Light of Love Making Passed Upon Me [A 7478],” Sources of Early Akkadian Literature [seal], accessed October 1, 2018, http://www.seal.uni-leipzig.de, cf. Nathan Wasserman, Akkadian Love Literature of the Third and Second Millennium BCE, Leipziger Altorientalistische Studien 4 [Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2016]), they share these stereotypical metaphors and explicit references (to the vulva and it being plowed, ejaculation, the pubic area as a field, opening the thighs, etc.), and are quite different from the Song stylistically and thematically (topics: rivalry & desertion in love, one-sided/ unrequited love, heart-brokenness and despair, distress, sheer anger, misogynistic outburst, blessings for the king, etc.), which is why Nissinen argues that the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu is the closest parallel to the Song. 22  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 595–97. He (626) argues that the love between these gods is akin to love between humans, and that, in ancient love poetry, there is no clear division between the cultic and profane. It is true that important human experiences, like love, were often (and still are) considered “sacred” – magical or deriving from the divine (under divine patronage). Yet, whilst these divine, religious and mythological elements may be present in the background, there is still a difference between focusing on, or foregrounding, gods or human lovers (though they may behave similarly). In both the Egyptian love songs and the Akkadian songs about human love listed above (n. 21), the lovers sometimes appeal/ pray to gods, but these gods are not the focus and the songs are not cultic. The Song of Songs does not mention gods and there are no references to anything cultic. 23  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 595. As he notes, this may not be the background of the Love Lyrics, but the similarities between the elements mentioned in the song and the ritual itself make it seem likely.

22

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the king and royal family makes it markedly different. This Assyrian love song is clearly distinct from other Sumerian love songs that concern sacred marriage, but it is still quite different from the Song of Songs and the Egyptian material, in its focus on gods and prosperity for the king. It shares a number of motifs with the Song, as Nissinen observes: love in the garden, the chariot, gazelles, apples, love under the shade of trees, fruit, the locked bedroom door, rinsing before bed, the dialogue format, etc. Yet, the way that these motifs are used also differs from the Song. Tašmetu’s thighs are gazelles, whereas in the Song, it is the woman’s breasts that are fawns.24 Tašmetu’s ankle bones are apples, whereas in the Song it is the woman’s breath that smells of apples.25 Tašmetu is a cedar providing shade for the king and shelter for Nabû, whereas in Songs 5:15 it is the man that is a cedar and in Songs 2:3 an apple tree, providing shade for the woman instead of she him.26 Tašmetu rinses herself before climbing into bed, as the woman in Songs 5:3 washes her feet before laying down, but the man in the Song is locked out of the bedroom in 5:2–6, whereas Nabû is locked in the bedroom whilst Tašmetu cries and he comforts her,27 an occurrence that does not happen in the Song. There are clearly similarities here, though as Nissinen observes, there is no reason to posit a direct relationship between the two, which is unlikely.28 Yet, he is surely correct that this Assyrian 24  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 589; Songs 4:5, 7:4. A woman in P. Chester Beatty I, Group B, No. 40 tells her lover to “come swiftly like a gazelle” (cf. Song 2:8–9, 2:17, 8:14) but there are no examples of a woman’s breasts being compared to fawns, does or gazelles in the Egyptian or Mesopotamian love poems, though gazelles and does occur often in iconography throughout the ane, and are especially associated with Ishtar, the goddess of love, see Keel, Songs, 92–93, 97, 116, 150–51. 25  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 589; Songs 7:9. They both speak of fruit, but Nabû wants Tašmetu to watch the “plucking of my fruit” (“Nabû,” 591), whereas in Songs 2:3 the man’s fruit is sweet to her taste and she asks to be laid among it in 2:5. 26  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 587; Songs 2:3. The sister is panelled with cedar as a door in Songs 8:9, but this is a description of her flat chest, not a reference to providing shade for the man as a tree. 27  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 590. 28  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 624. Determining the direction of influence would be complicated. The Song may have influenced the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu if it dates closer to the time of the Egyptian love songs (see discussion below under Date). The ritual of Nabû and Tašmetu described in other sources shows that it was performed for the “life” of the crowned prince Assurbanipal (668–627 BCE), so Nissinen (593–95, 624) dates the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu to the 7th century BCE during the Neo-Assyrian hegemony over Syria-Palestine. If the mention of Tirzah in Songs 6:4, which was destroyed over a hundred years earlier, means that the Song was written before Tirzah was destroyed (see discussion below), then it would predate this Assyrian love song. Perhaps the Song was incorporated into the love literature of the empire in the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu, which as Nissinen (597–98, 621) notes, has more in common with Hebrew and

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

23

love song is the closest Mesopotamian parallel to the Song of Songs that has been found.29 These and other recent works by Nissinen and Keel,30 have successfully shown connections between the Song of Songs and Mesopotamian love literature, and even Fox has recently acknowledged these contributions and stressed the importance of seeing the Song as a product of both literary traditions.31 Yet, both Nissinen and Keel acknowledge that, thematically and in terms of focus and content, the Song of Songs shares the strongest parallels with the Egyptian love literature.32 Even the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu, whilst it does not concern sacred marriage or fertility, focuses on love between named gods, and this focus is still quite different from the Song’s focus on love between humans, situating it closer to the Egyptian material. Keel and Nissinen are right to stress the importance of Mesopotamian parallels, especially those found in the iconographic and pictorial evidence, for understanding the background of many elements and motifs found in the Song.33 For example, as Keel observes, the dove does not appear in the Egyptian love songs, but is prevalent in Mesopotamian iconography, and the same could be said for the goddess accompanied by lions and leopards on the mountain.34 Yet, thematically, and West Semitic love poetry, particularly in its dialogue format and use of parallelismus memrorum, than it does with its own earlier Mesopotamian love texts. Nissinen (623–24) thinks that this could be due to the “aramaization” of Neo-Assyrian culture, especially since the scribe of the Assyrian love song appears to be of Western descent, but he advises caution in rushing to conclusions, as it would require a more detailed comparison of Neo-Assyrian verse, West Semitic poetry and the older Mesopotamian poetic tradition. 29  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 624. 30  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 624; Marrti Nissinen, “Song of Songs and Sacred Marriage,” in Sacred Marriages: the Divine-Human Sexual Metaphor from Sumer to Early Christianity, Ed. Martti Nissinen and Risto Uro (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2008), 173–218; Martti Nissinen, “Akkadian Love Poetry and the Song of Songs: A Case of Cultural Interaction,” in Zwischen Zion und Azphon: Studien im Gedenken an den Theologen Oswald Loretz (14.01.1928– 12.04.2014), ed. von Ludger Hiepel and Marie-Theres Wacker, aoat 438 (Münster: UgaritVerlag, 2016), 145–70; Keel, Songs. 31  Fox, “Rereading,” 13, 6. 32  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 585, 625; Keel, Songs, 29. 33  Nissinen, “Nabû,” 585, 625; Keel, Songs, 29. Keel (27) notes the importance of studying the many pictorial images in seals, amulets, ivories and other valuables – the iconography – to decipher the origin and meaning of motifs in the Song, such as gazelles, lotus flowers, doves, lions and palm trees. Both Keel (24, 27) and Nissinen (“Nabû,” 585, 625) note the original cultic use of these motifs, and argue that this background is important for understanding their origins, but neither think that their secondary use in the Song makes it a cultic text. The Song is certainly not a ritual text. 34  Keel, Songs, 29, 71, 158 – see also the many images of lotuses, pomegranates and climbing palm trees: 80, 105, 115, 143, 146, 242–243, 249.

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in terms of focus, the Song of Songs is not concerned with what these Mesopotamian love songs are: love between gods, the prosperity of the king and royal family, cultic practices, sacred marriage, fertility, and so on.35 Whilst Mesopotamian components are not to be excluded from the background of the Song of Songs, the absence of the above mentioned themes and foci do situate it closer to the Egyptian love songs. Since the objective of this project is to understand the purpose behind the Song’s overall message, I will compare it with the Egyptian love song texts, as its closest parallels. However, as we will see in chapter six, the Song of Songs is also distinct from the Egyptian love literature in several ways that indicate that the author had a different purpose in writing and a didactic aim. This contrast indicates that the biblical Song is attempting to do something different from the surrounding ane love literature, in its presentation of didactic teaching concerning love. Comparisons with the ane material will also be important for understanding the biblical wisdom genre. Whilst the book of Proverbs is often seen as the foremost model of biblical wisdom, I will argue below that it has used the Song. To try to use Proverbs, then, to show that the Song shares affinities with wisdom would be a circular inner-biblical argument. Instead, I will look outside the biblical evidence, at the antecedent ane didactic or advice literature and what characterized it, as well as biblical wisdom’s unique approach to it. As discussed, whether one refers to this antecedent ane genre as “wisdom literature,” “didactic literature” or “advice literature,” this genre had a long history in the ane that predated the biblical material by at least a thousand years. Chapter four will approach the definition of wisdom by looking at what was typical of the ane advice literature genre, as well as biblical wisdom’s unique approach to that gene. Chapter five will then look at which of these characteristics are shared with the Song of Songs. 4

The Final Form of the Text

This book will look at the final form of the Song as a unified whole. It is not a historical approach to the Song, and as such, will not deal with questions of dating, Sitz im Leben, authorship or the historical development of the text or its parts. That being said, I will briefly outline my starting positions on these various issues, though they do not affect the outcomes of this work. I will then 35  The Akkadian love songs that do focus on human love mentioned above (n. 21) are still quite different, stylistically and thematically, from the Song of Songs and the Egyptian material.

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

25

explain why the Song will be approached as a unified whole, rather than as an anthology of separate songs. 4.1 Date The dating of the Song is difficult, and whilst traditionally placed in the postexilic or Hellenistic period, some are calling for a reassessment in light of the difficulties associated with linguistic dating.36 F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp has recently defended a late date, noting an extensive number of late linguistic features.37 Others, especially Ian Young, have argued that these stylistic features and Aramaisms may have existed in pre-exilic Hebrew, be reminiscences of a northern literary dialect or the result of scribal updating during the text’s transmission history.38 S.R. Driver suggested that the Song was written in a northern dialect over a century ago, and has been followed more recently by Scott Noegel and Gary Rendsburg, who argue that the Song was written in a northern dialect of Hebrew around 900 BCE.39 The obvious problem with dating the Song to the 36  Exum, “Unity,” 57. She (60) notes, “there now exists a serious and substantial body of evidence to challenge this position,” and (n. 30) that a number of scholars have changed their position. 37  F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp, “Late Linguistic Features in the Song of Songs,” in Hagedorn, Perspektiven der Hoheliedauslegung, 27–77: 1) not just the use of the relative particle ‫ ֶשׁ‬, which occurs in pre-exilic ebh alongside ‫ ֲא ֶשׁר‬, but the exclusive use of ‫ ֶשׁ‬throughout the book (apart from one use of ‫ ֲא ֶשׁר‬in the title – a late addition) is characteristic of MH; 2) the replacement of 2nd and 3rd person feminine plural suffixes (where they would be expected) with masculine plural suffixes, which is typical in lbh; 3) the almost complete absence of the wayyiqtol, used often in sbh, but in decline in lbh and disappearing in MH; 4) its high percentage of fuller plene spellings with matres lectionis, characteristic of lbh; 5) the frequency and heavy concentration of Aramaisms in conjunction with other late linguistic elements, which characterizes lbh and distinguishes it from pre-exilic sbh; 6) the loanwords ‫ ַּפ ְר ֵּדס‬, which is thought to be Persian, and ‫ ַא ִּפ ְריֹון‬, which is thought to be Greek, though debated; etc. Cf. Fox, Songs, 187–189. 38  Ian Young, Diversity in Pre-exilic Hebrew, fat 5 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1993); Ian Young, “Biblical Texts Cannot Be Dated Linguistically,” HS 46 (2005): 341–51. Cf. Avi Hurvitz, “The Chronological Significance of ‘Aramaisms’ in Biblical Hebrew,” iej 18 (1968): 234–40. Young (Diversity) has challenged the assumption that ebh and lbh represent different chronological periods, arguing that they coexisted as conservative (ebh) and non-conservative (lbh) literary styles. The origins of the so-called Greek and Persian loan words are debated (Young [Diversity, 161–62] argues convincingly that they are from Sanskrit with Iranian cognates). Even if they are Greek and Persian, they may simply be the result of linguistic updating. 39  S.R. Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 9th edition (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1913), 449; Scott B. Noegel and Gary A. Rendsburg, Solomon’s Vineyard: Literary and Linguistic Studies in the Song of Songs, ail 1 (Atlanta: sbl Press, 2009), 3–62, 174–84; cf. Gary A. Rendsberg, “Israelian Hebrew in the Song of Songs,” in Biblical Hebrew in its Northwest Semitic Setting: Typological and Historical Perspectives, ed. Steven E. Fassberg and

26

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10th century, or even the 9th century, is that there is little evidence of written Hebrew before the 8th century. As Dobbs-Allsopp notes, there was dialectical variation in biblical Hebrew, as seen in the limited epigraphic remains of Iron II Israel and Judah, but we have no indisputably northern source, biblical or otherwise, with the linguistic profile needed to demonstrate this dialect.40 Young argues that the Song shares significant isoglosses with the Song of Deborah, yet lacks the same clustering of archaic elements, so that it betrays signs of an early work, yet is not exclusively in the archaic or standard biblical styles.41 He, Robert Rezetko and Martin Ehrensvärd conclude: Song of Songs fits nowhere in a linear history of BH. Whatever period we date it to, we must explain its language as evidence of another variety of Hebrew than that of the rest of the Hebrew Bible. Once we realize that Song of Songs’ Hebrew was, according to our current knowledge, never the normal sort of literary Hebrew in any age, we no longer have any firm peg to date its composition. If this language reflects a colloquial or regional dialect, for example, there is no reason why it is necessarily late or early – it is just different.42 David Carr argues that the Song had an unusually fluid transmission history, which would work against Dobbs-Allsopp’s dating of the Song based on orthography, and that as a popular genre, love poetry, it is highly likely that it used more colloquial language than was typical of other biblical literature.43 Avi Hurvitz (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2006), 315–23. Marvin H. Pope (Song of Songs: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 7C [New York: Doubleday, 1977], 27) notes numerous Ugaritic parallels and argues, “no matter how late one places the final editorial operations, the antiquity of at least parts of the Songs cannot be doubted in light of the Ugaritic parallels.” 40  Dobbs-Allsopp, “Late,” 64. He (63) argues that the theory that the Song is a northern work written in a northern dialect of ancient Hebrew that was distinct from sbh is possible, but not defensible, as “we lack the kind of empirical data needed to establish the thesis.” 41  Young, Diversity, 165. 42  Ian Young, Robert Rezetko and Martin Ehrensvärd, Linguistic Dating of Biblical Texts, vol. 1 (London: Equinox, 2008), 197. If Young (Diversity) is correct that ebh and lbh do not represent different chronological periods, but rather, concurrent conservative and nonconservative literary styles, this would make it impossible to date the Song either “early” or “late” on linguistic evidence alone. 43  David Carr, The Formation of the Hebrew Bible: A New Reconstruction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 432–33. He notes that 4QCantb and 4QCanta display significant variants and a number of Aramaic forms with no parallel in the MT, showing that the Song was subject to a fluid process of Aramaising and linguistic updating into the 2nd Temple Period, cf. Young, “Linguistically,” 349–50. Young et al. (Linguistic Dating, 359) note that

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

27

He notes that the Egyptian love songs, with which the Song shares strong parallels, were also written in a “more colloquial non-classical Egyptian than contemporary instructional or display texts.”44 The northern locations mentioned in the Song do not help us to date it.45 The Song simply depicts exotic far away places as settings for love. The mention of Tirzah in Songs 6:4, however, is more problematic than some allow.46 It is not just the fact that Tirzah is mentioned, but that it is mentioned instead of Samaria, that seems unlikely centuries later. Tirzah was briefly the capital of the north, but it was not the legendary capital of the north – this was Samaria. If one were to refer to a legendary city of the north centuries later, parallel to Jerusalem in stature, it would surely be Samaria. Yet, Samaria is never mentioned in the Song, and this is strange. The mention of Tirzah would fit most naturally during the early 9th century, just before Omri moved the capital to Samaria, and this would cohere with the idea that the linguistic features of the Song reflect a pre-exilic Northern dialect. Yet again, we do not have strong empirical evidence of written Hebrew or extensive literary activity until the 8th century.47 Hebrew literature flourished in the 8th and 7th centuries and this was a time of significant literary activity, not only in Judah but also in Egypt

whilst textual stability is essential for dating biblical texts linguistically, the biblical texts were characterized by instability. 44  Carr, Formation, 432. Young (Diversity, 62–63, 83, esp. 165–66) also notes that whilst preexilic sbh avoided Aramaisms, this does not hold for certain genres – they are characteristic of the wisdom genre (a non-standard genre open to divergent language). He thinks that the Song could conceivably be from the non-standard wisdom genre and that this question “deserves consideration.” 45  See Keel’s (Songs, 36) helpful map of locations mentioned in the Song. Carmel and Sharon were not part of northern Israel until the 9th century, under Omri/Ahab (see Mario Liverani, Israel’s History and the History of Israel, translated from the Italian [2003] by Chiara Peri and Philip R. Davies [London: Routledge, 2014], 109). Lebanon, Damascus, Hermon, Senir, Amana and Kedar were never part of either kingdom. Keel (Songs, 5) argues that En Gedi was not settled until the 7th century, though Carr (Formation, 441) argues that it could have been cultivated earlier than the excavated structures from 625 BCE. 46  Fox (Songs, 187) and others argue that Tirzah was legendary and would have been remembered centuries later. The consensus is that Tirzah was at Tell el-Far’ah, north. 47  William M. Schniedewind (How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004], 43) argues that the 9th century inscriptions show that writing was pan-Canaanite, and that linguistic nationalism only arose in the 8th century, as separate alphabets and languages began to emerge. He (52–56) notes the writing of early oral Israelite songs in the 10th century “Book of Jahar” (“Scroll of the Songs”), though these were likely written in a pan-Canaanite language, as (59) there is little evidence that Israel had an independent writing tradition until the 8th century.

28

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and Assyria.48 Keel maintains that the Song originated in the north and was carried south to Judah by northern refugees, reaching its final form in Jerusalem in the 8th to 6th centuries.49 He argues that Egyptian love literature was still flourishing at this time, unlike later in the Hellenistic period.50 As discussed, the Song of Songs shares its strongest parallels with Egyptian love poetry, the height of which was during the Ramesside period, between 1300–1100 BCE.51 It is peculiar that whilst scholars devote so much attention to the similarities between the Song and the Egyptian material, they are happy to accept a time gap of almost a millennium between the two, particularly when there is no evidence that Egyptian love poetry continued as a poetic form into later periods.52 A number of theories concerning Sitz im Leben have been put forth in order to account for this time gap, as I shall discuss, but if the Song shares the closest affinities with Egyptian love literature, then it seems more likely that it dates closer to the Egyptian love literature’s time of prominence, than that this poetic form reappeared after hundreds of years. A further layer of complication is added by Zakovitch and Carr’s observations that texts like Hosea 2:4–22, 14:6–8, Deuteronomy 6:4–9, Isaiah 5:1–7, Jeremiah 6:2–5 and Proverbs 1–9 seem to be reliant on the Song.53 Very limited sections of these books appear to allude to passages across the Song, and love imagery does have its more natural origin in love poetry rather than theological discourse.54 Carr notes that a few of these texts are thought to contain early Northern substratum, which would force an earlier date for the Song prior to their composition.55 Whilst some argue that the linguistic features of the Song cohere best with post-exilic books, this cannot be said of its content, which does not reflect the type of post-exilic concerns seen in texts like EzraNehemiah. We see nothing of Ezra and Nehemiah’s concern for the law or prohibiting foreign marriage in the Song, which if anything, displays the enjoyment of sexual love before marriage, as chapter three will show. It is hard to picture this type of book being written at that time, with its concerns. 48  Schniedewind, How, 67, 74. He (74) notes that literary activity rose sharply in the 8th century, reaching its apex in the 7th century, and that the phenomenon of collecting earlier works and the rise of archives and libraries stretched across the ane. 49  Keel, Songs, 4. 50  Keel, Songs, 4–5. 51  Joachim Friedrich Quack, “Where Once Was Love, Love Is No More? What Happens to Expressions of Love in Late Period Egypt,” WO 46, 1 (2016): 62. 52  Fox, “Rereading,” 12; Quack, “Where,” 63. 53  Yair Zakovitch, Das Hohelied (HThKat, Frieburg: Herder, 2004), 54–56; Carr, Formation, 434–39. 54  Carr, Formation, 436. 55  Carr, Formation, 434–37.

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

29

The dating of the Song is complicated and a late date should not be taken for granted. It may be that an earlier date would help resolve other tensions – its close parallels with Egyptian material, its dissimilarity with the concerns of post-exilic books, the mention of Tirzah or the reliance of other biblical books on the Song. Yet, there are other difficulties associated with an earlier date. Contrary to what is often suggested,56 however, an earlier date for the Song does not reopen the question of Solomonic authorship. The book itself closes this question.57 I remain agnostic about our ability to date the Song with certainty, and whilst I think that the question is worth reopening and considering, it does not affect the argument put forth in this work,58 which is largely literary dealing with the final form of the text. 4.2 Sitz im Leben Most of the recent literature concerning parallels between the Song and the Egyptian love literature focuses on the problematic time lapse between the Egyptian material and the presumed late date of the Song, and attempts to offer a Sitz im Leben that would explain how, despite the time gap, the Egyptian poems found their way into Israel and influenced the Song of Songs.59 Recent proposals have included positing 1) the continuation of Ramesside love poetry into later periods, though we lack any material evidence for this,60 2) that elements of the Ramesside love poetry continued in other genres of literature, and its absence in the Demotic literature can be explained by its social location in the private banquets of higher-Greek classes,61 3) that it made its way into Israel along the Levantine coast in the Late Bronze age through professional traveling singers,62 4) that its continuation can be explained, not by genetic

56  Carr, Formation, 447–48; P.W.T. Stoop-van Paridon, The Song of Songs: A Philological Analysis of the Hebrew Book, ANESSup 17 (Leuven: Peeters, 2005), 12. 57  As chapter 3 will discuss, the male lover compares himself to Solomon and asserts that his relationship is superior to Solomon’s with his harem in 8:11–12. The man would not belittle or contrast himself with Solomon if he were Solomon, nor would Solomon write this. Solomon did not write the Song of Songs. 58  Proverbs 1–9 is usually dated later than the rest of the book, so a late date for the Song would not affect the argument concerning direction of influence. 59  See Fox, “Rereading,” 12–13; Quack, “Where,” 62; Anselm Hagedorn, “What Kind of Love Is It? Egyptian, Hebrew, or Greek?” WO 46, 1 (2016): 91–92; Antonio Loprieno, “Searching for a common background: Egyptian love poetry and the Biblical Song of Songs,” in Hagedorn, Perspektiven der Hoheliedauslegung, 108–109. 60  Fox, “Rereading,” 12, Quack, “Where,” 63, 65, 7. cf. Hagedorn, “What,” 92. 61  Quack, “Where,” 66, 68–80, 82. 62  Fox, “Rereading,” 12–13; cf. Quack, “Where,” 63.

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connection, but by a common religious festival social-setting,63 and 5) that isolated motifs continued in the Demotic and Greek erotic poetry until the Song was written in Ptolemaic Alexandria, so that the Greek literature forms a bridge between the Song and the Egyptian material.64 However, as Fox notes, “nothing quite like Ramesside love poetry was being composed or, so far as we know, transmitted, in later periods.”65 We know that songs were sung at banquets, as seen in tomb murals,66 but not what type of songs, or that only love songs were exclusively sung. There is no reason to think that love songs were written specifically for banquets, or that they would not have been sung in other contexts, and we do not know that banquets were only held for religious festivals. The Egyptian love songs themselves contain very few references to actual festivals,67 and in the few that do, it is more of a backdrop setting, as they never comment on specific ritualistic elements of the festivals, which is strange if this was the purpose of their composition.68 The arguments put forward for transference through a shared ritualistic-festival setting are unconvincing, as the links between the Egyptian love songs themselves and the ritual aspects of festivals are quite weak.69 The religious festival 63  See Loprieno, “Searching,” 123; John C. Darnell, “The Rituals of Love in Ancient Egypt: Festival Songs in the Eighteenth Dynasty and the Ramesside Love Poetry,” WO 46, 1 (2016): 22–24. 64  Hagedorn, “What,” 90–92. 65  Fox, “Rereading,” 12. Quack (“Where,” 63, 65, 7) attempts to argue for the continuation of certain elements in other literature, yet ultimately also concedes this. 66  Fox (“Rereading,” 10, 16) notes this, but (12) questions “whether banquets in themselves would have generated the specifics shared by the two corpora,” especially their shared themes. Quack (“Where,” 63) questions how similar the socio-cultural situations were, as well as the rights of women and attitudes towards pre-marital sex. 67  Contra Darnell (“Festival,” 25), the only references to festivals are in “The Orchard” in The Turin Love Songs, No. 28–30 (mentions a festival booth and beer hut below the tree), P. Chester Beatty I, Group C, No. 45 and possibly the man in the 3rd collection of P. Harris 500, Group C, No. 19, who comes home and takes off a garland necklace, if he has come from a festival, though it does not say. 68  Fox (Songs, 251–52) suggested that secular love songs were part of social merrymaking and popular entertainment at religious festivals, but associating them with the ritual/ cultic aspects of these festivals, and arguing that they are therefore religious, is something quite different. 69  Darnell (“Festival,” 22–61) and Loprieno (“Searching”) struggle to prove this Sitz im Leben for the Egyptian love songs, let alone the Song of Songs, cf. Quack’s (“Where,” 81–82) critique of Darnell. Whilst there are a few instances where lovers pray to a god to grant them their beloved, this is not ritualistic and these songs do not concern love between gods or contain references to ceremony or ritual. It is only by over-interpreting aquatic, bucolic and metal elements as automatic representations of religious festivals, ritual and deities that Darnell (“Festival,” 23–26, 34, cf. Loprieno, “Searching,” 126, 129–31) can arrive at this

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31

argument appears to be motived by a desire to substantiate a religious/cultic origin for the Song,70 and it should concern us that otherwise secular Egyptian love songs are being reinterpreted as ritualistic or cultic, in order to validate a religious understanding of the Song of Songs. We cannot use conjecture about the ritualistic setting of Egyptian love songs to posit that the Song of Songs, with a similar focus on human love, is in fact religious. The connections posited with isolated motifs in the Demotic and Greek erotic poetry also ultimately fail to bridge the time gap between the Ramesside love songs and the Song of Songs, for as Fox correctly observes, the latter “are more like each other than either is to the poetry of the Hellenistic period.”71 Despite the time gap, a genetic connection between the Ramesside love songs and the Song of Songs is still likely, given the shared themes, motifs and techniques.72 An earlier date for the Song, closer to the time of Rammesside love poetry in Egypt, would resolve this dilemma without requiring the postulation of a Sitz im Leben that we struggle to verify. The main issue with these proposals is that they cannot be verified, and if anything, the evidence that we do have leans in the opposite direction. The Song likely functioned on a popular level, as most love songs do,73 and could have been used in a performance conclusion. He interprets any form of dress as festival dress, any aquatic element as alluding to a festival/ritual, and any piece of jewellery as having ritualistic meaning, but he is far from proving this is the case. 70  Darnell, “Festival,” 55. In questioning the “religious origin” of the Song, I mean the idea that it was composed to depict the relationship between God and Israel. I do not mean that the Song is secular or non-religious in the sense that it is completely devoid of the divine, but rather, that it concerns the human realm, depicting love between humans. This was still considered “sacred” in the sense of under divine patronage, but not in the sense of being a story about the Israelite God. 71  Fox, “Rereading,” 12. The motifs shared with Greek literature are not pervasive enough to form a bridge between the Egyptian and Hebrew literature, and as Exum (“Unity,” 61, n. 33) states, are “too general to be meaningful.” Hagedorn (“What,” 92–99) argues that the comparison of the female lover to a horse in Songs 1:9–11 is a typos from Greek erotic poetry, yet the motif is not prevalent enough in the Song to substantiate its dependence on Greek literature, especially since Aristophanes’ Lysistrata the Spartan is so different from the Song thematically. The motif is also too general to be meaningful, as male lovers are compared to horses in Egyptian love songs, and whilst Hagedorn (“What,” 94–99) maintains that a focus on the beauty of the horse is specific to the Greek literature, some of his examples do not emphasize beauty. A woman is also compared to a horse in terms of beauty and agility in “In the Light of the Window” from the Old Babylonian period, and horses are “spruced up with jewellery” in “Banitu and Her Consort” from the NeoBabylonian period. 72  Fox, “Rereading,” 13. 73  The Song as wisdom does not mean that its Sitz im Leben was in an institution or educational setting. I argue against this social setting for wisdom more generally in chapter 4,

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setting as Schellenberg has suggested.74 Yet, it is difficult to determine what its original social setting was with any degree of certainty. 4.3 Author(ess) A related issue is authorship, about which I also remain agnostic. The Song does not offer any indication of who composed it and, as we will see in chapters three and five, it is unlikely that Solomon wrote it. The superscription can be understood in a number of ways. There may be one or multiple authors, an editor or compiler, though as we will see momentarily, the Song displays such a high degree of homogeneity and cohesiveness that if separate poems were brought together, the compiler should be viewed as an author in his or her own right.75 Some have suggested that the author was a woman, and this view has gained considerable traction.76 However, it is difficult to know with any degree of certainty. A clever and talented author can bring out male or female voices and characterizations in a text, and since the Song is a dialogue representing the speech of both genders, either author would have characterized the other gender at least part of the time. Wilfred Watson thinks that in Egypt, the writing of love poetry was mainly a “female profession,” since they were also the singers, and others have suggested that women composed or commissioned love poetry in Mesopotamia.77 Yet, as Exum notes, we do not have strong evidence and that the wisdom writers were not distinct from/opposed to other groups – prophets, priests, artists and poets. The Song instructs but it also inspires, and it is not pure instruction, see n. 14 of chapter 5. 74  Annette Schellenberg, “Boundary Crossing in and through the Song of Songs: Observations on the Liminal Character and Function of the Song,” in Reading a Tendentious Bible: Essays in Honor of Robert B. Coote, ed. Marvin L. Chaney, Uriah Y. Kim and Annette Schellenberg (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2014), 140–54. Cf. Fox, “Rereading,” 13, Songs, 247; Exum, Songs, 64. 75  Exum, Songs, 34–35; Exum, “Unity,” 63–64; Fox, Songs, 223–24. 76  See Fokkelien van Dijk-Hemmes, “Traces of Women’s Texts in the Hebrew Bible,” in On Gendering Texts: Female and Male Voices in the Hebrew Bible, ed. Athalya Brenner and Fokkelien van Dijk-Hemmes (Leiden: Brill, 1993), 71–81; Athalya Brenner, “Women Poets and Authors” A Feminist Companion to the Song of Songs, ed. Athalya Brenner (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1993), 86–97; Athalya Brenner and Carole R. Fontaine, eds., The Song of Songs: A Feminist Companion to the Hebrew Bible (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000); LaCocque, Romance; Carey Ellen Walsh, Exquisite Desire: Religion, the Erotic and the Song of Songs (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2000). 77  Watson, “Parallels,” 255; Exum, Songs, 65; Thorkild Jacobsen, The Harps That Once …: Sumerian Poetry in Translation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 85–86; Gwendolyn Leick, Sex and Eroticism in Mesopotamian Literature (London: Routledge, 1994), 112–113.

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

33

of female literacy in Israel,78 and very few women were educated, as their primary role was in the home bearing children. Men undoubtedly had more opportunity to be educated than women, perhaps making it more likely that the author of the Song was male, but it is also possible that an educated woman wrote it.79 We cannot decide conclusively. Keel thinks that the wisdom writers were the authors of love poetry in Israel. He notes that, in Egypt, students recorded admonitions and wisdom writings on one side of their papyri and ostraca, whilst on the other, they and their teachers wrote a number of love songs.80 He thinks that the same was likely true in Israel, where love songs were written, collected and circulated by the “wise” and their students.81 I will return to the question of whether the Song was originally written, or later updated, by a wisdom author in chapter five, but for now it is interesting to note this connection in the papyri and ostraca. The Song does not indicate who its author was, or whether they were female or male, so that we simply cannot know with any degree of certainty at this time. 4.4 Unity This book will deal with the final form of the Song, rather than the historical development of the text. The extant information does not allow us to reconstruct a picture of the text’s pre-history or what its redactional history might have been, with any degree of certainty,82 and so I will engage with the text in its final form, which is woven together so thoroughly that it should be viewed as a unified work. Evidence of the Song’s unity can be seen in its consistency of character portrayal, thematic coherence and repetition of terminology, motifs and scenes.83 Whilst ane anthology love song collections present various types of lovers, personalities and types of love relationships, as we will see in chapter 78  Exum, Songs, 65; cf. Ian Young, “Israelite Literacy: Interpreting the Evidence: Part I,” VT 48 (1998): 239–53; Ian Young, “Israelite Literacy: Interpreting the Evidence: Part II,” VT 48 (1998): 408–22. One exception might be privileged/educated women, like the Queen of Sheba. 79  Exum, “Unity,” 64, n. 45; Exum (Songs, 65) questions: “Would the male editors and scribes, whose activity in producing the Bible was guided by social and religious agendas, have preserved intact an erotic poem written by a woman?”. 80  Keel, Songs, 4. Nissinen (“Akkadian,” 161) also notes an interesting connection between Akkadian love songs and wisdom, as Nabû was a scribe-god and patron of wisdom, putting love songs “in the close vicinity of the wisdom genre, if not part of it, and reviv[ing] the question of possible connections between the Song of Songs and wisdom.” 81  Keel, Songs, 4. 82  Fox, Songs, 224. 83  Fox, Songs, 224; Exum, Songs, 33–37; Exum, “Unity,” 54; Murphy, Songs, 62–91.

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six, the Song of Songs presents the same lovers with discernible character traits and consistent personalities, in a particular type of relationship throughout. Their speech, language and behaviour is portrayed with remarkable consistency, alerting us to the fact that they are the same lovers throughout. Even those who hold an anthology view tend to speak of “the man” or “the woman” without distinguishing between lovers in different poems.84 The same themes and settings occur throughout the Song: the springtime setting, leaving the city to go to the countryside, the search for the beloved, nocturnal visits, love sickness and being intoxicated with love. The autonomy of the Egyptian love songs is indicated by their subheadings, which we do not find in the Song, and ane love song anthologies in Egypt and Mesopotamia do not evidence the repetition found throughout the Song.85 Whilst refrains can be easily inserted into a text at fixed intervals, the repeated words, phrases, verbal echoes and scenes that reoccur in the Song are so thoroughly intertwined that they cannot be editorial glosses imposed by a later compiler.86 Analogies are often drawn with ane anthology love song collections, but the idea that these songs were superficially joined by key words or motifs is actually refuted by ane parallels, as there are only occasional thematic ties between them and there is no attempt to join individual songs by key words or motifs.87 As Fox observes, “Egyptian collections show what an anthology of love songs looks like, and it does not look like Canticles.”88

84  Exum, Songs, 36; Fox, Songs, 217. Even Longman (Songs, 15–17, 55–56) who views the Song as an anthology, acknowledges that the consistency in character portrayal, verbal echoes and repeated refrains and scenes throughout give it a sense of literary unity. 85  Fox, Songs, 204, 220. Some argue that the similarity between separate songs is due to stock love language/terminology typical of the ane. However, as we will discuss momentarily, the way that the Song uses these terms and motifs is distinct from other ane love song collections. 86  See discussions in Fox, Songs, 209–215, Murphy, Songs, 76–81 and Garrett, Songs, 28. Examples include the man as a gazelle or young stag, the mountains of spices or myrrh, the neck as a tower, her breasts as fawns, hair as a flock of goats, cheeks as slices of pomegranates, lilies/lotuses, lips dripping honey or myrrh, the woman’s vineyard, houses, love sickness, the exclamations of “How beautiful you are!” the seeking/finding theme, the nocturnal visits, his left hand under her head and right hand embracing her, the invitation to come away to see the blossoming spring, coming up from the desert, caresses being better than wine, embracing, the “I am my beloved’s and my beloved is mine” declarations, and epithets like friend, dove, sister and bride. 87  Fox, Songs, 204. He notes that the Mesopotamian love songs also do not link individual songs by key words or motifs. 88  Fox, Songs, 204.

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35

The Song is clearly not an anthology and does not betray evidence of separate poems joined together superficially. If the differences between the individual songs are as obvious as those who hold the anthology view say, which is what is supposed to give rise to it, then it is quite strange that those who hold this view cannot, with any degree of consistency, agree on the number of songs or even where the divisions take place.89 No one has been able to present clear and objective demarcations for why one song is disparate from another. The anthology view, therefore, seems to lack supporting evidence for its premise. The more that those advocating the anthology view argue for extensive revisions beyond superficial linkages, connecting units by refrains, vocabulary and transposed lines, the more it starts to look like the unity view anyway. If an editor or compiler did bring together separate poems with repeated words, motifs, themes, scenes and consistent character portrayals, then we can only say that they have woven them together so thoroughly and given it so much uniformity that they have created a unified work, and therefore, should be seen as an author in their own right.90 It is woven together so intricately that there is little reason to speculate that there was an editor combining individual works at all.91 As chapter five will show, the wisdom features in the Song are also woven into it so thoroughly that they cannot be seen as mere editorial glosses, but rather, are part of the structure of the Song as a unified whole. 5

Inner-Biblical Allusion and the Repetition of Wisdom Forms

The work is inner-biblical in the sense that Proverbs 7, in particular, will be in dialogue with the Song of Songs and I will argue that the direction of influence is from the Song to Proverbs and the other wisdom books.92 “Inner-biblical” 89  As a brief survey of Keel (Songs), Marcia Falk (New Translation), Longman (Songs), and Robert Gordis (The Song of Songs and Lamentations: A Study, Modern Translation, and Commentary [New York: Ktav Publishing Inc., 1974]) shows. 90  Fox, Songs, 220. 91  Exum, “Unity,” 64. An editor may have updated an earlier unified work, linguistically or grammatically, but it is unlikely that separate poems were given unity at a later date, as the themes and techniques that unify them reflect the style of the Ramesside love songs. 92  The project is not strictly inner-biblical in the sense that I use other texts to establish the Song’s meaning or relationship to wisdom. I argue that Proverbs and the other wisdom books have used the Song, so that the meaning of parallel sections, like Prov 7, is based on the Song, not vice versa. The discussion of the Song’s relationship to wisdom is based on a broader understanding of what was typical of the antecedent ane wisdom literature, rather than parallels with the wisdom books alone.

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rather than “inter-textual” will be used, as it is a diachronic or author-oriented approach focusing on identifying specific connections that the author intended for the reader to perceive. As Geoffrey Miller notes, the synchronic or reader-oriented approach, which focuses solely on connections that the reader draws between texts, and the meaning resulting from the interaction between text and reader rather than the author’s intent, is probably a more accurate application of the post-structuralist concept that Julia Kristeva called “intertextuality.”93 It thus seems appropriate to reserve the use of the term “inter-textual” for the synchronic approach and give the diachronic or authororiented approach a different designation: “inner-biblical.” There are a few reasons for bringing Proverbs 7 into this discussion. One is that the Song’s strongest parallels with any wisdom book are with Proverbs, and specifically with this section of Proverbs, chapter 7.94 Proverbs is generally seen as the foremost representation of biblical wisdom literature and Proverbs 7 is often cited as a primary example of particular wisdom forms, such as autobiographical didactic narrative and narrative report of character. 93  Geoffrey D. Miller, “Intertextuality in Old Testament Research,” CurBR 9 (2010): 305. Cf. Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (New York: Clarendon, 1985); M.R. Stead, “Intertextuality and Inner-biblical Interpretation,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and J. Gordon McConville (Downers Grove, IL: ivp Academic, 2012), 355–64; Jeffrey M. Leonard, “Identifying Inner-Biblical Allusions: Psalm 78 as a Test Case,” jbl 127, 2 (2008): 241–65; Karl William Wedye, “Inner-biblical Interpretation: Methodological Reflections on the Relationship between Texts in the Hebrew Bible,” seå 70 (2005): 287–300; Lyle M. Eslinger, “Inner-biblical Exegesis and Inner-biblical Allusion: The Question of Category,” VT 42, 1 (1992): 47–58; Benjamin Sommer, “Exegesis, Allusion, and Intertextuality in the Hebrew Bible: a Response to Lyle Eslinger,” CurBR 3, 9 (2011): 479–89. 94  Space does not permit a full treatment of all the passages in Proverbs and the other wisdom books with similarities to the Song. I have chosen Proverbs 7 to demonstrate the direction of influence because it evidences the highest volume of allusions to the Song and is a primary example of particular wisdom forms. See Annette Schellenberg, “‘May Her Breasts Satisfy You at All Times’ (Prov 5:19): On the Erotic Passages in Proverbs and Sirach and the Question of How They Relate to the Song of Songs,” VT 68, 2 (2018): 252–71, for further discussion of the similarities between the Song and other passages in Proverbs and Sirach, though she sees Proverbs 7 as a rejection of the Song’s view of love by the sages. However, Proverbs 7 only addresses the topic of loving someone else’s wife specifically, that is adultery, and actually never mentions love between two unmarried lovers. Eroticism could be seen as “domesticated” (limited to marriage) and “spiritualized” (connected to Lady Wisdom) in Proverbs and the later wisdom books, yet as they do not reject the Song’s instruction concerning love (but rather expound upon it, as I argue in the case of Proverbs 7), this later development does not entail a rejection of the Song’s view of love. It simply places it in the context of marriage. Schellenberg (253) does also successfully show “that the authors of Proverbs and Sirach still understood the Song ‘literally’ rather than allegorically.”

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37

Addressing the similarities between the Song and Proverbs 7, and its use of the Song’s language will, therefore, illuminate the fact that the Song used these same forms. Proverbs 7 also expands upon the teaching in the Song and its didactic lesson concerning when not to awaken love by showing a particular example of this. It is therefore an important supplement to its message. I will examine the direction of influence here, before discussing the meaning of Proverbs 7 and its use of the Song’s language in chapter three. Proverbs 7 is implicitly but intentionally alluding to the Song.95 As we will see in chapter three, this is marked by the demonstrated repetition of particular words, phrases and motifs.96 These allusions to the Song evoke its background context for readers. The number of these allusions in close proximity indicates that the author intended for readers to recall the display of love in the Song, whilst presenting them with a distortion of it. William Tooman mentions five criteria by which the deliberate re-use of a text by another is established: uniqueness, distinctiveness, multiplicity, thematic correspondence and/or inversion.97 Many of the phrases and motifs that will be discussed in chapter three are unique to and distinctive of the Song, apart from their re-use in Proverbs 7.98 The motif of seeking in the streets ‫ ַּב ְּשׁוָ ִקים‬and square ‫ רחֹב‬specifically, finding ‫ מצא‬and kissing ‫נשׁק‬, the spices of myrrh ‫מר‬, aloes ‫אהלים‬, and cinnamon ‫ וקנמון‬in the context of love, the couch ‫ ערשׂ‬and bed ‫משׁכב‬, and eating and drinking of love are all evocative of the Song. It is not just the words themselves, but the way they are used, and the piling up of these words and motifs in close proximity (in the short span of ten verses) and in the similar context of a romantic relationship that immediately recalls the world of the Song. The amassing of these elements would have made it easy for readers to identify the source – the Song – and would have been recognized 95  See discussions of intentional allusion in Katharine Dell, “Ecclesiastes and Genesis 1–11,” Reading Ecclesiastes Intertextually, ed. Katharine Dell and Will Kynes (London: Bloomsbury, 2014), 5, and Will Kynes, My Psalm Has Turned into Weeping: Job’s Dialogue with the Psalms (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012), 30. 96  See discussion of intentional allusion in William Tooman, Gog of Magog: Reuse of Scripture and Compositional Technique in Ezekiel 38–39 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011), 27. 97  Tooman, Gog, 27–31. cf. Leonard, “Inner-Biblical,” 246. Miller (“Intertextuality,” 296–97) notes that a text might borrow another’s plot or imitate content through the depiction of characters. Proverbs 7 borrows the plot of the Song in the seductress’s claim to have searched and found the youth in the city streets. These are what Robert Alter (The Art of Biblical Narrative [New York: Basic Books, 1981], 51) calls “type scenes” and are distinctive of the Song. Other borrowed elements of the plot and characters are discussed in chapter 3. 98  As I will discuss, many of these motifs are not found in the wider ane love literature. They only occur in the Song alone.

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as distinctive of the Song.99 There is strong thematic correspondence between Proverbs 7 and the Song, for as we will see, they share similar subjects and themes: love, luxuriating in love and wisdom about when love should be pursued.100 The allusion to the Song is thus doubly marked by shared language as well as shared themes and subject matter.101 I do not see a deliberate inversion of word order or phrases in Proverbs 7, yet there is a quite pronounced thematic inversion taking place. As will be discussed in more depth in chapter three, the themes and motifs of the Song are used precisely in order to invert their meaning, showing that this particular display of love is only an imitation of the type of love displayed in the Song. This is the primary reason that Proverbs uses the language of the Song. Proverbs 7 fits all five of the criteria for establishing its re-use of the Song. A related issue is whether the love language that Proverbs uses is really unique to and distinctive of the Song of Songs, or actually derives from a wider cultural stock of love motifs found in ane love songs more generally. Since love is a common human experience, we would expect to see many of the same motifs in both the Song and other ane love songs. Some of the motifs that occur are similar; however, the way they are used is often distinctive in each culture. For example, deer, gazelles, does and fawns are a common motif in ane love songs and iconography,102 but they are only used to describe a woman’s breasts in the Song of Songs.103 In Mesopotamian love songs, breasts are often referred to as apples, and in Egyptian love literature, mandragoras and fruit,104 but neither refer to breasts as deer, gazelles, does or fawns. The wife in Proverbs 5:15– 18 is referred to as a “fountain,” “spring” and “well,” as in Songs 4:15 where the female lover is a garden “fountain,” “spring” and a “well” of living water, but this metaphor does not occur in other ane love song texts,105 so it is immediately 99  Tooman (Gog, 28) observes that this is a “strong indicator of deliberate reuse.” 100  Some deny that Proverbs 7 concerns love, but as we will see in chapter 3, this is central to how the adulteress executes her seduction. 101  See Tooman, Gog, 29–30. 102  See Keel, Songs, 92–93, 116, 150–51. 103  There are no examples of a woman’s breasts being compared to fawns, does or gazelles in the Egyptian or Mesopotamian love poems, see p. 22 above, footnote 24. Yet in Prov. 5:19, the “wife of your youth” is called a lovely deer and graceful doe right before it says “let her breasts fill you at all times with delight,” and the close proximity of “deer,” “doe” and breasts immediately recalls the language of Song 4:5 and 7:4. 104  See P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 3, and “The Orchard” in The Turin Love Songs, No. 28. 105  As Keel (Songs, 174) notes, the garden metaphor was used extensively in the ane, yet the “fountain” metaphor was not. A woman’s “canal” is mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian love poems, yet a garden with its own spring/fountain is not reliant on an external water supply, like a canal.

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39

evocative of the Song. In Proverbs 5:3, the lips of the išša zarah ‫“ נ ֶֹפת ִּתּט ְֹפנָ ה‬drip honey,” just as the female lover’s lips ‫“ נ ֶֹפת ִּתּט ְֹפנָ ה‬drip honey” in Songs 4:11, but there are no examples of lips dripping honey in other ane love songs.106 It is distinctive of the Song of Songs and Proverbs alone. There are a number of motifs that occur in Proverbs 7 specifically that are distinctive of the Song of Songs. The motif of searching for the lover occurs in the mythology of several ane goddesses,107 but the adulteress’s search in Proverbs 7:8–15 is carried out in the city “street” and “market/square,” specifi­ cally, and at night, which is distinctly evocative of Songs 3:2–4 and 5:6–7, and does not occur in other ane love song texts. The “bed” or “couch” is a common feature in many other love songs,108 but the bed in Proverbs 7 is perfumed specifically with “myrrh, aloes and cinnamon,” the combination of which occurs only in the Song, and not in other ane love songs.109 The adulteress in Proverbs 7:18 invites the youth to drink of ‫“ ד ִֹדים‬caresses” until morning. Eating and drinking are often associated with love in ane love songs,110 but there are no love songs that speak of drinking ‫ּדֹודים‬ ִ “caresses” specifically, which is reminiscent of Songs 5:1.111 These motifs are unique to the Song of Songs, and are 106  We find “sweet lips” in P. Chester Beatty I, Group A, No. 31, “honey in the mouth” in The Turin Love Songs, No. 30, and the “honey-sweet mellifluous mouth” in “The Woman’s Oath” (trans. Yitschak Sefati [cos 1.169A: 540–41]) but no “lips dripping honey.” Keel (Songs, 165) notes an Assyrian incantation, where a woman says “may my lips be liquid honey … may the lip of my vulva be a lip of honey,” but this is not a love song text. 107  Keel (Songs, 121–22) mentions the goddess Anat’s search for Baal and Isis’s search for Osiris through Egypt and Byblos, where she roamed and did not rest until she found him, but these searches are not carried out nocturnally per se, nor do they take place specifically in city streets and squares, which is what makes the search in Proverbs 7 distinctly evocative of the Song. Nissinen (“Nabû,” 597) notes nocturnal yearning in the Love Lyrics of Nabû and Tašmetu, but this does not result in a search for Nabû in the city streets and market-squares. 108  See “Bridegroom, Spend the Night in Our House Till Dawn,” trans. Yitschak Sefati (cos 1.169B: 541–43), “Love by the Light of the Moon,” trans. Yitschak Sefati (cos 1.169C: 542) and Nissinen, “Nabû, 590. 109  Myrrh, aloe and cinnamon occur a number of times in the Song – 1:13; 3:6; 4:6, 14; 5:1, 5, 13; 6:2; 8:4 – but the only occurrence of any of these in the wider ane love songs are the birds (boys) anointed with myrrh in P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 9. Aloe and cinnamon do not occur alone or in combination with myrrh. As Keel (Songs, 180) notes, this combination does not occur outside of the Song and Proverbs 7. 110  See P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 4, No. 18, P. Chester Beatty I, Group C. No. 41, Miscellanea, DM 1038, No. 49, DM 1079, No. 53, and “Woman’s Oath” cos 1.169A: 541, line 7. 111  P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 1 says “caress my thighs,” and Theophile James Meek’s (“Babylonian Parallels to the Song of Songs,” jbl 43 3/4 [1924]: 248, 245) translation of the Babylonian irtu-songs about the Tammuz-Ishtar cult mentions “thou hast caressed me,” but there are no songs that mention being drunk or intoxicated on ‘caresses.’

40

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not found in other ane love literature. It is clear that Proverbs 7 has used the Song of Songs, specifically, to construct its warning.112 The direction of influence is from the Song to Proverbs.113 In speaking of direction of influence, I must clarify that I mean literary dependence and not dating. Discussions concerning dating are of great value, but as discussed, ultimately lie outside the scope of this project. Yet, it is possible to discuss the direction of literary dependence without opening up the question of actual dating. The Song and Proverbs may have emerged in very different time periods, or even simultaneously, but I am still concerned with the question of which text influenced the other. Tooman cites four criteria for establishing the direction of influence: volume of use, modification, integration and conceptual dependence.114 Michael Lyons adds interpretive expansion as another criterion.115 Tooman states that if an element “occurs many times in one text and occurs only once in another text, then, apart from evidence to the contrary, it is more likely that the text with the single occurrence is the borrowing text.”116 Many of the motifs that occur throughout the Song appear only once in Proverbs 7. For example, Proverbs 7:17 mentions myrrh, aloes and cinnamon once, yet these particular spices are mentioned numerous times throughout the Song of Songs.117 The fact that these terms and motifs occur 112  The only caveat is Prov. 7:23, where the youth caught in the adulteress’s trap is compared to a bird rushing into a snare. “Bird-trapping” does not occur in the Song of Songs, but is found in the Egyptian P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 9 and 10, which mentions trapping a bird (boy) or goose. Proverbs reverses the positive connotation of bird trapping in the Egyptian love songs, and whilst this one motif may show that Proverbs is also aware of other ane material (cf. “irtum Songs”), the piling up of the specific motifs from the Song, articulated in a way that is also distinctive of the Song, shows that Proverbs 7 is deliberately echoing the Song. 113   Kathryn Imray (“Love Is [Strong as] Death: Reading the Song of Songs through Proverbs 1–9,” cbq 75 [2013]: 651–652), Walter C. Kaiser Jr. (“True Marital Love in Proverbs 5:15–23 and the Interpretation of Song of Songs,” The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke, ed. J.I. Packer and Sven K. Soderlund [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000], 106–7, 112–13), and Rose Clark (“A Canonical Reading of the Song of Songs” [Ph.D. diss., University of the Highlands and Islands Highland Theological College, 2014], 90, 208) all think that the Song uses Proverbs to construct its message. On the other hand, Dell (“Connections,” 24), Claudia Camp (Wisdom and the Feminine in the Book of Proverbs [Sheffield: Almond: 1985], 98), Pope (Songs, 675) and von Rad (Wisdom, 166–168) have all argued that Proverbs uses the Song. 114  Tooman, Gog, 32–34; Cf. Leonard, “Identifying,” 258. 115  Michael A. Lyons, From Law to Prophecy: Ezekiel’s Use of the Holiness Code (London: T & T Clark, 2009), 59–66. 116  Tooman, Gog, 32. 117  See 3:6, 4:6, 4:14, 5:1, 5:5, 5:13, 1:13, cf. 4:16, 6:2. The search for the lover, in the city street ‫ שּׁוק‬and ‫ רחֹב‬market square specifically, and at night, occurs in Songs 3:2 and 5:7 (cf. 8:1)

Methodological Frameworks for Approaching the Song

41

throughout the Song makes it easy to identify the source of their single use in Proverbs: the Song of Songs. There are a number of other parallel terms found elsewhere in Proverbs, outside of Proverbs 7, but again, whilst these terms occur throughout the Song of Songs, many of them occur once in Proverbs and cluster in particular sections, predominantly in chapters 5, 7, 8 and 9.118 This seems to indicate that the entirety of the Song was drawn upon for use in particular sections of Proverbs, especially chapter 7. It seems far more likely that Proverbs used these terms and phrases from all over the Song, in particular sections that addressed love and desire or male-female relations, in order to evoke these key aspects, than that the entire Song borrowed terms from these limited sections of Proverbs. I will argue that Proverbs 7 modifies the phrases, motifs and themes of the Song in order to align them with its own distinctive argument.119 As we will see in chapter three, the same motifs are used but with a complete reversal of meaning. Proverbs 7 uses these words, motifs and themes from the Song precisely in order to subvert them, and show that the seductress’s imitation of the love in the Song is hollow. It would be more difficult to argue that the Song modifies the words, motifs and themes of Proverbs 7, throughout the book, in order to offer the superlative display of a love relationship. Finally, Proverbs 7 shows conceptual dependence on the Song. As we will see in chapter three, the meaning of Proverbs 7, and its implications, are significantly widened by recognizing its deliberate use of the Song’s language,120 and without recognizing this one is likely to miss the full scope of what Proverbs 7 is teaching. Proverbs 7 is not an interpretive expansion on the Song. It is not interpreting the source material or even the parallel material. But it is a hermeneutical expansion, as it but only once in Proverbs 7:8–15 (Wisdom calls in the ‫ חּוץ‬street and ‫ רחֹב‬market square in Prov 1:20–21, yet they are ‫ ה ִֹמּיֹות‬noisy so perhaps it is daytime). In Prov 8 and 9 Wisdom calls beside the ‫ ָד ֶרְך‬, from the crossroads ‫ ֵּבית נְ ִתיבֹות‬, the ‫ ְשׁ ָע ִרים‬gate and the highest places (‫) ַעל־ּגַ ֵּפי ְמר ֵֹמי ָק ֶרת‬, as does Lady Folly (‫ל־ּכ ֵּסא ְמר ֵֹמי ָק ֶרת‬ ִ ‫) ַע‬, but they do not go into the ‫ שּׁוק‬and ‫ רחֹב‬to search. Finding ‫ מצא‬occurs throughout the Song, in her search in 3:4, and ‫“ מצא‬finding” and ‫“ נשׁק‬kissing” in 8:1, but ‫מצא‬/‫ נשׁק‬occurs only once in Proverbs 7:15 (‫)מצא‬, 13 (‫)נשׁק‬. The couch ‫ ערשׂ‬and bed ‫ משׁכב‬occur in Songs 1:16 and 3:1, but occur only once in Proverbs 7:16–17. The man is pictured as a stag in Songs 2:9, 2:17 and 8:14, but only once in Prov 7:22 (gazelle in 6:5). Eating and drinking of love and the lovers’ bodies occurs throughout the Song (1:2, 4; 2:3–5, 16; 4:10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; 5:1; 6:2–3; 7:3, 8–10; 8:2), and 5:1 advises the audience to ‫ ִא ְכלּו‬eat, ‫ ְשׁתּו‬drink, ‫ּדֹודים‬ ִ ‫ וְ ִשׁ ְכרּו‬and be drunk on “caresses,” but Proverbs 7:18 invites the youth to drink of “caresses,” ‫נִ ְרוֶ ה ד ִֹדים‬, only once. 118  For example, in Prov 5:19 the wife is called a “lovely deer, a graceful doe,” right before a reference to her breasts. Deer and does occur in Songs 2:7, 2:9, 2:17, 3:5 and 8:14, and her breasts specifically are called fawns and gazelles in Songs 4:5 and 7:4. 119  See Tooman, Gog, 33. 120  See Tooman, Gog, 34.

