Wine, Soil, and Salvation in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament 1009551159, 9781009551151

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WINE, SOIL, AND SALVATION IN THE HEBREW BIBLE AND NEW TESTAMENT

Biblical authors used wine as a potent symbol and metaphor of material blessing and salvation, as well as a sign of judgment. In this volume, Mark Scarlata provides a biblical theology of wine through exploration of texts in the Hebrew Bible, later Jewish writings, and the New Testament. He shows how, from the beginnings of creation and the story of Noah, wine is intimately connected to soil, humanity, and harmony between humans and the natural world. In the Prophets, wine functions as a symbol of both blessing and judgment through the metaphor of the cup of salvation and the cup of wrath. In other scriptures, wine is associated with wisdom, joy, love, celebration, and the expectations of the coming Messiah. In the New Testament wine becomes a critical sign for the presence of God’s kingdom on earth and a symbol of Christian unity and life through the eucharistic cup. Scarlata’s study also explores the connections between the biblical and modern worlds regarding ecology and technology, and why wine remains an important sign of salvation for humanity today. Mark Scarlata is Senior Lecturer in Old Testament at St. Mellitus College, London. He is also the Vicar-Chaplain at St. Edward, King and Martyr, Cambridge, and the Director of the St. Edward’s Institute for Christian Thought.

Wine, Soil, and Salvation in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament   St. Mellitus College, London

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Contents

Preface

page vii

Acknowledgments List of Abbreviations

xiii xv



Wine and the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  Why Wine?  Wine in the Ancient World  Wine in Ancient Israel  Wine in the Literature of the Bible: Poetry and Metaphor  The Celebration of Life 



Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis . . . . . . . . . Adam and the Soil Cursed from the Land: The Story of Cain Noah and the Renewal of the Soil The Life of the Soil: Regenerative Agriculture

    



Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine: Blessing and Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Gift That Gladdens the Heart Wine, Meals, and Blessing Reaping the Blessing of One’s Labor Offerings of Wine The Prophetic Vision of Abundance Rootedness, Blessing, and Wine

      



The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Prophet and the Poet A Poetic Twist: The Cup of Wrath A Cup Prepared for Israel

    v

vi

Contents

A Cup Prepared for the Nations Prophetic Judgment Deadly Banquets Futility and Finality

   

 The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wine and Wisdom Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry The Song of Songs: Ecstasy, Love, and Wine Sirach: Wine Is Life

     

 Wine in Later Jewish Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . After Babylonian Exile Enoch, Jubilees, and the Eschatological Kingdom  Baruch and  Ezra Wine at Qumran The Mishna and the Rabbis

     

 Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God: Wine in the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wine in the Roman World Jesus and the Old Wine The Wedding in Cana The Eucharist The Cup and the Cross Wine in the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

       

Select Bibliography Scripture Index General Index

  

Preface

I set out to write a book on the biblical understanding of wine but what emerged was a larger story about humanity’s deep connection to the soil and the community of God’s creation. Wine is one of the vehicles through which the biblical authors help us comprehend the vast complexity and interconnectedness of biological life and how that relates to our spiritual lives and our understanding and experience of God. Wine is used as a metaphor for human life, rootedness in the soil, pruning, bearing fruit, and bringing forth a vintage that brings life and joy to the world. Wine teaches us about place, hospitality, community, and being bound together in our families and in our worship. Wine is a symbol of God’s salvation and the grace he gives to his people through the produce of the land. So rather than just writing a book on wine in the Bible, this has become a book that explores what it means to live life to the full as human beings, to experience the abundance of God’s gifts, and to discover what it means to be rooted in the material world so that we might perceive the spiritual reality of God’s presence in his creation. And all of this comes through a simple study of wine, the drink that “cheers gods and mortals” (Judg :). Psalm  inspired much in the writing of this book. It’s a hymn of praise to the God of creation who knowingly and lovingly tends to his works like an attentive gardener or farmer. The psalm is decidedly theocentric and not anthropocentric. It tells of God’s ongoing care for creation and his joy in orchestrating all life, death, and rebirth. The rhythms of creation, the sun, moon, stars, rain, wind, photosynthesis, decay, and microbial carbon recycling are all conducted under his watchful and caring eye. It is also the psalm that speaks of wine as a gift to “gladden the human heart” (:) which is given by God along with oil to make the face shine and bread to strengthen the body. In the midst of this cosmic celebration, the life and work of humankind is nestled quietly within God’s wider concern for the vii

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cattle, the birds, mountain goats, and the trees. Humans are distinctly set within the order of creation and not above it. In meditating on all these things, the psalmist cries out, “O Lord, how manifold are works! In wisdom you have made them all; the earth is full of your creatures” (:). All of creation is filled with God’s wisdom and beauty, and all creatures come under his care. Though we shall see that God also entrusts that care to humanity, the psalmist wants to emphasize that every gift that comes from creation, whether wine, oil, bread, water, food for the lions, or nests for the birds, is a gift that comes from a loving God, the cosmic artist and gracious gardener. At the end of this meditation the psalmist declares, “The glory of the LORD shall endure for ever: the LORD shall rejoice in his works” (:). I prefer the King James Version here for the translation of the second half of the verse, “may the LORD rejoice in his works.” The difference is minor, but there is a sense in the psalm that the LORD already rejoices in his works and that the psalmist looks forward to a future where God will continue to rejoice in his works. The Hebrew verb for “rejoice” is also the same verb used previously concerning the gift of wine. Just as God rejoices in his works, so too does he give wine that “rejoices the heart.” It is important to pause for a moment on these words because they are critical for understanding a biblical theology of wine. The LORD rejoices in the mountains and land that gives shape and form to the seas. The LORD rejoices in the sun and bringing rain from the clouds to water the earth. The LORD rejoices in causing springs to gush forth providing water for his creatures. The LORD rejoices in grasses and trees that provide food for cattle, humans, and shelter for the birds of the air. The LORD rejoices in the rhythms of the sun and the moon, day and night, to mark the times, seasons, and cycles of the year. The LORD rejoices in the seas and all that is within them. The LORD rejoices in breathing out his spirit to give life and renewal to the soil. The LORD rejoices in all these things, and he invites his creatures to participate in his joy. And part of the way he invites human beings to rejoice with him is through the gift of wine. The biblical authors also knew of the human capacity to desecrate the soil and defile God’s creation. They understood greed, drunkenness, and the human inclination towards violence, gluttony, stripping the land, and treating it as nothing more than a material commodity to increase one’s wealth or pleasure. Though the level of desolation brought to the land could be severe, in the ancient world it was largely a localized event. Today, however, human consumption and the abuse of natural resources

Preface

have brought us to the brink of a global ecological disaster. Some argue that we have already gone over the precipice and that there is no way back. The destruction that human beings have inflicted on the creation that the LORD rejoices in has been so devastating that there may no longer be a chance for full recovery and restoration. Yet even amid the most desperate situations, the Bible continually offers a message of hope and reconciliation both with God and with the land. The scriptures speak of repentance and turning from harmful ways for healing to be made possible, and throughout the book we will look at some of the ways we might change and plant new seeds of hope. So as we explore what the Bible says about wine, soil, and salvation, I invite the reader to be aware of, and attentive to, how we treat the creation that the LORD delights in, how we might be rooted deeper in this community that God has given us, and how this might transform our love for God, for his world, and for one another. I also invite the reader, if possible, to do so while drinking a glass of wine. This book is about our senses, our experiences in the world, and how we taste, smell, see, hear, and touch. And what better way to do that than by enjoying and experiencing wine? This might also make the chapters go down more smoothly! I won’t be overly prescriptive about what you should drink but will offer a few ideas based on the themes of each chapter. The first two chapters explore wine in the ancient world and its biblical beginnings with Noah, so why not go back to where archaeologists think wine production originated and try something from Georgia, Turkey, or Armenia. You might try something called “orange wine,” which refers to its distinctive color. These wines are produced by an ancient method of leaving white wine grapes to ferment with their skins in large clay vessels called qvevri (pronounced KEV-ree) which are lined with beeswax and buried underground. Red wines are often fermented with the skins, but when this is done with whites it produces a subtle orange color. Or you might go back to the birthplace of Western civilization and try a refreshing Greek Assyrtiko from Santorini or one of their more robust reds made from the Agiorgitiko grape or the Limnio variety mentioned by Aristotle. The third chapter is about blessing and gift, so think of a wine that makes you want to celebrate. Maybe Champagne, Prosecco, or a bottle of English sparkling white. There might be a particular wine that you’ve had which reminds you of a joy-filled moment or a time when you were immensely grateful. This could be something as simple as a house wine you drink with family and close friends around the table for a meal. Or it may be something from Burgundy or Tuscany, or a Spanish Rioja that you reserve

ix

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Preface

for special occasions. Whatever the wine, it should be one that delights the palate and gladdens the heart. The fourth chapter moves from wine as blessing to wine as curse. I won’t recommend drinking vinegar, which is essentially soured wine, but this is what Jesus was given on the cross in the final moments of his life. In the Hebrew Bible the curse of wine is mainly seen through the metaphor of the cup of suffering and God’s wrath. The strength of God’s cup causes people to reel, so you may want to try something hearty and bold with ripe fruits. This might be a Cabernet Sauvignon from the Napa Valley, a Malbec or Madiran from France, something from the Douro Valley in Portugal, or possibly a Cabernet blend from South Africa. For the fifth chapter, on wisdom, you can think of drinking responsibly. The wisdom literature of the Bible is filled with instructions on how best to drink and enjoy the gift of wine. There can be a lightheartedness in the wisdom sayings, so maybe a lighthearted red with bright fruity aromas and low tannins. This might be something like a Beaujolais or some of the Novello wines from Italy. There are also lighter wines made with Pinot Noir from regions in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Slovenia, and other parts of Central Europe. If you want to stick with white wines, you might try an aromatic and floral blend like a Gewurztraminer or a Riesling or the rich Pinot Gris (Pinot Grigio). Biblical wisdom reminds us that wine is for joy, life, and the blessing of families and communities, but that it can also become a curse if abused. The sixth chapter looks at wine in the period between the destruction of the first temple in Jerusalem ( BCE) and the destruction of the second temple by the Romans in  CE. Wine and grapes were a fixture of daily life, and they were used as a symbol for the messianic age. In anticipation of the coming of God’s kingdom you might try something brimming with ripe, rich fruit and a variety of spices. You can find this in an Australian Shiraz or a Zinfandel from Sonoma County. Or you might try a Châteauneuf-du-Pape or Côte Rôtie from France, or some of the deep southern Italian reds like those made from the Nero d’Avola grape grown in Sicily. The final chapter explores the life of Christ and the use of wine in the New Testament. There are so many possibilities for this chapter, but why not go back to the Holy Land itself or at least the southern Levant. Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan have ancient wine traditions that date back to the very beginnings of wine in the Near East. More recently, the winegrowing industry there has flourished, with both new and old vineyards producing excellent wines.

Preface

The question some might be asking is “What did Jesus drink?” Known as a “glutton and a drunkard” (Matt :; Luke :–) by some of the religious leaders of his day, Jesus enjoyed eating and drinking wine with the marginalized of society. He also would have drunk wine on the sabbath and at many festivals like Passover, as he did with his disciples. Apart from the miraculous wine he created at the wedding in Cana, Jesus would have tasted many locally produced wines possibly mixed with herbs, honey, or aromatic spices. If he dined at the home of a wealthier person, he might have sampled imported wines from Egypt, Lebanon, Greece, or even Rome. This would, in part, depend on whether he was willing to drink gentile-produced wines, which were not always made according to rabbinic kosher laws. Both red and white wines would have been available, but they would likely not have tasted like modern wines. If anything comes close to what Jesus drank, it would likely resemble some of the traditional Georgian wines produced in qvevri clay vessels that are buried in the ground, where crushed grapes and their skins are left to ferment for weeks or months before being strained and stored for aging or drinking. A final note on the language used in the chapters. In the Hebrew Bible the divine name revealed by God consists of four Hebrew consonants, Y-HW-H. Traditionally, this name is not pronounced by Jews but is replaced by Adonai (“Lord”) or Ha-Shem (“the name”). For the sake of simplicity for both Jewish and Christian readers, when the divine name is used it will be written in all capitals, such as LORD or GOD. Unlike anything else produced from the soil, wine has been considered the drink that links the heavens and the earth for millennia. Ancient societies saw wine as a gift from the gods which they drank and used in worship. The same was true of Israel and the Christian Church, but the Bible presents a very different story of wine than other cultures. The Bible frames the growth of the vine, grapes, and wine within the broader scope of creation, wisdom, and humanity’s intimate relationship with the land. Wine is closely associated with the presence of God’s kingdom on earth, whether through covenant relationships, marriage, blessings, communal bonding, feasting, or the land’s fertility. Wine also becomes a symbol related to justice, righteousness, and judgment upon those who reject God’s ways. And wine is used to represent the messianic age and the time when God will return to redeem his creation and his people. Wine is a simple material substance, the drink of crushed and fermented grapes, which becomes a multivalent symbol for the biblical authors to express the heavenly kingdom of God being revealed on earth.

xi

Acknowledgments

I am sincerely grateful to all those who have contributed to the formation of this book and not least to Beatrice Rehl and Cambridge University Press, who have supported this project. There are also those who have read early chapters and offered valuable feedback that has helped shape my own thinking on the subject. Thank you to Jean-Luc Sergent and his contagious passion for wine, to Peter Elliott, Josiah and Florence Judson, Andrew Scarlata, and Chad Chadwick, and to Chris Scarlata, who generously aided my research. Thanks also to Romain Alves and Jon Pott at Cambridge Wine Merchants, who were ever willing to answer my questions and guide me to some excellent wines. I am always grateful for the generous support I receive from St. Mellitus College and our students as well as my colleague Matthias Grebe and our parishioners at St. Edward’s. Lastly, I am in debt to the patience and encouragement I receive from my wife, Bettina, and our children, Nathaniel, Madeleine, and Annabelle, who put up with my passion for wine and understood that I was doing “research” every time I opened a bottle.

xiii

Abbreviations AB AEL

ANET

BASOR CBQ JBL JPS JSOT JSOTSS LXX NICNT NICOT NIV NRSV SBL VT VTSup WBC ZAW

Anchor Bible M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings,  vols. Berkeley: University of California Press,  James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,  Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Catholic Biblical Quarterly Journal of Biblical Literature Jewish Publication Society Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Septuagint New International Commentary on the New Testament New International Commentary on the Old Testament New International Version New Revised Standard Version Society of Biblical Literature Vetus Testamentum Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Word Biblical Commentary Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

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CHAPTER



Wine and the Bible

Why Wine? Why write a book about the theology of wine in the Bible? For millennia wine has been central to agrarian life in many Near Eastern civilizations. From the cities of ancient Sumer to the early inhabitants of Palestine and the land of Canaan, wine was considered a drink of the gods and one that brought joy to humanity. For many cultures wine was also a sacred drink that was essential to social, economic, political, and religious life. Ancient Israel was no different and from the beginning of the Bible to the end, wine takes on its own theological meaning and symbolism in the writings of the biblical authors. From the days of Noah extending to the patriarchs, the kings, the prophets, the exiles in Babylon, the Essenes of Qumran, and Jesus and his disciples, wine has played a critical role in helping articulate the divine–human relationship and the abundance and blessing of God’s salvation in the land. Of all the agricultural products produced by the ancient Israelites, wine functioned as a multilayered sign and symbol of life, joy, and celebration, but it also became a sign of judgment, punishment, and condemnation. But why wine? Why not milk, olive oil, honey, dates, pomegranates, or some other fruit? What is it about the vine, the soil, grapes, and wine that carried the capacity to express so deeply the covenant relationship between God and his people and the expression of his salvation on earth? One of the reasons why wine is so rich a symbol is that it comes from a simple harvest of grapes that, once crushed and fermented, can become a drink of profound depth, complexity, and uniqueness. The humble grape contains the mystery of the land, the soil, the weather, and the attributes of a particular location. As clusters of fruit grow on the vine, their character 



Wine and the Bible

and composition are altered every time the sun shines, the rain falls, or the temperature rises and drops. This means that every vintage is distinct, and even within particular vintages there can be subtle differences. Vines that are grown on the lower part of a hill may produce different characteristics than vines on the upper part of the very same hill. The soil quality in one section of a vineyard may have better drainage than another section, which will also affect the characteristics of the grape. Even the yeast signatures on some grapes in the vineyard may differ from those on others. There is a multiplicity of factors involved in growing a simple cluster of grapes, and all of them were attributed to the mercy of the God, who through his wisdom and grace offered humanity a gift from the earth unlike any other. Wine is also a diverse symbol because it can be made from hundreds of varieties of grapes. Some vines thrive in certain soil and weather conditions but may not do so in other geographic locations. The Pinot Noir grapes grown in the Champagne region will not produce the same quality in other parts of the world. In the cool French climate that offers little sun, the vines must be tended in specific ways. The seventeenth-century Benedictine monk Dom Pérignon was a master winemaker at the abbey of Hautvillers (now the headquarters of Moët & Chandon) and dedicated his life to discovering how to produce the best wines. He pruned the vines severely to create lower yields with higher concentration in the grapes. He harvested grapes only early in the morning to preserve their balance before the heat of the afternoon sun altered their flavors. Pérignon is thought to have been one of the first vintners to blend different still wines and store them in glass rather than wooden barrels. Later monks of his abbey claimed that he discovered the process of secondary fermentation (what gives Champagne its bubbles), even though at first he tried to prevent the wine from becoming too fizzy. Champagne, or sparkling white wine, is known throughout the world, but take the same Pinot Noir grape, plant it in California or England, and craft it according to the Champagne method and you will have a drink that will contain distinctly different nuances in taste. One of the reasons that wines can offer such complexity in taste and smell is because of the vine’s relation to the soil. Contemporary winemakers will often talk about terroir, a French word which has no single equivalent in English but literally refers to “soil” or “land.” There is some debate as to what terroir actually means in relation to wine, but traditionally it has been defined as “the sum of every environmental force affecting a given vineyard site. Soil, slope, orientation to the sun, and elevation are all part of a vineyard’s terroir, as is every nuance of climate, including rainfall, wind velocity, frequency of fog, cumulative hours of sunshine, average

Why Wine?

high and low temperatures, and so forth.” However one uses the term, terroir encompasses the idea that wine is intimately connected to place. Unlike the fast-food chains of our world, which reproduce similar flavors and tastes across the globe, grapes of different varieties can reflect the characteristics of soil, climate, and all the other vast complexities that exist in a particular locale. A typical fast-food hamburger will likely taste the same in Los Angeles, New York, Paris, or Tokyo, but identical grape varieties grown in Napa Valley, Bordeaux, Stellenbosch, or the Barossa Valley will each have their own character and will produce wines that speak of each unique place. One of the most critical elements in the concept of terroir is the soil. Without the right type of soil a vine will not produce the best possible grapes. The soil contains the nutrients, water, and drainage needed for vines to be healthy. It also helps create conditions for the vines to become stressed. Contrary to what one normally might think of as good gardening practice, grape vines will produce better, more concentrated grapes if they are pruned and deprived of too much water. If a vine is given enough sun, water, and nutrients without being pruned, it will happily grow and grow but will produce very few grapes. If a vine is stressed, however, it will extend its roots deep into the earth in search of water and will concentrate its energy to produce more grapes in order to reproduce itself. The deeper its roots go, the more diverse minerals and nutrients the vine draws out from the soil. If there is too much stress, however, the vine will wither. Too little stress, and the vine will not produce quality grapes. This is one reason why many vintners hope for hot, dry summers, because late rains before the harvest can saturate the vines and cause the grapes to bloat with water and lose their concentration. The ancient Roman author Pliny the Elder (ca.  CE) understood the unique interaction between soil and vine, writing, “For in fact some vines have so strong an affection for certain localities that they leave all their reputation behind there and cannot be transplanted elsewhere in their full vigour.” There are various kinds of soils, in which different grape varieties thrive. Some are mineral-rich and some contain layers of limestone (e.g., the regions of Champagne and Burgundy), while others are clay-based or sandy. The extensive variety of soils, minerals, and rocks in any given place are a significant part of its terroir. This was also true in ancient Israel. The biblical authors knew of “choice vines” (śōrēq) (cf. Isa :; Jer :) that needed to be planted in the right locations to produce the best wines. In Isaiah’s “Song of the Vineyard” the vintner plants his vineyard on a hillside which is often seen as an optimal location (Isa :). Whether in the





Wine and the Bible

hot, arid region of the southern Negev where limestone and sandstone dominate, or in the cooler hills of Galilee where limestone and rocky basalts from volcanic activity are found, the Israelites understood the connection between soil, vine, and wine. The uniqueness of terroir is what provides the building blocks for making great wines. Each wine bears its own fragrance, whether it is the floral bouquet of a Pinot Noir, or the crisp citrus of an Assyrtiko, or the smooth oak and butter of a Chardonnay. The aroma of a wine can also reflect its taste. Some wines are bold and powerful while others are fruity and soft, and still others crisp and dry. They all bear their own textures on the palate and can taste of anything from minerals or green herbs to dark red fruits or leather. Some wines go down smoothly and some are fresh and lively, while others might be silky or soft. Each grape produces something distinctive, making wine a drink with depth, complexity, and variety. Though they did not have as many varieties of wines as are found on the market today, the ancient Israelites knew how to distinguish between new and old wines, choice wines, spiced wines, and other varieties that made wine such a dynamic symbol. Contemporary wine critics have a vast array of words to describe wine’s distinctive qualities. In fact, some may feel they need a degree just to begin tasting or understanding wine. Apart from modern wine-speak, however, there are some basic features of wine that offer insights into its structure, smell, and taste. Wine connoisseurs will often speak of the complexity in a wine, which refers to the layers one experiences while drinking. In a wellcrafted wine one will notice different aromas, flavors, and textures that come through after an initial sip, but these may change moments later. Once the wine has been exposed to oxygen after the bottle has been opened and the glass poured, its character begins to unfold. In this way, drinking wine can be like having a conversation that takes new turns at every moment. Good wines are dialogical in that they can encourage profound conversations as they reveal their different qualities. Gisela Kreglinger, following the wine critic Émile Peynaud, writes that “wine brings to us an infinite variety of natural flavors and aromas; it is complex and multifaceted, just as human beings are . . . Savoring wine at its best is like praying. It takes effort and willingness to engage in something that is far more complex than what we are used to when we are simply consuming foods.” Experiencing wine requires a level of attentiveness that, like prayer, focuses body, mind, and spirit to attune oneself to what the wine conveys. In a discussion of prayer and study, the French philosopher Simone Weil writes that “prayer consists

Why Wine?

of attention. It is the orientation of all the attention of which the soul is capable toward God. The quality of the attention counts for much in the quality of the prayer.” Attentiveness to wine leads to an appreciation of its depths and complexities. For one to experience fully the diverse bouquets or tastes that enliven the senses, wine requires concentration and consideration in ways that are not required for other drinks. C. S. Lewis writes about the pleasures of appreciation in considering a wine: The connoisseur does not merely enjoy his claret as he might enjoy warming his feet when they were cold. He feels that here is a wine that deserves his full attention; that justifies all the tradition and skill that have gone to its making and all the years of training that have made his own palate fit to judge it. There is even a glimmering of unselfishness in his attitude. He wants the wine to be preserved and kept in good condition, not entirely for his own sake.

The quality of our attentiveness to wine and how it is linked to time, place, memories, and events helps shape the quality of our experience of wine. Within this multifaceted complexity, there is also a sense of balance in wine that comes when things like alcohol, acid, tannin, and fruitiness all achieve a certain harmony. Too much alcohol, and your nose will feel a burning sensation that will dominate other fragrances. If a wine has too little acidity it may taste flat and lifeless rather than being crisp and lively. Wines with overpowering tannins may make your palate feel bitter and dry, like the effect of drinking a strong shot of espresso followed by a hunk of dark chocolate. Some wines may taste overly fruity, as though you are drinking a diluted glass of jam. Well-crafted wines will take all these different facets and integrate them into a harmonious whole with each characteristic in balance with the others. There is also a choreography that can be found in great wines. Like an orchestra playing one of Mozart’s symphonies, choice wines strike the exact notes at the right time as you drink them. Wine expert Karen MacNeil describes the choreography of wine as a fifth dimension of taste and experience. She writes of how the wine’s flavors almost move “physically and spatially” as if they are blossoming in the mouth. “The finest wines are multi-dimensional on the palate. There are wavelengths of flavor, force, volume, and velocity.” Wine is anything but monochromatic. It offers different-tasting notes that reflect grape, soil, weather, and a sense of place (terroir), which is one reason why it proved to be a dynamic symbol for the biblical authors.

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Wine and the Bible

Beyond individual consumption and description of taste, wine also connects human beings to one another. In the ancient world, as it is today, wine was used for feasting, celebration, and religious rituals. Wine was woven into the fabric of society and reflected hospitality, familial bonds, worship, and covenant relationships. The human connections engendered through wine were essential to the functioning of society and to maintaining friendship and strengthening citizenship. Wine was a communal drink that influenced all levels of social hierarchies, whether in the king’s palace or the peasant’s home. Finally, wine is also an exceptional symbol in the Bible because of its capacity to alter the physical state of the body. One consequence of consuming too much wine is losing control of one’s faculties and physical capabilities. Drunkenness is something that the biblical authors explicitly condemn. The sages of Israel denounce the drunkard as a fool because he loses control of his senses and does not follow the path of wisdom. The prophets disparage drunkenness because it represents vulnerability and exposure to attacks from the enemy, which can end in defeat or death. Too much revelry and debauchery are often depicted by the biblical authors as the way of the gentiles, and some Israelites, which leads one away from the good life. It is important to emphasize, however, that the biblical authors do not condemn wine itself. Instead, wine remains a cherished and valued gift from God that brings joy to the heart, eases the toils of life, and allows for the experience of his salvation. More recent studies in neuroscience have revealed that intoxication is not the only physical effect of wine. Neuroscientists have demonstrated that the consumption of wine involves multisensory perception that is integrated with memory. Almost everyone has had the experience of smelling or tasting something that evokes strong memories or emotions, like Proust’s madeleines. What is happening in these instances is that flavor images in our brains have been tied to more complex memories and experiences that are accessed through smell and taste. The neuroscientist Gordon Shepherd argues that sensory stimuli which accompany our memories are “stored in their respective central sensory representations, bound together by their connections to the hippocampus, and reaccessed, beginning with partial flavor cues, as a unified internal image or object by the brain mechanisms of attention, motivation, and emotion.” Wine, taste, memory, and emotion are all bound together in the neural synapses of the brain. In a work devoted to the neurological patterns that emerge in our brains when drinking wine (“neuroenology”), Shepherd writes that “our sensory

Wine in the Ancient World

experience is heavily dependent on our own memories and emotions and those of our companions.” His work details the extensive neurological activity that takes place when drinking wine, and though the research is in its early stages, it demonstrates that sensory systems in our bodies (touch, taste, sight, smell, hearing) all contribute to a multidimensional experience when we taste wine. Wine activates our senses and the pleasure networks of the brain to create the feeling of enjoyment associated with the wine’s flavor that is linked to our memory. Though the biblical authors would not have known the neuroscience behind consuming wine, they understood its ability to evoke emotion, memory, and pleasure. So why is wine such an important sign and symbol for the biblical authors? This simple, yet multifaceted, fermented grape drink engages with our sensory experiences in a way that almost no other agricultural product can. Visually, wine can reflect the deepest of reds that call to mind images of blood often used by the prophets or by Christ at the Last Supper. It reveals layers of aromas and offers complex tastes on the palate which can summon powerful emotions or memories. Wine even appeals to our auditory senses as we hear a bottle open, or bubbles bursting in a glass of sparkling Champagne or Prosecco. Wine offers a diverse and expressive sign which engages our physical senses, emotions, and memories on so many levels that it becomes a critical vehicle for the biblical authors to convey the depth and complexity of God’s relationship to his people and their experience of his blessings.

Wine in the Ancient World The beginnings of wine go back to the mountainous areas of Turkey, Armenia, and northern Iran. It is in this area that archaeologists have discovered Neolithic settlements (ca. – BCE) that have yielded some of the earliest evidence of the domesticated Eurasian grape. Resinated wine found on pottery shards and grape pips discovered by archaeologists demonstrate that wine was being produced in large quantities at the site of Hajji Firuz Tepe in the northern Zagros mountains of Iran. Other recent discoveries of grape residues found on broken pottery in northern Greece date from the fifth millennium BCE and point to viticulture and grape domestication in regions beyond Transcaucasia. Though the archaeobotanical evidence remains fragmentary and subject to interpretation, it is likely that the upland regions of the Taurus and Zagros mountains were the first place where the fruit of the domesticated

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Wine and the Bible

vine (Vitis vinifera vinifera) was fermented and turned into the earliest examples of wine. Wine trade flourished in the ancient world among the earliest civilizations of Mesopotamia. The cost was prohibitive for most, since the wine would have been shipped from the north along the Tigris and Euphrates to the ancient kingdoms of Ur and Sumer in the south. McGovern argues that by the second millennium BCE, wines shipped from Armenia or Turkey would have been extremely expensive and could have been acquired only by royalty. By the fourth millennium BCE, however, the spread of viticulture in the ancient Near East and the Levant became an integral part of life, and trade soon expanded between other nations, especially those producing wine in and around Palestine. In ancient Egypt the main cereal crops were wheat and barley, which provided the ingredients for making beer. Though this fermented drink was an important part of their culture, Egyptian pharaohs also imported wine from other areas including the land of Canaan. Around  BCE, however, they established a royal winemaking industry in the Nile Delta. Vineyards, winepresses, and winemaking became part Egyptian life. Wine was incorporated into religious rituals and was offered daily by the priests to the gods. In some temple inscriptions the king is shown offering a wine jug to Hathor, the goddess of love, who was worshiped with wine, music, and dance. In the palace of Amenhotep III, lists of commodities were found on pottery shards (ostraca), and apart from meat, the most common reference was to wine. Some of the inscriptions indicate different purposes for wine such as “wine for offerings,” “wine for taxes,” “wine for merry-making,” and “wine for a happy return.” Other fragments note the regnal year of the pharaoh, sometimes including details like the place where the wine was made or the vintner who made it. The Egyptians also praised the medicinal value of wine as a gift from the gods; as one inscription states, “He [god] created remedies to end illness, wine to end affliction.” They saw wine as an essential part of a man’s life. “Wine, women, and food give gladness to the heart. He who uses them without loud shouting is not reproached in the street. He who is deprived of one of them becomes the enemy of his body.” Like many other ancient Near Eastern civilizations, the Egyptians incorporated wine into various aspects of social, religious, and political life. Wine production in Egypt became an important agricultural staple for society, but the Egyptians also regarded wines from Palestine highly, a fact which is documented in some of their earliest historical records. The Egyptians recorded many military campaigns into areas of Palestine, where

Wine in Ancient Israel

they took wine as part of their spoils. Accounts from the reign of Thutmosis III (– BCE) speak of the abundance of wine that was taken from port cities along the coast of Palestine. Other accounts of his conquests in Djahi (presumably Palestine) speak of the fecundity of the region. “Their wines were found lying in their vats, as water flows, and their grains on the threshing floors, being ground. They were more plentiful than the sands of the shore. The army overflowed with its possessions . . . Now his majesty’s army was as drunk and anointed with oil every day as if at feasts in Egypt.” The picture of the lavish bounty may have been exaggerated, but the language demonstrates that Palestine was known as a fertile land that was associated with prolific wine production from the second millennium BCE onward. In the Egyptian story “The Tale of Sinuhe” a man travels to the land of “Yaa” (Palestine) and describes its agricultural abundance. “Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil . . . Loaves were made for me daily, and wine as daily fare, cooked meat, roast fowl, as well as desert game.” Other monument inscriptions also speak of a place that “has more wine than water,” offering an idyllic vision of a land where fertility abounds and the drink of the gods flows like rivers. The evidence for wine as an integral part of Egyptian culture and religion is important for the biblical story because this is the place where the Hebrew slaves were imprisoned for over four hundred years according to the scriptures (Exod :–). We are told that the Hebrew slaves were forced to make bricks under the tyranny of Pharoah before the exodus took place (Exod :–). Prior to that period, however, it is likely that the slaves might have taken on other roles in the kingdom. Mural paintings at Thebes from the tomb of Amenhotep II (– BCE) portray the “Apirou” (possibly “Hebrews”) as they press grapes in a wine vat. Another scene entitled “Wine from the Vineyard of the Roads of Horus” illustrates men decanting wine into wine jugs. It is possible that the Hebrew slaves, some brought from Palestine, were already known as skilled vintners and practiced their trade in Egypt. By the nineteenth dynasty of Pharaohs (eleventh century BCE) wine was commonplace among the upper classes, with records of Egypt importing large amounts of wine from Palestine. This was during the period of Ramses II, who many scholars argue was the pharaoh during the biblical exodus from Egypt.

Wine in Ancient Israel Before Egyptian bondage, the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, lived in the land of Canaan, where the domesticated grapevine (Vitis vinifera

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Wine and the Bible

vinifera) had been planted and harvested to make wine since at least  BCE. The earliest evidence of grape pips was found at Tell esh-Shuna in the northern Jordan Valley. Winepresses have been unearthed throughout ancient Palestine, but one of the most significant sites is Meggido where  winepresses were discovered. Though the dating of these winepresses is difficult, this site, along with others, demonstrates that wine production was central to agricultural life in many regions of ancient Israel. Wine was a staple of life for the Israelites. This can be seen through some of the historical place names mentioned in the land. The book of Numbers describes the wadi Eshcol (Valley of the Grape Cluster) where the spies cut down a cluster of grapes so large that it had to be carried on a pole between men (Num :). The book of Judges speaks of Abelkeramim (Abel by the Vineyards) (Judg :) and the Nahal Sorek (Valley of the Sorek Grape) (Judg :). Joshua defeated those living in Anab (Grape) near Hebron (Josh :), and Elijah confronted the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel (Mount of the Vineyard) ( Kgs :). Other texts also attest to vineyards in both the north and the south, from the hills of Galilee to the southern areas of Judea and the Negev. The ancient Israelites were primarily an agrarian and pastoral people that lived with deep connections to the land. Almost all families operated within the structures of small farms which provided their subsistence and possibly some extra to be used for trade. Agricultural products included grains, olives, and grapes along with livestock. Rosen estimates that a family of five around Iron Age I (ca. – BCE) could have supported a farm of around fourteen acres. This would allow the family to use one to two acres for a small vineyard. Even a smaller vineyard of half an acre could produce enough wine for consumption throughout the year. Walsh estimates that if a plot of such a size were planted with vines according to modern practice, it could hold up to  vines. If one vine yields approximately . kg ( lb) of grapes, then this would result in a harvest of  kg (, lb). If it normally takes . kg ( lb) of grapes to produce . liters ( gallon), then a half-acre farm could produce approximately  liters ( gallons) of wine per year, which in typical modern packaging (. liters) would equate to  bottles. This means that a family would have around . bottles to drink daily during the year. Depending on their location, many Israelites would have planted their vineyards in rocky soils that were not suitable for growing grains. Often these would be terraced plots along a hillside, which were optimal for growing vines. In the heat of the summer the vines would stretch their roots deep into the soil to absorb moisture and concentrate their energy into a

Wine in Ancient Israel

limited number of grapes. The terraces also helped with drainage, as heavy rainfall would not wash away the soil but would allow for limited amounts of water to reach the vines. Hillsides were also ideal because the slopes helped to circulate air through the vines. The incline would allow the warm air to rise and the cool air to sink below. On the upper portion the grapes would be protected from the cooler air in the valleys, which could damage the crops if there was a heavy frost during the growing season. The natural flow of air also helped prevent mold spores or fungi from forming on the vines. The Israelite vintners knew that the location of a vineyard is key to producing excellent grapes for wine, which is why the prophet Isaiah begins his Song of the Vineyard with the words “My beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill” (Isa :). In the Mediterranean climate, terraced vineyards proved to be an exceptional way to take advantage of the natural geological features available and to utilize land that was unfit for growing other crops. The Israelites stored their wine in amphorae (large clay jars) in the home. According to archaeological finds in Judean excavations, the clay jars that the Israelites used would have stored up to  liters (. gallons). These jars were also used for food storage and likely took up almost half the living space in the home. Since bread, wine, and oil were the staples of the Israelite diet it was important to secure these food sources for daily consumption and for special occasions. Some biblical texts mention the royal wine cellars ( Chr :; cf.  Chr :) where amphorae would have been stored. Jeremiah is told to prophesy to the people that every wine jar should be filled, to which they respond, “Do you think we do not know that every wine-jar should be filled with wine?” (Jer :). The Israelites were familiar with the process of filling and sealing each vessel with mud, pitch, or an organic substance. There was often a small hole left open for ventilation to release the final gases of fermentation. These holes would later be filled before storage. Caring for a vineyard took much time and patience and involved different levels of work throughout the seasons. During the year, the Israelites would have done a significant amount of pruning. This included the removal of canes, shoots, and leaves. In the winter vintners cut off excess canes, which were stacked and burned. This allowed new shoots to emerge for the next harvest. From the spring onward, the vines were thinned to remove any excess growth and to help direct their nutrients into the chosen shoots and thus concentrate its production. Once the vines were in full growth, the vintner trimmed the canopy by getting rid of unwanted shoots or removing leaves to expose the grapes to the sun.

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Wine and the Bible

Some clusters might be cut off at this time to direct the vine’s life into a limited number of grapes. The whole process of pruning and removing vegetation was intended to concentrate the life of the vine and to produce the best possible grapes. We gain an insight into the rhythm of life for the ancient Israelite farmer through the oldest “calendar,” which comes from an inscription found in the ancient Canaanite city of Gezer (about twenty miles west of Jerusalem). It details the yearly cycles of harvest and dates to around the tenth century BCE: Two months gathering Two months sowing Two months late planting One month cutting flax One month barley reaping One month end of reaping Two months pruning One month summer fruit.

This may have been a folk song or an exercise for writing practice, but it reveals the rhythm of ancient Israel around the yearly cycles of seedtime and harvest in the land. The understanding of time in an ancient agrarian society is something that is foreign to modern urban and suburban dwellers in today’s world. Knierim rightly argues that Israel’s conception of time was not primarily linear with a view toward an end. Instead, the ancient Israelites viewed time as cyclical and repetitive within a linear framework. In other words, the cycles of time and seasons were central to agrarian life and food production. These continuous cycles laid the foundation for particular events throughout history. Time, however, was a continuous cycle that flowed from the natural life cycles of the earth. The Israelites understood their lives as taking place within the patterns dictated by the seasons and harvests which shaped their yearly work and festivals. The first crops of barley would have been gathered around April, or the spring equinox, near the Passover feast, which was followed by the wheat harvest a month later or near the time of Pentecost (fifty days after Passover). After reaping the harvest of grains, the Israelite farmers turned their attention to the work of the vineyard. “Two months pruning” likely indicates that the grape vines were tended and harvested from June to July, with other summer fruits being gathered afterward. The Israelites used “pruning hooks” (mazmērâ) to cut the grapes from the vine. This is why

Wine in Ancient Israel

the prophets looked forward to a time of peace when Israel would beat “their spears into pruning hooks” (Isa :; :; cf. Mic :) so that they could tend their vines rather than go to war. The end of the agricultural cycle came with the harvest of olives and other late fruit from September to October, which was followed by the festival of Booths or “ingathering.” Once the grapes were harvested the winemaking process began with grapes being crushed by foot in a winepress (gat). This was often located near the vineyard and would have been used communally. Winepresses were typically simple rectangular shaped installations carved in the rock. The upper portion was sloping so that the grape juice could flow downward into a channel or bore in the stone. Below, it was collected into a lower vat where it could be filtered and poured into containers. After the grapes had been pressed and stored in amphorae they would ferment for several days before the amphorae were sealed. The ancient Israelites were aware that wine is a living substance that needs to be nurtured and well-crafted. The prophet Hosea speaks of the pleasing bouquet that comes from excellent wines and compares Israel to the beautiful fragrance of “the wine of Lebanon” (Hos :). These characteristics begin development during the fermentation process as the grape juice responds to different things like yeast, bacteria, and oxygen. If the juices remain exposed to oxygen after the yeast converts sugars into alcohol, it will eventually change into vinegar or soured wine. Some wines also go through a secondary fermentation process called malolactic fermentation which converts malic acid into lactic acid and helps with the aging and softening of the wine. With no written instructions, it is likely that winemaking techniques in ancient Israel were passed on from generation to generation. During the monarchic period Israel became a large-scale producer of wine since it was a lucrative product for trade. Winepresses and vineyards were commonplace throughout the north and the south, and there is evidence of vineyards in cities around Jerusalem. The archaeological record reveals potsherds from Samaria dating from the eight century BCE which contain information regarding commerce and trade in Israel. The records detail transactions pertaining to wine and oil and demonstrate that wine was one of the most significant items of trade during that period. Other pottery jars from the reign of King Hezekiah display the inscription lmlk (“to/for the king”) on the handle, indicating the royal procurement of wine. The prophets also make mention of the wine trade: Ezekiel comments on how the people traded wine from Helbon and casks of wine from Uzal.

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Wine and the Bible

The archaeological and biblical evidence demonstrates that viticulture permeated the whole of Israelite society. Before the monarchy, vineyards were planted within subsistence farming communities mainly for family use, while larger vineyards allowed for trade. With the rise of a centralized government beginning with the Davidic monarchy, wine became connected to royal households, tribute, and taxes. Winemaking was a profitable industry that was essential for Israelite commerce because the Israelites were able to produce some of the most desirable wines in the ancient Near East. In an ancient agrarian society wine touched the lives of nearly all Israelites. Whether people were managing a vineyard, treading grapes, or celebrating a festival, the sights, sounds, smells, and tastes associated with wine were a daily part of life that connected them to the land, to the vine, to God, and to one another. It is no wonder that viticulture and wine became such a prominent symbol, helping to express the relationship between God and his people. The agrarian life offered the basis for powerful metaphors from the natural world. The prophets and others drew on these images to convey to the people both the blessing and salvation of God as well as his judgment and wrath. To understand the Bible the reader is required to grasp why and how things like the vine, grapes, and wine became such prominent symbols of the divine–human relationship. To do so, we must turn now to the biblical authors and the Hebrew poets to get a sense of how they use wine to teach, warn, and encourage God’s people.

Wine in the Literature of the Bible: Poetry and Metaphor It is one thing to speak of the archaeological record of wine, viticulture, and consumption in the ancient world, but to learn about how wine affected cultures and people groups we must turn to their literature. The biblical authors frequently used wine as a sign or metaphor, and this was especially true of the prophets. Whether it is the dark, richness of its blood-like color, or its intoxicating effects, wine is used as a multivalent symbol that can speak of both blessing and curse. By using wine as both sign and metaphor, the biblical authors create vivid images that reveal theological truths about God and his covenant relationship with his people. Wine as both metaphor and symbol provided a literary means to comprehend the depths of God’s grace and the potential of his devastating judgment. Metaphor theory in theological and biblical studies has developed over the past decades and has produced important insights into how we might interpret biblical texts. The study of metaphor dates back to Aristotle, and

Wine in the Literature of the Bible

since that time there have been debates concerning the merits of using figurative language. Aristotle understood that the skill of creating good metaphors lies in the ability to perceive the resemblance between two things. In the biblical texts, metaphors provide an analogical word picture that allows the reader to connect experiences from everyday life to the divine–human relationship. In the Bible, and in other ancient Near Eastern texts, metaphor is often used as a literary tool that helps give shape to abstract theological ideas. Soskice notes that “Since the time of Athenagoras at least, the good theologian and insightful faithful have recognized the language of both popular devotion and formal theology to be highly metaphorical and not found that to be particularly problematic.” Paul Ricoeur contends that metaphors offer a unique way of expressing how we perceive the world around us and that figurative language “contributes to the opening up and the discovery of a field of reality other than that which ordinary language lays bare.” Others, however, have often considered metaphor a stylistic tool that simply adds poetic description rather than contributing to the understanding of the subject matter. Still others have regarded metaphor as secondary to a literal description and have seen it as a hindrance to religious thought. More recent studies in cognitive linguistics have turned the discussion to the cognitive force of metaphoric language that promotes the deeper thought processes which help in understanding certain concepts. Metaphors enhance cognitive function and knowledge by linking abstract concepts with physical realties and bodily experience. They do not merely offer a comparison between two things, but extend to whole sets of corresponding experiences. For example, when the biblical authors use the soil, grapes, or wine as a metaphor it naturally extends into an entire agrarian ecosystem and the physical experience one has in that domain. Agricultural metaphors use the concrete experience of working the land to explain more abstract theological concepts such as God’s blessing or curse. Several theories and definitions of metaphor exist, but Soskice offers a broad description that defines metaphor as “that figure of speech whereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen to be suggestive of another.” The essence of a metaphor is bringing two things together to create a word picture that offers a different perspective on the subject. Zóltan Kövecses offers a more nuanced summary of conceptual metaphor theory. “A conceptual metaphor is understanding one domain of experience (that is typically abstract) in terms of another (that is typically concrete).” This captures the idea that metaphors require a cognitive process of linking

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Wine and the Bible

our physical experience in the world with an abstract concept. To understand how God relates to his people the biblical authors may speak of Israel as the sheep and God as the shepherd (Ezek ). In the New Testament, Jesus speaks of himself as the good shepherd and of his followers as the sheep who hear his voice (John :–). In these examples, the pastoral domain in the physical world becomes a bridge to understanding the theological concept of how God, or Christ, relates to the care of his people. In the Bible metaphors often bring together the concrete realties of agrarian life and the land with theological concepts about God. The great biblical translator, Jerome (Hieronymus), understood this all too well when commenting on Jeremiah, who is told by God to go to the potter’s house and watch the artisan shape the clay into a vessel (Jer :–). He writes, “Whatever is discerned by the eyes arrives to the judgment and understanding of the soul through every other sense, through hearing, smelling, tasting and touching, but is retained even more so by the mind. Thus, the prophet was commanded to go to the potter’s house and there to hear the instructions of the Lord.” Jerome rightly argues that the metaphor of God as potter and Israel as clay had a greater impact on the prophet because he was able to perceive the theological truth of the divine–human relationship through the experience of his senses. To understand biblical metaphors it is essential to grasp how the physical world or the “domain” is being mapped onto the abstract. For example, if Scripture says that God is the vintner and Israel is the vine/vineyard (Isa :–), then the impression of the metaphor will likely have the greatest impact on those who have the experience of planting and caring for a vineyard. The metaphor will have significantly less effect on the listener who is far removed from agricultural work because they do not have experience in that domain. In a similar manner, if one never drank wine or alcohol it would be difficult to fully comprehend the meaning of the psalmist when he writes of God’s judgment, “you have given us wine to drink that made us reel” (Ps :). The embodied experience provides the potential for the poetic metaphor to sharpen one’s understanding of the theological concept of judgment. In the psalm the loss of balance and control that comes from drinking too much wine relates to being judged by the divine. The most powerful biblical metaphors depict the most common and well-known examples from daily life in connection with the natural world. In the case of ancient Israel, people’s daily experience was primarily that of a subsistence agrarian society. Since the people were connected

Wine in the Literature of the Bible

to the land through farming, it is not surprising that the majority of metaphors used by the biblical authors have to do with plants, growth, and the agricultural seasons. The more intimate the experience, the more powerful the metaphor, which is why grapes and wine are a sustained image throughout the Bible that helps reveal God’s relationship with his people. The psychiatrist and scholar Ian McGilchrist argues that metaphor is fundamental to our understanding of the world because it links language to the physical realities of life. In his analysis of the different functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain, he contends that metaphor helps us understand one thing in terms of another by grounding it in what we experience in the body. “Metaphor embodies thought and places it in a living context . . . Metaphors, even the simple ones hidden in expressions like feeling ‘down,’ derive from our experience of living as embodied creatures in the everyday world.” McGilchrist goes on to argue that metaphor is essential to human thought because it provides a bridge to connect abstract concepts to physical realities. If we take one of the examples above, such as Israel as vine/vineyard, we see how the prophet brings together the theological realities of God’s relationship to Israel with agrarian life. Rather than offering a propositional truth such as “God loves Israel but the people have become corrupt and unfaithful” the prophet employs the metaphor of vine/vineyard to connect the neurological and physical experience of the vintner in order to reveal a deeper reality that expresses God’s relationship with them. Vintners know well the exhausting work, patience, and cost required to plant a vineyard that will produce the best grapes. They understand the mental resilience required to persevere during long hours of work in the hot sun and the fatigue that comes at the end of the day. They know the anxiety of changes in the weather, animals that might break in, or outbreaks of pests and diseases. The joys and hardships they experience mentally and physically, all to produce great wine, become the bridge to a theological understanding of how they relate to God. The metaphor of the LORD as vintner and Israel as vine is brought to its tragic climax when the prophet writes that God went to look for fruit, but it produced only “rancid grapes” or “wild grapes” (Isa :). The shock, frustration, and disgust would immediately resonate with the daily experience of the people. A crop of useless grapes would affect the entire family, as it would severely damage the household economy. The harvest, even if crushed and fermented into wine, would be worthless because it would taste terrible and would be fit for no good use. This simple story of the





Wine and the Bible

prophet would evoke powerful emotions in any Israelite connected to the land and to viticulture. By taking the blessing that comes from hard work, which results in well-crafted wines, and turning it into a curse of rancid grapes, the prophet creates in the listener an emotional response which offers theological insights into what God experiences when his people are disobedient to his commands. In other scriptures wine is also a part of more complex metaphors. Plant imagery that includes vineyards, vines, and the growth of grapes is all connected to viticulture, and offers different aspects of what is required to produce wine. The main focus in the coming chapters, however, will be on the specific use of wine as symbol and metaphor in the Bible; but invariably there will be some overlap with the broader agricultural work of viticulture and its connection to the soil. The literary category of “metaphor” is vast and complex. Modern scholarship has shed light on the use of conceptual metaphors and their importance for our comprehension of abstract concepts through our physical experience. Cognitive linguistics has demonstrated that metaphor is a critical linguistic tool by means of which we understand and view the world. Though we must remain cautious of impressing modern literary theories on ancient Hebrew or Greek texts, these tools can help to shed light on the experiences of an agrarian Israelite society that used metaphors and word pictures to elucidate rich theological subjects. Wine became a critical symbol and metaphor that was deeply embedded in the everyday work of ancient Israel. It was consumed in most households, it was offered daily at God’s altar, and it brought joy and life to great celebrations and religious festivals throughout the year. This is why wine is such a prominent literary symbol, used by the biblical authors to express both the judgment and salvation of God.

The Celebration of Life In a debate about why a special prayer of blessing is said over wine, the rabbis argued that the fruit of the vine is unlike other produce from the earth. They quote from a parable told in Judges where the vine says, “Shall I stop producing my wine that cheers gods and mortals?” (Judg :). The rabbis go on to ask, how does wine cheer God? No direct answer is given, but they allude to the reason for why a blessing is said specifically over wine. When God sees a thankful heart and a life overflowing with benediction for the gifts he gives, it makes him glad. The rabbis go on to say that it is forbidden for God’s people to enjoy anything of this world without

The Celebration of Life

benediction. To enjoy the fruit of the earth without praise or thanksgiving would be to commit sacrilege. It would be like consuming gifts from heaven as if they were stolen from the divine. Instead, wine was given to humanity as a gift and was worthy of its own blessing every time it was consumed or offered at the altar. The rabbis offer an important insight into the biblical theology of wine. As we shall discover, wine was seen by the biblical authors as a gift from God that brought relief and joy to humanity. From the days of Noah to the final judgment of Revelation, God’s people were to plant vineyards, make wine, and celebrate the abundance that he provides from the earth. Wine was central to festivals, worship, and living in communion with the land. Vineyards, grapes, and viticulture were woven into the fabric of Israel’s life and were recognized as an expression of God’s abundance, generosity, and salvation. To drink wine when there was peace, justice, and prosperity in the land was to experience the salvation of God’s kingdom and the promise of his covenant blessing here on earth. The early Israelites did not look to future heavenly rewards but, rather, they understood that the gifts of God’s faithfulness and promise were connected to life in land. Later in Israel’s history, and into the New Testament period, wine continued to be a sign of God’s presence and blessing both in the physical world and in anticipation of the world to come. The Essenes of Qumran drank wine and looked forward to God’s future blessings through the coming Messiah. Jesus of Nazareth drank wine with his disciples and others while he traveled around Galilee and Judea teaching and healing. He offered signs of God’s kingdom by changing water into wine at the wedding in Cana (John :–). Jesus abstained from wine after the Last Supper until his death but vowed to his disciples that he would drink it anew in the coming of God’s kingdom (Matt :; Mark :). The continuity of drinking wine before and after the resurrection was a sign for Christians that God’s salvation for his people would continue to be associated with the fruit of the vine especially in the sacrament of the Eucharist. The joy of the kingdom of God is not the only way wine is depicted throughout the scriptures. We shall also explore the darker side of wine in the Bible, because the gift of blessing can be transformed into a curse if not used with consideration. Drunkenness, intoxication, and other inappropriate uses of wine are resolutely condemned by the biblical authors. The laws of Leviticus command priests not to consume wine or strong drink when they minister inside the holy space of the tabernacle (Lev :; cf. Ezek :). The prophet Amos denounces the Israelites for making the Nazirites drink wine when they have taken vows of abstinence (Amos





Wine and the Bible

:). He criticizes the people for bringing wine that was procured unlawfully into the temple as an offering (Amos :; cf. Joel :). The prophet Micah condemns the practice of drinking wine to prophesy and preach, which was a practice of the prophets in ancient Mari (Mic :). The wisdom sayings consistently speak against the folly of the drunkard and encourage people to purse a sober and righteous life. The various voices from the scriptures remind the reader that the abuse of God’s gift can have severe consequences. Though wine is given to celebrate life, there are also times and seasons when abstinence is recommended by the biblical authors. The laws of Moses make clear that in some circumstances men or women may make vows not to drink wine at all. One example is that of the Nazirites, who separate themselves in order to be holy to God. They must abstain from any drink or food made from grapes and not allow a razor to touch their hair or go near dead bodies (Num :–). This is the command that was given to Samson’s mother because he was to be set apart as holy to save the Israelites from the Philistines (Judg :–; cf.  Sam :). She too was to abstain from wine, presumably to preserve her own holiness (Judg :). Another example is found in the Rechabites, who willingly hold to the vow passed on to them by their ancestors never to drink wine. Jeremiah praises them for their example of faithfulness and compares their loyalty to a human oath with the disloyalty of Israel to God’s command (Jer :–; cf. Dan :). Periods of fasting and mourning, purification, or prayer could also be accompanied by abstinence. Moses reminds the Israelites that when God led them through the wilderness they did not drink wine as they prepared to enter the promised land (Deut :). Hannah abstains from wine as she prays fervently to God for a son ( Sam :). In these examples, the scriptures show that oaths to refrain from drinking wine were primarily voluntary and could be taken for a period of time or, in more extreme cases, over the course of one’s life. In some instances, abstaining from wine was seen as a sign of Jewish purity among the gentiles, who were often portrayed as heavy drinkers. The prophet Daniel refused to be defiled by the rations of food and wine that were given to him in Babylon (Dan :, , ). In the Persian empire, the heroine Esther also abstained from wine to demonstrate her purity among the gentiles and her wisdom in how to navigate life within the king’s palace. In a similar manner, Judith maintained her senses by abstaining from the wine offered by Holofernes (Jdt :) until the moment before she cut off his head and said, “I will gladly drink, my lord, because today is the greatest day in my whole life” (Jdt :). In these narratives we find that

The Celebration of Life

abstinence from drinking is a response of the people’s faithfulness when living among the gentiles, who were often depicted as wild and excessive drinkers at their feasts. Some of the examples above will be explored in further detail, but it is sufficient to say that the biblical authors suggest that, in certain times and circumstances, refraining from wine is an appropriate response for the faithful. What the Bible does not express is any form of teetotalism that wholly condemns the drinking of wine or its enjoyment. The biblical witness overwhelmingly points to the fruit of the vine as an exceptional gift from God that is to be enjoyed by humanity. Wine is associated with the joy and life of God’s kingdom and his salvation and blessing on earth. To drink it is to taste of the promised delights that come from the land, especially when there is faithfulness, righteousness, and peace among God’s people. Though the abuse of wine was always a potential danger, the gift itself is never rejected or dismissed by the biblical authors. Wine has always had a tenuous relationship with Jews and Christians throughout history. Some have called for complete abstinence because of wine’s alcoholic content, while others have called for moderation. Alcoholism continues to be a serious disease that affects people across the globe. The World Health Organization estimates that over three million deaths each year are due to harmful uses of alcohol. This does not account for the number of broken families or relationships that have suffered because of alcoholism. It is no wonder that some Jews and Christians alike have rejected the use of any form of alcohol among the faithful. Despite the tragic statistics, however, the association of wine with distilled spirits, or other forms of alcohol, is misleading. Though both contain alcohol, they derive from very different processes, and the levels of alcohol are vastly increased in distilled spirits. Whereas the average glass of wine may contain anywhere from  to  percent alcohol, the average shot of whiskey can contain – percent alcohol. It is likely that wine in the ancient world did not contain as high an alcoholic content as many of the wines we drink today. In the Greco-Roman period it was also customary to dilute wine with water. The biblical texts are clear that wine has the potential to lead to alcoholism, but wine was still seen as something to be enjoyed, and for many it was consumed on a daily basis in a moderate way. As G. K. Chesterton writes, “the dipsomaniac and the abstainer are not only both mistaken, but they both make the same mistake. They both regard wine as a drug and not as a drink.” Wine, for the biblical authors, is part of God’s creation that has been established through his wisdom and grace. The vine comes from God

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Wine and the Bible

alone. He made it, he provides the means to make it grow, and he is the one who directs its life from soil, roots, and vine to create a cluster of grapes. Humans must then take what God gives and turn it into wine which the psalmist says was given to “gladden the human heart” (Ps :). Though there may be times for abstinence, the Bible presents wine as a gift from God that allows humanity to experience his blessing and salvation in the land. To receive the gift, however, humanity must fulfill its own task in keeping and caring for the earth, honoring its use of creation, tending to the soil, and caring for its communities.

CHAPTER

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Adam, Cain, and Noah The First Farmers of Genesis Adam and the Soil The story of wine in the Bible begins with Noah, and it also begins with the soil. Noah was the first person to plant a vineyard after the flood, the first to make wine, and the first to get drunk! To understand the story of wine, however, the biblical authors of the primeval history (Genesis –) offer a background narrative connected to the origins of creation that highlight the interrelatedness of soil, agriculture, and the first human beings. It is here that we find the beginnings of the deep connections between soil, humanity, wine, and God’s blessing. To understand wine as a sign and gift from God in the scriptures we must begin with the soil. In Genesis  the cosmic song of God brings all creation into order out of chaos. In Genesis  we find God, the gardener and the artist, who gets his hands dirty in the soil of his creation. He forms the first human from the dust of the earth because there was “no one to till the soil” (Gen :). There is a sense of incompleteness in the passage. The biblical authors see the soil as something that has not yet reached its full potential for fertility without the work of human hands. Though the NRSV translates it “to till,” the Hebrew verb (ʿ-b-d) would normally be rendered “to work” or “to serve” which gives the sense of humanity’s partnership with the soil. This depiction is important because the soil is seen both as a material to be used by humans for food production, and as a participant working with humanity to bring forth God’s blessing. Soil has the inherent potential for abundant productivity, with seed-bearing foods such as wheat, barley, or grapevines, but without human intervention the soil of Genesis  remains in a state of unrealized potential. Soil in Genesis is not sacrosanct but, rather, it must be crafted, shaped, and cared for to play its role in the fulfillment of God’s purposes for 

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Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

creation. Though God himself causes fruit-bearing trees to grow (Gen :) and provides uncultivated fields for the wild animals (Gen :, , ; :, ), the cultivation of the soil is part of the divine commission for humanity (cf. Gen :). The charge to work, till, keep, serve, and care for the soil offers humanity the possibility to participate in the divine expression of creativity in the world in order to help bring forth fertility and life. Like an artist with the power to breathe life into his creation, God gives the first man his spirit so that the dust of the soil becomes a “living being” (nepeš hayyâ) (Gen :). The “dust,” or its synonym “clay,” is “shaped” _ (y-s-r) by the potter who forms the material into the desired form. The image _ of the gods shaping humanity from the clay was widespread in the ancient Near East. Egyptian and Mesopotamian stories also reflect humanity’s connection to the earth. Genesis offers a similar ontology of human beings and expresses the material connection between humans and the soil as well as their status within the hierarchy of creation. Humans are made of the same stuff as the animal kingdom, but they are given the special task of guarding, keeping, and serving the soil from which they came (Gen :, ). The wordplay between “adam” (ʾad ¯ am) ¯ and “soil” (ʾǎdamâ) ¯ has been well noted by scholars. Some have attempted to capture this in English such as Robert Alter’s translation, “God fashioned the human, humus from the soil.” The language offers an insight into the biblical anthropology that depicts a close connection between human beings and the soil from which they have come and to which they shall return. In fact, the word ʾǎdamâ ¯ is used thirteen times in Genesis –, often in the context of the critical interrelationship between humanity and the soil. The soil takes center stage in the primeval history, and this is articulated most effectively through its relationship to three farmers: Adam, Cain, and Noah. The linguistic parallels they share in the primeval history provide a narrative movement from the cursing of the soil, to being cursed from the soil, to the renewal and restoration of the soil which ushers in the gift of wine. Adam is the first character to emerge literally from the soil or clay. His origins link all humanity to the earth and to the responsibility he is given in the garden. We are told that God “put” (š-y-m) the man in the garden he had planted (Gen :), which presumes that the first human was created outside the divine garden and then placed within it. Later we read that “The LORD God took the man and put him (wayyannihēhû) in the garden _ of Eden to till it and keep it” (Gen :). Another possible translation might read, “God took the man and caused him to rest in the garden.” Though the meaning is similar, the verb (n-w-h) offers a direct echo of the _ name Noah (nōah) as a foreshadowing of Adam’s descendant, who will also _

Adam and the Soil

till and keep the soil, bring forth wine, and be charged with the repopulation of the earth after the flood. The first man is given the charge to “till” (ʿ-b-d) the soil. The verb can mean to work the soil, or it can imply serving, especially when used in the context of the tabernacle/temple, where it describes the service that the priests perform (e.g., Num :–; :–, , etc.). In Genesis the command to till the soil presumes that there is something good in working the land. Humankind, taken from the soil, works with the soil to produce something that sustains or enhances life. From the very beginning of creation the biblical authors see human work in the world, and creative engagement with the soil, as a vehicle for divine blessing. There is no toil in work at this stage of the narrative but, rather, life is defined by one’s connection and relationship to the soil. Humanity was not designed to sit idly in the garden but was given the command to generate blessing in partnership with creation. God’s command also includes another common verb, “to keep” (šamar). ¯ The sense is that the first human has an obligation not only to cultivate the soil, but to protect it, to preserve it, and to treat it with the sense of responsibility that comes with the divine gift. The pair of verbs “to till” and “to keep” offers a biblical vision for human purpose and identity in relation to the created world. Humanity is given the task of shaping and manipulating the soil in order to generate the blessings that can be produced from the earth. This mandate does not include stripping the land of its resources or using it for the purposes of greed or excess. Just as humans are to work the land, they are also to guard it and protect it from such abuses. The soil and the creatures of the earth are created by God, but ʾad ¯ am ¯ has been entrusted with the responsibility for protecting and cherishing the material from which he came. The primeval history presents an anthropology whereby the soil of the earth is fully integrated with the creatures that live upon it, including human beings. All things that die will return to the earth, and as they decompose they offer nutrients to the vast microbial communities and bacteria in the soil. The soil, in turn, grows in richness and fertility to provide food for living creatures. All life is linked to the soil in the primeval history, and this mutually beneficial relationship extends beyond the physical realm into the moral and spiritual realms. Biblical scholarship has, at times, sought to separate humanity from creation by emphasizing that the story of salvation is primarily concerned with human beings rather than the whole of creation. Gerhard von Rad argued that the natural world played only an ancillary function in the story of God’s redemption. He viewed creation as merely background for the

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Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

more prominent story of God’s relationship with Israel. The division between salvation and creation, or the history of Israel and the natural world, however, fails to recognize the ancient biblical understanding of humanity’s intimate connection with its environment and the soil. Hiebert rightly argues that by creating these two distinct categories – salvation history and creation – we lose the active role that nature plays in the life of God’s people and in the interdependence that exists between humanity and the earth. Rather than a dichotomy existing between the first man and the soil, we find an inextricable relationship that is contingent on human obedience to God’s command. “And the LORD God commanded the man, ‘You may freely eat of every tree of the garden; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall die’” (Gen :–). The man is given the freedom to eat from anything in the garden, even the tree of life (Gen :), but the restriction from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is made emphatically. The Hebrew (môt tamût) ¯ could be translated “you will surely die” or, as Alter translates, “you are doomed to die.” The command of the LORD to the first man anticipates the commands of Torah later given to Moses at Mount Sinai. The key terms concerning obedience echoed throughout the scriptures are “hear” (šamaʿ) ¯ and “keep” (šamar). ¯ From the first garden dwellers to the people of Israel, observance of the LORD’s commands was requisite to flourish in his blessing and to avoid the consequences of death in disobedience. The threat of utter death does not come immediately after the choice of the man and woman to eat from the prohibited tree. Instead, the predicted consequence of death comes in the form of awakening to a self-perception that is marked by shame (Gen :). The nakedness of the man and woman results in their retreat and hiding from God’s presence. Physical death will ultimately come to the man and the women after they are expelled from Eden and can no longer eat from the tree of life (Gen :–). The consequences of their disobedience, however, result in an immediate perverted self-consciousness that betrays the innocence they once shared as two who were made of the same flesh. The prediction that they will “surely die” comes true in an unexpected way. As the serpent predicted, the two would “be like God, knowing good and evil” (Gen :), but to be like God as a human is to attain such knowledge that leads to a mental and spiritual death and a revealing of the darkness present in disobedience that will dramatically increase outside Eden. The other unexpected consequence of human disobedience is God’s response. Rather than striking down the man and woman to fulfill the

Adam and the Soil

previous prediction of death, God offers them clothing and then pronounces how they will suffer as they live out their days on the earth. After cursing the serpent God turns to the woman, who, through childbirth, was to participate joyfully in the creation mandate to be fruitful and multiply. Instead, she will suffer from “toil” (ʿissabôn) ¯ in childbearing. The __ act of parturition and “bearing fruit” was a sign of the feminine role and blessing within the created order of Genesis . That which was meant to be her joy becomes cursed with pain in a world that has strayed from God’s command. When God turns to the man, we find what may seem to be an unexpected outcome. Rather than cursing the man for his disobedience, God curses the soil (ʾǎdamâ), ¯ and the man will experience “toil” (ʿissabôn) ¯ in __ cultivating it for the rest of his life. Whereas man’s original role in the garden was to till and protect the soil and receive its blessings, now his work is marked by pain and struggle. Both the man and the woman will taste death in the work of creation that was meant to bring them life. The woman will still bear children and the man will still reap the fruits of the soil, but they will both do so through hardship and suffering. This will be their lot in life until they return to the ʾǎdamâ ¯ from which they were taken: “you are dust, and to dust you shall return” (Gen :). The word “toil” (ʿissabôn) ¯ is critical in the garden scene because it __ reflects a universal pain that will be shared by all humanity in their days on earth. “Toil” is used only once more in the Bible, where it conveys both literary and theological significance. The pain brought into the world by the first man and woman will be alleviated through one of Adam’s descendants, the only one of his generation who is called righteous and blameless and who walks with God: Noah. Lamech names his son Noah (nōah), saying, “Out of the ground (ʾǎdamâ) ¯ that the LORD has cursed _ this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil (ʿissabôn) ¯ of __ our hands” (Gen :). Lamech’s prediction reiterates the fact that the soil has been cursed through Adam, but he looks forward to his son Noah bringing relief to all humanity. In Genesis  the only things that are cursed directly are the serpent (Gen :) and the soil (:). There is obvious reason for the serpent to suffer the consequences of deceiving the woman, but less obvious is why the soil should be cursed and become an antagonist to humanity’s efforts in cultivation. The key seems to be the intensity of relationship and the interconnectedness the biblical authors perceived between ʾǎdam ¯ and ʾǎdamâ. ¯ Unlike the woman, the narrative tells of the man’s unique vocation in tilling and protecting the soil of the garden. The soil is critical to his

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Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

life, vocation, and identity. The man is ʾǎdam ¯ only insofar as he is related to, and engaged with, ʾǎdamâ. ¯ The resultant curse, however, has distorted that relationship. Man is alienated from the ground, and though he remains bound to it, he will strive with it to produce what he needs for survival. There is, however, another possible interpretation for God’s curse upon the soil that will now only produce thorns and thistles. The verb “cursed” (ʾărûrâ) in the passive suggests that the punishment is the indirect result of human disobedience. Rather than actively cursing the soil, God is, instead, revealing the consequences of human transgression. Since humanity is enmeshed with the soil both physically and spiritually, the offense of eating from the tree corrupts both human nature and, by necessity, the soil. From this perspective, the curse upon the soil is the result of creation’s suffering for human iniquity. Similar themes emerge later in the Prophets, where the land mourns and laments because of Israel’s unfaithfulness (Isa :) and creatures perish because of the immorality of God’s people (Hos :; Joel :). The soil is broken because humans are broken. This enmeshed physical–spiritual symbiosis between humans and the soil will become critical to the continuation of life after the flood and to the beginnings of wine. The biblical authors depict a time in Eden when there was once a type of agrarianism that lived in such harmony with the soil and creation that fruitful production could be achieved without arduous force or toil. A person’s life of working the land could be one of bliss, refreshment, and fulfillment. They could celebrate with the land as their efforts brought forth fertility and life within the vast community of God’s creation. Yet in a world marred by disobedience to God’s command, there is a breakdown of the natural order. The experience of toil, thorns, and thistles is not simply God’s curse upon the man but, rather, reveals the state of brokenness in his relationship with the land brought about through his transgression. Toil by the sweat of one’s brow was a constant reminder of the human inclination toward disobedience and the effect this has on the land. The level of intimacy between ʾǎdam ¯ and ʾǎdamâ ¯ cannot be overestimated in the primeval history. The moral choices of the first human beings are bound to the soil and play a critical role in bringing harmony and fertility to the cultivated land. The human role in relation to the garden is so intertwined with their environment that even their choice to eat from the prohibited tree causes a breakdown in the wider community of creation. For the ancient authors there was no disconnect between the natural world and the social and ethical behavior of humanity. As William

Cursed from the Land: The Story of Cain

Brown contends, “The biblical tradents remind us that the moral world, the ethos of the cosmos, is quite real. Yet it is not purely a matter of empirical observation . . . In the ancient cosmologies, moral imagination constituted a generative nexus between mythos and ethos, between sense perception and faith.” Disobedience to God’s command leads to exile from the garden for the man and the woman. They will dwell on the soil from which they were taken but they will do so outside of Eden. Their life in relation to the land has changed. The human choice to act in opposition to God’s command results in the experience of toil, suffering, exertion, and power struggle. Moral disobedience breaks down the intimate bond shared not only by God and humanity, but also by human beings, land, and all creation. As we leave the garden of Eden in Genesis  we look forward to the hope of Noah, who will plant the first vineyard and produce the first wine to ease the toil that has come into the world. Yet before we come to Noah, the narrative descends further into chaos and the soil responds as a key character in the story of the Bible’s second farmer, Cain.

