Window shopping: cinema and the postmodern 9780520089242, 9780520079168, 9780520915510

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University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd. London, England

Copyright © 1993 by Anne Friedberg

First Paperback Printing 1994

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data , Friedberg, Anne.

Window shopping : cinema and the postmodern / Anne Friedberg.

| p. om. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13 978-0-520-08924-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)

|. Motion pictures—

Philosophy. 2. Postmodernism. 3. Motion pictures—Social aspects. 4. Feminism and motion pictures. I. Title.

PNI995.F743 1993

CIP

791.43'01—de20 92-30917

Printed in the United States of America

11 10 09

987 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/ NISO Z39.48-1992 (R 1997)

: (Permanence of Paper).

= CONTENTS |

PREFACE . XI

~ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XIII , INTRODUCTION LOOKING BACKWARD—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF “POST” I | The Past, the Present, the Virtual I

Method 5 The “P” Word 9

A Road Map | , ee os FLANEUR/FLANEUSE 15

| THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE IN MODERNITY:

Modernity and the “Panoptic” Gaze. | 17 | Modernity and the “Virtual’’ Gaze 20 The Baudelairean Observer: | The “Mobilized”’ Gaze of the Flaneur | 29 The Gender of the Observer: The Flaneuse 32

The “Mobilized” and “Virtual” Gaze 37 PASSAGE! The Ladies’ Paradise by Emile Zola | 41 |

, Vv

2 THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA | 47

The Commodity-Experience | 53 RE: Construction—The Public Interior/The Private Exterior 61

The Mobilized Gaze: Toward the Virtual 68

, From the Arcade to the Cinema 90 PASSAGE !|_ A Short Film Is More of a “‘Rest Cure’’ 97

, The Cinema as Time Machine 100 Window-Shopping Through Time 104

The Mall II]

3 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL 109 Temporality and Cinema Spectatorship- 125

Spectatorial Flanerie 132 Cybertechnology: From Observer to Participant 143 Postmodern Flanerie: To Spatialize Temporality 147 PASSAGE Il Architecture: Looking Foward, Looking Backward Isl

4 THE END OF MODERNITY: WHERE IS YOUR RUPTURE? 157

The Architectural Model | 158 The Cinema and Modernity/Modernism:

The “Avant-Garde” as a Troubling Third Term 162

vi

Jameson and the Cinematic “Postmodern” 168

Cinema and Postmodernity | 174 | | Postmodernity Without the Word | 177 | CONCLUSION: SPENDING TIME 181 POST-SCRIPT: THE FATE OF FEMINISM IN POSTMODERNITY 193

Warnings at the Post 193

Postfeminism? | 194 Beyond Indifference 198

Neither or Both: An Epilogue to the Period of the Plural 201

NOTES 203 INDEX 8

, vii

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For my parents

Arthur L. Friedberg (1919-1984) and | | Marian Davis Friedberg (1920-1991)

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= PREFACE

| This book is a product of its context, both historical and geographical. In 1985 its author moved from New York City, the quintessential modern city (Capital of the Twentieth Century) to Los Angeles, the quintessential post-

modern city (Capital of the Twenty-First). Living in Southern California, | one learns rapidly about machines that mobilize the gaze; the lessons of the |

everyday are learned through an automobile windshield. | But for this author, the major shock of living in. motorized culture was

its effect on the habits of urban cinephilia. On a previous trip to Los Angeles, I had to leave a Westwood movie theater in the middle of a film in order to feed a parking meter. On that particular afternoon, as I emerged

from the theater's dark comfort, balancing the price of a movie ticket , against the price of a parking ticket, I realized some basic things about spectatorship. I had been watching the garish color “remake” of Jean-Luc | Godard’s 1959 Breathless. Richard Gere was a warped transubstantiation of = Jean Paul Belmondo; the film made a twisted return to the Godard of the New Wave—a time travel of reference. Out in the glaring sun of Westwood Boulevard, I was hit with the epiphanic force of the obvious. Cinema spec-

tatorship was not only a radical metaphor for the windshield, it was also a | unique form of time travel; parking was a necessary physical prerequisite to the imaginary mobilities of such flanerte. Living in Los Angeles, shopping mall cinemas quickly became my preferred venue, if only because they supplied parking. My initial digust at being forced into the belly of a consumer theme park gave way to a fascination with the shared logic of moviegoing and the shopping mall. The shopper-spectator strolls through a phantasmagoric array of commodified images and experiences; both the multiplex cinema and the shopping mall, I quickly realized, sell the pleasures of imaginary mobility as psychic trans-

formation. | oo

These initial thoughts about mobility and the imaginary “virtual” travel. of cinema spectatorship met the (mid-1980s) debates about the “postmod-

ern’ at a significant intersection. The book that follows addresses this

xi

crossing, taking the spatial and temporal displacements of cinematic and televisual spectatorship and aligning them with the postmodern “crisis” about the past. By providing a cultural history of the commodification of a mobile and virtual gaze, I offer a reading of contemporary culture that encourages us to see the cumulative and wide-ranging effects of cinematic and televisual apparatuses in a newly focused historical light. In the mid-1980s, new electronic technologies transfigured the network of everyday communication: cash machines at airports, phones on airplanes and in automobiles, computer terminals in libraries, fax machines everywhere. These technologies appeared with a suddenness that made one consider the science fiction future as the present. The momentous shifts in global politics in the late 1980s were, I would argue, produced as much by these new technologies as by political or ideological shifts. What could provide more vivid proof of the spatial and temporal changes produced by new communications technologies than the global political arena of 1988-

| 1992? Consider: the fax-machine-fueled “prodemocracy movement’ in | China; the “CNN war” in the Persian Gulf; microwave TV signals carrying images of comfortable lifestyles and abundant consumer goods into the meagerly-stocked households of East Germany and the Eastern bloc; satellite beams bringing MTV and the vivid boons of the capitalist West into the fraying economy of the Soviet Union. The boundaries of space and time which were so dramatically challenged by “modernity” have been, again, radically transformed.

Everyday life is a fuel for thought: the private mobility of driving transforms the windshield into a synoptic vista, and the fifty-two-mile commute between the sprawling transurban metropolis of Los Angeles and the uni-. versity-as-theme-park of the University of California at Irvine became, for

me, a consistently speculative analytic hour. While writing this book, the __ freeways that encircle and bisect Los Angeles were under constant construction; the topography of the road reconfigured itself daily. As the new “Century Freeway” loomed apocalyptically into the future, one could not help but draw parallels between the end of this century and the end of the last.

LOS ANGELES JANUARY 1992

xii PREFACE

= ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |

I am indebted to many people and institutions for their generous contributions to the writing of this book.

| Career Development Awards from the University of California at Irvine , in 1986, 1987, and 1988 provided generous research funding for this project

| as it developed; the Organized Research Unit on Women and Image at UCI also supplied continued financial assistance. In the summer of 1987,

I was an NEH Fellow at the Institute for Study of the Avant-gardes at _ Harvard University; I am grateful to the Institute and its participants for conversations and debates about many of the issues which inform this book. San Francisco Artspace’s “New Writing in Arts Criticism” Award in 1987

lent encouragement to this project in its initial stages. | Two colleagues deserve special thanks for their support. Eric Rentschler _ encouraged my thinking at all stages of the book’s progress. Miriam Hansen was a steady friend and colleague as the book took shape; I am grateful for her careful reading of the manuscript, for her rigorous comments and generous suggestions. Discussions with Steve Hall, Bill Horrigan, Lynne Kirby, Gertrud Koch, Judith Mayne, Tania Modelski, Laura Mulvey, Lesley Stern, | Lynne Tillman, and Lindsay Waters were helpful in clarifying my ideas. UCI colleagues John Smith and Linda Williams offered helpful suggestions on the manuscript in its earliest form. Linda Hutcheon provided valuable comments on the manuscript in its penultimate version. William Boddy and Rhona Berenstein were helpful throughout and, in particular, provided careful readings of chapter 3. Steve Simon helped with stills and frame

: enlargements. Ed Dimendberg, my editor at University of California Press, deserves special thanks for his persuasive judgment and unflagging support.

For all of the extraordinary help I’ve received, any limitations in the book’s thought, structure, or scope are, of course, entirely my own. During the course of writing this book I became more fully aware of one of my important and unspoken intellectual debts. Annette Michelson’s _ | eloquent writing on the cinema as a philosophical enterprise was what drew

me to film study in the first place. Her work has remained a model of vitality and intellect. Finally, Howard Rodman’s eloquent sense of language and careful logic

were inspirations throughout; our many shared flanertes have provided extraordinary intellectual and emotional subsidy. And, in its final stages, the book improved thanks to the vigilant support of Benjamin Nemo. Sections of this book were presented as lectures or conference papers. The essay that became the core of the book, “Les Flaneurs du mal(l): Cinema and the Postmodern Condition,” was presented in evolving versions at various conferences and university seminars: SUNY/Stonybrook 1988, Society for Cinema Studies Conference in Bozeman, Montana 1988; Columbia Film Seminar in New York 1988, Art Center Pasadena 1990; ““Feminismus und Medien: Perspektiven der amerikanischen feministischen Medientheorie,” at the Kunst Museum Bern and the Staatliche Hochscule

| | fiir Bildende Kiinst in Frankfurt am Main in June 1990. I am grateful to those audiences for questions and suggestions that were helpful in clarifying

and strengthening my arguments. A version of this essay appeared in PMLA (May 1991) and was translated into German in Feminismus und Medien (Bern: Benteli Verlag, 1991). Another paper which informed the book’s earliest stage was presented as “Mutual Indifference: Feminism and Postmodernism” at the MLA in New York 1986; Foundation for Art Resources

(F.A.R.), Los Angeles in May 1987; UC Irvine in May 1987; California , Institute of the Arts in January 1988; and appeared in Juliet MacCannell, | ed., The Other Perspective on Gender and Culture (Columbia University Press, 1990).

xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

| BLANK PAGE

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# INTRODUCTION: LOOKING BACKWARD—AN INTRODUCTION

TO THE CONCEPT OF “POST” —_

The past can be seized only as an image which flashes up at | the instant when it can be recognized and is never seen again. ... For every image of the past that is not

, recognized by the present as one of its own concerns | threatens to disappear irretrievably. WALTER BENJAMIN, “On the Concept of History”

THE PAST, THE PRESENT, THEVIRTUAL As the century draws to a close, the cultural

detritus of the last two decades may well be measured by the rhetorical debates about the social formation called “postmodernity,” and the sub-

jective position deemed the “postmodern condition.’ In a 1983 essay, Fred- | ric Jameson, one of the key diagnosticians of postmodernity, catalogued

some of its symptoms as: ,

the disappearance of history, the way in which our entire contemporary social system has little by little begun to Jose its capacity to retain its own past, has begun to live in a perpetual present and in a perpetual change that obliterates

traditions.? (emphasis added)

This “disappearance of history” and its corollary effect, a life in the “perpetual present,” has emerged as one of the most profound depictions of “postmodern” subjectivity. Yet these charges strike a chord that resonates back to the middle of the last century. In 1859, Charles Baudelaire indicted photography as being a “cheap method of disseminating a loathing for

history.”? Baudelaire was an early declaimer of the dangerous transforma- | tions of history and memory that the photographic image would produce. Despite photography’s “loathing for history,” Baudelaire also recognized it as a technique that could preserve “precious things whose form is dissolving

and which demand a place in the archives of our memory.’ In this doubleedged reaction, Baudelaire prophetically noted the emergence of a new archive of memory which obscures the past in the guise of preserving it. For Baudelaire, the disappearance of history was a potential consequence of the photographic image.° The debates about the “post” to “modernity” address these same reshufflings of history and memory and are infused with many of the same ambivalences about the cultural effects of these new configurations.® Theorists continue to examine the qualitative transformations of time, space, and subjectivity in what has variously been called postindustrial society (Daniel Bell), multinational capitalism and consumer society (Jameson), the society of the spectacle (Guy Debord), the neocolonial (Gayatri Spivak).’ In this crucible of philosophic debate, where history and memory are | endangered forms, cinematic and televisual apparatuses become readable

not just as symptoms of a “postmodern condition,” but as contributing causes. A diminished capacity to retain the past is, as I will argue, a loss that has figured as the price of the cinema’s cultural gain. Cinema and television—mechanical and electronic extensions of photography’s capacity

to transform our access to history and memory—have produced increasingly detemporalized subjectivities. At the same time, the ubiquity of cin-— ematic and televisual representations has fostered an increasingly derealized sense of “presence” and identity. Seen in this context, descriptions of a

decentered, derealized, and detemporalized postmodern subject form a striking parallel to the subjective consequences of cinema and televisual | spectatorship. Where, then, does the “postmodern condition” begin? Rather than proclaiming a single distinct moment of rupture—when the modern ended and the postmodern began—I suggest a gradual and indistinct epistemological tear along the fabric of modernity, a change produced

| by the increasing cultural centrality of an integral feature of both cinematic and televisual apparatuses: a mobilized “virtual” gaze. The virtual gaze® is not a direct perception but a received perception mediated through representation.” I introduce this compound term in order to describe a gaze that

travels in an imaginary flanerie through an imaginary elsewhere and an imaginary elsewhen. The mobilized gaze has a history, which begins well before the cinema and is rooted in other cultural activities that involve walking and travel. The virtual gaze has a history rooted in all forms of visual representation (back to cave painting), but produced most dramati-

2 INTRODUCTION

| cally by photography. The cinema developed as an apparatus that combined the “mobile” with the “virtual.’’ Hence, cinematic spectatorship changed, |

in unprecedented ways, concepts of the present and the real. As a device to organize a critical intervention into the theorization of the

- _ “nostmodern,” I borrow a conceit from social and textual accounts of the | nineteenth century—that fundamental paradigm of the subject in modernity, the flaneur. Flanerie will serve as an explanatory device to trace changes

in representation and the aesthetic experience in the nineteenth century. | As a social and textual construct for a mobilized visuality, flanerie can be

, historically situated as an urban phenomenon linked to, in gradual but direct ways, the new aesthetic of reception found in “moviegoing.” As I will argue, the imaginary flanerie of cinema spectatorship offers a spatially mobilized visuality but also, importantly, a temporal mobility. This use of the historical model of the flaneur will also draw attention to the gendering of power and visuality in the configurations of modernity. It is here that we can find the origins of the flaneuse, the female counterpart to the male subject in modernity.

| By introducing the terms mobilized and virtual, 1 hope to widen the | historical focus in accounts of the emergence of the cinema, and to extend

a consideration of cinematic spectatorship to other activities that supply an _ imaginary flanerie. Hence, I will argue that to trace the cultural formations that endowed visuality with its ultimately dominant power, it will be necessary also to analyze the cultural contexts for these acts of looking: the social behaviors involved in the examination of goods on display (shopping) and the experience of “foreign” spaces (tourism). The cultural shifts result-

ing from the organization of the look in the service of consumption, and the gradual incorporation of the commodified experience into everyday life,

has, I will argue, profoundly altered the subjective role of memory and , history.