42

Chapter 2

expounds upon the didactic lesson of when not to awaken love by presenting a specific example of it. The Song has clearly influenced Proverbs 7.121 It is important to acknowledge the differences between Proverbs and the Song. Thematically, the books are concerned with very different topics – Proverbs with both the acquisition and practice of wisdom in many different situations, and the Song with different aspects of romantic love and, as this project intends to show, wisdom concerning love. When we identify parallels, like the action of “seeking” (‫בקשׁ‬/‫)שׁחר‬, for example, we must acknowledge that seeking another person is not the same as seeking wisdom. This is one example of why it would be difficult to argue that the Song uses the language of Proverbs to construct its message about love. There is no reason to think that the seeking of wisdom generally would provide a template for seeking a human lover. There is, however, reason to think, conversely, that Proverbs would use the language of the Song, of seeking a human lover, to depict the pursuit of wisdom, particularly because wisdom is represented anthropomorphically – as Lady Wisdom. As chapters three and five will show, the fact that the seeking and pursuit of wisdom is modelled on the love language of the Song means that the writer saw it as a suitable vehicle for depicting one’s desire for wisdom. These methodological approaches will be highlighted in the following chapters as I discuss the meaning of the Song, its relationship to wisdom and a new didactic understanding of its message. A literary approach to genre will illuminate how the Song uses both the love song and wisdom genres. A literary approach to character will help us to begin discussing literary character in poetic texts like the Song of Songs. Comparisons with the ane literature will elucidate the meaning and purpose of the Song in relation to other ane love song texts, as well as how it uses the wisdom genre and its unique approach to character. The Song will be approached in its final form as a unified whole throughout, and inner-biblical methods will show that the direction of influence is from the Song to Proverbs and the other wisdom books, and illuminate how Proverbs 7 supplements the Song’s didactic message.

121  Three of Tooman’s (Gog, 33) four criteria for establishing the direction of influence are met, as Proverbs 7 does not reveal the imperfect integration of the Song’s material in a new context.

Chapter 3

Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs In order to discuss the Song of Songs’ relationship to wisdom and its didactic nature we must first discuss the meaning of its wisdom-like sections. The strongest connections to wisdom are usually seen in the “do not awaken” refrains in 2:7, 3:5 and 8:4, and in the mashal, or proverb, in 8:6–7. Yet, whilst many have noticed the didactic nature of the refrains and the climactic statement of 8:6–7, few have fleshed out what the book is teaching specifically concerning love, other than to wait patiently for it to happen. This chapter will move beyond these observations to determine what wisdom the book is attempting to offer specifically about human love, in the refrains, the mashal, and throughout the book, and explain how Proverbs 7 further supplements and explicates this message. 1

The Didactic “Do Not Awaken” Refrains 2:7

ִ‫רּושׁ ַלם‬ ָ ְ‫ִה ְשׁ ַּב ְע ִּתי ֶא ְת ֶכם ְּבנֹות י‬ ‫ִּב ְצ ָבאֹות אֹו ְּב ַאיְ לֹות ַה ָּשׂ ֶדה‬ ‫ת־ה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫עֹוררּו ֶא‬ ְ ‫ם־ּת‬ ְ ‫ם־ּת ִעירּו וְ ִא‬ ָ ‫ִא‬ ‫ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬

3:5

ִ‫רּושׁ ַלם‬ ָ ְ‫ִה ְשׁ ַּב ְע ִּתי ֶא ְת ֶכם ְּבנֹות י‬ ‫ִּב ְצ ָבאֹות אֹו ְּב ַאיְ לֹות ַה ָּשׂ ֶדה‬ ‫ת־ה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫עֹוררּו ֶא‬ ְ ‫ם־ּת‬ ְ ‫ם־ּת ִעירּו וְ ִא‬ ָ ‫ִא‬ ‫ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬

Promise me, women of Jerusalem by the gazelles or does of the field Do not arouse or awaken love until it desires

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004331013_004

44

Chapter 3

8:4

ִ‫רּושׁ ָלם‬ ָ ְ‫ִה ְשׁ ַּב ְע ִּתי ֶא ְת ֶכם ְּבנֹות י‬ ‫ת־ה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫ה־ּתע ְֹררּו ֶא‬ ְ ‫ּומ‬ ַ ‫ה־ּת ִעירּו‬ ָ ‫ַמ‬ ‫ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬

Promise me, women of Jerusalem Whatever you do, do not arouse or awaken love until it desires These refrains are seen as didactic and connected to wisdom, yet scholars disagree over their precise meaning. I will discuss their potential meanings before offering a new interpretation. The following stylistic variations are foregrounded in the interpretations discussed. The oath sworn by does and gazelles occurs in 2:7 and 3:5 but not in 8:4. The man’s left arm under her head and right arm embracing her occurs before 2:7 and 8:4 but not before 3:5, though her possession of him in 3:4, “and I did not let him go,” is in harmony with the embrace before the other two.1 The woman finds her beloved and brings him to her mother’s house before 3:5 and 8:4, but not before 2:7. Finally, 2:7 and 3:5 have ‫“ ִאם־…וְ ִאם‬do not,” whilst 8:4 has the stronger ‫ ַמה־…ּוְ ַמה‬with a force something like, “whatever you do, do not …” Scholars have taken a number of views concerning the “do not awaken” refrains. Brian P. Gault lists eight.2 However, as he has, in my view, misunderstood the positions of a few scholars, I will discuss ten: 1) not to allow Solomon and his court ladies to draw the woman’s affection away from her shepherd lover3 2) not to force love but let it develop naturally like the woman and Solomon did4 3) not to arouse love with artificial stimulants but allow it to develop naturally5 4) the man cautions the daughters not to incite “love” until 1  Murphy, Songs, 146; cf. Fox, Songs, 119. 2  Brian P. Gault (“An Admonition Against ‘Rousing Love’: The Meaning of the Enigmatic Refrain in Song of Songs,” bbr 20, 2 [2010]: 163) cites Murphy as taking the third view, and Exum and Longman as the eighth, but a careful reading shows that they do not in fact take these positions. 3  Christian D. Ginsburg, The Song of Songs and Qoheleth (New York: Ktav, 1970), 243–244; Iain Provan (Ecclesiastes/Song of Songs, niv Application Commentary [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2001], 235, 244–246) is a modern representation of the three character view. 4  Leland Ryken, Words of Delight 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1993), 286, 273–4; Jack S. Deere, “Song of Songs,” Bible Knowledge Commentary ed. John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Scripture Press, 1985), 1009–1010, 1015–1016; Michael D. Goulder, The Song of Fourteen Songs JSOTSup 36 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 2, 20, 27. 5  Pope, Songs, 386–388; Theophile J. Meek, The Song of Songs: Introduction and Exegesis IB V (New York: Abingdon, 1956), 5: 114.

Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs

45

it desires in the sense of “until it naturally stiffens physically”6 5) not to disturb the lovers’ lovemaking until they are finished7 6) not to awaken one of the lovers until he/she pleases8 7) not to become sexually active until the proper time, which is marriage9 8) not to awaken love until ready for its powerful and negative effects10 9) one cannot awaken love or force it prematurely since love has a will of its own and shows up when it desires as an irresistible and overwhelming force11 or 10) not to rush love prematurely but allow it to blossom naturally as it did for the lovers in the Song.12 I will first look at the views that assume a Solomonic narrative background (1 and 2) and discuss whether this is justified, then proceed by considering how the remaining views (3–10) account for the exegetical features in the text and present a new and preferable option for the interpretation of the refrains. Option 1: Do Not Allow Solomon and His Court Ladies to Draw the Woman’s Affection away from Her Shepherd Lover The first and second positions assume a particular narrative background that is, in my view, neither substantiated by the text nor reflective of the relationship depicted in the Song. Those who take a three-character love triangle approach to the Song interpret the refrains as showing that, despite King Solomon’s attempts to arouse the woman’s passion, she refuses and remains devoted to her shepherd lover. Christian D. Ginsberg is a classic example of this 1.1

6  Daniel Grossberg, “Sexual Desire: Abstract and Concrete,” HS 22 (1981): 59. 7  Fox, Songs, 109–110; Gault, “Admonition,” 176; Robert Gordis, The Song of Songs: a study, modern translation and commentary (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1954), 392; Marcia Falk, The Song of Songs: Love Lyrics from the Bible, Brandeis Series on Jewish Women (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University Press, 2004), 116; Keel, Songs, 94, 124. 8  Franz Delitzsch, Commentary of the Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes, translated from the German (1875) by M.G. Easton (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1877), 46–47; Leo Krinetzki, Das Hohe Lied Kommentar zu Gestalt und Kerygma eines alttestamentlichen Liebesliedes kbant (Dusseldorf: Patmos, 1964), 119–121, 145, 235; André Robert and Raymond Jacques Tournay, Le Cantique des Cantiques: Traduction et Commentaire (Paris: Gabalda, 1963), 107–111. 9  Garrett, Songs, 154; Daniel J. Estes, Handbook on the Wisdom Books and Psalms (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic: 2010), 324; Clark, “Canonical,” 193–195, 198; Kenton L. Sparks, “The Song of Songs: Wisdom for Young Jewish Women,” cbq 70, 2 (2008): 285–286; G. Lloyd Carr, The Song of Solomon totc (Grand Rapids, IL: ivp Academic, 2009), 93–95, 106. Richard S. Hess, Song of Songs, bcotwp (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), 82– 83, 106–108. 10  Schwab, Cautionary, 45; Francis Landy, Paradoxes of Paradise: Identity and Difference in the Song of Songs (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix, 2011), 117; Walsh, Exquisite, 180–184; Imray, “Love,” 663; Provan, Songs, 286. 11  Exum, Songs, 118–119, 248. 12  Murphy, Songs, 133, 137; Longman, Songs, 115–116.

46

Chapter 3

position, though others have followed, and he translates, “neither excite nor incite my affection till it wishes another [my shepherd lover] love.”13 However exegetically, Ginsberg must add elements not present in the text in order to arrive at this translation, reading a possessive “my” into ‫ת־ה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫ ֶא‬and supplying ‫ דוד אחר‬after ‫ ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬, as his footnote shows.14 These emendations are not warranted. It is not at all clear that there are two male characters, and most attempts to differentiate between two male voices cannot decide conclusively where to divide the male dialogue. The personality and speech of the male lover is consistent throughout the Song, so that the terms “king” and “shepherd” are not references to separate people, but rather, epithets of endearment used to describe the same male lover.15 The male voice no more represents two people than the woman, who is also referred to as a member of the royal court, the daughter of a noble and an outsider who keeps sheep and tends vineyards.16 A love triangle between the woman, her lover and another man seeking to lure her away is simply not reflected in the text. Option 2: Do Not Force Love Prematurely but Let It Develop Naturally Like the Woman and Solomon Did This second position is a two-character approach that assumes that Solomon is the male lover.17 The refrains then remind those who would desire a relationship like the one that she and Solomon share, not to force love but wait patiently for it.18 However, it is not at all clear that King Solomon is the male lover. The man is never identified as Solomon, directly or indirectly, and King Solomon does not speak, is not a topic, or of primary interest in the Song.19 His name is mentioned in only three passages, incidentally for the sake of comparison or as a byword.20 Let us look briefly at these mentions. In 1:5 her dark skin is compared to the curtains of Solomon, but this does not imply that he is a character. In 3:7, 9 the couch or bed is compared to a royal one, Solomon’s, but this does not indicate that Solomon is present any more than the sixty warriors surrounding 1.2

13  Ginsburg, Songs, 243–44. Provan (Songs, 235, 244–246) is a modern advocate of the love triangle approach. 14  Ginsberg, Songs, 243–44. 15  Fox, Songs, 217; Exum, Songs, 34, 8; Murphy, Songs, 80, 83; Longman, Songs, 6, 92. 16  Songs 6:8–9, 7:2, 1:6–7; Exum, Songs, 8. See chapter 6 for a discussion of the epithets. 17  Gault, “Admonition,” 164; Ryken, Delight; Deere, “Songs;” Goulder, Songs. 18  Deere, “Songs,” 1009–1010, 1015–1016; Ryken, Delight, 286, 273–4. Goulder (Song, 2, 20, 27) interprets the male lover as Solomon, yet thinks that the refrains warn the women of the harem not to sexually excite Solomon by dancing around with nothing on (7:2). 19  It alludes to his wedding day but he is not present; Fox, Songs, 95; Murphy, Songs, 121. 20  Fox, Songs, 95.

Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs

47

their bed.21 It is consistent with her previous depictions of their bed as royal in 1:4 and 1:12. She now elaborates so that their bed is not just royal but the superlative of royal beds: Solomon’s own bed. Likewise, in 3:11 her lover is no longer just any king, but like King Solomon himself with the crown that he received on his wedding day. It is important to note that the text does not say that it is Solomon’s wedding day, but that the crown is the one that he received on his wedding day, which actually implies that it was in the past.22 Those who argue that chapter 3 depicts an actual wedding interpret the bed as a sort of palanquin moving in a procession, and then posit that this was typical of Israelite weddings. Yet, it is unlikely that the bed is moving at all, and we do not know that this was a typical feature of wedding ceremonies in Israel.23 These epithets that refer to the man in terms of royal splendour are terms of endearment, used to extol him at various points throughout the work. She likens him to a royal king like Solomon and imagines their surroundings as royal, but this does not mean that he is Solomon any more than that he is a literal shepherd tending sheep. The male lover is referred to as both a king and a shepherd, and King Solomon certainly was not a literal shepherd. She is also referred to as a member of the royal court in 6:8–10 and the daughter of a prince/noble in 7:2, yet she tends vineyards and keeps sheep in 1:6. Both lovers are sometimes referred to as shepherds in a rustic setting, and at other times as royalty in a luxurious one.24 Finally, King Solomon cannot be the male lover because in 8:11–12 the male lover compares himself to Solomon and boasts that his relationship with the woman is superior to Solomon’s with his harem. He prefers his vineyard (the woman) to Solomon’s, which is extensive (his harem) but needs keepers.25 21  These comparisons follow a metaphorical description of the woman coming up from the desert in columns of smoke, and are interspersed with the reference to sixty warriors surrounding the bed, making it unlikely that it suddenly shifts to a literal description of Solomon actually being present. 22  The crown he wears (currently) is the one ‫ ֶשׁ ִע ְּט ָרה־ּלֹו ִאּמֹו ְּביֹום ֲח ֻתּנָ ת ֹו‬which his mother crowned him with in the day of his wedding. ‫ ֶשׁ ִע ְּט ָרה־‬is a non-stative Perfect, showing completed action – implying that she crowned him in the past, at his wedding. 23  Murphy (Songs, 149), Garrett (Songs, 178), Exum (Songs, 147, 138–9) and Longman (Songs, 133–4) interpret ‫“ ִמ ָּתה‬bed” as a movable “palanquin” because they interpret ‫ ִמי זֹאת‬in 3:6a as about it. However, as Fox (Songs, 119, 122) notes, ‫ ִמי‬is “who” not “what?” and ‫ זֹאת‬is feminine not neuter, so that “Who is this” refers to the woman not the bed. Since nothing else in 3:7–11 suggests that the bed is moving, ‫ ִמ ָּטתֹו‬is not a moving “palanquin” or wedding procession. 24  Exum, Songs, 141, 8. 25  J. Cheryl Exum, “The Little Sister and Solomon’s Vineyard: Song of Songs 8:11–12 as a Lover’s Dialogue,” in Seeking Out the Wisdom of the Ancients: Essays Offered to Honor Michael V. Fox on the Occasion of His Sixty-Fifth Birthday, ed. Ronald L. Troxel, Kelvin G. Friebel and Dennis R. Magary (Winona Wake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005), 279.

48

Chapter 3

The man would not contrast himself with Solomon if he were in fact Solomon. King Solomon is not the male lover. The Solomonic royal language is likely being used because he represents superlative wealth and luxury, and not because of his reputation as a lover, which was actually a rather dubious one!26 Solomon set quite a poor example in love, unwisely choosing wives and lovers that eventually led him astray from God. In fact, his relationships are the one thing that Solomon is remembered for doing wrong.27 According to 1 Kings 11 he had 700 wives and 300 concubines, which does not reflect the type of exclusive relationship pictured in the Song. Whilst some posit that the Song depicts an early love affair of Solomon’s, before he acquired his great number of wives and concubines, they do not derive this information from the text, nor from any other biblical passages. The historical depiction of Solomon as a man of many women must be accounted for, and as the example story in 8:11–12 shows, he is already known for this.28 It is precisely because his reputation precedes him that he can serve as a point of contrast to the man’s exclusive relationship with the woman. Option 3: Do Not Arouse Love with Artificial Stimulants but Allow It to Develop Naturally In 2:5 the woman requests raisin cakes and apples, known aphrodisiacs, to sustain her. Theophile Meek suggested that the women were practicing sympathetic magic in order to arouse love between a god and goddess, producing fertility and agricultural growth.29 Pope finds Meek’s theory convincing and argues, in light of the preceding appeal for stimulants in 2:5, that ‫ עור‬in 2:7, used of being aroused or excited to some activity, means being artificially aroused to sexual activity, given the context of aphrodisiacs.30 However, the contradiction between requesting stimulants in 2:5 and prohibiting the women from using 1.3

26  Longman, Songs, 133. 27  Solomon was wise (1Kgs 3), but as 1Kgs 11 shows, his romantic relationships were the one thing that he is remembered for being foolish in – who he chose to love – as these women turned his heart away from Yhwh to foreign gods. It is remembered as his one great folly. 28  As Exum (“Sister,” 279) notes, 8:12 “you can have the thousand, Solomon” may hint at the legendary size of his harem in 1 Kings 11:13. Paul Tanner (“The Message of the Song of Songs,” BSac 154 [1997]: 146, 149–151, 159–61) thinks that the woman’s distress over infidelity is the reason that she gives the mashal concerning exclusiveness. Yet, there is no indication that either lover is distressed over infidelity, as they are always confident in the exclusiveness of their relationship. 29  Pope, Songs, 386. 30  Pope, Songs, 386–88.

Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs

49

them to arouse love artificially renders the position untenable.31 Furthermore, whilst ‫ עור‬means “aroused” to some activity, Pope has not shown that the verb means to be “artificially” aroused to sexual activity with aphrodisiacs, just as he has not shown that ‫ ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬means to desire “naturally.” It is also unlikely that 2:5 refers to stimulants. If ‫ ַס ְּמכּונִ י‬means “to feed me/sustain me” then the woman asks to be refreshed with food because, as stated in 2:5c, she is sick with love. It is then highly unlikely that she would ask for aphrodisiacs to excite love, or need them, as she is already over-excited to the point being sick.32 Yet ‫ַס ְּמכּונִ י‬ may more accurately be rendered “spread me” or “rest me upon” meaning the woman asks to be spread among fruit clusters not eat them.33 This follows a comparison of the man to a fruit tree so that she is asking to be spread or rested upon him.34 Option 4: Do Not Incite “Love” until It Desires in the Sense of Naturally Stiffening Physically Daniel Grossberg argues that on the abstract level, the man cautions the women of Jerusalem not to arouse love artificially and let it develop naturally, whilst on the concrete level, he rejects artificial stimulants/aphrodisiacs and “awaits the natural hardening and stiffening of his membrum virile.”35 Whilst double entendre and sexual euphemism abound in the Song,36 this interpretation suffers from two major weaknesses. First, it falls prey, on the abstract and concrete levels, to the same critiques of the previous interpretation. The context does not show that either lover was given aphrodisiacs or artificial stimulants to arouse love, and the words “artificially” and “naturally” do not appear in the text. Second, this view assumes that the man delivers the adjurations, but this requires a discontinuity in speaker, as the preceding context shows that it is the woman who speaks in the refrains. Additionally, the man does not interact with the women of Jerusalem anywhere else in the Song, making 1.4

31  Gault, “Admonition,” 167. Pope (Songs, 388) does not think they are necessarily contradictory, yet why would she prohibit others from using what she has successfully used herself. 32  Fox, Songs, 109. 33  Fox, Songs, 108; Garrett, Songs, 150–151. 34  Fox, Songs, 108–9. 35  Grossberg, “Sexual,” 59. 36  Double entendre see: 2:17e “cleft mountains,” 4:6 “mountains of myrrh and hills of frankincense,” the man “grazing among the lilies” of the woman’s body in 2:9, 17, 8:14. Exum (Songs, 185–196), Longman (Songs, 161–167), and Garrett (Songs, 204–210) argue that the whole of chapter 5 is double entendre for sexual intercourse. Euphemism see: 5:14c (abdomen or member?), the “garden” in 4:12, 4:15–16, 5:1, 6:2, “water fields” in 4:13, “well of living water” in 4:15, the man as “apple tree” and “fruit” in 2:3, cf. 8:5 (she asks to be “laid among” fruit/him in 2:5), and the “nut garden” in 6:11.

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it improbable that he would suddenly speak to other women about “the sexual arousal of his membrum virile.”37 Option 5: Do Not Disturb the Lovers’ Lovemaking until They Are Finished Robert Gordis popularized this view and it has been followed by Fox, Keel, Marcia Falk, Stefan Fischer, and Gault who refers to it as a “do not disturb sign.”38 This is appropriate since the main contention of this view is that ‫עור‬ means “disturb” rather than “arouse.” Fox argues that ‫ ָּת ִעירּו‬and ‫עֹוררּו‬ ְ ‫ ְּת‬denote disturbance rather than arousal, “as there is no case where ‫ עור‬is clearly used of sexual arousal,” yet it often indicates waking a sleeper.39 He reasons that, “the way one ‘disturbs’ lovemaking is to wake the couple.”40 However, it does not actually follow that the only way to “disturb” or interrupt lovemaking is to wake the couple, and presumably if they are making love they are not asleep. This makes the connection between ‫ עור‬and waking a sleeper dubious. ‫ עור‬means “arousing” or “awaking” to activity from inactivity and whilst it can be used of awakening a sleeper, as in Job 14:12, sleep is not indicated in the refrains,41 nor are they in a state of inactivity if they are making love. halot lists “disturb” for some uses of ‫עור‬, yet when it occurs, it always means, “disturbing something that is dormant, either literally or metaphorically … and bringing it out of its state of dormancy.”42 Since they are already making love, they are not in a state of dormancy. The word certainly does not mean, “to disturb” an act in progress. Furthermore, the object of ‫ עור‬is ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬, not the couple, so it makes little sense to talk of disturbing the couple by waking them. Falk and Gordis attempt to interpret the ‫ ה‬on ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as possessive, so that she asks that her lovemaking not be disturbed, but this syntactical function is questionable and may merely transpose an English idiom, “my loving,” onto it.43 Gault attempts to bolster this theory by arguing that the ‫ ה‬on ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is anaphoric, referring to the lovemaking in the preceding context.44 The only place in the Hebrew Bible where 1.5

37  Gault, “Admonition,” 169. 38  Gordis, Songs, 332; Fox, Songs, 109–110; Keel, Songs, 94, 124; Falk, Love Lyrics, 116; Gault, “Admonition,” 176; Stefan Fischer, Das Hohelied Salomos zwischen Poesie und Erzählung, fat 72 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010), 46–47. 39  Fox, Songs, 110. 40  Fox, Songs, 110. 41  Victor P. Hamilton, “‫ ”עור‬nidotte 3:357–60. Exum (Songs, 118), Murphy (Songs, 133) and Garrett (Songs, 152). 42  D. Philip Roberts, Let Me See Your Poetic Form: Seeking Poetic Structure in the Song of Songs, Studies in Judaism (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2007) 94. halot 2, 802. 43  Gault, “Admonition,” 178; Jouon-Muraoka §137f. 44  Gault, “Admonition,” 179.

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‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬is used with the article is in Songs 2:7, 3:5, 8:4 and 8:7. Some think that the

article indicates that love is being personified, as it can be awakened, aroused and has desire in the refrains. However, this does not hold in 8:7, which seems to talk of love in the abstract, as a flame that cannot be extinguished and a place that cannot be flooded.45 Furthermore, ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬in 8:6 does not have the article, which we would expect if love were being personified in 8:6–7. Gault therefore argues that the article has a deictic function, referring to love in the preceding context, which in the refrains, he thinks is sexual love.46 Lovemaking immediately precedes the refrains in 2:6 and 8:3 where his left arm is under her head and his right hand embraces her. 3:4 seems to lack this sexual context, though bringing him to her mother’s house and bedroom has sexual overtones. The refrains would then say not to disturb “that sexual lovemaking.” We will return to the idea of the anaphoric ‫ ה‬in the final interpretation, but for now let us say that if the ‫ ה‬does have an anaphoric function, it is far from evident that love in the preceding context is only sexual lovemaking. There are many other aspects of love presented in the preceding context, including emotional and relational.47 Regardless, we still lack sufficient reasons for thinking ‫ עור‬means “disturb” rather than “awaken.” Even if we understand “love” to mean their love affair or “love bubble,” it cannot be disturbed from a state of dormancy, or awakened to activity from inactivity, because it is already awakened, active, and has been throughout the poem. As the wider context and the other uses of ‫ עור‬outside the refrains show, their love has been “awakening” throughout the Song and with it everything around them.48 The couple’s love is clearly already 45  Andrew E. Steinmann, “Gazelles, Does, and Flames: (De)Limiting Love in Song of Songs,” jesot 2, 1 (2013): 34. Love is personified in the refrains, but it is not the ‫ ה‬that personifies it. 46  Gault, “Admonition,” 179. The ‫ ה‬in 8:7 would refer to love in the preceding context of 8:6. 47  Their love is certainly sexual, but it is also more than this. His left arm under her head and right arm embracing her denotes emotional intimacy and affection as well as physicality. The four occurrences of ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬in 3:1–4 before the refrain in 3:5 refer to the man as ‫ ֶשׁ ָא ֲה ָבה נַ ְפ ִשׁי‬, an endearment denoting emotional attachment. She then ‫ מצא‬finds him and ‫( ֲא ַחזְ ִּתיו וְ לֹא ַא ְר ֶּפּנּו‬emotional attachment), before bringing him to her mother’s house (a place of emotional and familial intimacy). She also ‫ מצא‬finds him and brings him to her mother’s house before the refrain in 8:4, so “finding” the one she shares this emotional and physical intimacy with is also in the immediate context. In 2:4, his glance/ intent towards her is ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬and surely more than physical. The lovesickness in 2:5 has an emotional origin. 48  “Awakening” occurs throughout the Song: the poems opens in medias res with their love awakened and him kissing her, spring awakens & blossoms with the awakening of their love in 2:12–13, 6:11 & 7:13–14, cf. p. 65, the day awakens or “breathes” as the shadows flee in 2:17 and 4:6, in 4:16 she calls on the north wind to ‫“ עור‬awaken” and the south wind to come blow upon her garden as he comes into it to eat of its luscious fruits, she awakens

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awakened, an act in progress, so the female lover is not telling the women of Jerusalem not to cause (hifil) her love affair to ‫ עור‬awaken from inactivity to activity. Rather, the women of Jerusalem, and by extension the reader, are being instructed not to cause love to awaken – to bring it out of a state of dormancy, from inactivity to activity – within themselves (where it has not yet awakened). Some render ‫“ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬as long as it desires” rather than “until it desires.” The preposition ‫ ַעד‬is used with a durative meaning elsewhere,49 but here it is connected to the particle ‫ ֶשׁ‬, forming a clause that occurs only ten times in the Hebrew Bible. Most of these occurrences have the prospective meaning “until,” but Gault argues that Songs 1:12 has a durative meaning “while” and turns to Mishnaic Hebrew for further support of the durative meaning.50 However, three of the other nine examples in the Hebrew Bible are also in the Song, in 2:17, 3:4 and 4:6, and have the prospective meaning. These are much closer to the immediate context of the refrains than the durative example in 1:12. A further problem is the referent of ‫חפץ‬. In the majority of its occurrences ‫ חפץ‬refers to the desire of the subject,51 though there are a few occurrences where it refers to the sexual desire of a man for a woman.52 Gordis takes ‫חפץ‬ to mean sexual desire and ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ‬as durative, thus “while love is desirous, i.e. active, passionate.”53 Fox represents the other position, taking ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ‬as prospective, ‫ חפץ‬as the desire of the subject and interpreting the phrase as elliptical: “before they wish to be disturbed.”54 Given the more numerous examples of the prospective meaning of ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ‬and the lack of specification that ‫ חפץ‬is sexual, Fox’s proposal seems preferable. However, since ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is the object of ‫עור‬, not the couple, and since Fox has not sufficiently demonstrated that ‫ עור‬means “disturb,” the elliptical is better translated “until it (love) desires to arouse/awaken.” The refrain does not concern the disruption of lovemaking.

to search for her lover in chapters 3 and 5 and in 5:2 she uses the same verb ‫ עור‬to explain that her heart was “awake” whilst she slept, if the MT of 7:10 is correct that her mouth is like the best wine ‫ּדֹובב ִשׂ ְפ ֵתי יְ ֵשׁנִ ים‬ ֵ “gliding over sleeping lips” then she awakens him with kisses, and in 8:5 she has ‫ עור‬aroused/awakened him under the apple tree. ‫ עור‬would not be properly translated as “disturb” in 4:16, 5:2 or 8:5. 49  Exod 33:22, Judg 3:26; 2Kgs 9:22; Jonah 4:2; Job 7:19; Gault, “Admonition,” 179. 50  Prospective meaning: Judg 5:7; Ps 123:2; Songs 2:17; 3:4; 4:6. Gault, “Admonition,” 179. 51  2Sam 24:3; Job 9:3, 13; Ps 115:3; 135:6; Prov 21:1; Jer 9:24, Gault, “Admonition,” 180. 52  Gen 34:19; Deut 21:14; Esth 2:14; Gault, “Admonition,” 180. 53  Gordis, Songs/Lamentations, 82. 54  Fox (Songs, 110) writes “before/until it wishes to be disturbed,” but he clearly interprets the lovers as the object of ‫ עור‬and the subject of the elliptical phrase.

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1.6 Option 6: Do Not Awaken the Other Lover until He/She Pleases This view correctly interprets ‫ עור‬as “awaken” rather than “disturb,” but sees the object as one of the lovers rather than “love” itself.55 There is little syntactical support for this view. As we have seen the object of ‫ עור‬is ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬. One might render ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as an epithet for the man, paralleling her other epithet for him in 1:7 and 3:4 ‫“ ֶשׁ ָא ֲה ָבה נַ ְפ ִשׁי‬the one whom my soul loves,” but if ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬refers to the man this would make the feminine ‫ תחפץ‬grammatically incorrect and curious in light of the Hebrew preference for the masculine gender.56 ‫ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ does not refer to the male lover. If the man speaks, warning the women not to awaken the female lover,57 there is agreement between ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬and the feminine ‫ ;תחפץ‬yet again, this would require a discontinuity in speaker from the woman who speaks in the surrounding verses, and, as mentioned above, nowhere else in the Song does the man interact with the women of Jerusalem. Neither lover seems to be the object of ‫עור‬. The refrains do not warn against awakening one of the lovers. Option 7: Do Not Arouse Sexual Passion (Become Sexually Active) until the Proper Time (Marriage) This interpretation traces the couple’s relationship chronologically through courtship (1:2–3:5), wedding day (3:6–11) wedding night (4:1–5:1), marital conflict (5:2–6:3), reconciliation and progress (6:4–8:4), and coda (8:5–14). Proponents take ‫ עור‬to mean “arousing” to sexual activity, so that what is prohibited is becoming sexually active until the proper time, which is seen as marriage.58 Garrett thinks that Fox’s argument, that there is no case where ‫ עור‬means sexual arousal, misses the point of the metaphorical language.59 Whilst ‫עור‬ does not literally mean “to arouse sexually,” which would require one of the lovers to be the object of ‫עור‬, he thinks that to “arouse” ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬to some activity must mean sexual activity.60 1.7

55  Robert and Tournay (Cantiques, 107) think that it warns not to wake Solomon. 56  Gault, “Admonition,” 166. 57  Krinetzki (Lied, 120) thinks that it asks not to awaken the female lover. 58  Garrett (Songs, 154–55) thinks that, in an ancient Israelite society, the proper time can only mean marriage, so that the refrains advise one to avoid promiscuity and save one’s virginity for marriage; cf. Clark, “Canonical,” 193–195, 198, Sparks, “Songs,” 283, 278, Gault, “Admonition,” 163–176; Carr, Song, 93–95, 106; Hess, Songs, 82–83, 106–108; Estes, Handbook, 324, though he interprets the man as Solomon. 59  Fox, Songs, 110; Garrett, Songs, 152. 60  Garrett, Songs, 152.

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However, there is no reason to take the activity that ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is aroused to as sexual. Garrett interprets ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as metaphorical for physical sexual love, rather than emotional or relational, or love in the abstract, but he is far from proving that it has this singular meaning. He has not shown that the “waking” or “arousal” is sexual, nor that the type of “love” aroused is sexual, so his argument that it is a metaphor for becoming sexually active for the first time in one’s life seems hollow. ‫“ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬until it desires” is interpreted as “until marriage,” though this is certainly not found in the syntax of the verse. Even if ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬means something like “until the proper time” it is does not follow that this is after marriage. This assumption is read into the text and actually contradicts the love displayed throughout the Song.61 The text does not display the chronology that this theory presumes. The book opens with the lovers engaged in sexual activity and ends with them unmarried. 1:2 begins, “let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth” and already in 1:4 he has brought her into his bedroom. So numerous are the passages that describe their lovemaking before the alleged marriage in chapter 3 that one cannot take seriously the assertion that they have been chaste up to this point. Chapter 3 does not describe a wedding ceremony, as the only reference to anything wedding-related, in verse 11, concerns a crown that Solomon received on his wedding day, implying that it was in the past. In 8:1–2 she wishes she could kiss him in the street and takes him to her mother’s house to make love. It is unlikely that she would be unable to openly kiss her husband or that they would go to a parent’s house to make love instead of their own, unless they were unmarried.62 The lovers have been enjoying sexual love outside of marriage throughout the poem, and the verses immediately preceding all three refrains contain “erotic portraits of sexual love in progress or about to take place.”63 Unless she is warning them not to do as she has done, as Rose Clark and Sparks suggest,64 61  Generations have interpreted the Song in light of theology inherent in other biblical books. Yet, in modern scholarship, books are interpreted on their own terms before comparing them to others. 62  Exum Songs, 93, 247. Fox (Songs, 231) argues that they are not married, nor getting married, as no betrothed or married woman would be unable to kiss him openly, and no betrothed bridegroom would need to sneak up to her house at night if her family recognized him as her future husband. 63  Gault, “Admonition,” 176. 64  Clark (“Canonicle,”195, 198) thinks that the pattern of union/separation shows that love stirred at the wrong time brings pain and separation. Yet, she does not explain why after the alleged “wedding” in chapter 3 (the “right time for pursuing love”), the separation continues to occur (the most painful in 5:6–8), which by her logic, implies that the woman is again pursuing love at the wrong time. Sparks (“Songs,” 297, 283) concedes that they are unmarried in chapter 8, but thinks the searches show how harmful pre-marital sex is, i.e.

Instruction Concerning Love in the Song of Songs

55

a prohibition against sexual love before marriage would make little sense. However, since ‫ עור‬does not mean “to arouse sexually” and there is no reason to take ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as specifically sexual, it is far from likely that ‫“ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬until it desires” means “until marriage.” For those who would seek a virginity-before-marriage ethic, there may be other ways at arriving at this, perhaps through canonical readings in conjunction with other texts, but it is not an ethic derived from the Song of Songs. Garrett’s critique against the three-character dramatic interpretation seems quite appropriate here as well: this interpretation not only requires that information be added to the Song, but must subject information actually present in the Song to radical transformation of meaning.65 Option 8: Do Not Awaken Love until You Are Ready for Its Overwhelming Power and Negative Effects George Schwab thinks that the refrains warn against stirring love because it is a dangerous power which, “when aroused, takes control of the affections, behaviour and mind of the one under its power,” so that an “artificial means of expediting the timetable is counselled against.”66 He interprets love as a “debilitating and disturbing experience,” and thinks that the Song advises it be avoided if possible.67 Francis Landy says, “the wisdom of love is not to awaken it” and Schwab compares it to the fierce sea creature Leviathan saying, “who would dare to stir it up? Leave it alone!”68 Carey Walsh thinks that the female lover is past the point of heeding her own advice, as her desire is already awakened, and she is lamenting her plight, so that she tells the other women to wait, in an “ancient rendition of ‘Do as I say, not as I do.’”69 This view is based on a particularly negative understanding of the mashal in 8:6–7, which we will return to momentarily, but for now I note that this overly negative understanding of love is unbalanced and fails to reflect the many positive features of love 1.8

she is punished for her “flagrant sexuality outside of marriage.” Yet, there is no reason that punishment would follow 5:2–6 and not the many other places where they are intimate. She maintains an upbeat attitude, is unfazed even after beaten, and they end successfully: she finds peace in her lover’s presence, see Exum, Songs, 199, Longman, Songs, 169, 161. 65  See Garrett, Songs, 80. 66  Schwab, Cautionary, 49. cf. 45, 47. 67  Schwab, Cautionary, 69, 49. 68  Landy, Paradoxes, 216, cf. 117; Schwab, Cautionary, 45, cf. 47, 49. Provan (Songs, 286) says that it is as dangerous to awaken as the sleeping animal of modern proverbial tradition, i.e. the dog or Korean lion. cf. Imray, “Love,” 663. Landy (Paradoxes, 117) says that the refrains warn not to awaken love, “whose unpredictable terrors have been amply illustrated,” yet he (216–17) also seems to say that if love awakens by “taking us by surprise, coming unsummoned from ourselves” (i.e. “naturally,” option #10) it flourishes. 69  Walsh, Exquisite, 180.

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displayed in the Song. In the Song, the overwhelming power of love is presented as something positive to be sought after. Even “lovesickness” is depicted positively, “as an emotion to be inflamed rather than a disease to be avoided.”70 Proponents of this view also fail to show how ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬means “until you are ready for its powerful negative effects.” Even if ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is characterized negatively, meaning something like “do not awaken dangerous love,” there are no exegetical reasons for interpreting the later part of the verse as “until you are ready.” The subject of ‫ ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬is ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬, not the women of Jerusalem, which would require a second-person plural rather than the third-person singular ‫ ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬. The weakness of this position will be further highlighted in the discussion of the mashal, but for now I conclude that it does not adequately explain the exegetical features of the refrains. Option 9: One Cannot Awaken Love or Force It Prematurely Since Love Has a Will of Its Own and Shows Up When It Desires as an Irresistible and Overwhelming Force Exum takes ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as an abstract emotion and ‫ עור‬as meaning to “excite to action” so that the logical meaning of “until it desires” is “until it desires to be awakened/roused,” but she thinks that it is “saying something more important about love than that it should not be aroused prematurely.”71 She interprets the mashal in 8:6–7 as showing that love is personified with a will of its own. Since love has a will of its own, it cannot be forced to appear, artificially conjured or aroused. It will appear when it desires or chooses. We cannot decide to “fall head over heels in love” today.72 We have no control; it just happens, and when it chooses to appear, “when it makes its claim upon you it is irresistible.”73 We are then told not to rouse love because it cannot be aroused.74 It cannot be prematurely awakened by desiring it; it simply happens to one when least expected, and when it does you just “know it.”75 Exum arrives at this interpretation, exegetically, by projecting a rhetorical interpretation of the final refrain in 8:4 back onto the previous refrains. As discussed, the first two occurrences of the refrain in 2:7 and 3:5 have ‫ִאם־…וְ ִאם‬ “do not,” and the last occurrence in 8:4 has the stronger ‫ ַמה־…ּוְ ַמה‬with a force something like, “whatever you do, do not.” A number of scholars think that this makes the command stronger and more urgent, showing a change from 1.9

70  Gault, “Admonition,” 169. 71  Exum, Songs, 118. 72  Exum, Songs, 118. 73  Exum, Songs, 118. 74  Exum, Songs, 118. 75  Exum, Songs, 118–119. It just “hits” us like cupid’s arrow. It happens to us.

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57

adjuration to prohibition.76 The omission of the gazelles and does is appropriate since, unlike an adjuration, a prohibition would not refer to objects by which it swears an oath by; it simply prohibits.77 Exum, however, thinks that this is a rhetorical ‫“ ָמה‬why,” so that it asks: “why arouse or awaken love before it wishes?” with the implied answer: “there is no need since when it is ready to be roused, love overwhelms with its force.”78 She then projects this “implied answer” back onto the previous refrains, which are not intended to elicit any sort of response on the part of its listeners so much as make this point about love. They do not actually prohibit the audience from actively doing something, rousing love, which they cannot do anyway, so much as say carry on until love decides to awaken and hits you, and when it does you will know it. The woman then places her companions under oath to “underscore its profundity.”79 There are a number of reasons for taking ‫ ָמה‬as a negative particle here.80 However, even if ‫ ָמה‬in 8:4 were rhetorical “why arouse love,” it would still imply a negative answer: “you should not.”81 “Why arouse” implies “don’t.” It still assumes that there is something the audience can do to awaken love, and shouldn’t, not that one is incapable of doing so or that there is no reason to since it appears when it wills. The idea that one “cannot” arouse love, or that there is “no need since when it is ready it overwhelms with its force” is an assumption read into the implied answer. “Why arouse” does not imply “there is no reason” and certainly does not mean, “you cannot arouse.” Even more doubtful is the idea that this assumption should be projected back onto the previous two refrains, which certainly say, “do not arouse love.” It seems best to take ‫ ָמה‬as consistent with the previous two warnings and as an intensification of them, making the final refrain more urgent, by “shortening the command and using a stronger form of negation.”82 The idea that the adjurations are rhetorical, because one cannot awaken love anyway, does not come from the exegetical features of the text so much 76  Pope, Songs, 661; Longman, Songs, 206; Murphy, Songs, 184. 77  Pope, Songs, 661. 78  Exum, Songs, 248; dch V, 150 b. 79  Exum, Songs, 119. 80  For the use of ‫ ָמה‬as negative particle see Joüon §144h, gkc §137b, note 1, bdb s.v. ‫מה‬ 2a (b); halot s.v. ‫ מה‬C. 81  Steinmann (“Gazelles,” 35) also takes ‫ ָמה‬as rhetorical, but shows that the examples of it as an interrogative particle in 1Kgs 12:16 and Job 31:1 (see Joüon §144h) use it to introduce a question that still implies a negative answer. So whether ‫ ָמה‬is an interrogative particle implying a negative answer “you should not!” or a negative particle the outcome is the same. It does not imply “you cannot,” are unable to or “there is no need.” 82  Longman, Songs, 206. He (115) thinks that the repetition of the root gives it an emphatic force: “whatever you do, don’t arouse.”

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as a prior assumption about the way love works, common in our society. We assume that love is out of our control, something that “just happens” to us and we “just know” we are in love. Exum then reads this “implied answer” into the rhetorical question she sees in 8:4. But the text never says this. We will discuss her interpretation of the mashal in 8:6–7 momentarily, but for now we must observe that it makes little sense for the woman to warn her audience not to arouse love if they cannot do so anyway. It makes even less sense for her to place them under oath not to do so, to underscore this “profundity.” The adjurations are strong appeals asking the audience to swear by oath not to do something. There must be a way of intentionally and prematurely arousing love within oneself, for the woman to advise against this. Option 10: Do Not Rush or Force Love Prematurely but Allow It to Blossom Naturally and Show Up as It Did for the Lovers in the Song Murphy and Longman also interpret love ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as an abstract emotion and take ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬to mean “until the time is right” or “until it blossoms naturally” so that it should not be forced or roused prematurely, as love is not the sort of thing to be rushed.83 In their view, the refrains are not rhetorical. They are legitimately telling the women of Jerusalem not to arouse love within themselves, until it awakens naturally. They warn against stirring love artificially, not with aphrodisiacs, but in the sense of stirring desires within oneself before love is actually present.84 However, like Exum, they seem to assume that when love “desires” to be present, one just knows and can enjoy it. Murphy says that “love has its own laws” and “only when it is truly present (‘until it be ready’) can the participants enjoy it.”85 There is no explanation as to how one knows that this love is present. It is referred to as something that just happens and is powerful. This is the major difference between their interpretation and the one that I will present. For the adjurations not only warn listeners against arousing love before it is present, they also show how they are to recognize its presence, that it has “desired” to awaken. 1.10

83  Murphy, Songs, 133, 137, Longman, Songs, 115. cf. Elie Assis, Flashes of Fire: A Literary Analysis of the Song of Songs, lhbots 503 (London: T & T Clark, 2009), 74. Ariel Bloch and Chana Bloch (The Song of Songs: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995], 152) think that it reflects the wisdom belief that everything has a proper time. 84  Murphy, Songs, 137, Longman, Songs, 115; Contra Gault (“Admonition,” 163) this is what Murphy actually means. 85  Murphy, Songs, 137.

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A New Option: Do Not Arouse or Awaken Love until the Type of Love Depicted in the Song Is Present I propose a new interpretive option that expands upon a few important and overlooked exegetical features. As discussed, ‫ עור‬is best rendered “arouse/ awaken” and ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬is elliptical so that love is not to be aroused “until it desires to be aroused/awakened” or is present. The refrain is not rhetorical. It is legitimately asking the audience to swear by oath not to do something: not to arouse love. There must be a way of intentionally, artificially or prematurely rousing love before it is actually present, in the sense of stirring desires within oneself, and this is what the refrains advise against. Gault’s argument that the definite article in ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬has an anaphoric function is helpful, but I think that he errs in his application of it. He thinks that it refers specifically to lovemaking in the preceding context, so that it is not to be ‫“ עור‬disturbed.”86 However, as discussed, it is far from clear that “love” in the preceding context is only sexual and it is doubtful that ‫ עור‬means “to disturb.” It is far more likely that if the ‫ ה‬in ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬has an anaphoric function, it refers to the love being described and displayed throughout the Song as a whole, particularly because the article is also present in the mashal in 8:7, which is a general statement about love, and the entire Song has been devoted to showing what love looks like.87 If ‫ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ is anaphoric, then “that love” to which it refers is the love under discussion throughout the Song. This would fit all three contexts of the refrain, as well as the mashal in 8:7. ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬refers to the love being described throughout the Song, and ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬is elliptical, so that one is not to awaken “that love” within themselves until “that love,” the type of love displayed throughout the Song, is present.88 Murphy notes that the refrains prohibit the artificial stimulation of the type of mutual love in the dialogue of the Song.89 In this sense, he is interpreting 1.11

86  Gault, “Admonition,” 179. 87   ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬in 8:7 points to the love under discussion in 8:6 (‫ ) ַא ֲה ָבה‬and throughout the Song (the many occurrences of ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬throughout), as what 8:6–7 says is true of all love is certainly also true of the love depicted throughout the Song. As we will discuss in chapter 5, ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬is a Leitwort in the Song, showing a progressive articulation of meaning throughout, so that the anaphoric article points to what is progressively being articulated about love. 88  How would the audience, the women of Jerusalem, cause the “love under discussion” to be awakened before it is present? The love of the couple is already awake/present, so this must mean that they are not to cause this type of love (the love being described/discussed) to awaken within themselves, before this type of love (the love under discussion) is actually present. They are advised not to actively awaken such a love (‫ ָּת ִעירּו‬is a hifil imperfect, causative active, and ‫עֹוררּו‬ ְ ‫ ְּת‬is a polel imperfect, intensive/causative active) until this type of love desires to awaken/is present. 89  Murphy, Songs, 137.

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‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬as more than just an abstract emotion, though he does not argue that the definite article has an anaphoric function, and he does not notice that love is not to be awakened until this type of love is present. Andrew Steinmann interprets the ‫ ה‬as having an anaphoric function, but thinks that it refers to the love the woman feels for the man throughout the Song and interprets “when love desires to be present” as indicated by ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬in 8:6: “when the Lord lights the flame.”90 He does not explain how one knows when God has “lit the flame.” What neither Murphy nor Steinmann notice is that if ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬refers to the love displayed throughout the Song, and ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬is elliptical, then it is the presence of “that love,” the type of love displayed throughout the Song, that shows that love is actually present. Love’s presence is defined by its similarity to the type of love depicted throughout the Song between the lovers. The refrain is indicating how one is able to discern the presence of “that” love, when it has “desired” to awaken: by its similarity to the love in the Song. Even if the ‫ ה‬does not have an anaphoric function, the Song has still been defining what “love” is and looks like throughout its discourse, so that the elliptical nature of ‫ַעד‬ ‫“ ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬when love desires to arouse/be present” is still defined by its similarity to the love in the Song. The refrains then teach that one is not to awaken this love within themselves until this type of love is actually present: the love in the Song.

1.12 The Meaning of the Refrains The refrains are providing wisdom in matters of love: they advise the women, and us as readers, not to arouse or awaken love within ourselves until the type of love pictured in the Song is present (desires). Rather than explaining love or telling the audience about love, the poem shows “what love is like through the lovers’ speeches and actions.”91 The poet didactically shows us throughout the Song what love looks like when it is present, when it has desired to awaken. This is how “we know it.” This is the wisdom of the refrains. The refrains encourage us to pursue this type of love and warn us not to stir desire within ourselves or allow ourselves to fall, until it looks like this. The idea that love is entirely out of our power, is irresistible, simply happens to us and takes over once it does is a foreign concept to the Song of Songs. Love is 90  Steinmann, “Gazelles,” 35. He (38) presents a detailed argument that love is God-given, connecting it with the ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬in 8:6 which he interprets as the “flame of the Lord.” He thinks the missing circumlocutions for God (gazelles and does) in 8:4, are made explicit in 8:6 as the ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬. 91  Exum, Songs, 119.

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powerful and overtakes once it is awakened, but the refrains seem to imply that the awakening of love is not entirely out of our control or volition. We not only have a decision in the matter but are instructed, in the tradition of wisdom, to exercise discretion and wisdom in matters of love. It is true that the type of mutual love in the Song is aroused when it “desires.” We cannot rush the appearance of this type of love or force our relationship to look like the love in the Song before it actually does. But we can resist awaking love when it does not. The refrains clearly advise listeners not to do something, not to arouse this love within themselves when the love of the Song is not present, because evidently one can attempt to do this and it is advised against! The reason will be explained in the mashal in 8:6–7: love is extremely powerful. It is then wise to be careful whom or what type of relationship we awaken this powerful emotion for, so that it does not result in pain and heartbreak. One might argue that it takes an immense amount of discipline to stop oneself from falling or awakening this emotion in one’s heart, but this is the type of discipline the Song asks its readers to exercise. Wisdom is about discipline and the ability to apply wise instruction to one’s life, even one’s love life. It is not that feelings cannot “hit” one sometimes in the way that Exum suggests. But the Song does not seem to present humans as devoid of reason or wisdom in matters of love. It assumes we are capable of exercising discretion in this type of situation and advises us to resist “awakening” love before it looks like the love in the Song because it presumes that humans have the capacity to do so, to consider wisdom and restrain themselves in the extent to which they allow love to be “aroused” within themselves. Exum’s interpretation assumes that this is not the case, that the ‘heart loves whom the heart loves’ and there is nothing to be done about it. This is why she interprets the refrains as rhetorical. Yet, the refrains themselves show that there is something we can do about love, and must, if we are to follow the paths of wisdom rather than folly. Exum states, “maybe you think you are in love, but when it happens, when you are truly in love, there is no mistaking it … you will know it.”92 The trouble is people do mistake its true presence, and they find themselves in painful relationships. I would say, “maybe you think you are in love, but when love is truly present there is no mistaking it because it will look like the love in the Song.” It does not simply show up in our feelings (which we are not to let happen until it is present) and we just know; its true presence is defined by its similarity to the love pictured in the Song. 92  Exum, Songs, 119.

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Characteristics of Love in the Song of Songs

We must then look at what characterizes the love displayed between the lovers in the Song. For as Fox notes, the Song reveals its view of love “not by speaking about love in the abstract, but by portraying people in love, making lovers’ words reveal lovers’ thoughts, feelings, and deeds.”93 We are invited to observe them, smile at them, empathize and sympathize with them, “share their desires, enjoy in fantasy their pleasures,”94 but most importantly learn from them what wise and fulfilling love is meant to look like. Wise love is typified by the relationship depicted throughout the Song: it is mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, sexual, exclusive, committed, and timeless.95 When one finds oneself in a relationship that displays these characteristics, that is the time to allow love to be awakened within. Let us now look at the characteristics of wise love found in the Song. 2.1 Mutual The relationship displayed throughout the Song of Songs is mutual, as stressed in the declarations of 2:16: “My lover is mine and I am his,” 6:3: “I am my lover’s and my lover is mine,” and 7:11: “I belong to my lover, and his desire is for me.” The dialogue format, alternating between the woman and man, is fundamental to the Song’s vision of desire as mutual, as it displays the sharing of mutual praise and adoration throughout. The lovers primarily display the mutuality of their feelings by the reciprocal nature of their actions and speech. Grossberg writes, “There is hardly a thought, idea or deed that is not attributed to both the male and the female. Almost all expressions (spoken both inwardly, outwardly, and acted) are shared by the two lovers.”96 She describes his caress as better than wine in 1:2, and he describes her caresses as better than wine in 4:10. Both are followed by compliments about each other’s intoxicating scent. The exchange of praise in 1:9–11, 15–16 recurs in 2:1–3, and just as he praises every inch of her body in 4:1–15, 6:4– 10 and 7:2–10, she praises every inch of his in 5:10–16. The man calls her ‫ַר ְע ִיָתי‬ “friend,” “my love,” “my darling,” and she calls him ‫ ֵר ִעי‬in 5:16. She calls herself a ‫ׁשֹוׁשּנַ ת‬ ַ “lily” in 2:1b, to which he responds that among other women, she is like a “lily” among thistles in 2:2a. She returns the compliment in 2:3 by responding 93  Fox, Songs, 295. 94  Fox, Songs, 295. 95  These characteristics are a sampling of what typifies the love in the Song. This list is not meant to be exhaustive. There may be others as well. 96  Daniel Grossberg, “Two Kinds of Sexual Relationships in the Hebrew Bible,” HS 35 (1994): 12.

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that, among other men, he is like an apple tree among the trees of the forest, and she enjoys sitting in his shade and tasting his sweet fruit.97 She sees him as standing out among ten thousand in 5:10, just as he sees her as unique in 6:8–9, among queens, concubines, and countless women who praise her. They see each other in similar ways. He calls her “dove” in 2:14, 5:2 and 6:9, and her eyes ‫“ יֹונִ ים‬doves” in 1:15 and 4:1, just as she calls his eyes ‫“ יֹונִ ים‬doves” in 5:12. He compares her hair to expensive luxurious purple in 7:6, just as she compares his head to pure gold in 5:11. His arms are rods of gold inlaid with jewels in 5:14 just as the curves of her thighs are like jewellery in 7:2, and whilst he describes her thighs as the work of artist’s hands in 7:2, she describes his abdomen as a work of art in 5:14. She is tall like a palm tree in 7:8 and he is tall like the cedars of Lebanon in 5:15. His mouth is sweet in 5:16 just as her lips drip honey and milk and honey are under her tongue in 4:11, and her breath smells of apples in 7:9. He describes her as a pleasure garden in 4:12–15 and she describes him as a nut garden in 6:11. The mutually reciprocal nature of their relationship is also brought out by the technique of echoing, in which one lover’s words are patterned on the other’s, suggesting they “remember each other’s words and find in them the most suitable vehicle for expressing their own feelings.”98 In 7:11–14 the woman echoes the man’s call to go with him to the fields to see the blossoming spring in 2:10–14. In 4:6 and 4:10–11 the man responds to her desire by echoing the same words she addressed him with earlier in 2:17, 1:2–3, and 2:3, “playing variations on them to show how completely his desire matches hers.”99 In 1:15 he says ‫יָתי‬ ִ ‫“ ִהּנָ ְך יָ ָפה ַר ְע‬Look at you! You are beautiful, my friend,” to which she responds ‫דֹודי‬ ִ ‫“ ִהּנְ ָך יָ ֶפה‬Look at you! You are beautiful, my love” in 1:16. As F.W. DobbsAllsopp observes, it is principally through these repetitions that the poem conveys “its strong sense of mutuality.”100 Fox writes, “each says essentially the same things as the other, often in nearly identical words,” so that their speech reflects how lovers often display a “hypnotic absorption in each other.”101 It shows “the balancing of lovers’ hearts through the balancing of their words, so that the form of their expression embodies the truth of the declaration of mutual possession: ‘My beloved is mine and I am his.’”102 97  Exum (Songs, 114) calls tasting his fruit in 2:3 “an unmistakably erotic image.” 98  Fox, Songs, 318. As Exum (Songs, 110) notes, “they borrow each other’s words and images to declare their love.” 99  Exum, Songs, 156. 100  F.W. Dobbs-Allsopp, “The Delight of Beauty and the Song of Songs 4:1–7,” Int 59, 3 (2005): 270–71. 101  Fox, Songs, 322. 102  Fox, Songs, 321.

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The love depicted in the Song is mutual. The lovers desire each other with the same intensity and their affection for each other is never questioned. Neither lover “feels an asymmetry in the quality or intensity of their emotions, a feeling that would be revealed if, for example, one lover tried to wheedle the reluctant other into love or worried about the steadfastness of the other’s affections.”103 This is actually unique in comparison to other ane love song collections and materials. As Fox explains, “not all loves are mutual relationships,” and the Egyptian songs show many examples of one-sided love.104 Love songs and poems throughout history have depicted the pain of unrequited love: those who fall in love alone.105 It is clearly a common human experience. The importance of mutuality in a relationship may seem obvious, but it should not be taken for granted. The Song of Songs wants to protect readers from the pain and folly of unrequited love. The refrains instruct readers to pursue mutual relationships, to arouse love for these types of relationships and not others, because there is wisdom in loving someone who loves you in return. 2.2 Peaceful The lovers’ relationship is characterized by peace and harmony, rather than strife or conflict, and this sense of peace extends beyond their interactions to affect the entire world around them and the way that they experience and perceive it. In the Song, love brings peace, is life-giving and makes the world around them come alive. The root ‫ שׁלם‬appears frequently: eighteen times with two seven-fold repetitions of the root in close proximity, so that an intimation of peace is woven throughout the entire work.106 The Shulammite’s name is derived from the root ‫ שׁלם‬meaning “perfect, unblemished one.”107 In 8:10 the man perceives her as either “one who brings” or “one who finds” peace,108 and either way the phrase communicates that their relationship denotes peace. Whether she brings it and he finds it in her, or she finds it in him, their relationship is stressed as mutual throughout. 103  Fox, Songs, 307. 104  Fox, Songs, 304. See P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 7, “Seven Wishes” in The Cairo Love Songs, Group B No. 21 and P. Chester Beatty I, Group C No. 46 and 47. cf. “Faithful Lover,” “Oh Girl, Whoopee!” and “Slave for You.” 105  E.g. “Love’s Secret,” William Blake; “With How Sad Steps,” Sir Philip Sidney; “On My Own,” Les Miserables; “Have You Ever,” Brandy; “Everything You Want,” Vertical Horizon. 106  Grossberg, “Two,” 17. 107  Exum, Songs, 227; cf. Fox, Songs, 158. 108  Murphy, Songs, 193. ‫מֹוצ ֵאת‬ ְ is either from ‫“ מצא‬one who finds” (Qal fem. sg. active participle) or ‫“ יצא‬one who brings out” (Hifil fem. sg. participle). Exum (Songs, 259) doubts this is a kaph veritatis, and thinks that introducing a statement about their relationship would wreck the metaphor in 8:8–10 of the woman as a walled city suing for peace.