Cursed from the Land: The Story of Cain In Genesis the name of a character often expresses some aspect of their identity or a particular truth about that person. In Genesis : Adam and Eve conceive and give birth to a son called Cain. Eve exclaims, “I have acquired/possessed a man with the help of the LORD” (my translation). There is a clear wordplay between the Hebrew “I have acquired/possessed” (kanîtî) ¯ and the name Cain (kayin). ¯ Eve’s declaration, however, remains obscure with the notion that she has acquired a “man” rather than a son. Despite the ambiguity of her statement, Eve’s “possessing” Cain becomes associated with his character in later interpretations. Some commentators argue that Cain’s name was a sign of his greed and his relationship to the land. The ancient Jewish historian Josephus comments that God took pleasure in Abel’s naturally grown gift, whereas Cain’s offering was greedily taken from the earth by forcing it from the soil. Similar sentiments are expressed by Philo, who argues that Cain’s name meant “possession,” which reflected his greed in believing that he possessed all things rather than receiving them from God. The sin of avarice is condemned by both interpreters as they account for the underlying traits that led to Cain’s rejected offering and his murder of his brother Abel. Cain, like his father, was a tiller of the soil and brought his produce as an offering to God, whereas his brother Abel, a shepherd, brought an offering





Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

from his flock. Though there is wide speculation about why Cain’s offering was rejected and Abel’s was accepted, our concern is with the outcome of Cain’s crime against his brother and the implication it has in relation to the soil. Following the murder, we are told that God questions Cain about his brother to which he responds, “I do not know, am I my brother’s keeper?” (Gen :). The brazen reply is met by a startling revelation that Cain’s deed has not gone unnoticed even though there were no human witnesses. “Listen; your brother’s blood is crying out to me from the ground! And now you are cursed from the ground (ʾǎdamâ), ¯ which has opened its mouth to receive your brother’s blood from your hand” (Gen :–). The anthropomorphism of the soil drinking in the blood of Abel highlights its participation in the affairs of humanity. The ʾǎdamâ ¯ is not merely inanimate material in the story but, rather, it is intimately connected with the moral and ethical actions of human beings. In this case the soil not only participates in receiving the blood of the murdered son but also provides the vehicle through which Abel’s blood might cry out to God for justice. The soil takes on a new role in Genesis . Rather than merely producing thorns and thistles because of the curse, it becomes a participant in exacting divine justice on earth. The soil is a witness to the moral behavior of those created in God’s image. The soil responds to the ethical actions of human beings and then becomes an agent in God’s response. Soil is not merely an instrument to be used by humanity: it is a character itself in the story of God’s relationship with creation. The result of fratricide is that Cain is cursed from the soil (Gen :). The first thing in Genesis to be cursed directly was the serpent (Gen :), and the second was the soil (ʾǎdamâ) ¯ (Gen :). This is the first instance in the Bible where a human being is cursed. The punishment for Cain’s crime is specifically that he will be cursed “from the soil,” which is then explained as a fruitless life of tilling that bears no food. Like one trying to garden in the desert without water, Cain is condemned to a life alienated from the soil and its produce. Such a punishment within the primeval history could be seen as a death penalty. Cain will, instead, wander the earth aimlessly like a fugitive without a place to settle and put down roots. The weight of such a punishment might not be felt by a modern urban, or suburban, reader. In a highly mobile society, life in contemporary cities and urban areas is often disconnected from the soil, and thus many are severed from the knowledge or experience of food production and the value of land for the necessities of life. Wendell Berry reminds us of an

Cursed from the Land: The Story of Cain

ancient agrarian perspective on the land that has existed throughout most of human history. In referencing lines from the poet Virgil he writes: If you have no land you have nothing: no food, no shelter, no warmth, no freedom, no life . . . People who have been landless know that the land is invaluable; it is worth everything . . . It is a fearful thing to be without a “territory.” Whatever the market may say, the worth of land is what it always was: it is worth what food, clothing, shelter, and freedom are worth; it is worth what life is worth.

Land is life in the early chapters of the Bible, and to be cursed from the land is death. The murder of another human being created in God’s image constitutes such a severe punishment in the eyes of the biblical authors that Cain experiences retribution both from the divine hand and from the soil. Cain’s recognition of his sentence results in his response, “My punishment is greater than I can bear!” (Gen :). He fears a life without protection, as he will be forced to wander the earth. Just as Adam and Eve were driven (g-r-š) from Eden (Gen :), so too Cain will be driven (g-r-š) from the face of earth, but he will also be “hidden” from the face of God (Gen :). The dual, and more extreme, punishment possibly alludes to the later experience of Israel’s exile from the holy land. Not only were the Israelites banished from the land, but they were separated from the holiness of God and his temple. Robert Gordon notes similar language used by David when he flees from Saul’s wrath ( Sam :–) and complains that he is being driven (g-r-š) from the land and separated from the LORD’s blessing. He contends that Cain should be viewed as the first biblical “exile,” which is probable insofar as Cain is stripped from the blessing of the soil and the protection of God’s presence. Cain’s penalty to be a “fugitive and a wanderer” (naʿ ¯ wan ¯ ad) ¯ expresses both the physical reality of a criminal always on the run and also the psychological state of living with the traumatic stress of having murdered another human being. Cain will live forever with the anguish and affliction of one who committed fratricide and now must wander aimlessly on the earth until his death. Though this may sound like being condemned to a nomadic existence, we are later told that Cain settles in the land of Nod (i.e., the land of Wandering). Again we find the biblical authors’ use of wordplay to highlight the fact that though Cain (or possibly Enoch) builds the first city (Gen :), he will live his life perpetually wandering. Just as Adam and Eve do not physically die when eating the fruit, so Cain does not physically wander for the rest of his life. Instead, he will suffer an internal wandering and restlessness in the land of Nod where he will never

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

Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

again experience the joy, life, and abundance that come when humans live in harmony with one another and with the land. The story of Cain, the second farmer of the Bible, represents a further stage of disconnection and alienation from God and from the soil. The murder of Abel reveals the soil’s relationship to the moral activity of humanity and its participation in God’s judgment. The soil becomes a character in the wider story of salvation and is subject to the consequences of human disobedience. Whether being cursed to produce thorns and thistles because of Adam’s disobedience, or producing nothing for Cain because of his crime, the soil is an active participant in God’s salvation on earth.

Noah and the Renewal of the Soil The primeval history continues with the lineage of Adam through his third son, Seth. The beginning of this genealogy offers hope for the future. The murder of Abel has been redeemed through a child who is created in the likeness and image of Adam (Gen :), echoing the original creation of human beings in Genesis :–. This line will eventually lead to the birth of Noah, who, according to the chronology of Genesis, is the first male to be born after the death of Adam and is the third farmer of the primeval history. We previously saw that the hope of Lamech for relief from toil would come through his son. Noah’s name (nōah) likely derives from the stem _ n-w-h meaning “rest,” which is linked to the following stem n-h-m meaning _ _ “comfort, relief.” The association of Noah’s name with “comfort” is not based on etymology as we saw with Cain’s name, but on assonance. Nōah _ and niham (“comfort”) share similar sounds, and though the meaning is _ difficult to capture in English, a possible translation might be, “He will be called Console because he will bring us consolation from our work.” The key phrase in Lamech’s prophecy is that comfort and relief will come “from the soil” (min haʾǎd ¯ amâ) ¯ that the LORD had cursed. There is no mention of the curse being lifted from the soil or that Noah will somehow “reverse the destiny of living with the consequences of sin” as Brueggemann argues. Instead, the rest that will come through Noah from the soil will alter the reality of work and the laborious struggle associated with agriculture. It is not that work will become easier or return to an Edenlike state because of Noah but, rather, that through Noah the LORD will bring forth something from the soil that was formerly cursed which will bring relief and comfort to humanity. What will come from the soil is the

Noah and the Renewal of the Soil

cultivated grapevine (vitis vinifera) to produce the gift of wine. Viticulture and viniculture are the comfort that God will give through Noah. Outside of Eden in the post-diluvian world, the joy of wine is introduced to help alleviate the impact of the curse so that humanity may fulfill its original mandate to be fruitful and multiply and to work and care for the earth. The goodness and vocation of work continue in spite of the fractured relationship between humanity and the soil, but the advent of viticulture and wine through Noah will bring gladness to the heart (Ps :), rejoicing in festivals (Isa :), and delight in offering it as a pleasing libation at God’s future altar (Lev :). “What is in mind here is the rhythm of work and celebration; and the discovery of the vine has provided hard-working people with a bringer of joy.” This is the relief and comfort that Noah will bring to the earth, but it will come after God’s judgment is revealed in the flood. The circumstances surrounding Noah’s introduction in Genesis  are dire. It follows the unlawful mixing of angelic beings with human women, which produced the corrupt offspring of giants. The result is that the entire human race descends into a state of moral depravity where “every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil continually” (Gen :). Though this is not mentioned in Genesis, we can infer from the Cain narrative that along with the decline and demise of humanity came the desecration and profanation of the soil. The moral and ethical immorality of the antediluvian society would have led to the complete contamination of the land. What most scholars have failed to highlight is the fact that Noah is the only one who can bring relief to humanity through the soil because of his righteousness and his moral purity. When he is introduced in Genesis :– we find three key descriptions that underscore his identity in relation to the corrupt generation around him: () Noah found favor in the eyes of God (:), () Noah was a righteous and blameless man in his generation (:), and () Noah walked with God. The first statement reflects the “grace, favor” (hēn) that a person of lesser status would receive from a superior. The only other person said to have found favor in God’s eyes is Moses (Exod :). For readers of the Torah, Noah’s association with the prophet and leader par excellence places him in a category with the great saints of the Bible. The second phrase emphasizes Noah’s exalted status among a corrupt generation. He is a “righteous” (saddîq) man (cf. Gen :), which refers to _ one who lives according to right actions. In later biblical texts the righteous person is the one who stands fully above reproach before God’s

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

Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

judgment. Noah has committed himself to live rightly and justly before the divine judge, but he is also “blameless” (tammîm), ¯ which is a priestly term that conveys purity and wholeness. To describe someone as tammîm ¯ expresses a type of moral and ritual purity that is acceptable in God’s holy presence. The term is often used in a cultic context in relation to the purity of a whole or unblemished sacrifice, but it is also used of persons who can come before the presence of the LORD. God commands Abraham to be blameless (Gen :), and Moses echoes this by commanding the Israelites to be blameless before they enter into the land (Deut :). The combination here of righteousness and blamelessness offers a summary statement of Noah’s complete virtue and honored status before the holiness of God, who is about to bring his judgment upon the whole earth. The final statement that Noah “walked with God” is the climactic description that is only used for one other person in the Bible. The mysterious figure of Enoch, who later became one of the most significant characters in Second Temple literature, was said to have “walked with God” and then was no more (Gen :, ). Later Jewish traditions around Enoch explained that he was assumed into heaven and escaped death. In the case of Noah, however, his intimacy in walking with God was a lifetime of trust and blessing that preserved not only his family but also the future of humanity and all creation. Brueggemann perceptively notes, “It is ironic that at the moment of pathos and impending death, embodied faith first appears in the world.” Despite the deep sadness of God because of the utter corruption of his creation, Noah stands as the new Adam and the new beginning for life on earth. The laconic build-up of Noah’s character as a singularly righteous man among all humanity is critical to his deliverance in the ark, but even more importantly to his relationship with the soil after the flood. His righteousness and blamelessness offer the hope for a new creation and a renewed relationship between humanity and the land. Through his strict obedience to God’s command (Gen :; :, ), Noah is able to deliver his family so that they may fulfill the creation mandate in a renewed earth. When the flood recedes, Noah leaves the ark and immediately builds an altar to offer sacrifices to God, who smells the fragrance and is moved by its pleasing aroma (Gen :–). The result is that God will never again “curse” (leqallēl) the soil because of humanity’s sinfulness. Previously the verb ʾ -r-r (“curse”) had been used concerning the original curses in Eden (Gen :, ; :; :), but here we have a different verb (q-l-l) which conveys the sense of declaring someone or something insignificant or contemptable. Since the word differs from the previous curses, an

Noah and the Renewal of the Soil

alternative translation might be “I will never again treat the soil with contempt . . .” The importance is that God does not lift the soil’s original curse (Gen :), but vows that he will not destroy the soil because of human wickedness. The promise denotes the restoration of his benevolence toward humanity in spite of its proclivity toward evil. God vows to maintain the continuity of seed time and harvest, day and night, summer and winter, so that humans may once again trust in the agricultural rhythms that govern their lives. God’s promise may not seem extraordinary to modern readers, but for agrarians the cycle of times and seasons provided the framework and stability for all life. The farmer was completely at the mercy of the weather if he was to produce food for survival or wine for joy. The restoration of the creation mandate to “be fruitful and multiply” is repeated once again in the post-diluvian world (Gen :, ), and this provides a closing bracket to the narrative from the first creation (Gen :–). The stability of the earth and the heavenly bodies is established once more, and the blessing of God that brings about the fertility of all life begins afresh through Noah and his family. God enters into covenant with Noah and his descendants as a formal declaration of his commitment to humanity and to the world (Gen :–). It is only through Noah, the righteous and blameless one who walks with God, that a relationship of purity and harmony can be reestablished between humanity and the soil. As if to make this point abundantly clear, the biblical authors reiterate this sentiment through the summary statement that marks the beginning of the new creation. “And Noah began to be a man of the soil” (my translation; wayya¯ hel nōah ʾiš haʾad ¯ amâ) ¯ (Gen :). No other character in the _ _ Bible is given the title “a man of the soil,” though we may assume the same sense from the creation of Adam (Gen :). The sentence begins with the uncommon use of “and he began” (wayya¯ hel), which denotes a passing of _ time and some sort of transformation in Noah’s vocation to becoming the first to do something. Though Noah was possibly a farmer (and a carpenter!) before the flood, the text indicates that he grew in his connection to the soil and in his understanding of how the soil functions specifically in relation to the cultivated grapevine. Westermann translates, “And Noah was the first to cultivate the soil planted a vineyard,” but this is misleading since both Adam and Cain were tillers of the soil. He goes on to argue that the “beginning of viticulture in v.  is independent of the narrative and serves mainly as its exposé.” Though verse  clearly links to the following narrative of Noah’s drunkenness and the sin of his son Ham, it is critical to read Noah’s initiative within the whole of the primeval history.

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

Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

First, the vineyard offers a fulfillment of Lamech’s words (Gen :) about Noah bringing relief from toil which is important theologically in relation to Noah’s righteousness, his relationship to the soil, and the alleviation of Adam’s curse. Second, the theme of humanity’s relationship to ʾadamâ ¯ is central throughout the primeval history, and so Noah becoming, or being the first to become, a “man of the soil” is a not simply statement that leads to the following story. Instead, Noah’s moral purity and righteousness are imperative in his relationship to the soil and his ability to bring forth life, fertility, and wine. Third, the timing of the vineyard after the destruction of the flood points to grapes and wine as a blessing that follows judgment. This motif will be taken up throughout the Bible as wine becomes a sign of abundant blessing in the coming kingdom of God. In summary fashion we are then told that Noah “planted a vineyard”  (wayyittaʿ karem). ¯ We hear agrarian echoes, as the same verb (wayyittaʿ) __ __ was used of the creator God who planted the garden in Eden (Gen :). This is the first reference to viticulture in the Bible. According to the flood narrative, the ark landed on Mount Ararat (Gen :), which is found in modern-day Armenia in the Zagros mountains and is the site thought to be where viticulture and winemaking began. A medieval Jewish midrash retells the story of when the ark landed. Noah found a vine which was lying there, which had come out of the garden of Eden. It had its clusters with it, and he took of its fruit and ate, and rejoiced in his heart, as it is said, “My wine, which cheereth God and man” (Judg. :). He planted a vineyard with it. On the selfsame day it produced and became ripe with its fruits, as it is said, ‘In the day of thy planting thou dost make it grow, and in the morning thou makest thy seed to blossom’” (Isa. :)

The connections between vine, wine, and Eden were common in Jewish traditions, but the biblical text relates only the fact that Noah planted vines. After planting his vines, Noah would first have had to wait for at least three years for them to produce grapes. Newly planted vines will not produce a harvest to be used for winemaking until the third year. Secondly, he would have had to discover the proper species of vine to produce grapes that could be fermented to become wine. This requires discernment between the wild grape variety of Eurasia (Vitis vinifera sylvestris) and the domesticated vine (Vitis vinifera vinifera). The domesticated Vitis vinifera was “changed from a dioecious plant (separate male and female individuals) into a hermaphroditic crop, which is able to pollinate

Noah and the Renewal of the Soil

itself and thus set fruit without the need for outside pollination.” These grapes also carry yeasts in their skins which allow for a natural fermentation process to occur when they are crushed and contained. The vines of the Vitis vinifera are maintained by the rooting of twigs or grafting branches onto other root stock. Through this process vintners are able to select exceptional varieties with superior fruits in order to plant vineyards of genetically identical plants. This allows for the consistency of fruit to produce a consistent product of wine. Though we are told that Noah simply “planted a vineyard,” the skill and botanical knowledge needed to do so would have taken years of patience and work. One significant difference between the biblical origins of wine and other ancient Near Eastern myths is that Noah cultivates the vine after the flood and thus wine is depicted as a gift to humanity that relieves the toil of the original curse. Sarna points out that in the Mesopotamian Gilgamesh Epic the hero, Utnapishtim, gives wine to the builders of his vessel before the great flood. In other myths we find Osiris, the Egyptian god, who gives the cultivated vine to the people, and a similar story is found of the Greek god Dionysus. Genesis, however, describes the advent of viticulture as something that emerges as a gift of comfort through human cultivation of the soil and vine after God’s judgment. The earth has been cleansed and washed from the violence (ham ¯ as) ¯ of humanity, which prepares the ground _ for the only righteous man to begin again. It is not insignificant that wine is the first thing produced in the post-diluvian age as a sign of God’s grace through the purity of Noah and the restoration of the soil. God will provide consistency in the seasons and vows not to curse the earth again, but knowledge of the soil, viticulture, and viniculture will come through Noah. The restoration of the soil and the advent of wine are bound to the moral righteousness of Noah. Human transgression causes the soil to suffer, but the primeval history depicts Noah as the one who will restore God’s original mandate in creation and bring relief to a world still tainted by Adam’s curse. That relief comes in the form of wine, and Noah, enjoying the fruits of his labor, gets drunk and passes out in his tent, where he lies uncovered (Gen :). This brief statement is not a moral judgment against Noah, who, we recall, “walked with God.” Instead, the episode relates the initial discovery, as it were, of what happens when one consumes too much wine. The result was that he lay uncovered, which is often seen as disgraceful in other biblical texts, but we recall that Noah was concealed in the privacy of his tent. Later rabbinic commentators offer a colorful scene before Noah gets drunk as he is confronted by Satan when planting the first vine.





Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis Satan thereupon slaughtered a lamb, and then, in succession, a lion, a pig and a monkey. The blood of each as it was killed he made to flow under the vine. Thus he conveyed to Noah what the qualities of wine are: before a man drinks of it, he is innocent as a lamb; if he drinks of it moderately, he feels as strong as a lion; if he drinks more of it than he can bear, he resembles a pig; and if he drinks to the point of intoxication, then he behaves like a monkey, he dances around, sings, talks obscenely, and knows not what he is doing.

Noah, however, drinks so much that he passes out! Noah’s drunken state presumes the potential for a loss of dignity, but the judgment of the story comes against Ham, who failed to cover his father’s nakedness in a respectful way. The failure of a son to honor his father may seem like a minor infraction to many today, but in an ancient world built around family, honor, and respect for one’s parents, Ham’s actions were likely perceived as shameful and scandalous by the biblical authors. The brief and incomplete narrative of Ham has been interpreted in a variety of ways, but many commentators agree that the Hebrew euphemism “saw the nakedness” in relation to his father relates to an incestuous act. It is possible that Ham tried to have sexual relations with his father, or even with his mother. Whether we interpret Ham’s actions as a sign of disrespect or sexual immorality (or both), the result is that Noah curses Ham’s son Canaan. This offers a foreshadowing of further implications with the soil through the ancestors of Canaan, who will ultimately be vomited out of the land because of their sexual immorality (Lev :–). The primeval history frames humanity’s beginnings and the first production of wine in relationship to the soil. The story of three farmers, Adam, Cain, and Noah, offers insights into the intimacy shared between human beings and the land. Nothing in creation is self-sufficient or lives independently but, rather, all living things are given life from the soil and are integrated into its vast ecology. Through the first garden dwellers we also discover that humanity’s moral choices affect the land and its ability to produce. To fulfill God’s mandate to be fruitful and multiply, human beings must work in harmony within the community of creation and in their moral and ethical treatment of one another. The dramatic corruption of creation can be redeemed only through one who is attuned to the creation, the soil, and the Creator. The purity, righteousness, and blamelessness of Noah allow him to fulfill his role of bringing rest to the world after the flood and relief from toil. He becomes the first man of the soil, a man who understands the beauties and intricacies of nature’s ecosystem, and a man who cultivates the gift of wine as a sign of God’s blessing.

The Life of the Soil: Regenerative Agriculture

The Life of the Soil: Regenerative Agriculture We have seen how the biblical authors of Genesis understood the interdependency of creation especially in relation to humanity and the soil. Caring and keeping the land is an act of service, partnership, protection, and creativity that results in joy and flourishing when humans help to bring forth God’s gift of fertility and life from the earth. The ancient Israelites understood the land as the source of all life. Aldo Leopold sums up this sentiment when he writes, “Land, then, is not merely soil; it is a fountain of energy flowing through a circuit of soils, plants, and animals. Food chains are the living channels which conduct energy upward; death and decay return it to the soil.” The renewal of this “fountain of energy” is highlighted through the purity and righteousness of Noah, who becomes the second Adam and is given the divine mandate to be fruitful, to multiply, and to restore the soil after the flood. We have also witnessed how, for the biblical authors, humanity’s moral and ethical behavior is tethered to the life and health of the soil. Disobedience to God’s commands and acts of violence against others fracture the relationship between humans and the land, causing infertility and death. Though this theological framework emerges from an ancient Israelite agrarian culture, it is possible that its insights might address some of the environmental issues that humanity faces today. Since the onset of industrialized agriculture there have been significant changes to the ways in which the land has been used for food production. In the twentieth century, farmers and governments relied on more scientific approaches to agriculture that departed from the traditional practices that had been established for millennia. The past decades have seen the increased use of synthetic fertilizers to sustain monocropping, or vast amounts of the same crops being planted in the same fields year after year. There has been a significant increase in the use of pesticides and insecticides as well as fungicides to combat plant disease. Alongside synthetic inputs to the soil, there has been the growth of genetically modified seeds, which can be spliced together with insect DNA to produce pest-resistant crops. The outcomes of these experiments have yet to be fully assessed, but some scientific findings paint a bleak picture of the damage being done to natural ecosystems and to our bodies. The advent of large-scale industrial agricultural production in the past decades may have increased the amount of food produced by farmers, but this has come at the expense of the life of the soil and the environment. Some recent research on soil health has examined the results of synthetic fertilizers over the past decades. In some instances crops were found to be unresponsive to the yearly applications of nitrogen which are common





Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

practice among farmers to help generate greater yields. Researchers found that the primary source of nitrogen and potassium for crops is the soil itself and not additional fertilizers. They also discovered that, in some cases, plots of land that had been fertilized had actually burned organic matter rather than helping build the health of the soil. In these instances, microbes in the soil have an excess of nitrogen which causes them to burn off carbon dioxide and prevents them from building organic matter. The results demonstrated that traditional applications of fertilizers were not necessarily helping plants in the uptake of nitrogen and potassium and that in some instances the fertilizers were having a destructive effect on the soil. Approaching crop production with single-factor solutions, monocultures, and chemical inputs has been characteristic of science-based industrialized agriculture, which has diminished the traditional notion of husbandry. Wendell Berry argues that the language of the farmer as “husband” is critical to understanding the nature of the relationship between humanity and the soil. The marriage metaphor expresses a unity between husband and wife, farmer and land: Husbandry pertains first to the household; it connects the farm to the household. It is an art wedded to the art of housewifery. To husband is to use with care, to keep, to save, to make last, to conserve. Old usage tells us that there is a husbandry also of the land, of the soil, of the domestic plants and animals – obviously because of the importance of these things to the household . . . Husbandry is the name of all the practices that sustain life by connecting us conservingly to our places and our world; it is the art of keeping tied all the strands in the living network that sustains us.

The language of husbandry reflects the biblical motifs of Genesis whereby the relationship between humanity and soil is seen as a solemn, demanding, mutual interdependence that is blessed through fertility and the gift of wine. Humanity’s relationship to the soil conceals a deep mystery for the biblical authors that is like the sacrament of marriage. The bond between soil, plant, animal, family, and household offers a vision of care for an entire ecosystem that belongs to, and comprises, the character and identity of those rooted in that place. The British post-war farmer George Henderson offers similar sentiments when he writes, “One hears a lot about the rules of good husbandry; there is only one – leave the land far better than you found it. In the soil lies all that remains of the work of countless generations of the dead. We hold this sacred trust, to maintain the fertility and pass it on unimpaired to the unborn generations to come.” In an effort to reaffirm the language and practice of husbandry, some farmers have returned to traditional agricultural practices that take into

The Life of the Soil: Regenerative Agriculture

account the dynamic ecosystem created by the soil, plants, and animals. The movement has been labeled “regenerative agriculture” because the emphasis is on the farmer allowing the soil to increase in its microbial activity and its carbon cycling through plant photosynthesis. This allows the soil to regenerate and foster conditions that support new life. The goal is to create a diverse ecosystem that improves plant and animal health by maintaining a diversity of species on the farm. Rather than relying on single-factor analysis, farmers consider the nearly unlimited number of natural processes that lead to the improvement of soil health and regeneration. Some of the practices include crop rotation, planting cover crops to protect the soil, avoiding excessive tilling, and abandoning all types of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers. Many farmers will also integrate different types of livestock grazing, raising chickens, or bee keeping to increase the biodiversity of the ecosystem and improve the soil’s long-term health. Vineyard owners have also followed the regenerative agriculture movement by moving away from pesticides, fungicides, and tillage and creating vines that function within a broader and more diverse ecosystem. Some of these vineyards are called “biodynamic,” which means that the vintners hold to organic farming principles but also take into account the influences of the lunar calendar. In some instances, vintners have incorporated holistic management techniques which include livestock grazing, diverse cover crops, and other ecological practices into their vineyards. One priority for those practicing regenerative agriculture is helping plants achieve their greatest level of photosynthesis. Through the process of photosynthesis plants create carbohydrates, which are moved into the soil and broken down through the carbon cycle. Much of the carbon produced through photosynthesis is released through the plant’s roots, which support microbial communities in the soil. As these microbial communities break down nutrients with the help of organic carbon, they release energy into the soil which can then be used for future plants. Photosynthesis and the carbon cycle are critical to the life and health of the soil. The power of sun, water, and carbon is harnessed by healthy plants and returned to the soil to deliver more energy to the whole ecosystem. One common practice in regenerative agriculture is restricting the amount of tilling on fields. This not only reduces the use of heavy machinery but, more importantly, reduces the amount of carbon that is released from the soil. The process of tillage can deprive the microbes the carbon they need to function. It also disrupts the web of mycorrhizal fungi in the soil which help plants get the nutrients and water they need. Mycorrhizal fungi form a vast network, extending their hyphae (branching filaments or tendrils) beneath the soil to transport essential water and

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

Adam, Cain, and Noah: The First Farmers of Genesis

nutrients to the roots of the plant. Imagine a massive spider web beneath the earth that extends for hundreds of miles and acts as a transportation infrastructure for the distribution of carbon, nutrients, and water. This is how mycorrhizal fungi make use of the carbon from plants and in return supply plants with the energy they need. If farmland is tilled frequently, these networks can be upset, which will affect plant and soil health. The results of regenerative agriculture vary from country to country, but one byproduct of cultivating complex ecosystems on a farm is nutrientdense soil, which in turn produces nutrient-dense food. Over the past fifty to one hundred years, mineral nutrients in fruits and vegetables have declined by up to  percent in the United States and nearly  percent in the United Kingdom. This micronutrient deficiency suggests that the soil’s fertility affects its ability to produce nutrient-dense foods. Without nutrients from the soil our bodies will lack the essential minerals and bacteria that maintain good health and immune systems. Recent research on the human microbiome has demonstrated that the majority of bacteria found in the soil are also found in the human gut. Our digestive system in some ways mirrors what is happening in the soil as organic matter is broken down by bacteria into absorbable molecules that are transported throughout the body. The link between our bodies and the soil is aptly summed up by Montgomery and Bilké: “The root is the gut and the gut is the root! It’s probably not a coincidence that the majority of the bacteria in the gut and in the soil share a saprophyte genealogy . . . In both places, the bacteria that are present specialize in decomposing dead plant matter.” The microbes of the soil benefit the entire ecosystem by breaking down organic matter to produce energy and nutrients for healthy plants. The very same microbes reside in the human gut, providing us with a critical link to the soil and the plants that grow in it. The biblical authors may not have understood the microbiology behind human digestion, but they did understand that human beings are both physically and spiritually bound to the soil. It is no wonder that the ancient Israelites associated salvation with the fertility and life of the soil. The mysteries that exist beneath the ground through growth, death, decay, and new life brought them sustenance and, through Noah, the gift of wine. They identified themselves in and through the land, but they also understood that human morality affects the soil. Sin and disobedience were like the equivalent of dumping ammonia on a freshly seeded field or pouring acid on newly planted vines. Humans were not independent of nature’s ecosystem but, rather, they lived in a symbiotic relationship with the world around them and the microbial world of the soil that was within them.

The Life of the Soil: Regenerative Agriculture

This is likely why it was so important for Noah, the second Adam, to be one who was righteous, who walked with God and found favor in his sight. His moral purity is a reflection of the purity of the soil he works after it had been cleansed by the flood. Noah is the biblical figure that offers humanity a second chance. He offers hope that human beings will renew and cultivate their relationship with the soil and regenerate the life of the earth after it was poisoned by humanity’s violence (Gen :). More significantly, he also brings relief to humanity from its toil through his viticulture and the production of wine. The fruit of the cultivated vine will become one of the most prominent symbols of life, joy, blessing, and salvation in the Bible. Despite the chaos and destruction humans can inflict on the earth, God responds with grace by renewing the soil and revealing the gift of wine. In his poem “God’s Grandeur,” Gerard Manley Hopkins captures both the crisis of humanity’s mistreatment of the land and the incredible resilience of God’s creation in fulfilling its mandate to be fruitful and multiply. For Hopkins the soil that is bare is “never spent,” and deep beneath its surface lies the possibility of death, decay, and new life, all in the hands of the God who broods over the world. The world is charged with the grandeur of God. It will flame out, like shining from shook foil; It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod? Generations have trod, have trod, have trod; And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil; And wears man’s smudge and shares man’s smell: the soil Is bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod. And for all this, nature is never spent; There lives the dearest freshness deep down things; And though the last lights off the black West went Oh, morning, at the brown brink eastward, springs – Because the Holy Ghost over the bent World broods with warm breast and with ah! bright wings.

Hopkins’s vision echoes that of the biblical authors of Genesis. The gift of the land is “charged with the grandeur of God” and is intimately bound to the life and vocation of humanity in the world. The soil is critical to the sustenance of all life and produces God’s blessing of relief through the fruit of the vine which comes through the righteousness of Noah.



CHAPTER



Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine Blessing and Salvation A Gift That Gladdens the Heart From the time of Noah the use of wine in the Bible, both materially and metaphorically, points to the blessing of God as a sign of his presence, his salvation, and the abundance of his kingdom. This is not confined to Genesis but is echoed throughout the rest of Scripture. God’s promised continuity of the seasons, rainfall, sun, and wind provides the conditions for humanity to grow grapes, harvest them, and enjoy a fermented drink that brings rest to the body, mind, and soul. This gift from God becomes central to meals, fellowship, and the passing on of God’s blessing from one generation to another. Wine is one of the primary signs and symbols in the scriptures that expresses the delights of God’s creation bestowed upon humanity to bring joy and fullness of life. This chapter will cover a wide range of texts from various voices and periods of Israel’s history, but each will demonstrate the importance of wine as a sign of blessing and God’s salvation as it is experienced in relation to the land. The Bible’s concept of blessing (bǝrakâ) ¯ stands in contrast to modern notions of self-sufficiency. Contemporary culture tends to emphasize the human capacity to form and dictate the future whether through machines, technology, or other scientific innovations. Blessing in the scriptures, however, was dependent on relationship – a right relationship with God and with one’s neighbor. Blessing was not something that could be seized by one’s own power but, rather, it was a gift to be received with humility when granted by a superior or by God. The nature of the gift could vary, but the result of divine blessing in the Bible was often seen through fertility and agricultural abundance which recalls the power of God’s life in creation. His divine presence, as Aquinas argues, is that which sustains the work of all creation and fills the universe with the potential of life. 

A Gift That Gladdens the Heart

God’s blessing was a sign of his presence with all humanity, his gift of salvation, and his ongoing protection and provision for his people. One of the reasons why wine is a unique sign of God’s blessing in the Bible lies in the nature of its growth and production. Unlike other agricultural products, grapes have the ability to reflect the character of their terroir. A hot, dry year with intense sun may cause grapes to lose their acidity or result in excessive leaf growth which shades the grapes and affects their flavor. If there is a hard frost, the pollinated flowers may be destroyed. If the weather is too cool, the grape clusters may be plagued with rot or mildew. A series of mist-filled mornings, cloudless warm evenings, or gentle, southerly winds all contribute to how the soil and vine will produce each year’s vintage. In this sense, the farmer does not create the wine but, rather, it is revealed and given as a gift from the land. Roger Scruton sums up the connection of wine to place and terroir when he writes, “with my nose rubbing the nose of a Trotanoy I was coming face to face with a vineyard. There in the glass was the soil of a place, and in that soil was a soul.” Wine was also perceived as a blessing because the ancient Israelites understood that their grape harvests were always subject to natural events beyond their control. Heavy rains, hail, storms, or high winds could bring significant damage to grape clusters. A hard frost during the spring might kill newly formed buds and could destroy an entire vintage. In  a rare hailstorm briefly swept through the famous wine regions of Bordeaux and Burgundy, leaving vineyards decimated. In Bordeaux alone it is estimated that the losses for winegrowers were up to $ million in sales. Such catastrophic weather events are often measured in terms of financial loss in today’s economy, but for the ancient farmer they were seen as the work God. For the ancient Israelites the fragility of growing grapes and the innumerable elements beyond the farmer’s control were all seen as a part of God’s care for the world and his providence. God is depicted as the cosmic farmer by the psalmist, who writes of his grace in sustaining all creation. “When you open your hand, they are filled with good things” (Ps :). God is also the one who brings death. “When you take away their breath, they die and return to their dust” (v. ). Yet all things are created anew through his life-giving breath. “When you send forth your spirit, they are created; and you renew the face of the ground” (v. ). The cycles of life, death, and rebirth, from dust to dust, are governed by divine benevolence. It is within the scope of God’s cosmic blessings of sun, rain, heat, cold, and wind that the local blessing and gift of grapes can give voice to the terroir resulting in wines that “gladden the human heart” (v. ).





Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

Over the centuries, however, some commentators have attached moral connotations to wine and have argued that its use in the Bible is predominantly negative. In a seeming attempt to distance piety from alcohol, some scholars have sought to demonstrate that the wine referred to in the Bible was a form of grape juice that was nonalcoholic. Since drunkenness is categorically condemned in most biblical texts, some conclude that Israel would not have made alcoholic wine, because it would have gone against God’s command. Though there are some examples of unfermented grape juice used in the ancient world, the difficulties in stopping the natural fermentation process of Vitis vinifera grapes are not insignificant. Since the grape skins naturally contain their own yeast, the fermentation process begins immediately after the grapes are crushed as the yeast begins to convert sugars into alcohol. To counteract this natural occurrence one would need to cool the juice to temperatures below  degrees Fahrenheit ( degrees Celsius) so that the yeasts go into hibernation. The other possibility would be to raise the temperature to  degrees Fahrenheit ( degrees Celsius) to kill the yeast (pasteurization). It is possible that wine could have been boiled or buried deep in the ground in cooler temperatures, but it is difficult to conceive of Israelite farmers going through such laborious and timeconsuming processes to reverse the natural effects of fermentation which produce wine. The difficulties in arguing for nonalcoholic grape juice or complete abstinence from wine in the Bible are numerous. First, there is little archeobotanic evidence that ancient Israelite amphorae contained unfermented grape juice. Nearly all ancient vessels that stored juice from grapes contained fermented wine of various types. Second, the relative complexities and labor involved in preventing wine from its natural fermentation process make the widespread production of non-fermented grape juice unlikely. Third, the association of wine with drunkenness throughout the Bible presupposes that what Israel consistently made and consumed was in fact a fermented alcoholic drink. To condemn wine production and consumption because of the biblical warrants against drunkenness is tantamount to throwing the baby out with the bathwater. Instead, the Bible offers a vision of wine as a gift from God that begins with Noah as part of the restoration and healing of the earth while also relieving humanity from the toil of work. Wine is celebrated throughout the Bible in its full complexity and purity as a drink given by God. We find these sentiments expressed through the psalmist when describing the agricultural gifts bestowed upon humanity. Returning to Psalm

A Gift That Gladdens the Heart

, we see that it is by God’s hand that the earth is set on its foundations (v. ) and that springs break forth to give water to the animal kingdom (vv. –). Grasses grow for cattle, and plants for feeding humanity (v. ). The LORD brings forth not only food but also “wine to gladden the human heart, oil to make the face shine, and bread to strengthen the human heart” (v. ). The triad of wine, oil, and bread are reminders of the staples of the Israelite diet, but each one is depicted with its own benefit that comes as a gift from God. Bread is the necessary sustenance for daily living, and the psalmist portrays this as strengthening the heart or giving human beings the capacity, both physically and mentally, to continue their work. Oil is the gift that was used as a food source but was also used for cooking, for lamps, or for ointments to heal the skin. Oil was also used in the cult for anointing priests and holy items within the tabernacle and later was used for anointing kings (Exod :–;  Sam :). It “makes the face shine” as a sign of health, life, and the blessing of God (cf. Judg :). Wine, however, is a gift that “gladdens the heart.” Wine eases the burdens of life and brings relief from daily toil. It is a gift that God brings forth from the earth with the particular intent of imparting to humanity a sense of joy and gladness. A similar sense is expressed through the parable of the trees in Judges . When the vine is asked to rule over the other trees it responds, “Shall I stop producing my wine that cheers gods and mortals, and go to sway over the trees?” (Judg :). The vine understands its vocation in the world to bring joy to humanity (and to the gods!). Both passages affirm that wine is a gift from God that brings delight and happiness to humanity. Elsewhere the psalmist depicts a similar sense of joy and the experience of salvation for the Israelite farmer who will live long days and enjoy the fruit of his labor. In Psalm  we are given a glimpse inside the family home which is described in agricultural terms. “Your wife will be like a fruitful vine within your house; your children will be like olive shoots around your table. Thus shall the man be blessed who fears the LORD” (vv. –). Though wine is not mentioned, it is assumed through the image of a fruitful vine. The comparison of the woman to a vine likely represents her fertility, but it may also allude to her ability to sustain, support, and care for the home (cf. Prov :–). The children are like olive shoots bringing forth new oil and the blessing of offspring to support the parents on the farm, care for them in their old age, and continue the family line. The scene painted by the psalmist depicts the blessing of those who fear and obey God. They will experience the presence of his kingdom by being





Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

rooted in the land, which produces fruitful vines like a fruitful wife and oil like an abundance of children. The connection between soil, salvation, and wine is also made in the wilderness wanderings when the Israelites send spies to scout out the promised land before they enter. They come to the Wadi Eshcol (Valley of the Cluster), a name which refers to a cluster of grapes. They cut down a cluster (ʾeškōl) of grapes, which is so large that they have to carry it on a pole between two men (Num :). The spies also bring back pomegranates and figs to demonstrate to the camp that the land of God’s promise is, indeed, a land that “flows with milk and honey.” The importance of the physical symbol of grapes, and their exaggerated size, becomes critical to the narrative as a demonstration of God’s blessing and fertility in the land of Canaan. Though other fruits are brought back, they pale in comparison to the gigantic grapes that represent the means to produce an abundance of wine! The value of viticulture to the Israelites as a sign of God’s blessing was critical to their experience of salvation in the land. If they dwelt in peace and their vineyards produced enough grapes to provide wine that gladdened the heart, the Israelites would know that God had blessed them and remained in their midst. The fruit of the vine and the wine it produced became a physical reminder of salvation that was woven into the daily life of God’s people. This blessing of wine was incorporated into meals to express solidarity, covenant faithfulness, and the gifts of God that were passed on from one generation to the next. Wine was used at banquet celebrations, at communal feasts, and as an offering at God’s altar. It also became an important symbol for the prophets as they reimagined salvation after the devastation of exile. The simple drink that comes from the juice of fermented grapes became one of the most important biblical symbols of God’s relief, blessing, and salvation in the land.

Wine, Meals, and Blessing Basic meals of bread and water are expressed throughout the Bible. The two elements represent the staples of life and what is required for human beings to survive. This is what Abraham provides for Hagar when he sends her off into the wilderness (Gen :), and it is the basic ration that God later provides Israel in the wilderness. Wine, however, is often reserved for special contexts and raises the level of experience from mere survival to the joy of eating, drinking, and celebrating with others.

Wine, Meals, and Blessing

Anthropologist Mary Douglas argues that meals are encoded events that function within specific patterns. We create time for things like breakfast, lunch, and dinner where certain foods and drinks are served which convey social status and relational intimacy. She concludes that “The rules of the menu are not in themselves more or less trivial than the rules of verse to which a poet submits.” When we look at some of the earliest meals recorded in the Bible we discover a similar framework and see the significance of the elements used. The first meal described in the scriptures occurs when Abraham meets Melchizedek, the king of Salem, who brings bread and wine to celebrate Abraham’s victory. The narrative of Genesis  depicts Abraham boldly pursuing Chedorloamer, the king of Elam, and the other kings who had taken his nephew Lot into captivity. Leading his men out as far north as Damascus, Abraham defeats his enemies and returns Lot and his family and all their possessions to southern Palestine. Having brought peace and stability to the region, Abraham is met by the king of Sodom in the King’s Valley. We note that the king of Sodom brings nothing to greet the victor, whereas Melchizedek, the king of Salem, “brought out bread and wine” (Gen :). The king of Sodom disgraces himself by coming empty-handed before his savior but Melchizedek, whose name means “king of righteousness” or “righteous king,” comes bearing gifts even though he is Abraham’s superior. The gesture expresses hospitality beyond merely providing for someone’s sustenance. The addition of wine, even though it was a common beverage in the ancient world, is a sign of celebration and could possibly have allusions to some type of a covenant meal. The meal of bread and wine lead to the climax of the encounter where the mysterious priest-king of Salem pronounces blessing over Abraham. “Blessed be Abram by God Most High, maker of heaven and earth; and blessed be God Most High, who has delivered your enemies into your hand!” (Gen :–). The blessing recalls God’s promise to Abraham that he will be blessed by God and that nations will be blessed through him (Gen :–). In response to the blessing, Abraham gives a tenth of his plunder to Melchizedek. Giving a portion of the spoils of war was a common practice in the ancient world and was also known in Israel. What is confusing about the story is that Abraham gives the tithe to a Canaanite priest-king and accepts his blessing in the name of “God Most High.” This amounts to Abraham conceding that Melchizedek’s God is the same God as Abraham’s God, the LORD (Gen :). A simple meal of bread and wine in celebration of the God who gave Abraham victory sets the stage for blessing and the partial fulfillment of God’s promise to Abraham and his descendants.





Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

Blessings and wine are also used within family meals in Genesis to pass on inheritance, authority, and a future marked by God’s favor. In the story of Jacob and Esau, Jacob undermines his brother for his birthright and then deceives his father Isaac through a meal prepared by his mother Rebekah (Gen :–). Walsh notes that many commentators miss the fact that Jacob includes wine in the meal for his father even though neither Isaac nor Rebekah instructs him to do so. She interprets this as a subtle addition to the narrative that strengthens the idea of Jacob as a schemer who is willing to get his father drunk in order to obtain his blessing. This may be the case, but it is also possible that Jacob is honoring his father with a suitable expression of hospitality in view of the circumstances. Jacob brings meat, bread, and wine because it is an appropriate offering and gift of respect to his father that represents the full blessings of God’s creation. What follows is a response from Isaac that is consonant with the meal he has eaten as he proclaims, “‘Ah, the smell of my son is like the smell of a field that the LORD has blessed. May God give you of the dew of heaven, and of the fatness of the earth, and plenty of grain and wine”’ (Gen :). Isaac uses agricultural images to express the fullness of God’s blessing to his chosen offspring. He begins by eliciting the sense of smell. The urban reader might ask the question, what does a field that the LORD has blessed smell like? Is it the smell of rich dew settling on soil that is newly sprouting with crops of wheat or barley? Is it the smell of a vineyard in the summer just before the harvest when the grapes hang heavily from the vine? It is the smell of the earth on Jacob that reminds Isaac of the LORD’s promise of land to his father Abraham and to his offspring? Isaac’s blessing parallels the meal he has just eaten: the dew of heaven needed to bring forth crops, the fatness of the earth in its game, and an abundance of grain and wine. Isaac’s words encapsulate a life filled with God’s blessings from the earth, but such an inheritance is transferable to only one child. Esau later seeks a remaining blessing from his father but none is given (Gen :–). The power of Isaac’s words declared before God will stand as the covenant blessing that is passed on to Jacob. Isaac reiterates the solemnity and unchanging nature of his blessing as he declares of Jacob, “with grain and wine I have sustained him” (Gen :). So significant is the act of verbal blessing that Isaac assumes the role of future provider for Jacob through the gift of God. As Brueggemann writes, “the blessing combines all of the primitive power of a spoken word (which has a life of its own) with the high theological claim of special vocation for its addressee.” The scene is an important one in forming a biblical theology of wine because it demonstrates that the promise to Abraham that will pass from

Wine, Meals, and Blessing

one generation to the next is an agricultural and material reality. Abundances of grain and wine produced from healthy soil were real signs that God’s salvation was present among his people. When Jacob and his offspring smelled the aromas of a field that the LORD had blessed, they were reminded of his unceasing grace and favor. When they sat down at table to feast on game, bread, and wine, they would remember their identity as God’s covenant people and his promise. The material substance of wine, along with land that produces in abundance, is critical to a biblical understanding of blessing and to the experience of salvation. A similar scene takes place at the end of Genesis when Jacob becomes the one who imparts blessing and the inheritance of God upon his twelve sons. Though this does not occur at a meal, the ancient poem of Genesis  reflects the heritage and summary of God’s covenant blessing passed on through Jacob to the twelve tribes of Israel. In a similar way to Isaac, Jacob trusts in the power of God to fulfill his prophetic words concerning the future of his sons. The spoken word, undergirded by divine power, will shape the world in which his children live and their experience of either blessing or hardship. Jacob begins by stating that he will tell of what will happen in days to come and proceeds to offer negative predictions for the first three sons, Reuben, Simeon, and Levi which reflect their previous wrongful acts. When we come to Judah, however, Jacob’s words turn positive, as this son will have the strength of a lion and will rule over his enemies as they bring him tribute (Gen :–). The image of sovereignty and power over others is followed by lavish descriptions of vineyards and wine. “Binding his foal to the vine and his donkey’s colt to the choice vine, he washes his garments in wine and his robe in the blood of grapes; his eyes are darker than wine, and his teeth whiter than milk” (Gen :–). Not only will Judah’s enemies bring offerings to lay at his feet, but the soil and the vine will equally provide in abundance. The poetic parallelism of binding a foal to the vine and a donkey’s colt to the choice vine offers an agricultural image that represents the excess of grapes produced from the vineyard. No right-minded vintner would bind a donkey to their vines, because the animal would eat the fruit and potentially destroy the vines. The foal or colt would have been used to transport the grapes from the vineyard to the winepress, but it would have been bound away from the vines to protect the grapes. Judah, however, will receive such a bountiful harvest that he can afford to let the donkey eat as it pleases. His reign among his brothers and sovereignty over his enemies will correspondingly result in the fertility of his vineyards.

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The hyperbole of the passage is magnified because the colt will be allowed to eat even from the “choice vine” (śōrēqâ). This distinctive vine is associated with a place in the region of Judah, the Valley of Sorek, which is first mentioned in Judges as the place where Samson fell in love with Delilah (Judg :). This area was known for its fertility and possibly for a particular grape variety that was considered to be among the best in the region. The alternate form, śōrēq, occurs in only two other passages, where it refers to Israel as the choice vine that God plants (Isa :; Jer :). Both Isaiah and Jeremiah use the metaphor to indicate the highest quality of vine that should produce the highest-quality grapes. In the case of Judah, the fertility and blessing of the land will be so great that even the superior vines can be used as food for donkeys. This would be like letting a mule chew on the vines at Château Petrus or Domaine de la Romanée-Conti, where wines can cost thousands of dollars per bottle. The blessing continues with the theme of excessive abundance by bringing out the richness of the color it produces for Judah and how it enhances his beauty. “He washes his garments in wine and his robe in the blood of grapes; his eyes are darker than wine, and his teeth whiter than milk.” To use wine as if it were like water for washing clothes might be comparable to someone lighting an expensive cigar with a $ bill. The extravagance is amplified through the parallel description of wine as “the blood of grapes” (dam ¯ ʿanabîm), ¯ which conjures up images of a king  dressed in the finest scarlet robes. The physical appearance of Judah with eyes darker than wine and teeth whiter than milk echoes later descriptions of King David, who had “beautiful eyes” ( Sam :) and a “beautiful appearance” ( Sam :). The ruler of the people embodies the beauty and blessing of God, which are highlighted by the excess of wine and the physical appearance of Judah. We have seen how wine is associated with God’s blessing in the scriptures and how this is depicted in Genesis through meals and through the prophetic words of a father spoken to his children. When Israel later settled in the land of Canaan there emerged other expressions of God’s blessing through the connection between soil, farmer, and vineyard. Wine was not only a gift from God, but was also connected to one’s social responsibility and standing within the wider community of Israel.

Reaping the Blessing of One’s Labor Throughout the Bible there is sense of sacredness associated with working the land and receiving the fruits of one’s labor. To enjoy the gifts that God

Reaping the Blessing of One’s Labor

provides through harvest is a sign of justice and equity in the minds of the biblical authors. It expresses the balance of shalom in society, whereby one is rewarded with the fertility of the earth as a result of both work and God’s blessing. This is reflected in the commands given in Deuteronomy regarding men who are called to war. In Deuteronomy  we find a series of proclamations that should be made before entering into battle to those men who may lose their lives. The first command states that a man is exempt from battle if he has built a new house, so that he might dedicate it and enjoy the work of his hands lest someone else dedicate it in his place (Deut :). The third command is that a man engaged to be married may also forgo battle so that he may consummate his marriage and enjoy life with his new bride (Deut :). Sitting between these two commands, Deuteronomy : states, “Has anyone planted a vineyard but not yet enjoyed its fruit? He should go back to his house, or he might die in the battle and another be first to enjoy its fruit.” Deuteronomy recognizes that, like building a house, or entering a marriage, planting a vineyard takes time, devotion, and hard work in order to reap the harvest and enjoy its first vintage. The biblical authors understood the joy and anticipation of God’s blessing through the first fruits by allowing men to gather the blessings of what they had sown (cf. Isa :; Jer :; Amos :). Underlying all three commands is the idea that an injustice occurs if a person is denied the blessings of home, marriage, or land by the possibility of premature death in battle. Unlike the first and third commands, the instructions concerning a new vineyard employs unusual language regarding the man’s relationship to its initial harvest. The NRSV translates the verb h-l-l (piel ¼ “profane”) as “to _ enjoy its fruit” from the context of the sentence. The act of profaning something in Scripture almost always has negative connotations as one moves something away from a state of holiness into the profane. Driver argues that the vineyard is profaned by the farmer when he reaps the harvest for use of its produce in the home. Walsh agrees that a sacred meaning is attributed to the first harvest but contends that the use of h-l-l _ intentionally imbues the vineyard with sacred value. She sees the command in Deuteronomy as a way of protecting the vintner and his work so that the loss of this blessing from God would be seen as “profaning” its rightful owner. Both scholars rightly point out that there is a sacredness that surrounds a newly planted vineyard and that to “profane” the harvest is the right of the person who has labored to create it. There may also be a connection between the sacred and the timing of the first harvest. We noted that a

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vineyard usually takes at least three years from the time it is planted to when it yields its first fruits. In Leviticus :– we find agricultural commands that convey similar timings around the planting of fruit trees when Israel enters the land. “When you come into the land and plant all kinds of trees for food, then you shall regard their fruit as forbidden; three years it shall be forbidden to you, it must not be eaten” (Lev :). A more literal translation for “you shall regard their fruit as forbidden” would read, “you shall keep its foreskin uncircumcised.” The unusual language of circumcision regarding a fruit tree likely meant that farmers were to remove the fruit from the tree, or vine, when it blossomed for the first three years. It is only in the fourth year that the tree is allowed to bear fruit for “rejoicing in the Lord,” and in the fifth year the family may use it for their own household. The language of Leviticus differs from the command in Deuteronomy, but we hear a similar resonance in themes that emerge around newly planted fruit-bearing trees or vines with the understanding that new fertility in the land is acknowledged as holy. For Leviticus, an “uncircumcised” fruit tree is forbidden to eat from because until the first fruits are offered in the fourth year it has not been properly dedicated to the Lord. Then the trees may be “profaned” by bringing the fruit into the home for consumption. For Deuteronomy, there is no stipulation that the harvest should be dedicated in the fourth year, but the first fruits of the vine must be offered to God (Deut :). After three years of waiting and working, the first harvest of grapes is “profaned” by the vintner as they are gathered, pressed, made into wine, and consumed in the home. Both Leviticus and Deuteronomy acknowledge that there is something sacred that occurs in the planting of an orchard or vineyard. The laborer works the land, plants, waters, and then must be patient for a certain amount of time before its produce is dedicated to God and used by the family (cf. Isa :–). To violate such a relationship between the farmer and the land by sending someone off to war would be unjust, and so the Mosaic laws provide exemption in certain circumstances. The sacredness of the vineyard and its associations with moral law in Deuteronomy are later captured through the story of Ahab’s coveting of Naboth’s vineyard ( Kings ). Not even kings in Israel could legally confiscate land and yet Ahab, driven by his desire for land around his palace, permits subsequent acts of lying, the unjust murder of Naboth, and royal confiscation of the land amounting to theft. The biblical historian highlights Ahab’s breaking nearly half of the ten commandments through murder, theft, perjury, and coveting. Not only do we see the tragic death of the innocent Naboth, but Ahab only wanted his land so that he could

Offerings of Wine

tear up the vineyard and plant a garden! Though the narrative is primarily about monarchial power and inheritance rights in the land, the vineyard and wine become a symbol of longstanding heritage and the social expectation that one receive the fruits of one’s ancestry. The biblical authors understood the sacredness of humanity’s connection to the land and the goodness that comes when a farmer and family receive the blessings of wine from their vineyards. Whether preserving ancestral land rights or permitting someone to forgo military service, the laws of Deuteronomy make provisions to protect the Israelites so that they may enjoy the fruits of their labor.

Offerings of Wine The blessing of wine is also tied to the worship of the Israelites and their ritual practices in the tabernacle/temple space. Along with certain livestock, birds, and other agricultural products like grains, oil, and fruit, wine was also offered in God’s sanctuary. Since the altar was considered “God’s table,” its purity corresponded with the purity of Israel’s table: what was sacrificed at the altar was eaten in the home. Like other staples of the Israelite diet, wine was a gift from the land which was an acceptable sacrifice often accompanied by grains as a burnt offering or a wellbeing sacrifice. In Latin, the word for “sacrifice” (sacrificium) derives from sacer (“sacred”) and faciō (“do, make”), meaning to make something sacred or holy. In an ancient agrarian society, the Israelites honored God’s holiness by sacrificing the produce of the land as a sign of their devotion and thanksgiving. Wine was sacrificed, or made holy, as a response to receiving God’s blessing and salvation. Wine libations to deities date back to earliest human history. In the ancient Mesopotamian city of Uruk wine was offered as part of the daily sacrifice to the gods. Wine was also offered by the Hittites to the gods and was used in various rituals to prevent pestilence or impotence. The ancient Greeks offered wine libations during a sacred meal called the symposion (symposium). At the conclusion of the feast, wine would be poured out to the gods, followed by the singing of hymns. Further libations would be offered to Dionysus and Zeus among other Greek heroes and deities. The philosopher Xenophanes describes the symposium as something greater than an ordinary banquet, since drinking and libations were offered to honor the gods. In the priestly text of Leviticus, wine is mentioned only once in relation to an offering. The prescription is that a quarter of a hin (. liters or . gallons)

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accompany the grain offering from the harvest along with the other sacrifices burnt on the altar (Lev :). The wine would have been poured at the base of the altar to provide a “pleasing aroma to the LORD.” The only other mention of wine in Leviticus is with regard to the work of the priests in the holy space of God’s tabernacle. God commands Aaron, “Drink no wine or strong drink, neither you nor your sons, when you enter the tent of meeting, that you may not die” (Lev :; cf. Ezek :). The order comes directly after Aaron’s sons, Nadab and Abihu, were killed in the tabernacle space because they offered “alien fire” (Lev :–). The reference to wine or strong drink likely alludes to the fact that Aaron’s sons were drunk when they performed their priestly duties and were struck down by God. Milgrom contends that the priestly ban on consuming wine or strong drink while performing duties in the tabernacle forms part of the biblical condemnation of wine. The command, however, is not an absolute ban on wine for priests, but applies only when they are performing their duties in God’s holy space. In fact, Aaron and his descendants who serve in the tabernacle are given their priestly portion of “choice wine” (tirôš) to drink (Num :). Libations of wine are listed in connection with other offerings throughout the Pentateuch. Moses is commanded to use wine in the consecration of the tabernacle (Exod :). Later in the book of Numbers wine is listed as part of various offerings. Wine libations would have been poured out by the priests in gold cups that were made for this purpose (Exod :; :). Milgrom argues that wine libations were made on the outer altar according to the commands of Exodus :, but because the cups were made of gold, they could be used only in the inner area where the gold lampstand, table, and altar of incense were placed. He contends that in order to avoid the idea that the deity consumed the wine in the inner, holy chamber, the gold cups were placed on the table with the bread of presence which was assigned to the priests to consume each week (Lev :). In most ancient Near Eastern cultures, food and wine offerings were thought to feed the gods, but the prophets often condemned such associations. Though the Israelites were instructed to offer wine as a sign of thanksgiving for God’s blessing, on many occasions they used their wine to make sacrifices to other gods. Moses foresees a time when Israel will turn away to worship other deities, but God responds that he is the only one who can save. “Then he will say: Where are their gods, the rock in which they took refuge, who ate the fat of their sacrifices, and drank the wine of their libations? Let them rise up and help you, let them be your protection!”

Offerings of Wine

(Deut :–). In a similar manner, the prophets condemn the Israelites for pouring out libations to other gods, which provokes the anger of the LORD. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile in  BCE, the prophet Isaiah denounces those who have returned to Jerusalem for offering wine to other gods. “But you who forsake the LORD, who forget my holy mountain, who set a table for Fortune and fill cups of mixed wine for Destiny” (Isa :). The reference to “Fortune” (gad) relates to the Syrian god of fortune and “Destiny” (mǝnî) to the god of fate. The mixed wine may have been used for divination or for setting a table and offering a meal for the deities. Mixing wine with spices, honey, raisins, or other items was common in antiquity, but the prophet condemns such a practice as an offering to other gods since it desecrates God’s holy mountain. Those who profane God’s holy place will be destroyed, but within the same prophecy Isaiah uses wine and grapes to speak of those who will be preserved after his judgment. “Thus says the LORD: As the wine is found in the cluster, and they say, ‘Do not destroy it, for there is a blessing in it,’ so I will do for my servants’ sake, and not destroy them all” (Isa :). The saying quoted by the prophet is a proverb-like formula that must have been well known among the Israelites. Any vintner will face partially destroyed clusters of grapes due to weather, animals, insects, or rot. The danger is that if even a small quantity of damaged or rotten grapes gets into a vat of wine during the fermentation process it can ruin the entire batch. The saying, however, offers hope of separating out the bad grapes before making the wine to preserve a good vintage. This common saying from the vineyard is highlighted by the prophet because the Israelites would have clearly understood the implications for their salvation. God is willing to preserve the good grapes for the sake of his blessing, but the rest will be destroyed. After the Babylonian exile, the Jews returning to Jerusalem were encouraged by Nehemiah, who was once the wine bearer for King Artaxerxes (Neh :), to restore the tithe of wine to the priests as part of the reconsecration of the temple (Neh :–; :–). It is probable that many vineyards were destroyed with the onslaught of Babylonian soldiers, but some seem to have been kept by the “people of the land” (ʿam haʾ ¯ are ¯ s) who _ continued to live in Judea during the exile at the command of the Babylonians (Jer :). After the temple had been reconstructed, wine continued to play a role in cultic offerings. Ben Sira provides a detailed reflection on the high priest who helped in rebuilding the Jerusalem temple and made holy sacrifices. He recalls him beaming “like the sun shining on the temple of the Most

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

High, like the rainbow gleaming in splendid clouds” (Sir :) when he donned his priestly vestments and made daily sacrifices at God’s altar. He goes on to describe the libations of wine. “He held out his hand for the cup and poured a drink offering of the blood of the grape; he poured it out at the foot of the altar, a pleasing odor to the Most High, the king of all” (Sir :). The detailed description is important because it reveals the significance of wine in the cult during this period. It is described here as “the blood of the grape,” intentionally drawing parallels with the blood from animal sacrifices that would have been used to anoint the altar. Such an offering was a “pleasing odor” to the Most High, a phrase reminding the reader of the ancient anthropomorphism of God smelling the “pleasing aroma” of Noah’s offering after the flood (Gen :) and the offerings prescribed in Leviticus. The connection between agricultural products and the altar remained critical to worship and life throughout Israel’s history. Wine was a vital resource that blessed the people as they gathered around their own tables and blessed God as it was offered at his table, the altar. The crucial link between the gifts of the earth and worship in God’s holy space is summed up by Hiebert: These rituals recognize the integral link between divine activity and the soil’s fertility. They express thanksgiving to God as the source of nature’s bounty. They also enact and sacralize the connection between people and soil. Made by God from arable soil and commissioned by God to farm it, the worshipper offers the soil’s produce as service to God, as an act, one might almost say, of self-definition. The point of orientation behind all of this ritual, and the understanding of the human and the divine that they entail, is the recognition of the dependence of human survival on productive soil.