In the nineteenth century, machines that changed the measure of space and time (machines of mobility, including trains, steamships, bicycles, elevators, escalators, moving walkways, and, later, automobiles and airplanes) changed the relation between sight and bodily movement. A variety of architectural forms also emerged in the nineteenth century which facilitated

| and encouraged a pedestrian mobilized gaze—exhibition halls, wintergardens, arcades, department stores, museums. The pedestrian in a glass enclosed winter-garden or exhibition hall enjoyed an endless summer;

INTRODUCTION 3

| arcades protected against weather; museums brought artifacts of the past _ into a tourable present. As the technical advances of iron and glass architecture changed the temporal concept of the seasonal, institutional museology changed the relation to the past.'° And, just as machines of transport (from the railway to the trottoir roulant) produced a new experience of distance and time, these architectural spaces were, in a sense, machines of timelessness, producing a derealized sense of the present and a detemporalized sense of the real.'! Coincident with the new mobilities produced by changes in transportation, architecture and urban planning, photography brought with it a virtual gaze, one that brought the past to the present, the

| distant to the near, the miniscule to its enlargement. And machines of virtual transport (the panorama, the diorama, and later, the cinema) extended the virtual gaze of photography to provide virtual mobility. | At the beginnings of consumer culture, this gaze became imbued with the power of choice and incorporation: the shopper’s gaze. During the

| mid-nineteenth century, the coincident development of department store shopping, packaged tourism, and protocinematic entertainment began to transform this mobilized gaze into a commodity, one sold to a consumerspectator. These forms of commodified visual mobility, once only available in the imperial cities of the first world, gradually became a global standard of modernity. And here, at the base of modernity, the social underpinnings of gender began to shift. Women were empowered with new forms of social mobility as shoppers, as tourists, as cinema-goers.

, The gradual shift into postmodernity is marked, I argue, by the increased centrality of the mobilized and virtual gaze as a fundamental feature of everyday life. Although the social formations of modernity were increasingly mediated through images, this gaze was initially restricted to the public sphere (within “high” culture in painterly views and theatrical experiences, or within “low” culture in the arcade, the department store, the diorama, or the panorama).'? In postmodernity, the spatial and temporal displacements of a mobilized virtual gaze are now as much a part of the

oe public sphere (in, for example, the shopping mall and multiplex cinema) as they are a part of the private (at home, with the television and the VCR). The boundaries between public and private, already fragile in modernity, have now been more fully eroded. The mobilized virtual gaze is now available in the video markets of Katmandu and other outposts of the imperial

web of technoculture.!3 4 INTRODUCTION

The original title of this book relied on a palimpsest of references: Baude-

laire, Walter Benjamin, the shopping mall. Unfortunately that title—Les

Flaneurs du Mal(l)—did little to indicate these sources to an uninitiated reader. Baudelaire’s collection of poems entitled Les Fleurs du Mal (Flowers of Evil) was the cornerstone of Benjamin’s massive work on modernity, his

| uncompleted study of the Paris arcades. Les Fleurs du Mal, according to Benjamin, recorded the ambulatory “gaze of the flaneur’” on “‘Paris—Capital of the Nineteenth Century.” The title Les Flaneurs du Mail, was thus an appropriative double pun (on fleurs and on maf), locating the flanerie

| of the postmodern cinema spectator in the shopping mall. Window Shopping—a title that came late to the manuscript—is the loosest of equivalents, | evoking similar motifs of visuality, contemplation, and pedestrian mobility | while remaining a key metaphor for spectatorship, whether it be in the

| shopping mall multiplex or at home in front of the TV screen. |

METHOD As the above summary indicates, I have drawn from a variety of ongo- ' ing debates and several potentially conflicting discourses. It is therefore important to draw these methodological premises to the surface. This book | is addressed to three distinct but overlapping discursive fields: 1) the debates _ about the “postmodern,” debates that have already formed an interdisciplinary domain, labeled everything from “cultural studies” to combinations

of philosophy, history, literary theory, and art and architectural history, 2) | film studies, which include the often-warring methodologies of film history and film theory, and 3) feminist studies, an equally interdisciplinary (and ever-widening) discursive arena. Here then, I will signpost the goals of my

| argument for each of these areas: Debates about Postmodernity Post implies historical sequence, a moment

| of rupture when the post succeeds the past. But, as historiographers remind us, history is not only a discourse but a product of discourses.'* The debates about postmodernity have often been marked by—as if a product of their

own discourse—a symptomatic amnesia to the past. I argue the need to | reintroduce history into the debate about the postmodern; and I argue that accounts of the cinema and the postmodern require a wider historical focus than simply that of the last two decades or since World War II.

INTRODUCTION 5

As a historiographical consequence of suggesting a prehistory to the “postmodern, the problem of teleology looms large. Attempts to historicize

“emergence” can veer toward a narrativized account of “convergences.” Here it is important to acknowledge the two potentially conflicting objectives of this study: to show that the cinema (as it “emerged” as a technology and commodity form) was defined by the mobilized and virtual gaze, and to describe the gradual, yet specific, differences in the “postmodern” mobilization of this gaze. If the hidden danger of the first is teleology, that of the second is the unwitting celebration of all that is “new and different” in the postmodern. To negotiate the narrow passage between these perilous straits will require a cautious historiography.'°

As we will see, the very term post—and the periodization it implies— incites discord. I contend that the ever-increasing cultural centrality of the mobilized and virtual gaze produced a gradual change, not an apocalyptic rupture, and that the initial frayings were present at the beginnings of the break into the “modern.” This argument places a prehistory of postmoder-

nity in the nineteenth century amid transformations that theorists have otherwise termed the “prehistory of modernity.” The emergence of the cinema was, I will argue, a “proto-postmodern” cultural symptom. Any contemporary work advocating a “return to history” needs to define | its relation not only to the “new historicism,” but also to history, to notions of the past. The tag of new historicist has been attached to methods that replace the “old” historicism of the nineteenth century, and which resist the bent of neopositivism, facticity, and the myth of historical objectivity— while at the same time rejecting the notions of the autonomous text found in critical formalism. A new historicism insists on reconnecting text with

conmtext.'® | |

Because this book crosses disciplinary boundaries (architecture, litera-

ture, film, consumer culture) and because I insist that the film text be read

, in the architectural context of its reception rather than as an autonomous aesthetic product, my method may be labeled new historicist. While I will not reject this designation out of hand, I would like to point out the nearly

| contradictory relation of the methodological principles of new historicism to the argument I am making about film and televisual spectatorship. | I argue that a key component of what has been deemed “the postmodern condition” is found in the simultaneous acknowledgment and disavowal of the idea that the past cannot be reconstituted as it was; and | describe

6 INTRODUCTION

how film and television spectatorship has produced a new relation to the past. The past is, now, inexorably bound with images of a constructed past: a confusing blur of “simulated” and “real.”

_ Debates in Film Studies The massive flood of literature on postmodernism | and postmodernity which spewed forth from conferences and museum shows of the 1980s—a discursive tide that inundated academic journals and art publications—has had relatively little impact on theoretical or historiographic accounts of the cinema.'” As we will see, if the term postmodern

has entered into film studies or film criticism, it has been as postmodern- , ism—a stylistic term or aesthetic symptom. I will argue that beyond a mere marking of contemporary style, cinematic and televisual spectatorship produces a subject fluidity that bears remarkable similarity to descriptions of

postmodern subjectivity. This subjectivity is produced by spectatorship itself—whether or not the style per se is postmodern. The recent work of a variety of film scholars (Doane [1988], Mayne [1988], Gaines [1989], Petro [1989], Musser [1990], and Hansen [1991]) has

argued for widening the focus of social and psychic accounts of cinematic | spectatorship to include advertising, illustrated print journalism, fashion, | and other modes of “screen practice”: in short, the everyday.'* To continue this revision of conceptual models of spectatorship, it is necessary to include new forms of reception in this age of the VCR and the multiplex cinema.

Taking this route will produce a rather different history, one defined not through the changing forms of film styles and conventions of cinematic representation (modeled on the familiar paradigms of art history) but rather

a history that, instead, traces the cultural contexts of these commodified forms of looking and of the experiences of spatial and temporal mobility

| which were first converted into “commodity-experiences” in the nineteenth century. Here I follow work by Kern (1983) and Schivelbusch (1977, 1983) on nineteenth-century transformations of time and space and work by Williams (1982), Bowlby (1985), and Peiss (1986) on women and the origins of

consumer culture.) |

In the nineteenth century, the commodity-experience marketed the sub- |

jective spatial and temporal fluidities that have become primary components of contemporary cinematic and televisual spectatorship. Standardized __ repeatability was an implicit feature of photography and of the cinema, and

its features are more pronounced in the exhibition practices of repertory |

, INTRODUCTION 7

and multiplex cinemas, VCRs, and various forms of television spectatorship. Hence, I argue, we must consider the subjective consequences of reseeing films outside of their historical context and measure the consequences of a contemporary spectatorship that occupies equally the public sphere of the shopping mall and the private domestic sphere of the VCR. It is here that a discussion of the post to modernism and modernity poses

: a unique dilemma to film historiography. Although each of the arts may produce a certain timelessness, film and televisual media do so with the aid of powerful reality effects, propagating a subjectivity that posits “presence”

in a virtual elsewhere and elsewhen. |

In the last two decades, as the discipline of film studies has emerged as a fixture in the academy—complete with graduate programs, as well as museums dedicated to its past—technological advances have transformed our access to this history. As the VCR has become a common household appliance, as cable television networks (TNT, TMC, AMC, TBS) acquire and exhibit Hollywood archives, the cinematic past is accessible in ever more direct ways. Even though cinematic spectatorship itself produces viewing experiences that are not temporally fixed, films have even more profoundly lost their historical identity. In this regard, the ascendancy of film historical discourse (and, by extension, the growing academic discipline of film studies) has worked to mask the very loss of history that the film

itself has incurred.2° As Michel Foucault noted, in a statement about television and cinema

as “effective means .. . of reprogramming popular memory’: | people are shown not what they were but what they must remember having

been... . Since memory is a very important factor in struggle . . . if one | | controls people’s memory, one controls their dynamism.?! (emphasis added) Anton Kaes has pinpointed this historiographical concern in the conclusion to his recent study of postwar West German filmmaking, From Hitler to

Heimat: The Return of History as Film: |

A memory preserved in filmed images does not vanish, but the sheer mass of

, historical images transmitted by today’s media weakens the link between © public memory and personal experience. The past is in danger of becoming a rapidly expanding collection of images, easily retrievable but isolated from time and space, available in an eternal present by pushing a button on the

remote control. History thus returns forever—as film.”

8 INTRODUCTION

- Kaes demonstrates how postwar German films reconstitute our sense of the historical past. As the past is dissolved as a real referent and reconstituted by the cinematic images that displace it, Baudelaire’s cynical prophesy about

photography’s “loathing for history” meets Jameson’s dystopic sympto-

- matology of history’s “disappearance.” | | The book that follows conducts a paradoxical history, one that is designed to restructure cinematic history along a different set of questions: a history of the timelessness produced by cinematic spectatorship, as well as an analysis of the impact on gender and subjectivity of such a intermi-

nably recycled, ever-accessible past. | Feminist Studies As | have indicated, I rely on the flaneur and the work

| of Benjamin to organize the diverse changes in contemporary aesthetic experience and reception. But, at the same time, pursuing a feminist cor- |

| rective to previously gender-blind work, I introduce the flaneuse—the | female urban subject, strikingly absent from accounts of modernity. The | urban mobilities first available to women in modernity are, I will argue, a crucial determinant of the transformations of the role of gender in postmodernity. Although much of feminist film theory has focused on the cinematic representation of the female body and voice, I join the historians and theorists who insist we consider the context for these representations, not only

the relation to advertising, publicity, and fashion but also the effects of cinematic and televisual spectatorship on the psychic and social construction of gender in the context of the commercial and the everyday. As my “Post-Script” attests, debates about postmodernism often took

the discursive place of feminist debates in the late 1980s. This serves asa | reminder that, as an ever-potent product of postmodern culture, theoretical discourse is not innocent, and if we consider the wider cultural mise en scéne, every discourse also has its (even if unwitting) political function. THE “P” WORD Even though cultural historians may have already begun to write

a history of the term postmodern,” this is not my project here. Yet one

cannot enter into a discussion of the postmodern without commenting on | the discursive field that has trivialized the word. To date, a persistent factor

in the cultural debate about the postmodern is the revulsion the very term | invokes. That the terminology of postmodernism has been scavenged by the discourses of advertising and the mass media without regard to its

| INTRODUCTION 9

ideological underpinnings may be the worst recuperation of the word— _ now forced to sell the style of the signifier without the referent. The word postmodern has become a slippery polyseme defined largely through its (over)usage; its semantic inflation has increased in direct proportion to the deflation of its referent. As was once the case with the term modern, postmodern seems to be invoked to simply refer to the “new.’’*4 As the debate continues about the cultural and ideological valences of the postmodern, the term itself has been turned into a stylistic cliché, a fitting example of how discourse about the object becomes submerged in discourse of the object. Dick Hebdige, theorist of subcultures, has acutely

noted: |

When it becomes possible for people to describe as “postmodern” the decor of a room, the design of a building, the diegesis of a film, the construction of a record, or a ‘“‘scratch” video, a TV commercial, or an arts documentary, or the intertextual relations between them, the layout of a page in a fashion magazine or a critical journal, an anti-teleological tendency within epistemology, the attack on “the metaphysics of presence,” a general attenuation of feeling, the collective chagrin and morbid projections of a post- _

| War generation of Baby Boomers confronting middle age, the “predicament” , of reflexivity, a group of rhetorical tropes, a proliferation of surfaces, a new phase in commodity fetishism, a fascination for “images,” codes and styles, a process of cultural, political or existential fragmentation and/or crisis, the “decentering”’ of the subject, an “incredulity towards metanarratives,’’ the replacement of unitary power axes by a pluralism of power/discourse formations, the “implosion of meaning,” the collapse of cultural hierarchies, the dread engendered by the threat of nuclear self-destruction, the decline of the University, the functioning and effects of the new miniaturized technologies, broad societal and economic shifts into a “media” and “consumer” or “multinational” phase, a sense (depending on who you read) of “placelessness” or the abandonment of placelessness (“critical regionalism’’ ) or (even) a generalized substitution of spatial for temporal coordinates—when it becomes possible to describe all those things as “postmodern” (or more simply, using current abbreviation, as “post” or “very post’’) then it’s clear we are in the presence of a buzzword. *