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The peace and harmony that the lovers experience in each other extends beyond their relationship to the way they view and experience the world. As their love awakens, spring blossoms and everything around them seems to come alive and be infused with a sense of peace.109 For love, like wisdom, is life-giving.110 Nature is awakened with a romantic rendezvous, as the man observes in 2:11–13 and the woman in 7:12–14.111 As Fox notes, “the lovers project their feelings onto the world they see about them. When they look at the blossoming countryside, they sense in nature the same lush, erotic [effervescence] that they feel within themselves.”112 This is why their descriptions of the countryside are so sensual: “they see – and smell, and hear, and taste – their beloved in the world about them. They also see, smell, hear, and taste the world in their beloved.”113 This is a beautiful setting for their love, but it also reveals a psychological reality concerning the way lovers view the world:114 love makes the world seem to come alive around lovers and infuses it with a sense of peace. It’s as if they say, “How wonderful life is now you’re in the world!”115 It is a “new world – one created by love.”116 One’s experience of love has the power to transform their perception of the world around them, for better or for worse,117 which is why the refrains instruct caution concerning the type of relationship one awakens love for. The relationship depicted in the Song brings peace, rather than conflict and strife, and shows that love can and should infuse the world beyond with a greater sense of peace and harmony. The refrains instruct readers to pursue peaceful relationships, to awaken love for these and not others. 109  These descriptions employ strong creation imagery, perhaps implying a return to Eden or a return to the perfection of love relationships before the fall. Correspondences between Gen 2–3 and the Song have been explored by Phyllis Trible (“Love’s Lyrics Redeemed,” in God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978], 144–65) and Francis Landy (Paradoxes, 183–265). 110  Song 2:11–13, 15; 4:12–15; 7:12–14; 8:10; Prov 3:13–18, 21–22; 3:1–2; 4:22; 5:15–23; 8:22–30, 35; 9:11. 111  Murphy, Songs, 187; Exum, Songs, 101. 112  Fox (Songs, 328) writes “efflorescence,” but I think he means “effervescence.” 113  Fox, Songs, 328. 114  Fox, Songs, 330. 115  “Your Song,” Ewan McGregor and Alessandro Safina cover of Elton John. 116  Fox, Songs, 330. 117  Note how Éponine’s perception of the world is transformed in “On My Own” from Les Miserables: “In the rain, the pavement shines like silver. All the lights are misty in the river. In the darkness the trees are full of starlight, and all I see is him and me forever and forever …” But when she realizes “it’s only in my mind” (it’s unrequited), her perception of the world shifts: “without him, the world around me changes. The trees are bare and everywhere the streets are full of strangers.” One’s experience of love can bring their perception of the world around them to life, or veil it in death.

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2.3 Equal The lover’s relationship is also one of equality. As Grossberg writes, “Sexism and gender stereotyping, so prevalent in ancient (and modern) literature is totally lacking in Canticles. Instead, undifferentiated, shared roles and positions are the rule.”118 They speak the same lines, voicing the same thoughts, rather than expressing masculine or feminine thought alone, so that “there is no stereotypical speech that he or she alone speaks.”119 They use similar language to describe one another and “the imagery is not distributed in a way that would separate the sexes into two fundamentally different types.”120 The woman does not adhere to the typical gender expectations of women in patriarchal culture. Her freedom of movement and the access that her lover has to her are notably uncommon, yet as Diane Bergant observes, her “deviance is in no way criticized by characters within the Song or its final editor.”121 Her lover has exclusive access to her garden but it seems to be by her permission rather than by the permission of a man whose authority she is under. She has exclusive control over her own sexual property and gives it to the lover whom she, rather than a patriarchal authority figure, chooses.122 The Song does not deliberately attempt to make a counter-cultural social statement by overtly rejecting sex roles or socially imposed stereotypes,123 so much as depict a world in which they simply do not exist. 118  Grossberg, “Two,” 15. 119  Grossberg, “Two,” 13. 120  Fox, Songs, 309. 121  Dianne Bergant, “My Beloved is Mine and I Am His (Song 2:16): The Song of Songs and Honor and Shame,” Semeia 68 (1994): 35. As she (35) notes, it is remarkable that a society that “had such a strict sexual code of ethics, at least for women,” would have produced such a piece of literature. The fact that the woman is home in a few passages when the male lover comes to find her does not negate the many other places where she clearly has an uncommon freedom of movement given the culture: directly after in 3:2–4 and 5:6–8, cf. 1:4, 1:7–8, 1:12–14, 2:3, 2:4, 2:6, 2:10–14, 3:6, 4:6, 4:7–8, 4:16–5:1, 6:2–3, 7:8, 7:11–12 and 8:5. These passages depict the woman in a number of surprising places that would have been considered “inappropriate,” including the arms of her lover. 122  Fox (Songs, 171–73) thinks that the brothers from 1:6 are in charge of her sexuality in chapter 8, yet they are not mentioned in chapter 8. As Exum (“Sister,” 273–77) notes, whilst she contrasts herself with a “little sister” who has not reached sexual maturity, it never says whose little sister it is, so there is no reason to read the brothers from 1:6 into chapter 8. 123  Fox, Songs, 308. He notes that it never implies that though she is female she will not wait at home, pursue love, seek to satisfy sexual desires, brave the night, etc. As Exum (“Sister,” 281) notes, the Song is not polemical or attempting to challenge its culture. The lovers simply act as if social concerns do not really apply to them “as all lovers are inclined to do.” The Song transcends gender roles and societal boundaries, and looks forward to a time of relational equality, or even prescribes it.

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In some ways, the Song reflects the gendered world within which it was written. Her brothers have some sort of authority over her in 1:6, she is punished by the watchmen for being out alone at night in 5:7, and she is aware of social constraints on the affection she can publicly show her lover in 8:1. But these are external obstacles rather than inequality within their relationship and whilst “social realities do impinge upon the world of the poem, within their one-toone relationship the lovers act with equal freedom and express their love in the same ways.”124 The man is not the sole initiator and neither is forced into a mould or sexual stereotype often prominent in other love poetry. We do not see the aggressive man and hesitant or shy woman who must be persuaded, the dominant man and submissive woman, or the ravenous and predatory woman and malleable man.125 These types do not appear in the Song, as neither lover has an advantageous position over the other.126 “In 1:13 he is a sachet of myrrh nestled between her breasts, an image that pictures her as the dominant and sheltering party, whereas in 2:3b he is the tree in whose shade she sits, so that he is now the dominant and sheltering member of the pair.”127 The lovers in the Songs differ physically, but they are not type figures with archetypically male or female traits so that she is softer, more passive or receptive than he.128 As Bergant writes, “She fits neither the stereotype of the coquette nor that of the femme fatale.”129 She is pictured as assertive, strong and proactive, qualities considered by some to be “masculine” or less feminine.130 Yet, neither of them takes on an exclusively active or passive role: “At times she is the initiator, at other times she is reserved. He is variously the object of her search and a forceful suitor.”131 The woman is assertive, yet simultaneously unafraid to be led by him into his bedchamber in 1:4, held in his embrace in 2:6, be the object of his gaze in 4:1–7 and attached to him as a seal in 8:6.132 Their relationship involves

124  Fox, Songs, 309. 125  Fox, Songs, 307. 126  Carol Myers, “Gender Imagery in the Song of Songs,” har 10 (1986): 220. 127  Fox, Songs, 108. 128  As Fox (Songs, 308) notes, some of the images used of the man also suggest softness, like lilies (5:13) and doves in milk (5:12) and “hard” images like towers (4:4; 7:5a, 5b) are also used of her. 129  Bergant, “Beloved,” 35. 130  As Longman (Songs, 130) notes, she dispels the stereotype of a woman’s “role” in 3:4, since rather than waiting for him to initiate, she searches, grabs him, and brings him to the bedroom. 131  Bergant, “Beloved,” 30. 132  Dobbs, “Beauty,” 271.

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exchanges in power in which each is able to be “both active and passive without fearing diminishment in the process.”133 Inequality often results in a feeling of asymmetry in the quality or intensity of the relationship, i.e. in a lack of mutuality. One is the initiator and the other reluctant or needing coaxing. One is rapacious whilst the other malleable. One is diminished in relation to the other. True mutuality only exists when there is equality of action and expression. The Song depicts a relationship of equality, where both are free to be active and passive, strong and vulnerable to each other. The refrains instruct the reader to pursue this type of relationship, and to not awaken love for one that is not, because where there is equality neither lover feels diminishment. 2.4 Proactive Both lovers in the Song are proactive and achieve their heart’s desire precisely because they are proactive. In the Egyptian love songs some lovers are proactive but the majority are passive, pining away after their beloved, lacking the resolve to do something about it, and are often left alone and frustrated.134 In the Song of Songs, however, both lovers seek each other and are adamant in their pursuit of the other. In 1:7–8 the woman asks her lover where she can find him. As Fox explains, “She does not ask him just to visit her some time. She wants to know exactly where he spends the noon hours so that she can go find him,” even if it means meandering around shepherds’ flocks, which may be dangerous or risk her reputation.135 Twice the woman goes out at night to search the streets for her lover. Twice he sneaks up to her house at night, inviting her away or asking to be let in. Relationships in which one or both lovers fail to actively pursue the other often end in frustration and solitude. The lovers in the Song are proactive, pursue one another and achieve their heart’s desire precisely because they are proactive. The refrains encourage us to arouse love for those who proactively pursue us, and not awaken love for those who do not. 2.5 Devoted/Sacrificial The lovers in the Song are devoted to one another and willing to overcome great obstacles and brave dangers in order to be with each other. They are willing to take risks for love, sacrifice and undergo hardship to be with the one 133  Dobbs, “Beauty,” 271; Wendy Steiner, Venus in Exile: The Rejection of Beauty in 20th-Century Art (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), xxi–xxii. 134  Fox, Songs, 305–7. 135  Fox, Songs, 324.

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whom they love, and this is a common typos of love poetry. Twice at night she braves danger in order to see him, in 3:1–5 and in 5:6–7. There is a fair amount of discussion over whether these are dream sequences or narrative “reality,” but this is a peculiar kind of distinction to force in a poem. The episodes do not need to describe actual events, for this is the world of poetic fantasy.136 The poem simply presents her as free to go out in search for her lover and as having the initiative to do so. In 6:1–3 she divulges that she has known where he is (in her “garden”) all along,137 and the fact that he is perhaps never really missing when she searches for him in 5:2–7 shows that these are likely daydreams or fantasies, in which she thinks of herself as willing to overcome great obstacles to be with him. They are vehicles for her to demonstrate her willingness to brave dangers, suffer for the sake of love and her determination to be with the man. The Song shows that “love’s power can give a lover strength and determination, even vehemence, creating a single-mindedness that can – and should – make a lover courageous and even reckless,” in the pursuit of their lover.138 Just as she searches for him at night, he bounds over mountains in the dark to visit her, sneaking up to her house in 2:10–14 and 5:2–6. Since the woman lives at her mother’s house in 8:1–2 and has brothers in 1:6, she is clearly not living alone, so the man is also taking risks.139 Whilst her risks receive more emphasis, his may also be great since he comes to her house under the cloak of night, and his locks are drenched with “the dew of the night” in 5:2, so he has at least overcome some obstacles to see her.140 In 4:8 the woman is pictured as among dens of lions and lairs of leopards. These majestic places and animals are beautiful, but also dangerous, so that they not only communicate his utter awe of her, but also the challenges and difficulties that must be overcome to reach her.141 They are both willing to face potential ridicule from peers to find each other at noon in 1:7–8.142

136  Poetry indulges in fantasy and need not reflect social reality. We need not ask if a woman could wander the streets at night, nor need it be a dream for her to do so. cf. Murphy, Songs, 170. 137  Murphy, Songs, 173; Exum, Songs, 189, 210. The woman’s positive attitude after the encounter with the watchmen in 5:7 and the sense that the man seems to have never really been missing in 6:1–3 both contribute to the impression that the episode is a fantasy in which she envisions her willingness to brave great danger and overcome extreme obstacles to be with the man whom she loves, rather than narrative reality. 138  Fox, Songs, 323. 139  Fox, Songs, 324. 140  Fox, Songs, 310. 141  Fox, Songs, 135; Exum, Songs, 169, 156. 142  Fox, Songs, 315.

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These episodes demonstrate a common typos of love poetry: a lover’s willingness to sacrifice, overcome obstacles and brave danger to attain their beloved. “This is the message of much romantic literature, in which the intensity of love’s fulfilment is proportionate to the difficulties undergone to achieve it, and in which success in love may require the violation of social norms.”143 This willingness to overcome obstacles for love, to put aside one’s pride and undergo difficulty to be with the other is admirable and rewarding in the context of mutuality. Yet if only one person does this, they will look and feel quite foolish. In the Song, both are willing to take risks and overcome obstacles to be with each other. The Song inspires us to be these types of lovers, and the refrains instruct us to pursue lovers with this type of devotion to us, who are willing to sacrifice and overcome obstacles to be with us, and not awaken love for those who are not. 2.6 Desirous The lovers in the Song of Songs are intensely attracted to one another, and their desire for each other is mutually fierce. They are simply awestruck by the sight of one another. In 1:15 he says ‫“ ִהּנָ ְך יָ ָפה ַר ְע ִיָתי‬Look at you! You are beautiful, my friend,” to which she responds ‫דֹודי‬ ִ ‫“ ִהּנְ ָך יָ ֶפה‬Look at you! You are beautiful, my love” in 1:16. As Exum notes, the woman repeats his praise, shifting our gaze from her to him, and overwhelmed by his beauty, looks away from him to their bed.144 “Each phrase begins with ‫“( ַאף‬and also”), as if she were gasping for breath in wonderment.”145 Dobbs-Allsopp notes that ‫ ִהּנָ ְך‬, “Look at you!” “presents what follows as the sudden and vivid perception of something unexpected – in this case, the startling appearance of something beautiful. The structure of perception at the moment one stands in the presence of beauty is often characterized as arresting, a reaction in which you draw in your breath and stop still or utter a little gasp.”146 His beauty causes her to turn her gaze from him to their bed in 1:16, just as her gaze captures his heart in 4:9 and in 6:5 he begs her to turn her eyes from him as they make him tremble, showing as Elaine Scarry notes, that sometimes the “vulnerability of the perceiver seems equal to, or greater than, the vulnerability of the person being 143  Fox, Songs, 291. He notes that this theme is mostly absent in the Egyptian songs, which often depict lovers sitting at home wishing for their beloved to appear. The author implicitly affirms its importance by depicting their failure to go to each other in “The Stroll” (P. Chester Beatty I, Group A No. 31–37) and by showing a lover who does so in “The Crossing” (The Cairo Love Songs, Group A, No. 20), but most of the time the lovers are not proactive. 144  Exum, Songs, 113. 145  Exum, Songs, 113. 146  Dobbs, “Beauty,” 262.

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perceived.”147 They are both so intensely attracted to one another that it overwhelms, intimidates and unnerves them. They take each other’s breath away. They use reciprocal language to describe one another and her description of his body is as intimate and erotic as his is of hers. It has been suggested that the lovers look at each other in gender-determined ways so that the man is more visual and the woman more emotional in their descriptions.148 Even her description of him in 5:10–16 is said not to employ vivid “engrossing visual images” of his physical attributes so much as describe her attraction to him in terms of his overall value.149 However, this is doubtful, as their visual descriptions of one another use the same or quite similar terminology and imagery.150 In 5:10–16 she looks at him with as much visual detail as he looked at her. She does not merely describe the value of his parts, but paints a picture of how erotically enticing they are. Whilst it is true that she uses images that can convey value: metal, ivory, alabaster and precious stones, they do not only convey value; these same images also convey something visually: a sculpted form of hardness and strength.151 When she describes his arms as rods of gold inlaid with jewels, his abdomen – or member – as an ivory work of art, his thighs as alabaster pillars, and his hip-sockets as gold, this is because these are precisely the parts of a man that are most attractive when firm.152 The images of metal 147  Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 73. She notes that, “in accounts of beauty from earlier centuries, it is precisely the perceiver who is imperiled, overpowered, by crossing paths with someone beautiful.” 148  Exum (Songs, 203) thinks that the man concentrates on her outward appearance whilst she focuses on the way she feels about him. She (156) says that the woman “explores her feelings for him … telling stories in which they are characters,” whilst the man describes what he sees visually when he looks at her and “how it affects him.” 149  Exum, Songs, 202. 150  4:1–15; 5:10–16; 6:4–10; 7:2–10. As Fox (Songs, 217) notes, both have eyes like doves, are tall and proud like trees, and rounded and crafted like works of art. Exum (Songs, 235) notes that they both compare each other’s eyes to pools in 5:12 and 7:5, a familiar topos in love poetry, and remarks, “Lovers often feel that they could drown in the eyes of their beloved.” She focuses on his hair, eyes, cheeks, lips, mouth, arms, abdomen, thighs, hip sockets, height, scent, and total form in 5:10–16 just as he focuses on her hair, eyes, nose, cheeks, lips, mouth, neck, breasts, navel, belly, thighs, height, scent and total form in 4:1–15, 6:4– 10, and 7:2–10. 151  Exum (Songs, 207) also says that there is “something sexually suggestive in all these images of hardness.” 152  The root of ‫ילי‬ ֵ ‫ ּגְ ִל‬is ‫“ גלל‬roll,” suggesting something round or cylinder-like, so “arms” are more likely than “hands,” contra Exum, Songs, 184, 206–207. ‫ ֵמ ֶעה‬was used of the woman’s internal organs or genitals in 5:4 making it likely that ‫ ֵמ ָעיו‬refers to the man’s genitals or “member” in 5:14, not just his abdomen or stomach (cf. Longman, Songs, 173, Exum, Songs, 195). Fox (Songs, 148) notes ‫ עשׁת‬is the Aramaic equivalent of ‫חשׁב‬, used of fashioning works of art, the Hebrew ‫“ ֶח ֶשׁב‬art work,” rather than ‫“ עשׁשׁ‬smooth,” a root whose existence he thinks is doubtful. ‫ שֹׁוק‬is used predominantly of the thigh of an animal

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are used to describe the most desirable parts of a man, and the most enticing during sexual intercourse, not only because they convey value, but precisely because they communicate something visually: the hardness, muscular strength and sculpted shape of his arms, abdomen, and thighs. The terms that she uses to describe him do not just show that he is rare or precious to her, but rather that she sees him as visually attractive: hard, sculpted, fit, and beautiful, as erotically enticing as she is for him. This is, as Exum describes it, “a lover fascinated by her partner’s physical attributes.”153 Her description of him is entirely visual. Whilst the woman could point to any number of qualities that make him unique, she emphasises his body as setting him apart from other men.154 Exum also notes she does something more commonly associated with men: she is the “owner of the gaze.”155 If the Song only depicted the woman’s body “its picture of gender relations would be significantly asymmetrical,” but in 5:10–16 she is not the object of the gaze, but the one looking, so that looking is also mutual in the Song.156 There are some who downplay the importance of beauty, the body or physical attraction in love. Yet the lovers in the Song are intoxicated by each other’s physical beauty, and they are not hesitant or embarrassed about getting lost in and admiring it.157 The refrains encourage readers to pursue relationships like this, ones of desire and intense physical attraction, and warn against trying to awaken love when this is not present. 2.7 Sexual (Erotic) The intensity of their physical attraction to each other leads them to the sexual expression of such desire and admiration, and gives way to intense sexual enjoyment. Eroticism and sexual desire permeate the Song. To explore their sacrificed in the temple, (see Longman, Songs, 174) making it likely that ‫“ ַא ְדנֵ־‬sockets” refers to his “hip sockets” (she has been concentrated on his abdomen/thigh region), not the “pedestals” of his ankles, which would be a strange thing to compliment. The hip sockets are likely mentioned because of the attractive “V” shape they create in contrast to a man’s abdominal muscles, a particularly attractive feature of men admired by women. 153  Exum, Songs, 202. 154  Exum, Songs, 202. 155  Exum, Songs, 190. 156  Exum, Songs, 190. The idea that the lovers describe each other’s bodies in genderdetermined ways, that men are more visual than women or that women feel more of an emotional connection to lovers rather than physical sexual attraction is simply not reflected in the Song. 157  Dobbs, “Beauty,” 266. He notes that the Song revels in the beauty, allure, and sensuality of the physical body, and thinks that this naked admiration is refreshing, as it should remind us that, “we are all embodied beings … [and] our bodies matter.”

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concept of love is to explore their vision of sexuality and this eroticism involves the entire body, encompassing eyes, hair, necks, noses, lips, arms, legs, hips, navels, stomachs and mouths.158 They are sexually fascinated by each other. Fox notes, “everything about one’s lover is charged with erotic energy [and] sexual desire ignites, fuels, powers their love, so that emotion and libido can scarcely be distinguished.”159 The book opens in verse 2 with romance already in progress and we get the impression we are watching a sexual love affair unfold before our very eyes.160 The lovers use metaphors of eating and drinking throughout to describe their physical enjoyment of each other. His caresses are better than wine in 1:2 just as her caresses are better than wine in 4:10 and her mouth is like the best wine in 7:10. The “house of wine” in 2:4 blends the image of wine as the metaphor for love in 1:2–4 with the house where the lovers partake in love in mutual intoxication.161 5:1 includes the audience in this intoxication, advising “eat friends, drink yourselves drunk on love!” The man’s enjoyment of the woman’s body is often described with the metaphor of eating, as in 2:16 and 6:2–3 where he grazes in her garden, and eats its choice fruits in 4:16 and 5:1. The garden and vineyards are places where they enjoy erotic pleasures, but they are also metaphors and euphemisms for the woman’s body and her sexuality, so that entering the garden to enjoy its produce signifies sexual activity. The man is also referred to as a nut garden in 6:11 and his fruit is sweet to her taste in 2:3.162 As early as in 1:6 she explains that she has not kept herself, or her “vineyard,”163 from her lover, and she continues to invite him to her garden to graze and eat its choice fruits, and to come away to the vineyards, throughout the Song.164 Surprisingly, the erotic focus of the Song never extends to the womb, procreation or marriage, as it does for example in Mesopotamian love poetry.165 158  Fox, Songs, 299. 159  Fox, Songs, 299. 160  Exum, Songs, 92. 161  Exum, Songs, 114–115. 162  Pope (Songs, 574–79) provides a thorough study of nut imagery, showing connections between the nut and both male and female genitalia, so that 6:11 likely suggests sexual activity. 163  Meaning she has not preserved her virginity, see Pope, Songs, 326. 164  Songs 2:15–16; 4:16; 5:1; 6:2–3; 7:12; 8:13. 165  The woman’s body is pictured as a lush/fertile garden, yet the Song is not concerned with her ability to bear children, or fertility rights that would expedite this outcome, as in the sacred marriage songs of Mesopotamia. As Fox (Songs, 309) notes, “the lovers do not even muse” about the children they might have and the womb is passed over in silence. In fact, if Athalya Brenner (The Intercourse of Knowledge: On Gendering Desire and ‘Sexuality’ in the Hebrew Bible, BibInt 26 [Leiden: Brill, 1997] 87–89) is correct, they may be interested

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Sexual union is pursued for pleasure alone. As mentioned above, the lovers do not appear to be married, nor even betrothed. The Song does not seem to reflect the patriarchal interest in maintaining women’s chastity to guard progeny,166 and gives the audience every reason to think that she has already had sex with her lover. Whilst society has often tried to bind the passion of love to the “higher” goals of marriage, duty, procreation, family ties, social mobility, monetary gain and foreign alliances, in the Song love is cherished for its own sake alone and apart from these external objectives.167 It may even be that marriage was left out of the Song precisely because it was pursued for so many ulterior motives in the ancient world and the Song wanted to emphasize the importance of romantic love. This, in itself, is “a statement of basic values: individual emotions are important.”168 Throughout various periods in history, theologians downplayed the importance of sexuality and idolized impassive relationships free from sexual pleasure.169 However, this philosophy is foreign to the Song of Songs, which extols the beauty of human sexual love. Perhaps, a distinction between “passion” and “lust” is needed. Paul Jewett and Marguerite Shuster explain that, traditionally, “lust” has been understood as “any urge to gratify one’s sexual desires that does not aim at procreation … even in intercourse with one’s own spouse if it is indulged in for pleasure alone.”170 They suggest instead that lust is an expression of sexual passion “that desires the other person apart from any

in preventing pregnancy since many of the plants mentioned were used as female contraceptives throughout the Mediterranean world. She cites (69–89) an extensive amount of evidence in medical, cultic, juridical, theological and narrative texts – stretching from the beginning of the second millennium BCE through the first millennium CE – in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, even the early Rabbinic material – that shows that female contraception was widely known, used and easily accessible. Brenner (89) thinks that knowledge of contraception was part of the “wisdom” sphere, just as knowledge of fertility and general medicine were. 166  Bergant, “Beloved,” 36; Exum, “Sister,” 275; Fox, Songs, 172. 167  Fox, Songs, 322. 168  Fox, Songs, 322. 169  See Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 14.22–24, cited in Paul K. Jewett and Marguerite Shuster (Who We are: Our Dignity as Human: a Neo-Evangelical Theology [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996], 193) who also mention Jerome, Tertullian and Aquinas. 170  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 196. They (203, 194, 196–7) note that this suspicion of sexual passion “reflects a dualistic approach more Hellenistic than biblical in its denigration of the body … there is no such thing (and there never was) as impassive sexuality.” The only equivocation was prostitution, which was considered necessary for preserving feminine virtue in society, as one part of the female sex was “sacrificed” to men’s fleshly desires to preserve the other that remained pure.

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value or worth seen in the other,” pursued for self-gratification alone.171 This is not what we see in the Song where the lovers pursue each other out of deep love and passion for one another, mind, body, and soul. Their desire is not only mutual but seeks mutual fulfilment.172 A great divide exists between passionate love and lust, and a lack of clarification between them explains why so little has been said about romantic love until recently.173 The Song celebrates the body and sexual pleasure, and sees it as intricately connected to what it means to give and receive love. As Jewett and Shuster explain, “After all, romantic love is distinguished precisely by its sexual component; it is a love that is sexual (erotic) in its very nature.”174 The refrains encourage readers to pursue similar relationships of intense physical enjoyment, with someone they are sexually fascinated by, and warn against trying to arouse love when this is absent. 2.8 Exclusive Whilst the lovers in the Song do not appear to be married they are monogamous and their relationship is exclusive. “The Song does assume a sexual ethic, but the sexual virtue cherished is not chastity. It is fidelity.”175 The lovers in the Song “are fiercely committed to each other and to no one else.”176 They are protective of their relationship, do not share it with others, and are entirely faithful to one another. Unlike other ane love songs, there are no examples of love-triangles. We never see one lover lamenting over the fact that the other has been with someone else. These situations do not occur in the Song. Exclusiveness is central to the relationship depicted in the Song. The lovers are highly sexual, but not promiscuous. In 4:12–15 the woman is pictured as a locked garden. She is sexually inaccessible to all except for her lover, who has direct access to her in 5:1, as well as in 2:16 and 6:2–3, showing that she is inaccessible to all except him. Her garden is open to him, but it is also understood that she is not open to others. In 1:6 she explains that she has not kept her vineyard, her sexuality, for as 2:16, 7:13 and 8:11–12 show her lover has clearly been invited to it. Her “vineyard” is also kept from other “foxes” in 2:15, whilst the male lover enjoys it in 2:16. In 8:11–12 the man prizes his vineyard, the woman, over 171  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 197. 172  Bergant, “Beloved,” 29: “The woman is not being used; she is being loved.” 173  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 196. 174  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 203. 175  Fox, Songs, 315. 176  Bergant, “Beloved,” 32. As Nicolas J. Tromp (“Wisdom and the Canticle: Ct., 8, 6c–7b: text, character, message and import,” in La Sagesse de l’Ancien Testament, ed. Maurice Gilbert [Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1979], 94) notes, it is not “free love.”

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all of Solomon’s vineyard, or harem, which is extensive but needs keepers. The man’s vineyard means more to him than a royal harem because it is exclusively his. He does not share her with others. The lovers prize each other above all other potential lovers. In 5:10 the woman says that there is no other as captivating as her lover “among ten thousand,” and in 6:8–9 the man says that she stands out among sixty queens, eighty concubines, and young women without number. Not only do they fail to compare to her, but he puts his words into their mouths, claiming that they would proclaim her superiority as well. The woman projects her opinion onto other women in 1:2–3 saying, “for this (his intoxicating scent) women love you.” She emphasizes the objective nature of his excellence by including the presumed opinions of other women, yet shows a complete lack of jealousy towards them, as she is always confident in his love for her alone. The pinnacle statement of exclusive commitment is found in the mashal of 8:6–7, which I will discuss momentarily, but for now I observe that when the woman asks to be placed as a seal on his heart, it is a permanent mark of exclusive commitment. The very core of his being will be imprinted with her identity. The Song may not have been written to extol the virtues of chastity or marriage but exclusiveness and fidelity are central to the relationship depicted in it. Love triangles are painful and jealousy often stirs over those whom are not exclusively ours. The refrains instruct us to pursue relationships characterized by exclusiveness and fidelity, and to not awaken love for those who will not be exclusive or faithful to us. 2.9 Committed Whilst the lovers in the Song do not appear to be married, their commitment to each other is absolute. Their love is not a casual romance. They are “intensely serious about their love and fully committed to each other.”177 In the Song, “sexual intercourse does not consummate marriage. Rather, marriage will consummate sex: the lovers are already enjoying sexual pleasures, but they want public acceptance of their union” as seen by her wish to display their love publicly in 8:2.178 Marriage is not a primary focus in the Song, yet epithets like “my bride” in 4:8–12 seem to imply this desire for the future.179 The woman’s request that he place her as a seal on his heart in 8:6 represents the highest form of commitment, as he will permanently mark his identity with her own. The 177  Fox, Songs, 314. 178  Fox, Songs, 313–14. 179  Fox, Songs, 314. He calls her “my bride” but also “my sister” which is not literal either. It is a term of endearment. They are clearly depicted as unmarried in 8:1–2.

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refrains instruct us to pursue these types of committed relationships, and warn us against arousing love for those who will not commit to us. 2.10 Timeless The intimacy of the relationship in the Song and the way the lovers speak to each other denotes a sense of permanency. The Song does not speak of love as a passing fancy or infatuation, but as total devotion in a lasting commitment of faithfulness until death, and perhaps even beyond. For, whilst the lovers in the Song are not married, their commitment to each other is so absolute that it is as if it transcends time and extends into eternity. It is a love until the end of time. Theirs is a love that seems to go on forever, for the love displayed in the Song has a timeless quality. Many observe the lack of narrative progression: “Scenes and speeches recur with no well-defined dramatic movement toward closure” and the lovers’ experiences continually repeat themselves, only evidencing “a movement from one love experience to the another.”180 As Exum notes, “By making it difficult to pinpoint the seeking and finding in time, the poet imbues these activities with a feeling of timelessness. Desire and fulfilment, seeking and finding, are … repetitive, on-going and never-ending.”181 The very structure of the Song thus reinforces this timeless quality on the thematic level. The Song opens in medias res and finishes without a sense of closure. The final words in 8:14 function similarly to 2:17. She sends her lover away to the mountains of her body, so that she draws him to her in the same breath, and we have grown accustomed to this reoccurring over and over.182 The Song resists closure and circles back upon itself throughout, and the effect produced is that love seems “forever in progress,” on going and never-ending, so that the lovers will continue evermore in seeking and finding.183 As Exum notes, “It is surely no accident that the Song opens in medias res and concludes without closure. Without beginning and without end, the poem, like the love it celebrates, strives to be everlasting.”184 The Song teaches us to desire a relationship that is committed and faithful, to death and perhaps even beyond, transcending time and extending into eternity. The refrains instruct us to pursue these

180  Grossberg, “Two,” 19. 181  Exum, Songs, 134. 182  Exum, Songs, 263. 183  Exum, Songs, 93, 263; cf. Longman, Songs, 89. 184  Exum, Songs, 245.

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types of lovers, who will love us “till the end of time,” and not those whose commitments are fleeting or transitory. The Song of Songs presents a picture of what love is meant to look like: it is mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, sexual, exclusive, committed, and timeless.185 The book compels the audience to pursue this type of love in their own life, and the “do not awaken” refrains warn them against awakening love before this type of love, the love displayed in the Song, is present. 3

The Mashal in 8:6–7

I propose that the “do not awaken” refrains advise against arousing love before the type of love pictured in the Song is present because of what the mashal, or proverb, in 8:6–7 teaches.186 Its declaration that love is as strong as death is the crescendo of the poem, its raison d’être, drawing a conclusion from the particular portrait of love that it has depicted throughout,187 and explaining the reason behind the refrains and why we are to be cautious in matters of love. The woman begins the mashal by saying:

‫ל־ל ֶּבָך‬ ִ ‫חֹותם ַע‬ ָ ‫ימנִ י ַכ‬ ֵ ‫ ִשׂ‬8:6a ‫רֹועָך‬ ֶ ְ‫חֹותם ַעל־ז‬ ָ ‫ ַּכ‬8:6b

Place me as a seal upon your heart, as a seal upon your arm, Seals were used in the ane as a mark of identity and to sign letters.188 There were two types: 1) a stamp (flat incised surface), or 2) a cylinder drilled through 185  Prior to the first occurrence of the refrain in 2:7, we know that their love is mutual (1:9–11, 15–16), equal (1:6e, 1:7/1:4/2:6, 1:13/2:3b, 1:15–16, 2:2–3) proactive and devoted (1:7), desirous (1:2, 1:4b, 1:9–11, 1:15–16), sexual (1:2, 1:4, 1:6, 2:3–4) and exclusive (2:2, 2:3). The remaining attributes of their relationship come to light as the poem progresses and before the final two refrains. 186  Tromp (“Wisdom,” 92–93) notes that 8:6–7 exhibits the particular characteristics that Otto Eissfeldt (Der Maschal im Alten Testament bzaw 24 [Giessen: Alfred Töpelmann, 1913], 48–52) argued define the mashal: metrical form and rhythmic structure, parallelismus membrorum (in this case, synonymous parallelism), consonantal and vocalic assonance, a terse and vivid style, and general truth made clear with images and examples. 187  Exum, Songs, 245; Fox, Songs, 168. 188  Gen 38:18; 1Kgs 21:8; Exum, Songs, 250.

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the centre and engraved around the circumference.189 The stamp seal was more common in Palestine, was pressed down on clay to make an impression and had a personal inscription or picture to identify the person who owned it.190 The cylinder seal was more common in Mesopotamia, was rolled across clay to leave an impression and both signified association with, or ownership of, the object sealed.191 Whilst some think ‫חֹותם‬ ָ refers to the seal itself, rather than the impression it makes,192 she asks to be placed as a seal upon his very heart, rather than simply worn on his chest, suggesting that she wants to be inscribed on the very core of his being. The seal was similar to a signature – a sign of ownership, exclusive possession and a symbolic representation of the person – that identified and committed him or her, so that it was carried on them continually.193 If so, the woman not only commits to the man by placing herself as a seal on his heart, she also identifies herself with the very core of his being. Conversely, his very core would be inscribed with her identity and commitment, a mark he would carry continually. He would carry her identity as a mark of his own. The seal then serves as a mark of their mutually exclusive possession and ownership of one another. The woman continues by saying:

‫י־עּזָ ה ַכ ָּמוֶ ת ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ַ ‫ ִּכ‬8:6c ‫ ָק ָשׁה ִכ ְשׁאֹול ִקנְ ָאה‬8:6d ‫יה ִר ְשׁ ֵּפי ֵאשׁ‬ ָ ‫ ְ ר ָשׁ ֶפ‬8:6e ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬8:6f ‫ת־ה ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫יּוכלּו ְל ַכּבֹות ֶא‬ ְ ‫ ַמיִ ם ַר ִּבים לֹא‬8:7a

189  Exum, Songs, 250. We have numerous stamp and cylinder seals that have survived from ancient Mesopotamia and Syro-Palestine, see Longman, Songs, 209. As Exum (Songs, 250) notes, they were made of precious/semi-precious metal or stone, with designs and/or inscriptions, were worn on a necklace over the heart or on a bracelet for the wrist or upper arm and were highly valued. 190  Longman, Songs, 209. 191  Longman, Songs, 209. 192  Exum, Songs, 150. She (250–52) notes that Deut 11:18, Prov 3:3 and 7:3 speak of inscribing words on one’s heart and soul, and that loyalty, faithfulness and teaching are all things that can be written on the heart. Examples of wearing someone as a seal: Hag 2:23, cf. Jer 22:24. 193  Fox, Songs, 169; Robert and Tournay, Cantiques, 10; William W. Hallo, “‘As a Seal Upon Thy Heart: Glyptic Roles in the Biblical World,” Biblia Revuo 1, 1 (1985): 22. Longman (Songs, 210) thinks that “heart” refers to inner being, and “arm” actions, so that together they signify the whole person.

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‫פּוה‬ ָ ‫ ּונְ ָהרֹות לֹא יִ ְשׁ ְט‬8:7b ‫ת־ּכל־הֹון ֵּביתֹו ָּב ַא ֲה ָבה‬ ָ ‫ ִאם־יִ ֵּתן ִאישׁ ֶא‬8:7c ‫ ּבֹוז יָבּוזּו לֹו‬8:7d

for love is strong as death, jealousy unyielding as the grave. Its flashes are flashes of fire, an almighty flame. Many waters cannot quench love, nor rivers wash it away. If one were to give all the wealth of one’s house for love, it would be utterly despised. Murphy thinks that the ‫ ִכי‬in 8:6c is a particle of affirmation best left untranslated, but Exum argues persuasively that, “it explains the reason for wearing the seal and its significance.”194 Yet, whilst she thinks that the reason for wearing the seal is to signify “love’s refusal to die,”195 I think that it is to signify their exclusiveness and commitment to each other, in light of the strength of love and the unyielding nature of jealousy. Exum takes a particular interpretation of the mashal, as showing that love is locked in a cosmic battle with death, which we will address momentarily. In this interpretation, the significance of the seal would be to inscribe his identity with the lesson that love contends with death and refuses to die. However, the woman does not ask the man to wear a seal of the following lesson about love on his heart, she asks him to wear her. She is the seal, not the lesson. By being placed on his heart, she signifies her commitment to him by her seal, and identifies herself with his very core. He likewise is marked, in his very core, by her identity and commitment to him. The significance of the seal is that it shows their mutual identification with each other, that is their exclusiveness, and their mutual commitment to one another. The lesson about love is then given, not as the seal itself, which is rather the woman, but as the reason for wanting to be sealed in mutual and exclusive identification and commitment to each other: love is powerful, as strong as death and unyielding as the grave. To be exposed to such powerful emotions as love and jealousy without mutual and exclusive commitment would be very painful. She asks him to engrave his commitment to her on his heart, because love is powerful and she is exposed to its power.

194  Exum, Songs, 245; Murphy, Songs, 118. 195  Exum, Songs, 145.

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Exum and Longman both interpret the meaning and significance of 8:6–7 in terms of personified love’s challenge to death and other cosmic forces, although they interpret its victory in different ways.196 Exum thinks that “love and death have something in common besides their strength: the dissolution of the self,” where losing oneself in loving another can “seem like a transcending of mortality.”197 Longman believes that though “death is an irresistible and inevitable force … love, her love, is even stronger than death.”198 Exum will not go as far as to say that the verse teaches that love is stronger than death. Rather death is strong, “and lovers, flesh-and-blood ones, do not live forever.” She thinks that “the Song is acutely aware of this fact, but rather than mourn the transience of love, in an act of resistance to it, the Song seeks to immortalize love by celebrating love in the here and now – not the love of two individuals, for the Song’s lovers stand for all lovers, but the enduring vision of desire they embody.”199 So love, though not stronger than death, is personified and immortalized through an enduring vision of all lovers, so that it rivals death in power and resists it by its enduring testimony to the desire between all lovers. Individual lovers may die, but the enduring vision of their desire goes on and on, to be replicated by lovers endlessly so that it rivals death’s finality. There are a number of scholars who think that the mashal teaches that love is personified as a force or power that contends with the cosmic powers, particularly death. Exum, Longman, Pope, Herbert May and Nicolas Tromp think that there are numerous allusions in 8:6–7 to the chthonic and cosmic powers of Mot (death), Sheol, Resheph (flames of yah), Yam (cosmic waters of chaos), and Nahar, who “lend cosmic proportions to the struggle between love and death.”200 They see allusions to the names of these gods as personifications of various cosmic powers whom love struggles against and overcomes. However, it is questionable whether the stich is really saying that love “rivals” death, or any other cosmic power for that matter. Taken at face value these verses simply say that “love is strong as death is” not that love contends with death or refuses to die. The poet uses some of the most powerful forces in nature to formulate superlatives that vividly and poetically convey the strength of love and the jealousy that accompanies it. The reason these forces became deified was precisely because of their power. But the fact that they became deified does not 196  Exum, Songs, 251; Longman, Songs, 210. 197  Exum, Songs, 251. 198  Longman, Songs, 210. 199  Exum, Songs, 251. 200  Exum, Songs, 254; Longman, Songs, 210–14; Pope, Songs, 668–74; Herbert G. May “Some Cosmic Connotations of Mayim Rabbim, ‘Many Waters.’” jbl 74 (1955): 9–21; Tromp, “Wisdom,” 94.

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mean that this meaning is intended here, or that there is a direct reference to personified deities or cosmic powers. As Garrett notes, “The contrast between fire and water is so obvious that one hardly need look to mythological images of the waters of primordial chaos for an explanation of this line.”201 Rather, it is using these powerful forces of nature to describe something meaningful about the power of love and define more accurately what love is like. Love is that strong and its jealousy that unyielding. That is the original point of the comparison. This meaning becomes skewed in the cosmic interpretations because now, rather than focusing on the strength of love as the text does, we are referring to cosmic battles between personified forces, which we have no reason to think the verse is indicating. Love is not challenging the finality of death; it is being compared to it in strength, as an emotion. Love grips one emotionally as only death can. Confrontation with death, whether one’s own or experiencing others die, grips one’s heart and emotions in powerful ways and can have lasting effects. It is the same with love. Confrontation with death seems to make all else in life drip away in comparison. It is the same with love. Death, like love, is all consuming of the heart, mind, body and soul, and that is why it serves as a good comparison to the strength and power that love has over a person. Since love is not a personified power, irresistible with a will of its own, out of our control or overtaking at will, there is no reason to interpret the refrains as rhetorical. They are legitimately instructing us not to do something; not to awaken this power in our hearts unless we are in a relationship like the Song. Once love is awakened, it is relentless in its hold over a lover’s heart. It will pursue them just as persistently and relentlessly as death pursues its victims. This is not to say that if love decides to overtake us it is entirely irresistible and there is nothing we can do. The refrains clearly assume we are responsible for awakening or not awakening love. But once love is awakened it is relentless and this is why the refrains tell us not to awaken it until a love like that described in the Song is present. Those who are wise will wait until this type of love is present before they unleash such a powerful and relentless force within their hearts. Jealousy is said to be ‫“ ָק ָשׁה‬hard,” “severe,” “fierce,” or “relentless.” The term denotes something that is “too hard to withstand or prevail against,” and is

201  Garrett, Songs, 255–256. Murphy (Songs, 191–92, 197) notes the mythological background of these words, yet thinks their purpose is to heighten the description of love’s power, not emphasize its power over death or present it as locked in battle with death. It is compared to death’s sheer force and relentlessness.

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used of battles that are sure to lead to defeat.202 Love’s jealousy is unyielding, as hard to prevail against as the grave. ‫ ִקנְ ָאה‬never means simply a powerful emotion or “passion,” as some commentators take it,203 but as Fox notes, always refers to the violation or suspicion that a person feels towards a third party that causes the jealousy by either violating or impinging upon the relationship between the original two, in this case the lovers.204 Whilst jealousy is commonly understood to be a negative attribute, as selfish or reactionary, there is a “proper” type of jealousy found in the Hebrew Bible that is presented as an appropriate emotion, “a desire for someone else that tolerates no rivals.”205 God himself is said to be characterized by this jealousy in his relationship to Israel, which is appropriate because their relationship is to be one of exclusiveness.206 If someone violates this relationship, jealousy is considered appropriate because rights of exclusiveness have been violated. This is the type of jealousy the woman talks of in the mashal: the jealousy that one lover feels over the other because they have rights of exclusivity. ‫ ִקנְ ָאה‬can also mean the “envy” of an outside party, who wants something that belongs to someone else, “thus ‫קנא‬ everywhere involves … an outside party who interferes in the relationship.”207 There is some discussion in the scholarship over the mention of jealousy and what rival the poet might be inferring, since the woman does not show any jealousy toward other women in the Song, expects them to admire her lover in 1:3–4 and 5:9–16, and “is always confident in her lover and in the security of their love.”208 There is then no reason to posit a rival to their relationship. Whether a real rival exists or not, jealousy is characteristic of love and its desire to solely and exclusively possess its loved one. The desire to guard a love relationship against any outside party who might try to interfere or threaten that relationship is natural: “Those who passionately love are passionately possessive.”209

202  Exum, Songs, 252; Judg 4:24; 2Sam 2:17; Isa 27:1, 8. 203  Pope, Songs, 669; Gordis, Songs and Lamentations, 99. 204  Fox, Songs, 169. 205  Longman, Songs, 211. 206  Exod 20:5; 34:14; Deut 4:24; Ps 78:58; Isa 42:8; Ezek 39:25; Zech 1:14. 207  Fox, Songs, 170. 208  Fox, Songs, 170; Exum, Songs, 252. Exum (253) thinks that it speaks of love’s jealousy of its ultimate rival – mortality, and death’s claim on the loved one, so that love is “as adamant in its refusal to let go of the object it desires … as death.” However, the text does not say that love is jealous of its loved one’s mortality, or that it rivals death in its pursuit of the loved one. 209  Garrett, Songs, 256.

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“Love” and “jealousy” are synonymous, as indicated by the parallelism of the couplet.210 One usually comes with the other. If one is in a relationship like the Song depicts, ‫ ִקנְ ָאה‬is appropriate and binds the couple together in mutual exclusivity. However, if one is not in a relationship like the Song, but is an outside third party to the one whom they love, ‫ ִקנְ ָאה‬will burn within them and be very painful because they do not exclusively possess the one whom they love. This is why she asks to be placed as a seal on his heart: it is a mark of mutual exclusiveness and commitment against outside parties. ‫יה‬ ָ ‫ ְר ָשׁ ֶפ‬has the third person feminine suffix referring back to love and jealousy, which are synonymous, as their parallelism indicates. The meaning of ‫ ֶר ֶשׁף‬is tentative but in Psalms 78:48 and Job 5:7 it seems to denote flashes of lightening, sparks, or flames.211 “Flashes” communicates both lightening and fire, and fits well with the following stiches that talk of water not being able to extinguish it.212 Not only are love and jealousy’s flashes the flashes of fire, they are ‫“ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬an almighty flame.” Scholars are divided over whether ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬is an intensive of ‘flame,’213 meaning “almighty flame,” or whether the final letters ‫ יָ ה‬are a separate word explicitly referring to God, Yhwh, thus “flame of Yah.”214 Even if ‫ יָ ה‬does derive from the divine name, Fox thinks that it may still only be a “vivid term for lightening,” since “fire of Yahweh” is used in Numbers 11:1 and 1 Kings 18:38, and that it is best not “to hang too much theological weight on this very uncertain reference to God.”215 Some do not see any particular theological import in the word, whilst others find the foundation for conjoining human and divine love, yet “the poet is suggestive at best.”216 Furthermore, since this is a general description of love and its power,217 and the woman warns the audience not to arouse love until it looks like the love in the Song, it seems better to take it as an “almighty flame” rather than the very “flame of the Lord,” for it 210  Exum, Songs, 251. 211  Exum, Songs, 253. 212  Ben Sira 9:8 also compares love to a fire. 213  Ezek 21:3; Job 15:30. 214  The Ben Naphtali tradition has two words ‫שׁלהבת יּה‬, with a mappiq in the ‫ה‬, suggesting that it understood ‫ יָ ה‬as the divine name, whilst the Ben Asher tradition has one word, with ‫ יָ ה‬as part of the word, suggesting that it did not understand it as an explicit reference to God. The lxx and Vulgate support Ben Asher, translating “its flames” or “and of flames” respectively (‫ יָ ה‬as a third-person fem. sg. pronominal suffix referring to love), suggesting that they also had a vorlage with one word and did not understand ‫ יָ ה‬as an explicit reference to God, see Exum, Songs, 253; Fox, Songs, 170. Fox (Ibid.) thinks that Ben Naphtali arose as scribal midrash. 215  Fox, Songs, 170. 216  Exum, Songs, 254. 217  8:6a is a general statement about ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬, implying all love is as strong/powerful as death.

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would not be the very flame of the Lord if aroused for the wrong person. Love is just as powerful as 8:6–7 shows when kindled for the wrong person, which is why the refrains warn against this. This flame is hard, near impossible, to extinguish once set ablaze according to 8:7a–b. ‫ ַמיִ ם ַר ִּבים‬is literally “mighty waters” and is used of vast and powerful waters – rivers, floods and the unruly waters of the sea. Even these great waters are unable to put out the flames of love and jealousy. ‫ ָּכ ָבה‬means “to quench” a flame, fire, or lamp in the sense of extinguishing it.218 “Quench” leads one to think more of the insatiability of love, but this meaning is also present since just as one struggles to satisfy thirst, love cannot easily be satisfied or abated. If the image points to the endurance of love219 then “quench” is appropriate. Love’s flames can continue to burn brightly even after many years. There is a reason people say they’ve been “burned” in previous relationships. Love, and the jealousy that accompanies it, are flashes of fire, an almighty flame not easily extinguished once set ablaze in a person’s heart. This flame can burn brightly and freely with the right person who returns this love in a mutual, exclusive, and committed relationship. But with the wrong person, one is left alone with an unquenchable flame that “burns.” This is quite painful. Only a fool would expose himself or herself to this lightly. “Those who think that they can lightly enter into love and then quench its fires at will expose themselves to turmoil within their own hearts and invite trouble from their lovers.”220 The mashal concludes with a proclamation of the value of love over wealth, which is “reminiscent of the frequent claims in other wisdom books that wisdom itself is more precious than fine jewels or precious metals.”221 The Song intersects with other wisdom texts by declaring that love cannot be bought, just as wisdom is better than gold and understanding better than silver in Proverbs 16:16.222 As previously discussed, some take a particularly negative view of the power of love described in the mashal, and therefore interpret the refrains as a warning to avoid awakening love entirely. In their view, love is a dangerous power, a debilitating disease to be avoided if possible.223 Tromp calls love “irresistible and quasi-fatal” and Schwab thinks that the mashal “equates ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬with the

218  Prov 31:18; Isa 34:10. 219  Longman, Songs, 213. 220  Garrett, Songs, 257. 221  Longman, Songs, 207, cf. Job 28. 222  Cf. Prov 8:10–11, 19. 223  Schwab, Cautionary, 49, 65, 69; Walsh, Exquisite, 180.

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most feared and dreaded aspects of human experience,” death.224 However, the mashal does not equate love with death at all. It compares it to death only in terms of strength. The stress laid upon the negative effects of love is unbalanced and fails to fully understand the meaning of the mashal. The mashal emphasizes the sheer power of love, and whilst all powerful things can be dangerous, particularly if mishandled, this does not mean they are necessarily so. Love and powerful emotions, if mishandled, can lead to pain and heartbreak, but if approached with wisdom and discernment can be deeply fulfilling and rewarding. It is true that love can be dangerous because it is powerful. Those who take the path of folly in love, who are unwise and expose themselves to these powerful emotions when they do not share the type of relationship displayed in the Song often get hurt. They ignite an “almighty flame,” relentless in its hold over their heart once awakened, and the result is almost assuredly pain and heartbreak. For them, love is dangerous and its effects surely negative. But those who exercise wisdom in love, who wait until a love like the Song is present before they unleash this type of power within their hearts, will find the same joy, passion, happiness and peace as the lovers in the Song.225 For them, love is not negative or dangerous, but deeply fulfilling and intoxicating. In the Song, the overwhelming power of love is presented as something positive, something to be sought after. Even “lovesickness” in the Song is portrayed positively, “as an emotion to be inflamed rather than a disease to be avoided.”226 The flames of this love can burn brightly and freely within the heart and the result will be revelry in one of the greatest blessings bestowed upon humanity: to love and be loved in return.227 The adjuration refrains do not say “do not arouse love at all” since it is dangerous. They say do not arouse love before a certain type of love is present, the love pictured in the Song. Presumably, once this type of love is present they are to arouse and inflame it, as the lovers in the Song do. The mashal itself concludes by proclaiming love’s value above wealth and possessions. Love is precious, so precious that it cannot be bought. In a wise relationship, like the one displayed in the Song, love’s flame is a gift and blessing, something to be deeply yearned for. 224  Tromp, “Wisdom,” 94; Schwab, Cautionary, 62–63, who also cites Prov 6:26–34 to show that love is dangerous, but this passage is about the danger of committing adultery specifically. 225  This is general wisdom. Those who follow it are more likely to find happiness and fulfillment in love than those who do not. Yet, like all wisdom, there are exceptions to the ordered system, see p. 102 and n. 47. 226  Gault, “Admonition,” 169. 227  The phrase “The greatest thing you’ll ever learn is just to love and be loved in return” is in Eden Ahbez, “Nature Boy.”

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The idea that one has a “choice” in matters of love, and can choose wisely to awaken love for certain types of lovers and not others may seem anachronistic. After all, the Song was written in a society where marriages were often prearranged. Yet, there are a number of elements in the Song that do not cohere with its patriarchal context: the sexual relationship of the unmarried lovers, the absence of gender roles, the equality within their relationship and even the exclusiveness of their relationship in a society that practiced polygamy.228 These elements are not imported to the text from our culture. They are inherent to the text itself. The woman exercises “choice” in giving her garden, i.e. sexuality, to the lover whom she, rather than a male authority figure, chooses so it is not a far leap to argue that the Song is advising caution in “choosing” whom to awaken or not awaken love for. The lovers exercise free “choice” throughout the Song. As Sneed notes, there is no simple correspondence between genres and social setting; some are not tied to their specific social setting at all and social settings can produce various types of genres.229 Artistic works, like love poetry, often do not reflect actual circumstances. The Song, as an artistic work about romantic love, does not need to reflect the social setting within which it was written. It simply depicts a world in which lovers choose each other and are instructed to use wisdom and discretion in exercising this choice. The refrains warn listeners not to awaken love until the type of love in the Song is present for as the mashal in 8:6–7 explains, love is extremely powerful. Only a fool would expose himself or herself to this type of power if the love of the Song were not present. As our discussion of Proverbs 7 in this final section of the chapter will show, there are also impostors who only mimic the type of love displayed in the Song. Only a fool would allow himself or herself to be deceived by such a person, when the type of love displayed in the Song is not actually present. Love is powerful and this power can be life giving in a wisdom context, but devastating if pursued in foolishness. Proverbs 7 will serve as further commentary on the foolish pursuit of love in contrast to the wise love displayed in the Song of Songs.

228  As the allusion to Solomon’s wives/harem in Songs 8:11–12 shows. It is actually quite counter-cultural for the woman to ask for exclusiveness (being placed as a seal on the man’s heart) in a society that allowed men to have multiple wives (as well as concubines/ prostitutes). Whilst the extent of the practice is debated, it was allowed, and this does not necessarily assume a pre-exilic date for the Song, as legal sections in the Talmud also mention the possibility of more than one wife. 229  Sneed, “Tradition,” 55–56.

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The Seducer: Imitation and Perversion of Love in the Song

Many scholars have noticed the intertextual parallels and thematic similarities between Proverbs and the Song of Songs.230 As discussed in the methodology, there is a deliberate echoing of key words and motifs from the Song in Proverbs, particularly in chapter 7.231 Proverbs 7 adopts aspects of the Song, using its language, images and themes to create an “arresting wisdom lesson” concerning the misuse of sexuality and its disastrous results.232 However, whilst many observe the way that Proverbs uses the language of the Song to warn against Lady Folly, and specifically against the adulteress, there is an important hermeneutical development concerning the seductress, and her ability to deceive the youth by mimicking and imitating the love of the Song, that has not been fully drawn out. Collectively, the two books present didactic pictures of what wise and foolish love might look like. As noted earlier, lust is an expression of sexual passion “that desires the other apart from any value or worth seen in [them],” pursued for self-gratification alone.233 Yet, Jewett and Shuster note that “one form of lust is evil beyond all others,” that is, the lust of the seducer.234 The seducer is not satisfied simply with satiating his or her own sexual appetite, but “takes pleasure in the arousal of passion in the other, in leading the victim from innocence to desire that finally ripens said victim for conquest.”235 The seducer does not pursue those who willingly place themselves at the disposal of his or her sexual appetite, but rather, those who are looking for love. They take pleasure in making the innocent victim think they are experiencing love by arousing their passion, though they have no particular interest in the victim post conquer. As Jewett and Shuster write, “By unlocking the hidden passion of his victim, the seducer seeks to rejuvenate himself with each new conquest and thus defy satiety. He exults in the conquering of many.”236 They note that whilst the Christian tradition 230  Dell, “Connections,” 21; Camp, Wisdom, 111; Imray, “Love,” 650; Kaiser, “Marital,” 111–112; Gale A. Yee, “I Have Perfumed My Bed with Myrrh: the Foreign Woman (issâ zarâ) in Proverbs 1–9,” jsot 43 (1989): 63; Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, wbc 22 (Nashville: Nelson, 1998), 51. 231  The Song is the interpretive anchor for Proverbs, as Proverbs uses the Song’s language and expands upon it to make its own original hermeneutical point. 232  Grossberg, “Two,” 7, 9. 233  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 197. 234  Jewett and Shuster (Human, 197) note that whilst Dante placed the lustful in the second circle of hell, just below limbo, he placed seducers in the eighth circle of nether hell. 235  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 197. cf. Søren Kierkegaard’s The Seducer’s Diary, translated from the Danish (1843) by Alastair Hannay (London: Pushkin Press, 2009). 236  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 197.