Wine is a gift that was received from the soil. Each vintage relied on conditions that were beyond the control of human hands. The vintner toils and does everything possible to create a good harvest and good wine, but the ancient Israelites understood that the produce of the soil and vine was a blessing that reoriented their lives toward God and offering sacrifices at his altar. Wine leads to worship. As Gisela Kreglinger comments, “If wine is indeed a special gift from God, then it should be enjoyed prayerfully. Drinking wine at its best is like prayer. We respond to God by enjoying his gifts and allowing wine to instill within us a sense of wonder, not just for the wine, but even more for the generous giver of such a lavish gift.” In the early rabbinic tradition, wine, prayer, and worship became incorporated into certain meals. A blessing was said over the wine and for the day,

The Prophetic Vision of Abundance

and this became a debated topic. The school of Hillel argued that one should recite the blessing over the wine and then recite the blessing over the day. The school of Shammai contended that the day should be blessed first and then the wine. Whatever the correct order, the Jews prayed this prayer over the cup of wine, “Blessed are you, Lord our God, king of the universe, creator of the fruit of the vine.” The prayer, called the kiddush, is still uttered today by Jews to mark the Sabbath, holy days, and special occasions. The prayer over the wine is an ever-present reminder of the rest from toil that comes through the gift of the vine which leads to benediction and praise to the giver all good gifts.

The Prophetic Vision of Abundance We have seen how the biblical authors from different periods understood the blessing of wine as a sign of being in right relationship with God and as a gift from the bounty of his creation. Healthy soil and fruitful vines were physical manifestations of God’s kingdom and salvation. Wine represented peace and protection from Israel’s enemies, joy amid celebrations and holy festivals, a fragrant and pleasing offering to the LORD in his sanctuary, and a deepened sense of his provision and care for his people. Wine was a symbol of the fullness of life and a relationship with the creator God who, out of his sheer abundance and generosity, offers the miracles of sun, rain, soil, and wind to produce grapes that will ease humanity’s toil and bring joy to the heart. The biblical authors also recognized that a broken relationship with God, and a broken covenant, would result in dire consequences for his people that ultimately took the form of exile from the land. Israel’s history records two such extreme events. In  BCE the northern tribes were decimated by Assyrian armies, stripped from the land, and taken into exile. Later, in  BCE, similar events occurred, but this time it was the last remaining strongholds of Judah and Jerusalem that were crushed by the advancing Babylonians. The temple and city were leveled, the people marched across the desert to Babylon (near modern-day Bagdad), and there they were enslaved as if having been sent back to Egypt. We will discuss the prophetic response through wine metaphors to warn of God’s impending judgment upon Israel in the next chapter, but here we shall examine how the prophets use wine as a sign of salvation and returning to the land after exile. The prophetic visions of abundance look forward to a time when God will restore his people to the land and will bless them once again through vineyards, grapes, and wine.

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The prophet Hosea was the only prophet that came from the northern tribes of Israel. He prophesied to his people prior to the Assyrian invasion. His message was one of both judgment and reconciliation that was predominantly articulated through the marriage metaphor. God is a jealous husband for his bride, Israel, but she continues to chase after Canaanite gods and idols in her unfaithfulness. Within this framework, the prophet also employs agricultural images to describe the unlawful actions of the people. “She did not know that it was I who gave her the grain, the wine, and the oil, and who lavished upon her silver and gold that they used for Baal” (Hos :). The ignorance of Israel is unjustified since the blessings and fertility of the land were closely associated with obedience to the Mosaic covenant. That she “did not know” is a comment on the Israelites’ stubborn disobedience and turning instead to the rain god of Canaanite myth, Baal, to look for their provision. The triad of grain, wine, and oil echoes the language of Deuteronomy, where the three staples of the Israelite diet were tied to covenant obedience. Israel, the “luxuriant vine” (Hos :), had grown prosperous, forgotten her God, and prostituted herself through the worship of other gods. After God punishes Israel for her disobedience (Hos :–), he promises to come once more to her as a faithful husband and to betroth her again with a new and everlasting covenant. “And I will take you for my wife forever; I will take you for my wife in righteousness and in justice, in steadfast love, and in mercy” (Hos :). The renewed marriage between God and his people will have redemptive consequences in the land. “On that day I will answer, says the LORD, I will answer the heavens and they shall answer the earth; and the earth shall answer the grain, the wine, and the oil, and they shall answer Jezreel; and I will sow him for myself in the land” (Hos :–). The blessings that God once withheld from his people (Hos :) will now spring forth once more as the rain of the heavens pours down on the earth and the earth responds with grain, wine, and oil. The natural cycles of the agricultural seasons are dictated by God alone, according to the prophet, and are enacted through the power of his word. “I will answer the heavens . . .” evokes images of Genesis  and the creative word of God shaping and forming the cosmos, bringing order, life, and fertility to the world. The voice of the LORD will sound, the earth will respond, and Israel will experience the blessing of wine once more when she returns and “knows” that only the LORD is her God. The prophet uses the image of wine once more, but this time it is to describe what Israel will be like when she is restored after judgment. The short poetic oracle of Hosea :– offers plant and arboreal imagery

The Prophetic Vision of Abundance

which culminates in a fruitful vine that produces a wine of renown like that of Lebanon. It begins with the tender beauty of a lily that is nurtured to life by God’s presence and then moves to the deep rootedness of trees. “I will be like the dew to Israel; he shall blossom like the lily, he shall strike root like the forests of Lebanon” (Hos :). Unlike the dew that quickly fades away (Hos :; :), God’s refreshment will be like waters that restore and renew. The garden images are reminiscent of Eden, but they also draw our attention to the fertility of Lebanon. Allusions to Lebanon’s beauty are found frequently in the love poetry of Song of Songs and in other prophets (e.g., Isa :; :). Lebanon was known for its lush places of growth and extensive forests. Whereas the prophet previously declared that the root of Israel had dried up (Hos :), now the people would be rooted once again in the land. The second image builds on the tree root that “strikes” the ground and can now tap into the resources of the soil to become like a fragrant olive tree. “His shoots shall spread out; his beauty shall be like the olive tree, and his fragrance like that of Lebanon” (Hos :). This is followed by the third and climactic image of wine. “They shall again live beneath my shadow, they shall flourish as a garden; they shall blossom like the vine, their fragrance shall be like the wine of Lebanon” (Hos :). The NRSV alludes to the fragrance of wine in poetic parallelism, but Alter’s translation offers a more literal rendering. “Those who dwell in his shade shall come back, they shall give life to new grain, and like the vine they shall blossom. His fame is like Lebanon wine.” The wine of Lebanon was well known in the ancient world and may have had an exceptional bouquet, which has led some scholars to propose that the vintners of that region grew the muscat grape. The succession of comparisons between a restored Israel and flowers, trees, growing shoots, and fragrant blossoms culminates with the people being likened to choice wine. The images of salvation for the prophet center on roots that dig deep and are firmly established in the soil. This results in fertility and the fruit to produce wine and enjoy its blessing. The gifts of God found in the natural world become the poetic expression of hope for a once uprooted and destroyed nation to find its security and rootedness once again in the abundance of the land. This stands in striking contrast to the beginning of Hosea’s prophecy, where God once took away his gift of wine (Hos :) and the land mourned, withered, and languished because of the people’s sin (Hos :). Like Hosea, the prophet Amos employs agricultural images to describe God’s coming judgment upon the Israelites and to express their restoration

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

after exile. Amos was a possible contemporary of Hosea but hailed from the tribe of Judah in the south, where he lived in the village of Tekoa, southwest of Jerusalem. He worked on the land as a herdsman and cultivated sycamore fig trees (Amos :), but he uses the images of wine to depict the blessing of being reestablished in the land after exile. The prophet provides an image of agricultural bounty and abundant fertility in the land. “‘Behold, the days are coming,’ says the LORD, ‘when the plowman shall overtake the reaper and the treader of grapes him who sows the seed; the mountains shall drip sweet wine, and all the hills shall flow with it’” (Amos :). There were normally periods of waiting between the spring harvests and the gathering of grapes before the ploughing would begin again, but the prophet anticipates a time when the earth will produce so abundantly that harvesting and planting will overlap (cf. Lev :). Likewise, the grapes will be so plentiful that the hills will drip with “sweet wine” (ʿasîs) ¯ which will flow down to the valley. Rather than merely an example of hyperbole, the prophet likely has in mind a vision of terraced vineyards that stretch out along the rocky hills of Palestine, where every Israelite farmer will have time and space to cultivate their own grapes. It is as if the prophet can imagine walking through the valley and looking up to acres upon acres of land covered with vines that are bursting with grapes as if the very hills themselves are flowing with wine (cf. Zech :). Walking through vineyards in modern-day Burgundy, Tuscany, the Piedmont, or other wine-growing regions offers the visual image that Amos sought to convey. Amos’s prophecy culminates with a poetic vision of being planted and rooted in the land once again: I will restore the fortunes of my people Israel, and they shall rebuild the ruined cities and inhabit them; they shall plant vineyards and drink their wine, and they shall make gardens and eat their fruit. I will plant them upon their land, and they shall never again be plucked up out of the land that I have given them, says the LORD your God. (Amos :–)

Once again, we see how critical rootedness in the land is for planting vineyards and drinking wine as a sign of God’s restoration and salvation. The promise to never be taken from the land offers security and gives the people hope that they will be able to enjoy the gifts that God provides from the land. The prophecies of abundance and wine as a sign of salvation for Israel are also linked to an eschatological blessing upon all peoples. This vision

The Prophetic Vision of Abundance

comes through the eighth-century (BCE) prophet Isaiah, who writes, “On this mountain the LORD of hosts will make for all peoples a feast of rich food, a feast of well-aged wines, of rich food filled with marrow, of wellaged wines strained clear” (Isa :). This stands in stark contrast to those the prophet describes as the “drunkards of Ephraim,” who are bloated with rich food and overcome with wine (Isa :). Instead, the LORD will establish his sovereignty and dominion over earthly and heavenly powers and will extend his hospitality by setting out choice food and wine with which to celebrate. The passage is important within the prophetic corpus because it envisages a feast on God’s holy mountain where all peoples are welcomed to come and participate. It is also distinctive because it is one of the rare instances in the Bible where God is depicted as the host who prepares a meal with choice wines. The hospitality of the LORD is mentioned elsewhere in the scriptures and particularly by the psalmist: when God prepares a table for him before his enemies, his “cup overflows,” presumably with wine (Ps :). We also recall the seventy elders who ascended Mount Sinai with Moses, Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu to eat and drink in his presence, and though wine is not mentioned in the account, it is likely assumed to be part of the covenant feast (Exod :–). In Isaiah’s vision, however, it is God who generously and lavishly prepares a table with well-aged wines and wines that have been strained. The prophet foresees a gracious, conquering king who lays out a feast for all peoples on his holy mountain. A similar theme is picked up in the later chapters of Isaiah when the prophet announces, “Ho, everyone who thirsts, come to the waters; and you that have no money, come, buy and eat! Come, buy wine and milk without money and without price” (Isa :). At the eschatological feast, wine will be free for all people to enjoy. There are two other ancient myths of divine enthronement that are comparable to the feast described in Isaiah. The first is a Canaanite myth concerning the god Baal. The great god El calls all the gods together to celebrate Baal with a feast that goes on for seven days. Bulls, calves, rams, and other animals are slaughtered for the occasion, and choice wines “from the highest quality, which flows from the breast of Lebanon” are poured in honor of Baal’s ascent to the throne. The second example is from the Mesopotamian creation epic Enuma Elish. The story tells of the gods gathering together to enthrone the great Marduk who conquered Tiamat in battle. They held converse as they [sat down] to the banquet. They ate festive bread, poured [the wine],

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine They wetted their drinking-tubes with sweet intoxicant. As they drank the strong drink, [their] bodies swelled. They became very languid as their spirits rose. For Marduk, their avenger, they fixed the decrees.

Both myths describe the feasting of the gods with copious amounts of wine to honor and enthrone the victorious god. What is notable is how the prophet Isaiah takes the ancient, mythical form of the enthronement feast and applies it to the LORD at Mount Zion. Wildberger rightly notes that, “In addition to putting this material into an eschatological context, there is another important modification: the participants at the banquet in :– are not the gods (nor are they representatives from Israel!) but they are ‘all peoples.’ With these two alterations, the ancient mythology is now recast and used for a completely new kerygma.” We also note a final alteration where the LORD, the victorious king, is the one who prepares the feast with choice wines and demonstrates his hospitality by opening his table to all. Later prophets also pick up on themes of abundant harvests and flowing wine as a sign of God’s future salvation. Like Amos, the prophet Joel looks forward to a time when “the mountains shall drip sweet wine” (Joel :). In the restoration, God will send grain, wine, and oil to his people (Joel :–), and there will be such an abundance that “the threshing floors shall be full of grain, the vats shall overflow with wine and oil” (Joel :; cf. Jer :). This stands in contrast to the prophet’s condemnation of the people and warning of their impending destruction. “Wake up, you drunkards, and weep; and wail, all you wine-drinkers, over the sweet wine, for it is cut off from your mouth” (Joel :). The prophet creates a poetic contrast between disobedient Israelites and their excessive indulgence of wine and a future where God’s excessive provision of wine is a sign of goodness, joy, and blessing. The prophet Zechariah also uses wine as a key sign of God’s coming salvation and restoration of Jerusalem, but he does so through graphic militaristic language. In his depiction of the Israelites’ victory over their enemies the prophet writes, “they shall devour and tread down the slingers; they shall drink their blood like wine, and be full like a bowl, drenched like the corners of the altar” (Zech :). The passage is challenging, and commentators disagree as to whether the verse is focusing on warfare or on a victory feast. However one approaches the text, Zechariah sees Israel as the weapon God will use to destroy the “(stone) slingers.” He also includes images of military battle, wine, blood, and sacrifice. All of these would have been part of the Israelites’ experience in being delivered from their enemies and recapturing the land. Blood was spilled in battle, offerings would be

Rootedness, Blessing, and Wine

made at the altar, and wine was drunk (like blood!) in celebration of their victory. Zechariah looks forward to the day when God will bring his people back to the land. He describes those who return as like “jewels of a crown” (Zech :) and then uses agricultural images to convey the fullness of their joy. “For what goodness and beauty are his! Grain shall make the young men flourish, and new wine the young women” (Zech :). Grain (dag ¯ an) ¯ and new wine (tîrôš) are frequently used together as descriptive of the land’s fertility. These two agricultural products become images for the young men (ba¯ hûr), who will be like abundant fields of grain, and the young _ virgins (betûlâ), who will flourish like new wine. The poetic pairing conveys a future that is marked by profound fertility and new life in the land given by the LORD. The prophet then draws on the words of the psalmist when he sees a strengthened people restored to the land whose “hearts shall be glad as with wine” (Zech :). The prophets were poets who expressed God’s word through images and metaphors that were deeply ingrained in the agrarian life of Israel. Agricultural seasons, festivals, vineyards, and grapes that produced wine all provided ways to communicate the fullness of God’s blessing, the presence of his kingdom, and the promise of future restoration after exile. The prophets looked forward to a time of rootedness in the land after God’s people had been uprooted because of their disobedience. The language of wine, soil, and salvation expressed the deepest desires of an agrarian people and was used to offer hope that God would, once again, be present with his people and restore them to the land.

Rootedness, Blessing, and Wine The prophets’ use of rootedness and wine connected the people to their agricultural heritage and provided fitting metaphors and signs that helped convey God’s blessings. The Israelites relied on networks of relationships where mutuality and support helped families and communities thrive and persevere through difficult times. They also relied on their relationship with the land which provided stability, safety, and seasonal continuity to produce grain and wine. Within this vast, interconnected ecology the prophets knew that one of the most powerful images of hope was one of rootedness. To put down deep roots in the land of God’s promise was to live in the blessing of his salvation. For contemporary readers, however, the biblical images of rootedness and wine may be left wanting. Social theorists and philosophers use

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

different terms to describe the contemporary world and the characteristics that define modern social life. “Modernity,” “postmodernity,” and “supermodernity” are all broad labels that attempt to encapsulate the thought structures and experience of contemporary society. Whatever label is used, urban and suburban communities since the industrial revolution have been increasingly disconnected from agrarian life and the land. With a rise in technology, driven by global capitalism, daily life for many is no longer intimately bound to things like plants, soil, sun, or rain. Life is no longer governed by the seasons and the cycles of seed time and harvest but, rather, it is driven by twenty-four-hour news cycles, global trade, social media, and living online in digital spaces. The experience of time and place in the modern world is far removed from the ancient Israelites. The deteriorating effects of capitalism and consumption on the environment have been apparent in an age of industrialization, urbanization, and the dislocation of rural populations. In his encyclical Laudato si’, Pope Francis laments how humanity has treated creation. “We have come to see ourselves as her lords and masters, entitled to plunder her at will . . . This is why the earth herself, burdened and laid waste, is among the most abandoned and maltreated of our poor.” This degradation and abuse of the environment has increased in scale as technology has advanced and society speeds ahead without sufficient reflection on the future implications of what will happen to the world. Sociologist Hartmut Rosa describes the rapid acceleration of society as a mark of the social structures which define “modernity.” He argues that modern social life is characterized by acceleration in transportation, communication, and production. This has resulted in a social system that is driven by growth, speed, and mobility. “A society is modern when it operates in a mode of dynamic stabilization, i.e., when it systematically requires growth, innovation and acceleration for its structural reproduction and in order to maintain its socio-economic and institutional status quo.” The modern world is thus defined by its ceaseless desire for expansion, growth, and technological advancement in order to maintain its sense of stability. Yet by striving to maintain the status quo, the culture continues to experience an acceleration in technology, social change, and the pace of life or what Rosa calls “the circle of acceleration.” The speed of a modern society is also marked by a change in how we perceive and experience time. The promise of excessive leisure as a result of advanced technologies has not materialized. Instead, a heightened pace of life made possible by technology has been followed by the feeling of not having enough time or that there is even less time than was previously available.

Rootedness, Blessing, and Wine

If the modern world finds its stability in accelerated growth and innovation, then time has become a measure of economic output. The phrase “time is money” captures the modern framework for how society measures productivity and the use of people’s time. The working day (and life) is reduced to units of measurement that are defined by how much capital can be produced. Each unit, whether hour, minute, or second, is given economic value. Rather than living within the yearly cycle of the seasons which offer stability to produce food and wine, or abiding by days and weeks that shape the liturgical calendar, many people perceive time as something defined by the escalation of production, where speed and efficiency are paramount. Rapid technological advances in transportation and communication have also contributed to the experience of life, movement, settlement, and our relationship to nature. Rosa argues that the increased individualization in society has resulted in “the acceleration-induced experience of ‘uprootedness’ and/or ‘alienation.’” This can be experienced spatially when a person feels detached from their environment or place, or it can occur in relation to time. These experiences influence social relationships and the ability to form lasting bonds with others. Rosa contends, “The linkage of growth and acceleration thus implies a tendential loosening of concrete ties to particular persons, places, or things as a result of increased speeds of change and exchange.” A society that values faster communications, innovative technologies, or ever-increasing production is one that tends to devalue social relationships and people’s relationship to the land and creation, since the goal of life is always pressing on to what is “new.” Consequently, the decay rate of both material objects and relationships increases, causing what is “old” to become obsolete and disposable. Continental philosopher Byung-Chul Han sees a similar trend in society where consumption and digital communication diminish the ability to focus and sustain the attention required for deepening relationships with others and understanding our sense of place. He writes that the modern world produces a shallowness in individuals because it “intentionally abolishes duration in order to drive more consumption. The permanent process of updating, which has now extended to all areas of life, does not permit the development of any duration or allow for any completion. The ever-present compulsion of production leads to a de-housing, making life more contingent, transient and unstable. But dwelling requires duration.” Instability and lack of rootedness emerge in a society that is overstimulated and loses the ability to practice deep attentiveness and mindfulness. To dwell in a place requires duration, patient attention to relationships, and watchful observation of the surrounding environment.

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

The accelerated society and the increased use of technologies that influence social and communal structures have left many with the experience of feeling uprooted or alienated from others and from creation. Wendell Berry reflects on the experience of living in a modern society that devalues a healthy relationship with the land. “The aims of production, profit, efficiency, economic growth, and technological progress imply, as I have said, no social or ecological standards, and in practice they submit to none.” He goes to discuss how this has an impact on the life of communities. But we must take care to see how this standard of health enlarges and clarifies the idea of community. If we speak of a healthy community, we cannot be speaking of a community that is merely human. We are talking about a neighborhood of humans in a place, plus the place itself: its soil, its water, its air, and all the families and tribes of the nonhuman creatures that belong to it.

Berry stresses that to live in healthy relationship to one another we must also live within the broader ecosystems that surround us. To pollute one’s air, water, or soil is to contaminate the relationships that exist within a community. This requires that “the entire membership of the community would be bound together by place and able to use, cherish, and preserve it in its wholeness and health as signified by its continuing beauty. It is thus blessed and beloved.” The human world is enmeshed with the natural world, and the health of both is required if all creation is to flourish. Norman Wirzba discusses the nature of what has been described as the “meshwork world” as a response to the social and ecological crises that face the world today. He contends that the age in which we live (often called the Anthropocene) is marked by human efforts to design and manipulate the world through technology which have resulted in the degradation of place and humanity. He attributes this, in part, to modern notions of freedom that have pursued a form of limitlessness and expansion without taking into consideration the nature of place and how one lives in mutuality with other human beings and the natural resources of that place. “Creaturely freedom, one could say, is therefore paired with the practices of fidelity that help people understand their need of each other and commit them to the work of mutual success.” To be connected to the world requires being rooted in the places and communities we inhabit, and having the humility to accept the limitations of how we can live in mutually beneficial relationships with the resources we share in a particular place. Wirzba goes on to argue for an “agrarian faith” that takes seriously our relationship as human beings to the created world which has been formed

Rootedness, Blessing, and Wine

by, and is sustained through, God’s unceasing love. He writes that “an agrarian-informed faith hinges on the assumption that this world and its life are sacred gifts of God that are meant to be cherished and celebrated.” Wirzba articulates a simple biblical principle by highlighting the realities of the current age, which has not cherished the created world. To value creation is not only to love it as God loves it, but also to understand that humans are not independent, discrete entities that live as self-contained organisms. Instead, humanity, along with the rest of creation, is bound by interdependent, dynamic relationships that exist between land, water, air, animals, insects, and all other forms of life. To be human is to understand that we exist only in relation to other organisms in a particular place and within the relationships that form who we are becoming and how we promote the growth, abundance, and life of the whole community. Recognizing that humanity is part of the vast “meshwork” of life draws us back to the biblical theology of wine as blessing. Whether it is the blessing of a shared meal, a family inheritance, planting a vineyard, or a future vision of being restored to the land, what is critical for the biblical authors is the idea of being firmly rooted in the place God had promised. The agricultural images of grain, trees, and vines all demonstrate the biblical understanding that to flourish in life and to celebrate with wine requires the fidelity of God’s people to his command and to their mutual love and care for their community and the land. To be rooted in the place God promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was to be committed to a life attuned to the needs of others, to the needs of the land, and to participating in the great acts of worship that draw Israel together with the whole of company of creation (Ps ). Rootedness is critical to the life of God’s people and to the life of the vine. In the second chapter we discussed the vital role that mycorrhizal fungi play in the soil to break down nutrients and transport food, carbon, and water to plants. The dynamic network of fungi, bacteria, and microbes work together to help share resources that enable plant life to thrive and bring forth the qualities of the soil in the grapes. Recent studies have also found the same fungal networks operating in forests between trees. Suzanne Simard, professor of forest ecology at the University of British Columbia, has spent most of her life studying the relationships between different species of trees in woodland areas. Her doctoral research was published in the journal Nature (), which coined the phrase “woodwide web” because Simard had demonstrated that trees can transmit information through vast mycorrhizal networks to support and benefit the whole forest. She compares the intelligence shared between root systems to a neural network where signals and warnings can be passed through root

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Mountains Dripping with Sweet Wine

systems to preserve the welfare of other trees. Her altruistic model can be seen in her studies of the relationship between fir trees and birch trees, which she describes in her memoir Finding the Mother Tree. What she discovered was that the seedlings of fir trees received food and support from birch trees, but when the fir trees were grown, they reciprocated in providing nourishment to the firs. When the trees grew old and died, their root systems and meshwork of mycorrhizal fungi remained intact to continue to provide life for the forest. Communication through expansive root systems and the distribution of resources between trees of different species demonstrated a cooperative community of mutual support with the goal of creating a healthier woodland. Simard writes, “Plants are attuned to one another’s strengths and weaknesses, elegantly giving and taking to attain exquisite balance. A balance that can also be achieved in the simple beauty of a garden.” Simard reflects on how the older trees of the forest continue to give life to the wood by nurturing their own kind and other species of trees. “This Mother Tree was the central hub that the saplings and seedlings nested around, with threads of different fungal species, of different colors and weights, linking them, layer upon layer, in a strong, complex web.” Beneath the soil Simard found an elaborate economy of resource distribution connected to Mother Trees, which passed on their carbon energy to provide life and resilience to their own species but also to other trees thereby ensuring a healthy ecosystem. Even at the end of a Mother Tree’s life, the root structure and mycorrhizal network continued to release its resources to saplings and seedlings to enrich the life of the forest. The biblical authors understood that rootedness was critical to the life of all things. It is no wonder that the prophets offered visions of hope through images of rootedness and the fruit of the vine as a sign of God’s blessing. As Wirzba writes, “Rootedness does not restrict life, but is its precondition. Rootedness makes possible the relationships that build fertility, fecundity, and diversity. What is so remarkable about plants is that they nourish themselves by nurturing the places in which they grow.” In a modern society accelerating toward limitless growth, technological advancement, and the domestication of nature for the sake of economic profit, the life of roots is a reminder of the biblical notion of blessing that occurs when human communities live in mutually supportive relationships with one another and with the land. For the biblical authors the outcome of such interwoven, benevolent, and just communities was an invitation to the LORD’s banquet table, where all peoples would feast and drink well-aged wines, where mountains would drip with sweet wine, and where even donkeys could eat from choice vines.

CHAPTER

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The Cup of Wrath Wine as Curse The Prophet and the Poet We have seen how the biblical authors use metaphor to convey theological truths by linking them to experiences from everyday life. The natural world, which was most intimately known to the ancient Israelites, became the vehicle for expressing the realities of their relationship to God. In the previous chapter we saw how wine was used as a dynamic symbol to express God’s extravagant blessing and salvation. Peace, rootedness in the land, favorable weather, the right amount of sun, wind, and rain, protection from disease or the enemy: all of these physical realities were critical for Israel’s experience of God’s promised blessing and the gift of wine. The symbol of wine, however, also has a darker side in the Bible. The cup of salvation that brings life and joy to God’s people can also become the cup of wrath that brings death. In the opening chapter we discussed modern metaphor theory and emphasized the ability of metaphors to link abstract theological concepts with physical experiences in the world. The word “metaphor” comes from the Greek meaning “to transfer” from meta, meaning “across,” and pherein, “carry.” By using metaphors, the biblical authors help “carry across” their audience from common, everyday embodied experiences to a deeper understanding of what it means to be in covenant relationship. For example, God tells Jeremiah to go down the potter’s house to watch him shape and reshape a clay vessel. The scene provides the sensory experience that is then connected to the theological reality that God is like the potter and Israel is the lump of clay. He fashions and forms his people as he pleases because he is sovereign (Jer :–). The prophet Hosea conveys God’s faithfulness and Israel’s unfaithfulness through a marriage metaphor where God takes on the role of husband 



The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

calling back his prostituting wife (Hos ). Isaiah uses the image of a vintner (God) committing his hard labor and resources to plant the best vineyard (Israel). His work, however, is in vain as it produces only rotten grapes and is destroyed (Isa :–). The prophets used the daily emotional and physical experiences of life to serve as the most penetrating symbols and metaphors that would help the people understand their relationship with God. In the poetic imagination of the biblical authors, the wine of blessing is reimagined as a sign of judgment for the covenant curses that result from Israel’s disobedience. What was once the sign of God’s salvation becomes the most profound curse. By inverting the rich symbol of wine the authors are able to “transfer” the reader from feasting, joy, and celebration to drunkenness, suffering, and death. The cup of wine and the experience of salvation become the cup of wrath and the affliction of judgment. This sudden upending and reversal of meaning jolts the reader, but it also reveals further layers of truth. As poet and theologian Malcolm Guite argues, “Through the break in our world made by the shock of paradox there sometimes flows a new light.” When interpreting poetry in the Bible and its figures of speech it is important to move away from more literal readings that neglect the contextual importance and flexibility of language. Metaphors are not static units that always convey the same meaning but, rather, they are sensitive to the changing patterns and message of the poet. A metaphor may have one particular meaning in Jeremiah, but that meaning may be intentionally reversed by another prophet. Thus it is necessary to read the prophets’ and other biblical poets’ use of things like metaphor, wordplay, simile, assonance, or alliteration with a sense of how they are trying to articulate divine realities through worldly experience. Guite argues that the work of poets is to perceive and observe life through the senses by the experiences they have in the physical, material world. These observations then extend to what is immaterial, the “heavenly realities” that connect earthly experience with the invisible world. He writes that at the heart of the poet’s craft is “to express heaven in earthly terms and move us through the comprehension of earth to the apprehension of heaven.” He cites Shakespeare’s character Theseus in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, who sums up the task of the poet to bring shape and form to earthly and heavenly observations. The poet’s eye, in fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven;

The Prophet and the Poet And as imagination bodies forth The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen Turns them to shapes and gives to airy nothing A local habitation and a name.

The poet’s imagination and perception of realities beyond simple observation “body forth” and bring form to what otherwise might remain unknown. Guite goes on to argue that at the heart of the poet’s art form is “to create a shape that can be sounded, a network of vocables, a nameable name, in which to incarnate insight, so that the remote or uncatchable is caught in the net of sound and has a local habitation and name that can evoke it forever thereafter.” This is what the biblical prophets and authors do when bringing form to the concept of divine judgment through the use of wine. They “body forth” something that exists where heavenly and earthly realities intersect, and they give it a “local habitation” through poetic metaphors like the cup of wrath, wine resting on the lees, or juice flowing through a winepress. Images from daily life help transfer the reader into the theological reality of God’s judgment upon Israel and the nations. Paul Ricoeur describes this as the “seeing as” of poetic metaphor that links both thought and experience and provides the “intuitive relationship that holds sense and image together.” Ricoeur goes on to contend that the imaginative use of metaphor “follows the path of the ‘reverberation’ of the poetic image into the depths of existence.” Since wine was so integral to the agrarian life and was connected to the soil, weather, and cycles of yearly harvests and festivals, the “reverberation” and resonance of wine metaphors communicated both the depth of God’s love and his judgment upon humanity. The biblical authors’ use of wine as a metaphor and symbol invites the reader to see beyond the literal image to its symbolic function. Their poetic imagination illuminates a theological reality that transcends the limitations of literal meaning and allows the Israelites to understand God’s attributes as both redeemer and judge who upholds his covenant blessings and curses. They invite the reader to see wine as the gift of God, but they further invite us to see through wine to comprehend who God is and how he acts in the world. This seeing through is what poet-priest George Herbert sums up in his poem “The Elixer”: A man that looks on glass on it may stay his eye or if he pleases through it pass and then the heavens espy.

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

The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

The prophets and biblical authors take the natural gifts of the world and reimagine them to help the reader comprehend a new theological reality. Their message is one of the utmost importance because they see that the future of the world hangs in the balance. Through the prophets, God implores his people to turn to him and also warns them that his judgment awaits if they continue in defiance and stubbornness. Abraham Heschel sums this up when he writes, “The prophet was an individual who said No to his society, condemning its habits and assumptions, its complacency, waywardness, and syncretism. He was often compelled to proclaim the very opposite of what his heart expected. His fundamental objective was to reconcile man and God.” To encourage that reconciliation the prophet invites the reader to see through an ordinary cup of wine in order to catch a glimpse of heaven’s engagement with earth where God’s presence becomes manifest in both blessing and curse.

A Poetic Twist: The Cup of Wrath Wine and viticulture metaphors are frequently employed throughout the Bible, but of the twenty-six metaphors that contain vine imagery, twentytwo are found within prophecies of condemnation. Israel’s moral and ethical disobedience to the law is portrayed through various images: the defilement of the land, a useless vine, or the production of rotten grapes. God’s response to Israel’s sin is often depicted by the biblical authors through the poetic inversion of wine from a celebratory, life-giving drink to a vehicle of judgment and death. One of the most common biblical metaphors associated with wine is that of drinking from God’s cup of wrath. Nearly every Israelite would have lifted a cup of wine to their lips at some point in life to experience the refreshment and joy that it brings to the body and, if it is drunk in excess, the lack of control that comes with intoxication. The cup-of-wrath metaphor links the physical experience of wine with the abstract concept of judgment, and offers a multifaceted image for how Israel and the nations experience God’s punishment. The “cup” (kôs) was a common vessel used for drinking wine. Most cups would have been made from clay, but more precious materials such as gold or silver would have been used in royal courts. In biblical literature the cup became a symbol for one’s portion from God. If one’s cup overflowed it was a sign of blessing, but if the cup was poisoned or drained it was a sign of God’s curse. The image of the cup does not always explicitly mention wine, and so we often find that the author assumes its presence. Given

A Poetic Twist: The Cup of Wrath

wine’s status as the most precious and valued drink in ancient Israel, an overflowing cup is one filled with wine that has come from the hand of God. We find examples of this when the psalmist writes, “You prepare a table before me in the presence of my enemies; you anoint my head with oil; my cup overflows” (Ps :). The salvation of God is expressed not only in the defeat of the psalmist’s enemy but in the abundant source of wine that overflows from his cup. Thus the “cup of salvation” (Ps :) becomes an image of God’s justice and redeeming work, symbolized by a cup that is always filled with wine to the point of overflowing. For those who reject the LORD and pursue evil, however, the cup is used as a sign of curse. “On the wicked he will rain coals of fire and sulfur; a scorching wind shall be the portion of their cup” (Ps :). The inversion of the symbol creates a sharp contrast. The blessing of God’s cup is filled with rich, deep, blood-red wine that spills over, but the portion of the wicked will be an empty cup scorched by a hot, dry wind. By extension, the symbol of the cup also extends to the land and the ability to grow grapes and produce wine. The presence of an overflowing cup presumes a rich and fertile soil, while the empty cup is associated with famine and the desolation of the land by “coals of fire and sulfur.” In some instances we find that wine and the cup of judgment are associated with the destruction of the land. The communal lament of Psalm  begins with a superscription that assigns the context to David’s conquest of Edom according to  Samuel :– ( Chr :–). The longstanding animosity between the Israelites and Edomites may also link the psalm to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in  BCE, when Edom offered its cooperation to assist in the city’s fall (cf. Ps :; Obad –). The tragic demise of Jerusalem at the hand of the enemy elicits a cry of lament that is articulated through the image of the land suffering. “You have caused the land to quake; you have torn it open” (Ps :). The violent nature of an earthquake expresses the confusion, fear, and destruction that have come upon God’s people. Without warning the land is torn open, destroyed, and made unfit for producing food or wine. The earth suffers for the sins of God’s people and provides a parallel image of judgment that has come upon the people of Jerusalem. Following the extreme destruction that has been inflicted on the land, the psalmist then turns to the Israelites. “You have made your people suffer hard things; you have given us wine to drink that made us reel” (Ps :). The poetic parallelism with the earth shaking and the people reeling is linked to wine, drunkenness, and the cup of God’s wrath. Israel and the land suffer a similar fate. The depiction almost portrays God as forcing the wine of “reeling” or “staggering” (tarʿēlâ) down the Israelites’ throats,

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

which results in drunkenness and their inability to defend themselves against the enemy. The assumption is that Israel too will be torn open just like the earth. Though the “cup of wrath” is not mentioned specifically here, the Israelites’ being made to drink wine from the cup of the LORD in the context of judgment and destruction alludes to the metaphor (cf. Isa :). When wine takes on the symbol of wrath it is no longer a drink to bring relief or ease the toil of life but, rather, it turns into something that is often forced upon the people by God with the consequences of becoming dazed, perplexed, confused, and overwhelmed. What is important in the parallelism between the land quaking and Israel reeling is that the psalmist links God’s judgment upon the earth to his judgment upon the people. The two are inseparably bound together, and the people who are made to drink wine from the cup of wrath suffer the same fate as the land. If the psalm was composed in Babylonian exile, then we can see the vivid comparison between the destruction of Jerusalem and the defeat of God’s people. Judea’s response to the Babylonian armies is compared to those in a drunken stupor, reeling from the wine that God forced them to drink. The land was torn open, the city laid to waste, and the people were torn apart. The experience of exile and the destruction of Jerusalem are seen through a different light when the gift of wine is associated with God’s cup of judgment. A similar tone is struck in Psalm , where divine judgment upon the earth is combined with the cup of wrath. In this psalm, however, judgment is reserved for the wicked and results in God coming to the aid of his people. The image of the land shaking is employed, but this time it seems that the nations have brought about its instability, which is put right by the LORD. “When the earth totters, with all its inhabitants, it is I who keep its pillars steady. Selah” (Ps :). The “tottering” (nǝmōgîm) of the earth, or its swaying back and forth, is the result of the boastful and the wicked (vv. –). Once again sin has brought about perilous consequences for the land, but this time the LORD comes to right the imbalance that humanity has created. To do so, God will execute judgment upon the wicked, which is expressed through metaphor of the divine cup filled with wine. For in the hand of the LORD there is a cup with foaming wine, well mixed; he will pour a draught from it, and all the wicked of the earth shall drain it down to the dregs. (Ps :)

A Cup Prepared for Israel

The anthropomorphism is striking since we see the cup in the hand of the LORD as he prepares to pour it out on the wicked. Inside the cup is “foaming wine” (yayîn hamar), ¯ which offers a description that is likened to _ the foaming waters of Psalm :, but this is the only instance where the verb h-m-r (“foam”) is used to describe wine. It is likely to conjure up images of _ fermenting wine (hemer) that is bubbling over. During the fermentation _ process the yeast enzymes (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) interact with the sugars in the juice from the grapes and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process also generates heat, which must be controlled during fermentation. If the temperature reaches  degrees Fahrenheit ( degrees Celsius), the yeast cells will die and the fermentation will cease, which can ruin the wine. What is notable in the description of “foaming wine,” as opposed to wine that has already been fermented, is that it brings out the active and agitated nature of God’s wrath. The image of heat, gas, and foam issuing forth from a cup gives the sense that something powerful is breaking out against the wicked, who will drink it down to the dregs. The foaming cup is also “fully mixed” (malēʾ ¯ mesek), meaning that spices or other substances have been added. It was not uncommon in the ancient world for wine to be mixed with things like honey, tree oils, or herbs, which could, at times, make it significantly more potent. Traces of the mind-altering substance ephedrine found in plants like Ephedra, Cannabis, and poppy were discovered in ancient Persian sites, where the mixed wine was possibly used in religious rites. The foaming cup, fully mixed, represents the potency of God’s judgment upon the nations who will drink it down to its dregs. There is also a sense of intentionality in the preparation of the cup. God does not pour out his wrath indiscriminately but, rather, he methodically mixes and prepares his cup before pouring it out on the wicked.

A Cup Prepared for Israel When we come to the poetry of the prophets we find that the symbol of wine and the cup-of-wrath metaphor are something that can be directed either toward Israel or to the nations. The threat to the Israelites often results from their unethical behavior, their abandonment of the covenant, or their turning to worship other gods. Their actions result in the people becoming metaphorically inebriated, having drunk from the cup of God’s wrath. Rouse yourself, rouse yourself! Stand up, O Jerusalem,

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

The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse you who have drunk at the hand of the LORD the cup of his wrath, who have drunk to the dregs the bowl of staggering. (Isa :)

Within the “cup of his wrath” is the wine that leads to drunkenness and complete incoherence. Though wine is not explicitly mentioned by the prophet, it is implied in the drinking down to the dregs (cf. Isa :–, ; Ezek :; Ps :). The people of Jerusalem are described as physically staggering, which depicts their state of inebriation, but the prophet also alludes to the emotional and mental reeling that the people have experienced through “devastation and destruction, famine and sword” (Isa :; cf. Isa :; :). The poem builds with typical synonymous parallelism, which extends and intensifies the metaphor. The people have drunk the cup of the LORD’s wrath and have even drunk the bowl of his staggering down to the dregs. There is a possible allusion here to the people being poisoned, since the Hebrew word for “wrath” (hēmâ) can also mean _ “venom.” Whether being poisoned by wine or venom, the Israelites cannot rise from their stupor, and the prophet goes on to say that they will “lie at the head of every street like an antelope in a net” (Isa :). From drunkenness by the hand of God to a captured animal, the metaphors used by the prophet draw from the natural world to “body forth” the nature of Jerusalem’s punishment. To resolve the condemnation of those who have been ravaged by the enemy, the prophet returns to the cup metaphor as a source of hope. The wounded and bereaved are like those “who are drunk, but not with wine” (Isa :; cf. :–). The people have suffered all the disorientation of drunkenness, but their experience comes not from the joy of drinking choice wines. Instead, they have been ravaged by an enemy and left dazed and confused. The prophet, however, looks forward to a reversal of God’s curse. Thus says your Sovereign, the LORD, your God who pleads the cause of his people: See, I have taken from your hand the cup of staggering; you shall drink no more from the bowl of my wrath. (Isa :)

The promise of a reprieve from God’s judgment comes because the cup has been taken away. We note the poetic reversal of the word order so that

A Cup Prepared for Israel

the “cup of staggering” is taken away, and this is followed by the removal of the “bowl of wrath.” It is also important that the reversal and reconciliation come through the “God who pleads the cause of his people.” This may seem paradoxical since it was from the hand of God that wrath, destruction, and desolation were poured out, but within the prophetic corpus judgment is often a temporary execution of justice that leads to restoration. Here the prophet conveys this sentiment through the removal of the poisoned chalice by the God who poured it out. The prophet Ezekiel also utilizes the metaphor of drinking from the cup, but this time it does not come directly from the hand of the LORD; rather, it is Judea’s choice to follow in the path of Israel and her exile. Ezekiel  is an extended allegory of two sisters, Oholah (“her tent”) and Oholibah (“my tent in her”) who correspond respectively to Samaria and the tribes of Israel to the north and to Jerusalem and Judah in the south. The extensive critique of both by the prophet focuses on their prostitution and sexual promiscuity. After Samaria had been destroyed and taken into exile, the condemnation turns to Jerusalem as the prophet writes: Thus says the Lord GOD: You shall drink your sister’s cup, deep and wide; you shall be scorned and derided, it holds so much. You shall be filled with drunkenness and sorrow. A cup of horror and desolation is the cup of your sister Samaria; you shall drink it and drain it out, and gnaw its sherds, and tear out your breasts; for I have spoken, says the Lord GOD. (Ezek :–)

Ezekiel does not need to mention wine, since the metaphor of the cup is already known and the outcome in this instance is drunkenness and sorrow. Though the cup is called “your sister’s cup,” the idea, as in Isaiah, is that this is the LORD’s cup of judgment that has brought desolation and exile to the northern tribes. The prophet warns that the same will be true of Judea and Jerusalem as they drain out the cup to its dregs. The graphic description of a cup that is “deep and wide” becomes even more terrible when the prophet describes its effects as resulting in “drunkenness and sorrow.” This is not the festal cup of joy and celebration but one that will end with “horror and desolation” as it points to the destruction of

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

Samaria by the Assyrian armies. The bloody defeat of the northern tribes and the devastation of being stripped from the land and sent into exile are summed up in the final verses, which press the drinking metaphor to the extreme. Not only will the people of Jerusalem drink the same cup as Samaria, but they will drink it down to the dregs and “gnaw at its sherds.” The image here is of a broken piece of pottery, which possibly refers to the cup itself or to the amphora that carried the wine. After they have drunk their fill of horror and desolation, they will become like people gnawing on pieces of broken pottery and tearing their breasts (cf. Ezek :, ). The warning from the prophet in what is often referred to as “the song of the cup” is a short poem that utilizes the cup-and-wine metaphor by upending the normal joy associated with God’s gift. The drink that is meant to bring relief now causes humiliation, suffering, and pain expressed through the powerful images of gnawing on shards of broken pottery and tearing away one’s breasts.

A Cup Prepared for the Nations As the cup of wrath functions in relation to God’s judgment of his people, so too does the metaphor relate to God’s judgment of the nations. The prophet Jeremiah makes frequent use of wine metaphors and employs the image of the LORD forcing the nations to drink from the cup of his wrath. Unlike metaphors concerning the judgment of Israel, this one offers no option of repentance to the gentiles who come under God’s sentence. For thus the LORD, the God of Israel, said to me: Take from my hand this cup of the wine of wrath, and make all the nations to whom I send you drink it. They shall drink and stagger and go out of their minds because of the sword that I am sending among them. So I took the cup from the LORD’s hand, and made all the nations to whom the LORD sent me drink it. (Jer :–)

In Psalm : we read of the cup that was filled with foaming wine, but this is the only instance where the cup-of-wrath metaphor is explicitly said to be filled with the “wine of wrath” (hayyayin hahēmâ). The vision may _ provide an allusion to a banquet meal that the LORD is hosting on behalf of all the nations. Jeremiah acts as the LORD’s cupbearer and is called to share the chalice with those around the table. Jeremiah is the only prophet who imagines himself in the role of distributing the cup of wrath, which likely stems from his calling to be a “prophet to the nations” (Jer :, ).

A Cup Prepared for the Nations

In most instances, the cup of wrath comes directly from the divine hand, but now the prophet bears the chalice that will make all who drink it go out of their minds. The staggering and madness from drunkenness are paralleled with the experience of being defeated in battle. Here the prophet draws two images together – the cup of wine and the sword – to express the analogous experiences of complete disorientation. As one who is inebriated loses all control of their senses, so too do those who face the overwhelming brutality of the enemy’s sword. Jeremiah, the cupbearer, is called to serve the wine of God’s wrath to the table of nations, beginning with Jerusalem and Judah (Jer :). Judgment begins at home with God’s covenant people, but it does not end there. The LORD is depicted as having authority over all nations, and so the list of other kingdoms that drink from the cup extends from Egypt to Babylon (Jer :–). The episode turns darker as the LORD commands Jeremiah: Then you shall say to them, Thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel: Drink, get drunk and vomit, fall and rise no more, because of the sword that I am sending among you. And if they refuse to accept the cup from your hand to drink, then you shall say to them: Thus says the LORD of hosts: You must drink!” (Jer :–)

This is not a hospitable invitation to drink. The prophet is commanded to force wine down the throats of the nations to the point of drunkenness, vomiting, and falling on the ground. Once again Jeremiah pairs the outcomes of intoxication with defeat by the sword of the enemy. There is no escape for any nation from the divine cup of wrath, and this is emphatically stated by God to any who refuse to drink, “You must drink!” Though Jeremiah understands the Babylonians to be the instrument of the LORD’s judgment (Jer :–; :–), they too will suffer defeat and be judged for their actions. In Jeremiah’s later oracles against the nations, he directs his prophecies toward Edom. The nation that once cheered at the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem (Ps :; Obad –) will not be spared from God’s judgment. “For thus says the LORD: If those who do not deserve to drink the cup still have to drink it, shall you be the one to go unpunished? You shall not go unpunished; you must drink it” (Jer :). The assurance that Edom will be among the nations to suffer destruction at the hands of the enemy is made clear by analogy. If those who suffered from Babylonian destruction (i.e., Jerusalem) did not deserve such a fate then Edom, who,

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

according to the biblical authors, does deserve such a fate, will surely be punished (cf. Lam :). Though the cup of wrath is not explicitly mentioned, a similar prophecy against Edom is uttered by Obadiah. “For as you have drunk on my holy mountain, all the nations around you shall drink; they shall drink and gulp down, and shall be as though they had never been” (Obad ). Both prophets single out Edom for its response to the Babylonian invasion of Jerusalem and assure their listeners that the Edomites will suffer a similar fate. Jeremiah then creatively alters the metaphor of the LORD’s cup of wrath. Though Babylon is depicted as a nation who will drink from the cup (Jer :), it is later identified as the cup itself. Babylon was a golden cup in the LORD’s hand, making all the earth drunken; the nations drank of her wine, and so the nations went mad. (Jer :; cf. Rev :)

Jeremiah’s previous image of the king at the banquet table serving out the “cup of the wine of wrath” is now identified as Babylon, the “golden cup.” The image of the golden chalice or bowl is well attested in the ancient Near East. These were precious containers reserved for royalty, and they suit the context of God as king wielding his golden cup as he pours out its wine on all the nations. The metaphor has also slightly shifted, since Jeremiah is no longer the cupbearer who served the Babylonians God’s wrath: instead, it is now the LORD himself who uses Babylon to bring drunkenness, madness, and destruction. The wine of the golden cup is like the blood of battle, wreaking havoc on all peoples through Babylonian armies that are poured out by the hand of God. The prophet Habakkuk, who was a contemporary of Jeremiah, makes similar use of Babylon and the cup-of-wrath metaphor. In this instance, however, the prophet highlights the immoral actions of the Babylonians and the recompense they will receive from the LORD. The condemnation comes in a series of five woe oracles, all denouncing the unethical actions of the Babylonians who have been used as God’s instrument of judgment (Hab :–). The gentile nation, however, will still be held accountable for their unethical behavior. They have acted dishonestly in their financial transactions (Hab :–), they have acquired gain through corrupt means (Hab :–), they have established their cities through unlawful violence and bloodshed, and they have treated their neighbor treacherously by making them drink the cup of their wrath.

A Cup Prepared for the Nations Alas for you who make your neighbors drink, pouring out your wrath until they are drunk, in order to gaze on their nakedness!” You will be sated with contempt instead of glory. Drink, you yourself, and stagger! The cup in the LORD’s right hand will come around to you, and shame will come upon your glory! (Hab :–)

The phrase “in order to gaze on their nakedness” alludes to the story of Noah and to his son Ham gazing on his nakedness after he got drunk (Gen :–; cf. Isa :; Nah :). We recall from Chapter  that the Hebrew euphemism of seeing one’s nakedness can be another way of referring to sexual relations. In this instance the prophet appears to be condemning the Babylonians for using their power to take advantage of others sexually. Rape and sexual abuse were common occurrences in ancient warfare, but the prophet condemns such unethical and violent acts. The phrase “pouring out your wrath” is then poetically reversed by the prophet so that it is the cup of God’s wrath that is poured out upon the Babylonians. The debasement and sexual crimes against their victims will become a sign of their contempt and shame when they suffer a similar fate. Their own drunkenness will make them vulnerable to the violence of others as they suffer their own humiliation, a consequence which later came at the hands of the Persian empire. A similar case for the LORD’s sovereignty and the distribution of his cup to the nations is found in the prophet Zechariah. Writing after the Babylonian exile, the prophet looks forward to a time when Jerusalem and Judah will be used to pour out God’s judgment on other nations. “See, I am about to make Jerusalem a cup of reeling for all the surrounding peoples; it will be against Judah also in the siege against Jerusalem” (Zech :). The prophet plays on Jeremiah’s image of Babylon, which was formerly the golden cup in the LORD’s hand. Now Jerusalem has taken its rightful place as the executor of God’s judgment. The “cup of reeling” (sap-raʿal) also echoes the reeling heard in Isaiah’s “cup of reeling” (kôs tarʿēlâ) and the psalmist’s “wine of reeling” (yayîn tarʿēlâ). Zechariah draws together images from the prophetic tradition but creatively reverses their meaning to demonstrate God’s covenant with his people and his promise to bring justice to them among the nations. Wine and the cup of wrath offer a prophetic motif that is used to demonstrate God’s sovereignty over all nations, his righteous indignation,

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

and the severity of his judgment. Babylon becomes a critical symbol of an empire raised up by God to bring judgment upon Jerusalem, but the gentiles are not exempt from their actions. The prophets are clear that they too will be judged for their crimes against humanity. As they poured out their wrath upon the nations, so too will they drink the cursed wine of God’s cup. The poetic justice of Babylon drinking from God’s cup also becomes a sign of hope for a destitute people in exile. When God’s wrath has been poured out he will bring justice to his people and restore them to the land. As Jeremiah was called to the prophetic work of “plucking up and tearing down,” so too was he called to “plant and build” (Jer :; cf. :) and offer a message of hope that the LORD would restore his people, their homes, their vineyards, and their wine.

Prophetic Judgment Beyond the metaphor of God’s cup of wrath, the biblical authors also use the image of wine as a sign of condemnation and punishment. Moses draws on the interconnectedness between morality, soil, and wine in his song found in Deuteronomy . He reminds Israel of God’s abundant blessing to Jacob, who ate from the richness of the land and “drank foaming wine made from the blood of grapes” (Deut :). Yet he goes on to speak about God’s anger and judgment against the Israelites for their disobedience and the disaster that he will bring upon them (vv. –). God, however, relents from blotting them out completely because the gentile nations might mistake their victory over Israel as something achieved by their own hands. Moses then describes the wickedness of the nations through the images of vine, grape, and wine. Their vine comes from the vinestock of Sodom, from the vineyards of Gomorrah; their grapes are grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter; their wine is the poison of serpents, the cruel venom of asps. (Deut :–)

Sodom and Gomorrah are the archetypal cities of sin, violence, and human depravity in the Bible. They symbolize the depths of corruption that exist when humanity ceases to acknowledge the wisdom and goodness that God has established in creation. Their ethical perversion and violence are compared to the contamination of the soil and all that grows from it.

Prophetic Judgment

Moses says that the grapes of their vines are so corrupt that they are poison and the wine they produce is like the venom of asps. This stinging indictment of gentile wickedness is made all the more powerful through the example of polluted soil that brings forth foul grapes and produces a toxic wine likened to a serpent’s venom. God’s criticism of the nations by comparing them to the deadly wine of Sodom and Gomorrah offers a striking image of the poison that can emerge from the soil when humanity’s corruption and ignorance run deep. When we turn to the prophet Isaiah, we see wine used as a symbol of judgment when he creates a stark contrast between God’s call to repentance and the response of Jerusalem and Judah. The oracle of Isaiah  was possibly written around the time of the siege of Jerusalem. The city was attacked by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in  BCE ( Kgs ). Though Jerusalem survived the Assyrian onslaught, heavy losses were incurred all around Judea. The prophecy may have come before the attack or may have been directed toward those who celebrated after the Assyrian retreat. In either circumstance, the prophet issues a call to repentance: “the Lord GOD of hosts called to weeping and mourning, to baldness and putting on sackcloth” (Isa :). The symbols of shaving one’s head, sackcloth, and ashes all point to a posture of penance and repentance. Such responses were common during certain festivals or when the threat of war loomed on the horizon. Since the call to penance comes from the highest authority of “the Lord GOD of hosts” himself, the prophet builds an expectation that the people will respond appropriately. Yet the prophet continues, “But instead there was joy and festivity, killing oxen and slaughtering sheep, eating meat and drinking wine. ‘Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die’” (Isa :; cf. Isa :). The insolence of the people’s response is marked by the festive activities of celebrating with wine. The incomprehensible actions of the people are not lost on the reader, and they are punctuated with a well-known quote that alludes to the wisdom of Ecclesiastes: “it is fitting to eat and drink and find enjoyment in all the toil with which one toils under the sun the few days of the life God gives us” (Eccl :; cf.  Cor :). Brueggemann sums up their response appropriately. “There is no care for the future, but only a completely undisciplined embrace of an extravagant present tense.” The consumption of wine and feasting, amid chaos and the call for repentance, highlights the cynicism of the people. The sign of God’s gift for celebration and blessing is misused as an excuse for self-indulgent narcissism that consumes wine in excess and without care for the future. Humanity’s indifference to God’s call for repentance is further articulated by the prophet in an apocalyptic vision when God assigns his

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

punishment to the whole earth. In Isaiah  the prophet broadens his field of view and sees the coming of a cosmic judgment that will consume all nations. No specific historic occasion is mentioned, but the words are timeless poetic expressions of what will come upon humanity when transgression runs rampant. The prophet draws on the deep integration of human morality and the health of the soil that we witnessed in the Pentateuch and especially in the early chapters of Genesis. “The earth dries up and withers, the world languishes and withers; the heavens languish together with the earth” (Isa :; cf. Hos :). The reason for the cosmic desolation is given in the next verse. “The earth lies polluted under its inhabitants; for they have transgressed laws, violated statutes, broken the everlasting covenant” (Isa :). The complete pollution or defilement of the earth resonates with the utter corruption of humanity that we saw in Genesis before the flood (Gen :). Though different Hebrew terms are used in Isaiah, the prophet has in mind a similar motif of humanity’s unbridled transgression that has left the earth poisoned. The abuse of other human beings, disobedience to the commandments, and the abuse of the earth cannot be sustained and ultimately lead toward chaos. We also see the prophet alluding to the flood story through the term “everlasting covenant,” which likely refers to God’s promise to never again destroy the earth by flood (Gen :–; cf. Isa :–). To make the connection between sin, soil, and the defilement of creation, Isaiah looks back to the primeval narratives of Genesis and God’s relationship to all humanity and then looks forward to imagine the fate of his corrupt generation. With the full contamination of the land and the promise of the divine curse that “devours the earth” (Isa :), the prophet turns first to wine as the key symbol of joy and blessing that is stripped from the people. The wine dries up, the vine languishes, all the merry-hearted sigh. The mirth of the timbrels is stilled, the noise of the jubilant has ceased, the mirth of the lyre is stilled. No longer do they drink wine with singing; strong drink is bitter to those who drink it. (Isa :–)

It is important symbolically that wine is the first thing to dry up for those who come under God’s judgment. Amid the cataclysmic circumstances,

Prophetic Judgment

the prophet focuses on the vine because it was a critical source of joy and blessing for Israel. All the things that symbolize the delight and merrymaking of a feast have been silenced and have come to an end. The average Israelite family would not have experienced such feasts as a common occurrence. They would have included copious amounts of food and wine beyond a normal meal, often including other rarer items that were not a part of one’s daily diet. Wine was central to such occasions, and the sheer abundance suggests the blessing of God. For the prophet, however, the poetic inversion of the feast, typified by the lack of wine, signifies a world that languishes both spiritually and materially. Years of drought that cause all plant life to wither and die were not uncommon in ancient Palestine, but the poet imagines something far worse here. This is prolonged suffering to the point at which there are no more vintages as all the wine has dried up. The death of a vineyard and lack of wine foreshadow the beginning of the descent back into chaos. Some commentators highlight Isaiah’s reversal of the banquet theme as a sign of judgment, but many miss the further connections to Noah and the first vineyard. The prophet’s allusions to the corrupt generation before the flood and the “everlasting covenant” are also linked to the relief from toil that was prophesied about Noah (Gen :) and his moral and ethical purity that was required to restore the soil. The prophet not only depicts the cessation of all banquets, but also draws on themes of relief from Adam’s curse. The withering vine and the wine that dries up are a sign of suffering and toil on the earth without consolation. If the blessing of wine that came through Noah was to relieve humanity’s toil, then the prophet envisages a time of judgment when there is no respite. When the vine is destroyed and the wine expires, there is no more music, no more song, and humanity is left with only the bitterness of life. The prophet laments the path the people have taken in living for themselves and disregarding the LORD’s commands. The decay and death of the earth brought about by humanity are summed up in the prophet’s description of how the people respond. “There is an outcry in the streets for lack of wine; all joy has reached its eventide; the gladness of the earth is banished” (Isa :). Wildberger takes this verse to refer to the destruction of the city because it is connected to a broader eschatological destruction. He comments, “One who is in a city that lies in complete ruins has better things to do than to complain about the lack of wine.” His interpretation, however, misses the poetic building of judgment and suffering in connection with the suffering of the earth and the lack of joy seen in verses –. The poet turns again to the symbol of wine and describes the “outcry” of

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

people in the streets as if the people are corporately mourning because they cannot taste the wine that reminds them of the gladness they once enjoyed. A similar picture is painted in Lamentations, where the author describes the destruction of Judah and the people’s response. “They cry to their mothers, ‘Where is bread and wine?’ as they faint like the wounded in the streets of the city, as their life is poured out on their mothers’ bosom” (Lam :). The cry is that of a decimated and hopeless people languishing in the streets and searching for bread and wine to console their misery. Isaiah continues with two concise phrases that further highlight the bleakness of the situation. A possible translation of verse  might read, “all joy has become darkness; the gladness of the earth has been exiled.” The symbol of wine is employed by the prophet to depict the utter desolation that will come because of the people’s disobedience. The prophet paints a scene of bewilderment, of people crying in the streets for wine, but the comfort that once came through Noah has been stripped from their presence, and the joy of the earth, made manifest through its vineyards, has withered and died. Isaiah’s catastrophic vision of a return to chaos is one that sees the moral behavior of humanity tied to the health of the land. As we saw in Genesis, the natural rhythms of the world are dismantled and destroyed when human beings fail to adhere to the Creator’s moral and ethical laws. The prophet foresees a time when humanity’s neglect of justice and righteousness will result in a chaos expressed through drought, death, and the decay of the land. This desolation is marked by the drying up of wine and the disappearance of joy. The prophet Joel offers a similar depiction of judgment associated with wine and destruction of the land, but this time the devastation is caused by a plague of locusts. The vision is of a nation’s crops being laid to waste as vines and trees are decimated by wave after wave of invading insects. The prophet offers a terrifying picture of what will happen to the land (Joel :–) and recalls images of God’s plague of locusts upon Egypt (Exod :–). There will be no feasting or celebration, because the land will be completely stripped of life. “It [the locust] has laid waste my vines, and splintered my fig trees; it has stripped off their bark and thrown it down; their branches have turned white” (Joel :). God’s description of the event subtly conveys his ownership of the land. “My vines” and “my fig trees” emphasize the fact that even though Israel will suffer from this environmental catastrophe, the vines and trees that are destroyed belong to the LORD. The prophet alludes to the words God spoke to Israel through Moses, “for the land is mine; with me you are but aliens and tenants” (Lev :).

Prophetic Judgment

Joel warns those who have been celebrating and living as if God’s blessing would never be taken away, “Wake up, you drunkards, and weep; and wail, all you wine-drinkers, over the sweet wine, for it is cut off from your mouth” (Joel :). Once again, we see the image of wine being cut off as a sign of God’s judgment. In this instance the “sweet wine” (ʿasis) ¯ is used in parallel with those who drink “wine” (yayîn). ¯ As we saw in Chapter , the “mountains flowing with sweet wine” as envisaged by Joel (:) and Amos (:) were the pinnacle of God’s blessing and abundant provision. Here, however, the poet transforms blessing into curse as the sweet wine is cut off from the lips of God’s people. The call to lament extends even further because the destruction of the land means that offerings cannot be given at the temple. Religion and land were inextricably bound together in ancient Israel. If the daily sacrifices of grain and wine were cut off from the house of the LORD, the priests would mourn because they could not perform their duties (Joel :). When wine and grain are stripped from the land, joy and gladness in the house of the LORD disappear (v. ). Beyond the priests, the prophet also depicts the earth as suffering and lamenting its destruction. “The fields are devastated, the ground mourns; for the grain is destroyed, the wine dries up, the oil fails” (v. ). The dire picture of judgment painted by the prophet is one where soil, wine, and produce languish, which leads to lament. Even the animal kingdom weeps as the pastures dry up. “How the animals groan! The herds of cattle wander about because there is no pasture for them; even the flocks of sheep are dazed” (v. ). The ecological crisis depicts the land community suffering together because the “day of the LORD,” the day of judgment, draws near. The prophet makes little distinction between human, soil, and animal because they form the broader network of relationships that comprise the whole community of faith. The prophet recognizes that Israel’s disobedience will be judged on the day of the LORD, and he calls for repentance so that the disaster and chaos signified through agricultural devastation may be averted. “Return to the LORD, your God, for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love, and relents from punishing. Who knows whether he will not turn and relent, and leave a blessing behind him, a grain offering and a drink offering for the LORD, your God?” (Joel :–). Who knows, says the prophet, the LORD might leave a blessing of wine for his people if they repent and return to him. One final way in which the prophets use wine in the context of judgment is by drawing on images from the winemaking process. Winepresses were commonplace in ancient Palestine. They were often hewn out of stone, and

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

were located near the vineyards for communal use (cf. Isa :). Frankel describes the simple pressing installation as “a sloping upper surface on which the pressing of the fruit-treading, crushing, pressing-was carried out, and the lower collection vat to which the expressed liquid flowed. The two were connected by channels or bores.” Most of the winepresses were rectangular in shape and contained a basic pressing floor and a vat. The first pressing was the choice wine of the vintage, but the grapes would go through a second pressing to extract any remaining liquid that could be used. With the harvest complete and the grapes gathered in the press, the vintner began the process of making wine. Stamping on the grapes against the abrasive stone caused the juices to flow down through channels, to be captured in a vat and then stored in containers where the fermentation process could continue. Pressing was a messy business done mainly by feet, and then often with a weighted press at the end to squeeze out the remaining juice. Ancient Egyptian depictions of wine pressing include men hanging from a pole and mashing grapes with their feet while musicians play in the background. The experience of the harvest and crushing of grapes in ancient Israel was a celebratory time and would have resonated with an audience familiar with the life and practices of viticulture (cf. Judg :). We get a glimpse into some of the harvest activities that would have taken place through the prophet Isaiah. “Joy and gladness are taken away from the fruitful field; and in the vineyards no songs are sung, no shouts are raised; no treader treads out wine in the presses; the vintage-shout is hushed” (Isa :; cf. Jer :). Though the depiction is negative, we see that songs, shouts, joy, and gladness would normally accompany the harvest as the vintage was made into wine. The prophet, however, boldly reimagines the joy of the harvest and the celebratory act of crushing grapes as a militaristic image of God treading on the nations and being stained with their blood. The apocalyptic vision looks to a lone, salvific figure who has come from Edom (¼ the nations) to redeem the people, and the prophet asks: “Why are your robes red, and your garments like theirs who tread the wine press?” “I have trodden the wine press alone, and from the peoples no one was with me; I trod them in my anger and trampled them in my wrath; their juice spattered on my garments, and stained all my robes.” (Isa :–)

Prophetic Judgment

In what is possibly one of the most violent metaphors attributed to God’s wrath and judgment on the nations, the LORD appears as a military figure soaked with the blood of his enemies, like a person in the winepress soaked with the blood of grapes. The reference to “them” as Israel’s enemies is confirmed in verse , where God announces triumphantly, “I trampled down peoples in my anger, I crushed them in my wrath, and I poured out their lifeblood on the earth.” The poetic transformation of wine from the blood of grapes crushed in a winepress to the blood of the LORD’s crushed enemies is striking. Creating an apocalyptic image of the LORD’s destruction of the enemy, the poet utilizes the divine warrior metaphor, which was a common motif in ancient Israel and among its neighbors. The LORD was known as a “man of war” (Exod :), a title that dates back to some of Israel’s earliest traditions. The poet picks up on this image of God as a sovereign king in battle, active and attentive to his people’s cry. He is the one who proclaims, “It is I, announcing vindication, mighty to save” (Isa :), and he alone is the one who can restore justice to his people (cf. Isa :–). The short poem offers a profound image that is not meant to be interpreted literally. The figurative language portrays judgment and victory through the metaphor of the divine warrior and the well-known sights, sounds, and smells of the winepress. The evocative images of crushed grapes and crimson-soaked clothes offer a graphic depiction of how the LORD will respond to the suffering experienced by his people at the hands of the nations. In what may seem a crude and offensive image to the modern reader, the picture of wine, warrior, and redemption offered hope for a downtrodden people who longed for justice and to be established in the land once again. The flowing wine and the winepress became a symbol of Israel’s redemption and the LORD’s destruction of the forces that oppressed his people, and they will become a cosmic image in the eschatological judgment of Revelation (Rev :–). Another image from winemaking used in the context of judgment comes from the process of storing of wine. The “lees” are the residue produced during fermentation. After yeast converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, the dead cells settle to the bottom of the fermentation vessel. Aging a wine “on the lees” (French ¼ sur lie) is a technique used by vintners with particular grape varieties to help develop the wine’s body and flavor. After a certain amount of time, the wine will be filtered into other receptacles, and the lees, or dregs (šmr), will be discarded or possibly used for medicinal purposes. Those familiar with viticulture would have known well the process of leaving a wine to rest on the lees. This was a critical component

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

of making good wine, and the image of amphorae stacked and lying undisturbed, ready to be filtered and drunk, was used by the prophets to convey God’s judgment upon Israel and the nations. In an oracle against the gentiles, Jeremiah draws a parallel to the coming destruction of Moab with the image of wine resting on the lees. The nation is depicted as being undisturbed and having experienced a time of peace, but the prophet foresees a very different future. Moab has been at ease from his youth, settled like wine on its dregs; [on the lees] he has not been emptied from vessel to vessel, nor has he gone into exile; therefore his flavor has remained and his aroma is unspoiled. Therefore, the time is surely coming, says the LORD, when I shall send to him decanters to decant him, and empty his vessels, and break his jars in pieces. (Jer :–)

Moab is depicted as a wine that has been afforded the time to mature and develop. Undisturbed and protected from the heat, the wine’s flavor and aroma would grow rich in the container as the lees settled to the bottom. This unspoiled wine provides a graphic and shocking image for what is to come. The prophet predicts a time when the undisturbed inviolability of the Moabites will be brought to an end by the LORD. The poetic image of decanting wine as a symbol for exile resonates with what we know about ancient winemaking practices. In both Egypt and Assyria filter funnels and filter bowls were utilized for serving and decanting wine. The devices were probably used with a piece of cloth to strain out the dregs as the wine was being poured for drinking or into other containers. Similar types of vessels with spouts were used in Palestine called kraters and rhyta, which were horn-shaped containers often in the form of an animal and were used for drinking. The Israelites knew well the practice of decanting and understood its comparison to the experience of being pillaged by the enemy and sent into exile. The luxury of tranquility and peace enjoyed by the Moabites was like wine resting on the lees, but they would soon become like wine being filtered of its dregs. Rather than filtering wine for their own enjoyment, the Moabites would be strained out by the enemy, and their lives would become like vessels that are smashed to pieces. The poetic imagery of Jeremiah was also used by his contemporary Zephaniah but with an added twist. Rather than the Moabites being stirred

Deadly Banquets

from their rest, this time it is God’s people in Jerusalem who will be shaken and strained. At that time I will search Jerusalem with lamps, and I will punish the people who rest complacently on their dregs, [on the lees] those who say in their hearts, “The LORD will not do good, nor will he do harm.” (Zeph :)

The indifference of those living in Jerusalem is summed up in the prophet’s quote of what must have been a well-known saying among those in the city. Their attitude resembles a type of agnosticism depicted as wine resting on the lees, but here the metaphor of the people as wine takes on negative implications. The metaphoric resting of the Moabites was their experience of peace and lack of threat from the enemy, which allowed them to develop into aromatic and exceptional wines. For Zephaniah, however, the people’s complacency and disregard of the LORD’s power is associated with their selfsatisfaction, which the LORD will bring to an end. The prophet goes on to repeat some of the covenant curses of Deuteronomy . “Their wealth shall be plundered, and their houses laid waste. Though they build houses, they shall not inhabit them; though they plant vineyards, they shall not drink wine from them” (Zeph :). Zephaniah turns the metaphor of the people being like wine on the lees from an oracle against Moab into an oracle against Jerusalem, and the resting associated with peace into resting as a form of deluded complacency. The prophets’ creative use of wine as a metaphor and symbol of judgment drew from the daily lives of the ancient Israelites. They took profound symbols of joy such as the overflowing chalice, wine resting on the lees, or mashing grapes in the winepress, and turned them into images of judgment, suffering, and the experience of God’s wrath. To express the demise and divine judgment of a community that turns away from God’s commands, the prophets turned to wine as a symbol that would “body forth” and give habitation to the suffering that God would bring upon the people and the land.