In short, the word postmodern has acquired a semiotic instability that almost mimetically reproduces its denotation of indeterminacy. The mire of debate about its history and definition has become infused with many of the epi-

10 INTRODUCTION

| stemic assumptions that the theorists of the postmodern themselves would challenge—the ontology of history, the denotative certainty of definition. Postmodern has been defined as the end of the Enlightenment (Lyotard) and as the site of the Enlightenment’s completion (Habermas); it has been

seen as radical pluralism, multiculturalism, centralized marginality (Spivak) | and as a culture of decentered subjectivity (Derrida); it suggests texts that — refer only to texts and authentic experiences replaced by simulations (Bau-

drillard). The categories of antimodern, late modern, postmodern blur into , one another as the debate rages. At this juncture, one is tempted to demand

that the use of the word postmodern be regulated or, better, that it be dropped from our vocabularies altogether.?” But when all the semantic dust

| settles, the valence of the modifier post signifies its position vis-a-vis the root word modern, indicating either its end or its continuance in a new

| configuration. | | | _ If film scholars have reacted to the term postmodernism with a justifiable distrust, it has been because the term was eagerly adopted with the sort of

quick “applicationism” that marks intellectual insecurity in any field. In

both academic and journalistic film criticism, the “post” word has been used without questioning the concept of modernism or modernity which _ is its assumed base, or interrogating the problematic oversights in adopting

the blithe label postmodern. — | | A ROAD MAP Beyond this introductory foyer, the architecture of this book is | arranged in four chapters—chapters 1 and 2 on modernity; chapters 3 and 4 on postmodernity—linked by “passages” or brief excursuses. These transitional texts are designed to buttress the otherwise abrupt ellipse between _ the end of this century and the end of last. These three passages illustrate the movement of my argument through a range of interdisciplinary examples from literature, architecture, and film: “Passage 1” is through a literary text (Zola’s Au Bonheur des Dames [1883]); “Passage 2” is through film texts (The European Rest Cure [1904]; Paris Qui Dort [1924]; La Jetée [1962/1964];

Alphaville [1965]; The Time Machine [1960)}); “Passage 3” is through archi- |

tectural examples (the Bradbury Building [1893], the Musée d’Orsay [1900/ |

1987], the Westside Pavilion [1985]). |

In chapter 1, “The Mobilized and Virtual Gaze in Modernity: Flaneur/ Flaneuse,”’ I discuss the historical contexts for the emergence of the cinema and its development from precinematic “mobile” and “virtual” gazes. I

| INTRODUCTION II

propose the dioramic and panoramic spectator as alternatives to the model of structured visuality so frequently associated with modernity—the panoptic gaze. A new social figure—the Haneuse—appeared in public spaces made possible by the new configurations of consumer culture.

Chapter 2, “The Passage from Arcade to Cinema,” examines the architectural and social contexts for the mobilized and virtual gaze, and its instrumentalization as a commodity-experience. As I’ve already indicated, Ben-

jamin’s unfinished Das Passagen-werk is a key and prophetic text on modernity and urban experience. Benjamin considered the passage as a threshold for time’s passing. His writing on photography and the cinema, mechanical reproduction and the loss of aura, and the impact of an “uncon_ scious optics” emphasizes the cinema’s unique temporality. Hence, I return _ to arcades, department stores, and exhibition halls to examine the reconfigurations of spatial and temporal mobility; from the timeless spaces where the “mobilized” gaze was situated to the time machines that extended its

, mobility in “virtual’’ fashion. Chapter 3, “Les Flaneurs/Flaneuse du Mall,” parallels the historical movement of chapter 2 (arcades and modernity, malls and postmodernity). The shopping mall is the contemporary extension of the nineteenth-century passage, offering a site for flanerie and for a mobilized gaze instrumentalized by consumer culture. This chapter begins with a brief history of the shopping mall and argues that the development of the shopping mall has produced an architectural analogue to the cinematic and televisual apparatus.

In this chapter, I also distinguish between the principles of classical spec- , tatorship and contemporary challenges to this model. This chapter also begins a discussion of participant-based “virtual reality” technologies— computer-generated “Toon Town” worlds with no original referent— which are designed to produce the “virtual” effects of the real.

In chapter 4, “The End of Modernity: “Where Is Your Rupture?” I~ argue that even though the term postmodern has been used to describe aesthetic symptoms, it can be more profitably used to consider the social

, formation of postmodernity. As I’ve indicated, in film studies postmodernism has come to be used as a descriptive term for a genre or a period style without an account of how the cultural configurations of postmodernity have been profoundly affected by the very instruments of cinema and television. Cinematic and televisual spectatorship has produced a new form of subjectivity, I argue, a subjectivity that is inherently produced by the apparatus, whether or not the style is “postmodern.” ,

12 INTRODUCTION | |

In a brief conclusion, “Spending Time,” I summarize the book’s argu- | ment by supplying the Vidéothéque de Paris as a final illustration. In the

Post-Script, “The Fate of Feminism in Postmodernity,” I address the role | of debates about postmodernity which do not engage in questions of gen- _ der. If this early discourse about postmodernity is analyzed, it becomes apparent that these discussions “feminized” postmodernity as an unchartable terrain, as enigmatic as that other other—femininity. In this way, debates about postmodernity may have served an unacknowledged ideo-

logical agenda—that of displacing feminist debate. | Notes on Terms Used Modernity: I assume a definition of modernity as a | social formation coincident with late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century industrialization and urbanization. Although these changes had their first impact on capitalist, cosmopolitan cities (Paris, Berlin, London, New York, Chicago, Moscow), the rate of development (and decay) was uneven.

: Subject: The category of the subject, as Derrida reminds us, is itself a questionable vestige of logocentrism. My use of the term provides an indication of my theoretical premises in the linguistic, semiotic, and psychoanalytic theories that have inflected contemporary film theory. In general

terms, film theories that use the term subject contain an implicit critique oe of versimilitude in representation and approach the cinema as a construc-

tion that produces subjectivity. Lacanian-inflected film theory assumes that | subjectivity is structured through visuality. The Lacanian “mirror-phase”

_ implies that the subject only sees itself as whole, elsewhere. Although sub- | ject-oriented apparatus theories have shifted the debate away from style, theorists have continually questioned the relation between the apparatus

and specific textual strategies. ,

The gaze: I use the term gaze to describe mobilized and virtual visuality. While “the male gaze’’—aligned with voyeurism and with fetishism—-was _ an early staple of feminist film theory, the gendering of the gaze remains an historical problematic. By questioning the historical paradigms of the panoptic gaze, I wish to reclaim the gaze as a different form of visuality

and to continue to interrogate the psychic and physiological relation between body and psyche. Benjamin formulates a description of the gaze

of the flaneur (“der Blick des Flaneurs”) which relied on physical and | psychical mobility.22 The common contemporary connotation of the “gaze” relies on the (more panoptic) Lacanian description of the “insideout’ structure of a gaze where the subject only sees itself being seen.”

INTRODUCTION 13

BLANK PAGE

II = =THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE IN MODERNITY: FLANEUR/FLANEUSE

The second half of the nineteenth century lives in a sort of

frenzy of the visible. It is, of course, the effect of the social | multiplication of images: ever wider distribution of illustrated papers, waves of print, caricatures, etc. The effect

also, however, of something of a geographical extension of the field of the visible and the representable: by journies, explorations, colonizations, the whole world becomes |

visible at the same time that it becomes appropriatable.' JEAN-LOUIS COMOLLI, “Machines of the Visible” (emphasis added)

| In societies where modern conditions of production prevail, all of life presents itself as an immense accumulation of spectacles. Everything that was directly lived has moved away

into a representation.’ |

GuY DEBORD, Society of the Spectacle (emphasis added)

In the nineteenth century, a wide variety of apparatuses extended the “field of the visible” and turned visualized experience into commodity forms. As

print was disseminated widely, new forms of newspaper illustration

emerged; as lithography was introduced, the caricatures of Daumier, | Grandville, and others burgeoned; as photography became more widespread, the evidentiary means of public and family record were transformed. The telegraph, the telephone, and electricity increased the speed of com-

munications, the railroad and steamship changed concepts of distance,

while the new visual culture—photography, advertising, and shop display—recast the nature of memory and experience. Whether a “frenzy of |

| 15

the visible,” or “an immense accumulation of spectacles,” everyday life was _ transfigured by the “social multiplication of images.”

Yet there remains a historiographical debate about whether this new _ predominance of the visible produced a crisis of confidence in the eye itself, or whether it was the coincident increase in optical research which produced this frenzy of visual culture. The same historiographic debate pervades the

| history of the arts; either the invention of photography produced a crisis that led to continued optical research, or the nineteenth-century obsession with optical research produced a crisis that led to photography.’ In order

to organize the vast historical process that led to the emergence of the | cinema it is necessary to enter into this debate, a dispute that festers at the | roots of modernity.‘

| In this chapter, I begin by describing the “observer” in modernity, situating the emergence of the cinema in the historical framework of precinematic mobile and virtual gazes. Such a “situated” approach to the cinematic apparatus necessitates an account of the imbrication of images in the social relations of looking.> The flaneur will serve as a model for an observer who follows a style of visuality different from the model of power and vision so

frequently linked with modernity—what Michel Foucault dramatically _ described as “un régime panoptique.”® The trope of flanerie delineates a

, mode of visual practice coincident with—but antithetical to—the panoptic gaze. Like the panopticon system, flanerie relied on the visual register— but with a converse instrumentalism, emphasizing mobility and fluid subjectivity rather than restraint and interpellated reform. The panoptic gaze has been invoked by feminist theorists to underline the one-way power of gendered looking, where women have internalized the voyeuristic gaze and are always subjectively “objects of the look.” As we examine divergent models of the observer in modernity, a refutation of theories of the panoptic gaze will have significant ramifications on accounts of gendered spectatorship. The panoptic gaze may indeed suggest a model for the increased priority of the visual register, but there were alternative gazes that, while still reordering the importance of the visual, produced different—more fluid—forms of subjectivity.

| Gender, to follow Teresa de Lauretis’s recent formulation, “is the product of various social technologies” that include “cinema. . . institutionalized discourses, epistemologies, and critical practices, as well as practices of daily life’ (emphasis added).° And although gender seems a necessary component

16 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

of debates about the role of vision in modernity and postmodernity, genealogies of the nineteenth-century observer have, as we will see, retained a resistance to the gendered subject. Once we establish the flaneur’s mobility, we will see the necessity of charting the origins of his female equivalent,

the flaneuse. | | a

MODERNITY AND THE “PANOPTIC” GAZE It is in this episteme, as Foucault would

have it, that new modes of social and political control were institutionalized by “un régime panoptique.” Foucault places the panoptic model in a piv-

otal position in the epistemological shift from eighteenth-century empiri- | cism to the invention of a transcendental concept of “man.” In a dramatic passage in The Order of Things, he describes this transition as “‘the threshold

, of modernity.” Foucault finds the origins of modernity in the reordering

of power and knowledge and the visible.? | The Panopticon Jeremy Bentham’s panopticon device (1791) provided the model for Foucault’s characterization of panoptic power and the “disciplines” of imagined scrutiny.'° (Discipline has been the common English translation for Foucault’s term, surveiller.) Invoked as a philosophic model for the scopic regime of power through the visual register, the panopticon was an apparatus—a “machine of the visible,’ to use Comolli’s phrase— which controlled the seer-seen relation. In the panopticon, an unseen seer surveys a confined and controlled subject.!! The panopticon produces a subjective effect, a “brutal dissymmetry of visibility’’!* for both positions in this dyad: the seer with the sense of omnipotent voyeurism and the seen with the sense of disciplined surveillance.

, Foucault described the panopticon as an “architectural mechanism,’ a “pure architectural and optical system” that did not need to use force

| tants. | | | because the “real subjection is born mechanically from a fictitious relation.” *

The panopticon structure was then, in a sense, a “building-machine” that, | through its spatial arrangement, established scopic control over its inhabi- —

The architectural system of the panopticon restructured the relation of |

jailer to inmate into a scopic relation of power and domination. The panopticon building was a twelve-sided polygon. Using iron as a skeleton, its internal and external skin was glass. The central tower was pierced by windows that provided a panoramic view of separate peripheral cells. Light

| THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 17

ee oe es eee

prereteprmrmrnsereecereneeee Fy een reg IT gc

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, of Panopticon building, 1791.