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has cultivated “the myth that the woman is the seducer,” and she is certainly pictured as such in Proverbs 7, in reality many seducers are males.237 Both genders are clearly capable, but the gender neutrality of seducers should be kept in mind when considering the warnings given about them in Proverbs 7.238 The presentation of the seductress in Proverbs 7, and her ability to deceive by imitating the love of the Song, is an important and often unnoticed aspect of Proverbs’ didactic instruction in how to pursue wise relationships and avoid foolish ones. I propose that Proverbs 7 deliberately exploits the love lyrics of the Song in order to show the way that seducers often mimic lovers. For it is only by making the lover think that they are experiencing the true love of the Song that the seducer is able to deceive so exquisitely. The seducer entraps their victim by masquerading as the lover in the Song, making them feel like they are experiencing the same type of relationship, though they actually intend to conquer and devour them. Proverbs shows that there are imitators of love that masquerade as genuine lovers. It wants the reader to be able to recognize and detect this type of person so that they avoid them and pursue relationships of wisdom. There are a number of parallel terms, themes and motifs that the seductress in Proverbs 7 uses to mimic the love displayed in the Song. The motif of seeking and finding is prominent in both. In Proverbs 7:15 the seductress imitates the woman’s search for her beloved in Songs 3:1–5 and 5:6–8 by claiming that she has been searching for the youth and “found him” ‫מצא‬, though verses 26–27 make it clear that she has not been searching for him specifically. Any man would do. She ‫“ מצא‬finds” him and ‫“ נׁשק‬kisses” him in Proverbs 7:15, 13 just as the woman ‫“ מצא‬finds” and ‫“ נׁשק‬kisses” her lover in Songs 8:1. The spices that the seductress uses to perfume her bed in Proverbs 7:16–17 – myrrh ‫מר‬, aloes ‫אהלים‬, and cinnamon ‫ – וקנמון‬are the same spices that the woman used in Songs 3:6; 4:14, and 5:1. Fox notes that these fragrant spices “are evocative of the sweet delights, emotional and physical, of love.”239 They were costly, imported from Arabia, kept in the royal treasury according to 2 Kings 20:13, and “to sprinkle them on a bed would be an extravagance.”240 The same word for “couch” 237  Jewett and Shuster, Human, 197. 238  The seducer in Proverbs 7 is female and the victim male, but it can be read with the genders reversed, enabling a female reader to read it as a warning about male seducers as well. 239  Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1–9: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 18A (New York: Doubleday, 2000), 247. The woman’s hands drip myrrh in Song 5:5, which is a sign that she has prepared for love making (see Fox, Proverbs, 145), the man’s lips drip myrrh in Song 5:13 and he is a sachet of myrrh lying between her breasts in 1:13. 240  Fox, Proverbs, 247–8.

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‫ ערׂש‬in Songs 1:16 is used in Proverbs 7:16, and the same word for “bed” ‫ מׁשכב‬in Songs 3:1 is used in Proverbs 7:17. Just as Songs 5:1 says ‫ ִא ְכלּו‬eat, ‫ ְשׁתּו‬drink, and ‫ּדֹודים‬ ִ ‫ וְ ִשׁ ְכרּו‬be drunk on caresses (meaning giving oneself over to sexual love as ‫ דדים‬implies),241 the seductress in Proverbs 7:18 invites the youth to “drink” of caresses/love ‫ נִ ְרוֶ ה ד ִֹדים‬until morning. The adulteress is said to ‫ ָא ְכ ָלה‬eat, ‫ָמ ֲח ָתה‬ ‫יה‬ ָ ‫ ִפ‬wipe her mouth, and claim to have done no wrong in Proverbs 30:20.

The seductress in Proverbs 7 convincingly masquerades as the lover in the Song, and makes the youth feel like he is experiencing the same love, but the reader is meant to note some important differences. In the Song their love is mutual and reciprocal. Almost all thoughts, words and actions are attributed to both. They both initiate, are proactive and sacrificial in their pursuit of the other. In Proverbs 7, the woman is the sole initiator.242 She lurks, finds him, speaks smoothly, grabs, kisses, prepares her bed, invites him to drink deeply of love, and leads him astray. But her fictitious devotion and active pursuit last only the night. In the morning he is nothing to her. She is a convincing seducer, but in reality the love that she has aroused in him is one-sided. Their love is not mutual. She has no intention of loving him in return. As verse 26 explains, ‫“ ַר ִּבים ֲח ָל ִלים ִה ִּפ ָילה‬many a victim has she laid low.” The lovers in the Song mutually desire one another. They revel in and extol each other’s beauty. The seductress in Proverbs 7 only pretends to desire the youth. In 7:15, she says she has come out “to diligently seek his face” giving the impression that his attractive features have made him stand out,243 though he is actually easily replaceable and interchangeable. Any man would have done. The seductress exploits beauty and uses her own beauty as a means of deception. If the seductress in Proverbs 7 is the same as the adulteress in Proverbs 6, who has a “smooth tongue” in 6:24 like the seductress’s “smooth speech” in 7:21, then she is described as beautiful and capturing people with her “eyelashes” in 6:25, just as one glance of the woman’s eyes captures the man’s heart in Songs 4:9 and unnerves him in Songs 6:5.244 The sexual eroticism of Proverbs 7 mimics the Song but is markedly different. Everything about her seduction – the description of the bed in Proverbs 7:16–18,

241  Fox, Songs, 97, 139. Pr 5:19 says to let his wife’s lovemaking slake him and in Pr 9:17 Lady Folly seduces her prey with ‫נּובים‬ ִ ְ‫“ ַמיִ ם־ּג‬stolen water” and ‫“ ֶל ֶחם ְס ָת ִרים‬bread eaten in secret.” 242  As Grossberg (“Two,” 12–13) notes, she performs nineteen actions, he only four, in the entire twenty-six verses. He utters no words and his silence emphasizes the one-sidedness of the drama. 243  Bruce Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15, nicot (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 378. 244  The woman is called ‫“ נָ ְכ ִרּיָ ה‬foreign/forbidden” in both Prov 6:24 and 7:5.

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the Egyptian linens, costly spices and drinking of love until morning – plays on the eroticism of the Song. However, in the Song there is no sense that the man or woman desire each other for mere sexual gratification or selfish pleasure. “The woman is not being used; she is being loved,” and the lovers in the Song pursue each other’s mutual sexual fulfilment.245 In Proverbs 7, the seductress pursues the youth for her own sexual gratification. However, she does not merely crave the satisfaction of her lust. As a seducer, the satiation of her sexual appetite is not enough. She takes pleasure in the arousal of passion. She wants to make him think that they are in love. This is why she models her speech and behaviour on the lovers in the Song, and this is why she speaks of their “love” multiple times in verse 18. She wants to deceive him into thinking he is experiencing the love of the Song. Verse 21 says that she ‫ְּב ֵח ֶלק‬ ‫יחּנּו‬ ֶ ‫יה ַּת ִּד‬ ָ ‫“ ְשׂ ָפ ֶת‬deceives him with her smooth lips.”246 Her lips are also called “smooth” in 5:3 and drip honey, just as the lover’s lips are sweet in Songs 5:16 and drip honey in 4:11. The addition of “smoothness” to “sweetness” of the lips is a hermeneutical development in her character. Her mouth mimics the sweetness of the lover in the Songs, but her lips are also smooth, causing stumbling. In contrast to the peace and harmony that surrounds the lovers in the Song, discord marks the relationship with the seductress in Proverbs 7. It subverts the tranquillity of the Song and replaces it with “conflict, abuse, overbearing control, ensnarement and death.”247 Whilst the man in the Song is pictured as a stag happily leaping over mountains and bounding over hills to meet his lover in 2:8–9, in Proverbs 7:22 he follows her “like a stag springing into a trap.”248 The stylistic language of Proverbs 7 actually parallels the theme of the lesson, so that as the ill-fated assignation progresses the abrasive and forceful language intensifies.249 Immediately after the seductress succeeds in getting him to follow her in verse 22, “the negative terms and discordant figures of speech rise in an unrelenting crescendo until the entire literary piece and the complete sexual episode both terminate in ‘death.’”250 The seductress falsely imitates the exclusiveness of the Song. She makes it look like she cares about him in some sort of meaningful exclusive way, saying “I have come out to meet you, to earnestly seek your face, and I’ve found you” in verse 15. But actually, we already know that “she habitually roams about looking 245  Bergant, “Beloved,” 29. 246  Cf. Prov 26:28: “a smooth mouth causes stumbling.” 247  Grossberg, “Two,” 17. 248  Murphy’s (Proverbs, 41) translation. 249  Grossberg, “Two,” 18. 250  Grossberg, “Two,” 18.

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for sexual prey.”251 He is not special or unique to her. She has had many others and will have many more. But she fools him into thinking that he is special, and unique among others. In the Song the exclusive “claims of the lovers ring true; in Proverbs their falseness is patent.”252 She is not exclusively committed to the youth or her husband. She is unfaithful to all. Finally, whilst the love in the Song is timeless and the lovers seem to continue loving each other into eternity, the love of the seductress “is transitory. It lasts only until morning.”253 As verse 10 explains she is ‫“ ּונְ ֻצ ַרת ֵלב‬guarded in heart.” Her intentions are masked by deception and seduction. He is told to guard his heart from her ways in verse 25, just as the refrains in the Song warn against awakening love for those who do not display the love of the Song. Some think that the woman in Proverbs 7 is not actually trying to convince the youth that what is bad is good, that adultery is right, but simply that they can get away with it; “that evil consequences will not necessarily follow from an evil act.”254 However, I disagree. This misses the importance of the particular language that she is using. She uses the language of the Song precisely because she is trying to make him feel like they are experiencing the love of the Song. She recreates the search for the lover, using the same terms and vocabulary, and uses the erotic spice motifs to make him feel like he is in a similar situation to the lovers in the Song. It is unlikely that such strong parallel language and imagery would be used if she were merely trying to convince him that their rendezvous would be inconsequential. She speaks of their “love” multiple times in 7:18 so she is not merely trying to entice him into thinking that they can “get away” with a passionless sexual encounter. She is mimicking the love that the lovers in the Song share in order to portray their encounter as one of love. She entices him into the affair by making him believe that their situation is similar, and this is precisely why she is such an effective seductress. Her seduction is effective precisely because she imitates the love in the Song. She deceives him by making him think that she loves him. 251  Fox, Proverbs, 246. 252  Grossberg, “Two,” 16. Some think that the books present opposing views on women and male female relations, yet Grossberg (14–15) thinks that on a deeper level the texts agree: Proverbs uses a negative image and the Song a positive one to show the importance of mutuality and equality. Proverbs 7 is a perversion of the Song because the woman is unfaithful. Camp (Wisdom, 114) notes that unlike the harlot, the adulteress was absolutely intolerable as she threatened the stability of the family, and unlike prostitution, there was no double standard behind which men could hide. Married women could not be touched by other men without threatening the social structure of the society. 253  Yee, “Perfumed,” 63. 254  Camp, Wisdom, 117. cf. Waltke, Proverbs, 384.

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The Strange Woman is not merely a representative of “a rival ethical system” that the youth is warned against following.255 She is also a skilled seductress. She represents an alternative ethical system to be sure, but she is also much more. The skill and effectiveness of her seduction, which is accomplished by utilizing the words of the Song, is an important and operative aspect of Proverbs 7 that is often overlooked. Her seduction is effective precisely because she imitates real love. A narrow focus on the competing ethical systems in Proverbs can cause one to miss what she is doing with the language of the Song and another important hermeneutical point being made. Seduction often mimics real love, and this is precisely why it is so effective. Truly talented seducers make their victims feel like they are experiencing love, the type of love displayed in the Song. The “do not awaken” refrains instruct us not to arouse love before the type of love in the Song is present. Proverbs 7 shows that it is also unwise to awaken love for a seducer, someone who only imitates the type of love displayed in the Song, and that part of knowing whether love is truly present is being able to decipher between the type of love displayed in the Song and an imitation of it. For seducers often masquerade as lovers. We have seen that the refrains in 2:7, 3:5 and 8:4 and the mashal of 8:6–7 are providing wisdom in matters of love, and that Proverbs 7 supplements this message with a particular example of when not to awaken love. This leads us to ask what type of relationship the Song of Songs has to the wisdom literature. In order to examine this, the next chapter will discuss what “wisdom” entails, what is meant by “wisdom influence,” and the value of this for our discussion of the Song. We will then be in a better place to evaluate the Song’s relationship to wisdom and its didactic character.

255  See Daniel J. Estes (“What Makes the Strange Woman of Proverbs 1–9 Strange?” in Ethical and Unethical in the Old Testament: God and Humans in Dialogue, lhbots [London: Bloomsbury, 2010], 162, 164) for this view.

Chapter 4

Defining Wisdom and Wisdom Influence In order to examine the relationship between the Song of Songs and wisdom we must first discuss what the “wisdom literature” entails and what is meant by “wisdom influence.” However, the definition of “wisdom” has become increasingly convoluted. Scholars have generally considered the wisdom books in the Hebrew Bible to be Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes, and in the Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus or Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon.1 Yet, wisdom research has shifted from examining these books to observing wisdom motifs in a number of other biblical books, and “a vigorous search for wisdom influence throughout the entire corpus of Scripture.”2 As scholars have observed these connections, our understanding of “wisdom” has become increasingly blurred, so that there is a large amount of disagreement over what constitutes “wisdom influence.”3 James Crenshaw called for tighter methodological constraints on these comparisons; yet a lack of consensus concerning the meaning of “wisdom” has hindered this endeavour.4 As Stuart Weeks observes, if “wisdom” “remains a somewhat nebulous concept … it is hard to use it as a criterion for identifying correspondences that are more than superficial.”5 The aim of this chapter is to arrive at a working definition of “wisdom,” in order to discuss the relationship between the Song of Songs and the wisdom literature. I will begin by discussing wisdom’s social context, affinities with other literature and distinctiveness, then discuss various approaches that have been taken to understanding its distinctive focus and explain why they are insufficient for defining the genre and are better seen as themes or motifs, suggest an alternative approach as a way forward in the discussion, explain the value of this approach for our discussion of the Song and offer a tighter methodology with specific criteria for defining “wisdom” and “wisdom influence.” We will then be able to discuss to what extent the Song of Songs shares these criteria. 1  Murphy, Tree, 97; Katharine Dell, Get Wisdom Get Insight: An Introduction to Israel’s Wisdom Literature (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2000), 4; Robert Alter, The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes (New York: Norton, 2011), xv. 2  Gerald T. Sheppard, Wisdom as a Hermeneutical Construct: A Study in the Sapientializing of the Old Testament (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980), 1. 3  As far back as the 1970’s, Gerhard von Rad (Wisdom, 7) suggested that we have “gone too far in an uncritical use of the term.” 4  Weeks, Introduction, 135. 5  Weeks, Introduction, 135–6.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004331013_005

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Social Context and Place among Other Biblical Literature

It is common to speak of wisdom as the property of particular circles – scribal circles6 – that were distinct from other literary circles – prophets, priests, psalmists and narrators – in a particular social setting, which is usually seen as the royal court or formal education. This view is based on parallels with Egyptian and Assyrian culture; yet biblical scholars have largely misunderstood discussions of the “scribal class” in the fields of Egyptology and Assyriology, so that they have assigned a more precise definition and context to what was actually quite a general description of “scribal wisdom” in those cultures.7 The majority of people in the ancient world were illiterate, so that literature was produced by a particular class – the literate, educated or scribal class – and this was likely the same in Israel and Judah.8 Scholars have assumed that because wisdom literature was “scribal” in Egypt and Mesopotamia, this means that the scribal class was oriented around wisdom, but the literate or “scribal” class in Egypt and Mesopotamia produced various types of literature – narrative, laments, hymns, etc. – and was composed of various members of the literate class – priests, prophets, administrators, and the wise – who were all “scribal” and wrote different types of literature.9 Since all literature was produced by members of this class, all literature was “scribal.”10 So to contrast “scribal” circles with “priestly” or “prophetic” ones draws distinctions which did not exist in the other cultures.11 The foreign wisdom literature did not emerge from a distinct school of thought separate from those who produced other literature, 6  Wisdom writers were traditionally called “sages” (the ‫ חכמים‬of Jeremiah 8), and seen as a distinct group from prophets, priests, etc. More recently, they have been called “scribes” – a circle incorporating prophetic, priestly, wisdom, and historical writers. 7  Weeks, Introduction, 130. 8  Weeks, Introduction, 127. 9  Weeks, Introduction, 22, 130. As Weeks (“The Place and Limits of Wisdom Revisited” in Jarick, Perspectives on Israelite Wisdom, 11) notes, scholars are increasingly seeing all biblical literature as the product of a single scribal class, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, rather than the products of distinct and rival groups. cf. Michael V. Fox, “Two Decades of Research in Egyptian Wisdom Literature,’ zäs 107 (1980): 120–35, esp. 128; Nili Shupak, “The ‘Sitz im Leben’ of the Book of Proverbs in the Light of a Comparison of Biblical and Egyptian Wisdom Literature,” RB 94 (1987): 119; Sneed, “Tradition,” 54, 62–64; “Grasping,” 47. 10  Weeks, Introduction, 130. cf. Mark R. Sneed, The Social World of the Sages: An Introduction to Israelite and Jewish Wisdom Literature (Philadelphia: Fortress, 2015). 11  Weeks, Introduction, 130. As Weeks (130) and Sneed (“Tradition,” 63; “Grasping,” 47) observe, some Egyptian instructions were written by priests, yet we would not categorize them as hymns or prayers because of who wrote them. Sneed (“Tradition,” 58–59) notes that the roles of biblical characters often overlapped: Moses was a prophet/priest, Samuel

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but rather, was written by the same people.12 This was also likely true in Israel and Judah. Attempts to connect the wisdom literature with the royal court or school setting are similarly speculative and predominantly based on misunderstandings concerning Egyptian culture.13 There is very little in the wisdom books themselves that links them to the royal court or formal education in a school,14 so scholars have generally appealed to foreign practices.15 However, Egyptian instructions address the needs of the entire literate class rather than the specific needs of administrators, which are rarely addressed, so that if the situation were similar in Israel and Judah it would have served the needs of the literate class as whole, and not royal administrators specifically.16 Some have posited that those who would have had access to foreign wisdom literature, in foreign languages, would have been royal administrators, who encountered members of the foreign scribal classes for diplomatic reasons.17 Yet, many of these works were written in Sumerian and Middle Egyptian, which were archaic by the time Israel had administrators, as Akkadian was used for diplomatic correspondence with Egypt before Israel became a nation and Aramaic

a judge/priest, Nathan a prophet/sage counseling David, Ezra a priest/prophetic, Daniel a wise youth/prophet/diviner, and Ezekiel and Jeremiah prophets/priests. 12  Weeks, Introduction, 21–22; cf. Fox, “Two,” 128. 13  Weeks, Introduction, 128–133. cf. James Crenshaw, “Wisdom (1974),” in Urgent Advice and Probing Questions: Collected Writings on Old Testament Wisdom, ed. James L. Crenshaw (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1995), 47. 14  As Weeks (Introduction, 128–129, 132) observes, Job does not show governmental or educational concerns, Qohelet only mentions teaching through his literary activity in 12:9 and even Proverbs has only a small amount of material that fits either context. Dell (Get Wisdom, 26) notes that, even in Proverbs, the varied background suggests that the collection is intended for much more than a “manual for would-be administrators or a school textbook.” 15  See Paul Humbert, Recherches sur les Égyptiennes de la Littérature Sapientiale d’Israel (Neuchâtel: Secrétariat de l’Université, 1924); William McKane, Prophets and Wise Men (London: scm, 1965); Andre Lemaire, Les Ecoles et la formation de la Bible dans l’ancien Israël (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981); David M. Carr, Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 126–34; Leo G. Perdue, The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age of Empires (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), 56–58, 75–77; E.W. Hatton, The School Tradition of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). 16  Weeks, Introduction, 131. He notes the purely hypothetical nature of arguing (McKane, Wise Men) that wisdom began with professional concerns and “only later took its present, very different shape.” 17  Humbert, Recherches; Perdue, Sword, 49–50.

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with both Egypt and Mesopotamia after the 8th century BCE.18 Egyptian instructions were used in educational textbooks, but these textbooks contained many different types of literature and genres for practice in copying and composition.19 The fact that they were incorporated does not mean that they were originally composed for this purpose, and these instructions were quite different from the standard wisdom texts that comprise the genre.20 The secondary use of instructions in schools does not explain their original purpose, as they were likely also read outside as well as inside an educational setting.21 Egyptian instructions were not school textbooks, so we cannot argue by analogy that Hebrew instructions were, and even if we could, this would not account for the non-instructional sections in Proverbs and other wisdom books.22 There is little evidence that the wisdom writers operated separately from other circles in their social setting. If the same scribal circles produced the various biblical genres this also explains why there are a number of affinities between wisdom and other biblical books. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Job all show points of contact with historical writings, so that their ideas are not mutually exclusive from salvation-historical or covenantal ideas.23 Conversely, 18  Weeks, Introduction, 131–32, cf. Murphy, “Tree,” 153. As Weeks (Introduction, 131–32) notes, we do not know which foreign works were known (apart from the Instructions of Amenemope, which were written in Late Egyptian), when they became available, or what form they were in. The Instructions of Ptah-hotep, Instructions of Kagemni, Instructions of Amenemhat, Instructions of Ani (or Any), A Man and His Ba and the Loyalist Teaching were all written in Middle Egyptian, and the Sumerian Proverbs from Nippur and the Instructions of Shuruppak were written in Sumerian (yet 2 Akkadian copies of the latter). I Will Praise the Lord of Wisdom, the Babylonian Theodicy and the Dialogue of Pessimism were written in Akkadian, and the Words of Ahiqar in Aramaic. 19  Weeks, 132–3. He notes that many of these are preserved in copies made by students, cf. Sneed, “Tradition,” 66. Fox (“Theses,” 69) does not think that there was a wisdom “school,” either of thought or institution, in the ane, as wisdom was taught alongside a variety of other literature in Egyptian and Mesopotamian schools. 20  Weeks, Introduction, 133. cf. Fox, “Theses,” 70; Fox, “Proverbs,” 8. 21  Weeks, Introduction, 133, cf. Fox, “Proverbs,” 8. Contra Sneed (“Tradition,” 66) who argues for a school setting for the production of all scribal literature. 22  Weeks, Introduction, 133. Fox (“Theses,” 70) agrees, “There is no evidence that wisdom books were written for the schools, to serve as school texts. Egyptian wisdom instructions do not present themselves as originating in the schools or any other specific social locus.” 23  Weeks (Introduction, 110–111) argues that Job resonates with post-exilic literature, Proverbs with Deuteronomic, and Qohelet with Torah and apocalyptic literature. Sneed (“Grasping,” 58) notes that the aphorisms in Prov 11:14, 14:34, and 24:24 express national concerns. As Zoltán Schwáb (Toward an Interpretation of the Book of Proverbs: Selfishness and Secularity Reconsidered [Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013], 13–15, 20, 28) observes, this emphasis on the continuity between the wisdom literature, the prophets and the

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wisdom concepts are not confined to those books, as traces of them can be observed in other biblical genres.24 That is, the wisdom books do not evidence a distinctive worldview at odds with other biblical literature. Whilst some have attempted to define wisdom based on vocabulary and forms of expression, assuming that the wisdom writers employed an exclusive vocabulary, many of these words simply reflect shared discourse: a common cultural stock shared by prophetic, priestly, and wisdom writers.25 Norman Whybray conducted a study that uncovered wisdom vocabulary across a large portion of the Hebrew Bible, and concluded that wisdom was not the product of a distinct group, but belonged to the broader heritage that underlay other works as well.26 These affinities have led some to question whether wisdom should be seen as a distinct biblical category at all. If wisdom does not represent a distinct social group or worldview that stands in contrast to other biblical writers and worldviews, then perhaps the wisdom category is merely a scholarly invention of the mid-nineteenth century and not inherent to the texts themselves.27 However, whilst it is difficult to define the wisdom books, they do have shared interests and a distinct approach.28 Wisdom is distinct from other biblical literature in terms of its focus and subject matter. Whilst it is not opposed to historical or covenantal ideas, it does not choose to focus on Israel as a nation, their history or covenant relationship with God, but rather, is universal in its focus.29 The foreign wisdom literature also has very little interest in historical issues, yet it did not emerge from distinct groups or schools of thought, but rather, was produced by the same literate circle that composed national and

law is actually consistent with the views held by most scholars in the 19th century, before 20th century scholars began to posit divergent and antagonistic groups. 24  As Fox (“Theses,” 72–73) says, “Nothing suggests that the authors of wisdom instructions wrote exclusively in that genre … there is no hint of a sages-verses-prophets division.” 25  Weeks, Introduction, 135–7; James Crenshaw, “The Wisdom Literature (1985),” in Crenshaw, Urgent Advice, 16. I.e.: good/bad, wise/foolish, knowledge, understanding, etc. 26  Roger Norman Whybray (The Intellectual Tradition in the Old Testament [Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974]) saw wisdom as an intellectual tradition rather than the product of a particular group. 27  As Kynes (“Modern,” 23, 32; “Nineteenth,” 83, 85, 99–102), Sneed (“Tradition,” 57; “Grasping,” 52), Weeks (Introduction, 21, 142) and even von Rad (Wisdom, 7–8) have observed, Egyptologists and Assyriologists adopted the term “wisdom” from biblical scholars. 28  Weeks, Introduction, 137. Cf. Fox, “Theses,” 76. 29  As Weeks (“Place,” 9) notes, the absence of covenantal/national ideas “is a real absence,” yet it does not imply a different or conflicting worldview, but rather, is the result of distinct genre focus. cf. Sneed, “Tradition,” 68–69, “Grasping,” 41; Raymond Van Leeuwen (“The Book of Proverbs: Introduction, Commentary, and Reflections,” nib 5 [Nashville: Abingdon, 1994–2004], 21).

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historic literature.30 In other words, wisdom’s distinct features are a mark of genre, not social setting or worldview. Whilst scholars profess varying degrees of confidence in our ability to discern the features or conventions of what we call the “wisdom” genre, most seem to be coming to an agreement that genres are flexible, shift and that the boundaries between them are not rigid or always clear.31 In other words, genres are not mutually exclusive and scholars are increasingly observing that different types of biblical literature blend various genres and conventions. My discussion will still attempt to discover typical features and conventions used in “wisdom,” though these should not be understood as exclusive or opposed to features and conventions used in other biblical literature. A genre does not reflect the totality of a writer’s worldview, and is not necessarily linked to social setting, but it is important for a correct understanding of the text.32 Wisdom does not differ from other biblical literature in social setting or worldview, but it is distinct in its focus, concerns and subject matter.33 Several attempts have been made to understand the distinctiveness of the wisdom genre in terms of emphasis, dominant focus or interest. 2

Approaches to Understanding the Distinctiveness and Dominant Focus of Wisdom

The main approaches that have been taken to understanding the distinctiveness of biblical wisdom in terms of dominant focus and concern have been anthropological, cosmological and theodical. We will see that each is insufficient for defining the genre and primary purpose of the corpus as a whole, and are better looked at as emphases, themes or motifs. Whilst each of these ideas is prominent in various places in the wisdom literature, they do not define what makes the wisdom genre distinctive. 30  Weeks, Introduction, 22. Murphy (Tree, 163) notes that the Egyptian sages, Merikare and Amenemhet, also wrote history. Weeks (“Place,” 11), Fox, (“Two,” 120–35, esp. 128; “Theses,” 72–74), Sneed (“Tradition,” 54, 62–64; “Grasping,” 47) and Shupak (“Sitz,” 119) all note that the same literate circle of sages, priests, prophets, historical writers, etc. produced various genres, and give numerous examples of writers associated with one genre writing for others, e.g. prophets writing wisdom, sages writing hymns or priests writing instruction. 31  Fox, “Theses,” 78–79; Dell, “Boundaries,” 152–54; Sneed, “Grasping,” 40; Weeks, Introduction, 1–7, 107–44, “Wisdom,” 162–63, 173. 32  Sneed, “Grasping,” 40–41. He (“Tradition,” 55–56) observes that there is no simple correspondence between genre and setting, as some genres are not tied to social setting and one setting can produce multiple genres. 33  Weeks, Introduction, 137, 21–22; Sneed, “Grasping,” 47; Van Leeuwen, “Proverbs,” 21.

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The Wisdom literature is said to be distinct from other OT books in its concern with individual experience and behaviour, focusing on topics universally relevant to all humans and God’s relationship with the world, rather than the specific nation of Israel, its history, law or covenant relationship with God.34 This interest in individual human experience has led some, like Walter Brueggemann, to see the dominant focus of wisdom as anthropological, that is, primarily concerned with humans, their behaviour and how they can attain a fulfilling life of security, happiness and wholeness here in this world.35 Wisdom’s authority is said to be found “in the authenticity of the statement itself … the fact that life really happens that way,” rather than appealing to a divine or human authority, or law that sanctions such instruction.36 Consequentially, wisdom is international in its outlook and available to all. There is certainly an anthropological focus in the wisdom literature. However, an excessive stress on human-centeredness has led some to see wisdom as essentially secular or at odds with other biblical religious material.37 Yet, the wisdom writers believed that God infused the world with wisdom at creation, so that what was learned from it was grounded in him and his authority. The authenticity of the statement, therefore, only occurs experientially, and life only “really happens this way” as Brueggemann says, because this is how God created the world to work and reality to occur. There is a universalizing tendency in the wisdom literature so that knowledge of God is available to all, but this should not be so overstated as to think that it is secular or does not derive its authority and effectiveness from the same Israelite God.38 This idea would be completely foreign to the wisdom writers. 34  E.J. Lucas, “Wisdom Theology,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry, & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove: ivp Academic, 2008), 901–2; Weeks, Introduction, 6; Sneed, “Grasping,” 55. 35  Walter Brueggemann, In Man We Trust: The Neglected Side of Biblical Faith (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 2006), 14, 15. 36  Brueggemann, Man, 18. 37  James Crenshaw (Old Testament Wisdom: an Introduction, 3rd ed. [Atlanta: John Knox, 2010], 243) calls it an “alternative to Yahwism.” cf. Hermann Gunkel, “The Literature of Ancient Israel,” in Relating to the Text: Interdisciplinary and Form Critical Insights on the Bible ed. Timothy J. Sandoval, Carleen Mandolfo and Martin J. Buss, tans. Armin Siedlecki, JSOTSup 384 (London: T & T Clark, 2003), 69–71. 38  God infused the created order with the same moral laws dictated to the Israelites in the law code, see: Exod 20:12–17, Deut 5:16–21 and Prov 23:22, 28:17, 5:1–9, 15–20; 6:31–35; 7, 19:5, 9; 21:28, Eccl 7:26, 4:4 and Job 23:14–15, 31:5–6, 9–11, 13:7. Also: Deut 19:4; 25:13–16 and Prov 11:1; 20:10, 23; 22:28; 23:10. Sneed (“Tradition,” 69) agrees that wisdom “reinforces the norms and values contained in the legal material.” Annette Schellenberg (“Don’t Throw the Baby Out with the Bathwater: On the Distinctness of the Sapiential Understanding of the World” in Sneed Was There a Wisdom Tradition?, 135) also thinks that the use of God’s

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The cosmological approach emphasises creation, the resulting order of the world, empiricism and the link between acts and consequences. In 1964, Walther Zimmerli argued that wisdom should be understood within the framework of creation, noting that God is referred to as “Maker” or “Creator,” rather than the “God of Israel,” and teaching is given as counsel, rather than commandments or laws of the covenant.39 A number of scholars see creation as the theological foundation of wisdom and speak of a “creation theology.” Others have emphasised the result of creation, that is, the resulting order of the world and the human ability to learn from and align oneself with it. German scholarship of the last 50 years, in particular, has focused on wisdom’s interest in an inherent order in the created world as the foundation of its outlook.40 Hans-Jürgen Hermisson wrote that wisdom searches for an intelligible order in the created world, “a regularity within the diversity” in nature and human affairs, which humans can implement into their lives.41 As Daniel Estes observes, it “uses an inductive approach,” observing the natural world and human behaviour to discover patterns of cause and effect and derive from them lessons that can be transferred to other situations.42 Some have seen this focus on empiricism or natural theology as contradicting God’s direct divine revelation in other biblical texts.43 Many have also focused on the link between actions and consequences, which are thought to be the result of something inherent in the laws governing the universe, rather than divine intervention. Klaus Koch spoke of an “act-consequence nexus,” in which foolish actions would lead to bad consequences and wise actions to good ones because it was the inevitable outcome of the actions themselves, rather than the result of God intervening to punish or reward.44 Theories concerning the act-consequence nexus have often appealed to the secular origins of wisdom and the Egyptian idea of Ma’at. However, the Egyptian concept of Ma’at was actually religious, as Egyptian thought emphasized divine agency and direct intervention long before Israel personal name, YHWH, in the wisdom texts indicates that they are talking about the same Israelite God. 39  Walther Zimmerli, “The Place and Limit of Wisdom in the Framework of Old Testament Theology,” sjt 17 (1964): 148, 152–53. 40  Weeks, Introduction, 112. 41  Hans-Jürgen Hermisson, “Observations on the Creation Theology in Wisdom,” Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien, ed. John G. Gammie et al. (Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1978), 44. 42  Daniel J. Estes, “Wisdom and Biblical Theology,” in Longman Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, 854. 43  Crenshaw, OT Wisdom, 243–47, 215. 44  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 907; Klaus Koch, “Gibt es ein Vergeltungsdogma im Alten Testament?’ ztk 52 (1955): 1–42. This has also been called retribution theology.

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existed.45 This antecedent literature was often intensely religious, so that it does not provide a model of pragmatic secularism from which biblical wisdom could have emerged.46 Excessive stress on impersonal order and causation has led some to view wisdom as essentially secular, yet in the ane wisdom was grounded in religious belief, and for the biblical wisdom writers, in the very character of God. Furthermore, whilst the wisdom literature presupposes an acts-consequence nexus, or retribution theology, it also challenges it. There are numerous places where it shows that expected consequences do not always ensue and that there are exceptions to the system.47 The righteous do not always flourish and the wicked sometimes do, as Job and Qohelet both observe.48 Job certainly shows that chaos can creep into an ordered system and rejects a rigid understanding of retribution theology. Even Proverbs seem to recognize that sometimes things go seriously wrong.49 As in many other places in biblical literature, there is an unresolved tension between human freedom/responsibility and divine prerogative/sovereignty, between human choice and forces beyond their control. Wisdom emphasizes empiricism and encounter with the divine through nature, yet it does not controvert “special” revelation.50 Several texts speak of

45  Michael V. Fox, “World-Order and Ma’at: A Crooked Parallel,” janes 23 (1995): 40–44; Weeks, Introduction, 112–113, 39. As Schwáb (Proverbs, 50–52) notes, the idea that biblical wisdom began as secular and only later evolved into religious material has been heavily critiqued in the last few decades, see Katharine J. Dell, The Book of Proverbs in Social and Theological Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 15, 58, 92, 95, 105, 114–15, 121–22, 125; Dell, Get Wisdom, 171–72; Camp, Wisdom, 45, 152; Stuart Weeks, Early Israelite Wisdom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 59–60, 64, 66–69; Weeks, Introduction, 39; Roland Murphy, “Wisdom: Theses and Hypothesis,” in Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in Honor of Samuel Terrien, ed. John G. Gammie (Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978), 40. 46  Weeks, Introduction, 109. 47  It is important to remember this when considering the general wisdom of the Song. Those who exercise wisdom in love are more likely to find happiness and fulfillment, but sometimes, even when wisdom has been exercised, things can still go seriously wrong. 48  Job 21:7–34, 12:6, 9:22–24, 24:2–25; Eccl 8:14. 49  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 908. He (907) notes that the contradictory Proverbs show that they were aware of complexities in life, and the fact that they are often deliberately put together suggests that we are being warned against a mechanical application. The “better than” proverbs also recognize this complexity and that a simplistic act-consequence nexus cannot account for all of life’s intricacies. 50  Contra Crenshaw (OT Wisdom, 243–47, 15) it does not contradict God’s historical revelation to Israel. Weeks (Introduction, 115) notes that whilst direct revelation is central to the covenant relationship, it is not to the running of day-to-day life, so that the subject matter may explain the difference in focus. Schwáb (Proverbs, 14, 66) notes that scholars in the 19th century also saw wisdom’s distinctness in terms of its focus on everyday life.

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God giving wisdom directly and in Proverbs 2:6 it comes from his own mouth.51 Lady Wisdom is a divine revelation of God himself, as she speaks for him and is somehow associated with him. Wisdom is not only rooted in human experience. We see a tension, as wisdom is attained through observation and experience, yet it is also a gift from God. The writers did not share our distinctions between empiricism and revelation.52 Creation does have a place in each wisdom book. There are references to God’s original creation of the world, as well as to his subsequent and continued activity in creating people individually. God is presented as “Maker” or “Creator” and there is a genuine lack of reference to him as “Redeemer” or the “God of Israel,” which makes the wisdom literature distinctive. Teaching and instruction are given as council, not as commandments or laws of the covenant. Yet, creation is also a topic in Genesis 1–2, Psalm 33:6–9, Isaiah 45:11–12 and Amos 5:8–9, where God is also presented as “Creator.”53 Creation is prominent in wisdom, though it is not the primary subject matter of the corpus as a whole, and because it is also prominent in other genres of biblical literature, it cannot be definitive of the wisdom genre alone. Crenshaw suggested that theodicy, the question of why God permits evil, is the focus of wisdom. This is largely based on the theory that wisdom evolved, from simple proverbs, to longer instructions, to the complex dialogue and theodicy we find in Job, and from an early and confident belief in human sufficiency and order, to scepticism and crisis in light of unjust suffering, and an appeal to dogma in answer to it.54 Yet, these styles of composition did not succeed each other in the foreign literature, and we often find a mixture of styles of saying within the same composition – short sayings in instructions and longer units in sayings collections.55 Most importantly, whilst theodicy is 51  Prov 2:6–7, 3:19, 9:10; Eccl 2:26; Job 28:12, 20–28; 38:36. Sneed (“Tradition,” 58) notes that in historical texts, wisdom is received through revelation, i.e. Joseph and Daniel received it through dreams, and Solomon received his directly from God as a divine gift. Brian W. Kovacs (“Is There a Class-Ethic in Proverbs?” in Essays in Old Testament Ethics ed. James L. Crenshaw and John T. Willis [New York: Ktav, 1974], 184–85) notes that “mashal” means “oracle” as well as “proverb.” 52  Weeks, Introduction, 116. He (114, 116) notes that wisdom also challenges empiricism, as even Qohelet, who is noted for his empiricism, critiques it, asserting the limitations of experience and the inadequacy of observation: Eccl 1:10–11, 16–18, 2:12–17, 26, 9:7–10, 12:13–14. 53  Weeks, Introduction, 112. 54  James Crenshaw, “Wisdom Literature: Biblical Books (1987),” in Crenshaw, Urgent Advice, 3–5; “Wisdom Literature,” 17, 31. 55  See Weeks (Introduction, 17–18), who notes that aphorisms appear much later in Egypt. The Dispute Between a Man and His Ba is also older than a number of the Egyptian instructions.

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a central topic in some wisdom books, particularly in Job, it is not a significant or dominant focus in all of them, so that it is not representative of the corpus as a whole and cannot serve as a criterion for defining the genre. Each approach underscores an important aspect of wisdom, yet can be overstated in ways that ignore other prominent features. None is sufficient for defining the primary purpose or intent of the corpus as a whole. Furthermore, each is found, in varying degrees, in other biblical genres. Narrative texts are quite anthropocentric, as we are placed directly into an individual character’s experience in everyday life. Creation is a prominent theme in many other biblical texts, particularly in Genesis. Retribution theology or the act-consequence nexus is found in the prophetic literature and the law code. Theodicy is primarily encountered in Job, but as we noted, this is not definitive of the corpus as a whole. There is no indication that the wisdom writers focused on these topics to the exclusion of others, or that they were their primary concern. Whilst each is prominent in various places, none of them alone define the wisdom genre, though as we will see, taken together, they give a fuller picture of what “wisdom” is. As we have seen, the diversity of the wisdom corpus makes it difficult to define. Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes, are formidable in their scope and variety. In order to define wisdom, we must determine what underlies their different views, and this is why scholars have focused on the topics we just discussed. However, these topics are not the main focus of the literature as a whole, and an over-emphasis on these features to the exclusion of others will skew what the texts actually present and result in a definition that no longer accommodates the variety of views held in the books themselves. Wisdom has a marked interest in humans, creation, order, empiricism and causation. Yet the divine origin of wisdom, revelation through Lady Wisdom and the Fear of the Lord are also central topics. If we define wisdom too narrowly, we run the risk of arriving at a definition that excludes the books themselves. Yet, if wisdom is defined too broadly, it will encompass much of what we find in other biblical literature and, as Crenshaw says, “render the term wisdom so diffuse as to be utterly worthless in scholarly discussion.”56 As Will Kynes observes, “if wisdom can mean anything and everything, then it means nothing.”57 We must arrive at a better definition.

56  Crenshaw, “Wisdom Literature,” 16. 57  Kynes, “Modern,” 21.

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A Way Forward in the Discussion

A number of scholars have noted that what underlies the various wisdom books is a shared interest in wisdom itself,58 and Stuart Weeks argues that this interest shapes how the books present themselves and the forms and conventions they use, “so that the subject matter is not easily divorced from other generic considerations.”59 As noted in the methodology, a type of didactic or advice literature genre had existed in the ane for more than a thousand years before the biblical wisdom books were written, and long before the term “wisdom” was used to discuss them.60 As Weeks argues, it is likely that the wisdom writers drew upon this long established generic tradition in the region, so that what shaped them – their generic self-presentations and the particular forms and conventions that they used – also shaped the biblical wisdom texts.61 Like ane advice literature, the purpose of biblical wisdom was to impart advice about living or wisdom, so that it drew upon this genre – the forms and conventions that it used – yet exercised considerable freedom in its use.62 There were two main forms of advice literature in the ane, grounded in different kinds of authority: 1) the proverb and 2) instructions passed on by 58  Fox, “Theses,” 79–82; Dell, “Boundaries,” 151, 149; Weeks, Introduction, 1. Schellenberg, “Questioning,” 394–95, Murphy, Tree,” 102. Weeks (122–23) uses this key characteristic, an interest in wisdom, as a rough criterion for admittance to the corpus. 59  Weeks, Introduction, 2. I cite Weeks in detail, as he is one of the few in current wisdom discussions still giving this kind of attention to the ane wisdom/advice literature genre and its impact on the formation of the biblical wisdom books. As discussed in the introduction (pp. 15–16), the wisdom books used the Song, which is why I focus on the antecedent ane wisdom genre, and why Week’s observations are so important for a discussion of its impact on the Song. 60  Fox (“Theses,” 79–82) calls it “ethical instruction” and argues that it “was a real genre and that the ancient Egyptians recognized it as a distinct genre.” Weeks (Introduction, 3) notes that these advise texts “are among some of the earliest literature known from both Egypt and Mesopotamia.” 61  Weeks, Introduction, 3. cf. Fox, Proverbs, 11, 17. As Weeks (Introduction, 16–17, 9) notes, whilst direct influence may have been over-stated, and it is best to speak of general resemblance rather than specific dependence, the foreign literature does elucidate the basic conventions that governed this type of literature. It is more likely that the biblical writers were aware of these literary traditions and derived their forms from them, than that saying collections were motivated by a new desire to collect folk proverbs or that parental advice reflected an actual social setting. 62  Weeks, Introduction, 126. Whilst he (85, 144, 126) avoids calling biblical wisdom a genre, he does say it is “marked by a characteristic style of discourse,” a “mode of discourse” that reflects these concerns and assumptions, and whilst its conventions may not individually be particular to the literature, or be shared by every wisdom text, together they provide a distinctive framework.

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an authoritative individual to the next generation.63 Proverbs expressed common truths, were used to draw parallels between situations and derived their authority from their generally accepted currency. The efficacy of a proverb depended on what it communicated, but also the way that it communicated it, so that it acquired popularity and circulation by embodying common experience and a memorable choice of words.64 Advice literature was also passed on by authoritative individuals in instructions. These individuals were considered authoritative precisely because they had lived a successful life in a particular area and this gave authority to their advice. In the ane a large amount of advice literature self presents as speeches by famous individuals, who pass on their wisdom and skill to the next generation, typically to their sons.65 Advice literature was grounded in these familiar sources of authority.66 Collections of aphorisms or proverbs were more typical in Mesopotamia, and instructions passed on by authoritative individuals in Egypt, though we find later examples of both proverbs and instructions in both places.67 The biblical book of Proverbs contains material similar to both the sayings collections in Mesopotamia and the father-son instructions in Egypt. We should not confuse literary conventions with sources. For example, many of the Egyptian instructions, written as advice from fathers to sons, were not actually written by fathers.68 Rather, the “father-son setting” is a literary convention that utilizes the concept of parental advice to children, and immediately associates the work with others that use the same convention, so that it is a mark of genre rather than social setting.69 Likewise, we do not know that all of the Mesopotamian sayings actually circulated as popular proverbs, as later authors surely attempted to write new aphorisms that sounded like proverbs.70 Advice literature was shaped “by the desire to draw on familiar sources of authority to validate its content, but also by subsequent literary conventions of form and setting.”71 63  Weeks, Introduction, 3–4. Cf. Dell, Get Wisdom, 15–16, “Boundaries,” 145–49; Fox, “Theses,” 79; Sneed, “Tradition,” 65. 64  Weeks, Introduction, 4. 65  Weeks, Introduction, 4; Fox, “Theses,” 79, Murphy, Tree, 154, 160. 66  Weeks, Introduction, 4. cf. Fox, Proverbs, 55, 18. 67  Weeks, Introduction, 10, 12; i.e. the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope. 68  Weeks (Introduction, 4) argues that in at least one text the father is already dead when he speaks. Fox (Proverbs, 8–9, 18) argues that some were actual fathers, yet some were fictive, simply utilizing the father-son literary convention (i.e. Prov). 69  Weeks, Introduction, 4. 70  Weeks, Introduction, 5. cf. Fox, Proverbs, 11. 71  Weeks, Introduction, 5.

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Biblical wisdom shows “strong associations with certain styles and genres, but also the exercise of considerable freedom in their use.”72 It used traditional styles of presentation linked to its subject matter, so that Proverbs and Ecclesiastes use the aphorism style extensively, whilst Job is shaped by its subject matter in a different way, using various characters in dialogue to represent different points of view, and there are precedents for this elsewhere.73 However, as Weeks notes, both Job and Ecclesiastes draw on other traditions of composition besides advice literature, so that “if there are certain literary genres that play an important role in wisdom writing, it is also true that the writers did not confine themselves to those genres.”74 The wisdom writers combine the advice literature genre with other genres, forms and content. 4

The Value of This for the Discussion of the Song

The Song of Songs shares this interest in wisdom, that is, wisdom concerning love, specifically. The Song is certainly about “love” rather than the topic of wisdom in general. Yet, is also about wisdom concerning love. Whilst it is love poetry, the final form of the book, and the structuring of the adjurations and the mashal, reveal that the purpose of the book is to communicate wisdom about love. As we will see in chapter six, the author or compiler is concerned, not just to show love or different types of love, but one specific vision of love that the reader is meant to emulate and pursue – a wise love. This focus on wisdom, concerning love, also shapes the self-presentation of the Song, so that its interest has consequences for the form that the material takes. There were two main types of advice literature in the ancient world based on different types of authority: 1) the proverb and 2) instructions passed on by an authoritative individual to the next generation. Both of these forms appear in the Song of Songs. The mashal or proverb appears in 8:6–7 to teach a general truth about love that the entire book is dedicated to displaying through the characters and their actions. Advice is also passed on to future generations in the “do not awaken” instructions given to the daughters of Jerusalem. Just as instruction was passed down to the next generation in advice literature, using the “father-son” literary convention, provocatively in the Song, it is passed down 72  Weeks, Introduction, 126. cf. Sneed, “Grasping, 56–58, 59–60, Fox, “Theses,” 78. 73  Weeks, Introduction, 5. 74  Weeks, Introduction, 5. Sneed (“Tradition,” 67) agrees, “A text might be the combination of several genre types.” Fox (“Theses,” 78) writes, “all would agree that a given book can participate in more than one genre.” Murphy (Tree, 10) notes that Job contains several genres: wisdom, legal, lament and disputation.

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from the woman to daughters, for she is the foremost authority on love in the text. This has been established by the superlative nature of her love relationship throughout the book.75 She passes on advice to the next generation about how they should also pursue love. As Weeks observes, instructions from a previous generation were a recognizable feature of the advice literature genre.76 This type of instruction would immediately signal to the reader that they were encountering a didactic genre. The presence of these forms shows that the Song’s subject matter is also not easily divorced from generic considerations. The Song makes claims about its value and authority and this is seen implicitly in its self-presentation, which it inherited from foreign literature. As Weeks observes, “if there are certain literary genres that play an important role in wisdom writing, it is also true that the writers did not confine themselves to those genres.”77 As I noted, Job and Ecclesiastes both draw on other traditions of composition as well as advice literature. Wisdom discourse employed “a repertoire of genres to address a particular area of concern,”78 and it is the same with the Song. No genre quite like the Song of Songs exists in the surrounding ane literature for giving advice about love. Whilst there are many Egyptian and Mesopotamian love songs, they do not give advice about love, or how one is to pursue love, but rather, celebrate love or many different types of love in a general way. Even if we set aside the content of the instruction in the refrains and the mashal in 8:6–7, it is the very occurrence of these forms themselves that is unusual. There are no other ane love songs that stop, or cut in, to give instruction to the audience or make any type of general/objective statement about love.79 The fact that the Song of Songs stops to instruct the audience to do anything concerning love or gives a general reflection on love is really very different from anything we see in the antecedent love literature. These forms themselves, regardless of their content, are wisdom forms: instruction and proverb. Since there were no familiar and authoritative sources of advice literature concerning love, or at least none that are currently extent, 75  The title of the book itself is a superlative: ‫ ִשׁיר ַה ִּשׁ ִירים‬. 76  Weeks, “Wisdom,” 166. 77  Weeks, Introduction, 5. He (“Wisdom,” 166–68) notes that wisdom employs secondary genres and forms besides advice literature: “The wisdom books make significant use of other genres to communicate aspects of their meaning through their readers’ recognition of those genres.” 78  Weeks, Introduction, 143. 79  As an examination of the following shows: anet; cos; Fox, Songs; Nissinen, “Nabû;” Meek, “Babylonian,” Watson, “Parallels;” Joan Goodnick Westenholz, “Love Lyrics from the Ancient Near East,” cane IV (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1995), 2471–86; the Akkadian love songs on the Sources of Early Akkadian Literature (seal) website: www.seal.uni-leipzig. de and in Wasserman, Akkadian.

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it is likely that the writer or compiler of the Song drew upon familiar sources of authority in advice literature, to validate its content and enable it to become a conventional vehicle for wisdom, as well as traditional styles of composition, forms and setting in the known love songs of the ane, in order to produce an advice literature about love. Here, in the Song of Songs, we see the blending of the ane love song and advice literature genres, in order to impart wisdom and instruction about love to the next generation, the daughters of Jerusalem, and by extension the reader. It draws on other traditions of composition, that is, namely Egyptian love poetry, as well as advice literature in order to pass on authoritative advice concerning love to future generations. 5

Wisdom and Wisdom Influence: a Tighter Methodology for Meaningful Connections

If wisdom was not a historically and ideologically distinct tradition from other biblical writings, then connections between texts are understandable and should even be expected. It is not difficult to identify potential links between texts, but to do so meaningfully we need an accurate understanding of each work and criteria for determining a significant connection.80 If wisdom is to be understood as more than this, we need a tighter methodology with criteria for defining “wisdom” and “wisdom influence.” As discussed, the focus and main purpose of the wisdom literature is to communicate wisdom, and this function defines the form that it takes, which is advice literature. Yet, all the biblical wisdom books combine the advice literature genre with other genres, forms and themes. “Advice literature” in the ane contained typical forms based on different types of authority: proverbs and instructions. Others have also observed subsequent literary forms: didactic poetry, fable/allegory, hymn/prayer, lists, Streitgespräch or dialogue and autobiographical confession/didactic narrative.81 Some of these forms, like dialogue, 80  Weeks, Introduction, 141. 81  This list of frequent forms found in ane didactic literature is suggestive rather than exhaustive. Proverbs and instructions are the primary forms in ane advice literature so instructions have been added to Crenshaw’s (“Wisdom,” 47) list of proverbs, riddles, fable/allegory, hymn/prayer, didactic poetry, lists, Streitgespräch/dialogue and autobiographical narrative/confession. Whilst Crenshaw (58–60) attempts to argue that riddles can be found in disintegrated form, or have affinities with numerical proverbs, oracles or symbolic dreams, the fact that, strictly speaking, the riddle only occurs in pure form in Judges 14:10–18 calls into question whether it is a biblical wisdom form. It has been omitted from this list, as it does not occur in any of the biblical wisdom books in pure form.

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prayers and numerical sayings or lists, occur elsewhere in biblical literature, yet all the wisdom books display the advice literature forms of proverbs and instructions as a mark of their interest in advice or wisdom. The main content of wisdom literature is an interest in wisdom, and as we will see in chapter six, wisdom’s concerns were not just with conveying information about wisdom, but extended beyond this to the actual transformation of the reader’s character into a wise person, who is able to implement such wisdom into their life and actions. The content of wisdom also often included a number of other themes or emphases, a few of which we have already seen in our discussion: creation, a search for order, two ways, wisdom learned and given by God, peace and life as the supreme good, the fear of the Lord and Lady Wisdom.82 Some of these themes, like creation and the fear of the Lord, are found elsewhere in biblical literature as well, but all the wisdom books are concerned with wisdom and character transformation into a wise person.83 Since some of these forms and themes occur in other biblical literature, we can expect to see points of contact with other texts. Yet wisdom is defined primarily by the forms found in ane advice literature and its interest in wisdom and transformation into a wise person, and this serves as the main criteria for determining what is “wisdom.” We might then say, that in order for a book to be meaningfully described as “wisdom,” 1) it must be advice literature, though it will likely combine this with other genres, forms and conventions, and 2) the main purpose and focus of its content must be wisdom and transformation into a wise person, though it will likely also evidence a high degree of other themes that occur in wisdom literature. Books that are not advice literature or that do not have “wisdom” as their main purpose or focus may still display varying degrees of other wisdom forms or themes. The degree to which they evidence these forms and themes would then be determinate for the amount of “wisdom influence” they display. The occurrence of a few forms or themes may show that they have affinities with wisdom, whilst a high degree of wisdom forms and themes would indicate “wisdom influence.” However, they would not be properly categorized as “wisdom” unless they displayed the forms in ane advice literature and the primary content of an interest in wisdom and character transformation into a wise person. Crenshaw suggests that, “when a marriage between form and content exists, there is Wisdom literature. Lacking such oneness, a given text participates in 82  This list of themes and emphases is also suggestive rather than exhaustive. 83  As we will see in chapter 6, character transformation is also central in a number of biblical narrative texts, but wisdom focuses on character transformation into a wise person, specifically.

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biblical wisdom to a greater or lesser extent.”84 Weeks notes that this starts from what is inherent in the wisdom corpus, and treats wisdom “not as a checklist, but in terms of two separate dimensions.”85 He suggests the idea of a graph with “formal” and “thematic” axes, so that any text “can be assigned coordinates which place it in relation to the area where our wisdom books cluster. However thematically similar, that text will never be wisdom literature without the right form to place it near that zone, and however formally similar, a different theme will still pull it to one edge.”86 This idea of a graph is a quite helpful model for surveying a book’s relationship to the wisdom literature. It reveals the difficulty of defining wisdom, as it defies simple classification and it is really a combination of these two dimensions that gets at what we call “wisdom.” Yet, it provides a helpful way of discussing connections between other books and “wisdom.” Along the “formal” axis we might place proverbs, instructions, didactic poetry, allegory/fable, hymn/prayer, lists, Streitgespräch or dialogue and autobiographical narrative/ confession. Along the “thematic” axis we might place a focus on wisdom, character formation into a wise person, and the themes of creation, wisdom as a search for order, two ways, wisdom learned and given by God, peace and life as the supreme good, the fear of the Lord and Lady Wisdom. Since the wisdom books all share the typical forms in ane advice literature, and content that is concerned with wisdom and character formation into a wise person, as well as many of these other forms and themes, this will cause them to immediately cluster in one area of the graph. Books that do not share these primary forms and themes, but display other wisdom forms or themes, will be located to varying degrees of distance from the wisdom books, showing whether they display strong “wisdom influence,” or merely have affinities with wisdom. Now that we have established such criteria for defining “wisdom” and “wisdom influence,” we are in a better place to discuss to what extent the Song of Songs shares these criteria. We will use this graph as a helpful model for evaluating the Song’s relationship to the wisdom literature and turn, in the next chapter, to survey where on this type of graph the Song of Songs would fall.