Deadly Banquets The practice of feasting in the ancient world as a significant religious, social, and political event is also found throughout the scriptures. The

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

custom of gathering together on special occasions with an abundance and variety of food and wine, often accompanied by music, song, and dance, dates back to the earliest cultures. Feasting and banquets were central to negotiations of political and social relationships at all levels of society. They required certain rituals and practices. Agricultural production for feasts also influenced household budgets and local economies. To celebrate at a feast was to participate in one of the most significant human rituals. Food and wine around the table were instrumental for the building and maintenance of kinship structures within the patrimonial household and within the larger social structures of the clan. Feasting was also an important sociopolitical act for royalty and affected all levels of society. In ancient Israel there were various levels of feasting that occurred from the poorest to the wealthiest. The Hebrew word for “banquet” (mišteh) comes from the verbal root (š-t-h) meaning “to drink.” Wine was central to any feast, whether in the home or in the royal courts. Two terms in the Bible are referenced for specific places where banquets might be held: “house of banqueting” (bêt mišteh) and “house of mourning” (bêt marzēah). The “house of mourning” was possibly associated with ancestral _ worship or feasting on behalf of those who had died. Both terms occur in commandments given to Jeremiah as he awaited the impending destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. He was ordered not to enter a “house of banqueting” (bêt mišteh), which likely referred to a wedding feast (Jer :–). In a similar manner, he was commanded not to enter a “house of mourning” (bêt marzēah) to lament the dead (Jer :). Because of the _ coming catastrophe, the prophet was not allowed to participate in the ordinary rituals marking life and death, whether in feasting or mourning. The assumption is that in both places wine would have been consumed, and Jeremiah was commanded to abstain. The prophet Amos also speaks of the house of feasting (mirzah) in _ association with drinking wine and excessive living. Amos denounces the complacency of the Israelites in Samaria and Judea in the light of their abuses of the poor (Amos :–). He condemns those living in the lap of luxury as they sprawl out on their ivory beds eating, drinking wine, and enjoying music at the expense of those around them. The NRSV translates mirzah in verse  as “revelry,” but the prophet depicts an opulent _ banquet that spares no expense. Central to the biblical banquets were festivities and merrymaking. Wine was critical at such events as the drink that “cheers gods and mortals” (Judg :). Along with copious amounts of food at a banquet there would also be an abundance of wine. Though the effects of wine are often described as

Deadly Banquets

giving someone a “merry heart” (tôb lēb) ( Sam :;  Sam :; Esth _ :; Eccl :), they can also lead to drunkenness (š-k-r). It seems that there is a fine line in the Bible between being merry and being drunk, but drunkenness is usually paired with negative outcomes, as we shall see in the banquet narratives that lead to death. We shall not discuss all the feasts recorded in the scriptures where wine is present but will focus here on those that specifically mention wine and drinking, and end with the loss of life. This particular motif highlights the dangers of consuming too much wine and exposing oneself to the hand of the enemy. As we have seen, wine can cause people to reel (Ps :), stagger (Isa :), vomit (Jer :), or pass out (Gen :). All these side-effects place a person in a vulnerable position with the potential of being abused or killed. The story of Amnon and the rape of his brother Absalom’s sister, Tamar, is a tragic and detailed narrative. The author plumbs the depths of human lust and deception as Amnon is so tormented by his desire for Tamar that he becomes physically ill ( Sam :). His friends witness his sad state and recommend a plot whereby he can overcome Tamar and have his way with her. Immediately after his sexual crime, Amnon’s lust turns to loathing, and he sends Tamar away ashamed and disgraced. When Absalom finds out he plans his vengeance. Two years later Absalom plans a feast around the time of the sheep shearing, but David declines his invitation because he does not want to be a burden on his son ( Sam :), which highlights the cost of such an affair. Instead, Absalom presses David to let Amnon and his other sons come and he agrees. The LXX supplies an additional description in verse , “Absalom made a feast like a king’s feast,” though this is not in the Hebrew Masoretic Text. The addition heightens the occasion and raises the level of the celebration. Absalom had waited two years to get revenge on Amnon and so put on a lavish banquet fit for a king. We are not told what was served except that wine was present. Absalom instructed his servants to be bold and courageous, commanding them to kill Amnon when his “heart is merry with wine” ( Sam :). Probably well into the evening, when much wine had been consumed and Amnon was enjoying the feast, the cry “strike Ammon” was issued, and soon the brother was killed by the hands of Absalom’s servants. Within a family banquet one would expect a level of trust and safety, but here we find the congenial mood of the feast upended by fratricide. There is, however, a poetic justice here, since Amnon invited Tamar into his room for a meal before he betrayed her trust and raped her. He now suffers a similar fate, having drunk the wine of family members who suffered from the crimes he committed.

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

In a much shorter narrative of the northern king Elah, son of Baasha, we are told that his servant Zimri, commander of half his chariots, conspired against him ( Kgs :–). The king is found “drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza, who was in charge of the palace at Tirzah” ( Kgs :) when Zimri kills him. Though a feast is not explicitly mentioned, drinking at the royal palace likely included some type of feasting. In this narrative we are given sparse details, but the murder of Elah and the death of his whole household are the fulfillment of Jehu’s prophecy to his father that their whole family would die ( Kgs :–). The brief story uses wine within a royal setting as the context for killing. Trust is once again betrayed but this time through a military leader, which may allude to the fact that Zimri’s plot resembled a type of military coup. The ensuing narratives continue the motif of deadly banquets with excessive wine, but the biblical authors turn with a more critical eye toward the feasting of foreign kings. From the time of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem, the Jewish people lived almost exclusively under the rule of foreign nations. Whether these were Babylonian, Persian, Greek, or Roman, those living in Jerusalem or in exile were subject to gentile feasting practices, which were often depicted as lavish and decadent. Like many Jews who were taken into captivity and exiled to Babylon, they served as slaves within the royal household. After the rule of Nebuchadnezzar, his son Belshazzar became ruler of Babylon. In the book of Daniel we are told that he “made a great festival for a thousand of his lords” and specifically that he “he was drinking wine in the presence of the thousand” (Dan :). The additional description of him drinking “in the presence” (laqo ¯ ˘bēl) of the thousand may indicate him showing off or making a spectacle of himself. This would suit his later actions, when he ordered all the vessels of gold and silver that his father had seized from the temple in Jerusalem to be brought out and used for drinking more wine. The narrator highlights that this was done “under the influence of wine” (Dan :) and that when all the vessels were brought out everyone “drank the wine and praised the gods of gold and silver, bronze, iron, wood, and stone” (Dan :). Though Goldingay contends that the “the banquet is simply the background to the story, and the occasion of the revelry and excess that lead to sacrilege and idolatry,” the banquet and the drinking of wine are critical to the whole narrative. The ability to feast with abundant wine is meant to be a sign of God’s blessings bestowed upon humanity. This sacred act is transformed into the most profane gathering as the holy objects of the temple are desecrated by gentiles, who use them to get drunk. This profanation is exacerbated by the contemptuous and blasphemous

Deadly Banquets

acts of Belshazzar in praising gods of silver and gold. Rather than serving merely as background, the banquet provides a critical setting to highlight the excessive hubris of humanity and its abuse of God’s gift of wine. Within the space of four verses the author uses the words “drink” and “wine” six times. The repetition highlights the excess and arrogance of the Babylonian king and his lords, who mock the God of Israel in their drunkenness by consuming wine from the sacred vessels from the temple (cf. Dan :–). When a mysterious finger appears writing on the wall, Belshazzar enlists the help of Daniel to read and discern what the words mean. The prophet condemns Belshazzar for his arrogance and pride and tells the king that his time is limited and that his kingdom will be divided among the Medes and the Persians. The drunken festivities end on a somber note. “That very night Belshazzar, the Chaldean king, was killed” (Dan :). The desecration of God’s temple by the gentiles was a significant theme of the Second Temple period. The Jews would later suffer under the profane and sacrilegious acts of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who invaded Jerusalem in late  BCE after Jason, the high priest of Jerusalem, had rebelled and taken control of the city. Antiochus brutally attacked the city, killed its inhabitants, and looted the temple. In  BCE Jerusalem was attacked again and the temple was rededicated to the Olympian god Zeus. The first pagan sacrifice was performed on the LORD’s sacred altar, an event which is “the abomination of desolation” alluded to in Daniel’s prophecies (Dan :; :; cf.  Macc :; Mark :). It is likely that the figure of Belshazzar acts as a cipher for later gentile rulers who would profane God’s name and his temple. The royal banquet motif occurs again in the story of Esther, which takes place during the Persian period and the reign of Ahasuerus, or Xerxes (– BCE). The book begins with the unprecedented excess of Ahasuerus as he provides a banquet for all his officials, ministers, nobles, and governors that lasts  days! Following this, the king hosts another banquet for all those in the citadel of Susa, where drinks “were served in golden goblets, goblets of different kinds, and the royal wine was lavished according to the bounty of the king” (Esth :). As if we could not imagine the drinking that took place, the author adds that “drinking was by flagons, without restraint” (Esth :) and by the seventh day “the king’s heart was merry with wine” (kǝtôb lēb-hammelek bayyayîn) ¯ (Esth :). Whether the _ royal banquet scene is described using hyperbole or not, the gentile excesses of the royal court set the stage for the reversal of circumstances not only for Esther, but also for the Jewish people.

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

Esther, the most beautiful woman in the empire, is taken by the king for his wife. From the inside of the royal courts Esther is able to navigate the political twists and turns that she faces to save her people and her guardian Mordecai. Throughout the narrative the king is depicted as drinking at a “wine feast” (mištēh hayyayîn) ¯ (Esth :; :), and in his merry heart (or drunkenness!) he grants Esther any request. Through her clever responses she is able to reverse Haman’s schemes to massacre the Jews. Instead, the very gallows that Haman has prepared for Mordecai is used by the king to hang Haman himself. The book of Esther depicts life within the royal courts of Persia as a bacchanalian feast of wine and drunkenness. Yet within this excessive debauchery the hero of the story soberly manipulates her situation to defeat the corrupt powers of the nation that have sought to destroy her people. In this instance, the banquet theme ends not with the death of a king but with the death of the enemy of the Jews. The king is not judged for his drunkenness in the narrative but, rather, his drunkenness becomes a means for the heroine of the story to get what she wishes in order to preserve the lives of the Jewish people. Esther’s heroism is commemorated in the festival of Purim and is celebrated with wine (Esth :). The final deadly banquet comes from the apocryphal book of Judith, and follows the pattern of dangerous feasts that lead to death. The book’s characters and scenes consistently upend the reader’s expectations through the seemingly powerless widow, Judith, and the mighty leader of the Assyrian army, Holofernes. With ironic twists, suspense, and the use of wine, Judith is able to behead Holofernes in the middle of his camp and escape completely unnoticed. Her courage, wisdom, and faithfulness are praised by the authors, though her methods of seduction, lying, and murder make her character morally equivocal. Judith approaches the camp of Holofernes and reports that the Jews have committed a great sin by consuming the first fruits of the grain “and the tithes of wine and oil” (Jdt :) and that she has been sent to assure the army general that God has given the Jews into his hand. Pleased with the news, Holofernes invites her into the intimacy of his tent and prepares for her a feast, “with some of his own delicacies, and with some of his own wine to drink” (Jdt :). Judith refuses the gesture in order to remain pure before the LORD, but Holofernes holds another banquet on the fourth day for all his personal attendants. The feast descends quickly into a drunken party; Judith refuses to participate in it, but she responds ironically that it is the greatest day of her life. So Holofernes said to her, “Have a drink and be merry with us!” Judith said, “I will gladly drink, my lord, because today is the greatest day in my

Futility and Finality whole life.” Then she took what her maid had prepared and ate and drank before him. Holofernes was greatly pleased with her, and drank a great quantity of wine, much more than he had ever drunk in any one day since he was born. (Jdt :–)

The additional description of Holofernes drinking more wine than he has ever drunk before sets up the climactic scene of Judith bearing the sword of her enemy and then decapitating him (Jdt :–). The Jewish military victory that ensues the following day is a sign of God’s grace upon his people and the courage of Judith that has enabled the Jews to defeat the Assyrian armies. The motif of deadly banquets was used by the biblical authors within the context of both Jewish and gentile feasts. Later in Israel’s history, banquets became a literary device to depict the excess and debauchery of the gentile nations that ruled over them. Kings and royalty consuming seemingly endless amounts of wine set the stage for human activities that range from murder to wise manipulation of one’s circumstances. Drunkenness is overtly condemned in some situations (e.g., the accounts of Belshazzar and Holofernes), but only tacitly in others (e.g., Ahasuerus). The underlying moral themes, however, point to the vigilance and soberness of the Jewish heroes who bring about God’s plan for his people.

Futility and Finality One final way in which we see wine used as a sign for the curses of God is in the futility of planting and the inability to reap the fruit of one’s work. In the previous chapter we saw how Deuteronomy presented a sense of justice and moral balance by excusing a man from war so that he might return to his newly planted vineyard and enjoy its wine (Deut :). The reversal of this is found later when Moses declares the covenant curses that the Israelites will experience if they abandon the law. “You shall plant vineyards and dress them, but you shall neither drink the wine nor gather the grapes, for the worm shall eat them” (Deut :). The result of disobedience is futility rather than blessing. Previously, Moses had spoken to the Israelites about going into the promised land and inheriting “hewn cisterns that you did not hew, vineyards and olive groves that you did not plant” (Deut :) as a sign of God’s salvation. The agricultural gifts of vineyards and fruit-bearing trees also came with a warning that the Israelites should not forget God or what he

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

had done in delivering them from Egypt. Moses now emphasizes the fact that Israel should always remain a grateful people in every circumstance, giving thanks for God’s gifts from the soil. Working, planting, harvesting, and making wine are futile in the eyes of the biblical authors if they are not done with a sense of benediction. Utilizing the same motif found in Deuteronomy, the prophets also employ the language of work and futility in God’s punishment upon his people. The prophet Amos explicitly condemns the Israelites for their unjust treatment of the poor. “Therefore because you trample on the poor and take from them levies of grain, you have built houses of hewn stone, but you shall not live in them; you have planted pleasant vineyards, but you shall not drink their wine” (Amos :; cf. Zeph :). A poetic justice is expressed by the prophet where despising the poor and taking advantage of them result in the Israelites being taken advantage of by their enemies. If they steal and oppress the poor, their enemies will seize their homes and vineyards, depriving them of the gift of wine. We find a similar condemnation from the prophet Micah, who criticizes Israel’s dishonesty and warns the people, “you shall tread grapes, but not drink wine” (Mic :). The disobedience of the Israelites and their lack of ethical living results in futility, expressed by the prophets as working without reaping the benefits and pleasures of wine. The poetry of the prophets and the biblical authors takes one of the most basic pleasures of life in the ancient world – growing, making, and drinking wine – and turns it into a curse when Israel disobeys God’s command. Deprivation from the fruits of one’s own vineyard, the inversion of the cup of blessing that becomes the cup of wrath, the pressing of grapes, and an amphora of wine resting on the lees are all creative metaphors and images used to convey the suffering that comes from disobedience. To convey the seriousness and dire consequences of transgressing God’s commands, the biblical authors turn to wine to highlight how the gift of salvation can become the curse of condemnation. God’s judgment on the people, however, also includes judgment upon the land. Not only would Israel have to drink from the cup of wrath, but the biblical authors depict the land and animal kingdom suffering as well. The Israelites’ life is bound to the community of the land, the community of place, and this includes all who live there with them whether human, soil, plant, bird, or beast. It may seem unfair that the land suffers for the people’s transgressions, but the biblical understanding of sin is as a force that breaks down the order of the human and natural world. Violence, injustice, and hatred all lead society toward chaos in the eyes of the biblical authors, and the land responds to human action whether in fruitfulness and blessing or in barrenness and curse.

Futility and Finality

The poetry of the prophets and their use of wine as a symbol and metaphor give shape to divine engagement with humanity, where heavenly and earthly realities intersect. Through their imagination they “body forth” images of judgment rooted in wine and the land which were cherished by the people. It is important to recall, however, that the wine poured out from God’s cup of wrath is only temporary, and this does not suggest that God’s divine anger will last forever. What we discover is God’s righteous indignation against a people who have forsaken his commands. God’s response is not unpredictable or impulsive but, rather, he responds to the chaos and destruction caused by his people. The prophets understood that God cannot, and does not, remain indifferent to evil and that his judgment is not done out of spite, but out of lament. The prophet’s cry of anger is also a cry of lament that reflects a God who cares for humanity, creation, and the land. He grieves for a world that has gone deaf to injustice, and he brings his judgment to restore life. The prophets were also aware that God’s anger did not last forever. Heschel writes, “The anger of the Lord is instrumental, hypothetical, conditional, and subject to his will . . . There is no divine anger for anger’s sake. Its meaning is, as already said, instrumental: to bring about repentance; its purpose and consummation is its own disappearance.” In the prophets the divine cup of wrath is ultimately replaced with the cup of salvation when God will restore his people, root them in the land, and feed them with the gifts of the earth’s bounty. Anger is not an attribute of God but, rather, it is a brief response to disobedience that seeks to bring order out of chaos and restore blessing and life. At the heart of the prophetic critique and the use of wine as a sign of judgment is Israel’s resistance to God’s justice, mercy, and love. When the Israelites choose their own path, when they oppress their neighbor, when they mistreat the land, or neglect to acknowledge God’s abundant blessing, they are in danger of bringing suffering upon themselves and the communities where they live. Though some may find it difficult to accept an ancient Israelite theology of judgment in a modern technological world, we may question how the age of industrialization has affected the places and communities where we dwell. In the past decades we have witnessed the rise in chemical farming, genetic manipulation, soil and water pollution, and deforestation, along with excess, greed, and the stripping of the earth for its resources. This has led to a global ecological crisis which has left humanity to drink from its own poisoned cup. Wendell Berry, in his reflections on race prejudice and the land, argues that the Western understanding of humanity’s place within the world has been distorted and that this has led to the degradation of our communities. Rather than accepting responsibility, care, and a limited power in the

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The Cup of Wrath: Wine as Curse

world, we have used technology to pursue a type of limitlessness that seeks a human freedom, superiority, and domination. Instead of caring for our neighbor or for the land, Berry argues, human beings have become anthropocentric, or “human centered,” and have lost a sense of what it means to serve within creation in relation to our neighbor and the living world. As we are obliged now to accept the implications of our knowledge of ecosystems and the ecosphere . . . then our word “neighbor” begins to refer not only to humans, but also to creatures that are not human: the plants and animals, the rocks, the light, the water, and the air. And so we must occupy our places with gratitude for its privileges, but also with care and some uneasiness. To think of the world as human-centered is both a blasphemy and an ecological absurdity.

The ancient Israelites understood their relationship to God, their tenancy on his land, and their responsibility toward their neighbor, but Berry contends that this is something we have lost in a technology-driven world. If we are to bring life back to our communities, especially to more rural farming communities, he argues, we need to recapture our sense of love, creativity, and responsibility to the places where we dwell. American conservationist Aldo Leopold argued for a similar obligation to be upheld by human beings in living with what he called a “Land Ethic.” He writes, “The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively the land.” He goes on to say that the land ethic “changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land-community to plain member and citizen of it.” The role Leopold describes is similar to that of God’s calling on his people. They were to care for the soil, love their neighbor, enjoy their vineyards, and celebrate the blessing of being rooted in the land. When they strayed from this vocation in the world as the covenant people, the prophets warned them of the curses to come and the suffering that all creation would bear. Love, imagination, creativity, care, and forgiveness were requirements for Israel to flourish in the land. God taught his people that membership in his covenant community involves being bound to the land and bound to one another. The prophets believed that such a society could exist, and though at times they spoke out of God’s anger and lament, they looked forward to a restored community of faith that would become a light and sign for all nations (Isa :–). God’s land would be a place where everyone would come to the banquet of the LORD, to sit at “a feast of rich food, a feast of well-aged wines, of rich food filled with marrow, of well-aged wines strained clear” (Isa :).

CHAPTER



The Wisdom of Wine Pleasures and Pitfalls Wine and Wisdom The Bible’s use of wine as a symbol of both blessing and curse offered a sign to the ancient Israelites that helped shape their understanding of their covenant relationship with God. Their intimate connection to the soil, vines, and grapes offered physical, tangible reminders of God’s blessing upon them when they were obedient to his commands. But the land and its produce also became a sign of judgment against them because of their disobedience. Fertility and celebration could turn into famine and disaster if the Israelites failed to uphold their covenant responsibilities toward God, neighbor, and the land. As we saw in the previous chapter, the cup of salvation can become the cup of wrath when Israel fails to walk according to God’s ways. Apart from the blessings and curses of the covenant, the Bible also approaches wine from a very pragmatic viewpoint. Instructions on how to drink, when to drink, and the effect drinking has on relationships with others are also part of Scripture’s teaching on wine. In particular, the wisdom literature approaches drinking with practical guidance on how one might pursue wisdom while still enjoying the fruit of the vine. Through empirical observation and experiential investigation, the sages of Israel celebrate the joys of drinking wine, but they also warn of the potential pitfalls that come from drinking too much. The biblical notion of wisdom differs from the contemporary understanding of the term. The idea of wisdom today sometimes evokes images of the great sage or the Buddhist monk pronouncing cryptic aphorisms from a mountain top. In Hebrew, the primary word for wisdom, hokmâ, _ refers broadly to knowledge but can also refer to skill. A wise person might be a musician, artist, architect, or farmer. Wisdom could be expressed in 



The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

almost any domain of work, from cutting stones (Exod :–) to the creation of the cosmos (Jer :; Prov :). Michael Fox summarizes the different meanings of hokmâ by listing attributes such as skill, learning, _ perceptiveness, cleverness, prudence, and sagacity. These qualities are what the scriptures refer to as wisdom, and they can be demonstrated by the greatest king or the humblest craftsman. To be wise is to live rightly, and part of living rightly, according to the sages, is moderating one’s consumption of wine. Until recently, much of modern scholarship has tended to categorize wisdom literature as books of the Hebrew Bible that reflect a particular literary style or theme. Incorporated into this canon of wisdom are Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes, though historically others have also been included, such as the Song of Songs and the apocryphal texts of Sirach (Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus) and the Wisdom of Solomon. Twentiethcentury scholarship often characterized wisdom literature as a humanistic or philosophical collection of writings that shared little in common with Israel’s ritual practices or the laws of Moses. Mark Sneed argues that for too long scholars have tended to focus on the wise as “some idiosyncratic group that was not interested in prophetic literature or the Torah and its commandments or the priestly material.” The division created between wisdom literature and other biblical texts produced a chasm between what was called “wisdom” and the Law and the Prophets. The result of such scholarly constrictions around the category of wisdom literature was that the broader biblical concept of wisdom was limited to specific books (i.e., Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes) and defined by certain characteristics found in these texts. Rather than being seen as a type of literature and thinking that permeated every part of Israelite life and Scripture, wisdom was generally confined by scholars to particular books.4 Will Kynes has argued that the traditional categories that have defined wisdom literature should be put aside for the sake of seeing wisdom as complementary to the rest of the scriptures and not dichotomous. He argues that we should not project our conceptions of wisdom onto a group of biblical texts but, rather, should allow them to speak from different contextual perspectives. However we define and understand wisdom literature, it still provides a broad category that highlights texts from a similar genre or tradition. Wisdom focuses mainly on empirical observation of the world within the framework of God’s established order. It seeks to promote the good life, human flourishing, and ways in which one can live in the world in pursuit of these things. As Fox argues, “A wisdom book purports to discover and

Wine and Wisdom

teach insights about the ethical and successful life (including the limitations on attaining it). It meditates on and teaches about such matters as the moral relation between deed and consequence and the efficacy of moral rules.” It is within this framework that the Israelite sages pass on wisdom concerning wine which promotes human flourishing, living wisely, and experiencing the good life. Since biblical wisdom literature tends to avoid the Mosaic commandments, references to priestly or cultic material, and the divine promises to the patriarchs, some have argued that it does not contain what might be considered traditional Israelite theology. Wisdom has often been described as “universal” and open to influence from other cultures, and hence it is less concerned with allegiance to one God and his law than it is with living a good life based on wise choices. While it is true that biblical wisdom shares much in common with other ancient wisdom texts, it is equally important to distinguish how Israelite wisdom takes up certain topics, such as wine, to determine what the authors are saying within the wider biblical corpus. The authors of the wisdom sayings were not unaware of the Pentateuch or the prophetic texts on wine, but their approach is notably more practical instruction for day-to-day living and how one might enjoy the blessings of God’s gift without destroying oneself, one’s neighbor, or the land. Within the traditional group of wisdom texts, wine is not mentioned much in the book of Job. There are some references in the first chapter to the blessings on Job’s family before they were killed. We are told that his sons and daughters were “eating and drinking wine in the eldest brother’s house” (Job :; :), which likely denotes a family feast. This happens before a messenger brings Job news that the house has been struck down and that all his children have perished. In a later speech Job contests God’s presence amid the good who suffer in the world while the wicked seem to do as they please without consequence. He speaks of those who “tread the wine presses, but suffer thirst” (Job :), which resonates with the Deuteronomic idea of the injustice experienced by those who plant a vineyard but cannot enjoy its fruits (Deut :). One final mention of wine is in the poetic description of Elihu, who is burning to give an answer to Job when his other companions fall silent. He exclaims, “My heart is indeed like wine that has no vent; like new wineskins, it is ready to burst” (Job :). The idea of fermenting wine about to explode in sealed wineskins expresses well his desire to offer a prophetic response. Apart from these occurrences, the majority of wisdom instruction on wine comes in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. In this chapter we will also consider the works

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

of Sirach and the Song of Songs and how, though not technically part of the canonical wisdom literature category, they contribute both to instructions around wine and to its symbolism in love poetry.

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom It is not without significance that the preamble of Proverbs begins with admonitions that set the tone for the whole of the book. This is summed up in the concise phrase “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction” (Prov :). The Hebrew word for “fear” (yîrʾat) is difficult to translate into English because it can also convey a sense of awe that one feels in the presence of God. The “fear of the LORD” is not about being terrified but, rather, it evokes the idea of reverence, awe, and wonder before the holiness of God. The fear of the LORD offers a theology of worship and veneration that characterizes one’s life in pursuing a path of wisdom. This is important for helping to distinguish wisdom sayings on wine from other generic wisdom around drinking. To heed the proverbs on how to drink wine appropriately is to understand that humanity is located within a world that is governed and ordered by God’s wisdom. The fear of the LORD is the foundation of wisdom which teaches one how to consume wine, and how to enjoy the fruit of the vine as a blessing that comes from God. Another important point about the proverbs is that they consistently point to how one can live in the best way possible rather than simply being moralistic. Ellen Davis writes, “The peculiar genius of proverbial speech is its ability to prompt moral reflection on basic truths without harangue. In other words, these teachings are not moralistic. Sometimes there is no explicit moral instruction at all. Rather the sages rely on poetic images to make their point or perhaps more than one point.” When the sages discuss wine there is no moral judgment attached to drinking. Instead, they are concerned with how one honors and fears God through one’s choices. Drunkenness is unbecoming not because it is immoral but, rather, because it can lead to immorality and, even worse, to a life of folly. The sages do not view wine as a temptation that should be avoided at all costs. Instead, they consistently make plain the positive and negative effects of wine within the broader scope of living the good life. This sentiment comes through in the first saying devoted to wine in the book of Proverbs. We find allusions to the Mosaic commands of tithing one’s first fruits to the LORD as a sign of covenant obedience. This is the

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom

only proverb in the book that refers to cultic practices that took place at the Jerusalem temple. Honor the LORD with your substance and with the first fruits of all your produce; then your barns will be filled with plenty, and your vats will be bursting with wine. (Prov :–)

In what sounds like a command from the book of Deuteronomy, the sages extol the wise person who understands their place within God’s created order. To offer back from the first fruits was a sign of obedience and sacrifice. Gifts offered to God are both commanded and expected as an appropriate sign of worship and humility throughout the Bible. For many ancient agrarians this was not a token gift at the altar but required real sacrifice on their part, often exacting what little they could give in times of drought or famine. The act of giving freely out of what God had given required both humility and gratefulness. In a contemporary world where literacy is comparatively high and books are readily available to most, it is important to remember that ancient Israelite farmers did not pursue wisdom through the study of books. Instead, they committed their lives to wisdom through cultivating real, concrete habits and behaviors that expressed their devotion to God. This was achieved through the appropriate response of gratitude for the gifts the LORD had given from the earth. Bringing the first fruits of the harvest as an offering to the LORD provided a physical reminder that Israel was committed to a relationship that required trust and a response of gratitude. When the LORD was honored through the people’s gifts, so the proverb promises, an even greater abundance of food would come and the people would have “vats bursting with wine.” The extravagance of the image is given to express the extravagance of a God who gives without measure when in a relationship of mutual love. What better way to communicate his benevolence for rewarding faith, trust, and obedience than through the image of full barns and winepresses brimming with grapes where juices overflow and spill out onto the ground? The promise of bursting wine vats also expresses the sages’ understanding that the world is governed and ordered by God’s wisdom so that acts performed in faith will be rewarded. Wine is the gift given back in abundance to those who bring their offerings to honor the LORD. In the book of Proverbs we also find the female personification of wisdom. She is introduced at the beginning of the book (Prov

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

:–), but in chapter  wisdom is presented as a woman calling out in the streets to all and inviting them to partake in the good life that she offers. In chapter , the invitation is extended again through the symbolism of a great feast which wisdom prepares and is free for all who wish to partake. The passage begins with Lady Wisdom erecting her house, where “she has hewn her seven pillars” (Prov :). The significance of the seven pillars is debated, but it may have cosmological significance referring to wisdom’s role with God at the beginning of creation (Prov :–) and the establishment of the seven pillars that support the world. It also could refer to the pillars of the temple structure or possibly the support of a large household. Whatever the symbolism, the act is one of intentionality that enables others to provide a place of hospitality in which all can participate in the great banquet. Whether encompassing the entire cosmos or the humble dwelling of one home, wisdom’s hospitality and welcome are a gracious offering to anyone who will partake. The invitation to learn, grow, and walk righteously is given rich meaning when expressed through the metaphor of a feast. To follow wisdom is not some tedious, unpalatable practice like begrudgingly partaking in bland, tasteless food. Instead, we are told that wisdom “has slaughtered her animals, she has mixed her wine, she has also set her table” (Prov :). The extent of the preparations speak of a sumptuous feast that includes the delight of mixed wine. We recall that wine in the ancient world was sometimes mixed with honey, spices, or potent herbs. The significance is that Lady Wisdom goes to great lengths to offer a king’s banquet for those who are simple and lacking in sense (Prov :–). She sends out her female servants to invite the least in society because anyone can choose to come and dine at her table. “Come, eat of my bread and drink of the wine I have mixed. Lay aside immaturity, and live, and walk in the way of insight.” (Prov :–)

The invitation to feast on wisdom’s bread and wine becomes a symbol for growing in maturity, walking uprightly, and living according to insight. It is not insignificant that the metaphor contains carefully prepared wine for the feast. Wine is the addition that alludes to the blessing of God to cheer the heart and ease the toil of humanity. Living according to wisdom is not like the drunken banquets of the gentiles, so often portrayed by the biblical authors. Instead, wisdom is like the good enjoyment of the bounty

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom

given by God from the earth, which is to be celebrated with others around the table. Robert Farrar Capon captures this experience when he writes, With wine at hand, the good man concerns himself, not with getting drunk, but with drinking in all the natural delectabilities of wine: taste, color, bouquet; its manifold graces; the way it complements food and enhances conversation; and its sovereign power to turn evenings into occasions, to lift eating beyond nourishment to conviviality, and to bring the race, for a few hours at least, to that happy state where men are wise and women beautiful, and even one’s children begin to look promising.

Such is the joy, according to Proverbs, of gathering at wisdom’s great feast. The mixed wine of wisdom’s banquet also takes on further meaning when held up against the next passage, which describes the way of Lady Folly (Prov :–). She is the temptress, inviting the simple passersby to forsake the paths of wisdom. Instead of offering a feast, her words invite the listener to ponder the difference between wisdom and folly, between a wise life of maturity and the immaturity of a fool. And she does this also through the metaphor of food and drink. “You who are simple, turn in here!” And to those without sense she says, “Stolen water is sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant.” (Prov :–)

The contrast in metaphors is striking. Rather than a sumptuous feast of meat, bread, and mixed wine, painstakingly prepared and offered in a seven-pillared home to all who might join, Lady Folly merely offers “stolen water” and bread eaten in secret. The poetic juxtaposition highlights the vast disparity between a life in pursuit of wisdom and a life that turns to folly. One conveys the celebratory nature of food, fellowship, wine, and the bonds created through communal feasting that were so critical in the ancient world. Though wisdom is often seen as an individual pursuit, the metaphor reminds us of how becoming wise engenders hospitality and the strengthening of social bonds within communal structures. In antithesis to this is the fool, who does not sit at the great banquet but secretly drinks stolen water and eats bread alone. The derelict, cut off from their community, portrays the tragic outcome of those who choose to veer from the paths of wisdom. Though some commentators remark that the metaphor of the feast prepared by Lady Wisdom is merely a poetic way of teaching that right living is important, they miss how central the metaphor is in expressing

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

what it means to walk on the right path through life. To choose wisdom is to delight in all the things Lady Wisdom has prepared for those who grow in maturity. This is expressed though the joy of the feast and mixed wine. Yet to choose folly and immaturity is like the loneliness, guilt, and isolation of those who steal and eat by themselves. Their destiny is ultimately to join the departed because the guests of Lady Folly “are in the depths of Sheol” (Prov :). Beyond the Lady Wisdom metaphor, Proverbs also includes individual sayings on how a wise person should consume wine. Since biblical wisdom includes perceptiveness, skill, and prudence in how one conducts oneself in the world, it is no wonder that we find instructions on wine, since drinking is a presumed part of Israelite life. Proverbs approaches wine in a characteristically pragmatic way, pointing out its benefits and potential pitfalls. It presents a largely balanced depiction of wine in its proper use or abuse. For Proverbs, wine is a blessing that comes from the fruit of the earth and should be consumed gratefully in moderation rather than in drunkenness or excess. Many of the proverbs offer empirical observations on how people live in the world and then provide instruction for following the path of wisdom. In the opening exhortations of a parent to their son, the child is cautioned not to walk with the evildoers who “eat the bread of wickedness and drink the wine of violence” (Prov :). Here the two symbols of life, bread and wine, are used to describe those who forsake wise instruction. The metaphor poetically portrays the “daily bread” of those who are bent on injustice and wronging their neighbor. They are like those who walk in darkness (:), who speak deviously (:), and who stumble along the path of wickedness. The phrase “wine of violence” alludes to the daily acts of physical and emotional violence that are as commonplace among the wicked as drinking wine. Proverbs : also takes up the theme of wine and violence. “Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler, and whoever is led astray by it is not wise.” The warning issues from simple observations in the world. Watch people when they drink too much, and often brawls will ensue. This, of course, is not always the case, but excessive drinking of wine, or other alcohol, can often lead to violent behavior, and so the proverbs condemn those whose drunkenness leads to the harm of others. Violence is often denounced in Proverbs, whether in speech or action, and the uncontrolled state of drunkenness is seen as having potential for damaging behavior. This is not a negative portrayal of wine itself nor is it a call for abstinence. Instead, it offers a warning to not be “led astray by it.” Similar advice is given in another proverb. “Whoever loves pleasure will suffer want; whoever loves

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom

wine and oil will not be rich” (Prov :). To be led astray by wine is to love it above wisdom. Such is the life of the fool in his folly. We find similar sentiments in the Greek poet Theognis of Megara (sixth century BCE), who writes: “Wine drunk in large quantities is a bane, but if one drinks it wisely, it is not a bane but a blessing. Two demons of drink beset wretched mortals, enfeebling thirst and harsh drunkenness. I’ll steer a middle course between them and you won’t persuade me either not to drink or to drink too much.” Another warning concerning wine can be found in the final chapter of Proverbs, in a set of instructions given by the unknown “King Lemuel” who conveys the teachings of his mother. She urges her son not to be distracted or weakened by women or wine so that he may rule with justice and defend the rights of the poor (cf. Sir :). Once again we find a warning of the possible consequences of drinking too much wine, but here it is not violence that is the concern. Of primary importance is the sober rule of a righteous king who will uphold justice. It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, or for rulers to desire strong drink; or else they will drink and forget what has been decreed, and will pervert the rights of all the afflicted. Give strong drink to one who is perishing, and wine to those in bitter distress; let them drink and forget their poverty, and remember their misery no more. (Prov :–)

What appears to be a call to abstinence by the mother is really an appeal to remain solely focused on the task of administering justice in the kingdom with a clear mind. In this instance, wine is connected to memory, judgment, and clarity of thought. For a king to rule justly he cannot be drunk with wine. Instead, the mother argues, wine and strong drink are for those who need to drown their sorrows and forget the miseries of life. This command offers a taste of sarcasm in the queen’s instruction as she commends to her son upright living rather than being like the fools who drink to forget and numb the pains of life. Fox notes a similar example from Egyptian literature where a father chastises his son for drinking too much and not paying attention to his studies. The father describes the son sprawled out drunk in a whorehouse and writes, “If only you knew that wine is an abomination, you would renounce pomegranate and not set the

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

beer-jug in your heart. You would forget wine.” The motif of the parent giving instruction to the child is common in wisdom literature, and here we find the universal plea of mothers and fathers to children, warning them of the drunkard’s path. A final warning against excessive drinking is laced with comedy, as if the author speaks from his own intimate experience. In what is the most extensive discussion on wine in Proverbs, the sages depict something like a late night of drinking and revelry at the bar and waking the morning after with a hangover and mysterious bumps and bruises. Who has woe? Who has sorrow? Who has strife? Who has complaining? Who has wounds without cause? Who has redness of eyes? Those who linger late over wine, those who keep trying mixed wines. Do not look at wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup and goes down smoothly. At the last it bites like a serpent, and stings like an adder. Your eyes will see strange things, and your mind utter perverse things. You will be like one who lies down in the midst of the sea, like one who lies on the top of a mast. “They struck me,” you will say, “but I was not hurt; they beat me, but I did not feel it. When shall I awake? I will seek another drink.” (Prov :–)

The epigram begins with a series of questions that list a number of conditions that apply to the drunkard. Woe, sorrow, strife, wounds, and red eyes sum up the experience of those who drink in excess. The verses that follow answer the initial questions by describing the plight of those who drink without restraint. The four segments describe a raucous night that extends to the early morning hours. The first begins with the person lingering late into the evening over their wine. The Hebrew text for those who “keep trying” (lahqor) mixed wines conveys the sense of someone inspecting something _ with great intent. The picture is of the wine drinker deep in thought as they gaze into their cup. The world around them is silenced as they focus their

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom

attention solely on the beautiful red liquid swirling around. This leads to the command not to look at wine too intently, because its blood-red color entices as it sparkles in the cup. The use of the Hebrew ʿayin (“eye”) to describe the wine can mean “gleam, sparkle” (cf. Ezek :, , , ), but everywhere else in Scripture it is almost always translated as “eye.” Fox notes the uncommon use of the word and argues that, taken in this rare sense, it creates the pun of the wine’s shining “eye” staring back at the drinker, who is intently inspecting it with their own eye. The more one lingers over the wine and drinks late into the evening, the more smoothly it goes down. Murphy concludes, “Hence, the only safe course is: Do not even look at wine!” Certainly this is good advice for the person who has drunk too much, but it does not capture the full wisdom of the proverb. The problem is not gazing on the beauty of wine but, rather, the intent gaze of the drunkard who cannot resist drinking more. The warning is to those who drink in excess: the more one drinks, the better wine appears and the more easily it goes down. As we shall see in the New Testament event when Jesus changes water into wine, the comment from the wine steward is that everyone brings out the good wine first and then the cheap wine later, knowing that if enough good wine has been drunk, the worse wine will not taste so bad (John :)! The sparkling, smooth, blood red liquid, however, has a bite that “stings like an adder.” The comparison of drunkenness to the experience of being poisoned by a snake is not without warrant since alcohol poisoning is a dangerous side-effect of excessive drinking. The result of the sting is that the person may hallucinate and their heart will utter perverse things. In contrast to the Latin In vino veritas (“In wine there is truth”), Proverbs warns that wine causes a person to speak in “perversities” (tappukot), which could be understood as lies or distorted half-truths (cf. Prov :). The sequence of events poetically describes the experience of the drunkard immersed in consuming wine throughout the night to the point of inebriation. The nautical image that follows sums up the physical experience of the drunk who passes out and lies spinning and reeling as if on the rough seas. The picture is of one who descends to the “heart of the sea,” like a boat sinking deep into the troughs of massive waves. Or it is like the person bound to the rigging of the ship being flung back and forth in the tumultuous waters. Both images creatively relate the bodily experience of drunkenness to seasickness and its result, which often leaves a person vomiting uncontrollably. The last section has the drunkard awake and almost bragging of his being thrashed in his stupor but not feeling anything. The hangover pains,

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

bloodshot eyes, and blurred memory make no difference to the person, who dismisses the night passed and eagerly looks for another drink! This apt and comic description of the drunkard is a warning to those who pursue such a life. The proverbs here, and elsewhere, are clear that drunkenness and excessive wine-bibbing do not lead to wisdom. At the heart of the lesson, however, is not that wine should be avoided or abstained from altogether. What the proverbs teach is that there are things in life, such as wine, that can easily become addictions that control us and lead us from the path of wisdom. Wine, if consumed without moderation, can easily lead to alcoholism, which is a serious and deadly disease. Yet the concern of proverbs is not merely with alcohol addiction. Its concern is with the condition of the human heart and mind and with how one’s character is shaped by wisdom that leads to the fullness of life. As G. K. Chesterton wrote concerning the immoderate drinking of medieval Persian philosopher Omar Khayyam, “It is the drinking of a man who drinks because he is not happy. His is the wine that shuts out the universe, not the wine that reveals it.” Though alcoholism remains a serious addiction throughout the world today, our culture also faces other insidious addictions with the rise in digital technologies. Gaming, online gambling, internet pornography, and social media are all shaping human behavior and how we live and act in the world. Studies on digital addictions continue to emerge and show disconcerting trends in the techniques that big tech companies have used to encourage “user engagement,” which is another term for creating compulsive habits in users. Programmers learned early on that getting notifications and responses from others produces a “dopamine hit” in users. This refers to a hormone released in our brains which is linked to feelings of pleasure as well as motivation and addiction. By tapping into these neurological patterns, programmers are able to develop behaviors in users that are similar to those with substance addictions. The result is that millions of users have undergone behavioral modifications that shape the decisions they make and how they live. Not unlike the addiction to wine described in Proverbs, internet technologies and algorithms are shaping moral and ethical decisions that potentially lead people away from wisdom and character formation and toward unhealthy addictive patterns. In the language of the proverbs, the games, apps, and technologies of today are like Lady Folly, who lures people from the path of self-control, moderation, and the pursuit of wisdom. Some argue that, rather than leading to the right ordering of life through wisdom, technology companies are actually pushing societies further into

Proverbs: Receiving the Gift with Wisdom

chaos. In his book The Chaos Machine, columnist Max Fisher offers a detailed account of the recent trends in online manipulation and behavior modification. In the context of various global violent outbreaks that were linked to Facebook and other social media platforms, Fisher cites an internal presentation at the company which stated, “Our algorithms exploit the human brain’s attraction to divisiveness.” It further described Facebook’s systems as “designed in a way that delivered users ‘more and more divisive content in an effort to gain user attention & increase time on the platform.’” In the summer of  an independent commission confirmed that Facebook’s inability to prevent rampant misinformation could result in the undermining of elections or violent social outbreaks. This was later confirmed in the United States Senate hearings on children and social media, when whistleblower Frances Haugen gave her testimony about her work as a Facebook employee. She commented on the nature of Facebook’s policies and its unwillingness to change its algorithms or management of content and said, “The result has been more division, more harm, more lies, more threats and more combat. In some cases, this dangerous online talk has led to actual violence that harms and even kills people.” Fisher cites the growing body of research around social media and concludes, “This technology exerts such a powerful pull on our psychology and our identity, and is so pervasive in our lives, that it changes how we think, behave, and relate to one another.” The addictions of the contemporary world are no less threatening than how the sages viewed the power of wine to shape a person’s life and influence their choices. Though an ancient text, the book of Proverbs reminds us that the path of wisdom is difficult to pursue because there are forces in the world that are constantly trying to lead us astray. The sages viewed wine as something to be enjoyed, and even compared the delights of wisdom to a banquet with mixed wine. But they also understood that wine could cloud the memory, pervert the will, and distort one’s perception of the world. They saw the folly of the drunkard caught in addictive behavioral patterns, acting like a fool, and waking day after day in search of another drink. Wine has the power to manipulate one’s identity and decisions, not unlike the digital addictions of today that have the potential to shape how one thinks, acts, and responds to the world. The intentional deception within the broader technology industry can create volatile situations where addiction and algorithms have the potential to cause global disorder that results in real social breakdowns Proverbs is aware of humanity’s potential

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

for such addictions and offers a timely warning of moderation that brings to light the more significant issues of character, wisdom, and how one lives the good life while enjoying God’s blessing of wine.

Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry Unlike the book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes is unenthusiastic and not confident that pursuing wisdom will bring fulfillment to human life. Commentators throughout the centuries have seen both positive and negative messages in the book. Some argue for the author’s faith while others claim his agnosticism. The writings are ascribed to Qoheleth (the “Teacher”), who is often understood to be King Solomon, though this is never explicitly stated in the book. Qoheleth is likely a fictional character used by the author to express a particular theological position through a figure like Solomon, who was known for his abundant wealth and wisdom. Some argue that the writer stands firmly within the traditions of the Bible and its understanding of God’s relationship with Israel. Others, however, have noted the book’s resoundingly negative views on life, fate, and God. The skepticism of the author comes through his tireless search for meaning in human existence, and yet he concludes that all things are “vanity” (hebel) or “meaningless” because death awaits every person. The Hebrew word hebel can mean “wind” or “breath” and carries the sense of something fleeting or ephemeral. Within the context of wisdom literature, it might often be translated “absurd” to bring out its full meaning. Though Qoheleth recognizes that God has created and ordered all things (Eccl :–), he witnesses the transient nature of life as human beings live, work, and die just like every other creature on earth, not knowing what will happen after they return to the dust (Eccl :–). Life “under the sun” is seemingly futile because all living creatures face the same end, whether they have lived wisely or not. God may have ordered all things, but he appears distant, unconcerned, or perhaps even malevolent in Qoheleth’s eyes. It is within this philosophical and theological framework that we can begin to understand humanity’s relationship with wine through the lens of Ecclesiastes and its understanding of pleasure. At the outset of the book we find Qoheleth exploring a variety of life’s pleasures in hope of finding meaning and wisdom. Though this is not explicitly stated, the dialogue comes from a wealthy king who has nearly everything at his disposal. The assumed figure is Solomon, whose building projects ( Kgs –) and vineyards ( Chron :) were well known in the

Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry

histories of Israel. It is this king who says, “I searched with my mind how to cheer my body with wine – my mind still guiding me with wisdom – and how to lay hold on folly, until I might see what was good for mortals to do under heaven during the few days of their life” (Eccl :). A more literal translation might read, “I searched with my heart to cheer my flesh with wine, while my heart guided me with wisdom.” Alter describes Qoheleth’s experiment as the “the wildness of orgiastic release” that leads to nothing but temporary satisfaction, while Davis speaks of Solomon’s “heavy drinking.” The Hebrew text, however, offers a more restrained depiction of Qoheleth’s observations. The king, as if heeding the wisdom that wine was given to cheer the gods and humanity (Judg :; Ps :), explores the complexities of wine and how it brings joy to the heart and body. Though he cheers himself with wine, he reminds us that he pursued these pleasures with the guidance of wisdom. Rather than describing wild bacchanalian drinking parties, Qoheleth sets out to determine what sets apart wine and its ability to gladden the heart. It is important to set the king’s observations on wine within the context of the next verse, where he claims, “I made great works; I built houses and planted vineyards for myself” (Eccl :). To speak of great “works” is often a way to describe God’s creation of the heavens and the earth (Eccl :; :; :), but here Qoheleth seemingly places his own building projects on a par with the divine. The “houses” built by the king are likely a reference to his crowning achievement in building his own palace and the temple in Jerusalem. Reminiscent of Eden and God’s original creation, the temple marked the dwelling place of the divine and was the most magnificent building in Jerusalem. Like the tabernacle, which had been constructed and consecrated in the wilderness, the temple represented God’s salvation and divine presence on earth with his people. Despite the long list of Qoheleth’s other achievements (Eccl :–), we note that his building of houses (i.e., the temple and his palace) is paralleled with planting vineyards. This was not simply to increase his wine consumption but, rather, it likely refers to Qoheleth taking up the role of the skilled vintner. If he was guided in all wisdom (Eccl :) while undertaking the planting of vineyards, he would have tested different varieties of grapes, analyzed the soil, and sought out the best terroir to produce choice wines. The king’s quest to understand how wine could cheer the body does not refer to his excessive consumption but, instead, points to his wisdom in testing varieties of soils, vines, and grapes that produced different vintages with their own unique character and taste.

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

We noted previously the diverse range of wine’s characteristics depending on its terroir. These multifaceted qualities are highlighted by English literary critic and historian George Saintsbury. His musings on wine in Notes on a Cellar-Book offer insights into various regional wines throughout France and elsewhere. He describes his experience with some reds and whites when he writes, There is a curious difference between white and red wines, as it seems to me. The last glass of your bottle of good Claret or Burgundy (I mean of the bottle when you drink the whole) is as good as the first. I am not sure that it is not better. But the first glass of the corresponding white wines – be they Château Yquem or Montrachet themselves – is a great deal better than the last . . . At least, that is my experience; and I have found many, though not all, good drinkers disposed to agree with me.

This is only one of many reflections that Saintsbury offers to highlight the vast complexities and pleasures of wine. Qoheleth, in all his wisdom, set about building and planting vineyards in and around Jerusalem as if recreating the delights of God’s first garden. The temple-Eden imagery is paired with the abundance of vineyards and the production of wine. In Solomon’s new age of worship at the Jerusalem temple, wine takes precedence among the gifts of God’s creation as a sign of his presence and salvation among his people. Qoheleth searches for meaning in life through wine, but ultimately his great vintages, his buildings, and all his works leave him empty and he describes his toil as “vanity” and a “chasing after the wind” (Eccl :). We might regard this summary statement as a sign of cynicism or despair, but the king offers some hope in the fact that one can find pleasure in one’s toil (Eccl :). Though all kingdoms, no matter how glorious, will decline and come to an end, Qoheleth reflects on his work, on his vineyards and experience of wine, and realizes that there is goodness in the pleasures one receives through one’s toil. In an ancient Israelite agrarian society, material blessing from the earth was seen as a sign of God’s favor, blessing, and salvation. The problem for Qoheleth is not the experience of pleasure through work, building, acquiring a magnificent wine cellar, and counting them as gifts from God. The issue is that all he receives from his toil can never be permanently secured. What he gains on this earth is “vanity” or “absurd” because all that he acquires will ultimately be left to someone else, as is true for all human beings. A life’s possessions could be given to a wise person, but they also could fall into the hands of a fool, who might quickly squander what

Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry

someone worked tirelessly to acquire. The finality of death makes all things under the sun seem empty, vain, and absurd, but Qoheleth concludes that humans can at least find some pleasure through the rewards of their work and the portion given them by God. This theme is later repeated in Ecclesiastes where Qoheleth exhorts the wise to find pleasure in the daily activities of life because striving to discover God’s meaning in the world is futile. “There is nothing better for mortals than to eat and drink, and find enjoyment in their toil. This also, I saw, is from the hand of God; for apart from him who can eat or who can have enjoyment?” (Eccl :–; cf. :; :; :). The phrase “to eat and drink” is likely a general reference to the daily activities of life, including food production and drinking wine. The references to eating, drinking, and toil allude to the early stories of Genesis and humanity’s relationship with the soil. We recall the cursing of the ground and expulsion from Eden, which were followed by Lamech’s prophecy concerning Noah that he would “bring us relief from our work and from the toil (ʿissabôn) ¯ of our __ hands” (Gen :). The relief from toil came through Noah’s planting the first vineyard and producing the first wine. Qoheleth appears to be appealing to life as God ordained it in the post-diluvian world through Noah. Humans continued to work the ground by the toil of their hands, but they found relief from their toil through wine. Though the Hebrew word for toil (ʿissabôn) ¯ in Genesis differs from the word used in Ecclesiastes __ (ʿamol), ¯ the general sense of anxiety, striving, and exertion is similar. Qoheleth is not making a case for hedonism and the unbridled pursuit of pleasure but, rather, he commends daily work, wine, and enjoyment of the simple things God provides for humanity. Commentators have often argued that Qoheleth’s call to eat, drink wine, and take pleasure in one’s toil is an expression of hopelessness. This pessimistic outlook sees life as nothing more than hard labor under the sun that may be occasionally alleviated by the pleasures of bread, wine, and the produce of the earth. There is, however, a more positive interpretation that may be gleaned from these verses. If the author is reflecting on the early narratives of Genesis, then the grace of God’s salvation through Noah, the restoration of the earth, the establishment of the seasons, and the planting of vineyards are all things to celebrate as gifts “from the hand of God.” Though, admittedly, all of life is ephemeral and passing, humanity also receives pleasures and joys from the earth that allow for families to grow, and for communities to prosper and rejoice in celebrations, festivals, weddings, banquets, and worship, which all come from the hand of the divine. Ellen Davis rightly sums up the perspective of Qoheleth when she argues:

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls The message is not simply “Carpe diem (seize the day),” although this was a popular philosophy in the Hellenistic world, with which Koheleth was doubtless familiar. His own advice is related but more complex: namely, “Accept the gift.” God is the Author of life itself and of every possible enjoyment. Therefore to refuse the pleasure that comes to us is to refuse honor to the God who is Giver of all.

This is how Qoheleth approaches wine: gratefully receive what is given from the fruit of the vine and rejoice in all that the earth yields because it is a gift from the hand of God. When the king later examines the fate of the righteous and the wicked, who will both be destroyed by the grave, he concludes, “Go, eat your bread with enjoyment, and drink your wine with a merry heart; for God has long ago approved what you do” (Eccl :). Once again we do not find an affirmation of hedonism, like that of the Epicureans, but the commendation of the simple daily pleasures in life that come with eating bread and drinking wine with family and friends. Qoheleth recognizes the goodness of God’s grace to humanity that allows for so much joy when wine and food are present. It may be a humble meal or a grand banquet, but there is something powerful in a communal gathering where eating and the drinking of wine bring a “merry heart” and social enjoyment. In his theological explorations of the good life, Miroslav Volf writes, “Joy is best experienced in community. Feasts and celebrations both express and nourish joy. As feasts and celebrations illustrate . . . joyfulness can also be an aura of a social space, whether a household or a larger community, so that when we enter such a space, we enter into joy, and, often, joy enters into us.” This type of joy is what Qoheleth finds meaningful and worthy of pursuit. The author’s final statement, “God has long ago approved what you do,” is not assuming divine consent to absolutely anything we set our minds to but, rather, it refers specifically to working, eating bread, and drinking wine. He reflects on the history of human social behavior from “long ago,” possibly as far back as Noah, and sees the universal joy that all societies have experienced in the pleasure of eating and drinking together. This summary statement emphasizes one of the main themes in Ecclesiastes, which values the pleasures of life because one cannot ultimately find meaning in the face of death. Carol Newsom sums this up when she argues, “The shadow of death that hangs over life in Qoheleth does not, however, mean that happiness in the hedonic sense cannot be experienced. Rather, the certainty of death, like the knowledge of an individual’s inability to control the future, is the precondition for his embrace of a distinctive kind of (hedonic) joy.” The temporary joys of life, though

Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry

fleeting like everything else, are where Qoheleth finds some sense of stability in how humans relate to God, to the earth, and to one another. This is, however, a qualified pursuit of pleasure (hedonism), since Qoheleth understands that contentment can come only through the grateful reception of God’s gifts. He does not promote an unbridled hedonistic lifestyle, but he does recognize that in a transient world seemingly devoid of meaning there are simple gifts to be received and enjoyed as one toils under the sun. The following verses support Qoheleth’s argument and bring out festal themes that point to the joy of family, feasting, and work. Let your garments always be white; do not let oil be lacking on your head. Enjoy life with the wife whom you love, all the days of your vain life that are given you under the sun, because that is your portion in life and in your toil at which you toil under the sun. Whatever your hand finds to do, do with your might; for there is no work or thought or knowledge or wisdom in Sheol, to which you are going. (Eccl :–)

Though the reference to white clothing could relate to one’s moral and ethical purity, it is likely a symbol of festal garments in this context. With the imperative to eat bread and drink wine in the previous verse, and the command to “enjoy life with the wife whom you love” in the following verse, Qoheleth turns to the life cycles of celebration, marriage, and the economy of the ancient household. Seasonal festivals, weddings, births, and work were all among the simple joys in life that were celebrated within the family and community. Qoheleth concludes that the grand projects of seeking pleasure (Eccl :–) end in disillusion, but the smaller, more intimate day-to-day pleasures are where some joy can be found. Though his final thoughts on the destination of Sheol may seem to dampen his conclusions, the reminder that death awaits everyone provides an added incentive to enjoy the gifts of God while one still has breath on earth. In a final statement on wine Qoheleth reflects again on the experience of joy given to humanity through the celebration of those things we receive on earth. “Feasts are made for laughter; wine gladdens life, and money meets every need” (Eccl :). The pithy statements are characteristic of wisdom literature and reflect its empirical observations of the world and its order. In this instance, Qoheleth looks to feasting, wine, and money as elements of life that bring happiness. The final phrase, “money meets every need,” is not to be extracted and seen as a categorical piece of wisdom on its own. This would be inconsistent with the rest of the book. It is more

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

likely a reference to the money needed to create a feast with extensive food and wine. The cost of banquets in the ancient world would have been extremely high, and money was an obvious need if one was to offer such a feast. The approach to wine and drinking in Ecclesiastes is best summed up as accepting the gifts that God provides from the earth, being grateful for the ordinary pleasures of life, and celebrating with feasts and merrymaking while one has time. Such a positive outlook must also be tempered with the other side of Ecclesiastes, which sees the fragility of life as a mere breath in the grand scheme of the cosmos. Human toil can be good, but it is also done in vain (Eccl :–:). Humanity is ultimately ignorant of the future, and whether one pursues wealth or even wisdom, the end result is the same for everyone who shares the common fate of death. Yet even with such a morbid outlook there remains a wise path in how one can live and enjoy the pleasures given by God. In Chapter  we discussed the accelerated society and the consumerism of the contemporary culture that is bent toward growth, new technology, and disposability. The drive toward innovation and what is new has led to a type of restless hedonism in the modern world that seeks to find joy in consumption and in the latest technologies. The global economy is one that emphasizes the individual and the rights of consumers to do as they please, to satisfy their desires, to devour resources, and to destroy the natural world without considering the wider community. It is an economy built on hoarding, scarcity, fear, and financial dominance over others. Even wine can become an economic commodity rather than something that brings joy to families and communities. Qoheleth might have described such an approach to life as “vanity of vanities.” Others, however, have proposed economic models that reflect Qoheleth’s view of experiencing pleasure through work, eating, and drinking while seeking to benefit the family and the wider community. In his book The Economics of Happiness, Mark Anielski makes an argument for what he calls the “Genuine Wealth” model. Genuine wealth is based on the idea that business and economics should be oriented toward the development and wellbeing of humanity and the local environment from which resources are taken. In this model, the aim is for a whole community to experience the “good life,” which is based on meaningful human flourishing through work, family relationships, equitable distribution of wealth, care for the land, recreation, and times of rest. Anielski writes, “In the Genuine Wealth model, each individual first realizes his or her genuine wealth. This realization then extends to the household or family.

Ecclesiastes: Eat, Drink, and Be Merry

From the family the awareness of Genuine Wealth extends to the neighborhood and communities at large.” What Anielski and others propose is an economy of human fulfillment that takes into account how each member contributes to the whole, how physical spaces are used to benefit the whole community, and how financial and natural resources are used for the benefit of all. This stands against what Brueggemann calls an “economy of extraction,” which is relentless in taking wealth from the vulnerable by the powerful. In a neighborly economy, however, an emphasis is placed on people finding dignity and pleasure in daily work, time to care for one’s family and community, and the enjoyment of life’s blessings while taking into account the sustainability of the land and the place where one lives. As Berry comments, “These are by nature local economies, locally adapted, subsisting upon home landscapes and upon local knowledge, skills, tools, the means at hand and underfoot, but also upon forgiveness (of debts and sins) and healing.” Pope Francis also addresses the injustices of economic systems that have had a devastating impact on local communities and the environment. He argues for the dignity of good work and for economies of scale in the agricultural sector that are not driven to destruction by global markets. “Business is a noble vocation, directed to producing wealth and improving our world. It can be a fruitful source of prosperity for the areas in which it operates, especially if it sees the creation of jobs as an essential part of its service to the common good.” He goes on to argue that an integral ecology “is inseparable from the notion of the common good, a central and unifying principle of social ethics . . . Underlying the principle of the common good is respect for the human person as such, endowed with basic and inalienable rights ordered to his or her integral development.” The overall welfare of local communities is dependent on the mutual development of individuals and families to bring about a society where peace and justice allow for the flourishing both of the earth and of human beings. Proposals for economies that shape the common good and take into account our use of environmental resources in the contemporary world remind us of the wisdom of Qoheleth who, through his comments on wine, affirms that God is the giver of good gifts and that they should be enjoyed during our fleeting time on earth. Rather than stripping the land of its resources to support excessive consumption or drunkenness, humanity can celebrate the simple pleasures of food, wine, and fellowship to build up families and communities. The pursuit of this life requires humility because joy comes not merely through one’s own industry or success, but through a willingness to receive what is given by God and to share that with others.