{8 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

| from the outer walls illuminated each cell. The panoptic subject was placed | ina state of “conscious and permanent visibility.”!> The panopticon prison

| was thought of as a spatial reformatorium that could change and “correct” | _ subjectivity by architectural means. As Foucault describes it: The seeing machine was once a sort of dark room into which individuals spied; it has become a transparent building in which the exercise of power may be supervised by society as a whole.’

Prisoners were objects of an imagined scrutiny, where the internalized sense | of surveillance changed the disposition of external power: He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes — responsibility for the constraints of power .. . he becomes the principle of his own subjection. By this very fact, the external power may throw off its physical weight; zt tends to the non-corporeal; and, the more it approaches this limit, the more constant, profound and permanent are its effects.!7 (emphasis

added) © , ,

Foucault uses the panoptic model to illustrate how, when power enters the visual register, it “tends to the non-corporeal.” In the panopticon prison, confinement was successfully maintained by the barrier walls of the prison, | but the subjective changes in the inmate were to be produced by the incorporation of the imagined and permanent gaze of the jailer. Bentham’s panopticon was designed for other uses than the prison—the factory, the asy-

enclosure was a priority.'® | lum, the hospital—bur all of these uses were for institutions where

| Hence, the panopticon model has served as a tempting originary root _ for the inventions that led to the cinema, an apparatus that produces an even more “mechanically . . . fictitious relation” and whose “subjection” is

equally internalized.!° Feminist theorists have invoked the “panoptic” __ implant as a model for the ever-present “male gaze,” while “apparatus” film theories relied more on the immobility and confined spatial matrix of | the prison. The prisoners in Plato’s cave provide, in Jean-Louis Baudry’s emphatic account, an origin for cinematic spectatorship with immobility

as a necessary condition.?° |

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 19

As an analogy for cinematic spectation, the model of the panoptic guard (the unseen seer in the position of omnipotent voyeurism) is not literal, but

| figurative and metaphoric. Like the central tower guard, the film spectator is totally invisible, absent not only from self-observation but from surveillance as well. But unlike the panoptic guard, the film spectator is not in

the position of the central tower, with full scopic range, but is rather a subject with a limited (and preordained) scope. The film spectator’s position is one of such imaginary visual omnipotence.! It is the condition of invisibiliry which is the premise, in the argument of Baudry, for the spectator-subject’s confusion of representation and self-generated perception, what Baudry deemed an “over-cathexsis” with representation, a position that guarantees the dependence on the constructed view provided by rep-

resentation.” The panoptic model emphasizes the subjective effects of imagined scrutiny and “permanent visibility” on the observed, but does not explore the subjectivity of the observer.

| In reexamining the emergence of the cinema, one can trace the roots of an instrumentalization of visual culture which is coincident with, but also different from, the paradigm of panoptic visuality. A brief comparison of the panopticon (1791) with two other important devices—the panorama __ (1792) and the diorama (1823)—-will suggest alternative models for visuality.

The panorama and the diorama were building-machines with a different objective: designed to transport—tather than to confine—the spectator-subject.23 As we will see, these devices produced a spatial and temporal mobility—if only a “virtual” one. The panoramic and dioramic observer was

deceptively accorded an imaginary illusion of mobility. In Walter Benja- | min’s conversely demonstrative rhetoric, cinematic spectatorship functioned as an explosive (“dynamite of a tenth of a second”) that freed the spectator from the “prison-world” (Kerkerwelt) of nineteenth-century

architectural space.47 _

- MODERNITY AND THE “VIRTUAL” GAZE :

The Panorama | At leisure let us view from day to day,

As they present themselves, the spectacles oo Within doors: troops of wild beast, bird and beasts _ :

Of every nature from all climes convened, ,

And, next to these, those mimic sights that ape , The absolute presence of reality

20 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE |

Expressing as in mirror sea and land, And what earth is, and what she hath to shew—

I do not here allude to subtlest craft, | | ,

By means refined attaining purest ends, ,

But imitations fondly made in plain | Confession of man’s weakness and his loves.

Whether the painter—fashioning a work | a

To Nature's circumambient scenery , |

, WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, describing the panorama, in the 1805 Prelude

: , (Seventh Book, lines 244-257, emphasis added)

As Wordsworth notes, the panorama was not the “‘subtlest craft’ for pre- , senting “the absolute presence of reality.” But its “spectacles/Within doors” of “every nature from all climes” used “circumambient scenery” to create an artificial elsewhere for the panoramic spectator.

The panorama was a 360-degree cylindrical painting, viewed by an observer in the center. The illusion presented by the panorama was created by a combination of realist techniques of perspective and scale with amode _

of viewing that placed the spectator in the center of a darkened room surrounded by a scene lit from above. The panorama was first patented by the Irishman Robert Barker, who took out a patent for panoramic painting in Edinburgh in 1787 and opened the first completely circular panorama in Leicester Square in London in 1792.75 (Recall the years of Bentham’s.

. work on the panopticon, from 1787 to 1791.) Barker’s inspiration for the panorama came, according to an anecdote told by historian Olive Cook, in a manner worthy of comparison to Bentham’s panopticon prison: The invention of the Panorama is usually attributed to Robert Barker, an , Edinburgh painter. In about 1785 he was put into prison for debt and was confined to a cell lit by a grating let into the wall at the junction of wall and ceiling. One day he was reading a letter and to see more clearly carried it below the grating. The effect when the paper was held in the shaft of light falling from the opening was so astonishing that Barker's imagination was set working on the possibilities of controlled light flung from above upon pictures of large

_ dimensions.’© (emphasis added)

| If “controlled light” served to survey and measure the wards in the pan-

of the panorama. | |

opticon prison, in an opposite way it also served to create the visual illusions

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 21

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Secon g Ss one Saxe Bad 3 OE 1S 3S SS eS Beet Roath Sacha aca“Rrer anor acacia Daa Ma Se ee Sot ESOer———~—r”r-—“(? “Modernity,” Baudelaire explains in this essay, is that part of art “which is ephemeral, fugitive, contingent upon the occasion; it is half of art, whose other half is the eternal and unchangeable.’”*? But the essay was less a celebration of Guys than it was a paean to the flaneur who provides _ a vivid example of “the impassioned observer’: To the perfect spectator, the impassioned observer, it is an immense joy to make his domicile amongst numbers, amidst fluctuation and movement, amidst the fugitive and infinite. To be away from home, and yet to feel at home; to behold the world, to be in the midst of the world and yet to remain hidden from the world—these are some of the minor pleasures of such independent, impassioned and impartial spirits, whom words can only clumsily describe. .. . the observer is a prince who always rejoices in his incognito.°* (emphasis added)

To Baudelaire, this “perfect spectator” was resolutely male, an observing “prince” who was allowed the paradoxical pleasure: to be at home away

from home, in the midst of the world and yet hidden from it, impassioned | and yet impartial, here and yet elsewhere. The Baudelairean observer was a (male) painter or a (male) poet—a flaneur—whose mobility through the. urban landscape allowed him access to the public sphere of the streets and ~ to the domestic realms of the home. He had a fluidity of social position, a

| mutable subjectivity. In Paris Spleen, Baudelaire describes the “mysterious drunkenness,” the “art” of “enjoying a crowd,” as a privilege available only

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 29

to “/’Homme des foules.’’>> Yet, as Baudelaire insists, these pleasures were

not available to just amy man, but to one with “the love of masks and masquerade, the hate of home and the passion for roaming’ (emphasis

added).*¢ , |

While Baudelaire’s flaneur is mediated through his textual constructs

(vividly central to the Tableaux parisiens section of Les Fleurs du Mal), the flaneur was not a fiction. An 1841 edition of Les Francais: Encyclopédie Morale du Dix-neuvieme Siecle provides a physiognomy of “Le Flaneur” as

| “une personnification toute frangaise.”*” To Baudelaire, the flaneur was an

urban life. :

archetypal Parisian, a poet whose language traced the texture and chaos of

Yet Baudelaire’s aesthetic is symptomatic of the nineteenth century's ambivalence toward new forms of visual culture. Although he was actively | extolling the mobile gaze of the flaneur “always travelling across the great human desert’”**——celebrating observation and spectation—Baudelaire was

| equally vehement in his polemic against photography, the new technology for recording these observations. Baudelaire’s scopophilic preference was for

an unaided urban mobility—the pace of the flaneur through the chaos of | urbanity; Baudelaire’s scopophobia was directed at the apparatus for recording these observations.*° Baudelaire, champion of the flaneur, was polemically opposed to the flaneur’s apparatical replacement, photography; he

was a partisan of a mobilized but not virtual gaze. | In The Salon of 1859, Baudelaire decried photography as “art’s most mortal enemy” and suggested that it harms the viewing public to view copies of nature, not works of imagination.© Baudelaire’s complaint that photography was but a “cheap method of disseminating a loathing for history’’® underlines his insistence on the fluidity of the (male) urban subject not being contained or confined, not fixed.® “The passion for roam-

ing” contradicted the “fixing” of the visual image into a photographic | record. The movements of the Baudelairean flaneur produced a “mobilized gaze,” a moving nowhere, neither here nor elsewhere. Yet Baudelaire did not embrace the visual mobilities offered by photography. Photography offered a mobilized gaze through a “virtual real,” changed one’s relation to bodily movement, to the act of looking, to history, and to memory. The Baudelairean flaneur was a male whose social mobility was replaced by the virtual mobilities produced by the photograph. As Susan Sontag records:

30 THEMOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

In fact, photography first comes into its own as an extension of the eye of the middle-class flaneur, whose sensibility was so accurately charted by Baudelaire. The photographer is an armed version of the solitary walker reconnoitering, stalking, cruising the urban inferno, the voyeuristic stroller who discovers the

city as a landscape of voluptuous extremes.% | ,

The photographer, an “armed version of the solitary walker,” could pro-

duce “virtual” visual records of his flanerie.“ | Nadar (Felix Tournachon, 1820-1910) was an exemplary prototype of

such a flaneur. A caricaturist, art critic, balloonist, the inspiration of the character in his friend Jules Verne’s The Journey from Earth to Moon, Nadar’s photographs captured such “voluptous extremes.’ Nadar took his camera above Paris in a balloon (1858), into the sewers and catacombs (1861),

and coaxed studio portraits from Sarah Bernhardt, George Sand, Alexandre ,

Dumas, and even Baudelaire. | In its rapid global deployment of “armed walkers,” photography transformed the “field of the visible.” (Between 1863 and 1866, Samuel Bourne took photographic equipment along to record his travels in the Himalayas;

, John Thompson recorded his travels in China in 1873; Matthew Brady made historic records of the battles of the Civil War.) The fugitive present became a captured virtual presence.

. As we consider these changes in the “field of the visible,” it is worth addressing Jonathan Crary’s recent challenges to the history of “techniques _ of the observer” in the nineteenth century. In Crary’s polemical rereading of the history of perception, the perceptual paradigm of the seventeenthand eighteenth-century camera obscura typified a system of “representation, _ cognition and subjectivity” which is “fundamentally discontinuous” from

the models of perception for the nineteenth-century observer. Crary maintains that the dominant perceptual assumptions surrounding the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century observer—that the camera obscura pre-

sented a “real’’ and “true” representation of the world and that optical apparatuses were the source of their produced effect—gave way, in the

| nineteenth century, to a physiological optics that describes the subjectivity , of vision. This produced, in Crary’s account, a dramatic epistemological shift from apparatically-produced subjectivity to a “corporeal subjectivity,”

where the body was “the active producer of optical experience.” ,

| THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 31

But to Crary, the “body of the observer” is not a gendered body. He analyzes the discursive context of visual apparatuses, not their social function. He begins: an observer posited ... as .. . the autonomous producer of Ais or her own content. This essay seeks to describe some of the features of this new kind of

| observer and to suggest how Ais or her formation in the nineteenth century was immanent to the elaboration of new empirical knowledge of vision and techniques of the visible.*” (emphasis added)

Despite the initial and pronounced pronoun inclusion of the gendered subject (his or her), Crary backs away from a sexualized or gendered notion of psychic functioning when he discusses the body of the observer. ® Crary’s observer is in a paradoxical position, simultaneously experiencing |

the mobility of images (“new abstraction and mobility of images’) and the rigidity of images (“disciplining . . . the observer in terms of rigidly fixed relations to image and apparatus’”°). Crary doesn’t expand upon the impli-

cations of these dialectically opposed forms of observation. And yet, the combination of the mobility and rigidity of images seems to offer the foun- |

dation for a paradigm shift to a more fluid subjectivity further from the , positioned body of the observer.”!

THE GENDER OF THE OBSERVER: THE FLANEUSE

The moment the look dominates, the body loses its materiality. LUCE IRIGARAY”

And if the eye which moves is no longer fettered by a body, by the laws of matter and time, if there are no more

OO assignable limits to its displacement—conditions fulfilled by the possibilities of shooting and of film—the world will be constituted not only by this eye but for it. JEAN LOUIS BAUDRY, ‘Ideological Effects of the Basic Apparatus’’”?

32 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

Our society is characterized by a cancerous growth of | vision, measuring everything by its ability to show or be shown and transmuting communication into a visual journey.

| MICHEL DECERTEAU, The Practice of Everyday Life” | The above epigraphs imply very different theories of the body and the

| visual. For Irigaray “the look” replaces the body, separates itself from it, , and renders the body immaterial. Baudry describes the cinema as an apparatical prosthesis, a substitute for the eye without a body. DeCerteau meta-

phorizes a social body, victim to the unstoppable growth of the visual

function, which has metastasized into all aspects of everyday life. But in | | each of these cases, the act of seeing—perception through the visual register—is described in terms of its displacement of the body. Although the above theorists may at first seem dissimilar, they all hail from a French | “episteme”’ and their theories converge along the assumption that the body is a fiction, a decorporealized subjectivity sliding fluidly among a variety of positions. I want to pose a historical framework for the origins of this form

| of subjectivity, whose “mobility” is routed through the “virtual.” As the gendered French noun designates, the flaneur was a male urban subject, endowed with a gaze at an elusive and almost unseen flaneuse. The — flaneur could be an urban poet, whose movements through a newly configured urban space often transformed the female’s presence into a textual

homage.’”°

| In “A une passante,” one of the most famous sonnets of Les Fleurs du Mal, Baudelaire evokes the fleeting sight of a woman in the modern city. Amid the deafening noise of the street (la rue assourdissante), a majestic but mourning woman (a douleur majesteuse) passes by (une femme passe). It is here that the flaneur meets, in an eye-line match, the gaze of a woman. In such a momentary fascinum her gaze is returned, but only momentarily,

and then lost. |

A flash ... then night! O lovely fugitive, - | I am suddenly reborn from your swift glance; |

shall I never see you till eternity?