84  Crenshaw, OT Wisdom, 12. 85  Weeks, Introduction, 143. 86  Weeks, Introduction, 143.

Chapter 5

Wisdom Features in the Song of Songs The diversity of the wisdom literature leads one to expect a multiplicity of literary conventions and genres. Job has been described as philosophical dialogue or lament, Qoheleth as confession, and Proverbs as aphorism and instruction collections.1 Yet all are interested in “wisdom” and display form and content typical of ane advice literature. Since we see multiple genres among the biblical wisdom books we cannot say that the Song’s genre, as love poetry, excludes it from the corpus. We must look at the pervasiveness of wisdom forms and themes and whether they are determinate for the focus, subject matter, and structure of the text in question, to determine the relationship between the Song of Songs and wisdom. Let us return to Weeks’s idea of a graph with “formal” and “thematic” axes. If we assign coordinates to a book under consideration, like the Song of Songs, as well as the generally accepted wisdom books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Job, then this should show us where the Song would fall in relation to the area where the wisdom books cluster. Again, “however thematically similar, [a] text will never be wisdom literature without the right form to place it near that zone, and however formally similar, a different theme will still pull it to one edge.”2 Let us now look at what coordinates the Song would have on this type of graph by surveying its formal and thematic wisdom features. 1 Forms As discussed in the previous chapter, along the “formal” axis of this graph we would place proverbs and instructions, as the primary forms in ane advice literature, as well as didactic poems, allegory/fable, hymn/prayer, lists, Streitgespräch or dialogue and autobiographical confession/didactic narrative poetry.3 We will now look at how many of these forms are found in the Song of Songs. 1  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 47. cf. Fox, “Theses,” 83; Dell, “Boundaries,” 148, 156. 2  Weeks, Introduction, 143. 3  These categories are based on frequent forms found in ane wisdom literature. Instructions have been added to Crenshaw’s (“Wisdom,” 47) list of forms, as they are a primary form in ane wisdom literature. Riddles have been omitted, as they do not occur in pure form in the biblical wisdom books. One could argue that the Song examines the riddle of love (and

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1.1 The Mashal of Songs 8:6–7 As discussed, there were two central forms in advice literature in the ane grounded in different kinds of authority; the first was the proverb or mashal.4 Proverbs expressed common truths, were used to draw parallels between situations and derived their authority from their generally accepted currency. The efficacy of a proverb depended on what it communicated but also the way that it communicated it, so that it acquired popularity and circulation by embodying common experience and a memorable choice of words.5 Using the standard form of two-line parallelism, proverbs either observe or reflect on an experience, or are didactic advocating a principle, belief or standard of behaviour.6 As Dell notes, their content is often characterized by “analogies between nature and human experience in an attempt not only to further understanding but also to master life by noting regular patterns.”7 The proverbial saying or mashal in Songs 8:6–7 expresses a common experience with memorable words. Those who have been in love truly know that love is as strong as death, jealousy as unyielding as the grave and that it burns like an unquenchable mighty flame. It derives its effectiveness from what it communicates as well as the way that it communicates it. It exhibits the characteristics that Eissfeldt argued define the mashal: metrical form and rhythmic structure, parallelismus membrorum (in this case, synonymous parallelism), consonantal and vocalic assonance, a terse and vivid style and general truth made clear with images and examples.8 It is openly didactic, promoting the value of mutual exclusive commitment because of the risk one is taking in unleashing these emotions. It illustrates one of the most common but important experiences in human relationships, drawing analogies between nature and the experience of humans in love, in an attempt to help readers further understand, and therefore master love by noting a regular pattern: those who awaken love encounter powerful forces of emotion. The mashal in 8:6–7 teaches a general truth about love, which the entire book displays through the actions of its characters. It is the climax or “summa” there is precedent for this in Prov 30:18–19), just as Job investigates the riddle of suffering and Qohelet the riddle of human existence (see Michael Sadgrove, “The Song of Songs as Wisdom Literature” StudBib [1978]: 247). Yet, this is a thematic interpretation of “riddle.” It does not occur as a form in the biblical wisdom books. Von Rad (Wisdom, 35–50) notes the following forms are characteristic of didactic poetry: long didactic poems, fable and allegory, numerical sayings or lists, dialogue, autobiographical stylization, didactic narrative, and prayers. 4  Weeks, Introduction, 3–4. 5  Weeks, Introduction, 4. 6  Murphy, Tree, 7–8. 7  Dell, Get Wisdom, 15. 8  Eissfeldt, Maschal, 48–52; Tromp, “Wisdom,” 92.

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of the book, summarizing what the entire poem is about: the power of love and the lover’s desire for mutual, exclusive and enduring union.9 The mashal is “weisheitlich-sentenzhafte” and “relèvent du genre sapiential.”10 It is the answer to what the sage ponders but cannot comprehend in Proverbs 30:18–19, the way of a man with a woman: love.11 1.2 The “Do Not Awaken” Instructions The second main form found in advice literature in the ancient world was instruction passed on by an authoritative individual to the next generation. These individuals were considered authoritative precisely because they had lived a successful life in a particular area and this gave authority to their advice.12 In the Song of Songs advice is passed on to future generations in the “do not awaken” instructions given to the daughters of Jerusalem. And just as parental advice, from father to son, was used as a literary convention in instructions in the ancient world, provocatively in the Song, it is passed down from the female lover to the daughters of Jerusalem. She is the foremost authority on love, for as the book displays throughout, she has lived her love life successfully and found true love. The superlative nature of her love relationship has been established throughout the book, accrediting her the authority to advise the next generation, so that they can find the same in their own love lives: by exercising wisdom in love and not awakening it until the type of love in the Song is present. In fact, she gives them a firm warning, making them take a solemn oath, swearing by the gazelles and does of the field, to not awaken love until the love of the Song is present. That is, the “do not awaken” instructions are admonitions. As Crenshaw observes, “the didactic character of the proverb is heightened in the admonition, which seeks to inculcate a desired behaviour pattern and right thinking. To accomplish this end the admonition makes use of motive clauses, positive commands, and grounds for conduct.”13 The “do not 9  Murphy, Songs, 196; Tromp, “Wisdom,” 94. 10  Leo Krinetzki, “‘Retractationes’ zu früheren Arbeiten über das Hohe Lied,” in Zefanjastudien: Motiv- und Traditionskritik + Kompositions- und Redaktionskritik, ed. Günter Krinetzki rst (Bern: Lang, 1977), 183: “sententious wisdom.” Jean-Paul Audet, “Le Sens du Cantique des Cantiques,” RB 62, 2 (1955): 216: “belongs to the sapiential genre”. 11  Again, the occurrence of one proverb does not make the book sapiential, but as we will see, the presence of other forms will push this impression further. None of these forms alone show that the Song is wisdom, but their accumulation indicates that the Song is doing something very different from other ane love songs by using forms commonly associated with wisdom. 12  Weeks, Introduction, 4. 13  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 53.

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awaken” admonitions have a heightened didactic character, and a motive is used to inculcate desired behaviour. The motive is seen in the mashal of 8:6–7: love is strong, powerful, fierce and unrelenting. It is not to be awakened for the wrong person, when the love in the Song is not present, because it is the same as unleashing an almighty flame that will burn and be quite painful. The grounds for conduct are expressed in the latter part of the instruction: when “that love,” the love in the Song, desires or is present, that is the time to awaken love. The “do not awaken” instructions in 2:7, 3:5, and 8:4 are a prominent wisdom feature in the Song of Songs.14 As Ariel Bloch and Chana Bloch observe, their repeated emphasis of “do not, do not, whatever you do, do not” is evocative of wisdom, recalling Proverbs 31:2–4 where “do not” appears six times, so that they may also reflect the distinctive wisdom belief that “everything has a proper time of ripening, in human affairs as in nature,”15 which is also a prominent theme in Ecclesiastes 3:1–8. Their reoccurrence throughout the structure of the book in its final form likely indicates, as Dell observes, “that the wisdom editing was more pervasive than some have claimed.”16 1.3 Didactic Poem A number of other wisdom forms have been observed that are characteristic of didactic poetry, including long didactic poems, fable and allegory, hymns/ prayers, lists, Streitgespräch or dialogue, autobiographical stylization and didactic narrative poetry.17 With the exception of hymns and prayers, we will see that all of these forms are present in the Song of Songs. I am certainly arguing that the Song is a long and extended didactic poem intended to teach what love is meant to look like and the value of waiting to awaken love until it looks like the love in the Song. Yet, within this poem we also find extended didactic poems concerning the willingness to brave danger and overcome obstacles for the sake of love in 3:1–4 and 5:2–7, love as giving life to the surrounding world and causing nature to blossom in 2:10–14 and 7:11–13, the centrality of desire 14  The Song is not pure instruction. It is a love poem that incorporates instruction to communicate its wisdom message. Job and Qohelet are also not pure instruction, and do not contain instruction prologues. Jacqueline Vayntrub (“The Book of Proverbs and the Idea of Ancient Israelite Education,” zaw 128:1 [2016]: 96–114) has recently argued that Proverbs is not pure ane instruction, as it has the wrong type of prologue: it does not name the protagonist who gives spoken instruction on a particular occasion. Defined narrowly, even Proverbs can be expelled and we cannot call any of these books instruction. Yet they all incorporate instruction within their discourse. 15  Bloch and Bloch, Songs, 152. 16  Dell, “Connections,” 15. 17  Von Rad, Wisdom, 35–50.

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in the poem’s depiction of the lovers’ bodies in 4:1–7, 9–15, 5:10–16, 6:4–10 and 7:1–9a, and the power of love in 8:6–7. 1.4 Fable/Allegory As Gerhard von Rad observed, “in the fable there occurs a veiling of something everyday, a kind of alienation in the direction of the unreal and the fabulous. But precisely in this strange dress the truth is more forceful than in the everyday where it is so easily overlooked.”18 Fables, where the characters were animals or plants, were common in ane wisdom, particularly in Mesopotamia, but are absent in the biblical wisdom literature.19 Crenshaw notes that over time, the fable “disintegrated into pure allegory,” and two are thought to be preserved in the wisdom literature: Proverbs 5:15–23, where the woman is a “fountain” and “well” from which the man drinks and “a lovely deer, a graceful doe,” and Qohelet 12:1–6, with the grasshopper, silver cord, golden bowl, pitcher and wheel.20 The same type of allegory used in Proverbs 5:15–23 and Qohelet 12:1–6 is customary in the Song of Songs. In fact, Proverbs 5:15–23 is evocative of Songs 4:12, where the female lover is a “fountain sealed,” 4:15 where she is a “garden fountain” and a “well of living water,” and 4:5 where her “breasts are two fawns.” One might argue that these are metaphors in the Song, not allegories. Yet, if these forms in Proverbs are considered allegories, or even watered down versions of these forms, then they should also be seen as such in the Song, particularly because the forms in Proverbs derive from the Song. The “truth” contained in the allegory of Songs 4:12–15 is that her garden (sexuality) is “locked” and her fountain “sealed” from others, whilst it is a well of living water to him and a garden he is invited into in 4:16 and has direct access to in 5:1, i.e. their relationship is exclusive.21 As von Rad notes:

18  Von Rad, Wisdom, 42–43: e.g. Judg 9:8–15, 2Kgs 14:9 and the prophet Nathan’s parable in 2Sam 12:1–4. 19  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 61. See W.G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1960), 150–210; Ronald J. Williams, “The Fable in the Ancient Near East,” in A Stubborn Faith: Papers on Old Testament and Related Subjects Presented in Honor of William Andrew Irwin (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1956), 3–26. Characters included the fox, date palm, bramble, cedar and pomegranate trees, a few of which appear in the Song, though not as characters. Whilst these characters often engaged in contest/debate in the fables, contending for their own value/superiority over others, it is interesting that in Songs 2:1–3 the lovers use brambles and trees to contend for the value/ superiority of their lover over others. 20  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 62. 21  Cf. the foxes allegory in 2:15–16.

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the transitions between what is simply metaphorical and what is allegorical are fluid. But whenever we are dealing with a number of pictorial elements, each of which requires interpretation, we are justified in calling it allegorical speech … one must speak of an allegory where we have a passage containing two or more metaphors belonging to the same context of meaning and mutually interpreting one another.22 The accumulation of these metaphors (each of which requires interpretation) in the same context, and the connections of meaning between them and their interpretation of one another, places them in the realm of allegory.23 Both lovers in the Song are depicted as various animals or plants. The man is pictured as a stag, gazelle, young deer, sachet of myrrh, cluster of henna blossoms, an apple tree, Lebanon, a nut garden; and his features as pure gold, wavy palm fronds, doves, beds of spices, lilies, liquid myrrh, rods of gold, ivory artwork, jewels, sapphires, alabaster pillars, sockets of gold, cedars, blossoms, a vine, and pomegranates.24 The woman is pictured as a garden, a spring, a water field, a well of living water, a vineyard, a dove, a rose of Sharon, a lily, a mare among Pharaoh’s chariots, the tents of Qedar, the curtains of Solomon, the dawn, the moon, the sun, a palm tree, and a seal upon his heart; and her bodily features as a flock flowing down mount Gilead, a flock of shown ewes, a scarlet thread, pomegranates, David’s tower, fawns, mountains of myrrh, hills of frankincense, flowing honey, milk, henna, nard, saffron, sweet cane, cinnamon, incense, myrrh, aloes, the finest spices, honeycomb, wine, gold, jewels, a rounded bowl, a heap of wheat encircled by lilies, an ivory tower, pools of Heshbon, a tower of Lebanon, Carmel, purple, vine clusters, and apples.25 In the Song, the truth or reality depicted in the lover allegories usually communicates something about the nature of their relationship or the way they see and feel about their lover’s body and their intoxication with it. They veil common human features and alienate them in the direction of the unreal and fabulous, 22  Von Rad, Wisdom, 45–46, n. 33. 23  The garden/vineyards are euphemisms for her body and sexuality in 4:12–15, so when she says that she has not kept her vineyard in 1:6, we understand that she has not kept herself from her lover, who is invited into her garden and grazes in it in 4:16–5:1, 6:1–3, 2:16. 24  Song 1:13, 14; 2:3; 2:9; 2:17; 5:11–15; 6:11; 8:14. Williams (“Fable,” 7–8) mentions an Egyptian fable (1200–1085 BCE), a conversation between three trees, a pomegranate, fig and sycamore, in which the pomegranate compares its seeds to teeth and its fruit to breasts, a reversal of the Song’s comparison of human body parts to parts of trees, fruits and plants. The sycamore compares her leaves to turquoise, just as the lover’s body parts are compared to precious metals. Williams (8) is undecided whether this fable is part of the love song or fable genre, and it seems to straddle the two. 25  Song 1:5–6, 9–10, 15; 2:1–2, 14; 4:1–6; 4:11–5:2; 6:2; 6:4–7, 9–10; 7:2–6, 8–10; 8:6, 10, 12.

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so as to call attention to their uniqueness and express more forcefully what is commonly overlooked: the value and worth of the human body and lover. The Song of Songs is full of this type of allegory and shows pervasive evidence of this wisdom form. 1.5 Lists Onomastica or lists (Naturweisheit) occur in Egyptian and Mesopotamian wisdom literature.26 Some of the biblical wisdom lists are numerical. Whilst the Song of Songs does not include extensive numerical sayings lists, it does exhibit strong parallels to the numerical saying in Proverbs 30:18–20 concerning “the way of a man with a woman” and possibly also Proverbs 30:21–24 concerning “the unloved woman” in marriage. Songs 6:8 extols the woman’s superiority numerically, over “sixty queens, eighty concubines and virgins/ young women without number.”27 In his study of Job 38 and Egyptian wisdom, Von Rad argued that Job includes onomastica or lists of nature.28 If these catalogues of nature are seen as onomastica or Naturweisheit in Job, which is generally classified as wisdom literature, then we would also point to Songs 2:11–17, 4:1–5:1, 5:11–16, 6:5–11, 7:2–14, which list and enumerate the marvels of nature, plants, minerals, animals and the human body, as we also see in the Egyptian Rameses Onomasticon, which contains lists of animals, plants and minerals.29 1.6 Streitgespräch or Dialogue Poetic dialogue was a typical wisdom form in the surrounding ane literature, though von Rad notes that it is only seen between Job and his friends in the didactic literature of the Bible.30 However, the poetry of the Song of Songs is composed almost entirely of dialogue throughout, and whilst von Rad observes the peculiarity that the speakers in the dialogue in Job seem to lack genuine contact,31 this is certainly not the case in the dialogue of the Song 26  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 71. 27  Though not in typical X/X + 1 format, Longman (Songs, 181) calls this a “clear example of numerical parallelism,” increasing from sixty to eighty to infinity, indicating a very large number. 28  Gerhard von Rad, “Job 38 and Egyptian Wisdom,” in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays, translated from the German (1938) by E.W. Trueman Dicken (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1966), 281–91; Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 72. 29  Von Rad (“Job 38,” 284) compares Job 38 to both the Onomasticon of Amenope, which enumerates heavenly/cosmological phenomena (Job 38:12–38), and the animal lists in the Rameses Onomasticon (Job 38:39–39:26), which are similar to the animals/plants listed in the Song. 30  Von Rad, Wisdom, 40. 31  Von Rad, Wisdom, 40.

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where they seem to hear, remember each other’s words and respond to them. Crenshaw thinks a variant of Streitgespräch is “imagined speech,” found frequently in Proverbs.32 However, ‘imagined speech’ is not quite true dialogue, as it is often interior or exterior monologue, so that one character speaks but is not responded to by the other. The examples in Proverbs are not true dialogue, whereas Job and the Song of Songs are. 1.7 Autobiographical Confession/Didactic Narrative Poetry In the ane, wisdom’s emphasis on experience brought about a confessional style,33 in which the writer instructed through autobiographical narrative, recounting his or her own experience. This is similar to the instructions given by an authoritative individual except that in autobiographical narrative it is recounted as the sage’s personal experience and discovery. The Book of Proverbs contains small autobiographical narratives where the reader is taught by the experience of the author.34 These didactic narrative poems often preserved a stereotyped didactic allusion, such as the “fate of the wicked,” and aimed to teach through a specific context of events.35 Just as Proverbs contains small autobiographical narratives where the reader is taught by the experience of the author, the entire Song utilizes a similar method, autobiographically describing the love of the couple in order to guide the reader in their own pursuit of love. The lovers recount their own experience, which is presented entirely as personal discovery, in order to instruct the reader and show them what type of relationship to awaken love for. The stereotyped didactic allusion is to “when love desires to awaken” or is present, and the fulfilment that comes from waiting to awaken, and therefore finding, this type of love. It teaches, through a specific context of events, important 32  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 69; i.e. Prov 1:11–14, 22–33; 3:28; 5:12–14; 7:14–20; 8:4–36; 9:4a–6, 16a–17; 20:9, 14a, 22a, 25a; 22:13; 23:7b, 35; 24:12a, 24a, 29; 25:7; 26:13, 19b; 28:24b; 30:9b, 20c; 31:29. The dialogue or Streitgespräch form had its place in ane contest literature, and von Rad (Wisdom, 40) notes that the shorter dialogue discussions in fables may be precursors to these long dialogue poems. Like instruction, if this form is defined narrowly (intro, debate, resolution) then it is only found in Job. Yet, if we are to speak of “variants” of Streitgespräch, as Crenshaw does with “imagined speech” in Proverbs, then we must point out that true poetic dialogue occurs throughout the Song and serves as an impetus for correct thinking about love. We also find a shorter contest discussion in Songs 5:9–16, where the daughters of Jerusalem challenge, “how is your lover better than another,” to which the woman responds by enumerating the virtues of her lover over ten thousand. 33  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 70. 34  Dell, Get Wisdom, 16; for example, the description of the seductress/adulteress in Prov. 7 or the cautionary tale about laziness in Prov 24:30–34. 35  Von Rad, Wisdom, 38, 46.

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lessons about how love it meant to look. The context allows the characters to show that love is meant to be devotional, sacrificial, proactive, mutual, exclusive, and timeless. The lovers’ experience in finding this type of love accredits them the authority to communicate this instruction. One of the primary examples of didactic narrative in wisdom literature commonly cited is the seduction story in Proverbs 7:6–23,36 and it is certainly interesting that this entire episode, and specifically its language, is directly modelled on the Song of Songs.37 Crenshaw cautions that didactic narrative was not exclusively used by the wise, for it is found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, for example, in the Joseph narrative, the succession narrative, Esther, Daniel 1:3–6, Tobit, and Judith.38 Crenshaw adamantly opposes seeing these other biblical passages as “wisdom,” and argues that didactic narrative is not exclusively a wisdom category, though it should be noted that he includes it in his list of wisdom forms.39 Much of biblical narrative can be said to be didactic. However, what we are looking at, specifically in the wisdom literature, is actually didactic verse narrative, which is quite different from biblical prose narrative, though it takes on some of its features. Robert Alter writes, “Perhaps the greatest peculiarity of biblical poetry among the literatures of the ancient Mediterranean world is its seeming avoidance of narrative.”40 Whilst the biblical writers used poetry for many types of writing – prophecy, lament, oracle, celebration, etc. – they hardly ever used it to tell a story, and this is particularly conspicuous in light of its popularity in the antecedent ane literature.41 Even the neighboring Ugaritic literature, which was written in a similar cognate language and with the same standard principles of poetic parallelism, uses poetry for long epic narratives.42 We don’t see anything like this in the Hebrew Bible. Even the infrequent biblical poems with small narrative segments are not, according to Alter, “strictly speaking, narrative poems, because they lack the defining feature of independent narrative – exposition.”43 Shemaryahu Talmon has suggested that the biblical poets avoided narrative because of its connections to paganism and polytheistic

36  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 75; Dell, Get Wisdom, 16; Alter, Poetry, 57. 37  See pp. 35–42 of the Methodology chapter and pp. 88–93 of chapter 3. 38  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 75. 39  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 47, 75. 40  Alter, Poetry, 27. 41  Alter, Poetry, 27. 42  Alter, Poetry, 27. 43  Alter, Poetry, 27.

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mythology.44 Yet, Alter cautions against the assumption that “this shift of narration, from poetry to prose,” means that biblical verse was entirely “purified of narrative elements.”45 Whilst narrative poems are rare in the Bible, which almost always uses prose rather than poetry to tell a tale, Alter notes that “it is far more common to find episodic narrativity rather than actual narrative in biblical verse.”46 The Song of Songs is really a mixture of episodic narrativity and heightened figuration, which take turns emerging from one another. The Song incorporates numerous episodes of narrative report, but also many episodes of description through imagery, metaphor and figurative language. It makes extensive use of figuration, for self-description or to describe the other lover’s body, how they feel about them and often nature, yet narrative controls numerous sections where “figuration is entirely displaced by the report of sequenced actions” and semantic equivalence gives way to narrative progression.47 The narrativity in the Song of Songs is episodic, but the number of episodes and the fact that they present the characters, their interactions, and speech consistently across the episodes gives the entire work a narrative flavour. Alter notes rare glimpses of a type of narrative poetry – “narrative report of character” – which has affinities with narrative prose, and is found particularly in the biblical Wisdom books.48 Narrative report of character is not usually found outside prose narrative, but it does occur in wisdom texts and is also found in the Song of Songs. The difference in the Song, however, is that the narrative report is carried out by the characters themselves, through dialogue. The lovers themselves, rather than an external narrator, report their own actions, as well as describe the other lover’s body, speech, character and actions. Alter’s main example of narrative report of character is Proverbs 7, and he notes that dialogue is the “most striking formal feature” that connects it to prose narrative in the Bible, as it is a conduit for characterization and thematic argument, carries the weight of the story and its centrality is reflected quantitatively.49 Dialogue is also a conduit for characterization and thematic 44  Semaryahu Talmon, “The ‘Comparative Method’ in Biblical Interpretation – Principles and Problems,” in Congress Volume: Göttingen (Leiden, Brill, 1978), 354. 45  Alter, Poetry, 28. 46  Alter, Poetry, 61. The distinction between narrative and poetry is not hard and fast, as they are mixed together in many biblical books, e.g. Jeremiah, but verse is not usually used to tell a story. 47  Alter, Poetry, 187–88. 48  Alter, Poetry, 54, i.e. Prov. 7. 49  Alter, Poetry, 57; Interestingly, his main example of narrative report poetry is the seductress in Proverbs 7, who again, is modeled almost entirely on the female lover in the Song,

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argument carrying the weight of the story in the Song and its centrality is certainly reflected quantitatively. Narrative report poetry also utilizes another important literary device in biblical prose narrative: Leitwörter.50 In poetry, the repetition of these thematic key-words usually indicates emphasis, yet Alter observes that in narrative report poetry, their repetition shows a “progressive articulation of meanings” that is more akin to the way the device is used in narrative prose.51 The word “love” is a Leitwort in the Song of Songs, and it exhibits a similar progressive articulation of meaning throughout the poem, culminating in a crescendo of meaning in the mashal. Just as Alter notes that Proverbs 7 takes a conventional metaphor in Proverbs – going on a way/path – and assigns it a “strong narrative realization” in Proverbs 7,52 the Song takes its own conventional metaphor for wise love – when to awaken love – which is a sort of didactic allusion to a straight path in love, and gives it a strong narrative realization and concretization throughout the Song. The lovers are the narrative realization of when to awaken love, giving a concretization to the path that the “do not awaken” refrains instruct others to follow. The Song aims to teach through a specific context of events – the events surrounding the relationship of the lovers. Didactic narrative is not found exclusively in wisdom, as much of the narrative material in the Bible is didactic. Such a discovery does not necessitate that a book has “wisdom influence.” Other wisdom categories must be present. However, in wisdom verse, we find specific types of didactic narrative – autobiographical confession and narrative report of character – which are not usually found outside narrative prose. These are also found in the Song of Songs, which includes dialogue, the most striking formal feature that connects narrative report to prose narrative, and Leitwörter, another prominent device in biblical prose narrative that, in didactic verse narrative, exhibits a “progressive articulation of meanings” similar to its use in narrative prose.53 The Song of Songs is a mixture of narrativity and figuration. It makes extensive use of figurative language, yet narrative governs numerous sections where “figuration is entirely displaced by the report of sequenced actions.”54 Both elements are central for the communication of the overall work, in which the yet is a corruption of her. Dialogue is reflected quantitatively in the Song even more than in Proverbs 7. 50  Alter, Poetry, 60. 51  Alter, Poetry, 60; Prov 7. 52  Alter, Poetry, 61. 53  Alter, Poetry, 60. 54  Alter, Poetry, 188.

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woman instructs her readers by autobiographically describing her experience. Perhaps what is needed for evaluating whether various texts are “wisdom,” is a distinction between didactic prose narrative with wisdom elements, and didactic verse narrative. In some sense much of Scripture is didactic, but wisdom literature is especially so, though the appearance of other forms and themes will push the impression further, as we will see in the Song. Autobiographical confession and didactic narrative report in the wisdom literature is different from didactic prose narrative precisely because it is poetic; it is didactic verse narrative. 1.8 Song It has been argued that the category of “song” is a wisdom form. Whilst there are no occurrences of the root ‫ חכם‬in the Song of Songs, Gordis makes an interesting argument that the term ‫“ ָח ְכ ָמה‬wisdom” was used interchangeably with “song.”55 He notes that Jeremiah called the women skilled in funeral lament songs ‫ ַה ֲח ָכמֹות‬in 9:16, that the prophet Balaam’s Songs were called mashal or “proverbs,” and that the song played on the lyre in Psalms 49:5 and 78:2 was called “riddle” or mashal.56 In 1 Kings 5:10–12 we also read that Solomon was the wisest of all men, including Ethan and Heman. Gordis points out that Ethan and Heman, depicted as “wise” in this passage, were “eponymous heads of the musical guilds in the Temple in Jerusalem.”57 So it appears that there was an interesting connection between musicians, songs and wisdom, though this might not be quite enough to consider songs a “wisdom form.” 2 Themes As discussed in the previous chapter, along the “thematic” axis of our graph we have placed the many themes observed in wisdom literature: creation, wisdom as a search for order, two ways, wisdom learned and given by God, peace and life as the supreme good, the fear of the Lord and Lady Wisdom, as well as the main purpose and focus of the wisdom literature’s content: seeking to impart wisdom and character formation into a wise person. We will now look at how many of these are found in the Song of Songs.

55  Gordis, Songs, 13–16. 56  Gordis, Songs, 14–15. 57  Gordis, Songs, 15.

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2.1 Creation Creation can refer to “origins” or “beginnings,” as well as the resulting world that humans observe, experience and learn from.58 Some wisdom texts speak of God’s original creation of the world, whilst others refer to his on-going activity in creating people and directing their lives.59 The latter is the primary concern of the wisdom writings. As Murphy states, the world was a “showcase for divine activity” and was pondered in light of the creator and the created who inhabit it, which is why a person’s experience of the created world is so central to wisdom.60 Creation is sometimes depicted in imagery that recalls the Garden of Eden and Wisdom as a tree of Life.61 This also occurs in the Song. Garden imagery is used to refer to the female lover in Songs 4:12,15, 16, 5:1, and 6:2, as it is used of Wisdom in Sirach 24:16–17, 25–26, and 30–31. The man is a nut garden in Songs 6:11. In Songs 4:15 the woman is a garden spring, “a well of living water” ‫ ְּב ֵאר ַמיִ ם ַחּיִ ים‬giving life as the tree of Life does in Eden. Wisdom is pictured as a tree of Life in Proverbs 3:18, and Lady Wisdom a palm tree, olive tree and cedar of Lebanon in Sirach 24:13–14, just as the woman is described as a palm tree in Songs 7:8–9 and the man a cedar of Lebanon in 5:15. He is also pictured as an apple tree in Songs 2:3, which is evocative of the fruitful trees and tree of Life in the Garden of Eden in Genesis 2:9, 16. In the Song, the garden and tree imagery appeal to the idea of “beginnings” just as the mother giving birth to the male lover under an apple tree in Songs 8:5 alludes to the “origins” of humans. Love also seems to have creative power in the Song of Songs, so that as their love awakens it makes the world around them come alive. For love, like wisdom, is life-giving.62 Nature is awakened with a romantic rendezvous, as the man observes in 2:11–13 and the woman in 7:12–14. They project their love for each other onto their surroundings, see the world as infused with it and sense the world blossoming with their feelings for one another.63 The dominant setting in the Song is springtime, a time when things come to life in a way that recalls the original creation. Spring is a time of re-creation and their love is the catalyst for this revival of the natural world. As we saw, God is referred to as “Maker” or “Creator” in the wisdom literature, and there is a genuine lack of reference to him as “Redeemer” or the “God 58  Murphy, Tree, 118. 59  Weeks, Introduction, 111. Origins: Prov 1–9, Job. Subsequent creation of people and shaping their lives: Prov 10, Eccl 3:10–11. 60  Murphy, Tree, 119. 61  Francis Landy, “The Song of Songs and the Garden of Eden,” jbl 98, 4 (1979): 513–528. 62  Song 2:11–13; 4:12–15; 7:12–13; Prov 3:13–18, 21–22; 3:1–2; 4:22; 8:22–30, 35; 9:11. 63  Fox, Songs, 328.

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of Israel.” Teaching and instruction is given as counsel, and not as commandments or laws of the covenant. As I will show momentarily, the Song does not directly refer to God, though there are allusions to him in both the wisdom communications of the refrains and the mashal in 8:7, implying that love, and wisdom concerning it, has its origins in him. There are certainly no references to God as “Redeemer” or the “God of Israel” in the Song, and the female lover presents her instruction as counsel, not as commandment or law. Though God is not directly mentioned in the Song, the allusions to Eden in the creation imagery employed, and to God himself in the refrains and the mashal, suggest a background understanding of God as “Creator” of the world around them, and as the source or origin of love and wisdom concerning it. 2.2 Wisdom as Search for Order Wisdom literature is also interested in the result of creation and in discovering an order to events within the created world. Once this order could be detected, consistencies could be ascertained, lessons learned, wisdom gained and rules for behaviour established.64 Their understanding of order was not pragmatic or secular, as God was understood to have infused the world with such order and designed it according to certain rules and principles. By studying his created world, they learned about God himself, found evidence of order and purpose within the regularities of nature and morality, and attempted to integrate that order into their lives, whilst conceding there were things beyond their comprehension.65 Hermisson wrote that Proverbs 8 paints wisdom as “present in the created world as regularity, purposiveness, and therefore also as beauty,”66 and there do seem to be correlations between beauty and a certain sense of order or symmetry. Just as there is regularity, purpose and beauty in creation, there is regularity, purpose and beauty knit into the fabric of the moral order. As Brueggemann notes, humans are meant to have an orderly place within this ordered world, and must discover this order to locate their responsible place and “share” in it.67 “Life is meant to be stable and orderly … the universe is not designed to be a place of upheaval, conflict, and friction,” and this is also reflected in morality and our choices.68

64  Murphy, Tree, 115. 65  C.S. Grizzard, “The Scope of Theology in Wisdom Literature,” An Introduction to Wisdom Literature and the Psalms: Festschrift Marvin F. Tate, ed. H.W. Ballard Jr. and W.D. Tucker Jr. (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2000), 214. 66  Hermisson, “Observations,” 44. 67  Brueggemann, Man, 22–23. 68  Brueggemann, Man, 23.

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The Song also presents an orderly creation, a place of regularity, purpose and beauty, in the passages concerning nature as well as the bodies of the lovers. The descriptions of the lovers’ bodies not only describe their beauty, but also employ imagery of beauty from the world around them because they are intended to show an orderly “cohesive picture of a self-contained world: a peaceful, fruitful world, resplendent with the blessings of nature and the beauties of human art.”69 Order, regularity and beauty are seen in the created world just as they are seen in the relationship of the lovers, for order is also related to morality and the quality of our choices in the Song. The Song of Songs is interested in discerning order within love. Regularity and purpose are knit into the fabric of all things in God’s created world and this includes matters of love. Just as Job attempts to discern an order, pattern or purpose within human suffering, and Qohelet in human existence, the Song is concerned with discerning a pattern or order within love, which it displays throughout the book.70 Love is meant to look like the lovers’ relationship in the Song: mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, erotic, exclusive, committed and timeless. This order is displayed and established throughout the book, so that the woman is able to advise others to seek this same order in love and warn them against the disorder of arousing love for relationships that do not reflect the love of the Song: relationships that are unrequited, onesided, non-exclusive, lacking commitment, transitory, full of conflict, unequal, lacking desire, attraction, or the resolve and devotion to pursue the other sacrificially. They are to discern this order within love and find a responsible share in it. As with life, love is meant to be stable and orderly. Relationships are not designed to be a place of upheaval, conflict and friction.71 This is why the 69  Fox, Songs, 329. 70  Job questions the “disorder” of the wicked prospering in 21:7–34, 12:6, the righteous suffering in 9:22–24 and the injustice of it all in 24:2–25, cf. Eccl 8:14. Qohelet attempts to discern order in human existence in terms of timing in Eccl 3. 71  Relationships often were places of upheaval (see David’s relationship with Mical in 2Sam 6:16–23) and people were often pawns in a marriage game where love was not considered. Yet relationships were not intended to be a place of upheaval (Gen 2:23–25) and people continue to look for order in love. Biblical relationships where “love” is not mentioned: Gen 11:29, 12, 16 – Abraham & Sarah; Gen 29:30–31 – Jacob did not love Leah; Exod 2:21–22; 18:1–5 – Moses & Zipporah; Judg 14 – Samson & a philistine wife; Judg 19:25– 27 – a Levite & his concubine; Ruth 3:11; 4:10, 13 – Ruth & Boaz; 1Sam 18:20, 26–27; 19:11; 2Sam 3; 6:21–23 – Michal loved David but it never says that he “loved” her; 1Sam 25 – David & Abigail & Ahinoam; 1Sam 11:1–5, 26–27; 12:24 – David & Bathsheba; 1Chr 3:1–9 – David & his wives; 1Kgs 16:31; 21:25 – Ahaz & Jezebel; Job 2:9–10 – Job & his wife; Prov 31:28 – the good wife; Isa 8:3 – Isaiah & his wife, the prophetess; Ezek 24:15–26 – Ezekiel & wife.

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woman in the Song warns her audience not to awaken love until a love like the Song is present. The mashal seems to recognize how vulnerable one is to the power of this emotion. It can quickly become a place of upheaval. Love, and the jealousy that accompanies it, are flashes of fire, an almighty flame not easily extinguished once set ablaze in a person’s heart. Love is powerful and to awaken it for the wrong person is to ignite an unquenchable flame for someone whom cannot or will not love us back. Only a fool would expose themself to this type of power over the wrong person. One must discern order concerning love, and whether the love of the Song is present, if they are to avoid upheaval in their love life and find fulfilling relationships. 2.3 Two Ways The idea of two ways or paths, wisdom and folly, is a common theme in the wisdom literature. The word ‫ ֶּד ֶרְך‬, “way,” is used seventy-five times in Proverbs, and is prominent in Proverbs 1–9 where it contrasts two ways, houses, hearts and companions: Lady Wisdom and Lady Folly.72 In Proverbs, the didactic contrast is “between wise/foolish and righteous/wicked behaviour and the consequences of each.”73 As discussed, the language used to describe these companions is evocative of the language in the Song of Songs, or in the case of Lady Folly and the Strange Woman, a perversion of it. The Strange Woman and Lady Folly pervert the attributes of the woman in the Song, whilst her true representation is reflected in Lady Wisdom. Whilst the Song of Songs does not use the word ‫ ֶּד ֶרְך‬, “way,” we see a similar didactic contrast between wise/foolish behaviour and consequences in the Song concerning love. The “do not awaken” refrains warn against the path of folly in love, of awakening love when the love of the Song is not present because painful consequences will follow. The path of wisdom in love unfolds in its presentation of the lovers’ relationship throughout the book, and the happy consequences they enjoy. As Alter notes, Proverbs 7 takes a stereotypical metaphor in Proverbs, going on a way/path, and gives it a “strong narrative realization.”74 It also represents the crooked path in love. The lovers in the Song are the strong narrative realization of the metaphor that the refrains A few passages do mention love: Gen 24:67 – Isaac & Rebekah; Gen 29:18 – Jacob & Rachel; Gen 34:3 – Shechem & Dinah; Judg 16:4 – Samson & Delilah; 1Sam 1:5 – Elkinah & Hannah; 2Sam 13:1 – Amnon & Tamar; 1Kgs 11:1 – Solomon & foreign women; Esth 2:17 – Xerxes & Esther; Prov 5:18–19 – wife of one’s youth; Eccl 9:9 – the wife whom you love; Hos 3:1 – Hosea & Gomer. 72  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 907. 73  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 907. 74  Alter, Poetry, 61. The youth strays from the straight path.

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use for the straight path in love, the “time to awaken love.” The seductress in Proverbs 7 causes others to stray from the straight path in love by imitating the love of the Song and making them think that they are experiencing it, though it is not present. Proverbs 7 shows that seducers often masquerade as lovers, so that part of taking the wise path in love and discerning whether love is truly present is deciphering whether one is encountering a seducer or a genuine lover. In love, there are also two paths or ways, wisdom and folly. Awakening love when the love of the Song is not present, or for a seducer who only mimics love when it is not actually present, are both paths of folly in love.75 The lovers depict the path of wisdom in love, and implore us to follow it, so that we find the same types of fulfilling relationships. As E.J. Lucas observes, the wisdom writers’ plea for us to follow the paths of wisdom rather than folly makes sense only if our destiny lies to some degree in our own hands.76 It reveals an assumption that “humans have the rational ability and the responsibility” to observe and reflect on the world, and live in light of it.77 As Brueggemann notes, humans are able to “choose wisely and decide responsibly,” so that they don’t have to be foolish but really have an option, and the choices that they make will result in happy or unhappy circumstances.78 The Song of Songs assumes the same concerning love. We have a rational ability and responsibility to observe and reflect on what we see to be true of love in the world around us, so that we come to live in light of this in our relationships. We are able to choose wisely and decide responsibly in love. It does not just “hit” or happen to us because the “heart loves whom the heart loves” and there is nothing to be done about it. We really have an option and the choices we make will result in happy or unhappy circumstances. The refrains show that awakening love is not out of our control or volition. We not only have a decision in the matter, but are instructed, in the tradition of wisdom, to exercise discretion in matters of love. The Song does not present humans as devoid of reason. It advises us to resist “awakening” love before it looks like the love in the Song because it presumes that humans actually have the capacity and capability to do so, to consider wisdom and restrain themselves in the extent to which they allow love to be “aroused” within themselves. There is something we can do about love, and must do, if we are to follow the paths of wisdom rather than folly. 75  The “path” of foolish love is not spelled out or depicted in the Song, but it is warned about, and so the Song still refers to two-ways, two-options and two-roads in love. 76  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 908. 77  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 911. 78  Brueggemann, Man, 20. He uses “man” for humanity, but I am trying to use gender-neutral terms.

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Brueggemann notes that the wisdom writers show that in every circumstance a discerning person can make wise or foolish decisions and “act in ways which draw nearer either to death or to life.”79 The wise person is the one who uses discernment to exercise choice in various situations and this is no different in love. The Song guides and instructs us in the type of love we should seek, if we are to walk in wisdom rather than folly, and discover the type of love that leads to life rather than death within our relationships. 2.4 Wisdom Learned and Given by God There is a tension within how the sages depict the acquisition of wisdom, as it is accessible through observation, experience and instruction, yet is simultaneously divinely given.80 Crenshaw notes that wisdom assumed that all people had the ability to secure their well-being, yet those who sought wisdom also arrived at a door that only God could graciously open.81 Their search for wisdom thus “oscillated between … trust in one’s ability to secure existence and dependence on God’s mercy.”82 So the paradox of wisdom is that it is acquired through learning and the ability to implement instruction, yet is also a gift from God. This is actually consistent, as any wisdom gained by discovery of the world and the order within reality is a discovery of what God created and the order that he infused reality with at creation. All wisdom ultimately comes from God. We see something similar in the Song of Songs. In the Song, the woman teaches her audience, through her own experience, how to wisely pursue love and what it looks like when love is truly present. In the adjuration refrains she warns against awakening love before this type of love is present, for as the mashal explains, love is strong, unyielding and difficult to quench. Humans have the ability to secure their well-being in love by observing her relationship, listening to her instruction and exercising discretion in awakening love within themselves. Yet, the refrains and the mashal also contain allusions to God. In the “do not awaken” refrains, the wisdom that she imparts is connected to a solemn oath that uses divine titles. She asks the daughters to swear “by the gazelles or does of the field” ‫ ִּב ְצ ָבאֹות אֹו ְּב ַאיְ לֹות ַה ָּשׂ ֶדה‬. These words are circumlocutions for titles of God. ‫ ִּב ְצ ָבאֹות‬is a circumlocution for ‫ֹלהי) ְצ ָבאֹות‬ ֵ ‫( ( ֱא‬God of) hosts and ‫ ְּב ַאיְ לֹות ַה ָּשׂ ֶדה‬for ‫ ֵאל ַשׁ ַּדי‬El Shadday. The pronunciation of these animal names would have recalled the divine titles whilst carefully avoiding 79  Brueggemann, Man, 20. 80  Prov 24:30–34; 4:1–6 / 20:12; 2:6. 81  Crenshaw, OT Wisdom, 15, 51. 82  Crenshaw, OT Wisdom, 51.

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the divine name.83 Gazelles and deer also appear in ane love poetry and iconography, as they do throughout the Song, so that they symbolize love itself.84 Both meanings are likely intended, so that she asks them to swear by love itself as well as by God. The circumlocutions then connect wisdom concerning love to God, as it is by swearing this oath that the audience commits to following her instruction. The mashal in 8:7 calls love ‫ ַשׁ ְל ֶה ֶב ְתיָ ה‬, either an “almighty flame” or the “flame of the Lord.” As discussed, it is best rendered “almighty flame,” as this is a general description of the power of love.85 Not all love is the very “flame of the Lord,” and the love that the woman advises against awakening is just as powerful as the mashal shows when kindled for the wrong person, which is why she warns against this. Yet, like the refrains, the wisdom given about love’s power includes an allusion to God, implying its origin in him. All wisdom comes from God, as the personification of Lady Wisdom shows, so any wisdom that the Song imparts concerning love would have been understood as coming from God. The idea that wisdom concerning love has its origin in God resonates with many wisdom texts that affirm God’s sovereignty over and wisdom concerning all events in our lives, which would include love. The human ability to reflect God and his attributes, including love and wisdom, also comes from God who made humans in his image.86 God is not explicitly mentioned in the Song, or depicted as directly giving wisdom. Yet, in the Song, there are allusions to God in both of the wisdom communications of the refrains and the mashal, showing his involvement in the advice that the woman imparts concerning love. 2.5 Life and Shalom as Supreme Good Brueggemann notes that wisdom presents the aim and purpose of human existence as “life,” not in the sense of longevity but quality, that is a good life, characterized by joy, fulfilment and wholeness or shalom, emotionally, physically, psychologically and spiritually.87 This would also include love and one’s love life. Dell observes that in Proverbs, this means, “a prosperous, materially rewarding and long existence characterized by good health, good deeds, many 83  Fox, Songs, 110. 84  2:8, 17; 4:5; 8:14; Exum, Songs, 119, Murphy, Songs, 133, 137. 85  8:6a is a general statement about ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬, implying all love is as strong/powerful as death. 86  As argued in chapter 4, Wisdom circles were part of a wider literary culture, so that ideas from other genres found their way into wisdom and vice versa, including the concepts of humans made in God’s image and God’s sovereignty over events in human lives; cf. Prov 19:21; Gen 1:27. 87  Brueggemann, Man, 14, 15.

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friends, children, possessions and a commitment to wisdom.”88 It is a logical extension of this idea of a rewarding and fulfilling life to see it as also characterized by a successful love life. The good life would almost certainly include a good love life, as pictured in the Song. If wisdom is the ability to discern “what brings life and what does not,”89 then this is done in the Song by sorting out what will bring life: joy, security and wholeness within our love relationships. This life, Brueggemann says, also brings shalom peace, which is “intensely here and now,” rather than postponed, emerging through as well as resulting from wise action.90 “Being able to live shalom is both the wise action and the happy consequence.”91 As previously noted, the relationship of the lovers in the Song is characterized by peace, and the root ‫ שׁלם‬appears eighteen times throughout the book. The Shulammite’s name is derived from the root ‫שׁלם‬ and in 8:10 the man perceives her as either “one who brings” or “one who finds” peace. Either way, whether she brings it and he finds it in her, or she finds it in him, their relationship brings peace, as their peaceful actions result in peaceful consequences. To implement her instruction concerning love is to enact peace and results in shalom: a peaceful relationship. Wisdom’s paths bring ‫ שלֹום‬in Proverbs 3:17 and the one who finds Wisdom is ‫“ ַא ְשׁ ֵרי‬blessed” in Proverbs 3:13. 2.6 Parallels with Lady Wisdom The personification of Wisdom, or Lady Wisdom, is a prominent theme in the wisdom literature. She is a personification of both an attribute of God, wisdom, and the regular and ordered world stamped by God’s wisdom. God created and ordered the world through wisdom, so von Rad argued that Lady Wisdom is a personification of this order.92 Yet, she is also more than this, as she existed before the creation of the world and is somehow associated with God as she speaks for him.93 As Murphy writes, “she is the revelation of God, not merely the self-revelation of creation.”94 Just as the prophet says, “thus says the Lord” and the Torah is God’s revelation at Sinai,95 Proverbs 2:6 states that wisdom comes from God’s own mouth. There is then a relationship between Lady Wisdom and God’s revelation of himself. Whilst Lady Wisdom is not a character in the Song, and it does not include a description of personified Wisdom, 88  Dell, Get Wisdom, 19. 89  Brueggemann, Man, 18. 90  Brueggemann, Man, 15. 91  Brueggemann, Man, 16. 92  Prov 8:22–31, see von Rad, Wisdom, 155–56. 93  Prov 8:23; Sir 24:9, 18; Wis 7:35. 94  Murphy, Tree, 138. 95  Lucas, “Wisdom,” 906.

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there are strong parallels between Lady Wisdom and the female lover in the Song and a significant portion of the language and motifs used to describe Lady Wisdom in the wisdom literature of Proverbs, Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon are evocative of both the woman and the man in the Song of Songs. Job also does not include a description of personified Lady Wisdom. Yet like the Song, a number of the terms and motifs used elsewhere to describe Lady Wisdom also occur in Job 28.96 The pursuit of Lady Wisdom, seeking and finding her, is a prominent motif in the wisdom literature, evocative of the woman’s search for her lover in Songs 1:7–8, 3:1–4, 5:2–8, 6:1–3, and 8:1–2. Lady Wisdom is pictured as a lover who seeks and is sought by her beloved in Proverbs 1:20–21, 4:4–9, 13, 8:1–4, 17– 21, 34–35 and 9:1–6, Sirach 6:27 and 51:13–20 and in Wisdom of Solomon 6:12– 16, 8:2 and 8:18, just as the lovers seek each other in Songs 1:5–8, 2:10–14, 3:1–4, 5:2 and 5:6–6:3. Those who diligently seek Lady Wisdom ‫“ מצא‬find” her in Proverbs 8:17 and those who ‫“ מצא‬find” her are blessed in Proverbs 3:13, just as the female lover diligently seeks the man, ‫“ מצא‬finds” him in 8:1, and finds peace in him in 8:10. Lady Wisdom calls her lovers to ‫“ הלך‬come” in Proverbs 9:5, just as the lovers invite each other to ‫“ הלך‬come away” in Songs 2:10–14; 4:8–16, and 7:12–14. Those that are desirous of Lady Wisdom are also invited to “come” in Sirach 6:19, 26 and 24:19. Lady Wisdom seeks out those she wishes to follow her in Proverbs 1:20–21 and 8:1–4, and calls them to her banquet in 9:1–6, just as the woman in the Song seeks her lover in the city streets and squares in Songs 3:1–4 and 5:6–7 and invites others to eat, drink and be drunk with love at their love banquet in 5:1. The youth waits at the doors to Lady Wisdom’s house daily in Proverbs 8:34, and those who pursue her are instructed to wait at her doors in Sirach 14:23, just as the man stands at the door to the female lover’s house in Songs 5:2. Those who seek Wisdom find her sitting at their door in Wisdom of Solomon 6:14. Fidelity and mutuality are prominent characteristics of the lovers’ relationship in the Song, just as they are prominent in Lady Wisdom’s relationship with humanity. The importance of mutuality and fidelity between Lady Wisdom and her lovers is seen in Proverbs 3:21–22, 4:6, 8, 13 and 8:17, 21, 32–36 just as the Song upholds fidelity and mutuality in love in 6:8–9, 1:5, 16, 4:1, 11, 5:12–13; and 7:11. Wisdom’s teachings are to be ‫ל־לּוח ִל ֶּבָך‬ ַ ‫“ ָּכ ְת ֵבם ַע‬written on 96  Wisdom is valued over jewels, metals and riches in Job 28, just as Lady Wisdom is described in terms of jewels, metals and riches, and valued over them in Prov 8:10–11, 18–21, Sir 6:30–31 and Wis 8:5,18; 7:8–9. Animal and nature imagery used in Job 28 is also used to describe Lady Wisdom in Sir 24:3–6, 14–17, 25–26, 29–31. Wisdom is sought/found in Job 28:12, 20–28, just as Lady Wisdom is sought/found in Prov 1:20–21, 4:4–9, 13, 8:1–4, 17–21, 34–35; 9:1–6, Sir 6:27, 51:13–20 and in Wis 6:12–16, 8:2, 18.

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the tablet of your heart” in Proverbs 7:3 just as the woman asks her beloved to ‫ל־ל ֶּבָך‬ ִ ‫חֹותם ַע‬ ָ ‫ימנִ י ַכ‬ ֵ ‫“ ִשׂ‬place me like a seal upon your heart” in Songs 8:6. Just as Wisdom states ‫“ ֲאנִ י א ֲֹה ֶב ָיה ֵא ָהב‬I love those who love me” in Proverbs 8:17, the female lover exclaims ‫ּדֹודי ִלי וַ ֲאנִ י לֹו‬ ִ “my lover is mine, and I his” in Songs 2:16, cf. 6:3 and 7:11. In Proverbs 8:30 God delights in Lady Wisdom and in 8:31 she delights in mankind, just as the female lover delights in her lover’s shade in Song of Songs 2:3. The youth is told to ‫“ חבק‬embrace” Wisdom in Proverbs 4:8 as the female lover is ‫ חבק‬embraced with the man’s right hand in Songs 2:6 and 8:3. Just as metaphors of eating and drinking are used to describe the lovers’ physical enjoyment of one another in Songs 1:2–4, 2:3, 16, 4:10, 16, 6:2–3 and 7:10, and the audience is invited to eat and drink of their love in 5:1, Lady Wisdom invites her lovers to eat and drink of her in Proverbs 9:5 and Sirach 24:19–21. The youth is instructed to love Wisdom in Proverbs 4:6, 2:10 and Wisdom of Solomon 6:13, 17, as the woman is loved in the Song of Songs, and the youth is told to come to her with his whole heart and not let her go in Sirach 6:26–27. He is to have this type of intimate love affair with Lady Wisdom. Solomon desires Wisdom like a lover in Wisdom of Solomon 8:2, 6:13,17, 20, as the lovers desire one another in Songs 1:15–17, 4:9, 5:13–16, 6:5 and 7:10, and the reciprocal attraction between Lady Wisdom and humanity in Proverbs also draws on the language of the Song.97 She is depicted in erotic terms in Sirach 6:19 and 51:19 and in Wisdom of Solomon 8:2, 9, 16.98 Lady Wisdom describes herself in a way that inspires her lover to pursue her in Proverbs 8:6–21 just as the woman in the Song does in 1:5, 2:1, and 8:10.99 As in the Song, the wisdom literature often employs animal and nature imagery for description,100 as in Proverbs 5:18–19, Sirach 24:3–6, 14–17, 25–26, 29–31 and Job 28:5, 7–11, 14, 25–26 and 38–40. Animal imagery is used of the lovers themselves in the Song, as when the woman speaks of the man as a gazelle or young stag upon mountains in 2:17 and 8:14, or when he refers to her as a mare among Pharaoh’s chariots in 1:9 and calls her “dove” in 2:14, 5:2 and 6:9. The imagery of animals and from nature is also used to depict the lovers’ 97  Fox, (Proverbs, 290, 295) notes that Prov 8 draws on the language used to describe the wife and temptress in Prov 5 and 7, yet both of these passages draw upon the language of the Song. 98  Fox (Proverbs, 290, 295) and Murphy (Songs, 99, n. 387) think that Lady Wisdom is depicted erotically much more often, but the “searching” and “waiting” in the passages they list is not expressly erotic or sexual. An argument could be made for embracing in Prov 4:8, the images of fruit in 8:19 and eating and drinking in 9:5, yet waiting at the gate is not explicitly sexual or erotic. 99  Dell, “Connections,” 19. 100  Dell, “Connections,” 22.

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bodies and their physical appearance in 1:15, 4:1–5:1, 5:11–6:11 and 7:2–9. Fruit is used to describe the female lover in Songs 7:8 and the male in 2:3, just as it is used of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs 8:19 and Sirach 6:19 and 24:17, 19. Lady Wisdom is pictured as a tree of life in Proverbs 3:18, and a palm tree, olive tree and cedar of Lebanon in Sirach 24:13–14, just as the female lover is described as a palm tree in Songs 7:8–9 and the man a cedar of Lebanon in 5:15. The palm tree in Sirach 14:14 is a date palm, as these were indigenous to En-gedi, and the date palm was associated with peace, as was the olive tree in the same verse.101 In Songs 1:14 the male lover is in the vineyards of En-gedi, and as the vineyards represent the female lover’s body in the Song, she may also be a date palm tree, further symbolizing peace. Lady Wisdom brings peace in Proverbs 3:13, 17 and Sirach 6:28, just as the female lover brings or finds peace in her lover in Songs 8:10. The fruitful trees and vines in Sirach 24:14–17 are evocative of the Garden of Eden, just as the man is pictured as an apple tree in Songs 2:3 recalling the fruitful trees and Tree of Life in the Garden of Eden, love takes place in the garden and vineyards in the Song, the woman herself is pictured as a garden and vineyard in Songs 4:12,15, 16, 5:1, 6:2 and the man a nut garden in 6:11. This garden imagery appears again in Sirach 24:25–26, 30–31 with the naming of the four rivers of Eden in Genesis 2:10–14 and the mention of a time of “first fruits.”102 The connection between Lady Wisdom and a “time of first fruits” or springtime in Sirach 24:25 is evocative of the springtime setting in the Song, the way love makes the world blossom in spring in Songs 2:11–13 and 7:12–14 and the description of the lovers’ bodies with blossoming springtime imagery in 4:1–5:1, 5:10–13, 6:2–7, 10–11, and 7:2–9. The woman in the Song is perfumed with myrrh and frankincense in 3:6, her breasts are mountains of myrrh and hills of frankincense in 4:6, 10, and the garden spring of her body contains cinnamon and myrrh in 4:14, just as Wisdom emits an aroma of cinnamon and myrrh in Sirach 24:15. The man is also a sachet of myrrh in Songs 1:13 and his lips drip myrrh in 5:13. Wisdom is compared to eating sweet honey ‫ ְּד ַבשׁ‬and ‫ נ ֶֹפת‬honeycomb in Proverbs 24:13–14 and Sirach 24:20 just as the woman’s lips drip ‫ נ ֶֹפת‬honeycomb and ‫ ְּד ַבשׁ‬honey is under her tongue in Songs 4:11. Just as the lovers compliment one another’s beauty throughout the Song, Solomon becomes enamoured with Wisdom’s 101  Roger A. Bullard and Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on Sirach, ubs Handbook Series (New York: United Bible Societies, 2008), 494. 102  The Tigris and Euphrates rivers are named. Another is called Pishon, rather than Phison in Gen 2:11 but these are rather close. The fourth substitutes the Jordan for the Gihon river in Gen 2:13.

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beauty in Wisdom of Solomon 8:2. Wisdom is said to be more beautiful than the sun and the constellations of stars in Wisdom of Solomon 7:29, which recalls the comparison of the woman to the sun and moon in Songs 6:10. Solomon desires Wisdom as a bride in Wisdom of Solomon 8:2, just as the man desires the female lover as a “bride” in 4:8–12 and 5:1. The youth is instructed to call Wisdom his “sister” ‫ ֲאח ִֹתי‬in Proverbs 7:4 just as the woman is called ‫ ֲאח ִֹתי‬in Songs 4:9, 10, 12 and 5:1, 2. Royal language is used to describe the man as a king in Songs 1:4, 12, and 3:9, and the woman as the daughter of a prince/noble in 7:2 and a member of the royal court in 6:8–9, just as Lady Wisdom is described as having a noble birth in Wisdom of Solomon 8:3, as she is born of God. We see parallels between the way that wealth and riches are used to describe the lovers in the Song of Songs, in 1:9–11, 13, 3:6, 4:6, 9–10, 5:11, 14–15 and 7:6, and how they are used to describe the worth of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs 8:10–11, 18–21. The female lover is adorned with jewels and ornaments in Songs 1:9–10 and 4:9, has hair like purple in 7:6, and the man’s body is described with precious metals, gold, jewels, sapphires, ivory, alabaster and spices in 5:11, 14–15 and as having a crown in 3:11, just as Lady Wisdom is described in terms of gold, silver, jewels, and riches in Proverbs 8:10–11, 18–21, is adorned with golden ornaments, purple lace and a crown in Sirach 6:30–31 and her flowers are the fruit of riches in Sirach 24:17. These metaphors of riches in the Song illustrate the inherent value of the beloved, just as they convey the value of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs and Sirach.103 The female lover is promised gold and silver in Songs 1:11 just as Lady Wisdom is associated with the endowment of enduring wealth and inheritance in Proverbs 8:18–21, Sirach 24:7–8, 12, 20 and 54:28, 30 and Wisdom of Solomon 7:11, 14.104 Yet, the lovers in the Song and Lady Wisdom are also valued over symbols of wealth. Lady Wisdom is better than silver, gold and jewels in Proverbs 8:10–11, 19, and valued over wealth, gems, gold and silver in Wisdom of Solomon 8:5,18 and 7:8–9, just as Job 28:16–19 speaks of wisdom’s value over gold, lapis lazuli, jewels, crystal and rubies, and love is treasured over wealth in Songs 8:7. The statement in Job 28:15 that Wisdom cannot be bought with gold and silver reminds us of Songs 8:7 where if one were to give all the wealth of their house to buy love they would be utterly despised. Love, like wisdom, cannot be bought because it is more precious than any type of treasure.