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

The wisdom of wine in the Bible is a reminder that the natural elements which produce the greatest vintages are beyond human control. Though winemaking requires extensive human effort and expertise, the fruit of the vine in all its variety remains a scientific mystery. And yet the sages viewed this gift with pragmatism and practicality. To abuse wine through drunkenness, addiction, or reckless hedonism is the way of the fool, who seeks pleasure through excess but ends up destroying themselves and others. To approach wine with wisdom is to drink with moderation and appreciation, and for the creation of healthy social structures through feasts, banquets, and celebrations. In this respect, wine can be used in a socially positive way that is critical to the bonding and solidarity of families, communities, and societies. The wise consumption of wine also takes into account use of the land and the balance of production to meet one’s needs without destroying, depleting, or squandering creation. A wise and proper approach to drinking wine was important for the sages because it was deeply integrated into the goodness of God’s gifts in everyday life. Like Lady Folly, wine could prove to be a temptress if not handled with wisdom and care. Instead, the sages exhort the wise to walk the right path, to hear the call of Lady Wisdom, and to sit at her banquet table drinking her cup of mixed wine.

The Song of Songs: Ecstasy, Love, and Wine The Song of Songs is, above all, a poem dedicated to the thrill, ecstasy, and delight experienced by a man and woman who are passionately in love. Commentators over the centuries have debated whether the poem should be included in the canon of Scripture in view of the fact that the main subject matter is not God but the romantic and sexual intimacy between two lovers. The book is attributed to Solomon (Song :), but the voices of the two lovers are universal, expressing the delights of their relationship. What is uncommon is the fact that the woman’s voice dominates much of the dialogue (Song :) and significant attention is given to the female body in poetic description. The frequent use of erotic language through images of food and wine draws together the fertility of the earth with the fertility of two lovers. The poem has been interpreted in various ways by Jews and Christians alike, but most often it has been viewed as an allegory of the covenant relationship between God and Israel or, by Christians, as a poem of Christ’s love for the Church. Some have avoided the physical aspects of the song altogether in favor of spiritual allegorization. Christian commentator

The Song of Songs: Ecstasy, Love, and Wine

Theodoret of Cyrus explains, “Now, by ‘kiss’ we understand not the joining of mouths but the communion of pious soul and divine Word.” A similar interpretation comes from early church father Ambrose, who comments on the mention of breasts, “Of his goodness, therefore, he nourishes us with the breasts of the law and grace, soothing our sorrows by telling of heavenly things.” Topics like “law and grace” are much easier to discuss among the pious than women’s breasts! In more recent years, scholarship has proposed new theological interpretations that engage with the poetic and literary aspects of the book along with its erotic language and religious meaning. Attention is given both to the real aspects of human love depicted in the poem and to how this relates, and flows into, a human understanding and experience of divine love. Underlying both the horizontal and vertical loves is a covenant relationship and commitment that expresses the singularity of love and devotion to a lover or to God. Rabbi Akiva sums up the importance of the book in the canon of Scripture when he says, “For the entire age is not so worthy as the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel. For all the scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is holiest of all!” Since the Song is about the union between a man and a woman, we find banquet and wedding imagery woven throughout the poem. With any banquet there would also be wine, and we find this in the woman’s words “He brought me to the banqueting house, and his intention toward me was love” (Song :). The NRSV translates bêt hayyayin ¯ as “banqueting house,” but a more literal rendering would be “house of wine.” Since the term occurs only once in the Old Testament, scholars have proposed various interpretations such as a wedding banquet hall, a ritual banqueting house, or an arbor where the newlywed couple could drink and make love. Others have argued that the phrase simply indicates a tent or house where wine is drunk. The important point is that a special tent was erected for the occasion as a dedicated place where the two lovers could meet, drink wine, and likely make love. The song also employs the image of grapes and wine to describe poetically the beauty of the female body. The male looks on his female lover in chapter  and uses a variety of agrarian images to describe her beauty. The male voice begins, “Your navel is a rounded bowl that never lacks mixed wine” (Song :), which draws images of the psalmist’s cup that overflows (Ps :). The term “mixed wine” (mezeg) is used only here in the scriptures and could refer to spiced wine or wine that has been mixed with herbs or possibly water. The lover goes on with more erotic language, likening the woman’s breasts to clusters of grapes and her kisses to wine.

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls I say I will climb the palm tree and lay hold of its branches. Oh, may your breasts be like clusters of the vine, and the scent of your breath like apples, and your kisses like the best wine that goes down smoothly, gliding over lips and teeth. (Song :–)

The images draw us back to a garden where grapevines were often trained to run up trees. In this Edenic scene the female body becomes the fertile garden bursting with lush fruits. The addition of wine, however, speaks of something brought into the garden created by human hands. Wine is the product of human work, and when well crafted with the choicest grapes, it can become something comparable to the smoothness and delight of a lover’s kiss. Saintsbury speaks of a forty-year-old red Hermitage and describes the delectable and complex taste. “And as to the flavour one might easily go into dithyrambs. Wine-slang talks of the ‘finish’ in such cases, but this was so full and so complicated that it never seemed to come to a finish. You could meditate on it; and it kept up with your meditations.” Like a well-aged wine that grows in depth, smoothness, and complexity over time, so is depth and complexity found within the kiss of a lover. Kisses are compared to wine in the Song, but so too is lovemaking. In the very opening verses the woman proclaims, “Let him kiss me with the kisses of his mouth! For your love is better than wine” (Song :). The translation could also read, “your love making is better than wine” since the Hebrew word, often translated as “beloved” (dôdîm), alludes to the physical union between lovers. The sensual richness of the lover’s words is highly evocative and reveals a scene that elicits passion, touch, smell, and intoxication. The comparison of lovemaking to wine within the metaphoric language of the Song is not surprising. Unlike other foods or drinks, wine draws on several senses that contribute to the experience of its consumption. The texture and color of the wine are first seen as it is poured and then smelled for its unique bouquet, which may elicit anything from dark plums, strawberries, or raspberries to oak, or leather. The taste on the palate further enriches the experience as different aspects of the structure and shape of the wine fill the mouth. The body then feels its soothing effects, the heart becomes merry, and, if too much is consumed, drunkenness can lead to a sense of disorientation. Though the state of

The Song of Songs: Ecstasy, Love, and Wine

inebriation offers parallels with lovemaking and being in love, the poet’s comparison functions at a much deeper level. Wine is a unique drink that excites many of the senses and has a profound effect on the mind and body, just as love does. The lovers of the poem, drawn into sexual union, use this comparison to convey the superiority of their love even to the great elixir of wine. The comparison of lovemaking to wine is raised again as the woman beckons the king to enter the privacy of his chambers. Draw me after you, let us make haste. The king has brought me into his chambers. We will exult and rejoice in you; we will extol your love more than wine; rightly do they love you. (Song :)

The “king” in the poem, though referenced as Solomon, is an abstract figure. He plays the role of the male who is extolled for his goodness and lovemaking. Later in the Song (:), the male lover repeats the same words about his bride. “How sweet is your love, my sister, my bride! how much better is your love than wine, and the fragrance of your oils than any spice!” The comparison once again draws on the senses and fragrances to describe the superiority and beauty of the lover. The parallels between love and wine seen in the Song offer poetic expressions that provide further insights into the biblical understanding of wine. Though lovemaking is better than wine, wine is the standard by which love is measured. No other food or drink in the ancient world provided such sensual pleasure or enjoyment. Only wine could be used when comparing kisses, lovemaking, and the joy of two lovers in their sexual play. Wine is also used in the sexual imagery of the female body. The lover summons the man and calls out, “Let my beloved come to his garden, and eat its choicest fruits” (Song :), which is an invitation to sexual activity. The man responds: I come to my garden, my sister, my bride; I gather my myrrh with my spice, I eat my honeycomb with my honey, I drink my wine with my milk. (Song :)

We note the repetitive use of the possessive that begins with “my garden, my sister, my bride” and then expands to the delights of her body, “my myrrh . . . my spice . . . my wine . . . .” The series of possessives alludes to

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

the fact that the lovers are now completely one; they possess one another and give freely of both their physical and emotional love. Wine here, along with the other delights of the garden, represents the full sexual experience of two bodies together as one (cf. Gen :–). We hear a similar description later as the woman beckons the man to come to her house. I would lead you and bring you into the house of my mother, and into the chamber of the one who bore me. I would give you spiced wine to drink, the juice of my pomegranates. (Song :)

Here the female body is compared to spiced wine and pomegranates. Othmar Keel cites an ancient Egyptian relief that depicts naked concubines of the king feeding him with pomegranates and mandrakes as part of their sexual orgy. He argues that in the Egyptian context, “Even where the serving and drinking of wine is not a full metaphor for intercourse, its erotic connotations are shown in Egyptian art by having it served by an attractive young woman.” In the Song, however, it is at the woman’s invitation that the man may partake of the delights of her body, which are comparable to aromatic spiced wine. The drinking metaphor conveys their erotic love, and here it is enhanced with the addition of spices and the ancient aphrodisiac of pomegranates. The sensual pleasures of lovemaking and wine are central to the poetry of the Song. Sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and touch all contribute to the heightened state of sexual desire, which can be compared only to the complexity and effects of wine. Throughout the centuries it has been commonplace for commentators to describe the Song through allegory, which can avoid the physical aspects of the text. Yet we have seen how cognitive linguistics demonstrates that the key to poetic metaphor is how it is mapped onto our conceptual domain, or the physical realties we experience. It is the physical experience that the Song presents, in all its sensual fullness, that can help to lead to a deeper understanding of the poem if it is also read allegorically as the love between God and Israel or Christ and the Church. If the Song is read as allegory, then wine becomes a central component to the marriage and consummation imagery between humanity and the divine. The highly erotic metaphors and descriptions of the Song employ wine as a key symbol of sexuality and union between two lovers. This

Sirach: Wine Is Life

prized and valued drink is part of life, love, marriage, union, and sex. Whether one’s love is better than wine or one’s lovemaking and kisses are compared to wine, this naturally fermented drink is closely associated with the ecstatic experience of union with the divine. Whether it is God’s union in love with Israel or Christ’s union in love with the Church, wine plays a role in the great wedding imagery of the Bible between human and divine. Within the Christian tradition there is a long history of commentators who have offered symbolic and allegorical insights to the Song, but none so detailed and creative as that of Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux (ca. ). In a series of sermons on the Song, Bernard instructs his brothers through an allegorical reading of the text. He offers theological reflections throughout where he appeals to the life of faith and the life of the Church in relation to its union with Christ. Though only reaching chapter  (in a mere eighty-six sermons!), Bernard produces countless insights drawing from the Song and his love for the whole of the biblical text. As a monk and an experienced vintner, Bernard enlightens his monastic community by looking for deeper insights of faith in the symbols of wine and the vineyard. There can be no question of neglect where the apostles are the branches, the Lord is the vine, and his Father is the vine dresser. Planted in faith, its roots are grounded in love, dug in with the hoe of discipline, fertilized with penitential tears, watered with the words of preachers, and so it abounds with the wine that inspires joy rather than debauchery, wine full of the pleasure that is never licentious.

Working in the vineyards around their abbey in Clairvaux, the Cistercian monks understood all the elements that went into making fine wine. Rather than referring to kisses or lovemaking, Bernard reminds his brothers of wine that is produced from a life of discipline and faith rooted in the vine of Christ. He goes on to say, “This is the wine that gladdens man’s heart, the wine that even the angels drink with gladness.” From ordinary wine to mystical wine that even the angels drink, Bernard sees the Song as a celebration of the physical world that reveals the heavenly realities of the mystical body of Christ.

Sirach: Wine Is Life During the Second Temple period (ca.  BCE– CE), Jewish wisdom writing continued to develop, and some of it was incorporated into what is

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

called the “apocrypha” of the Bible, which consists of books considered to be outside the original canon. The two most significant collections are Sirach (often called Ben Sira or Ecclesiasticus) and the Wisdom of Solomon. These collections of proverbial sayings take their cue from Proverbs and Ecclesiastes while also developing their own insights. Sirach was probably composed around  BCE by a sage in Jerusalem, who offers an apologetic for Judaism and a critique of the dominant Greek culture. The book is ascribed to the wisdom of Ben Sira, but the prologue tells how the sayings were compiled by his grandson, who was committed to writing down the proverbs to profit both Jews and gentiles. Living in a thoroughly Hellenized world where Greek culture and philosophy was widespread, some Jews in Palestine sought to promote wisdom from their own tradition. Ben Sira encourages the faithful Jew to find true wisdom not in Athens, but in the Hebrew scriptures, where Moses and the prophets offer guidance and teaching that can stand up to any Greek philosophy. With the Hellenization of Jewish culture, it is not surprising that Ben Sira has much to say about wine and its consumption. The Greeks had extensive traditions and writings on wine that were deeply embedded in their culture. Their myths around the origins of wine are varied, but some tell of the vine falling from the sky as a gift from the gods. Euripides wrote of the great power of Dionysus (also known as Bacchus), the god of wine, who gave the drink to humanity to cure their sorrows and relieve their suffering. In Euripides’s Bacchae the prophet Tiresias says of Dionysus, he discovered as its counterpart the drink that flows from the grape cluster and introduced it to mortals. It is this that frees trouble-laden mortals from their pain – when they fill themselves with the juice of the vine – this that gives sleep to make one forget the day’s troubles: there is no other treatment for misery. Himself a god, he is poured out in libations to the gods, and so it is because of him that men win blessings from them.

The blessing poured out by Dionysus was the lifeblood of Greek social gatherings and philosophical conversations and, in many cases, was regulated by city-states for its use among citizens. The Greeks also developed their own rituals with wine, especially in the symposion (symposium), a time of drinking that occurred after a meal. Restrictions were set by the master of ceremonies on how much wine could be drunk, the mixture ratios of water to wine, and what music was to be played. Plato argued that the revelatory aspect of wine could be used in the symposion to discover a person’s character, but he also argued that wine must be consumed wisely and in the right amounts for particular ages.

Sirach: Wine Is Life

It is within this Hellenistic culture that Ben Sira offers a distinctly Jewish view on wine, which draws on themes that have been discussed thus far. As in other wisdom sayings, Ben Sira praises the blessing of wine as a gift for living the good life. He compares himself to the first gleaner to follow the grape pickers, who was blessed to gather so much that he was able to fill his winepress (Sir :–). Wine is the symbol of wisdom, and he has worked diligently to gain it so that he may share it with others (Sir :). Wine and wisdom bring about the enjoyment of the good life and make possible the simple pleasures of feasting with family, friends, and neighbors. Ben Sira sums this up poetically when he writes: A ruby seal in a setting of gold is a concert of music at a banquet of wine. A seal of emerald in a rich setting of gold is the melody of music with good wine. (Sir :–)

The images of the ruby and emerald sealed in gold offer a comparison to the surpassing value and joy that comes when music and wine are present together. These verses are set within a broader section on instruction for how to conduct oneself wisely at a banquet. It is possible, in view of the references to music and other practical etiquette, that the instructions refer to behavior at a symposium,  but they may also refer more generally to proper manners at a banquet. The section ends with the words “But above all bless your Maker, who fills you with his good gifts” (Sir :). Ben Sira is clear that one drinks at a banquet not to give thanks to Dionysus or other Greek gods, as was done in the common opening prayer of a symposium, but to praise God, by whom all good gifts are given. In the same set of instructions Ben Sira also warns of how one is to act during the festivities. In an extensive section on wine and social behavior, the sage warns of its dangers and blessings. Do not try to prove your strength by wine-drinking, for wine has destroyed many. As the furnace tests the work of the smith, so wine tests hearts when the insolent quarrel. (Sir :–)

Like the author of Proverbs, Ben Sira warns that wine can lead to brawling and quarrels if not consumed in moderation (cf. Prov :). He draws on images of the drunkard in Proverbs, who discovers his wounds after a night of revelry (Prov :). Too much wine, and the heart will be tested when

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The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

altercations arise. Wine is like a furnace for testing the heart, and Ben Sira warns of its potential to destroy. Such words of caution, however, are tempered by what is one of the most positive statements on wine in the apocryphal writings. Wine is very life to human beings if taken in moderation. What is life to one who is without wine? It has been created to make people happy. (Sir :)

Ben Sira equates wine with life. One without the other would be unthinkable. Wine is such an extraordinary blessing from God that it is weighed in comparison to life itself. What is life without wine, the sage asks, but there is no immediate answer. Instead, he goes on to say that wine has been created to bring happiness, which presumes that life without wine is like life without joy. Since the time of Noah and the restored earth, wine has eased the toil of God’s people for generations. Life without wine for Ben Sira would be like life without music, joy, or celebration. Wine brings happiness to the heart, but this is only when it is consumed in wisdom. After this great paean of praise the author is quick to return to the necessity of appropriate drinking and avoiding the dangers of drunkenness. Wine drunk at the proper time and in moderation is rejoicing of heart and gladness of soul. Wine drunk to excess leads to bitterness of spirit, to quarrels and stumbling. Drunkenness increases the anger of a fool to his own hurt, reducing his strength and adding wounds. Do not reprove your neighbor at a banquet of wine, and do not despise him in his merrymaking; speak no word of reproach to him, and do not distress him by making demands of him. (Sir :–)

Here we turn back to the banquet, or symposium, where the wise person controls their consumption to refrain from useless arguments, quarrels, or anger. We also note the etiquette of how one speaks to one’s neighbor at a banquet. Ben Sira stresses the goodness of merrymaking at the appropriate time and place. To spoil a party with words of reproach or demands would be rude and could threaten a festive atmosphere. There is a time and place for certain conversations, but in the midst of a feast the wise person should hold their tongue, moderate their drinking, and bring joy to the banquet rather than strife.

Sirach: Wine Is Life

Wine is like life for Ben Sira, but there is something that is even better – friendship. “Wine and music gladden the heart, but the love of friends is better than either” (Sir :). In fact, he likens the goodness of friendship to the goodness of aging wine when he writes, “Do not abandon old friends, for new ones cannot equal them. A new friend is like new wine; when it has aged, you can drink it with pleasure” (Sir :). Ben Sira understands the distinctive character that grows in well-aged wines, and he is familiar with the pleasure of tasting a mature vintage. Like the sharp tannins and unsettled tastes that can often come in new wines, so too can a new friend be unpleasant. But as the relationship grows, that friendship softens, smooths over, and, like old wine, brings great pleasure. Though the goodness of wine is often extolled, Ben Sira is always at pains to make his disciples aware of its dangers. Like the author of Proverbs, Ben Sira warns of some practical pitfalls to avoid when pursuing wisdom. Some of these have to do with a young man’s approach to women. He writes, “Never dine with another man’s wife, or revel with her at wine; or your heart may turn aside to her, and in blood you may be plunged into destruction” (Sir :). Wine drunk with the wrong people can have dire consequences, and in this case the warning is against adultery. A man who drinks with another man’s wife is in a dangerous, and potentially perilous, situation which Ben Sira warns against. Later he cautions the young man of being seduced and drawn away from the upright path. “Wine and women lead intelligent men astray, and the man who consorts with prostitutes is reckless” (Sir :). As the parents advise their son in Proverbs, the wise should avoid the siren song of the prostitute and Lady Folly so that they may pursue wisdom (Prov :). The final mention of wine comes in Ben Sira’s tribute to the great high priest Simeon II of the Jerusalem temple. The priest is referred to as Simon son of Onias (ca. – BCE) (Sir :), who is depicted with glowing praise for his rebuilding of the temple and his performance in making the daily sacrifices. The detailed description likely means that Ben Sira regularly attended the temple rituals and was familiar with the offerings. He describes the final act of the ritual when the high priest “held out his hand for the cup and poured a drink offering of the blood of the grape; he poured it out at the foot of the altar, a pleasing odor to the Most High, the king of all” (Sir :). The ritual acts relate to the laws of Leviticus  and Numbers –, where drink offerings of wine are prescribed. The lengthy panegyric devoted to Simeon II may seem out of place in a book of wisdom, but Horsley argues that it was likely that during this period Ben Sira and all the temple scribes were under the patronage of the temple.





The Wisdom of Wine: Pleasures and Pitfalls

The wisdom tradition offers valuable insights into the biblical understanding of wine since it approaches its consumption through the lens of human flourishing and the good life. The wise person understands that wine is a gift from God that brings delight and joy to humanity. Even in the face of death, wine offers one of the simple pleasures of life that can be enjoyed by people in their toil on earth. The Israelite sages also celebrated the delights of wine through erotic poetry. Wine becomes a symbol of sexual intimacy and reflects the love between a man and a woman while potentially alluding to the mystical love shared between God and his people. Wine is also compared to the feast of Lady Wisdom, who prepares her mixed wine for all who will come and drink. The metaphor reminds us that wisdom is like a banquet of the finest wines and that choosing the morally upright path is like drinking at her feast. Ben Sira says wine is like life to those who consume it wisely, because it brings happiness and allows humanity to experience divine blessing and salvation. From the fruit of the vine and the soil of the earth God provides a drink that draws human beings up from the mundane and invites them into the joy and pleasures of his kingdom. Though the sages commend the drinking of wine, they always instruct the wise to follow the path of moderation. They were aware of the perils of addiction, debauchery, drunkenness, and violence that could come from overconsumption and warned that this was the path of folly. Rather than arguing for abstinence or teetotalism, the sages offer a more balanced view. Wine has its dangers, but this does not mean that it should be avoided altogether. Thomas Aquinas summed up this sentiment when he wrote, “Hinc bibere usque ad hilaritatem per se quidem non est illicitum” (“Hence, drinking to the point of hilarity is not in itself illicit”). Here we might translate drinking to the point of hilaritatem as “cheerfulness” or “being merry,” which distinguishes that fine line between the joy wine brings and the point of inebriation that can follow. Aquinas’s wisdom sums up much of the biblical wisdom tradition that celebrates the gift of wine, one which, when used in moderation, is one of the great blessings God bestows upon humanity.

CHAPTER



Wine in Later Jewish Writings

After Babylonian Exile The Second Temple period is generally thought to begin around  BCE with the reconstruction of the temple after exile and ends in  CE with the Roman siege of Jerusalem. This period offered a time of rich literary activity among the Jews after the Babylonian exile. The monarchy that began with David had come to an end, and the temple built by Solomon in Jerusalem had been destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in  BCE. The Jews were taken into captivity in Babylon and lived there until the rise of the Persian emperor Cyrus. He defeated the Babylonians and allowed the Jewish captives to return to their land. Some Jews chose to stay in Babylon, but those who returned to their homeland found a drastically different place from the political kingdom they once knew. People like Ezra and Nehemiah did their best to rebuild what once had been, but the temple was never restored to its former glory and the monarchy under David was not reestablished. Among the few things that remained constant were the vineyards: we are told that the Babylonian armies left some of the poorest in the land to be vinedressers and tillers of the soil ( Kgs :). Worship during this time still revolved around sacrifices at the Jerusalem temple, but we also witness the rise in synagogues. These provided Jews with a local space in which to gather with the community to pray and to study Torah. Synagogues were constructed around Judea and further afield where many from the diaspora had settled. A significant number of the Jews from that period lived outside Jerusalem, which meant that they were unable to offer the prescribed sacrifices at God’s altar. This situation led to a rise in annual pilgrimages to Jerusalem for feasts such as Passover. The literature of this period demonstrates competing opinions about different theological topics and what it meant to live as a faithful Jew. The 

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Wine in Later Jewish Writings

physical fragmentation of the Jewish diaspora was also reflected theologically in the differences that existed between smaller groups and sects. Jews of this period were concerned with religious topics that receive little treatment in the Scriptures, such as the resurrection of the dead or whether the festival year should follow a solar or lunar calendar. They looked forward to the advent of a messiah, or someone who would bring about the restoration of God’s kingdom. We find an increased fascination with the angelic world, demons, evil spirits, and the fall of Satan and his angels from heaven. There is also an increased anticipation of the eschatological kingdom being made present on earth. Many authors of the Second Temple period looked forward to God’s final victory and restoration of his people, which was often expressed through the imagery of new vineyards and an abundance of wine.

Enoch, Jubilees, and the Eschatological Kingdom Scholars have classified some of the writings from the Second Temple period under the heading of “pseudepigrapha,” or “false name,” because the authorship of these works is generally unknown. During this period it was common for scribes to attribute a text falsely to a figure from the biblical past such as Enoch or Abraham. This was not intended to deceive their audiences but, rather, was a style of writing and storytelling that allowed the authors to explore theological themes through the voices of biblical characters. In this way, the writers could use the biblical text as a basis to expand on issues of faith, ritual practice, or doctrines without compromising or changing what were considered the canonical scriptures. One of the most important of these books is  Enoch, which is a series of revelations concerning the origins of creation, the angelic beings, and the final judgment. The book is a compilation of several stories, or books, that were brought together to form a continuous narrative. It is often called “apocalyptic” because it offers a heavenly vision that reveals insights beyond the earthly realms. The genre became an important form of literature for conveying both past and future mysteries. The central figure, Enoch, is based on the mysterious character of Genesis :–, who is said to have “walked with God; then he was no more, because God took him.” The book was compiled over several centuries during the Second Temple period and offers insights into the theology and future expectations of the Jews in the late Persian and Hellenistic period. The major themes of the book are told through Enoch’s journey into the heavenly realms, where he witnesses the fall of Satan and his angels and the

Enoch, Jubilees, and the Eschatological Kingdom

corruption of humanity. The advent of evil in the world, however, will not last for ever, since God’s final judgment and redemption will come. In the light of this eschatological judgment, Enoch has a vision of the earth being renewed and returning to its fullest state of fertility. After the fallen angels have been destroyed by the heavenly host, a new plant of righteousness will be planted in the earth that will bring forth truth and joy ( En. :). The author then describes what this renewal will look like. And in those days the whole earth will be worked in righteousness, all of her planted with trees, and will find blessing. And they shall plant pleasant trees upon her – vines. And he who plants a vine upon her will produce wine for plenitude. And every seed that is sown on her, one measure will yield a thousand (measures) and one measure of olives will yield ten measures of presses of oil. ( En. :–)

The description of the earth being “worked in righteousness” alludes to Noah, who walked with God and became a man of the soil after the flood. The fertility of the earth and the planting of the vine in connection with righteousness and blessing are part of the post-diluvial story, but they also reflect the broader biblical understanding of the connection between human morality and the soil. Enoch sees a new earth that will be cared for by those who, like Noah, are upright and live in harmony with both the land and their neighbor. The result of such a relationship is God’s provision of an abundance of grapes that yield wine beyond measure. Nickelsburg translates verse  as “They will plant vines on it, and every vine that will be planted on it will yield a thousand jugs of wine.” He estimates that a jug of wine used for pouring ranged from . to . liters, which means that each vine would provide a yield of , to , liters (– gallons) of wine or the equivalent of , to , bottles! Enoch has a similar vision later when he sees that “all the fruits of the earth are gathered in, and all that is in the fields as well as the winepress” ( En. :). The good fruits of the earth and the grapes of the harvest that are ready to be trodden are yet another sign of God’s future blessing when he returns to his people to destroy the forces of darkness and evil. Another text that looks back to God’s blessing and abundance of wine is the book of Jubilees. Unlike  Enoch, Jubilees is a retelling of the book of Genesis and part of Exodus that scholars sometimes classify as “rewritten Bible.” The narrative follows the biblical text but also includes extrabiblical interpretation and events. It was likely written around  BCE and offers insights into the theology of the authors and some of the





Wine in Later Jewish Writings

challenges faced by Jews living in Palestine around the time of the Maccabean revolt ( BCE). Jubilees retells the flood story and describes what happened when the waters abated and the ark came to rest on the mountain. Noah’s first task as he departs the ark is to build an altar and to offer sacrifices of atonement for the land (Jub. :; Gen :). In Genesis, we are told that Noah offers a “burnt offering” to the LORD, but Jubilees gives further detail of the specific animals (a calf, a kid, a goat, a lamb, a turtledove, and a young dove) and how Noah presents his sacrifice. “And he sprinkled wine, and placed frankincense upon everything. And he offered up a sweet aroma which was pleasing before the LORD” (Jub. :). What is of interest is the fact that Noah already had wine to offer before he planted the first vineyard. It is likely that the author is alluding to the rabbinic tradition that there was a river running through Eden which flowed with wine. The text goes on to describe what happens later when Noah and his family leave the ark to establish life on earth once again. And in the seventh week in the first year in that jubilee, Noah planted a vine on the mountain on which the ark rested, whose name is Lubar, (one) of the mountains of Ararat. And it produced fruit in the fourth year, and he guarded its fruit; and he picked it in that year in the seventh month, and he made wine from it, and he put it in a vessel, and he guarded it until the fifth year, until the first day on the first of the first month. And on that day he made a feast with rejoicing . . . And after that, he sprinkled wine in the fire which he had placed upon the altar. And he presented frankincense upon the altar, and offered up a sweet odor which is pleasing before the LORD his God, and rejoiced. And he drank some of that wine, he and his sons, with rejoicing. (Jub. :–, –)

In Noah’s second sacrifice we find more detail of how the wine was produced in the fourth year after the planting. The timing here allows for the normal period of time until a new vine would produce grapes for wine. Noah guards his fruit, presumably from the wild animals, and then ferments it in a vessel before opening it in the fifth year. Once again he sprinkles some of the wine on the altar for the sacrifice, but now he also drinks the wine with his sons, and they rejoice. The scene depicts the first feast after the flood, where Noah and his family rejoice in the promised wine that eases the toil and gladdens the heart. The author of Jubilees presents a scene of new beginnings with wine that brings joy to humanity and pleases God so much that he too rejoices at the sweet odor rising to heaven from the gifts of the renewed earth.

Enoch, Jubilees, and the Eschatological Kingdom

Following Noah’s sacrifice, the command is given by God that all generations should bring an offering of their first fruits. “And let one offer up the first fruits which are acceptable before the LORD Most High, who made heaven and earth and everything, so that they might offer up in the juice the first of the wine and the oil as first fruits upon the altar of the LORD, who will accept it” (Jub. :). The command to bring the first fruits as an offering to the LORD comes later in the biblical text (Lev :–). The author of Jubilees, however, associates the command with the first fruits produced after the flood and alludes to the connection between human morality, sacrifice, and the fecundity of the earth. God promises Noah that if he is obedient to him, “you will be righteous and all your plants will be upright” (Jub. :). The righteousness of the people will cause all fruit-bearing vines, trees, and plants to grow in health and abundance. The final image of wine used in Jubilees relates to the ritual festival of Passover celebrated annually by the Jews. Earlier forms of the Passover meal likely included wine, but Jubilees is the first text to mention it as part the feast. Recalling the first Passover in Egypt, the author writes about the plague that came upon the Egyptians while the Israelites were protected by the blood of the paschal lamb placed on their doorposts. “And all of Israel remained eating the flesh of the Passover and drinking wine and praising and blessing and glorifying the LORD the God of their fathers” (Jub. :). The addition of wine is likely not historical, since wine in Egypt would have been reserved for Egyptians and not for slaves. The author of Jubilees, however, includes the addition since wine was a critical part of the Passover meal later in Jewish tradition. Its symbolism offered a reminder of God’s blessing and anticipated the celebration of his coming kingdom and salvation in the promised land. The book of Jubilees reflects on the history of wine in Genesis and Exodus but offers its own interpretation of the biblical text. Wine existed before the flood, which allowed Noah to offer it as a pleasing sacrifice to God after the waters receded. Noah’s vineyard brought forth the first vintage from the renewed soil, planted in righteousness, allowing for the first harvest after the flood. The offerings of the first fruits at God’s altar were commanded as a sign of praise and thanksgiving with the promise that the earth and its fertility would continue if the people walked in righteousness. The signs of God’s grace and mercy on his people were then associated with the first Passover meal in Egypt. Since wine would likely not have been available to the Hebrew slaves, its importance to the memory and celebration of Passover as a sign of Israel’s salvation called for its inclusion.





Wine in Later Jewish Writings

 Baruch and  Ezra Other Jewish writings that were composed under pseudonyms were  Baruch and  Ezra. Baruch was a scribe of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer :), and Ezra was a priest and a scribe who returned from Babylon with the exiles to rebuild Jerusalem and taught the people obedience to the Torah. Though the dating is difficult, it seems likely that both books were written after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in  CE, which followed the Jewish revolt against the Romans in  CE. They are similar works in that they both reflect on the tragic loss of the temple and the great massacre of the Jewish people. Probing the depths of how and why God would let his temple be destroyed by the Romans, the books also look forward to a time of restoration when God would come again to redeem his people and bring them his salvation. The apocalypse of  Baruch offers a vision of the future hope of God’s salvation, and it includes the provision of wine. Before the restoration, however,  Baruch begins with lamentation over the loss of the temple during the days of Jeremiah. The author mourns the coming destruction of Jerusalem and writes, “You, farmers, sow not again. And you, O earth, why do you give the fruit of your harvest? Keep within you the sweetness of your sustenance. And you, vine, why do you still give your wine? For an offering will not be given again from you in Zion, and the first fruits will not again be offered” ( Bar. :–). The author reflects on the judgment of God and questions the normal harvests and seasons in the light of such tragedy. Why grow vines and produce wine when the temple is in ruins and God’s people have been destroyed? The despair of the author is articulated through agricultural images, as he sees little reason for the earth to produce anything in a time of such great tribulation. The lament, however, turns to praise and the hope of God’s return. Baruch has three visions about the coming apocalypse (:–:; :–:; :–:) as he looks forward to what God will do in the future. The visions announce the coming of the Anointed One (Messiah), who will bring about a time of abundance. What is important to note is that, like the biblical authors,  Baruch associates the time of salvation with a time of increased fertility in the land. The true sign of the Messiah is that Israel will be restored to a land that produces in abundance. It will be a time when “The earth will also yield fruits ten thousandfold. And on one vine will be a thousand branches, and one branch will produce a thousand clusters, and one cluster will produce a thousand grapes, and one grape will produce a cor of wine” ( Bar. :–). A cor of wine was

 Baruch and  Ezra

equal to  liters ( gallons), which gives an idea of how fruitful a grape could be in the Messianic age! The vision of extravagant abundance of grapes and wine is also accompanied by manna that would fall again from heaven ( Bar. :). These signs anticipate the appearance of the Anointed One who would come in glory ( Bar. :–). The vision of the fertility of the earth draws on themes already seen in the biblical text, but here the apocalypse of  Baruch looks forward the coming of a messianic figure who will bring about these gifts. In  Ezra we find similar apocalyptic visions, but the inclusion of grapes and wine is used to describe the remnant that will be saved. As Ezra speaks to the LORD in a vision about the things to come, he is told about the fate of Israel and the fate of the wicked. “And I saw and spared some with great difficulty, and saved for myself one grape out of a cluster, and one plant out of a great forest. So let the multitude perish which has been born in vain, but let my grape and my plant be saved, because with much labor I have perfected them” ( Ezra :–). Israel has previously been referred to as the LORD’s one chosen vine ( Ezra :), and here the righteous who will be saved are compared to a single grape out of the cluster. The author draws on the scriptural imagery of the vine as well as God’s judgment upon Israel by using the analogy of a cluster of grapes. We recall the prophet Isaiah, who quotes a popular saying to demonstrate God’s mercy in not destroying all his people. “Thus says the LORD: As the wine is found in the cluster, and they say, ‘Do not destroy it, for there is a blessing in it,’ so I will do for my servants’ sake, and not destroy them all” (Isa :). The prophet sees at least part of the cluster being spared, but Ezra is less optimistic and sees only a single grape that is worthy of being spared. Before a further vision is revealed to Ezra, he is told to go out to the fields and to “eat only of the flowers of the field, and taste no meat and drink no wine” ( Ezra :–). Abstinence is commanded when he goes to pray before further revelations are given. Ezra then sees a time when a “son of man” figure will come to redeem Zion from its enemies. The Anointed One finds parallels with the visions of Daniel, but Ezra looks to a time when God will save the righteous from the ends of the earth and reestablish his holy city. The apocalyptic visions of  Baruch and  Ezra take up two motifs present in the biblical texts but are framed within the coming of a messianic figure. Whether it is the abundant fertility of God’s kingdom demonstrated through copious amounts of wine, or grapes that are spared from being destroyed, both books use the image of vine, grape, and wine to form an eschatology of God’s coming kingdom.

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

Wine in Later Jewish Writings

Wine at Qumran One of the greatest biblical discoveries in the past century was the unearthing of the Dead Sea Scrolls. In , as the story goes, a shepherd boy discovered a vast corpus of scrolls in the caves of Qumran, near the edge of the Dead Sea. They had been stored there by a sectarian group that was likely made up of Pharisees and other devout Jews, often called the Essenes, who had distanced themselves from the Hellenization of society. They believed that the Jerusalem temple had been defiled and that the true path to righteousness was given by their founder, the Righteous Teacher, who established their monastic-like community in the caves near the Dead Sea. There they would live studying the scriptures and committing themselves to purity rituals and teachings as they anticipated God’s return to destroy the wicked and reestablish his temple. The scrolls and fragments from Qumran cover a wide range of texts. Many are the earliest copies of biblical books that we have today. There are also apocryphal works, rules for communal living, and guidance on sacrifices and purity rites. Among these documents are various references to wine. Some of them are based on the scriptures and also offer commentary or interpretation. Others relate to life within the community and the rules that governed how they lived together. Still others list the appropriate amounts of wine for offerings in worship. The collection provides insights into the life and religious beliefs of this Jewish sectarian group and, in particular, its use of wine. One important document to emerge from the collection is called the Rule of the Community (QS). This scroll offers a set of instructions that were foundational to the daily life of those in Qumran. One of the rules includes the conduct and practices at the gathering of the general assembly. When ten men of the community council gathered together to eat, the occasion was marked by the blessing of the bread and wine by the priest. The instructions dictate that: The men shall sit before the priest by rank, and in that manner their opinions will be sought on any matter. When the table has been set for eating or the new wine readied for drinking, it is the priest who shall stretch out his hand first, blessing the first portion of the bread [or the new wine readied for drinking, it is the priest who shall stretch out his hand first, blessing the first portion of the bread] and the new wine. (QS :–).

The directives indicate the role of the priest in blessing the wine before the meal and discussions took place. The reference to wine at the meeting

Wine at Qumran

indicates that the Essenes did not deprive themselves of God’s blessing despite living in caves near the Dead Sea. At the convening of a general assembly the wine blessed by the priest demonstrates its importance within the scope of the community’s faith. Wine was a gift from God, and the priest had the authority to sanctify it for use within the community on certain social occasions. A scroll similar to the Rule of the Community is the Rule of the Congregation (QSa), which also offers instructions for gathering around the table but includes the Messiah as well as the elders. In a similar type of general assembly, the text provides rules for the gathering. The procession into the room is led by the Messiah, who is followed by the priests and then the other men of authority (QSa :–). The text is more fragmented but reads, [When] they gather [at the] communal [tab]le, [having set out bread and w]ine so the communal table is set [for eating] and [the] wine (poured) for drinking, none [may re]ach for the first portion of the bread or [the wine] before the Priest. For [he] shall [bl]ess the first portion of the bread and the wine, [reac]hing for the bread first. Afterw[ard] the Messiah of Israel [shall re]ach for the bread. (QSa :–)

The inclusion of the Messiah with the general assembly looks forward to a figure anointed by God who will come to the people who have set themselves apart in righteousness. The banquet alludes to the messianic banquet, where wine will be consumed in the presence of God’s anointed. One of the most significant discoveries at Qumran was the Temple Scroll (QT), which looks forward to a messianic age and the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple by the Qumran sect. The community of Jews in the Judean wilderness believed that the temple built by Herod was illegitimate, and so they looked forward to a time when they would be restored to Jerusalem to reconstruct God’s true home. The text offers a detailed blueprint for how the temple should be built and the feasts and festivals that should be celebrated there. We might expect the same set of festivals that were given to Moses (Lev ; Num –), but the Essene calendar offered innovations and rituals not found in Scripture. Unlike the Pharisees and Sadducees of Jerusalem, the members of the Qumran sect followed their own solar calendar, which totaled  days. They began the new year with the consecration of priests, which was followed by a series of harvest celebrations. The first fruits of barley and wheat follow the biblical mandate for offerings (Lev ), but with different timings. Rather than



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Wine in Later Jewish Writings

following the command to wait fifty days between the barley and wheat harvests according to the lunar calendar (Lev :–), the Qumran sectarians created their own solar calendar, which remained the same every year. Following the wheat harvest in March and the celebration of the first fruits (Pentecost), the sectarians instituted other major feasts that are not found in Scripture. At the beginning of May (seven weeks after Pentecost) they established a Festival of New Wine. The Temple Scroll provides few details concerning the meaning or reason for the festival, but it does offer some instructions for how the priests and the people should celebrate. They are to bring into the temple an offering of wine for the tribes of Israel. “Then they shall eat them in the outer [court] before the LORD, and [the pries]ts shall drink some of the new wine. They shall drink there first, then the Levites second, [and after them all the children of Is]rael: the commanders of divisions in first position.” After the priests and others have partaken in the wine, all the people join in the festivities. Then the whole people, gre[at] and small, may begin to drink the new wine and to eat grapes from the vines, whether ripe or unripe, for [on] this [da]y they will make atonement for the wine. So the children of Israel are to rejoice bef[ore] the LORD, “this being an eternal [statute,] generation after generation,” wherever they may dwell. They shall rejoice this d[ay] in the festival of [new wine] to pour out a fermented drink offering, new wine upon the altar of the LORD, an annual rite.

The innovations and additions incorporated in the New Wine festival (and after another seven weeks the New Oil festival) are not without scriptural warrant, as the Israelites were commanded to bring all their first fruits from the land, including the “best of the oil and the best of the wine” (Num :–; cf. Deut :), to support the priests working in the temple. The sectarians extended the idea of dedicating agricultural produce that was given by God, and offered in the temple, to the celebration of wine. Since wine was used for libations at the altar, and is often prescribed throughout the Qumran instructions, it was fitting for this community to reimagine what the new temple might be like and how offerings there would honor the LORD. The wine was “purified” (literally “atoned for,” Hebrew k-p-r) and made ready for its use on God’s holy altar. It is also possible that the Qumran sect was resurrecting ancient festivals that had been discontinued. Jacob Milgrom contends that “We know of wine festivals in the ancient Near East . . . The Canaanite wine festivals were probably of such a licentious nature that they were suppressed in the Bible,

Wine at Qumran

only to surface a millennium later in the Temple Scroll.” Though the festival described in the Temple Scroll does not promote bacchanalian excess, there is a sense of joy that comes through the command for the whole congregation to eat some grapes (which would have been sour at the beginning of May), drink some wine, and celebrate the gifts of the harvest. In other Qumran scrolls we also find works of “rewritten Bible” where the stories of canonical books are retold and embellished with their own insights. The Genesis Apocryphon (QapGen) scroll was influenced by the books of Jubilees and  Enoch but also contains other variations, especially on the Noah story and the first production of wine. The text is written primarily through the voices of Lamech, Noah, and Abram, offering descriptions that parallel, and go beyond, the Genesis account. We recall that the very first vineyard and wine are attributed to Noah (Gen :), but the Qumran narrative offers further insights into the story through Noah’s testimony. Then I began to cultivate the earth together with all my sons. I planted a large vineyard on Mount Lubar; when four years had passed, it produced wine for me [. . .] all. And when the first festival [came], on the first day of that festival, which is in the [first] month, [. . .] that belonged to my vineyard. I opened this vessel and began to drink it on the first day of the fifth year since planting. [. . .] On this day, I invited my sons, grandsons and all of our wives and daughters, and we gathered together, and we went [to the place of the altar.] And I was blessing the Lord of Heaven, God Most High, the Great Holy One, for he rescued us from destruction. (QapGen :–)

The account is similar to that of Jubilees, with Noah planting a vineyard and harvesting in the fourth year to produce wine that was consumed in the fifth year. Once again the scene depicted is one of great joy and feasting provided by Noah for his whole family, followed by an offering to God. Another important collection of fragments among those found in Qumran is called the Damascus Rule (CD). The text contains both laws and rules that relate to the community. It traces the history of Israel’s disobedience in the past, before exile, and argues that the former covenant has ended but God has offered a new way of salvation. The new covenant has been revealed through their community by the Teacher of the Law, who has made known the proper way of righteousness through sabbath obedience, festivals, and following the appropriate calendar (CD :). The document offers an invitation for all of Israel to join the true “remnant” within the Qumran community before God’s final judgment comes.

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Wine in Later Jewish Writings

In the third section of the document there are warnings of the coming judgment upon the wicked. Offering an extended reproach of the sins of Israel and Judah in the past, the authors highlight their fornication, hatred, indecency, and pride. The text goes on to say, “Their wine is venom of snakes, the cruel poison of vipers. ‘The snakes’ are the kings of the Gentiles, and ‘their wine’ is their customs and ‘the poison of vipers’ is the chief of the kings of Greece who comes to wreak vengeance on them” (CD :–; cf. :–). The authors quote from Deuteronomy :, where Moses highlights Israel’s disobedience along with the wickedness of gentile nations who produce poisoned vines and grapes. The venomous wine is interpreted by the Essenes as the Hellenistic culture in which they live, and the “poison of the viper” is the head of the kings of Greece. The Essenes use Moses’s metaphor of wine as venom and apply it to their own context, where Greek influence was dominant throughout Palestine. In order for the community to be pure and part of the righteous remnant, the Damascus Rule condemns the Hellenistic culture and calls for complete separation from the venom of the gentiles. The literature from Qumran demonstrates a Jewish sectarian desire to engage with the traditions of Scripture while also promoting the sectarians’ own interpretations and practices. Their use of wine as a community offers insights into their daily life but also anticipates the coming of Messiah. The Essenes were willing to innovate with new rituals and create new festivals according to biblical patterns such as the feast of New Wine. Their cultic practices also included offerings of wine at the altar as they continued to follow biblical commands. Wine remained an important part of life and worship for a people who considered themselves a righteous “remnant.” Their writings offer us a rare glimpse into a Jewish sectarian worldview from the Second Temple period which reveals an important relationship with wine both practically and theologically. The biblical tradition of wine as a gift of God remained true for the Essenes, who used it in community and worship as they looked forward to an eschatological kingdom where wine will be consumed with Messiah.

The Mishna and the Rabbis Along with the Dead Sea Scrolls there are also collections of other rabbinic writings from the Second Temple period. Though not technically considered a part of Second Temple literature, the Mishna is a comprehensive collection of legal material which presents the rabbinic law (halakha) on a variety of subjects. The body of literature spans the years from the Second

The Mishna and the Rabbis

Temple period into the late second or early third century CE and forms what is often called the “Oral Torah” or the spoken legal interpretation of Scripture that is to be followed by the Jews. The laws offer guidance on anything from sabbath restrictions to when one should bless the wine before a meal. Though the text has been redacted over the centuries, there is likely a core of material that dates to the Second Temple period and gives us an insight into the use of wine at home and in the temple. The Mishna is divided up into tractates, or sections, that cover a variety of aspects of how to live in obedience to the law. In tractate Menahot the _ rabbis debate questions concerning the grain, oil, and wine offerings that are brought to the temple. Much of the discussion is about what might nullify an offering’s validity. This can include anything from the vessel it is carried in to how it is poured out at the altar or even how it is prepared before being offered. In the case of wine, the rabbis were concerned that what is offered at God’s altar should be undefiled and worthy of a holy sacrifice. In one debate, a question is raised about where the wine offered at the temple is produced. The rabbis comment that the greatest wines once came from “Keduhim and Attulin,” which possibly describe particular _ regions to the north of Jerusalem; these place names are unknown today. The rabbis also mention secondary wines that were produced in Beit Rima and Beit Lavan. These two locations were likely to the north near Samaria, which was an area of significant wine production. The village of “Signa,” which was located somewhere in a valley in the region of Judea, is also mentioned for a secondary wine. These were the places from which most of the temple wine for libations came, but the rabbis concluded that wine from different areas was also valid for offerings. There were, however, certain restrictions on how the grapes could be grown and what types of vineyard could be used for winemaking. The rabbis stipulated that wine should not come from vineyards that were fertilized with manure, were irrigated, or had different seeds sown between the vines (cf. Lev :). The vines were also not to be suspended from trees but should be staked low to the ground, which the rabbis considered a superior form of trellising. Yet even if someone brought wine from these prohibited types of vineyards, it would still be considered valid. Another insight we gain from the rabbis is how the wine was judged when it was brought to the Jerusalem temple for an offering. The quality of the wine was significant because it was being offered at the most holy site, so the priests would inspect the wine before it was accepted. The rabbis dictated that the wine should be stored in small amphorae rather than large

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Wine in Later Jewish Writings

casks and that the containers should not be filled to the brim, so that the wine could breathe and develop its fragrance. When an amphora was opened in the presence of the priest, he was not to take from the residue that lay on the surface of the wine, nor should he take from the dregs, or lees, which lay on the bottom. Rather, the libation should be taken from the middle, which was measured by the treasurer of the temple who inspected the wine. When he was satisfied that the wine was good, he tapped the container with a reed and it was sealed up for later use. At the end of the instructions concerning wine offerings, the rabbis quote Moses’s command that sacrifices of meal offerings, flour, oil, and wine shall all be unblemished (Num :–, ). Outside of temple sacrifice, the rabbis also enjoyed wine in the home. This is apparent from the different discussions on how and when someone should bless the wine at meals. In the first tractate of the Mishnah called Berakot, we find instructions for prayers of blessing that the Jews were to recite daily. At mealtimes a person was to recite the blessing over the wine, sayings, “Blessed are you, O Lord our God, King of the Universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.” If the prayer was said at the beginning of the meal, then there was no need to pray another blessing for wine consumed after the meal. If, however, people were sitting down to eat with others but not having an intentionally corporate meal, then each individual should recite the prayer themselves. Not unlike the Greeks around them, the rabbis mixed water into their wine. This practice was common in the Hellenistic world, where wine was often diluted to reduce its potency. Other debates concerning wine emerged from the two great houses of rabbis: Shammai and Hillel. For the prayer of blessing over the wine, the house of Shammai argues that “One recites the blessing over the day then one recites the blessing over the wine.” But the house of Hillel says, “One recites the blessing over the wine and then one recites the blessing over the day.” In a similar fashion, Shammai argues that one should wash one’s hands before mixing the wine to preserve ritual purity, but Hillel says that one should mix the cup and then wash one’s hands. Shammai also says that if wine comes after the meal, then one should bless the wine and then say grace for the food, but Hillel says that one should say grace and then bless the wine. The debates about table manners and wine were not pedantic disputes between the rabbis but, rather, they offer an insight into the daily lives of faithful Jews in the Second Temple period and beyond. The disputes about when and how to say grace or a blessing over the wine show that giving thanks to God was an important daily discipline in the life of the faithful. To love God with heart, soul, and strength (Deut :) meant that they

The Mishna and the Rabbis

should gather around the table daily and offer blessings over the gift of wine. It was appropriate to give thanks to the God whose salvation was made visible and tangible through the delight of sitting at table with friends and family, eating and drinking wine. Stipulations concerning wine at the Passover meal were also given by the rabbis. The Passover ritual celebrated God’s deliverance of the Hebrew slaves from Egypt after he brought the final plague, the killing of the firstborn, upon the Egyptians. It is a ritual that continues to be celebrated today by many modern Jews. The meal centered on the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, whose blood was placed on the doorposts so that the Israelites would be protected from the plague (Exod :–). The salvific event was commemorated in a meal to be celebrated annually within the family, but later, under King Josiah, the feast was moved to Jerusalem ( Kgs :–). The rabbis were concerned that all Jews, rich and poor, should be able to celebrate the Passover and gave instructions to provide for those in need, who would each be given a minimum of four cups of wine to enable them to participate. The meal itself began with the pouring of the first cup of wine, over which was said the blessing (called the kiddush). Shammai says that the blessing for the day and its sanctification comes first, and then one prays the blessing over the wine. Hillel, of course, says one should bless the wine first and then recite the blessing over the day. God, who creates the fruit of the vine, is also the one who gives salvation and freedom to his people. Wine is a physical symbol and a reminder of his covenant promises to release his people from slavery and to plant them in a land of abundance. In the Passover meal, wine is a taste of salvation and excites the senses in anticipation of the coming of God’s kingdom on earth. After the second cup of wine is poured, the ritual turns to pedagogy and the explanation of the Passover meal. The son asks the father why this particular night is unlike every other, to which the father responds by explaining the ritual of eating the paschal lamb, matzah, and bitter herbs. Following the explanation, the third cup of wine is poured, and after another blessing, the fourth cup is poured, at which point the hallel (Pss –) is sung and a blessing is said over the wine. The rabbis stipulate that during the drinking of the first three cups, people may drink more wine if they please while they eat their meal. However, no one should drink between the third cup and the fourth cup. It is possible that this rule was given so that people would not get too drunk to finish the final prayers. There is debate about whether the ritual instructions for the Passover seder in the Mishna were developed after the Second Temple period. The

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Wine in Later Jewish Writings

liturgy may have been modeled after the Greco-Roman symposium, which included reclining at the table and drinking wine. Despite the lack of clarity about when the form of the seder came into being, it is likely that the Mishna captures an early tradition of celebrating the Passover meal with wine, matzah, and bitter herbs. Central to the meal was the symbol of wine. The blood of the grape offered a visual reminder of the blood of the lamb on the doorpost, which spared the Israelites from God’s judgment. Wine was also a reminder of the land and of the blessing promised to the patriarchs, which would be fulfilled in the future salvation that God would bring to his people. The rabbinic debates concerning proper adherence to the law and the use of wine may seem like very minor disputes to the contemporary reader. Why argue over things like when one should pray a prayer of blessing at a meal, or how wine is made, or when to drink certain cups? Yet in what may seem like trivial arguments, we find that the rabbinic teaching on wine is undergirded by a sense of gratefulness and thanksgiving for the gift God has given from the fruit of the vine. The rabbis were mindful of every gift given to them by God, especially wine, and believed that daily prayers and thanksgiving were necessary for the faithful to remember what God had done and what he would do in the future. A life of benediction can be found at the heart of rabbis’ teaching, especially concerning wine. There are other teachings on wine in the Mishna that focus on offerings, sales, tithes, production, or use for medicinal purposes. What emerges from the rabbis is that wine is a sign of blessing and a symbol of hope for God’s promises to be fulfilled. Whether one made a wine offering at the temple, celebrated the Passover, or blessed the cup at home, wine was the physical symbol and reminder of God’s gift to his people and offered hope of being restored to the land under the covenant promises. The Second Temple period provides a wealth of literature that reveals a Jewish world where wine remained a critical part of life and offered a sign of God’s future restoration and salvation. Some imagined vineyards and grapes that produced copious amounts of wine, while others saw a remnant of Israel being planted as the LORD’s vine that would flourish in the land. Wine also remained at the heart of daily life and was blessed at meals, offered at the temple, and used during festival rituals. Though the Jewish people faced oppression and persecution by foreign empires during the Second Temple period, wine continued to provide joy, relief, and the promise of God’s salvation.

CHAPTER

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God Wine in the New Testament Wine in the Roman World During Jesus’s day the Roman Empire was known for its consumption of wine. It is often estimated that production of wine for people living in the city of Rome ranged from anywhere between  and  million liters per year. This meant that there was enough wine for each Roman citizen to drink about  liters per year. Excluding children who did not drink wine, this averages out to something like a modern bottle per day for adults. Not all the wine came from Roman vineyards. Substantial amounts were imported from around the empire, including wines from Greece and Palestine. For the Romans, and for many during that period, wine was enjoyed at meals and on special occasions, but it also made an important contribution to people’s calorific intake. Red and white wines differ in their numbers of calories, but drinking could provide nearly a quarter of one’s daily needs. Sweet white wines were common and offered a high number of calories to sustain the body. Olives, olive oil, cereals, grains, and vegetables often made up the remainder of the caloric intake, with the occasional addition of meat for those who could afford it. Wine was also safer to drink than water because of its alcoholic content, which destroyed harmful bacteria. Some of the most prized white wines came from an area called Falerno (Falernum) in the region of Campania south of Rome. An ancient myth retells the story of Falernus, a humble farmer who cultivated the area around the slopes of Mount Massico, who met the wine god Bacchus. The god had disguised his divinity by pretending to be a wayfarer and Falernus showed him hospitality by entertaining him with a simple, pleasant meal. Bacchus was so taken by the gesture of kindness that he revealed himself and blessed the region’s vineyards, proclaiming that they would be known by the name Falernus and would be famous for the best wines. 

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

Falernian wine was praised by Roman poets and was the drink of senators and emperors. In its undiluted form, the wine had a very high alcohol content. Pliny the Elder, speaking about Falernian wine, commented, “No other wine has a higher rank at the present day. It is the only wine that takes light when a flame is applied to it.” He describes it as having three varieties: dry, sweet, and light. Other wines such as Setinum and Caecuban were also popular, especially among the Roman emperors, because as Pliny notes they did not cause bad indigestion. The Roman love for wine was shared throughout the empire as part of the cultural heritage. The imperial infrastructure of transportation and systems of taxation made wine a valuable commodity, furthering the wine industry and advancing wine production. Not only did Rome export its wines, but it also exported its wine-drinking culture. Like the Greek symposium, the Roman convivium (“living together”) was an important banqueting tradition that was mainly reserved for the elite. The gatherings included extravagant food and wine in a luxurious setting, often to impress others and gain social status. Unlike the Greek symposium, the Roman convivium allowed women to eat and drink with the men. Wine was served throughout the meal and would be mixed with water according to taste. It was often served in silver cups that had two handles. These came in a variety of shapes and sizes, with the most ornate having relief decorations that often depicted the gods. Depending on a family’s wealth, the tableware and service platters would have been made from gold, silver, or bronze. The convivium was also an occasion to praise the gods and especially the Roman god of wine, Bacchus. This could be done through festive music or entertainment at the end of the evening. The convivium feasts were an important part of Roman social culture in which to display one’s status, to repay favors, or to gain higher social standing. These types of banquets spread to the far reaches of the empire and even found their way into the lives of Jews living in Judea. The Roman occupation of Palestine brought with it Roman culture and influence, including the love of wine. One of the main proponents of the Roman ways of life among the Jews was King Herod the Great, whose rule had a profound effect on the culture and architecture around Judea before the birth of Christ. Around  BCE, Herod the Great, who tried to have the newborn Jesus killed (Matt :–), befriended the Roman ruler Caesar Augustus and was made king of the province of Judea. Herod took the title “King of the Jews” although he was only half-Jewish himself. During his reign he remained faithful to Rome and undertook a vast building campaign around Judea. One of his crowning achievements was the rebuilding of Solomon’s

Jesus and the Old Wine

temple in Jerusalem. He created it using Roman-style architecture and even built an outer court for the gentiles so that he could visit since he was not fully Jewish. For many Jews the temple was the most magnificent structure in the land, a view which is conveyed by a later rabbinic saying “Whoever has not beheld Herod’s building (i.e., the temple) has not seen anything beautiful in his life.” In the first century CE religious leaders such as the Pharisees and Sadducees, along with many other Jews, worshiped and offered their sacrifices there. Indeed, Jesus himself, along with his disciples, often went up to the temple to pray and to offer their own sacrifices. Other Jews, however, rejected the building as a syncretistic product of Jewish and Roman religion and awaited God’s judgment and the reconstruction of a pure and holy temple. Herod’s loyalty to Rome also brought with it the embrace of GrecoRoman culture, including social and religious festivals marked by the consumption of wine. The Jews already had their own traditions for drinking on the sabbath day and on other holy days like the festival of Purim, but the Roman culture had its own religious beliefs and practices. The wine god, Bacchus, was known to bring revelry and religious ecstasy and was celebrated through festivals held in his honor called bacchanals or bacchanalia. Details of the mystery cult festivals are sparse except for an extensive critical portrayal of them by Roman writer Livy. His descriptions include drinking, carousing, orgies, and various rituals associated with the cult. We have already seen wine, excessive drinking, and debauchery in depictions of the gentiles in the Bible, and the Roman festivals may not have been much different than the those of the Greeks or Persians. Wine was central to Roman life and to the religious beliefs which were part of the culture into which Jesus was born during the time of Herod and under the reign of Caesar Augustus.

Jesus and the Old Wine In the New Testament two figures emerge at the beginning of the gospels proclaiming a message of repentance and the coming of the kingdom of God. Jesus and John the Baptist are highlighted in different ways by the gospel authors, but John is consistently portrayed as a religious ascetic who operates on the fringes of society. He is described as one who “wore clothing of camel’s hair with a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey” (Matt :). John also abstained from drinking wine, and this was perhaps an allusion to his following a Nazirite vow

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

(Luke :; cf. Luke :; Matt :). Though it is not explicitly stated, Luke’s Gospel suggests this type of vow when an angel informs Zechariah that John “will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit” (Luke :; cf. Num :; Judg :, ). That John would be great in the eyes of the Lord and filled with the Holy Spirit seems to convey the reason for his abstinence from wine. It may seem appropriate for the one who prepares the way for the Son of God, and whom Jesus calls one of the greatest prophets (Luke :), to live a life forsaking wine or alcohol. Yet we are reminded by Jesus that John’s particular calling is located within the context of the coming wedding feast, or the great banquet that will begin when God’s kingdom comes on earth through the life and work of Christ. John anticipates the coming of the bridegroom (Jesus), which marks a time of preparation but not yet celebration. On one occasion when Jesus is speaking to the crowds, he questions the people and the religious leaders regarding John, who has recently been imprisoned by Herod Antipas (the son of Herod the Great). He confronts their hypocrisy and says, “For John the Baptist has come eating no bread and drinking no wine, and you say, ‘He has a demon’; the Son of Man has come eating and drinking, and you say, ‘Look, a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners! Nevertheless, wisdom is vindicated by all her children” (Luke :–; Matt :). The accusations point to the fact that the religious leaders were looking for something to criticize in both men. John, the ascetic, was thought to be mad or demon-possessed because of the way he lived and how he proclaimed a message of baptism and repentance (cf. John :). Jesus, however, saw John as a forerunner of the messianic age and the advent of God’s great salvation for all the nations. John’s message was stern and often confrontational: he called the Jews to repent, to be baptized, and to live in accordance with the commandments (cf. Matt :; Luke :). On the other hand, Jesus was accused of being a glutton and a “drunkard” (oinopotēs) because of his lifestyle. He had already earned the reputation of befriending “tax collectors and sinners,” at whose homes he would have eaten and drunk wine. The reference to drinking wine with “sinners” recalls the wisdom literature and its warnings against those who go around drunk and brawling. The word for drunkard (oinopotēs) used here is found only in the book of Proverbs, where it refers to the warning of a parent to a child not to become like the drunkard who is a fool (Prov :; cf. Deut :). The religious leaders’ criticism of Jesus is likely meant to have a

Jesus and the Old Wine

double meaning in that they accuse him of being a drunk, but they also condemn him for being a fool without wisdom. Jesus responds to the Pharisees by saying that they are like a group of spoiled children who cannot be pleased (Luke :–). They refuse to accept a message of fasting and repentance, but they also reject the good news and celebration of God’s coming kingdom. John says they should repent and fast, but they call him a madman because they want to feast. Jesus proclaims that the feast has begun and that the wine of God’s banquet is being poured out, but they call him a drunkard and a fool. Yet Jesus responds by saying that “wisdom is vindicated by all her children,” or in Matthew’s Gospel, “wisdom is vindicated by her deeds” (Matt :). Jesus’s final statement refers to the personification of wisdom that we saw previously in Proverbs and elsewhere. That wisdom is vindicated by her children likely alludes to John and Jesus as bearers of God’s wisdom signified through their deeds. Though they lead different lifestyles, both men proclaim a message of repentance and the presence of God’s kingdom being restored on earth. Jesus is a child of wisdom, but he is also the embodiment of God’s wisdom (John :–). He is like Lady Wisdom calling to all in the streets to come and dine at the banqueting table where food and mixed wines have been prepared (Prov :). Those who come are satisfied as they pursue the path of wisdom and recognize God’s wisdom through the life and works of both Jesus and John. Rather than a drunkard and a fool, Jesus claims to be the voice of wisdom whose actions demonstrate that the wine of the new age is being poured out in celebration as the kingdom of God is revealed. Jesus was also aware of the dangers associated with wine. He exhorts his disciples to “Be on guard so that your hearts are not weighed down with dissipation and drunkenness and the worries of this life, and that day catch you unexpectedly like a trap. For it will come upon all who live on the face of the whole earth” (Luke :–). Drinking wine with “sinners” was fine, but drunkenness and excess could blur one’s capacity to be ready for the coming of the kingdom of God. The reference here likely points to Jesus’s arrest, passion, and crucifixion, which will soon come to pass in Luke’s Gospel. His words “be on guard” also allude to an eschatological day when God will return to judge his people. The warning to be on guard occurs elsewhere in Luke as a warning not to live like the Pharisees (cf. Luke :; :; :), but here the call to avoid drunkenness is a reminder that wine is to be enjoyed with others in a way that does not hinder one’s ability to discern the presence of God’s kingdom. What many commentators fail to note is the simple observation that Jesus is a wine drinker! Though the religious leaders try to use this as a

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

slight against him, the very fact that Jesus drinks wine (and often in suspect company) is an important sign that links his life and actions to the proclamation of God’s kingdom and salvation. Jesus did not, like John, live a life of abstinence, because that would have conflicted with the symbols of wine that are connected to God’s restoration of Israel found both in the scriptures and in the Second Temple literature. Instead, he consumed the drink that came through Noah to relieve the toil of Adam’s curse because his life marked the beginning of a new age when God’s salvation was coming to his people. Drinking wine with sinners and tax collectors was his way of demonstrating that the time of feasting had begun. The eschaton of God’s salvation was being ushered in through the Son of Man, and this called for celebration and for drinking wine! Having been called a drunkard by the Jewish religious leaders, Jesus goes on to provide an explanation for his wine drinking by drawing on wedding imagery from the scriptures that describes the advent of God’s salvation. When asked why he and his disciples do not fast Jesus replies, “The wedding guests cannot fast while the bridegroom is with them, can they? As long as they have the bridegroom with them, they cannot fast. The days will come when the bridegroom is taken away from them, and then they will fast on that day” (Mark :–; cf. Matt :–; Luke :–). Jesus compares himself to the bridegroom whose presence marks the wedding feast of the new age. Like the Song of Songs, Jesus draws on images of wine, love, and marriage as signs of God’s love for his people and his desire to be united with them. Jesus then further elaborates on the wedding metaphor by describing some of the basic tasks that one might undertake in preparation for the celebration. “No one sews a piece of unshrunk cloth on an old cloak; otherwise, the patch pulls away from it, the new from the old, and a worse tear is made. And no one puts new wine into old wineskins; otherwise, the wine will burst the skins, and the wine is lost, and so are the skins; but one puts new wine into fresh wineskins” (Mark :–). The simple point is that it would be foolish to try to patch up an old garment with a new piece of fabric or to pour new wine in old wineskins. The old cloak and wineskins are perfectly fine, but each requires something equally old (like pre-shrunk fabric or old wine) if they are to be used properly. Jesus’s point concerning wine and new wineskins was something that everyone listening would have understood. It would be foolish to pour fresh wine into stiff, well-seasoned wineskins. The old skins would burst from the pressure of fermentation and the release of carbon dioxide. Jesus does not say that the old skins are useless but, instead, makes the point that they are

Jesus and the Old Wine

good only for holding old wine. The new wine that is still fermenting needs to be in a flexible container so that it does not burst. Jeremias argues that “the old garment and the new wine tell us that the old is past, and that the new age has been ushered in.” We recall that the religious leaders are criticizing John and Jesus for both fasting and drinking, but Jesus’s response is that they are mistaken because they cannot see, and do not comprehend, the advent of the new messianic age anticipated by John and inaugurated by Jesus. Many commentators have interpreted Jesus’s saying to mean that the old garment and the old wine are symbols of the “old” Mosaic laws or the traditional customs of Judaism and that Jesus is portraying his teaching as something “new” and superior to the old. The point of the parable, they argue, is to demonstrate that the new wine of Jesus is a teaching that requires a completely new paradigm and cannot be contained by the old Law and the practices instituted by the Pharisees and the Sadducees. What Jesus offers is new wine for new wineskins and a new garment in the new kingdom of God, which cannot be accepted by the Jewish religious leaders. Other scholars, however, have pointed to the fact that the new patch and the new wine likely refer to the additional rules of the Jewish religious leaders concerning things like fasting, and their “new” interpretations of the Mosaic Law. Understood in this sense, Jesus is critical of the restrictions and regulations imposed by the religious leaders that go beyond, or misinterpret, the traditions of Moses. If the saying is read this way, the Pharisees’ new practices and teachings are incompatible with Jesus’s life in the new age because his ways are the true fulfillment of the Mosaic Law. Thus the new wine and the new patch are to be understood as the new teachings of the Pharisees, which are incompatible with the old wineskins and the old garment of the Mosaic laws. The Jewish religious leaders are trying to force their new instructions onto the Mosaic Law, and this is like pouring new wine into the old wineskins of the Torah, which will tear them apart (cf. Mark :–). Their actions are foolish and will ultimately destroy the goodness and life intended to come through obedience to God’s law given at Sinai (cf. Deut :–). Luke’s Gospel firmly roots Jesus within his Jewish culture and the witness of Israel’s scriptures. His life is portrayed as the fulfillment of the Mosaic laws rather than abolishing them and offering something new. Jesus does not distance himself from the Law and the Prophets but, rather, he embraces the signs, symbols, and metaphors of the scriptures to reveal that God’s kingdom and salvation have come. In the messianic kingdom, the new wine and the new patch (i.e., the new teachings of the Pharisees

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

and Sadducees) are incompatible with the true fulfillment of the Mosaic laws through Christ. The “new” is not better in this case but, rather, it is Jesus’s true fulfillment of the “old” that is a sign of the new age and God’s kingdom. In Luke’s account the section ends with an additional statement that is not found in Matthew or Mark. Jesus goes on to say, “And no one after drinking old wine desires new wine, but says, ‘The old is good’” (Luke :), which might also be translated, “The old is better.” That the old wine is preferable states a common understanding among wine connoisseurs of the ancient world and throughout history. As Athenaeus writes, “Human nature’s not at all like wine. When a man gets old, he becomes unpleasant, whereas we’re eager to have the oldest wine; because an old man causes grief, but old wine makes us cheerful.” Many wines need time to mature and grow, as they soften and mellow with age. It can take years or even decades before a vintage has reached its greatest potential and its most complex form. To drink new wine before it has properly aged will provide a less than pleasant experience. The wine’s tannins may be overpowering and harsh, or it may have an overwhelming acidity. Though some wines, such as many white varieties, are meant to be drunk soon after being made, in general older wines that have had time to grow and mature are better. The truism that old wine is better may possibly indicate the attitude of Jesus’s opponents who want to stick to their old ways because they are more familiar. What is more probable from the interpretation above, however, is that Jesus embodies the goodness of “old wine” because his teachings stem from a true understanding and fulfillment of the Mosaic Law. Rather than the “new wine” of the Pharisees with its additional restrictions and regulations that become heavy and burdensome, Jesus comes to bring life and life in abundance (John :). He offers the old wine of God’s teaching through Moses, the patriarchs, and the prophets, which brings out all the nuances and beauty of God’s love for his people. Like an old vine whose roots sink deep into the earth, bearing concentrated and complex grapes and producing the best wine, so too the vintage that Jesus brings forth in the new age as his life and teaching is fully rooted in the Law, the prophets, and the writings of Scripture. The new wine and new teachings of the Pharisees are bitter in comparison with the old wine of Jesus, which has been crafted since the beginning of creation (John :–) and is now being revealed in the great wedding banquet of the kingdom of God. The old wine of Jesus was also communicated through parables with familiar biblical images of the vineyard and wine. In Mark’s Gospel the

Jesus and the Old Wine

parable of the vineyard takes its cue from Isaiah’s Song of the Vineyard and similarly contains themes of God’s justice and retribution. The parable is set in the context of confrontation and judgment, as Jesus has just cleared the Jerusalem temple (Mark :–) and the disciples see that the fig tree Jesus cursed the previous day has withered and died (Mark :–). The dead fig tree was a reminder of God’s judgment on those who did not bear fruit according to his commandments. The signs of Jesus in this chapter point to another aspect of God’s return to his people, which is judgment upon those who disregard his commands. While in the temple, Jesus speaks to the religious leaders, and like the prophet Isaiah he offers a parable that foreshadows God’s coming judgment. “A man planted a vineyard, put a fence around it, dug a pit for the wine press, and built a watchtower; then he leased it to tenants and went to another country” (Mark :; cf. Matt :–; Luke :–). The parable begins with the familiar work and effort that it takes to build and plant a vineyard. Though the details differ from Isaiah’s song, the power of the metaphor still speaks to an agrarian audience as well as to the religious elite, who are reminded of the prophet’s purpose in telling the story against a disobedient Israel. Though the owner rightfully expects his share of the wine, the wicked tenants refuse and respond by beating some of his messengers and killing others. The owner decides to send his own son, assuming that they will respect his authority, but the tenants murder him in hopes that by killing the heir they will inherit the vineyard. The story is a Christological retelling of Isaiah’s parable, but it is possible that the tenants do not represent the whole of the Jewish nation. The wicked workers that kill the owner’s servants (i.e., the prophets and John the Baptist) and his son (Jesus) may point to the religious leaders of the temple. Jesus’s parable may have been connected to the cleansing of the temple, which he claimed had become a “den of robbers.” The parable would then be a condemnation primarily of the priestly members of the Sanhedrin (the ruling party that controlled the temple) and would suggest their complete destruction and removal. As Jesus says at the end of the parable, “What then will the owner of the vineyard do? He will come and destroy the tenants and give the vineyard to others” (Mark :). The word “others” in this case likely refers to the disciples who will be entrusted with the task of building a new temple in the form of the Church, the Body of Christ (Eph :;  Pet :–). In John’s Gospel Jesus also draws on the vine/vineyard and wine metaphors of the scriptures to express the new covenant reality of union with the Father through the Son. In one of the great “I Am” statements Jesus refers to himself as the true vine and the Father as the vinedresser.