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE _ 33

[Un éclair... puis la nuit!—Fugitive beauté , Dont le regard m’a fait soudainement renditre,

Ne te verrai-je plus que dans |’éternité?]’° In another poem from Les Fleurs du Mal, the faneur meets the gaze of a

- woman whose presence in urban space is equated with the lure of the commodity:

Your eyes, lit up like shops to lure their trade... | | _ Or fireworks in the park on holidays,

insolently make use of borrowed power

and never learn (you might say, “in the dark’)

what law it is that governs their good looks. : [Tes yeux, illuminés ainsi que des boutiques __ Et des if flamboyants dans les fétes publiques, Usent insolemment d’un pouvoir emprunté

Sans connaitre jamais la loi de leur beauté.]”’ | “Lit up like shops to lure their trade,” the eyes of Baudelaire’s femme “make

use of borrowed power.” In this imagery, the woman is almost a shop mannequin, whose gaze is made of “borrowed power” seized, one assumes,

from the lure of the luxury item in a shop window as if in a triangulated | bid for seduction. The flaneur becomes an easy prototype for the consumer, whose perceptual style of “just looking” was the pedestrian equivalent of

: slow motion. But Baudelaire did not consider the power of the woman’s gaze to the shop window—a gaze imbued with the power of choice and incorporation through purchase. It was as a consumer that the flaneuse was born. Les Fleurs du Mal, Baudelaire’s collection of reveries on Parisian flanerie,

was the cornerstone of Benjamin’s massive and uncompleted work on modernity, his study of the Paris arcades. The poems of Les Fleurs du Mal recorded “the gaze of the flaneur”’® on “Paris—Capital of the Nineteenth | Century.” Benjamin’s flaneur was a palimpsestic construct: a textual flaneur taken from the Baudelairean city of the middle nineteenth century as well as an actual flaneur—Benjamin himself, roaming the arcades and cafes of Paris in the 1920s and 1930s. For Benjamin, the flaneur “who goes botanizing on the asphalt’’”? was the quintessential paradigm of the subject in _

34 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

modernity, wandering through urban space in a daze of distraction.®° The arcades of Paris, dank sites of both the textual and actual flaneur, repre-

jectivity.®! |

sented a symptomatic urban space, readable in a Kulturkritik of urban sub- |

The crowd was the veil from behind which the familiar city as phantasmagoria beckoned to the fléneur. In it the city was now landscape,

| now a room. And both of these went into the construction of the department

store, which made use of flanerie itself in order to sell goods. The department | store was the fléneur's final coup.®* (emphasis added)

Traffic and the decline of the arcade killed the flaneur and his perceptual patterns of distracted observation and dreamlike reverie. But it was the

(male) flaneur who was at home in this privatized public space. As Susan | Buck-Morss has stunningly detailed, if women roamed the street they became “streetwalkers,” prostitutes, carnal commodities on sale alongside other items in the arcade.®3 Women were objects for consumption, objects

_ for the gaze of the flaneur, or the poet who, like Baudelaire, would notice _ women as mere passersby." And as the work of Baudelaire and Crary suggests, most theories of the

“observer” in the nineteenth century are either ungendered or resolutely | male. Even though nineteenth-century perceptual theories may not have | addressed sexuality, once we assess the cultural uses of perceptual apparatuses—the function that they serve in the experience of everyday life—then the question of gender in the “body” of the observer becomes a far more pertinent aspect in the arrangements of social power. As a familiar idiom of feminist methodology, when the question of gender is posed to (otherwise normative) theories that evade sexuality, a new set of questions begins to appear. It was precisely while these changes in

the observer were occurring in the nineteenth century that women were changing their social role and were allowed a new and more public access to mobility through urban space. As consumers, women had a new set of social prerogatives in which their social powerlessness was crossed with new paradoxes of subjective power.

In a challenge to the histories of modernity or modernism which evade the issue of sexuality, Griselda Pollock has argued that any such account of nineteenth-century art history “ensures the normalcy of that position leav-

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 35

ing it [sexual difference] below the threshold of historical investigation and theoretical analysis.’’®° In Pollock’s critique, a class-aware art critic such as

| T. J. Clark may describe modernist paintings that “imply a masculine viewer/consumer’’ but, as she points out, Clark neglects to address the | presence of female observers or the absence of female artists, both factors that offer a more precise account of the sexual politics of modernism. Clark discusses the oscillation between two divergent painterly representations of woman in the nineteenth century—the fille publique (woman of the streets) and the femme honnéte (the respectable married woman).* As we will see, to find the origins of a female observer—a public woman who

was neither a fille publique nor a femme honnéte—one has to turn to new _- spaces that appeared in the mid-nineteenth century, public spaces such as the department store or the amusement park, spaces where women could exist outside of these two narrow definitions.®” The flaneuse was the nine-

teenth-century version of a female observer, whose gaze was mobilized in

| these new public spaces of modernity. - Oo |

The female flaneur, the flaneuse, was not possible until she was free to roam the city on her own.® And this was equated with the privilege of shopping on her own. The development in the late nineteenth century of shopping as socially acceptable leisure activity for bourgeois women, as a “pleasure rather than a necessity,’®° encouraged women to be peripatetic without escort. Department stores became a central fixture in the capitalist city in the mid-nineteenth century. In Paris, Bon Marché opened a store in 1852, Macy’s opened in New York in 1857, and others followed. Only gradually did these grand magasins begin to employ women as shop clerks, allowing the female to be both buyer and seller. It wasn’t until the closing decades of the century that the department store became a safe haven for unchaperoned women.”! The flaneuse appeared in the public spaces—department stores—made possible by the new configurations of consumer culture.”? The flaneuse was empowered in a paradoxical sense: new freedoms of lifestyle and “choice” were available, but, as feminist theorists have amply illustrated, women were addressed as consumers in ways that played on deeply rooted cultural constructions of gender.

The impossibility of a flaneuse has been forcefully argued by Janet Wolff.°3 Wolff describes a modernity that was predominately identified with the public sphere of work, politics and urban life—realms that were

36 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

| exclusively male. In her account, the literature of modernity accepts the | confinement of women to the private sphere, and hence fails to delineate women’s experience. Certainly the literature that. Wolff surveys—Simmel, ,

Baudelaire, Benjamin—describes the experience of men in the public : sphere from which women are invisible.°* Wolff wants to produce a feminist sociology that would supply the experiences of women, but it seems important also to turn to some literary texts by female “modernists.”°> As Pollock has shown with Berthe Morisot and Mary Cassatt, paintings by

nineteenth-century women provide vivid illustration of women in urban | spaces. And, although Wolff does mention that consumerism is a central

aspect of modernity and that the establishment of the department store in | the 1850s and 1860s created an new arena for the public appearance of | women, she does not consider the female consumer as an important figure.

Yet it is precisely here that I find the origins of the new social character, _ the flaneuse. Shopping, like other itinerancies of the late nineteenth cen-

- tury—museum- and exhibition-going, packaged tourism and, of course, the cinema—relied on the visual register and helped to ensure the predominance of the gaze in capitalist society. The department store that, like the arcade before it, “made use of flanerie itself in order to sell goods,”®”” con-

structed fantasy worlds for itinerant lookers. But unlike the arcade, the department store offered a protected site for the empowered gaze of the flaneuse. Endowed with purchase power, she was the target of consumer , address. New desires were created for her by advertising and consumer culture; desires elaborated in a system of selling and consumption which _

depended on the relation between looking and buying, and the indirect : desire to possess and incorporate through the eye. The department store | may have been, as Benjamin put it, the flaneur’s last coup, but it was the flaneuse’s first.

THE “MOBILIZED” AND “VIRTUAL” GAZE In the nineteenth century, a wide variety | of apparatuses turned the pleasures of flanerie into a commodity form, _ negotiated new illusions of spatial and temporal mobility. Unlike the con-

finement of the panoptic system, many protocinematic devices negotiated , spatial and temporal illusions. In short, all of these forms depended on the | immobility of the spectator, a stasis rewarded by the imaginary mobilities

that such fixity provided. | | |

THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE 37

While the nineteenth-century observer may well have been offered the

| illusion of mobility, it was at first only a spatial mobility. The illusion of temporal mobility became more effectively produced in cinematic spectation. Such imaginary flanerie produced a new form of subjectivity—not only decorporealized and derealized, but detemporalized as well. And these new pleasures—more possible, more public—were available to women for the first time. Hence, as Crary has indicated, we can trace the subjective shifts produced

| by apparatuses that separate the referent from the experience and locate perception in the “body”’ of the observer. In chapter 2 we will examine the even further severing of experience from referent, extending the illusion of _ spatial mobility into the illusion of temporal mobility. For the cinematic observer, the body itself is a fiction, a site for departure and return. As we turn to a consideration of the architectural and social contexts—

arcades, department stores, exhibition halls—the timeless spaces that encouraged flanerie, we can begin to correlate the nineteenth-century instrumentalization of flanerie into “commodity-experiences” with the

virtual fashion.

emergence of cinematic “time machines” that extended this mobility in a

Modernity is marked by the paradoxes of industrial growth; as the expansion of the city destroyed nature, the desire for parks and gardens increased. The city itself redefined the gaze. New means of transportation provided

_ an unprecedented urban mobility, the broadened boulevards produced unimpeded forms of urban circulation, shop windows invited passersby to

engage in imaginative new sites of looking. The flaneur’s movements through urban space were, in the rhetoric of deCerteau, “pedestrian speech

acts.” Such a “rhetoric of walking” was also transformed to the textual constructs of literature of the nineteenth-century city.” Benjamin will serve as our initial guide through this critical passage; his | work on flanerie and the arcade, on the commodity and memory, on the cinema and photography as “mechanical reproduction,” provides a preliminary Baedeker to the transformations between the nineteenth century and the present.

38 THE MOBILIZED AND VIRTUAL GAZE

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THE LADIES’ PARADISE BY EMILE ZOLA | | Emile Zola’s 1883 novel of a grand magasin makes apparent the purpose of the department store: for the pleasure of women. As if an implicit conflation of the pleasures of reading with the newly wrought pleasures available in the public sphere of consumption, the name of Zola’s fictional store, Au Bonheur des Dames, is also the name of his eleventh novel. Au Bonheur des Dames describes the transformation of Denise Baudu, a young woman of twenty who comes to Paris from the country town of Valognes. In her first moments in the teeming metropolis, fresh from the Saint-Lazare railway station, Denise becomes transfixed in front of the windows of a grand magasin. In the shop windows Denise sees silk stockings and gloves in symmetrical array, silks, satins, and velvets arranged in a spectrum of colors and textures, lace dresses and woolen mantles worn by mannequins with slim waists and long necks. For Zola, the store window makes the equation between women and commodity quite explicit:

The well-rounded neck and graceful figures of the dummies exaggerated | the slimness of the waist, the absent head being replaced by a large price-ticket pinned on the neck; whilst the mirrors, cleverly arranged on each side of the

window, reflected and multiplied the forms without end, peopling the street , | with these beautiful women for sale, each bearing a price in big figures in the place |

of a head.’ (emphasis added)

Even before Denise goes to work in Au Bonheur des Dames, she began to feel as if she were watching a machine working at full pressure

| communicating its movement even as far as the windows. . . . There was a : | crowd before them, groups of women pushing and squeezing, devouring

the finery with longing, covetous eyes. . . . And all that went on in an orderly manner, with mechanical regularity, quite a nation of women passing

added) ,

through the force and logic of this wonderful commercial machine.’ (emphasis

oe | | 41

Throughout the novel Zola maintains this description of the store as a ‘‘commercial machine,’’ fueled by the masses of women that teem through its doors. The store’s owner, Mouret, arranges the objects on display, aware that they produce an almost mesmerizing effect on the women who pass them, the ‘“‘crowded sea of customers, this sea of bodies, swelling with life,

beating with desire’’:’

Mouret’s unique passion was to conquer woman. He wished her to be queen | in his house, and he had built this temple to get her completely at his mercy. His sole aim was to intoxicate her with gallant attentions, and traffic on her desires, work on her fever.* (emphasis added)

The department store, like the arcade before it, constructed a sheltered refuge for itinerant lookers, a sanctuary for consumption kept separate from the domain of production. Zola’s grand magasin was a consumer empire in which ‘“‘women reigned supreme,’’* where shopping was a ‘‘new religion,’ a site for the empowered gaze of the flaneuse. Either as leisured consumers or as working-class calicots (saleswomen), women were encouraged to enter this

, | public sphere and, as the sign posted at the entrances indicated, free | admission promised a form of liberation: entrée libre. | The ‘‘paradise’’ of the department store relied on the relation between looking and buying, and the indirect desire to possess and incorporate through the eye. Of course, along with the creation of new desires, new disorders emerged: impulse buying, binge shopping, shopping bulimia, agoraphobia, and agoramania. Zola’s portrait of female consumer behavior was attuned to these newly produced neuroses: Madame Marty, carried away by her rage for spending, took everything at

, the Ladies Paradise, without choosing, just as articles appeared; Madame Guibal walked about the shop for hours without ever buying anything,

| happy and satisfied to simply feast her eyes; Madame de Boves, short of money, always tortured by some immoderate wish, nourished a feeling of rancour against the goods she could not carry away; Madame Bourdelais,

| with the sharp eye of a careful practical housewife, made straight for the bargains, using the big establishments with such a clever housewife’s skill that she saved a heap of money; and lastly Henriette, who, very elegant, only procured certain articles there, such as gloves, hosiery and her coarser linen.§

42 PASSAGE ONE |

While these changes were transforming the bourgeoise in Paris, in other , capitalist cities—in New York, Chicago, London, Berlin—the department store was becoming a common temple of consumption, as Zola put it, a

‘‘cathédrale du commerce moderne.’ __

The novel addresses its readers as if they too were shoppers entering an illusory realm, desiring transubstantiation through purchase. Reading was a leisure activity conducted by women in the private sphere.* Zola’s own prose descriptions function, as Kristin Ross has keenly noted, like Mouret's display

strategy:

Readers are presented with a flux of rapidly described part objects: both ,

goods and body parts . . . Zola’s phrases and clauses crowd together, , | eclipsing the verb, creating the impression of syntactic blocks as movable or interchangeable as any of the counter displays in Mouret’s store.’