103  Dell, “Connections,” 19. 104  Dell (“Connections,” 18) notes that Proverbs sees “the acquisition of wealth as intimately linked to following the path of wisdom,” see 10:20; 16:16; 20:15; 22:1; 25:11,12; 31.

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Like the Song, Lady Wisdom never makes an appearance in Job. It speaks of wisdom, particularly in 28, but wisdom is not personified. However, the terms and motifs used to describe wisdom in Job are quite similar to those used of Lady Wisdom in Proverbs, Sirach and Wisdom of Solomon, and of the female lover in the Song. So whilst Lady Wisdom does not appear in Job or the Song, there are quite strong parallels in these books with her. It is certainly meaningful that the language and motifs used to describe Lady Wisdom are evocative of the female lover in the Song.105 Since Wisdom is associated with God, reveals him, and all wisdom comes from his very own mouth in Proverbs 2:6, any wisdom that the Song imparts concerning love would have been understood as coming from God. He is present in the Song through Wisdom, and because her personification so closely parallels the female lover in the Song, who imparts wisdom concerning love just as Lady wisdom imparts wisdom, there are parallels between the wisdom of the female lover and that which comes from Lady Wisdom. 2.7 Seeks to Impart Wisdom All the wisdom books are interested in “wisdom” and seek to impart wisdom concerning various topics. Weeks uses this interest as “a rough criterion for admittance to the corpus,”106 as it is a natural and consistent feature of the books considered wisdom literature. The Song of Songs shares this interest in wisdom, that is, wisdom concerning love. The Song is certainly about “love” rather than the topic of wisdom in general, yet a number of wisdom books are about wisdom concerning particular topics. Job could be said to be wisdom concerning innocent suffering just as Qohelet could be said to be wisdom concerning the transience of human existence. The Song of Songs is wisdom concerning love. The Song is love poetry, but the structuring of the refrains and the mashal, and the many wisdom features that we are finding, reveal the purpose of the book: to impart wisdom concerning love. I will discuss how it does this, specifically, in the following chapter, but for now I observe that the Song is concerned, not just to show love or different types of love, but one specific type of love that the reader is meant to emulate and pursue – a wise love. 105  If the direction of influence discussed in the methodology were reversed, and the female lover were actually evocative of Lady Wisdom, this would denote an even stronger connection to Lady Wisdom, as the female lover would be modeled on her, perhaps embodying Lady Wisdom herself concerning love. 106  Weeks, Introduction, 123.

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Weeks notes that biblical wisdom’s interest in wisdom shapes how the books present themselves so that it “has consequences in itself for the various forms that the material takes,” which is advice literature.107 Yet, the wisdom writers were not cut off from other literary traditions and utilized “a repertoire of genres to address a particular area of concern.”108 It is the same with the Song. The Song of Songs blends the ane love song and advice literature genres. No genre quite like the Song of Songs exists in the surrounding ane literature for giving advice about love. As we will discuss in the following chapter, the numerous Egyptian and Mesopotamian love songs that have survived do not advise how one is to pursue love, but rather celebrate love or different types of love in a general way. Since there were no familiar and authoritative sources of advice literature concerning love, or at least none that are currently extant, it is likely that the writer or compiler of the Song drew upon familiar sources of authority in advice literature to validate its content and enable it to become a conventional vehicle for advice, and subsequent literary conventions of form and setting in the known love songs, in order to produce an advice literature about love. Here, in the Song of Songs, we see the blending of the ane love song and advice literature genres, in order to impart wisdom and instruction about love to the next generation, the daughters of Jerusalem, and by extension the reader. Both of these traditional styles of presentation are linked to its subject matter, which concerns both love and wisdom. 2.8 Character Formation I will return to the topic of character formation in much greater depth in the following chapter, as it is its focus, but for now it suffices to say that the Song of Songs seeks to transform the character of its reader concerning love, so that they become the type of person who can discern what wise love is meant to look like, whether their relationship is similar to the love of the Song and pursue this type of love in their own life. It not only conveys wisdom about the type of love that one is to pursue, but seeks to transform its readers, through the inspiring and instructive story of the lovers, into the type of lovers who are able to exercise discernment in love and not awaken it until the type of love in the Song is present, so that they might also find a love like the Song of Songs.

107  Weeks, Introduction, 2, 3. 108  Weeks, Introduction, 143.

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2.9 The Fear of the Lord The actual phrase “the fear of the Lord” does not occur in the Song of Songs, as in other wisdom books.109 However, as I will show in the following chapter, the concepts of reverent fear and wonder are quite prominent in the Song. The “fear of the Lord” is not a major theme in the Song, though some of the ideas in the Song are certainly related to it. 3

Wisdom Graph

Let us return to the idea of the graph with “formal” and “thematic” axes that Weeks suggested, and try to assign coordinates to the Song of Songs to determine where, in relation to the wisdom literature, it would sit. In terms of form, the Song of Songs includes the primary forms of ane advice literature 1) the proverb and 2) instruction, as well as 3) didactic poems, 4) allegory/fable, 5) Streitgespräch or dialogue, 6) lists, and 7) autobiographical confession/didactic narrative. The Song of Songs would have seven out of eight points on our graph, as it does not include hymns/prayers. Proverbs would have seven points, as it does not include true dialogue, Ecclesiastes six, as it does not include hymns/prayers nor true dialogue, and Job would have seven, as it does not include fable/allegory. In terms of content/theme, the Song of Songs includes 1) creation, 2) wisdom as a search for order, 3) two ways, 4) wisdom learned and given by God, 5) peace and life as the supreme good, 6) thematic parallels with Lady Wisdom, and the primary content of ane advice literature: 7) seeking to impart wisdom and 8) character formation into a wise person. The Song of Songs would then have eight out of nine points on the other axis of our graph, as it does not include the fear of the Lord theme, though as we will see in the next chapter, the idea of reverent fear is not totally absent from the Song. Proverbs would have all nine points, Ecclesiastes eight, as it does not include descriptions of or parallels with personified Wisdom, and Job would also have all nine. If we were to assign forms to an x-axis and themes to a y-axis our graph would look as follows:

109  Prov 9:10; 1:7; Eccl 12:13; Job 28:28; Sir 1:14.

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FPO

figure 1

Wisdom forms and themes

As we can see, the Song of Songs sits quite comfortably among the other wisdom books. This graph could be adjusted in a number of ways. It does not account for the number of occurrences of the various forms and themes in the different books.110 Perhaps the primary forms and content should have more points than the secondary forms and themes. Some scholars may want to debate some of these forms, or rank certain themes or emphases as being more important or having more points on the graph than others. For example, some scholars would want to see the creation theme weighed much more heavily than others who question its importance. This is all debatable and the graph could be adjusted in a number of ways. My aim is not to construct the perfect

110  The length of the books would also need to be taken into consideration. Say we were to catalogue every extended didactic poem in Job. It would have an extensive number. But, the length of the book as a whole also effects this. Job is clearly a much longer work than Ecclesiastes, so is it actually valid to compare the number of extended didactic poems in a longer work to the number in a much shorter work like Ecclesiastes? In order to do this, we would need to factor the number of occurrences against the total verses in the book, for each form and each theme.

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graph or model for evaluating wisdom,111 but rather, to look at the various things that we have been observing about wisdom writing for many years now – forms and conventions, themes and emphases – to see which occur in the Song, to varying degrees. Whilst the Song has a mashal and instruction in the “do not awaken” refrains, which are a prominent feature in the book, these forms are not pervasive throughout.112 The majority of the book is devoted to displaying the truth of the proverb and instructions, through autobiographical narrative and characterization, which are pervasive. Many of the wisdom forms found in the other wisdom books are not pervasive either. The instructions in the Song, though sporadic, and the mashal supply an overall structure and purpose to the book, showing that the entire book has been devoted to portraying the truth of what they teach. Thematically, the Song scores quite high. Yet, we must recognize that the foremost theme in the Song of Songs is love. As Weeks said, a different theme can pull a book under consideration to a different edge of the graph. We must then ask: does the theme of love pull it to one edge? Prov. 30:18–19 certainly sets a precedent for seeking wisdom about “the way of a man with a woman” and Proverbs 30:21–23 names “an unloved woman” as one of the three things under which “the earth trembles” and four “it cannot bear.” The Song advises readers how not to become like the “unloved woman” in a relationship that does not look like the Song of Songs: by not awakening love until the love of the Song is present. Ecclesiastes also addresses the topic of love in 9:9 and 3:8. Other books have prominent themes that do not pull them to one side of the graph. Certainly the fact that the Song of Songs is wisdom about love brings it under the umbrella of wisdom in general, even if it is a specific avenue of wisdom. Proverbs is not about suffering, nor does Job comment on seduction, but all three wisdom books are about wisdom concerning various different topics. When we consider the fact that the Song of Songs’ discourse reflects this concern with wisdom, that is, it seeks to impart wisdom concerning love, and that this is the focus of its subject matter, 111  This would be a complicated endeavor. We would need to agree on which forms and themes should be included, how heavily they are weighed (number of points), and how extensively they are displayed in the various books (within a given number of verses) depending on how narrowly or broadly they are defined. The is no consensus within wisdom discussions about such things. 112  The proverb in the Song is not pervasive, but the instructions occur multiple times and other forms, like didactic poem, allegory, dialogue and autobiographical confession/ didactic narrative, are extremely pervasive. Again, many forms and themes in the other wisdom books are also not pervasive. The fact that so many of these forms and themes occur in the Song (to whatever degree) indicates a high degree of wisdom influence on the book itself, and shows that the Song is doing something very different from other ane love songs by incorporating wisdom forms and content.

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in light of the structure of the book with the instructions and the summa mashal, which point back to the relationship depicted throughout the book, and that it uses standard forms found in the advice literature of the ane to do so, we can reasonably classify the Song as “wisdom,” or at the very least, as having a very high degree of “wisdom influence.” The writer or compiler has combined elements of the love song and wisdom genres in order to communicate something powerful about love. 4

One Further Indication of Wisdom

One further indication of the Song’s relationship to wisdom, apart from forms and content, is the attachment of Solomon’s name to the book and its placement among the wisdom books in the ancient canonical lists. Solomon’s name appears in the superscription: ‫“ ִשׁיר ַה ִּשׁ ִירים ֲא ֶשׁר ִל ְשֹׁלמֹה‬The Song of Songs, which is Solomon’s.” The preposition ‫ ִל‬attached to his name may indicate that it is: written by Solomon, concerning Solomon, dedicated to Solomon, belonging to Solomon’s collection or in the Solomonic/wisdom literary tradition.113 Traditionally, the preposition was understood as indicating authorship and that the Song was about him.114 However, we have already seen that Solomon is not a character in the Song so that it does not concern him. Nothing else in the Song suggests that he wrote it, so some have suggested that it was merely attributed to him in the superscription.115 Just as the Psalms were attributed to David, a musician, and Moses was associated with the law, the Song may be attributed to Solomon who wrote many songs according to 1 Kings 5:12.116 However, if the superscription were attempting to link the book with a songwriter, David would actually be the more logical connection, as he was a talented musician and composer and more closely associated with music. Solomon was more renowned for his wisdom, as celebrated in 1 Kings 3–10, than for his songs. 1 Kings 3 says that God gave him the divine gift of wisdom and he is depicted as wiser than any who ever lived in 1 Kings 3:12 and 5:9–14. 113  Longman, Songs, 3; Garrett, Songs, 124. 114  Longman, Songs, 3. Pope (Songs, 296) thinks that the intent of the superscription was to attribute authorship to Solomon, though he clearly did not write it. 115  Pope, Songs, 296; cf. discussions in Fox (Songs, 95) and Murphy (Songs, 120). 116  Murphy, Songs, 120, Childs, Introduction, 574. However, as Longman (Songs, 6–7) notes, it is similar to the superscriptions in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, neither of which imply that Solomon wrote them entirely. For example, Prov 22:17–24:22 is called “The Words of the Wise,” Prov 24:23–34 “More Sayings of the Wise,” Prov 30 “The Words of Agur,” and Prov 31 “The Words of King Lemuel.”

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As we just saw, wisdom is connected to the procurement of wealth in the wisdom literature, and Solomon’s outrageous wealth is certainly connected to his wisdom in 1 Kings 3. The association of the Song of Songs with Solomon is therefore more likely indicative of its relationship to wisdom. Childs agrees that the Song, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes were all ascribed to Solomon “as the source of Israel’s wisdom literature.”117 Murphy, Dell and Longman think that the superscription deliberately links the Song with the Solomonic/wisdom tradition.118 The association of the book with Solomon’s name in the superscription is an appeal to the credentials of an authority figure on wisdom. Interestingly however, whilst the book associates itself with Solomon, and by extension the wisdom tradition, the male lover asserts that his love relationship is superior to Solomon’s, the wisest king, in 8:11–12. It appeals to his authority, yet goes beyond it in asserting that it offers a superior display of wisdom concerning love. Further support for the Song’s connection to the wisdom tradition is seen in Murphy’s observation that it is placed among the other wisdom books of Solomon, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, in the ancient canonical lists.119 As Dell writes, the superscription “sets the Song in the context of wisdom literature, as does the canon itself.”120 Kynes also notes the Song’s placement among “didactic” texts in early Jewish and Christian taxonomies,121 which sets a precedent for our discussion of its didactic nature in the next chapter. The Vulgate lists it with Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Job, Psalms, Wisdom and Ben Sira in its libri didactici or “pedagogical literature” division, and Josephus lists it with Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Psalms as those which “contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of human life.”122 Many have suggested that the Song went through a stage of redaction by wisdom authors, their distinctive stamp of influence being seen in 8:6–7.123 Murphy and Dell suggest an editorial stage that endowed it with sapiential 117  Childs, Introduction, 574. 118  Roland E. Murphy, Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, fotl 13 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981), 105; Dell, “Connections,” 13; Longman, Songs, 88. 119  Murphy, Tree, 106. 120  Dell, “Connections,” 15; cf. J. Coert Rylaarsdam, “The Song of Songs and Biblical Faith,” BR 10 (1965): 14. 121  Kynes, “Nineteenth,” 89. 122  Kynes, “Nineteenth,” 89; Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.8. Sneed (“Tradition,” 67) notes the Israelites’ use of the “Solomonic works” category and thinks that they were not bothered about including the erotic genre of the Song among wisdom texts. 123  Dell, “Connections,” 14.

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characteristics so that it could be read or interpreted as wisdom, which is different from saying that it was wisdom, and think that it may have been passed down by these circles.124 Childs argues that the attachment of the mashal in 8:6–7 and superscription, by appropriating sages, means that “the Song is to be understood as wisdom.”125 A few have argued that the Song was originally composed in wisdom circles.126 However, since the wisdom writers were part of a wider literary class responsible for various genres there is no reason to make distinctions between circles. As for the Song’s original composition, it is difficult to determine stages of redaction, what is original to the text or editorial layer, and it is outside the scope of this work. We cannot ascertain whether the Song was originally composed as a wisdom piece, or whether a collection of love songs was edited to take on a sapiential character. What we can say is that if it was edited it was certainly pervasive. The Song’s sapiential character does not just result from mere editorial glosses or layers, as if its wisdom features only appeared in the mashal, the superscription and the refrains. We have seen a pervasiveness of wisdom forms and themes that occur throughout the entire book. The mashal, superscription and instructions in 2:7, 3:5, and 8:4 supply an overall structure and purpose to the book, showing that the entire work is devoted to depicting the truth of what they teach, through autobiographical narrative and characterization. Their relationship is the concretization and didactic narrative realization of the metaphor that the “do not awaken” instructions use for the straight path in love, the “time to awaken love,” and this means that its wisdom message is intricately woven through the entire book. Whether these love songs existed prior to the creation of the Song and were adapted to fit its message, or were created specifically for the Song is unknown. Either way, they have been used to communicate a powerful wisdom message about love throughout. As Childs notes, the sapiential character of the Song has immediate implications for its interpretation since “the function of wisdom within Israel was essentially didactic and not philosophical.”127

124  Dell, “Connections,” 16; Murphy, Tree, 106. 125  Childs, Introduction, 573; Dell, “Connections,” 16. 126  Ernst Würthwein, “Das Hohelied,” Die Fünf Megilloth, ed. Ernst Würthwein, Kurt Galling and Otto Plöger, hat 18 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1969), 25–71; Gillis Gerleman, Ruth: Das Hohelied, 2nd ed. BK 18 (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener-Verlang, 1965), 63–77. 127  Childs, Introduction, 574–75.

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5 Conclusions The diversity of the wisdom literature leads one to expect a multiplicity of literary conventions and genres, yet all display form and content typical of advice literature in the ane. We have seen a pervasiveness of wisdom forms and themes in the Song of Songs, which determine the overall structure and focus of the book. As Crenshaw stated, “When a marriage between form and context exists, there is wisdom literature.”128 The Song of Songs is wisdom discourse, which brings it under the umbrella of wisdom in general, even if it is a specific avenue of wisdom. All the wisdom books concern wisdom about various different topics. The Song of Songs is wisdom about love. It is love poetry, yet its emphatic instructions in the “do not awaken” refrains and the mashal explain the entire point of the extended didactic narrative. The writer or compiler has combined elements of the love poetry and wisdom genres in order to communicate something powerful about love. Whilst scholars have observed connections between the Song of Songs and wisdom, not many have drawn out the implications of these connections for the interpretation of the book as a whole. This piling up of wisdom features in the Song of Songs shows that it intends to communicate wisdom and calls for a new understanding of its didactic nature. 128  Crenshaw, OT Wisdom, 12.

Chapter 6

The Didactic Nature of Wisdom Texts and the Song of Songs One of the most prominent features of the wisdom literature is that it is didactic, and as I will argue, this is the same with the Song of Songs. Whilst some have viewed the Song as merely celebratory or entertainment,1 I will show that it intends to do more than merely celebrate the beauty of love. Its intention is didactic: to impart wisdom to us concerning love, and transform us into wise lovers. In order to discuss the didactic nature of the Song, we must first clarify what we mean by “didactic.” 1

A Closer Definition of “Didactic”

As discussed, biblical wisdom has strong parallels with ane advice literature, though it often incorporates other genres. This advice literature aimed to instruct the reader, and is in this sense didactic. Yet, wisdom went beyond the mere conveyal of information or knowledge. Instruction was a vehicle for its primary goal, which was the transformation of character, and it is in this full sense that we mean didactic. Wisdom is more than cognitive knowledge, as its goal is the transformation of the reader into a person who is wise. Biblical wisdom was much more than the content of instruction or a collection of knowledge. As Weeks observes, “although closely associated with knowledge, wisdom is essentially a faculty developed by teaching and learning.”2 It was not the information itself, but rather, the ability to apply such information in various circumstances. For the sages, instruction received properly did not just inform but transformed the mind and person3 into someone whose character reflected the teaching, and who could implement what was taught into their life and actions: a “wise person.” Wisdom focuses, not just on what one is

1  Fox (Songs, 244–50, 293–94) views the Song as entertainment and the celebration of young love, and Exum (Songs, 70; cf. “Unity,”) as a celebration of love. Neither think that it is didactic, intending to instruct readers in love or transform their characters as lovers. 2  Weeks, Introduction, 123. 3  Weeks, Introduction, 123.

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to know or do, but who one is to be.4 The didactic nature of wisdom, therefore, involves both instruction and character transformation into a wise person. 2

The Didactic Nature of the Song of Songs

Like all wisdom literature, the Song of Songs is didactic. It aims to teach something about love and enable its readers to successfully find love in their own lives. It passes on instruction, by combining the advice literature and love song genres. Yet, like all wisdom literature, its aim goes beyond, as its primary goal is character formation and the transformation of its readers into wise lovers. We will proceed by discussing the didactic nature of the Song, as instruction and as character transformation. 2.1 The Didactic Aim of the Song of Songs: as Instruction The didactic nature of the Song of Songs means that it is not just celebratory, but aims to teach something concerning love and the type of love that should be pursued. This is most evident in the “do not awaken” instructions, the mashal in 8:6–7 and in how the love song genre is used in comparison to similar ane love song texts. 2.1.1 Instruction in the “Do Not Awaken” Refrains The didactic nature of the Song of Songs is seen most prominently in its intent to pass on instruction to the next generation concerning love in the “do not awaken” refrains. As discussed, instructions were a type of advice literature, passed on by authoritative individuals to the next generation. These individuals, and their instruction, were considered authoritative precisely because they had lived a successful life in a particular area and this gave authority to their advice.5 As noted, the female lover in the Song is the foremost authority on love, for as the book displays throughout, she has lived her love life successfully and found love. The superlative nature of her love relationship is established in the title, ‫ ִשׁיר ַה ִּשׁ ִירים‬, as well as throughout the book, accrediting her the authority to impart advice concerning love to the next generation. Just as instructions were often given in the form of parental advice, from father to son, provocatively in the Song, the woman gives her instruction to daughters. As Weeks notes, instructions from a previous generation were a recognizable

4  Estes, “Wisdom,” 854. 5  Weeks, Introduction, 4.

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feature of the advice literature genre.6 This type of instruction would immediately signal to the reader that they were encountering a didactic genre. As noted, the “do not awaken” instructions are admonitions, which have a heightened didactic character and seek to instruct one in a desired pattern of behaviour:7 not to awaken love until the type of love depicted in the Song is present. They also indicate how one knows that it is present, and this is an important part of the didactic lesson. As we saw, the definite article in ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is anaphoric, referring to the love displayed throughout the Song, and ‫ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬ is elliptical, so that the presence of “that love” is defined by its similarity to the type of love depicted in the Song. The poet didactically shows, through the lover’s speeches and actions, what love looks like when it is present, when it has desired to awaken: it is mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, erotic, exclusive, committed and timeless. It is “that love’s” presence or absence that shows whether a love like the Song is present. This is the type of love that the instructions encourage readers to pursue, yet they simultaneously warn against awakening love before this type of love is present because of what the mashal teaches in 8:6–7. 2.1.2 Instruction in the Mashal The proverb, or mashal of 8:6–7, conveys a crucial piece of didactic wisdom concerning love by expressing a common experience with a memorable choice of words. Those who have been in love truly know that love is as strong as death, jealousy as unyielding as the grave, and that it burns like an unquenchable mighty flame. Only a fool would awaken this type of powerful emotion for the wrong person, when the type of love depicted in the Song is not present. The mashal illustrates one of the most common but important experiences in human relationships, making analogies between nature and the experience of love, in an attempt to help readers note a regular pattern: those who awaken love encounter powerful forces of emotion. It is openly didactic, promoting the value of mutuality and exclusiveness because of the risk one is taking in unleashing these powerful emotions. The female lover is exposed to this, which is why, prior to giving the mashal, she asks to be placed as a seal on the man’s heart, to have him mark his identity with her own: it is a mark of mutual and exclusive commitment. Love, and the jealousy that accompanies it, are flashes of fire, an “almighty flame.” This flame can burn brightly and freely with the right person who returns this love in a mutual, exclusive, and committed relationship. But with 6  Weeks, “Wisdom,” 166. 7  Crenshaw, “Wisdom,” 53.

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the wrong person, one is left alone with an unquenchable flame that can continue to burn brightly for many years. The didactic lesson is this: love is immensely powerful and not easily extinguished once set ablaze in a person’s heart, so love should only be awakened if the type of love in the Song is present. This is wisdom, for as other ane love songs and love songs throughout history show, those who expose themselves to these powerful emotions when they do not share the type of love displayed in the Song often get hurt. Yet those who exercise wisdom in love, who wait until a love like the Song is present, will find the same joy, passion, peace and wholeness as the lovers in the Song. The flames of this love can be confidently set ablaze to burn brightly and freely and the result will be one of the greatest blessings ever known: to love and be loved in return. Learning how to attain a love like this is one of the most valuable lessons ever learned. 2.1.3

How the Love Song Genre Is Used in Comparison to Similar ANE Love Song Texts Another indication of the didactic nature of the Song of Songs is the way in which it uses the love song genre, in comparison to similar ane love song texts. For it is by this contrast that we see an indication that the biblical Song is attempting to do something different from the surrounding literature, in its presentation of didactic teaching concerning what love should look like. As discussed, the Song of Songs combines the ane love song and advice literature genres, and in this respect, it is distinct from the surrounding love literature. There are no other examples of ane love song texts that are instructional or give advice that one should pursue a certain type of love.8 The fact that the Song of Songs blends the love song genre with advice literature is a decisive indication that it intends to be didactic, in a way that the surrounding ane love literature does not. Yet a brief comparison with the Egyptian love song texts, to which the Song of Songs shares the closest affinities, will prove illuminating for our discussion of its didactic nature. Fox’s comments will be particularly helpful, as he has done extensive work comparing the Egyptian love songs with the biblical Song of Songs and I hope to add a few observations that build on his conclusions.9

8  As an examination of the following shows: anet; cos; Fox, Songs; Nissinen, “Nabû;” Meek, “Babylonian;” Watson, “Parallels;” Westenholz, “Lyrics;” the Akkadian love songs on the Sources of Early Akkadian Literature (seal) website: www.seal.uni-leipzig.de and in Wasserman, Akkadian. 9  Nothing comparable to Fox’s (Songs) 1985 commentary, treating parallels between the Egyptian love songs and the Song of the Songs, has appeared since. Fox has recently (“Rereading”) reiterated his earlier ideas, but no one else has produced this type of in-depth comparison of these texts.

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The Song of Songs has been compared to both Egyptian and Mesopotamian love song collections.10 However, the fact that the Song of Songs concerns sexual love between two human lovers, rather than gods, and is not concerned with marriage/sacred marriage, procreation, fertility rites, divine sexual union or the resulting fecundity of the land and procurement of prosperity for the king and royal family,11 means that it shares closer affinities with the Egyptian love songs, where the topic of concern is also human sexual love. However, the Song of Songs is also distinct from the Egyptian love literature in several ways that indicate that the author or compiler had a very different purpose in writing and a didactic aim. Despite numerous thematic similarities, the Song of Songs presents a view of love quite different from that in the Egyptian love song texts. One indication of this is its use of dialogue rather than monologue to describe love. The majority of the Egyptian love songs are interior monologues in which the lovers address their own hearts, rather than their beloved or someone else in the poem.12 When exterior monologue is used, it still concerns their internal feelings and there is no response from the implied listener.13 Even the poems that portray both lovers speaking in a single song are actually double monologues, “in which both lovers speak, but not to each other, neither exchanging words nor affecting each other by speech.”14 Fox notes the extensive use of dialogue in Egyptian narrative and thinks that the love poet’s choice to use monologue reflects their purpose: “they were primarily interested in showing the experience of individuals in love.”15 Monologue was sufficient for depicting this. “For the Egyptian poets, love was primarily a way of feeling … inspired by a lover but

10  As Nissinen (“Nabû,” 585) notes, those who see the Song as indebted to the ancient fertility rites of sacred marriage stress Mesopotamian parallels, whilst those who see the Song as a celebration of human sexual love stress Egyptian parallels. 11  See pp. 19–24 of the Methodology chapter, especially footnote #21. Whilst the garden, and therefore woman’s body, is certainly fertile, this is never connected to procreation, fertility rites that would expedite this process or a sacred marriage ritual with gods. Fox (Songs, 239) finds it curious that whilst no one argues that the Egyptian love songs are a liturgy for a divine marriage ritual in Egypt, where this would have been a legitimate expression of their mythology, many have argued that the Song of Songs is, though this ritual was completely incompatible with their attitudes towards this type of religious activity. 12  Fox, Songs, 259–61. He (263) notes that, “the extant corpus is large enough to justify the hypothesis that dialogue was not among the forms of Egyptian love poetry.” cf. Murphy, Songs, 47. 13  Fox, Songs, 261–62. cf. Longman, Songs, 50. 14  Fox, Songs, 316. He notes that nothing a lover says seems to affect the other and we never get the impression that one does something in response to what the other says. cf. Exum, Songs, 51. 15  Fox, Songs, 316.

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remaining within the confines of the individual soul.”16 They use introspective reports to show how it feels to be in love. “We get the impression of lovers taking their own emotional pulses and revealing what love does to them.”17 They approach their feelings from multiple angles, “trying to grasp them in various ways, as if to pin them down … to communicate just what is going on inside.”18 They aim to be analytic in their description of the nuances of love and evoke a sense of harmony, but this harmony is not between lovers, but rather, between the individual and his or her own emotions.19 The focus is not on the beloved, but “love itself – a love, one feels, that is almost independent of the particular loved one.”20 The Song of Songs has a different view of love, best displayed through dialogue. In the Song, love is primarily a relationship. The speech in the Song is not interior, as it utilizes dialogue throughout.21 The lovers do not address their own hearts, but rather, speak and respond to each other, interacting in speech.22 Rather than tell us how they feel internally, they reveal their emotions to each other. Whilst the Egyptian love songs describe how love makes them feel as individuals, the lovers in the Song of Songs proclaim their love to one another. The lovers focus, not on internal emotions, but externally on the other lover.23 And whilst the Egyptian poets are “fascinated by what goes on inside a lover’s heart … [and] try to tell us what this is,”24 the lovers in the Song are fascinated by each other. Even the Egyptian imagery is directed towards describing the internal feeling of being in love, whilst the imagery in the Song describes the other lover’s body, that is, the person who is loved.25 In the Song, love is not just a way of feeling, inspired by a lover, but remaining within one’s own soul, but rather, the union of two souls and this is best depicted through dialogue, 16  Fox, Songs, 330, my emphasis added. 17  Fox, Songs, 325. He (278; “Love,” 223) notes that these reports are a type of self-revelation and their frequency shows a concern for analyzing and describing varieties of emotion and desire. 18  Fox, Songs, 326. 19  Fox, Songs, 326, Fox, “Love,” 224. 20  Fox, “Love,” 224. 21  Fox, Songs, 316, 264. He (281) notes that this scarcity of introspective descriptions “is not accidental: it reflects a view of love different from the one dominant in the Egyptian songs.” 22  Fox, Songs, 264. As he (264, 266) notes, even when they use the third person there is no doubt that they are speaking to and hear one another, as they respond to each other’s words. 23  Fox (Songs, 326) notes this contrast of inward vs. outward orientation between the two. 24  Fox, Songs, 326. 25  Fox, “Love,” 224–5.

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interaction and praise.26 As Fox notes, this conveys a particular concept of love: as “communion” between lovers.27 In the Song, the focus is on the relationship that emerges from their mutual emotions, rather than on the emotions themselves. This is because the Song is concerned to present a particular type of relationship: a mutual and reciprocal experience of love between two lovers, who proclaim it to each other. The Song of Songs is also distinct from the Egyptian love literature in terms of the type of relationship and lovers that it depicts. One of the more noticeable differences between the two is that the Egyptian love songs are an anthology, presenting multiple types of lovers, character personalities and types of love relationships, whilst the Song of Songs is a unified poem, exhibiting a consistent portrayal of particular types of lovers in a particular type of relationship throughout. The Egyptian love poems depict different types of lovers, with a variety of personalities,28 allowing them to explore the types of emotions associated with different experiences of love. They do not offer a uniform conception of the way lovers behave.29 In some songs the men passively pine after the women they love, whilst in others they are active and go after them.30 Some women are passive waiting for their lovers to take the initiative, whilst others are assertive and even aggressive.31 Not only do the Egyptian love songs present different types of lovers, they also present a variety of love relationships, types that are noticeably absent in the Song of Songs.32 For example, unlike the Egyptian love songs, the Song of Songs does not include depictions of unrequited love, abandonment, rejection, pouting resentment, passive sexual fantasizing, suspicion, infidelity, disappointed hopes or the separation 26  Fox, Songs, 330. 27  Fox, Songs, 330. 28  Fox, Songs, 316. He (Songs, 324–5) notes a variety of emotions/attitudes: courage, pride, self-denigrating fantasies, anger at being ignored, frustration, fantastic hopes, paralysis, sexual exhilaration, emotional intoxication, suspicion, jealousy, sharp almost wild craving for the beloved, pleasure in the beloved’s presence and deep confident joy in mutual love. 29  Fox, Songs, 305. 30  Fox, Songs, 305. Passive: P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 6, 7, The Cairo Love Songs, Group B, No. 21, P. Chester Beatty I, Group A, No. 31–37, Group C No. 46, 47. Active: P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 5 and The Cairo Love Songs, Group A, No. 20. 31  Fox, Songs, 305. He notes that the women are generally more proactive and sexually assertive than the men, which is characteristic of the genre. Passive: P. Chester Beatty I, Group A, No. 31–37, Group B, No. 38–40, and P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 15. Active: P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 1, 4, Group B. No. 14, and P. Chester Beatty I, Group C, No. 44. 32  Fox, Songs, 3–81. The display of various types of love is fairly typical of ane love song anthologies, see anet and cos. cf. Exum, Songs, 63.

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of lovers by fate.33 Yearning after a faded romance, the agony of unrequited love or the betrayal of unfaithfulness are common motifs in love poetry, yet these topics are noticeably absent from the Song. Rather, the Song intentionally and consistently presents a specific type of relationship between particular types of lovers, and this makes it strikingly different from the surrounding ane love literature.34 Collections like the Egyptian love songs differ in their purpose from the Song of Songs. The Egyptian love songs give different and often incompatible pictures of what love is like, in order to study the full spectrum of emotions that occur in various types of situations. In one song, love may be mutual and in another it is unrequited. Yet the Song of Songs presents one consistent picture of its lovers, their personalities, and their relationship throughout. Love is never presented as unrequited or non-exclusive. These are not pictures of love that the Song wishes to demonstrate. It is very intentional in its presentation of love, consistently, as mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, erotic, exclusive, committed, and timeless. This is because the Song of Songs is concerned to present a particular vision of love displayed in a particular type of love relationship between particular types of lovers. In the Song of Songs, the poet’s vision of love is presented as the highest knowledge of love, which is not the case in the Egyptian love literature. As Fox notes, the Egyptian poets are somewhat detached from their characters, looking on them sometimes with pleasure, and at others times with condescension or amusement, for they “see more than their personae can … comprehend[ing] things that neither of the lovers is aware of.”35 Yet, in the Song of Songs, the poet is a “listener” with the audience and respects their love as “the highest knowledge of love.”36 The poet’s attitude and perspective are fused with the lovers who present it, and he or she “never suggests that there is a greater or deeper knowledge of love than the personae reveal. They are the source of knowledge about love.”37 The poet’s strongest attitudes and beliefs concerning love are then displayed through the characters, who teach us about love,

33  See P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 1, 7, Group B, No. 12, 15, The Cairo Love Songs, Group B, No. 21, P. Chester Beatty I, Group A, No. 31–37, Group C, No. 46. 34  As Fox (Songs, 220–23) notes, the Song’s homogeneity and consistent portrayal of character is not characteristic of ane love songs (Egyptian or Mesopotamian). Exum (“The Poetic Genius of the Song of Songs” in Hagedorn Perspektiven der Hoheliedauslegung, 79) also notes “the poet’s desire to immortalize a particular vision of love.” 35  Fox, Songs, 296. 36  Fox, Songs, 296. 37  Fox, Songs, 296–7.

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and the reader is meant to take “their words with unreserved seriousness,” as Fox says,38 because they reflect the poet’s very thoughts concerning love. Fox provides enormously helpful comparisons and distinctions between the Egyptian love songs and the Song of Songs, noting the Song’s unique presentation of love as a “union of souls,” a relationship. Yet, he does not notice that the reason the Song presents love as a particular type of relationship, between particular types of lovers in a particular vision of love as the highest knowledge of love, is because it is didactic: it wants readers to imitate and pursue this vision of love. I propose that the Song of Songs intentionally presents this particular vision of human love, as the highest knowledge of love and its superlative display (‫) ִשׁיר ַה ִּשׁ ִירים‬, because it is didactic: it wants readers to pursue this type of love relationship in their own lives, and not others. It has one clear vision of what love should look like. It is not presenting different forms of love or types of lovers, but one specific type of love relationship that is to be aimed at and striven for. Again, the Song stands out among other ane love songs in the way that it uses the love song genre, combining it with the advice literature genre in order to instruct the reader to pursue this particular vision of love. There are no other examples of ane love song texts that are instructional or attempt to give advice that one should pursue a certain type of love.39 The Song of Songs sets itself apart from the surrounding ane literature, not only by displaying a particular vision of human love, but also in its didactic instruction to pursue it and avoid others. The Song is presenting an intentional didactic vision of what love should look like, in the relationship of the lovers, because it is meant to be admired and emulated by the reader. 2.2 The Didactic Aim of the Song of Songs: as Character Formation Like all wisdom literature, the didactic aim of the Song of Songs goes beyond mere advice, as it seeks to transform the reader through character formation. The Song provides instruction concerning the type of love relationship that one should arouse love for or pursue, but its overarching goal is the transformation of its readers into wise lovers. As readers identify with the audience in the poem they are instructed and exposed to the couple’s love affair. But it is through identification with the characters themselves, the lovers, that character formation takes place. We are meant to identify with them, to yearn to be them, so that we become them: wise lovers who find a superlative type of love. We will proceed by looking at how reader identification with the audience, and 38  Fox, Songs, 297. 39  a net; cos; Fox, Songs; Nissinen, “Nabû;” Meek, “Babylonian;” Watson, “Parallels;” Westenholz, “Lyrics;” seal website: www.seal.uni-leipzig.de; Wasserman, Akkadian.

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more specifically with the characters themselves, leads to character formation and the role of literary characters in the transformation of the reader into a wise lover. 2.2.1 Identification with the Audience The reader is implicitly instructed through the woman’s instruction of the next generation, the daughters of Jerusalem, who stand as “surrogates”40 for the reader, so that their lessons become ours as well. The inclusion of this audience – the women of Jerusalem and by extension the reader – happens most prominently in the “do not awaken” instructions, but it also occurs throughout the Song. When the lovers address each other in the second person we get the impression that we are overhearing a private and intimate conversation, yet when they address or describe each other in the third person, it opens the dialogue to include us.41 Frequent expressions, like “Look!” followed by third person descriptions also direct our attention and include us in their experience.42 Exum notes that we are often reminded of the audience’s presence when the lovers are enjoying the most intimate of moments and pleasures, so that “by addressing them, the woman invites their active participation. The invitation to the women of Jerusalem to participate in the lovers’ bliss is also an invitation to the reader.”43 5:1 explicitly invites us to participate in love and “become lovers as well: “‘Eat, friends, drink yourselves drunk on embraces!’”44 I propose that these invitations to participate in their love reveal a didactic aim. We are not just exposed to their love affair for the enjoyment or entertainment of reading about it. We are meant to participate in it, to become lovers ourselves. We are being invited to participate in the type of love displayed throughout the book because its aim is the transformation of readers into lovers. 2.2.2 Identification with the Characters The reader is also meant to identify with the characters themselves, the lovers, and as we will see, this is the pivotal means by which character formation takes place. Many observe that the identity of the lovers is quite non-specific. 40  Longman, Songs, 115. Exum (Songs, 7) also notes that in the poem, her audience is the women of Jerusalem, but ultimately it is the poem’s readers. 41  Exum, Songs, 110. Song 1:12–14; 2:2–3, 3–4. 42  Exum, Songs, 110. Song 1:15–17. Exum (7) notes that this is a poetic strategy that makes their relationship less private and facilitates the reader’s entry into their “world of erotic intimacy.” She states that it reminds us that the Song “is addressed to us, for our pleasure and possibly our enlightenment.” I intend to show that it provides both. 43  Exum, Songs, 7. Song 2:4–7; 3:4–5; 5:1; 6:1–3; 8:3–4. 44  Exum, Songs, 158.

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As Exum notes, they are not identified by name and only vaguely connected to a specific time or place (Solomon and Jerusalem).45 At times, they seem young. “Often they appear to be courting, and love seems to take them by surprise, so amazed are they by its power.”46 The song “captures the sense of discovery and the excitement of being in love as though for the first time – the way that being in love makes one feel young … the romance and nostalgia associated with first love.”47 Still at other times, they seem mature and quite experienced, “knowing everything there is to know about love” and able to divulge the “highest knowledge of love.”48 Even the lovers’ numerous physical features, whilst described as attractive, are not described in a specific way. For example, we know that the woman is attractive with lovely breasts, but not how big or small they might be.49 The anonymity of the lovers, their identity and their non-specific physical features allows them to be universally relatable to all readers who can, therefore, identify with them. It allows the woman to represent all women and the man to represent all men. That is, their anonymity serves to enable reader identification. It allows readers to “place themselves in the position of the woman and the man.”50 Yet, whilst their identities are non-specific, they are specific types of lovers with discernible and consistent character traits. The lovers are not specific individuals or identifiable historical people, but rather, literary characters constructed to represent certain types of lovers, who display a specific type of character in a particular type of love relationship.51 Their identities and many 45  Exum, Songs, 8. She (95) notes that the woman extols the sound of his name, yet “never addresses him by name.” Her identity is likewise left open. 46  Exum, Songs, 9. 47  Exum, Songs, 9. 48  Exum, Songs, 9; Fox, Songs, 296. 49  Likewise, the man’s arms are rods of gold, and his abdomen/member an ivory work of art, but this does not tell us the size or shape of them, just that they are defined and that she admires them. 50  Longman, Songs, 91. This is why she is pictured as dark and lovely, whilst simultaneously, like the moon with the neck of an ivory tower (some think implying white), which Exum (Songs, 8; “Poetic,” 83) observes is “an impossible combination in one person according to many commentators.” 51  Exum, Songs, 96–97. The identity of the lovers as historical people is non-specific, but they are specific types of characters with discernable character traits. “Type” does not mean they are archetypes or literary “type” figures, exhibiting a single or dominant trait. They are fully developed and complex characters, who consistently reveal themselves from the inside out. Exum (“Poetic,” 83) calls them “archetypal lovers,” yet notes (83 n. 14) “Although they are types, they … take on distinct personalities as we get to know them, primarily because of the consistency of their character portrayal.” Their open identities are a literary technique that enables reader identification.

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specific physical features are left open and presented in nonspecific ways because it allows various types of readers to identify with them, but they are specific characters with consistent personalities and discernible character traits. Exum’s observations concerning reader identification are extremely important. Yet, she does not notice that the reason we are meant to identify with the lovers so closely, to relate to them and participate in and experience their love affair is so that we become them. The lovers that we identify with are not just any lovers, but specific types of lovers in a particular type of relationship. The experience of love that we are invited to participate in is not just any experience of love, but a specific type of love experience that is distinct from the various types of love experiences and lovers depicted in other ane love song anthologies. The Song aims to inspire us, not only to become lovers ourselves, but the particular type of lovers they are. Its invitation to participate in their love is an invitation to participate in a particular type of love relationship. Exum does not think that the Song is didactic, instructive for readers concerning love, or aiming at character formation. Yet, I propose that the reason that the Song enables us to identify with these particular types of lovers by making them universally relatable, and invites us to participate in the particular type of love they display, is because it is didactic. We are meant to identify with these lovers because we are meant to emulate them by participating in a similar type of love relationship. We are meant to become similar types of lovers, who pursue the particular type of relationship they display throughout the Song, so that we find the same type of love they enjoy. 2.2.2.1 The Lover “Travesty” A few observations concerning “travesties” will further illuminate this. It is often observed that the lovers seem to have multiple and even conflicting identities. The man is referred to as a “king” in 1:4, 1:12 and 7:5 and “prince” in 6:12, yet 1:7–8 seems to imply that he is a shepherd. The woman is referred to as a member of the royal court in 6:8–10 and the “daughter of a prince/noble” in 7:1, yet in 1:6 she is a rural maid who tends vineyards or keeps sheep. Whilst some have interpreted the various identities of the lovers as an indication of distinct and separate poems, this is unlikely, as their speech, language and behaviour is portrayed with remarkable consistency, which alerts us to the fact that the lovers are the same throughout. As Exum notes, this enables us to construct a consistent picture of their characters, and “encourages us to feel that we know them.”52 The roles that the lovers portray each other in – king, 52  Exum, Songs, 8–9.

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princess, shepherd, bride and sister – are not to be taken literally.53 They are terms of endearment and forms of extravagant praise denoting admiration, affection and intimacy.54 They are not literal descriptions. These verses are about the lovers, and only about the various roles for what they represent.55 The royal imagery reflects the way that love makes lovers feel royal and transforms their surroundings. As Exum observes, “Love transforms ordinary things into extraordinary ones,” and Fox agrees, “this is the meaning of all the references to kings, nobles, royal chambers, objects, and exotic places in the Song.”56 The pastoral imagery shows that the love between a shepherd and his woman is as wondrous as that between two members of the court, and that a peasant girl is as worthy of praise as a princess.57 Both royal and pastoral elements pervade the Song. Many speak of the various roles that the lovers take on as “travesties,” that is, “literary fictions in which the lovers assume various roles and identities in the poet’s meandering romantic fantasy.”58 As Fox notes, Alfred Hermann, in his study of Egyptian love song motifs, was the first to follow André Jolles in speaking of “travesties,” that is, “changes of costume, disguises.”59 These disguises were thought to enable the characters to escape their social situation by imagining themselves as moving either upward to the world of nobility (“Knight Travesty”), downward to a lower class (“Servant Travesty”) or laterally to the fringe of society (“Shepherd Travesty”).60 John White applied Hermann’s 53  Longman, Songs, 92. 54  “Sister” does not imply they are actually related. Lovers also call each other “brother/ sister” in Egyptian and Mesopotamian love poetry, so it is not surprising to find these terms of endearment here in the Song. Fox (Songs, 135–36) notes that “my sister, my bride” is the leitmotiv of 4:8–5:2, a term of endearment that denotes affection, intimacy and closeness. 55  Exum, Songs, 141. The multiple identities of the lovers are not identities at all. They are terms of endearment and forms of extravagant praise. 56  Exum, Songs, 101; Fox, Songs, 288. As Exum (Songs, 101) observes, ordinary tents, curtains, chariots, and vineyards are transformed into special ones “associated with the richest and most illustrious of rulers both near and far,” i.e. the tents of Qedar, curtains of Solomon, chariots of Pharaoh and the vineyards of En-gedi. Fox (Songs, 123) notes, “Her beloved’s presence makes their surroundings royal.” The woman uses the most extravagant language that one could use to describe the nobility of her lover, calling the man Solomon, the superlative of royal kings. Yet, as Fox (288) notes, the man goes further in 8:11–12, saying he is richer than Solomon, as his own “vineyard” is more precious than Solomon’s and belongs to him alone. Fox (288) writes, “Love makes lovers noble, even royal, and even greater than royalty!”. 57  Bergant, “Beloved,” 32; Garrett, Songs, 133. 58  Exum, Songs, 96; Murphy, Songs, 47. cf. Fischer, Hohelied, 212–16, 241. 59  Fox, Songs, 292. 60  Fox, Songs, 292.

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travesty categories to the Song of Songs, finding the “royal” and “shepherd” travesties but not the “servant” travesty, and was followed by Gillis Gerleman and Murphy.61 However, as Fox points out, Hermann actually misunderstood Jolles’s theory.62 “Travesties” were meant to describe entire works of fiction, not isolated motifs or epithets, so that this fantasy was a disguise that the author or reader put on, not the fictional characters.63 As Fox notes, the fantasy afforded them the opportunity to temporarily escape everyday life by identifying with a character outside their ordinary situation, but it is the author and reader, not the characters, “who put on ‘disguises’ by identifying with the fictional characters.”64 For this model to be applicable to the Song, the characters would need to be depicted as actual royalty throughout, not merely fantasizing about being royalty or using royal terms of endearment.65 Fox also notes that the lovers are not trying to escape their social situation, but rather, using these terms of endearment and extravagant praise to express “emotional exaltation, their joy in their current state.”66 Yet, as Fox notes, there is a different disguise at work in the Song: “the lover” travesty.67 Readers are not meant to identify with the isolated motifs or epithets of a king, shepherd, princess etc., but rather with the characters described throughout the entire work of fiction, the lovers themselves. This is the fantasy or disguise that the reader puts on, allowing them to temporarily abandon their ordinary situation by identification with the characters. The Song provides the audience with a vicarious escape through erotic fantasy. The non-specific nature of the lovers’ identities enables the reader to put on the “lover disguise” or travesty, identify with them, enter into their world and temporarily assume their roles as lovers themselves. As Fiona Black observes, readers become personally involved in the Song, they feel the impetus

61  Fox, Songs, 292. 62  Fox, Songs, 292. 63  Fox, Songs, 292–3. 64  Fox, Songs, 293. 65  Fox, Songs, 293. As he notes, this would only work if the male lover really were King Solomon, but this is unlikely, and the shepherd disguise would only be operative if the intended audience were urban or nobility, allowing them to live vicariously through pastoral characters. 66  Fox, Songs, 293. 67  Fox (Songs, 293) calls it the “young” lover travesty, but as we have seen, they are also pictured as mature and experienced, imparting the highest knowledge of love. “Lover” seems preferable.

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to search and are devastated by missed encounters. The lover’s quest for his or her beloved in effect becomes the reader’s own.”68 Whilst Fox notes that Jolles was looking at the “ways in which literature makes possible the ‘transformation’ of the reader,”69 he does not notice that the Song uses the travesty of “the lover” in order to bring about the transformation of the reader into a particular type of lover. As discussed, the Song presents a particular vision of love displayed in a particular type of relationship between particular lovers who model it in their characters and behaviour throughout, and instructs readers to pursue a similar type of relationship. Therefore, when readers identify with the lovers by putting on “the lover” disguise, it is a particular type of lover that they are identifying with: a didactic lover. Fox thinks we, as readers, simply put on the “young lover” disguise, allowing us to wear “the doubly desirable costume of the young person and lover.”70 Yet, the lovers in the Song are more than desirable young persons, if they are young at all. The lovers in the Song are particular types of lovers who represent the highest knowledge of love: wise lovers. The Song of Songs provides the travesty of “the lover” as a way for readers to identify with these characters, and to accomplish the transformation of its readers into similar lovers. 2.2.3

The Link between Identification with Literary Characters and the Reader’s Transformation We are meant to identify with the lovers, to put on their disguise, to yearn to be them so that we emulate and become them. As Weeks observes, it is more common for wisdom to be demonstrated and observed, rather than passed on directly as specific knowledge.71 In the Song, wisdom concerning love is also largely demonstrated through the character and behaviour of the lovers, rather than passed on directly as specific knowledge. Rather than tell us what wise love is, the lovers show us by modelling it in their character and behaviour towards one another. Readers are then instructed to imitate them, to seek and pursue the same type of love that they demonstrate, in the “do not awaken” refrains. For descriptive character is often used prescriptively in wisdom texts. Like all biblical wisdom literature, the Song’s approach to character has its roots in ane forms, particularly Egyptian instruction, in which a certain character, who embodies prudence, wisdom and success in life, is profiled to lend 68  Fiona C. Black, “What Is My Beloved: On Erotic Reading and the Song of Songs,” The Labour of Reading: Desire, Alienation, and Biblical Interpretation, ed. Fiona C. Black, Roland Boer and Erin Runions (Atlanta: sbl, 1999), 44. 69  Fox, Songs, 293. 70  Fox, Songs, 293–94. 71  Weeks, Introduction, 123.

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coherence to instruction.72 In the Song, the lovers embody these wise characteristics in love and are profiled to lend coherence to the instruction in the refrains, because like Egyptian instruction, emulation is “the central feature of the intended relationship between the reader, who is to appropriate the wise teachings, and the character profiled in the literature.”73 Whilst the Song is poetry, it is not without narratival dimensions that cohere with the formation of character.74 As discussed, the Song of Songs is really a mixture of episodic narrativity and figuration, which take turns emerging from one another. The Song makes elaborate and extensive use of imagery, metaphor and figurative language, yet narrative controls numerous sections “where figuration is entirely displaced by the report of sequenced actions.”75 The number of these episodes, and the fact that they present consistent characterizations of the lovers, their interactions and speech throughout, gives the entire work a narrative flavour and enables the use of narrative tools and categories in discussing characterization. Discussions concerning the link between literary character and character formation have largely focused on biblical narrative. As Brown notes, most work on character formation has focused on the gradual conformity between story and the reader’s character in narrative.76 However, he argues that what remains for further investigation are the many characters outside biblical narrative who “exhibit a range of complexity and variation,” particularly those profiled in wisdom texts.77 Like other ane didactic texts, biblical wisdom “freely and readily embraces both narrative and nonnarrative forms of literary discourse to shape the contours of virtuous character.”78 Alter notes a number of narrative elements in biblical poetry, including narrative report of character,

72  William P. Brown, Character in Crisis: A Fresh Approach to the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans, 1996), 19–20. 73  Brown, Character, 20. 74  Brown (Character, 20) notes that the wisdom literature’s “narratival dimensions cohere with the language of the developing self and the formation of character.” Alter (Poetry, 28–29; 37–38; esp. 54) notes a number of narrative elements in biblical poetry, including narrative report of character, which is found particularly in the wisdom literature. 75  Alter, Poetry, 188. 76  Brown, Character, 17. See Stanley Hauerwas, “The Self as Story: A Reconsideration of the Relation of Religion and Morality from the Agent’s Perspective,” in Vision and Virtue: Essays in Christian Ethical Reflection (Notre Dame: Fides, 1974), 68–92; Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981). 77  Brown, Wonder, 8. 78  Brown, Character, 19.

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which is particularly found in wisdom texts,79 yet discussions of literary characterization, how character is profiled and its impact on the formation of the reader’s character are rarely applied to biblical poetic texts. In an attempt to begin using these categories to discuss literary character in poetic wisdom texts, and in the Song of Songs specifically, I will look at how literary character is profiled in the Song, how the description of literary character is used to prescribe character, how character transformation takes place and the place of wonder as a catalyst for this transformation. We will see that the lovers prescriptively model normative behavior for readers who are meant to emulate them as wise lovers. 2.2.3.1 Descriptive Literary Character Descriptive literary character refers to the way in which a character is described or constructed in literature. Literary characters can be described or characterized both directly and indirectly. Although direct characterization can take place through a narrator or another character, in the Song the lovers directly reveal themselves, and as Shimon Bar-Efrat observes, what a character reveals about his or her own self, emotions or knowledge is of particular interest, as it exposes the internal workings of their heart and mind from the inside out.80 Adele Berlin notes that in biblical narrative, direct speech is the “most dramatic way of conveying the character’s internal psychological and ideological points of view.”81 In the Song, the lovers utilize dramatic direct speech in dialogue, revealing their own emotions and internal psychological and ideological points of view. As Brown says, “All characters are defined primarily by their discourse. Some bare their souls while others remain relatively flat and one-dimensional.”82 The lovers in the Song are defined primarily through their dialogue, in which they take turns baring their souls and revealing themselves from the inside out. We are given a window directly into their hearts, minds, souls and desires.

79  Alter, Poetry, 28–29; 37–38; esp. 54. 80  Shimon Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art in the Bible (London: T & T Clark International, 2008), 62. He (53, 59) notes that whilst characters can be mistaken about themselves or deliberately distort how they present themselves, it still reveals how they view themselves and want others to view them. 81  Adele Berlin, Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative bls 9 (Sheffield: Almond, 1983), 64. 82  Brown, Wonder, 15. The lovers reveal their inner emotions, but unlike the Egyptian monologues, the focus is not on the internal emotions themselves, but their feelings for the other lover.

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The literary characters in the Song are also revealed indirectly, through their speech and actions. The greater extent to which speech and actions are reported and the more we see how a character responds in various situations, the more we get a sense of their character. The illuminative dialogue and numerous actions of the lovers gives us a consistent and detailed sense of their character, and crystalizes our understanding of the love they share. As Bar-Efrat notes, speech is a significant way of characterizing personae indirectly, as it reveals the character traits of both the speaker and listener, as well as the way in which they react to the things said to them, so that it exposes the speaker and often the individual being addressed, who responds.83 The lovers speak to one another extensively in dialogue, revealing various character traits, and because they both speak and react to the things said to them, we get a clear sense of both their personalities. Yet the lovers’ characters are also revealed through their actions and deeds, for as Bar-Efrat notes, “action is the implementation of character, and individuals are disclosed through their deeds no less than through their words.”84 It is through their actions that we actually see the implementation of their words, for it is one thing for a character to claim devotion and quite another to see them actually display it in action, as when the woman is willing to brave the dangers of the night and beating by city guards to reach the one whom she loves and the man is willing to take the risk of sneaking up to her house at night in the rain and confronting dens of lions to reach her. Some of the specific character traits that the lovers possess only take shape precisely because we see the implementation of them in action. As Bar-Efrat notes, “one’s inner nature is embodied in external behavior … [so that] we know biblical characters primarily through the way they act in varying situations.”85 We learn a great deal about the lovers from the decisions they make in choosing between alternatives because these decisions reveal their “scale of values, showing us the outcome of the struggle between desires, emotions and spiritual values, whether ethical, religious or social.”86 Time and time again, we see the lovers 83  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 64–65, 73. 84  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 77. Brown (Wonder, 6) notes that the literary relationship between action and character is debated, but follows Shlomith Rimmon-Kennan (Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics [London: Routledge, 2002], 35) in citing Henry James’s famous dictum: “What is character but the determination of incident? What is incident but the illustration of character?”. 85  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 77. He (81, 64) notes that indirect shaping is more typical in biblical narrative, so that character is primarily displayed in action. The Song uses both direct and indirect characterization, which shows the congruence between their self-revelation and how they actually act. 86  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 81.