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

Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God I am the true vine, and my Father is the vinegrower. He removes every branch in me that bears no fruit. Every branch that bears fruit he prunes to make it bear more fruit. You have already been cleansed by the word that I have spoken to you. Abide in me as I abide in you. Just as the branch cannot bear fruit by itself unless it abides in the vine, neither can you unless you abide in me. I am the vine, you are the branches. Those who abide in me and I in them bear much fruit, because apart from me you can do nothing. Whoever does not abide in me is thrown away like a branch and withers; such branches are gathered, thrown into the fire, and burned. (John :–)

The translation here has been challenged by Caragounis, who argues that by the time of John’s writing there had been a shift in the meanings of the Greek words “vine” (ampelos) and “branch” (klēma). It is not uncommon for words to take on new connotations over time and, in this instance, Caragounis argues convincingly that the word ampelos could be understood as “vineyard” and the word klēma as “vine.” So the translation of the first verse might be rendered, “I am the true vineyard, and my Father is the vinegrower. He removes every vine in me that bears no fruit.” The metaphor recalls Isaiah’s vineyard where “choice vines” (Israel) were planted by the vintner (Isa :; cf. Jer :), but they produced rancid grapes and were destroyed. Jesus reimagines the metaphor in the new covenant reality of God’s kingdom and says that he is the fertile soil of the vineyard in which the vines are planted. To abide in him is to be a like a vine, deeply rooted and tapping into the life-giving microbes, carbon, and minerals of the soil. If the vine does not root itself in the soil, it cannot produce fruit and will be removed by the vinegrower (i.e., the Father). If it remains rooted in the soil it will produce fruit, but it will also be pruned by the vintner so that it will bear even more fruit. “I am the vineyard, you are the vines.” The metaphor is rich with theological meaning since it remains fully linked to the covenantal language of Israel as vine/vineyard, while also retaining its power as a creative image that connects the life of the soil, vine, and wine to the new age of salvation ushered in through Christ. Jesus takes on the role of the vineyard and the soil in an agrarian metaphor that he redefines to demonstrate what it means to abide in the Son through the Spirit and with the Father in order to bear fruit. The metaphor expands from Isaiah’s context, and we see both its continuity and its transformation. The understanding of life as it emerges from the soil remains the same, as one must be rooted in the covenant love of the Father to bear fruit. But now that soil becomes the

Jesus and the Old Wine

covenant love of the Son in obedience to the Father where the faithful may be planted, and the vines are those who abide in Christ. Those listening to Jesus would have understood the basic care for vines (planting, pruning, and tearing out), but they would also have understood the critical role of the soil in producing the best grapes. If Jesus is claiming to be the vineyard, then he expands the horizons of the Mosaic covenant by claiming that true growth can come only from being rooted in him. Only in the fertile soil of Christ can a single person (a vine) and a community (a vineyard) produce the good fruit of the kingdom. Within this reimagined metaphor the believer is united with the Son to the Father through the Spirit, and this union can produce a vintage of fruit that will become the wine of God’s salvation on earth (cf. John :–). Continuing with the image of wine production, what becomes critical in Jesus’s development of the metaphor in John’s Gospel is his use of the word “abide” (menein). “Abide in me as I abide in you.” The life of Christ’s disciples is one of abiding and remaining rooted in the Son and rooted in his soil. Apart from the soil, the vine can do nothing and will wither up and die. We recall from Chapter  the vast and complex interconnectedness of roots and microorganisms beneath the soil. The whole of the ecological community draws its life from, and is connected to, the land. These interdependent networks survive on the cycles of life, death, decay, and regeneration through the soil, which produces fertility, abundance, and vineyards that are bursting with wine! Abiding in Christ is like a vine drawing life from deep within the soil: to do so it must abide or remain rooted in that soil. Jesus goes on in his discourse to describe what it means to abide in him like a vine in a vineyard. To remain in him is to abide in his words (John :), which are rooted in the scriptures and the Torah of Moses. He also tells his disciples to abide in his love (v. ), which is a love that reflects the Father’s love for the Son. To love the Son means to keep his commandments (v. ) just as he has been obedient to the Father’s commandments. In doing all these things, disciples of Christ root themselves in his soil and begin to produce fruit and the wine of the messianic age. Believers are compelled in John’s Gospel to abide in the soil of Christ and his covenant so that they may experience the joy of God’s salvation. “I have said these things to you so that my joy may be in you, and that your joy may be complete” (:). David Ford compares the wine of Christ’s vineyard and the wine of the wedding at Cana with the Eucharist. He argues that in the scene of Christ’s meal in the upper room with his disciples, the act of drinking wine, the

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

command to abide (occurring eleven times in John :–), and the previous command to eat the flesh of the Son and to drink his blood (John :) all point to the eucharistic meal that Jesus institutes in the Last Supper. Though John’s account does not include the actual words of the institution as found in the synoptics, the images of the vine, soil, and wine serve as a means for deepening and expanding the scriptural metaphor. The sign now points to new life in Christ marked by the sacrament of the Eucharist as a ritual which expresses the believers’ union with Christ. Ford sums this up by saying, “So John’s account of the Last Supper omits Eucharist and covenant, yet through this figure of the vine/vineyard, together with the image of abiding, it offers readers a way of understanding, deepening, and living both Eucharist and covenant, centered on who Jesus is and the call to abide in him.”

The Wedding in Cana We have seen that John’s Gospel makes use of the vine/vineyard metaphor to describe the coming of God’s salvation through Christ. The importance of wine as a sign of the messianic age, however, is nowhere more apparent than in the story of Jesus changing water into wine at the wedding in Cana. The gospel author sums up the miracle by saying that “Jesus did this, the first of his signs, in Cana of Galilee, and revealed his glory; and his disciples believed in him” (John :). A critical point here is the fact that Jesus manifests his glory, the glory of the Father’s only Son (John :), in the first of his signs through wine and the wedding feast. The gospel will go on to record six more signs, and scholars often associate these with the seven days of creation. The final sign, though it is not mentioned specifically, is the death and resurrection of Christ on the eighth day and the opening of the new sabbath and the renewal of the world. It is through the first sign of the abundance of wine, however, that Jesus reveals himself as the one who inaugurates the new age of God’s salvation. The story of the transformation of water into wine is unique to John’s Gospel and contains various layers of significance. As we have seen, wine in the scriptures is a symbol of joy that marks significant feasts and celebrations like weddings. The Song of Songs contains some of the richest imagery in its use of wine and the love shared between a man and a woman. We recall that the Song was often interpreted as God’s love for Israel, and here at the wedding in Cana we are reminded of that love in the joining of a man and a woman in the covenant of marriage. We are also reminded of the wedding as a symbol used by the prophets to denote the

The Wedding in Cana

new age of the kingdom of God (Isa :; :). Wedding imagery appears throughout the gospels and consistently points to the coming of God’s salvation when he will deliver his people from the enemy and establish them in the land. In the first century CE a Jewish wedding feast could last up to seven days (cf. Judg :). It is no wonder that the wine might have run out early. A wedding without wine, however, was a catastrophe and would result in the humiliation of the host family, which is possibly the reason why Mary, Jesus’s mother, presses her son to help. She tells him, “They have no wine,” to which Jesus responds, “Woman, what concern is that to you and to me? My hour has not yet come” (John :–). Mary instructs the servants to do whatever Jesus asks, and we are told that there were six stone jars filled with water used for Jewish purification rites and that each one could hold twenty to thirty gallons ( to  liters). The miracle itself is curiously passed over, for we are not told that Jesus does anything to change the water into wine. Instead, the Word, through whom all things came into being (John :), merely utters the command, “Now draw some out, and take it to the chief steward” (John :). If we err on the larger side for the stone vessels, Jesus converted  gallons ( liters) of water into wine, the equivalent of about , bottles today. If a bottle typically contains six glasses, then the wedding party was supplied with an additional , glasses of wine! John’s emphasis on the superabundance of God’s grace is witnessed here not only through the miracle of changing water into wine, but also through the sheer volume that Jesus provides for the party. We are reminded of the Second Temple literature and the abundant fertility of the earth in the messianic age, where a single vine could produce , bottles ( En. :–) or a single grape could produce  liters ( Bar. ). The superabundance given by the Son points to the renewal of creation and the lavish gift of wine that reveals Christ’s glory and the glory of the Father. The church father Ephrem the Syrian wrote a hymn on the miracle at Cana and spoke of the bountiful wine that brings forth praise. Wine in vessels is similar – of the same kind. But this is speech-endowed wine, which begets praise. This wine has begotten praise Among drinkers who have seen a marvel! (Hymn .)

The “speech-endowed wine” from the Son of God is one that generates praise for the Father. The overwhelming gift and superabundance of wine are a sign of fertility, joy, and the dawning of the messianic age.

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

Lindars argues that the emphasis of the story is on the inadequacy of the old wine, which has run out and is like the insufficiency of the law. “The regulations of the old dispensation under the Jewish Law cannot contain the new wine of the era that Jesus announces. This motif can be seen in the Cana story in several details: the failure of the old wine, the vast supply of the new wine produced by Jesus, the fact that it is superior to the old.” This interpretation, however, is problematic since it presumes that the “new wine” and “old wine” are being set in opposition to each other or that Jesus somehow stands apart from the Mosaic Law. The story does not emphasize the failure of the old wine but, rather, the focus is on the quality and timing of the wine that Jesus produces. The story concludes with the head steward drinking what has been brought to him from the water jars and commenting, “Everyone serves the good wine first, and then the inferior wine after the guests have become drunk. But you have kept the good wine until now” (John :). There is no critique of the old, but the surprise comes in the fact that the good wine has been kept “until now.” Ford argues that this “now” is critical to John’s Gospel since it points to the physical presence of Jesus in the incarnation, his freedom within time, and the offering of “eternal life” to those who believe in the present. The emphasis of the miracle is not on Jesus offering a completely new paradigm for life symbolized in new wine. Instead, the superabundance of water changed into superior wine and brought out “now” is a sign of the promises of God being made known and fulfilled through the Son. As the early church father Irenaeus writes, That wine, which was produced by God in a vineyard, and which was first consumed, was good. None of those who drank of it found fault with it; and the Lord partook of it also. But that wine was better which the Word made from water, on the moment, and simply for the use of those who had been called to the marriage.

The Word who was from the beginning, the Word who gave the law to Moses (John :), now fills out the promises of Scripture and uses the symbol of wine to demonstrate his grace, truth, and the abundance of life he brings in the new age. Another early church scholar, Origen, saw the miracle as a demonstration of God’s Word unveiling the law through the incarnation. He writes, “For truly, before Jesus, the scripture was water, but after Jesus it has become wine for us.” The “good wine” that Jesus produced comes when it is least expected. The vintage given by the Son alludes to the feast promised by the prophets

The Eucharist

when God will welcome his people in the time of salvation. It is a wine that brings joy to God’s people at a wedding banquet as a sign of his love. American polymath Benjamin Franklin sums this up when he writes, We hear of the conversion of water into wine at the marriage in Cana as of a miracle. But this conversion is, through the goodness of God, made every day before our eyes. Behold the rain which descends from heaven upon our vineyards; there it enters the roots of the vines, to be changed into wine; a constant proof that God loves us, and loves to see us happy.

The wedding feast at Cana is a reminder of the eschatological feast envisaged by Isaiah. “On this mountain the LORD of hosts will make for all peoples a feast of rich food, a feast of well-aged wines, of rich food filled with marrow, of well-aged wines strained clear” (Isa :). Jesus performs his first sign to demonstrate God’s superabundance through the miraculous changing of water into wine. The God who once offered abundant bread in the wilderness for the Israelites’ survival now offers abundant wine for their celebration. The miracle demonstrates the glory of the Father through the Son by the fact that he offers good wine, well-aged wine, strained clear for all to taste and see that the renewal of creation and the age of salvation has come “now.”

The Eucharist The most significant use of wine in the gospels for followers of Christ comes during Jesus’s Last Supper with his disciples, where he institutes the ritual of the Eucharist. The meal is recalled in all four gospels, but the actual words of Christ referring to the bread and wine as his body and blood of the covenant occur only in the synoptics. As we have seen above, eucharistic allusions are found throughout John’s Gospel, whether in the wine at Cana (John :–), Jesus’s command to eat his flesh and drink his blood (:–), or the blood and water that pour from Jesus’s side on the cross (:). In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, however, the bread and the wine associated with the Passover are reimagined in the upper room as Christ’s body and blood in a ritual that would become the principal sacrament of the Christian Church for baptized believers. Scholars have debated whether the meal that Jesus had with his disciples took the form of the Passover observance as it is set out in the Jewish instructions of the Mishnah. According to rabbinic tradition the Passover meal required four cups of wine, unleavened bread, the paschal lamb, and mixed herbs. Even the poorest of people were given wine from public

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

charity if they could not afford it for their feast. The meal began with the mixing of the first cup of wine, which included a prayer of blessing by the father or head of the household. The second cup of wine was then mixed and followed by the son asking questions (called the haggadah) to the father about why these things are done on Passover. Jesus may have offered the traditional explanation of the Exodus events, but the synoptics only recall the words of the eucharistic institution, which may have supplemented or replaced the normal dialogue. The third cup of wine was mixed, and then the food was blessed. According to the school of Shammai the first half of the hallel (Ps ) was sung, but according to the school of Hillel, Psalms  and  were sung after the haggadah, and the second half (Pss – or –) was sung at the end of the meal. It is likely that the meal Jesus shared with his disciples in the upper room was similar in essence to that described in the Passover instructions of the Mishnah. With the food and wine set before them, Jesus reimagines the ritual acts of eating and drinking as a new sign that points to the second exodus he will undertake through his death and resurrection. As he takes the cup of wine he gives thanks and says to his disciples, “Drink from it, all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. I tell you, I will never again drink of this fruit of the vine [ek tou genēmatos tēs ampelou] until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom” (Matt :–; cf. Mark :–; Luke :). The tastes of the lamb and bitter herbs are now accompanied by the bread of his flesh and the wine of his blood. The meal that once commemorated the exodus from Egypt now reveals deeper layers of meaning in the work of liberation, forgiveness, and freedom from death that God will achieve through the Son. The sacrificial blood of Christ is remembered in the Eucharist through wine as Christians recall Jesus’s passion, death, resurrection, ascension, and second coming. What is consistent in the synoptics is that the wine of the Passover meal represents the blood associated with the new covenant in Christ. In the scriptures blood was almost always involved in establishing a covenant. The first covenant with Abraham required blood (Gen :), as did the second when Moses offered sacrifices at Sinai and sprinkled blood on the Israelites (Exod :). At the Last Supper Jesus takes the cup of wine, which carries with it so many layers of symbolism and meaning from the Law and the Prophets, and reinterprets it as the covenantal cup of his blood for his followers to consume. The act of drinking becomes a sign of unity with Christ and unity with all believers in the Body of Christ. Through the signs and symbols of the Passover in Egypt, Jesus also assumes the role of the spotless lamb whose blood was spread on the

The Eucharist

doorposts to protect the Hebrew slaves from the plague of the firstborn. The blood of the paschal lamb in Exodus was for protection and symbolized deliverance, liberation, and freedom. The first Passover makes no mention of the forgiveness of sins when God gives his instructions to Moses (Exod ). The blood of the lamb on the doorpost signifies a defense or shielding from the judgment of the LORD upon the Egyptians and their gods, demonstrating his absolute power and sovereignty. The blood of the paschal lamb is a protective sign that preserves the people from death, particularly the death and judgment which were brought upon Egypt. In the book of Leviticus, however, we find that the blood of sacrifice is primarily for atonement, cleansing, and the forgiveness of sins. These occur through offerings made on God’s holy altar within the tabernacle and later the temple. The most significant effect of sacrificial blood was its power to purge and purify the tabernacle/temple space, as was necessary to cleanse God’s home. This happened through daily offerings, but once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), the high priest would present blood offerings in the holy of holies to atone for all the sins of Israel. Thus when Jesus speaks about his blood that is shed for “the forgiveness of sins” represented in the cup of wine, he draws on the symbolism of cleansing, purging, and atonement associated with priestly sacrifice in the tabernacle and later in the Jerusalem temple. Since blood according to Leviticus contained the life of the creature and was used only for atonement on the altar, Israel was strictly forbidden to consume it (Lev :). It may have been surprising (and disturbing) for the disciples to consume the wine that represented their Lord’s blood, but the cup points to the full union and atonement that the believer receives through Christ’s sacrifice. When we examine the various layers of meaning in the eucharistic cup of wine we discover at least three distinct symbols associated with blood in the scriptures: the blood of the covenant, the blood of protection from judgment, and the blood of cleansing and atonement. The eucharistic cup takes on further symbolic meaning stemming from the prophetic metaphors of the cup of salvation and the cup of wrath. We recall the signs of abundant wine and an overflowing cup that point to the fullness of God’s kingdom and the outpouring of his blessing. For Christians, the Eucharist represents the eschatological banquet, and the fruit of the vine provides a foretaste of the wine that God will pour out in the final consummation when heaven and earth are joined (Rev ). At the same time, however, the eucharistic cup is a reminder of the judgment of God and of his chalice that was poured out on Israel and the nations for their transgression and failure to repent. This is the cup of suffering that

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

Christ takes up himself to drink on behalf of all peoples. The cup of suffering that Jesus willingly drinks thus becomes the cup of salvation for those who follow him and drink the eucharistic wine. After serving the disciples bread and wine as physical symbols of the new covenant Jesus says, “I tell you, I will never again drink of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom” (Matt :; cf. Mark :; Luke :). We are not told that Jesus ever drinks wine with the disciples in any of the post-resurrection scenes recorded in the gospels or the Acts of the Apostles. His references to his “Father’s kingdom” may speak of the final eschaton, or it may be that Jesus did enjoy wine with his disciples after he had risen but it was not recorded. Whether he did or did not drink wine after the resurrection is less important than the fact that Jesus promises that he will drink wine in the future after he has risen from the dead. As Jeremias argues, Jesus’s words here are in the “form of a careful declaration of intent, almost an oath.” This is no insignificant statement, for it reveals that wine will be a part of life in a post-resurrection world when the Father’s kingdom is established. That Jesus promises he will drink wine again with his disciples also points to the fact that his Father’s kingdom is one that will be made known on this earth and in the material world. He does not speak of some “heavenly wine” that is somehow disconnected from the soil or the vine but, rather, he looks forward to a cosmic restoration that will be inaugurated through his death and resurrection. This will be made manifest through the final bodily resurrection, but it will also be made known through the transformation of the earth and all of God’s creation (cf. Rom :–). Wine was a symbol of life and salvation in relation to the promised land of the patriarchs, and Jesus anticipates a time when this salvation will be fulfilled through drinking wine anew in his Father’s kingdom on earth. It is not expressly stated in the synoptics apart from Luke’s Gospel, which includes the additional command, “Do this in remembrance of me,” that the Christian community should continue to participate in this meal (Luke :). This presumes an ongoing celebration that is affirmed in St Paul’s instructions on the Eucharist to the believers in Corinth ( Cor :–). Though John’s Gospel does not include the institution in the upper room, chapter  offers an extended meditation on the necessity for Christ’s followers to eat of the “true bread from heaven” (John :). The eucharistic overtones ring loudly through Christ’s statement: Very truly, I tell you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you. Those who eat my flesh and drink my

The Eucharist blood have eternal life, and I will raise them up on the last day; for my flesh is true food and my blood is true drink. Those who eat my flesh and drink my blood abide in me, and I in them. (John :–)

David Ford sums up the theological message of John  by noting three main themes: “The compassionate love of Jesus; the unique relationship of Jesus with God the creator, who is free to generate this abundance from very little; and the rich symbolism of bread and eating, resonating with the Eucharist and much else.” The ongoing celebration of the Eucharist became a critical sign of participating in the Body of Christ. The sacrament was central to early Christian worship as a ritual of identification with Christ through the bread of his flesh and the wine of his blood. Origen compared the eucharistic cup and Christ as the “true vine” with the “wine that gladdens the human heart” (Ps :). He writes, “For if the heart is the intellectual faculty and what gladdens it is the most drinkable WORD which draws one away from human things and makes one feel inspired and intoxicates with an intoxication which is not irrational but divine . . . then he who brings wine which gladdens the heart of man is indeed the true vine.” Christ becomes the “drinkable WORD” in the eucharistic meal, represented in wine that becomes his blood which protects, cleanses, and brings the joy of life. The significance of wine in the Eucharist continued throughout the early church, though it was not without dispute. Some early Christians came under criticism for celebrating the Eucharist and feared that their eating and drinking wine together might be associated with pagan religious practices. In some cases they abandoned the cup of wine altogether. It was not uncommon for certain groups to substitute water for the Eucharist, but this practice was denounced by many of the church fathers and the early church councils. Other Christians were accused of cannibalism by outsiders because they claimed to eat the “flesh” and drink the “blood” of Christ. Despite these accusations, the meal instituted by Jesus at the Last Supper remained central to the gathered community of believers, and the drinking of the eucharistic cup of wine mixed with water became the established, orthodox practice of the Church. Alexander Schmemann reflects from the Orthodox tradition on how the liturgy helps shape our understanding of what is happening to both the congregation and the elements of bread and wine in the Eucharist. The rituals of the Mass place an emphasis on the anaphora, or a “lifting up” of both the

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

bread and the wine, but also of the people. Through the divine liturgy the congregation ascends into the heavenly realms of Christ in an experience of his eschatological presence in the world. Schmemann contends that not only should the emphasis be placed on the bread and wine becoming the real presence of Christ’s body and blood, but we should also consider what is happening in the whole of the Eucharist. “But we must understand that what ‘happens’ to bread and wine happens because something has, first of all, happened to us, to the Church.” He goes on to say that: the whole liturgy is sacramental, that is, one transforming act and one ascending movement. And the very goal of this movement of ascension is to take us out of “this world” and to make us partakers of the world to come . . . But this is not an “other” world, different from the one God has created and given to us. It is our same world, already perfected in Christ, but not yet in us. It is our same world, redeemed and restored, in which Christ “fills all things with Himself.”

Schmemann’s emphasis here is on the eucharistic vision of Christ transforming the material of bread and wine as a sign of his reconciling all things in heaven and on earth. The “lifting up” of the Eucharist is also a sign of Christ’s “coming down” in the bread and the wine as a foreshadowing of the renewal of the created world when Christ “might fill all things” (Eph :). Theologian John Zizioulas further expresses the importance of Christ’s presence in the Eucharist as a sign pointing to the fulfillment of God’s kingdom on earth. “The bread and wine are not just symbolic elements linking the Church to the Last Supper but are representative of the material world and of creation. By the same token, by participating in the Eucharist, human beings participate in a redeemed material world. Thus the material world has its place in the Eucharistic experience and in the Kingdom of God.” The transformation of ordinary bread and wine offers an affirmation that the material world is the good gift of God, who desires to fill it with his presence. Through the Eucharist we discover that creation is something that Christ delights in renewing and restoring as a sign of his kingdom coming in its fullness. Previously we discussed Aldo Leopold’s land ethic as an intentional concern for the human community as well as the soils, waters, plants, and animals that form the places where we live. In the Eucharist we find a resonant theological and ecological ethic that stresses the goodness of the material world and its future redemption through the presence of Christ in all things. Medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas offers a similar vision of the transformation of the material reality of bread and wine into the real

The Eucharist

presence of Christ. After its consecration the bread and wine are truly transformed in the body and blood of Christ. This signifies that the substance of the elements has fundamentally changed because of Christ’s real presence within them. Though we eat and drink bread and wine, the substance of the material has been filled, as it were, with Christ. “God joined his godhead, that is, the power of his godhead, to the bread and wine, not to leave them to remain, but to make from them his body and his blood.” This filling of Christ in bread and wine points to the fullness of Christ that will ultimately fill all things (cf. Eph :–). The wine of the Eucharist instituted at the Last Supper calls to mind the blood of Christ shed for the new covenant, which, like the Passover lamb, offers protection from judgment as well as the cleansing blood of atonement. Yet the wine, transformed into Christ’s real presence, also points to the future restoration of all things, as St Paul writes: “For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell, and through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, by making peace through the blood of his cross” (Col :–). This cosmic reconciliation begins at the altar where bread is broken and wine outpoured. This is where the Church becomes one with Christ and the material of the world is transformed into its future glory. Wirzba offers a vision of what this community looks like. Gathered around a table, inspired by and abiding with Christ, people live out the movements of sacrificial self-offering, grateful reception, and reconciled relationships. If this is true, then it is also the case that people do not ever merely taste bread and wine. Properly transformed and directed, they also taste heaven. They gain a glimpse of life in its grace, fullness, and truth.

The wine of the Eucharist is the cup that Christ offers to his followers when he commands, “Do this in remembrance of me.” Though it is impossible to explore the layers and depths of meaning in the eucharistic cup, Anglican priest and poet George Herbert articulates his experience of the eucharistic wine in words that draw the reader back to the love of Christ on the cross. In the final stanza of his poem “The Agony” he writes: Who knows not Love, let him assay And taste that juice which, on the cross, a pike Did set again abroach; then let him say If ever he did taste the like, Love is that Liquor sweet and most divine, Which my God feels as blood, but I as wine.

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

The Cup and the Cross It is not by accident that the prophetic metaphor of the cup and wine is present in the final hours of Christ’s life. After the Passover meal, and on the eve of his crucifixion, Jesus retreats with his disciples to pray in the garden of Gethsemane, as he has frequently done (Luke :, :; John :). The olive grove is appropriately named “Gethsemane,” which means “oil press” in Hebrew or Aramaic. In the final hours of his life Jesus would feel the weight of his passion and the suffering to come. In the synoptics Jesus goes off by himself as the disciples struggle to remain awake. Amid the olive trees he prays, “Abba, Father, for you all things are possible; remove this cup from me; yet, not what I want, but what you want” (Mark :; cf. Matt :, ; Luke :). In Mark’s Gospel, Jesus has spoken of the cup in an earlier conversation with two of his disciples, James and John, the sons of Zebedee. The two men, somewhat presumptuously, ask if they can sit at either side of Jesus when he comes in glory. To this request Jesus responds, “‘Are you able to drink the cup that I drink?’ They replied, ‘We are able.’ Then Jesus said to them, ‘The cup that I drink you will drink; and with the baptism with which I am baptized, you will be baptized’” (Mark :–). In Mark’s Gospel the cup is identified with the suffering and death that will come through the power of the Roman authorities. Just as Jesus will be unjustly condemned, so too will the disciples drink from the same cup when they are rejected and suffer for their proclamation of the good news. Some scholars argue that the “cup” Jesus refers to is the cup of God’s wrath poured out on the Son. In his commentary on Habakkuk, Robertson contends, The wrath of the Father against the shameful sin of mankind finds a consummate manifestation in the outpouring of God’s judgment on his own son. As repulsive as “wrath” in God may appear to the sophistications of the modern mind, it is a scriptural reality that found awesome expression as the Son of God suffered in the sinner’s place, drinking the cup of the fury of God.

The difficulty with this interpretation is that the cup Jesus will drink is one that will also be shared by his disciples. There is no indication, however, that God’s wrath will be poured out on the apostles in the future for their obedience to Christ. Instead, Jesus predicts that just as he is rejected and handed over to suffer at the hands of the gentiles, so too the disciples will be persecuted for their beliefs and will suffer for their proclamation of the

The Cup and the Cross

gospel. The cup of God’s wrath is not poured out on the Son but, rather, the Son accepts the cup of suffering as he submits himself to the Romans and to his crucifixion. To understand how Christ uses the metaphor of the cup in relation to the prophets, we must return to the consequences of God’s cup of wrath in the scriptures. We saw that the cup was poured out on the nations, or the wicked, as a sign of judgment for their sins. The result was that they staggered in their drunkenness and became vulnerable to destruction and defeat at the hand of their enemies. When the Israelites drank from the cup, the same was true, but they were handed over to the gentiles, who destroyed their land and sent them into exile. For the Israelites, to drink from God’s cup of wrath was to experience the suffering of defeat and exile by their enemies. The exile from the land for their disobedience was poetically expressed by the prophets through the cup of wrath as they warned the people of the covenant curses that would come upon them if they failed to repent. If the cup of wrath was a metaphor for Israel being handed over to the gentiles, we can see why Christ employs the same metaphor as he submits himself to the Roman authorities. Jesus’s actions demonstrate, especially in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, that his life repeats historical patterns and moments in the life of Israel. Unlike the people of Israel, however, who suffered exile because of their disobedience, the sinless Jesus embraces the cup of suffering by his will and is crucified by the gentiles in order to establish a new covenant. In the fullness of his humanity, Jesus prays that the cup would pass from him, but this does not indicate his fear of the Father’s wrath. Instead, the Son, who deserves to drink only the cup of salvation, chooses to drink from the cup of suffering as an act of obedience to the Father by laying down his life for the sins of the world. In other words, Jesus does not deserve the punishment of exile and suffering at the hands of the gentiles, but he accepts that this is the only way for him glorify the Father and to reconcile all of creation. Jesus’s passion and his final hour also demonstrate that he drinks the cup by his own authority. That he is not subject to the powers of the world is most clearly stated in John’s Gospel when Jesus is confronted by Pilate, who says, “Do you not know that I have power to release you, and power to crucify you?” (John :). Jesus responds, “You would have no power over me unless it had been given you from above” (John :). The idea that power is given only “from above,” or from God, resonates with the theology of the prophets concerning the cup of wrath. The events of both the Assyrian and Babylonian exiles were understood by the prophets as firmly

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

being within the scope of God’s sovereignty over all nations (cf. Jer :–). In John’s Gospel, the unity of the Son with the Father is central to the incarnation and the life of Jesus as the one who reflects the “glory” of God (John :–). As Jesus bears the Father’s glory, so too does he express the Father’s authority over earthly powers. He is not forced to drink the cup (cf. Jer :–), but in the final hours of his life he freely chooses to takes the cup of suffering. Jesus subjects himself to the Roman authorities as a demonstration of laying down his life and willingly drinking from the cup that was intended for the wicked (Ps :). If we remain in John’s Gospel we discover another layer of symbolism in the wine offered to Jesus on the cross. In the final moments before his death, Jesus says, “I am thirsty” (John :). In response, the Roman guards soak a sponge in sour wine, or gall (oxos), and offer it to him on a hyssop branch. The branches of the small hyssop bush are appropriate for sprinkling, but they would not likely support a saturated sponge. What would be needed is a stronger stick (e.g., Mark :). Yet John includes the detail of hyssop, used in the Passover ritual, to remind his readers that Jesus is the paschal offering and the “lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John :). During the first Passover in Egypt, God commanded the Hebrew slaves to dip hyssop branches into the blood of the paschal lamb and to sprinkle the blood on their doorposts for protection from the plague of the firstborn (Exod :). John includes the hyssop branch to help the reader discern what is happening on the cross in Jesus’s sacrifice. God’s decisive act of sovereignty over the Egyptians to liberate his people is retold through Jesus’s offering of himself as the decisive act of victory over sin and death to liberate all peoples. After receiving the soured wine, Jesus utters his last words, “It is finished,” and gives up his final breath (John :). A common practice in Roman crucifixions was to offer the victims wine that had spoiled. When wine is fermented it produces gases caused by the yeast, which limit the effects of a bacteria known as acetobacter that produces acetic acid. Contemporary winemakers will often add sulfites to kill the bacteria because if it is not controlled, their growth will spoil the wine, transforming it into a vinegar-like liquid. The sour-tasting wine put to Jesus’s lips was most likely meant as an insult to his final moments on earth (cf. Ps :). What we notice in John’s account is that he draws special attention to the fact that Jesus tastes spoiled wine (oxos), which represents the corrupted form of God’s blessing. Like the “stinking grapes” of Isaiah’s song (Isa :), or the poisonous and venomous wine of the wicked in Moses’s song (Deut

Wine in the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles

:–), Jesus’s last taste on earth is the symbol of a cursed drink that God intended for blessing. No fewer than three times does John use the word oxos in verses –, as if to emphasize that in this moment of suffering Jesus accepts the bitterness of his sacrifice through the symbol of corrupt wine. This stands in sharp contrast to the gift of good wine that Jesus produced in Cana. In John’s Gospel the coming of God’s kingdom through Christ was made known through his first sign of changing water into abundant and glorious wine, but in his final sign on the cross Jesus bears away the sin of all humanity, symbolized through his acceptance of soured wine. It is of interest that the synoptics tell of Jesus’s final associations with wine in a different manner than John. In the synoptics, we recall Jesus’s oath-like statement to the disciples at the Last Supper, “Truly, I say to you, I shall not drink again of the fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new in the kingdom of God” (Matt :; cf. Mark :; Luke :). Because Jesus makes this promise in the synoptics, it is appropriate that both Matthew and Mark have Jesus refuse the mixed wine/vinegar that is offered to him on the cross (Matt :; Mark :). Unlike John’s Gospel, where Jesus drinks the bitter wine, the synoptics present Jesus holding to his vow in the upper room as he refuses to drink what is provided. In the final hours of Jesus’s life, wine and the cup of suffering become symbols for his passion and death on the cross. The metaphor of the cup of God’s wrath in the prophets takes on new meaning when the Son of God submits himself to the Romans. Placing himself in gentile hands, Jesus willingly drinks from the cup and offers his life as an atoning sacrifice. He bears the suffering of all humanity but vows that when his work of salvation is complete, he will join with his disciples in the new kingdom to drink the fruit of the vine once again.

Wine in the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles Wine continued to play an important role the New Testament and in the life of the early Church after the resurrection and ascension of Christ. In Scripture and in the Second Temple period we saw that the abundance of wine was a sign of God’s salvation and the coming of his kingdom. In the New Testament, followers of Christ experienced the blessing of wine both through the Eucharist and through the gathering of the new community of faith where Jew and gentile worshiped, ate, and had fellowship together. The first allusion to wine comes at Pentecost and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. After the ascension of Christ, the disciples are gathered in

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

Jerusalem when suddenly the Spirit descends like a violent wind and tongues of fire (Acts :–). They all begin speaking in various languages through the Spirit, and they must have looked as though they were drunk, for witnesses accused them of being filled with new wine (gleukos) (Acts :). Yet Peter responds, “Indeed, these are not drunk, as you suppose, for it is only nine o’clock in the morning” (Acts :). He goes on to explain that their behavior, which resembles drunkenness, is the result of the filling of the Spirit. A similar comparison is found in St Paul’s warning to the believers in Ephesus against excessive drinking, “And do not get drunk with wine, for that is debauchery; but be filled with the Spirit” (Eph :). The comparison of drunkenness to the effects of the Spirit offers insights into how one physically experiences God’s indwelling presence. The Spirit can cause a person to lose control of their normal faculties as though they were intoxicated, but in a positive manner. Rather than leading to the negative consequences of drinking too much wine, “drunkenness” in the Spirit leads to the gifts of love, joy, peace, and patience (Gal :). The correspondence between the state of drunkenness and that of being filled with the Holy Spirit also presents a reversal of the prophetic metaphor of the cup of wrath and the intoxication of those who drank from it. Those who consumed the cup staggered and reeled (Ps :; Isa :; Zech :) as a metaphorical sign of their loss of control and vulnerability to attack. The effects of the wine of God’s wrath led to death and destruction, but at Pentecost the outward signs of drunkenness are associated with new life and the overwhelming presence of the Holy Spirit. Though drunkenness is still condemned throughout the New Testament (Rom :;  Cor :; Gal :;  Pet :), the physical effects of drinking too much wine are associated with the lack of control one experiences with the infilling of the Spirit. Rather than a reeling from God’s judgment, the New Testament portrays a reeling that comes from the blessing of the Spirit. When turning to the epistles, we find that the letters of St Paul tend to focus on moderation and appropriate drinking for a follower of Christ. As seen in the instructions of the wisdom literature, wine is to be treated as God’s gift to be enjoyed with restraint and composure. St Paul encourages such self-control and even abstinence if necessary for the sake of the gospel. “It is good not to eat meat or drink wine or do anything that makes your brother or sister stumble” (Rom :; cf.  Cor :). The command to refrain from eating certain unclean foods or drinking wine is not an absolute ban. Rather, the apostle points to the sacrificial love of Christ as the most important guide in our treatment of others and in pursuit of peace

Wine in the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles

and mutual upbuilding (Rom :–). “For the kingdom of God is not food and drink but righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” (Rom :). St Paul does not condemn the consumption of wine but warns that on certain occasions, for the sake of building up others, it may be wise to refrain. Principles of moderation can also be found in instructions to those who take on particular roles within the church. Those who hold the offices of bishop (episkopos) and deacon (diakonos) must be above reproach if they are to care for the Christian community. The bishop was likely an overseer of several churches, and his role required that he must not be a drunkard ( Tim :). Likewise, a deacon must be “serious, not double-tongued, not indulging in much wine, not greedy for money” ( Tim :). The letter of St Paul to Titus contains similar instructions, stating that a bishop must be “blameless; he must not be arrogant or quick-tempered or addicted to wine or violent or greedy for gain” (Titus :). Another command is passed on to the older women, who must not be “slanderers or slaves to drink” (Titus :). In none of these admonitions do we find a rule for abstinence from wine for followers of Christ or those in leadership roles. Rather, the instructions not to drink excessively correspond with those for other vices that are condemned, such as greed for money. There is nothing morally wrong with a Christians earning an income to provide for themselves or their family, but avarice and materialism turn money into an unhealthy perversion. In the same manner, drinking wine is permissible for bishops or deacons as long as it does not lead to alcohol abuse or addiction, which can destroy the family or community of faith. In another pastoral epistle, St Paul exhorts Timothy to drink a little wine for the sake of his health. “No longer drink only water, but take a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent ailments” ( Tim :). We recall that in many ancient societies wine was used for medicinal purposes, especially in the Greco-Roman tradition. Pliny once wrote, “There are two liquids that are especially agreeable to the human body: wine inside and oil outside.” Wine was often given to those who were ill, or it could be used to treat wounds. We find this in the example of the Good Samaritan, who pours wine and oil over the wounds of the injured man at the side of the road (Luke :). In Timothy’s case, it is possible that his abstinence from wine was a response to the excessive drinking that was taking place among the believers in Ephesus. Though some of his opponents were apparently practicing different forms of asceticism like forbidding marriage and abstaining from foods ( Tim :), Timothy may have tried to maintain his purity by renouncing wine (cf.  Tim :). Whatever the reason,

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

St Paul commends him to drink for the health of his body. Though some have interpreted this as a command for all Christians to drink, Bernard of Clairvaux was quick to instruct his monks, “But let me at least remind you that if you decide to drink wine on the authority of the Apostle, you should not overlook the word ‘little’ with which he qualified it.” St Paul also instructed believers on the appropriate drinking of wine when gathered together at a meal and in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper. In his first letter to the churches in Corinth the apostle condemns their practices, which demonstrate divisions between the rich and the poor at their gatherings. When you come together, it is not really to eat the Lord’s supper. For when the time comes to eat, each of you goes ahead with your own supper, and one goes hungry and another becomes drunk. What! Do you not have homes to eat and drink in? Or do you show contempt for the church of God and humiliate those who have nothing? What should I say to you? Should I commend you? In this matter I do not commend you! ( Cor :–)

Scholars have proposed various explanations for St Paul’s criticism and why divisions occurred at the meal which was meant to celebrate their unity in Christ. From the passage we can infer that the Corinthian Christians met on the Lord’s Day (Sunday), likely in a wealthy person’s home which was large enough for sharing a meal together ( Cor :). They did not, however, all eat at the same time or distribute bread and wine equally to all who were present. Some ate first, others went hungry, and others got drunk (cf.  Cor :–). At the end of their meal, they would have blessed the bread and wine to celebrate the Eucharist in remembrance of Christ’s death according to St Paul’s instructions ( Cor :–). Later historical accounts recall the church practice of separating the ordinary meal, which became known as the agape feast, from the celebration of the Lord’s Supper. The Eucharist was held in the morning with prayers and fasting, while the Agape meal was taken in the evening. There are also questions about whether the Corinthian Christians were following the traditional practices of the Greco-Roman symposium/convivium as a model for their gatherings. Both the Greek and Roman meal customs were practiced mainly by the upper classes and reflected the social hierarchies of the culture. Seating arrangements were determined by class and status, with the host ranking the highest to the lowest around the couches where the participants reclined. The meal began with a banquet

Wine in the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles

of food, which was followed by a time of mixing and drinking wine. Prayers would be said to the gods, hymns would be sung, and a discussion or other forms of entertainment would normally follow. It is possible that wealthy Corinthian Christians invited the poor into their homes for worship, but that the traditional Greco-Roman class divisions remained. Some would have been invited to the most honored seats to eat and drink wine, while those who were poor or of lower social ranking would not have been able to participate. St Paul’s summary of such practices is that they are not the Lord’s Supper and that they make a mockery of the equality of those belonging to the body of Christ (Gal :). Instead, St Paul reminds the Corinthians of what constitutes the true sharing of the bread and wine as the Church (ekklēsia) in remembrance of Christ’s death and resurrection. For I received from the Lord what I also handed on to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took a loaf of bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, “This is my body that is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” In the same way he took the cup also, after supper, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.” For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes. ( Cor :–)

These instructions for blessing the bread and the wine generally follow both Jewish and Greco-Roman meal patterns. The words of institution reflect those found in Luke’s account of Jesus with his disciples at the Last Supper. We have already discussed the Passover meal above, so here we can focus on the appropriate reenactment of the Eucharist by the early Christians. One significant point made by St Paul, following from his previous criticisms, is that the bread and wine, which represent the remembrance and proclamation of the Lord’s death, are to be shared by the whole community together. For people to eat at different times, or in different amounts, is a sign of contempt for the sacrifice of Christ because it shows discrimination toward those from varying social or economic backgrounds. The divisions (schismata) created by the Corinthians’ eating and drinking destroy the symbolism of unity in the body and the equality that all share in Christ. Instead, St Paul encourages them to celebrate the bread and wine as a sign of their mutual “participation” (koinonia) in the body and blood of Christ ( Cor :). He then warns them, “Examine yourselves, and only then eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For all who eat and drink without discerning the body,

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eat and drink judgment against themselves” ( Cor :–). Though all human beings will come before God’s judgment (Rom :–; :;  Cor :), the apostle warns of further judgment for those who celebrate the Eucharist in an unworthy manner because of their unethical treatment of others. By creating divisions between rich and poor within the body of Christ, and treating others partially, the Christians in Corinth were guilty of treating Christ’s real presence in the Eucharist with contempt. If the wine to remember the shedding of Christ’s blood is not taken in correspondence with an ethical life, St Paul warns, the cup of salvation will become like the cup of wrath. The gravity with which he treats the Eucharist affirms that the bread and wine “have become for Paul the real ‘spiritual food’ and ‘spiritual drink’ of :–. His words thus affirm the real presence of the Lord in the eucharistic food and drink, as he will again in v. .” Despite the common use of wine in the first century, St Paul also recommends abstaining at times for the sake of building up others and not causing them to stumble. This is not a general call for abstinence but, rather, it places the ultimate priority on the proclamation of the gospel. Though food and wine are critical signs of God’s blessing and his kingdom, the apostle also reminds believers that “the kingdom of God is not food and drink but righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” (Rom :). Like Moses reminding the Israelites that “one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of the LORD” (Deut :), so too does St Paul point to the radical priority of the Word, Jesus Christ, and the good news of his salvation. Though there are fewer references to wine in the epistles, they reveal that drinking was common practice among the early Christians. The predominant message is like that of the wisdom literature, which condemns drunkenness but permits the consumption of wine in moderation. Leaders in the Church could be wine drinkers but should not be drunks. As in the advice of King Lemuel’s mother, leaders should maintain their sobriety so that they can defend the poor and uphold justice (Prov :–). In other circumstances, wine could be taken for health reasons if necessary. Wine was also present in the celebration of the Eucharist as well as in the Agape meal. In some instances it was better to refrain altogether for the sake of building up others, but the key prohibition for Christians in the epistles was not against drinking wine but against drunkenness.

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom The final book of the New Testament, called Revelation, is also known as the Apocalypse of John. It records the prophetic visions given to the disciple

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

John, who was in exile on the island of Patmos. The word “apocalypse” (apokalypsis) means to “uncover” or make something fully known. In the New Testament this is like the lifting of a veil to reveal what will come when Christ returns for the final judgment and the renewal of the heavens and the earth. The language used in Revelation is highly symbolic, and John utilizes images from both the scriptures and the Greco-Roman world to convey what will take place in the final days of history. In the eschatological vision of creation’s renewal, wine plays an important role as John draws on its metaphoric use from the prophets. Wine is mentioned frequently in Revelation, but there are only two occasions where it refers to the literal substance and is not used as a metaphor. One instance is a reference to wine as a commodity that was traded in Revelation’s symbolic city of Babylon. The destruction of the city causes traders and merchants to mourn because they have lost their source of income. The economic failure is so bad that “the merchants of the earth weep and mourn for her, since no one buys their cargo anymore” (Rev :). Among the things that they can no longer trade are their “wine, olive oil, choice flour and wheat” (Rev :). Another mention of wine comes in chapter , which begins in the heavenly throne room of God where seven seals are broken. As the seals are opened, various judgments are released upon the earth through the apocalyptic four horsemen (Rev :–). The advent of the third horseman, riding on a black horse and with scales in his hand, gives rise to an unidentified voice calling out, “A quart of wheat for a day’s pay, and three quarts of barley for a day’s pay, but do not damage the olive oil and the wine!” (Rev :). The phrase may have to do with rationing during periods of famine or war. The amounts of wheat and barley mentioned would have been the daily ration given to a soldier and his horse. The exorbitant price of a day’s pay for a quart of wheat would have exceeded ten times the normal price. The statement suggests a time of great scarcity or famine when a daily wage could provide enough food for only one person, and not for a whole family. In such a time of scarcity the voice calls for the preservation of the oil and wine, which is why the third horseman is ordered not to destroy the olive trees or grape vines. The command possibly alludes to an edict given by the Roman emperor Domitian in – CE during a widespread famine throughout Asia Minor. Because of the shortage of wheat and barley, Domitian prohibited the planting of new vines and ordered that half of the existing vineyards across the empire be cut down. Farmers were encouraged to plant more wheat and barley on their land, even though

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

these would provide a lower income. Since wine and olive oil could continue to be produced during times of famine, they provided a more lucrative income for many farmers. Domitian, however, was more concerned with securing Roman grain supplies. The saying in Revelation indicates a time of famine, but the command to preserve the olive trees and vines, rather than ripping up vineyards to plant more wheat and barley, indicates that the economic deprivation and imbalance should continue as the world suffers from the judgments of the horsemen. In such a world, the wealthy remain prosperous while the multitudes are forced to use their entire salaries to purchase their daily bread. The injustice and economic inequality during times of famine brought great suffering on the masses despite the continued flourishing of the wine and olive industries. When we move to John’s metaphoric use of wine, we find that it occurs most frequently in Revelation . The chapter begins with the description of the symbolic , men and women who have been redeemed by Christ and celebrate by singing a new song. Following this, the scene turns to those who worship “the beast” and are associated with the sin of Babylon. In Revelation the historical city of Babylon, which brought about the first destruction of Jerusalem and the temple ( BCE), is used as a metaphor for Rome, the imperial power that razed the city to the ground in  CE. John sees the first angel proclaim the gospel of Christ to all the earth, followed by a second angel who declares, “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! She has made all nations drink of the wine of the wrath of her fornication” (Rev :; cf. Isa :; Rev :; :). Here the wine of Babylon is compared to the fornication of the great city, and the phrase might be translated, “the wine of her passionate immorality.” All the nations of the earth are seduced by her wealth, sexual pleasures, and power. As Bauckham writes, Rome, the self-proclaimed eternal city, offered security to her subjects, and her own dazzling wealth seemed a prosperity in which her subjects could share. But Revelation portrays this ideology as a deceitful illusion. It is the wine with which the harlot intoxicates the nations, offered in the cup whose exterior is golden, but which contains abominations (:, ). The spurious attraction of the Roman ideology it is one of the purposes of John’s prophecy to expose.

The metaphoric use of wine in this instance recalls the prophet Jeremiah’s vision regarding Babylon, which became the golden cup in God’s hand. The LORD poured out her wine on the nations, who became drunk and went mad

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

(Jer :–). As Bauckham argues, this is the wine that is offered by Rome and all the great empires of the world. Babylon and its wine are a symbol of seduction and intoxication that can come through a sense of security in prosperity, peace, riches, and physical pleasures. The effects of such worldly delights are like the effects of drinking too much wine: the mind spins and the body staggers, losing all control and orientation. John does not condemn the drinking of wine but, rather, he uses its effects as a metaphor to warn Christians against drinking too much from the cup of illusive promises offered by Rome. Instead, Christians are to remain “sober” by continuing in faithfulness to the calling of Christ and the rejection of Roman ideologies and lifestyles. For many Christians this faithfulness brought with it persecution, torture, and even death, but John portrays the righteous as a glorious choir singing with the angels before Christ (Rev :–). The same metaphor of wine is used again in Revelation :, “For all the nations have drunk of the wine of the wrath of her fornication, and the kings of the earth have committed fornication with her, and the merchants of the earth have grown rich from the power of her luxury.” Once again the metaphor points to the intoxicating effects of sexual pleasure, wealth, and lavish living, which are to be shunned by the faithful who await Christ’s coming. What is important to note in John’s vision is that the metaphor of Babylon’s wine and drunkenness is used as a poetic description of what it means to indulge in the temptations and lifestyles offered by Rome. John does not prohibit or disparage the consumption of wine but, more significantly, he warns Christians of the intoxicating effects of being lured into Roman ideology and trusting in the empire’s pax Romana. John sees all these things as illusions amid the realities of the kingdom of God and Christ’s imminent return. The deceptions and intoxications of the Roman world can lead to a type of drunkenness of the soul, causing it to be unprepared for Christ’s coming and the final judgment. After the second angel, a third appears who also uses wine as a metaphor, but this time it is the wine of God’s wrath. The angel proclaims that those who worship the beast will receive a mark on their foreheads and their hands. “They will also drink the wine of God’s wrath, poured unmixed into the cup of his anger, and they will be tormented with fire and sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb” (Rev :). Here the metaphor shifts to echo Jeremiah’s use of the “cup of the wine of wrath” being poured out on the nations. We recall that Jeremiah became God’s cupbearer and was instructed to force the nations to drink from the cup of divine judgment (Jer :–). In Revelation there is a correspondence between the wine Babylon pours out and the wine she will be made

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

to drink. As Koester notes, “Symmetry is evident in the metaphor of wine. Since Babylon the whore has made the nations drink the wine of her passionate immorality, she ultimately drinks the wine of God’s passionate anger.” That the wine of God’s wrath is “unmixed” points to its potency, since wine in the Greco-Roman world was often diluted with water. This wine also stands in contrast to the mixed wine prepared by Lady Wisdom, which was available for all to drink (Prov :), or the well-aged, strained wines prepared by God on his holy mountain for all peoples to share (Isa :). In this vision of judgment, however, those who worship the beast and bear its mark are like the nations who were forced to drink from the cup of God’s wrath in Jeremiah. This cup was symbolic of military defeat, destruction, and bloodshed, but in Revelation the suffering is intensified through the image of being “tormented with fire and sulfur” in the presence of Christ and the angels. The elements of fire and sulfur allude to God’s paradigmatic judgment upon Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis : (cf. Luke :). This form or type is repeated throughout the scriptures, and the same elements of are often mentioned in connection with divine punishment. Sodom and Gomorrah are the archetype of apocalyptic judgment, smoldering in fire and sulfur, where no life can survive as smoke ascends from them as though from a furnace (Gen :). This will be the fate of Babylon, the great city, which will be destroyed by divine fire and will become desolate forever (cf. Rev :; :; :). Recalling God’s destruction of Israel’s enemies, John foresees a coming time when Babylon, the symbol of all worldly power and wickedness, will be destroyed. The unmixed wine poured out from God’s cup draws on scriptural symbols of divine judgment that are rich in theological meaning and are used to pronounce the coming judgment on Rome. Another theme linked to the symbol of wine in chapter  is the connection between wedding and harvest, which parallels Jeremiah’s vision of God’s redemption of Israel. In Jeremiah the LORD says to his people, “I remember the devotion of your youth, your love as a bride, how you followed me in the wilderness . . . Israel was holy to the LORD, the first fruits of his harvest” (Jer :–). In Revelation, John writes of the virgin women with Christ, “They have been redeemed from humankind as first fruits for God and the Lamb” (Rev :). Revelation’s bridal imagery is tied to the harvest and the first fruits of God’s people. The agrarian metaphor draws together themes of marriage, covenant, fertility, harvest, and judgment, where God betroths his people and redeems them as the first fruits of

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

his kingdom. The theme of harvest continues at the end of chapter , where we find references to grapes, the winepress, and the wrath of God. Two striking images of gathering the first fruits complete John’s vision of judgment in the chapter. The first is of one coming on the clouds “like the Son of Man” to whom the angel calls, “Use your sickle and reap, for the hour to reap has come, because the harvest of the earth is fully ripe” (Rev :). The command echoes the prophet Joel’s comparison of the harvest to God’s judgment of the nations. “Put in the sickle, for the harvest is ripe. Go in, tread, for the wine press is full. The vats overflow, for their wickedness is great” (Joel :). In Revelation, however, there is no mention of who is being harvested when the earth is reaped, or whether it is the righteous or the wicked (Rev :). The harvest as a metaphor for God’s judgment is found throughout the scriptures, but here there is some ambiguity about those being gathered. If the wicked were meant, we might expect a description of the next steps of separating the grains from the chaff, but the threshing is not described, and so the process seems incomplete. It may be that the lack of threshing is a sign that the harvest gathered is that of the righteous, but this is not explicitly stated. Since the righteous were described previously as the first fruits of God’s kingdom (Rev :), however, it seems likely that the harvest here represents the ingathering of the faithful. In the final harvest metaphor of the chapter we find the gathering of the grapes being followed by the second step of crushing the grapes in the wine vats. “So the angel swung his sickle over the earth and gathered the vintage of the earth, and he threw it into the great wine press of the wrath of God” (Rev. :). The metaphor of the winepress as judgment draws on Joel : and Isaiah :–, where the warrior God destroys Israel’s enemies like one crushing grapes with blood-stained garments. John utilizes the same image in his vision, where the flowing wine and the winepress become a cosmic symbol of Christ’s judgment and redemption. Though the one who treads the grapes is not named it is likely Christ, who later appears to strike down the nations and who will “tread the wine press of the fury of the wrath of God the Almighty” (Rev :). The results are described in epic proportions. “And the wine press was trodden outside the city, and blood flowed from the wine press, as high as a horse’s bridle, for a distance of about two hundred miles” (Rev :). Bauckham argues that the extraordinary amount of blood was a topos also found in other ancient literature in connection with judgment. The hyperbole offers a graphic vision of wine flowing like blood for hundreds of miles, and John uses the metaphor of the blood of grapes flowing from

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Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

God’s winepress to describe the final destruction of evil in the world. The wine that flows from the wicked who are crushed in God’s winepress is a reminder of the vinestock of Sodom and the vineyards of Gomorrah, whose grapes and wine were poison and “the cruel venom of asps” (Deut :–). The archetypal cities of violence, wickedness, and depravity are summed up in Babylon, who is held to account for her sin and is crushed once and for all. The blood that flows from the winepress and the grapes of the wicked is also a reminder of Isaiah’s Song of the Vineyard, where God planted choice vines but they only produced “stinking grapes” (Isa :–). Israel and Judah were the vineyard of God, and from his planting of the best vines “he expected justice, but saw bloodshed; righteousness, but heard a cry!” (Isa :). The result was that Judah became the grapes that were crushed in God’s winepress (Lam :). John, however, transforms the vineyard of Israel to become the vineyard of the whole earth, and the stinking grapes are the wine produced by Babylon, who has been made to drink the passion of her fornication (Rev :). The violence and bloodshed of Babylon have polluted the earth, but in this eschatological judgment her poisonous grapes will finally be crushed. The language of bloodshed and judgment in such spectacular proportions may seem offensive to the modern reader. It is important to recall the category of literature to which Revelation belongs, along with the audience to whom it was addressed. John’s apocalyptic vision is filled with signs and symbols that are not meant to be interpreted literally. They are representative of the final judgment when Christ will destroy the forces of sin and death once and for all. His cross and resurrection have already secured the victory, but John writes for a minority group of believers scattered throughout Asia Minor, some of whom are being persecuted for their faith in Christ. Many lived in fear under the power of Rome and faced opposition from both Jews and gentiles. In anticipation of Christ’s return, John offers an apocalyptic vision of hope for what will happen when the righteous are finally redeemed. The language of war, blood, and divine judgment uses these symbols to inspire faithfulness to Christ and to provide a warning to those who were tempted by the wealth and comforts of Rome. Though the language of warfare is used, the battle is fundamentally Christ’s. “The distinctive feature of Revelation seems to be, not its repudiation of apocalyptic militarism, but its lavish use of militaristic language in a nonmilitaristic sense.” John does not call Christians to arms or to violence but, rather, he offers them hope that Christ will bring about their vindication and salvation, while their persecutors will be judged.

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

Within this final battle, John’s use of wine primarily consists of metaphors that relate to judgment. He draws on the poetry of the prophets to convey, to a Christian audience of both Jews and gentiles, what will happen when Christ comes to redeem the world. John does not merely repeat the language of the prophets, but writes as if his vision is the climax of all Scripture. In doing so, he creates a drama of Christ’s coming kingdom that stands in opposition to the Roman Empire. Wine in the apocalypse is not something poured out in raucous Roman bacchanals or in convivium feasts for the wealthy. Its intoxicating effects and blood-red color represent the moral corruption of Babylon (Rome) and God’s final judgment of the oppressor as he stamps out evil like one stamping grapes in a winepress. John’s use of wine is steeped in the prophetic tradition regarding God’s judgment, but there is also the hope that in the New Jerusalem there will be a time of celebration with the wine of the new kingdom. Though John does not speak directly of wine, the images of the tree of life point to a cosmic renewal of the earth and of the vine. In the last chapter of Revelation John receives one final vision. Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life, bright as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb through the middle of the street of the city. On either side of the river is the tree of life with its twelve kinds of fruit, producing its fruit each month; and the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations. Nothing accursed will be found there any more. But the throne of God and of the Lamb will be in it, and his servants will worship him; they will see his face, and his name will be on their foreheads. (Rev :–)

The river of life echoes Ezekiel’s vision of water flowing from the foundations of the new temple in Jerusalem (Ezek :–). The sustaining waters that God provides for his people and for the earth are a common motif throughout the Bible, and here they provide a picture of the land being perpetually nourished. There will be no drought or famine in the new kingdom, and the soil will be able to produce in abundance. Alongside the river grows the tree of life. Though the singular “tree” is described, John uses the term collectively, as he sees trees along both sides of the river producing their twelve kinds of fruit. The imagery again recounts Ezekiel’s vision of the trees that perpetually bear fruit along the temple river (Ezek :), and both visions draw us back to Eden and the first tree of life in God’s garden (Gen. :; :). John does not mention





Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

what kinds of fruit are produced but states that they appear every month, which points back to the richness and fecundity of Eden. We have seen that the abundant fertility of the earth and the bountiful vintages of grapes are often used by the biblical authors as a sign of God’s extravagant blessing and salvation in the scriptures. In the Second Temple period the superabundance of grapes and wine also pointed to the advent of the messianic age. John combines both images to offer a picture of the final reality under Christ’s reign in the New Jerusalem. If John sees trees planted along the river of life, is it possible that he also sees vines? We remember Joel’s vision of God’s salvation where abundant vineyards on the mountains are associated with the waters of the temple. “In that day the mountains shall drip sweet wine, the hills shall flow with milk, and all the stream beds of Judah shall flow with water; a fountain shall come forth from the house of the LORD” (Joel :). Since it was common in the ancient world to plant vines near fruit-bearing trees, it may be that John’s trees also represent a vineyard. Though John refers to the tree(s) of life, it is possible that he also envisages vines producing grapes and wine in the new kingdom, an idea which resonates with scriptural images of God’s salvation. Another critical part of John’s vision is that “Nothing accursed will be found there any more.” In light of the Edenic setting of the tree of life and the water of life flowing from God’s throne, the mention of nothing “accursed” (katathema) points to the original creation where man, woman, the land, and all creatures lived in harmony. The curse upon the soil from Adam’s disobedience has been lifted, and humans can once again delight in caring for, and keeping, the new creation without toil or death (Gen :). The garden-city of the New Jerusalem has reunited ʾad ¯ am ¯ (“adam”) with ʾǎdamâ ¯ (“soil”). With this renewed union we now come full circle in the biblical understanding of wine, soil, and salvation. In the beginning we saw the life of three farmers – Adam, Cain, and Noah. The curse upon the ground because of Adam’s disobedience brought painful toil that marred humanity’s relationship with the soil and with creation. The agrarian life of the garden was transformed into a life of hardship producing thorns and thistles outside of Eden. Cain, the first murderer, was then cursed from the soil and condemned to a life of wandering without roots. Noah, the righteous one who became a man of the soil, brought relief to the world with the advent of the cultivated vine (vitis vinifera) to produce the wine that would ease humanity’s toil. Finally, in the New Jerusalem, John declares that “nothing accursed will be found there any more.”