Ross also describes the structural architecture of the novel’s narrative matrix,

_ which counterbalances the horizontal expansion of the store with the | ‘vertical momentum”’ of Denise’s career rise in store management.'° The , ‘‘Ladies Paradise’’ destroys family businesses and produces myriad collateral , melodramas. As the magasin expands, colonizing adjacent small businesses, buying up property in the surrounding neighborhood, the store itself becomes | a monstrous embodiment of Paris, then undergoing Haussmann’s planification. Denise, whose uncle’s business has been ruined by the store's commercial expansion, is caught in the tug of allegiances between the blood

relatives who have coolly welcomed her and her brothers to Paris and the commercial organization that hires her into its paternalizing custody. In The Ladies’ Paradise there is one woman who frequents the store who is neither one of the many respectable married women—the femme honnétes, Mademoiselle Marty, Mademoiselle de Boves, Mademoiselle Bourdelais—nor , a prostitute, a fille publique. She is referred to only as Ja jolie dame," and the shop clerks (both vendeurs and vendeuses) never know whether she is someone's

wife or someone’s mistress. |

He knew the customer very well, an adorable blonde who often came to , their department, and who the salesmen called among themselves *‘the ,

disappeared." , , pretty lady,’’ knowing nothing of her, not even her name. She bought a great deal, had her purchases taken to her carriage, and immediately

PASSAGE ONE 43

The jolie dame—the shopper whose social relation to men is anonymous and irrelevant—is a paradigm flaneuse. Denise negotiates the narrow passage between all of these positions. She is not a buyer—neither a femme honnéte nor a femme publique. She is a vendeuse, but is not herself for sale. Her sales skills attract Mouret, but she stubbornly refuses his advances. A novel | that has traveled its narrative course with Denise as a woman of strident independence concludes with her consent to marry Mouret. With marriage as

, narrative closure, The Ladies’ Paradise conforms to the conventions of gothic romance, where a woman of lowly class origins overcomes great odds and weds a man of higher social station. Zola’s ending embraces this cliché of upward mobility and yet, if read in continuity with (not countervention of) _ Denise’s stridence, suggests less that she has been ‘‘bought’’ than that she has risen to become Mouret’s equal partner. The masses of women who stoked the furnaces of this commercial machine

| became—to give Poe’s ‘‘Man of the Crowd’’ female counterparts—femmes de la foule. But these hordes of female consumers, empowered with “‘mobility”’ in the public sphere, also form a prophetic indication of a organized ‘‘movement’’ of ‘‘New Women.’’ As Williams’s discussion of Consumer

Leagues formed in France in the 1890s demonstrates, feminism and the

, consumer movement were considered ‘‘as natural allies.’’'? As if in distant reverberation of the darker consequences of this newfound consumer power, Dutch filmmaker Marleen Gorris’s 1981 film, A Question of Silence, has its women shoppers bludgeoning a male store manager to death

, with hangers and shopping cart. A woman caught shoplifting in a shopping mall boutique is joined by two other women in an improvised collective lynching of the imperious store manager. In the subsequent trial, all of the other female customers remain silent, an act of subversive solidarity. In the courtroom, they begin to laugh as if the pleasurable extension of such

consumer empowerment—the true ‘‘Ladies Paradise’’—is the laughter of |

revolt against scopic regulation of their consumer autonomy."* | In private leisure, Zola’s reader was provided a virtual transit in a fictional —

, world, a textual ‘‘ladies paradise.’’ But the department store offered a more public leisure to the flaneuse. Just as Benjamin will claim the film as an

a explosive that ‘‘burst’’ the nineteenth-century world ‘‘asunder,’’ the flaneuse broke out of an equivalent ‘‘prison-world’’— into the public spectacle of

consumption. , ,

44 PASSAGE ONE ,

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Hl = THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA | |

| Our taverns and our metropolitan streets, our offices and furnished rooms, our railroad stations and our factories appeared to have us locked up hopelessly. Then came the

| film and burst this prison-world asunder by the dynamite of the tenth of a second, so that now, in the midst of its far-flung ruins and debris, we calmly and adventurously go travelling.

WALTER BENJAMIN, The Work of Art in the _ Age of Mechanical Reproduction” !

In this well-traveled passage from his now-canonical essay on modernity,

“The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” Benjamin offers a hyperbolic image of the changes wrought by the explosive advent of “the film.” With a weight of near-biblical drama, the film is poised to

| release despondent captives from the “prison-world” of nineteenth-century architectural space. For Benjamin, “the dynamite of the tenth of a second” | - sent a temporal charge that tore at the spatial materials of modernity; its

brickworks, pavements, window glass, and iron girders were “burst asun- | _ der.” The film was privileged as the agent of this rupture, an epistemological TNT. And in its wake, the flaneur remained, left with a different yet “calm and adventurous’ way of “travelling.”

The above “passage” is embedded in a discussion of the close-up, fol- |

lowed by the frequently cited maxim: | _ With the close-up, space expands; with slow motion, movement is extended. The enlargement of a snapshot does not render more precise what in any case

was visible, though unclear: it reveals entirely new formations of the subject. oe (emphasis added)

47

Benjamin was attempting to assess the various cultural effects of photography and the cinema, of mechanical reproduction and the loss of aura, the impact of an “unconscious optics.” Certainly other commentators on film had noted the formal significance of the cinematic transformations of mag-

nification (the close-up) and temporal distention (slow motion). Jean Epstein, for example, anticipated Benjamin’s rhetoric in his writings in the

early 1920s. To Epstein, the close-up was “the soul of the cinema,” an essential component of cinematic specificity, photogenie.2 And to Epstein, slow motion brought a “new range to dramaturgy. Its power of laying bare the emotions of dramatic enlargement.’ Béla Balazs found equally signif_ icant physiognomic revelations in the new cinematic trope of the close-up.> The writings and film practice of Epstein, Delluc, Dulac, Balazs, Vertov,

| and Clair both argued for and demonstrated the formal specificities of the cinematic medium.

But unlike these other theorists, Benjamin would note the more profound exponents of the alterations of space and time made possible by mechanical reproduction: the social changes produced by spatial prolifera-

tion and its metonymic aspect, repeatability over time. “Even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art,” Benjamin would write in “Work of Art,” “is lacking in one element: its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be” (emphasis added).°

The absent “presence” of a mechanically-reproduced work of art was what Benjamin began to theorize as “aura,” the mystified quality of authenticity of the original that was lost in the age of mechanical reproduction.’

| Benjamin was attentive to the spatial alterations produced by mechanical | reproduction (in mass distribution and its flipside, mass reception),® but he also speculated on the reconfigured temporalities that mechanical reproduction allows.° To this we will return.

The “Work of Art” essay, perhaps the most celebrated of Benjamin’s posthumous career, contains his most sustained discussion of film. Situated in the larger context of Benjamin’s work (the essay was drafted in January

and February of 1935), “Work of Art” was written while he was “in the | midst of’ his ambitious and never-to-be-completed utopian project to analyze the “far-flung ruins and debris” of the nineteenth century: the Passagen- Werk, a study of the Paris arcades.'°

Benjamin took the “passages” as a succinct instantiation of the frag-

| mentary nature of modernity—its hodgepodge accumulation, its uncanny

48 THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA

juxtapositions, its “theater of purchases’ —and, above all, its curious temporality. The passage (and here it is important to retain the word passage— not arcade) was an architectural monument to ¢me and its passing. Benjamin was drawn to the remains of the nineteenth century as a collector,

_ ragpicker, bricoleur of its rubble. (“the rags, the refuse: I will not describe -

but rather exhibit them.”?!) ;

_ Adorno describes Benjamin’s method: oo His preference in the Arcades for small shabby objects like dust and plush is a

complement of this technique, drawn as it is to everything that has slipped oo through the conventional conceptual net or to things which have been esteemed too trivial by the prevailing spirit for it to have left any traces other than those

of hasty judgement.'? (emphasis added)

And tells us: | he was drawn to the petrified, frozen or obsolete elements of civilization, to everything in it devoid of domestic vitality no less irresistibly than is the

collector to fossils or to the plant in the herbarium. Small glass balls containing a landscape upon which snow fell when shook were among his -

favorite objects.’ The glass enclosed snow scene, a souvenir like the one Kane clutches on his deathbed at the beginning of Citizen Kane, serves as a symptomatic clue to Benjamin’s unfinished project. “What was sold in the Passages were souvenirs [Andenken],” wrote Benjamin. “The [Andenken] was the form of the commodity in the Passage.”'* Andenken translates as souvenir, but

| also as memory; memory was the commodity-fetish retailed in the arcade, ~ a “world in miniature.”!° The Passagen-werk was to be a compilation of such shards of memory, “a literary montage,” an arrangement of texts that

| formed a monumental dialectic. As a piece of textual architecture like Kane’s “never-finished, already decaying, pleasure-palace,” the unassembled convoluts of the Passagen-werk formed a rambling Xanadu of monu-

_ ments and ephemera.'® | | , | The passage was a fitting paradigm for all of modernity. A public space made possible by the recent advances of iron and glass architecture, the arcade was lined with luxury items produced in the economies of the newly

THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA 49

industrialized textile trade. Hats, umbrellas, gloves, and cloth mantles were displayed in shop windows and vitrines as if they were antiquated objects

in a natural history museum. The passage was not a museum or a warehouse, but a sales space where the purchase was a transaction endowed with near-philosophic significance. Commodities were transformed into souve-

| nirs, memory-residue of the already passé. | The Passagen-werk occupied Benjamin until his death in 1940. Its traces left to posthumous speculation, its materials roughly assembled, its evidence scattered, the Passagen-werk makes us, as Susan Buck-Morss has written, “detectives against our will.”!” For the structure of this massive work, Benjamin appealed to the concept of dialectics.'® His method was to collect fragments, to construct dialectical

images (dialektische Bilder) as a montage of opposites.'? (“Dialektik im

Stillstand—das ist die Quintessenz der Methode.”?°) , ... to carry the montage principle over into history. That is, to build up the large structures out of the smallest precisely fashioned structural elements. Indeed, to detect the crystal of the total event in the analysis of the simple,

individual moment.?! (emphasis added) ,

| Benjamin’s method was almost cinematic, as if each quotation were a shot, “single in meaning and neutral in content,” until it was placed in juxtaposition.” If thought of in this way, the Passagen-werk is like another projét maudit of the twentieth century, equal in its grandiose aspirations, destined conversely to remain incomplete. Eisenstein’s plans for a film of Capital, sketched in notes from 1927 to 1928, contained, as Annette Michelson has argued, “the most radical of aesthetic syntheses”: a film of Karl Marx’s Das Kapital “with its formal side dedicated to Joyce.””? Although Benjamin gives no avowed indication of familiarity with Eisenstein’s “dialectic approach to film form,’ it is as if the Passagen-werk was an equally radical aesthetic synthesis: a text devoted to the commodity-fetish, with the “formal side” dedicated to the principles of Eisensteinian montage. Eisen| stein’s ambitions for “intellectual montage” were to produce films that “will have to do with philosophy” and whose “substance will be the screening of ...a Begriff (concept, idea].”?° Here it is tempting to consider a more

portentous, and perhaps more accurate, analogy for the fragmentary

50 THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA |

film never completed.” | |

remains of Benjamin’s Passagen-werk—not a building left in ruins, but a | If seen through the lens of criticism of Adorno and the Zeteschrift fiir Sozialforschung, Benjamin was charged with the epithet of Marxist condem- |

nation—being “undialectical.”” Criticizing Benjamin’s assumption that cul-

ture simply “reflects” its economic base, Adorno wrote: “Your dialectic _ lacks one thing: mediation.’”?” Although Adorno was critical of Benjamin during his life, in his introduction to the posthumously published Schriften in 1955, he wrote more sympathetically of Benjamin’s intentions:

_ He correctly called the images of his philosophy dialectical: the plan for the | book Pariser Passagen envisages as much a panorama of dialectical images as , their theory. The concept of a dialectical image was meant objectively, not psychologically: the presentation of the modern as at once the new, the already past and the ever-same was to have been the work’s central philosophical theme

, and central dialectical image.?® (emphasis added) , The Passagen-werk’s “central dialectical image” was, as Adorno incisively

diagnosed, modernity’s unique superimposition of “the new and the already past and the ever-same.” The passages instantiated this dialectic in metaphoric and literal terms. The simultaneity of this temporal triad—“the new, the already past and the ever-same”—will remain a key component

of my description of postmodern temporality. | In May 1935, just as Benjamin finished the exposé “Paris—Die Haupts-

tadt des XIX Jahrhunderts,” he described his plans for the “Arcades” book | in a letter to his friend Gershom Scholem. The project would focus, he declared, on “the unfolding of a handed-down concept. . . . the fetish char-

acter of commodities.’”° Benjamin intended to read the commodity-objects | on display in the faded arcades as substructural symptoms of the flaws of the superstructure. The commodities that appeared in the passages had a fortuitous and random arrangement, like the chance encounter of the umbrella and sewing machine which fueled Surrealism.*° (“Der Vater des Surrealismus war Dada, seine Mutter war eine Passage. [The father of sur-

realism was Dada, the mother was a passage.]”>') Benjamin wanted to read |

these material fragments as a residue of a “dream world” readable not so)

much by the psychoanalyst, as the dialectician: |

THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADETOCINEMA 51

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néorama-degr si playing A pl Soe m_anfilairb PalSRS 8) | {BE paneiee 3 at the Pari ee panorami orne es , sition, 19 vie w.on, Raoul De is Expositi mic theballoor seereh Zeot NS cine rs teite ms oe eEADS ie BY: Pari ee ak ‘ a displayi simulated taken Piel Paes: Loa aa ‘i=yecoaS , : _een , DEN Lebe Sei | HY Soe riaSaar ye aaay Rana BFA ty. 1-Sanson,,cinéorama ciné