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choosing the value of the beloved over social expectations. Berlin notes that in biblical narrative, the characters that do not act in accord with expected norms or the reader’s expectation of them stand out, and “many acts of heroism fall into this category.”87 The heroes in the Song of Songs stand out against the expected cultural norms of a patriarchal society. The woman violates these norms by searching the city streets at night, and even the man breaches cultural norms by sneaking up to her house at night and allowing her to lead him to her mother’s bedroom. The fact that they are not married and engaging in sexual union is certainly a violation of expected cultural norms and immediately draws our attention. It is precisely because their behavior stands out that our interest is peaked. Their entire relationship, which is based on love and desire rather than on the social interests of marriage, procreation, family alliance, social advancement, monetary benefit, national welfare, or social continuity, stands out against “the norm” in the society of the time, and likely must do so, in order to convey the value and importance of romantic love. Like many other biblical heroes, they stand out by promoting a value that is more important than the expected cultural norms. Literary characters are often described as either “flat” or “round.”88 Flat characters are limited in character traits and do not develop in the course of a plot, whereas round characters exhibit more than one trait, though it is probably best to speak of them along a continuum, in terms of complexity, development, and penetration into their “inner life.”89 On one end of the spectrum are allegorical figures, caricatures or types who are built around a single or dominant trait, are static and usually viewed from the outside.90 On the other end of the spectrum are complex and fully developed characters, who often develop and reveal themselves from the inside out.91 The lovers in the Song are quite 87  Berlin, Poetics, 41. She notes that David kills twice as many Philistines as Saul commanded, that Abigail’s actions contrast her husband’s and expected norms, and that Tamar’s actions likewise contrast Judah’s and break a number of cultural norms and expectations (prostitution/incest). 88  Brown, Wonder, 7. cf. E.M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), 75. 89  Brown, Wonder, 7. Berlin, (Poetics, 23) argues for a third category: agent/functionary character. 90  Brown, Wonder, 7–8. As discussed, the lovers are types of lovers, but they are not literary “types,” as they are multi-faceted with complex inner lives and multiple character traits. Round characters do not always “develop” but they are more complex by nature. 91  Brown, Wonder, 8. Bar-Efrat (Narrative, 90) observes that a complex character need not develop at all in a narrative. The lovers reveal complex inner-lives concerning their love for each other, and the focus on this aspect of their inner-lives reveals the values and norms within the poem.

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clearly fully developed and complex characters. Whilst they do not change or evolve throughout the poem, they are fully developed and there is a progression in their revelation of themselves as characters and the way that they feel towards one another. They are multifaceted, with complex inner-lives and exhibit several important traits that are normative for the reader. 2.2.3.2 Descriptive Character Is Prescriptive As Brown notes, “The relationship between descriptive and prescriptive character is of critical importance in the wisdom corpus, since much of the literature conveys or models the contours of normative character through literary characterization.”92 Each wisdom book does this in a different way, Proverbs through parental figures, the youth, the wise, and Lady Wisdom, Job through Job and God, and Ecclesiastes through Qoheleth.93 These characters are defined primarily through their discourse, and many display complex innerlives, as well as a sense of personal realism.94 In the Songs of Songs, the lovers prescriptively model the contours of normative character – the type of lover that one should be and the type of lover that one should pursue. Round or complex characters, like the lovers in the Song, display a sense of personal realism, which is precisely why they are so relatable to readers, who are meant to identify with and emulate them. Bar-Efrat notes: They generally arouse considerable emotional involvement; we feel what they feel, rejoice in their gladness, grieve at their sorrow and participate in their fate and experiences … We want to know them, to see how they act within their environment, and to understand their motives and desires. We follow their struggles to fulfill their aspirations and pay particular attention to everything they say, for when they speak to one another they are also addressing us.95 Identification with these characters allows them to transmit the significance and values of the story to the reader.96 As Bar-Efrat observes, they serve as the author’s “mouthpiece,” so that what is related about them, the characteristics emphasized and their actions, reveals the values and norms within the story.97 92  Brown, Wonder, 15. 93  Brown, Wonder, 15. 94  Brown, Wonder, 15, 16. 95  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 47. 96  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 47. 97  Bar-Efrat, Narrative, 47. He calls characters the “narrator’s mouthpiece,” revealing “the values and norms within the narrative,” but we are speaking of poetry here.

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As we have seen, the Song encourages readers to identify with lovers who are relatable and display a sense of personal realism, invites them to participate in their experience of love and directs them towards pursuing a similar type of love. The significance and values of the Song are transmitted through the lovers, who serve as the poet’s “mouthpiece,” so that what is related about them, the characteristics emphasized, their conversations and actions and the type of love that they pursue, reveals the values of the poem and has normative significance for readers. The characters in the Song, the lovers, function didactically for readers. They prescriptively model the contours of wise behaviour in love so that their patterns of behaviour are normative for readers. As we relate to them, we identify with them, become involved in their love affair and ache to become them. As we identify with them we are taught, through their actions, decisions and character traits, the normative values of the poem, that is, desired behavior. The type of love valued in the poem, displayed and pursued by the lovers is mutual, peaceful, equal, proactive, devoted, desirous, sexual, exclusive, committed and timeless. As we identify with this experience of love, we are left with deep convictions about what love is meant to look like and aspire to find this in our own lives. The Song inspires us to want to become and pursue these types of lovers, whilst the “do not awaken” refrains instruct us to do so. Brown writes that the task of literary characters is “to deconstruct and reform traditional contours of ethical character – in short, bring about transformation. In the biblical wisdom literature, the way in which a literary character is portrayed is relevant to the way in which normative character is profiled.”98 The lovers in the Song profile normative character, and their task is to deconstruct and reform traditional contours of character in love, and how lovers should behave, in order to bring about transformation. Relationships in patriarchal cultures were pursued for a number of reasons apart from love: procreation, duty, social mobility, monetary gain, family ties, foreign alliances, etc. They were not always exclusive, as some were polygamous,99 and they were not always inspired by love. The Song aims to deconstruct these pragmatic 98  Brown, Wonder, 16. The focus in the Song is not on “ethical” character per se, but rather, wise character, though there are connections between the two. The Song does not imply that it is actually unethical not to pursue this type of love, as opposed to others – just unwise. The lovers do display virtues and exemplary moral character in love (they are faithful and treat each other in an ethical manner), which has normative status for readers, yet this ethical dimension is not foregrounded, nor contrasted with unethical behavior in love, though this is exactly what Proverbs 7 uses the Song to do. 99  As we see in Solomon’s polygamous relationships and the male lover’s comparison of his relationship to Solomon’s in Songs 8:11–12, which he explicitly claims is superior.

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views of relationships and the cultural norms of the time, and inspire readers to pursue relationships motivated by love and passion. As the Egyptian love songs show, depictions of love in poetry and music throughout time have also included unrequited love, infidelity, abandonment, disappointed hopes, rejection and resentment – forms and depictions of love that the Song excludes. The Song also intends to deconstruct these views of love, which unfortunately, have all too often become norms in our experiences of love. It inspires readers, instead, to pursue fulfilling relationships of wisdom. The type of relationship valued in the poem is motivated by love, and a specific type of love defined by a particular type of relationship. There is a relationship between literary character and the formation of the reader, and just as descriptive character is used to prescribe character in the wisdom corpus, the literary description of the lovers and their behavior is normative for readers concerning love. It is didactic in this sense. It is not merely a celebration of love or a beautiful story about love, but written to model the contours of normative character concerning love, and prescribe this type of character and relationship for the reader. It teaches them, through characterization, what type of lovers they should seek to become and what type of love they should pursue: a wise love. 2.2.3.3 How Transformation Takes Place Brown notes that ethicists speak of four factors that account for a person’s character: perception, intention, emotion or desire, and virtue.100 The Song of Songs seeks to transform its readers’ perceptions, intentions, emotions, desires and virtue concerning love. Perception involves the way in which one evaluates, interprets, internalizes and therefore experiences events and aspects of their life and renders them meaningful.101 How a person perceives the world affects how they live and act in it.102 Perception plays an important role in character formation because what is selectively internalized and rendered meaningful affects our emotions, intentions and therefore actions. We intentionally act on what we perceive as meaningful and have developed an emotional attachment to. The Song of Song seeks to transform our perception of love by giving us a vicarious experience of its vision of love throughout the poem. We identify with the lovers, experience their love and are taught to interpret and internalize it as the superlative display and highest knowledge of love, so that we come to render this particular display of love meaningful. 100  Brown, Wonder, 9. 101  Brown, Wonder, 9. It is a “selective internalization” of events and aspects of life. 102  Brown, Wonder, 16.

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Our exposure to this extraordinary experience of sapiential love redirects our perceptions about what love is really meant to look like and the type of love that we find meaningful. As we begin to value this particular display of love it transforms our emotions, desires, intentions, and virtue as lovers. The transformation of our perceptions concerning love results in the transformation of our intentions, as we now aim to find a similar love to that displayed in the Song. Brown speaks of intentions as expressions of character that provide aim, direction and purpose to volitional decisions and actions.103 They can change and develop so that they also reflect growth in character. The Song seeks to transform our intentions so that we decide to pursue wise love. There is a new direction and purpose to the love that we seek because we have tasted sapiential love, through our exposure to and experience of the lovers’ relationship, and this motivates us to intentionally seek and pursue the same type of love. The result is character growth, as we now intentionally pursue particular types of love relationships and resist awakening love for others. The transformation in our perception and intentions is largely accomplished through the Song’s appeal to our emotions, which awakens our deepest desires. For it is through our emotions that we learn to yearn for what they share. Poetry is the Song’s instrument for touching the reader’s deepest emotions and desires.104 As Donald Berry observes, poetry communicates more intensely than prose as it elucidates experience,105 which is central to the transformation of our perceptions and emotions. Berry notes that poetry is particularly well suited for communicating intense and consuming experiences and emotions, and that in Hebrew poetry, this marked interest in experience comes out through dramatic dialogue in which a speaker conveys intense feeling and emotional expression through metaphorical language.106 The poetry of the Song, its flaunted figuration and extensive use of metaphor brings the lovers’

103  Brown, Wonder, 9–10. 104  Donald K. Berry (An Introduction to Wisdom & Poetry of the Old Testament [Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995], 384) notes that the Song “exhibits the most poetic features of any book of the Hebrew Bible,” according to the three measures of theme, form and height of expression. He says (383–84) that thematically, it accords with contemporary notions of poetry where love is the most common theme; formally, it includes the three elements that identify Hebrew poetry: parallelism, meter, and strophic organization; and its height of expression may be the strongest evidence for its poetic identity. Yet Berry (207) also notes that thematically, the Song “bears a closer resemblance to wisdom books than poetry books.” 105  Berry, Introduction, 174. He (195) notes that love, like grief, “demands an intensity of expression which cannot be matched by the precision of prose.” 106  Berry, Introduction, 195.

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experience of love to life, so that as we identify with them, we internalize this emotional experience. Brown describes desire as the shaping and direction of emotion, which forms a bridge of intentionality between emotion and act, yet he notes that it “signals something deeper: a yearning, a hunger to act in a particular way … desire is akin to appetite, a bodily ‘drive’ that ‘pushes’ the self toward the object of desire,” causing one to affiliate with what is desired or the desired other.107 Desire is one of the most central themes in the Song and it characterizes the lovers’ relationship throughout. Their desire is akin to a bodily drive or appetite that propels them toward the object of their desire, the other lover, causing them to affiliate with one another. Our vicarious experience of their desire gives us an appetite for this type of love and propels us towards seeking someone like this to affiliate with. It is through the characters’ desire for each other than we learn to desire the love that they share. The Song teaches us as readers, through our experience of their love story, to desire, to crave, this type of love in our own lives. Desire is central to character formation, which is why wisdom teaches us to desire certain qualities. If we are to become the type of lovers who seek wise love in our own lives then we must learn to desire the type of love that the poem displays. Desire is often awakened towards a new goal, so that as we cognitively and emotionally become aware of its value, we develop an appetite or bodily drive pushing us towards the quality. Desires can be developed and emotions redirected and this is necessary for character development and formation to take place. In the Song, desire is used to stir our emotions, causing us to have an emotional attachment to this type of love. The Song appeals to our emotions in the most intimate way: by tapping into our deepest and most powerful desires for love. Emotions serve as motivations for action, so that as our desire is awakened towards this new goal of the love that they display, and as we become cognitively aware of its value, we develop an appetite or bodily drive pushing us towards it and it becomes a powerful motivation for our actions in pursuing this type of love, and avoiding others. For if we allow our emotions to be aroused for a relationship that does not reflect the type of love displayed in the Song, we will not find the type of love we now desire. The Song redirects our desires towards wise love, the type of love that will result in pleasure rather than pain, and fulfillment rather than frustration. Emotions play an important role in character growth and maturity, for as Brown observes, “maturity is not only a matter of cognitive development; it is 107  Brown, Wonder, 11; cf. Martha C. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 135–36, 130–31.

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also an indication of emotional sensibility.”108 Whilst some see our cognitive faculties as pitted against, or even superior to, our emotions, they are both part of our system of reasoning that determines how we make judgments because our judgments are based on what it important to us, both emotionally and cognitively, so that they work in conjunction with one another.109 Emotions reveal one’s values and motivations for action, so that they define and reveal one’s character as much as belief and reason.110 Emotions are then “inextricably tied to cognition as a critical component of wisdom and character,” so that growth in wisdom and character formation involve “emotional learning.”111 This is why some psychologists define wisdom as “emotional intelligence.”112 The Song teaches us cognitively what characterizes wise love, but it is our emotional attachment to it and desire for it that drives us to actually pursue it. Our emotional attachment causes us to want to implement what we have learned cognitively. As we begin to value their love as meaningful, this emotional attachment begins to figure into our judgments about the type of love we will pursue. As our mind comes to a new cognitive understanding about the type of love we should seek, our emotions are aroused and our desires shift, so that cognition and emotion work in conjunction in evaluating our love relationships. Emotions are tied to cognition. We cannot just be told that we should pursue this type of love, we also need to be emotionally inspired to do so, if we are to implement this wisdom in action and develop the type of characters that actually choose wise love over other forms. Growth in wisdom and character formation involve emotional learning and intelligence, which is why the Song appeals to our emotions as well as our cognitive abilities by giving us an emotionally vicarious experience of their love in poetry. It allows it to touch something inside of us that pure instruction cannot. It is not enough to be told cognitively that such a love is wise for us; we must develop an emotional attachment to it and learn to desire it, so that both our cognition and emotions impel us to exercise wisdom in love. This “emotional intelligence” is what the Song asks of its readers. It assumes that our mind and heart work as one. As we develop a deep desire for the type of love displayed in the Song, we “emotionally learn” to want what is wise, and this desire and emotional attachment 108  Brown, Wonder, 10. 109  Brown, Wonder, 10. 110  Brown, Wonder, 10; Nancy Sherman, “Wise Emotions,” Understanding Wisdom: Sources, Science, and Society, ed. Warren S. Brown (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation, 2000), 324–328. 111  Brown, Wonder, 10. 112  Brown, Wonder, 10, n 45. i.e. Stephen S. Hall, Wisdom: From Philosophy to Neuroscience (New York: Knopf, 2010), 43.

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provide the motivation needed to resist awakening love for relationships that do not look like this so that we pursue relationships that do. It provides the inspiration to implement the Song’s wise instruction in our love lives, to “emotional sensibility” in love. It didactically transforms us into the type of lovers who have “emotional intelligence” concerning love. As discussed in chapter three, the Song seems to assume that there is some amount of control that we can exercise over our emotions and desires, that we can choose not to awaken love before a love like the Song is present, and that this is necessary in order to find the type of love enjoyed in the Song. Whilst it may seem like it takes an immense amount of discipline to stop oneself from falling in love or awakening this emotion, our discussion of cognitive emotions helps us to understand that emotions can actually be inspired to make these wise decisions in love: by developing a desire for and emotional attachment to a particular vision of love. If we cognitively value the type of love displayed in the Song, emotionally yearn for it and desire it in our lives, then we will not be inspired to kindle our emotions for a relationship that does not reflect this vision. When we cognitively perceive that we are not in a relationship like the Song and a love like the Song is “not present,” then our emotions will not be aroused, or cease to be roused, because we will still desire the type of love that the lovers share more.113 We will have learned to be led by both our emotional and cognitive values in the type of relationship that we arouse love for. We only need the discipline to be honest about whether the relationship actually reflects this vision and the discernment to decipher whether someone is only imitating this type of love. Brown speaks of virtue as a disposition, demonstrated in a persistent attitude that leads one to consistent action and expression in regular patterns of ethical behaviour.114 Virtue, like character, is not defined by a singular moral principle, or even a collection of them, but rather, is “a way of being in the world.”115 Brown notes the interdependence of moral principle and virtue, yet thinks virtue is especially exercised in situations where rules do not exist or even conflict, so that virtue can prompt the revision of rules.116 He argues that rules are not so comprehensive that they preclude the need for personal judgment in various situations, so that whilst they serve as guidelines for conduct, 113  Our attachment to this vision of love protects us from arousing desire and awakening love for damaging relationships. 114  Brown, Wonder, 11. 115  Brown, Wonder, 12. He (14) follows Hauerwas (Character, 78) in arguing that character is more than the sum of various virtues, as it entails a unity in which the total self “is present thru each particular virtue or habit.” 116  Brown, Wonder, 15.

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they are really “forms of morality” rather than the end goal,117 which is virtuous character. Whilst the ethical dimension of character is not foregrounded in the Song, the lovers are virtuous characters in love. They have a persistent disposition in love and consistently express it in action. They demonstrate virtuous traits of character in customary patterns of ethical behavior towards one another. They mutually, consistently and proactively devote themselves to one another, are sacrificial, respectful, egalitarian, faithful and committed, and as a result, their relationship brings peace and harmony. The Song helps readers to acquire virtue in love by inviting them to identify with virtuous lovers and instructing them to pursue relationships that reflect the type of virtuous love depicted throughout the poem. Aristotle considered “prudence” to be the primary virtue, and Brown describes it as “wisdom in practice” because it is used to determine right action in various situations.118 Prudence concerning love is precisely what the Song advises: the ability to discern right action in various new relationships and situations. This particular virtue is promoted in the Song, as the character formed in love has the ability to apply the Song’s wise instruction in various new contexts and situations. Readers are able to assess whether various new relationships are similar or dissimilar to the type of love displayed in the Song and use prudence to discern whether it is wise to awaken love. The Song of Songs seeks to transform its readers’ perceptions, intentions, emotions, desires and virtue as lovers. It brings the mind and heart, reason and desire together in the transformation process, enabling readers to become lovers like the characters in the Song, with the desire and ability to discern and pursue wise love in their own lives. 2.2.3.4 Wonder as a Catalyst for Transformation Brown makes some helpful observations concerning wonder as a catalyst for this transformation. However, he goes a bit far in speaking of it as the basis for biblical wisdom.119 Whilst wonder certainly inspires one to seek wisdom and motivates one to character formation, it does not provide an encompassing 117  Brown, Wonder, 12. cf. J. Budziszewski, “Religion and Civic Virtue,” in Virtue, ed. John W. Chapman and William A. Galston, Nomos 34 (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 57. 118  Brown, Wonder, 13. 119  See Brown, Wonder, 22. Brown (27) is correct that wisdom is more than advice, involves character transformation into a wise person and that the cultivation of wonder is central to growth in wisdom, but he goes too far in asserting that wonder is the framework or “hermeneutical lens for discerning the integrity of the wisdom corpus,” and highlighting its diversity.

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framework accounting for the corpus’s coherence and diversity, for as Brown shows elsewhere,120 wonder draws the reader into a number of other biblical texts that are not part of the wisdom corpus. It cannot therefore be definitive of the genre, or the basis for the integrity of the wisdom corpus. Wonder is not what defines wisdom, though it does inspire one to seek wisdom and is central to the didactic aim of character formation,121 so that Brown’s observations concerning wonder are still helpful in our discussion of character formation in the Song. Wonder is a catalyst for wisdom because it drives one to deeper inquiry and pursuit. The biblical wisdom books all “seek” something they stand in awe or wonder of. As Proverbs 30:18–19 shows, the wisdom writers stood in awe or wonder of “the way of a man with a woman,” that is, human love. It is therefore not surprising that we find, in the Song of Songs, an entire book devoted to inspiring the reader to seek and pursue it. Brown defines wonder as “the emotion excited by the perception of something novel and unexpected, or inexplicable; astonishment mingled with perplexity or bewildered curiosity.”122 He speaks of an inner tension between unsettling astonishment, and an insatiable curiosity that makes the perceiver drawn to the object of wonder, desiring to know more.123 The lovers in the Song express this type of wonder in each other. They are excited by the perception of something novel and unexpected: the other lover. They express their astonishment in 1:15 and 1:16 exclaiming, ‫ִהּנָ ְך יָ ָפה ַר ְע ִיָתי‬ and ‫דֹודי‬ ִ ‫ ִהּנְ ָך יָ ֶפה‬. As Exum notes, each phrase in 1:16 “begins with ‫‘( ַאף‬and also’), as if she were gasping for breath in wonderment.”124 Dobbs-Allsopp notes that ‫“ ִהּנָ ְך‬presents what follows as the sudden and vivid perception of something unexpected – in this case, the startling experience of something beautiful. The structure of perception at the moment one stands in the presence of beauty is often characterized as arresting, a reaction in which you draw in your breath and stop still or utter a little gasp.”125 The lovers express astonishment but are also a bit unnerved or unsettled by the perception of the other lover. Brown speaks of wonder as an “affiliative fear,” and thinks that the term “awe” expresses this well.126 He notes that encounters with wonder often begin with 120  William P. Brown, Sacred Sense: Discovering the Wonder of God’s Word and World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015). 121  Brown, Wonder, 22, 27. Much of Scripture is didactic, teaching and aiming at the transformation of character, but wisdom literature is especially so. 122  Brown, Wonder, 20; The Oxford English Dictionary. 123  Brown, Wonder, 20; Brown, Sacred, 5. 124  Exum, Songs, 113. 125  Dobbs, “Beauty,” 262. 126  Brown, Sacred, 9; Wonder, 21.

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fear and can be unsettling, so that “we can be overwhelmed with wonder as easily as we can be incapacitated by fear.”127 Yet, these encounters also simultaneously exercise an “irresistible pull” drawing us to the object of wonder, so that “fascination overcomes fear and desire overcomes dread.”128 This is the type of fear that the phrase “fear of the Lord” speaks of, which is the basis for wisdom. Brown calls this type of fear a “fear seeking understanding,” “inquisitive awe” “or simply wonder.”129 The lovers in the Song exhibit this type of reverent or affiliate fear, as they are astonished by the perception of the other lover and stand in awe of them, but are simultaneously a bit unnerved by them. His appearance causes her to turn her gaze from him to their bed in 1:16 just as he begs her to turn her eyes from him in 6:5, as they make him tremble. They both use the term ‫ דגל‬to describe the other lover’s awe-striking and unnerving appearance, she in 5:10 and he in 6:4 and 6:10.130 They are both a bit unsettled and vulnerable in the presence of the other, yet they are simultaneously drawn to one another and continue seeking and finding each other throughout the poem. Their fascination with one another clearly overcomes their fear and intimidation, as theirs is also an “inquisitive awe.”131 As Brown notes, whilst wonder is “born of awe,” it is more active, motivating one to inquiry and pursuit.132 This is because, as Brown notes, wonder awakens desire, to inquire, to understand, to know more fully, and “with desire comes a new attentiveness, a freshness of perception that ‘imbues the world with a certain ‘luring’ 127  Brown, Sacred, 5. 128  Brown, Wonder, 21. 129  Brown, Sacred, 9. He notes that when the biblical writers spoke of the “fear of the Lord,” they spoke of a “peculiar kind of fear, a fear that draws one to God, not causes one to withdraw from God” so that it was also an affiliative fear. 130  This term is related to military banners or bannered hosts in Numbers and likely connected to the Akkadian dagālu “to see, look upon” denoting an awe-inspiring vision or visual object of splendor. The fact that it occurs in a ‫ ִּכי‬clause in 6:4 and 6:10 tells us that the object (the lover) is “awesome/terrifying” as bannered hosts or visual object of splendor (‫)ּנִ ְדּגָ לֹות‬. The ‫ ִּכי‬tells us that ‫ּנִ ְדּגָ לֹות‬, whatever it is, is ‫יֻּמה‬ ָ ‫ ֲא‬, awe-striking or fearsome to behold, so that when ‫ ָּדגּול‬occurs in 5:10, we know that it “awe-striking,” fearsome to behold, unnerving or intimidating, conveying simultaneous feelings of both wonder and fear, see J.L. Andruska, “The Strange Use of ‫ דגל‬in Song of Songs 5:10,” VT 68 (2017): 1–7. 131  Brown, Sacred, 9. Whilst he (91, 94) notes that each lover is “captivated by the erotic wonder of the other,” and the other’s body, he does not observe that the use of ‫ דגל‬links this with a reverent fear. Brown (94) observes that beauty and terror converge bodily in the woman in 6:4 and 6:10, yet he does not notice that her use of the same term, ‫דגל‬, shows that her wonder and awe of the man is also inspired by reverent fear. Brown stresses the woman as the object of wonder, but a great deal more could be said about the man as an object of wonder for the woman. For as we noted earlier, the female lover is also pictured as the owner of the gaze. Perhaps a female reader is more keen to notice her perspective. 132  Brown, Wonder, 23.

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quality.’”133 Desire is central in the Song and the lovers’ perception of and desire for one another awakens a new attentiveness that imbues the entire world around them with a luring quality. For as Fox notes, “they see – and smell, and hear, and taste – their beloved in the world about them. They also see, smell, hear, and taste the world in their beloved.”134 The lovers themselves have the same “luring” quality as the world around them, so that it awakens their desire to inquire, understand and know each other more fully.135 Yet, they also have a “luring” quality for the reader, so that as we stand in awe and wonder of their relationship, it awakens deep desires within us for something similar. Wonder is a catalyst for character formation because it facilitates the transformation of perceptions and emotions. Brown speaks of wonder as a destabilizing experience that disorients and transforms perceptions, prompting “fresh ways of seeing,” so that one “pays attention in a new way.”136 In fact, the imagery and metaphors used in the Song play a key role in this destabilizing experience. As Brown notes, metaphors “stimulate reflection, reshape our perceptions, and even inspire action. Such images reorient the way we see things and thus the way we relate to them.”137 Nowhere does the biblical text revel more in imagery and metaphor than in the Song of Songs, where as Alter states, “figurative language plays a more prominent role [] than anywhere else in biblical poetry.”138 As Aristotle observed, unlike ordinary words, the strange words of metaphor “puzzle us,” causing us to “ascertain something fresh.”139 Alter states, “The lover speaks out of a keen awareness of the power of figurative language to break open closed frames of reference and make us see things with a shock of new recognition.”140 These metaphors prompt fresh ways of seeing lovers and how they behave, causing us to see love and what a love relationship is meant to look like with a shock of new recognition so that we pay attention in

133  Brown, Wonder, 23, 21: citing Robert C. Fuller, Wonder: From Emotion to Spirituality (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 66. 134  Fox, Songs, 328. 135  This is perhaps why so much of the Song’s language is used in Proverbs, which models the seeking and pursuit wisdom on the lovers’ pursuit of each other. The writer of Proverbs saw something of the luring quality of wisdom in the allure of the lovers so that the Song’s language provided a vehicle for explaining this. 136  Brown, Wonder, 20, 24. 137  Brown, Sacred, 13. 138  Alter, Poetry, 189. 139  Aristotle, Rhetoric, 1410b12–14; William P. Brown, “The Didactic Power of Metaphor in the Aphoristic Sayings of Proverbs,” jsot 29, 2 (2004): 133. 140  Alter, Poetry, 193.

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a new way and our preconceptions concerning love are transformed.141 It gives us a fresh perception of what love is meant to look like. As Brown points out, pedagogically, metaphors are “well suited” for elucidating instruction because they provoke “reflection in ways that compel the reader or listener to regard a topic in a new or different light. In other words, metaphors teach, and they do so by reorienting the readers’ perception.”142 The images and metaphors in the Song teach. They reorient the way we see love and lovers themselves, so that they inspire us to act on this new perception in our own lives. As Brown notes, wonder can inspire critical self-reflection, examination and soul-searching, prompting us to rethink who we are and our place in the world.143 Our exposure to this relationship shifts our perception of love, causing this same type of self-reflection and inspiring us to self-transformation as lovers. Wonder also transforms emotions. Brown calls wonder a “visceral cognitive emotion,” prompted by otherness, “something or someone … wholly outside of us yet striking a resonant chord deep within us.”144 As discussed, emotions play an intricate role in the formation of character. As wonder stirs our desire and emotions, we cultivate deep emotional attachments towards that which wonder has awakened our desire to know. The Song stirs this “visceral cognitive emotion” in us as readers. It strikes a deep resonant chord within us – a desire to know and experience this type of love – so that we cultivate a deep emotional attachment to that which wonder has awakened our desire to know. This shift in perception and the awakening of this visceral cognitive emotion through wonder, results in the transformation of our characters as lovers. The Song transforms its readers into wise lovers by exposing them to the wonder of the lover’s relationship in the Song, so that they deeply ache for something similar in their own lives. 2.3 Conclusions As we have seen, the Song is didactic. It aims to teach and provides instruction, yet its goal extends far beyond this to the transformation of its readers into 141  For example, the metaphors used to describe the lovers’ bodies remind us that lovers see each other in these ways and are enthralled with each other’s physical attributes. They give us a fresh perception of the importance of physical attraction in love. The metaphors in 5:10–16 reorient the way we view women’s sexuality and visual attraction. The imagery describing the world around the lovers gives us a fresh perception of the psychological effect that love has on lovers and how they view the world around them as awakening in a new way. These metaphors reorient more pragmatic perceptions of love and relationships. 142  Brown, “Metaphor,” 152. 143  Brown, Sacred, 5. 144  Brown, Wonder, 22; Sacred, 8.

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wise lovers. This is accomplished through descriptive literary characters who are prescriptive for readers. These wise lovers are profiled to lend coherence to the instruction in the refrains, because like Egyptian instruction, emulation is “the central feature of the intended relationship between the reader, who is to appropriate the wise teachings, and the character profiled in the literature.”145 Readers are invited to identify with the lovers, to put on the fantasy or disguise of “the lover,” because they are meant to emulate them. Whilst the Song is poetry, it is not without narratival dimensions that cohere with the formation of character. As discussed, the Song of Songs is really a mixture of episodic narrativity and figuration, which take turns emerging from one another. Whilst discussions concerning literary character and character formation have focused largely on biblical narrative, we have used similar categories to discuss how the characters in the Song are profiled and how identification with them enables the transformation of the reader. In the Song, readers identify with particular types of lovers in a particular type of love relationship, who prescriptively model normative values and behaviour, so that as readers identify with them and internalize this particular vision of love in their perceptions, intentions, emotions, desires and virtues, transformation occurs. Wonder is a crucial catalyst for this process. Identification with the literary characters in the Song is then central to the didactic aim of the book, which seeks to transform its readers into similar lovers. Like all wisdom literature, the Song is didactic. It is celebratory and entertaining but it is also more than this, as it provides instruction and aims to transform its reader into a wise lover. The reader is shaped both cognitively and emotionally, so that they are transformed into the type of lover who is able to discern wise love in their own life and has the emotional intelligence to actually implement the wise instruction by pursuing this type of love and not others. Just as wisdom is more than knowledge, information or simple instruction, the Song is not a how-to manual on love, how to make love, find love or even pursue love with a checklist of character traits. Rather, the Song aims to didactically transform its reader into a wise lover with the ability to make sound judgments in love and apply what they have learned in various contexts and situations. 145  Brown, Character, 20.

Chapter 7

Reflections and Avenues for Further Study This investigation of the Song’s relationship to wisdom has reached important conclusions that open up avenues for further research. First, I have offered a new and original exegetical argument for understanding the refrains, which expands upon a few important and overlooked exegetical features. The ‫ ה‬in ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬is anaphoric, pointing to the love displayed throughout the Song, and ‫ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬is elliptical, so that one is not to awaken “that love” until “that love,” the type of love described throughout the Song, is present. This also indicates how we are to know “that love” is present, that it has “desired” to awaken. For if ‫ ָה ַא ֲה ָבה‬refers to the love displayed throughout the Song, then the presence of “that love” is defined by its similarity to it. As discussed, ‫ ַא ֲה ָבה‬is a Leitwort and shows a progressive articulation of meaning throughout the poem, so that the anaphoric article points to what is progressively articulated about love. Even if the ‫ ה‬does not have an anaphoric function, the Song has still been defining what “love” is and looks like throughout its discourse, so that the elliptical nature of ‫“ ַעד ֶשׁ ֶּת ְח ָּפץ‬when love desires to be aroused/present” is still defined by its similarity to the love displayed in the Song. I have argued that the refrains instruct the reader to pursue a particular type of love, modelled by the unmarried lovers throughout the poem: one that is mutual, peaceful, egalitarian, proactive, devoted, desirous, erotic, exclusive, committed and timeless.1 Conversely, one is not to awaken love within themselves until this type of love is actually present, the love in the Song, for as the mashal in 8:6–7 explains, love is extremely powerful. It is unwise to expose oneself to this type of power, when the type of love displayed in the Song is not present, because it often leads to pain and heartbreak. This new understanding of the refrains makes better sense of the exegetical features in the text, which in turn sheds light on the significance of the mashal in 8:6–7 and so provides an entirely new understanding of the book’s wisdom message. Second, this study has demonstrated that the influence of the wisdom genre on the Song was pervasive, running throughout the book. It is not just the mashal in 8:6–7 or even the refrains that give the Song a sapiential flavour. I have noted a pervasiveness of wisdom forms and themes that occur throughout the entire book. In response to Exum’s comment that, “the use of motifs 1  These characteristics are not meant to be exhaustive, but rather, to show what characterizes the love displayed in the Song and the type of relationship that one should arouse love for.

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004331013_008

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from love poetry in ‘wisdom’ contexts, either consciously or unconsciously, and either from the Song of Songs or a work like it, cannot be used to argue that the Song of Songs is wisdom literature,”2 I have not argued that the Song’s wisdom features are the result of specific parallels with the biblical wisdom books, but rather, that they derive from typical forms, themes and conventions found in the broader ane advice literature, which predates the biblical wisdom books by over a thousand years. The features discussed in chapters four and five, and the axes on the graph on which I plotted the Song’s position, are based on a much broader understanding of what was typical of ane “didactic” or “advice literature” as well as biblical wisdom, rather than on specific parallels between the Song and the biblical wisdom books alone. The number of these forms, themes and conventions, and the fact that they are woven so intricately throughout the work, makes it unlikely that these didactic elements are mere editorial glosses giving it a “sapiential flavour.” The mashal, superscription and instructions in 2:7, 3:5, and 8:4 supply an overall structure and purpose to the book, showing that the entire work is devoted to depicting the truth of what they teach. The depiction of the lovers’ relationship throughout is the concretization and didactic narrative realization of when to awaken love, or when “that love” is present, and this means that its wisdom message is intricately woven through the entire book. This demonstrates that these connections to wisdom in the Song are extensive enough to change the way we understand the book. The Song is not just a celebration of love, but is providing wisdom concerning romantic love and how it should be pursued. It is clear that biblical wisdom writers drew upon the ane advice literature genre, yet exercised considerable freedom in its use, employing “a repertoire of genres to address a particular area of concern,” and it is the same with the Song.3 The Song of Songs blends the ane love song and advice literature genres to produce a wisdom literature about romantic love. No genre quite like the Song of Songs exists in the surrounding ane literature for giving advice about love. Whilst there are many Egyptian and Mesopotamian love songs, they do not give advice about love, or suggest that one type of love relationship is to be pursued over many others. Since there were no familiar and authoritative sources of advice literature concerning love, or at least none that are currently extant, it is likely that the writer or compiler of the Song drew upon familiar sources of authority in advice literature, to validate its content and enable it to become a conventional vehicle for wisdom, as well as traditional styles of composition, forms and setting in the known love songs of the ane, namely 2  Exum, “Unity,” 67. 3  Weeks, Introduction, 143, 126, 5. cf. Sneed, “Tradition,” 67.

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Egyptian love poetry, in order to produce an advice literature about romantic love. Here, in the Song of Songs, we see the blending of ane love songs and advice literature, in order to impart wisdom and instruction about love to the next generation, the daughters of Jerusalem, and by extension the reader. This finding changes our understanding of the Song’s genre, but it also has implications for how we understand genre more broadly, in the wisdom books, as well as other biblical books that have connections to wisdom but are not properly categorized as such. Future work in this area might well look at the way in which biblical books categorized as one genre employ the forms, themes or conventions of another and how extensively they do so. The forms and themes on the graph used in chapter five to plot the Song’s place in relation to the other wisdom books are not meant to be exhaustive, but this graph does provide a helpful model for surveying a book’s relationship to the wisdom literature, and might be used to look at the relationship between other biblical books and wisdom as well. One might use it to survey wisdom elements and conventions that appear in biblical books of other genres to see how extensively they are used. Future work might also be done in investigating what elements and conventions of other biblical genres occur in the wisdom books themselves, and how extensively these are used. What will remain most important, in either investigation, is what the presence of these features and conventions from other genres means for our understanding and interpretation of the books themselves. Our purpose in discussing what we call biblical “wisdom” has not been to resolve the current debates in scholarship or arrive at a conclusive definition of what is “wisdom” and what is not, or even to categorize the Song as such. Rather, it has been to understand what these affinities with wisdom imply for the interpretation of the Song itself. The presence of narratival elements, like autobiographical didactic narrative, that we have seen within the poetry of the Song, as well as other wisdom texts more generally, has interesting implications for the discussion of genre. As we saw in the methodology chapter, scholars are increasingly noting that the boundaries between genres are much more permeable than previously thought. If we take the example of narrative and poetry, we might say that even the largest of genre distinctions has its caveats. For some biblical poetry incorporates narratival elements, and poems are found in some biblical narratives. The genre distinction between narrative and poetry still holds. Biblical narrative is not poetry, and poetry not narrative. Yet, it does show that the boundaries between biblical poetry and narrative are not mutually exclusive, and it should warn us that books of one primary genre can incorporate features of others. “Narrative” and “poetry” are still useful distinctions in genre discussions.

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It would be unwise to throw out these distinctions simply because we see elements of one in another, so perhaps, likewise, we should not throw out the distinctions between “wisdom” and other genres of biblical literature. “Wisdom” is still a helpful designation for the type of literature that we are speaking about and I do think that we can speak meaningfully about it, as long as we realize that it sometimes incorporates features of other genres, and books of other genres incorporate some of its features as well. The primary question is how pervasive the features of a given genre are, and what they imply for the interpretation of the book as a whole. Future work should perhaps shift the focus from using genre to categorize biblical books, and rather, focus on what the presence of particular generic features and conventions means for the interpretation of the book itself, for as we have seen, the results can be rewarding. The presence of narratival elements in the Song also has larger implications for the study of character in poetic texts. Discussions concerning the link between literary character and character formation have largely focused on biblical narrative texts, but what has remained for further investigation is the many complex characters outside biblical narrative, particularly those profiled in poetic and wisdom texts.4 I have attempted to begin using the categories that we use to profile literary character in biblical narrative, to discuss literary character in poetic texts like the Song, and have focused on the link between literary character and character formation. As we have seen, the literary characters in the Song are used to prescribe character. The lovers are profiled to lend coherence to the instruction in the refrains, because like Egyptian instruction, the reader, who appropriates the wise teaching, is meant to emulate the characters profiled. Readers are invited to identify with the lovers, to put on the fantasy or disguise of “the wise lover,” because they are meant to imitate them as lovers. Identification with the literary characters in the Song is central to the didactic aim of the book, which seeks to transform its readers into similar lovers. This is an important contribution to how we understand characterization in the Song and the book’s purpose as a whole. Yet, what still remains for further study is the many other complex literary characters profiled in other biblical poetic books, particularly those in the wisdom literature, where we see narrative conventions, like autobiographical didactic narrative or narrative report of character, used. The use of the same categories that we use to profile literary character in biblical narrative can be profitable for discussing these other complex characters within biblical poetry as well. The investigation of parallels with ane love literature in this project has important implications for future research in both Proverbs and the Song. 4  Brown, Wonder, 8.

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Scholars have questioned whether the love motifs used in wisdom contexts derive from the Song of Songs, specifically, or ane love literature more generally. In the case of Proverbs, and particularly Proverbs 7, we have seen that it is using motifs and themes that are distinctive of the Song, and not found in other ane love song texts. Indeed, I have argued that Proverbs 7 deliberately exploits the love lyrics of the Song in order to show the way that seducers often mimic lovers. The presentation of the seductress in Proverbs, and her ability to deceive by imitating the love of the Song, is an important and often unnoticed aspect of Proverbs’ didactic instruction. For it is only by using the love language of the Song, and making the youth think that he is experiencing this type of love, that she is able to deceive so exquisitely. Her seduction is effective precisely because she masquerades as a genuine lover. This is the primary reason that Proverbs 7 uses the language of the Song, and without recognizing its deliberate use of the Song’s language one is likely to miss the full scope of what it is teaching. Proverbs 7 might be about adultery and a rival ethical system, but it also contains an important lesson concerning seduction and how it is effectively executed by imitating love. The meaning of Proverbs 7, and its implications, are significantly enriched by recognizing its use of the Song’s language. These conclusions also open further avenues of study for other sections of Proverbs, as well as the other wisdom books, to see whether their use of the Song’s language changes our understanding of those passages as well. One might look at the many other passages where these love motifs occur to determine whether they are characteristic of the Song, or are also found in the wider ane love literature, and what implications this has for the interpretation of those passages. I have conducted an extensive amount of research on the parallel motifs and themes that occur in love literature throughout the ane. I have found that a number of these motifs, or the way that they are used, are specific to the Song of Songs alone. Yet, what lay outside the scope of this project, and remains for further study, is a full treatment and comparison of all the extant ane love literature available. My research into Egyptian and Mesopotamian love literature has illuminated the fact that no survey of all the ane material comparable to the Song has been done. I would suggest that what is needed is an in depth comparison, not only of the terms and motifs that occur, but also the distinctive ways in which they are used in each individual culture and how these texts differ thematically and in terms of focus. Something similar to Michael Fox’s The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs that compares all of the extant ane love songs with the Song of Songs, not only in terms of isolated motifs and themes, but also in terms of focus, function, view of love, poetic technique, voice, mode of presentation, major themes and purpose, looking at

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similarities as well as differences, would be a significant further contribution to biblical studies. This project has also opened further avenues of study for looking at different types of love in the Hebrew Bible. This project has assessed one – wisdom concerning romantic love. Yet, what remains for further study are the many other portraits of love that occur throughout the Hebrew Bible, in various genres. We find many types of love: eros and agape, parental, brotherly/sisterly or sibling love, love in friendship, love within marriage or even outside of it. It would be interesting to look at the many romantic relationships pictured in the text, inside as well as outside of marriage, for as previously noted, whilst some of these mention love, there are a number that do not.5 We find depictions of wise and foolish love in the Song of Songs and Proverbs, and this can be expanded to include other books. There is love of the divine and love of humanity, including various types of human beings. The Prophets speak at length about love for the underdog in society – the orphan, the widow, the poor and the foreigner or refugee – and they are particularly concerned with protecting these people from exploitation by those more powerful in society. The book of Jonah shows the importance of love for people of other nations or religions, even enemies like the Assyrians. There are texts that speak of God’s love for imperfect, even wicked people, who do not seem to lack the potential to become better, and texts that speak of love for virtuous people, those with truly good hearts displayed in truly good actions towards others. We see love of particular virtues: goodness, truth, beauty and liberté. Still other texts speak of love for nature or creation, including animals, and there are many ecological treatments of biblical texts that speak to this topic. A full treatment of these portraits of love across the Hebrew Bible has not been done and would also be a significant contribution to biblical studies. Romantic love can be one of the most confusing enigmas in human life. The Song of Songs is attempting to give understanding concerning love, wisdom in recognizing what characterizes satisfying love and how to find it. If love is one of the most powerful emotions that humans experience then it is wise to be careful whom one arouses it for. The Song advises readers to arouse love for a relationship that looks like the love of the Song, a relationship of wisdom. It has more to say about love than just that it is “beautiful” or “powerful” or “dangerous.” It directs readers to actually seek the type of love displayed by the lovers throughout the Song. The entire book is devoted to illustrating the lesson contained in the refrains: what it looks like when love is present or has “desired” to awaken. It didactically instructs readers to pursue this type of love, and avoid 5  See footnote #71 of chapter 5.

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others, whilst inviting them to participate in it, identify with the lovers that they are meant to emulate and be transformed into wise lovers themselves. The Song of Songs is not just a reflection on the beauty of love. It is addressing the mystery of human love, what it looks like, when it should be awakened, and providing guidance in how to pursue it wisely, so that one finds the same joy, passion, satisfaction and fulfilment as the lovers in the Song. The Song of Songs teaches readers one of the greatest lessons they can ever learn in life: how to love and be loved in return.

Bibliography Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Narrative. New York: Basic Books, 1981. Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Poetry. New York: Basic Books, 1985. Alter, Robert. The Wisdom Books: Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. New York: Norton, 2011. Andruska, J.L. “The Strange Use of ‫ דגל‬in Song of Songs 5:10.” VT 68 (2017): 1–7. Assis, Elie. Flashes of Fire: A Literary Analysis of the Song of Songs. lhbots 503. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Audet, Jean-Paul. “Le Sens du Cantique des Cantiques.” RB 62, 2 (1955): 197–221. Bar-Efrat, Shimon. Narrative Art in the Bible. London: T & T Clark International, 2008. Bergant, Dianne. “My Beloved is Mine and I Am His (Song 2:16): The Song of Songs and Honor and Shame.” Semeia 68 (1994): 23–40. Berlin, Adele. Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative. bls 9. Sheffield: Almond, 1983. Berry, Donald K. An Introduction to Wisdom & Poetry of the Old Testament. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995. Black, Fiona C. “What Is My Beloved: On Erotic Reading and the Song of Songs.” Pages 35–52 in The Labour of Reading: Desire, Alienation, and Biblical Interpretation. Edited by Fiona C. Black, Roland Boer and Erin Runions. Atlanta: sbl, 1999. Black, Fiona C. The Artifice of Love: Grotesque Bodies and the Song of Songs. lhbots 392. London: T & T Clark, 2009. Bloch, Ariel, and Chana Bloch. The Song of Songs: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. Brenner, Athalya. “Women Poets and Authors.” Pages 86–97 in A Feminist Companion to the Song of Songs. Edited by Athalya Brenner. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1993. Brenner, Athalya. The Intercourse of Knowledge: On Gendering Desire and ‘Sexuality’ in the Hebrew Bible. BibInt 26. Leiden: Brill, 1997. Brenner, Athalya, and Carole R. Fontaine, eds. The Song of Songs: A Feminist Companion to the Hebrew Bible. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 2000. Brown, Francis, S.R. Driver and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. 1906. Repr., Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991. Brown, William P. “The Didactic Power of Metaphor in the Aphoristic Sayings of Proverbs.” jsot 29, 2 (2004): 133–54. Brown, William P. Character in Crisis: A Fresh Approach to the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. Brown, William P. Sacred Sense: Discovering the Wonder of God’s Word and World. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015. Brown, William P. Wisdom’s Wonder: Character, Creation, and Crisis in the Bible’s Wisdom Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014.

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Music/Poems Ahbez, Eden. “Nature Boy.” Performed by Nat King Cole. Capitol Records. 1947. Vinyl. Blake, William. (1757–1827) “Love’s Secret.” Page 146 in Love Poetry. Edited by Juliette Mitchell. Collector’s Library. London: crw Publishing, 2014. John, Elton. “Your Song.” Moulin Rouge. Performed by Ewan McGregor and Alessandro Safina. Interscope Records 333832, 2001. CD. Kretzmer, Herbert. “On My Own.” Les Miserables. Performed by Samantha Barks. Plydor Group. 3733339. 2013. CD. Scannell, Matt. “Everything You Want.” Performed by Vertical Horizon. rca. rca07863 67818–2. 1999. CD. Sidney, Sir Philip. (1554–1586) “With How Sad Steps.” Page 28 in Love Poetry. Edited by Juliette Mitchell. Collector’s Library. London: crw Publishing, 2014. Warren, Diane. “Have You Ever.” Performed by Brandy Norwood. Atlantic. AT0058CD. 1998. CD.

Index of Ancient Sources Hebrew Bible Genesis 1–2 103 1:27 130n86 2–3 65n109 2:9 124 2:10–14 134, 134n102 2:16 124 2:23–25 126n71 11:12 126n71 11:16 126n71 11:29 126n71 24:67 126n71 29:18 126n71 29:30–31 126n71 34:3 126n71 34:19 52n52 37 120 38:18 78n188 39–50 120 Exodus 2:21–22 126n71 18:1–5 126n71 33:22 52n49 20:5 83n206 20:12–17 100n38 34:14 83n206 Numbers 11:1 84 Deuteronomy 4:24 83n206 5:16–21 100n38 6:4–9 28 11:18 79n192 19:4 100n38 21:14 52n52 25:13–16 100n38 Judges 3:26 52n49 4:24 83n202 5:7 52n50

9:7–21 4n11 9:8–15 116n18 14 126n71 14:10–18 109n81 16:4 126n71 19:25–27 126n71 1Sam 1:5 126n71 11:1–5 126n71 11:26–27 126n71 12:24 126n71 13:1 126n71 18:20 126n71 18:26–27 126n71 19:11 126n71 25 126n71 2 Samuel 2:17 83n202 3 126n71 6:16–23 126n71 6:21–23 126n71 9–20 120 12:1–4 116n18 12:7 4n11 24:3 52n51 1Kings 1–2 120 3 48n27, 141, 142 3–10 141 3:12 141 5:9–14 141 5:10–12 123, 123n57 5:12 141 11 48, 48n27 11:1 126n71 11:13 48n28 12:16 57n81 14:9 116n18 16:31 126n71 18:38 84 21:8 78n188 21:25 126n71

198 2Kings 9:22 52n49 20:13 89 Isaiah 5:1–7 2, 3n6, 28 8:3 126n71 27:1 83n202 27:8 83n202 34:10 85n218 42:8 83n206 45:11–12 103 Jeremiah 6:2–5 28 8 95n6 9:16 123, 123n56 9:24 52n51 22:24 79n192 Ezekiel 16 2, 3, 3n5, 3n6 21:3 84n213 23 3n6 23:4 2–3, 3n5 24:15–26 126n71 39:25 83n206 Hosea 2 2 2–3 3n6 2:4–22 28 3:1 2, 126n71 14:6–8 28 Amos 5:8–9 103 Jonah 4:2 52n49 Haggai 2:23 79n192 Zechariah 1:14 83n206

Index of Ancient Sources Psalms 33:6–9 103 49:5 123, 123n56 78:2 123, 123n56 78:48 84 78:58 83n206 115:3 52n51 123:2 52n50 135:6 52n51 Job

2:9–10 126n71 5:7 84 7:19 52n49 9:9 52n51 9:13 52n51 9:22–24 102n48, 126n70 12:6 102n48, 126n70 13:7 100n38 14:12 50 15:30 84n213 21:7–34 102n48, 126n70 23:14–15 100n38 24:2–25 102n48, 126n70 28 85n221, 132n96, 136 28:5 133 28:7–11 133 28:12 103n51, 132n96 28:14 133 28:15 135 28:16–19 135 28:20–28 103n51, 132n96 28:25–26 133 28:28 138n109 31:1 57n81 31:5–6 100n38 31:9–11 100n38 38 118, 118n28, 118n29 38:12–38 118n29 38:36 103n51 38:39–39:26 118n29 38–40 133

Proverbs 1–9 28, 29n58, 124n59, 127 1:7 138n109

Index of Ancient Sources Proverbs (cont.) 1:20–21 40n117, 132, 132n96 2:6 103, 129n80, 131, 136 2:6–7 103n51 2:10 133 3:1–2 65n110, 124n62 3:3 79n192 3:13 131, 132, 134 3:13–18 65n110, 124n62 3:17 131, 134 3:18 124, 134 3:19 103n51 3:21–22 65n110, 124n62, 132 4:1–6 129n80 4:4–9 132, 132n96 4:6 132, 133 4:8 132, 133, 133n98 4:13 132, 132n96 4:22 65n110, 124n62 5 41, 133n97 5:1–9 100n38 5:3 39, 91 5:15–18 38 5:15–20 100n38 5:15–23 65n110, 116 5:18–19 126n71, 133 5:19 38n103, 41n118, 90n241 6:24 90, 90n244 6:25 90 6:31–35 100n38 7 35, 36–42, 35n92, 36n94, 37n97, 38n100, 39n107, 39n109, 41, 43, 87, 88–93, 100n38, 119n34, 121, 121n49, 122, 122n51, 122n52, 127, 127n74, 128, 133n97, 165n98, 181 7:3 79n192, 133 7:4 6n20, 135 7:5 90n244 7:6–23 120 7:8–15 39, 40n117 7:10 92 7:13 89 7:13–15 40n117 7:15 89, 90, 91–92, 92n251 7:16 90 7:16–17 40n117, 89

199 7:16–18 90–91 7:17 40, 90 7:18 39, 40n117, 90, 91, 92 7:21 90, 91, 91n246 7:22 40n117, 91, 91n248 7:23 40n112 7:25 92 7:26 90 8 41, 40n117, 125, 133n97 8:1–4 132, 132n96 8:6–21 133 8:10–11 85n222, 132n96, 135 8:17 132, 133 8:17–21 132, 132n96 8:18–21 132n96, 135 8:19 85n222, 133n98, 134, 135 8:21 132 8:22–30 65n110, 124n62 8:22–31 131n92 8:23 131n93 8:30 133 8:31 133 8:32–36 132 8:34 132 8:34–35 132, 132n96 8:35 65n110, 124n62 9 41, 40n117 9:1–6 132, 132n96 9:5 132, 133, 133n98 9:10 103n51, 138n109 9:11 65n110, 124n62 9:17 90n241 10 124n59 10:20 135n104 11:1 100n38 11:14 97n23 14:34 97n23 16:16 85, 135n104 19:5 100n38 19:9 100n38 19:21 130n86 20:10 100n38 20:12 129n80 20:15 135n104 20:23 100n38 21:1 52n51 21:28 100n38 22:1 135n104

200 22:17–24:22 141n116 22:28 100n38 23:10 100n38 23:22 100n38 24:13–14 134 24:23–34 141n116 24:24 97n23 24:30–34 119n34, 129n80 25:11 135n104 25:12 135n104 26:28 91n246 28:17 100n38 30 141n116 30:18–19 114, 140, 172 30:18–20 1, 118 30:20 90 30:21–23 140 30:21–24 118 31 135n104, 141n116 31:2–4 115 31:18 85n218 31:28 126n71 Ruth 3:11 126n71 4:10 126n71 4:13 126n71 Song of Songs 1:1 32, 108n75, 141–142, 141n114, 142n118, 142n120, 143, 146, 153 1:2 51n48, 54, 62, 73, 78n185 1:2–3 63, 76 1:2–4 73, 133 1:3–4 83 1:4 9, 47, 54, 66n121, 67, 78n185, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 1:5 46, 132, 133, 157n56 1:5–6 117n25 1:5–8 132 1:6 47, 69, 73, 73n163, 78n185, 117n23, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n57, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64

Index of Ancient Sources 1:6–7 46n16 1:7 78n185 1:7–8 9, 66n121, 68, 69, 132, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n57, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 1:9 133, 157n56 1:9–10 117n25 1:9–11 31n71, 62, 78n185, 135 1:11 135 1:12–14 66n121, 154n41 1:12 47, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 1:13 39n109, 40n117, 67, 89n239, 117n24, 134, 135 1:14 117n24, 134, 157n56 1:15 7n27, 63, 70, 117n25, 134, 172 1:15–16 62, 63, 70, 78n185 1:15–17 133, 154n42 1:16 40n117, 63, 70, 132, 172, 173 2 5 2:1–2 117n25 2:1–3 62, 116n19 2:1 62, 133 2:2 7n27, 8, 62, 78n185 2:2–3 78n185, 154n41 2:3 62–63, 63n97, 66n121, 67, 73, 73n162, 78n185, 117n24, 124, 133, 134 2:3–4 78n185, 154n41 2:4 51n47, 66n121, 73 2:4–7 154n43 2:5 48–49 2:6 44, 66n121, 67, 133 2:7 11–12, 43–61, 51n47 2:8 130n84 2:8–9 22n24 2:8–14 162 2:9 40n117, 117n24 2:10 7n27 2:10–14 63, 66n121, 69, 115, 132 2:11–13 65, 65n110, 124, 124n62, 134 2:12–13 51n48 2:13 7n27

Index of Ancient Sources Song of Songs (cont.) 2:14 63, 117n25, 133 2:15 65n110, 75 2:15–16 73n164, 116n21 2:16 62, 73, 73n162, 75, 117n23, 133 2:17 22n24, 40n117, 51n48, 52n50, 63, 77, 117n24, 130n84, 133 3 5, 6, 7, 7n24, 9, 47 3:1 40n117 3:1–2 51n48 3:1–4 51n47, 69, 115, 132, 162 3:2 40n117 3:2–4 39, 66n121 3:3–4 7n24, 40n117 3:4 44, 51n47, 52n50, 67n130 3:4–5 154n43 3:5 11–12, 43–61 3:6 5, 6, 6n21, 39n109, 40n117, 66n121, 134, 135 3:7 46 3:7–11 5–6, 6n21, 54n64 3:9 46, 135 3:11 47, 135 4 6, 6n20 4:1 7n27, 63, 132 4:1–6 117n25 4:1–7 6, 6n21, 67, 116 4:1–15 62, 71n150 4:1–5:1 134 4:4 67n128 4:5 38n103, 41n118, 116, 130n84 4:6 39n109, 40n117, 51n48, 52n50, 63, 66n121, 134, 135 4:7 7n27 4:7–8 66n121 4:8 69, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55, 162 4:8–12 6n20, 76, 135 4:8–16 132 4:8–5:2 157n54 4:9 7n27, 8, 70, 133, 135, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 4:9–10 135 4:9–15 116

201 4:10 7n27, 8, 62, 73, 133, 134, 135, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 4:10–11 63 4:11 39, 63, 132, 134, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 4:11–5:2 117n25 4:12 116, 124, 134, 135, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 4:12–15 63, 65n110, 75, 116, 117n23, 124n62 4:14 39n109, 40n117, 134 4:15 38, 116, 124, 134 4:16 40n117, 51n48, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 116, 124, 133, 134 4:16–5:1 66n121, 117n23 5 5, 7, 9 5:1 6n20, 39, 39n109, 40n117, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 75, 116, 124, 132, 133, 134, 135, 154n43, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 5:2 7n27, 8, 51n48, 63, 69, 132, 133, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55, 162 5:2–7 69, 115 5:2–8 7n24, 7n26, 54n64, 132, 162 5:4 71n152 5:5 39n109, 40n117, 89n239 5:6–7 39, 66n121, 69, 69n137, 132 5:6–6:3 132 5:7 40n117, 69n137 5:9–16 83, 119n32 5:10 63, 76, 173, 173n130, 173n131 5:10–13 134 5:10–16 62, 71–72, 71n150, 71n152, 116, 175n141 5:11 63, 135 5:11–15 117n24 5:11–6:11 134 5:12 63, 67n128, 71n150 5:12–13 132 5:13 39n109, 40n117, 67n128, 89n239, 134

202 5:13–16 133 5:14 63, 71n152 5:14–15 135 5:15 63, 116n19, 124, 134 5:16 62, 63 6:1–2 7n26, 69, 69n137 6:1–3 117n23, 132, 154n43 6:2 39n109, 40n117, 117n25, 124, 134 6:2–3 66n121, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 75, 133 6:2–7 134 6:3 62, 133 6:4 7n27, 22n28, 27, 173, 173n130, 173n131 6:4–7 117n25 6:4–10 62, 71n150, 116 6:5 7n27, 8, 70, 133, 173 6:8 118, 118n27 6:8–9 7n27, 46n16, 63, 76, 132, 135 6:8–10 46, 47, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 6:9 63, 133 6:9–10 117n25 6:10 7n27, 8, 135, 173, 173n130, 173n131 6:10–11 134 6:11 51n48, 63, 73, 73n162, 117n24, 124, 134 6:12 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 7:2 47, 46n16, 63, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 7:2–6 117n25 7:2–9 134 7:2–10 62, 71n150, 116 7:4 38n103, 41n118 7:5 67n128, 71n150 7:6 63, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 7:7 7n27, 8

Index of Ancient Sources 7:8 63, 66n121, 134 7:8–9 116n19, 117n24, 124, 134 7:8–10 117n25 7:9 63 7:10 51n48, 73, 133 7:11 62, 132, 133 7:11–12 66n121 7:11–13 115 7:11–14 63 7:12 73n164 7:12–13 124n62 7:12–14 65, 65n110, 124, 132, 134 7:13 75 7:13–14 51n48 8 5, 5n16, 6 8:1 40n117, 132 8:1–2 51n47, 54, 54n64, 69, 76n179, 132 8:2 76 8:3 44, 133 8:3–4 154n43 8:4 11–12, 43–61, 39n109, 51n47, 56–58, 57n81 8:5 51n48, 66n121, 124 8:6 60, 60n90, 67, 76, 78–86, 84n217, 117n25, 130n85, 133 8:6–7 11–12, 55, 56, 61, 76, 78–86, 78n186, 84n217, 87, 116, 142 8:7 135 8:8–10 64, 64n108 8:9 22n26 8:10 65n110, 117n25, 131, 132, 133, 134 8:11–12 5, 6, 29n57, 47, 48, 48n28, 75, 87n228, 142, 157n56, 165n99 8:12 117n25 8:13 73n164 8:14 22n24, 40n117, 77, 117n24, 130n84, 133 Qohelet 1:10–11 103n52 1:16–18 103n52 2:12–17 103n52 2:26 103n51, 103n52 3 126n70

203

Index of Ancient Sources Qohelet (cont.) 3:1–8 58n83, 115 3:8 140 3:10–11 124n59 4:4 100n38 7:26 100n38 8:14 102n48, 126n70 9:7–10 103n52 9:9 126n71, 140 12:1–6 116 12:13 138n109 12:13–14 103n52 Esther 1–10 120 2:14 52n52 2:17 126n71 Daniel 1:3–6 120 Ezra 28 Nehemiah 28 1 Chronicles 3:1–9 126n71

14:23 132 24:3–6 132n96, 133 24:7–8 135 24:9 131n93 24:12 135 24:13–14 124, 134 24:14–17 132n96, 133, 134 24:15 134 24:16–17 124 24:17 134, 135 24:18 131n93 24:19 132, 134 24:19–21 133 24:20 134, 135 24:25 134 24:25–26 124, 132n96, 133, 134, 134n102 24:29–31 132n96, 133 24:30–31 124, 134, 134n102 51:13–20 132, 132n96 51:19 133 54:28 135 54:30 135 Josephus Ag. Ap. 1.8

142, 142n122

Judith 120

Dead Sea Scrolls

Tobit 120

4QCanta 26n43

Wisdom of Solomon 6:12–16 132, 132n96 6:13 133 6:14 132 6:17 133 6:20 133 7:8–9 132n96, 135 7:11 135 7:14 135 7:29 135 7:35 131n93 8:2 132, 132n96, 133, 134–135 8:3 135 8:5 132n96, 135 8:9 133 8:16 133 8:18 132, 132n96, 135

4QCantb 26n43 Early Jewish Literature Ben Sira 1:14 138n109 6:19 132, 133, 134 6:26 132 6:26–27 133 6:27 132, 132n96 6:28 134 6:30–31 132n96, 135 9:8 84n212 14:14 134

204

Index of Ancient Sources

Classical Literature Aristotle 171, 174 Rhetoric 1410b12–14 174n139 Patristic Literature Augustine De Civitate Dei 14.22–24 74n169 Jerome 74n169 Tertullian 74n169 Masorete Literature Ben Asher

84n214

Ben Naphtali

84n214

Medieval Literature Aquinas 74n169

Bridegroom, Spend the Night in Our House Till Dawn

39n108

Dialogue of Pessimism 97n18 A Faithful Lover in Old Babylonian Dialogue

7, 7n28, 21n21, 64n104

A Field Full of Salt

21n21

Instructions of 97n18 Shuruppak In the Light of the Window

21n21, 31n71

irtum Songs 21n21, 39n111, 40n112 I Shall be a Slave for You

21n21, 64n104

I Will Praise the 97n18 Lord of Wisdom Kiš Love Song

21n21 21n21

Ancient Near Eastern Literature

The Light of Love Making Passed Upon Me (A 7478)

anet 108n79, 148n8, 151n32, 153n39

Love by the Light of the Moon

39n108

cos 108n79, 148n8, 151n32, 153n39

Love Lyrics of Nabû 20n20, 21, 21n21, and Tašmetu 21n23, 22n28, 23, 39n107, 39n108, 108n79, 148n8, 153n39

Dante 88n234

cane IV 108n79 Mesopotamian Literature Babylonian Theodicy 97n18 Banitu and Her Consort

31n71

The Moussaieff Love Song

21n21

Oh Girl, Whoopie!