Revelation and Wine in the New Kingdom

The land of the new creation can drink from the waters of life and produce vineyards of the choicest vines with the greatest of vintages where the mountains will drip with sweet wine. This is the wine that Jesus vows to drink again with his disciples when he drinks it anew in his Father’s kingdom. It is the wine of joy and the cup of salvation. It is the wine of this earth that offers a foretaste of the eternal life that Christ promises. It is the wine of the New Jerusalem, where God “will wipe every tear from their eyes. Death will be no more; mourning and crying and pain will be no more, for the first things have passed away” (Rev :). This wholeness and completeness of God’s creation expressed through wine imagery are masterfully represented in a mosaic at the church of San Clemente in Rome. The church itself is an architectural representation of an old vine whose roots tap deeply into the soil dating back thousands of years, and is built on the site of one of the earliest Christian churches in Rome. Its foundations are constructed upon the home of a wealthy firstcentury Roman senator called Titus Flavius Clemens, who welcomed Christians to gather for worship and fellowship and who was later martyred for his faith. St Paul refers to Clement as a fellow laborer in the gospel, implying that he was possibly the son of the senator or a slave in his household who had taken his master’s name (Phil :). This is likely the same Clement who later became bishop of Rome (– CE). In early Christianity, churches were often built upon a sacred sites where previous Christians had gathered for worship and where the bones of saints were buried. At San Clemente, some sixty feet below street level, lie the remains of Clemens’s first-century home. On top of that, a basilica was constructed in the fourth century to mark the site associated with St Clement. The church is one of Rome’s twenty-five title (or titular) churches. Over time it suffered damage from earthquakes and other events, which led to the construction of the twelfth-century basilica which stands there today. The fourth-century church became the foundations for the new building, which retained nearly the same floor plan. It is thought that the design of the mosaic dates back to the fourthcentury church, but the current version was made in the twelfth century, possibly as a reproduction of the original. In the large, semi-circular dome at the front of the church, called the apse, is Christ on the cross with his head resting peacefully to one side. There are twelve doves on the beams of the cross around Christ’s body representing the souls of the apostles. Above the cross, the hand of the Father reaches down mysteriously from the heavens holding a vine, but it also seems to be holding the cross. The artist depicts both a downward and an upward movement in the hand of the





Salvation, Sacrifice, and the Kingdom of God

Father, who extends his love through the Son to the world and yet draws the Son back to himself as the resurrected and victorious one. The hand that holds the cross represents the divine union between Father, Son, and Holy Spirit which holds together all things in unity. At the base of the cross flow the great rivers of Eden, and from there spring green leaves and vines that twist and wrap outward. Early Christians saw the cross as a symbol of the tree of life that was planted on the renewed earth. The garden scene emerges from Christ on the cross, who transforms the tree of life into the true vine of life (John ). The green tendrils of the vine twist and wind in a circular motion throughout the entirety of the golden dome as if they encompass the whole of history and the whole of the universe. Scattered throughout the vines we find angels playing instruments, shepherds tending sheep, peacocks, deer, the phoenix, and other animals. Among them are the great doctors of the Latin Church; Augustine, Jerome, Gregory, and Ambrose. The pastoral scene, bathed in luminous gold, is all gently enfolded within the spiraling embrace of the vines. All things are drawn into its unity, and the cross stands as the locus and axis between heaven and earth. The artist creates a sweeping image of a cosmic vineyard where all life finds its source in the roots of the cross. Underneath the mosaic there is a Latin inscription that reads, “Let us liken the Church of Christ to this vine.” The words come from Latin poet and bishop Venantius Fortunatus (– CE), who wrote, “whence flows abundance of sweet wine – red with the red of blood . . . Let us liken the Church of Christ to this vine.” It is a reminder that the mosaic is set as a triumphal image over the altar, the place of sacrifice in the church. Pope Benedict XVI reflects on this when he writes, The Cross as vine points us from the mosaic below to the altar, on which the fruit of the earth again and again is changed into the wine of the love of Jesus Christ. In the Eucharist the vine of Christ grows into the whole breadth of the earth. In its worldwide celebration, God’s vine extends its circles over the earth and carries its life in fellowship with Christ.

The great vine mosaic of San Clemente draws us back to the biblical understanding of wine as the substance and symbol of salvation. The gifts of soil, vine, and grape were given to humanity as an expression of God’s love and blessing. Wine offers a taste of salvation. It reminds us of our deep connection to the earth and to creation. Through the Eucharist it reveals the unity of Christ with the Church. The wine of God’s kingdom draws all humanity, all space and time, into his embrace through the vine of Christ, which finds its roots in this world now and in anticipation of the world to come.

Notes

Chapter   Rod Phillips, A Short History of Wine (New York: Harper Collins, ), .  Karen McNeil, The Wine Bible, nd ed. (New York: Workman Publishing, ), . For a skeptical view on the concept of terroir see Mark A. Matthews, Terroir and Other Myths of Winegrowing (Oakland: University of California Press, ), –.  Pliny the Elder, Natural History, ..; Natural History, vol. , Books –, trans. H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), .  Gisela Kreglinger, The Spirituality of Wine (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), .  Simone Weil, Waiting for God, trans. Emma Craufurd (New York: Harper and Row, ), .  C. S. Lewis, The Four Loves (New York: Harcourt, ), .  McNeil, The Wine Bible, .  Gordon M. Shepherd, Neurogastronomy: How the Brain Creates Flavor and Why It Matters (New York: Columbia University Press, ), –.  Ibid., .  Gordon M. Shepherd, Neuroenology: How the Brain Creates the Taste of Wine (New York: Columbia University Press, ), EPUB ed., “Introduction.”  Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, eds., The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology  (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, ), viii.  Nicolas Garnier and Soultana Maria Valamoti, “Prehistoric Wine-Making at Dikili Tash (Northern Greece): Integrating Residue Analysis and Archaeobotany,” Journal of Archaeological Science  (): –.  For further research on other possible origins of domesticated vines see R. Arroyo-García et al., “Multiple Origins of Cultivated Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. sativa) Based on Chloroplast DNA Polymorphisms,” Molecular





Notes to pages –

 

  

     

   



Ecology , no.  (): –. Cf. Pnina Cohen et al., “Ancient DNA from a Lost Negev Highlands Desert Grape Reveals a Late Antiquity Wine Lineage,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , no.  (): E. Patrick E. McGovern, Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages (Berkeley: University of California Press, ), . Daniel Zohary, “The Domestication of the Grapevine Vitis vinifera L. in the Near East,” in The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, ed. Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology  (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, ), – (). See also Lucio Milano, ed., Drinking in Ancient Societies: History and Culture of Drinks in the Ancient Near East (Padua: Sargon srl, ); Charles Seltman, Wine in the Ancient World (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ). See Mo-Chou Poo, Wine and Wine Offering in the Religion of Ancient Egypt (New York: Routledge, ), –. AEL, :–. McGovern, Uncorking the Past, –. For further studies see Marie-Claire Amouretti and Jean-Pierre Brun, eds., La production du vin et de l’huile en Méditerranée/Oil and Wine Production in the Mediterranean Area (Paris: École Française d’Athènes, ). AEL, :. AEL, :. ANET, . AEL, :–. AEL, :. A later Jewish writing called the Letter of Aristeas (– BCE) also speaks about the fruitful agriculture of Palestine. “In fact their land is thickly covered with large numbers of olive trees and corn crops and pulse, and moreover with vines and abundant honey.” The Letter of Aristeas: Translated into English with an Introduction and Notes, trans. H. St. J Thackeray (London: Macmillan and Co., ), . See Asaph Goor, “The History of the Grape-Vine in the Holy Land,” Economic Botany  (): – (). Patrick E. McGovern, Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ), . Gösta W. Ahlström, “Wine Presses and Cup-Marks of the Jenin-Megiddo Survey,” BASOR  (): –. Magen Broshi, “Wine in Ancient Palestine: Introductory Notes,” in Bread, Wine, Water and Scrolls (London: Sheffield Academic Press, ), – (–). Cf. Michal Dayagi-Mendels, Drink and Be Merry: Wine and Beer in Ancient Times (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, ). B. Rosen, “Subsistence Economy in Iron Age I,” in From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel, ed.

Notes to pages –



 









 





I. Finkelstein and N. Na’aman (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, ), –. This is the size that S. Dar, Landscape and Pattern: An Archaeological Survey of Samaria in  BCE– CE,  vols., BAR International Series (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, ), :–, –, estimates on the basis of farm sizes and the number of wine presses in a particular area. Carey Ellen Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine: Viticulture in Ancient Israel, Harvard Semitic Monographs  (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, ), . Jeff Cox, From Vines to Wine: The Complete Guide to Growing Your Own Grapes & Making Your Own Wine, th ed. (North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing, ), . Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations are cited from the New Revised Standard Version, copyright ©  National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide. D. Ussishkin, “Excavations at Tel Lachish –: Second Preliminary Report,” Tel Aviv  (): – (). The Phoenicians perfected the amphora for shipping and trade. They had two handles and were easily sealed and stacked for transport. Cf. Virginia R. Grace, Amphoras and the Ancient Wine Trade (Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, ). Israelite diets would also have varied according to geographical location, wealth, and social status. See Nathan MacDonald, What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), . S. Talmon, “The Gezer Calendar and the Seasonal Cycle of Ancient Canaan,” Journal of the American Oriental Society  (): –; Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel (Winona Lake, IN: Eerdmans, ), . Rolf P. Knierim, The Task of Old Testament Theology: Substance, Method, and Cases (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –. Oded Borowski, Daily Life in Biblical Times (Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, ), . See also Philip J. King and Lawrence E. Stager, Life in Biblical Israel (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, ), . There is no explanation of how to make wine in the Bible. Some of the earliest written records on the subject come from Columella’s On Agriculture (De re rustica), which gives precise details on how to stake vines, harvest berries, and crush, ferment, decant, and store them for the best possible results (Cf. On Agriculture, ..–). Columella attributes many of his insights to Mago the Carthaginian (ca.  BCE), who was one of the great writers on husbandry and compiled various books on the subject. Lawrence E. Stager, “Ashkelon and the Archaeology of Destruction: Kislev  BCE,” Eretz Israel  (): –; cf. J. B. Pritchard, Winery, Defenses and Soundings at Gibeon (Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, ).





Notes to pages –  Pauline Albenda, “Grapevines in Ashurbanipal’s Garden,” BASOR  (): – (), notes the vineyards near Jerusalem that are depicted in the Assyrian Lachish reliefs.  Baruch Rosen, “Wine and Oil Allocations in the Samaria Ostraca,” Tel Aviv – (–): –.  See Gabriel Barkay and Andrew G. Vaughn, “New Readings of Hezekian Official Seal Impressions,” BASOR  (): – ().  Ezek :–. See A. R. Millard, “Ezekiel xxvii : The Wine Trade of Damascus,” Journal of Semitic Studies  (): –, who follows the Septuagint (LXX) in verse  with “wine” (oinon) from Uzal, or Izalla, which was located in the north of Syria.  See Paul Ricoeur, La métaphore vive (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, ); Marc Zvi Brettler, God Is King: Understanding an Israelite Metaphor, JSOTSS  (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, ); Peter W. Macky, The Centrality of Metaphors to Biblical Thought: A Method for Interpreting the Bible (Lewiston, NY: Mellen, ).  Aristotle, Poetics, a. Cited in Janet Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), .  Janet Soskice, “Theological Realism,” in The Rationality of Religious Belief: Essays in Honour of Basil Mitchel, ed. William J. Abraham and Steven Holtzer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), – ().  Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language, trans. R. Czerny (London: Routledge, ), .  Andrea L. Weiss, Figurative Language in Biblical Prose Narrative: Metaphor in the Book of Samuel, VTSup  (Leiden: Brill, ), –.  The Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo and the medieval Jewish scholar Maimonides both resisted the use of anthropomorphic language to describe God and stressed the abstract, incorporeal nature of the divine. For further discussion see Benjamin D. Sommer, The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –.  One of the most significant works is George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ); cf. George Lakoff and Mark Turner, More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ), xi.  Pierre Van Hecke, “Introduction,” in Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible, ed. Pierre Van Hecke, Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium  (Leuven: Leuven University Press, ), – (), sums this up when he writes, “metaphors have a conceptual function, i.e., that metaphors are able to make meaningful assertions . . . the long-held view that metaphors only have a stylistic function is now superseded by a more content-oriented approach.” For a thorough account of metaphor studies within the Hebrew Bible see Mason D. Lancaster, “Metaphor Research and the Hebrew Bible,” Currents in Biblical Research  (): –. David H. Aaron, Biblical Ambiguities: Metaphor,

Notes to pages –

 

  





   

Semantics and Divine Imagery, Brill Reference Library of Ancient Judaism  (Leiden: Brill, ), –, rightly raises important issues with applying contemporary metaphor theory to the Old Testament. He argues for a “gradient” approach in determining how we understand biblical metaphors to determine where they sit on a particular continuum of meaning. Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language,  (italic in original). Zóltan Kövecses, Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ),  (italic in original). He goes on to offer a further definition on p. : “A conceptual metaphor is a systematic set of correspondences between two domains of experience.” Jerome, Six Books on Jeremiah, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, ), :– (...–). Zóltan Kövecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), . Meir Weiss, The Bible from Within: The Method of Total Interpretation (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, ), , contends that over  images of plant life are used in the Old Testament. Cf. Eric A. Hermanson, “Recognizing Hebrew Metaphors: Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Biblical Translations,” Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages  (): –. Ian McGilchrist, The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World, nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), . The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) gives the translation “wild grapes,” but the Hebrew (bĕʾūšîm) shares the same stem (b-ʾ-š) of the verb “to stink.” Jennifer Pantoja, The Metaphor of the Divine as Planter of the People: Stinking Grapes or Pleasant Planting? (Leiden: Brill, ), , translates “stinking grapes.” Cf. Robert P. Carroll, “Yhwh’s Sour Grapes: Images of Food and Drink in the Prophetic Discourse of the Hebrew Bible,” Semeia  (): –. b. Ber. :. See Abraham Malamat, Mari and the Bible (Leiden: Brill, ). Statistics can be found on the World Health Organization website, www.who.int. Bevis Hillier, The Wit and Wisdom of G. K. Chesterton (New York: Continuum, ), .

Chapter   Ellen Davis, Scripture, Culture and Agriculture: An Agrarian Reading of the Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –.  Cf. Job :; :; :; :.  For further images of the potter see  Sam :; Isa :; :; :; Jer :.  Nahum Sarna, Genesis, JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: JPS, ), ; Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis –, WBC  (Waco, TX: Word Books, ), –.





Notes to pages –  All translations from Robert Alter are taken from his work The Hebrew Bible: A Translation with Commentary (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, ). Cf. Carol L. Meyers, Rediscovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), .  The rabbis also include Uzziah in the list of men connected to the soil, as it is said of the Judean king, “he loved the soil” ( Chron :) (Gen. Rab. :). For further parallels between Adam and Noah see Anthony J. Tomasino, “History Repeats Itself: The ‘Fall’ and Noah’s Drunkenness,” VT  (): –.  T. Stordalen, “Man, Soil, Garden: Basic Plot in Genesis – Reconsidered,” JSOT  (): –.  In the parallel creation accounts of Enuma Elish (:–) and the Atrahasis epic (:–) humanity is also created to work, but its efforts are to relieve the gods from their labor and provide food for their offerings.  Gerhard von Rad, “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation,” in The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays, trans. E. W. Trueman Dicken (London: SCM, ), –. Cf. G. Ernest Wright, God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital (London: SCM, ), –.  Theodore Hiebert, The Yahwist’s Landscape: Nature and Religion in Early Israel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –.  The fruit of the tree is not mentioned in the Bible, but Jewish traditions point to the grape as the forbidden delight (cf.  Bar. :; Apoc. Ab. ;  En. :). Some traditions hold that the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was the grape and that when Adam ate it, he became drunk (cf. b. Sanh. a).  See Carol Newsome, The Spirit within Me: Self and Agency in Ancient Israel and Second Temple Judaism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –.  Gerhard von Rad, Genesis: A Commentary, trans. John H. Marks (London: SCM Press, ), –.  Claus Westermann, Genesis (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), .  For contemporary examples from cultures that share a similar understanding of humanity’s connection with the earth see Jangkholam Haokip and David W. Smith, eds., Voices from the Margins: Wisdom of Primal Peoples in the Era of World Christianity (Carlisle: Langham Publishing, ).  Similar tones are struck by St Paul in Romans :–, where he sees the eschatological redemption of humanity intimately linked with the redemption of creation that “waits with eager longing.”  Cf. Hiebert, The Yahwist’s Landscape, –.  In Leviticus we find a similar motif where human transgressions can have negative consequences in the material world. Moral offenses, especially in relation to sexual immorality, could have a poisoning effect on the land, which is why the Canaanites were “vomited out” by the land (Lev :). No provision for atonement to cleanse the land from sexual sin is given in Leviticus. Instead,

Notes to pages –

  

   

 

 

 



the only possible remedy is exile (Lev :). Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB A (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, ), . William P. Brown, The Ethos of the Cosmos: The Genesis of Moral Imagination in the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge: Eerdmans, ), –. See William P. Brown, The Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder (New York: Oxford University Press, ), –. There is also an interpretive issue around the prepositional phrase “with the LORD” or “who is the LORD” (et Y-H-W-H). The sentence could be rendered, “I have acquired/possessed a man who is the LORD.” See Mark W. Scarlata, Outside of Eden: Cain in the Ancient Versions of Gen :– (London: T & T Clark, ), –; I. M. Kikawada, “Two Notes on Eve,” JBL  (): – (). Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, .. Philo, On the Cherubim, . Scarlata, Outside of Eden, –. See Matthew Lynch, Portraying Violence in the Hebrew Bible: A Literary and Cultural Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), , who contends that “Violence distresses, disrupts, and destroys the land. An ecology of violence refers to the way that violence tears at the moral bonds holding together humans and the land, and in some cases tears the entire fabric holding together God, humans, and the land.” Cf.  En. :; Heb :. Contra Umberto Cassuto, A Commentary on the Book of Genesis, trans. Israel Abrahams (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, ), –, who argues that the soil is associated with Mot, the god of the underworld and Sheol. He contends that the soil “greedily” consumes Abel’s blood, but this depiction cannot be upheld even in comparison with the identical phrase used in Numbers :, where the soil acts in judgment against the household of Korah for their rebellion. Wendell Berry, “The Agrarian Standard,” in The World Ending in Fire, ed. Paul Kingsnorth (London: Penguin Books, ), – (). Robert Gordon, Holy Land Holy City: Sacred Geography and the Interpretation of the Bible, Didsbury Lectures,  (Carlisle: Paternoster, ), –; see also Frank A. Spina, “The ‘Ground’ for Cain’s Rejection (Gen ),” ZAW  (): – (–). Scarlata, Outside of Eden, –. The exact phrase “fugitive and a wanderer” (naʿ ¯ wan ¯ ad) ¯ is used only once again, in Sir :. The proverb compares the life of a vineyard with the life of a bachelor. “Where there is no wall, the vineyard will be plundered; where there is no wife, wandering and swaying (naʿ ¯ wan ¯ ad).” ¯ Walter Brueggemann, Genesis, Interpretation (Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press, ), . Cf. Peter J. Harland, The Value of Human Life: A Study of the Story of the Flood (Genesis –) (Leiden: Brill, ), –.





Notes to pages –  Claus Westermann, Genesis –, trans. John J. Scullion (London: SPCK, ), .  Westermann, Genesis –, .  The apocryphal texts of  Enoch and Jubilees both offer insights into the history of the fallen angels and their interactions with humanity.  The phrase could be taken as a hendiadys (“perfectly righteous”) such as those in Job : or Numbers :, but the translation expresses the same characteristic.  Cf. Gen :; :;  Sam :.  Cf. Exod :; Deut :; Prov :.  Cf. Exod :; Lev :, ; Pss ; :; :.  Malachi : uses a similar phrase to describe the purity of the true priest who walks with God.  Brueggemann, Genesis, .  The cognates for the Hebrew root q-l-l designate something as light, insignificant, or trivial, hence the English “curse.” Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament (Munich: Kaiser, ), :–; Westermann, Genesis –, , .  Brown, The Ethos of the Cosmos, ; Hiebert, The Yahwist’s Landscape, –.  Devora Steinmetz, “Vineyard, Farm, and Garden: The Drunkenness of Noah in the Context of Primeval History,” JBL  (): – (–), rightly argues that the relationship between humanity and creation has changed after the flood. Noah’s relationship to the soil, however, bears a continuity to Adam that remains unchanged.  The NRSV has the translation “And Noah, a man of the soil, began to plant a vineyard,” which is possible (Gesenius § , ), but see Genesis :, where h_ l-l implies the first person to become something. Spina, “The ‘Ground’ for Cain’s Rejection (Gen ),” –, argues that we should read “Noah was the first man of the soil.”  Westermann, Genesis –, .  Ibid., .  Cf. Brueggemann, Genesis, .  Where did Noah get the rootstock? Origen, Commentary on Genesis :, writes that Noah’s vine was taken from the tree of knowledge in Eden, and this view seems to be shared by the targums (cf. Tg. Ps.-J. :). Ephrem the Syrian also argues that the seeds for the vine came from Eden, but he does not specify that they are from the tree of knowledge. Commentary on Genesis, VII:; Ephrem, St. Ephrem the Syrian: Selected Prose Works, trans. Edward G. Mathews, Jr., and Joseph P. Amar, Fathers of the Church  (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, ), .  The only other occurrence of the verb in Genesis is when Abraham plants a tamarisk tree and begins to call on the name of the LORD after digging a well in

Notes to pages –

  

 

  





Beer-sheba (Gen :). The tree likely represents the blessing and life of God (cf. Ps :; Jer :–), possibly echoing the trees of Eden. Sarna, Genesis, , contends that tree planting is analogous to altar building. Pirque R. El., . Zohary, “The Domestication of the Grapevine Vitis vinifera L. in the Near East,” . There are, however, rabbinic traditions that believed there was a river of wine that ran through Eden. Cf.  En. :; b. Sanh. a. See Louis Ginzberg, Legend of the Jews, trans. Henrietta Szold and Paul Radin,  vols., nd ed. (Philadelphia: JPS, repr. ), :. Sarna, Genesis, ; William W. Hallow, ed., The Context of Scripture,  vols. (Leiden: Brill, ), :. Cf. Sarna, Genesis, ; Wenham, Genesis –, ; Westermann, Genesis –, –; Brown, The Ethos of the Cosmos, . Jack Sasson, “The Blood of Grapes: Viticulture and Intoxication in the Hebrew Bible,” in Drinking in Ancient Societies: History and Culture of Drinks in the Ancient Near East, ed. Lucio Milano (Padua: Sargon Srl, ), – (–), argues that Noah’s drunkenness serves as a corrective to earlier portrayals of Noah’s righteousness. He contends that the story of Lot’s daughters serves a similar function, but the two characters are incomparable because we are never given any indication of Lot’s righteous moral character. In both narratives we find that individual consumption of wine and drunkenness leads to discord within the family, but nothing more is said of Noah or Lot after the incidents and thus there is no basis for the need to balance earlier portrayals of Noah. Ephrem, St. Ephrem the Syrian, , argues that “Noah’s drunkenness was not from an excess of wine but because it had been a long time since he had drunk any wine. In the ark he had drunk no wine; although all flesh was going to perish Noah was not permitted to bring any wine onto the ark. During the year after the flood Noah did not drink any wine.” Cf. Exod :; Isa :; Ezek :, ; :. Gen. Rab. :. Westermann, Genesis –, . For further anthropological evidence see Clinton Bailey, Bedouin Culture in the Bible (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –. An ancient Canaanite story called “The Tale of Aqhat” tells of a good son who carries his father home when he is drunk (ANET, ). This is often based on the use of the Hebrew euphemism in Leviticus : and the similar narrative of Lot’s daughters having sexual relations with their father when he is drunk (Gen :–). In b. Sanh. a, the rabbis debate whether Ham castrated his father or sexually abused him. Other arguments on Ham’s sin vary. Some contend that it was a case of voyeurism. See Brad Embry, “The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis





Notes to pages –

  







   







.–,” JSOT , no.  (): –. Others argue for a sexual sin, whether committed with Noah or possibly with Noah’s wife. See Frederick W. Bassett, “Noah’s Nakedness and the Curse of Canaan, a Case of Incest?,” VT  (): –. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River (London: Penguin Books, repr. ), . Vandana Shiva, The Violence of the Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Ecology and Politics (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, ), –. Scott W. Fausti, “The Causes and Unintended Consequences of a Paradigm Shift in Corn Production Practices,” Environmental Science & Policy  (): –; Rita Seidel, Jeff Moyer, Kris Nichols, and Vijay Bhosekar, “Studies on Long-Term Performance of Organic and Conventional Cropping Systems in Pennsylvania,” Organic Agriculture  (): –. For an insightful study on United Kingdom food systems and societal health see Henry Dimbleby, Ravenous: How to Get Ourselves and Our Planet into Shape (London: Profile Books, ). Agricultural practices through the centuries have altered the landscape. For more on the ancient world see David R. Montgomery, Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations, nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, ). S. A. Khan, R. L. Mulvaney, and T. R. Ellsworth. “The Potassium Paradox: Implications for Soil Fertility, Crop Production and Human Health,” Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems , no.  (): –. Ibid., –. Dr. Mulvaney discusses his findings at http://regenerativeagriculture podcast.com/the-fallacy-of-mainstream-potassium-and-nitrogen-fertilization-with-ri chard-mulvaney. Wendell Berry, “Renewing Husbandry,” in Wendell Berry: Essays –, ed. Jack Shoemaker (New York: Library of America, ), EPUB ed. Wendell Berry, A Continuous Harmony: Essays in Culture and Agriculture (Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint, ), . George Henderson, The Farming Ladder, nd ed. (London: Faber, ), EPUB ed., ch.  “The Plan.” Matt A. Sanderson et al., “Diversification and Ecosystem Services for Conservation Agriculture: Outcomes from Pastures and Integrated Crop– livestock Systems,” Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems  (): –. Alessandra Castellini, Christine Mauracher, and Stefania Troiano, “An Overview of the Biodynamic Wine Sector,” International Journal of Wine Research  (): –. See David R. Montgomery and Anne Biklé, The Hidden Half of Nature: The Microbial Roots of Life and Health (New York: Norton & Company, ); Jeff Lowenfels and Wayne Lewis, Teaming with Microbes: A Gardener’s Guide to the Soil Food Web (Portland, OR, and London: Timber, ). Claire E. LaCanne and Jonathan G. Lundgren, “Regenerative Agriculture: Merging Farming and Natural Resource Conservation Profitably,” PeerJ  (): E.

Notes to pages –  D. R. Davis, “Declining Fruit and Vegetable Nutrient Composition: What Is the Evidence?,” Horticultural Science , no.  (): –; A. M. Mayer, “Historical Changes in the Mineral Content of Fruits and Vegetables,” British Food Journal  (): –.  Z. X. Tan, R. Lal, and K. D. Wiebe, “Global Soil Nutrient Depletion and Yield Reduction,” Journal of Sustainable Agriculture  (): –.  Montgomery and Biklé, The Hidden Half of Nature, –.  Gerard Manley Hopkins, The Poetical Works of Gerard Manley Hopkins, ed. Norman H. MacKenzie (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), , lines –.

Chapter   Christopher W. Mitchell, The Meaning of BRK “to Bless” in the Old Testament, SBL Dissertation Series  (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, , repr. ), –, –.  Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, I, q. , art.  ad .  Roger Scruton, I Drink Therefore I Am: A Philosopher’s Guide to Wine (London: Bloomsbury, ), .  Neena Rai and Will Lyons, “A Sour Taste for Bordeaux Vintners: After Destructive Storms, France’s Fine-Wine Region Reaps One of Worst Grape Harvests in Decades,” Wall Street Journal, November , .  E.g., J. F. Ross, “Wine,” in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. G. Buttrick et al. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, ), :; Morris Jastrow, “Wine in the Pentateuchal Codes,” Journal of the American Oriental Society  (): –.  See, e.g., R. P. Teachout, “The Use of ‘Wine’ in the Old Testament,” Ph.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, ; Samuele Bacchiochi, Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages (Berrien Springs, MI: Biblical Perspectives, ), –, contends that the Hebrew and Greek uses of “wine” can refer to either nonalcoholic grape juice or wine. This distinction, however, cannot be sustained apart from subjective interpretations of different passages. Critical Hebrew and Greek lexicons do not support such distinctions and agree that references to “wine” refer to a fermented, alcoholic drink.  Bacchiochi, Wine in the Bible, , argues that containers could have been submerged in cold water, but we might question how many ancient Israelite farmers had access to such massive pools. James B. Pritchard, “Industry and Trade at Biblical Gibeon,” Biblical Archaeologist  (): –, notes large storage sites for wine below ground that were discovered by archaeologists and could hold up to fifty thousand liters. Temperature control was critical for wine production and trade, but fermentation was still possible at these sites.





Notes to pages –  McGovern, Ancient Wine, –; Tim Unwin, Wine and the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the Wine Trade (London: Routledge, ), –, –.  Meyers, Rediscovering Eve, –.  According to one midrash the grapes on the cluster provided enough wine for all of Israel’s sacrifices during their forty years in the wilderness. The same passage also offers the contrasting view, which says that wine came from the vines growing around Miriam’s well (Song Rab. :). The symbol of two men carrying a cluster of grapes on the pole was so significant that the modern state of Israel chose the image as the nation’s symbol.  Exod :; cf. Neh :. Other examples include  Sam :; :;  Kgs :; :; Isa :; Ezek :; Sir :. Amos : places a poetic twist on a lack of bread and water by equating it with the famine the LORD will bring by ceasing to speak his word.  Cf. Oded Borowski, “Eat, Drink and Be Merry: The Mediterranean Diet,” Near Eastern Archaeology , no.  (): –. Judges :;  Samuel :; :; :; and  Samuel :– also depict rations of bread and wine for a journey.  Mary Douglas, “Deciphering a Meal,” in Implicit Meanings: Essays in Anthropology, nd ed. (London: Routledge, ) – ().  Philo allegorizes the story of Melchizedek (Allegorical Interpretation, III, ) as he writes, “But let Melchizedek instead of water offer wine, and give to souls strong drink, that they may be seized by a divine intoxication, more sober than sobriety itself.” Philo, On the Creation: Allegorical Interpretation of Genesis  and , trans. H. Colson et al., Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), .  In ancient Mari, eating bread with wine (including anointing with oil) served as a symbol for sealing legal transactions (André Parrot, G. Dossin, and G. Boyer, Textes juridiques, Archives Royales de Mari: transcriptions et traductions  [Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, ], ). Cf. Gen :–; Josh :–. Aquinas would later reflect in his Summa theologiae that the sacrifice of Melchizedek foreshadowed the participatory nature of Christ’s sacrifice and the new covenant symbolized in bread and wine and so prefigured “the unity of the Church, which is the fruit of our fellowship in Christ’s sacrifice. This symbolism is, accordingly, still preserved in the New Law where the true sacrifice of Christ is communicated to the faithful under the appearance of bread and wine.” Summa, III, , , ad ; St Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, vol. , The One Mediator, trans. Colman E. O’Neill O.P. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), .  Sarna, Genesis, . Cf.  Sam :, .  Later in Genesis :– Abraham entertains three strangers and offers them bread made with choice flour, a tender calf, and curds of milk. The items all express his desire to offer the best to his guests, but why was there no wine? It is

Notes to pages –

 

  

 



   

 

 

likely because Abraham is portrayed as semi-nomadic as he sojourns through Canaan and Egypt and would not have been able to grow vines of his own. Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, –. A Jewish interpretation preserved in Tg. Ps.-J. Gen : contains the addition that an angel gave Jacob a cup of wine that had been created at the beginning of the world, and Jacob gave it to Isaac. Brueggemann, Genesis, . Claus Westermann, Blessing in the Bible and the Life of the Church (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, ), –. The images of Judah’s sovereignty and abundant vineyards are later taken up by Zechariah, who links these motifs to the coming rule of Messiah (Zech :). Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, –. Sarna, Genesis, ; Westermann, Genesis –, . Tina Sherman argues that the image of the choice vine is primarily about the profitable wine trade of the region rather than an example of hyperbole (www.thetorah.com/article/hetethers-his-donkey-to-the-vine-judah-exported-soreqa-wine). Though the śōrēqâ vine may have produced vintages sold to Egypt (see McGovern, Ancient Wine, –), the primary force of the metaphor has to do with the fertility and blessing of the earth in response to the rule of Judah. The visual image of blood-red wine is used again in Deuteronomy :, which alludes to the blessing of Judah given to the descendants of Jacob who drink “the blood of the grape” but do not honor God (cf. Sir :). Cf. Aaron Demsky, “‘Dark Wine’ from Judah,” Israel Exploration Journal  (): –. A more literal translation might read, “Has anyone planted a vineyard and not profaned it?” Cf. Jer :. S. R. Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, rd ed. (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, ), . Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, . She also notes how this idea is taken up by the Deuteronomistic historian in the seizing of Naboth’s vineyards by Ahab, where the king “profanes” Naboth’s right to the land and its produce. Milgrom, Leviticus –, –. Cf. Jeffrey H. Tigay, Deuteronomy, JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: JPS, ), . For echoes in Scripture see Richard B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –. For further development of his argument see Richard B. Hays, The Conversion of the Imagination: Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –. Patrick D. Miller, Deuteronomy, Interpretation (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, ), –. Mary Douglas, Leviticus as Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –.

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Notes to pages –  Scholars debate whether the Israelites, like their Near Eastern neighbors, understood wine and food sacrifices as something that actually feeds the deity. For other offerings see  Samuel :.  ANET, . For ancient Egyptian practices of daily sacrifices see Serge Sauneron, The Priests of Ancient Egypt, trans. Ann Morrissett (New York: Grove Press, ), –.  ANET, –, –.  Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, :. François Lissarrague, The Aesthetics of the Greek Banquet: Images of Wine and Ritual, trans. Andrew Szegedy-Maszak (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ), –.  Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB  (New York: Doubleday, ), .  The early Christian church followed a similar practice, but the first-fruits and the priestly portion were given to those committed to the proclamation of the gospel and serving the community of faith. In one of the earliest sets of Christian instructions called the Didache the author writes, “Every true prophet who wants to settle down with you deserves his food. So too a true teacher, like the worker, deserves his food. Therefore you shall take every first portion of the produce from the wine vat and the threshing floor, and the first portion of both cattle and sheep, and give it to the prophets. For they are your high priests. If you do not have a prophet, then give it to the poor. If you make bread, take the first portion and give it according to the commandment. So too if you open a jar of wine or oil, take the first portion of it and give it to the prophets.” Didache, .  Num :, , ; :, , , ; :, , , , , etc.  Jacob Milgrom, Numbers, JPS Torah Commentary (New York: JPS, ), .  See Isa :; Jer :; :. In his prophecies to the northern tribes Hosea warns the Israelites that they will go into exile and, “they shall not pour drink offerings of wine to the LORD, and their sacrifices shall not please him” (Hos :).  Claus Westermann, Isaiah –, trans. David M. G. Stalker (London: SCM Press, ), .  There is, however, one exception to this rule in winemaking when mold on the grapes is intentionally used. Noble Rot (Botrytis cinerea) develops late in the season when the grapes crack and go brown. Their sugar content is extremely high as they rot on the vine, but this is critical in producing a Sauternes wine.  The high priest referenced here is Simon, son of Onias II, who apparently made repairs to the temple with Seleucid support. During the second century BCE, the high priest Onias II backed the Seleucids when they held power in Jerusalem.  For further descriptions of Second Temple offerings see m. Tamid :; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, :.  Hiebert, The Yahwist’s Landscape, .

Notes to pages –    

   



 

       

Kreglinger, The Spirituality of Wine, . m. Ber. :. Deut :; :; :; :; :. See Göran Eidevall, Grapes in the Desert: Metaphors, Models, and Themes in Hosea –, Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament Series  (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, ). Michael Zohary, Plants of the Bible (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –. Cf. Gerald Morris, Prophecy, Poetry and Hosea, JSOTSS  (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, ), ; Song :. McGovern, Ancient Wine, . Commentators disagree on whether or not Amos :– was a later addition to the text. Cf. Shalom M. Paul, Amos (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), –. The wordʿasîs ¯ is only used on four other occasions (Isa :; Joel :; :; Song :). Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, –, argues that the most appropriate translation should be “new wine” since the noun is based on the root ʿ-s-s (“press, crush”). This could refer to freshly pressed wine or to the new wine of the vintage. For designations of “sweet wine” and other descriptions in Ugaritic see Yochanan Muffs and Baruch Levine, Studies in the Aramaic Legal Papyri from Elephantine, Handbuch der Orientalistik  (Leiden: Brill, ), . Cf. Lothar Becker, Rebe, Rausch und Religion: Eine kulturgeschichtliche Studie zum Wein in der Bibel (Münster: LIT Verlag, ). Hans Wildberger, Isaiah –, trans. Thomas H. Trapp (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), . “Strained” or “filtered,” when used in relation to wine, possibly refers to decanting the wine in order to separate it from the lees. It also may refer to a specific type of jug with a strainer spout that filtered out any unwanted sediment. See Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, –; R. Amiran, Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: From Its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End of the Iron Age (Jerusalem: Massada, ), –. Quoted from Wildberger, Isaiah –, . Enuma Elish, lines –, in ANET, . Wildberger, Isaiah –, . The NRSV translation “drink their blood like wine” is based on the LXX, but the Hebrew Masoretic Text could be read, “they shall drink, they shall roar, like wine.” The bowls at the corner of the altar were for sprinkling blood in sacrificial rites (cf. Exod :; Lev :, ). Cf. Gen :, ; Deut :; Isa :; :; Hos :; Ps :;  Chr :. See Marc Augé, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans. J. Howe (London: Verso, ). Pope Francis, Laudato si’, www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/ documents/papa-francesco__enciclica-laudato-si.html, .





Notes to pages –  Hartmut Rosa, “Dynamic Stabilization, the Triple A. Approach to the Good Life, and the Resonance Conception,” Questions de communication (Nancy)  (): – ().  Hartmut Rosa, Social Acceleration: A New Theory of Modernity, trans. Jonathan Trejo-Mathys (New York: Columbia University Press, ), –.  Ibid., –.  Rosa, Social Acceleration, –.  Ibid., .  Byung-Chul Han, The Disappearance of Ritual: A Topology of the Present, trans. Daniel Steuer (Cambridge: Polity Press, ), .  Wendell Berry, “Conservation and Local Economy,” in Wendell Berry: Essays –, ed. Jack Shoemaker (New York: Library of America, ), EPUB ed.  Wendell Berry, The Need to Be Whole: Patriotism and the History of Prejudice (Cincinnati, OH: Shoemaker & Company, ), .  Norman Wirzba, This Sacred Life: Humanity’s Place in a Wounded World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), xiii–xviii, –. Cf. Tim Ingold, The Life of Lines (London: Routledge, ).  Wirzba, This Sacred Life, .  Norman Wirzba, Agrarian Spirit: Cultivating Faith, Community, and the Land (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, ), .  See Wirzba’s compelling chapter on the rooted life in This Sacred Life, –.  Suzanne Simard, Finding the Mother Tree: Uncovering the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Forest (London: Penguin Books, ), EPUB ed., ch. , “Passing the Wand.”  Ibid., ch. , “Quid Pro Quo.” For further studies on trees and fungal networks see David George Haskell, The Songs of Trees: Stories from Nature’s Great Connectors (New York: Penguin Books, ); Peter Wohlleben, The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They Communicate (London: William Collins, ); Merlin Sheldrake, Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures (London: The Bodley Head, ).  Simard, Finding the Mother Tree, ch. , “Nine-Hour Commute.”  Wirzba, This Sacred Life, .

Chapter   Malcolm Guite, Faith, Hope and Poetry: Theology and the Poetic Imagination (London: Routledge, repr. ), .  See Robert Alter, The Art of Poetry, nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, ).  Guite, Faith, Hope and Poetry, .

Notes to pages –  William Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, act , scene , lines –, in William Shakespeare: The Complete Works, ed. P. Alexander (London, ). Cited in Guite, Faith, Hope and Poetry, .  Guite, Faith, Hope and Poetry, .  Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor, .  Ibid., .  George Herbert, “The Elixer,” lines –, in George Herbert: The Complete English Works, ed. A. Pasternak Slater (London: David Campbell, ), .  Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Prophets,  vols. (New York: Harper & Row, ; repr. Peabody, MA: Prince Press, ), :xiii.  Tina Sherman, “A Prolific Vine: Metaphorical Construction of National Identity in Prophetic Condemnations,” Ph.D. dissertation Brandeis University, , .  Paul R. Raabe, Obadiah, AB D (New York: Doubleday, ), –, lists fourteen texts that employ the metaphor of drinking the divine cup of wrath. Some of these will be explored here while others will be discussed in other chapters.  Scholars have tried to locate the cup-of-wrath metaphor within a particular historical context and have argued for possible connections to Egyptian or Assyrian literature. See W. McKane, “Poison, Trial by Ordeal and the Cup of Wrath,” VT  (): –, who contends that the cup metaphor finds parallels in Numbers :– and the case of the woman caught in adultery who drinks from a cup that determines her guilt or innocence.  For a discussion on extended metaphors see Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language, –.  Marvin E. Tate, Psalms –, WBC  (Waco, TX: Word Books, ), .  The land that “quakes” (r-ʿ-š) is a common metaphor used to describe terrifying and cataclysmic events. Cf. Judg :;  Sam :; Pss :; :; :; Isa :; :; Jer :; :; :; :; Amos :.  In the context of blessing, foaming wine likely indicates fresh wine, or newly fermented wine as in Deuteronomy :, “you drank fine wine from the blood of grapes.” The NRSV has the translation “fine wine,” but the Hebrew (hamer) ¯ _ might be translated as “fresh wine” or “foaming wine.” Cf. Walsh, The Fruit of the Vine, –.  Ronald L. Gorny, “Viticulture and Ancient Anatolia,” in The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, ed. Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology  (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, ), – (–).  McGovern, Ancient Wine, –.  The verse is not without difficulty since “cup” is a feminine noun which appears to the be the natural antecedent to the preposition “from it” (mizzeh), which is masculine. One would expect the feminine preposition as in Jeremiah :, where “this cup” (hazzōʾt) refers to the cup of the wine of God’s wrath. The





Notes to pages –



   

 





gender changes again in the ensuing statement where the wicked will drink the “dregs of it” (šǝmarêh ¯ a), ¯ which uses the feminine suffix. Raabe, Obadiah, –, argues that the preposition (zeh) refers back to the masculine noun “wine” (yayin), and so the verse might be interpreted to mean that either the LORD poured out some of his wrath in the past but now the nations will receive the full measure of the cup, or the LORD pours out some of the cup of his wrath but the nations cannot stop drinking it down to the dregs. In either case, the result is the same in that the promise of judgment against the wicked is symbolized by consuming from the LORD’s cup, which will stupefy, confound, and humiliate those who drink it. In their drunkenness they will be cut off, and the psalmist will rejoice in the God who brings justice to the earth (Ps :–). Alter, The Hebrew Bible, notes that the term for “staggering” (tarʿēlâ) probably relates to “poison” (raʿal) since this is its meaning in postbiblical Hebrew and also possibly in Zechariah :. The NRSV translates the Hebrew kôs qūbbaʿat as “bowl” but it could also be rendered “chalice,” “goblet,” or “cup.” Daniel Block, Ezekiel – (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –. See Walter Brueggemann, The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –. The Aramaic Targums call it “the cup of the wine of curse.” William McKane, Jeremiah I–XXV,  vols., International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, ), :, argues that the cup of curse is related to the ritual described in Numbers :– where the waters drunk by the woman guilty of adultery become cursed. In a similar manner, the nations are cursed because of their guilt. Though there may be a parallel, in Jeremiah the “wine of wrath” is expressly poured out, but it does not become cursed. The wine from the cup of wrath is prepared for judgment by God, and all who drink it will suffer its consequences. Jack R. Lundbom, Jeremiah –, AB B (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), . Contra McKane, Jeremiah I–XXV, , who argues that images of the sword and wine are incongruous which misunderstands how the prophet brings together two images of utter disorientation. Verse  ends by saying that Sheshach too will drink the cup. Sheshach was the king of Babylon, and his name is representative of the nation (cf. Jer :). In Jeremiah – the collection of Oracles Against the Nations share similar themes of the LORD’s absolute sovereignty over all the earth. The importance of the LORD’s sovereignty is critical to the interpretation of chapter , which has been seen as a key fulcrum in the entire book. See Martin Kessler, “The Function of Chapters  and – in the Book of Jeremiah,” in Troubling Jeremiah, ed. A. R. Pete Diamond, Kathleen M. O’Connor, and Louis Stulman, JSOTSS  (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, ), –; cf. John Hill, “The Construction of Time in Jeremiah  MT,” in Troubling Jeremiah, ed. A. R. Pete Diamond, Kathleen

Notes to pages –







  

       





M. O’Connor, and Louis Stulman, JSOTSS  (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, ), –. The assumption made here is that Jerusalem did not deserve to drink the LORD’s cup of wrath, but this directly contradicts Jeremiah :. Gordon McConville, Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah (Leicester: Apollos, ), , argues that the sense of Jeremiah : is not that Jerusalem did not deserve punishment but that, as God’s covenant people, judgment should not have been her fate. The Midrash (Esther Rab. :) contends that divine punishment upon the Babylonians was just retribution for their devastating imperial expansion and their humiliation of Zedekiah, the Judean king exiled from Jerusalem. As discussed in the Noah story, there may be allusions here to sexual relations between men. The LXX translates “your nakedness” as “your caves,” which was later interpreted as coveting riches. Similar metaphors of wine that bring a disastrous fate are also used by the later prophets. Cf. Jer :–; Ezek :–; Isa :; Ps :; Lam :. Walter Brueggemann, Isaiah –, Interpretation (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ), . Isaiah also likens Judah’s sinfulness and faithlessness to “wine mixed with water” (Isa :). The comparison assumes that diluted wine is an aberration, just as diluted faith is a transgression against God’s command. This could be a criticism of the Greek, and later Roman, practice of diluting wine with water. See Katherine M. Hayes, The Earth Mourns: Prophetic Metaphor and Oral Aesthetic (Atlanta, GA: SBL, ), –. Nathan MacDonald, Not Bread Alone: The Uses of Food in the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –. Y. Aharoni, The Land of the Bible: A Historical Geography, nd ed. (London: Burns & Oates, ), . Wildberger, Isaiah –, . Hosea offers a similar image of those who “wail upon their beds; they gash themselves for grain and wine; they rebel against me” (Hos :). Brown, The Ethos of the Cosmos, –. Cf. Victor H. Matthews, “Treading the Winepress: Actual and Metaphorical Viticulture in the Ancient Near East,” Semeia  (): –. Rafael Frankel, Wine and Oil Production in Antiquity in Israel and Other Mediterranean Countries, JSOT Monographs  (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, ), . T. G. H. James, “The Earliest History of Wine and Its Importance in Ancient Egypt,” in The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, ed. Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology  (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, ), – (). A similar image comes from the author of Lamentations, who reflects on the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians. In this instance, Judah is the





Notes to pages –





   









grapes that are crushed by God. “The LORD has trodden as in a wine press the virgin daughter Judah” (Lam :). Cf. Ps :. See Patrick D. Miller, The Divine Warrior in Ancient Israel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ). McGovern, Ancient Wine, , notes that the Egyptian god of the winepress, Sheshmu, was also known to execute judgment against the pharaoh’s enemies. In one story he is depicted as squeezing the last drops of juice from the grapes in a bag that also contained three human heads. See Dominic S. Irudayaraj, Violence, Otherness and Identity in Isaiah :–: The Trampling One Coming from Edom, Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies  (London: T & T Clark, ). See McGovern, Ancient Wine, , for Egyptian medicinal uses of wine and the lees for healing. Ibid., –. Ibid., –. A similar example of complacency might be seen in Gedaliah, who encourages Jeremiah and those left after the Babylonian incursions to “gather wine and summer fruits and oil, and store them in your vessels, and live in the towns that you have taken over” (Jer :). Soon thereafter he was assassinated. For helpful studies on feasting see Peter Altmann, Festive Meals in Ancient Israel: Deuteronomy’s Identity Politics in Their Ancient Near Eastern Context, Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft  (Berlin: de Gruyter, ); Jonathan S. Greer, Dinner at Dan: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence for Sacred Feasts at Iron Age II Tel Dan and Their Significance, Culture and History of the Ancient Near East  (Leiden: Brill, ). For ancient Canaanite practices see David P. Wright, Ritual in Narrative: The Dynamics of Feasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites in the Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, ). Denise Schmandt-Besserat, “Feasting in the Ancient Near East,” in Feasts: Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food, Politics, and Power, ed. M. Dietler and B. Hayden (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, ), –; Jean Bottero, “The Oldest Feast,” in Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, ed. Jean Bottero (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ), –. For a collection of essays on the topic see Peter Altmann and Janling Fu, eds., Feasting in the Archaeology and Texts of the Bible and the Ancient Near East (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, ) and the volume edited by Dietler and Hayden cited in n.  above. Carol Meyers, “Menu: Royal Repasts and Social Class in Biblical Israel,” in Feasting in the Archaeology and Texts of the Bible and the Ancient Near East, ed. Peter Altmann and Janling Fu (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, ), –. For cultural traditions regarding Nehemiah’s feasting (Neh :) see Jacob L. Wright, “Commensal Politics in Ancient Western Asia. The

Notes to pages –

 















Background to Nehemiah’s Feasting (Part I),” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft  (): –. See Marvin H. Pope, Song of Songs, AB C (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –, –. It is possible that bêt mišteh (“house of feasting”) and bêt marzēah (“house of _ marzēah”) are similar terms and so might be translated “house of funeral _ feasting.” Cf. W. L. Holladay, Jeremiah : A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters – (Philadelphia: Fortress, ), –. For a full treatment of the terms as used in Jeremiah and Amos, see John L. McLaughlin, The Marzēah in the Prophetic Literature: References and Allusions in Light of Extra-Biblical Evidence, VTSup  (Leiden: Brill, ). A similar condemnation is repeated in  Enoch :, “Woe to you who devour the finest of the wheat, and drink wine in large bowls, And tread underfoot the lowly with your might.” See Manuel Dubach, Trunkenheit im Alten Testament: Begrifflichkeit – Zeugnisse – Wertung (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, ) for a detailed philological study of drunkenness. The final scene of Samson’s life will not be analyzed since wine is not mentioned in Judges . However, it is likely that the Philistines were drunk at the feast of their god Dagon (Judg :) before Samson was brought before them. The story ends with Samson knocking down the pillars and killing himself along with all the lords of the Philistines. Another narrative of feasting and drunkenness is that of Nabal in  Samuel , but he woke the following day and “when the wine had gone out of Nabal, his wife told him these things and his heart died within him; he became like a stone. About ten days later the LORD struck Nabal, and he died” ( Sam :–).  Chronicles :– records a joyful three-day feast with wine when the Israelite troops rally around David to make him king. Food consciousness and moderation become a more significant issue in the Second Temple period, particularly in reference to Hellenistic influences. See MacDonald, Not Bread Alone, –. John Goldingay, Daniel, WBC  (Waco, TX: Word Books, ), ; cf. John J. Collins, Daniel, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MI: Fortress Press, ), –. Daniel’s account of Belshazzar is difficult to align with the historical record. Rather than the son of Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar was the son of Nabonidus, the final Babylonian king to reign prior to the Persian conquest. Belshazzar ruled for at least three years as co-regent while Nabonidus was in Arabia. Scholars have offered various solutions, but many contend that Belshazzar is used to reflect negatively on Nebuchadnezzar’s reign as well as that of Nabonidus. See Goldingay, Daniel, . Cf.  Macc :–; Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, ...





Notes to pages –  For more on the reception of Esther see Sidnie W. Crawford and Leonard J. Greenspoon (eds.), The Book of Esther in Modern Research, JSOTSS  (New York: T & T Clark, ).  Jon D. Levenson, Esther, Old Testament Library (London: SCM, ), , suggests a link between the “festive banqueting” for Vishti that begins the book and the feast of Purim that concludes the book. Medieval Jewish interpreters saw the story as a transformation of wine from suffering to celebration where Mordecai and Esther raise themselves, through prayer, to the “place of the supernatural wine.” See Barry D. Walfish, Esther in Medieval Garb: Jewish Interpretation of the Book of Esther in the Middle Ages (New York: SUNY Press, ), .  See S. A. White, “In the Steps of Jael and Deborah: Judith as Heroine,” in No One Spoke Ill of Her: Essays on Judith, ed. S. A. White (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, ), –.  Heschel, The Prophets, :.  Ibid., :.  Wendel Berry, The Need to Be Whole, –.  Ibid., .  Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, .

Chapter   Michael V. Fox, Proverbs –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB a (New York: Doubleday ), .  See Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Book of Job, trans. Francis Bolton,  vols. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, ), :.  Mark Sneed, “The Social Setting of Wisdom Literature,” in The Oxford Handbook of Wisdom and the Bible, ed. Will Kynes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), – ().  Gerhard von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, trans. James D. Martin (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, ), , recognized that the category of “wisdom” was in need of examination and comments, “It could even be that scholarship has gone too far in an uncritical use of this collective term; it could even be that by the use of this blanket term it is suggesting the existence of something which never existed and that it is in this way dangerously prejudicing the interpretation of varied material.”  Will Kynes, An Obituary for “Wisdom Literature”: The Birth, Death, and Intertextual Reintegration of a Biblical Corpus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –; see pp. – for his multi-perspectival approach.  Michael V. Fox, “Three Theses on Wisdom,” in Was There a Wisdom Tradition? New Prospects in Israelite Wisdom Studies, ed. Mark S. Sneed (Atlanta, GA: SBL, ), – (). Cf. Mark S. Sneed, “Is the Wisdom Tradition a Tradition?” CBQ  (): –.

Notes to pages –  Claus Westermann, Roots of Wisdom (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, ), ; William McKane, Proverbs: A New Approach, Old Testament Library (London: SCM Press ), –, contends that later redactors to Proverbs included theological additions that focused on God.  See William P. Brown, Wisdom’s Wonder: Character, Creation, and Crisis in the Bible’s Wisdom Literature (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), .  See Choon-Leong Seow, “Elihu’s Revelation,” Theology Today  (): –.  Ellen F. Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ), .  Cf. Exod :; Lev :–; Deut :–.  For an overview of feminist approaches to wisdom personified see Christine Roy Yoder, “Personified Wisdom and Feminist Theologies,” in The Oxford Handbook of Wisdom and the Bible, ed. Will Kynes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –.  Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, –.  Robert Farrar Capon, The Supper of the Lamb: A Culinary Reflection (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, ), .  Cf. Prov :; :, ; :; :; :; :.  Theognis, –, –; Douglas E. Gerber, ed. and trans., Greek Elegiac Poetry from the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), .  It is possible for the Hebrew to be read as “Lemuel, king of Massa,” but his identity is not identified in the Bible or other ancient Near Eastern texts. Commentators have most often understood the character to be Solomon.  The rabbis, seemingly concerned with the purity of the temple, argued that Solomon abstained from wine during its construction (b. Shab. b; b. Sanh. b). He later celebrated by marrying the pharaoh’s daughter on the day when the building was complete and began to drink wine again.  Michael V. Fox, Proverbs –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB B (New York: Doubleday, ), –.  For further interpretations see James L. Crenshaw, “A Mother’s Instruction to Her Son (Proverbs :–),” in Perspectives in the Hebrew Bible, ed. James L. Crenshaw (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, ), –.  Fox, Proverbs –, –, notes the parallel Egyptian wisdom text of Anii, where a father offers similar warnings to his son for drinking too much. He cites another Egyptian saying, “‘Beer makes (you) stop being a man. It makes your soul to wander, and you are like a crooked steering oar in a boat that obeys on neither side” (Papyrus Anastasi IV .–; Alan H. Gardiner, ed., Late Egyptian Miscellanies, Bibliotheca Aegyptiaca  [Brussels: Fondation égyptologique reine Elizabeth, ], ) and argues that ridiculing inebriation was a topos used in wisdom literature.  Fox, Proverbs –, .





Notes to pages –  Roland E. Murphy, Proverbs, WBC  (Nashville, TN: T. Nelson Publishers, ), .  A similar image comes from the prophet Hosea, who describes the officials who have become “sick with the heat of wine” (Hos :).  Similar wisdom can be found in the prophet Hosea who condemns the people for their idolatry and argues that, “Wine and new wine take away the understanding” (Hos :). A more literal translation might read, ‘Wine and new wine take away the heart.”  G. K. Chesterton, Heretics, th ed. (New York: John Lane Company, ), . Greek poet Theognis offers similar counsel. “Experts recognize gold and silver by fire, but wine reveals the mind of a man, even though he is very prudent, if he takes and drinks it beyond his limit, so that it puts to shame even one who was formerly wise.” Theognis, –; Gerber, Greek Elegiac Poetry from the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, .  See Adam Alter, Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked (New York: Penguin, ). For a full overview on the effects of dopamine see Shelly B. Flagel et al., “A Selective Role for Dopamine in Stimulus–Reward Learning,” Nature . (): –. See also Robert M. Sapolsky, Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst (London: Vintage, ), –, for neurological research on addictive behaviors.  Max Fisher, The Chaos Machine: The Inside Story of How Social Media Rewired Our Minds and Our World (London: Quercus Edition Ltd, ), .  Frances Haugen’s statement can be found here: www.commerce.senate.gov/ services/files/FCAE-E--BEDB-ABBD.  Bobby Allyn, “Here Are  Key Points from the Facebook Whistleblower’s Testimony on Capitol Hill,” October , , www.npr.org//// /facebook-whistleblower-frances-haugen-congress.  Fisher, The Chaos Machine, .  For more on the shaping influences of Silicon Valley see Margaret O’Mara, The Code: Silicon Valley and the Remaking of America (New York: Penguin, ). For a detailed study on group animosity and social media see Steve Rathje, Jay J. Van Bavel, and Sander van der Linden, “Out-Group Animosity Drives Engagement on Social Media,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , no.  (), https://doi.org/./pnas.  The dating of Ecclesiastes is debated, but many scholars contend that it resonates with later Hellenistic philosophy of the third and second centuries BCE. For a detailed linguistic study see Anton Schoors, The Preacher Sought to Find Pleasing Words: A Study of the Language of Qoheleth, Orientala Lovaniensia Analecta  (Leuven: Peeters, ).  See Tremper Longman III, “The ‘Fear of God’ in the Book of Ecclesiastes,” Bulletin for Biblical Research  ():–.

Notes to pages –  See Michael V. Fox, The JPS Bible Commentary: Ecclesiastes (Philadelphia: JPS, ), xix, for a summary of the meanings of hebel and his conclusion that no one English word is sufficient for its translation.  The NRSV has “cheer,” but the Hebrew verb (m-š-k) means “pull, draw.” The LXX and Vulgate both render with the sense of being enticed or dragged away (thus the New Jerusalem Version “tempt” or the New American Bible “beguile”). The use of “cheer” however, suits the context in terms of Qoheleth’s pursuit of worldly pleasures. Cf. Charles F. Whitely, Koheleth: His Language and Thought (New York: De Gruyter, ), –.  Alter, The Hebrew Bible, Eccl :; Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, –.  Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, . Solomon was also generous with the portions of wine he distributed among the workers who built the temple. In  Chronicles :– we are told that the provision included wheat, barley and “twenty thousand baths of wine.” A “bath” was approximately  liters, which is equivalent to twenty-nine modern bottles of wine. Multiply this number by , and Solomon gave out , bottles!  Nicole L. Tilford, Sensing World, Sensing Wisdom: The Cognitive Foundation of Biblical Metaphors (Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, ), , n. , argues that “much of Qoheleth’s visual language refers to abstract contemplation.” The disassociation between abstract and physical, however, misses the critical link between bodily experience and the wisdom Qoheleth seeks especially in relation to wine.  George Saintsbury, Notes on a Cellar-Book, ed. Thomas Pinney (Berkeley: University of California Press, ), .  A similar sentiment is expressed in the Wisdom of Solomon: “Let us take our fill of costly wine and perfumes, and let no flower of spring pass us by” (Wis :).  R. Smend, “Essen und Trinken – Ein Stück Weltlichkeit des Alten Testaments,” in Beiträge zur alttestamentlichen Theologie, ed. R. Hanhard and R. Smend (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, ). –, argues that the phrase suggests the good life.  Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, .  Miroslav Volf, “The Crown of the Good Life: A Hypothesis,” in Joy and Human Flourishing: Essays on Theology, Culture and the Good Life, ed. Miroslav Volf and Justin E. Crisp (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), EPUB ed., ch. .  See R. N. Whybray, “Qoheleth, Preacher of Joy,” JSOT  (): –.  Carol Newsom, “Positive Psychology and Ancient Israelite Wisdom,” in The Bible and the Pursuit of Happiness: What the Old Testament Teaches about the Good Life, ed. Brent Strawn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), – ().  Tremper Longman III, The Book of Ecclesiastes, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge: Eerdmans, ), –.





Notes to pages –  Ibid. Longman notes that the word for “wife” (ʾiššâ) is used without the definite article and could equally be translated “woman.” Though some commentators have argued that adultery with the “woman whom you love” is being promoted, Qoheleth is speaking within the wider context of family, responsibility, and the roles of the patriarch and matriarch within its structure. Cf. James Crenshaw, Ecclesiastes (London: SCM, ), .  A literal translation could read, “And money answers all.” Alter translates the phrase, “And money keeps everyone busy,” and argues that the Hebrew verb (yaʿneh) is associated with business in Ecclesiastes. The idea is that people are preoccupied with money. Though people do become preoccupied with money, Longman, Ecclesiastes, –, is right to argue that money here is referring to the means which provide for food and wine. Cf. Choon-Leong Seow, Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB C (New York: Doubleday, ), –.  See William T. Cavanaugh, Being Consumed: Economics and Christian Desire (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ).  Mark Anielski, The Economics of Happiness: Building Genuine Wealth (Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, ), –.  Ibid., . Cf. Peter Block, Walter Brueggemann, and John McKnight, An Other Kingdom: Departing the Consumer Culture (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, ), –.  Walter Brueggemann, Tenacious Solidarity: Biblical Provocations on Race, Religion, Climate, and the Economy, ed. Davis Hankins (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), – (). Brueggemann argues that the Bible is “relentless in its resistance to an economy of extraction and boldly confident in its articulation of an alternative economy of restoration.”  For more on economics and faith see Roland Boer, The Sacred Economy of Ancient Israel, Library of Ancient Israel (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ); Walter Brueggemann, Money and Possessions (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ).  Wendell Berry, The Need to Be Whole, .  Pope Francis, Laudato si’, .  Ibid., –.  See André Lacocque, Romance She Wrote: A Hermeneutical Essay on Song of Songs (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, ).  Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on the Song of Songs, trans. Robert C. Hill (Brisbane: Australian Catholic University, ), :–.  Ambrose, On the Christian Faith, ..; Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, vol. , ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., ).  See Michael Fishbane, Song of Songs, JPS Bible Commentary (Philadelphia: JPS, ). For an extensive history of Christian and Jewish interpretation see Pope, Song of Songs, –.

Notes to pages –  m. Yad. :.  Duane A. Garrett and Paul R. House, Song of Songs, WBC B (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, ), . Drinking wine is often associated with kissing and sexual relations throughout the Song (:, ; :; :; :, ; :). Cf. Pope, Song of Songs, –, who argues that the “house of wine” was simply the location where wine was drunk. Pope also contends that the marzēah _ was a feast for and with the departed ancestors (cf. ibid., –, –).  Michael V. Fox, The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, ), , offers examples from Egyptian love poetry where “The references to garden booths in the Egyptian songs show that the motif of lovemaking and feasting in booths in fields and under trees was traditional in the love song genre.”  Commentators have noted the agrarian and geographic metaphors throughout the Song, which have led some to argue that the descriptions of the female body are references to the land of Israel.  Saintsbury, Notes on a Cellar-Book, –.  Cf. Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, .  This is later expressed in Song :, “Eat, friends, drink, and be drunk with love.”  Cf. Garrett and House, Song of Songs, –, who argue that this is the point of marriage in the poem, but Davis, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs, –, contends that this does not cohere with the rest of the poem, which indicates that the woman is not yet married (cf. Song :; :, ).  Othmar Keel, The Song of Songs, Continental Commentary (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), EPUB ed., “The Song of Songs : ()–:: If You Were Only My Brother.”  Ibid., “The Song of Songs :–:: The Paradise of Love.” Keel notes that a similar sentiment is expressed in a Neo-Sumerian text in which a woman says to her lover, “My god, sweet is the drink of the wine-maid, / Like her drink, sweet is her vulva, sweet is her drink / Like her lips, sweet is her vulva, sweet is her drink.”  Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux: Collection (n.p.: Aeterna Press, ), Kindle ed., “Sermon : Mystical Vineyards and the Prudence of the Flesh.”  Ibid.  The Roman Catholic Church calls these writings “deuterocanonical,” meaning that they are secondary additions to the canon of the Bible and are consulted on matters of doctrine. Most Protestant and Jewish traditions state that these are helpful for the life of faith but should not contribute to doctrine.  Wine is mentioned only once in the Wisdom of Solomon, in the words of the unrighteous who argue for their own type of Carpe diem. “Come, therefore, let us enjoy the good things that exist, and make use of the creation to the full as in youth. Let us take our fill of costly wine and perfumes, and let no flower of spring pass us by” (Wis :–).





Notes to pages –  For more on the social setting of Sirach see Samuel Adams, Greg Schmidt Goering, and Matthew Goff, eds., Sirach and Its Contexts: The Pursuit of Wisdom and Human Flourishing (Leiden: Brill, ); John J. Collins, Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ), –; Martin Hengel, Judaism and Hellenism (Philadelphia: Fortress, ) –.  Nonnos, Dionysiaca, ..  Euripides, Bacchae, –; trans. John Buller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), .  Lissarrague, The Aesthetics of the Greek Banquet, –.  Cf. Sir :, where the memory of Josiah is “like music at a banquet of wine.”  David A. Skelton, “Sages as Singers in Sirach and the Second Temple Period,” in Sirach and Its Contexts: The Pursuit of Wisdom and Human Flourishing, ed. Samuel Adams, Greg Schmidt Goering, and Matthew Goff (Leiden: Brill, ), – ().  Ben Sira puts this in more practical terms when he says, “The basic necessities of human life are water and fire and iron and salt and wheat flour and milk and honey, the blood of the grape and oil and clothing” (Sir :).  In some manuscripts the final phrase could be read, “From the beginning it was created to make people happy,” which may allude to Noah or the tradition that a river of wine flowed through Eden. See Arnold A. Wieder, “Ben Sira and the Praises of Wine,” Jewish Quarterly Review  (): – (–).  Richard A. Horsley, Scribes, Visionaries, and the Politics of Second Temple Judea (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, ), .  Dominicus M. Prümmer O.P., Manuale theologiae moralis secundum principia S. Thomae Aquinatis in usum scholarum, vol.  (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, ), .