*

The sensation was extraordinary and many of the spectators experienced the same vertigo given by a real ascent. The animated view of Paris, between the flow of traffic and pedestrians who look up at the sky, constitutes a new

sensation. !* |

The cinema projectors were put into reverse for the balloon descent. The cinéorama (and the later Hale’s Tours) provided “virtual” travel without the danger or the expense.'*? The 1900 exposition was in the center of Paris. A miniature world was constructed on 350 acres; from the entrance gate at Place de la Concorde to the Galerie des Machines—at the furthest end of Champs de Mars.'*4

, Not to miss the commercial opportunity, many of the Parisian department stores had pavilions. The department store was, after all, a singly-owned exposition. Whether or not this exposition was a success was debated for years.'35 But as the century ended, a new century began with other forms of mass entertainment. The mobilized gaze of the shopper, the tourist, the cinema-goer flourished in newfound virtual ways. Many of these exhibitions remain etched in historical memory because

of filmed “pan”-oramas of exhibition sights. Musser records that Edison executive James White visited the Paris Exposition in the summer of 1900 and, in addition to recording the event, he purchased a panning head for his camera tripod. On this trip White filmed Panorama of Place de L’Opera,

Seine.'*° , |

Panorama of Eiffel Tower, and Panorama of Paris Exposition, from the — Filmed “panoramas” produced a paradoxical effect. The moving camera ,

encompassed a 180-degree to 360-degree circumference, expanding the con-

fines of a theatrical proscenium. But at the same time this increased scope | was reduced to the confines of a framed image. White’s Panorama of the Eiffel Tower was a slow vertical pan, emphasizing the upward thrust of the iron spike. Panorama of Place de L’Opera returned to the site of Georges Méliés’s apocryphal 1896 discovery of the substitution trick. As anecdote has it, Méliés was filming at the Place de L’Opera when his camera jammed.

When he recommenced filming, an omnibus that had been in the earlier

| shot had driven on and a hearse had taken its place.'?” The historical significance of the Méliés incident has been magnified to signify the turn from verisimilitude in film history—Méliés as the “father” of cinematic trickery,

86 THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TO CINEMA

using temporal ellipses to transform real time into a magical film time. Whereas Méliés’s trick films relied on studio setting (Méliés reconstructed | the floorplan of the Théatre Robert-Houdin—complete with pulleys and

trapdoors—in his studio in Montreuil), the panoramic film did not. | _ Although it may have aimed for spatial verisimilitude, the panoramic film | produced a mobilized panoramic gaze that was confined to the window | frame of the film screen.

| In 1901, Edwin S. Porter took the fluid-panning tripod to the Buffalo Exposition and filmed his remarkable Circular Pan of Electric Tower and , | The Panorama of Esplanade at Night. (The 1889 Paris Exposition was the first to use electricity, but there are no films of it.) In the daytime panorama Circular Pan of Electric Tower (filmed August 14, 1901), Porter made a 280degree left-to-right pan of the exposition grounds. Like Zola’s photographs

of women on the trottoir roulant at the 1900 Paris Exposition, Porter’s film | provides remarkable documentation of the heterosocial flanerie of fairgoers. Men in boater hats stroll with other men, some arm-in-arm with

| women; women stroll arm-in-arm, and, at the very end of Porter’s pan, we | see a woman walking alone. The strollers either walk at cross-movement to

the smooth panning of the camera, or a few remain stationary and look

directly at the camera as it glides past. Nevertheless, women move as fluidly | through this exposition space as men, and the supple camera pan increases : the effect of a unfettered heterosocial space. In The Panorama of Esplanade at Night (filmed on November 11, 1901),

the camera is placed in a more distant position and as it pans (also left to | right) across the esplanade, the buildings are seen only as outlines of glittering electric light. If there are men and women on a nocturnal stroll, it

| is too dark to see them. The camera traces a sight both eerie and beautiful and provides a remarkable record of the exhibition’s transformation into a

cinematic phantasmagoria.'*® | In Tom Gunning’s terms, early filmmaking relied on this exhibitionist

— form.?°? | | | |

, relation to the spectator; this “cinema of attractions” was closer to the bold visual display of the fairground attraction than it was to a storytelling

The cinema of attractions directly solicits spectator attention, inciting visual curiosity, and supplying pleasure through an exciting spectacle—a unique event, whether fictional or documentary, that is of interest in itself.'*°

THE PASSAGE FROM ARCADE TOCINEMA 87

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“Time Shift Video,” New York, 1988. Photograph © Anne Friedberg

140 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL

eocassette proffers an exponent of the spatial loss (the loss of aura that, as Benjamin describes, is incurred by mechanical reproduction) and offers a

loss of aura of the second order, a temporal loss (which the opportunities | for repetition-replay produce). One can literally “rent” another space and }

time when one borrows a videotape to watch on a VCR.™ | | Or, as Virilio describes the temporal consequences of the VCR:

The machine, the VCR, allows man to organize a time which is not his own, | a deferred time, a time which is somewhere else—and to capture it... . The VCR... creates two days: a reserve day which can replace the ordinary day,

the lived day.?> (emphasis added) ,

The shopping mall multiplex cinema extends the spectatorial flanerie of

the VCR along both spatial and temporal axes. The multiplex positions its cinema screens in the spatial metonymy of a chain of adjacent shop win_ dows; the temporal metonymy of “show times” is arrayed as if the multiplex is a set of contiguous VCRs. To get to the screens of a shopping mall

| multiplex one must pass through a cornucopia of framed images—shop windows designed to perform a muted and static form of consumer address. When one reaches the cinema screen, the stillness of the shop mannequin is transformed into the live action of film performance, as if the itinerary through the mall has reenacted the historical impulse from photography to.

film. Multiplex, multiple screen cinemas become spatially contiguous VCRs, offering a readily attainable panoply of other temporal moments, the not-now in the guise of the now. Cinematic and televisual spectatorship has been conventionally differentiated: one goes ¢o a specific film, but one watches (not a specific program

but the apparatus) television. The staggering of screening times in a mul-

tiplex cinema turns cinema-going into an activity more like watching tel- a evision, providing the cinematic spectator with the absolute presence of the

(almost) always available. |

| And, if we assess the subjective impact produced by placing the timeshifting control with the viewer (taping broadcast or cable programs, rent-.

ing videotapes or laser discs, the menu of choice at multiplex cinemas), the a concept of a “public time” has dissolved into privately controlled time | schedules. Time-shifting has placed the control of this time tourism in a remote-control magic wand. Each spectator has become the Docteur Crase of Clair’s Paris Qui Dort®’ The “zap” of remote channel-switching has

LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSEDUMALL 141

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the turn of the century, we brad the ial : moving pi.tare, th "Le eh, , —"s Me, ,

192 we had conwnerc tal broadcavting a eo phic m . x . 7” q : by the Late 1940s, tcher aon and bong: play ng ‘ "e B ; : 4 i “a records, And suddenly, bike a revobution lorw y es ee | Be / in the making, there has been an caphoion , of equipment, and « hat eed to be sierply a a : ‘ phonograph record is now sofoware: (12.11) ah

etc. Pioneer provides this insert to dem wily ¥ ’

your choices, 5

the merging of these technodogics and cxplain ‘” . wt " Suppted ly sort Sx wed te Teoncer cH .

Time tourism and “remote control.” © 1986 Pioneer Electronics

changed the nature of montage; every viewer is a ready-made montagiste, cutting and pasting images from a wide repertoire of sources

at the push of a button. Montage, once an analogy to dialectical thought or the shock value of the surreal, now also signihes a form of consumer choice with the controls in the hands of a new virtual shopper.

142 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL

The cinema spectator (and the armchair analog, the VCR viewer) with fast forward, fast reverse, many speeds of slow motion, easily switching between channels and tape, always able to repeat, replay, return—is a spectator /ost in but also in control of time. The “media” proliferating around

-.- us—invading the everyday with images produced, repeated, returned to, | simultaneously preserved and instantly obsolete—has produced a shifting, |

‘gaze. | | mobile, fluid subjectivity. Cinematic and televisual spectatorship offered

| new freedoms over the body—the race-, gender-, age-, and class-bound — body could be “implanted” with a constructed (albeit ideological) virtual

As we will see in the next section, virtual reality (VR) technologies further ,

challenge the precepts of classical spectatorship. (The dark room, two-

dimensional flat surface, and framed image are replaced with a full periph- a erally-constructed world; VR devices rely on interactive features that resist spectator immobility.) Although VR devices maintain a fiction of bodily absence, they combine fictive absence with the paradoxical presence of one’s | own bodily movement. VR devices that rely on apparatical protheses— goggles and gloves—produce an illusion of a participatory order. One’s actual body remains in the real world while one’s phenomenal body moves

about in a “virtual environment.” For the postmodern observer the body is a fiction, a site for departure and return.

CYBERTECHNOLOGY: FROM OBSERVER TO PARTICIPANT — , | To enter this artificial world, a person puts on special

clothing that is wired to a computer. Gloves transmit and | receive data, and goggles include two tiny video screens.

| The computer generates images, either of the real world or

an imaginary one that appears to the viewer in three | _ dimension. In a way, it’s like watching television, but it’s

golf course. |

) more lifelike because it allows for action. A user can be sitting in the cockpit of an airplane or swinging a club on a

“ “Virtual Reality’ Takes Its Place in the Real World,” New York Times, July 8, 1990

LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSEDU MALL 143 _

Descriptions of VR technologies recall Wordsworth’s depiction of the pan-

, orama: “mimic sights that ape/ The absolute presence of reality.” The histories of both cinema and television technology have been marked by

attempts to expand the “reality” of the spectating experience—by increasing screen size (7omm, Cinemascope, Cinerama, large-screen video), improving sound quality (THX, stereo television), or embellishing the

oo dimensionality (3D) of the viewed object. But both cinematic and televisual spectatorship relied on the relative immobility of the viewer—the spectator in the position of looking into a separate “window on the world.” Virtual reality technologies attempt to expand the “reality effect” to more exacting extremes by switching the viewer from a passive position to a more interactive one, from an observer separate from the apparatus to a participant.

| In the VR system described above, goggles containing two miniature color video monitors create a full analogue of depth perception, simulating stereoscopic vision by providing a slightly different perspective to each eye

and also by permitting motion parallax, the shift that occurs when an _ observer changes position. With the use of a glove that translates hand movements into electric signals, the user can grasp and manipulate computer-generated “virtual objects,” can point, talk, and gesture. Multiple users can enter the same virtual reality and play “virtual catch.” The applications for virtual reality technologies have not yet been deter-

mined (telerobotics, dildonics, and virtual travel are all in experimental | stages), but as a form of “‘virtual transport’ these systems demand a recon-

ceptualization of the spectator. In a marked epistemological shift in the experiential position, an externally driven subjectivity is replaced bya more self-generated subjectivity.

Jaron Lanier, CEO of VPL, one of the pioneering virtual reality companies, predicts that virtual reality technology “is going to shut down tel-_ evision. .. . Virtual Reality is not going to be the television of the future. It’s going to be the telephone of the future’ (emphasis added).?® Timothy Leary claims that “most Americans have been living in Virtual Reality since the proliferation of television. All cyberspace will do is make the experience

interactive instead of passive.”°° Cyberjournalist John Perry Barlow | | describes the experience of virtual reality: “In this pulsating new landscape, I’ve been reduced to a point of view. ... It’s a Disneyland for epistemol-

ogists.” 10 |

Virtual reality is two-way, interactive. It allows for interspecial, cybernetic, intergendered interactions: you can be a Weimaraner, a vacuum

144 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL |

cleaner, a trumpet, a table. Previous “identity-bound” positions of race, class, ethnicity, age, and gender can be technologically transmuted. In virtual reality, quadriplegics can have moving arms and legs, men can be women, women can be men, and so forth. (But because it is a visually

reliant technology, the blind cannot have eyes.) Early prognosticators have | speculated on the possibilities of substitute identities in this “non-existent

lady.” ,

space.” “Virtual reality,” reports the New York Times, “will let people tran- | scend their identities. You could be Ronald Reagan, Elvis Presley or a bag

Still, the power resides with those who build the systems, design the |

software, and decide who is allowed to use it. The technology for cybernetic , artificial “realities” has, so far, been the province of isolated inventors and government research teams, and a few small companies and interested cor-

porations. |

The high end of “virtual” research has been conducted by NASA and

the air force, in an attempt to find military or research applications for _ these new technologies. In many cases, the technologies were pioneered because of a military or scientific need.!°? NASA has been researching tech-

nology that can project “telepresence’—robots in space would have the , benefit of a thinking, managing, responding human “presence” of a human who wasn’t actually there. The air force has been researching a technology that could separate bodies from combat for the video-game interaction and

“looks that kill’ possibilities. |

The mass-market “low-end” uses of this technology are only beginning to become apparent. For the Christmas 1990 consumer market, Mattel Toys offered the “PowerGlove”’ accessory for the Nintendo game.!® Flight sim— ulators, golf instruction software, and surgical technique demonstrations

suggest the pedagogic potential of this technology, but also remind us of

its hidden ideological force. , | Cybernetic Neologisms \f—as the early Wittgenstein would have had it—_

, the limits of our language are the limits of our world, these new technol-

ogies have expanded the ontological boundaries of our current language | and a new lexicon is needed to describe the frontiers beyond.'* Leep/PopOptix, a Massachusetts-based company that sells virtual reality systems, has patented some of its neologistic trademarks for their products or services.