21n21, 64n104

Royal Love Duet

21n21

205

Index of Ancient Sources Sources of Early 7n28, 21n21, Akkadian 108n79, 148n8, Literature (seal) 153n39 Sumerian Proverbs 97n18 The Woman’s Oath

39n106, 39n110

P. Chester Beatty I, Group A, No. 31

39n106

P. Chester Beatty I, 70n143, 151n30, Group A No. 31–37, 151n31, 152n33 “The Stroll”

Words of Ahiqar 97n18

P. Chester Beatty I, 151n31 Group B, No. 38–40

Egyptian Literature

P. Chester Beatty I, Group B, No. 40

The Cairo Love Songs, 70n143, 151n30 Group A, No. 20, “The Crossing” The Cairo Love Songs, 64n104, 151n30, Group B, No. 21, 152n33 “Seven Wishes” Instructions of 97n18 Amenemhat Instruction of Amenemope

97n18, 106n67

Instructions of Ani 97n18 (or Any) Instructions of 97n18 Kagemni Instructions of 97n18 Ptah-hotep Loyalist Teaching 97n18

22n24

P. Chester Beatty I, 39n110 Group C. No. 41 P. Chester Beatty I, Group C. No. 44

151n31

P. Chester Beatty I, Group C, No. 45

30n67

P. Chester Beatty I, Group C No. 46

64n104, 151n30, 152n33

P. Chester Beatty I, Group C No. 47

64n104, 151n30

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 1

39n111, 151n31, 152n33

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 3

38n104

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 4

39n110, 151n31

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 5

151n30

A Man and His Ba

97n18, 103n55

Miscellanea, DM 1038, No. 49

39n110

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 6

151n30

Miscellanea, DM 1079, No. 53

39n110

P. Harris 500, Group A, No. 7

64n104, 151n30, 152n33

Onomasticon of Amenope

118n29

P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 9

39n109, 40n112

206

Index of Ancient Sources

P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 10

40n112

P. Harris 500, Group C, No. 19

30n67

P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 12

152n33

Rameses Onomasticon 118, 118n29

P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 14

151n31

The Turin Love Songs, 30n67, 38n104 No. 28–30, “The Orchard”

P. Harris 500, Group B, No. 15

151n31, 152n33

P. Harris 500, Group C, No. 18

39n110

The Turin Love Songs, 39n106 No. 30

Index of Subjects absence/abandonment see also searches 6–8, 62–64, 68–70, 69n137, 69n138, 75–76, 151, 152n33, 166 act-consequence nexus see also causation, retribution theology 101, 101n44, 102, 102n48, 102n49, 127, 128, 128n78, 131, 131n91 admiration see praise of the lover/body admonitions 114–115, 147 adultery (-er, -ess) see also seducer 36n94, 38n100, 39, 88, 90, 92, 93, 92n252, 119n34, 127, 181 allegorical interpretation see also divinehuman marriage metaphor 1–4 allegory (-ies) 116–118, 116n20, 116n21, 117n22, 117n23 allusion (-ude) see also reliance on the Song 28, 36n94, 37–38, 37n95, 37n96, 46n19, 124, 125, 129–130 almighty flame see also God, power of love 84–85, 84n212, 84n213, 84n214, 84n215, 84n216, 84n217, 86, 130, 147–148 anachronistic see also choice, violation of social norms, social reality 87, 87n229 ane advice literature 13, 17, 17n11, 19, 24, 105–109, 105n59, 105n60, 105n61, 106n68, 109–111, 112, 116, 116n19, 118, 118n30, 119n32, 119, 137, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 153, 159–160, 160n72, 160n73, 160n78, 176, 178–179, 180 ane didactic literature see ane advice literature ane iconography 22n24, 23, 23n33, 23n34, 38, 130 ane love song/poetry (genre) see also genre  8–9, 8n32, 10, 11, 13, 15, 22n28, 26, 33, 33n80, 33n81, 42, 64, 69, 87, 87n229, 108–109, 108n77, 108n79, 112, 114n11, 117n24, 130, 136, 137, 140n112, 141, 144, 146, 148–153, 148n8, 151n31, 151n32, 152n33, 152n34, 153n39, 156, 178–179 ane love song texts 19–24, 19n15, 22n28, 64, 64n104, 108, 108n79, 109, 137, 148, 148n8, 151n30, 151n31, 151n32, 152n33, 153, 153n39, 156

ane wisdom literature see ane advice literature animal/nature imagery 132n96, 133–134, 133n100 animals/plants 69, 116, 117, 118, 118n29 anthology (-ies) see also unity 33–35, 34n84, 34n87, 151, 151n32, 152n34, 156 anthropological 99, 100, 104 aphrodisiacs see artificial stimulants apple tree see also fruit tree(s), creation  22, 49n36, 63, 116n19, 117, 124 Aramaisms see also transmission history, linguistic updating 25, 25n37, 26n43, 27n44 archaic elements 26, 25n39, 28 arresting see also astonishment, unnerved/ unsettling 70, 172, 172n125 artificial stimulants 48–49, 49n31 artist (-s, -ic) see also social groups 13, 31n73, 87, 109 Assyria 20, 28, 95–99 Assyriology (field) 17, 17n10, 22n28, 95–97, 97n18, 98n27 astonishment see also wonder, awe 70–71, 172, 173 attraction see physical attraction audience/reader see also inclusion of the reader, reader identification 52, 59, 59n88, 60–61, 78, 109, 119, 137, 154, 154n40, 154n42, 154n43, 179 author(ess) (-ship) see also literacy 32–33 authoritative individual/advice 105–106, 108, 108n75, 114, 119, 120, 142, 146, 146n5, 160n72 autobiographical confession 36, 109, 109n81, 111, 119–123, 119n34, 140, 143, 179, 180 autonomy 9–10, 66–67, 66n121, 67n130, 69, 87 awaken (-ing) metaphor see also stereotyped didactic allusion, narrative realization  51n48, 51, 59, 59n88, 60–61, 119, 122, 122n52, 127–128, 143, 178 awe see also wonder, fascination 69, 70–73, 70n144, 71n147, 172–173, 172n124, 172n125, 173n129, 173n130, 173n131, 173n132

208 beauty see also desire, awe, vulnerable  70–72, 70n144, 70n146, 71n147, 71n152, 72n157, 125–126, 125n66, 134–135, 172, 172n125, 173n131 becoming (wise) lovers see also emulation, transformation of the reader 154, 156, 158–159, 159n69, 161, 165, 166–171, 172–175, 176, 180 bed see also palanquin 5–6, 46, 47, 47n21, 47n23, 70 betrothed see also unmarried lovers 5, 54n62, 74 body (importance/value of) see also physical features, physical attraction 70–72, 72n157, 74n170, 75, 117–118, 175n141 body imagery see also imagery, physical attraction 8–9, 20n20, 63n100, 66, 66n120, 67n128, 71–73, 71n150, 71n151, 71n152, 72n154, 73n162, 73n163, 73n164, 73n165, 77, 116, 117–118, 117n23, 117n24, 118n29, 121, 124, 126, 133–135, 155, 155n49, 175n141 brave (-ing) danger 68–70, 69n137, 115, 162 bride see also sister, terms of endearment 6n20, 6n21, 76, 76n179, 135, 157, 157n54, 157n55 canon (inclusion) 11, 141, 142, 142n119, 142n120, 142n121 casual romance see also committed, timeless 76, 77 causation see also order, act-consequence nexus, regularity 101–102, 102n48, 102n49, 104, 113, 127, 128, 128n78, 147 caution see also power of love, dangerous  60–61, 78, 82, 84–86, 87, 113, 114, 147–148 cedar of Lebanon see also palm tree, olive tree 22, 63, 71n150, 116n19, 124, 134 celebration of love see also wisdom message (Song), didactic 1, 10–14, 145, 145n1, 146, 166, 176, 178 character (literary) see also prescriptive character 18, 42, 62, 155–156, 155n51, 159–166, 160n76, 160n77, 160n78, 164n92, 165, 165n98, 176, 180

Index of Subjects characteristics of love (in Song) see also checklist 62–78, 62n95, 78n185, 119, 126, 147, 152, 165, 177, 177n1 character formation see also reader identification, transformation of the reader 18, 110, 110n83, 111, 137, 153–175, 160n74, 160n76, 160n77, 160n78, 164n92, 164n94, 164n95, 164n96, 164n97, 166n100, 166n102, 167n103, 168n107, 169n108, 169n109, 169n110, 169n111, 169n112, 170n113, 170n115, 172n121, 176, 180, 180n4 character growth 167, 168–170, 169n108, 169n111, 169n112, 170n113, 175 character portrayal consistency 33–35, 34n84, 46, 121, 152, 152n34, 155–156, 155n51, 160, 162, 171 character profiling in wisdom see also instruction (form), emulation 159–160, 165, 176, 177, 180 characters (the lovers) see also demonstration of wisdom, normative behaviour 153, 154–156, 158–160, 160n73, 160n77, 161–168, 161n81, 161n82, 162n83, 162n85, 162n86, 163n87, 163n90, 163n91, 164n94, 164n95, 164n96, 164n97, 165n98, 171, 172, 173, 174, 174n140, 176 chaste (-ity) see also sexual, unmarried lovers 5, 53–55, 54n62, 54n64, 73–74, 73n163, 73n164, 74n166, 74n170, 75, 76, 116, 117n23 checklist see also situational wisdom, guidelines 176, 62n95, 177n1 choice (in love) see also human ability/ responsibility 56–58, 56n75, 57n81, 59–61, 59n88, 66, 82, 87, 128, 128n76, 128n77, 128n78, 129, 147, 148, 170, 176 cognition/reason in love see also wise emotions, system of reasoning 61, 128, 168–170, 169n108, 169n109, 169n110, 169n111, 170n113, 171, 175, 176 committed (-ment) see also timeless 75, 76–77, 79–80, 84, 85, 147, 171 compiler see editor/compiler compliment (-ary) 6, 8–9, 10, 62–64, 63n98, 70–73, 71n150, 71n152, 72n157

Index of Subjects concubines see also polygamy, prostitution  48, 87, 87n228 confident (-ce) see security conflict 64–65, 126, 126n71, 127, 151, 152n33, 166 conflicting rules see also situational wisdom, personal judgment 170–171, 170n116, 171n117 contest/debate 116n19, 119n32 contraceptives (-ion) 73n165 cosmic powers/battles see also mashal  80–82, 81n200, 82n201, 83n208 cosmological see also creation, order 99, 101–103, 104 council see also Maker/Creator 101, 103, 125 creation see also Maker/Creator, springtime, Eden 64–65, 65n109, 65n110, 101, 103, 104, 110, 111, 124–125, 124n59, 129, 134, 134n102 cult (-ic) see also ritual 19–22, 24, 20n20, 21n22, 23n33, 30–31, 30n68, 48–49, 149 curiosity see also luring quality, seeking 172 dangerous (-ers of) love (see also painful relationships, lasting effects 55–56, 55n68, 65, 86, 113, 148 dating (the Song) 22n28, 24–29, 40, 87n228 daughters of Jerusalem see also next generation 43, 44, 52, 59, 59n88, 60–61, 107–109, 114, 137, 146, 154, 154n40, 154n43, 179 daydreams/fantasies 69, 69n137 death 80–82, 85–86, 129, 167n105 deception (in love) 88–93, 181 deconstruct (-ion) see also patriarchal (marriage), pragmatic relationships, redemptive 165–166, 165n98 deconstructionist interpretation see also mutual, compliment, equal 6–10, 62–64, 63n98, 64–65, 66–68, 66n121, 67n124, 69, 69n137, 69n138, 70–72, 71n150 deep resonate chord see also vicarious experience, internalization 175, 175n144 demonstrated (-ion of) wisdom see also character profiling in wisdom, prescriptive character 62, 159–160, 162–163, 164–165, 177, 178, 180

209 depatriarchalizing see equal, non-hierarchical desire see also beauty, luring quality 70–73, 75, 78n185, 115–116, 117, 167n104, 168, 168n107, 169–170, 170n113, 171, 173–174, 173n128, 174n133, 175, 176 destabilizing experience see also metaphor, transformation of perceptions 174–175, 174n136, 174n137 development of desires see also vicarious experience, redirection of emotions 168, 169, 170, 175, 176 development of intentions see also vicarious experience, desire 167, 169–170, 176 devoted/sacrificial 68–70, 69n137, 69n138, 78n185, 162, 171 dialect (Northern Hebrew, colloquial) see Hebrew diachronic 35–36 dialogue format 62, 118–119, 118n30, 118n31, 119n32, 121, 121n49, 122, 149, 149n12, 150–151, 150n21, 150n22, 150n23, 150n25, 151n26, 151n27, 161, 161n80, 161n81, 161n82, 162, 162n83, 167, 167n106 didactic 15, 24, 43, 88, 108, 113, 114–115, 120, 122, 123, 127, 142, 142n121, 142n122, 143, 143n127, 144, 145–176, 172n121, 174n139, 175n142 didactic poem (form) 109, 109n81, 111, 115–116 didactic verse narrative see also narrative report of character, Leitwort 109, 109n81, 111, 119–123, 119n34, 120n38, 120n39, 120n40, 120n41, 121n45, 121n46, 121n47, 121n48, 121n49, 122n50, 122n51, 122n52, 144, 160–161, 160n78, 161n79, 176, 179–180 direct characterization see also character (literary), dialogue 161, 161n80, 161n81, 161n82 direction of influence see also reliance on Song (wisdom books) 12–13, 24, 22n28, 28, 29n58, 35, 35n92, 36–37, 36n94, 40–42, 40n113, 42n121, 136n105, 181 volume of use 28, 40–41, 40n117, 41n118 modification 40, 41, 89–92, 90n242, 91n247, 92n251, 92n252 integration 40, 42n121

210 direction of influence (cont.) conceptual dependence 40, 41, 88, 92, 93 interpretive expansion 40, 41–42, 88n231, 93 discernment see also prudence, human ability/responsibility 126, 131, 137, 170, 171, 176 discipline (in love) see also cognition/reason in love, wise emotions 61, 170 discretion see also caution, human ability/ responsibility 61, 87, 128, 129 disguise (-s)/fantasy see travesties divine gift see also sacred, divine origin 86, 103, 129–130, 129n80, 148 divine-human marriage metaphor 2–3, 19–21, 24, 30–31, 149, 149n11 divine origin see also sacred, Lady Wisdom 100, 100n38, 102–103, 103n51, 104, 110, 111, 125, 129–130, 129n80, 129n81, 131, 131n93, 131n94, 136 divine patronage see also sacred, every-day life focus 21n22, 31n70, 86, 129–130, 148 ‘do not awaken’ refrains/instructions see also instruction 11–12, 12n53, 51–52, 51n47, 51n48, 59–61, 59n88, 64, 65, 68, 70, 72, 75, 76, 77–78, 82, 86, 87, 92, 93, 107–108, 108n79, 114–115, 115n14, 115n15, 115n16, 122, 125, 127–128, 129–130, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146–147, 153, 154, 159, 160, 160n72, 165, 169, 171, 175, 175n142, 176, 177–178, 180 double entendre see also sexual 49n36, 49 dove (-s) 8, 23, 23n33, 63, 67n128, 71n150, 117, 133, 67n128 eating/drinking of love see also metaphor, sexual, euphemism 37, 39, 39n110, 39n111, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 117n23, 133, 154 Eden 65n109, 124, 125, 134, 134n102 echoing (technique) 63, 63n98, 63n100, 70, 73, 88 editor/compiler see also linguistic updating, transmission history 32, 34, 35, 137, 142–143 editorial glosses see also editor/compiler 11, 11n49, 34, 35, 142–143, 178

Index of Subjects egalitarian see equal Egypt 17n11, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 73n165, 95–99, 97n19, 97n22, 101–102, 102n45, 103n55, 105n60, 106, 149n11 Egyptian love songs 4, 6n11, 15, 19–24, 21n22, 22n24, 24n35, 27, 28, 29–31, 30n67, 30n68, 30n69, 31n71, 34, 38, 38n103, 38n104, 38n105, 39n106, 39n109, 39n110, 39n111, 40n112, 64, 64n104, 68, 68n134, 70n143, 75, 108, 108n79, 109, 137, 148–153, 149n10, 149n12, 149n13, 149n14, 149n15, 150n16, 150n17, 150n18, 150n19, 150n20, 150n24, 151n28, 151n29, 151n30, 151n31, 151n32, 152n33, 152n34, 152n35, 153, 156, 157, 157n54, 166, 178–179 Egyptology (field) 17, 17n10, 95–97, 97n18, 98n27 emotions see also emotional learning, emotional intelligence 166, 167–170, 167n104, 167n106, 169n108, 169n109, 169n110, 169n111, 170n113, 171, 174, 175, 175n144, 176 emotional intelligence see also emotional learning, cognition/reason in love 61, 168–170, 169n108, 169n112, 176 emotional learning see also redirection of emotions, emotional intelligence 168, 169–170, 169n111, 175, 176 empiricism see also order, regularity, causation 100, 101, 101n43, 102–103, 103n50, 103n52, 104, 110, 111, 113, 124, 125, 128, 129–130, 129n80, 129n81 emulate (-ion) see also specific types of lovers, specific type of love relationship/ experience 153, 156, 159–160, 160n73, 161, 164–165, 164n95, 165–170, 171, 174, 176, 180 entertainment see also celebration of love  1, 10–14, 30n68, 145, 145n1, 154, 176 epigraphy (-ic) 26 epithets see also terms of endearment, travesties 34n86, 46, 47, 156–158 equal (-ity) see also gender, reciprocal actions/speech 3, 6, 9–10, 66–68, 67n124, 78n185, 87, 171 erotic see sexual ethical see also virtue 165n98, 170–171, 170n114

Index of Subjects euphemism (-s) see also sexual 49n36, 49, 63, 63n97, 73, 73n162, 73n163, 73n164, 117n23 everlasting see never-ending everyday-life focus see also secular, divine patronage 30n68, 31n70, 21n22, 100, 102n50 evocative see also allusion 37, 38n103, 38n105, 39, 39n106, 39n107, 39n109, 39n111, 40n112, 41, 116, 127, 131–136 exceptions to order/wisdom 102, 102n47, 86n225 exchanges in power 67–68, 68n133 exclusive (-ness) see also fidelity, monogamy 48, 75–76, 75n176, 78n185, 79–80, 83–84, 85, 87, 87n228, 113, 114, 116, 116n21, 117, 147, 165 exegetical features of refrains 51–52, 51n47, 51n48, 59–60, 59n88, 147, 177 experience see also vicarious experience, destabilizing experience 65, 65n117, 100, 106, 113, 119–120, 119n34, 123, 124, 147, 166–169, 166n101, 167n105, 167n106, 174–175, 174n136, 175n141, 176 extravagant praise 47, 157, 157n55, 157n56, 158 fable/allegory (form) 109, 109n81, 111, 116–118, 116n18, 116n19, 116n20, 116n21, 117n22, 117n23, 117n24, 119n32 faithfulness see fidelity fascination see also curiosity, luring quality  70–73, 71n150, 71n152, 72n153, 72n157, 75, 173, 173n128 fear (affiliative) see also wonder, luring quality 172–173, 173n128, 173n129, 173n130 fear of the Lord see also fear (affiliative), reverent fear 104, 110, 111, 138, 173, 173n129 female autonomy see autonomy feminist interpretation see also redemptive 9–10, 66–68, 66n118, 66n121, 66n123, 67n124, 67n126, 67n128, 67n130, 71–72, 71n148, 71n149, 71n150, 71n152, 72n156, 73–74, 73n165, 74n166, 74n167, 75, 75n172, 87, 88–89, 89n238, 114, 128n78, 173n131, 175n141 fertility see also womb, cultic, contraceptives 19–24, 21n21, 24n35, 48, 73–74, 73n165, 149, 149n10, 149n11

211 festival see ritualistic festival social setting fidelity/faithfulness see also exclusive, monogamy 3, 75–76, 77, 113, 132–133, 165n98, 171 figurative (-ion) language see also imagery, metaphor 18, 121, 121n47, 122, 160, 160n75, 167–168, 174, 174n138, 174n140, 176 final form (of the book) 24–25, 29, 33, 42 folly (in love) 48n27, 61, 64, 65, 65n117, 68, 70, 72, 76, 77, 77–78, 84, 85, 86, 86n225, 87, 88, 89, 93, 102n47, 127, 128, 128n75, 147–148 fountain, spring, well 38, 38n105, 116, 124, 134 ‘free love’ see also monogamy, exclusive  75–76, 75n176, 152 freedom of movement 9, 66–67, 66n121, 69 fruit see also metaphor, eating/drinking 49, 63, 63n97, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 134, 135 fruit tree(s) see also Eden, Tree of Life, creation 22, 49, 117n24, 124, 134 fulfilment see also life-giving, shalom 75n172, 86, 100, 119, 127, 128, 130–131, 130n87, 168, 182–183 garden 9, 19, 38n105, 63, 66, 73, 73n162, 73n164, 73n165, 75, 87, 116, 117n23, 124, 134, 149n11 gaze see also sexual, visual 9, 70, 72, 72n155, 72n156, 173n130, 173n131, 175n141 gazelles, deer, does, fawns 22n24, 38, 38n103, 41n118, 43, 44, 57, 114, 116, 129–130 gender (relations, stereotyping) see also autonomy, shared roles 9–10, 66–68, 66n120, 66n121, 66n122, 66n123, 67n124, 67n125, 67n126, 67n128, 67n130, 71–72, 71n148, 71n149, 71n150, 72n156, 87, 92n252, 173n131, 175n141 genre (-s) 15–17, 16n4, 87, 87n229, 99, 99n31, 99n32, 179–180 God see also allusion, divine origin 31n70, 48, 83, 84–85, 84n214, 84n215, 84n216, 84n217, 124–125, 129–130, 131, 131n93, 131n94, 136 god/goddess see also iconography 22n24, 23, 39, 39n107, 48–49 gods (love between) see also human love, prayer, sacred 19, 21–24, 21n22, 30n69, 149, 149n11

212 the ‘good life’ 100, 110, 111, 130–131, 130n87, 131n88, 183 grotesque (-erie) 8–9 guidelines see also conflicting rules, personal judgment 170–171, 102, 102n47, 86n225, 176 harem see also polygamy, concubines 29n57, 47, 48, 48n28, 76, 87, 87n228 harmony see also peace 64–65, 131, 131n90, 150, 171 Hebrew colloquial dialect 26–27 early biblical Hebrew (ebh) 25, 25n38, 26, 26n42 see also archaic elements, Aramaisms late biblical Hebrew (lbh) 25n37, 26n42 see also Aramaisms, orthography, loan words Mishnaic Hebrew (MH) 25n37, 52 northern Hebrew dialect 25–26, 26n40, 27 standard biblical Hebrew (sbh) 25n37, 26, 26n40 writing 25–26, 27–28, 27n47, 28n48 see also inscriptions, epigraphy, orthography, oral songs highest knowledge of love see also vicarious experience, superlative love relationship 152–153, 152n35, 152n36, 152n34, 153, 156, 159, 166 historical development see dating honey 39, 39n106, 91, 134 how-to manual see also situational wisdom, guidelines 176 human ability/responsibility see also choice, discretion 56, 56n75, 57–58, 59n88, 60–61, 82, 101, 128, 128n76, 128n77, 128n78, 129, 145, 147, 148, 170, 171, 176 human love 4, 15, 19, 21n21, 21n22, 23, 24n35, 149, 149n10, 172 hymn/prayer (form) 109, 109n81, 111, 115 identity of the lovers see also inclusion of the reader, reader identification 154–156, 155n45, 155n47, 155n48, 155n50, 155n51, 156–158, 157n55

Index of Subjects imagery see also figurative language, metaphor 18, 63n98, 65n109, 66, 66n120, 67n126, 67n128, 71–72, 71n150, 71n151, 71n152, 73, 73n162, 73n163, 73n164, 79–80, 81–85, 88, 116–118, 117n23, 117n24, 118, 118n29, 121, 124, 125, 126, 132–136, 132n96, 150, 150n25, 157, 157n56, 160, 160n75, 174– 175, 174n137, 174n138, 174n140, 175n141 imitation of love 88–93, 128, 170, 181 impassive see also passion 74–75, 74n169, 74n170 implementation of wise instruction see also internalization 61, 169–170, 176 inclusion of the reader see also invitation to participate, reader identification  154–156, 154n43, 155n50, 158–159 indirect characterization see also character (literary) 162–163, 162n83, 162n84, 162n85, 162n86 infidelity see also fidelity, exclusive 75, 90–91, 92n252, 113, 151, 152n33, 152, 166 inner-biblical see also deliberate re-use, direction of influence 35–42, 35n92, 88, 89–93, 88n230, 88n231 inquiry see also wonder, desire, pursuit 172, 173–174, 173n132, 174n133, 175 inscriptions 27n47 inspiration see also vicarious experience, becoming (wise) lovers 165, 166, 169–170, 170n113, 172, 175, 175n142, 175n144 instruction (form) see also ‘do not awaken’ refrains/instructions 11–12, 105–108, 105n61, 106n68, 109n81, 109–111, 114–115, 115n14, 146–147, 159–160, 160n72, 160n73, 169, 176 intentions see also experience, perception 166, 167, 167n103, 168, 169, 169n110, 170, 174, 174n137, 175, 176 interest in imparting wisdom 105, 107, 109–110, 111, 112, 136–137, 145 internalize (-ation) see also vision of love 166, 167–168, 169, 175, 175n144, 176 interpretations of refrains see also ‘do not awaken’ refrains/instructions 43–61 inter-textual (-ality) 35–36 invitation to participate see also specific type of love relationship/experience 154, 154n43, 156, 165

213

Index of Subjects irresistible (love) see also human ability/ responsibility, choice 56–58, 57n81, 60–61, 81–82 jealousy see also exclusive 76, 80, 81, 82–84, 83n204, 83n205, 83n206, 83n207, 84n210, 85, 127, 147 king see also royal language, epithets, extravagant praise 47, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 Lady Folly 40n117, 88, 90n241, 127 Lady Wisdom see also revelation, divine origin 6n20, 40n117, 42, 103, 104, 110, 111, 127, 130, 131–136, 131n93, 131n94, 133n98, 135n103, 136n105 lasting effects (of love) 82, 85, 86, 148 Leitwort 59n87, 122, 122n50, 122n51, 177 life-giving see also the ‘good life,’ shalom 64–65, 65n110, 65n117, 87, 100, 110, 111, 115, 124, 124n62, 129, 130–131, 175n141 linguistic dating see dating linguistic updating see also transmission history, editorial glosses 25, 25n38, 26n43, 35n91 lions/leopards 23, 23n33, 69, 162 lists (form) 109, 109n81, 111, 118, 118n28, 118n29 literacy see also author(ess) 33, 33n78, 95 literal interpretation 1–4 literary activity see also Hebrew writing, dating 25–26, 27–28, 27n47, 28n48 literary dependence see direction of influence literary circles see social groups loanwords 25n37, 25n38 love poetry (genre) see ane love poetry love-sickness 56, 86, 86n226 love’s presence 56, 58, 59–61, 59n88, 87, 114–115, 119, 127–128, 137, 147–148, 170, 170n113, 177 love-triangle 5, 45–46, 44n3, 46n13, 75, 76, 83–84 luring quality (pull) see also curiosity, fascination, desire 168, 172, 173–174, 174n133, 174n134, 174n135 lust 74–75, 75n171, 75n173, 88, 91

Maker/Creator see also creation, council 101, 103, 124–125 marriage see also wedding, unmarried lovers 1, 5–6, 19, 53–55, 54n62, 54n64, 73–74, 73n165, 74n166, 74n167, 76, 76n179, 77, 149, 163, 165–166 mashal/proverb (in Song) see also proverb (form), caution 43, 55, 56, 78–86, 78n186, 84n217, 87, 93, 107–108, 108n79, 113–114, 113n8, 114n11, 115, 122, 125, 127, 129–130, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 147–148, 177–178 meaning (-ful) see also values/norms, vicarious experience 166–167, 169 member of the royal court see also royal language, epithets, extravagant praise 46, 47, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 Mesopotamia 17n11, 32, 34, 73n165, 79, 79n189, 95–99, 97n19, 105n60, 106 Mesopotamian love songs 7, 7n28, 19–24, 20n20, 21, 21n21, 21n22, 21n23, 22n24, 22n28, 23, 24n35, 31n71, 34n87, 38, 38n103, 38n105, 39n106, 39n107, 39n108, 39n110, 39n111, 40n112, 64, 64n104, 73n165, 75, 108, 108n79, 137, 149, 149n10, 151n32, 152n34, 157n54, 178 metaphor (-ical) see also figurative language, imagery 18, 47n21, 71–72, 71n152, 73, 73n163, 73n164, 81–85, 116–117, 117n22, 117n23, 121, 135, 160, 160n75, 167–168, 167n106, 174–175, 174n137, 174n138, 174n139, 174n140, 175n141, 175n142 monogamy (-ous) see also exclusive, fidelity 75–76, 75n176 monologue 119, 149–150, 149n12, 149n13, 149n14, 149n15 motif repetition see also thematic coherence, scene repetition 33–35, 34n84, 34n86, 37, 62–63, 63n98, 68, 69, 71, 71n150, 73, 77, 88, 89–92, 132–136 mutual (-ity) 1, 6–9, 9–10, 62–64, 68, 70, 72, 75, 78n185, 80, 85, 113, 114, 132–133, 147, 152 myrrh, aloes, cinnamon 37, 39, 39n109, 40, 40n117, 89, 89n239, 89240, 90–91, 92, 134, 135 narrative (-ity, -ival) see also didactic verse narrative, narrative report of character 18, 121–123, 121n45, 121n46,

214 narrative (-ity, -ival) (cont.) 121n47, 121n48, 121n49, 122n50, 122n51, 122n52, 160–161, 160n74, 160n75, 176, 179–180 narrative realization (of metaphor) see also awaken (-ing) metaphor 122, 122n52, 127–128, 143, 178 narrative report of character 36, 121, 121n48, 121n49, 122, 122n51, 160–161, 160n74, 161n79, 180 nature see also springtime, creation 64–65, 113, 115, 118, 121, 124, 126, 133–134, 147 negative view of love see also dangerous 55–56, 55n68, 85–86, 85n223, 86n224 never-ending (love) see also committed, seal 76, 77–78, 114 next generation see also daughters of Jerusalem, instruction (form) 105–109, 114, 137, 146–147, 147n6, 154, 179 non-hierarchical see also equal 9–10, 66–68, 66n121, 66n122, 66n123, 67n124, 67n126, 67n124 normative behaviour see also prescriptive character 161, 164–166, 164n92, 164n97, 165n98, 176 northern locations see also Tirzah 27, 27n45 oath 44, 58, 59, 114, 129–130 obstacles (to love) 67, 68–70, 69n137, 69n138, 70n143, 115, 162 olive tree see also palm tree, peace 124, 134 onomastica/nature lists 118, 118n28, 118n29 oral songs 27n47 order see also causation, exceptions to order/ wisdom 101–102, 104, 110, 111, 113, 125–127, 125n67, 125n68, 126n70, 126n71, 131, 147 orthography see also dating, Hebrew 25n37, 26 ostraca 33 painful relationships see also caution, prudence 61, 64, 65, 65n117, 68, 70, 72, 76, 77, 77–78, 84, 85, 86, 86n225, 87, 102n47, 115, 140, 147–148, 168, 170, 170n113, 177 palanquin 5–6, 47, 47n23 palm tree see also peace, olive tree 23n33, 23n34, 63, 71n150, 116n19, 117, 117n24, 124, 134

Index of Subjects papyri 33 parallels (with ane love song texts) 19–24, 19n15, 22n28, 24n35, 27, 29–31, 31n71, 34, 42, 108, 148, 148n9 content/focus differences 23–24, 73n165, 108, 108n79, 114n11, 137, 140–141, 144, 148, 149–153, 148n8, 149n11, 149n15, 150n16, 150n20, 150n21, 151n26, 151n27, 151n28, 151n29, 151n32, 152n33, 152n34, 152n35, 152n36, 153, 153n39, 156, 166, 178–179 motif differences  12n55, 21n21, 22, 22n24, 22n25, 22n26, 23, 34n85, 38–40, 37n98, 38n103, 38n105, 39n106, 39n107, 39n109, 39n111, 40n112, 150 see also stock ane love language/ terminology motif similarities 22, 22n24, 22n25, 22n26, 23n33, 23n34, 38, 38n105, 39, 39n107, 39n108, 39n109, 39n110, 40n112 stylistic differences 19–20, 21n21, 24n35, 152n34 thematic differences 19, 21n21, 23–24, 24n35, 31n71, 64, 64n104, 73n165, 75, 149–151 parallels (with other biblical books) see reliance on the Song parallels (with wisdom books) see reliance on the Song passion see also fulfilment 74–75, 74n169, 74n170, 75n172, 75, 75n173, 86, 117, 148 paths (two-ways) 61, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 93, 110, 111, 122, 127–129, 127n74, 128n75, 128n76, 128n77, 128n78, 143, 147–148 patriarchal (marriage) see also choice, equality, deconstruction 3, 74, 87, 163, 165–166 patriarchal (society) see also violation of social norms, redemptive 66–67, 66n121, 66n122, 66n123, 67n124, 74, 74n166, 74n170, 87, 87n229, 163, 165–166 peace (-ful) see also perception, harmony, shalom 64–65, 110, 111, 126, 131, 131n90, 134, 148, 171, 175n141 perception (-s) see also experience, transformation of perceptions 64–65, 65n117, 70, 166–167, 166n101, 166n102, 170, 172, 172n125, 173, 174–175, 174n136, 174n137, 174n139, 174n140, 175n141, 175n142, 176

Index of Subjects performance 29, 31–32 permanency see also never-ending, timeless, seal 76, 77, 78, 79, 114 personal judgment see also discernment, cognition/reason in love 169, 169n109, 170–171, 176 personal realism see also relatability  164–165, 164n94, 164n95 personified (-cation) 51, 51n45, 56, 81–82, 81n200, 82n201, 83n208, 131, 136 physical attraction see also wonder, body (importance/value of) 70–73, 70n145, 71n147, 71n152, 72n156, 72n157, 117, 175n141 physical features (of lovers) see also identity of the lovers, reader identification  155–156, 155n49, 173n131 pleasure 73, 73n165, 74, 74n169, 75, 75n172, 117, 133, 168 poet (-s) see also social groups 31n73, 33, 152–153, 165 poetry see also didactic verse narrative, ane love song/poetry 167, 167n104, 167n105, 169, 176, 179–180 polygamy see also concubines, exclusive 29n57, 48, 48n27, 87, 87n228, 165, 165n99 power (-ful) of love see also caution, danger, passion 80–82, 82n201, 84–86, 87, 113, 114, 115, 127, 147–148, 177 pragmatic relationships see also deconstruction, value (of love) 74, 165–166, 175n141 praise of the lover/body see also body (importance/value of), body imagery 62–63, 63n98, 63n100, 70–73, 71n152, 72n157, 115–116, 117, 117n24, 155, 155n49, 157, 157n55, 173n131, 175n141 prayer (-s) see also sacred 19, 21n21, 21n22, 30n69 prescriptive character (-ization) see also demonstrated wisdom, normative behaviour 159, 161, 164–166, 164n92, 164n94, 164n95, 164n96, 164n97, 176, 180 priests see also cultic, social groups 31n73, 95n6, 95n11, 97n23, 98n25, 99n30, 100n38

215 prince see also royal language, epithets, extravagant praise 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 princess/noble birth see also royal language, epithets, extravagant praise 46, 47, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n56, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 proactive 68, 67n130, 70n143, 78n185 procreation see also womb, fertility 19, 73–74, 73n165, 74n166, 74n167, 149, 149n11, 163, 165–166 progeny 74, 74n166 promiscuity see also monogamy, exclusive 75, 116 prophets (-ic texts) see also social groups 2–3, 31n73, 95n6, 95n11, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 99n30 prosperity for king/royal family see also sacred marriage, gods 19, 21–22, 24, 21n21, 149 prostitution see also contraceptives 74n170, 87, 87n228, 92n252 proverb (form) see also mashal 11–12, 105–108, 105n61, 109–111, 109n81, 113–114, 113n8, 114n11, 147–148 prudence see also caution, human ability/ responsibility 60–61, 82, 86, 159, 171, 176 public acceptance see also committed 76 purpose (in life) see also order, regularity, beauty 125–126, 125n66, 130 purpose (of the Song) see also wisdom message, didactic 14, 15, 19, 24, 107, 136, 140, 143, 149, 152–153, 156, 159, 178, 180 pursuit see also luring quality, seeking 172, 173–174, 173n132, 176 reader identification see also specific types of lovers, emulation 18, 62, 153–156, 154n42, 155n50, 155n51, 158–159, 158n64, 158n67, 159n69, 164–165, 164n95, 164n96, 164n97, 166, 167–168, 171, 176, 180 reciprocal actions/speech 62–63, 63n98, 63n100, 66–68, 69, 70, 71, 71n150, 73, 118, 149n14, 150n22, 162, 162n83, 162n84 redaction 33, 33n82, 142–143, 142n123, 143n124 redemptive see also value (of love), deconstruction 10, 66, 66n123, 67–68,

216 redemptive (cont.) 67n124, 87, 87n229, 163, 165–166, 175n141 redirection of emotions see also emotional learning, development of desires 168, 169, 169n111, 170, 175, 176 refrains see ‘do not awaken’ refrains regularity see also order, purpose, beauty 101, 113, 125–126, 125n66, 147 relatability (of characters/lovers) see also identity of the lovers, reader identification 155, 155n49, 156, 156n52, 164–165, 164n95 relentless (-ness) of love 82–83, 82n201, 84–85, 85n219, 86, 113, 115, 148 reliance on the Song (other biblical books) 28 reliance on the Song (wisdom books) see also direction of influence, evocative 12–13, 12n55, 22n24, 35, 36–42, 35n92, 36n94, 37n97, 37n98, 38n99, 38n103, 38n105, 39n106, 39n107, 39n109, 39n111, 40n113, 40n117, 41n118, 88–93, 88n231, 116, 120, 120n37, 121n49, 127, 131–136, 133n97, 136n105 retribution theology see also causation, exceptions to order/wisdom 101n44, 102, 102n48, 102n49 re-use of a text (deliberate) 37–40, 38n99, 181 uniqueness/distinctiveness 37–40, 22n24, 37n97, 37n98, 38n103, 38n105, 39, 39n106, 39n107, 39n109, 39n111, 40n112, 181 multiplicity 37 thematic correspondence 38, 37n97, 42, 88, 88n230 inversion 38, 40n112, 41, 90–92, 91n247, 91n249, 91n250, 92n251, 92n252 revelation see also Lady Wisdom 101–102, 101n43, 102n45, 102–103, 103n50, 103n51, 104, 131, 131n93, 131n94, 136 reverent fear see also unnerved/unsettling, fascination 70–71, 70n144, 71n147, 138, 173, 173n130, 173n131 riddles (form) 109n81, 112n3 ritual (-istic) see also cultic, ritualistic festival social setting 19, 21, 21n23, 22n28, 23n33, 30–31, 30n68, 30n69, 149, 149n11

Index of Subjects ritualistic festival social setting 30–31, 30n68, 30n67, 30n69 royal language see also extravagant praise, epithets 46–48, 135, 156–157, 157n53, 157n56, 158 sacred see also divine patronage, divine gift 21n22, 31n70, 86, 129–130, 148 sacred marriage see also fertility, cultic, human love 19–24, 19n16, 23n30, 73n165, 149, 149n10, 149n11 scene repetition see also thematic coherence, motif repetition 33–35, 34n84, 34n86, 68, 69, 77, 89–92 scribe (-al) culture 95, 95n6, 95n9, 95n11, 97–99, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 98n26, 99n30 scribal updating see linguistic updating seal see also exclusive, committed 76, 78–80, 79n189, 79n193, 84, 87n228, 133, 147 searches see also daydreams/fantasies, obstacles, braving danger 6–8, 7n24, 7n26, 40n117, 54n64, 66n121, 68–70, 69n137, 69n138, 162, 163 secular (-ity) see also everyday-life focus, divine patronage 21n22, 30n68, 31, 31n70, 100, 100n37, 100n38, 101–103, 102n45, 103n50, 103n51, 125 security (in relationships) see also exclusive 48n28, 76, 83, 100, 130–131, 148, 152 seducer (-tress) see also deception (in love), imitation of love 37n97, 38n100, 39, 88–93, 88n235, 119n34, 120, 128, 181 seeking (a lover, wisdom) see also luring quality, pursuit 42, 68, 132, 132n96, 133n99, 172, 173, 174n135, 175 separation see also searches 54n64, 69–70, 69n137, 69n138 Septuagint (lxx) 84n214 sexual (erotic) see also double entendre, euphemism, eating/drinking 5, 5n16, 71, 71n151, 71n152, 72–75, 73n162, 73n165, 75n174, 76, 78n185, 87, 117, 117n23, 175n141 shalom see also peace, security, fulfilment 64–65, 100, 110, 111, 130–131, 130n87, 131n88, 131n90, 148, 171

Index of Subjects shared roles see also exchanges in power 66–68, 67n130, 67n132 shepherd see also epithets, terms of endearment 5, 45–46, 47, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n57, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 shepherdess/country maiden see also epithets, terms of endearment 46, 47, 156–157, 157n53, 157n55, 157n57, 157n58, 158, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64 sister see also epithets, terms of endearment 6n20, 76n179, 135, 157, 157n53, 157n54, 157n55 situational wisdom see also personal judgment, conflicting rules 170–171, 176 Sitz im Leben (of Song) see also social reality 28, 29–32, 31n73, 66n123, 87, 87n229 social context (of ane wisdom) 31n73, 95–99, 95n9, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 98n26, 99n30, 109 royal court 96–97, 96n14, 96n15, 96n16, 97n18 formal education/institution 97, 96n14, 96n15, 97n19, 97n20, 97n21, 97n22 social reality see also identity of the lovers 69, 69n136, 87, 87n229, 69, 69n136, 87, 87n229, 155, 155n51 social groups 31n73, 33, 95–99, 95n6, 95n9, 95n11, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 98n26, 99n30, 100n38, 109, 143 Solomon see also royal language, extravagant praise 1, 5, 45–48, 47n21, 48n27, 48n28, 53n55, 53n58, 76, 141–142, 157, 157n56, 165n99 Solomonic authorship 29, 29n57, 32, 141, 141n114 song (form) 123, 123n55, 123n56, 123n57 spatial reading 9 specific type of love relationship/experience see also invitation to participate, emulation 151–152, 151n32, 152n33, 153, 155, 156, 159, 159n69, 165, 166–167, 175, 176, 177 specific types of lovers see also reader identification, emulation 151–152, 151n28, 151n29, 151n30, 151n31, 153, 155–156, 155n51, 159, 159n69, 176

217 speech consistency see also character portrayal consistency 18, 34, 46, 63, 121, 156, 160, 162 spiritual parable 4n11 springtime see also creation, Eden 124, 134, 134n102 stereotyped didactic allusion see also awaken (-ing) metaphor 119, 122 stock ane love language/terminology see also deliberate re-use: distinctiveness 12n55, 22n24, 34n85, 38–40, 37n98, 38n103, 38n105, 39n106, 39n109, 39n111 stock wisdom language/terminology 11n50, 98, 98n25, 98n26 Streitgespräch/dialogue (form) see also dialogue format 109, 109n81, 111, 118–119, 118n30, 118n31, 119n32 strength (of love) see power of love structure (-ing) 35, 77, 107, 113, 115, 115n16, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 178 sun, moon, constellations 8, 117, 135, 155n50 superiority of the lover see also value (of lover), uniqueness 76, 116n19 superlative love relationship see also vicarious experience, vision of love 108, 108n75, 114, 142, 146, 153, 156, 159, 166 superscription 32, 141–142, 141n114, 142n118, 142n120, 143, 178 synchronic 36 system of reasoning see also cognition/ reason in love, emotions 169, 169n109, 176 taxonomies 142, 142n121 taking risks (for love) 68–70, 69n138, 70n143, 147 Talmud 87n228 term(s) of endearment see also epithets, extravagant praise 6n20, 46, 47, 76n179, 157, 157n54, 157n55, 158 thematic coherence see also motif repetition, scene repetition 33–35 theodicy (-cal) 99, 103–104, 103n54, 103n55 timeless (-ness) see also never-ending, committed 77–78, 114 Tirzah see also northern locations 27, 27n46

218 transformation of perceptions see also metaphor, vicarious experience 174–175, 174n136, 174n137, 174n139, 174n140, 175n141, 175n142, 176 transformation of the reader see also becoming (wise) lovers, wonder 18, 110, 110n83, 111, 137, 145–146, 145n2, 153, 154, 159, 159n69, 161, 165, 166–175, 176, 180 transitory see also permanency, never-ending 77–78, 79, 92 transmission history (of Song) see also linguistic updating 25, 26, 26n43, 33, 33n82 travesties (-y) see also epithets, becoming (wise) lovers 156–159, 157n58, 157n59, 157n60, 158n61, 158n62, 158n63, 158n64, 158n65, 158n66, 158n67, 159n69, 176, 180 Tree of Life 124, 134 troubled relationship see also mutual, compliment, equal, searches 6–10, 62–64, 63n98, 64–65, 66–68, 66n121, 67n124, 69, 69n137, 69n138, 70–72, 71n150, 71n152 type-scenes see also scene repetition 37n97, 68, 69, 77, 89–92 typology (-ical) 4n11 uniqueness (of the lover) 63, 76, 117–118 unity (of the book) see also character portrayal consistency, scene repetition, thematic coherence 24–25, 33–35, 34n84, 34n87, 42, 151 universal focus see also Maker/Creator, council 100, 100n38 unmarried lovers see also sexual, violation of social norms 1, 5–6, 5n16, 36n94, 53–55, 54n62, 54n64, 73–74, 73n165, 74n166, 76, 76n179, 77, 87, 163, 163n87 unnerved/unsettling see also vulnerable, destabilizing experience 70–71, 172–173, 172n125, 173n127, 173n130 unrequited love 6–8, 21n21, 64, 64n104, 65n117, 151, 152, 152n33, 166 value (of love) see also life-giving, fulfilment 74, 74n167, 74n168, 148, 163, 163n87, 165–166

Index of Subjects value (of lover) see also uniqueness, praise of the lover/body 76, 116n19, 117–118, 135, 135n103, 162–163, 163n87 value (over wealth) 85, 85n221, 85n222, 86, 132n96, 135 values/norms see also demonstration of wisdom 163n91, 164–166, 164n96, 164n97, 168, 169, 169n110, 170, 176 verbal echoes see also echoing, word repetition 33–34, 34n84, 63, 63n98, 70, 73 vicarious experience see also superlative love relationship, vision of love 157–159, 158n64, 166–169, 174, 176 view of love see also wisdom message 36n94, 149–152, 149n15, 150n16, 150n17, 150n18, 150n20, 150n21, 150n22, 150n23, 150n25, 151n26, 151n27, 151n28, 151n29, 151n32 vineyard 73, 73n163, 75, 76, 117n23, 134 violation of social norms see also deconstruction, value (of love), redemptive 66n123, 69n138, 70, 73–74, 87, 163, 163n87 virtue see also ethical, prudence 170–171, 170n114, 170n115, 176 vision of love see also specific type of love relationship/experience, specific types of lovers 107, 152, 152n34, 152n35, 152n36, 153, 159, 166, 170, 170n113, 176 visual 71–72, 71n148, 71n150, 71n152, 72n155, 72n156, 173n130, 173n131, 175n141 vulnerable (-ility) see also beauty, destabilizing experience, unnerved/unsettling 67–68, 70–71, 70n144, 71n147, 173 Vulgate 84n214, 142, 142n122 wealth 135, 135n104, 142 wedding see also marriage 5–6, 6n21, 46n19, 47, 47n21, 47n22, 47n23, 53–54, 54n64 wholeness see shalom wine 34n86, 62, 73 wisdom (corpus) 11, 13, 13n57, 94, 99, 104, 109–111, 111n84, 111n85, 111n86 wisdom forms 12, 35, 36–37, 36n94, 105–111, 109n81, 112–123, 112n3, 115n17, 116n19, 138–141, 177–178, 179 wisdom (biblical genre) see also ane advice literature, genre, wisdom influence 

Index of Subjects 1, 13, 15–18, 16n8, 17n11, 19, 24, 27n44, 94–99, 94n3, 94n5, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 98n26, 98n29, 99n31, 99n32, 103, 104, 105- 107, 105n58, 105n61, 106n68, 107n72, 107n74, 107–109, 108n77, 108n79, 109–111, 111n84, 111n85, 111n86, 112, 115n14, 116, 118, 118n28, 118n29, 118n30, 118n31, 119–120, 119n32, 120, 120n39, 121, 121n48, 122, 123, 124–125, 127, 128, 129, 130–131, 132, 136–137, 137n108, 140, 142, 142n121, 142n122, 144, 144n128, 145, 159–160, 160n72, 160n73, 160n74, 160n78, 161, 161n79, 164, 164n92, 164n93, 164n94, 165, 165n98, 171–172, 171n119, 172n120, 172n121, 173, 173n129, 176, 178, 179–180 wisdom graph 111, 111n86, 112, 123, 138–141, 139n110, 140n111, 178, 179 wisdom influence see also wisdom (biblical genre), editorial glosses 11–13, 94, 109–111, 111n84, 111n85, 111n86, 112, 114n11, 115, 115n14, 115n16, 118, 122, 138–141, 140n112, 143, 144, 177–178, 179, 180 wisdom message (of Song) 14, 59–61, 59n88, 51n48, 62, 64, 65, 65n117, 68, 70, 72, 76, 77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 85n221, 86, 86n225, 87, 102n47, 147, 148, 153, 177, 182–183 wisdom (Song as) 1, 10n43, 10–14, 18, 19, 24, 27n44, 33, 33n80, 33n81, 35n92, 42, 43, 58n83, 59–61, 65, 73n165, 78, 85, 86, 87, 87n229, 107–109, 112–144, 114n10, 114n11, 115n14, 115n15, 115n16, 116n19, 116n20, 116n21, 117n22, 117n23, 117n24, 118n27, 118n29, 119n32, 121n49, 122n50, 122n51, 123, 123n55, 123n56, 123n57,

219 128n75, 140n112, 142n118, 142n119, 142n120, 142n121, 142n122, 142n123, 143n124, 143n125, 143n126, 143n127, 146, 148, 148n8, 153, 153n39, 156, 159–160, 167n104, 175–176, 177–179, 182–183 wisdom themes 94, 99–104, 109–111, 110n82, 112, 123–138, 139–141, 177–178, 179 wisdom vocabulary see stock wisdom language/terminology wisdom writers see also social groups 31n73, 33, 33n80, 95n6, 95n11, 97n23, 98n24, 98n25, 99n30, 100, 100n38, 102, 103, 104, 105–107, 108, 108n77, 109, 142–143, 143n124, 143n125, 173n129, 174n135 wise emotions see also emotional intelligence, cognition/reason in love 168–170, 169n108, 169n109, 169n110, 169n111, 169n112, 176 womb see also fertility, procreation 19, 73–74, 73n165, 74n166 women of Jerusalem see daughters of Jerusalem wonder see also astonishment, reverent fear, luring quality 70–73, 70n145, 71n147, 138, 161, 171–175, 171n119, 172n120, 172n121, 172n122, 172n124, 172n125, 173n129, 173n130, 173n131, 173n132, 174n133, 174n135, 174n136, 174n137, 174n139, 175n141, 175n142, 175n143, 175n144, 176 word repetition see also verbal echoes, motif repetition 33–35, 34n84, 34n86, 37, 62–63, 63n98, 70, 71, 71n150, 73, 77, 88, 89–92 yearning 86, 153, 159, 167, 168, 168n107, 170, 170n113, 175