Chapter   For a list of books contained in these writings see James H. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,  vols. (New York: Bantam Doubleday, ).  There is little scholarly consensus on when the Bible came together in its final form. During the Second Temple period it is likely that the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and some of the historical writings had already been established in the canon of what were considered holy scriptures. For further discussion see Craig A. Evans and Emanuel Tov, Exploring the Origins of the Bible: Canon Formation in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, ).  See John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ).  Cf. Isa :–; :–; Ezek :–; Amos :–.

Notes to pages –  Translations from the Pseudepigrapha are from Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, :.  Cf. George W. E. Nickelsburg, A Commentary on the Book of  Enoch, Chapters –; –, Hermeneia (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), –.  Ibid., .  For further discussion see Michael Segal, The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology and Theology (Boston: Brill, ).  See Ginzberg, Legend of the Jews, :–.  Cf. m. Pesah :. _  The church father Irenaeus draws on a similar image for Christian hope when he writes, “The days will come, in which vines shall grow, each having ten thousand branches, and in each branch ten thousand twigs, and in each true twig ten thousand shoots, and in each one of the shoots ten thousand clusters, and on every one of the clusters ten thousand grapes, and every grape when pressed will give five and twenty metretes of wine. And when any one of the saints shall lay hold of a cluster, another shall cry out, ‘I am a better cluster, take me; bless the Lord through me.’” (Against Heresies, .; The Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson,  vols. [–; reprint: Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, ], vol. , www.newadvent.org/ fathers/.htm)  A later text under the same pseudonym called  Baruch (Greek) is a Christian or Jewish apocalypse from the second century CE. It contains another tradition regarding the beginnings of wine in the Bible and tells the story of Noah who reluctantly plants a vine after the flood. Noah fears that its produce was what led to the demise and sin of Adam. He prays for forty days, asking God what he should do, and then he is visited by the angel Sarasael. Sarasael tells Noah to plant it because “Its bitterness will be changed into sweetness, and its curse will become a blessing, and its fruit will become the blood of God, and just as the race of men have been condemned through it, so through Jesus Christ Emmanuel in it (they) will receive a calling and entrance into Paradise” ( Bar. :). In the Greek version the assumption is that the vine and wine were the cause of the fall of Adam and Eve, which would be redeemed in Christ. In the Slavonic version of  Baruch the vine is first identified as evil, and then Noah is told to “alter its name and change it for the better” (:). Both texts seem to imply that the vine was originally planted by Sammael in the garden and then cursed by God, but that in the new creation the vine would bring blessing through Noah.  For a detailed account of the Qumran scrolls see James C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ); John J. Collins, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Biography (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ); Timothy H. Lim, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction, nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ).





Notes to pages –  The Essene calendar can be found in a number of texts (e.g., QReworked Pentateuch, QMMT, the Temple Scroll, and Qd). For more recent discoveries see Eshbal Ratzon and Jonathan Ben-Dov, “A Newly Reconstructed Calendrical Scroll from Qumran in Cryptic Script,” JBL  (): –.  Q :–.  Q :–.  See Yigael Yadin, The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect (New York: Random House, ), –.  Jacob Milgrom, “New Temple Festivals in the Temple Scroll,” in The Temple in Antiquity: Ancient Records and Modern Perspectives, ed. Truman G. Madsen (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, ), –. Yadin, The Temple Scroll, , argues that the new wine festival bore no similarities to the worship of Dionysus or Bacchus.  Though not a specific festival, the offering of wine for the dead was a widespread practice in the ancient world, and it was also found among some Jews in the Second Temple period. The book of Tobit gives the exhortation, “Pour out your bread and wine on the tomb of the just, and give not to sinners” (Tob :; cf. Jub. :). Excavations at grave sites in Samaria have revealed holes in the floors which were similar to holes found in tombs at Ugarit. These openings gave a means to offer food and wine for the dead (see also Sir :; :). For more on wine and food offerings for the dead see T. J. Lewis, Cults of the Dead in Ancient Israel and Ugarit (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, ), , –.  The idea of the remnant is also seen in other fragments that often refer to God’s righteous planting of a vine. Pantoja highlights several texts from Qumran that refer to God’s righteous planting to atone for the land and bring forth abundant fruit. See Pantoja, The Metaphor of the Divine as Planter of the People, –.  m. Menah. :. _  m. Menah. :. _  m. Ber. :.  m. Ber. :.  m. Ber. :.  m. Ber. :–, .  m. Pesah. :. _  m. Pesah. :. _

Chapter   E. C. De Sena, “An Assessment of Wine and Oil Production in Romeʼs Hinterland: Ceramic, Literary, Art Historical and Modern Evidence,” in Roman Villas around the Urbs: Interaction with Landscape and Environment, ed. B. Santillo Frizell and A. Klynne (Rome: Swedish Institute in Rome, ),

Notes to pages –





      

    

–; Annalisa Marzano, “Agricultural Production in the Hinterland of Rome: Wine and Olive Oil,” in The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organisation, Investment, and Production, ed. Alan Bowman and Andrew Wilson, Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –. Cf. Jean-Pierre Brun, Archéologie du vin et de l’huile, dans l’empire romain (Paris: Errance, ). Willem Jongman, “The Early Roman Empire: Consumption,” in The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, ed. W. Scheidel, I. Morris, and R. Saller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), – (–). Roman orator Cato offers advice on how to keep wines sweet throughout the year. “If you wish to keep new wine sweet the whole year round, put new wine in a jar, cover the stopper with pitch, submerge it in a pool of water, take it out after the thirtieth day; you will have sweet wine all the year round.” Cato and Varro, On Agriculture, trans. W. D. Hooper and Harrison Boyd Ash, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), . D. W. T. C. Vessey, “The Myth of Falernus in Silius, ‘Punica ,’” The Classical Journal  (): –. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, ..; trans. H. Rackham, –. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, ..; trans. H. Rackham, . See Katherine Dunbabin, The Roman Banquet: Images of Conviviality (New York: Cambridge University Press, ). b. B. Bat., a. See P. Walsh, “Making a Drama out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia,” Greece & Rome , no.  (): –. Matthew : uses the phrase “eating and drinking” but does not refer to bread and wine. J. A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel according to Luke I–IX: Introduction, Translation and Notes, AB  (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, ), –, argues that bread and wine are only stock terms, citing Genesis Apocryphon’s use of “food and drink” ( QapGen :) to describe the bread and wine that Melchizedek gives Abraham. In Luke’s Gospel, however, wine is specifically being used to compare Jesus to John. Jesus’s drinking symbolizes the inauguration of the messianic kingdom. Bread and wine are not stock terms but, rather, they are critical to the scriptural themes that link wine to God’s salvation in the messianic age. Cf. Joachim Jeremias, Rediscovering the Parables (New York: Charles Scribner; repr. London: SCM Press, ), –. Prov :–; :–:; Sir ; ;  En. ;  Ezra .; Wis :–:. The idea of “children of Wisdom” is implied by Proverbs : and Sirach :. Cf. Isa :–; :–; Jer :. Cf. Ps :–; Gos. Thom. §; Jeremias, Rediscovering the Parables, . The garment Jesus speaks of was likely a symbol for the heavens and the earth that the author of Hebrews says will be rolled up like an old cloak before Christ





Notes to pages –

 



 

  

  





reveals the new creation (Heb :–). Jeremias also cites Peter’s vision in Acts – where a sheet falls from heaven over all creation and a voice declares that God has made all things clean. Jeremias, Rediscovering the Parables, . See e.g., I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Exeter: Paternoster Press, ), –; Fitzmyer, The Gospel according to Luke I–IX, –; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Gospel of Luke (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, ), –. David Flusser, “Do You Prefer New Wine?,” Immanuel  (): –; Brad H. Young, Jesus the Jewish Theologian (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, ), –. Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –. Athenaeus, The Learned Banqueters, :; The Learned Banqueters, vol. : Books –, ed. and trans. S. Douglas Olson, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), . We hear this also in the plea of Maron, “Grant me this boon, that I may drink that store of old wine, and let Seilenos drink the new stuff of a new vintage!” Nonnos, Dionysiaca, .–; Dionysiaca, vol. , Books –, trans. W. H. D. Rouse, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), . Cf. b. Ber. a. Cf. Fitzmyer, Luke I–IX, . Jeremias, Rediscovering the Parables, . Chrys Caragounis, “‘Abide in Me’: The New Mode of Relationship between Jesus and His Followers as a Basis for Christian Ethics (John ),” in Rethinking the Ethics of John: “Implicit Ethics” in the Johannine Writings, ed. Z. Jan G. Van Der Watt and Reuben Zimmermann, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament  (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, ), –. See David F. Ford, The Gospel of John (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic), –. After  CE the disciples of Johanan ben Zakkai at Jamnia were called the “vineyard” (kerem) of Jabneh (cf. m. Ketub. :). R. Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, trans. George Raymond Beasley-Murray (Oxford: Blackwell, ), , claims that the vine reference here does not have its origin in biblical tradition, but in the myth of the tree of life. This interpretation, however, strays far from the plain sense of the passage and its clear relationship to the symbol of Israel as God’s choice vines. Some commentators argue that Jesus’s words were precipitated by the disciples’ comments on the golden ornamental vine at the entrance of Herod’s temple (cf. m. Mid. :; Josephus, Jewish Wars, .). For further discussion on the theological importance of John’s use of “abide” see Ford, The Gospel of John, –, –.

Notes to pages –  Ibid., .  Ibid., . Others like Rudolf Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to St John, trans. Kevin Smyth,  vols. (London: Burns & Oates, ), :, contend that a sacramental reading unduly restricts the scope of interpretation, but Ford rightly contends that John’s Gospel is filled with signs and symbols that point to deeper interpretations beyond a surface reading.  Raymond E. Brown, The Gospel According to John: Introduction, Translation, and Notes, AB , A (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, ) :. After the wedding at Cana, the signs that follow are () the healing of the official’s son (John :–), () healing of a man by a pool (:–), () the feeding of five thousand (:–), () walking on water (:–), () the healing of a blind man (:–), and () the raising of Lazarus (:–).  Jeannine K. Brown, “Creation’s Renewal in the Gospel of John,” CBQ  (): – ().  Cf. Matt :–; :–; Mark :–. See also Rev :–.  The “hour” in John’s Gospel refers to Jesus’s death and the glory that will be made known through the cross (John :; :; :, ; :; :).  Cf. Martin Hengel, “The Interpretation of the Wine Miracle at Cana: John :–,” in The Glory of Christ in the New Testament: Studies in Christology in Memory of George Bradford Caird, ed. L. D. Hurst and N. T. Wright (Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), – (–), who lists several instances where wine is coupled with messianic expectations. Cf. Roger D. Aus, Water into Wine and the Beheading of John the Baptist: Early Jewish-Christian Interpretation of Esther  in John :– and Mark :– (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, ), –.  Barnabas Lindars, The Gospel of John, New Century Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, repr. ), , and others have noted the comparisons between Jesus’s miracle and those of Dionysus (Bacchus) in Euripides’ Bacchae, .ff. He contends that it is unlikely that the gospel author is using this as an apologetic to demonstrate that Jesus is greater than the Greco-Roman wine gods. Cf. Heinz Noetzel, Christus und Dionysos: Bemerkungen zum Religions geschichtlichen Hintergrund bon Johannes , I–II (Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, ).  Ephrem, St. Ephrem the Syrian, .  Lindars, The Gospel of John, .  Contra Herman N. Ridderbos, The Gospel According to John, trans. John Vriend (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), , who argues, “In the place of the law given through Moses (the Jewish rites of purification) grace and truth in all their fullness have now come through Jesus Christ.”  Ford, The Gospel of John, .  Irenaeus, Against Heresies, ...  Hans Urs von Balthasar, Origen Spirit and Fire: A Thematic Anthology of His Writings, trans. Robert J. Daly, SJ (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, ), .





Notes to pages –  Benjamin Franklin, “From Benjamin Franklin to the Abbé Morellet [after  July ],” in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. , July  through October , , ed. Barbara B. Oberg (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, ), –.  Ancient Christian commentators also saw abundant wine as an important indication of the Messiah. They interpreted the blessings of Judah in Genesis :– as a messianic foreshadowing (Hippolytus, De Anti-Christo, ; De consummatione mundi, . Cf. Zech :). Cf. Bruno Barnhart, The Good Wine: Reading John from the Center (New York: Paulist Press, ).  m. Pesah. . _  m. Pesah. :. _  m. Pesah. :. _  Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus, trans. Norman Perrin (London: SCM Press, ), –, –.  Luke’s Gospel contains the slightly different wording, “And he did the same with the cup after supper, saying, ‘This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood’” (Luke :).  Milgrom, Leviticus –, .  Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Jesus, . He notes that in Mark’s Gospel, of the nine passages where the double negative (ou mē) is used, on five occasions it is linked with the oath formula “amen” (Mark :, ; :; :; :). Jeremias contends that Jesus’s vow indicates that he was fasting during the Passover meal (–). Markus Bockmuehl, “‘Let the Dead Bury Their Dead’ (Matt. :/Luke :): Jesus and the Halakha,” Journal of Theological Studies  (): – (), argues that Jesus’s vow has “unmistakable Nazirite connotations.”  The same phrase, “in remembrance of me” (eis tēn emēn anamnēsin), is used by St Paul in his eucharistic instructions to the churches in Corinth ( Cor :–). The LXX offers a similar phrase in its translation of Leviticus : as “for a remembrance” (eis anamnēsin), referring to the offering of frankincense and salt on the Bread of the Presence.  Ford, The Gospel of John, .  Balthasar, Origen Spirit and Fire, .  See Andrew McGowan, Ascetic Eucharists: Food and Drink in Early Christian Ritual Meals (Oxford: Clarendon Press, ), –, who cites Irenaeus among others who argue for the centrality of wine and its symbolism in the Eucharist. Thomas Aquinas would later argue for using only bread and wine because each substance demonstrates the composition of the Church (Summa, III, q. , art. ). As many grains make bread and many grapes make wine, so too is the Body of Christ made up of many members.  Andrew McGowan, “Eating People: Accusations of Cannibalism against Christians in the Second Century,” Journal of Early Christian Studies  (), –.

Notes to pages –  Alexander Schmemann, For the Life of the World: Sacraments and Orthodoxy (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, ), .  Ibid., . In a similar manner Orthodox theologian John Zizioulas, The Eucharistic Communion and the World, ed. Luke Ben Tallon (New York: T & T Clark International, ), , emphasizes the ascension of the Church through the liturgy through the Holy Spirit that brings about the transformation of bread and wine. “The ‘real presence’ of Christ in the Eucharist presupposes and entails the gathering ‘in one place’ of the eschatological community which the Spirit holds together. Only within the framework of this gathering does the transformation of the elements into the body and blood of Christ take place.”  John Zizioulas, Priests of Creation: John Zizioulas on Discerning an Ecological Ethos, ed. John Chryssavgis and Nikolaos Asproulis (London: T & T Clark, ), .  Summa, III, q. , art. .  Norman Wirzba, Food and Faith A Theology of Eating (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –.  Herbert, “The Agony,” in George Herbert: The Complete English Works, .  Matthew’s Gospel is the only one to reference Jesus drinking from the cup in his second prayer (Matt :). John’s Gospel provides a different setting during the arrest of Jesus when he refers to the cup of suffering and says to Peter, “Put your sword back into its sheath. Am I not to drink the cup that the Father has given me?” (John :; cf. :).  O. Palmer Robertson, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, NICOT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), . Cf. William L. Lane, The Gospel According to Mark, NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –, who refers to Jesus taking “the chalice of death and of God’s wrath” from the hand of the Father and knowing that “his mission entailed submission to the horror of the holy wrath of God.”  C. K. Barrett, The Gospel According to St John: An Introduction with Commentary and Notes on the Greek Text, nd ed. (London: SPCK, ), .  David Daube, The New Testament and Rabbinic Judaism (London: Athlone Press, ), –, contends that Jesus refuses the fourth cup of the Passover meal because it is the cup of celebration.  Luke’s Gospel recalls a Roman soldier offering Jesus wine but does not include whether he drank it or not (see Luke :).  The ecstatic experience of the Spirit being compared to drunkenness is a reminder of Hannah, who is accused of intoxication as she prays ( Sam :–), or Jeremiah, who conveys the negative experience of being like one “overcome by wine” because of God’s holy words (Jer :). Philo, On Drunkenness, –, comments, “Now when grace fills the soul, that soul thereby rejoices and smiles and dances, for it is possessed and inspired, so that to many of the unenlightened it may seem to be drunken, crazy and beside itself.”

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

Notes to pages –



  

 



Philo, On the Unchangeableness of God. On Husbandry. Concerning Noah’s Work as a Planter. On Drunkenness. On Sobriety, trans. F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, Loeb Classical Library  (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ), . William D. Mounce, Pastoral Epistles, WBC  (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, ), , argues, “Whereas in the OT drinking wine is sometimes pictured as a good thing, in the NT wine is not pictured in a positive light (except for medicinal use).” He goes on to contend that “drinking for enjoyment is never recommended” in the New Testament which is a significant shift from the Old Testament. His argument, however, reduces the biblical text to a set of prescriptions and fails to consider both the symbolism of wine in the Bible and its place within ancient Judaism. It is difficult to imagine Jesus recommending that everyone enjoy themselves at the wedding in Cana once he produced the superior wine. He did not need tell them to drink wine, because the enjoyment of eating and drinking had always been a part of the celebration. See Hippocrates, The Physician, ; Plutarch, De tuenda sanitate praecepta ; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, ., .. Pliny the Elder, Natural History, .; trans. H. Rackham, . See Martin Dibelius, and Hans Conzelmann, The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles, trans. Philip Buttolph and Adela Yarbro (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, ), –, –. Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, “Sermon : Mystical Vineyards and the Prudence of the Flesh.” Günther Bornkamm, “The Lord’s Supper and Church in Paul,” in Early Christian Experience (London: SCM, ), –, contends that the Corinthians had abandoned the idea of eating a common meal together and were shaping their meals according to their own tastes, and that their gatherings were marked by social and economic divisions. H. Lietzmann, Mass and Lord’s Supper: A Study in the History of the Liturgy (Leiden: Brill, ; repr. ), –, argues that the Corinthian Christians were treating the blessed bread as ordinary food rather than as the Body of Christ. Others such as Richard B. Hays, First Corinthians (Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, ), , contend that the divisions may have been due, in part, to the architecture of first-century Roman homes, which contained a long, rectangular space called the triclinium. As the largest room in the house, this may have been used for the communal meal, but because not all could fit, some may have been relegated to the atrium or a smaller room of the house. Cf. Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, Keys to First Corinthians: Revisiting the Major Issues (Oxford: Oxford University Press, ), –. Didache ., ; Ignatius, To the Smyrnians, .. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, First Corinthians, AB  (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –, cites Pliny the Younger (ca.  CE), who writes in a letter that the Christians were “accustomed to assemble before dawn on a fixed day and chant alternately a hymn to Christ as to a god when that is finished, they have the habit of

Notes to pages –

 



 

  

 

departing and gathering together again to partake of ordinary, harmless food (Ep. ..).” Fitzmyer argues that the two meetings refer first to the Eucharist and then to the Agape meal. “By the time of Cyprian (died a.d. ), there was a clear distinction between the Eucharist, celebrated with fasting in the morning, and the Agape, taken in the evening.” Joel Butler and Randall Heskett, Divine Vintage: Following the Wine Trail from Genesis to the Modern Age (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, ), . Status could also determine how much food was served to the participants, which would account for why some went hungry in the Corinthian gatherings. See G. Theissen, “Social Integration and Sacramental Activity: An Analysis of  Cor. :–,” in The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth, ed. J. H. Schutz (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, ), –; Dennis E. Smith, From Symposium to Eucharist: The Banquet in the Early Christian World (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, ), –. See Michael J. Rhodes, “‘Forward unto Virtue’: Formative Practices and I Corinthians :–,” Journal of Theological Interpretation , no.  (): –. Fitzmyer, First Corinthians, . One text that does not refer to wine, but directly connects to the Roman myth concerning the god of wine, is Paul’s recollection of his conversion in Acts . The phrase uttered by Christ, “it hurts you to kick against the goads” (Acts :), is almost a direct quote from Euripides’s Bacchae, –. The phrase is used by Dionysus, who speaks to Pentheus about his inability to resist the will of the gods. Though the phrase is found elsewhere in Greco-Roman literature, scholars have argued for the influence of the Bacchae on the book of Acts. See Richard I. Pervo, Acts: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, ), –, who also cites J. Hackett, “Echoes of the Bacchae of Euripides in Acts of the Apostles,” Irish Theological Quarterly  (): –, –. Cf. Beverly R. Gaventa, From Darkness to Light: Aspects of Conversion in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, ), . According to some rabbis, the advent of the Messiah will bring about times of suffering and high prices of wine and produce (b. Sota b). _ P. Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to Risk and Crisis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –. See Craig R. Koester, Revelation: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB A (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ), –, –; Gregory K. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, ), –; David E. Aune, Revelation –, WBC B (Dallas, TX: Word Books, ), –. Tou oinou tou thymou tēs porneias. Fornication and sexual immorality can also refer to false worship or idolatry in Revelation (Rev :, ). Richard Bauckham, The Theology of the Book of Revelation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), –.





Notes to pages –  Koester, Revelation, .  Cf. Psalm : (LXX :), where the Greek reads, “because there is a cup in the LORD’s hand, full of unmixed wine,” referring to the severe judgment that will come upon the wicked.  Cf. Deut :; Job :; Ps :; Isa :; :–; Ezek :.  Koester, Revelation, .  See Isa :; :–; :; Jer :; Hos :; Joel : (Masoretic Text :); Mic :–; Matt :–, –; Mark :;  Ezra :–. The harvest of grain in the New Testament often has positive connotations. See Matt :–; :, ; Luke :; John :–; Gos. Thom. §.  Aune, Revelation –, –; Koester, Revelation, –; Bauckham, The Theology of the Book of Revelation, –.  For ancient Jewish and Christian interpretation of the winepress metaphor see Joshua Schwartz, “Treading the Grapes of Wrath: The Wine Press in Ancient Jewish and Christian Tradition,” Theologische Zeitschrift  (): –, –.  Richard Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, ), –. He compares Revelation to the earliest example found in  Enoch :, which describes horses wading chest-deep in the blood of sinners. Cf.  Ezra :–.  Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy, .  See Gen :, –; Exod :; Num :–; Pss :; :; Isa :; :; Zech :.  It is possible that John is also drawing on the tree-of-life images of  Enoch :–, as argued by Daniel Olson, “‘Those Who Have Not Defiled Themselves with Women’: Revelation : and the Book of Enoch,” CBQ  (): – (–). Veronika Bachmann, “Rooted in Paradise? The Meaning of the ‘Tree of Life’ in  Enoch – Reconsidered,” Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha  (): –, however, contends that the trees should be linked to the idea of wisdom which may be the case in Enoch, but in Revelation there is a clear connection to the tree of life.  Second-century Syrian author Lucian offers a similar description of paradise on the Island of the Blessed, “‘The grape-vines yield twelve vintages a year, bearing every month; the pomegranates, apples and other fruit-trees were said to bear thirteen times a year, for in one month, the Minoan, they bear twice’ (Lucian, Ver. hist. .).” Cited in David E. Aune, Revelation –, WBC C (Dallas, TX: Word Books, ), .  The vine and fig tree are often paired in the scriptures. Cf.  Kgs :; Isa :; :; Jer :; Joel :; :; Hag :; Zech :.  We also recall the Jewish traditions of the grape as the forbidden fruit in Eden ( Bar. :; Apoc. Ab. ;  En. :).  Aune, Revelation –, –, contends that the primary reference is to Zechariah :, which offers a closer linguistic parallel to Revelation :.

Notes to pages – The LXX of Zechariah gives the translation “and there is no longer any curse” (kai ouk estai anathema eti) on Jerusalem. The Greek anathema (“cursed”) is used to render the Hebrew hērem (“war, destruction”), which means that _ Jerusalem will no longer be subject to war. Since Revelation : uses a similar phrase (pan katathema ouk estai eti), Aune argues that John is declaring that the New Jerusalem will never again be destroyed. While this is true, the context of the garden-city, the tree of life, and the divine presence point to the redemption of the curses in Genesis . Cf. Beale, The Book of Revelation, –.  See Leonard Boyle, OP, A Short Guide to St. Clement’s Rome (Rome: Collegio San Clemente, ).  Boyle, A Short Guide to St. Clement’s Rome, .  Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Images of Hope: Meditations on Major Feasts (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, ), EPUB ed., “Corpus Christi: The Apse Mosaic of San Clemente in Rome.”

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Select Bibliography

Aaron, David H. Biblical Ambiguities: Metaphor, Semantics, and Divine Imagery. Brill Reference Library of Ancient Judaism . Leiden: Brill, . Adams, Samuel, Greg Schmidt Goering, and Matthew Goff, eds. Sirach and Its Contexts: The Pursuit of Wisdom and Human Flourishing. Leiden: Brill, . Ahlström, Gösta W. “Wine Presses and Cup-Marks of the Jenin-Megiddo Survey.” BASOR  (): –. Albenda, Pauline. “Grapevines in Ashurbanipal’s Garden.” BASOR  (): –. Alter, Adam. Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked. New York: Penguin, . Alter, Robert. The Art of Poetry, nd ed. New York: Basic Books, . The Hebrew Bible: A Translation with Commentary. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, . Altmann, Peter. Festive Meals in Ancient Israel: Deuteronomy’s Identity Politics in Their Ancient Near Eastern Context. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft . Berlin: De Gruyter, . Altmann, Peter, and Janling Fu, eds. Feasting in the Archaeology and Texts of the Bible and the Ancient Near East. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, . Amiran, R. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: From Its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End of the Iron Age. Jerusalem: Massada, . Amouretti, Marie-Claire, and Jean-Pierre Brun, eds. La production du vin et de l’huile en Méditerranée/Oil and Wine Production in the Mediterranean Area. Paris: École Française d’Athènes, . Anielski, Mark. The Economics of Happiness: Building Genuine Wealth. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, . Augé, Marc. Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Translated by J. Howe. London: Verso, . Aune, David E. Revelation –. WBC B. Dallas, TX: Word Books, . Revelation –. WBC C. Dallas, TX: Word Books, . Aus, Roger D. Water into Wine and the Beheading of John the Baptist: Early JewishChristian Interpretation of Esther  in John :– and Mark :–. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, . Bacchiochi, Samuele. Wine in the Bible: A Biblical Study on the Use of Alcoholic Beverages. Berrien Springs, MI: Biblical Perspectives, .

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Select Bibliography Bachmann, Veronika. “Rooted in Paradise? The Meaning of the ‘Tree of Life’ in  Enoch – Reconsidered.” Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha  (): –. Bailey, Clinton. Bedouin Culture in the Bible. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . Balthasar, Hans Urs von. Origen Spirit and Fire: A Thematic Anthology of His Writings. Translated by Robert J. Daly, SJ. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, . Barkay, Gabriel, and Andrew G. Vaughn. “New Readings of Hezekian Official Seal Impressions.” BASOR  (): –. Barnhart, Bruno. The Good Wine: Reading John from the Center. New York: Paulist Press, . Barrett, C. K. The Gospel according to St John: An Introduction with Commentary and Notes on the Greek Text. nd ed. London: SPCK, . Bassett, Frederick W. “Noah’s Nakedness and the Curse of Canaan, a Case of Incest?” Vetus Testamentum  (): –. Bauckham, Richard. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, . The Theology of the Book of Revelation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Beale, Gregory K. The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Becker, Lothar. Rebe, Rausch und Religion: Eine kulturgeschichtliche Studie zum Wein in der Bibel. Münster: LIT Verlag, . Bernard of Clairvaux. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux: Collection. Kindle ed. N.p.: Aeterna Press, . Berry, Wendell. “The Agrarian Standard.” In The World Ending in Fire, edited by Paul Kingsnorth, –. London: Penguin Books, . “Conservation and Local Economy.” In Wendell Berry: Essays –, edited by Jack Shoemaker. New York: Library of America, . EPUB ed. A Continuous Harmony: Essays in Culture and Agriculture. Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint, . The Need to Be Whole: Patriotism and the History of Prejudice. Cincinnati, OH: Shoemaker & Company, . “Renewing Husbandry.” In Wendell Berry: Essays –, edited by Jack Shoemaker. New York: Library of America, . EPUB ed. Block, Daniel. Ezekiel –. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Block, Peter, Walter Brueggemann, and John McKnight. An Other Kingdom: Departing the Consumer Culture. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, . Bockmuehl, Markus. “‘Let the Dead Bury Their Dead’ (Matt. :/Luke :): Jesus and the Halakha.” Journal of Theological Studies  (): –. Boer, Roland. The Sacred Economy of Ancient Israel. Library of Ancient Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Bornkamm, Günther. “The Lord’s Supper and Church in Paul.” In Early Christian Experience, –. London: SCM, . Borowski, Oded. Daily Life in Biblical Times. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, .

Select Bibliography “Eat, Drink and Be Merry: The Mediterranean Diet.” Near Eastern Archaeology , no.  (): –. Bottero, Jean. “The Oldest Feast.” In Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, edited by Jean Bottero, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Boyle, Leonard, OP. A Short Guide to St. Clement’s Rome. Rome: Collegio San Clemente, . Brettler, Marc Zvi. God Is King: Understanding an Israelite Metaphor. JSOTSS . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, . Broshi, Magen D. Bread, Wine, Walls, and Scrolls. London: Sheffield Academic Press, . “Wine in Ancient Palestine: Introductory Notes.” In Bread, Wine, Walls, and Scrolls, –. London: Sheffield Academic Press, . Brown, Jeannine K. “Creation’s Renewal in the Gospel of John.” CBQ  (): –. Brown, Raymond E. The Gospel According to John: Introduction, Translation, and Notes. AB , A. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . Brown, William P. The Ethos of the Cosmos: The Genesis of Moral Imagination in the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge: Eerdmans, . The Seven Pillars of Creation: The Bible, Science, and the Ecology of Wonder. New York: Oxford University Press, . Wisdom’s Wonder: Character, Creation, and Crisis in the Bible’s Wisdom Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Brueggemann, Walter. Genesis. Interpretation. Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press, . Isaiah –. Interpretation. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Money and Possessions. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Tenacious Solidarity: Biblical Provocations on Race, Religion, Climate, and the Economy, edited by Davis Hankins. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . The Theology of the Book of Jeremiah. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Brun, Jean-Pierre. Archéologie du vin et de l’huile, dans l’empire romain. Paris: Errance, . Bultmann, R. The Gospel of John: A Commentary. Translated by George Raymond Beasley-Murray. Oxford: Blackwell, . Butler, Joel, and Randall Heskett. Divine Vintage: Following the Wine Trail from Genesis to the Modern Age. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, . Capon, Robert Farrar. The Supper of the Lamb: A Culinary Reflection. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . Caragounis, Chrys. “‘Abide in Me: The New Mode of Relationship between Jesus and His Followers as a Basis for Christian Ethics (John ).” In Rethinking the Ethics of John: “Implicit Ethics” in the Johannine Writings, edited by Z. Jan G. Van Der Watt and Reuben Zimmermann, –. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament . Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, . Carroll, Robert P. “Yhwh’s Sour Grapes: Images of Food and Drink in the Prophetic Discourse of the Hebrew Bible.” Semeia  (): –.

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Select Bibliography Cassuto, Umberto. A Commentary on the Book of Genesis: From Adam to Noah, Genesis I–VI. Translated by Israel Abrahams. Jerusalem: Magnes, . Castellini, Alessandra, Christine Mauracher, and Stefania Troiano. “An Overview of the Biodynamic Wine Sector.” International Journal of Wine Research  (): –. Cavanaugh, William T. Being Consumed: Economics and Christian Desire. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Charlesworth, James H. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.  vols. New York: Bantam Doubleday, . Chesterton, G. K. Heretics. th ed. New York: John Lane Company, . Cohen, Pnina, et al., “Ancient DNA from a Lost Negev Highlands Desert Grape Reveals a Late Antiquity Wine Lineage.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , no.  (): E. Collins, John J. The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature. rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Daniel. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Biography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, . Jewish Wisdom in the Hellenistic Age. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Cox, Jeff. From Vines to Wines: The Complete Guide to Growing Grapes and Making Your Own Wine. th ed. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, . Crawford, Sidnie W., and Leonard J. Greenspoon, eds. The Book of Esther in Modern Research. JSOTSS . New York: T & T Clark, . Crenshaw, James L. Ecclesiastes London: SCM, . “A Mother’s Instruction to Her Son (Proverbs :–).” In Perspectives in the Hebrew Bible, edited by James L. Crenshaw, –. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, . Dar, S. Landscape and Pattern: An Archaeological Survey of Samaria in  BCE–  CE.  vols. BAR International Series. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, . Daube, David. The New Testament and Rabbinic Judaism. London: Athlone Press, . Davis, Ellen F. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Scripture, Culture, and Agriculture: An Agrarian Reading of the Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Dayagi-Mendels, Michal. Drink and Be Merry: Wine and Beer in Ancient Times. Jerusalem: Israel Museum, . De Sena, E. C. “An Assessment of Wine and Oil Production in Romeʼs Hinterland: Ceramic, Literary, Art Historical and Modern Evidence.” In Roman Villas around the Urbs: Interaction with Landscape and Environment, edited by B. Santillo Frizell and A. Klynne, –. Rome: Swedish Institute in Rome, . Delitzsch, Franz. Biblical Commentary on the Book of Job. Translated by Francis Bolton.  vols. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, . Demsky, Aaron. “‘Dark Wine’ from Judah.” Israel Exploration Journal  (): –.

Select Bibliography Dibelius, Martin, and Hans Conzelmann, The Pastoral Epistles: A Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles. Translated by Philip Buttolph and Adela Yarbro. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Dimbleby, Henry. Ravenous: How to Get Ourselves and Our Planet into Shape. London: Profile Books, . Douglas, Mary. “Deciphering a Meal.” In Implicit Meanings: Essays in Anthropology, nd ed., –. London: Routledge, . Leviticus as Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Driver, S. R. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy. rd ed. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, . Dubach, Manuel. Trunkenheit im Alten Testament: Begrifflichkeit – Zeugnisse – Wertung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, . Dunbabin, Katherine. The Roman Banquet: Images of Conviviality. New York: Cambridge University Press, . Eidevall, Göran. Grapes in the Desert: Metaphors, Models, and Themes in Hosea –. Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament Series . Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, . Eitam, David. Land of Wine: The Vine and Wine in the Land of Israel in Antiquity (Hebrew). Tel-Aviv: Ma’ariv, . Embry, Brad. “The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis .–.” JSOT , no.  (): –. Ephrem, St. Ephrem the Syrian: Selected Prose Works. Translated by Edward G. Mathews, Jr., and Joseph P. Amar. Fathers of the Church . Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, . Evans, Craig A., and Emanuel Tov, Exploring the Origins of the Bible: Canon Formation in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, . Fishbane, Michael. Song of Songs. JPS Bible Commentary. Philadelphia: JPS, . Fisher, Max. The Chaos Machine: The Inside Story of How Social Media Rewired Our Minds and Our World. London: Quercus Edition Ltd, . Fitzmyer, J. A. The Gospel according to Luke I–IX: Introduction, Translation and Notes. AB . Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . Ford, David. The Gospel of John: A Theological Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, . Fox, Michael V. The JPS Bible Commentary: Ecclesiastes. Philadelphia: JPS, . Proverbs –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB A. New York: Doubleday, . Proverbs –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB B. New York: Doubleday . The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, . “Three Theses on Wisdom.” In Was There a Wisdom Tradition? New Prospects in Israelite Wisdom Studies, edited by Mark S. Sneed, –. Atlanta, GA: SBL, . Francis, Pope. Laudato si’. www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/docu ments/papa-francesco__enciclica-laudato-si.html.

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Select Bibliography Frankel, Rafael. Wine and Oil Production in Antiquity in Israel and Other Mediterranean Countries. JSOT Monographs . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, . Franklin, Benjamin. “From Benjamin Franklin to the Abbé Morellet [after  July ].” In The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. , July  through October , , edited by Barbara B. Oberg. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, . Flusser, David. “Do You Prefer New Wine?” Immanuel  (): –. Garnier, Nicolas, and Soultana Maria Valamoti. “Prehistoric Wine-Making at Dikili Tash (Northern Greece): Integrating Residue Analysis and Archaeobotany.” Journal of Archaeological Science  (): –. Garnsey, P. Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Garrett, Duane A., and Paul R. House. Song of Songs. WBC B. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, . Gaventa, Beverly R. From Darkness to Light: Aspects of Conversion in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Ginzberg, Louis. Legend of the Jews. Translated by Henrietta Szold and Paul Radin.  vols. nd ed. Philadelphia: JPS, repr. . Goldingay, John. Daniel. WBC . Waco, TX: Word Books, . Goor, Asaph. “The History of the Grape-Vine in the Holy Land.” Economic Botany , no.  (): –. Gordon, Robert P. Holy Land, Holy City: Sacred Geography and the Interpretation of the Bible. Didsbury Lectures, . Carlisle: Paternoster, . Gorny, Ronald L. “Viticulture and Ancient Anatolia.” In The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, edited by Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, –. Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology . Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, . Grace, Virginia R. Amphoras and the Ancient Wine Trade. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, . Green, Joel B. The Gospel of Luke. NICNT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Greer, Jonathan S. Dinner at Dan: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence for Sacred Feasts at Iron Age II Tel Dan and Their Significance. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East . Leiden: Brill, . Guite, Malcolm. Faith, Hope and Poetry: Theology and the Poetic Imagination. London: Routledge, repr. . Han, Byung-Chul. The Disappearance of Ritual: A Topology of the Present. Translated by Daniel Steuer. Cambridge: Polity Press, . Haokip, Jangkholam, and David W. Smith, eds. Voices from the Margins: Wisdom of Primal Peoples in the Era of World Christianity. Carlisle: Langham Publishing, . Harland, Peter J. The Value of Human Life: A Study of the Story of the Flood (Genesis –). Leiden: Brill, . Haskell, David George. The Songs of Trees: Stories from Nature’s Great Connectors. New York: Penguin Books, . Hayes, Katherine M. The Earth Mourns: Prophetic Metaphor and Oral Aesthetic. Atlanta, GA: SBL, .

Select Bibliography Hays, Richard B. The Conversion of the Imagination: Paul as Interpreter of Israel’s Scripture. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . First Corinthians. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, . Henderson, George. The Farming Ladder. nd ed. London: Faber, . EPUB ed. Hengel, Martin. “The Interpretation of the Wine Miracle at Cana: John :–.” In The Glory of Christ in the New Testament: Studies in Christology in Memory of George Bradford Caird, edited by L. D. Hurst and N. T. Wright, –. Oxford: Clarendon, . Judaism and Hellenism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Herbert, George. George Herbert: The Complete English Works. Edited by A. Pasternak Slater. London: David Campbell, . Hermanson, Eric A. “Recognizing Hebrew Metaphors: Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Biblical Translations.” Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages  (): –. Heschel, Abraham Joshua. The Prophets.  vols. New York: Harper & Row, ; repr. Peabody, MA: Prince Press, . Hiebert, Theodore. The Yahwist’s Landscape: Nature and Religion in Early Israel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Hill, John. “The Construction of Time in Jeremiah  MT.” In Troubling Jeremiah, edited by A. R. Pete Diamond, Kathleen M. O’Connor, and Louis Stulman, –. JSOTSS . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, . Hillier, Bevis. The Wit and Wisdom of G. K. Chesterton. New York: Continuum, . Holladay, W. L. Jeremiah : A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah Chapters –. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Horsley, Richard A. Scribes, Visionaries, and the Politics of Second Temple Judea. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Ingold, Tim. The Life of Lines. London: Routledge, . Irenaeus. Against Heresies. In The Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson,  vols. (–), vol. ; reprint Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, . www.newadvent.org/fathers/.htm. Irudayaraj, Dominic S. Violence, Otherness and Identity in Isaiah :–: The Trampling One Coming from Edom. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies . T & T Clark: London, . James, T. G. H. “The Earliest History of Wine and Its Importance in Ancient Egypt.” In The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, edited by Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, –. Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology . Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, . Jastrow, Morris. “Wine in the Pentateuchal Codes.” Journal of the American Oriental Society  (): –. Jeremias, Joachim. The Eucharistic Words of Jesus. Translated by Norman Perrin. London: SCM Press, . Rediscovering the Parables. New York: Charles Scribner; repr. London: SCM Press, .

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Select Bibliography Johnson, Luke Timothy. The Gospel of Luke. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, . Jongman, Willem. “The Early Roman Empire: Consumption.” In The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, edited by W. Scheidel, I. Morris, and R. Saller, –. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Keel, Othmar. The Song of Songs. Continental Commentary. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . EPUB ed. Kessler, Martin. “The Function of Chapters  and – in the Book of Jeremiah.” In Troubling Jeremiah, edited by A. R. Pete Diamond, Kathleen M. O’Connor, and Louis Stulman, –. JSOTSup . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, . Kikawada, I. M. “Two Notes on Eve.” JBL  (): –. King, Philip, J., and Lawrence E. Stager. Life in Biblical Israel. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, . Knierim, Rolf P. The Task of Old Testament Theology: Substance, Method, and Cases. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Koester, Craig R. Revelation: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB A. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . Kövecses, Zóltan. Extended Conceptual Metaphor Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Kreglinger, Gisela. The Spirituality of Wine. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Kynes, Will. An Obituary for “Wisdom Literature”: The Birth, Death, and Intertextual Reintegration of a Biblical Corpus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Lacocque, André. Romance She Wrote: A Hermeneutical Essay on Song of Songs. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, . Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Lakoff, George, and Mark Turner. More Than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Lancaster, Mason D. “Metaphor Research and the Hebrew Bible.” Currents in Biblical Research  (): –. Lane, William L. The Gospel According to Mark. NICNT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac: With Essays on Conservation from Round River. London: Penguin Books, repr. . Levenson, Jon D. Esther. OTL. London: SCM, . Lewis, C. S. The Four Loves. New York: Harcourt, . Lewis, T. J. Cults of the Dead in Ancient Israel and Ugarit. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, . Lietzmann, H. Mass and Lord’s Supper: A Study in the History of the Liturgy. Leiden: Brill, , repr. . Lim, Timothy H. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction. nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Lindars, Barnabas. The Gospel of John. New Century Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, repr. .

Select Bibliography Lissarrague, François. The Aesthetics of the Greek Banquet: Images of Wine and Ritual. Translated by Andrew Szegedy-Maszak. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, . Longman, Tremper III. The Book of Ecclesiastes. NICOT. Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge: Eerdmans, . Lowenfels, Jeff, and Wayne Lewis, Teaming with Microbes: A Gardener’s Guide to the Soil Food Web. Portland, OR, and London: Timber, . Lundbom, Jack R. Jeremiah –. AB B. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . Lynch, Matthew. Portraying Violence in the Hebrew Bible: A Literary and Cultural Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . MacDonald, Nathan. Not Bread Alone: The Uses of Food in the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Macky, Peter W. The Centrality of Metaphors to Biblical Thought: A Method for Interpreting the Bible. Lewiston, NY: Mellen, . Malamat, Abraham. Mari and the Bible. Leiden: Brill, . Marshall, I. Howard. The Gospel of Luke: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Exeter: Paternoster Press, . Marzano, Annalisa. “Agricultural Production in the Hinterland of Rome: Wine and Olive Oil.” In The Roman Agricultural Economy: Organisation, Investment, and Production, edited by Alan Bowman and Andrew Wilson, –. Oxford Studies on the Roman Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Matthews, Mark A. Terroir and Other Myths of Winegrowing. Oakland: University of California Press, . Matthews, Victor H. “Treading the Winepress: Actual and Metaphorical Viticulture in the Ancient Near East.” Semeia  (): –. Mayer, A. M. “Historical Changes in the Mineral Content of Fruits and Vegetables.” British Food Journal  (): –. McConville, Gordon. Judgment and Promise: An Interpretation of the Book of Jeremiah. Leicester: Apollos, . McGilchrist, Ian. The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . McGovern, Patrick E. Ancient Wine: The Search for the Origins of Viniculture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, . Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages. Berkeley: University of California Press, . McGovern, Patrick E., Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, eds. The Origins and Ancient History of Wine. Food in Nutrition and History and Anthropology . Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, . McGowan, Andrew. Ascetic Eucharists: Food and Drink in Early Christian Ritual Meals. Oxford: Clarendon Press, . “Eating People: Accusations of Cannibalism against Christians in the Second Century.” Journal of Early Christian Studies  (): –. McKane, William. Jeremiah I–XXV.  vols. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, .

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Select Bibliography “Poison, Trial by Ordeal and the Cup of Wrath.” VT  (): –. Proverbs: A New Approach. OTL. London: SCM Press . McLaughlin, John L. The Marzēah in the Prophetic Literature: References and Allusions in Light of Extra-Biblical Evidence. VTSup . Leiden: Brill, . McNeil, Karen. The Wine Bible. nd ed. New York: Workman Publishing, . Meyers, Carol L. “Menu: Royal Repasts and Social Class in Biblical Israel.” In Feasting in the Archaeology and Texts of the Bible and the Ancient Near East, edited by Peter Altmann and Janling Fu, –. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, . Meyers, Carol L. Rediscovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Milano, Lucio, ed. Drinking in Ancient Societies: History and Culture of Drinks in the Ancient Near East. Padua: Sargon srl, . Miller, Patrick D. Deuteronomy. Interpretation. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, . The Divine Warrior in Ancient Israel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Milgrom, Jacob. Leviticus –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB . New York: Doubleday, . Leviticus –: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB A. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . “New Temple Festivals in the Temple Scroll.” In The Temple in Antiquity: Ancient Records and Modern Perspectives, edited by Truman G. Madsen, –. Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center, Brigham Young University, . Numbers. JPS Torah Commentary. New York: JPS, . Mitchell, Christopher W. The Meaning of BRK “to Bless” in the Old Testament. SBL Dissertation Series . Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, , repr. . Montgomery, David R. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations, nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, . Montgomery, David R., and Anne Biklé, The Hidden Half of Nature: The Microbial Roots of Life and Health. New York: Norton & Company, . Morris, Gerald. Prophecy, Poetry and Hosea. JSOTSS . Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, . Mounce, William D. Pastoral Epistles. WBC . Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, . Muffs, Yochanan, and Baruch Levine, Studies in the Aramaic Legal Papyri from Elephantine. Handbuch der Orientalistik . Leiden: Brill, . Murphy, Roland E. Proverbs. WBC . Nashville, TN: T. Nelson Publishers, . Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. Keys to First Corinthians: Revisiting the Major Issues. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Newsom, Carol. “Positive Psychology and Ancient Israelite Wisdom.” In The Bible and the Pursuit of Happiness: What the Old Testament Teaches about the Good Life, edited by Brent Strawn, –. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . The Spirit within Me: Self and Agency in Ancient Israel and Second Temple Judaism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, .

Select Bibliography Nickelsburg, George W. E. A Commentary on the Book of  Enoch, Chapters –; –. Hermeneia. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . Noetzel, Heinz. Christus und Dionysos: Bemerkungen zum Religionsgeschichtlichen Hintergrund von Johannes , I–II. Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, . Olson, Daniel. “‘Those Who Have Not Defiled Themselves with Women’: Revelation : and the Book of Enoch.” CBQ  (): –. O’Mara, Margaret. The Code: Silicon Valley and the Remaking of America. New York: Penguin, . Pantoja, Jennifer. The Metaphor of the Divine as Planter of the People: Stinking Grapes or Pleasant Planting? Leiden: Brill, . Paul, Shalom M. Amos. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . Pervo, Richard I. Acts: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York: Harper Collins, . Pliny. Natural History, vol. , Books –. Translated by H. Rackham. Loeb Classical Library . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Poo, Mo-Chou. Wine and Wine Offering in the Religion of Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge, . Pope, Marvin H. Song of Songs. AB C. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, . Pritchard, James B. Winery, Defenses and Surroundings at Gibeon. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, . Prümmer, Dominicus M., OP. Manuale theologiae moralis secundum principia S. Thomae Aquinatis in usum scholarum, vol. . Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, . Raabe, Paul R. Obadiah. AB D. New York: Doubleday, . Rad, Gerhard von. Genesis: A Commentary. Translated by John H. Marks. London: SCM Press, . “The Theological Problem of the Old Testament Doctrine of Creation.” In The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays, translated by E. W. Trueman Dicken, –. London: SCM, . Wisdom in Israel. Translated by James D. Martin. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, . Ratzinger, Joseph. Pope Benedict XVI. Images of Hope: Meditations on Major Feasts. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, . EPUB ed. Ratzon, Eshbal, and Jonathan Ben-Dov. “A Newly Reconstructed Calendrical Scroll from Qumran in Cryptic Script.” JBL  (): –. Rhodes, Michael J. “‘Forward unto Virtue’: Formative Practices and I Corinthians :–.” Journal of Theological Interpretation  (): –. Ricoeur, Paul. La métaphore vive. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, . The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language. Translated by R. Czerny. London: Routledge, . Ridderbos, Herman N. The Gospel According to John. Translated by John Vriend. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Robertson, O. Palmer. The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. NICOT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Rosa, Hartmut. “Dynamic Stabilization, the Triple A. Approach to the Good Life, and the Resonance Conception.” Questions de communication (Nancy)  (): –.

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Select Bibliography Social Acceleration: A New Theory of Modernity. Translated by Jonathan TrejoMathys. New York: Columbia University Press, . Rosen, Baruch. “Wine and Oil Allocations in the Samaria Ostraca.” Tel Aviv – (–): –. Ross, J. F. “Wine.” In The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, edited by G. Buttrick et al. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, . Saintsbury, George. Notes on a Cellar-Book. Edited by Thomas Pinney. Berkeley: University of California Press, . Sapolsky, Robert M. Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst. London: Vintage, . Sarna, Nahum. Genesis. JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: JPS, . Sasson, Jack M. “The Blood of Grapes: Viticulture and Intoxication in the Hebrew Bible.” In Drinking in Ancient Societies: History and Culture of Drinks in the Ancient Near East, edited by Lucio Milano, –. Padua: Sargon srl, . Scarlata, Mark W. Outside of Eden: Cain in the Ancient Versions of Gen :–. London: T & T Clark, . Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. “Feasting in the Ancient Near East.” In Feasts: Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food, Politics, and Power, edited by M. Dietler and B. Hayden, –. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, . Schmemann, Alexander. For the Life of the World: Sacraments and Orthodoxy. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, . Schnackenburg, Rudolf. The Gospel According to St John. Translated by Kevin Smyth.  vols. London: Burns & Oates, . Schoors, Anton. The Preacher Sought to Find Pleasing Words: A Study of the Language of Qoheleth. Orientala Lovaniensia Analecta . Leuven: Peeters, . Schwartz, Joshua. “Treading the Grapes of Wrath: The Wine Press in Ancient Jewish and Christian Tradition.” Theologische Zeitschrift  (): –, –. Scruton, Roger. I Drink Therefore I Am: A Philosopher’s Guide to Wine. London: Bloomsbury, . Segal, Michael. The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology and Theology. Boston: Brill, . Seltman, Charles. Wine in the Ancient World. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, . Seow, Choon-Leong. Ecclesiastes: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB C. New York: Doubleday, . “Elihu’s Revelation.” Theology Today  (): –. Sheldrake, Merlin. Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds and Shape Our Futures. London: The Bodley Head, . Shepherd, Gordon M. Neuroenology: How the Brain Creates the Taste of Wine. New York: Columbia University Press, . EPUB ed. Neurogastronomy: How the Brain Creates Flavor and Why It Matters. New York: Columbia University Press, . Sherman, Tina. “A Prolific Vine: Metaphorical Construction of National Identity in Prophetic Condemnations.” Ph.D. dissertation, Brandeis University, .

Select Bibliography Shiva, Vandana. The Violence of the Green Revolution: Third World Agriculture, Economy and Politics. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, . Simard, Suzanne. Finding the Mother Tree: Uncovering the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Forest. London: Penguin Books, . EPUB ed. Skelton, David A. “Sages as Singers in Sirach and the Second Temple Period.” In Sirach and Its Contexts: The Pursuit of Wisdom and Human Flourishing, edited by Samuel Adams, Greg Schmidt Goering, Matthew Goff, –. Leiden: Brill, . Smith, Dennis E. From Symposium to Eucharist: The Banquet in the Early Christian World. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . Smith, Mark S. The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel. Winona Lake, IN: Eerdmans, . Smend, R. “Essen und Trinken – Ein Stück Weltlichkeit des Alten Testaments.” In Beiträge zur alttestamentlichen Theologie, edited by R. Hanhard and R. Smend, –. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, . Sneed, Mark S. “Is the Wisdom Tradition a Tradition?” CBQ  (): –. “The Social Setting of Wisdom Literature.” In The Oxford Handbook of Wisdom and the Bible, edited by Will Kynes, –. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Sommer, Benjamin D. The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Soskice, Janet. Metaphor and Religious Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press, . “Theological Realism.” In The Rationality of Religious Belief: Essays in Honour of Basil Mitchel, edited by William J. Abraham and Steven Holtzer, –. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Spina, Frank A. “The ‘Ground’ for Cain’s Rejection (Gen ).” ZAW  (): –. Stager, Lawrence E. “Ashkelon and the Archaeology of Destruction: Kislev  BCE.” Eretz Israel  (): –. Steinmetz, Devora. “Vineyard, Farm, and Garden: The Drunkenness of Noah in the Context of Primeval History.” JBL  (): –. Stordalen, Terje. “Man, Soil, Garden: Basic Plot in Genesis – Reconsidered.” JSOT  (): –. Tate, Marvin E. Psalms –. WBC . Waco, TX: Word Books, . Teachout, R. P. “The Use of ‘Wine’ in the Old Testament.” Ph.D. dissertation, Dallas Theological Seminary, . Theissen, G. “Social Integration and Sacramental Activity: An Analysis of  Cor. :–.” In The Social Setting of Pauline Christianity: Essays on Corinth, edited by J. H. Schutz, –. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, . Theodoret of Cyrus, Commentary on the Song of Songs. Translated by Robert C. Hill. Brisbane: Australian Catholic University, . Tigay, Jeffrey H. Deuteronomy. JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: JPS, . Tilford, Nicole L. Sensing World, Sensing Wisdom: The Cognitive Foundation of Biblical Metaphors. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, . Tomasino, Anthony J. “History Repeats Itself: The ‘Fall’ and Noah’s Drunkenness.” VT  (): –.

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Select Bibliography Unwin, Tim. Wine and the Vine: An Historical Geography of Viticulture and the Wine Trade. London: Routledge, . Ussishkin, D. “Excavations at Tel Lachish –: Second Preliminary Report.” Tel Aviv  (): –. Van Hecke, Pierre. “Introduction.” In Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible, edited by Pierre Van Hecke, –. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium . Leuven: Leuven University Press, . VanderKam, James C. The Dead Sea Scrolls Today. nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Vessey, D. W. T. C. “The Myth of Falernus in Silius, ‘Punica .’” The Classical Journal  (): –. Volf, Miroslav. “The Crown of the Good Life: A Hypothesis.” In Joy and Human Flourishing: Essays on Theology, Culture and the Good Life, edited by Miroslav Volf and Justin E. Crisp, ch. . Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . EPUB ed. Walsh, Carey Ellen. The Fruit of the Vine: Viticulture in Ancient Israel. Harvard Semitic Monographs . Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, . Walsh, P. “Making a Drama Out of a Crisis: Livy on the Bacchanalia.” Greece & Rome , no.  (): –. Weil, Simone. Waiting for God. Translated by Emma Craufurd. New York: Harper and Row, . Weiss, Andrea L. Figurative Language in Biblical Prose Narrative: Metaphor in the Book of Samuel. VTSup . Leiden: Brill, . Wenham, Gordon J. Genesis –. WBC . Waco, TX: Word Books, . Westermann, Claus. Blessing in the Bible and the Life of the Church. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, . Genesis. Translated by David E. Green. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, . Genesis –. Translated by John J. Scullion. London: SPCK, . Isaiah –. Translated by David M. G. Stalker. London: SCM Press, . Roots of Wisdom. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, . White, S. A. “In the Steps of Jael and Deborah: Judith as Heroine.” In No One Spoke Ill of Her: Essays on Judith, edited by S. A. White, –. Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, . Whitely, Charles F. Koheleth: His Language and Thought. New York: De Gruyter, . Whybray, R. N. “Qoheleth, Preacher of Joy.” JSOT  (): –. Wieder, Arnold A. “Ben Sira and the Praises of Wine.” Jewish Quarterly Review  (): –. Wildberger, Hans. Isaiah –. Translated by Thomas H. Trapp. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, . Wirzba, Norman. Agrarian Spirit: Cultivating Faith, Community, and the Land. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame, . Food and Faith: A Theology of Eating. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . This Sacred Life: Humanity’s Place in a Wounded World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .

Select Bibliography Wohlleben, Peter. The Hidden Life of Trees: What They Feel, How They Communicate. London: William Collins, . Wright, David P. Ritual in Narrative: The Dynamics of Feasting, Mourning, and Retaliation Rites in the Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, . Wright, G. Ernest. God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital. London: SCM, . Wright, Jacob L. “Commensal Politics in Ancient Western Asia. The Background to Nehemiah’s Feasting (Part I).” ZAW  (): –. Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect. New York: Random House, . Yoder, Christine Roy, “Personified Wisdom and Feminist Theologies.” In The Oxford Handbook of Wisdom and the Bible, edited by Will Kynes, –. Oxford: Oxford University Press, . Young, Brad H. Jesus the Jewish Theologian. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, . Zizioulas, John. The Eucharistic Communion and the World. Edited by Luke Ben Tallon. New York: T & T Clark International, . Priests of Creation: John Zizioulas on Discerning an Ecological Ethos. Edited by John Chryssavgis and Nikolaos Asproulis. London: T & T Clark, . Zohary, Daniel. “The Domestication of the Grapevine Vitis Vinifera L. in the Near East.” In The Origins and Ancient History of Wine, edited by Patrick E. McGovern, Stuart J. Fleming, and Solomon H. Katz, –. Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology . Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, . Zohary, Michael. Plants of the Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .



Scripture Index

Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Genesis –,  :–,  :,  –,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :, –,  :, ,  :, ,  :,  ,  , ,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  :,  :, , ,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  , 

:,  :,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :, , , , ,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :–, ,  :, ,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :–,  ,  

 Genesis (cont.) :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  Exodus :–,  :–,  ,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :, 

Scripture Index :–,  :–,  :,  :,  Leviticus :,  :,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–, ,  :,  , ,  :–,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Numbers :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  –, ,  :–,  :,  :,  Deuteronomy :,  :,  :,  :, 



Scripture Index :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  :, ,  :–,  :–, , ,  :,  :–,  :,  Joshua :–,  :,  Judges :,  :, vii, , , ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  :,   Samuel :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :, 

:,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,   Samuel :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :,   Kings –,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  ,  :,   Kings :,  ,  :–,  :,   Chronicles :–,  :, ,   Chronicles :–,  :,  :,  :,  Nehemiah :,  :, 

 Nehemiah (cont.) :–,  :–,  Esther :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  Job :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Psalms :,  :,  :, ,  ,  :,  :,  :,  :, , ,  :,  :,  :, , ,  :,  :,  ,  :, , ,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  , vii

Scripture Index :, –, –,  :, vii, , , ,  :, viii :–,  :, viii –,  –,  –,  :,  :–,  :, ,  Proverbs :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–:,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :, 



Scripture Index :–,  :–,  :–,  Ecclesiastes :–:,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :,  Song of Songs :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :, , ,  Isaiah :,  :,  :,  :, , 

:–, ,  :, , , , , ,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  ,  :–,  ,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :, , , , ,  :,  :,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :, 

 Isaiah (cont.) :, , ,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  : –,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  Jeremiah :,  :,  :,  :–,  :, , ,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :, 

Scripture Index :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :, ,  :–,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Lamentations :, ,  :,  :, ,  Ezekiel :,  :,  :,  ,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :–, 



Scripture Index ,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :–,  Daniel :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Hosea ,  :,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :–,  :, , ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  Joel :, , ,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :, 

:,  :,  :, , , ,  Amos :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :, ,  :–,  :,  :–,  Obadiah –, ,  ,  Micah :,  :–,  :,  :,  Nahum :,  Habakkuk :–,  :–,  :–,  Zephaniah :,  :, ,  Haggai :,  Zechariah :,  :,  :, ,  :,  :–,  :,  :, , ,  :,  :, 

 Malachi :, 

New Testament Matthew :–,  :,  :–,  :–,  :, ,  :, xi, – :–, –,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :, , ,  :,  :,  :,  Mark :–, ,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :, , ,  :,  :,  :,  Luke :, 

Scripture Index :,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–, xi :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  John :–,  :–, ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :–, ,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :–,  :–, 



Scripture Index :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  ,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Acts :–,  :,  –,  :,  Romans :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,  :, ,  :–,  :,   Corinthians :,  :,  :,  :–, 

:–,  :–,  :–,  :–,  :,  :,   Corinthians :,  Galatians :,  :,  :,  Ephesians :–,  :,  :,  :,  Philippians :,  Colossians :–,   Timothy :,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Titus :,  :,  Hebrews :–,  :,   Peter :–,  :,  Revelation :,  :–,  :,  :–,  :, – :, , , 

 Revelation (cont.) :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :, – :,  :,  :,  :–,  :,  :,  ,  :,  :–,  :, 

Scripture Index

  

Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha Tobit :,  Judith :,  :,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  Wisdom of Solomon :, ,  :–:,  Sirach ; ,  :,  :,  :, 

 



:,  :, ,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :–,  :–,  :,  :, ,  :,  :,  :,  :,  :, ,  Maccabees :,  Maccabees :–,  Enoch :,  :–, ,  :,  :–,  :, ,  ,  :,  :,  :,  Enoch :,  Baruch :, ,  :–,  ,  :–,  :,  :–,  Baruch :, 



Scripture Index  Ezra :–,  :,  :,  :–,  :–,  :–,  Apocalypse of Abraham , ,  Jubilees :,  :,  :–, –,  :,  :,  :,  :,  Letter of Aristeas , 

Qumran Q :–,  :–,  QapGen :–,  :,  QS :–,  QSa :–,  :–,  CD :,  :–,  :–, 

Mishna Berakot :, 

:,  :,  :,  :–,  Ketubbot :,  Menahot _ :,  :,  Middot :,  Pesahim _ ,  :, – :,  :,  :,  Tamid :, 

Babylonian Talmud Baba Batra a,  Sanhedrin a,  b,  a,  Shabbat b,  Sota _ b,  Esther Rabbah :,  Genesis Rabbah :, ,  Song of Songs Rabbah :,  Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Gen :,  Gen :, 



New Testament Pseudepigrapha, Philo, Josephus Gospel of Thomas §,  §,  Philo Allegorical Interpretation, III, 

Scripture Index Cherubim   On Drunkenness –,  Josephus Jewish Antiquities .,  :,  ..,  Jewish Wars ., 

General Index

abstinence, –, , –, , , , –,  Nazirite, ,  accelerated society,  addiction, –,  agrarian faith,  alcoholism,  amphorae, , , , ,  Aquinas, Thomas, , ,  Ararat, ,  Aristotle,  Athenaeus, 

cup of salvation, , , , , –, , ,  cup of wrath, , –, –, –, , , – cupbearer, –

Babylonian exile, , , , ,  Bacchus, , ,  banquet, , –, , , , , ,  eschatological, ,  Benedict XVI, Pope,  Bernard of Clairvaux, ,  Berry, Wendell, , , , ,  blessing, –, , , , , , 

economy, – Eden, ,  Enuma Elish, ,  Ephrem the Syrian,  Essenes, , , –, 

Cana, wedding, xi, , –,  Chesterton, G. K., ,  cognitive linguistics, ,  consumption,  convivium,  cup of reeling, 

Dionysus, – drunkenness, , , , , –, –, , –, , , –, , , , , ,  Noah, 

feast, , ,  feasting, –,  fermentation, ,  festivals, xi, , –, , , , , , , , , –,  Francis, Pope, ,  Franklin, Benjamin,  Gezer calendar,  gut, human,  

 Hajji Firuz Tepe,  Herbert, George,  Hillel, , –,  Hopkins, Gerard Manley,  hospitality,  house of feasting,  husbandry, 

General Index Omar Khayyam,  Origen, , 

judgment, 

Passover,  Pérignon, Dom,  Peynaud, Émile,  photosynthesis, vii,  Pinot Noir, x, ,  Plato,  Pliny, ,  Pliny the Elder, ,  poetry, –, , ,  Purim, 

kiddush, , 

Qumran, –

Lamech, , , , ,  land ethic,  Last Supper, , , , –, ,  Laudato si’, , ,  lees, – Leopold, Aldo, , ,  Lewis, C. S., 

regenerative agriculture, – rootedness, vii, –, , , –

In vino veritas,  industrialized agriculture,  Irenaeus, 

Meggido,  meshwork, – metaphor, –, ,  metaphor theory, ,  modernity,  Mother Trees,  mycorrhizal fungi, ,  neuroenology,  neuroscience,  Noah, , , , , –, –, ,  and wine, –

Saintsbury, George, ,  salvation, , ,  San Clemente,  Scruton, Roger,  Second Temple period,  Shammai, , –,  social media,  Sodom and Gomorrah,  soil, , , , , , , , –,  creation, – human connection, –,  morality, –, –, , , – Song of the Vineyard, , ,  symposium, ,  terroir, –, , , ,  Theognis of Megara, 



General Index toil, , –, , , , , ,  true vine Jesus, –,  vine,  choice, , ,  vineyard, , –, , –, , , ,  Noah, – Virgil,  viticulture, , , –, , –, , , , – Vitis vinifera, –, ,  Weil, Simone,  wine abundance, , , ,  ancient Israel, – of Babylon, – banquet,  biodynamic,  blessing, , , , , ,  Egypt, –, ,  eschatology, , , , , , –, , , ,  Eucharist, –, 

filtered,  foaming,  friendship,  judgment, –, ,  Lebanon, x–xi, , ,  with meals, – metaphor, –,  mixed, ,  new, , , , , –, , , , , – offering, –, ,  old, – Passover, , ,  production, – Roman, ,  salvation, , ,  sexual imagery, –,  sweet, , , , , –, ,  wisdom, , , , , , , ,  of wrath,  winepress, , , , –, , , –,  Xenophanes,  Zagros mountains, , 