- Leep published a lexicon of “cyberspeak”’ as an advertisement for their

company. As the Leep lexicon defines it, |

! , LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSEDU MALL 145

ARTIFICIAL REALITY: The oxymoron on the table. Stereoscopic, interactive, data-based worlds displayed with such a wide field of view that the actor is on the inside looking out as opposed to being on the outside looking in,

as with conventional monitors, no matter how large the screen.'°> (emphasis | added)

, | “Artificial reality”—indeed an oxymoron—offers a subjective change of position for the actor-participant. At this point, it is too early to tell in what direction “virtual worlds” will be taken. Cyberspace is not based on mimetic spatial contiguity; cybertime is not based on concepts of real time. As Lanier asserts, virtual reality technology could produce profound effects on the subjective experience of time

and memory: | : The particular experiences that make up time can be decoupled from physical time. You can play back your old experiences, you can go through them backwards or forwards, fast or slow.'°° (emphasis added)

Hence, it can be imagined as a cyberrealm with new and different powers of moving through space (from microscopic to extraterrestial) and traveling

through time (from decades past to millenniums future). oe , From Cinema to the Televisual to the Virtual At this early stage of technological development, virtual reality devices form a historical analogy to televisual technology in its early forms: an almost contentless means of communication, looking for a marketable purpose. As Williams wrote about radio and television: Unlike all previous communications technologies, radio and television were systems primarily devised for transmission and reception as abstract processes, with , little or no definition of preceding content ... the means of communications preceded their content.!°”

As we have seen, there is always a complex interaction of new needs with

new inventions; iron construction produced new public spaces for new needs; telegraphy was spurred by the development of the railroad; photog-

raphy and motion picture were related to needs for sending pictures by

146 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL .

wire. VR technologies will follow the communication model of the telephone user—participatory and interactive—rather than the model of the

radio listener—passive and with limited choice. It will be important to

power is more direct. ee

_ remember that the VR user has a proscribed choice, but the illusion of POSTMODERN FLANERIE: TO SPATIALIZE TEMPORALITY ,

, The American city seems to have stepped right out of the movies. To grasp its secret, you should not then begin with

| the city and move inwards toward a screen; you should begin | with the screen and move outwards toward the city. | _ JEAN BAUDRILLARD, America'® (emphasis added)

I have taken an elliptical route to the discussion of postmodernity. | began with an examination of a commodified type of cultural experience _ that evolved in the midst of the nineteenth century when the conditions | of modernity began to become manifest. With the growth of urbanism and __ the metropolis, the commodity-experience became a more dominant feature. As visual experience became commodified in shop display, in tourist

experiences, and in cinema spectatorship, the fluidity of flanerie (once | offered predominately to men) was now offered as a pleasure to anyone— of any race, ethnicity, or gender—who had the capacity to consume. Cinema spectatorship brought together the mobilized gaze of the shopper and tourist into a “virtual mobility”; the spatially and temporally fluid subjectivity of this form of visuality is often at odds with bodily position. Yet, despite this imaginary “mobility,” women and ethnic and racial minorities

rudely discover the bodily truth in the differential between this virtual position and the real.!” As this mobilized virtual gaze has become a fundamental feature of everyday life, experiences that produce such subjective fluidity are now as much a part of the public sphere (in, for example, the shopping mall) as they are

a part of the private (at home, with the television and the VCR). In modernity, as some commentators have described, pseudoevents dis-. solve the differences between hard and soft news, mix up the roles of actors _ and audience, subjects and objects.'!° Already fragile in modernity, these

| boundaries have been more fully eroded. With the “virtual” technologies and computer-generated realities, the mimetic has entered into a hyper-

LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSEDU MALL 147

| realm.'!! The simulated newscast, the simulcast, has become more “real”

than documentary footage.'!” | | |

In order to describe adequately the role of cinematic and televisual apparatuses in postmodernity, it will be necessary to exceed stylistic descriptions

of film and televisual texts. As I’ve begun to indicate, both cinema and television’s capacity for endless replay and repetition—the remarketing of the past—is more than the textual or thematic use of nostalgia, but becomes _ a commodity-form itself. To assess the politics of contemporary representation, we must continue to theorize these aspects of the everyday and their

effect on the unconscious, our relation to time and to the “real.”

148 LES FLANEURS/FLANEUSE DU MALL

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ARCHITECTURE: LOOKING FORWARD, LOOKING BACKWARD ,

It was the first interior of a twentieth century public building that I had ever beheld and the spectacle naturally impressed me deeply. I was in a vast hall full of light, received not alone from the windows on all sides but from the dome, the point of which was a hundred feet above. Beneath it, in the centre of the hall, a magnificent

fountain played, cooling the atmosphere to a delicious freshness with its spray. The | walls and ceiling were frescoed in mellow tints, calculated to soften without absorbing

the light which flooded the interior. Around the fountain was a space occupied with , chairs and sofas, on which many persons were seated conversing. Legends on the walls ,

devoted.! |

all about the hall indicated to what classes of commodities the counters below were

The above description was written in 1887, in Edward Bellamy’s utopian , projection of Boston in the year 2000, Looking Backward. But it could equally

describe a ‘“‘skylit commercial space’’ of the late 1980s. Bellamy’s projection ,

of the year 2000 was telescoped forward through the lens of 1887, and he a fictionalized a world without airplanes, automobiles, or electricity but with women’s rights, music in the home, and socialism.

| Yet this 1887 science fiction did animate its immediate future. The | - Bradbury Building in downtown Los Angeles, built in 1893, was specifically , inspired by Bellamy’s time-travel novel.’ Designed by George Wyman, the , Bradbury Building is five stories high, with a full-width skylight raised on a

_ clerestory, exposing the central atrium to full light. The interior iron and

glass court with its open balconies, staircases, and elevators has been a described hyperbolically by architect Charles Moore as ‘‘one of the most |

thrilling spaces on the North American continent.’’> We see this space in , Blade Runner, the 1982 film that poses Los Angeles as the quintessential

postmodern city—the capital of the twenty-first century in the same way that ,

, Paris was the capital of the nineteenth and New York was the capital of the twentieth. Blade Runner contains a pastiche of temporality in its architectural

151

: referents including Frank Lloyd Wright’s Mayan-style Ennis Brown house (1924), the Million Dollar Theatre (1918), and Union Station (1939). Bellamy’s text also seems to describe the contemporary shopping mall. (Or, to quote Baudrillard, ‘“The Year 2000 has already happened.’’) Here, in order to illustrate the place of the cinema in this architectural time machine,

| I will compare a Los Angeles shopping mall, the Westside Pavilion, with | another site of cultural consumption, the Musée D’Orsay in Paris. The Westside Pavilion displays wares and goods of consumer culture; the Musée D’Orsay displays wares and goods of a culture to be consumed.

The Musée d’Orsay The Gare d’ Orsay, a train station in operation from

1900 to 1939, is now the site of the major museum of nineteenth-century ,

: French art. Since the Musee d’Orsay opened in 1987, there has been much ado about the revisionist subtexts of its curatorial and architectural decisions.

Marvin Trachtenberg muses on the ghostly presence of trains in this revamped gare.* In the massive twin constructions lined up on either side of the building’s grand nave, he sees “‘lithic trains,’’ frozen in monumental stone and almost hidden by their obviousness. They are “waiting to carry the

, museum visitor . . . back into the world of 19th century art.’’* But other visitors may be struck by something else: the sense that the Musee d’ Orsay is indeed an elaborate waiting room, a station for departure and destination, but

that the awaited train is the long overdue twentieth century. _ The museum’s design prescribes an itinerary for the visit, a linear _ progression that disallows random peripatetics. Those who follow this route , through the Musée d’Orsay’s chronology of art history (roughly from 1848 _ through 1914), are led into the twentieth century. In the uppermost corner, the last and most obscure part of the specified course, is an exhibit called La naissance du cinéma.

Here, amid many protocinematic toys and devices (including Etienne-Jules Marey’s chrono-photogun) are selections from the program present at the first public projection of films: the actualités shown by the Lumiere brothers in 1895. And here one witnesses the arrival of a train at the station endlessly repeated in a loop of the Lumieére’s L’arrivée du train en gare. This seemingly

. anticlimactic end to the museum visit is actually fitting, for the arrival of the cinematic apparatus rather unceremoniously ‘‘burst asunder’’ the nineteenth century, when as Benjamin declares, ‘‘our railways stations appeared to have

, locked us up hopelessly.’’ , , 152 PASSAGE THREE

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re is oO Rupture " | _— 9W. a rr— 60. ©YAnd rh a. Foundati ol Ot tt 1e Vi

..

‘Hl # THE END OF MODERNITY: WHERE IS YOUR RUPTURE? ,

| Post: the term itself demands a cultural seismology—an attempt to measure the magnitude and moment of rupture with the modern, and to appraise | its effects.2 But too frequently arguments about postmodernity take posi-

| tions on modernism, but not modernity. The murky quality of much of the debate about the postmodern would become more focused by a simple |

clarification: the use of separate terms for the social and philosophical dimension—modernity and postmodernity—and for its concurrent cultural movements—modernisms and postmodern isms (i.e., we live in postmoder-

| nity but the arts may exemplify modernism).° | ,

| In each of the various arts where postmodernism has been debated—

Jiterature, art, architecture, music, dance, performance—modernism itself _ has meant something different. The term, postmodernism, has been used _ in literature since the early 1960s,4 since the middle 1970s in architecture,’

since the late 1970s in dance and performance,° and applied to film and television only in the 1980s.” In film and television criticism, postmodern-

| ism has come to be used as a descriptive term for a genre or a period style | but without an account of how the cultural configurations of postmoder- | | nity have themselves been profoundly altered by cinema and the television. As I have been suggesting, cinematic and televisual spectatorship has produced a new form of subjectivity; and this subjectivity is produced apparati-

cally, whether or not the style per se is “postmodern.” _ In the following chapter, I will argue against the type of critical appli-

, - cationism that adopts the adjective postmodern to describe contemporary _ cinematic styles. First, film theorists and film historians have yet to agree on what is “modern” in cinematic terms. Second, a description of the — cinematic apparatus itself will demonstrate the further difficulty of defining what is “modern” or “postmodern” in cinematic terms. But first, since | much of the debate about the postmodern (in both aesthetic style and social

| effect) has taken its terms and assumptions from the architectural model, it is first necessary to demonstrate how architectural postmodernism does

| not fit as an analogy for film stylistics. | |

157

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=" CONCLUSION: SPENDING TIME

| Imagine a public library of the near future, for instance. There will be long rows of boxes or pillars, properly

| classified and indexed of course. At each box a push button — | and before each box a seat. Suppose you wish to “read up” on a certain episode in Napoleon’s life. Instead of consulting all the authorities, wading through a host of

books, and ending bewildered without a clear idea of | exactly what did happen, you will merely seat yourself at a | properly adjusted window in a scientifically prepared room, |

| press the button, and actually see what happened. ... There will be no opinions expressed. You will merely be

, present at the making of history. D. W. GRIFFITH’ |

The above vision of the “near future” belonged to D. W. Griffith in r1915.

Griffith’s imagined “‘library’’ was a future exponent of an apparatus equipped with the apocryphal power to “writ(e) history with lightning.” His “properly adjusted window” was the cinema screen. Griffith’s fantasy of a cinema with “no opinions expressed” was clearly an idealist one, effacing all consequences of the interventions of representation, cinematic or otherwise. He imagined the cinema not as an agent of memory, but as a

‘means of presenting history itself. , , | “At each box a push button and before each box a seat’: Griffith’s prediction is partially realized in today’s Vidéothéque de Paris. Located in

the Forum des Halles, an underground shopping mall beneath the former |

| 18

_ Les Halles market, the Vidéothéque houses a collection of filmed docu-

ments on the city of Paris. Municipally funded, the archive includes Lumiére Brothers’ actualités, Gaumont and Pathé newsreels, and thousands | of fictional films. In addition to two ample screening salles that exhibit regular repertory series organized by theme (such as Paris by Automobile, Paris by Arrondissement, Paris During the Occupation), the Vidéothéque | has a facility for consultation individualle. This high-tech “scientifically prepared room” is equipped with forty individual video monitors each with a

minitel keyboard. The user sits in a comfortable chair in front of a video monitor and keyboard, and types in films by title, by subject, or by filmmaker. (The computer will list the holdings.) On a recent search, for example, in response to the inquiry “passage couvert,”’ a list of every film in the

collection containing images of a Parisian passage appeared on the computer's video screen. With the push of a button, these images can be “called up.” As if in a scene from Alphaville, a robot arm in the mezzanine “library” searches, finds, and pulls the requested title from a shelf, inserts it mechan-

| ically into a VCR that is, in turn, connected to the individual monitor. Once the film appears on the video screen, it can be played at various speeds of playback, freeze frame, or reverse. At the push of a button you are not ‘present at the making of history,” but you have, instead, the history

of cinema at your fingertips. | As we saw, Baudelaire’s discomfort with photography was rooted in his suspicion that in the guise of presenting the past it would obscure it—that photography was not an agent of memory but an agent of forgetting. Jameson restates Baudelaire’s warning in a contemporary mode: “The informational function of the media,” writes Jameson, “would thus be to help us forget, to serve as the very agents and mechanisms for our historical

amnesia.” |

I would further argue that this loss of memory is a gradual product of the detemporalized, derealized subjectivity produced by cinematic and tel-

evisual spectatorship. In a “society of the spectacle” where all social relations

are mediated through images, and where shop windows, billboards, and video screens surround us with their heteroglossic surfaces, a spatially and

temporally fluid visuality has come to be the dominant mode. : The Mobilized Virtual Gaze The history of modes of looking, based on mobility rather than confinement, traces an instrumentalization of visuality

182 CONCLUSION ,

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